,transcriber's ,notes ,texts printed in italics and in bold face have been transcribed between underscores and equal signs respectively2 small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 text represents superscript characters4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes and an explanation of the transcription of the 8genealogical charts0 may be found at the end of this text4 ,,english ,,and ,,american ,,tool ,,builders ,illustration3 ,,henry ,,maudslay ,,english ,,and ,,american ,,tool ,,builders ,,by ,,joseph ,,wickham ,,roe ,museum of the ,peaceful ,arts1 ,city of ,new ,york1 ,professor of ,industrial ,engineering1 ,new ,york ,university ,,first ,,printed ,,in #aiaf ,,reprinted ,,in #aibf ,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york3 #cgj ,,seventh ,,avenue ,,london3 #f #h ,,bouverie ,,st41 ,e4 ,c4 #d #aibf ,,copyright1 #aiaf ,,by ,,joseph ,,wickham ,,roe ,first published ,may1 #aiaf ,republished ,march1 #aibf 8,man is a ,tool-using ,animal4 ,weak in himself1 and of small stature1 he stands on a basis1 at most for the flattest-soled1 of some half-square foot1 insecurely enough2 has to straddle out his legs1 lest the very wind supplant him4 ,feeblest of bipeds6 ,three quintals are a crushing load for him2 the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft1 like a waste rag4 ,nevertheless he can use ,tools1 can devise ,tools3 with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him2 seas are his smooth highway1 winds and fire his unwearying steeds4 ,nowhere do you find him without ,tools2 without ,tools he is nothing1 with ,tools he is all40 ,,carlyle3 8,sartor ,resartus10 ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,,preface ,the purpose of this book is to bring out the importance of the work and influence of the great tool builders4 ,few realize that their art is fundamental to all modern industrial arts4 ,without machine tools modern machinery could not be built4 ,little is known by the general public as to who the great tool builders were1 and less is known of their lives and work4 ,history takes good care of soldiers1 statesmen and authors4 ,it is even kind to engineers like ,watt1 ,fulton and ,stephenson1 who have conspicuously and directly affected society at large4 ,but little is known1 even among mechanics1 of the men whose work was mainly within the engineering profession1 and who served other engineers rather than the general public4 ,the lives and the personalities of men like ,maudslay1 ,nasmyth and ,eli ,whitney1 can hardly fail of interest to the mechanic of today4 ,they were busy men and modest1 whose records are mainly in iron and steel1 and in mechanical devices which are used daily with little thought of their origin4 ,in following the history of ,english and ,american tool builders1 the query arises as to whether there might not have been important contributions to tool building from other countries4 ,others have contributed to some degree1 but practically all of the creative work in tool building has been done in these two countries4 ,although the ,french were pioneers in many mechanical improvements1 they have always shown an aptitude for refinements and ingenious novelties rather than for commercial production on a large scale4 ,they have influenced other nations more through their ideas than through their machinery4 ,the ,swiss are clever artisans1 particularly in fine work1 but they have excelled in personal skill1 operating on a small scale1 rather than in manufacturing4 ,germany has1 under the ,empire1 developed splendid mechanics1 but the principal machine tools had taken shape before #ahgj1 when the ,empire began4 ,the history of ,english and ,american tool building1 therefore1 covers substantially the entire history of the art4 ,almost the only book upon tool builders and their work is ,samuel ,smiles' 8,industrial ,biography10 which is out of print and little known4 ,it is an admirable and interesting book1 and a mine of information upon the ,english tool builders down to about #ahej4 ,the writer has used it freely and would urge those who are interested in the subject to go to it for further information on the early mechanics4 ,it was written1 however1 over fifty years ago and contains nothing about modern developments or about the ,american tool builders who have contributed so much4 ,the writer has tried to trace the origin and rise of tool building in ,america and to give something of its spread in recent years4 ,the industrial life of the ,united ,states is so vast that a comprehensive history of even a single industry1 such as tool building1 would run far beyond the limits of one volume4 ,this book1 therefore1 is confined to the main lines of influence in tool building and to the personalities and cities which have been most closely identified with it4 ,the later history of ,american tool building has never been written4 ,for this the writer has had to rely largely upon personal information from those who are familiar with it1 and who have had a part in it4 ,part of the material contained in this book has appeared from time to time in the ,american ,machinist1 and the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness most of all to ,mr4 ,l4 ,p4 ,alford1 the editor of that journal4 ,his help and counsel have given these pages much of such value as they possess4 ,so many have helped with information1 corrections and suggestions that acknowledgments can be made only to a few4 ,the writer would particularly thank ,mr4 ,l4 ,d4 ,burlingame1 ,mr4 ,ned ,lawrence1 ,mr4 ,james ,hartness1 ,mr4 ,coleman ,sellers and ,mr4 ,clarence ,bement4 ,if these pages serve to stimulate interest in the lives and work of the tool builders1 to whom we owe much1 they will fulfill the hope of the writer4 ,sheffield ,scientific ,school1 ,yale ,university1 ,october1 #aiae4 ,,author',s ,,note ,in reprinting this book certain minor corrections have been made4 ,in the later chapters references occur here and there to the 8present0 condition of various plants and firms4 ,after careful consideration1 it seems wise to let these statements stand as they were written in #aiae4 ,interest in this subject centers chiefly on the early history of the plants and firms rather than on recent changes4 ,to revise the statements1 bringing them up to date1 would add little4 ,with the ever shifting status of a live industry1 the statements1 so revised1 would remain correct for only a short time4 ,therefore1 when a reference is made to present conditions it should be understood to cover those at the beginning of the ,world ,war1 which is a natural dividing point in our industrial history4 ,the general predictions made in the last two paragraphs of the book have been borne out by the developments in ,american toolbuilding since that time4 ,museum of the ,peaceful ,arts1 ,city of ,new ,york1 ,february1 #aibf4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,chapter ,i4 ,influence of the ,early ,tool ,builders #a ,chapter ,,ii4 ,wilkinson and ,bramah #aa ,chapter ,,iii4 ,bentham and ,brunel #bb ,chapter ,,iv4 ,henry ,maudslay #cc ,chapter ,v4 ,inventors of the ,planer #ej ,chapter ,,vi4 ,gearing and ,millwork #fc ,chapter ,,vii4 ,fairbairn and ,bodmer #ga ,chapter ,,viii4 ,james ,nasmyth #ha ,chapter ,,ix4 ,whitworth #ih ,chapter ,x4 ,early ,american ,mechanics #aji ,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,rise of ,interchangeable ,manufacture #abh ,chapter ,,xii4 ,whitney and ,north #ade ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the ,colt ,armory #afd ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the ,colt ,workman--,pratt ,whitney #agc ,chapter ,,xv4 ,robbins ,lawrence #ahf ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company #bjb ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,central ,new ,england #baf ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the ,naugatuck ,valley #bca ,chapter ,,xix4 ,philadelphia #bci ,chapter ,,xx4 ,the ,western ,tool ,builders #bfa ,appendix ,a #bha ,appendix ,b1 ,the ,jennings ,gun #bib ,a ,partial ,bibliography on ,tool ,building #bie ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,henry ,maudslay ,frontispiece ,fig4 #a4 ,smeaton's ,boring ,machine1 ,carron ,iron ,works1 #agfi ,facing page #b ,fig4 #b4 ,french ,lathes of about #aggb ,facing page #b ,fig4 #c4 ,french ,slide-,rest1 #aggb ,facing page #f ,fig4 #d4 ,french ,lathe for ,turning ,ovals1 #aggb ,facing page #f ,fig4 #e4 ,genealogy of the ,early ,english ,tool ,builders page #g ,fig4 #f4 ,john ,wilkinson ,facing page #ad ,fig4 #g4 ,wilkinson's ,boring ,machine ,facing page #ad ,fig4 #h4 ,eminent ,men of ,science ,living in #ahjg-h ,facing page #bj ,fig4 #i4 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham ,facing page #bb ,fig4 #aj4 ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel ,facing page #bf ,fig4 #aa4 ,brunel's ,mortising ,machine ,facing page #cj ,fig4 #ab4 ,brunel's ,shaping ,machine ,facing page #cj ,fig4 #ac4 ,french ,screw-,cutting ,lathe1 ,previous to #aefi page #cg ,fig4 #ad4 ,french ,screw-,cutting ,lathe1 about #agdj page #cg ,fig4 #ae4 ,maudslay's ,screw-,cutting ,lathe1 about #agig ,facing page #db ,fig4 #af4 ,maudslay's ,screw-,cutting ,lathe1 about #ahjj ,facing page #db ,fig4 #ag4 ,french ,planing ,machine by ,nicholas ,forq1 #agea ,facing page #ej ,fig4 #ah4 ,matthew ,murray ,facing page #eh ,fig4 #ai4 ,richard ,roberts ,facing page #eh ,fig4 #bj4 ,roberts' ,planer1 ,built in #ahag ,facing page #fj ,fig4 #ba4 ,roberts' ,back-,geared ,lathe ,facing page #fj ,fig4 #bb4 ,james ,nasmyth ,facing page #hb ,fig4 #bc4 ,first ,sketch of the ,steam ,hammer1 ,november #bd1 #ahci ,facing page #id ,fig4 #bd4 ,model of the ,first ,steam ,hammer ,facing page #id ,fig4 #be4 ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth ,facing page #ajb ,fig4 #bf4 ,samuel ,slater ,facing page #abb ,fig4 #bg4 ,genealogy of the ,new ,england ,gun ,makers page #aci ,fig4 #bh4 ,the ,first ,milling ,machine1 ,built by ,eli ,whitney about #ahah ,facing page #adb ,fig4 #bi4 ,blanchard 8,gun-,stocking0 ,lathe1 ,built in #ahah for the ,springfield ,armory ,facing page #adb ,fig4 #cj4 ,eli ,whitney ,facing page #aeb ,fig4 #ca4 ,samuel ,colt ,facing page #afd ,fig4 #cb4 ,the ,colt ,armory ,facing page #afh ,fig4 #cc4 ,root's ,chucking ,lathe1 about #ahee ,facing page #agj ,fig4 #cd4 ,root's ,splining ,machine1 about #ahee ,facing page #agj ,fig4 #ce4 ,francis ,a4 ,pratt ,facing page #agh ,fig4 #cf4 ,amos ,whitney ,facing page #agh ,fig4 #cg4 ,genealogy of the ,robbins ,lawrence ,shop page #ahg ,fig4 #ch4 ,robbins ,lawrence ,armory1 ,windsor1 ,vt4 ,facing page #aij ,fig4 #ci4 ,frederick ,w4 ,howe ,facing page #aif ,fig4 #dj4 ,richard ,s4 ,lawrence ,facing page #aif ,fig4 #da4 ,james ,hartness ,facing page #aih ,fig4 #db4 ,joseph ,r4 ,brown ,facing page #bjb ,fig4 #dc4 ,first ,universal ,milling ,machine1 #ahfb ,facing page #bjh ,fig4 #dd4 ,early ,micrometer ,calipers ,facing page #bab ,fig4 #de4 ,genealogy of the ,worcester ,tool ,builders page #bbc ,fig4 #df4 ,lucius ,w4 ,pond ,facing page #bbh ,fig4 #dg4 ,salmon ,w4 ,putnam ,facing page #bbh ,fig4 #dh4 ,hiram ,w4 ,hayden ,facing page #bcb ,fig4 #di4 ,israel ,holmes ,facing page #bcb ,fig4 #ej4 ,genealogy of the ,naugatuck ,brass ,industry page #bce ,fig4 #ea4 ,william ,sellers ,facing page #bdh ,fig4 #eb4 ,coleman ,sellers ,facing page #beb ,fig4 #ec4 ,william ,b4 ,bement ,facing page #beb ,fig4 #ed4 ,worcester ,r4 ,warner ,facing page #bfb ,fig4 #ee4 ,ambrose ,swasey ,facing page #bfb ,fig4 #ef4 ,the 8,mult-au-matic0 ,lathe1 #aiad ,facing page #bgf ,fig4 #eg4 ,machine ,tool ,building ,area of the ,united ,states1 #aiae page #bgi ,,english ,,and ,,american ,,tool ,,builders ,,chapter ,i ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,tool ,,builders ,well-informed persons are aware of the part which machinery in general has had on modern industrial life4 ,but the profound influence which machine tools have had in that development is scarcely realized1 even by tool builders themselves4 ,three elements came into industrial life during the latter part of the eighteenth century4 ,first1 the development of modern banking and the stock company brought out the small private hoards from their hiding places1 united them1 and made them available for industrial undertakings operating on the scale called for by modern requirements4 ,second1 ,watt's development of the steam engine and its application to the production of continuous rotative motion gave the requisite source of power4 ,but neither the steam engine itself nor the machinery of production was possible until the third element1 modern machine tools1 supplied the means of working metals accurately and economically4 ,it is well to glance for a moment at the problems which were involved in building the first steam engine4 ,watt had been working for several years on the steam engine when the idea of the separate condenser came to him on that famous ,sunday afternoon walk on the ,glasgow ,green1 in the spring of #agfe1 and1 to use his own words1 8in the course of one or two days the invention was thus far 7that is1 as a pumping engine7 complete in my mind40#a ,he was a skilled instrument maker and his first small model was fairly successful1 but when he undertook 8the practice of mechanics in great10 his skill and all the skill of those about him was incapable of boring satisfactorily a cylinder #f inches in diameter and #b feet long2 and he had finally to resort to one which was hammered4 ,for ten weary years he struggled to realize his plans in a full-sized engine1 unable to find either the workmen or the tools which could make it a commercial success4 ,his chief difficulty lay in keeping the piston tight4 ,he 8wrapped it around with cork1 oiled rags1 tow1 old hats1 paper1 and other things1 but still there were open spaces left1 sufficient to let the air in and the steam out40#b ,small wonder6 for we find him complaining that in an #ah-;inch diameter cylinder1 8at the worst place the long diameter exceeded the short by three-eighths of an inch40 ,when ,smeaton first saw the engine he reported to the ,society of ,engineers that 8neither the tools nor the workmen existed that could manufacture so complex a machine with sufficient precision40#c #a ,smiles3 8,boulton ,watt10 pp4 #ig1 #ih4 ,london1 #aijd4 #b ,ibid41 p4 #aad4 #c ,ibid41 p4 #ahf4 ,smeaton himself had designed a boring machine in #agfi for the ,carron ,iron ,works for machining cannon1 an illustration of which is given in ,fig4 #a4d ,it consisted of a head with inserted cutters mounted on a long1 light1 overhung boring bar4 ,the work was forced forward on a rude carriage1 as shown4 ,the method of supporting the cutter head1 indicated in the section1 shows an ingenious attempt to obtain a movable support from an inaccurate surface4 ,one need hardly say that the work resulting was inaccurate4 #d 8,engineer10 ,london1 ,march #d1 #aiaj2 p4 #bag4 ,drawn from the description given in ,farey's 8,treatise on the ,steam ,engine40 ,illustration3 ,,figure #a4 ,,smeaton',s ,,boring ,,machine ,,carron ,,iron ,,works1 #agfi ,illustration3 ,,figure #b4 ,,french ,,lathes ,,of ,,about #aggb ,fortunately1 in #aggd1 ,john ,wilkinson1 of ,bersham1 hit upon the idea1 which had escaped both ,smeaton and ,watt1 of making the boring bar heavier1 running it clear through the cylinder and giving it a fixed support at the outboard end as shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,the superiority of this arrangement was at once manifest1 and in #aggf ,boulton wrote that 8,mr4 ,wilkinson has bored us several cylinders almost without error2 that of #ej inches diameter1 which we have put up at ,tipton1 does not err the thickness of an old shilling in any part40#e ,for a number of years1 ,wilkinson cast and bored all the cylinders for ,boulton ,watt4 #e ,farey3 8,treatise on the ,steam ,engine10 p4 #cbh4 #ahbg4 ,the importance to ,boulton ,watt of the timely aid of ,wilkinson's boring machine can hardly be overestimated4 ,it made the steam engine a commercial success1 and was probably the first metal-working tool capable of doing large1 heavy work with anything like present-day accuracy4#f #f ,watt's beautiful parallel motion1 invented in #aghe1 was made necessary by the fact that there were no planers to machine a crosshead and guides4 ,planers were not developed until thirty years later4 ,we hardly realize the crudity of the tools available in the eighteenth century4 ,in all machinery the principal members were of wood1 as that could be worked by the hand tools then in use4 ,the fastenings and smaller parts only were of metal1 and consisted of castings and forgings fitted by hand4 ,there were some lathes of the very simplest type4 ,most of them were 8pole0 lathes1 operated by a cord reaching from a foot treadle1 around the work itself1 and up to a pole or wooden spring attached to the ceiling4 ,the work rotated alternately forward and backward1 and was caught with a hand tool each time as it came forward4 ,two are shown in ,fig4 #b1 one at the back and one at the left4 ,only the very best forms had continuous motion from a direct drive on the live spindle1 as shown at the right of the same figure4 ,this figure is reproduced from the ,french ,dictionnaire des ,sciences1 published in #aggb4 ,such lathes were almost useless for metal cutting1 as they lacked both the necessary power and a holding device strong enough and accurate enough to guide a tool4 ,the slide-rest1 while it had been invented1 had not been put into practical form or come into general use4 ,there were a few rude drilling and boring machines1 but no planing machines1 either for metal or wood4 ,the tool equipment of the machinist1 or 8millwright10 as he was called1 consisted chiefly of a hammer1 chisel and file4 ,the only measuring devices were calipers and a wooden rule1 with occasional reference perhaps to 8the thickness of an old shilling10 as above4 ,hand forging was probably as good as or better than that of today4 ,foundry work had come up to at least the needs of the time4 ,but the appliances for cutting metal were little better than those of the ,middle ,ages4 ,such was the mechanical equipment in #agge2 practically what it had been for generations4 ,by #ahej it was substantially that of today4 ,in fact1 most of this change came in one generation1 from about #ahjj to #ahdj4 ,since that time there have been many improvements and refinements1 but the general principles remain little changed4 ,with so wonderful a transformation in so short a time1 several questions arise almost inevitably3 ,where did this development take place1 who brought it about1 and why was it so rapid8 ,the first question is fairly simple4 ,england and ,america produced the modern machine tool4 ,in the period mentioned1 ,england developed most of the general machine tools of the present day2 the boring machine1 engine lathe1 planer1 shaper1 the steam hammer and standard taps and dies4 ,somewhat later1 but partially coincident with this1 ,america developed the special machine tool1 the drop hammer1 automatic lathes1 the widespread commercial use of limit gauges1 and the interchangeable system of manufacture4 ,in a generalization such as this1 the broad lines of influence must be given the chief consideration4 ,some of the most valuable general tools1 such as the universal miller and the grinder1 and parts of the standard tools1 as the apron in the lathe1 are of ,american origin4 ,but1 with all allowances1 most of the general machine tools were developed in ,england and spread from there throughout the world either by utilization of their design or by actual sale4 ,on the other hand1 the interchangeable system of manufacture1 in a well-developed form1 was in operation in ,england in the manufacture of ships' blocks at ,portsmouth shortly after #ahjj2 and yet this block-making machinery had been running for two generations with little or no influence on the general manufacturing of the country1 when ,england1 in #ahee1 imported from ,america the ,enfield gun machinery and adopted what they themselves styled the 8,american0 interchangeable system of gun making4#g #g ,see page #aci4 ,the second question as to who brought this change about is not so simple4 ,it is not easy to assign the credit of an invention4 ,mere priority of suggestion or even of experiment seems hardly sufficient4 ,nearly every great improvement has been invented independently by a number of men1 sometimes almost simultaneously1 but often in widely separated times and places4 ,of these1 the man who made it a success is usually found to have united to the element of invention a superior mechanical skill4 ,he is the one who first embodied the invention in such proportions and mechanical design as to make it commercially available1 and from him its permanent influence spreads4 ,the chief credit is due to him because he impressed it on the world4 ,some examples may illustrate this point4 ,leonardo da ,vinci in the fifteenth century anticipated many of the modern tools4#h ,his sketches are fascinating and show a wonderful and fertile ingenuity1 but1 while we wonder1 we smile at their proportions4 ,had not a later generation of mechanics arisen to re-invent and re-design these tools1 mechanical engineering would still be as unknown as when he died4 #h ,american ,machinist1 ,vol4 #cb1 ,part #b1 pp4 #hba and #hfh4 ,take the slide-rest4 ,it is clearly shown in the ,french encyclopedia of #aggb1 see ,fig4 #c1 and even in an edition of #agag4 ,bramah1 ,bentham and ,brunel1 in ,england1 and ,sylvanus ,brown1#i in ,america1 are all said to have invented it4 ,david ,wilkinson1 of ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i41 was granted a patent for it in #agih4aj ,but the invention has been1 and will always be1 credited to ,henry ,maudslay1 of ,london4 ,it is right that it should be1 for he first designed and built it properly1 developed its possibilities1 and made it generally useful4 ,the modern slide-rest is a lineal descendant from his4 #i ,goodrich3 8,history of ,pawtucket10 pp4 #dg-dh4 ,pawtucket1 #ahgf4 #aj ,ibid41 p4 #ea4 ,blanchard was by no means the first to turn irregular forms on a lathe4 ,the old ,french rose engine lathe1 shown in ,fig4 #d1 embodied the idea1 but ,blanchard accomplished it in a way more mechanical1 of a far wider range of usefulness1 and his machine is in general use to this day4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #c4 ,,french ,,slide-,,rest1 #aggb ,illustration3 ,,figure #d4 ,,french ,,lathe ,,for ,,turning ,,ovals1 #aggb ,the spindle swings sidewise under the influence of the two cams which bear against the upright stops ,illustration3 ------------------------ ----------- ------------- ,,joseph ,,bramah ,sir ,,samuel ,sir ,,marc ,i4 #agdh-ahad ,,bentham ,,brunel #ageg-ahca #agfi-ahdi ,invented ,lock1 ,hydraulic ---------- ------------ press1 #d-way cock1 and wood working machinery4 #dd ,,new ,,machines1 ---------------------- ,,block ,m',,chry-#ahjj-jh ------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,,henry ,,maudslay #agga-ahca ,slide rest for metal work1 ,block machinery1 ,flour1 ,sawmill and ,mint mach'ry1 ,punches1 ,mill and ,marine ,steam ,engines1 ,fine screw cutting4 ,laid basis for ,lathe1 ,planer and ,slotter --------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,joseph ,,clement #aggi-ahdd ,slide ,lathe1 ,planer #ahbj and #ahbd ,manufactured ,taps and ,dies ,standard ,screw ,threads -------------------------- _/ _/ ------- -------- -------- -------------- --------- ,,matt4 ,,james ,,rich',d4 ,,joseph ,,james ,,murray ,,fox ,,roberts ,,whitworth ,,nasmyth #ahjc-hg #ahjh-ij ,engines ,index ,versatile ,std4 ,screw ,index ,d-,valve ,cutting ,inventor1 ,threads ,milling ,planer of ,gears ,planer ,foremost tool ,shaper ,lathes1 builder of the ,steam ,planer #aith ,century ,hammer ------- -------- --------- --------------- --------- ,,am4 ,,machinist ,,figure #e4 ,,genealogy ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,english ,,tool ,,builders ,to the third question as to why this development when once begun should have been so rapid1 there are probably two answers4 ,first1 an entirely new demand for accurate tools arose during these years1 springing from the inventions of ,arkwright1 ,whitney1 ,watt1 ,fulton1 ,stephenson and others4 ,the textile industries1 the steam engine1 railways1 and the scores of industries they called into being1 all called for better and stronger means of production4 ,while the rapidity of the development was due partly to the pressure of this demand1 a second element1 that of cumulative experience1 was present1 and can be clearly traced4 ,wilkinson was somewhat of an exception1 as he was primarily an iron master and not a tool builder1 so his relationship to other tool builders is not so direct or clear4 ,but the connection between ,bramah1 ,maudslay1 ,clement1 ,whitworth and ,nasmyth1 is shown in the 8genealogical0 table in ,fig4 #e4 ,bramah had a shop in ,london where1 for many years1 he manufactured locks and built hydraulic machinery and woodworking tools4 ,maudslay1 probably the finest mechanician of his day1 went to work for ,bramah when only eighteen years old and became his foreman in less than a year4 ,he left after a few years and started in for himself1 later taking ,field into partnership1 and ,maudslay ,field's became one of the most famous shops in the world4 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham1 who was inspector general of the ,british navy1 began the design of a set of machines for manufacturing pulley blocks at the ,portsmouth navy yard4 ,he soon met ,marc ,isambard ,brunel1 a brilliant young ,royalist officer1 who had been driven out of ,france during the ,revolution1 and had started working on block machinery through a conversation held at ,alexander ,hamilton's dinner table while in ,america a few years before4 ,bentham saw the superiority of ,brunel's plans1 substituted them for his own1 and commissioned him to go ahead4 ,in his search for someone to build the machinery1 ,brunel was referred to ,maudslay1 then just starting in for himself4 ,maudslay built the machines1 forty-four in all1 and they were a brilliant success4 ,there has been considerable controversy as to whether ,bentham or ,brunel designed them4 ,while ,maudslay's skill appears in the practical details1 the general scheme was undoubtedly ,brunel's4 ,in a few of the machines ,bentham's designs seem to have been used1 but he was able enough and generous enough to set aside most of his own designs for the better ones of ,brunel4 ,of the earlier tool builders1 ,maudslay was the greatest4 ,he1 more than any other1 developed the slide-rest and he laid the basis for the lathe1 planer and slotter4 ,his powerful personality is brought out in ,nasmyth's autobiography written many years later4 ,nasmyth was a young boy1 eager1 with rare mechanical skill and one ambition1 to go to ,london and work for the great ,mr4 ,maudslay4 ,he tells of their meeting1 of the interest aroused in the older man1 and of his being taken into ,maudslay's personal office to work beside him4 ,it is a pleasing picture1 the young man and the older one1 two of the best mechanics in all ,england1 working side by side1 equally proud of each other4 ,joseph ,clement came to ,london and worked for ,bramah as chief draftsman and as superintendent of his works4 ,after ,bramah's death he went to ,maudslay's and later went into business for himself4 ,he was an exquisite draftsman1 a fertile inventor1 and had a very important part in the development of the screw-cutting lathe and planer4 ,joseph ,whitworth1 the most influential tool builder of the nineteenth century1 worked for ,maudslay and for ,clement and took up their work at the point where they left off4 ,under his influence machine tools were given a strength and precision which they had never had before4 ,richard ,roberts was another pupil of ,maudslay's whose influence1 though important1 was not so great as that of the others4 ,we have an excellent example of what this succession meant4 ,nasmyth tells of the beautiful set of taps and dies which ,maudslay made for his own use1 and that he standardized the screw-thread practice of his own shop4 ,clement carried this further4 ,he established a definite number of threads per inch for each size1 extended the standardization of threads1 and began the regular manufacture of dies and taps4 ,he fluted the taps by means of milling cutters and made them with small shanks1 so that they might drop through the tapped hole4 ,whitworth1 taking up ,clement's work1 standardized the screw threads for all ,england and brought order out of chaos4 ,some account of the growth of machine tools in the hands of these men will be given later4 ,enough has been said here to show the cumulative effect of their experience1 and its part in the industrial advance of the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,similar successions of ,american mechanics will be shown later4 ,writing from the standpoint of fifty years ago1 ,smiles quotes ,sir ,william ,fairbairn3 8#8,the mechanical operations of the present day could not have been accomplished at any cost thirty years ago2 and what was then considered impossible is now performed with an exactitude that never fails to accomplish the end in view4' ,for this we are mainly indebted to the almost creative power of modern machine tools1 and the facilities which they present for the production and reproduction of other machines40#aa #aa ,smiles3 8,industrial ,biography10 p4 #cii4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,wilkinson ,,and ,,bramah ,in the previous chapter it was stated that ,john ,wilkinson1 of ,bersham1 made the steam engine commercially possible by first boring ,watt's cylinders with the degree of accuracy necessary1 and that his boring machine was probably the first metal-cutting tool capable of doing large work with anything like modern accuracy4 ,although ,wilkinson was not primarily a tool builder but an iron master1 this achievement alone is sufficient to make him interesting to the tool builders of today4 ,he was born in #agbh4 ,his father made his financial start by manufacturing a crimping iron for ironing the fancy ruffles of the day4 ,john ,wilkinson first started a blast furnace at ,belston and later joined his father in an iron works the latter had built at ,bersham1 near ,chester4 ,by developing a method of smelting and puddling iron with coal instead of wood-charcoal1 he obtained an immense commercial advantage over his rivals and soon became a powerful factor in the iron industry4 ,later1 he built other works1 notably one at ,broseley1 near ,coalbrookdale on the ,severn4 ,one of the important branches of his work was the casting and finishing of cannon4 ,it was in connection with this that he invented the boring machine referred to4 ,he bored the first cylinder for ,boulton ,watt in #agge4 ,farey1 in his 8,history of the ,steam ,engine10 says3 ,in the old method1 the borer for cutting the metal was not guided in its progress1#ab and therefore followed the incorrect form given to the cylinder in casting it2 it was scarcely insured that every part of the cylinder should be circular2 and there was no certainty that the cylinder would be straight4 ,this method was thought sufficient for old engines2 but ,mr4 ,watt's engines required greater precision4 #ab ,see ,fig4 #a4 ,mr4 ,wilkinson's machine1 which is now the common boring-machine1 has a straight central bar of great strength1 which occupies the central axis of the cylinder1 during the operation of boring2 and the borer1 or cutting instrument1 is accurately fitted to slide along this bar1 which1 being made perfectly straight1 serves as a sort of ruler1 to give a rectilinear direction to the borer in its progress1 so as to produce a cylinder equally straight in the length1 and circular in the circumference4 ,this method insures all the accuracy the subject is capable of2 for if the cylinder is cast ever so crooked1 the machine will bore it straight and true1 provided there is metal enough to form the required cylinder by cutting away the superfluities4#ac #ac ,farey3 8,treatise on the ,steam ,engine10 p4 #cbf4 #ahbg4 ,wilkinson's relations with ,boulton ,watt became very intimate4 ,he showed his confidence in the new engine by ordering the first one built at ,soho to blow the bellows of his iron works at ,broseley4 ,great interest was felt in the success of this engine4 ,other iron manufacturers suspended their building operations to see what the engine could do and ,watt himself superintended every detail of its construction and erection4 ,before it was finished ,boulton wrote to ,watt3 ,pray tell ,mr4 ,wilkinson to get a dozen cylinders cast and bored from #ab to #ej inches in diameter1 and as many condensers of suitable sizes2 the latter must be sent here1 as we will keep them ready fitted up1 and then an engine can be turned out of hand in two or three weeks4 ,i have fixed my mind upon making from #ab to #ae reciprocating1 and #ej rotative engines per annum4#ad #ad ,smiles3 8,boulton ,watt10 p4 #ahe4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,this letter is interesting as showing ,boulton's clear grasp of the principles of manufacturing4 ,later1 when ,boulton ,watt were hard pressed financially1 ,wilkinson took a considerable share in their business and when the rotative engine was developed he ordered the first one4 ,he consequently has the honor of being the purchaser of the first reciprocating and the first rotary engine turned out by ,watt4 ,later1 when ,watt was educating his son to take up his work1 he sent him for a year to ,wilkinson's iron works at ,bersham1 to learn their methods4 ,fig4 #g1 taken from an old encyclopedia of manufacturing and engineering1 shows the boring machine used for boring ,watt's steam cylinders4 ,on two oaken stringers ,,ss1 frames ,,ff were mounted which carried a hollow boring bar ,a driven from the end4 ,the cylinder to be bored was clamped to saddles1 as shown4 ,the cutters were carried on a head which rotated with the bar and was fed along it by means of an internal feed-rod and rack4 ,in the machine shown the feeding was done by a weight and lever which actuated a pinion gearing with the rack ,r1 but later a positive feed1 through a train of gears operated by the main boring-bar1 was used4 ,two roughing cuts and a finishing cut were used1 and the average feed is given as inch per revolution4 ,while this machine may seem crude1 a comparison with ,smeaton's boring machine1 ,fig4 #a1 will show how great an advance it was over the best which preceded it4 ,wilkinson was a pioneer in many lines4 ,he built and launched the first iron vessel and in a letter dated ,july #ad1 #aghg1 says3 ,yesterday week my iron boat was launched4 ,it answers all my expectations1 and has convinced the unbelievers who were #iii in a thousand4 ,it will be only a nine days wonder1 and then be like ,columbus's egg4#ae #ae 8,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,technik und ,industrie10 #c4 ,band4 ,s4 #bbg4 ,berlin1 #aiaa4 ,in another letter written a little over a year later1 he says3 ,there have been launched two ,iron ,vessels in my service since ,sept4 #ast3 one is a canal boat for this i4e41 ,birmingham navigation1 the other a barge of #dj tons for the ,river ,severn4 ,the last was floated on ,monday and is1 ,i expect1 at ,stourport with a loading of bar iron4 ,my clerk at ,broseley advises me that she swims remarkably light and exceeds my expectations4#af #af ,ibid41 #c4 ,band4 ,s4 #bbg4 ,in #aghh ,william ,symington built and ran a steam-operated boat on ,dalswinton ,loch in ,scotland1 which was a small1 light craft with two hulls1 made of tinned sheet-iron plates4#ag ,it has been erroneously claimed that this was the first iron boat4 ,it was at best the second4 ,although of no commercial importance1 it is of very great historical interest as it antedated ,fulton's 8,clermont0 by many years4 #ag ,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth1 p4 #cj4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,twenty-three years later1 in #ahaj1 ,onions ,son of ,broseley built the next iron boats1 also for use upon the ,severn4 ,five years later ,mr4 ,jervons of ,liverpool built a small iron boat for use on the ,mersey4 ,in #ahba an iron vessel was built at the ,horsley works in ,staffordshire1 which sailed from ,london to ,havre and went up the ,seine to ,paris4#ah ,iron vessels were built from time to time after that1 but it was fully twenty-five years before they came into general use4 #ah ,smiles3 8,men of ,invention and ,industry10 pp4 #ea-eb4 ,new ,york1 #ahhe4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #f4 ,,john ,,wilkinson ,illustration3 ,,figure #g4 ,,wilkinson',s ,,boring ,,machine ,,used ,,for ,,machining ,,the ,,cylinders ,,of ,,watt ,,engines ,with ,abraham ,darby1 #c;d1 ,wilkinson has the honor of having built1 in #aggi1 the first iron bridge1 which spanned the ,severn at ,broseley4 ,this bridge had a span of #ajj feet #f inches1 and a clear height of #dh feet1 and is standing today as good as ever4#ai ,he invented also the method of making continuous lead pipe4 #ai ,smiles3 8,industrial ,biography10 p4 #aai4 ,boston1 #ahfd4 ,also1 ,beitrge1 etc41 #c4 ,band4 ,s4 #bbf4 ,he was a man of great ability1 strong and masterful4 ,boulton wrote of him to ,watt3 ,i can't say but that ,i admire ,john ,wilkinson for his decisive1 clear1 and distinct character1 which is1 ,i think1 a first-rate one of its kind4#bj #bj ,smiles3 8,boulton ,watt10 p4 #dch4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,there is a note of qualification in the last clause4 ,with all his admirable qualities ,wilkinson was not always amiable and he was in constant feud with the other members of his family4 ,he became very wealthy1 but his large estate was dissipated in a famous lawsuit between his heirs4 ,forceful and able as ,wilkinson was1 another man1 ,joseph ,bramah1 living in ,london about the same time1 had a much more direct influence on tool building4 ,bramah was a ,yorkshire farmer's boy1 born in #agdh1 and lame4#ba ,as he could not work on the farm he learned the cabinet maker's trade1 went to ,london1 and1 in the course of his work which took him into the well-to-do houses about town1 he made his first successful invention--the modern water-closet4 ,he patented it in #aggh and #aghc1 and it continues to this day in substantially the same form4 ,in #aghd he patented a lock1 which was an improvement on ,barron's1 invented ten years before1 and was one of the most successful ever invented4 ,for many years it had the reputation of being absolutely unpickable4 ,confident of this1 ,bramah placed a large padlock on a board in his shop window in ,piccadilly and posted beneath it the following notice3 8,the artist who can make an instrument that will pick or open this lock shall receive two hundred guineas the moment it is produced40 #ba ,the best account of ,bramah is given in ,smiles' 8,industrial ,biography10 pp4 #bbh-bdd4 ,boston1 #ahfd4 ,many tried to open it4 ,in one attempt made in #ahag1 a clever mechanic named ,russell spent a week on it and gave it up in despair4 ,in #ahea ,alfred ,c4 ,hobbs1 an ,american1 mastered it and won the money4 ,he was allowed a month in which to work and the ,committee of ,referees in their report stated that he spent sixteen days1 and an actual working time of fifty-one hours1 in doing it4 ,this gave ,hobbs a great reputation1 which he enhanced by picking every other lock well known in ,england at that time1 and then showing how it was done4 ,this started up the liveliest kind of a controversy and gave everyone a chance to write to the ,times4 ,they all began first picking1 then tearing each other's locks4 ,headlines of 8,love 7,hobbs87 ,laughs at ,locksmiths10 8,equivocator0 and other like terms appeared4#bb #bb ,price3 8,fire and ,thief-proof ,depositories1 and ,locks and ,keys40 ,it was finally recognized that any lock could be picked by a skillful mechanic with a knowledge of locks1 if he were given time enough4 ,the old ,bramah lock1 made1 by the way1 by ,henry ,maudslay himself1 did not fare so badly4 ,hobbs had unmolested access to it for days with any tools he could bring or devise2 and though he finally opened it1 a lock probably sixty years old which could stand such an assault for fifty hours was secure for all ordinary purposes4#bc #bc ,anyone who is interested can find an account of the affair in ,price's 8,fire and ,thief-proof ,depositories1 and ,locks and ,keys10 published in #ahef1 and ,mr4 ,hobbs has given his own personal account of it1 explaining how the work was done1 in the ,trans4 of the ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #bdh-bec4 ,when ,bramah began manufacturing the locks he found almost immediately that they called for a better quality of workmanship than was available1 with even the best manual skill about him4 ,a series of machine tools had to be devised if they were to be made in the quantities and of the quality desired4 ,he turned first to an old ,german in ,moodie's shop who had the reputation of being the most ingenious workman in ,london2 but while he1 with ,bramah1 saw the need1 he could not meet it4 ,one of his shopmates1 however1 suggested a young man at the ,woolwich ,arsenal named ,henry ,maudslay1 then only eighteen years old4 ,bramah sent for him and ,maudslay soon became his right-hand man1 and was made superintendent of the works at nineteen4 ,the work of these two men in developing the tools needed laid the foundation for the standard metal-cutting tools of today4 ,the most important improvement was the slide-rest4 ,nasmyth later said that he had seen the first one1 made by ,maudslay1 running in ,bramah's shop and that 8in it were all those arrangements which are to be found in the most modern slide-rest of our own day0 7i4e41 fifty years later74 ,other parts of the metal-cutting lathe also began to take shape2 it has been said that parts of the lock were milled on a lathe with rotary cutters1 and that the beginnings of the planer were made4 ,how much of this work was ,bramah's and how much ,maudslay's it would be hard to say4 ,bramah was a fertile1 clever inventor2 but ,maudslay was the better general mechanic1 had a surer judgment and a greater influence on subsequent tool design4 ,about this time ,bramah invented the hydraulic press4 ,as he first built it1 the ram was packed with a stuffing-box and gland4 ,this gripped the ram1 retarded the return stroke1 and gave him a lot of trouble until ,maudslay substituted the self-tightening cup-leather packing for the stuffing-box1 an improvement which made the device a success4 ,bramah's restless ingenuity was continually at work4 ,he invented a very successful beer-pump in #agig1 the four-way cock1 a quill sharpener which was in general use until quills were superseded by steel pens1 and he dabbled with the steam engine4 ,he was a bitter opponent of ,watt and testified against him in the famous suit of ,boulton ,watt against ,hornblower4 ,he maintained the superiority of the old ,newcomen engines and said that the principle of the separate condenser was fallacious1 that ,watt had added nothing new which was not worthless1 and that his so-called improvements were 8monstrous stupidity40 ,in #ahjb ,bramah obtained a patent for woodworking machinery second only in importance to that granted ,bentham in #agia4 ,like ,bentham1 he aimed to replace manual labor 8for producing straight1 smooth1 and parallel surfaces on wood and other materials requiring truth1 in a manner much more expeditious and perfect than can be performed by the use of axes1 saws1 planes1 and other cutting instruments used by hand in the ordinary way40 ,his tools were carried in fixed frames and driven by machinery4 ,in his planing machine1 one of which was running in the ,woolwich ,arsenal for fifty years1 the cutter-head1 which carried twenty-eight tools1 was mounted on a vertical shaft and swept across the work in a horizontal plane4 ,he used this same method in planing the metal parts for his locks1 which corresponds1 of course1 to our modern face-milling4 ,he provided for cutting spherical and concave surfaces and used his device for making wooden bowls4 ,in #ahjf he devised an automatic machine which the ,bank of ,england used many years in numbering their banknotes1 eliminating error and saving the labor of many clerks4 ,maudslay was in his employ from #aghi to #agig4 ,he was getting as superintendent #cjs4 7#g4ej7 a week4 ,a growing family and 8the high cost of living0 rendered this insufficient and he applied for more4 ,he was refused so curtly that he gave up his position and started in for himself in a small workshop on ,oxford ,street in ,london4 ,later he took ,field in as partner under the firm name of ,maudslay ,field4 ,in #ahac ,bramah engaged another man who later had a great influence1 ,joseph ,clement4 ,clement soon became his chief draftsman and superintendent4 ,salaries had gone up somewhat by that time and he had an agreement for five years starting on the basis of three guineas a week with an advance of four shillings each year4 ,at ,bramah's death not long after1 his sons took charge of the business1 and soon grew jealous of ,clement's influence4 ,by mutual consent the contract was terminated and he went at once to ,maudslay ,field as their chief draftsman4 ,later he1 too1 set up for himself and had an important part in the development of the screw-cutting lathe1 the planer and standard screw threads4 ,whitworth was one of his workmen and ,clement's work on taps and dies formed the basis of the ,whitworth thread4 ,bramah died in #ahad1 at the age of sixty-six4 ,he was a man of widely recognized influence1 a keen and independent thinker1 a good talker1 and1 though it might not appear from what has been said1 a cheery and always welcome companion4 ,he left a reputation for absolute business integrity and the quality of his workmanship was unrivaled until his later years1 when he was equaled only by those he had himself trained4 ,he gave the world some great and valuable devices and paved the way for others4 ,his influence on modern tools can probably never be accurately judged1 but ,smiles' tribute to him is as true today as when it was written1 two generations ago3 ,from his shops at ,pimlico came ,henry ,maudslay1 ,joseph ,clement1 and many more first-class mechanics1 who carried the mechanical arts to still higher perfection1 and gave an impulse to mechanical engineering the effects of which are still felt in every branch of industry4#bd #bd ,smiles3 8,industrial ,biography10 p4 #bdd4 ,bramah had an invincible dislike for sitting for his portrait and consequently none exists4 ,a death-mask was made by ,sir ,francis ,chantrey1 who executed the ,watt statue in ,westminster ,abbey1 but it was unfortunately destroyed by ,lady ,chantrey4 ,the complete catalog of the ,national ,portrait ,gallery in ,london#be gives ,bramah's name4 ,the reference1 however1 directs one to ,walker's famous engraving of the 8,eminent ,men of ,science ,living in #ahjg-ahjh10 which shows about fifty distinguished scientists and engineers grouped in the ,library of the ,royal ,institution4 ,this engraving is the result of four years' careful study4 ,it was grouped by ,sir ,john ,gilbert1 drawn by ,john ,skill1 and finished by ,william ,walker and his wife4 ,bramah's figure1 ,no4 #f1 appears in this group1 but with his back turned1 the only one in that position4 ,it is a singular tribute to ,bramah's influence among his generation of scientists that this picture would have been considered incomplete without him4 ,as no portrait of him existed he was included1 but with his face turned away4 ,the figure was drawn in accordance with a description furnished by ,bramah's grandson1 ,e4 ,h4 ,bramah4 #be ,cust's4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #h4 ,,eminent ,,men ,,of ,,science ,,living ,,in #ahjg-h ,,from ,,walker',s ,,engraving ,,in ,,the ,,national ,,portrait ,,gallery1 ,,london #a4 ,william ,allen1 #aggj-ahdc #b4 ,francis ,bailey1 #aggd-ahdd #c4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 #agdc-ahbj #d4 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham1 #agcg-ahca #e4 ,matthew ,boulton1 #agbh-ahjg #f4 ,joseph ,bramah1 #agdi-ahad #g4 ,robert ,brown1 #aggc-ahei #h4 ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel1 #agfi-ahdi #i4 ,edmund ,cartwright1 #agdc-ahbc #aj4 ,hon4 ,henry ,cavendish1 #agca-ahaj #aa4 ,sir ,william ,congreve1 #aggb-ahbh #ab4 ,samuel ,crompton1 #agce-ahbg #ac4 ,john ,dalton1 #agff-ahdd #ad4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 #aggh-ahbi #ae4 ,peter ,dollond1 #agca-ahbj #af4 ,bryan ,donkin1 #agfh-ahee #ag4 ,thomas ,cochrane1 ,earl of ,dundonald1 #agge-ahfj #ah4 ,henry ,fourdrinier1 #agff-ahed #ai4 ,davis ,giddy ,gilbert1 #agfg-ahci #bj4 ,charles ,hatchett1 #agfe-ahdg #ba4 ,william ,henry1 #aggd-ahcf #bb4 ,sir ,william ,herschel1 #agch-ahbb #bc4 ,edward ,charles ,howard1 #aggd-ahaf #bd4 ,joseph ,huddart1 #agdj-ahaf #be4 ,edward ,jenner1 #agdi-ahbc #bf4 ,william ,jessop1 #agde-ahad #bg4 ,henry ,kater1 #aggg-ahce #bh4 ,sir ,john ,leslie1 #agff-ahcb #bi4 ,nevil ,maskelyne1 #agcb-ahaa #cj4 ,henry ,maudslay1 #agga-ahca #ca4 ,patrick ,miller1 #agcj-ahae #cb4 ,william ,murdock1 #aged-ahci #cc4 ,robert ,nylne1 #agcc-ahaa #cd4 ,alexander ,nasmyth1 #ageh-ahdj #ce4 ,john ,playfair1 #agdh-ahai #cf4 ,john ,rennie1 #agfa-ahba #cg4 ,sir ,francis ,ronalds1 #aghh-ahgc #ch4 ,count ,rumford1 #agec-ahad #ci4 ,daniel ,rutherford1 #agdi-ahai #dj4 ,charles1 third ,earl ,stanhope1 #agec-ahaf #da4 ,william ,symington1 #agfc-ahca #db4 ,thomas ,telford1 #ageg-ahcd #dc4 ,charles ,tennant1 #agfh-ahch #dd4 ,thomas ,thomson1 #aggc-aheb #de4 ,richard ,trevithick1 #agga-ahcc #df4 ,james ,watt1 #agcf-ahai #dg4 ,william ,hyde ,wollaston1 #agff-ahbh #dh4 ,thomas ,young1 #aggc-ahbi ,group originated by ,william ,walker4 ,designed by ,sir ,john ,gilbert4 ,engraved by ,walker and ,zobel4 ,the engraving includes many other men of interest whose names are indicated4 ,some of them have already been considered2 others1 while famous as engineers1 worked in fields other than the one we are considering4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,bentham ,,and ,,brunel ,in the genealogical table shown in ,fig4 #e1 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham and ,sir ,marc ,i4 ,brunel are indicated as having originated the famous 8,portsmouth ,block ,machinery10 which was built by ,maudslay and which first gave him his reputation as a tool builder4 ,while ,bentham was primarily a naval administrator and ,brunel a civil engineer1 they were among the first to grasp the principles of modern manufacturing and embody them successfully4 ,both were men of distinction and each had an interesting career4 ,samuel ,bentham1 ,fig4 #i1 was a brother of ,jeremy ,bentham1 the famous ,english publicist and writer on economics1 and a step-brother of ,charles ,abbott1 speaker of the ,house of ,commons4 ,he was born in #ageg1 went to the ,westminster ,school1 and later was a naval apprentice in the ,woolwich ,arsenal4 ,his tastes and his training led him toward the administrative and constructive work of the navy1 and for this he had the best education available at that time4 ,he went to sea after a final year at the ,naval ,college at ,portsmouth2 and in #aghj1 in consequence of his abilities1 was sent by ,earl ,howe1 then first ,lord of the ,admiralty1 to visit the various ports of northern ,europe4 ,he went through the great ports of ,holland and the ,baltic1 eastward to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and was introduced at the ,russian court by the ,british ambassador4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #i4 ,,sir ,,samuel ,,bentham ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,miniature ,the ,russians took to him kindly1 as he was handsome1 tall1 and distinguished in manner1 inspired confidence1 and made and held friends4 ,he was well received by the ,empress ,catherine1 and soon became a favorite of ,prince ,potemkin4 ,he traveled over a greater part of the empire from the ,black ,sea to the ,arctic and as far east as ,china1 examining mining and engineering works4 ,on his return to ,st4 ,petersburg he fell in love with a wealthy heiress of the nobility4 ,the parents objected2 but though the empress1 who was interested1 advised an elopement1 he gave it up as dishonorable and went away to ,critcheff in southern ,russia as a lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the ,russian army4 ,while there he took charge of ,potemkin's grossly mismanaged factories in order to put them on a sound basis1 an undertaking suggestive of the twentieth-century efficiency engineer4 ,in this he was not wholly successful4 ,in #aghg he built and equipped a flotilla of ships1 and in the following year distinguished himself in a naval battle with the ,turks1 in which ,john ,paul ,jones was also engaged4 ,one of the vital elements in the fight was the use of the large guns built by ,bentham1 which fired shells for the first time in naval warfare4 ,nine ,turkish ships were burned or sunk and #hjjj men were killed or taken prisoners4 ,for his part in this battle ,bentham was knighted and made a brigadier-general4 ,there were few skilled artisans in ,russia and almost none available in the southern provinces--a ,danish brass founder1 an ,english watchmaker and two or three sergeants who could write and draw were all he had4 ,this set ,bentham at work on the problem of 8transferring skill0 by means of machines1 so that unskilled workmen might be made to produce the same results as skilled labor4 ,while ,bramah and ,maudslay were working in ,london on their metal-cutting tools for making locks1 ,bentham1 in ,russia1 was thinking out substantially the same problem in woodworking machinery4 ,he returned to ,england in #agia and that year took out his first patent4 ,certain suggestions which he made to the ,admiralty about the introduction of machinery into the dockyards led to his making an extended inspection of the dockyards throughout the kingdom1 and he reported that immense savings were possible4 ,the office of inspector general was created for him and authority given him to put his recommendations into effect4 ,for the next eighteen years he served the ,british navy4 ,when he took hold it was honeycombed with inefficiency and worse4 ,his business-like methods1 his skill as an engineer and naval designer1 and his fearless integrity were elements in the preparedness of the ,british navy in the ,napoleonic wars4 ,he was an intrepid enemy of red tape and graft and soon made cordial enemies2 but he was a good fighter1 with no weak spots in his armor1 and it took many years to bring him down4 ,in #ahje he was sent to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and kept there on various pretexts for two years4 ,it was remarked by some about the ,admiralty office1 that so high was their opinion of his talents they would be glad to give him #fjjj 7#cj1jjj7 a year if by that means they would never see him again4 ,he returned in #ahjg to find his office abolished and its functions transferred to a board1 of which he was made a member at an increased salary4 ,here his power was diluted somewhat1 but even this solution was too strong and he was retired on a pension in #ahab4 ,for the next fifteen years he lived in retirement in ,france4 ,the years abroad softened the rancor of his enemies and from his return to ,england in #ahbg until his death1 ,bentham was in frequent and friendly consultation with the navy officials4 ,bentham may well be considered as one of the first and greatest of 8efficiency experts40#bf #bf ,see the biography of ,bentham1 by ,william ,lucas ,sargant3 8,essays of a ,birmingham ,manufacturer10 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 ,v4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,also1 8,memoirs of the late ,brigadier-,general ,sir ,samuel ,bentham10 by ,mary ,s4 ,bentham1 in 8,papers and ,practical ,illustrations of ,public ,works40 ,london1 #ahef4 ,the patent of #agia referred to is not important1 but it was followed by another in #agic in which was set forth the whole scheme of woodworking machinery which had been maturing in ,bentham's mind4 ,this has been characterized as one of the most remarkable patents ever issued by the ,british ,patent ,office4 ,more than fifty years after1 one of the ,crown judges said of it in summing up a case before him involving woodworking machinery1 that 8the specification of his 7i4e41 ,bentham's7 patent of #agic is a perfect treatise on the subject2 indeed1 the only one worth quoting that has to this day been written on the subject40 ,jeremy ,bentham had revolutionized the prison system of ,england1 and had introduced the system of labor in penitentiaries which has become an essential element in all modern penal systems4 ,woodworking was the most available field of work1 but the greater part of the prisoners were of course unskilled1 and ,samuel ,bentham was called upon to devise machines to meet the need4 ,the two brothers established a factory and began making woodworking machinery for the prisons and dockyards4 ,the work for the dockyards soon took definite form4 ,pulley blocks formed one of the important supplies of the navy4 ,a single full-rigged frigate used about #aejj and the ,admiralty were purchasing at that time about #ajj1jjj yearly4 ,this formed a large business in itself and one in which the interchangeability that ,bentham was continually urging was especially desirable4 ,on ,bentham's recommendation1 a government factory organized on a manufacturing basis and utilizing machinery had been begun at ,portsmouth and a few machines of his design already installed1 when ,brunel1 who had been working independently on block machinery1 was introduced to him4 ,marc ,isambard ,brunel1 ,fig4 #aj1 was a ,norman ,frenchman1 born in #agfi1 who was the despair of his father because he would not study to be a priest and would persist in drawing and in making things4 ,as a family compromise he received a naval training and served as an officer for six years4 ,in #agic1 his ship being paid off1 he was in ,paris4 ,his outspoken loyalty in one of the cafs on the very day when ,louis ,,xvi was sentenced to the guillotine brought down upon him the anger of the republicans present4 ,he escaped in the confusion1 spent the night in hiding1 and leaving ,paris early the next morning1 made his way to ,rouen4 ,here he hid for a time with ,m4 ,carpentier1 the ,american consul1 in whose home he met a young ,english girl whom he afterwards married4 ,six months later he sailed from ,havre on a forged passport1 under the nose of a frigate searching for suspects1 and landed in ,new ,york only to find a ,french republican squadron lying in port4 ,as he was personally known to many of the officers and in danger of being recognized1 arrested and condemned as a deserter1 he left the city at once and went to ,albany in the vague hope of finding ,m4 ,pharoux1 a friend who was undertaking the survey of a large tract of wild land in the ,black ,river valley1 east of ,lake ,ontario4 ,brunel found him by good chance1 joined the party1 and soon became its real leader4 ,they showed the capacity1 which the ,french have always had1 of working in friendly relationship with the ,indians1 and their work was successfully accomplished4 ,fifty years later there were still traditions among ,indians in the valley of a wonderful white man named 8,brun40 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aj4 ,,sir ,,marc ,,isambard ,,brunel ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,walker1 ,,ltd41 ,,of ,,the ,,portrait ,,in ,,the ,,national ,,gallery1 ,,london ,brunel remained in ,america for over five years and was naturalized as a citizen in #agif4 ,during this time he was engaged on the ,hudson-,champlain canal and various river improvements4 ,he was a friend of ,major ,l',enfant1 who planned the city of ,washington and he submitted one of the competitive designs for the original ,capitol4 ,he also designed and built the old ,park ,theater in ,new ,york1 which was burned in #ahba4 ,he was appointed chief engineer of ,new ,york1 built a cannon foundry and had a part in planning the fortifications of the ,narrows in ,new ,york harbor4 ,he was gay1 refined and a favorite among the emigrs who enlivened ,new ,york society in the closing years of the eighteenth century4 ,it was at ,alexander ,hamilton's dinner table that the first suggestion of the block machinery came to him4 ,he had been invited to meet a ,m4 ,delabigarre1 who had just arrived from ,england4 ,m4 ,delabigarre had been describing the method of making ship's blocks and spoke of their high and increasing cost4 ,brunei listened with attention and then pointed out what he considered the defects of the method and suggested that the mortises might be cut by machinery1 two or three at a time4 ,the shaping machine he afterward used was conceived while he was at ,fort ,montgomery in the highlands of the ,hudson4 ,brunel left ,america for ,england early in #agii and remained in ,england the rest of his life4 ,his marriage soon after his arrival to ,miss ,kingdom1 the girl whom he had met at ,rouen1 doubtless gives the reason for this change4 ,two months after reaching ,england1 he took out a patent for a writing and duplicating machine and he also invented a machine for twisting cotton thread4 ,meantime he was working on the drawings for a complete set of block machinery1 and by #ahja he had made a working model of the mortising and boring machines4 ,he offered his plans to ,fox ,taylor1 who held the navy contract for blocks4 ,mr4 ,taylor wrote in reply that his father had spent many years developing their existing methods of manufacture and they were perfectly satisfied with them4 ,he added1 8,i have no hope of anything better ever being discovered1 and ,i am convinced there cannot40 ,brunel1 through introductions brought from ,america1 then laid his plans before ,lord ,spencer1 of the ,admiralty1 and ,sir ,samuel ,bentham4 ,bentham1 as we have seen1 was already working on the same problem4 ,he saw at once the superiority of ,brunel's plans and1 with the freedom from jealousy and self-interest which characterized his whole career1 he recommended their adoption1 with the result that ,brunel was commissioned to build and install his machines4 ,about sixty years ago there was a sharp controversy over the origin of this ,portsmouth machinery4 ,partisans of ,bentham and ,brunel each claimed the entire credit for all of it4 ,the fact is that some of ,bentham's machines were used for the roughing out1 but all the finishing work was done on ,brunel's1 and there is little doubt that the definite plan of operations and all the more intricate machines were his4 ,bentham conceived the enterprise and had it well under way4 ,his broad-minded and generous substitution of ,brunel's plans for his own was quite as creditable to him as the execution of the whole work would have been4 ,while ,brunel was a clever and original designer1 he was not a skilled mechanic4 ,his plans called for a large number of refined and intricate machines which were wholly new and he no sooner began actual work than he felt the need of a mechanic capable of building them4 ,maudslay had just started in for himself and was working in his little shop on ,oxford ,street1 with one helper4 ,m4 ,bacquancourt1 a friend of ,brunel's1 passed his door every day and was interested in the beautiful pieces of workmanship he used to see from time to time in the shop window4 ,at his suggestion ,brunel went to ,maudslay1 explained to him his designs1 and secured his help4 ,there could hardly have been a better combination than these two men4 ,maudslay's wonderful skill as a mechanic and his keen1 practical intuition supplied the one element needed and together they executed the entire set of machines1 forty-four in all4#bg #bg ,for a description of the ,portsmouth ,block ,machinery1 see ,tomlinson's 8,cyclopedia of ,useful ,arts10 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aci-adf4 ,london1 #aheb4 ,also1 ,ure's 8,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines10 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cih-djb2 ,seventh ,edition4 ,london1 #ahge2 and ,rees' 8,cyclopedia10 article 8,machinery for ,manufacturing ,ship's ,blocks40 ,the machinery was divided into four classes4 ,first4 ,sawing machines1 both reciprocating and circular1 for roughing out the blocks4 ,second4 ,boring1 mortising1 shaping and 8scoring0 machines for finishing the blocks4 ,third4 ,machines for turning and boring the sheaves1 for riveting the brass liner and finish-facing the sides4 ,in the larger sizes small holes were drilled on the joint and short wire pins riveted in to prevent slipping between the liner and block4 ,fourth4 ,the iron pins on which the sheaves turned were hand forged in dies1 turned and polished4 ,in addition to these there were several machines for forming 8dead eyes10 or solid blocks without sheaves1 used in the fixed rigging4 ,a detailed description of the entire set would be too long4 ,a brief description of one or two of the machines will serve to give some idea of the others4 ,fig4 #aa is taken from an old wood-cut of the mortising machine4#bh ,a model of it is shown in the background of the portrait of ,brunel in the ,national ,gallery1 reproduced opposite page #bf4 ,a pulley and flywheel are connected by a cone clutch ,m to a shaft ,d4 ,at the front end of this a crank and connecting-rod drive the reciprocating cutter head from a point a4 ,the chuck carrying the block1 movable forward and backward on guides1 was operated by the feed screw ,r1 a cam1 and the ratchet motion shown4 ,a system of stops and weighted levers on the side threw out the ratchet feed at the end of the cut1 and the carriage was returned by hand1 using the crank r4 ,the crosshead had two guiding points1 a double one below the driving point and a single one above it at ,f1 and made #aej strokes per minute4 ,the chuck could take either one or two blocks at a time4 #bh ,tomlinson3 8,cyclopedia10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ada4 ,fig4 #ab shows the shaping machine4#bi ,ten blocks were chucked between two large1 circular frames1 the same working points being used as in the last machine4 ,the principle of establishing and adhering to working points seems to have been clearly recognized4 ,a cutter g was moved across the face of the blocks as they revolved1 its motion being governed by the handles l and ,g and a former i4 ,one side of each of the ten blocks was thus finished at a time4 ,the blocks were then indexed #ij by revolving the bevel ,k1 which turned the wormshafts d and rotated all the chucks simultaneously4 ,the blocks were then faced again in their new positions and the operation continued until the four sides were finished4 ,the strong curved bars at the top were provided to protect the workman in case one of the blocks should let go4 ,as the momentum of the frame and blocks was considerable1 a spring brake was provided between the bearing and bevel-gear to bring them to rest quickly4 #bi ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #add4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aa4 ,,brunel',s ,,mortising ,,machine ,illustration3 ,,figure #ab4 ,,brunel',s ,,shaping ,,machine ,another well-designed machine 8scored0 the outside of the blocks for the ropes or straps4 ,two disks with inserted steel cutters grooved the blocks which were chucked on a swinging frame4 ,the depth and path of cut were governed by a steel former against which a roller on the cutter shaft bore4 ,in the metal working machines1 under the fourth group1 cutters were used in which a short1 round bar of tempered steel was held by a binding screw in a holder of the lathe-tool type4 ,from the sketch of it shown by ,holtzapffel1 the whole device might almost be used as an advertisement for a modern tool-holder for high-speed steel cutters4 ,enough has been said to show that these machines were thoroughly modern in their conception and constituted a complete range of tools1 each performing its part in a definite series of operations4 ,by this machinery ten unskilled men did the work of #aaj skilled workmen4 ,when the plant was in full running order in #ahjh the output was over #acj1jjj blocks per year1 with a value of over #bej1jjj1 an output greater than that previously supplied by the six largest dockyards4 ,it continued for many years to supply all the blocks used by the ,royal ,navy1 and was in fact superseded only when wooden blocks themselves largely made way for iron and steel ones4 ,brunel devised other woodworking tools1 but none so successful as these4 ,he started a mill at ,battersea which burned down2 his finances became involved and he was thrown into prison for debt4 ,he was freed through a grant of #be1jjj which friends secured from the government4 ,his later work was in the field of civil engineering--the most famous work being the ,thames tunnel4 ,he was given the ,legion of ,honor in #ahbi1 was knighted in #ahda1 and died in #ahdi4cj #cj ,for fuller information1 see the biography of ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel by ,richard ,beamish1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,london1 #ahfb4 ,his son1 ,sir ,isambard ,k4 ,brunel1 was also one of the foremost engineers of ,england1 a bridge and ship builder1 railway engineer and rival of ,robert ,stephenson4 ,at the age of twenty-seven he was chief engineer of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and built the steamer 8,great ,western0 to run from ,bristol to ,new ,york as an extension of that railway system4 ,this was the first large iron ship1 the first regular transatlantic liner1 and the first large steamship using the screw propeller4 ,its success led to the building of the 8,great ,eastern0 from his designs4 ,this ship was about #gjj feet long and for nearly fifty years was the largest one built4 ,she was a disastrous failure financially and after a varied career1 which included the laying of the first transatlantic cable1 she was finally broken up4 ,brunel was a strong advocate of the broad gauge and built the ,great ,western system with a #g-;foot gauge1 which was ultimately changed to standard gauge4 ,while a number of his undertakings were failures financially1 his chief fault seems to have been that he was in advance of his generation4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,henry ,,maudslay ,we have mentioned ,henry ,maudslay frequently4 ,in fact1 it is hard to go far in any historical study of machine tools without doing so4#ca #ca ,for best accounts of ,maudslay1 see ,smiles' 8,industrial ,biography10 ,chap4 ,,xii1 and 8,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth40 ,maudslay was born in ,woolwich in #agga4 ,he was the son of an old soldier working in the arsenal1 and had but little schooling4 ,at twelve he was at work in the arsenal1 first as a 8powder monkey0 filling cartridges1 later in the carpenter shop and smithy4 ,young as he was1 he soon became the leader among the workmen4 ,he was a born craftsman and his skill was soon the pride of the whole shop4 ,to dexterity he added an intuitive power of mechanical analysis and a sense of proportion possessed by few men1 and from the beginning he showed a genius for choosing the most direct and simple means for accomplishing his purpose4 ,he was a great favorite among his fellows from his fine personal appearance1 his open-heartedness and complete freedom from conceit4 ,in the chapter on ,bramah we have seen how ,bramah1 seeking someone to help him devise tools to manufacture his locks1 turned first to an old ,german mechanic in ,moodie's shop4 ,one of the hammer men in ,moodie's shop suggested ,maudslay1 apologizing for his youth1 but adding that 8nothing bet him40 ,when ,bramah saw ,maudslay1 who was only eighteen1 he was almost ashamed to lay his case before him4 ,maudslay's suggestions1 however1 were so keen and to the point that the older man had to admit that the boy's head at least was old enough4 ,he adopted the suggestions and offered him a job in his shop at ,pimlico1 which ,maudslay gladly accepted4 ,as he had served no apprenticeship1 the foreman had doubts of his ability to work among experienced hands4 ,without a moment's hesitation ,maudslay pointed to a worn-out bench vice and asked whether he could take his rank among the other workmen if he could fix it as good as new before the end of the day4 ,he was told to go ahead4 ,he resteeled and trued the jaws1 filed them up1 recut and hardened them1 and before the time set had it together1 trimmer and in better shape than any of its neighbors4 ,it was examined1 admired and accepted as his diploma as a journeyman4 ,his advancement was rapid1 and in about a year1 while still only nineteen1 he was made general foreman and maintained his leadership without the slightest difficulty4 ,he remained with ,bramah for eight years1 during which time the two laid the foundation for many of the modern machine tools1 more especially the slide-rest and screw-cutting lathe4 ,we have already considered ,maudslay's work done in connection with ,bramah and little need be added here in regard to it4 ,during this time ,bramah invented the hydraulic press1 but the cup-leather packing which is so essential a part of it was suggested by ,maudslay4 ,he left the ,pimlico shop because ,bramah would not give him more than #cj shillings 7#g4ej7 a week1 and with a single helper started a little blacksmithing and jobbing shop on his own account near ,wells and ,oxford streets in ,london4 ,his first customer was an artist who gave him an order for an iron easel4 ,business prospered and he found plenty of work4 ,his reputation was established1 however1 in connection with the ,portsmouth block machinery1 which was described in the last chapter4 ,the building of this machinery occupied about eight years1 from #ahjj to #ahjh4 ,the design was substantially ,brunel's1 but ,mr4 ,nasmyth says that 8every member of it was full of ,maudslay's presence and the mechanical perfection of its details1 its practicability and adaptability show his handiwork at every turn40 ,soon after this work was undertaken1 ,maudslay moved his shop to ,margaret ,street1 near ,cavendish ,square4 ,during the building of the block machinery ,maudslay had met ,joshua ,field1 who had been engaged as a draftsman in the ,portsmouth dockyards under ,sir ,samuel ,bentham and had worked with him in the development of the machinery4 ,field was transferred to ,general ,bentham's office at the ,admiralty in #ahjd1 and a year later joined ,maudslay4 ,five years later they moved to ,lambeth on the south side of the ,thames and bought an old riding school on ,westminster ,road on what was formerly a swampy marsh4 ,here the firm of ,maudslay ,field continued its long and famous career4 ,few firms have influenced mechanical development more1 and for many years it was one of the leading machine shops of the world4 ,here ,maudslay did his life work as one of the leaders in the development not only of machine tools but of the steam engine1 both stationary and marine4 ,after his death in #ahca the business was continued by ,mr4 ,field1 who outlived him many years1 and by ,maudslay's son and grandson1 both of whom were fine mechanics and men of great influence4 ,it was in connection with the slide-rest and screw-cutting lathe that ,maudslay is best known4 ,too much value cannot be placed on the slide-rest and its combination with a lead screw1 operated by change gears4 ,it is used in some form in almost every machine tool and is one of the great inventions of history4 ,like most of the great inventions1 it was the work of many men4 ,in crude applications1 parts of it date back to the ,middle ,ages4 ,leonardo da ,vinci caught an inkling of it4 ,french writers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries describe and illustrate devices which involve the parts of it4 ,fig4 #ac1 reproduced from an illustration in the old work of ,besson1 first published in #aefi1cb shows a lead screw4 ,the copy from which this illustration was taken is printed in ,latin and is in the ,astor library1 ,new ,york4 ,the upper shaft had three drums2 the middle one carried the rope which was manipulated by the operator4 ,of the drums at the ends1 the one at the left operated a lead screw and the one on the right1 the piece being cut4 ,the two outer weights held the follower up against the lead screw4 ,the cutting was1 of course1 intermittent1 as in all the earlier types of lathes4 ,the idea of the lead screw occurs in other ,french works of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,in the lathe shown in ,fig4 #ad1 from a ,french book published in #agda1cc gears instead of ropes were used to connect the rotation of the lead screw with that of the work1 but if the idea of change gears was contemplated1 it was not developed4 #cb 8,des ,instruments ,mathmatiques et ,mchaniques1 c41 ,inventes par ,jacques ,besson40 ,first ,latin and ,french ,edit41 #aefi4 ,plate #i4 ,two later editions were published at ,lyons1 one in #aegh and one in #aehb4 ,the same copper plates were used in the three editions4 #cc ,holtzapffel3 8,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fah4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ac4 ,,french ,,screw-,,cutting ,,lathe1 ,,previous ,,to #aefi ,illustration3 ,,figure #ad4 ,,french ,,screw-,,cutting ,,lathe1 ,,about #agdj ,the slide-rest was also known4 ,an illustration of a ,french slide-rest1 published long before ,maudslay's time1 is reproduced in ,fig4 #c4 ,in ,bramah's original 8slide-tool10 the tail-stock and slide-rest were combined4#cd ,it was made about #agie by ,maudslay while still his foreman4 ,how much of the design was ,bramah's and how much ,maudslay's we cannot tell4 ,it was a light1 flimsy affair and very different from the slide-rests ,maudslay was making only a few years later4 #cd ,buchanan3 8,practical ,essays on ,mill ,work and ,other ,machinery40 ,london1 #ahda4 ,volume of ,plates4 ,in none of these was the slide-rest combined with change gears and a power-driven lead screw4 ,it was this combination which formed ,maudslay's great contribution1 together with improvements in proportion and in mechanical design which raised the device from an ingenious but cumbersome mechanical movement to an instrument of precision and power4 ,jesse ,ramsden1 a famous instrument maker1 is said to have made a small lathe in #agge1 which had change wheels and a sliding tool holder moved by a lead screw4 ,the writer has been unable to find any illustration or description of it1 and if such a lathe existed1 it certainly did not exert a very wide influence4 ,the combination was anticipated in ,bentham's famous patent of #agic4 ,in this patent ,bentham says3 8,when the motion is of a rotative kind1 advancement 7of the tool7 may be provided by hand1 yet regularity may be more effectually insured by the aid of mechanism4 ,for this purpose one expedient is the connecting1 for instance1 by cogged wheels1 of the advancing motion of the piece with the rotative motion of the tool40#ce ,this patent contained no drawings1 and the suggestion was not1 so far as is known1 embodied in any definite construction4 #ce ,see the ,british patent records4 ,patent ,no4 #aiea1 dated ,april #bc1 #agic4 ,many men were working at the problem of generating an accurate screw thread4 ,the use of dies was quite well known1 but their design and workmanship was of the crudest order and their product of the same character2 and they were inadequate for the making of any large threads4 ,holtzapffel's book on 8,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation10 published in ,london1 #ahdg1 describes some of the attempts of the earlier mechanics to devise other means4#cf ,at the famous ,soho works in ,birmingham a workman by the name of ,anthony ,robinson cut a screw #g feet long and #f inches in diameter with a square1 triple thread4 ,after the cylinder had been turned1 paper was cut and fitted around it1 removed1 marked in ink with parallel oblique lines1 then replaced on the cylinder and the lines were pricked through with a center punch4 ,the paper was again removed and dots connected by fine lines with a file4 ,the alternate spaces between the lines were then cut out with a chisel and hammer and smoothed by filing4 ,a block of lead and tin1 as a temporary guide nut1 was then cast around the partially formed screw4 ,adjustable cutters were fixed upon this guide nut and it was used as a kind of tool-holding slide-rest1 being rotated around the screw by hand levers1 thereby cutting the finished thread4 ,in other words1 a lead screw was cut on the piece itself and the temporary nut was used as a tool holder to finish the work4 #cf ,holtzapffel4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fce-fee4 ,one method used for some purposes was to coil two wires around a core in close contact with each other4 ,one of these was then removed1 leaving a space corresponding to the hollow of the thread4 ,the core and remaining wire were then dipped in melted tin and soldered together4 ,in some cases they were actually used in this form as the desired screw thread4 ,in others1 the helical wire was used to guide a sleeve nut which controlled a tool used to cut a thread located farther up on the length of the core4 ,another method resorted to was that of grooving a smooth cylinder by a sharp-edged cutter standing at the required pitch angle and relying on the contact of the knife-edge to produce the proper traverse along the cylinder as it was rotated1 thus developing the screw4 ,this method is not so crude as it seems and was one of those used by ,maudslay himself4 ,he also used a flat steel tape wound about a cylindrical bar1 but he found the inclined knife method more satisfactory4 ,the device which he used was a mechanism of considerable refinement4 ,he employed cylinders of wood1 tin1 brass and other soft metals accurately mounted to revolve between centers4 ,the hardened knife was crescent-shaped1 nearly fitting the cylinder1 and fixed at the required angle with great precision by means of a large graduated wheel and tangent screw4 ,a chasing tool carried by a small1 adjustable slide cut the thread as the stock moved forward under the incisive action of the inclined knife edge4 ,hundreds of screws1 both right and left1 were made by this device1 and their agreement with each other is said to have been remarkable4 ,this was the way in which ,maudslay generated his first lead screws4 ,with the best of the screws so obtained ,maudslay made the first screw-cutting lathe a few years prior to #ahjj1 shown in ,fig4 #ae1cg which had two triangular bars for a bed1 and was about three feet long4 ,the headstock carried a live spindle1 which was connected with a lead screw by a pair of gears1 and a slide-rest ran upon the triangular bars under control of a lead screw having four square threads per inch4 ,in this machine he at first used different lead screws for different pitches4 ,the inner end of the lower spindle in the headstock had a two-jawed driving device1 which might be disconnected and into which various lead screws might be fitted4 ,later he added change gear wheels4 #cg ,no4 #afja in ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london4 ,cat4 ,m4 ,e4 ,collection1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bff4 ,the great idea of using a single lead screw for various pitches1 by means of change gears1 was ,maudslay's own4 ,fig4 #af shows how rapidly the idea was developed4#ch ,this machine1 built about #ahjj1 is distinctly modern in appearance4 ,it has a substantial1 well-designed1 cast-iron bed1 a lead screw with #cj threads to the inch1 a back rest for steadying the work1 and was fitted with #bh change wheels with teeth varying in number from #ae to #ej4 ,the intermediate wheel had a wide face and was carried on the swinging1 adjustable arm in order to mesh with wheels of various diameters on the fixed centers4 ,sample screws having from #af to #ajj threads per inch are shown on the rack in front4 ,both of these lathes are now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum in ,london4 ,with lathes of this design1 ,maudslay cut the best screws which had been made up to that time4 ,one of these was #e feet long1 #b inches in diameter1 with #ej threads to the inch1 and the nut fitted to it was #ab inches long1 thus engaging #fjj threads4 8,this screw was principally used for dividing scales for astronomical and other metrical purposes of the highest class4 ,by its means divisions were produced with such minuteness that they could only be made visual by a microscope40#ci #ch ,no4 #afjb in ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london4 ,cat4 ,m4 ,e4 ,collection1 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #bff-bfg4 #ci 8,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth10 p4 #adj4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,some idea of how far ,maudslay was in advance of his time is shown by the fact that the wooden pole-lathes in ,fig4 #b represent fairly the state of the art at that time4 ,this form had been in use in many countries for centuries4 ,one of these wooden lathes1 built in #ahjj1 the same year as ,maudslay's lathe1 ,fig4 #af1 is also in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and was in use as late as #ahgi4 ,similar lathes are said to be still used by chair makers in certain portions of ,england4#dj #dj ,no4 #aeif in ,south ,kensington4 ,museum1 ,london4 ,cat4 ,m4 ,e4 ,collection1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bfd4 ,about #ahcj1 shortly before his death1 ,maudslay designed and constructed a lathe with a face-plate #i feet in diameter operating over a pit #bj feet deep4 ,this lathe had a massive bed and was used to turn flywheel rims4 ,it was fitted with a boring bar and was capable of boring steam cylinders up to #aj feet in diameter4 ,we regret that no picture of this lathe is available4 ,it would be interesting as it would show in a striking way the development of the slide-rest and lathe in the hands of this great mechanic4 ,maudslay's work on the screw thread was not confined to the lathe4 ,he improved the system of taps and dies whereby they were made to cut the threads instead of squeezing them up1 and he introduced the use of three or more cutting edges4#da ,he made the first move toward the systematizing of thread sizes and made a series of taps from #f inches in diameter1 for tapping steam pistons1 down to the smallest sizes used in watch work4 ,the diameters of these taps varied by eighths and sixteenths of an inch1 and their threads were determined by the respective strengths of each screw4 ,he established for his own use definite standard pitches4 ,many copies of these threads found their way to other shops and influenced the construction of similar tools elsewhere4 ,in fact1 ,holtzapffel says3 8,i believe it may be fairly advanced1 that during the period from #ahjj to #ahaj1 ,mr4 ,maudslay effected nearly the entire change from the old1 imperfect1 accidental practice of screw making to the modern1 exact1 systematic mode now generally followed by engineers2 and he pursued the subject of the screw with more or less ardour1 and at an enormous expense1 until his death40#db #da ,holtzapffel1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fdf4 #db ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fdg4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ae4 ,,maudslay',s ,,screw-,,cutting ,,lathe ,,about #agig ,illustration3 ,,figure #af4 ,,maudslay',s ,,screw-,,cutting ,,lathe ,,about #ahjj ,while we would not detract from the ingenuity of others who conceived the idea of the slide-rest and lead screw1 enough has been given to show that no other mechanic of his day appreciated their possibilities as he did1 and none embodied them in forms as useful4 ,the fact that for many years the slide-rest was popularly known as 8,maudslay's go-cart0 indicates that his contemporaries recognized him as its originator4 ,the business at ,lambeth grew steadily until it employed several hundred men1 and embraced the making of saw- and flour-mills1 mint machinery and steam engines of all kinds4 ,with his keen mechanical intuition he saw that the cumbersome wooden walking beam characteristic of the ,newcomen and ,watt engines was unnecessary4 ,he therefore dispensed with it and drove direct from the engine crosshead to the crank1 thus making the first direct-acting engine1 which held the market for a long time4 ,he built the first marine engines in ,england1 and his leadership in that field was unchallenged for many years4 ,another of his inventions was the punching machine for punching boiler plates and iron work4 ,his influence was felt in many directions in the field of machine design4 ,he was the first to point out the weakness of the clean1 sharp corners in castings which were so prized at that time1 and advocated the use of fillets1 showing that they greatly increased the strength4 ,to the end of his life he retained his personal dexterity at both the anvil and the bench4 ,one of his greatest delights was to go into the shop and 8have a go0 at a piece of work which his workmen found impossible to do4 ,one of his old workmen1 years afterward1 speaking in kindling pride of him1 said3 8,it was a pleasure to see him handle a tool of any kind1 but he was quite splendid with an #ah-;inch file40 ,nasmyth confirms this1 saying3 8,to be permitted to stand by and observe the systematic way in which ,mr4 ,maudslay would first mark or line out his work1 and the masterly manner in which he would deal with his materials1 and cause them to assume the desired forms1 was a treat beyond all expression4 ,every stroke of the hammer1 chisel1 or file1 told as an effective step towards the intended result4 ,it was a never-to-be-forgotten lesson in workmanship1 in the most exalted sense of the term4444 ,no one that ,i ever met with could go beyond ,henry ,maudslay himself in his dexterous use of the file4 ,by a few masterly strokes he could plane surfaces so true that when their accuracy was tested by a standard plane surface of absolute truth they were never found defective2 neither convex nor concave nor #8cross-winding1'--that is1 twisted40#dc #dc 8,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth10 pp4 #adg-adh4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,whitworth is usually credited with having been the originator of the method of making plane surfaces three at a time1 using them to correct each other4 ,nasmyth1 however1 says that ,maudslay used this method and that surface plates so made were in daily use in his shop4 ,his testimony is so clear that it is given in full3 8,the importance of having ,standard ,planes caused him i4e41 ,maudslay to have many of them placed on the benches beside his workmen1 by means of which they might at once conveniently test their work4 ,three of each were made at a time so that by the mutual rubbing of each on each the projecting surfaces were effaced4 ,when the surfaces approached very near to the true plane1 the still projecting minute points were carefully reduced by hard steel scrapers1 until at last the standard plane surface was secured4 ,when placed over each other they would float upon the thin stratum of air between them until dislodged by time and pressure4 ,when they adhered closely to each other1 they could only be separated by sliding each off each4 ,this art of producing absolutely plane surfaces is1 ,i believe1 a very old mechanical #8dodge4' ,but1 as employed by ,maudslay's men1 it greatly contributed to the improvement of the work turned out4 ,it was used for the surfaces of slide valves1 or wherever absolute true plane surfaces were essential to the attainment of the best results1 not only in the machinery turned out1 but in educating the taste of his men towards first-class workmanship40#dd ,whitworth's later success with the generation of plane surfaces seems clearly to be a refinement and outgrowth of ,maudslay's work4 #dd ,ibid41 pp4 #adh-adi4 ,maudslay's standard of accuracy carried him beyond the use of ordinary calipers1 and he had a bench micrometer of great accuracy which he kept in his own workshop and always referred to as 8,the ,lord ,chancellor40 ,it was about #af inches long and had two plane jaws and a horizontal screw4 ,the scale was graduated to inches and tenths of an inch2 and the index disk on the screw to one hundred equal parts4 ,speaking from the standpoint of fifty years ago1 ,nasmyth says3 8,not only absolute measure could be obtained by this means1 but also the amount of minute differences could be ascertained with a degree of exactness that went quite beyond all the requirements of engineering mechanism2 such1 for instance1 as the thousandth part of an inch40#de #de ,ibid41 p4 #aej4 ,maudslay's record1 as left behind him in steel and iron1 would give him a secure place in engineering history1 but his influence as a trainer of men is quite as great4 ,he loved good work for its own sake and impressed that standard on all in his employ4 ,clement1 ,roberts1 ,whitworth1 ,nasmyth1 ,seaward1 ,muir and ,lewis worked for him1 and all showed throughout their lives1 in a marked way1 his influence upon them4 ,other workmen1 whose names are not so prominent1 spread into the various shops of ,england the methods and standards of ,maudslay ,field 7later ,maudslay1 ,sons ,field7 and made ,english tool builders the leaders of the world for fifty years4 ,j4 ,g4 ,moon1 who afterwards became manager of ,james ,watt ,company of ,soho1 the successor of ,boulton ,watt1 was apprenticed to ,maudslay1 ,sons ,field and gives the following picture of the shop at the zenith of its prosperity4 ,there were not more than perhaps a dozen lathes in use there1 with cast-iron box beds such as we now know2 but nearly all the lathes had been constructed by the firm itself and were made without a bed1 the poppet or back center and the slide-rest being supported on a wrought-iron triangular bar1 varying in size from1 say1 #c-;in4 to #f-;in4 side4 ,this bar was supported on cast-iron standards1 and reached from the fixed lathe head to the length required of the 8bed40 ,if the lathes were self-acting1 there were two such triangular bars with the guide screw running between them4 ,the advantage of these lathes was great1 for if a large chuck job was on hand1 the bars could be withdrawn from the fixed head1 supported on standards1 and anything that would miss the roof or swing in a pit beneath could be tackled4 ,there was one screwing machine or lathe which all apprentices in the vice loft 7as the fitting shop in which the writer was apprenticed was called7 had to work during their curriculum--this was a small double-bar lathe with a guide screw between4 ,the fixed head was on the right of the operator1 and the lathe was worked by hand by means of a wheel very much like a miniature ship's steering wheel4 ,this wheel was about #b-;ft4 diameter1 with handles round the rim1 and we apprentices were put at this machine to develop the muscles of the right arm4 ,the advantages of having the fixed head on the right 7instead of on the left1 as in an ordinary lathe7 was that in cutting a right-hand thread the tool receded away from the start and ran off the end1 and thus prevented a 8root in10 which might happen if1 whilst pulling at the wheel1 you became absorbed in the discussion of the abilities of a music-hall 8star0 or other equally interesting topics with a fellow-apprentice4 ,the writer remembers using a pair of calipers at that time1 whose 8points0 were about in4 wide for measuring over the tops of a thread4 ,these were stamped 8,j4 ,whitworth1 #ahcj10 and formerly belonged to the great screw-thread reformer4 ,nearly all the bar lathes were driven by gut bands1 and one can remember gut bands of #a-;in4 diameter being used4 ,most of the planing machines were made and supplied by ,joseph ,whitworth ,co41 and the tool boxes were of the 8,jim ,crow0 type1 which used to make a half-turn round by means of a cord when the belt was shifted at the end of each stroke1 thus cutting each way4 ,the forerunner of this used to interest the writer--a machine in the vice loft that was variously called a shaping machine and a planing machine4 ,it was driven by means of a disc about #c-;ft4 diameter1 with a slot down the disc for varying the stroke4 ,a connecting rod from the disc to the tool box completed this portion of the machine4 ,the tool box was supported and kept true by two cylindrical bars or guides on each side1 so that the whole arrangement was like the crosshead of an engine worked by disc and connecting rod4 ,on the top of the tool box was fixed a toothed sector of a wheel1 and at the end of each stroke this sector engaged with a rack1 and in this way the tool box took a half-turn and was ready for cutting on the return stroke4 ,the writer understands that it was from this machine that ,whitworth developed his 8,jim ,crow0 tool box4 ,there was also a huge shaping machine1 whose stroke was anything up to about #f ft41 which was simply a tool box fixed on the end of a large triangular bar of about #ab-;in4 side with the 8,v0 downwards4 ,to the back of the bar was attached a rack1 and this1 gearing with a pinion1 gave the motion4 ,it was a great fascination to watch this ponderous bar with its tool box slowly coming forward out of its casing and taking immense cuts4 ,another machine tool that also used to interest the writer was a machine for turning the crank pins of very large solid cranks1 the crank pins being about #ah-;in4 to #bj-;in4 diameter1 and the crank shafts about #bd-;in4 to #cj-;in4 diameter4 ,these immense crank shafts used to be set in the center of the machine1 and the tool would travel round the crank pin until the work was completed1 the feed being worked by means of a ratchet actuated by leaden weights falling to and fro as the machines slowly revolved4#df #df ,junior ,institution of ,engineers1 pp4 #afg-afh4 ,london1 #aiad4 ,maudslay was a large man1 over #f feet #b inches in height1 with a large1 round head1 a wide forehead1 a good-humored face1 and keen1 straightforward eyes4 ,his ringing laugh and cordial manner made friends everywhere and his kindliness and unvarying integrity held them4 ,it will repay anyone who cares to do so to look up the account of him as given in the 8,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth10 who went to ,maudslay as a young man and worked beside him as his private assistant4 ,in reading this affectionate account one can easily see why ,maudslay influenced those about him so deeply and why he raised the standard of his craft4 ,like ,nasmyth and many other great mechanics1 ,maudslay became interested in astronomy1 and at the time of his death he was planning to build a #bd-;inch reflecting telescope for his own use4 ,he patented but few inventions1 and relied rather upon his reputation and workmanship to protect him4 ,he was full of quaint maxims and remarks1 as true today as then1 the outcome of keen observation and wide experience4 ,he used to say3 8,first get a clear notion of what you desire to accomplish and then in all probability you will succeed in doing it40 8,keep a sharp lookout upon your material40 8,get rid of every pound of material you can do without2 put to yourself the question1 #8,what business has this to be there8'0 8,avoid complexities4 ,make everything as simple as possible40 ,his shop was the pride of the country1 and ,nasmyth tells of the intimate visits of ,faraday1 ,bentham1 ,brunel1 ,chantrey the sculptor1 ,barton of the ,royal ,mint1 and ,bryan ,donkin the engineer1 who used to call and chat with him while he worked at his bench4 ,no better tribute to ,maudslay and his influence can be given than that of ,nasmyth1 who said that his 8useful life was enthusiastically devoted to the great object of producing perfect workmanship and machinery2 to him we are certainly indebted for the slide-rest and indirectly so for the vast benefits which have resulted from the introduction of so powerful an agent in perfecting our machinery and mechanism generally4 ,the indefatigable care which he took in inculcating and diffusing among his workmen and mechanical men generally1 sound ideas of practical knowledge and refined views of constructions1 has and ever will continue to identify his name with all that is noble in the ambition of a lover of mechanical perfection4 ,the vast results which have sprung from his admirable mind1 are his best monument and eulogium40#dg #dg ,t4 ,baker3 8,elements of ,mechanism10 p4 #bcb4 ,second ,edition with remarks by ,james ,nasmyth4 ,london1 #aheh-ahei4 ,,chapter ,v ,,inventors ,,of ,,the ,,planer ,in almost no case is the crediting of invention more difficult than in that of the planer4 ,not only was this tool the product of many men but no single man stands out clearly as ,maudslay1 for instance1 does in the development of the lathe4 ,the invention of the metal planer has been claimed in ,england on behalf of ,spring of ,aberdeen1 ,james ,fox1 ,george ,rennie1 ,matthew ,murray1 ,joseph ,clement and ,richard ,roberts4 ,the planer was in use in the ,united ,states so early that it may also have been invented independently in this country1 though1 without doubt1 later than in ,england4 ,with the planer as with the lathe1 the ,french were the pioneers4 ,plumier1 a ,french writer on mechanical subjects1 published in #aged a description of a machine which had been used for some years1 consisting of two parallel bars of wood or iron connected at their extremities4 ,the article to be planed was fixed between them1 and a frame guided between the same bars was moved lengthwise by a long screw and carried a tool which took a planing cut from the work4 ,the machine was intended for ornamenting the handles of knives and was said by ,plumier to have been an ,english invention4 ,a planing machine invented in #agea by ,nicholas ,forq1 a ,french clock maker1 for the purpose of planing the pump barrels used in the ,marly water works to supply the fountains at ,versailles1 is shown in ,fig4 #ag4 ,these pump barrels were made up of wrought iron staves bound together by hoops4 ,there were quite a number of these barrels from #aj inches to #d feet in diameter and from #g feet to #aj feet long4 ,the illustration1 taken from ,buchanan's 8,mill ,work10 published in #ahda1dh is not complete1 as it lacks the carriage carrying the planing tool which was not shown on the original drawing4 ,the general construction of the machine however is quite clear4 ,the built-up barrel is shown in place4 ,the cutter was carried backward and forward between two parallel iron bars set horizontally through the cylinder4 ,either the tool or the pump barrel must have been given a rotative feed4 ,its action was therefore equivalent to planing on centers1 and it is said to have done this fairly large work in a satisfactory manner4 #dh ,buchanan3 8,practical ,essays on ,mill ,work and ,other ,machinery40 ,london1 #ahda4 ,volume of ,plates4 ,illustration3 ,,note4--,the spots on the photograph were the yellow stains of age on the original plate ,,figure #ag4 ,,french ,,planing ,,machine ,,by ,,nicholas ,,forq1 #agea ,bentham described a planer in his well-known patent of #agic and ,bramah in his patent of #ahjb4 ,matthew ,murray is said to have built one in #ahad to machine the faces of ,d-slide valves1 which were originally invented by ,murdock in #aghf but improved by ,murray in #ahjb4 ,richard ,roberts built a planer in #ahag which is1 without doubt1 the earliest planer now in existence4 ,it is in the ,south ,kensington ,museum in ,london and a picture of it is given in ,fig4 #bj4di ,it will be seen that the modern planer design was already beginning to take shape4 ,the chisel and file marks on the bed and ways indicate that it was itself made without the use of a planer4 ,it had vertical and horizontal feeds1 an angular adjustment and separate tool-feed for the head1 and a hinged clamp for the tool to allow it to lift on the return stroke4 ,the table1 which was hand-operated through a chain drive1 was #eb inches long by #aa inches wide4 #di ,no4 #afai4 ,cat4 ,m4 ,e4 ,collection1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bgb4 ,george ,rennie built a planer in #ahbj with a movable bed operated by a screw and furnished with a revolving cutting tool4#ej ,james ,fox built one in #ahba1 capable of planing work #aj feet1 #f inches long1 #bb inches wide1 and #ab inches deep1 to plane the bars of lace machines4 ,joseph ,clement made his first planer in #ahbj to plane the triangular bars of lathes and the sides of weaving looms4 ,some years later he built his 8great planer10 a remarkable machine from both a mechanical and a financial standpoint4 ,a very full description of it was given by ,mr4 ,varley in the 8,transactions of the ,society of ,arts0 in ,london in #ahcb1ea illustrated by a set of copper plates made from ,clement's own drawings4 ,clement's reputation of being the most expert draftsman of his day is well borne out by these drawings4 ,in this planer two cutting tools were used1 one for the forward and one for the return stroke4 ,the bed ran on rollers1 mounted on a concrete foundation1 which were said to have been so true that 8if you put a piece of paper under one of the rollers it would stop all the rest40 ,it was fitted with centers and was used for planing circular1 spiral and conical work as well as flat work4 ,it took in work #f feet square and was hand-driven4 ,the cutting speed must have been low1 for 8the power of one man was sufficient to keep it in motion for ordinary work1 though two were employed to make long and full cuts both ways40 ,for more than ten years it was the only one of its size and it ran for many years night and day on jobbing work1 its earnings forming ,clement's principal income4 ,smiles says that his charge for planing was #ah shillings1 or #d4cb1 per square foot1 which amounted to about #aj per day of twelve hours1 or1 with two shifts1 to about #ajj a day4#eb ,on this basis he must have machined an average of about #aa square feet in twelve hours4 #ej ,buchanan1 p4 xlii4 #ea ,vol4 ,,xlix1 p4 #aeg4 #eb ,smiles3 8,industrial ,biography10 p4 #cjf4 ,boston1 #ahfd4 ,by #ahdj the design of the planer had become fairly well settled and its use general4 ,in ,america1 planers were built by ,gay1 ,silver ,company of ,north ,chelmsford1 ,mass41 as early as #ahca4 ,pedrick ,ayer of ,philadelphia are also said to have built a planer at about the same time4 ,the early ,american tool builders will be taken up in a later chapter4 ,little is known of the personalities and histories of some of these men1 such as ,spring of ,aberdeen4 ,spring's name is mentioned by ,smiles in his 8,industrial ,biography0#ec as one of the inventors of the planer1 but no further reference is made to him4 #ec p4 #bbc4 ,james ,fox was the founder of a well-known firm of machine-tool builders in ,derby4 ,he was originally a butler1 but his mechanical skill turned him toward the design and building of lace machinery4 ,the gentleman in whose employ he had served furnished him with the means of beginning business on his own account1 and he soon obtained work from the great firms of ,arkwright and ,strutt1 the founders of modern cotton manufacture4 ,his planer1 built about #ahad1 was used in the manufacture of this machinery4 ,it is described by ,samuel ,hall1 a former workman under ,fox1 as follows3 8,it was essentially the same in principle as the planing machine now in general use1 although differing in detail4 ,it had a self-acting ratchet motion for moving the slides of a compound slide-rest1 and a self-acting reversing tackle1 consisting of three bevel wheels1 one a stud1 one loose on the driving shaft1 and another on a socket1 with a pinion on the opposite end of the driving shaft running on the socket4 ,the other end was the place for the driving pulley4 ,a clutch-box was placed between the two opposite wheels1 which was made to slide on a feather1 so that by means of another shaft containing levers and a tumbling ball1 the box on reversing was carried from one bevel-wheel to the opposite one40#ed ,this planer was in regular use as late as #ahei4 ,the driving and reversing mechanism described above is almost exactly that used on ,clement's great planer1 built a dozen years later4 ,fox is said to have also invented a screw-cutting machine1 an automatic gear cutter and a self-acting lathe1 but the evidence in regard to their dates is uncertain4 #ed ,ibid41 p4 #cae4 ,george ,rennie was the brother of ,sir ,john ,rennie4 ,they succeeded to the business founded by their father1 the elder ,john ,rennie1 one of ,watt's best-known workmen and next to ,murdock the most important of his assistants1 who built the ,albion ,flour ,mills in ,black ,friars1 where one of the first rotative engines was installed about #aghh4 ,the mill was a great success until it burned down a few years later4 ,john ,rennie's connection with it established his reputation and he shortly after started out for himself as a millwright and founded the business which his two sons carried on for many years and which had a great influence throughout all ,england4 ,sir ,william ,fairbairn was one of those who worked for ,george ,rennie and furnishes another example of the cumulative influence of a succession of strong mechanics4 ,matthew ,murray was born at ,stockton about #agfe4 ,he was apprenticed to a blacksmith and soon became an expert mechanic4 ,he married before his term of apprenticeship expired and as it was difficult to find sufficient work near ,stockton1 he left his wife behind him as soon as he was free and set out for ,leeds with his bundle on his back4 ,he obtained employment with a ,john ,marshall who had begun the manufacture of flax machinery near ,adel4 ,murray suggested improvements which brought him a present of #bj and rapid promotion until he soon became the first mechanic in the shop4 ,he sent for his wife and settled down in ,leeds1 remaining with ,mr4 ,marshall for about twelve years4 ,he formed a partnership with ,james ,fenton and ,david ,wood and started an engineering and machine-building factory at ,leeds in #agie4 ,here he began the manufacture of steam engines and soon established a high reputation1 pushing ,boulton ,watt hard4 ,murdock was sent down to ,leeds1 called on ,murray1 was received cordially1 and was shown freely over the entire work4 ,on visiting the ,soho works a short time afterward ,murray was received cordially by ,murdock1 and was invited to dinner but was told that there was a rule against admitting anyone in the trade to the works4 ,under the circumstances ,murray was indignant and declining the invitation to dinner left without further delay4 ,a little later ,boulton ,watt attempted to 8plug him up0 by buying the property adjoining his factory1 and this tract of land remained vacant for over #ej years4 ,he improved the ,d-slide valve and did much work toward simplifying the design of the steam engine4 ,the flat surfaces required in this type of valve led to the building of his planer4 ,mr4 ,march1 a well-known tool manufacturer of the next generation1 went to work for ,murray in #ahad4 ,mr4 ,march said the planer was in use at that time4 8,i recollect it very distinctly10 he continues1 8and even the sort of framing on which it stood4 ,the machine was not patented1 and like many inventions in those days it was kept as much a secret as possible1 being locked up in a small room by itself1 to which the ordinary workmen could not obtain access4 ,the year in which ,i remember it being in use was1 so far as ,i am aware1 long before any planing machine of a similar kind had been invented40#ee #ee ,ibid41 p4 #caf4 ,like many of the owners of that time ,murray lived directly opposite his works and he installed in his house a steam heating apparatus which excited much wonder and which must have been one of the first in use4 ,he built the first locomotive which was put to successful commercial use4 ,trevithick had invented a steam road-engine with a single steam cylinder and a large flywheel1 which had attracted considerable attention1 but was wholly impracticable4 ,it was important1 however1 as it had one of the first high-pressure engines1 working above atmospheric pressure4 ,in #ahaa ,blenkinsop of ,leeds1 taking his idea from ,trevithick1 had a number of locomotives built to operate a railway from the ,middletown collieries to ,leeds1 a distance of #c miles4 ,blenkinsop was not a mechanic and the work was designed and executed by ,matthew ,murray4 ,murray used two steam cylinders instead of one1 driving onto the same shaft with cranks set at right angles1 and therefore introduced one of the most important features of modern locomotive design4 ,these engines were in daily use for many years and were inspected by ,george ,stephenson when he began his development of the locomotive4 ,murray's design formed the basis from which he started4 ,the engines1 however1 were operated by a cog-wheel driving onto a continuous rack laid along the road bed4 ,it was not until a number of years later that ,hedley and ,stephenson established the fact that the wheel friction of smooth drivers would furnish adequate tractive power4 ,the old ,blenkinsop engines1 as they were called1 hauled about thirty coal wagons at a speed of #c miles an hour4 ,murray's most important inventions were connected with the flax industry and for these he obtained a gold medal from the ,society of ,arts4 ,at the time they were developed1 the flax trade was dying4 ,their effect was to establish the ,british linen trade on a permanent and secure foundation4 ,all the machine tools used in his establishment were designed and built by himself and among these was the planer which was unquestionably one of the earliest built4 ,he made similar articles for other firms and started a branch of engineering for which ,leeds became famous4 ,he was a frank1 open-hearted man1 and one who contributed greatly to the industrial supremacy of ,england4 ,joseph ,clement was born in ,westmoreland in #aggi4ef ,his father was a weaver1 a man of little education but of mental ability1 a great lover of nature and something of a mechanic4 ,joseph ,clement himself had only the merest elements of reading and writing4 ,he started in life as a thatcher and slater1 but picked up the rudiments of mechanics at the village blacksmith shop4 ,being grateful to the blacksmith1 he repaid him by making for him a lathe which was a pretty creditable machine4 ,on this he himself made flutes and fifes for sale and also a microscope for his father to use in his nature studies4 ,as early as #ahjd he began to work on screw cutting and made a set of die-stocks1 although he had never seen any4 ,he worked in several small country shops1 then in ,carlisle and in ,glasgow1 where he took lessons in drawing from a ,peter ,nicholson and became one of the most skillful draftsmen in ,england4 ,later he went to ,aberdeen and was earning three guineas 7#ae7 a week designing and fitting up power looms4 ,by the end of #ahac he had saved #ajj4 ,with this he went to ,london1 meaning sooner or later to set up for himself4 ,he first worked for an ,alexander ,galloway1 a ward politician and tradesman who owned a small shop4 ,galloway was a slovenly manager and left things to run themselves4 ,when ,clement started in he found the tools so poor that he could not do good work with them1 and immediately set to work truing them up1 to the surprise of his shopmates who had settled down to the slipshod standards of the shop4 ,seeing that ,clement was capable of the highest grade work1 one of his shopmates told him to go to ,bramah's where such workmanship would be appreciated4 #ef ,the best information on ,clement comes from ,smiles' 8,industrial ,biography10 ,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,he saw ,bramah and engaged to work for him for a month on trial4 ,the result was so satisfactory that he signed an agreement for five years1 dated ,april #a1 #ahad1 under which he became chief draftsman and superintendent of the ,pimlico works4 ,clement threw himself eagerly into the new work and took great satisfaction in the high quality of work which was the standard in ,bramah's establishment4 ,bramah was greatly pleased with him and told him1 8,if ,i had secured your services five years since ,i would now have been a richer man by many thousands of pounds40 ,bramah died1 however1 within a year and his two sons returning from college took charge of the business4 ,they soon became jealous of ,clement's influence and by mutual consent the agreement signed with their father was terminated4 ,clement immediately went to ,maudslay ,field's as chief draftsman and assisted in the development of the early marine engines which they were building at that time4 ,in #ahag he started in for himself in a small shop in ,newington1 with a capital of #ejj and his work there until his death in #ahdd is of great importance4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ah4 ,,matthew ,,murray ,illustration3 ,,figure #ai4 ,,richard ,,roberts ,as already pointed out1 he had been working for many years on the problem of screw cutting4 ,maudslay had carried this to a more refined point than any other mechanic4 ,profiting by ,maudslay's experience1 ,clement began the regular manufacture of taps and dies in #ahbh1 using the thread standards developed by ,maudslay as his basis4 ,he introduced the tap with a small squared shank which would fall through the threaded hole and save the time of backing out4 ,he is said to have been one of the first in ,england to employ revolving cutters1 using them to flute his taps4 ,while he may have used such cutters1 he was certainly not the first to do so1 as they were in use in ,france at least thirty years earlier4 ,he did important work in developing the screw-cutting lathe1 again improving upon ,maudslay's work and increasing the accuracy of the device4 ,he was given a number of gold medals for various improvements in it1 as well as for his work on the planer4 ,we have already referred to his 8great planer0 and will only say here that of those who contributed to the early development of this machine none have had a greater influence4 ,he executed the work on ,charles ,babbage's famous calculating machine1 which attracted so much attention eighty years ago and was probably the most refined and intricate piece of mechanism constructed up to that time4 ,clement was a rough and heavy-browed man1 without polish1 who retained until the last his strong ,westmoreland dialect4 ,at no time did he employ over thirty workmen in his factory1 but they were all of the very highest class4 ,among them was ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth1 who continued his work on screw threads and brought about the general use of what is now known as the ,whitworth thread4 ,richard ,roberts1 the last of those mentioned as inventors of the metal planer1 was born in ,wales in #aghi4 ,like most of the early mechanics he had little or no education1 and as soon as he was strong enough he began work as a laborer in a quarry near his home4 ,his mechanical aptitude led him into odd jobs and he soon became known for his dexterity4 ,he finally determined to become a mechanic and worked in several shops in the neighborhood4 ,he was employed for a time as pattern maker at ,john ,wilkinson's works at ,bradley1 and is one of the few links between ,wilkinson1 who made the first modern metal-cutting tool--his boring machine--and the later generation of tool builders4 ,he drifted about1 a jack-of-all-trades--turner1 millwright1 pattern maker and wheelwright--to ,birmingham1 ,liverpool1 ,manchester and finally up to ,london1 where1 after being with ,holtzapffel for a short time1 he found work with ,maudslay in #ahad and remained with him several years4 ,his experience here was valuable as he came in contact with the best mechanical practice4 ,the memoir of ,roberts in the 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers0#eg states that he worked on the ,portsmouth block machinery1 but this could hardly have been true1 as that machinery was in operation by #ahjh4 ,he ceased roving and did so well that he determined to return to the ,north and begin business for himself4 #eg ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 p4 #ecf4 #ahfd4 ,he started at ,manchester in #ahag and there he spent the best years of his life4 ,few inventors have been more prolific or more versatile4 ,within a year or two he had made one of the first planers1 already described2 had invented the back-geared headstock1 having the cone pulley running loose upon the main spindle1#eh shown in ,fig4 #ba1 and made other improvements in the screw-cutting lathe2 invented the first successful gas meter and built gear-cutting1 broaching and slotting machines and an improved beam-scale4 ,holtzapffel says3 8,probably no individual has originated so many useful varieties of drilling machines as ,mr4 ,richard ,roberts40 ,throughout his book he frequently illustrates and describes tools and machinery designed by ,roberts1 crediting him with the invention of the slotter and key-seater1 which he thinks was an outgrowth of ,brunel's mortising machine1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,roberts' punching and shearing machinery was the standard for that time4#ei #eh ,ibid41 p4 #ecg4 #ei ,holtzapffel3 8,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #efh1 #ijj1 #ibj-ibb4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bj4 ,,roberts' ,,planer1 ,,built ,,in #ahag ,illustration3 ,,figure #ba4 ,,roberts' ,,back-,,geared ,,lathe ,by #ahbe his reputation had so increased that his firm1 ,sharp1 ,roberts ,company1 was asked by a committee of the cotton manufacturers of ,manchester to undertake the development of an automatic spinning mule4 ,the spinners were the highest paid labor in ,lancashire textile industry1 but they were difficult to work with and prone to strike on a moment's notice1 closing the mills and throwing other workmen out of employment4 ,the operators asked ,roberts repeatedly to help them but he gave them no encouragement1 as the problem was conceded to be difficult and he said he was not familiar with textile machinery4 ,he had been thinking over the problem1 however1 and the third time they called on him he said that he now thought he could construct the required machinery4 ,the result was the invention in #ahbe of his delicate and complex automatic spinning mule in which hundreds of spindles 8run themselves0 with only the attention of a few unskilled helpers to watch for broken threads and mend them4 ,this was one of the great textile inventions and has had an enormous influence on the development of the cotton industry4 ,the next year1 #ahbf1 he went to ,mlhouse in ,alsace and laid the foundation of modern ,french cotton manufacture4 ,later he invented and patented a number of other important textile machines4 ,with the development of the railway his firm began the manufacture of locomotives4 ,they built more than #aejj1 and established a reputation equal to that of ,stephenson ,company in ,newcastle4 ,the engines were built interchangeably to templates and gauges1 and ,roberts' works were one of the first in ,england to grasp and use the modern system of interchangeable manufacture4 ,in addition to all that has been mentioned1 he invented the iron billiard table1 a successful punching and shearing machine1 the most powerful electro-magnet then made1 a turret clock1 a cigar-making machine and a system of constructing steamships and equipping them with twin screws having independent engines4 ,with a wonderful mechanical genius1 he was lacking in worldly wisdom and was a poor business man4 ,he severed his connection with ,sharp1 ,roberts ,company1 became involved financially and finally died at ,london in #ahfd in poverty4 ,at his death a popular subscription1 headed by ,sir ,william ,fairbairn and many of the nobility1 was started to provide for his only daughter as a memorial of the debt which ,england owed him4 ,the memoir of him in the 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers0 closes with the following words3 8,the career of ,mr4 ,roberts was remarkable1 and it should be carefully written by some one who could investigate impartially the numerous inventions and improvements to which claim could justly be laid for him1 and who1 at the same time1 would1 with equal justice1 show where his inventions have been pirated40 ,it is a great pity that this was never done4 ,he was a rugged1 straightforward1 kindly man1 of great inventive power4 ,he improved nearly everything he touched or superseded it entirely by something better1 and neither his name nor his work should be forgotten4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,gearing ,,and ,,millwork ,by #ahcj the use of machine tools was becoming general2 they were being regularly manufactured and their design was crystallizing4 ,it was the period of architectural embellishment when no tool was complete without at least a pair of ,doric columns1 and planers were furnished in the ,greek or ,gothic style4 ,as the first machine frames were made of wood1 much of the work probably being done by cabinet makers1 it was natural that they should show the same influence that furniture did4 ,it took several generations of mechanics to work out the simpler lines of the later machines4 ,the application of scientific forms for gear teeth came at about this time with the general development of the machine tool4 ,the suggestion of the use of epicyclic and involute curves is much older than most of us realize4 ,the first idea of them is ascribed to ,roemer1 a ,danish mathematician1 who is said to have pointed out the advantages of the epicyclic curve in #afgd4 ,de la ,hire1 a ,frenchman1 suggested it a few years later1 and went further1 showing how the direction of motion might be changed by toothed wheels4 ,on the basis of this1 the invention of the bevel-gear has been attributed to him4 ,willis1#fj however1 has pointed out that he missed the essential principle of rolling cones1 as the conical lantern wheel which he used was placed the wrong way1 its apex pointing away from1 instead of coinciding with1 the intersection of the axes4 ,de la ,hire also investigated the involute and considered it equally suitable for tooth outlines4 ,euler1 in #agfj1 and ,kaestner1 in #agga1 improved the method of applying the involute1 and ,camus1 a ,french mathematician1 did much to crystallize the modern principles of gearing4 ,the two who had the most influence were ,camus and ,robert ,willis1 a professor of natural philosophy in ,cambridge1 whose name still survives in his odontograph and tables4 ,all of the later writers base their work on the latter's essay on 8,the ,teeth of ,wheels10 which appeared originally in the second volume of the 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers10 #ahcg4 ,willis' 8,principles of ,mechanism10 published in #ahda1 which included the above1 laid down the general principles of mechanical motion and transmission machinery4 ,in fact1 many of the figures used in his book are found almost unchanged in the text-books of today4 ,smeaton is said to have first introduced cast-iron gears in #agfi at the ,carron ,iron ,works near ,glasgow1 and ,arkwright used iron bevels in #agge4 ,all of these1 except the last two1 were mathematicians2 and no phase of modern machinery owes more to pure theory than the gearing practice of today4 #fj 8,principles of ,mechanism10 p4 #di4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,camus gave lectures on mathematics in ,paris when he was twelve years old4 ,at an early age he had attained the highest academic honors in his own and foreign countries1 and had become examiner of engines and professor in the ,royal ,academy of ,architecture in ,paris4 ,he published a 8,course of ,mathematics10 in the second volume of which were two books1 or sections1 devoted to the consideration of the teeth of wheels1 by far the fullest and clearest treatment of this subject then published4 ,these were translated separately1 the first ,english edition appearing in ,london in #ahjf1 and the second in #ahcg4fa ,in these the theory of spur-1 bevel-1 and pin-gearing is fully developed for epicycloidal teeth4 ,in the edition of #ahcg1 there is an appendix by ,john ,hawkins1 the translator1 which is of unusual interest4 ,he gives the result of an inquiry which he made in regard to the ,english gear practice at that time4#fb ,as the edition is long since out of print and to be found only in the larger libraries1 we give his findings rather fully4 ,his inquiries were addressed to the principal manufacturers of machinery in which gearing was used1 and included1 among others1 ,maudslay ,field1 ,rennie1 ,bramah1 ,clement1 and ,sharp1 ,roberts ,company4 ,to quote ,hawkins3 #fa 8,a ,treatise on the ,teeth of ,wheels40 ,translated from the ,french of ,m4 ,camus by ,john ,isaac ,hawkins1 ,c4,e4 ,london1 #ahcg4 #fb ,ibid41 p4 #age4 ,a painful task now presents itself1 which the editor would gladly avoid1 if he could do so without a dereliction of duty2 namely1 to declare that there is a lamentable deficiency of the knowledge of principles1 and of correct practice1 in a majority of those most respectable houses in forming the teeth of their wheel-work4 ,some of the engineers and millwrights said that they followed ,camus1 and formed their teeth from the epicycloid derived from the diameter of the opposite wheel4444 ,one said1 8,we have no method but the rule of thumb20 another1 8,we thumb out the figure20 by both which expressions may be understood that they left their workmen to take their own course4 ,some set one point of a pair of compasses in the center of a tooth1 at the primitive circle 7pitch-circle71 and with the other point describe a segment of a circle for the off side of the next tooth4444 ,others set the point of the compasses at different distances from the center of the tooth1 nearer or farther off2 also within or without the line of centers1 each according to some inexplicable notion received from his grandfather or picked up by chance4 ,it is said inexplicable1 because no tooth bounded at the sides by segments of circles can work together without such friction as will cause an unnecessary wearing away4 ,it is admitted that with a certain number of teeth of a certain proportionate length as compared with the radii1 there may be a segment of a circle drawn from some center which would give 8very near0 a true figure to the tooth2 but 8very near0 ought to be expunged from the vocabulary of engineers and millwrights2 for that 8very near0 will depend on the chance of hitting the right center and right radius1 according to the diameter of the wheel1 and the number of teeth2 against which hitting1 the odds are very great indeed4 ,among the ,mathematical ,instrument ,makers1 ,chronometer1 ,clock and ,watch ,makers1 the answers to the inquiries were1 by some1 8,we have no rule but the eye in the formation of the teeth of our wheels20 by others1 8,we draw the tooth correctly on a large scale to assist the eye in judging of the figure of the small teeth20 by another1 8,in ,lancashire1 they make the teeth of watch wheels of what is called the bay leaf pattern2 they are formed altogether by the eye of the workman2 and they would stare at you for a simpleton to hear you talk about the epicycloidal curve40 ,again1 8,the astronomical instrument makers hold the bay leaf pattern to be too pointed a form for smooth action2 they make the end of the tooth more rounding than the figure of the bay leaf40 ,it is curious to observe with what accuracy the practiced eye will determine forms4444 ,how important it is1 then1 that these ,lancashire bay leaf fanciers should be furnished with pattern teeth of large dimensions cut accurately in metal or at least in cardboard2 and that they should frequently study them1 and compare their work with the patterns4 ,these ,lancashire workmen are called bay leaf fanciers1 because they cannot be bay leaf copiers2 since it is notorious that there are not two bay leaves of the same figure4 ,hawkins then describes a method of generating correctly curved teeth1 or rather of truing them after they had been roughly formed1 devised by ,mr4 ,saxton of ,philadelphia1 8who is justly celebrated for his excessively acute feeling of the nature and value of accuracy in mechanism2 and who is reputed not to be excelled by any man in ,europe or ,america for exquisite nicety of workmanship40 ,by this method the faces of the teeth were milled true by a cutter1 the side of which lay in a plane through the axis of a describing circle which was rolled around a pitch circle clamped to the side of the gear being cut4 ,it is by this general method that the most accurate gears and gear cutters are formed today4 ,while he by no means originated the system1 ,hawkins seems first to have grasped the practical advantages of the involute form of teeth4 ,breaking away from the influence of ,camus1 the very authority he was translating1 who seems to have controlled the thought of everyone else1 ,hawkins writes the following rather remarkable words3#fc #fc ,ibid41 pp4 #afj et seq4 ,since ,m4 ,camus has treated of no other curve than the epicycloid1 it would appear that he considered it to supersede all others for the figure of the teeth of wheels and pinions4 ,and the editor must candidly acknowledge that he entertained the same opinion until after the greater part of the foregoing sheets were printed off2 but on critically examining the properties of the involute with a view to the better explaining of its application to the formation of the teeth of wheels and pinions1 the editor has discovered advantages which had before escaped his notice1 owing1 perhaps1 to his prejudice in favor of the epicycloid1 from having1 during a long life1 heard it extolled above all other curves2 a prejudice strengthened too by the supremacy given to it by ,de la ,hire1 ,doctor ,robison1 ,sir ,david ,brewster1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,young1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,reid1 ,mr4 ,buchannan1 and many others1 who have1 indeed1 described the involute as a curve by which equable motion might be communicated from wheel to wheel1 but scarce any of whom have held it up as equally eligible with the epicycloid2 and owing also to his perfect conviction1 resulting from strict research1 that a wheel and pinion1 or two wheels1 accurately formed according to the epicycloidal curve1 would work with the least possible degree of friction1 and with the greatest durability4 ,but the editor had not sufficiently adverted to the case where one wheel or pinion drives1 at the same time1 two or more wheels or pinions of different diameters1 for which purpose the epicycloid is not perfectly applicable1 because the form of the tooth of the driving wheel cannot be generated by a circle equal to the radius of more than one of the driven wheels or pinions4 ,in considering this case1 he found that the involute satisfies all the conditions of perfect figure1 for wheels of any sizes1 to work smoothly in wheels of any other sizes2 although1 perhaps1 not equal to the epicycloid for pinions of few leaves4 ,with ,joseph ,clement1 he experimented somewhat to determine the relative end-thrust of involute and cycloidal teeth1 deciding that the advantage1 if any1 lay with the former4 ,he details methods of laying out involute teeth and concludes3 ,before dismissing the involute it may be well to remark that what has been said respecting that curve should be considered as a mere sketch1 there appearing to be many very interesting points in regard to its application in the formation of the teeth of wheels which require strict investigation and experiment4 ,it is the editor's intention to pursue the inquiry and should he discover a clear theory and systematic practice in the use of the involute1 he shall feel himself bound to give his views to the public in a separate treatise4 ,he thinks he perceives a wide field1 but is free to confess that his vision is as yet obscure4 ,what he has given on the involute is more than was due from him1 as editor of ,camus1 who treated only of the epicycloid1 but the zeal of a new convert to any doctrine is not easily restrained4 ,so far as the writer knows this is the first real appreciation of the value of the involute curve for tooth outlines1 and ,hawkins should be given a credit which he has not received1#fd especially as he points the way1 for the first time1 to the possibility of a set of gears any one of which will gear correctly with any other of the set4 ,it was thought at that time that there should be two diameters of describing circles used in each pair of gears1 each equal to the pitch radius of the opposite wheel or pinion4 ,this gave radial flanks for all teeth1 but made the faces different for each pair4 ,the use of a single size of describing circle throughout an entire set of cycloidal gears1 whereby they could be made to gear together in any combination1 was not known until a little later4 #fd ,john ,isaac ,hawkins was a member of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,he was the son of a watch and clock maker and was born at ,taunton1 ,somersetshire1 in #aggb4 ,at an early age he went to the ,united ,states and 8entered college at ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 as a student of medicine10 but did not follow it up4 ,he was a fine musician and had a marked aptitude for mechanics4 ,he returned to ,england1 traveled a great deal on the ,continent1 and acquired a wide experience4 ,he was consulted frequently on all kinds of engineering activities1 one of them being the attempt1 in #ahjh1 to drive a tunnel under the ,thames4 ,for many years he practiced in ,london as a patent agent and consulting engineer4 ,he went to the ,united ,states again in the prosecution of some of his inventions1 and died in ,elizabeth1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahfe4 ,from a ,memoir in the 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers10 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 p4 #eab4 #ahfe4 ,professor ,willis seems to be the first to have pointed out the proper basis of this interchangeability in cycloidal gearing4 ,with the clearness which characterized all his work he states3 8,if for a set of wheels of the same pitch a constant describing circle be taken and employed to trace those portions of the teeth which project beyond each pitch line by rolling on the exterior circumference1 and those which lie within it by rolling on its interior circumference1 then any two wheels of this set will work correctly together4444 ,the diameter of the describing circle must not be made greater than the radius of the pitch-circle of any of the wheels4444 ,on the contrary1 when the describing circle is less in diameter than the radius of the pitch-circle1 the root of the tooth spreads1 and it acquires a very strong form4444 ,the best rule appears to be that the diameter of the constant describing circle in a given set of wheels shall be made equal to the least radius of the set40#fe ,this practice is standard for cycloidal gearing to this day4 ,in his 8,principles of ,mechanism10 ,willis did the work on involute gearing which ,hawkins set before himself2 and also describes 8a different mode of sizing the teeth0 which had 8been adopted in ,manchester10 for which he suggests the name 8diametral pitch40#ff #fe ,willis3 8,principles of ,mechanism10 ,articles #aad-aaf4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,see also 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ia4 #ff ,diametral pitch1 which is credited to ,john ,george ,bodmer1 was long known as 8,manchester pitch40 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,fairbairn ,,and ,,bodmer ,with the improvement in machinery came improvement in millwork and power transmission4 ,we quote in the next chapter ,nasmyth's description of the millwork of his boyhood4#fg ,two of the mechanics most influential in the change from these conditions were ,sir ,william ,fairbairn and his younger brother1 ,sir ,peter ,fairbairn4 ,they were born in ,scotland but spent their boyhood in poverty in the neighborhood of ,newcastle1 in the same village with ,george ,stephenson4 #fg ,see page #he4 ,sir ,william ,fairbairn went to ,london in #ahaa and obtained work with the ,rennies4 ,the shop1 however1 was filled with union men who set their shoulders against all outsiders4 ,after struggling for a foothold for six weeks1 he was set adrift1 almost penniless1 and turned his face northward4 ,he obtained odd jobs in ,hertfordshire as a millwright1 and returned again to ,london in a few weeks1 where he finally found work and remained for two years1 most of the time at ,mr4 ,penn's engine shop in ,greenwich4 ,in the spring of #ahac he worked his way through southern ,england and ,wales to ,dublin1 where he spent the summer constructing nail-making machinery for a ,mr4 ,robinson1 who had determined to introduce the industry into ,ireland4 ,the machinery1 however1 was never set at work owing to the opposition of the workmen1 and the trade left ,ireland permanently4 ,fairbairn went from ,dublin to ,liverpool and proceeded to ,manchester1 the city to which ,nasmyth1 ,roberts1 ,whitworth and ,bodmer all gravitated4 ,he found work with an ,adam ,parkinson1 remaining with him for two years as a millwright1 at good wages4 8,in those days10 wrote ,fairbairn1 8a good millwright was a man of large resources2 he was generally well educated1 and could draw out his own designs and work at the lathe2 he had a knowledge of mill machinery1 pumps1 and cranes1 could turn his hand to the bench or the forge with equal adroitness and facility4 ,if hard pressed1 as was frequently the case in country places far from towns1 he could devise for himself expedients which enabled him to meet special requirements1 and to complete his work without assistance4 ,this was the class of men with whom ,i associated in early life1--proud of their calling1 fertile in resources1 and aware of their value in a country where the industrial arts were rapidly developing40#fh #fh 8,useful ,information for ,engineers1 ,second ,series10 p4 #bab4 ,in #ahag ,fairbairn and ,james ,lillie1 a shopmate1 started out as general millwrights4 ,they hired a small shed for #ab shillings a week and equipped it with a lathe of their own making1 to turn shafts1 and 8a strong ,irishman to drive it40 ,their first order of importance came from ,mr4 ,adam ,murray1 a large cotton spinner1 who took them over his mill and asked them whether they were competent to renew his main drive4 ,they boldly replied that they were willing and able to execute the work1 but were more than apprehensive when ,mr4 ,murray told them he would call the next day and look over their workshop to satisfy himself4 ,he came1 pondered over 8the nakedness of the land10 8sized up0 the young partners and told them to go ahead4 ,although a rush job1 the work was done on time and so well that ,murray recommended the new firm to ,mr4 ,john ,kennedy1 the largest cotton spinner in the kingdom4 ,for his firm1 ,mac,connel ,kennedy1 ,fairbairn ,lillie equipped a large1 new mill in #ahah1 which was an immediate success and at once put the struggling partners in the front rank of engineering millwrights4 8,they found the machinery driven by large1 square cast-iron shafts on which huge wooden drums1 some of them as much as four feet in diameter1 revolved at the rate of about forty revolutions a minute2 and the couplings were so badly fitted that they might be heard creaking and groaning a long way off4444 ,another serious defect lay in the construction of the shafts1 and in the mode of fixing the couplings1 which were constantly giving way1 so that a week seldom passed without one or more breaks-down40#fi #fi ,smiles3 8,industrial ,biography10 p4 #chi4 ,fairbairn remedied this by the introduction of wrought-iron shafts1 driven at double or treble the speed1 and by improving and standardizing the design of pulleys1 hangers and couplings4 ,in the course of a few years a revolution was effected1 and by #ahdj the shafting speeds in textile mills had risen to from #cjj to #cej revolutions per minute4 ,william ,fairbairn's influence was felt in many ways4 ,his treatise on 8,mills and ,millwork0 and numerous papers before the learned societies were authoritative for many years4 ,he improved the design of waterwheels1 and was one of the first to undertake iron shipbuilding as a special industry4 ,he established a plant at ,millwall1 on the ,thames1 8where in the course of some fourteen years he built upwards of a hundred and twenty iron ships1 some of them above two thousand tons burden4 ,it was1 in fact1 the first great iron shipbuilding yard in ,britain40#gj ,to facilitate the building of his iron ships he invented1 about #ahci1 improved riveting machinery4 ,with ,robert ,stephenson he built the ,conway and ,britannia ,tubular ,bridges4 ,probably no man in ,england did so much to extend the use of iron into new fields1 and his formul for the strength of boilers1 tubing1 shafting1 etc41 were standard for years4 ,like ,nasmyth1 ,william ,fairbairn has left an autobiography which gives a full account of his career4 ,it is not1 however1 so well written or so interesting4 ,he died in #ahgd1 at the age of eighty-five1 loaded with every honor the nation could bestow4 #gj ,ibid41 p4 #cid4 ,his younger brother1 ,sir ,peter ,fairbairn1 of ,leeds1 was apprenticed to a millwright while ,william was a journeyman mechanic in ,london4 ,a few years later he became foreman in a machine shop constructing cotton machinery1 and for ten years he worked in ,england1 ,scotland and on the ,continent1 wholly on textile machinery4 ,in #ahbh he came to ,leeds1 in the first flush of its manufacturing prosperity4 ,mr4 ,marshall1 who had helped ,matthew ,murray1 gave him his start and encouraged him to take over the ,wellington ,foundry1 which1 under ,fairbairn's management1 was for thirty years one of the greatest machine shops in ,england4 ,to the manufacture of textile machinery he added that of general machinery and large tools for cutting1 boring1 rifling1 planing and slotting4 ,he had a great reputation in his day1 but his work seems to have been more that of a builder of standard tools than an originator of new tools and methods4 ,charles ,holtzapffel1 another well-known engineer of that generation1 was the son of a ,german mechanic who came to ,london in #aghg4 ,he received a good education1 theoretical as well as practical1 and became a skilled mechanician and a tool builder of wide influence4 ,his principal book1 8,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation10 published in #ahdc in three volumes1 is an admirable piece of work4 ,covering a field much wider than its title indicates1 it is the fullest and best statement of the art at that time2 and scattered through it there is a large amount of very reliable mechanical history4 ,by #ahdj the number of men engaged in tool building was increasing rapidly1 and it is impossible to consider many ,english tool builders who were well known and who did valuable work1 such as ,lewis of ,manchester1 ,b4 ,hick ,son of ,bolton1 and others4 ,one noteworthy man1 however1 ought to be mentioned--,john ,george ,bodmer1 who was neither an ,englishman1 nor1 primarily1 a tool builder4#ga ,he was a ,swiss who worked in ,baden and ,austria1 as well as in ,england1 and his fertile ingenuity covered so many fields that a list of the subjects covered by his patents occupy six pages in the 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers40 #ga ,for a 8,memoir0 of ,bodmer see 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers10 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 p4 #egc4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,bodmer was born at ,zurich in #aghf4 ,after serving his apprenticeship he opened a small shop for millwright work near that city4 ,a year or so later he formed a partnership with ,baron d',eichthal and with workmen brought from ,st4 ,etienne1 ,france1 he started a factory in an old convent at ,st4 ,blaise1 in the ,black ,forest1 first for the manufacture of textile machinery and later1 in #ahjf1 of small arms4 8,instead of confining himself to the ordinary process of gun-making by manual labour1 ,mr4 ,bodmer invented and successfully applied a series of special machines by which the various parts--more especially those of the lock--were shaped and prepared for immediate use1 so as to insure perfect uniformity and to economise labour4 ,amongst these machines there was also a planing machine on a small scale2 and ,mr4 ,bodmer has been heard to observe how strange it was that it should not have occurred to him to produce a larger machine of the same kind1 with a view to its use for general purposes40#gb ,he does not seem to have used the process of milling until much later4 ,bodmer was thus among the first to discern and to realize many of the possibilities of interchangeable manufacture1 ,eli ,whitney having begun the manufacture of firearms on the interchangeable basis at ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 about #ahjj1 only a few years before4 ,why ,bodmer's attempt should have failed of the influence which ,whitney's had is not quite clear4 ,a possible explanation may lie in the fact that the use of limit gauges does not seem to have been a part of ,bodmer's plan4 ,this use was recognized by the ,american gun makers as an essential element in the interchangeable system almost from the start4 #gb ,ibid41 p4 #egf4 7,the italics are ours47 ,bodmer was appointed1 by the ,grand ,duke of ,baden1 director of the iron works and military inspector with the rank of captain and for a number of years much of his energy was given to the development of small arms and field artillery4 ,he invented and built a #ab-pound breech-loading cannon in #ahad1 which he had tested by the ,french artillery officers4 ,it failed to satisfy them1 and was sent a few years later to ,england1 where it was decently buried by the ,board of ,ordnance4 ,the following year he built a flour-mill at ,zurich for his brother4 ,instead of each set of stones being driven by a small waterwheel1 all the machinery connected with the mill was driven by a single large wheel through mill gearing4 ,the millstones were arranged in groups of four4 8,each set could be started and stopped separately1 and was besides furnished with a contrivance for accurately adjusting the distance between the top and bottom stones4 ,by means of a hoist of simple construction1 consisting in fact only of a large and broad-flanged strap-pulley and a rope-drum1 both mounted on the same spindle 7the latter being hinged at one end1 so that it could be raised and lowered by means of a rope71 the sacks of grain or flour could be made to ascend and to descend at pleasure1 and the operatives themselves could pass from one floor to any other by simply tightening and releasing the rope4#gc ,the shafting of this mill was made of wrought iron1 and the wheels1 pulleys1 hangers1 pedestals1 frames1 c41 of cast iron1 much in accordance with modern practice40#gd ,this was several years before ,fairbairn and ,lillie began their improvements at ,manchester4 #gc ,apparently the modern belt conveyor4 #gd 8,memoir10 p4 #egi4 ,bodmer went to ,england for the first time in #ahaf and visited all the principal machine shops1 textile mills and iron works4 ,he returned in #ahbd and again in #ahcc1 this time remaining many years4 ,on his second trip he established a small factory for the manufacture of textile machinery at ,bolton1 in which was one of the first1 if not the first1 traveling crane4#ge ,at the beginning of his last and long residence in ,england1 ,bodmer appointed ,sharp1 ,roberts ,company makers of his improved cotton machinery1 which they also undertook to recommend and introduce4 ,this arrangement was not successful1 and a few years later1 in partnership with ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,birley1 ,bodmer started a machine shop and foundry in ,manchester for building machinery4 #ge ,ibid41 p4 #eha4 ,nearly all of the machinery for the ,manchester plant was designed and built by ,bodmer himself and it forms the subject of two remarkable patents1 granted1 one in #ahci and the other in #ahda4gf ,the two patents cover in reality nearly forty distinct inventions in machinery and tools 8for cutting1 planing1 turning1 drilling1 and rolling metal10 and 8screwing stocks1 taps and dies1 and certain other tools40 8,gradually1 nearly the whole of these tools were actually constructed and set to work4 ,the small lathes1 the large lathes1 and the planing1 drilling1 and slotting machines were systematically arranged in rows1 according to a carefully-prepared plan2 the large lathes being provided1 overhead1 with small traveling cranes1 fitted with pulley-blocks1 for the purpose of enabling the workmen more economically and conveniently to set the articles to be operated upon in the lathes1 and to remove them after being finished4 ,small cranes were also erected in sufficient numbers within easy reach of the planing machines1 c41 besides which several lines of rails traversed the shop from end to end for the easy conveyance on trucks of the parts of machinery to be operated upon40#gg ,there were1 in addition to these1 however1 8a large radial boring machine and a wheel-cutting machine capable of taking in wheels of #ae feet in diameter1 and of splendid workmanship1 especially in regard to the dividing wheel1 and a number of useful break or gap-lathes1 were also constructed and used with advantage4 ,it is especially necessary to mention a number of small1 #f-;inch1 screwing lathes1 which1 by means of a treadle acting upon the driving gear overhead1 and a double slide-rest--one of the tools moving into cut as the other was withdrawn1--screw cutting could uninterruptedly proceed both in the forward and in the backward motion of the toolslide1 and therefore a given amount of work accomplished in half the time which it would occupy by the use of the ordinary means4 ,some of the slide-lathes were also arranged for taking simultaneously a roughing and finishing cut40#gh #gf ,the first of these is described in the ,american ,machinist of ,march #ac1 #aijb1 p4 #cfi4 #gg 8,memoir10 p4 #ehh4 #gh ,ibid41 p4 #eig-eih4 ,the latter part of ,bodmer's life was spent in and near ,vienna1 working on engines and boilers1 beet sugar machinery and ordnance2 and at ,zurich1 where he died in #ahfd1 in his seventy-ninth year4 ,bodmer does not seem to have originated any new types of machine tools1 with the exception of the vertical boring-mill1 which he clearly describes1 terming it a 8circular planer40 ,it was little used in ,england1 and has been considered an ,american development4 ,it is hard now to determine how far ,bodmer has influenced tool design4 ,it was much1 anyway4 ,speaking of the patent just referred to1 ,john ,richards1 who has himself done so much for tool design1 says1 8,here was the beginning of the practice that endured40 ,he has described some of ,bodmer's tools in a series of articles which show a standard of design greatly in advance of the practice of his time4#gi ,another writer says of ,bodmer1 8,he seems always to have thoroughly understood the problems he undertook to solve40 8,one is lost in admiration at the versatility of the inventive genius which could at any one time--and that so early in the history of machine design--evolve such excellent conceptions of what was needed in so many branches of the mechanics' art40#hj #gi ,american ,machinist1 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #ceb1 #cgi1 #djb1 #dcj1 #deg1 #dgh1 #ejg1 #eca1 #eei1 #ehf1 #fjg1 #fcg4 #hj ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 p4 #cfi4 ,bodmer was elected a member of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers in #ahce1 and his standing among his contemporaries is shown by the fact that thirty-five pages in the 8,transactions0 of the ,institution for #ahfh are given to his memoir4 ,for a foreigner to have won respect and distinction in the fields of textile machinery1 machine tools and steam engines in ,england1 where all three originated1 was surely 8carrying coals to ,newcastle40 ,not only did he succeed in these fields1 but he invented the traveling crane1 the chain grate for boilers1 the ,meyer type of cut-off valve gear1 the rolling of locomotive tires1 and introduced the system of diametral pitch1 which was long known as the 8,manchester pitch10 from its having originated in his plant at ,manchester4 ,though ,bodmer was never regularly engaged in the building of machine tools1 his contribution to that field is far too great to be forgotten4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,james ,,nasmyth ,we know more of the life of ,nasmyth than of any of the other tool builders4 ,not only did ,smiles give an account of him in 8,industrial ,biography10#ha but fortunately ,nasmyth was induced in later life to write his recollections1 which were published in the form of an autobiography1 edited by ,smiles4#hb ,with the exception of ,sir ,william ,fairbairn1 he is the only great engineer who has done this4 ,his intimate knowledge of the rise of tool building1 the distinguished part he himself had in it1 and his keen and generous appreciation of others1 make his record valuable4 ,we have already quoted him in connection with ,maudslay1 and wherever possible will let him tell his own story4 #ha 8,industrial ,biography10 ,chap4 ,,xv4 ,boston1 #ahfd4 #hb 8,james ,nasmyth1 ,engineer1 ,an ,autobiography10 edited by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,unlike most of the early mechanics1 ,james ,nasmyth came from a family of distinction dating from the thirteenth century4 ,they lost their property in the wars of the ,covenanters and his direct ancestors took refuge in ,edinburgh1 leaving their impress on the city as the architects and builders of many of its most famous and beautiful buildings4 ,alexander ,nasmyth1 the father of ,james1 was a well-known artist1 the founder of the ,scotch ,school of ,landscape ,painting1 and a friend of ,burns1 ,raeburn and ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,he was a landscape architect and enough of an engineer to be included in ,walker's engraving of 8,the ,eminent ,men of ,science ,living in #ahjg-ahjh10 reproduced in ,fig4 #h4 ,he invented the 8bow-string0 truss in #agid1 the first one of which was erected over a deep ravine in the island of ,st4 ,helena1 and also the setting of rivets by pressure instead of hammering4 ,this last1 by the way1 was the result of trying to do a surreptitious job on ,sunday without outraging the fearsome ,scotch 8,sawbath40 ,alexander ,nasmyth was one of the six men on the first trip made on ,dalswinton ,loch1 ,october #ad1 #aghh1 by the steamboat built by ,symington for ,patrick ,miller4 ,this was the second trip of a steam-propelled vessel1 the first one being that of ,john ,fitch on the ,delaware1 ,august #bb1 #aghg4 ,it was an iron boat with double hulls and made about five miles an hour4 ,it barely escaped being the first iron vessel1 as ,wilkinson's iron boat on the ,severn was launched less than a year before4 ,the picture of this trial trip which has come down to us was made by ,alexander ,nasmyth at the time4#hc #hc ,ibid41 pp4 #bh-ca4 ,james ,nasmyth was born in #ahjh1 the tenth in a family of eleven children4 ,like all of his brothers and sisters1 he inherited his father's artistic tastes4 ,if he had not been an engineer he would probably have become distinguished as an artist4 ,he was ambidextrous1 and to the end of his life his skill with his pencil was a constant source of pleasure and convenience4 ,the notebook in which the later record of his mathematical ideas is contained1 is crowded with funny little sketches1 landscapes1 little devils and whimsical figures running in and out among the calculations4 ,the leaf in this book on which he made his first memorandum of the steam hammer is shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,in #ahag1 ,watt1 then in his eighty-first year1 visited ,edinburgh and was entertained at the ,earl of ,buchan's1 where ,alexander ,nasmyth met him at dinner4 ,watt delighted all with his kindly talk1 and astonished them with the extent and profundity of his information4 ,the following day ,watt visited ,nasmyth to examine his artistic and other works4 ,james ,nasmyth1 a nine-year-old boy1 returning from school1 met him at the doorstep as he was leaving1 and never forgot the tall1 bent figure of 8the ,great ,engineer40 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bb4 ,,james ,,nasmyth ,,from ,,an ,,etching ,,by ,,paul ,,rajon ,nasmyth's father had a private workshop which was well equipped for those days4 ,nasmyth played there from childhood and had mastered the use of all the tools while still a schoolboy4 8,by means of my father's excellent foot lathe10 he says1 8,i turned out spinning tops in capital style1 so much so that ,i became quite noted amongst my school companions4 ,they would give any price for them4 ,the peeries were turned with perfect accuracy1 and the steel shod1 or spinning pivot1 was centered so as to correspond with the heaviest diameter at the top4 ,they could spin twice as long as the bought peeries4 ,when at full speed they would #8sleep1' that is1 turn round without a particle of waving4 ,this was considered high art as regarded top-spinning40#hd ,he established a brisk business in these1 in small brass cannon1 and especially in large cellar keys1 which he converted into a sort of hand cannon1 with a small touch-hole bored into the barrel and a sliding brass collar which allowed them to be loaded1 primed1 and then carried around in the pocket4 #hd ,ibid41 p4 #hi4 ,he haunted all the shops and foundries in the neighborhood1 making friends with the skilled workmen and absorbing the mysteries of foundry work1 forging1 hardening and tempering1 and those arts which were handed down from man to man4 ,speaking of ,patterson's old shop1 ,nasmyth says3 8,to me it was the most instructive school of practical mechanics4 ,although ,i was only about thirteen at the time1 ,i used to lend a hand1 in which hearty zeal made up for want of strength4 ,i look back on these days1 especially to the ,saturday afternoons spent in the workshops of this admirably conducted iron foundry1 as a most important part of my education as a mechanical engineer4 ,i did not read about such things2 for words were of little use4 ,but ,i saw and handled1 and thus all the ideas in connection with them became permanently rooted in my mind4444 8,one of these excellent men1 with whom ,i was frequently brought into contact1 was ,william ,watson4 ,he took special charge of all that related to the construction and repairs of steam engines1 waterwheels1 and millwork generally4 ,he was a skillful designer and draughtsman and an excellent pattern maker4 ,his designs were drawn in a bold and distinct style1 on large deal boards1 and were passed into the hands of the mechanics to be translated by them into actual work40#he #he ,ibid41 p4 #ib4 ,after telling of various workmen1 ,nasmyth says3 8,one of the most original characters about the foundry1 however1 was ,johnie ,syme4 ,he took charge of the old ,boulton ,watt steam engine1 which gave motion to the machinery of the works4444 ,johnie was a complete incarnation of technical knowledge4 ,he was the ,jack-of-all-trades of the establishment2 and the standing counsel in every out-of-the-way case of managing and overcoming mechanical difficulties4 ,he was the superintendent of the boring machines4 ,in those days the boring of a steam engine cylinder was considered high art in excelsis6 ,patterson's firm was celebrated for the accuracy of its boring4 8,i owe ,johnie ,syme a special debt of gratitude1 as it was he who first initiated me into that most important of all technical processes in practical mechanism--the art of hardening and tempering steel40#hf ,from another of his friends1 ,tom ,smith1 ,nasmyth picked up the rudiments of practical chemistry1 as it was then understood4 #hf ,ibid41 p4 #ic4 ,traveling with his father from time to time1 he had good opportunities for meeting many distinguished engineers and of visiting the great iron works1 the most famous of which was the ,carron ,iron ,works4 8,the ,carron ,iron ,works10 he writes1 8are classic ground to engineers4 ,they are associated with the memory of ,roebuck1 ,watt1 and ,miller of ,dalswinton4 ,for there1 ,roebuck and ,watt began the first working steam engine2 ,miller applied the steam engine to the purposes of navigation1 and invented the ,carronade gun4 ,the works existed at an early period in the history of ,british iron manufacture4 ,much of the machinery continued to be of wood4 ,although effective in a general way it was monstrously cumbrous4 ,it gave the idea of vast power and capability of resistance1 while it was far from being so in reality4 ,it was1 however1 truly imposing and impressive in its effect upon strangers4 ,when seen partially lit up by the glowing masses of white-hot iron1 with only the rays of bright sunshine gleaming through the holes in the roof1 and the dark1 black1 smoky vaults in which the cumbrous machinery was heard rumbling away in the distance--while the moving parts were dimly seen through the murky atmosphere1 mixed with the sounds of escaping steam and rushes of water2 with the half-naked men darting about with masses of red-hot iron and ladles full of molten cast-iron--it made a powerful impression upon the mind40#hg #hg ,ibid41 p4 #aji4 ,by the time he was seventeen ,nasmyth had become a skilled model maker4 ,while he was still attending lectures in the ,edinburgh ,school of ,arts and in the ,university1 he had built up quite a brisk business in engine models1 for which he charged #aj each4 ,he made his brass castings in his own bedroom at night1 arranging a furnace in his grate4 ,he had a secret box of moulding sand and rammed his patterns gently so as not to awaken his father who slept below4 ,in the morning the room would be all clean and gave no indication that it was serving for a foundry as well as a bedroom1 and by some miracle he managed to complete his practical education without burning down the house4 ,in #ahbg1 when he was nineteen1 he built a steam road carriage which ran about the streets of ,edinburgh for many months1 but the condition of the ,scotch roads was such as to make a machine of this kind almost useless4 ,when he went to ,london he broke it up1 and sold the engine and boiler for #fg4 ,from inspecting the engines constructed by different makers1 ,nasmyth became impressed with the superiority of those turned out by the ,carmichaels of ,dundee4 8,i afterwards found10 he writes1 8that the ,carmichaels were among the first of the ,scottish engine makers who gave due attention to the employment of improved mechanical tools1 with the object of producing accurate work with greater ease1 rapidity1 and economy1 than could possibly be effected by the hand labor of even the most skillful workmen4 ,i was told that the cause of the excellence of the ,carmichaels' work was not only in the ability of the heads of the firm1 but in their employment of the best engineers' tools4 ,some of their leading men had worked at ,maudslay's machine shop in ,london1 the fame of which had already reached ,dundee1 and ,maudslay's system of employing machine tools had been imported into the northern steam factory40#hh ,these reports built up an ambition1 which developed into a passion1 to go to ,london and work in ,maudslay's shop under 8this greatest of mechanics40 #hh ,ibid41 p4 #abc4 ,consequently1 in the spring of #ahbi1 he went with his father to ,london and made application to ,maudslay to work with him as an apprentice4 ,maudslay told them in the friendliest way1 but unmistakeably1 that he had had no satisfaction from gentleman apprentices and that he had definitely settled that he would never employ one again4 ,he showed them about his shop1 however1 and began to melt when he saw the boy's keen interest and intelligent appreciation of everything about him4 ,nasmyth had brought with him some of his drawings and one of his engine models4 ,at the end of the visit he mustered courage to ask ,maudslay if he would look at them4 ,the next day ,maudslay and his partner looked them over4 8,i waited anxiously4 ,twenty long minutes passed4 ,at last he entered the room1 and from a lively expression in his countenance ,i observed in a moment that the great object of my long cherished ambition had been attained6 ,he expressed1 in good round terms1 his satisfaction at my practical ability as a workman engineer and mechanical draughtsman4 ,then1 opening the door which led from his library into his beautiful private workshop1 he said1 #8,this is where ,i wish you to work1 beside me1 as my assistant workman4 ,from what ,i have seen1 there is no need of an apprenticeship in your case4'#hi #hi ,ibid41 p4 #abi4 8,mr4 ,maudslay seemed at once to take me into his confidence4 ,he treated me in the most kindly manner--not as a workman or an apprentice1 but as a friend4 ,i was an anxious listener to everything that he said2 and it gave him pleasure to observe that ,i understood and valued his conversation4 ,the greatest treat of all was in store for me4 ,he showed me his exquisite collection of taps and dies and screw-tackle1 which he had made with the utmost care for his own service4 ,they rested in a succession of drawers near to the bench where he worked4444 8,he proceeded to dilate upon the importance of the uniformity of screws4 ,some may call it an improvement1 but it might almost be called a revolution in mechanical engineering which ,mr4 ,maudslay introduced4 ,before his time no system had been followed in proportioning the number of threads of screws to their diameter4 ,every bolt and nut was thus a specialty in itself1 and neither possessed nor admitted of any community with its neighbors4 ,to such an extent had this practice been carried that all bolts and their corresponding nuts had to be specially marked as belonging to each other4444 8,none but those who lived in the comparatively early days of machine manufacture can form an adequate idea of the annoyance1 delay1 and cost of this utter want of system1 or can appreciate the vast services rendered to mechanical engineering by ,mr4 ,maudslay1 who was the first to introduce the practical measures necessary for its remedy40#ij #ij ,ibid41 pp4 #aca-acb4 ,there was no place in all ,england where ,nasmyth could have learned more4 ,he was in close personal contact with one of the best mechanics in the world4 ,he had ,maudslay's warmest personal interest and heard all the discussions of the engineers and famous men who used to come to the workshop4 8,among ,mr4 ,maudslay's most frequent visitors was ,gen4 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham1 ,mr4 ,barton1 director of the ,royal ,mint1 ,mr4 ,bryan ,donkin1 ,mr4 ,faraday1 and ,mr4 ,chantrey1 the sculptor4 ,as ,mr4 ,maudslay wished me to be at hand to give him any necessary assistance1 ,i had the opportunity of listening to the conversation between him and these distinguished visitors4 ,sir ,samuel ,bentham called very often4 ,he had been associated with ,maudslay during the contrivance and construction of the block machinery4 ,he was brother of the celebrated ,jeremy ,bentham1 and he applied the same clear common sense to mechanical subjects which the other had done to legal1 social and political questions4 8,it was in the highest degree interesting and instructive to hear these two great pioneers in the history and application of mechanics discussing the events connected with the block-making machinery4 ,in fact1 ,maudslay's connection with the subject had led to the development of most of our modern engineering tools4 ,they may since have been somewhat altered in arrangement1 but not in principle4 ,scarcely a week passed without a visit from the ,general4 ,he sat in the beautiful workshop1 where he always seemed so happy4 ,it was a great treat to hear him and ,maudslay fight their battles over again1 in recounting the difficulties1 both official and mechanical1 over which they had so gloriously triumphed40#ia #ia ,ibid41 pp4 #aea-aeb4 ,while with ,maudslay1 ,nasmyth designed and built an index milling machine for finishing the sides of hexagon nuts4 ,after ,maudslay's death in #ahca1 he remained a few months with ,mr4 ,field to finish some work in hand1 and then left to start in business for himself4 ,nasmyth speaks in the kindliest terms of ,mr4 ,field1 and doubtless would have had more to say about him if his relationship with ,maudslay had not been so close4 ,joshua ,field was a man to be appreciated4 ,he was a draftsman at the ,portsmouth dockyard when the block machinery was being built1 and showed so clear a grasp of the work in hand that ,bentham had him transferred to the ,admiralty at ,whitehall4 ,in #ahjd he left the service and went to ,maudslay's1 when he was at ,margaret ,street and employed about eighty men4 ,he rose steadily1 was taken into partnership in #ahbb1 at the same time as ,maudslay's eldest son1 and was the senior partner after ,maudslay's death when the firm was at the height of its long prosperity4 ,he was one of those consulted in the laying of the ,atlantic cable and in the designing of machinery for doing it4 8,mr4 ,field was one of the founders of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 the origin of which was very humble4 ,about the year #ahaf1 ,mr4 ,henry ,robinson ,palmer1 who was then a pupil of the late ,mr4 ,bryan ,donkin1 suggested to ,mr4 ,field the idea of forming a society of young engineers1 for their mutual improvement in mechanical and engineering science2 and the earliest members were ,mr4 ,henry ,robinson ,palmer1 ,mr4 ,william ,nicholson ,maudslay1 and ,mr4 ,joshua ,field4 ,to these three were shortly added ,mr4 ,james ,jones1 ,mr4 ,charles ,collinge1 and ,mr4 ,james ,ashwell4 ,they met occasionally in a room hired for the purpose1 and to them were soon attracted others having the same objects in view4 ,mr4 ,field was the first chairman of the ,institution1 being elected to that post on the sixth of ,january1 #ahah4 ,subsequently he became1 in #ahcg1 a vice-president1 an office he filled until he was elected president in #ahdh1 and in #ahdi1 and he continued to the last to be an active member and warm supporter of the ,institution40#ib ,mr4 ,field did everything in his power to give ,nasmyth a start1 allowing him to make the castings for some machine tools which he proposed to finish later for use in his own plant4 #ib ,memoir1 in 8,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers10 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 p4 #dia4 #ahfc4 ,nasmyth returned to ,edinburgh and took temporary quarters in a little outbuilding #af feet by #bd feet1 within a few minutes' walk of his father's home4 ,he hired one mechanic1 ,archie ,torry1 who remained with him the rest of his life and became one of his principal foremen4 ,his power plant consisted of one husky laborer who turned a crank4 ,together they finished up the castings brought from ,maudslay ,field's1 making first a lathe1 then a planer #bj inches by #cf inches1 and with these a few boring and drilling machines4 ,he carried the expense of this by doing some work for an enthusiastic inventor of a wonderful rotary steam engine4 ,nasmyth honorably informed the inventor that his machine would not work1 but as the inventor was bent on spending his money1 ,nasmyth executed the work for him1 and the proceeds enabled him to build his machinery4 ,in a few months he was ready to begin4 ,he went to ,liverpool and ,manchester looking for a location1 and soon made many powerful friends in both cities4 ,in #ahca he rented a single floor in ,manchester1 #bg feet by #acj feet1 with power1 and ten days later ,archie followed with the tools4 ,it was a particularly fortunate time and place for starting such an enterprise4 ,the success of the ,liverpool ,manchester ,railway1 just opened1 created a great demand for locomotives and for machine tools4 ,orders came in fast1 and the planer especially was busy all the time4 ,if its profits were anything like those of ,clement's planer1 it must have been a very heavy earner4 ,as the business grew1 ,nasmyth added more tools1 always making them himself and steadily improving their design and construction4 ,he soon outgrew his quarters2 and in #ahcf he secured land at ,patricroft1 a mile or so outside of the city1 admirably located between the new railway and the ,bridgewater ,canal1 and built a new plant which he called the ,bridgewater ,foundry4 ,in the new foundry he used the first worm-geared tilting pouring-ladle4 ,as it eliminated a common and very dangerous source of accidents1 he refrained from patenting it and in a short time its use was universal4 ,he formed a partnership with ,holbrook ,gaskell1 who took the business end of the enterprise1 and the firm of ,nasmyth ,gaskell had a very prosperous career until1 sixteen years later1 ,mr4 ,gaskell was forced to retire on account of ill health4 ,nasmyth built machine tools of all kinds4 ,in #ahcf he invented the shaper which was long known as 8,nasmyth's ,steel ,arm40 ,descriptions and illustrations of some of ,nasmyth's tools may be found at the end of his autobiography1#ic in ,buchanan's 8,mill ,work10#id and in the ,american ,machinist4#ie ,he patented but few of his inventions1 relying for protection mainly upon the reputation which he soon established4 8,in mechanical structures and contrivances10 he says1 8,i have always endeavored to attain the desired purpose by the employment of the fewest parts1 casting aside every detail not absolutely necessary1 and guarding carefully against the intrusion of mere traditional forms and arrangements4 ,the latter are apt to insinuate themselves1 and to interfere with that simplicity and directness of action which is in all cases so desirable a quality in mechanical structures4 ,plain common sense should be apparent in the general design1 as in the form and arrangement of the details2 and a character of severe utility pervade the whole1 accompanied with as much attention to gracefulness of form as is consistent with the nature and purpose of the structure40#if ,this was written in later life4 ,while his later work was in thorough conformity with these principles1 it was some time before he freed himself from the tradition of ,greek style in machine frames4 ,he was one of those1 however1 who led the way into the more correct practice indicated above1 though he was probably not so influential in this direction as ,whitworth4 #ic p4 #djj et seq4 #id ,volume of ,plates4 #ie ,oct4 #ad1 #aiji1 p4 #fed4 #if ,autobiography1 p4 #dci4 ,his greatest invention unquestionably was that of the steam hammer1 which came about in an interesting way4 ,he had built a number of locomotives for the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,this railway operated a line of steamers from ,bristol to ,new ,york and was planning a ship larger and faster than any then built1 to be called 8,the ,great ,britain40 ,it was to be a side-wheeler and the plans called for a large and heavy paddle shaft1 #cj inches in diameter4 ,mr4 ,humphries1 its designer1 wrote to ,nasmyth asking for help1 saying so large a shaft could not be forged with any of the hammers then in use4 ,nasmyth saw at once the limitations of the prevailing tilt hammer--which was simply a smith's hand hammer1 enlarged1 with a range so small that it 8gagged0 on large work1--and that the design of large hammers must be approached in an entirely new way4 8,the obvious remedy was to contrive some method by which a ponderous block of iron should be lifted to a sufficient height above the object on which it was desired to strike a blow1 and then to let the block fall down upon the forging1 guiding it in its descent by such simple means as should give the required precision in the percussive action of the falling mass4 ,following up this idea10 he writes1 8,i got out my #8,scheme ,book1' on the pages of which ,i generally thought out1 with the aid of pen and pencil1 such mechanical adaptations as ,i had conceived in my mind1 and was thereby enabled to render them visible4 ,i then rapidly sketched out my steam hammer1 having it all clearly before me in mind's eye4 ,in little more than half an hour after receiving ,mr4 ,humphries's letter narrating his unlooked-for difficulty1 ,i had the whole contrivance1 in all its executant details1 before me in a page of my ,scheme ,book1 a reduced photograph copy of which ,i append to this description4 7,see ,fig4 #bc47 ,the date of this first drawing was the twenty-fourth of ,november1 #ahci44440ig #ig ,ibid41 p4 #bdj4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bc4 ,,first ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,hammer ,,nov4 #bd1 #ahci ,illustration3 ,,figure #bd4 ,,model ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,steam ,,hammer ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum1 ,,london 8,rude and rapidly sketched out as it was1 this1 my first delineation of the steam hammer1 will be found to comprise all the essential elements of the invention4#ih ,every detail of the drawing retains to this day the form and arrangement which ,i gave to it forty-three years ago4 ,i believed that the steam hammer would prove practically successful2 and ,i looked forward to its general employment in the forging of heavy masses of iron4 ,it is no small gratification to me now1 when ,i look over my rude and hasty first sketch1 to find that ,i hit the mark so exactly1 not only in the general structure but in the details2 and that the invention as ,i then conceived it and put it into shape1 still retains its form and arrangements intact in the thousands of steam hammers that are now doing good service in the mechanical arts throughout the civilized world40#ii #ih ,compare ,nasmyth's sketch1 ,fig4 #bc1 with ,fig4 #bd1 which was taken from the model of his first hammer now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum 7,exhibit ,no4 #aega74 ,the description of it in the catalog is as follows3 8,it consists of a base plate with a large central opening through which projects the top of the anvil1 so that a blow on the anvil is not transmitted to the base plate4 ,on the plate are secured two standards which form guides for the hammer-head or tup1 and also support an overhead cylinder1 the piston of which is connected with the tup by a piston rod passing through the bottom of the cylinder4 ,steam is admitted to this cylinder by a stop valve in the form of a slide1 and then by a slide valve on the front of the cylinder1 which by a hand lever can be moved so as to let steam in below the piston and so raise the heavy tup4 ,when it is lifted to a height proportionate to the energy of the blow required1 the steam is by the slide valve permitted to escape and the hammer falls upon the forging placed on the anvil4 ,the cylinder is therefore only single-acting1 but the top is closed1 and a ring of holes communicating with the exhaust pipe is provided at a little distance down inside4 ,in this way an air cushion is formed which helps to start the piston downwards when a long stroke is being taken1 and also the steam below the piston is permitted to escape when the tup has been lifted as high as it can safely go4 ,soon after its invention the steam hammer was greatly increased in power by accelerating the fall of the tup by admitting steam above the piston in the downstroke and so changing it into the usual double-acting steam hammer40 ,cat4 ,machinery ,collection1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bee4 #ii ,autobiography1 p4 #bdb4 ,the shaft1 however1 was never built4 ,screw propulsion was just coming into use2 the design of the vessel was changed1 and the whole scheme lapsed4 ,a year or so later1 ,m4 ,schneider1 the ,french iron master of ,creuzot1 and his engineer1 ,m4 ,bourdon1 visited ,bridgewater while ,nasmyth happened to be away4 ,mr4 ,gaskell1 after taking them about the plant1 showed them the ,scheme ,book and pointed out the sketch of the hammer1 telling them of the purpose for which it was intended4 ,they were impressed with it and took careful notes and sketches of its details4 ,nasmyth was informed of their visit upon his return1 but knew nothing of their having taken sketches of the hammer4 ,in #ahdb ,nasmyth visited ,france1 and was cordially received at ,creuzot and shown about the works4 8,on entering10 he writes1 8one of the things that particularly struck me was the excellence of a large wrought-iron marine engine single crank1 forged with a remarkable degree of exactness in its general form4 ,i observed also that the large eye of the crank had been punched and drifted with extraordinary smoothness and truth4 ,i inquired of ,m4 ,bourdon #8how that crank had been forged8' ,his immediate reply was1 #8,it was forged by your steam hammer6'444 ,he told me 444 that he had taken careful notes and sketches1 and that among the first things he did after his return to ,creuzot was to put in hand the necessary work for the erection of a steam hammer4444 ,m4 ,bourdon conducted me to the forge department of the works1 that ,i might1 as he said1 #8see my own child'2 and there it was1 in truth--a thumping child of my brain40#ajj ,fortunately it was still time to save his patent rights4 ,he moved rapidly and in ,june1 #ahdb1 two months after his visit to ,creuzot1 a patent was obtained4#aja4 ,the steam hammer soon found its way into all the large shops of the world and greatly increased ,nasmyth's already comfortable fortune4 ,nasmyth transferred his ,united ,states patent to ,s4 ,v4 ,merrick of ,philadelphia1 who introduced the hammer into the ,american iron works4 #ajj ,ibid41 pp4 #bdf-bdg4 ,the self-acting valve motion for the steam hammer was invented by ,mr4 ,wilson1 when ,nasmyth was absent on business4 ,wilson was manager at ,patricroft and later became a partner4 ,it was much used for a time but with the advent of balanced piston-valves the hand-operated gear supplanted it4 ,nasmyth's invention of the hammer was denied by ,m4 ,schneider in #ahga4 ,for fuller discussion of the history of this hammer see ,london ,engineer1 ,may #af1 #ahij1 and a pamphlet by ,t4 ,s4 ,rowlandson1 entitled 8,history of the ,steam ,hammer40 ,manchester1 #ahff4 #aja ,no4 #ichb1 ,june #i1 #ahdb4 ,besides work on the hammer and machine tools1 ,nasmyth made a number of inventions of interest4 ,while still with ,maudslay he invented the flexible shaft made of a coiled spring1 and speaks with amusement at his finding the same idea in a dental engine many years later credited as an ,american invention4 ,he invented the ball-and-socket joint for shafting hangers and also the single wedge gate valve4 ,his steam piledriver1 an adaptation of the steam hammer1 was the invention in which he seems to have taken the most satisfaction4 ,he was working out a method of puddling iron with a blast of steam when he was eclipsed by ,bessemer's brilliant invention1 in #ahee1 of the air blast4 ,nasmyth was a member of the ,small ,arms ,committee which remodeled the ,small ,arms ,factory at ,enfield4 ,his connection with this will be taken up in the consideration of the rise of interchangeable manufacture4 ,nasmyth retired from business in #ahef1 bought an estate in ,kent1 and spent the remainder of his life in travel and in his studies in astronomy4 ,he was deeply interested in this study from boyhood4 ,before he was twenty he had built an excellent #f-;inch reflecting telescope1 and it was he who aroused ,maudslay's interest in the subject4 ,he had a #aj-;inch telescope at ,patricroft and a large one at ,hammersfield4 ,he began his study of the moon in #ahdb1 and received a medal for his work at the ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,his book1 8,the ,moon1 ,considered as a ,planet1 a ,world1 and a ,satellite10 published in #ahgd1 in conjunction with ,james ,carpenter1 the result of his thirty-two years of work1 is authoritative today4 ,nasmyth died in #ahij at the age of eighty-two4 ,he was much more than a splendid mechanic4 ,his personal charm and quality of mind can best be appreciated by reading his own story4 ,this chapter will have served its purpose if it induces the reader to read the autobiography from which we have quoted so freely4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,whitworth ,the work of the earlier generation of ,english tool builders may be said to have culminated in that of ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth4 ,for a man of his commanding influence1 the information in regard to his life is singularly meager4 ,he left no account of himself as ,nasmyth and ,william ,fairbairn did2 no biography of him was written by his contemporaries1 and the various memoirs which appeared at the time of his death are short and incomplete4 ,he was born at ,stockport in #ahjc4 ,his father was a minister and schoolmaster4 ,at fourteen he was placed in the office of his uncle1 a cotton spinner in ,derbyshire1 to learn the business4 ,but commercial work did not appeal to him4 ,he slighted the office as much as possible and delved into every nook and corner of the manufacturing and mechanical departments of the establishment4 ,in a few years he had mastered the construction of every machine in the place and acquired the deep-seated conviction that all the machinery about him was imperfect4 ,he ran away to ,manchester to escape a routine business life1 and found work with ,creighton ,company1 as a working mechanic4 ,he married in #ahbe1 and shortly afterward went to work with ,maudslay ,field in ,london4 ,maudslay soon placed him next to ,john ,hampson1 a ,yorkshireman1 who was his best workman4 ,while there1 ,whitworth developed his method of making accurate plane surfaces by hand scraping them1 three at a time4 ,on leaving ,maudslay1 ,whitworth worked for ,holtzapffel1 and later for ,clement4 ,he returned to ,manchester in #ahcc1 rented a room with power1 and hung out a sign1 8,joseph ,whitworth1 ,tool ,maker from ,london40 ,here he began his improvements in machine tools--the lathe1 planer1 drilling1 slotting and shaping machines4 ,he improved ,nasmyth's shaper1 adding the quick-return motion1 which has been known ever since as the ,whitworth quick-return motion4 ,his tools became the standard of the world1 and in the ,london ,exhibition of #ahea stood in a class by themselves4 ,their preminence lay not so much in novelty of design as in the standard of accuracy and quality of workmanship which they embodied4 ,with unerring judgment1 ,whitworth had turned his attention first1 to use his own words1 8to the vast importance of attending to the two great elements in constructive mechanics1--namely1 a true plane and power of measurement4 ,the latter cannot be attained without the former1 which is1 therefore1 of primary importance4444 ,all excellence in workmanship depends upon it40#ajb #ajb ,presidential ,address4 ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 #ahef1 p4 #abe4 ,the first step1 the production of true plane surfaces1 made while he was at ,maudslay's1 was1 we are told1 a self-imposed task4 ,the method of producing these1 three at a time1 is generally credited to ,whitworth4 ,we have already quoted ,nasmyth's statement that the method was in use at ,maudslay's and that it was 8a very old mechanical dodge40 ,while this is probably true1 ,whitworth contributed something to the method1 which very greatly increased the accuracy of the product4 ,the writer is inclined to believe that that element was the substitution of hand scraping for grinding in the final finishing operations4 ,whitworth's paper1 read before the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science at ,glasgow in #ahdj1 indicates this1 although it does not say so directly4 ,in this paper he specifically points out the reason why planes should not be finished by grinding them together with abrasive powder in between2 namely1 that the action of the grinding powder was under no control1 that there was no means of securing its equal diffusion or modifying its application and localizing its action to the particular spot which needed it4 ,holtzapffel confirms this view1 saying1 in #ahdg3 8,the entire process of grinding1 although apparently good1 is so fraught with uncertainty1 that accurate mechanicians have long agreed that the less grinding that is employed on rectilinear works the better1 and ,mr4 ,whitworth has recently shown in the most satisfactory manner1#ajc that in such works grinding is entirely unnecessary1 and may1 with the greatest advantage be dispensed with1 as the further prosecution of the scraping process is quite sufficient to lead to the limit of attainable accuracy4444 ,the author's previous experience had so fully prepared him for admission of the soundness of these views1 that in his own workshop he immediately adopted the suggestion of accomplishing all accurate rectilinear works by the continuance of scraping1 to the entire exclusion of grinding40#ajd #ajc ,referring to the paper before the ,british ,association1 #ahdj4 #ajd 8,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hgb4 ,when ,whitworth determined to make a better set of planes than any in use at the ,maudslay shop1 we are told that he was laughed at by ,hampson and his other fellow workmen for undertaking an impossible job4 ,he not only succeeded1 but the truth of the planes he produced aroused the admiration and wonder of all who saw them4 ,nasmyth distinctly mentions scraping1 but it should be remembered that he worked at ,maudslay's four or five years after ,whitworth went there1 and scraping may have been introduced into their older methods of making triple surface-plates by ,whitworth1 and have accounted for the wonderful accuracy of which ,nasmyth speaks4 ,having realized what he considered the first element in good workmanship1 ,whitworth began on the second1--improved methods in measurement4 ,he introduced the system of 8end measurements10 relying ordinarily on the sense of touch rather than eyesight2 and1 for extreme accuracy1 on the falling of a tumbler held by friction between two parallel planes4 ,at the presentation of the address before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 in #ahef1 he exhibited a measuring machine built on this principle which detected differences of length as small as one-millionth of an inch4 ,the address was largely devoted to the advantages of end measurement4 ,referring to the machine before him1 he said3 8,we have in this mode of measurement all the accuracy we can desire2 and we find in practice in the workshop that it is easier to work to the ten-thousandth of an inch from standards of end measurements1 than to one-hundredth of an inch from lines on a two-foot rule4 ,in all cases of fitting1 end measure of length should be used1 instead of lines40 ,this principle has become almost universal for commercial work1 although for extremely accurate work upon final standards line measurements1 aided by the microscope1 are used4 ,it was ,whitworth who brought about the standardization of screw thread practice in ,england4 ,he had come into contact with the best thread practice at ,maudslay's and at ,clement's1 but in the other shops throughout the country there was chaos1 so far as any recognized standard was concerned4 ,using their work as a basis1 and collecting and comparing all the screws obtainable1 ,whitworth arrived at a pitch for all sizes and a thread contour1 which he proposed in a paper before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers in #ahda4aje ,it was received with favor1 and by #ahfj the 8,whitworth thread0 had been generally adopted throughout the country4 #aje ,the ,minutes of the ,institution1 ,vol4 ,i1 give only an abstract of this paper4 ,a recent writer1 however1 in the ,american ,machinist1 ,vol4 ,,xliii1 p4 #aagh1 quotes ,whitworth as follows3 ,it is impossible to deduce a precise rule for the threads of screws from mechanical principles or from any number of experiments4 ,on the other hand1 the nature of the case is such that mere approximation would be unimportant1 absolute identity of thread for a given diameter being indispensable4 ,there are three essential characters belonging to the screw thread1 namely1 pitch1 depth and form4 ,each of these may be indefinitely modified independently of the others1 and any change will more or less affect the several conditions of power1 strength and durability4 ,the selection of the thread is also affected by the mutual relation subsisting between the three constituent characters of pitch1 depth and form4 ,each of these may be separately modified2 but practically no one character can be determined irrespective of the others4 ,we find instead of that uniformity which is so desirable1 a diversity so great as almost to discourage any hope of its removal4 ,the only mode in which this could be attempted with any probability of success would be by a sort of compromise1 all parties consenting to adopt a medium for the sake of common advantage4 ,the average pitch and depth of the various threads used by the leading engineers would thus become the common standard1 which would not only have the advantage of conciliating general concurrence1 but would1 in all probability1 be nearer the true standard for practical purposes than any other4 ,an extensive collection was made of screw bolts from the principal workshops throughout ,england1 and the average thread was carefully observed for different diameters4 7,then follows the well-known table showing the number of threads per inch47 ,it will be remembered that the threads1 of which the preceding table shows the average1 are used in cast iron as well as wrought2 and this circumstance has had its effect in rendering them coarser than they would have been if restricted to wrought-iron4 ,the variation in depth among the different specimens was found to be greater proportionately than in pitch4 ,the angle made by the sides of the thread will afford a convenient expression for the depth4 ,the mean of the variations of this angle in #a-;in4 screws was found to be about #ee deg41 and this was also pretty nearly the mean of the angle in screws of different diameters4 ,as it is for various reasons desirable that the angle should be constant1 more especially with reference to general uniformity of system1 the angle of #ee deg4 has been adopted throughout the entire scale4 ,a constant proportion is thus established between the depth and the pitch of the thread4 ,in calculating the former1 a deduction is to be made for the quantity rounded off1 amounting to one-third of the whole depth--that is1 one-sixth from the top and one-sixth from the bottom of the thread4 ,making this deduction it will be found that the angle of #ee deg4 gives for the actual depth rather more than three-fifths and less than two-thirds of the pitch4 ,the precaution of rounding off is adopted to prevent the injury which the thread of the screw1 and that of the taps and dies1 might sustain from accident4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #be4 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,whitworth ,in #ahec ,whitworth visited the ,united ,states1 and in conjunction with ,george ,wallis of the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 reported on the enterprises and manufactures of the ,united ,states4#ajf ,nearly all the memoirs of ,whitworth refer to the profound effect of this report4 ,as one reads it today1 it seems difficult to see why it should have had so much influence4 ,it is probable that ,whitworth's own personal report to the influential men about him contained much which does not appear in the formal report4 ,in it he takes up steam engines1 railway supplies1 woodworking tools1 electric telegraph1 textile mills1 and gives brief accounts of some of the factories and methods which he found at various places in ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states4 ,the longest description is given to the ,springfield ,armory1 but even this is a mere fragment1 and the only detailed information is of the time necessary to finish a gun-stock4 ,we know1 however1 that this armory and the various private armories they saw1 made an impression upon ,whitworth and the whole ,commission which led to the remodeling of the ,british gun-making plant at ,enfield4 ,nasmyth was also concerned in this and a fuller account of it will be given later4 #ajf 8,report of the ,british ,commissioners to the ,new ,york ,industrial ,exhibition40 ,london1 #ahed4 ,the conclusion of ,whitworth's report shows clearly that he was deeply impressed with the extent to which the automatic principle was being applied to machine tools in ,america4 8,the labouring classes10 he says1 8are comparatively few in number1 but this is counterbalanced by1 and indeed1 may be regarded as one of the chief causes of1 the eagerness with which they call in the aid of machinery in almost every department of industry4 ,wherever it can be introduced as a substitute for manual labour1 it is universally and willingly resorted to4444 ,it is this condition of the labour market1 and this eager resort to machinery wherever it can be applied1 to which1 under the guidance of superior education and intelligence1 the remarkable prosperity of the ,united ,states is mainly due40 ,another characteristic of ,american manufacture attracted his attention1--the tendency toward standardization4 ,in his address in #ahef he condemns the overmultiplication of sizes prevalent in every branch of ,english industry4 ,shortly after his return from ,america1 ,whitworth was requested by the government to design a complete plant for the manufacture of muskets4 ,he disapproved of the ,enfield rifle and declined to undertake the work until exhaustive tests were made to determine the best type of rifle4 ,the government1 therefore1 equipped a testing plant and range near ,manchester1 and ,whitworth began a series of tests which showed the ,enfield rifle to be inferior in almost every respect4 ,he then submitted a new rifle1 designed on the basis of his experiments1 which embodied the small bore1 an elongated projectile and a rapid rifle-twist and great accuracy of manufacture4 ,although this rifle excelled all others in accuracy1 penetration and range1 it was rejected by the war office4 ,some thirty years later1 the ,lee-,metford rifle1 which embodied ,whitworth's improvements1 was adopted1 but only after these principles had been recognized and used by every other government in ,europe4 ,his contributions to the manufacture of heavy ordnance were even greater1 but they met with the same reception from the war office4 ,in #ahfb he completed a high-powered rifle cannon with a range of six miles1 the proportions of which were substantially those in use today4 ,he developed the manufacture of fluid compressed steel1 about #ahgj1 to supply a stronger and more reliable material for ordnance use4 ,few men in any country have had a greater influence on the design and development of ordnance and armor4 ,his partnership with ,sir ,william ,armstrong resulted in one of the greatest gun factories in the world4 ,whitworth married twice but had no children4 ,he acquired a great fortune4 ,during his lifetime he established the famous ,whitworth scholarships4 ,at his death1 large sums were distributed by friends1 to whom he had willed them for the execution of his wishes1 and they devoted nearly #fjj1jjj 7#c1jjj1jjj7 to the foundation or endowment of the ,whitworth ,institute1 ,owens ,college1 and the ,manchester ,technical ,schools1 and other public institutions4 ,in #ahgd he converted his ,manchester business into a stock company1 giving the majority of the stock to his foremen and making provision for the acquiring of further stock by his clerks and workmen4 ,while he was slow in receiving recognition from his own government1 he became universally recognized as one of the greatest engineering authorities in the world1 and was honored as few engineers have been1 being elected to the ,royal ,society1 chosen president of the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 given degrees by ,dublin and ,oxford1 the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honor2 and1 in #ahfi1 made a baronet4 ,as he grew older he became irritable and exceedingly dogmatic1 possibly because of his long contests with slow-moving government officials4 ,charles ,t4 ,porter1 in his autobiography1 brings out this side of his nature and shows that the initiative of subordinates in his shop was practically killed4 ,perhaps this limited his service somewhat in his later years1 but when all is taken into account1 he was1 without question1 one of the greatest of mechanical engineers4 ,he was a master experimenter4 ,tests which he made were thorough1 conclusive1 and always led somewhere4 ,his experiments1 whether in machine tools1 screw threads1 or ordnance1 always resulted in a design or process which sooner or later became standard4 ,whitworth's position as a tool builder is not weakened by the fact that most of the general tools had been invented by the time he began his independent work4 ,he raised the whole art of tool building by getting at the fundamental conditions4 ,he led the way in the change from the weak1 architectural style of framing2 introduced the box design or hollow frame for machinery1 taking his suggestion from the human body1 and very greatly increased the weight of metal used4 ,in #ahej ,whitworth was1 without doubt1 the foremost tool builder in the world4 ,he had introduced a standard of accuracy in machine tools unknown before1 and so improved their design and workmanship that he dominated ,english tool practice for several generations4 ,in fact1 the very ascendency of ,whitworth's methods seems to have been an element in the loss of ,england's leadership in tool building4 ,most of the progressive work for the next fifty years was done in ,america4 ,in the foregoing chapters we have traced briefly the work of the great ,english mechanics from #ahjj to #ahej4 ,their services to engineering1 and1 in fact1 to mankind1 cannot be measured4 ,when they began1 machine tools in any modern sense did not exist4 ,under their leadership nearly all of the great metal-working tools were given forms which have remained essentially unchanged4 ,england had the unquestioned leadership in the field of machine tools4 ,machine-tool building in ,germany and ,france was one or two generations behind that of ,england1 and nearly all their machinery was imported from that country4 ,with the exception of the early and incomplete work of the ingenious ,french mechanics1 which we have referred to from time to time1 practically all of the pioneer work was done by ,englishmen4 ,in glancing back at these early tool builders1 it will be seen that few of them were men of education4 ,all were men of powerful minds1 many of them with broad intellectual interests4 ,it is suggestive to note one thing1 whatever may be its bearing4 ,only three of all these men1 ,matthew ,murray and the two ,fairbairns1 served a regular apprenticeship4 ,bentham and ,brunel were naval officers2 ,bramah1 a farmer's boy and cabinetmaker2 ,maudslay1 a blacksmith2 ,clement1 a slater2 ,roberts1 a quarry laborer2 ,nasmyth1 a clever school boy2 and ,whitworth1 an office clerk4 ,whatever may have been the reason1 the rapid advance of the ,english machine-tool builders ceased about the middle of the last century1 and they have made but few radical changes or improvements since that time4 ,at about the same time the ,american engineers introduced a number of improvements of very great importance4 ,the great distance of ,america from ,england forced it into a situation of more or less commercial and mechanical independence4 ,while ,france and ,germany were importing machine tools from ,england1 ,america began making them and soon developed independence of design4 ,the interchangeable system of manufactures and the general use of accurate working gauges1 which were hardly known in ,england1 developed rapidly in ,america4 ,these1 with the introduction of the turret1 the protean cam1 and precision grinding machinery1 and the great extension of the process of milling1 served in the next fifty years to transfer the leadership in machine-tool design from ,england to ,america4 ,a visit to any one of the great machine shops in ,england1 ,germany or ,france will convince one that the leadership now rests with the ,american tool builders4 ,the remaining chapters will take up the lives and work of those who have contributed to this great change4 ,,chapter ,x ,,early ,,american ,,mechanics ,the phrase 8,yankee ingenuity0 has become a part of the ,english language4 ,if ,new ,england no longer holds all the good mechanics in the ,united ,states1 there was a time when she came so near it that the term 8,new ,england mechanic0 had a very definite meaning over the whole country4 ,the industrial development of ,new ,england was long delayed1 but once started it was rapid4 ,up to #ahjj ,new ,england artisans supplied merely small local needs and there was little or no manufacturing in any modern sense2 but from then on the development was so rapid that by #ahej ,new ,england was not only supplying the ,united ,states with most of its manufactured products1 but was beginning to export machinery and tools to ,england1 where machine tools originated4 ,for five generations1 ,american mechanics had little or no industrial influence on ,europe1 and then within fifty years they began to compete on even terms4 ,there were several reasons for this4 ,a market for machinery must of necessity be a wide one1 for no single community1 not even a large modern city1 can alone support a great manufacturing enterprise4 ,machinery building can thrive only in a settled country having a large purchasing power and good transportation facilities4 ,the colonies lacked all of these conditions2 the people were widely scattered and poor1 and there were practically no facilities for heavy transportation1 at least by land4 ,the colonial mechanics were often ingenious and skilled1 but they had few raw materials and they could supply only their immediate neighborhood4 ,any approach to specialization and refinement was therefore impossible4 ,the second cause for delayed development was ,england's industrial policy toward her ,american colonies4 ,the colonists had hardly gained a foothold when they began to show a manufacturing spirit and an industrial independence which aroused the apprehension of the manufacturing interests in ,england4 ,the first importations of iron into ,england from the colonies came from ,virginia and ,maryland1 about #agah4ajg ,the importations for a few years thereafter are not known1 as no records are available4 ,they were sufficient1 however1 to arouse the jealousy of the ,english iron masters1 for1 although there was plenty of iron ore in ,england1 they were beginning to feel seriously the shortage in wood which was then used for its reduction4 ,they felt that the abundance of iron ore1 fuel and water power in ,america constituted a serious menace1 and they vigorously opposed the growth of any kind of manufacture in the colonies4 ,this resulted in a prohibition of the manufacture of any form of ironware and of bar or pig iron by forges or other works4 ,in spite of these repressive measures1 a report on manufactures in the colonies1 made to the ,house of ,commons in #agca1 indicated that ,new ,england had six furnaces1 nineteen forges1 one slitting mill and one nail factory4#ajh ,these could1 however1 have supplied only a small part of the materials required even for colonial use4 ,by #agcg much discussion had arisen respecting the policy of encouraging importation of ,american iron1 and petitions in favor of doing so were presented to ,parliament4 ,england imported at that time about #bj1jjj tons of foreign iron1 #ae1jjj from ,sweden and #ejjj from ,russia1 most of which was paid for in money4#aji ,it was urged that if this could be obtained from the colonies it could be paid for in ,british manufactures1 at a saving of #ahj1jjj annually4 ,the annual production of bar iron in ,england was about #ah1jjj tons1 and on account of the shortage of wood this could not be materially increased4 ,to encourage colonial exportation of pig and bar iron to ,england would1 it was urged1 be the best means of preventing such further manufacturing as would interfere with their own4 ,it was1 therefore1 proposed that a heavy duty be laid on all iron and manufactured products imported into the colonies from continental ,europe1 and on all iron imported into ,england except from ,america4 ,these views prevailed and resulted in the act of #agej1 which was entitled 8,an act to encourage the importation of pig and bar iron from ,his ,majesty's ,plantations in ,america10 and provided that 8pig-iron made in the ,british ,colonies in1 ,america1 may be imported1 duty free1 and bar-iron into the port of ,london2 no bar-iron1 so imported1 to be carried coastwise1 or to be landed at any other port1 except for the use of his ,majesty's dock yards2 and not to be carried beyond ten miles from ,london40#aaj ,with this was incorporated another clause designed to arrest all manufacture at that stage4 ,it was enacted that 8from and after the #bdth day of ,june1 #agej1 no mill1 or other engine for slitting or rolling of ,iron1 or any plating forge to work with a tilt-hammer1 or any furnace for making steel shall be erected1 or after such erection1 continued in any of his ,majesty's ,colonies of ,america0 under penalty of #bjj4aaa ,this attempt to stifle the industrial life of the colonies1 persistently adhered to1 ultimately brought about the ,revolution4 #ajg ,j4 ,l4 ,bishop3 8,history of ,american ,manufactures10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fbe4 #ajh ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fbc4 #aji ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fbc4 #aaj ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fbd4 #aaa ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fbd-fbe4 ,from #agcj to #agej there had been an importation of about #bcjj tons of bar iron annually1 #ij per cent of which came from ,maryland and ,virginia1 and a little less than #f per cent from ,pennsylvania4 ,new ,england and ,new ,york were producing iron by that time1 but were using nearly all of their product1 hence their small share in the trade4 ,the iron masters of the midland counties in ,england protested against this act1 prophesying the utter ruin of the ,english iron industry4 ,england1 they said1 would be rendered dependent upon the colonies1 and thousands of ,english workmen would be reduced to want and misery2 ,american iron could never supply the place of the ,swedish iron in quality1 nor the ,russian iron in cheapness1 consequently the manufacture of tools would be stopped and numberless families reduced to beggary4 ,the manufacturers of ,birmingham1 on the other hand1 petitioned that the bill was a benefit to their trade and to the colonists1 who would exchange their raw products for ,british manufactures2 that manufacturing was more valuable to the nation than the production of raw materials1 and as iron could not be produced at home in such quantity and at such price as to supply all the needs of the manufacturers1 it was the duty of ,parliament to encourage the importation of raw materials1 even if it should arrest their production in ,england2 that the importation of iron from ,america could affect the iron works no more than the same quantity from any other country1 and the home production was less than one-half the amount required1 and growing steadily dearer3 that the increasing activity of the ,english manufacturers rendered it more and more necessary to obtain these materials at the lowest price1 and the only way to do this was either to reduce the duty on continental iron1 or make it necessary for ,english iron masters to reduce their prices by raising up a rival in ,america4 ,they heartily concurred1 however1 in the prohibition of all finishing of materials as an interference with ,british manufactures4 ,the merchants of ,bristol petitioned that ,american bar iron1 which was admitted only at the port of ,london1 be imported duty free into all of ,his ,majesty's ports4 ,this discussion continued until #ageg1 when the privilege of importation was extended to the other ports of ,great ,britain4#aab #aab ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fbf-fbg4 ,under the act of #agej1 the importation rose to about #cbej tons1 #id per cent of which still came from ,maryland1 ,virginia and ,pennsylvania4 ,practically all the iron produced in ,new ,england was used there1 for1 despite the repressive measures from the mother country1 small local manufacturing enterprises1 8moonshine iron works10 were constantly cropping up4 ,the iron supply of ,new ,england came at first from the bog ores in eastern ,massachusetts and ,rhode ,island4 ,by #agcj-agfj better mines were opened at ,salisbury1 ,conn41 and in ,orange ,county1 ,new ,york1 so that the production of iron in the bog-ore regions gradually dwindled4 ,the ,revolution terminated ,british legislative control over the trade and manufactures of ,america4 ,the war itself furnished a market for supplies for the army1 and the manufacture of cannon and guns was active4 ,many of these factories were ruined by the flood of imports which followed the ,revolution4 ,in #aghi the present ,federal ,government replaced the ineffective ,confederation1 which had left to the separate states the duty of protecting their manufacturing interests1 and a tariff was placed upon manufactured articles4 ,freed from the old restrictions1 and with foreign competition largely precluded1 manufacturing industries began to spring up on every hand4 ,a third cause contributed to rapid development at this time4 ,an enormous production of cotton followed ,whitney's invention of the cotton gin in #agib1 and the ,south1 which had never been a manufacturing community1 furnished both a source of supply and a rich market1 easily accessible by coastwise trade4 ,the beginnings of ,new ,england's manufacturing industries are closely identified with the rise of the ,american cotton crop1 and most of the first machine shops were developed to manufacture textile machinery4 ,england1 who seems to have blundered whenever she legislated on early ,american trade1 made one more serious mistake4 ,in #aghe ,parliament passed a stringent law1 with severe penalties1 to stop the emigration of all mechanics and workmen in iron and steel manufactures1 and to prevent not only the exportation of every description of tool1 engine or machine1 or parts of a machine used in making and working up iron and other materials1 but even the models and plans of such machinery4#aac ,england was then the most advanced of all countries in the production of engines1 tools and textile machinery1 and it was hoped by this act that manufacturing might be kept there4 ,it had the opposite effect so far as ,america was concerned4 ,it was inevitable that mechanics1 such as ,samuel ,slater and ,william ,crompton1 should get away1 and with them1 ideas4 ,the act only stimulated a race of skillful mechanics in ,america to independent development of machine tools1 textile machinery1 and the like4 ,america1 instead of buying her machinery from ,england as she would naturally have done1 proceeded to make it herself4 #aac ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fcj4 ,one of the earliest ,american mechanics was ,joseph ,jenks1 who came from ,hammersmith1 ,england1 to ,lynn1 ,mass41 about #afdb1 and died in #afhc4 ,with the backing of ,governor ,winthrop1 he set up an iron foundry and forge near a bog-iron mine4 ,the very first attempt in ,america to start an iron works had been made in ,virginia more than twenty years before1 at the settlement of ,jamestown4 ,it was hardly started1 however1 before it was destroyed in the general sack of the settlement1 and for one hundred years there was no further attempt at producing iron in ,virginia4#aad #aad ,beverley3 8,history of ,virginia40 ,bishop3 8,history of ,american ,manufactures10 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dfi1 #eie4 ,from the little forge and foundry started at ,lynn1 there is no break in the spread of iron manufacturing in this country4 ,the forge was located on the lands of ,thomas ,hudson1 of the same family as ,hendrick ,hudson1 the explorer4 ,jenks was 8the first founder who worked in brass and iron on the western continent4 ,by his hands1 the first models were made and the first castings taken of many domestic implements and iron tools40#aae ,the very first casting is said to have been an iron quart pot4 #aae ,lewis3 8,history of ,lynn40 ,for many years the colonial records refer to his various activities4 ,he made the dies for the early ,massachusetts coinage1 including the famous pine-tree shilling4#aaf ,in #afdf the ,general ,court of ,massachusetts resolved that 8,in answer to the peticon of ,joseph ,jenckes1 for liberty to make experience of his abilityes and ,inventions for ye making of ,engines for mills to go with water for ye more speedy despatch of work than formerly1 and mills for ye making of ,sithes and other ,edged tools1 with a new invented ,sawe-,mill1 that things may be afforded cheaper than formerly1 and that for fourteen yeeres without disturbance by any others setting up like inventions2 444 this peticon is granted40#aag ,in #afee he was granted a ,massachusetts patent for scythes1 his improvement consisting of making them long and thin1 instead of short and thick1 as in the old ,english scythe1 and of welding a bar of iron upon the back to strengthen it1 which later became the universal practice1#aah and no radical change has been made in the blade of this implement since his day4 ,he built for the town of ,boston the first fire engine used in this country1 and also made machines for drawing wire4 ,jenks seems to have also been interested in another iron works started at ,braintree between #afde and #afej4 #aaf ,weeden3 8,economic and ,social ,history of ,new ,england10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aia4 #aag ,goodrich3 8,history of ,pawtucket10 p4 #ag4 #aah ,weeden1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahd4 ,bishop1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dgg4 ,an iron works was started at ,raynham in #afeb by the ,leonards1 who came from ,england about the same time as ,jenks and had worked at ,lynn4#aai ,the ,jenks and ,leonard families were all mechanics4 ,it used to be said that wherever you found a ,leonard you found a mechanic2 and the ,jenks family has been in some form of manufacturing continuously from the days of ,joseph ,jenks to the present time4 #aai ,bishop1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dgi4 ,weeden1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aib4 ,the near-by portions of ,rhode ,island and ,massachusetts centering on the headwaters of ,narragansett ,bay1 became famous for the production and manufacture of iron4 ,a young ,scotchman1 ,hugh ,orr1 settled in ,bridgewater about #agch4 ,he was a pioneer in the manufacture of edged tools1 and is said to have introduced the trip hammer into this country4 8,for several years he was the only edge-tool maker in this part of the country1 and ship-carpenters1 millwrights1 etc41 444 constantly resorted to him for supply4 ,and1 indeed1 such was his fame1 that applications were frequently made to him from the distance of twenty miles for the purpose of having an axe1 an adze or an auger new tempered by his hands40 ,in #agdh1 he built #ejj stand-of-arms for the province1 the first made in ,america1 and later did much casting and boring of cannon during the ,revolution4 ,after the war1 he made cotton machinery until his death in #agih1 at the age of eighty-two4 ,weeden credits ,hugh ,orr with being 8perhaps the most conspicuous0 ,american iron worker in the eighteenth century4 ,his son1 ,robert ,orr1 was also a skilled mechanic1 and was one of the very early master armorers of the ,springfield ,arsenal4#abj #abj ,weeden1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fhe4 ,bishop1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dhf-dhg4 ,joseph ,holmes is another of the pioneers of this neighborhood4 ,he is said to have made more than #cjjj tons of iron from bog ore1 and 8,holmes' iron0 was famous for anchors4 ,he also furnished many of the cannon used in the ,revolution4#aba ,the ,hope ,furnace at ,scituate1 ,r4 ,i41 famous for many years1 was started about #agce by ,daniel ,waldo4#abb ,a nail mill was in operation at ,milton1 ,mass41 about #agdj or #agdb4 ,another was started at ,middleboro about #agde1 on information stolen1 it is said1 from ,milton by a mechanic disguised as a rustic4#abc ,a mill for making scythes was in operation at ,andover in #agae1 and a 8heavy0 forge was in operation at ,boston in #agbj4abd ,nearly all the cannon for the early ,american frigates were cast in and about ,providence4 ,capt4 ,stephen ,jenks was making arms in ,north ,providence at the beginning of the ,revolution4#abe ,an account of the early attempts in iron manufacture in ,rhode ,island can be found in ,vol4 ,,iii of ,field's 8,state of ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations40 #aba ,bishop1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dhi4 #abb ,field3 8,state of ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations10 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cca4 #abc ,weeden1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dii4 #abd ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dih4 #abe ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gic4 ,the ,jenks' influence had spread to ,rhode ,island as early as #afee when ,joseph ,jenks1 ,jr41 who had learned the business with his father1 moved from ,lynn to the headwaters of ,narragansett ,bay1 and founded ,pawtucket4 ,he built a forge near a bog-ore mine and water power1 and began making domestic utensils and iron tools4 ,the settlement was destroyed by the ,indians in #afge1 during ,king ,philip's war1 but was soon rebuilt4 ,the son of this ,jenks1 the third ,joseph ,jenks1 was born there1 and later became a very influential man in the colony4 ,he was governor for five years and was interested in many of its activities4#abf ,providence1 from its better situation commercially1 early became a trading center1 but nearly all the manufacturing was done at ,pawtucket on account of the abundant water power4 ,in fact1 it was not until the steam engine rendered manufacturing independent of water power that ,providence took the lead as an industrial center4 #abf ,goodrich1 pp4 #ah-bc4 ,in the enterprises centering about ,pawtucket and ,providence1 one finds continually the names of ,jenks1 ,wilkinson1 ,brown and ,greene1 among the latter that of ,nathaniel ,greene1 the ,revolutionary general1 who had a cannon factory at ,coventry4 ,of these early families the ,wilkinsons were the most influential4 ,oziel ,wilkinson1 a ,quaker1 came to ,pawtucket from ,smithfield1 ,r4 ,i41 established an anchor forge there in #aghd1 and soon became the leading man in the community4 ,he built an air furnace in #agia1 and three years later he furnished castings for the ,cambridge drawbridge and for canal locks1 probably those first used on the ,merrimac ,river4#abg ,he and his family had a most important part in the development of early manufacturing in ,america4 ,he had six sons and four daughters4 ,four of the sons worked in two partnerships1 one of ,abraham and ,isaac 7twins71 the other of ,david and ,daniel4 ,the fifth son was also a successful manufacturer4 ,one of his daughters married ,samuel ,slater1 who will be mentioned later2 one married ,timothy ,greene1 another1 ,william ,wilkinson1 and the youngest1 ,hezekiah ,howe1 all of whom were manufacturers4 ,the remaining son1 the only child unaccounted for1 died at the age of four years4#abh #abg ,ibid41 p4 #ea4 #abh ,israel ,wilkinson3 8,memoirs of the ,wilkinson ,family10 pp4 #bbj1 #dfa4 ,jacksonville1 ,ill41 #ahfi4 ,in #agid ,david ,wilkinson built a steamboat and made a trip in it of three and one-half miles from ,winsor's ,cove to ,providence4 ,he was not impressed with the practical value of it1 and dismantled it after their 8frolic40 ,before it was destroyed1 however1 a young man named ,daniel ,leach examined it carefully with the greatest interest4 ,later1 when ,fulton made his plans for the 8,clermont10 the drawings were said to have been made by this same man1 ,leach4#abi #abi ,ibid41 pp4 #eji-eac2 also1 ,field1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cgb4 ,the name here is given as ,french4 ,in #agig ,david ,wilkinson invented a slide lathe which was patented the next year4 ,the writer has not been able to obtain an accurate description of this4 ,the most direct reference to it is a letter of ,samuel ,greene to ,zachariah ,allen1 a prominent ,rhode ,island cotton manufacturer1 dated ,june #ag1 #ahfa1 which says3 8,i suppose ,david ,wilkinson to be the inventor of the slide lathe1 at first applied to the making of large press screws1 for which ,i believe he got a patent4 ,i know he made application to the ,british ,government1 and ,i have heard said did get a grant40 ,the patent ran out before the lathe came into general use4 ,fifty years later ,congress voted ,wilkinson #aj1jjj 8for benefits accruing to the public service for the use of the principle of the gauge and sliding lathe1 of which he was the inventor40#acj ,he seems to have been working on it in ,america at the same time as ,maudslay in ,london4#aca ,sylvanus ,brown1 who helped ,slater build the first ,arkwright cotton machinery at ,pawtucket1 is also said to have invented the slide lathe still earlier 7in #agia7 and to have also used it for cutting wrought-iron screws for sperm-oil presses4#acb ,there are good records of ,maudslay's slide lathes2 in fact1 screw-cutting lathes made by him prior to #ahjj are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum at ,london4 ,priority can hardly be claimed for these ,american lathes until something more is known of them1 and whether they were the equal of ,maudslay's in design and quality4 #acj ,the ,senate ,committee which recommended this action consisted of ,rusk of ,texas1 ,cass of ,michigan1 ,davis of ,mississippi1 ,dix of ,new ,york1 and ,benton of ,missouri4 ,the bill passed the ,senate in ,june1 and the ,house in ,august1 #ahdh4 #aca 8,memoirs of the ,wilkinson ,family10 pp4 #ejf-ejh1 #eah4 ,goodrich1 p4 #ea4 #acb ,goodrich1 p4 #dh4 ,the ,wilkinsons were closely identified with the early textile enterprises4 ,as the gun industry developed the interchangeable system1 so the cotton industry developed the ,american general machine tool4 ,at the close of the ,revolution1 many attempts were made to start textile industries1 by ,orr in #aghf1 ,cabot at ,beverly in #aghg1 and ,anthony at ,providence in #aghh1 and also at ,worcester4 ,a man named ,alexander is said to have operated the first loom with the flying shuttle in ,america1 which was later moved to ,pawtucket4 ,moses ,brown1 about #agij1 imported a few spinning frames to ,providence1 but they proved a failure4 ,samuel ,slater1 who married ,wilkinson's daughter1 was an ,englishman who had served his time with ,arkwright and ,strutt1 and had become thoroughly familiar with the ,arkwright machinery4 ,in #aghi he had emigrated to ,america with the purpose of starting a textile industry4 ,we have already mentioned the embargo which ,england placed on mechanics and on all kinds of machinery4 ,this had compelled ,slater to use the greatest caution in leaving the country4 ,disguised1 it is said1 as a rustic1 he went to ,london and sailed from there1 giving no indication of his plans until after he had gone1 when he had a letter sent to his family4 ,he went first to ,philadelphia1 but hearing of ,moses ,brown's attempts at spinning in ,providence1 he wrote to ,brown and made arrangements to go to ,pawtucket and reproduce for him the ,arkwright machinery4 ,slater was at that time only twenty years old4 ,after a winter of hard work he succeeded in making several frames with a total of seventy-two spindles1 and two carding machines4 ,these were started in a small building1 later known as the ,old ,slater ,mill1 with an old negro named 8,primus0 ,jenks as motive power4 ,during this winter ,slater lived in the family of ,oziel ,wilkinson and married his daughter4 ,the second mill was started in #agii by ,oziel ,wilkinson and his three sons-in-law1 ,slater1 ,greene and ,wilkinson4#acc #acc ,ibid41 pp4 #ci-ea4 ,doctor ,dwight1 in his travels1 in #ahaj1acd writes of ,pawtucket3 #acd ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bg-bh4 8,there is probably no spot in ,new ,england of the same extent1 in which the same quantity or variety of manufacturing business is carried on4 ,in the year #agif1 there were here three anchor forges1 one tanning mill1 one flouring mill1 one slitting mill1 three snuff mills1 one oil mill1 three fulling mills1 a clothier's works1 one cotton factory1 two machines for cutting nails1 one furnace for casting hollow ware--all moved by water--one machine for cutting screws1 moved by a horse1 and several forges for smith's work40 ,this was long before ,lowell1 ,lawrence and ,manchester had come into existence4 ,the ,wilkinsons were interested in other things as well as in the cotton industries4 ,david established a shop and foundry in ,pawtucket1 where for one thing he made cannon which he bored by an improved method consisting of 8making his drill and bore stationary and having the cannon revolve about the drill40 ,he built textile machinery for almost every part of the country1 from northern ,new ,england to ,louisiana1 and made the machinery used at ,new ,bedford and other whaling ports for pressing sperm oil4#ace ,about #ahaf ,david and ,daniel ,wilkinson bought out a man named ,dwight ,fisher and manufactured nails until #ahbi1 their output being about #djjj pounds daily4#acf ,in #ahbi ,david ,wilkinson moved to ,cohoes1 ,n4 ,y41 and with ,de,witt ,clinton1 ,stephen ,van ,rensselaer and others1 started the textile industries in that city4#acg ,in #ahcb ,zebulon ,white started up one of the abandoned ,wilkinson furnaces1 which three years later was known as the ,pawtucket ,cupola ,furnace ,company4 ,this afterwards became the firm of ,j4 ,s4 ,white ,company4#ach #ace ,goodrich1 p4 #fi4 #acf ,field3 8,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations10 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cgc4 #acg ,van ,slyck3 8,representatives of ,new ,england ,manufacturers10 p4 #eae4 #ach ,field1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cgb4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bf4 ,,samuel ,,slater ,oziel ,wilkinson died in #ahae1 but the influence of the ,wilkinson family continued for many years4 ,slater steadily widened his operations and was so influential in laying the foundations of the textile industry that he became known as 8the father of the ,american cotton industry40 ,how rapidly the cotton industry spread is shown by a memorial to ,congress in #ahae1 stating that there were #adj cotton manufactures within thirty miles of ,providence1 employing #bf1jjj hands and operating #acj1jjj spindles4#aci ,only a few of the more important ramifications can be given4 #aci ,bishop1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bad4 ,in #ahbb ,samuel ,slater1 ,larned ,pitcher and three others bought a little two-story building at what was then ,goffstown1 on the ,merrimac ,river1 and founded the great ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,company1 and the city of ,manchester1 ,n4 ,h4 ,it is now known as the greatest textile mill in the world1 but the company's original charter was very broad1 and1 in addition to its other interests1 the company operated for many years one of the largest and most influential machine shops in the country1 where were built locomotives1 engines1 boilers1 all kinds of textile machinery1 machine tools and mill machinery4 ,alfred ,jenks1 who learned his trade under ,slater1 moved to ,holmesburg1 near ,philadelphia1 in #ahaj1 taking with him drawings of every variety of cotton machinery1 as far as it had then advanced1 and commenced its manufacture4#adj ,he furnished the machinery for the first cotton mill in that portion of ,pennsylvania and for the first woolen mill in the entire state1 and developed what was for many years one of the most important plants for the building of textile machinery in the ,united ,states4 #adj ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ah4 ,eleazer ,jenks built a machine shop at ,pawtucket in #ahac for heavy forging and for the manufacture of spinning machinery1 which was occupied by ,david ,wilkinson for many years4#ada ,the same year1 ,larned ,pitcher also started a shop there1 and soon took in ,p4 ,hovey and ,asa ,arnold4 ,in #ahai ,ira ,gay was taken in1 and the firm became ,pitcher ,gay1 one of the largest manufacturers of cotton machinery4 ,gay remained in ,pawtucket until #ahbd1 when he went to ,new ,hampshire in connection with the ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,company and the ,nashua ,manufacturing ,company1 then just starting4#adb ,a few years later ,ira ,gay and ,zeba1 his brother1 started a shop at ,north ,chelmsford for building textile machinery4 ,with the growth of the ,merrimac textile interests1 this plant became very influential and is running today4 ,the firm has changed several times with the deaths of various partners1 and is now known as the ,north ,chelmsford ,machine ,supply ,company4 ,it has preserved many of the old tools used in the early days1 and there are few shops of greater historical interest in this country4 #ada ,goodrich1 p4 #fd4 #adb ,ibid41 p4 #ff4 ,capt4 ,james ,s4 ,brown1 son of the ,sylvanus ,brown referred to1 who had worked for ,david ,wilkinson in #ahag1 succeeded ,ira ,gay in the ,pawtucket shop1 the firm becoming ,pitcher ,brown4 ,in #ahdb ,brown became sole owner and greatly enlarged the works4 ,the shop which he built in #ahdg was #djj feet long and employed over #cjj workmen4 ,brown lived for many years and made many valuable inventions1 which included a beveled gear cutter1 boring machine1 grinder1 improvement in the ,blanchard type of lathe1 and many improvements in textile machinery4 ,some of the lathes which he himself built in #ahbj were in use for seventy years4#adc #adc ,ibid41 pp4 #ga-gb4 ,col4 ,stephen ,jenks started a shop in #ahbj for the making of nuts and screws1 which later became the ,william ,h4 ,haskell ,company of ,pawtucket4 ,alvin ,jenks1 of ,stephen ,jenks ,sons1 went to ,central ,falls in #ahbi and the next year entered into partnership with ,david ,g4 ,fales4 ,this firm1 known as ,fales1 ,jenks ,company1 built cotton machinery for many years1 and moved to ,pawtucket in #ahfe4add ,the ,jenkses of the ,fales ,jenks ,machine ,company1 as it is known now1 are lineal descendants of the original ,joseph ,jenks of ,lynn4 #add ,ibid41 p4 #gb4 ,also1 ,field1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cgc4 ,in #ahcd ,jeremiah ,o4 ,arnold1 who as a young man worked for ,david ,wilkinson1 and his brother1 ,joseph ,arnold1 started in ,pawtucket the first press for making nuts4 ,later1 ,joseph ,arnold retired and ,william ,field took his place1 the firm becoming ,william ,field ,company4 ,they moved to ,providence in #ahdf1 and in #ahdg became the ,providence ,tool ,company4#ade ,the ,providence ,forge ,nut ,company was organized by some men from the ,tool ,company in #aheb1 and a plant was built4 ,four years later the new venture was absorbed by the parent company1 which moved to the new plant4 ,the ,providence ,tool ,company had a wide influence for many years1 manufacturing the ,household sewing machine and the ,martini rifle1 as well as a line of tools4 ,in #ahhc it was reorganized and became the present ,rhode ,island ,tool ,company4 #ade ,goodrich1 p4 #ge4 ,the ,franklin ,machine ,company was started by ,stanford ,newell1 ,isaac ,thurber and others1 about #ahjj4 ,the plant was always referred to in the old records as 8,the ,cupola40 ,during the ,war of #ahab it was busy making cannon under the charge of ,isaac ,wilkinson1 one of ,oziel's sons1 who was then a boy only seventeen years old4#adf ,the ,builders ,iron ,foundry1 formerly known as 8,the ,high ,street ,furnace10 began business some time prior to #ahbj4 ,the ,american ,screw ,company had its beginning in the ,eagle ,screw ,company1 organized in #ahch under the leadership of ,william ,g4 ,angell4 ,hampered by serious litigation and sharp competition1 it continued with indifferent success until #ahdi1 when ,mr4 ,angell1 adopting a machine invented by ,thomas ,j4 ,sloan of ,new ,york1 brought out the pointed screw4 ,the ,new ,england ,screw ,company1 whose inventor1 ,cullen ,whipple1 had come from the earlier ,providence ,screw ,company1 united with the ,eagle ,screw ,company in #ahfj1 forming the present ,american ,screw ,company4 #adf ,field1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cge4 ,the ,corliss ,machine ,works were started in #ahdh4 ,brown ,sharpe1 the most important and influential of all the ,providence plants1 was established in #ahcc by ,david ,brown and his son1 ,joseph ,r4 ,brown4 ,the history of this company is so important that it will be taken up in a separate chapter4 ,one can hardly turn from the history of manufactures in ,providence without some reference to the manufacturing of jewelry4 ,a ,cyril ,dodge made silver shoe buckles 8two doors north of the ,baptist meeting-house0 about the time of the ,revolution1 but the first real manufacturer of jewelry in ,providence was ,nehemiah ,dodge1 who1 just after the ,revolution1 started in a little shop on ,north ,main ,street as a goldsmith and watchmaker4 ,he also made necklaces1 rings and miniature cases4 ,dodge lived to be over ninety years old and to see the industry spread wonderfully4 ,by #ahje there were three other jewelers1 one of whom1 by the way1 was a ,jenks1 and they employed all told about thirty workmen4 ,in #ahaj there were #ajj workmen2 in #ahae1 #age2 and in #ahcb1 #bhb4 ,the census writers of #ahfj give eighty-six shops with #agfa workmen2 in #ahhj1 #adh shops with #cbfd employees1 and in #ahij there were #agj shops employing #dchj4 ,these figures cover ,providence only4 ,many other shops were located in near-by towns4 ,these were all small and tended to multiply4 ,the journeymen were the highest paid artisans anywhere about1 earning from #e to #aj a day1 and two or three were constantly setting up for themselves4 ,the oldest jewelry firm in or about ,providence is said to be the ,gorham ,manufacturing ,company now located in the suburb of ,elmwood4 ,jabez ,gorham1 its founder1 was first engaged as a jeweler with four others about #ahac4 ,in #ahca he formed a partnership with ,h4 ,l4 ,webster1 a journeyman silversmith from ,boston1 and specialized on the making of silver spoons1 thus starting the ,gorham ,manufacturing ,company4#adg ,palmer ,capron1 another old firm1 was founded about #ahdj4 #adg ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #cgg-cha4 ,there were other early centers of mechanical influence4 ,with the invention of steam navigation1 ,new ,york became a center of engine building for the steamboat trade1 and the ,allaire1 ,quintard1 ,fletcher1 ,delamater1 and other works1 were well known many years ago1 but for some reason ,new ,york ,city has never been conspicuous for tool building1 the ,garvin ,machine ,company being the only large firm in this field4 ,worcester1 ,hartford1 ,philadelphia and ,windsor1 ,vt4 7small and secluded as it is71 have contributed signally to tool building throughout this country and ,europe1 and will be taken up later4 ,we have considered ,pawtucket first1 because it was the earliest center and because its wide influence in building up other centers is little realized4 ,the extensive water power available in the ,merrimac ,valley gave rise to the great textile interests of ,manchester1 ,lowell and ,lawrence1 which have far outstripped those centered about ,pawtucket1 but the textile industry began in ,pawtucket and with it the building of machinery and tools4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,interchangeable ,,manufacture ,it is well1 in beginning1 to define what we mean by the interchangeable system4 ,we will consider it as the art of producing complete machines or mechanisms1 the corresponding parts of which are so nearly alike that any part may be fitted into any of the given mechanisms4 ,so considered1 it does not include the manufacture of separate articles1 closely like each other1 but which do not fit together permanently into a mechanism4 ,if this were meant1 the work of the early typefounders would clearly antedate that of the modern manufacturers1 as they produced printing types by the process of casting which were similar to each other within very close limits4 ,there is1 however1 a wide difference between this and the parts in such a mechanism as a gun1 for individual types are not permanently articulated4 ,the interchangeable system was developed by gun makers4 ,it is commercially applicable chiefly to articles of a high grade1 made in large numbers1 and in which interchangeability is desirable4 ,of the typical articles1 such as firearms1 bicycles1 typewriters1 sewing machines1 and the like1 now produced by the interchangeable system1 guns and pistols are the only ones which antedate the system itself4 ,these were used in great numbers1 and in military arms especially interchangeability was of the highest value4 ,under the old system with hand-made muskets1 in which each part was fitted to its neighbors1 the loss or injury of a single important part put the whole gun out of use until it could be repaired by an expert gunsmith4 ,eli ,whitney1 in a letter to the ,war ,department in #ahab1 stated that the ,british ,government had on hand over #bjj1jjj stands of muskets1 partially finished or awaiting repairs4#adh ,the desirability1 therefore1 of some system of manufacture by which all the parts could be standardized and interchangeable1 was well recognized4 ,there existed a demand for military arms which could meet this condition1 but it was felt at the time that it was impossible to meet it4 #adh ,blake3 8,history of ,hamden1 ,conn410 p4 #acc4 ,the system of interchangeable manufacture is generally considered to be of ,american origin4 ,in fact1 for many years it was known in ,europe as the 8,american ,system0 of manufacture4 ,if priority be assigned to the source which first made it successful1 it is ,american2 but the first suggestions of the system came from ,france4 ,we have already seen that the ,french mechanics were the first to work upon many of the great mechanical improvements2 but here1 as in the case of the slide-rest and planer1 they seem to have caught the idea only4 ,it was left to others to make it a practical success4 ,at least two attempts were made to manufacture guns interchangeably in ,france1 one in #agag1 the other in #aghe4 ,of the first we know little4 ,fitch1 in his 8,report on the ,manufactures of ,interchangeable ,mechanisms10 in the ,united ,states census of #ahhj1 speaks of it1 but says it was a failure4#adi ,we know of the second from an interesting and surprising source4 ,thomas ,jefferson1 while ,minister to ,france1 wrote a letter to ,john ,jay1 dated ,august #cj1 #aghe1 which contains the following3 #adi p4 #b4 ,an improvement is made here in the construction of muskets1 which it may be interesting to ,congress to know1 should they at any time propose to procure any4 ,it consists in the making every part of them so exactly alike1 that what belongs to any one1 may be used for every other musket in the magazine4 ,the government here has examined and approved the method1 and is establishing a large manufactory for the purpose of putting it into execution4 ,as yet1 the inventor has only completed the lock of the musket1 on this plan4 ,he will proceed immediately to have the barrel1 stock1 and other parts1 executed in the same way4 ,supposing it might be useful in the ,united ,states1 ,i went to the workman4 ,he presented me the parts of fifty locks taken to pieces1 and arranged in compartments4 ,i put several together myself1 taking pieces at hazard as they came to hand1 and they fitted in the most perfect manner4 ,the advantages of this1 when arms need repair1 are evident4 ,he effects it by tools of his own contrivance1 which1 at the same time1 abridge the work1 so that he thinks he shall be able to furnish the musket two livres cheaper than the common price4 ,but it will be two or three years before he will be able to furnish any quantity4 ,i mention it now1 as it may have an influence on the plan for furnishing our magazines with this arm4#aej #aej 8,the ,writings of ,thomas ,jefferson10 ,edited by ,h4 ,a4 ,washington1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #daa4 ,new ,york1 #ahec4 ,six months later he wrote a letter to the governor of ,virginia1 which is almost a copy of this one4 ,in another letter written many years later to ,james ,monroe1 ,jefferson gives the name of this mechanic as ,le ,blanc1 saying that he had extended his system to the barrel1 mounting and stock1 and stating3 8,i endeavored to get the ,u4 ,s4 to bring him over1 which he was ready for on moderate terms4 ,i failed and ,i do not know what became of him40#aea ,we wish to give full credit to this genius who seems to have caught a clear idea of some at least of the principles involved1 those of interchangeability and the substitution of machine work for hand work4 ,the account makes no mention of gauges or of the division of labor1 but this might easily have been due to ,jefferson's unfamiliarity with the details of manufacture4 #aea 8,the ,writings of ,thomas ,jefferson10 ,edited by ,paul ,l4 ,ford1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #aja4 ,new ,york1 #ahhg4 ,we have seen in a previous chapter that a close approach to the interchangeable system was made in the ,portsmouth block machinery of ,bentham and ,brunel4 ,this was rather an application of modern manufacturing principles than a specific case of interchangeable manufacture4 ,the interchangeability of product obtained was incidental to good manufacturing methods1 not a distinct object aimed at1 and there does not seem to have been any system of gauging during the processes of manufacture1 to insure maintaining the various parts within specified limits of accuracy4 ,in fact1 the output itself did not require it1 as ship's blocks do not call for anything like the precision necessary in guns or the other typical products of the interchangeable system4 ,we have seen1 too1 that ,john ,george ,bodmer began about #ahjf to manufacture guns at ,st4 ,blaise in the ,black ,forest1 using special machinery for much of the work previously done by hand1 especially for the parts of the lock1 which 8were shaped and prepared for immediate use1 so as to insure perfect uniformity and economize labor40 ,in both of these instances1 the ,portsmouth block machinery and the ,st4 ,blaise factory1 definite steps which form part of the interchangeable system were taken1 but it does not seem probable that the system existed in anything like the completeness with which it was being developed at that time in ,america4 ,in #agih and #agii two contracts were let by the ,united ,states ,government for firearms1 one to ,eli ,whitney in #agih1 the other to ,simeon ,north in #agii4 ,these contracts are of the greatest importance4 ,whitney had invented the cotton gin in #agib4 ,this invention1 as is well known1 had a profound economic effect on the whole civilized world1 but the condition of the patent laws at that time and the very value of the invention itself made it impossible for him to defend his rights2 and1 although he had practically created a vast industry1 he actually lost more money by the invention than he gained4 ,by #agih he made up his mind that he must turn to something else4 ,he chose the manufacture of muskets1 and addressed a letter to ,oliver ,wolcott1 ,secretary of the ,treasury1 in which he said3 ,i should like to undertake the manufacture of ten to fifteen thousand stand of arms4 ,i am persuaded that machinery moved by water1 adapted to this business would greatly diminish the labor and greatly facilitate the manufacture of this article4 ,machines for forging1 rolling1 floating1 boring1 grinding1 polishing1 etc41 may all be made use of to advantage4#aeb #aeb 8,new ,haven ,colony ,historical ,society ,papers10 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #aag4 ,his contract of #agih resulted4 ,from the very start ,whitney proposed to manufacture these arms on a 8new principle40 ,he built a mill at ,whitneyville1 just outside of the city of ,new ,haven1 utilizing a small water power4 ,nearly two years were required to get the plant into operation1 as he had to design and build all of his proposed machinery4 ,in #ahab when making application for another contract for #ae1jjj muskets1 ,whitney writes3 ,the subscriber begs leave further to remark that he has for the last #ab years been engaged in manufacturing muskets2 that he now has the most respectable private establishment in the ,united ,states for carrying on this important branch of business4 ,that this establishment was commenced and has been carried on upon a plan which is unknown in ,europe1 and the great leading object of which is to substitute correct and effective operations of machinery for that skill of the artist which is acquired only by long practice and experience2 a species of skill which is not possessed in this country to any considerable extent4#aec #aec ,ibid41 p4 #abb4 ,in another place it is stated that the object at which he aimed and which he accomplished was 8to make the same parts of different guns1 as the locks1 for example1 as much like each other as the successive impressions of a copper-plate engraving40#aed #aed ,denison ,olmstead3 8,memoir of ,eli ,whitney10 p4 #ej4 #ahdf4 ,mr4 ,whitney's determination to introduce this system of manufacturing was ridiculed and laughed at by the ,french and ,english ordnance officers to whom he explained it4 ,they said that by his system every arm would be a model and that arms so made would cost enormously4 ,even the ,washington officials were skeptical and became uneasy at advancing so much money without a single gun having been completed1 and ,whitney went to ,washington1 taking with him ten pieces of each part of a musket4 ,he exhibited these to the ,secretary of ,war and the army officers interested1 as a succession of piles of different parts4 ,selecting indiscriminately from each of the piles1 he put together ten muskets1 an achievement which was looked on with amazement4 ,we have not the exact date of this occurrence1 but it was probably about #ahjj4aee #aee ,blake3 8,history of ,hamden1 ,conn410 p4 #ach4 ,meantime ,simeon ,north1 who unlike ,whitney was a gun maker by trade1 had completed his first contract for #aejj pistols1 and had executed a number of others4 ,in these no mention was made of interchangeability1 but whether independently or not1 he very soon began to develop the same methods as ,whitney4 ,in a letter to the ,secretary of the ,navy in #ahjh1 ,north says3 ,i find that by confining a workman to one particular limb of the pistol untill he has made two thousand1 ,i save at least one quarter of his labour1 to what ,i should provided ,i finishd them by small quantities2 and the work will be as much better as it is quicker made4#aef #aef ,s4 ,n4 ,d4 and ,r4 ,h4 ,north3 8,memoir of ,simeon ,north10 p4 #fd4 #aiac4 ,he also says in the same letter3 ,i have some seventeen thousand screws other parts of pistols now forgd4 many parts nearly finished the business is going on brisk and lively4 ,here is clearly the principle of subdivision of labor and the beginning of the standardizing of parts4 ,in #ahac ,north contracted to furnish #bj1jjj pistols4 ,this agreement contained the following significant clause3 ,the component parts of the pistols are to correspond so exactly that any limb or part of one ,pistol may be fitted to any other ,pistol of the ,twenty thousand4#aeg #aeg ,ibid41 p4 #ha4 ,it is stated in the valuable memoir of ,simeon ,north1 by his great-grandsons1 that this is the first government contract in which the contractor agreed to produce arms having interchangeable parts1 and it is consequently claimed for ,colonel ,north that he originated this process4 ,we have not had an opportunity to examine the official records in ,washington in regard to ,mr4 ,whitney's dealings1 but it is quite clear from his letter of #ahab that he had been operating on this basis for nearly ten years1 although it may not have been formally recognized in his contracts with the ,government4 ,capt4 ,decius ,wadsworth1 then inspector of muskets1 wrote to the ,secretary of the ,treasury in #ahjj as follows3 ,but where the different parts of the lock are each formed and fashioned successively by a proper machine1 and by the same hand1 they will be found to differ so insensibly that the similar parts of different locks may be mutually substituted4 ,the extending of this principle to all parts of a musket has been a favorite idea with ,mr4 ,whitney from the beginning4 ,it has been treated and ridiculed as a vain and impracticable attempt by almost all those who pretended to superior knowledge and experience in the business4 ,he has the satisfaction1 however1 now of shewing the practicability of the attempt4 ,although ,i am of the opinion that there is more to please the imagination than of real utility in the plan1 yet as it affords an incalculable proof of his superior skill as a workman1 and is what ,i believe has never been attempted with success before1 it is deserving of much consideration4#aeh #aeh ,blake1 p4 #bif4 ,furthermore1 ,jefferson1 in the letter to ,monroe written in #ahja1 says in speaking of ,whitney3 ,he has invented molds and machines for making all the pieces of his locks so exactly equal1 that take #ajj locks to pieces and mingle their parts and the #ajj locks may be put together by taking the pieces which come to hand4#aei #aei ,see note #aej1 page #acj4 ,in a letter to the ,secretary of ,war in ,june1 #ahja1 ,whitney writes3 8444 my system and plan of operations are1 ,i believe1 entirely new and different from those heretofore pursued in this or any other country4 8,it was the understanding and expectation of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 with whom ,i contracted1 that ,i should establish a manufactory on the principles which were then pointed out and explained to him4 ,this system has been uniformly pursued from the beginning40#afj #afj ,blake1 p4 #cjj4 ,it would seem that the stipulation in ,north's contract of #ahac was not so much the beginning of a new method as a recognition of methods which had already come into existence4 ,it seems almost inevitable that the two men1 pioneer manufacturers and government contractors in closely allied industries1 and located but twenty miles apart1 must have known more or less of each other's work and have been influenced by each other's methods4 ,without trying to differentiate the credit between them too closely it is quite certain that in the work of these two men the interchangeable system had its birth4 ,colonel ,north's work for the ,government was invariably well done1 and for more than fifty years he continued to supply1 first pistols1 and later rifles for the army and navy4 ,of the two1 ,whitney had the greater influence in spreading the interchangeable system throughout the country4 ,he was well known and influential through his invention of the cotton gin and was located in a larger center4 ,he was called upon by the ,government for advice1 and at its request sent to ,springfield some of his best workmen to introduce his system there1 and also help to start it at ,harper's ,ferry4 ,whitney built his factory in #agih or #ahjj1 and employed at the start about sixty men4 ,colonel ,north moved from ,berlin to ,middletown in #ahac1 and built a factory at a cost of about #ajj1jjj1 where he employed seventy men and produced about thirty pistols a day4 ,the interchangeable system was well begun in both of these factories by #ahae4 ,the ,springfield armory had been started during the ,revolution1 mainly for making cannon4 ,in #agib ,congress authorized the ,president to establish two arsenals for small arms4 ,these were located at ,springfield in the ,north1 and ,harper's ,ferry in the ,south4 ,in #ahaa ,captain ,hall was granted a patent for a gun which was adopted as the government standard in #ahai and the ,government undertook to manufacture them at one of its own armories4 ,captain ,hall was placed in charge of the work and the plant at ,harper's ,ferry was equipped for interchangeable manufacture4#afa ,later many of these rifles were made by private contractors1 such as ,colonel ,north4 ,by #ahbh in one of ,colonel ,north's contracts we find the principle of interchangeability extended still further4 ,it is guaranteed that the component parts should be interchangeable1 not only in the lot contracted for1 but that they may be exchanged in a similar manner with the rifles made or making at the national armories4#afb #afa 8,memoir of ,simeon ,north10 pp4 #afh-afi4 #afb ,ibid41 p4 #afj4 ,in #ahcf ,samuel ,colt invented his revolver1 and the first lot contracted for by the ,government was made at the ,whitney works in #ahdg4 ,mr4 ,colt determined about #ahej to establish his own factory1 moved to ,hartford1 and in #ahed-ahee built the present ,colt's ,armory1 in which the principles of interchangeable manufacture were adopted in a most advanced form4 ,hand work was practically eliminated and automatic and semi-automatic machinery substituted4 ,a type of manufacturing miller1 built for this work by ,george ,s4 ,lincoln ,company1 is still known as the ,lincoln miller4 ,e4 ,k4 ,root1 superintendent under ,colt1 had a profound influence in the development of manufacturing at this time4 ,he put the art of die forging on its present basis4 ,at first he used a type of hammer in which four impressions were arranged in four different sets of dies4 ,the hammers were lifted1 first by a set of dogs1 later by a central screw1 and the operator walked around the machine1 using the impressions successively4 ,a few years later the present form of board drop was developed4 ,two of ,george ,s4 ,lincoln ,company's men were ,francis ,a4 ,pratt1 superintendent1 and ,amos ,whitney1 contractor1 who later founded the firm of ,pratt ,whitney4 ,in #aheg ,smith ,wesson began manufacturing revolvers at ,springfield along similar lines4 ,mr4 ,smith had worked in the old ,whitney shops4 ,another firm of great influence was that of ,robbins ,lawrence1 later the ,windsor ,machine ,company1 in ,windsor1 ,vt4 ,frederick ,w4 ,howe built there a number of machines for profile milling1 rifling1 barrel drilling1 and is said to have designed the first 8universal0 miller in #aheb4afc ,the ,ames ,manufacturing ,company in ,chicopee1 which had been founded in #ahbi1 was also engaged in this work4 ,by #ahej the interchangeable system began to extend its influence abroad4 ,robbins ,lawrence had an exhibit of interchangeable guns in the exposition at ,london in #ahea1 which attracted much attention4 ,in #ahec a ,british ,commission came to this country and visited the government and private armories1 the ,ames ,manufacturing ,company and ,robbins ,lawrence4 ,during the visit of this ,commission at ,springfield1 ,major ,ripley1 superintendent of the armory1 ordered ten guns1 which had been manufactured in ten successive years1 from #ahdc to #ahec1 to be stripped1 and the parts to be reassembled at random4 #afc ,not to be confused with the ,brown ,sharpe universal milling machine1 which was invented by ,joseph ,r4 ,brown in #ahga4 ,illustration3 ,,thos4 ,,blanchard ,,eli ,,whitney ,,simeon ,,north ,blanchard lathe and ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,middletown1 ,conn4 stocking machinery ,after his death ,four sons--,reuben1 99#a1 #b99 business carried on ,james1 ,alvin and by ,e4 ,w4 ,philos ,selah ,blake1 nephews1 99#h1 #i99 followed by ,eli ,whitney1 ,jr4 ,business sold to ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co4 #ahhh 99#c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g99 #a1 #c1 #h #b #g #i ,,springfield ,,armory ,,harper',s ,,ferry ,,armory ,capt4 ,john ,h4 ,hall ,jas4 ,h4 ,burton 99#ae99 #f ,,robbins ,,lawrence ,,smith ,,wesson ,windsor1 ,vt4 ,norwich1 ,conn4 later ,fredk4 ,w4 ,howe ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,henry ,d4 ,stone ,horace ,smith worked 99#aj #aa #ab #ac #ad99 for ,whitney ,arms ,co4 ,d4 ,b4 ,wesson invented cartridge1 which was sold to 99#af99 #d #af ,,ames ,,mfg4 ,,co4 ,,samuel ,,colt ,,volcanic ,,arms ,,co4 ,chicopee1 ,mass4 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,sold to ,o4 ,f4 ,n4 ,p4 ,ames1 ,first revolvers ,winchester ,jas4 ,t4 ,ames1 made by ,whitney 99#bc #bd99 99#ag99 ,arms ,co4 #ae 99#ai #bj #ba #bb99 ,jas4 ,h4 ,burton 99#ah99 #ab #ag #bj #ad #bc ,,enfield ,,gun ,,machinery ,e4 ,k4 ,,root ,,tyler ,,henry and other machinery ,built ,colt's ,armory3 ,workman at ,robbins for ,european ,drop hammers1 cartridge ,lawrence4 ,improved the governments machinery ,jennings' ,rifle 99#be99 99#bf99 #ah #ai #ac #ba #be #bd #bf ,c4 ,m4 ,,spencer ,,geo4 ,s4 ,,lincoln ,,co4 ,,new ,,haven ,,arms ,,co4 ,rifles1 drop ,hartford1 ,conn4 8,henry0 ,rifle hammers1 automatic ,lincoln ,miller1 first 99#bh99 lathes built for ,colt4 ,pratt 99#bi99 and ,whitney were two of their foremen 99#bg99 #aa #bb #bg #e #bh ,,jones ,,lamson ,,mach4 ,,pratt ,,whitney ,,winchester ,,repeating ,,co4 ,hartford4 ,conn4 ,,arms ,,co4 ,turret lathes1 etc4 ,gun machinery1 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 machine tools1 etc4 8,model '#ff0 ,winchester1 etc4 #aj #bb #bi #cj ,,billings ,,spencer ,,hartford ,,mach4 ,,scr4 ,,co4 ,drop ,hammers1 ,drop ,forgings1 etc4 ,automatic ,lathes1 ,screw ,machine ,billings apprentice at ,robbins ,products ,lawrence4 ,fairfield and ,spencer4 ,both worked ,billings and ,spencer worked at at ,colt's ,colt's4 99#cj99 ,,figure #bg4 ,,genealogy ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,england ,,gun ,,makers ,as a result of this visit #bj1jjj interchangeable ,enfield rifles were ordered by the ,english ,government1 and in #ahee1 #aeg machines for the manufacture of guns were sent to ,england4 ,these machines comprised seventy-four millers1 twenty-three drilling machines1 five tapping machines1 and seven edging machines4 ,the remainder were special machines for threading1 rifling1 turning1 boring1 and so on4#afd ,in this list of machines scarcely a single lathe is found and no mention is made of any turret machines4 ,ten or fifteen years later there would have been a large number4 ,james ,h4 ,burton1 who had been at the ,harper's ,ferry armory and was at the time with the ,ames ,manufacturing ,company1 went over to ,england to install the new system and operate the new plant4 ,the ,ames ,manufacturing ,company alone is said to have exported four to five hundred stocking machines of the ,blanchard type on these early foreign orders4 ,within the next fifteen or twenty years nearly every government in ,europe was supplied with ,american gun-making machinery1 all planned to operate on the interchangeable system1 which was known everywhere as 8the ,american system40 #afd ,fitch3 8,report on ,manufactures of ,interchangeable ,mechanism10 ,u4 ,s4 ,census1 #ahhj4 ,volume on 8,manufactures40 ,nasmyth was concerned in the introduction of this machinery into ,england4 ,his mention of it in his autobiography throws light on how the interchangeable system was looked upon by the ,english engineers3 ,in #ahec ,i was appointed a member of the ,small ,arms ,committee for the purpose of remodeling and1 in fact1 re-establishing1 the ,small ,arms ,factory at ,enfield4 ,the wonderful success of the needle gun in the war between ,prussia and ,denmark in #ahdh occasioned some alarm amongst our military authorities as to the state of affairs at home4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington to the last proclaimed the sufficiency of 8,brown ,bess0 as a weapon of offense and defense2 but matters could no longer be deferred4 ,the ,united ,states ,government1 though possessing only a very small standing army1 had established at ,springfield a small arms factory1 where1 by the use of machine tools specially designed to execute with the most unerring precision all the details of muskets and rifles1 they were enabled to dispense with mere manual dexterity1 and to produce arms to any amount4 ,it was finally determined to improve the musketry and rifle systems of the ,english army4 ,the ,government resolved to introduce the ,american system1#afe by which arms might be produced much more perfectly1 and at a great diminution of cost4 ,it was under such circumstances that the ,small ,arms ,committee was appointed4 #afe ,italics are ours4 ,colonel ,colt had brought to ,england some striking examples of the admirable tools used at ,springfield#aff and he established a manufactory at ,pimlico for the production of his well-known revolvers4 ,the committee resolved to make a personal visit to the ,united ,states ,factory at ,springfield4 ,my own business engagements at home prevented my accompanying the members who were selected2 but as my friend ,john ,anderson 7now ,sir ,john7 acted as their guide1 the committee had in him the most able and effective helper4 ,he directed their attention to the most important and available details of that admirable establishment4 ,the ,united ,states ,government acted most liberally in allowing the committee to obtain every information on the subject2 and the heads of the various departments1 who were intelligent and zealous1 rendered them every attention and civility4 #aff ,hartford8 ,the members of the mission returned home enthusiastically delighted with the results of their inquiry4 ,the committee immediately proceeded with the entire remodeling of the ,small ,arms ,factory at ,enfield4 ,the workshops were equipped with a complete series of special machine tools1 chiefly obtained from the ,springfield factory4#afg ,the ,united ,states ,government also permitted several of their best and most experienced workmen and superintendents to take service under the ,english ,government4#afh #afg ,this must be a mistake4 ,the machinery seems to have been supplied chiefly by ,bobbins ,lawrence and the ,ames ,mfg4 ,co4 ,mr4 ,burton of the latter company installed it4 #afh ,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth1 pp4 #cfb-cfc4 ,in using the term 8interchangeable0 it must be remembered that the meaning attached to this word grew during these years4 ,the interchangeability of #ahac would not have been considered satisfactory in #ahee1 much less so today4 ,when ,hall completed his first hundred rifles at ,harper's ,ferry in #ahbd1 it is said that 8the joint of the breech block was so fitted that a sheet of paper would slide loosely in the joint1 but two sheets would stick40 ,this system of gauging will have a familiar sound to the older mechanics who grew up before the days of the micrometer4 ,when ,colonel ,north was given his first contract for the rifles and furnished two models to work from1 these models were so unlike that he asked to have one set aside and that he be allowed to gauge his work from the other4 ,of the various tools associated with interchangeable manufacture1 drilling jigs were in use very early1 probably from the start4 ,the filing jig is said to have been invented by ,selah ,north1 the son of ,colonel ,north1 but it was used by ,whitney almost as early4 ,both ,whitney and ,colonel ,north were using plain milling by #ahbj4 ,a light sort of milling machine is shown in the ,french ,encyclopedia of #aggb1 already referred to1 but the first successful one was built by ,mr4 ,whitney some time prior to #ahah4 ,this machine1 still in existence and now in the possession of the ,sheffield ,scientific ,school of ,yale ,university1 is shown again in ,fig4 #bh4afi ,in #ahag to #ahbb we find the introduction of forging in hand dies1 barrel turning by special machinery1 and the ,blanchard lathe for gun-stocks4 ,receiving gauges are said to have been used at ,middletown in #ahbi1 and were regularly in use at ,springfield by #ahdj4 ,automatic machinery for the woodworking was first invented by ,blanchard in #ahah for the ,springfield armory4 ,the accuracy of these machines1 shown in ,fig4 #bi1 outran that of the metal work of the time4 ,to accommodate the variations still present in the metal parts ,blanchard devised a machine which used the actual lock plates as formers and cut the stocks to match1 and such machines were used at ,springfield until #ahdj4 ,by that time the work on the metal parts could be made as accurately as the stocks1 and this method was no longer necessary4 ,a modern degree of accuracy in shaping of the metal portions was not possible until the miller came into general use for irregular shapes1 which was some time in the forties4 ,by #ahdb1 for the new musket to be manufactured at ,springfield1 there was a complete set of model jigs1 taps and gauges4 ,the profiling machine was developed by ,f4 ,w4 ,howe1 ,r4 ,s4 ,lawrence1 and ,e4 ,k4 ,root1 from #ahdh to #aheb4 ,a drop hammer with dies was used by ,hall of ,harper's ,ferry in #ahbg1 the head of which was raised by a moving chain and freed by a trip at the desired height4 ,later ,peck invented his lifter1 using a strap4 ,the ,root drop hammers we have already mentioned4 ,the board drop is largely the work of ,spencer4 #afi ,for a detailed account of this machine and its history see ,american ,machinist1 ,vol4 ,,xxxvi1 p4 #ajcg4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #bh4 ,,the ,,first ,,milling ,,machine ,,built ,,by ,,eli ,,whitney ,,about #ahah4 ,,now ,,in ,,the ,,mason ,,laboratory1 ,,yale ,,university ,illustration3 ,,figure #bi4 ,,blanchard 8,,gun-,,stocking0 ,,lathe ,,built ,,in #ahah ,,for ,,the ,,springfield ,,armory4 ,,in ,,use ,,over ,,fifty ,,years ,probably no machine has had so great an influence on interchangeable manufacture as the automatic turret lathe4 ,the turret lathe1 8the first radical improvement on ,maudslay's slide-rest10 was built commercially by ,robbins ,lawrence in #ahed1 and is said to have grown out of a revolving-head bolt cutter which ,henry ,d4 ,stone saw at ,hartford4 ,the turret idea was not originated by ,stone4 ,root and ,howe had used it a number of years before1 and it had been utilized by several others4 ,all of these turrets except ,howe's seem to have had a horizontal axis instead of the vertical one which became general4 ,later improvements by ,c4 ,m4 ,spencer and a long line of brilliant mechanics have increased the accuracy of the turret lathe and made it more nearly automatic than any other type of general machine tool4 ,today it is1 with the milling machine1 the main reliance for interchangeable work4 ,in sketching the development of interchangeable methods in ,american shops1 we have confined our attention to gun makers chiefly4 ,they were by no means the only ones to have a part in this development1 but they were its originators1 they determined its methods1 and developed most of the machines typical of the process4 ,about #ahcj ,chauncey ,jerome began the manufacture of brass clocks4 ,terry1 ,thomas and other ,connecticut mechanics had been manufacturing wooden clocks1 which gave way to metal clocks as the advantage of interchangeable manufacture became recognized4 ,in #ahdh ,a4 ,l4 ,dennison founded the ,american ,watch ,company at ,waltham4 ,the interchangeable system has nowhere reached a higher development than in the work of this company and of the other great watch factories4 ,in #ahdf ,elias ,howe was granted his patent on sewing machines1 and within four or five years their manufacture sprang up on a large scale4 ,both of these industries1 watch and clock manufacture and the manufacture of sewing machines1 utilized a system which was already well established4 ,since that time it has been applied to a wide variety of articles4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,whitney ,,and ,,north ,in the last chapter we considered the rise of the interchangeable system of manufacture and saw that it started in the shops of ,eli ,whitney1 at ,new ,haven1 and of ,simeon ,north1 at ,middletown4 ,the lives of these men are of much interest1 particularly that of ,whitney4 ,his struggle in defense of his patent rights on the cotton gin is instructive for all who see a high road to fortune in the patenting of a valuable invention4 ,measured by its economic effect1 the cotton gin is one of the greatest of inventions4 ,as an industrial factor its success was immediate and far-reaching4 ,it developed the agricultural resources of nearly half the ,united ,states1 made possible its gigantic cotton crop1 vastly increased the wealth of this country and1 to a scarcely less extent1 that of ,england2 and yet toward the end of his life1 ,mr4 ,whitney said that he had hardly more than 8come out even on it02 and this in spite of the fact that his patent was sustained and was apparently one of the most valuable ever granted4 ,a patent for an invention which meets a widespread and pressing need1 and for which there is a tremendous demand1 is difficult to defend4 ,watt's rights in the steam engine were established only after a long and bitter fight1 and he would have failed and died a disappointed man had it not been for the indomitable courage and business skill of his partner1 ,matthew ,boulton4 ,whitney was a far better business man than ,watt1 but his partner was not in any way the equal of ,boulton4 ,if he had been1 the story of the cotton gin might have been different4 ,whitney saw the futility of depending solely on patent rights and wisely turned his splendid talents to manufacturing2 where1 without patent protection of any kind1 by methods then new1 but which have since spread throughout the world1 he built up a fortune4 ,someone has said that the besetting sin of mechanics is invention4 ,this may1 or may not1 be true1 but it is worth pondering whether superior methods and business judgment are not still the best industrial protection4 ,eli ,whitney1 whose portrait is shown in ,fig4 #cj1 was born in ,westborough1 ,mass41 in #agfe4 ,he came from that best school of mechanics1 the ,new ,england hill farm4 ,most of the early ,american mechanics1 like him1 came from the country and had the same training of hard work with simple implements1 and learned to turn their hand to nearly everything1 and to work with few and rough tools4 ,from his boyhood he showed mechanical talent4 ,when he was fifteen1 with his father's consent1 he began making nails with the aid of such rudimentary tools as he could contrive4 ,this was during the ,revolutionary ,war1 when nails were in great demand and brought a high price4 ,by hard work he built up a profitable little business which he carried on for two winters in addition to the ordinary work of the farm during the summer4 ,the business grew beyond his capacity to care for alone1 so he set out on horseback to a neighboring town in quest of a fellow laborer4 ,not finding one as easily as he had anticipated1 he rode from town to town with the persistence which was a strong trait in his character1 until forty miles from home he found such a workman as he desired4 ,during this journey he called at every workshop on his way and absorbed all the information he could respecting the mechanical arts4 ,when the nail business ceased to be profitable after the war1 he turned his attention to knife blades and to the making of the long pins for bonnets then in fashion4 ,he showed so much skill that he nearly monopolized the latter business4 ,when nineteen years old1 ,whitney determined to obtain a liberal education1 but he was not able to gain his father's consent until he was twenty-three4 ,then1 in #aghh1 with money made partly in his little manufacturing business and partly from teaching school1 he entered ,yale ,college4 ,he completed his college education with but little expense to his father who paid a few of the last of his college bills1 for which the son gave his note and which he paid soon after graduation4 ,his work at college was creditable1 rather than brilliant2 he left a marked impression behind him for good judgment1 sound reasoning and steady1 intelligent work4#agj #agj ,the best sources of information on ,whitney are3 ,olmstead3 8,memoir of ,eli ,whitney1 ,esqr40 ,new ,haven1 #ahdf4 ,blake3 8,history of ,hamden1 ,conn40 ,new ,haven1 #ahhh4 ,blake3 8,sketch of the ,life of ,eli ,whitney10 8,new ,haven ,colony ,historical ,society ,papers10 ,vol4 ,v1 #ahid4 ,there were few school facilities in the ,south at that time and many of the wealthy planters had their children educated by private tutors4 ,in the fall of #agib1 the year in which he graduated1 ,whitney was engaged as a private tutor in a family in ,georgia4 ,on his way there he met ,mrs4 ,greene1 the widow of ,general ,nathaniel ,greene1 who was returning to ,savannah after spending the summer in the ,north4 ,when ,whitney reached ,georgia he found that1 despite his engagement1 another had been given his place and he was stranded1 practically penniless1 a thousand miles from home and not knowing which way to turn4 ,mrs4 ,greene kindly invited him to make her house his home4 ,he did so1 and began to study law under her hospitable roof4 ,here he met ,phineas ,miller1 a native of ,connecticut and also a graduate of ,yale ,college1 who had himself come south as a tutor in the ,greene family and after ,general ,greene's death had become manager of his estate4 ,he was a man of cultivated mind1 of eager1 hopeful temperament and later he married ,mrs4 ,greene4 ,shortly after ,whitney's coming1 a large party of gentlemen from ,augusta and the upper country1 consisting principally of officers who had served under the ,general in the ,revolutionary army1 were visiting ,mrs4 ,greene4 ,in the course of the conversation the deplorable state of agriculture was discussed1 and great regret expressed that there was no means of separating green seed cotton from its seed1 since all the lands which were unsuitable for the cultivation of rice and long staple cotton1 would yield large crops of green seed cotton4 ,the black or long staple cotton had already been introduced successfully in the ,sea ,islands1 but it could not be grown inland4 ,it was vain to think of raising green seed or upland cotton for the market unless some machine could be devised which would facilitate the process of cleaning4 ,separating one pound of the staple from the seed was a day's work for one woman4 ,during this conversation ,mrs4 ,greene told them that ,whitney could invent their machine1 saying1 8,he can make anything40 ,this incident turned ,whitney's attention to the subject4 ,encouraged by ,miller he dropped his law studies1 went to ,savannah1 obtained a small parcel of raw cotton1 and set himself at work on the problem4 ,with such resources as the plantation afforded he made tools suited to his purpose1 drew his own wire and by the close of the winter had so far developed the machine as to leave no doubt of its success4 ,the first model he made 7made1 it is said1 in about two weeks7 is still in existence in the possession of his grandson1 the present ,eli ,whitney4 ,the three essential elements of his gin1 the rotary wheel with forward pointing wires or teeth1 the slotted bar1 and the revolving brushes for cleaning the teeth1 remain practically unchanged today4 ,at that time the market was glutted with such products as ,georgia produced1 trade was languishing1 and there was little employment for the negroes or support for the white inhabitants4 ,mrs4 ,greene indiscreetly showed the first machine to visitors and the news soon leaked out that a means had been devised for separating more cotton in one day1 with the labor of a single man1 than could have been done in the usual manner in the space of many months4 ,an invention so important to the agricultural interest could not long remain a secret4 ,the knowledge spread throughout the state and so great was the excitement that multitudes from all quarters came to see the machine4 ,it was not deemed safe to gratify their curiosity until patent rights were secured1 but so determined were they that the building was broken into by night and the machine carried off4 ,in this way the public became possessed of the invention1 and before ,whitney could secure his patent a number of machines were in successful operation4 ,they deviated only slightly from the original and gave ,whitney much trouble later in establishing his rights to the invention4 ,in the spring of #agic1 ,miller and ,whitney formed a partnership under the name of ,miller ,whitney1 for developing the business1 and ,whitney returned to ,connecticut to perfect the machine1 obtain a patent1 and manufacture and ship to ,georgia machines to meet the demand4 ,at the start they made a fatal error of policy in deciding to buy the seed themselves1 gin it and sell the product4 ,protected by their patent1 they planned to maintain a monopoly of this business4 ,later they were willing to manufacture and sell the machines for general use or to sell the rights4 ,if they had done this at the start much of the opposition which they incurred might have been obviated4 ,whitney1 at least1 was a clear-sighted business man and if he had realized the magnitude of the result of his invention he would probably not have chosen this course4 ,there is not another instance in the history of invention of the letting loose of such tremendous industrial forces so suddenly4 ,the inventions of ,arkwright1 ,watt1 ,fulton and ,stephenson have affected society quite as profoundly as did that of the cotton gin1 some of them more so1 but in none of these cases were the results so immediate4 ,in #aghd1 only eight years before ,whitney's invention1 eight bales of cotton from the ,united ,states which were landed at ,liverpool were seized on the ground that they could not have been produced in the ,united ,states4#aga ,in #agia the total production of cotton in the world was estimated at #dij1jjj1jjj pounds1 of which the ,united ,states produced #b1jjj1jjj pounds1 or only 1 of which #ahi1caf pounds were exported4 ,in #agib they exported #ach1cbh pounds1 an actual decrease of #ea1jjj pounds from the previous year4 ,in #agic1 the year after the gin was invented1 there was an exportation of #dhg1jjj pounds2 in #agid of #a1fja1jjj pounds2 in #agie of #f1bgf1jjj pounds4 ,by #ahjj the total production had risen to #ce1jjj1jjj pounds1 of which #ag1gij1jjj pounds were exported4 ,in #ahde the total estimated output of the world was #a1afi1fjj1jjj pounds1 of which the ,united ,states produced nearly seven-eighths4#agb ,at the present time the output of the ,united ,states is about #ae1jjj1jjj bales1 or #g1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,less than #a per cent of this is 8,sea ,island0 or long staple cotton4 ,all the rest is upland or green seed cotton1 cleaned on the ,whitney type of gin1 and made commercially available by his method of cleaning4 #aga ,olmstead3 8,memoir of ,eli ,whitney1 ,esqr40 p4 #fc4 ,also1 ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 ,eleventh ,edition1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #bfd4 #agb ,olmstead3 8,memoir40 ,also ,merchant's ,magazine1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 ,article on 8,history of the ,american ,cotton ,trade10 by ,james ,h4 ,lanman4 ,the intensity of the demand for the use of this machine made it practically impossible to defend a patent right upon it4 ,the patent laws of the country1 as has been stated1 were crude at that time1 and the infringement suits were tried before juries composed of the very men who were interested in breaking the patent4 ,nearly all of the great inventions have been developments to which a number of inventors have contributed1 as in the case of the steam engine1 the locomotive1 and the steamboat2 but the fundamental invention of the cotton gin was due to ,whitney and to ,whitney alone4 ,and yet in a letter written to ,robert ,fulton1 at a later date1 he says3 ,my invention was new and distinct from every other3 it stood alone4 ,it was not interwoven with anything before known2 and it can seldom happen that an invention or improvement is so strongly marked1 and can be so clearly and specifically identified2 and ,i have always believed1 that ,i should have had no difficulty in causing my rights to be respected1 if it had been less valuable1 and been used only by a small portion of the community4 ,but the use of this machine being immensely profitable to almost every planter in the cotton districts1 all were interested in trespassing upon the patent-right1 and each kept the other in countenance4 ,demagogs made themselves popular by misrepresentation and unfounded clamors1 both against the right and against the law made for its protection4 ,hence there arose associations and combinations to oppose both4 ,at one time1 but few men in ,georgia dared to come into court and testify to the most simple facts within their knowledge1 relative to the use of the machine4 ,in one instance1 ,i had great difficulty in proving that the machine had been used in ,georgia1 although1 at the same moment1 there were three separate sets of this machinery in motion1 within fifty yards of the building in which the court sat1 and all so near that the rattling of the wheels was distinctly heard on the steps of the court-house4#agc #agc ,olmstead1 p4 #eh4 7,italics are ours47 ,it should in justice be said that at first there was no widespread disposition on the part of the ,georgia planters to avail themselves of the invention unlawfully1 but later nearly all1 deluded by the general attitude1 joined in the attack upon the inventor's rights4 ,the unfortunate policy adopted by ,miller ,whitney worked to their disadvantage in two ways4 ,first1 they could not themselves produce machines fast enough to gin the rapidly increasing crops2 and second1 their policy of buying the seed and ginning it themselves meant financing the entire crop and called for a vastly greater capital than they had at their command4 ,infringing machines sprang up on every side1 their most formidable rival being the saw gin of ,hodgin ,holmes1 in which circular saws were used instead of a drum with inserted wires as in ,whitney's original gin4 ,the idea of such teeth had occurred to ,whitney1 as he afterward proved2 but not until #ahjg did he completely establish his right over this machine4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cj4 ,,eli ,,whitney ,perplexities and discouragements dogged their steps from the start4 ,in #agie the shop which they had built in ,new ,haven1 together with all machines and papers1 was consumed by fire4 ,in the diary of ,president ,stiles of ,yale ,college is an entry3 8,march #ab 7#agie74 ,yesterday morning ,mr4 ,whitney's workshop consumed by fire4 ,loss #cjjj ,dol4 about #aj finished machines for seeding cotton #e or #f unfinished1 all the tools which no man can make but ,mr4 ,whitney1 the inventor1 which he has been #b years in making40 ,they found great difficulty in raising money1 even at rates from #ab to #be per cent4 ,with these misfortunes upon them1 word was received from ,england that the manufacturers condemned the cotton cleaned by their machines on the ground that the staple was injured4 ,they had thirty gins at work in eight different places in ,georgia and many of these were brought to a standstill4 ,it was nearly two years before this prejudice could be overcome4 ,by that time1 however1 encroachments on their patent right had become so extensive as almost to annihilate its value4 ,the first infringement suit was tried in #agig and went against them4 ,an appeal was denied on technicalities4#agd ,at a second trial1 in #agih1 a great number of witnesses had been collected from various parts of the country1 some of them from one hundred miles away1 when the judge failed to appear1 and1 of course1 no court was held4#age ,mr4 ,miller writes in #agii that 8the prospect of making anything by ginning in this ,state1 is at an end4 ,surreptitious gins are being erected in every part of the country2 and the jurymen at ,augusta have come to an understanding among themselves1 that they will never give a verdict in our favor1 let the merits of the case be as they may40#agf ,the firm would now gladly have relinquished their plan of doing the ginning themselves and confined their operations to the sale of patent rights2 but few people would buy a patent right which could be used with impunity without purchase4 #agd ,ibid41 p4 #bf4 #age ,ibid41 p4 #bg4 #agf ,ibid41 p4 #bg4 ,in #ahja ,south ,carolina voted the purchase of the patent rights on the cotton gin for that state for #ej1jjj1 #bj1jjj to be paid in hand and the remainder in three annual payments of #aj1jjj each4 ,a year later ,whitney sold the right for ,north ,carolina4 ,the legislature laid a tax on every saw1 to be continued for five years4 ,after deducting the expenses of collection1 the proceeds were to be passed over to the patentee4 ,negotiations were also entered into with the state of ,tennessee4 ,the prospects of the firm were1 therefore1 growing more favorable1 when the legislature of ,south ,carolina suddenly annulled the contract1 refused payment due1 and sued for the refunding of what had already been paid4 ,doubts were raised as to the validity of the patent2 the patentees were charged with nonfulfillment of a part of their contract relating to the submission of models2 it was charged that somebody in ,switzerland had conceived of the idea beforehand2 and that ,whitney had been antedated in the use of saws instead of wire teeth by ,holmes4 ,this action was the result of the political agitation against the patent1 which was strong throughout the cotton-growing states4 ,tennessee followed the example of ,south ,carolina1 and the same attempt was made in ,north ,carolina1 but the legislative committee to whom it was referred reported in ,whitney's favor1 declaring that such action was a breach of contract and of good faith4 ,in #ahjc ,mr4 ,miller1 who had represented the firm in the ,south1 died disappointed and broken by the struggle4 ,in the following year ,south ,carolina rescinded its action and carried out its contract1 so that from ,north and ,south ,carolina ,whitney received a considerable sum4 ,in all he received about #ij1jjj2 #ej1jjj from ,north ,carolina2 at least #cj1jjj from ,south ,carolina and about #aj1jjj from ,tennessee4 ,a large portion of this amount was1 however1 balanced by the cost of the endless litigation in ,georgia4 ,more than sixty suits had been instituted in the latter state before the first decision was obtained on the merits of the claims4 ,this decision was rendered in the ,united ,states ,court in ,december1 #ahjg1 by ,judge ,johnson4 ,whitney1 as the survivor of the firm of ,miller ,whitney1 was suing a man named ,arthur ,fort for violation of the patent right and for a perpetual injunction restraining him from use of the gin4 ,judge ,johnson's decision is so clear a statement of the situation1 and so splendid an example of justice in the face of popular agitation that we give it nearly in full3 ,defendant admits most of the facts in the bill set forth1 but contends that the complainants are not entitled to the benefits of the act of ,congress on this subject1 because3 #ast4 ,the invention is not original4 #b;d4 ,it is not useful4 #c;d4 ,that the machine which he uses is materially different from their inventions1 in the application of an improvement1 the invention of another person4444 ,there are circumstances in the knowledge of all mankind1 which prove the originality of this invention more satisfactorily to the mind1 than the direct testimony of a host of witnesses4 ,the cotton plant furnished clothing to mankind before the age of ,herodotus4 ,the green seed is a species much more productive than the black1 and by nature adapted to a much greater variety of climate4 ,but by reason of the strong adherence of the fiber to the seed without the aid of some more powerful machine for separating it1 than any formerly known among us1 the cultivation of it would never have been made an object4 ,the ,machine of which ,mr4 ,whitney claims the invention1 so facilitates the preparation of this species for use1 that the cultivation of it has suddenly become an object of infinitely greater national importance than that of the other species ever can be4 ,is it then to be imagined that if this machine had been before discovered1 the use of it would ever have been lost1 or could have been confined to any tract or country left unexplored by commercial enterprise8 ,but it is unnecessary to remark further upon this subject4 ,a number of years have elapsed since ,mr4 ,whitney took out his patent1 and no one has produced or pretended to prove the existence of a machine of similar construction or use4 #b;d4 ,with regard to the utility of this discovery1 the ,court would deem it a waste of time to dwell long upon this topic4 ,is there a man who hears us1 who has not experienced its utility8 ,the whole interior of the ,southern ,states was languishing1 and its inhabitants emigrating for want of some object to engage their attention and employ their industry1 when the invention of this machine at once opened views to them1 which set the whole country in active motion4 ,from childhood to age it has presented to us a lucrative employment4 ,individuals who were depressed with poverty and sunk in idleness1 have suddenly risen to wealth and respectability4 ,our debts have been paid off4 ,our capitals have increased1 and our lands trebled themselves in value4 ,we cannot express the weight of the obligation which the country owes to this invention4 ,the extent of it cannot now be seen4 ,some faint presentiment may be formed from the reflection that cotton is rapidly supplanting wool1 flax1 silk1 and even furs in manufactures1 and may one day profitably supply the use of specie in our ,east ,india trade4 ,our sister states1 also1 participate in the benefits of this invention2 for1 besides affording the raw material for their manufactures1 the bulkiness and quantity of the article afford a valuable employment for their shipping4 #c;d4 ,the third and last ground taken by the defendant1 appears to be that on which he mostly relies4 ,in the specification1 the teeth made use of are of strong wire inserted into the cylinder4 ,a ,mr4 ,holmes has cut teeth in plates of iron1 and passed them over the cylinder4 ,this is certainly a meritorious improvement in the mechanical process of constructing this machine4 ,but at last1 what does it amount to except a more convenient method of making the same thing8 ,every characteristic of ,mr4 ,whitney's machine is preserved4 ,the cylinder1 the iron tooth1 the rotary motion of the tooth1 the breast work and brush1 and all the merit that this discovery can assume1 is that of a more expeditious mode of attaching the tooth to the cylinder4 ,after being attached1 in operation and effect they are entirely the same4 ,mr4 ,whitney may not be at liberty to use ,mr4 ,holmes' iron plate1 but certainly ,mr4 ,holmes' improvement does not destroy ,mr4 ,whitney's patent right4 ,let the decree for a perpetual injunction be entered4#agg #agg ,ibid41 p4 #ci4 ,this decision was confirmed by a series of subsequent ones1 and from that time onward there was no serious questioning of the patent right4 ,in #ahab ,mr4 ,whitney made application to ,congress for the renewal of his patent4 ,in his memorial he points out that his patent had nearly expired before it was sustained2 that his invention had been a source of wealth to thousands of citizens of the ,united ,states2 that the expense to which he had gone in defense of the patent had left him little or no return on the invention2 that the men who had grown rich by the use of his machine had combined to prevent the patentee from deriving reward from his invention2 that in the state where he had first introduced the machines he had received nothing2 that from no state had he received all told an amount equal to cent per pound on the cotton cleaned by his machine in one year2 that the whole amount received by him for his invention had not been equal to the labor saved in one hour by the cotton gins then in use in the ,united ,states2 that the invention had already trebled the value of land throughout a great extent of territory2 that the degree to which the cultivation of cotton would still be augmented was incalculable2 and that the species of cotton grown had from time immemorial never been known as an article of commerce until his method of cleaning it had been invented4 ,he closed with an argument for the policy of providing adequate reward for the encouragement of invention4#agh ,notwithstanding these arguments and a favorable committee report1 the application was rejected4 ,with the exception of a few liberal-minded men1 nearly all the members from the cotton-growing states opposed the application strongly4 #agh ,ibid41 pp4 #ee-eg4 ,whitney combined in a singular degree high inventive capacity with clear judgment and steady determination4 ,by #agih he saw that his hopes for any large return from the cotton gin were uncertain4 ,he turned to the manufacture of firearms and by steady1 sure steps built up another business and died a well-to-do man4 ,in this second enterprise he developed the interchangeable system of manufacture and thereby influenced modern society almost as greatly as he had in the invention of the cotton gin1 although this is little realized by the general public4 ,in the chapter on 8,the ,rise of ,interchangeable ,manufacture0 we traced ,whitney's work as a gun manufacturer from #agih1 when he first applied for his contract for ten thousand muskets4 ,his undertaking of this contract required courage and self-confidence4 ,although he was not a trained gun maker1 he proposed 8from the start0 to manufacture guns by a new method1 which was ridiculed by those familiar with the manufacture of firearms at that time4 ,he had to build a plant1 design and equip it with new and untried types of tools2 and to educate workmen to his methods4 ,furthermore1 he did this work1 involving #acd1jjj1 under bond for satisfactory performance4 ,the high estimation in which ,whitney was held by those who knew him is evidenced by the fact that1 although he was already embarrassed and embarking on an entirely new kind of enterprise1 ten of the foremost men of ,new ,haven signed his bond for the faithful performance of his contract4 ,a contemporary1 intimately acquainted with his work1 has outlined his method of manufacture in words which describe the interchangeable system1 as it exists today1 so accurately that we give it in full3 ,the several parts of the muskets were1 under this system1 carried along through the various processes of manufacture1 in lots of some hundreds or thousands of each4 ,in their various stages of progress1 they were made to undergo successive operations by machinery1 which not only vastly abridged the labor1 but at the same time so fixed and determined their form and dimensions1 as to make comparatively little skill necessary in the manual operations4 ,such were the construction and arrangement of this machinery1 that it could be worked by persons of little or no experience1 and yet it performed the work with so much precision1 that when1 in the later stages of the process1 the several parts of the musket came to be put together1 they were as readily adapted to each other1 as if each had been made for its respective fellow4444 ,it will be readily seen that under such an arrangement any person of ordinary capacity would soon acquire sufficient dexterity to perform a branch of the work4 ,indeed1 so easy did ,mr4 ,whitney find it to instruct new and inexperienced workmen1 that he uniformly preferred to do so1 rather than to attempt to combat the prejudices of those who had learned the business under a different system4#agi #agi ,ibid41 pp4 #ec-ed4 ,it took him a much longer time to fulfill the contract than he had anticipated2 two years elapsed before his plant was ready4 ,only #ejj guns were delivered the first year instead of #djjj1 and the entire contract required eight years instead of two from the time when he began actual manufacture4 ,in spite of this delay he kept the confidence of the government officials1 who were very liberal in their treatment of him2 so much had been advanced to him to help him develop his machinery that when the contract was completed only #bdej out of the total of #acd1jjj remained to be paid4 ,the work was highly satisfactory1 and in #ahab he was awarded another contract for #ae1jjj muskets from the ,united ,states ,government and one for a similar number from the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,what is known of his methods and machinery is given in the chapter referred to1 which shows also how they spread to other armories throughout the country4 ,the business which ,mr4 ,whitney started was carried on for ninety years4 ,after his death in #ahbe the armory was managed for ten years by ,eli ,whitney ,blake1 later inventor of the ,blake stone crusher1 and ,philos ,blake1 his nephews4 ,from #ahce to #ahdb it was managed by ex-,governor ,edwards1 a trustee of ,mr4 ,whitney's estate4 ,his son1 ,eli ,whitney1 ,jr41 then became of age and assumed the management1 and that same year obtained a contract for making the 8,harper's ,ferry0 rifle1--the first percussion lock rifle1 all guns before that date having had flint locks4 ,eli ,whitney1 ,jr41 continued to develop the art of gun making4 ,he introduced improvements in barrel drilling and was the first to use steel for gun barrels4 ,in #ahdg1 during the ,mexican ,war1 ,jefferson ,davis1 then a colonel in a ,mississippi regiment1 wrote to the ,ordnance ,department at ,washington1 that it was his opinion that the steel-barreled muskets from the ,whitney armory were 8the best rifles which had ever been issued to any regiment in the world40 ,the ,whitney ,arms ,company supplied the ,government with more than #cj1jjj rifles of this model4 ,the company continued in existence until #ahhh1 when the plant was sold to the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,company4 ,it was operated by them for a number of years in the manufacture of #bb-;calibre rifles4 ,this work was subsequently removed to their main works and the plant was sold to the ,acme ,wire ,company1 and later to the ,sentinel ,gas ,appliance ,company1 its present owner4 ,some of the original buildings are still standing4 ,it may be of interest to note that at the time the works were first built1 a row of substantial stone houses was built by ,whitney for his workmen1 which are said to have been the first workmen's houses erected by an employer in the ,united ,states4 ,in person ,mr4 ,whitney was tall and dignified4 ,he had a cultivated mind and a manner at once refined1 frank and agreeable4 ,he was familiar with the best society of his day and was a friend of every president of the ,united ,states from ,george ,washington to ,john ,quincy ,adams4 ,he had a commanding influence among all who knew him4 ,seldom has a great inventor been more sane1 for his powers of invention were under perfect control and never ran wild4 ,unlike those who devise many things but complete few1 he left nothing half executed4 ,robert ,fulton said that ,arkwright1 ,watt and ,whitney were the three of his contemporaries who had done the most for mankind4#ahj ,lord ,macaulay is quoted as saying1 8,what ,peter the ,great did to make ,russia dominant1 ,eli ,whitney's invention of the cotton gin has more than equaled in its relation to the progress and power of the ,united ,states40#aha ,he contributed immeasureably to the agriculture and the manufacturing methods of the whole world and few mechanics have had a greater influence4 #ahj ,blake3 8,history of ,hamden1 ,conn410 p4 #cjc4 #aha ,devans3 8,our ,first ,century10 p4 #aec4 ,simeon ,north was born at ,berlin1 ,conn41 the same year as ,whitney1 and like him1 started life as a farmer4 ,in #agie he began making scythes in an old mill adjoining his farm4 ,just when he began making pistols is not clear4 ,it is said that he made some for private sale as early as the time of the ,revolution1 and it is probable that he had begun their manufacture in a small way prior to receiving his first government contract4 ,he may have learned the rudiments of the trade from ,elias ,beckley1 who had a gun shop about a mile from ,north's birthplace4#ahb #ahb ,the fullest account of ,simeon ,north is given in the 8,memoir of ,simeon ,north10 by ,s4 ,n4 ,d4 ,north and ,r4 ,h4 ,north4 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h41 #aiac4 ,in ,march of #agii1 about a year after ,whitney received his first contract for muskets1 ,north received his first contract for horse-pistols1 #ejj1 which were to be delivered in one year4 ,this was followed by others for #aejj in #ahjj2 #bjjj in #ahjb2 #bjjj in #ahjh2 #ajjj in #ahaj1 and others not known4 ,by #ahac he had made at least #aj1jjj and was employing forty or fifty men4 ,in none of these contracts was there any mention made of interchangeability1 but some time during these years ,north began to use interchangeable methods4 ,the correspondence quoted in the previous chapter and the quotations already given show that ,whitney was working on the same basis from the start4 ,it is a great pity that ,colonel ,north's papers were destroyed after his death1 as they might have thrown some light on the question as to how and when he began to use interchangeable methods4 ,it is impossible now to say how much ,whitney and ,north influenced each other if they did at all4 ,in #ahab the ,secretary of ,war visited ,north's shop at ,berlin1 ,conn41 and urged him to increase his plant4 ,on receiving the contract of #ahac1 ,north purchased land in ,middletown1 ,conn41 and built a dam and a three-story brick armory1 #hf x #cf feet1 on the best lines known at that time1 involving in all an expenditure of #ajj1jjj4 ,the old factory was run in conjunction with the new one until #ahdc1 when it was closed4 ,north began making barrels of steel in #ahdh1 only a year or two after ,eli ,whitney1 ,jr41 and contributed many improvements in the design of the pistols and guns which he built4 ,the ,remington ,arms ,company1 the ,savage ,fire ,arms ,company1 the ,maynard ,rifle ,company and the ,massachusetts ,arms ,company1 all trace back in some way to him1 and1 like ,whitney1 he deeply influenced the practice of the ,united ,states ,government in its armories at ,springfield and ,harper's ,ferry4 ,colonel ,north's first contract with the ,government was made in #agii2 his last was finished in #ahec1 a year after his death1 covering in all about #ej1jjj pistols and #cc1jjj rifles4 ,he worked under sixteen administrations1 representing all parties1 and in all the fifty-three years he never received a reproof or a criticism of his work4 ,he had an old-fashioned sense of honor4 ,in #ahbf he was called on to pay a note for #fh1jjj which he had indorsed4 ,although advised that he could not be held legally1 he said that his name was there and he would stand by it4 ,he placed a mortgage on his property1 and it was twenty-two years before he had made good the loss1 which1 principal and interest1 amounted to over #ajj1jjj4 ,but for this endorsement he would have died1 for that time1 a wealthy man4 ,colonel ,north was a country-bred man1 strong1 quiet and almost painfully modest4 ,he lacked ,whitney's education and influence1 but like him he represented the best which ,american mechanical and business life has produced4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,colt ,,armory ,the city of ,hartford has been more closely identified with the later development of interchangeable manufacture than almost any other city4 ,the gun makers have been so vital an element in its industrial life that1 before leaving them1 we will trace their influence4 ,the grist and saw mills1 always the pioneers1 had made their appearance in the seventeenth century4 ,with recurring attempts at silk manufacture1 most of the meager industrial life was directed toward some branch of textiles up to and even after #ahjj4 ,in #agdg ,col4 ,joseph ,pitkin started a prosperous forge for making bar iron and a mill for iron slitting4 ,it was killed by the ,act of ,parliament of #agej1 already referred to1 but the ,pitkin family balanced the account by using the buildings during the ,revolution to make powder for the ,continental army4 ,later the buildings were put to their original use4 ,the ,pitkins were industrial leaders for many years in textiles1 and in the manufacture of silverware1 clocks1 watches1 and heating apparatus4 ,henry and ,james ,f4 ,pitkin made the old 8,american lever0 watches in #ahcd1 and many of the early workmen who went to ,waltham were trained by them4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ca4 ,,samuel ,,colt ,the assessors' returns for #ahdf to the ,secretary of ,state gave for ,hartford only three 8machine factories0 with a total capital of #be1jjj1 an annual output of #ce1jjj1 and forty-five men employed4 ,there were two boiler shops1 a screw factory1 a plow factory1 a pin factory1 two brass and four iron foundries1 and one poor gun maker who did a business of #fbe a year4 ,taken together1 these enterprises averaged only about #ae1jjj in capital1 #bj1jjj in annual output and fifteen employees each4 ,this is hardly more than would be expected in any town of its size1 and certainly does not mark the city as a manufacturing center4 ,book publishing employed over twice1 and clothing shops more than four times1 as many men as all the machine shops together4 ,in #ahba ,alpheus and ,truman ,hanks purchased a small foundry and began the business which later became ,woodruff ,beach4 ,this firm had a long and successful career in building heavy machinery1 engines and boilers1 and was among the earliest makers of iron plows4 ,in #ahga it became ,h4 ,b4 ,beach ,son1 boiler makers1 and the firm is still running1 ,h4 ,l4 ,beach being now 7#aiad7 the only survivor of the old works4 ,in #ahcd ,levi ,lincoln started the ,phnix ,iron ,works4 ,under various names 7,george ,s4 ,lincoln ,company1 ,charles ,l4 ,lincoln ,company1 ,the ,lincoln ,company1 ,the ,taylor ,fenn ,company7 the business has been maintained by his descendants to this day4 ,levi ,lincoln invented a number of machines1 among them the first successful hook-and-eye machine for ,henry ,north of ,new ,britain1 which became very valuable and helped to lay the foundation of the prosperity of that town4 ,george ,s4 ,lincoln ,company built machine tools1 architectural iron work and vaults4 ,their name is permanently associated with the 8,lincoln0 miller1 which was first built in #ahee in their shop for the new ,colt ,armory1 from the design of ,f4 ,a4 ,pratt4 ,it was an adaptation and improvement of a ,robbins ,lawrence miller which had been brought to ,hartford a year or two before4 ,few machines have changed so little or have been used so widely4 ,it has been said that more than #aej1jjj of them have been built in this country and abroad4 ,even in ,europe1 the type is definitely known by this name4 ,the building of the ,colt ,armory in #ahec to #ahed marks a definite era in ,hartford's history and the beginning of manufacturing there on a large scale4 ,samuel ,colt had an adventurous life1 and died in the midst of his success while less than fifty years old4 ,born in ,hartford in #ahad1 he had a rather stormy career as a schoolboy and shipped before the mast to ,calcutta before he was sixteen4 ,after his return from this voyage1 he worked for some months in his father's dye works at ,ware1 ,mass41 where he got a smattering of chemistry4 ,at eighteen he started out again1 this time as a lecturer under the name of 8,dr4 ,coult10 giving demonstrations of nitrous-oxide1 or laughing gas1 which was little known to the public at that time4 ,dr4 ,coult's 8lectures0 were frankly popular1 with a view more to laughter than the imparting of knowledge1 but he was clever and a good advertiser4 ,it is said that he gave laughing gas to more men1 women and children than any other lecturer since chemistry was first known4 ,for three years he drifted over the country from ,quebec to ,new ,orleans1 getting into all kinds of experiences1 from administering gas for cholera when impressed into service on account of his assumed title1 to fleeing the stage from big blacksmiths who took laughing gas too seriously and actively4 ,he made the first crude model of his revolver on his voyage to ,calcutta and used the means derived from his 8lectures0 for developing the invention4 ,in #ahce he went to ,england and took out his first patent there and on his return in #ahcf he took out his first ,american patent4 ,these covered a firearm with a rotating cylinder containing several chambers1 to be discharged through a single barrel4 ,the same year1 #ahcf1 he organized the ,patent ,fire ,arms ,company at ,paterson1 ,n4 ,j41 and tried to get the revolver adopted by the ,united ,states ,government4 ,in #ahcg an army board reported 8that from its complicated character1 its liability to accident1 and other reasons1 this arm was entirely unsuited to the general purposes of the service40 ,colt's first market was secured on the ,texas frontier4 ,his earliest revolvers are known as the ,walker and ,texas models1 and the hold which he acquired with frontiersmen at that time has never been lost4 ,the ,seminole ,war in ,florida gave ,colt an opportunity to demonstrate the value of the revolver4 ,in #ahdj two government boards gave it a qualified approbation and two small orders followed1 one for one hundred and the other for sixty weapons4 ,the pistols1 however1 were expensive1 the sales small1 and in #ahdb the ,paterson company failed and ceased business4 ,in the next few years the tide turned4 ,the superiority of the revolvers outstanding was creating a great demand4 ,with the breaking out of the ,mexican ,war in #ahdf came two orders for #ajjj pistols each1 and from that time onward ,colt's career was one of rapid and brilliant success4 ,as his ,paterson plant had closed1 ,colt had the first of the large government orders made at the ,whitney ,armory in ,new ,haven1 where he followed minutely every detail of their manufacture4 ,the following year1 #ahdh1 ,colt moved to ,hartford and for a few years rented a small building near the center of the city4 ,with rapidly increasing business1 larger quarters soon became necessary4 ,in #ahec he began his new armory1 shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,south of the city on the river front1 lay an extensive flat1 overflowed at high water and consequently nearly valueless4 ,he purchased a large tract of this1 built a protective dike #cj feet high and #a miles long1 and drained it4 ,his armory built on this site marks an epoch not only in the history of ,hartford1 but in ,american manufacturing4 ,after the failure of his first venture at ,paterson1 ,colt had seen the advantage of interchangeable manufacture at the ,whitney shop1 and determined to carry it even further in his new plant4 ,so thoroughly was this done that the methods crystallized there1 and many of the tools installed have undergone little change to this day4 ,machine work almost wholly superseded hand work4 ,modern machines were developed1 and interchangeability and standards of accuracy given an entirely new meaning4 ,the building was in the form of an 8,h10 #ejj feet long and #c stories high4 ,it contained over #adjj machines1 the greater part of which were designed and built on the premises4 ,the tools and fixtures cost about as much as the machines themselves1 a proportion unheard of before4 ,in #ahfa the plant was doubled4 ,three years later the first building was burned to the ground1 but was immediately rebuilt4 ,this plant was the largest private armory in the world and far-and-away the best then existing for economical and accurate production of a high-grade output4 ,many rivals have sprung up in the past sixty years1 but the ,colt ,armory is still one of the leading gun factories of the world4 ,colonel ,colt was a remarkable man1 masterful1 daring and brilliant4 ,he started the larger industrial development of his city1 and affected manufacturing methods more than any other man of his generation4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cb4 ,,the ,,colt ,,armory ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,wood-,,cut ,one of the elements of his success was his ability to gather and hold about him men of the highest order4 ,among these was ,elisha ,k4 ,root1 one of the ablest mechanics ,new ,england has ever produced4 ,root was a ,massachusetts farmer's boy1 a few years older than ,colt4 ,he served an apprenticeship1 worked at ,ware and at ,chicopee ,falls1 and came to the ,collins ,company1 axe makers1 at ,collinsville1 ,conn41 in #ahcb4 ,he began work there as a lathe hand in the repair shop1 but very soon became foreman and virtual superintendent4 ,his inventions and methods converted a primitive shop into a modern factory and gave the ,collins ,company control1 for a long time1 of the ,american market1 and opened up a large export trade4 ,in #ahde he was made superintendent1 and that same year was offered three important positions elsewhere1 one of them that of master armorer at ,springfield4 ,in #ahdi ,colt offered him the position of superintendent at a large salary4 ,it was characteristic of ,colt that1 although he was just starting and still in small rented quarters1 he outbid three others to get the best superintendent in ,new ,england4 ,root moved to ,hartford1 designed and built the new armory and installed its machinery4 ,many of the machines devised by him at that time are still running1 holding their own in accuracy and economy of production with those of today4 ,almost every process used in the plant felt his influence4 ,he invented the best form of drop hammer then in use1 machines for boring1 rifling1 making cartridges1 stock turning1 splining1 etc41 and worked out the whole system of jigs1 fixtures1 tools and gauges4 ,the credit for the revolver belongs to ,colt2 for the way they were made1 mainly to ,root4 ,fig4 #cc1 a chucking lathe1 and ,fig4 #cd1 a splining machine1 are two of ,mr4 ,root's machines which are still at work4 ,when ,colonel ,colt died1 ,mr4 ,root became president of the company and continued until his death in #ahfe1 receiving1 it is said1 the highest salary paid in the state of ,connecticut4 ,he was a mechanic and inventor of high order1 a wise executive1 and the success of the two companies he served was in a large measure due to him4 ,he was quiet1 thoughtful and modest4 ,his influence went into flesh and blood as well as iron and steel1 for under him have worked ,f4 ,a4 ,pratt and ,amos ,whitney1 ,charles ,e4 ,billings and ,c4 ,m4 ,spencer1 ,george ,a4 ,fairfield1 of the ,hartford ,machine ,screw ,company1 ,william ,mason and a host of others whom we cannot mention here4 ,like a parent1 a superintendent may be judged1 in some measure1 by the children he rears1 and few superintendents can show such a family4 ,within a few years after the building of the ,colt ,armory1 manufacturing at ,hartford had taken a definite character4 ,from that day to this it has centered almost wholly on high-grade products1 such as guns1 sewing machines1 typewriters1 bicycles1 automobiles and machine tools4 ,naturally1 during the past generation1 the skilled mechanics of the city have attracted many new and important industries1 only indirectly connected with the armory1 which we cannot consider here4 ,in #ahdh ,christian ,sharps invented his breech-loading rifle1 and in #ahea a company was formed at ,hartford to manufacture it4 ,richard ,s4 ,lawrence came from ,windsor1 ,vt41 as its master armorer1 and is said to have brought with him the first miller used in the city4 ,they did a large business for some years1 but later moved to ,bridgeport1 and the plant was sold to the ,weed ,sewing ,machine ,company4 ,c4 ,e4 ,billings and ,george ,a4 ,fairfield1 both 8,colt men10 were superintendents of this plant4 ,when the ,columbia bicycles were introduced1 the ,weed ,sewing ,machine ,company made them for the ,pope ,manufacturing ,company of ,boston4 ,later this company bought the plant1 and it became one of the greatest bicycle factories in the world4 ,of late years it has been used for the manufacture of automobiles4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #cc4 ,,root',s ,,chucking ,,lathe ,,about #ahee ,illustration3 ,,figure #cd4 ,,root',s ,,splining ,,machine ,,about #ahee ,two great industries sprang up in the neighborhood of ,hartford in the early days and had a vigorous life quite independent of it4 ,we have noted that ,levi ,lincoln contributed to the establishment of the hardware industry at ,new ,britain4 ,although ,new ,britain is but a few miles from ,hartford1 its manufactures have moved in a distinctly different direction4 ,in fact1 by #ahbj it had taken its character as a hardware manufacturing center4 ,north ,shipman had begun making sleigh-bells1 hooks and plated goods1 and ,lee was making buttons and saddlery hardware4 ,in #ahci ,henry ,e4 ,russell and ,cornelius ,b4 ,erwin became active partners in ,stanley1 ,russell ,company1 the beginning of the ,russell ,erwin ,manufacturing ,company4 ,the ,stanley ,works and ,landers1 ,frary ,clark had their beginnings in #ahdb2 ,p4 ,f4 ,corbin in #ahdh1 and the ,stanley ,rule ,level ,company in #ahed4 ,about the same time1 ,elnathan ,peck1 after a partnership with ,george ,dewey and ,henry ,walter1 sold out to ,j4 ,b4 ,sargent1 who later moved to ,new ,haven4 ,mr4 ,peck also moved to ,new ,haven and started what is now ,peck ,brothers4 ,it is a remarkable case of the localization of a great industry4 ,these companies1 all large and important1 started within fifteen years in one small village of only a few thousand inhabitants4 ,the other industry which started near ,hartford but has developed separately is the manufacture of clocks4 ,early in the nineteenth century ,eli ,terry1 first at ,windsor1 just north of ,hartford1 and later at what is now ,thomaston1 ,conn41 began using machinery in making wooden clocks1 and by #ahdj he had reduced the price for a movement from #ej to #e4 ,about #ahdj ,chauncey ,jerome1 an apprentice of ,terry's1 introduced the one-day brass clock which could be made for less than fifty cents4 ,in #ahdb he shipped his first consignment to ,england4 ,they were promptly confiscated at their invoice prices by the customs authorities for under-valuation4 ,this was perfectly agreeable to ,jerome1 as it furnished him with a spot-cash buyer at full price1 with no selling expenses4 ,he therefore sent another and larger shipment1 which shared the same fate4 ,when a third still larger one arrived1 the authorities withdrew from the clock business and let it in4 ,the exports soon spread everywhere1 and today ,connecticut manufactures three-fifths of the clocks produced in the ,united ,states4 ,nearly all the great clock companies of ,connecticut1 like the ,new ,haven1 ,seth ,thomas and ,waterbury companies1 trace back directly or indirectly to ,jerome and ,terry4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,colt ,,workmen--,,pratt ,,whitney ,at least two of the superintendents of the ,colt ,armory should be mentioned--,prof4 ,charles ,b4 ,richards and ,william ,mason4 ,mr4 ,richards was not primarily a tool builder1 but his contributions to mechanical engineering are too great to pass without notice4 ,about #ahfj he helped ,charles ,t4 ,porter develop the design of the first high-speed steam engine1 and in order to study the action of this engine he invented the ,richards steam engine indicator4 ,indicators1 more or less crude1 had been in use from the time of ,watt1 but the ,richards indicator was the first one accurate enough and delicate enough to meet the demands of modern engine practice2 and its influence has been far-reaching4 ,after a few years in ,new ,york as a consulting engineer1 he was for many years in the ,colt ,armory as engineering superintendent under ,mr4 ,root1 and later was superintendent of the ,southwark ,foundry ,machine ,company in ,philadelphia4 ,in #ahhd he became ,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering at the ,sheffield ,scientific ,school of ,yale ,university1 where he remained for twenty-five years as the head of the mechanical engineering department4 ,william ,mason was another of those who helped make the ,colt ,armory what it was4 ,he was a modest1 kindly man1 little known outside of his immediate associates1 but of singular fertility in invention and almost unerring mechanical judgment4 ,he learned his trade with the ,remington ,arms ,company at ,ilion1 ,n4 ,y41 and after a long association with them he was for sixteen years superintendent of the ,colt ,armory4 ,in #ahhe he became master mechanic of the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,company of ,new ,haven1 and held that position until his death in #aiac4 ,he had granted to him more than #abe patents1 most of them in connection with arms and ammunition and tools for their manufacture1 but they included many appliances for looms and weaving1 steam pumps1 and bridge work1 and he assisted with the development of the ,knowles steam pump and ,knowles looms4 ,asa ,cook1 a brother-in-law of ,f4 ,a4 ,pratt1 was for years a foreman and contractor at ,colt's4 ,he was afterwards a designer and manufacturer of machinery for making wood screws1 bolt machinery and many other types of tools4 ,george ,a4 ,fairfield1 another ,colt foreman1 became superintendent of the ,weed ,sewing ,machine factory and later president of the ,hartford ,machine ,screw ,company2 another workman1 ,a4 ,f4 ,cushman1 of the ,cushman ,chuck ,company1 for many years manufactured lathe chucks4 ,in fact1 there is hardly a shop in ,hartford which dates from the seventies and eighties which does not trace back in some way to the ,colt ,armory4 ,its influence is by no means confined to ,hartford1 for such men as ,bullard and ,gleason carried its standards and methods to other cities4 ,four of the ,colt workmen formed two partnerships of wide influence3 ,charles ,e4 ,billings and ,christopher ,m4 ,spencer1 who organized the ,billings ,spencer ,company1 and ,francis ,a4 ,pratt and ,amos ,whitney1 of the ,pratt ,whitney ,company4 ,charles ,e4 ,billings was a ,vermonter1 who served his apprenticeship in the old ,robbins ,lawrence shop at ,windsor1 ,vt4 ,when twenty-one1 he came to ,colt's1 in #ahef1 as a die sinker and tool maker and became their expert on the drop forging process4 ,in #ahfb he went to ,e4 ,remington ,sons1 where he built up their forging plant1 increasing its efficiency many times1 saving #ej1jjj1 it is said1 by one improvement in frame forging alone4 ,at the end of the war he returned to ,hartford as the superintendent of the ,weed ,sewing ,machine ,company1 which had taken over the old ,sharps ,rifle ,works1 built by ,robbins ,lawrence4 ,for a short time in #ahfh ,mr4 ,billings was at ,amherst1 ,mass41 associated with ,spencer in the ,roper ,repeating ,arms ,company4 ,the venture was not a success1 and the next year1 #ahfi1 they came back to ,hartford and formed the ,billings ,spencer ,company4 ,this company has probably done more than any other for the art of drop forging1 not only in developing the modern board drop hammer itself1 but in extending the accuracy and application of the process4 ,mr4 ,billings was president of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers in #ahie4 ,christopher ,m4 ,spencer was born at ,manchester1 ,conn4 ,he served his apprenticeship in the machine shops of the silk mills there from #ahdg to #ahdi1 and remained for several years as a journeyman machinist with ,cheney ,brothers4 ,in #ahec he went to ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 to learn something of the other kinds of machinery1 working in a tool building shop and a locomotive shop4 ,after some years at the ,colt ,armory he went back to ,cheney ,brothers and soon obtained his first patent for an automatic silk-winding machine4 ,this was adopted by the ,willimantic ,linen ,company1 with some modifications made by ,hezekiah ,conant1 and was the machine which ,pratt ,whitney began manufacturing in their first rented room in ,hartford4 ,mr4 ,spencer has had a passion for firearms from boyhood4 ,in #ahfj he obtained a patent for the ,spencer repeating rifle4 ,the ,civil ,war created a tremendous demand for it1 and the ,government ordered first #ajjj1 then #aj1jjj1 and before the war was over it had purchased about #bjj1jjj4 ,in #ahfb1 while the first contracts were pending1 ,spencer saw ,president ,lincoln at ,washington4 ,he and ,lincoln went down on the ,white ,house grounds with the new rifle1 set up a board and shot at it4 ,lincoln enjoyed it like a schoolboy1 and shot well1 too4 ,he tore his coat pocket in the process1 but told ,spencer not to worry over it1 as he 8never had anything of value in it to lose40 ,at the close of the war ,spencer went to ,amherst and was there first associated with ,c4 ,e4 ,billings in the ,roper ,company1 as we noted4 ,a year later he joined in starting the ,billings ,spencer ,company and coperated with him in the development of the drop hammer4 ,a successful machine which ,spencer invented for turning sewing machine spools suggested to ,spencer the possibility of making metal screws automatically4 ,the result was his invention of the automatic turret lathe4 ,the importance of the blank cam cylinder1 with its flat strips adjustable for various jobs1 was wholly over-looked by his patent attorney1 with the result that ,spencer obtained no patent right on the most valuable feature in the whole machine4 ,the importance of this invention can hardly be overestimated4 ,it ranks with ,maudslay's slide-rest and the turret tool-holder1 as it is an essential feature in all modern automatic lathes1 both for bar-stock and chucking work4 ,assured of the success of the machine1 ,spencer withdrew from active connection with the ,billings ,spencer ,company in #ahgd1 and in #ahgf1 with ,george ,a4 ,fairfield1 then superintendent of the ,weed ,sewing ,machine ,company1 and others1 formed the ,hartford ,machine ,screw ,company1 one of the most successful enterprises in the city4 ,unfortunately1 ,mr4 ,spencer withdrew in #ahhb to manufacture a new repeating shotgun and rifle which he had invented4 ,the gun was a success mechanically1 but the ,spencer ,arms ,company1 which had been formed in #ahhc at ,windsor1 ,conn41 was a failure1 and ,mr4 ,spencer lost heavily4 ,in his later years ,mr4 ,spencer has returned to the field where he did his most brilliant work1 automatic lathes4 ,he represents the ,new ,england mechanic at his best1 and his tireless and productive ingenuity has made a permanent impress on modern manufacturing methods4 ,francis ,a4 ,pratt was born at ,woodstock1 ,vt4 ,when he was eight years old his family moved to ,lowell4 ,he was a mechanic from boyhood but he had the good fortune to be apprenticed as a machinist with ,warren ,aldrich1 a good mechanic and a wise teacher4 ,at twenty1 ,mr4 ,pratt went to ,gloucester1 ,n4 ,j41 where he was employed first as a journeyman1 later as a contractor4 ,in #aheb he came to the ,colt shop1 where he worked for two years4 ,he then accepted the foremanship of the ,phnix ,iron ,works1 which was run by ,levi ,lincoln and his two sons4 ,amos ,whitney was born in ,maine and moved to ,lawrence1 ,mass41 where he served his apprenticeship with the ,essex ,machine ,company which built cotton machinery1 locomotives and machine tools4 ,he came from a family of mechanics4 ,his father was a locksmith and machinist1 his grandfather was an expert blacksmith1 his great-grandfather was a small manufacturer of agricultural tools1 and he is of the same family as ,eli ,whitney of ,new ,haven1 and ,baxter ,d4 ,whitney1 the veteran tool builder of ,winchendon4 ,in #ahej both he and his father were working at ,colt's factory at ,hartford4 ,in #ahed ,amos ,whitney joined ,pratt in the ,phnix ,iron ,works1 where they worked together for ten years1 the former as a contractor1 the latter as superintendent4 ,whitney was earning over eight dollars a day when he left ,colt's and took up the new contract work which offered at the beginning only two dollars a day4 ,many of the shops of that generation were 8contract shops40 ,the ,colt ,armory was run on that basis1 at least in its manufacturing departments4 ,under this system the firm or company furnished all the materials1 machinery1 tools1 shop room and supplies1 while the workmen were employed by the contractor1 their wages being paid by the firm but charged against the contractor's account4 ,a better training for future manufacturers could hardly be devised1 and a surprising number of these old-time contractors have succeeded later in business for themselves4 ,in the summer of #ahfj ,pratt and ,whitney rented a small room and1 in addition to their regular employment1 began doing work on their own account1 i4e41 manufacturing the small winder for the ,willimantic ,linen ,company4 ,mr4 ,whitney's father-in-law acted as pattern maker1 millwright1 bookkeeper and general utility man4 ,the following ,february they were burned out1 but were running again a month later in other quarters4 ,here they continued to spread from room to room until all available space was outgrown4 ,they succeeded from the very start1 and at once became leaders and teachers of other mechanics1 suggesters of new methods of work and of new means for its accomplishment4 ,both ,pratt and ,whitney were thoroughly familiar with gun manufacture1 and the business was hardly started when the outbreak of the ,civil ,war gave them more than they could do4 ,in #ahfb they took into partnership ,monroe ,stannard of ,new ,britain1 each of the three contributing #abjj4 ,mr4 ,stannard took charge of the shop1 as ,pratt and ,whitney were still with the ,phnix ,iron ,works4 ,within two years the business had increased to such an extent that they gave up their positions at the ,phnix works and in #ahfe erected the first building on their present site4 ,from #cfjj in #ahfb their net assets grew in four years to #ge1jjj1 and during the three years following that they earned and put back into the business more than #ajj1jjj4 ,in #ahfi the ,pratt ,whitney ,company was formed with a capital of #cej1jjj1 later increased to #ejj1jjj4 ,in #ahic it was reorganized with a capitalization of #c1jjj1jjj4 ,since that time it has become a part of the ,niles-,bement-,pond ,company4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ce4 ,,francis ,a4 ,,pratt ,illustration3 ,,figure #cf4 ,,amos ,,whitney ,beginning with the manufacture of machine tools and tools for making guns and sewing machines1 they have extended their lines until their catalog fills hundreds of pages4 ,from their wide experience in interchangeable manufacture1 it was natural that they should take a prominent part in developing the machinery for the manufacture of bicycles and typewriters1 when1 later1 these were introduced4 ,soon after the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 an agent of the company visited ,prussia and found the royal and private gun factories equipped with old and inferior machinery and the armories bare4 ,mr4 ,pratt was sent for1 and returned to ,hartford with orders from the ,german ,government for #cej1jjj worth of gun machinery4 ,during the next few years ,mr4 ,pratt made no less than ten trips to ,europe1 taking orders aggregating over #b1jjj1jjj worth of machinery4 ,when the panic of #ahgc prostrated the industries of the ,united ,states1 ,pratt ,whitney had orders1 mostly foreign1 which kept them busy until #ahge4 ,their equipment of the three royal armories of ,spandau1 ,erfurt and ,danzig resulted in an improvement in quality of output and a saving of #ej per cent in wages4 ,pratt ,whitney's production of gun-making machinery alone has run into many millions of dollars1 and there are few governments which have not at one time or another purchased from them4 ,pratt ,whitney from the start were leaders in establishing standards1 particularly in screw threads4 ,their gauges for pipe threads have for years been the standard for the country4 ,the troubles which arose from the lack of agreement of standard gauges and the growing demand for interchangeable bolts and nuts led to a demand on the company for a set of gauges upon which all could agree4 ,in undertaking this work ,pratt ,whitney examined their own standards of length with reference to government and other standards in this country and abroad4 ,the results were conflicting and very unsatisfactory4 ,by different measurements the same bar would be reported as above and as below the standard length1 and the investigation produced no results which could be used for a working basis4 ,at length ,prof4 ,william ,a4 ,rogers of ,harvard ,university1 and ,george ,m4 ,bond1 backed by the ,pratt ,whitney ,company1 developed the ,rogers-,bond comparator with which they determined the length of the standard foot4 ,when they began1 the length of the yard and its subdivisions varied with the number of yardsticks4 ,professor ,rogers' work was based on line measurement rather than the end measurement which had held sway from the time of ,whitworth and which is now generally recognized to be inferior for final reference work4 ,professor ,rogers went back of all the secondary standards to the ,imperial ,yard in ,london and the standard meter in the ,archives at ,paris4 ,he obtained reliable transfers of these1 and with the coperation of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey1 the most delicate and exhaustive comparisons were made of the standard bars prepared by him for the use of the company with the government standard yard designated 8,bronze ,no4 #aa40 ,many thousands of dollars and three years of time went into this work4 ,the methods used and the results obtained were examined and reported upon by a committee of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 and the conclusion given in their report is as follows3 ,the completion of the ,rogers-,bond comparator marks a long stride in advance over any method hitherto in use for comparison and subdivision of line-measure standards1 combining1 as it does1 all the approved methods of former observers with others original with the designers4 ,comparisons can thus be checked thoroughly by different systems1 so that the final result of the series may be relied on as being much nearer absolute accuracy than any hitherto produced4 ,the calipering attachment to the comparator deserves special commendation1 being simple in the extreme1 and solving completely the problem of end measurements within the limit of accuracy attainable in line reading1 by means of the microscope with the micrometer eye-piece4 ,the standard to which the end measurements are referred is not touched1 and each measurement is referred back to the same zero1 so that error from end wear does not enter into the problem4 ,this attachment is in advance of all hitherto known methods of comparing end measures1 either with other end measures or with line standards1 both as to rapidity of manipulation and accuracy of its readings1 the strong point in its construction being that it refers all end measures to a carefully divided and investigated standard bar1 which is not touched during its use1 and cannot be in the slightest degree injured by this service1 thus giving convincing assurance that the measures and gauges produced by its use will be accurate and interchangeable4 ,in the opinion of this committee1 the degree of accuracy already attained is such that no future improvements can occasion changes sufficiently great to affect the practical usefulness of the magnitudes here determined1 or the interchangeability of structures based upon them with those involving further refinement4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,a4 ,rogers and ,mr4 ,george ,m4 ,bond are unquestionably entitled to great credit for the admirable manner in which they have solved the problem of exact and uniform measurement1 while the enterprise of the ,pratt ,whitney ,company in bringing the whole matter into practical shape1 is deserving of the thanks of the engineering community4#ahc #ahc ,those interested may find detailed descriptions of the methods used and of the ,rogers-,bond comparator in the following references3 ,george ,m4 ,bond3 ,paper on 8,standard ,measurements10 ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hj4 ,george ,m4 ,bond3 ,paper on 8,a ,standard ,gauge ,system10 ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #abb4 ,report of ,committee on ,standards and ,gauges1 ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ba 7quoted above74 ,w4 ,a4 ,rogers3 ,paper1 8,on a ,practical ,solution of the ,perfect ,screw ,problem10 ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #baf4 ,two lectures delivered by ,george ,m4 ,bond before the ,franklin ,institute1 ,philadelphia1 in #ahhd1 on3 #a4 8,standards of ,length and their ,subdivision40 #b4 8,standards of ,length as ,applied to ,gauge ,dimensions40 ,the standards so obtained became the basis of the gauges which ,pratt ,whitney have produced4 ,in #ahhh the company received its first order for ,hotchkiss revolving cannon1 and for three- and six-pounders rapid-fire guns4 ,they have made hundreds of these guns for the secondary batteries of war vessels4 ,in #ahie they brought out a one-pounder invented by ,e4 ,g4 ,parkhurst1 an expert mechanic1 who had entered their employment as assistant superintendent in #ahfi and later took charge of their gun department4 ,for many years the ,pratt ,whitney tool-room lathes were the standard for the country4 ,later their leadership was materially affected by the ,hendey ,machine ,company of ,torrington1 ,conn41 who built a high grade tool-room lathe having the change-gear box which has since been applied to nearly all types of machine tools4 ,the change-gear box is one of the important contributions to tool building made in recent years4 ,among the later developments introduced by ,pratt ,whitney is the process of thread milling1 and they have designed a full line of machines for this work4 ,the ,pratt ,whitney works1 like the ,colt ,armory1 has been a training school for successful tool builders4 ,worcester ,r4 ,warner and ,ambrose ,swasey were both foremen at ,pratt ,whitney's and left there to go west1 first to ,chicago and then to ,cleveland4 ,some account of these two men will be given in a later chapter4 ,pratt ,whitney have had a marked influence on tool building in ,cleveland1 for1 in addition to ,warner and ,swasey1 ,e4 ,c4 ,henn and ,hakewessel of the ,national ,acme ,manufacturing ,company who developed the multi-spindle automatic lathe1 ,a4 ,f4 ,foote of ,foote1 ,burt ,company1 and ,george ,c4 ,bardons of ,bardons ,oliver1 come from their shop4 ,johnston of ,potter ,johnston1 ,pawtucket1 was chief draftsman at ,pratt ,whitney's2 and ,j4 ,n4 ,lapointe who later developed the broaching machine1 ,dudley ,seymour of ,chicago1 ,gleason of the ,gleason ,works in ,rochester1 ,e4 ,p4 ,bullard of ,bridgeport1 and ,f4 ,n4 ,gardner of ,beloit1 ,wis41 inventor of the ,gardner grinder1 were all workmen there4 ,mr4 ,gleason was also a workman in the ,colt ,armory4 ,he went to ,rochester in #ahfe and the works which he developed form the most important tool building interest in western ,new ,york4 ,there have been 8a good many starts there in tool building and almost as many finishes40 ,mr4 ,gleason always said that but for the training and methods he had gained at ,hartford he would have shared their fate4 ,like many others1 his company began with a general line of machine tools but has come to specialize on one type of machine1 bevel-gear cutters1 of which they build a most refined type4 ,e4 ,p4 ,bullard1 like ,gleason1 worked at both ,colt's and ,pratt ,whitney's4 ,later he formed a partnership with ,j4 ,h4 ,prest and ,william ,parsons1 manufacturing millwork and 8all kinds of tools0 in ,hartford4 ,in #ahff he organized the ,norwalk ,iron ,works ,company of ,norwalk1 but afterwards withdrew and continued the business in ,hartford4 ,for a number of years ,mr4 ,bullard was in the ,south and ,middle ,west1 at ,athens1 ,ga41 at ,cincinnati1 where he organized the machine tool department of ,post ,company1 and at ,columbus1 where he was superintendent of the ,gill ,car ,works4 ,in #ahge he established a machinery business in ,beekman ,street1 ,new ,york1 under the firm name of ,allis1 ,bullard ,company4 ,mr4 ,allis withdrew in #ahgg and the ,bullard ,machine ,company was organized4 ,recognizing a demand for a high grade lathe he went to ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 and engaged ,a4 ,d4 ,laws to manufacture lathes of his design1 agreeing to take his entire output4 ,in the latter part of the same year ,mr4 ,bullard took over the business and it became the ,bridgeport ,machine ,tool ,works4 ,in #ahhc he designed his first vertical boring and turning mill1 a single head1 belt feed machine of #cg inches capacity4 ,this is believed to be the first small boring machine designed to do the accurate work previously performed on the face plate of a lathe4 ,up to that time boring machines were relied on only for large and rough work4 ,in #ahhi he transferred his ,new ,york connections to ,j4 ,j4 ,mc,cabe and gave his entire attention to manufacturing1 the business being incorporated as the ,bullard ,machine ,tool ,company in #ahid4 ,the building of boring mills gradually crowded out the lathes1 and for twenty years the company has concentrated on the boring machine as a specialty4 ,in their hands it has received a remarkable development4 ,they introduced a range of small-sized mills capable of much more accurate work than had been done on this type of machine4 ,they applied the turret principle to the head carried on the cross rail and a few years later introduced a mill having a head carried on the side of the frame which permitted of the close working of the tools4 ,these improvements transformed the boring mill into a manufacturing machine1 and it became practically a vertical turret lathe with the advantages inherent in that type of machine4 ,this trend toward the lathe type has finally resulted in a multiple station-type of machine which is in effect a vertical multi-spindle automatic chucking lathe with five independent tool heads1 as shown in ,fig4 #ef4 ,comparison of this with ,fig4 #ae1 shows how the lathe has developed in the #aae years since ,maudslay introduced the slide-rest principle and the lead screw4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,robbins ,,lawrence ,a glance at the genealogical chart1 ,fig4 #cg1 will show why the old ,robbins ,lawrence shop1 at ,windsor1 ,vt41 in the backwoods of northern ,new ,england1 deserves a special chapter4 ,when built1 it was miles away from a railroad4 ,it was never large1 and the wheels of the original shop have long since ceased to turn1 but few plants have had so great an influence on ,american manufacturing4 ,three brilliant mechanics1 ,lawrence1 ,howe and ,stone1 were working there in the early fifties1 and from them and their successors came wholly1 or in part1 the vertical lathe turret1 the miller1 the profiler and a large number of the modern machines used in interchangeable manufacture4 ,of these three1 ,lawrence went to ,hartford1 ,howe to ,providence1 while ,stone remained at ,windsor4 ,in each case an important line of influence may be traced4 ,in the region about ,windsor1 sixty or seventy years ago1 there were a number of small custom gun shops1 and one firm1 ,n4 ,kendall ,company1 was regularly making guns at the ,windsor prison1 using prison labor in addition to that of a number of free mechanics1 who did the finer work4 ,the history of the ,robbins ,lawrence ,company begins about #ahch1 when ,lawrence came to ,windsor from the neighborhood of ,watertown1 ,n4 ,y4 ,fortunately he wrote out an account of his life shortly before his death1 at the request of his son1 giving a very interesting record of his early work and his connections with his various manufacturing enterprises4 ,this account shows clearly the integrity1 modesty and worth of the man4#ahd #ahd ,by the courtesy of ,mr4 ,ned ,lawrence this account is given in ,appendix ,a4 ,it has never been published before4 ,illustration3 ,n4 ,,kendall ,,co4 ,r4 ,s ,,lawrence ,kendall ,lawrence ,custom ,gun ,shop1 ,windsor1 ,vt4 99#a99 #a ,,robbins ,,lawrence ,guns and ,gun ,machinery1 ,turret ,lathes1 ,millers1 etc4 ,r ,s4 ,lawrence1 ,h4 ,d4 ,stone1 ,f4 ,w4 ,howe 99#b #c #d #e #f #g99 #b #g ,,enfield ,,gun ,,machry41 #ahee ,,chas4 ,e4 ,,billings ,enfield1 ,england ,billings ,spencer1 ,hartford #e ,,lamson1 ,,goodnow #c ,,yale1 #ahei #f ,,sharps ,,rifle ,,works later ,,providence ,j4 ,r4 ,,brown ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,lamson ,,co4 ,,tool ,,works ,s4 ,b4 ,,darling1 99#h99 ,guns1 ,sewing ,f4 ,w4 ,howe1 ,,etc4 ,machines1 ,machine ,supt41 99#ab99 ,tools1 #ahec-fh ,windsor 99#aj #aa99 99#i99 #d ,j4 ,d4 ,,alvord a contractor in ,r4 ,l4 ,shop1 ,hartford ,sharpe ,wks4 ,built the ,wheeler ,wilson ,shop1 ,bridgeport 99#ac99 #h #i #aa #ab ,,weed ,,sewing ,,mach4 ,sewing ,machine business sold ,,brown ,,sharpe ,,co4 about #ahfa to ,mr4 ,white ,f4 ,w4 ,howe1 ,supt41 ,hartford1 ,conn4 99#ae #af99 #ahfh-gc 99#ad99 ,plain and ,univ4 ,millers1 ,turret ,lathes #ad #aj ,,pope ,,mfg4 ,,co4 ,,rhode ,,island ,,tool ,,co4 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,successors of ,providence ,tool ,works #ac ,,wheeler ,,wilson ,,putnam ,,mach4 ,,co4 ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 ,fitchburg1 ,mass4 ,sewing ,machines ,s4 ,c4 ,wright 99#ag99 #ae #af #ai ,,white ,,sewing ,,mach4 ,,windsor ,,manufacturing ,,sullivan ,,machry4 ,,co4 ,,co4 ,,co4 ,claremont1 ,n4 ,h4 ,cleveland1 ,o4 #ahfe ,mine and ,quarrying 99#bj99 99#ah #ai99 ,machinery #bj #ah #ba ,,cleveland ,,auto ,,mach4 ,,jones1 ,,lamson ,,co41 ,,james ,,hartness ,,co41 ,,etc4 #ahfi #ahhi ,cleveland1 ,o4 ,,jones ,,lamson ,,machine 99#ba #bb99 ,,co41 #ahgi #bc #bh ,moved from ,windsor to #ag #bb #be #bg ,,windsor ,,machine ,,co4 ,springfield1 ,vt41 in ,,fitchburg ,,mach4 ,,works ,windsor1 ,vt41 #ahhi1 #ahhi ,fitchburg1 ,mass4 ,gridley ,automation ,hartness ,flat ,turret1 ,lo-,swing ,lathe ,fay ,automatic ,lathes 99#bc #bd99 #bd ,,james ,,hartness #bi 99#be #bg99 #bf ,,bryant ,,chucking ,e4 ,r4 ,,fellows ,,fellows ,,gear ,,grinder ,,co4 99#bf99 ,,shaper ,,co4 ,springfield1 ,vt4 ,g4 ,o4 ,,gridley ,springfield1 ,vt4 99#bh99 ,wm4 ,,bryant 99#bi99 ,,figure #cg4 ,,genealogy ,,of ,,the ,,robbins ,,lawrence ,,shop ,richard ,s4 ,lawrence1 whose portrait appears in ,fig4 #dj1 was born in ,chester1 ,vt41 in #ahag4 ,when two years old1 his father moved to ,jefferson ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 and his boyhood was spent in the neighborhood of ,watertown4 ,he was only nine years old when his father died1 and consequently he had a hard boyhood1 with very little schooling1 and was early at work in the support of the family4 ,he worked on a farm and later in a woodworking shop1 making carpenter's and joiner's tools4 ,in the basement of this place was a custom gun shop1 where he spent much of his spare time and became an expert gun maker4 ,he worked with indifferent success at various jobs until the winter of #ahcg-ahch1 when he served in the ,united ,states army for three months1 guarding the frontier during the ,canadian ,rebellion4 ,at his discharge he determined to start in elsewhere for himself and thought of his relatives in ,vermont4 ,after a long journey by the ,erie ,canal1 the newly built ,albany ,schenectady ,railroad1 and by stage1 he reached ,windsor in #ahch4 ,a week or two after his arrival1 while visiting a ,doctor ,story1 he undertook to repair an old rifle1 a 8,turkey rifle10 made by the doctor's brother in a gun shop in the neighborhood1 and put on a peep-sight1 a thing never heard of before in that neighborhood4 ,he took the gun apart1 leaded out the barrel1 forged and finished the sight and put it on the gun4 ,his skill in handling tools astonished those who watched him4 ,two days later1 when the work was done1 the doctor and ,lawrence went out to try the gun4 ,they paced off twelve rods from a maple tree which had a three-quarter-inch auger hole in it that had been used for a sap spout4 ,lawrence did the shooting4 ,his own account of it is as follows3 8,the doctor tended target4 ,could find no ball hole4 ,said ,i missed the tree4 ,i fired again1 no ball hole to be found4 ,doctor came up to me and said ,i had spoiled his rifle4 ,before my repairs he could kill a chicken every time at twelve rods4 ,i said1 #8,uncle1 ,i am very sorry1 but ,i will make the gun all right before ,i leave it4' ,he said he could not consent to my doing anything more to improve the shooting qualities--the sight he liked very much4 ,i said that as the gun was loaded ,i would take one more shot and see if ,i could not hit the tree4 ,after the third shot ,i went up to the tree to investigate1 and all of the three balls which ,i had fired were found in the auger hole40#ahe ,the doctor was astonished1 for he had never heard of such shooting4 #ahe ,quoted from the full account given in ,appendix ,a4 ,the next day he took ,lawrence down to see ,n4 ,kendall ,company1 who were making guns at the ,windsor prison4 ,they hired him at once for two years at #ajj a year4 ,his first work was stocking rifles by hand and the first day he put on five stocks4 ,the next day the superintendent looked over the work and said it was well done1 but it would never do to rush the work as he had1 for he would 8soon gun-stock them out of town10 and he 8must take it more easy40 ,in the course of the next six months1 he had so far mastered every process in the factory1 even that of engraving in which he could soon compete with the oldest hands1 that he was put in charge of the shop4 ,four years later the company gave up the gun business1 and for a time ,lawrence remained as foreman of the carriage department in the prison shop4 ,in #ahdc ,kendall and ,lawrence hired a small shop in ,windsor village and started a custom gun shop4 ,in the winter of #ahdd ,s4 ,e4 ,robbins1 a business man1 came to them and said that the ,government was in the market for #aj1jjj rifles4 ,the matter was talked over1 a partnership formed1 and a bid sent to ,washington4 ,in spite of the opposition of nearly all the other ,government contractors1 who said they could never do the work1 it resulted in the award of a contract for #aj1jjj to ,robbins1 ,kendall ,lawrence1 at #aj4ij each1 attachments extra1 to be furnished within three years4 ,they bought land1 built a shop1 and bought or made the necessary machinery4 ,it was in the performance of this and the subsequent contract that many of the early machine tools were developed4 ,the contract was finished eighteen months ahead of time1 at a good profit1 and they obtained a second contract for #ae1jjj at the same price4 ,soon after finishing the first contract1 ,robbins and ,lawrence bought out ,kendall's interest in the firm1 which became ,robbins ,lawrence4 ,the business proved very profitable4 ,about #ch per cent of their work for the ,government had to be rejected on account of poor material and workmanship1 but the ,california gold excitement was then at its height and guns were in great demand4 ,they were therefore able to sell their second-quality work for the full government price4 ,about #ahej they contracted with ,courtland ,c4 ,palmer for #ejjj ,jennings rifles1 a gun which later developed through the ,henry rifle into the present well-known ,winchester rifle4 ,about #ahej ,robbins ,lawrence took the first of the steps which led to their undoing4 ,the railroad had just been completed through ,windsor1 and ,s4 ,f4 ,belknap1 a large railroad contractor1 induced them to start in the car business1 which1 of course1 had no rational relation with their main activity of building guns4 ,mr4 ,belknap assured them that he could control all the car work in that section1 and put in #bj1jjj as a silent partner4 ,the firm went to a large outlay1 but just as they were finishing the first cars1 ,belknap quarreled with the president of the railroad and the firm could not sell a single car when they had expected to4 ,after a considerable delay they were sold to other roads1 and stock which proved valueless was taken in payment4 ,the operation involved an actual loss of #acd1jjj1 which was later increased to nearly #bdj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ch4 ,,robbins ,,lawrence ,,armory1 ,,windsor1 ,,vt4 ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,lithograph ,in all of their gun work1 ,robbins ,lawrence used the interchangeable system1 and they contributed very largely to its development4 ,lawrence1 ,howe1 and later ,stone1 were constantly improving the methods of manufacture4 ,fitch's article on ,interchangeable ,manufacture in the ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,report of #ahhj1 describes and illustrates a profiling machine built by ,howe as early as #ahdh4 ,the design shown there was used for many years throughout all the gun shops in the country4 ,he also designed a barrel drilling and rifling machine1 and he and ,lawrence designed and built a plain miller1 which was the forerunner of the well-known ,lincoln miller4 ,one of these millers1 built in #ahec1 is still running in the shop of the ,north ,brothers ,manufacturing ,company in ,philadelphia4 ,this machine had a rack-and-pinion feed for the table1 which chattered badly when starting a heavy cut4 ,the principal improvement which ,f4 ,a4 ,pratt introduced in the ,lincoln miller was the substitution for this of a screw and nut4 ,the original drawing of this ,robbins ,lawrence machine is still on file in the office of the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company and shows clearly that it furnished the basis of the design of the ,lincoln miller4 ,in #ahea ,robbins ,lawrence sent to the ,exposition in ,london a set of rifles built on the interchangeable system1 which excited great interest and for which they received a medal4 ,this led to the visit of an ,english commission which resulted in a large contract to ,robbins ,lawrence for ,enfield rifles1 and for gun machinery which was installed in the ,armory at ,enfield1 near ,london4 ,it has been said that this contract caused the failure of ,robbins ,lawrence4 ,this is not true4 ,in #aheb the company contracted to make #ejjj ,sharps carbines at ,windsor1 and #ae1jjj rifles and carbines at a plant which they were to erect in ,hartford4 ,the ,sharps ,company advanced #dj1jjj to enable them to build a new factory and ,mr4 ,lawrence moved to ,hartford in #ahec to superintend the building and equipment of the plant4 ,shortly after it was completed1 ,robbins ,lawrence1 already strained by their losses in the car-building venture and with the erecting of the new plant1 undertook a contract with ,fox1 ,henderson ,company for #be1jjj ,mini rifles4 ,they were assured by the agent that he had in his pockets contracts for #cjj1jjj more1 which he promised them on the completion of the #be1jjj4 ,lawrence objected strenuously to signing the contract for the #be1jjj without more assurance as to the #cjj1jjj to follow1 as the outlay for the work would greatly exceed the profits on the first contract4 ,it was signed1 however1 and it later developed that the agent had no authorization for the #cjj1jjj4 ,it was this which caused the failure of ,robbins ,lawrence4 ,mr4 ,lawrence left the firm and took charge of the new ,hartford plant which had been bought by the ,sharps ,rifle ,company4 ,j4 ,d4 ,alvord1 one of the contractors at ,hartford under ,lawrence1 later built the ,wheeler ,wilson plant at ,bridgeport4 ,robbins and others leased the ,windsor shops and began the manufacture of sewing machines4 ,in #ahei the plant and business were purchased by ,lamson1 ,goodnow ,yale1 who retained ,henry ,d4 ,stone as their mechanical expert4 ,during the ,civil ,war the plant was given over entirely to the manufacture of army rifles1 and the sewing-machine business was sold to ,mr4 ,white of the ,white ,sewing ,machine ,company of ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,in the early thirties ,silas ,lamson had begun manufacturing scythe snaths in one of the hill towns of western ,massachusetts4 ,up to that time the farmers had either used straight poles or those which happened naturally to have a convenient twist4 ,lamson conceived the idea of steaming the poles and bending them to a predetermined curve4 ,about #ahdj his sons1 ,nathan and ,e4 ,g4 ,lamson1 moved to ,shelburne ,falls and after some years began the manufacture of cutlery1 founding the factory which has been in successful operation ever since4 ,after the completion of the railroad through ,windsor1 they moved their snath factory to that place4 ,they and their successors1 the ,lamson ,goodnow ,manufacturing ,company1 continued this work there for many years4 ,when the ,robbins ,lawrence property was put on the market it was purchased by ,e4 ,g4 ,lamson1 ,a4 ,f4 ,goodnow and ,b4 ,b4 ,yale1 under the name of ,lamson1 ,goodnow ,yale4 ,e4 ,g4 ,lamson ,company and the ,windsor ,manufacturing ,company succeeded this firm and continued the manufacture of machine tools and ,ball and ,palmer carbines1 and completed a number of government rifle contracts4 ,in #ahfi ,r4 ,l4 ,jones1 a business man1 of the ,ascutney ,mill at ,windsor1 joined the firm1 which became ,jones1 ,lamson ,company1 and a small cotton mill was added to their other activities4 ,ten years later the ,jones ,lamson ,company was organized to take over the machine business4 ,during all these changes ,henry ,d4 ,stone continued as the designer4 ,a large poster of the ,windsor ,manufacturing ,company1 printed some time about #ahfe1 shows that they had plenty of irons in the fire1 for they were prepared to furnish guns and machinery for manufacturing guns1 sewing machines and needles1 a standard line of hand-operated turret lathes1 plain and index millers1 planers1 trimming presses1 drill presses1 sawmills1 rock drills and mining machinery4 ,later their mining and quarry-machinery business was moved to ,claremont1 ,n4 ,h41 and became the ,sullivan ,machinery ,company4 ,in #ahhi the present ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company moved to ,springfield1 ,vt41 where it now is4 ,that same year1 ,james ,hartness entered the employment of the company as superintendent4 ,with his advent the scattering of activities ceased and the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company began concentrating on turret lathes1 which ,robbins ,lawrence and their various successors have been manufacturing continuously since the early fifties4 ,a number of the old mechanics and foremen1 who had homes in ,windsor at the time the company was moving to ,springfield1 took over the old shops and organized the present ,windsor ,machine ,company which now manufactures the ,gridley ,automatic ,lathes4 ,this1 briefly1 is the history of the old ,robbins ,lawrence shop4 ,the men1 however1 who worked with ,robbins ,lawrence and its successors1 are of greater interest4 ,while ,lawrence continued as master-armorer of the ,sharps ,rifle ,works1 the company was successful financially4 ,fitch1 in the ,census article frequently referred to1 says that he brought with him 8from ,windsor the first plain milling machine used in ,hartford40 ,lawrence also applied the broaching process to the manufacture of ,sharps rifles1 effecting great economies1 and was the inventor of the split pulley which was first made for him at ,lincoln's ,phnix ,iron ,works4 ,in the winter of #ahej ,lawrence introduced the practice of lubricating rifle bullets with tallow1 making possible the repeating rifle which had been a failure up to that time as the barrel 8leaded0 and the gun lost its accuracy4 ,this was done in connection with some trials of the ,jennings rifle during the visit of ,louis ,kossuth1 the ,hungarian patriot1 who was in this country for the supposed purpose of purchasing rifles4#ahf ,mr4 ,lawrence left the ,sharps company in #ahgb and was for many years an official in the city of ,hartford1 as ,superintendent of ,streets and on the ,water and ,fire ,boards4 ,he died in #ahib4 #ahf ,see ,appendix ,b4 ,the ,sharps ,rifle ,works1 after ,lawrence's retirement1 were bought by the ,weed ,sewing ,machine ,company1 and later by the ,pope ,manufacturing ,company1 who extended it greatly for the manufacture of the ,columbia bicycle4 ,frederick ,w4 ,howe1 the second of the ,robbins ,lawrence mechanics mentioned1 whose portrait appears in ,fig4 #ci1 learned his trade in the old ,gay ,silver shop at ,north ,chelmsford4 ,we have seen in a previous chapter the connection of this company1 through ,ira ,gay1 with the early mechanics at ,pawtucket4 ,it is an interesting and perhaps significant fact that both milling machines and turret lathes were in use in this shop1 probably at the time when ,howe worked there4 ,howe was first a draftsman and later superintendent at ,windsor and was intimately associated with the designing there at that time4 ,the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company still have drawings of machine tools made by him as early as #ahdh4 ,as both ,lawrence and ,howe were designing in the ,windsor shop at that period1 it is difficult today to apportion the credit between them4 ,when ,robbins ,lawrence failed1 ,howe went to ,providence as superintendent of the ,providence ,tool ,company and his work there contributed greatly to the success of that firm4 ,while with both ,robbins ,lawrence and the ,providence ,tool ,company1 he worked on the turret-head screw machine and the plain miller4 ,the first screw machine brought out by ,brown ,sharpe in #ahfa was built for ,mr4 ,howe4 ,joseph ,r4 ,brown added certain valuable features to it1 but the parts for the first machine were said to have been cast from ,howe's patterns4 ,howe invented and built a universal milling machine1#ahg but it should not be confused with what is now known as the 8universal0 miller1 which was first built by ,brown ,sharpe1 also in #ahfa1 for ,mr4 ,howe to mill the flutes in twist drills4 ,the distinction between these two machines has been pointed out by ,mr4 ,burlingame4 ,the ,no4 #ab plain miller which ,brown ,sharpe build today was designed by ,howe1 and for many years was known as the 8,howe0 type of miller4 ,from #ahfh to #ahgc ,mr4 ,howe was the superintendent of ,brown ,sharpe1 and built the first building on their present site4 ,later he started in business for himself as a consulting mechanical engineer and was designing a typewriter 7which was never built7 at the time of his death4 ,he was a smooth-faced1 well-dressed man1 with a restless inventive mind1 apt to change things frequently1 improving each time1 however1 and when he finished anything it was thoroughly done4 ,he left a deep impress on mechanical development in this country1 and while ,lawrence was perhaps the best mechanic1 ,howe was probably the ablest of the three men connected with the early ,robbins ,lawrence history4 #ahg ,illustrated in the ,american ,machinist of ,august #ac1 #aiad4 ,see also p4 #bjh4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ci4 ,,frederick ,w4 ,,howe ,illustration3 ,,figure #dj4 ,,richard ,s4 ,,lawrence ,henry ,d4 ,stone was born in #ahae and died at ,windsor in #ahih4 ,he learned his trade as a millwright at ,woodstock1 ,vt41 but soon afterward came to ,robbins ,lawrence4 ,he remained with them and their successors for the rest of his career1 more than thirty years4 ,he has been very generally credited with the invention of the vertical turret as applied to the lathe1 but the idea was by no means original with him4 ,in #ahde a horizontal turret was designed and built by ,stephen ,fitch at ,middlefield1 ,conn41 to manufacture percussion locks for the ,united ,states ,government4 ,this machine is illustrated in the ,american ,machinist of ,may #bd1 #aijj4 ,it had a horizontal axis with eight positions for as many tools4 ,in the same magazine for ,november #bh1 #aijh1 two turret lathes are illustrated and described1 one with a vertical and the other with a horizontal turret1 both of which were in use in the ,gay ,silver shop at an early date1 probably in the forties1 at the time ,howe was there as an apprentice4 ,the horizontal turret principle was also in use by ,e4 ,k4 ,root at the ,colt ,armory1#ahh and ,j4 ,d4 ,alvord is said to have used a turret screw machine in the ,hartford plant in #ahec4 ,there is little doubt that both ,howe and ,lawrence had something to do with the development of the turret lathe at ,windsor4 ,the turret designs which ,howe had built for him a few years later in ,providence are all along the same lines4 ,stone unquestionably had a share in the development of the turret1 for he made the drawing of the first ,robbins ,lawrence turret machines and continued for many years the development of the turret lathe for the various companies which successively operated in ,windsor4 ,with the turret screw machine came the box-tool and hollow mill4 ,machinery of ,may1 #aiab1 illustrated and described a box-tool1 fitted with two back rests and two cutting tools1 which was made by ,robbins ,lawrence at ,windsor in #ahej4 #ahh ,see ,fig4 #cc4 ,see also the valuable article by ,e4 ,g4 ,parkhurst in the ,american ,machinist1 of ,may #bd1 #aijj1 p4 #dhi1 referred to above4 ,the second period in the history of this company1 or succession of companies1 begins with the coming of ,james ,hartness to the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company in #ahhi4 ,mr4 ,hartness was born in ,schenectady in #ahfa and learned his trade by 8picking it up10 first with ,younglove1 ,massey ,company1 of ,cleveland1 where his father was superintendent1 and then in the machine shop of the ,union ,steel ,screw ,works4 ,in the latter shop he first came in contact with close1 accurate work4 ,the practice of this company was due to ,jason ,a4 ,bidwell1 who came from the ,american ,screw ,company1 in ,providence1 which we have referred to in a previous chapter4 ,three years later ,mr4 ,hartness went to the ,lake ,erie ,iron ,works as tool maker4 ,in #ahhb he went to ,winsted1 ,conn41 as foreman in the ,thomson1 ,stacker ,bolt ,company1 and in #ahhe to the ,union ,hardware ,company of ,torrington1 manufacturers of gun implements1 first as tool maker1 then foreman1 and later as inventor4 ,during the year #ahhh he worked for a few months at the ,pratt ,whitney shop in ,hartford1 at ,scottdale1 ,pa41 and with the ,eaton1 ,cole ,burnham ,company1 in ,bridgeport4 ,he went to the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company in ,february1 #ahhi1 the year in which they moved to their present location at ,springfield1 ,vt4 ,he was first superintendent until #ahic1 then manager until #aijj1 and president from then on4 ,during these years ,mr4 ,hartness has become one of the most influential designers of machine tools of this generation and in #aiad he was president of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,when he went to ,windsor1 the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company was manufacturing principally a standard type of high-turret lathe1 lever-operated1 with power feed and back gears4 ,mr4 ,hartness immediately began an investigation of the problem which resulted in the invention of the ,hartness flat-turret lathe and many improvements in the details of the tools used on it4 ,while ,mr4 ,hartness was developing certain details of the turret construction1 he found in the records of the company sketches of the identical mechanism1 made by ,howe nearly forty years before1 which show not only that ,howe was engaged in turret-lathe design but that he was a generation ahead of his time4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #da4 ,,james ,,hartness ,under ,mr4 ,hartness' management1 the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company have concentrated on a single design of machine which they have developed to the utmost4 ,rather than be diverted from this single object1 he has1 as new inventions have come up1 helped others to develop them independently4 ,the result has been that while the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company1 with one exception1 has confined its attention to flat-turret lathes1 a number of important machines1 which have sprung from men connected with that company1 are now being manufactured by other firms4 ,the ,fellows gear shaper is one of these machines4 ,mr4 ,fellows' career is a problem to those who are interested in the training of mechanics4 ,he was a window dresser in a dry goods store in ,torrington and also ran the carpet department4 ,when ,mr4 ,hartness came to ,springfield1 ,mr4 ,fellows1 then twenty-two years old1 came with him4 ,without any previous mechanical training or technical education he worked for one week in the shop1 slotting screw heads1 and then went into the drawing room4 ,he succeeded so well here that in a short time he was chief draftsman4 ,in #ahif he invented his gear shaper1 the ,fellows ,gear ,shaper ,company was organized1 and has been in successful operation ever since4 ,as the theory underlying this invention is of a very refined order and the problems involved in its manufacture have been worked out with great skill1 one would expect it to be the product of long experience and high technical training4 ,that ,mr4 ,fellows should have brought out so refined a machine within a few years from the time he first turned his attention to mechanical matters is a remarkable tribute to his qualities as a machine designer4 ,mr4 ,george ,o4 ,gridley is another mechanic who worked under ,mr4 ,hartness at ,springfield4 ,he developed the single- and later the multi-spindle automatic lathes which are now manufactured by the ,windsor ,machine ,company in the new plant which has been built near the old ,robbins ,lawrence shop at ,windsor4 ,the original plant of the fifties is now used as a club house for the men4 ,the ,lo-,swing lathe1 manufactured by the ,fitchburg ,machine ,works at ,fitchburg1 was invented by ,mr4 ,hartness4 ,the ,fitchburg ,machine ,works was founded in the early sixties by ,sylvester ,c4 ,wright1 who came from the ,putnam ,machine ,works4 ,for many years they manufactured a general line of machine tools1 but they now confine their attention entirely to the ,lo-,swing lathe4 ,the ,bryant chucking grinder1 invented by ,william ,l4 ,bryant1 is another machine which has sprung from the ,jones ,lamson shop of recent years4 ,it is manufactured by a separate company1 the ,bryant ,chucking ,grinder ,company1 also at ,springfield1 ,vt4 ,the ,fay automatic lathe1 now manufactured by ,jones ,lamson ,company1 is the exception to their policy of concentration on the flat turret4 ,like the ,lo-,swing1 it is intended for work which cannot be done on the flat-turret lathe1 more particularly such pieces as are carried on mandrels4 ,the cutting tools are controlled by cams and a cam drum4 ,like the ,lo-,swing1 it is intended to supplement the field of the turret lathe and to give the advantage of multiple tools1 constant setting1 and automatic operation for work which could not be put upon a turret machine4 ,we have followed the four main lines of influence from the old shop at ,windsor2 one1 through ,lawrence1 to ,hartford2 one1 through ,howe1 to ,providence2 one1 through ,stone and later ,gridley1 at ,windsor2 and the fourth1 through ,hartness and the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company to ,springfield4 ,another line of influence comes through ,charles ,e4 ,billings1 who learned his trade under ,robbins ,lawrence1 went to the ,colt ,armory1 and as we have seen elsewhere1 founded the ,billings ,spencer ,company4 ,like ,mr4 ,hartness1 he also has been a president of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,there are other lines of influence in ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania and elsewhere which we cannot follow out here4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,brown ,,sharpe ,,manufacturing ,,company ,two companies1 both in ,new ,england1 have been conspicuous for their leadership in tool building and the introduction of precision methods in manufacture4 ,one of them1 the ,pratt ,whitney ,company1 we have considered4 ,the other1 the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company1 of ,providence1 calls also for special notice4 ,it was founded in #ahcc by ,david ,brown and his son ,joseph ,r4 ,brown4#ahi ,for nearly twenty years its business comprised the making and repairing of clocks1 watches and mathematical instruments1 in a small shop without power4 ,its influence was hardly more than local and only fourteen persons were employed in #ahec1 when ,lucian ,sharpe was taken into the partnership1 and the firm became ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe4#aij #ahi ,david ,brown retired in #ahda4 ,for the early history of ,david and ,joseph ,r4 ,brown see ,van ,slyck3 8,representative ,men of ,new ,england40 #aij ,the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness to ,mr4 ,l4 ,d4 ,burlingame for much of the material in this chapter4 ,the real development of the business had begun a few years before4 ,in #ahej ,j4 ,r4 ,brown had invented and built a linear dividing engine which was1 so far as is known1 the first automatic machine for graduating rules used in the ,united ,states4 ,it was fully automatic1 adapted to a wide variety of work1 and provided with devices for correcting the inaccuracies of the machine as built1 and such as might develop on account of wear4 ,various improvements were made in this machine within the next few years and two more were built1 one in #ahed and one in #ahei1 essentially like it4 ,these three machines are in use today and doing work which meets modern requirements of accuracy4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #db4 ,,joseph ,r4 ,,brown ,soon after the first graduating machine was put into use1 the vernier caliper1 reading to thousandths of an inch1 was brought out by ,mr4 ,brown2 the first was made as early as #ahea4 ,in the following year he applied the vernier to protractors4 ,a writer1 in speaking of the invention of the vernier caliper1 says1 8,it was the first practical tool for exact measurements which could be sold in any country at a price within the reach of the ordinary machinist1 and its importance in the attainment of accuracy for fine work can hardly be overestimated40 ,the introduction of the vernier caliper was slow1 only four being made in the first year4 ,in #aheb ,mr4 ,brown asked the ,new ,york agents to return one which they had on exhibition because he needed it for some fine work and did not have another in the shop4 ,within a year or two the sales improved1 for ,mr4 ,sharpe wrote his agent at ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahed1 that it could not be expected there would be a market for many more tools in that neighborhood1 as #ejj worth had already been sold there4 ,mr4 ,brown did not have the market long1 for in #aheb ,samuel ,darling also invented and built a graduating engine and began the manufacture of rules and squares at ,bangor1 ,maine4 ,mr4 ,darling had been a farmer and sawmill owner1 with a strong bent for mechanics4 ,he had gone to work in a machine shop six years before and almost from the first had given his attention to improvements in machinists' tools4 ,his first partner was ,edward ,h4 ,bailey1 but after a year a new partnership was formed with ,michael ,schwartz1 a saw maker and hardware dealer of ,bangor4 ,they soon became active competitors of ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe1 and to this day mechanics here and there have scales marked 8,d4 ,s41 ,bangor1 ,me40 ,competition between the two firms1 both in prices and quality of work1 became so keen that a truce was called in #ahff1 resulting in the formation of the partnership of ,darling1 ,brown ,sharpe1 which conducted this part of the business until #ahib1 when ,darling's interest was bought out4 ,the entire business was soon after conducted under the name ,the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company1 the original firm of ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe having been incorporated under that name in #ahfh4 ,in the spring of #ahfh ,mr4 ,darling moved to ,providence1 bringing with him his graduating engine1 machinery and six of his most experienced workmen4 ,darling's engine was built along radically different lines from ,brown's1 an interesting feature being that many of its parts were made of saw-stock1 which he also used as the material for his scales and squares4 ,his machines and processes had been kept secret1 and it was not until after the partnership was formed that ,mr4 ,brown had opportunity of seeing them at ,bangor4 ,mr4 ,darling's original dividing machine is also still running at the ,brown ,sharpe works1 having been operated for over fifty years by ,john ,e4 ,hall1 who remembers the time when ,mr4 ,darling first brought his new partners to see it4 ,both ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe and ,mr4 ,darling had had their standards compared with those at ,washington prior to the formation of the partnership4 ,standards of a still higher degree of accuracy were prepared about #ahgg1 and the following is quoted from a letter to ,j4 ,e4 ,hilgard1 of the ,coast ,survey ,office1 ,washington1 regarding the metric standard in use by the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company at that time3 ,taking #ci4cgj as the standard1 there is only #j4jjjbc in4 in the meter difference in our comparison1 which perhaps is as close as may be expected4 ,we shall now consider your comparison of our steel bar with the standard at ,washington as correct1 and in our comparisons with it shall be able to detect errors as small as #j4jjjjbe in4 ,still later and more accurate standards were made by ,oscar ,j4 ,beale in #ahic4aia #aia ,american ,machinist1 ,vol4 ,,xxxvi1 p4 #ajbe4 ,the early business of ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe connected them closely with the various standards then in use for measuring wire1 sheet metal1 and the like4 ,mr4 ,sharpe was impressed with the irregularity and confusion of these various gauges1 so that after he became ,mr4 ,brown's partner1 he interested himself in the establishment of a more systematic standard for wire gauges4 ,in #ahee he corresponded with various people in regard to gauges for clock springs4 ,by ,january of #ahef the wire gauge with a regular progression of sizes had been conceived1 and a month later a table of sizes was made4 ,the new system was laid before the ,waterbury ,brass ,association by ,mr4 ,sharpe1 and in ,november of that year fifty gauges were sent to ,william ,brown1 president of the ,association1 for inspection by the members to show them the uniformity in size which could be maintained in making a number of gauges4 ,the ,association passed resolutions adopting this standard1 and in ,february1 #aheg1 eight of the leading ,american manufacturers signed these resolutions4 ,the new gauge1 introduced to the public through a circular sent out in ,march of that year1 became the standard1 since known as the ,american ,wire ,gauge4 ,the subject of accurate gearing came up in connection with the clock business then conducted by ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe4 ,there were also calls for gears to be cut which were beyond the capacity of the machine they then had for such work4 ,this led to the design and building of a precision gear cutter1 not only to produce accurate gears1 but also to drill index plates and do circular graduating4 ,the second of the linear dividing engines1 built in #ahed1 had a graduated silver ring set into the dividing wheel4 ,this ring was graduated at the office of the ,coast ,survey in ,washington by ,william ,wurdeman on a machine having an index wheel with #dcbj graduations copied from the plate of the ,troughton ,simms machine in ,london4 ,mr4 ,brown went to ,washington to see the work done and was so well satisfied with it that he arranged with ,mr4 ,wurdeman to graduate the copper ring used in the precision gear cutter which was built in #ahee4 ,patrick ,harlow1 who operated this machine from about #ahfj to #aiaj1 says that it was ,mr4 ,brown's special pride1 that it was given the honor and care due a precision machine1 was located in a room by itself and carefully covered every night to protect it from injury4 ,long after it was supplanted by automatic gear cutters1 it was used for index drilling4 ,the formed milling cutter1 which retains accurately the contour of its cutting edge through successive sharpenings1 was invented in #ahfd by ,j4 ,r4 ,brown with special reference to the cutting of gear teeth4 ,in fact1 the oldest milling cutter known was used for cutting gear teeth4 ,this cutter was made some time prior to #aghb by the ,french mechanic ,jacques de ,vaucanson and came into the possession of the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company about #ahie4 ,the teeth are very fine and apparently were cut with chisels4 ,the hole in the center is octagonal and seems to have been broached4 ,the formed cutters came as one of the important elements in the system of interchangeable involute gears1 introduced by ,brown ,sharpe1 based on the principles of ,professor ,willis4 ,while they used both the involute and cycloidal systems1 they threw the weight of their influence toward the former and were a strong factor in the general adoption of the involute form for cut gearing1 as well as for the use of diametral pitch1 which1 as we have seen1 was suggested by ,bodmer in ,manchester1 ,england4 ,early in the ,civil ,war the ,providence ,tool ,company took up the manufacture of ,springfield muskets for the ,government4 ,frederick ,w4 ,howe1 who had become superintendent of that company after leaving ,robbins ,lawrence1 had been designing turret machines for a number of years1 as we have seen4 ,in order to equip the ,tool ,company for this work1 and especially for making the nipples1 he went to ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe and arranged with them to build a turret screw machine for this purpose4 ,the general design of this machine was similar to those of ,howe ,stone1 and ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,lamson tells the writer that the castings for it were made at the ,jones ,lamson shop in ,windsor4 ,j4 ,r4 ,brown added the self-revolving turret1 utilizing a ratchet and pawl action on the return motion of the slide1 the device for releasing1 feeding and gripping the bar-stock while in motion1 and the reversing die holder4 ,while ,brown was the first to adapt these features to the ,howe machine1 the revolving feeding mechanism had been used before and ,pratt ,whitney had begun the manufacture of turret screw machines with self-revolving heads that same year1 #ahfa4aib #aib 8,origin of the ,turret10 ,american ,machinist1 ,may #bd1 #aijj1 p4 #dhi4 ,this screw machine seems to have been the first machine tool built for sale by the ,brown ,sharpe ,company4 ,various sizes of screw machines1 of both hand and automatic types1 were built by them during and since the ,civil ,war4 ,in the early eighties1 ,s4 ,l4 ,worsley developed for them the complete automatic screw machine1 many features of which are still in use in the machines now being built4 ,at the opening of the war plain milling machines had been in use for many years4 ,the ,lincoln miller had taken its present form and ,howe had designed a miller with a vertically adjustable cutter-slide and a swiveling chuck which could be revolved1 indexed and swiveled in two planes and fed longitudinally under the cutter4#aic ,the statement by ,fitch in the 8,report on the ,manufacture of ,interchangeable ,mechanism0 in the ,united ,states ,census1 #ahhj1 that the 8universal miller0 was designed by ,howe in #aheb1 is doubtless based on this machine or a forerunner of it4 ,the drawings of it1 however1 show a machine of radically different design from what is now known as the 8universal miller10 which was invented by ,joseph ,r4 ,brown in #ahfa-ahfb1 at ,howe's suggestion4 #aic ,illustrated in the ,american ,machinist1 ,aug4 #ac1 #aiad1 pp4 #bif-big4 ,the ,brown ,sharpe universal miller is indirectly connected with the percussion nipple which brought about their first screw machine4 ,the hole in this piece was drilled by twist drills which the ,providence ,tool ,company were making for themselves4 ,one day ,howe came into the shop and watched the workman filing the spiral grooves in tool-steel wire with a rat-tail file4 ,he decided that the method was too expensive and consulted with ,joseph ,r4 ,brown to find a better and more economical way of making them4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #dc4 ,,first ,,universal ,,milling ,,machine #ahfb ,mr4 ,brown appreciated the need of a machine to do this work1 especially as he was just beginning to use such drills himself in the manufacture of the ,wilcox ,gibbs sewing machines4 ,he set himself at once to the task of developing a machine which would not only cut the grooves in twist drills1 but would be suitable for many kinds of spiral milling1 gear cutting1 and other work which had up to that time required expensive hand operations4 ,little time was lost1 and the first machine 7,fig4 #dc7 was built and sold to the ,providence ,tool ,company1 ,march #ad1 #ahfb4 ,after passing through several hands it came back thirty years later into the possession of its builders and is now preserved by them for its historical interest4 ,the first published account of the machine appeared in the ,scientific ,american1 ,december #bg1 #ahfb4 ,the limited facilities of the shop were taxed to meet the demand created1 and ten machines were built and sold during the remainder of the year #ahfb1 most of the sales being in the eastern states4 ,the first machine sold in the west went to the ,elgin ,national ,watch ,company1 and the first one sold abroad went to ,france4 ,howe never claimed to be the inventor of this machine1 and1 in fact1 while still superintendent of the ,providence ,tool ,company he wrote a testimonial to ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe1 in which he said1 8,i take great pleasure in recommending your celebrated universal millers40 ,howe was connected with the ,brown ,sharpe ,company from ,january #a1 #ahfh1 to about #ahgc4 ,this is the last year that he appears in the directory as being at their works4 ,there was some form of partnership by which he and ,mr4 ,mc,farlane1 the superintendent1 had an interest in the business so that his name does not occur in its list of employees4 ,the plain milling machine manufactured for years by ,brown ,sharpe is his design1 and his work was partly that of special designing and partly superintending the building of their new plant on the present site4 ,they moved into this in #ahgb from their old wooden buildings4 ,at that time they employed from #aej to #bjj men4 ,in the early sixties the company began the manufacture of the ,wilcox ,gibbs sewing machine1 which they have manufactured ever since4 ,they used cylindrical and caliper gauges1 including limit gauges1 for this work4 ,in #ahfe a set of standards was made for ,john ,richards1 and cylindrical and limit gauges of various forms were regularly manufactured during the early seventies4 ,for a long time the basis of accuracy for these was a set of ,whitworth plugs and rings1 which are still preserved among their archives4 ,the sizes above the #b inch are cast-iron1 and commencing with the #b inch they are hollow and ribbed4 ,these were looked upon with reverence by the ,brown ,sharpe workmen and were used as master gauges for the commercial plugs and rings4 ,they found1 however1 that in trying the ,whitworth plugs1 say inch and #a inch into a #b inch ring and then other combinations into the same ring1 an appreciable variation in fit could be noticed4 ,this led to consideration of means for obtaining greater accuracy than was possible with dependence on these ,whitworth gauges4 ,at the time the question arose ,richmond ,viall had just become superintendent and ,oscar ,j4 ,beale was chief inspector4 ,it was decided to make a measuring machine which should be an original standard for measuring as well as a comparator4 ,this machine1 built in #ahgh1 was largely the work of ,mr4 ,beale4 ,it has a measuring wheel graduated to read to ten-thousandths of an inch and a vernier reading to hundred-thousandths4 ,there is also an adjustment which reads even finer than the famous 8millionth dividing engine0 of ,whitworth4 ,the basis of accuracy for the microscopic scale was a standard yard1 which had been compared with the standards at ,washington4 ,the micrometer caliper was introduced by ,brown ,sharpe in #ahfg4 ,although not the pioneers in the sense of being the inventors1 they were the first to recognize the practical value of this tool for machinists1 and to put it on the market4 ,as in the case of the vernier caliper1 the introduction of the micrometer caliper into everyday shopwork marked an important step in raising the standard of accuracy4 ,the principle is very old4 ,william ,gascoigne1 of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 used it about #afcg1 moving two parallel edges or pointers to and fro by means of a screw provided with a divided head4 ,for two hundred years the principle has been used in controlling the movement of spider webs and cross hairs in transits and other optical instruments4 ,it is well known that ,watt had one 7now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum in ,london71 and we have already mentioned the 8,lord ,chancellor10 used by ,maudslay before #ahcj4 ,r4 ,hoe ,company1 of ,new ,york1 in #aheh1 had a bench micrometer reading up to #i inches4 ,but none of these could ever have influenced mechanical standards generally as did the strong1 compact little instrument developed by ,brown ,sharpe4 ,the circumstances surrounding its introduction are as follows3 ,in #ahfg the ,bridgeport ,brass ,company had a lot of sheet brass returned to them from the ,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,company as 8out of gauge40 ,investigation showed that the sheets were to the gauge of the manufacturer1 but that the gauge used by the customer did not agree1 and1 further1 when both gauges were tested by a third1 no two of them agreed4 ,all three gauges were supposed to be the regular ,u4 ,s4 ,standard1 adopted by the wire manufacturers in #aheg1 of the well-known round1 flat form1 with slits for the various sizes cut in the circumference4 ,gauges of this form were the best and most accurate method then known for measuring sheet metal4 ,s4 ,r4 ,wilmot1 then superintendent of the ,bridgeport ,brass ,company1 seeing that the difficulty was likely to occur again1 devised the micrometer shown at ,a in ,fig4 #dd1 and had six of them made by a skilled machinist named ,hiram ,driggs1 under the direction of ,a4 ,d4 ,laws1 who was then in charge of the mechanical department of the ,brass ,company4 ,the reading of the thousandths of an inch was given by a pointer and a spiral line of the same pitch as the screw1 #dj to the inch1 running around the cylinder and crossed by a set of #be lateral1 parallel lines4 ,in the early part of #ahfg1 the matter was taken up with ,j4 ,r4 ,brown ,sharpe with a view to having them manufacture the gauges1 and the one shown1 ,a1 ,fig4 #dd1 with ,mr4 ,laws' name stamped on it1 is still in their possession4 ,as submitted1 the tool was not considered to be of commercial value1 for the cylinder was completely covered with spiral and straight lines intersecting each other so closely that it was impossible to put any figures upon it1 thus making it very difficult to read4 ,in #ahdh ,jean ,laurent ,palmer1 a skilled mechanic in ,paris1 patented a 8screw caliper10 shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #dd1 and began manufacturing it under the name of 8,systeme ,palmer40 ,in this micrometer the graduations were divided1 one set being on the cylinder of the frame and the other on the revolving barrel1 an arrangement which permitted all the markings necessary for clearness4 ,the importance of this tool does not seem to have been appreciated until ,august1 #ahfg1 when ,j4 ,r4 ,brown and ,lucian ,sharpe saw one at the ,paris ,exposition4 ,they at once recognized its possibilities and brought one home with them4 ,to use ,mr4 ,sharpe's own words3 8,as a gauge was wanted for measuring sheet metal1 we adopted ,palmer's plan of division1 and the ,bridgeport man's size of gauge1 adding the clamp for tightening the screw and the adjusting screw for compensating the wear of end of points where the metal is measured1 and produced our #8,pocket ,sheet ,metal ,gauge4'444 ,we should never have made such a gauge as was shown us by the ,bridgeport man in #ahfg1 to sell on our own account1 as it would be too troublesome to read to be salable4 ,if we had not happened to find the ,palmer gauge1 and thereby found a practical way to read thousandths of an inch1 no gauges would have been made4 ,if we had never seen the ,bridgeport device we should have found the ,palmer at ,paris1 and without doubt have made such gauges1 but possibly would have made a larger one first4 ,the immediate reason of making the #8,pocket ,sheet ,metal ,gauge' was the suggestion coming from the ,bridgeport ,brass ,company of the want of a gauge of the size of the sample shown us for the use of the brass trade40#aid #aid ,from a letter of ,lucian ,sharpe1 quoted in the ,american ,machinist of ,december #ae1 #ahib1 p4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,,figure #dd4 ,,early ,,micrometer ,,calipers ,a--,wilmot's ,micrometer1 #ahfg ,b--,palmer ,micrometer1 brought from ,paris by ,j4 ,r4 ,brown and ,lucian ,sharpe1 #ahfg ,c--8,pocket ,sheet ,metal ,gauge10 ,brown ,sharpe1 #ahfh ,d--,one-inch ,micrometer1 ,brown ,sharpe1 #ahgg ,this gauge1 shown at ,c1 in ,fig4 #dd1 was put on the market in #ahfh1 and appeared in the catalog of #ahfi4 ,comparison of ,a1 ,b1 and ,c in ,fig4 #dd shows clearly their close relationship4 ,the term 8micrometer0 caliper was first applied to the one-inch caliper 7,d1 ,fig4 #dd7 which was brought out and illustrated in the catalog of #ahgg4 ,in ,machinery of ,june1 #aiae1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,d4 ,burlingame has given an admirable and very complete account of the various improvements which have been brought out since that time4 ,in connection with the article1 a modern micrometer is shown and its various features1 with the inventors of each1 are clearly indicated4#aie #aie ,the origin and development of the present form of micrometer is further discussed in ,machinery1 ,august1 #aiae1 p4 #iii1 and ,september1 #aiae1 pp4 #aa1 #eh4 ,the cylindrical grinder was first made as a crude grinding lathe in the early sixties1 and used for grinding the needle and foot bars of the ,wilcox ,gibbs sewing machines4 ,in #ahfd and #ahfe the regular manufacture of grinding lathes was begun by using parts of #ad-;inch ,putnam lathes modified to produce the automatic grinding lathes4 ,these modifications consisted in mounting a grinding wheel on the carriage1 providing an automatic feeding and reversing attachment1 and included the use of a dead center pulley4 ,from #ahfh until #ahgf various plans were worked out for a complete universal grinder1 and by #ahgf one had been built and was exhibited at the ,centennial ,exposition4 ,the first one used at the factory was put into service a few days after ,mr4 ,brown's death1 which occurred ,july #bc1 #ahgf4 ,the patent granted to ,mr4 ,brown's heirs for this machine included not only the ordinary devices of the universal grinder so well known today1 but also provision for form grinding4 ,the designing of surface machines as well as many other varieties followed1 the work being done under the direction of ,charles ,h4 ,norton1 who later had charge of the design of their grinding machinery4 ,the manufacture of automatic gear cutters was commenced by the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company in #ahgg1 two designs by ,edward ,h4 ,parks1 a small manufacturing machine for bevel and spur gears and the larger machine for general use1 being brought out in that year4 ,in sixty years the ,brown ,sharpe ,company has grown from an obscure local shop into a great plant employing thousands1 but its influence and its product represent a greater achievement4 ,many mechanics of high ability have gone to other shops1 among whom are ,henry ,m4 ,leland1 president of the ,cadillac ,motor ,car ,company2 ,j4 ,t4 ,slocomb1 ,horace ,thurston1 ,elmer ,a4 ,beaman and ,george ,smith1 of ,providence2 ,charles ,h4 ,norton1 of ,worcester2 ,john ,j4 ,grant1 of ,boston2 ,william ,s4 ,davenport1 of ,new ,bedford2 ,a4 ,j4 ,shaw1 of the ,shaw ,electric ,crane ,company1 and ,h4 ,k4 ,le,blond1 of ,cincinnati4 ,hundreds of others1 however1 as managers1 superintendents1 chief draftsmen and tool makers1 have perhaps done more to spread throughout the country the methods and standards of accuracy which have made ,american machine tools what they are4 ,mr4 ,henry ,m4 ,leland1 who was trained in the ,providence shop1 says3 ,the man who is responsible for this and who thoroughly demonstrated his rare ability and wonderful persistency in bringing out the accurate measuring tools and instruments1 and the advanced types of more efficient and unique machinery1 was the founder1 ,joseph ,r4 ,brown4 ,i have often said that in my judgment ,mr4 ,brown deserved greater credit than any other man for developing and making possible the great accuracy and the high efficiency of modern machine practice and in making it possible to manufacture interchangeable parts1 because the ,brown ,sharpe ,company were the first people to place on the market and to educate the mechanics of the country in the use of the vernier caliper4 ,they were also the first to make the micrometer caliper4 ,i remember that in those early days people came to ,brown ,sharpe from all over the world to consult with ,mr4 ,brown in reference to obtaining great accuracy and securing difficult results which had been deemed insurmountable by other high-grade mechanics4 ,the mechanical engineers are now searching the records for men who have made themselves eminent in the industrial world as inventors and manufacturers2 for a list of men to have honorable mention and to have their achievements and ability so recorded that the modern world may bestow upon them the credit and gratitude which they so richly deserve4 ,among these names ,i know of none who deserves a higher place than1 or who has done so much for the modern high standards of ,american manufacturers of interchangeable parts as ,joseph ,r4 ,brown4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,central ,,new ,,england ,at the close of the chapter on 8,early ,american ,mechanics0 we referred to the spread of machinery building northward from ,rhode ,island to the ,merrimac ,valley and central ,massachusetts4 ,this by no means implies that all the northern shops were started by ,rhode ,island mechanics1 but their influence is so strong as to be clearly seen2 and here1 as in ,rhode ,island1 the early shops were closely identified with the textile industry4 ,one of the first and most influential of these was the ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,company4 ,the beginnings of the ,amoskeag ,company were made by a ,benjamin ,pritchard1 of ,new ,ipswich1 ,n4 ,h41 who built a small textile mill at ,amoskeag ,village1 then ,goffstown1 in #ahji4 ,in #ahbb it was bought by ,olney ,robinson1 from whom1 that same year1 ,samuel ,slater received a letter asking for a loan of #cjjj4 ,this was accompanied by a magnificent salmon as a sample of the products of ,amoskeag4 ,slater1 with the instincts of a good sportsman and a careful business man1 went there to investigate1 with the result that he bought the property1 which then consisted of a water power1 a two-story wooden mill and two or three small tenements4 ,larned ,pitcher soon joined him1 and in #ahbe four other partners were taken in1 ,willard ,sayles1 ,lyman ,tiffany1 ,oliver ,dean and ,ira ,gay4 ,three of the partners were ,pawtucket men--,slater1 ,pitcher and ,gay4 ,slater and ,gay were very influential in the early history of the company4 ,the business grew rapidly and in #ahda they formed the ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,company1 which has had a long and successful career4 ,their charter was broad1 and they extended their operations until they included textile mills1 extensive improvements of the water powers on the ,merrimac1 the founding of the city of ,manchester1 and the operation of a large machine shop4 ,the last1 which interests us most1 was started about #ahdj4 ,at first it was used only for building and repairing textile machinery1 but before very long it was actively engaged in the manufacture of steam boilers1 locomotives1 steam fire engines1 turbine wheels and machine tools4 ,it comprised two three-story shops1 each nearly #djj feet long1 with foundries and forge shops1 and employed in all #gjj men--a large plant for seventy-five years ago4 ,william ,a4 ,burke1 its first head1 left in #ahde to organize the ,lowell ,machine ,shop1 which built textile and paper machinery and locomotives1 and did general millwright work4 ,one of the workmen who helped install the machinery in the ,amoskeag shop was ,william ,b4 ,bement4 ,he remained there for two years as foreman and contractor1 and in #ahde joined ,burke at ,lowell4 ,o4 ,w4 ,bayley1 who succeeded ,burke as head of the ,amoskeag shop1 left in #ahee and founded the ,manchester ,locomotive ,works4 ,ira ,gay came to ,new ,hampshire from ,pawtucket in #ahbd4 ,besides the ,nashua ,manufacturing ,company and the ,nashua ,iron ,steel ,works1 he and his brother1 ,ziba ,gay1 founded 7about #ahcj7 the ,gay ,silver ,company1 later the ,north ,chelmsford ,machine ,supply ,company referred to in a previous chapter4 ,frederick ,w4 ,howe1 who did such important work with ,robbins ,lawrence1 the ,providence ,tool ,company1 and ,brown ,sharpe1 learned his trade in the ,gay ,silver shop4 ,it has been claimed that the shop of ,gage1 ,warner ,whitney1 established by ,john ,h4 ,gage at ,nashua in #ahcg1 was the first one devoted exclusively to the manufacture of machine tools4 ,if this is true1 it does not involve as high a degree of specialization as would seem1 for ,bishop in #ahfj says3 8,their manufactures include iron planers of all sizes1 engine lathes1 from the smallest watch maker's up to a size suitable for turning locomotive driving wheels six or eight feet in diameter1 hand lathes of all sizes1 chucking lathes of all dimensions1 with sliding bed1 bolt cutting machines for rapidly transforming any part of a plain bolt into a nice1 evenly threaded screw1 upright and swing drills1 boring machines for shaping the interior of steam cylinders1 or other bores of large diameter1 slabbers of all kinds1 gear-cutting engines of all sizes for shaping and smoothing the teeth of gear wheels with perfect accuracy1 power punching machines of various sizes1 etc40#aif ,in #aheb they began building steam engines4 ,with all this formidable list1 it seems never to have been a very large shop4 #aif 8,history of ,american ,manufactures10 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dea4 ,in #ahbe the improvement of the water power at what is now ,lowell was begun4 ,almost at the very beginning of this development work1 a large machine shop was built and placed under the charge of ,paul ,moody1 who was regarded as one of the foremost mechanics of his day and was an expert in cotton machinery4 ,this shop was retained by the ,water ,power ,company for nearly twenty years1 when it was sold 7#ahde7 and reorganized as the ,lowell ,machine ,shop under ,burke's leadership4 ,it employed at times one thousand men1 and became one of the most important shops in the whole ,merrimac ,valley4 ,james ,b4 ,francis1 the great hydraulic engineer1 began his life work as a draftsman here in #ahcc2 and later ,bement became its chief draftsman1 leaving it to go to ,philadelphia4 ,from #ahbj to #ahdj1 other shops sprang up in the ,merrimac ,valley1 such as ,c4 ,m4 ,marvel ,company1 of ,lowell1 the ,lawrence ,machine ,shop1 and the ,essex ,machine ,shop1 where ,amos ,whitney1 of ,pratt ,whitney1 learned his trade1 almost all of them building textile machinery1 as well as machine tools4 ,the output of these shops showed little specialization4 ,they built almost anything which they could sell4 ,of the ,massachusetts towns1 ,worcester and ,fitchburg seem to have been the first to develop successful shops producing machine tools only4 ,in ,worcester also the machinery trade had its beginning in the manufacture of textile machinery2 in fact1 ,worcester antedates even ,pawtucket in its attempts at cotton spinning1 but these at first were unsuccessful4 ,practically all the early water privileges in and about the town1 not used for sawmills1 were used for textile mills4 ,prior to #ahaj there was a small clock shop1 some paper mills1 and a few other enterprises1 but they could hardly be dignified as factories4 ,one of these was the old shop where ,thomas ,blanchard invented his copying lathe for turning irregular forms4 ,an ,abraham ,lincoln operated a mill and a forge with a trip hammer as early as #agie4 ,here1 in quarters rented from ,lincoln1 ,earle ,williams started1 about #ahaj1 the first machine shop in the city4 ,the town grew slowly and its interests were largely local4 ,it was not until #ahbj that ,worcester took first rank even among the towns in the county4 ,there was quite an excitement over the discovery of coal in #ahbc4 ,it was found1 however1 to be so poor1 that1 as someone put it at the time1 8there was a ---- sight more coal after burning it than there was before40 ,the ,providence ,worcester canal was opened in #ahbh1 but its usefulness for navigation was greatly limited by the many power privileges along its route4 ,its traffic was never large and it went out of business in #ahdh4 ,it served1 however1 to hasten the building of the ,boston ,worcester ,railroad1 which was built by ,boston capital to deflect the trade of the central ,massachusetts towns from ,providence to that city4 ,it opened in #ahce2 and in #ahcf there were listed in ,worcester 8seven machinery works10 one wire mill and one iron foundry4 ,most of the earlier tool builders were trained in the small textile-machinery shops which had sprung up after #ahaj1 such as ,washburn ,goddard's1 ,goulding's1 ,phelps ,bickford's1 ,white ,boyden's4 ,the rapid development of railroads created a demand for machine tools which the ,worcester mechanics were quick to recognize1 as had ,nasmyth and ,roberts in ,england4 ,thomas ,blanchard1 who was born near ,worcester1 is one of the picturesque and attractive figures in our mechanical history4 ,he was a shy1 timid boy1 who stammered badly1 and was considered 8backward40 ,the ingenious tinkerer1 laughed at by all1 first secured his standing by devising an apple-parer which made a hit1 social and mechanical4 ,at eighteen he began building a tack machine and worked six years on it before he considered it finished4 ,the essentials of its design have been little changed since4 ,it made over two hundred tacks a minute and its product was more uniform and better than the hand-made tacks4 ,blanchard sold the patent for it for #ejjj1 a large price for those days1 but only a fraction of its real value4 ,a few years later1 about #ahah1 he invented the lathe for turning irregular forms which is associated with his name4 ,it was first built for turning gun-stocks at the ,springfield ,armory1 and the original machine 7,fig4 #bi7 is still preserved there in the museum4 ,blanchard worked at the ,armory for several years as an expert designer and invented or improved about a dozen machines for the manufacture of firearms1 chiefly mortising and turning machines4 ,he was a fertile inventor and worked in many lines besides tool building4 ,his principal income came from royalties on his 8copying0 lathe4 ,many stories are told of his ingenuity and homely wit4 ,in his later life he was a patent expert4 ,his keen mechanical intuitions1 his wide and varied experience and unswerving honesty1 gave weight to his opinions1 and his old age was spent in comfortable circumstances4 ,he died in #ahfd4 ,in #ahbc ,william ,a4 ,wheeler came to ,worcester1 and two years later he was operating a foundry4 ,he did some machine work1 and had the first steam engine and the first boring machine in ,worcester1 and also an iron planer 8weighing #aej lb41 #d ft4 long and #bj in4 wide10 the first one1 it is said1 in the state4 ,beginning with three or four hands1 this foundry employed at times two hundred men4 ,its long career closed in the summer of #aiad4 ,samuel ,flagg moved to ,worcester from ,west ,boylston in #ahci1 to be near the ,wheeler foundry from which he got his castings4 8,uncle ,sammy ,flagg0 was the first man in ,worcester to devote himself entirely to tool building1 and is considered the father of the industry there4 ,he made hand and engine lathes in rented quarters in the old ,court ,mills1 which has been called the cradle of the ,worcester tool building industry4 ,his first lathes were light and crude1 with a wooden bed1 wrought-iron strips for ways1 chain-operated carriage1 and cast gears1 as cut gears were unheard of in the city at that time4 ,his first competitor1 ,pierson ,cowie1 began making chain planers about #ahde4 ,after a few years he sold his business to ,woodburn1 ,light ,company1 which in a few years became ,wood1 ,light ,company1 one of the best known of the older firms4 ,about the same time ,s4 ,c4 ,coombs began making lathes and planers4 ,flagg meantime had organized the firm of ,samuel ,flagg ,company1 which included two of his former apprentices1 ,l4 ,w4 ,pond 7whose portrait appears in ,fig4 #df7 and ,e4 ,h4 ,bellows4 ,pond later bought out ,flagg and ,bellows and developed the business greatly4 ,it was incorporated as the ,pond ,machine ,tool ,company1 in #ahge1 specialized in heavy engine lathes1 and is now part of the ,niles-,bement-,pond ,company4 ,bellows went into the engine business1 and ,flagg started another enterprise1 the ,machinist ,tool ,company1 which did not last long4 ,it lasted long enough1 however1 to build one of the largest lathes made up to that time1 #ce feet long with ways #h feet wide4 ,from the old ,phelps ,bickford and ,s4 ,c4 ,coombs shops came the two ,whitcomb brothers1 ,carter and ,alonzo1 who formed the ,carter ,whitcomb ,company in #ahdi1 which became the ,whitcomb ,manufacturing ,company in #ahgb4 ,from the ,coombs company also came successively ,shepard1 ,lathe ,company2 ,lathe1 ,morse ,company1 and the ,draper ,machine ,tool ,company4 ,p4 ,blaisdell ,company was founded in #ahfe by ,parritt ,blaisdell1 who had been fifteen years with ,wood1 ,light ,company2 and ,s4 ,e4 ,hildreth1 who had worked for more than twenty years with ,flagg and ,pond1 became a partner in this firm eight years later4 ,the ,whitcomb1 ,draper and ,blaisdell companies were united in #aije into the present ,whitcomb-,blaisdell ,machine ,tool ,company4 ,from the old ,blaisdell shop came also ,j4 ,e4 ,snyder ,son through ,currier ,snyder1 who began building drills in #ahcc and were both old workmen at ,blaisdell's4 ,the original ,reed ,prentice ,company was started by ,a4 ,f4 ,prentice1 who sold a half interest to ,f4 ,e4 ,reed in #ahge4 ,the ,woodward ,powell ,planer ,company comes from the ,powell ,planer ,company1 incorporated in #ahgf4 ,this maze of relationships is made clear by reference to the table given in ,fig4 #de4 ,the ,norton ,company comes from ,f4 ,b4 ,norton1 who began experimenting on vitrified emery wheels about #ahgc and put them on the market in #ahgi4 ,at his death the business was incorporated as the ,norton ,emery ,wheel ,company1 now the ,norton ,company4 ,charles ,h4 ,norton's work in developing precision grinding has been perhaps the most distinguished contribution to the later generation of ,worcester mechanics4 ,he began work in the shops of the ,seth ,thomas ,clock ,company at ,thomaston1 ,conn41 under his uncle1 ,n4 ,a4 ,norton1 who was master mechanic there for about forty years4 ,at his uncle's death1 ,norton became master mechanic4 ,he was with the ,clock ,company about twenty years in all1 most of the time in charge of the design and building of all their tools1 machinery and large tower clocks4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,a4 ,,wheeler1 ,,phelps ,,bickford ,,ichabod ,,washburn #ahbc ,textile ,machinery ,cards and ,textile ,foundry--,came from ,s4 ,c4 ,coombs ,machry4 ,brookfield1 99#b99 99#c99 ,plant closed in #aiad 99#a99 #c ,,washburn ,,howard ,cards1 ,textile ,machry4 and ,wire #ahbj 99#d99 #a #b #d ,j4 ,a4 ,,fay ,,samuel ,,flagg1 ,s4 ,c4 ,,coombs ,,washburn ,,co4 #ahci ,,co4 ,,goddard ,woodworking ,first tool- #ahde ,textile1 ,machry builder in city ,r4 ,r4 ,shepard ,machry4 ,keene1 ,n4 ,h4 --came from and ,martin and ,wire ,j4 ,a4 ,fay and ,west ,boylston ,lathe #ahbb ,edw4 ,josslyn4 to be near 99#i99 99#aj #aa99 #ahcf ,wheeler ,a4 ,a4 99#e99 foundry ,whitcomb 99#f #g99 99#h99 #aa ,,pierson ,,cowie #i ,c4 ,,read ,,co4 ,,thos4 ,e4 ,about #ahde--,made ,,shepard1 ,,lathe ,worcester--,screws ,,daniels chain planers ,,co4 99#ad99 ,woodworking 99#ab99 99#ac99 ,machry4 ,worcester 99#ae99 #h #ad #g ,c4 ,,whitcomb ,,co4 ,,american ,,screw ,,co4 #ae ,,samuel ,,flagg #ahdi--;,carter and ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,tainter ,,co4 ,alonzo ,whitcomb ,,gardner ,,childs ,l4 ,w ,pond1 99#ba99 ,daniels ,planer1 ,e4 ,h4 ,bellows1 etc4 ,s4 ,e4 ,hildreth ,worcester ,pond bought out 99#af99 other partners4 #ahdg 99#ai #bj99 #ac ,,lathe1 ,,morse ,,co4 ,,loring ,a4 ,g4 ,,coes 99#ag99 #ahcf 99#ah99 #ab ,,woodburn1 #ag #ah ,,light ,,co4 ,,draper ,,mach4 ,began making #ahdf ,,tool ,,co4 screw wrenches 99#bb99 99#bc99 #ahda 99#bd99 #e #af ,,richardson1 ,,merriam #ba ,,co4 ,,whitcomb ,,mfg4 ,,co4 ,f4 ,b4 ,,norton ,worcester4 ,richardson #ahgb ,began experiments on was ,josslyn's nephew4 99#bg99 wheels in #ahgc4 ,began ,name of ,j4 ,a4 ,fay was sale in #ahgi4 ,died sold to ,western #ahhe and business agents1 about #ahfb incorporated #ahhf 99#be99 99#bf99 #bb #f ,,wood1 #aj ,thomson1 ,skinner of ,,light ,,co4 ,,washburn ,co4 of ,chicopee ,parritt ,,moen ,falls1 bought out ,blaisdell ,wire #ahej ,flagg's original 99#bi99 99#cb99 business 99#bh99 #bf #bh #bj #bi ,,norton ,,new ,,haven ,,mfg4 ,p4 ,,blaisdell ,a4 ,f4 ,,prentice ,,emery ,,wheel ,,co4 ,,co4 ,,co4 ,sold half #ahhf ,new ,haven1 #ahfe interest to 99#cc #cd99 ,conn4 ,p4 ,blaisdell1 ,f4 ,e4 ,reed1 ,s4 ,e4 ,hildreth1 #ahge #cc ,enoch ,earle1 ,,chas4 ,h4 ,,norton ,currier1 ,snyder ,invented ,grinding 99#cj #ca99 ,machines1 ,came from ,brown ,sharpe 99#cg99 #ai #cj ,,pond ,,mach4 ,,tool ,,currier ,,snyder ,,reed ,,prentice ,,co4 ,both worked for ,reed bought whole #ahge ,blaisdell4 business #ahhc in #ahgg 99#ce99 99#cf99 #be #cb #cg ,j4 ,a4 ,,fay ,moved to ,,powell ,incorporated ,,norton ,,co4 ,plainfield1 ,,planer later as ,,grinding ,cincinnati1 ,n4 ,j41 ,,co4 ,washburn ,,co4 ,ohio1 #ahhh #ahhg ,moen ,grinding #ahfb 99#ci99 99#dj99 ,mfg4 ,co4 ,machines 99#ch99 99#da99 #aijj #ci #cf #bd ,,egan ,,co4 ,,niles-,,bement- ,,reed-,,prentice ,,co4 ,,coes ,,wrench ,,co4 ,cincinnati1 ,,pond ,,co4 #ahhh ,ohio1 ,hamilton1 ,o4-- #ahgc ,philadelphia-- 99#db99 ,plainfield #ce #dj ,j4 ,e4 ,,snyder ,,son ,,woodward ,,powell ,,planer ,,co4 #ch #db #bc #bg #ca #da #cd ,j4 ,a4 ,,fay ,,whitcomb-,,blaisdell ,,am4 ,,steel ,,wire ,,co4 ,,norton ,,co4 ,,egan ,,co4 ,,mach4 ,,tool ,,co4 ,worcester ,plant-- ,emery ,wheels1 ,cincinnati1 ,worcester--#aije #ahii etc4 ,ohio4 #aijf #ahic ,,figure #de4 ,,genealogy ,,of ,,the ,,worcester ,,tool ,,builders ,in #ahhf ,mr4 ,norton went to the ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,company of ,providence as assistant to ,mr4 ,parks1 their chief engineer4 ,soon afterward he became designer and engineer for their work in cylindrical grinding machinery1 remaining in that capacity for four years4 ,in #ahij he went to ,detroit with ,henry ,m4 ,leland and formed a corporation called the ,leland-,falkner-,norton ,company1 ,falkner being a ,michigan lumber man4 ,associated with them was ,charles ,h4 ,strellinger1 a well-known dealer in tools and machinery4 ,six years later ,mr4 ,norton returned to ,brown ,sharpe and was again their engineer of grinding machinery until he went to ,worcester in #aijj4 ,the ,norton ,grinding ,company1 organized that year and financed by men connected with the ,norton ,emery ,wheel ,company1 have built cylindrical and plain surface grinding machinery designed by ,charles ,h4 ,norton1 and under his direction have been leaders in refining and extending the process of precision grinding4 ,the ,norton ,company and the ,norton ,grinding ,company should not be confused4 ,the former make grinding wheels2 the latter build grinding machines4 ,neither should ,f4 ,b4 ,norton1 who founded the grinding wheel industry and who died in #ahhe1 be confused with ,charles ,h4 ,norton1 who did not come to ,worcester until fifteen years later4 ,there is no connection in their work1 and despite the similarity of name1 they were in no way related4 ,the greatest industry in ,worcester is the ,american ,steel and ,wire ,company1 formerly the ,washburn ,moen ,company4 ,while it is no longer associated with tool building1 it passed through that phase and traces back to the textile industry as well4 ,it was founded by ,ichabod ,washburn1 who started in as a boy in a cotton factory in ,kingston1 ,r4 ,i41 during the ,war of #ahab4 ,making up his mind to become a machinist1 he served an apprenticeship and then worked in ,asa ,waters' armory and with ,william ,hovey1 one of the early mechanics in ,worcester4 ,about #ahbj he began the manufacture of woolen machinery and lead pipe in partnership first with ,william ,howard and later with ,benjamin ,goddard4 ,the enterprise prospered4 ,as he was making cards for cotton and woolen machinery1 he determined to manufacture the necessary wire himself by a new drawing process4 ,his first experiments were a failure1 but by #ahcj they were successful enough to justify his undertaking regular manufacture4 ,he superseded the old methods entirely and built up the present great business4 ,goddard retired1 and1 after various changes in partnership1 ,washburn took in his son-in-law1 ,philip ,l4 ,moen1 in #ahej4 ,by #ahfh the firm employed more than nine hundred men1 and wire drawing1 which began as an incident in the manufacture of textile machinery1 had become their sole activity4 ,today the works employ eight thousand men4 ,in #ahcc ,washburn1 in order to make an outlet for his wire products1 induced the ,read brothers to move to ,worcester from ,providence and begin the manufacture of screws4 ,this business was operated separately under the name of ,c4 ,read ,company4 ,later it was moved back to ,providence1 where it developed into the ,american ,screw ,company4 ,worcester mechanics have made many things besides machine tools2 in small tools and in gun work they have long been successful4 ,the ,coes ,wrench ,company was started in #ahcf by ,loring and ,a4 ,g4 ,coes1 and began to make the present form of screw wrench in #ahda4 ,asa ,waters1 in ,millbury near by1 was one of the early ,american gun makers4 ,after ,waters came other gun makers1 ,ethan ,allen1 ,forehand ,wadsworth1 ,harrington ,richardson1 and ,iver ,johnson1 who later moved to ,fitchburg4 ,much of ,worcester's prominence as a manufacturing center is due to the unusual facilities it offered to mechanics to begin business in a small way4 ,nearly every manufacturing enterprise in the city began in small1 rented quarters4 ,there were a number of large buildings which rented space with power to these small enterprises2 one of them1 ,merrifield's1 was three stories high1 #aajj feet long1 and had fifty tenants1 employing two to eight hundred men4 ,coes1 ,flagg1 ,daniels1 ,wood1 ,light ,company1 ,coombs1 ,lathe ,morse1 ,whitcomb1 ,pond and ,j4 ,a4 ,fay1 all began1 or at some time operated1 in this way4 ,one is struck1 in looking over the old records1 with the constant recurrence of certain names1 as the ,earles1 ,goddards1 ,washburns1 and realizes that he is among a race of mechanics which was certain sooner or later to build up a successful manufacturing community4 ,fitchburg1 while not so large or so influential1 is almost as old a tool building community as ,worcester4 ,its history centers about the ,putnam ,machine ,company which was started by ,john and ,salmon ,w4 ,putnam1 who came from a family of mechanics4 ,the latter's portrait appears in ,fig4 #dg4 ,they1 too1 began in cotton manufacturing1 ,john as a contractor making cotton machine parts1 and ,salmon as a bobbin boy and later as an overseer at ,new ,ipswich and ,lowell4 ,in #ahcf they went to ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j41 intending to start a machine shop there1 but the panic of #ahcg intervened and made it impossible4 ,they had themselves built most of the machines required2 they stored these and found employment until business conditions improved4 ,finally1 they started in a hired basement in ,ashburnham1 ,mass41 under the name of ,j4 ,s4 ,w4 ,putnam4 ,a year later they moved to ,fitchburg and began repairing cotton machinery4 ,at first they did their work entirely themselves1 but their business increased rapidly and they soon hired an apprentice4 ,their first manufactured product was a gear cutter4 ,this gave them a start and they soon developed a full line of standard tools4 ,though he was the younger brother1 ,s4 ,w4 ,putnam was the leading spirit4 ,he first built upright drills with a swinging table so that the work could be moved about under the drill without unclamping4 ,he designed the present form of back rest for lathes1 and is said to have invented the universal hanger4 ,the latter invention1 however1 has been claimed for several other mechanics in both ,england and ,america4 ,in #ahdi the brothers were burned out1 without insurance4 ,they repaired their machinery1 built a temporary shed over it1 and were at work again in two weeks4 ,the present company was formed in #aheh4 ,the ,putnam company has been influential in other lines than machine tools4 ,putnam engines were for many years among the best known in the country1 and the company was also intimately concerned with the early development of the rock drill1 through ,charles ,burleigh1 the head of their planer department and the inventor of the ,burleigh drill4 ,in fact1 the first successful drills1 those for the ,hoosac tunnel1 together with the compressors1 were designed and built in the ,putnam shops4 ,sylvester ,wright1 who founded the ,fitchburg ,machine ,works1 was for ten years foreman of their lathe department1 and most of the old mechanics in and about ,fitchburg were ,putnam men4 ,scattered here and there are other companies4 ,at ,nashua were ,gage1 ,warner ,whitney1 to which we have referred1 and the ,flather ,manufacturing ,company which was founded by ,joseph ,flather1 an ,englishman1 in #ahfg4 ,the ,ames ,manufacturing ,company of ,chicopee ,falls came from the old ,ames ,fisher shop at ,north ,chelmsford4 ,this was started by ,nathan ,p4 ,ames1 ,senior1 in #agia1 who operated a trip hammer and other machinery1 making edged tools and millwork4 ,the shop was burned in #ahaj1 and he moved to ,dedham1 ,mass41 for a year or so1 but returned and resumed his former business on the old site4 ,his sons1 ,nathan ,p41 ,jr41 and ,james ,t41 learned their trade with their father4 ,the older brother1 ,nathan1 moved to ,chicopee ,falls in #ahbi4 ,james joined him in #ahcd4 ,the ,ames ,manufacturing ,company1 formed the same year1 lived for sixty years and employed at one time over a thousand men4 ,from the start they had close relations with the ,government and did an extensive business in all kinds of military supplies1 swords1 bayonets1 guns1 cannon1 cavalry goods1 etc4 ,they cast bronze statuary1 and the famous doors of the ,capitol at ,washington were made by them4 ,they rivaled ,robbins ,lawrence in gun machinery and shared with them the order for the ,enfield ,armory4 ,this contract alone took three years to complete4 ,their gun-stock machinery went to nearly every government in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #df4 ,,lucius ,w4 ,,pond ,illustration3 ,,figure #dg4 ,,salmon ,w4 ,,putnam ,in addition to all this they built the famous ,boydon waterwheel1 mill machinery1 and a list of standard machine tools quite as catholic as that of ,gage1 ,warner ,whitney4 ,they did their work well1 contributed material improvements to manufacturing methods and had one of the most influential shops of their day4 ,most of the plants for manufacturing woodworking machinery can be traced back to a comparatively small area limited approximately by ,fitchburg1 ,gardner1 ,keene and ,nashua4 ,this section was poor farming land1 rough and heavily wooded1 and the ingenuity of its inhabitants was early directed toward utilizing the timber4 ,mr4 ,smith1 of the ,h4 ,b4 ,smith ,company of ,smithville1 ,n4 ,j41 came originally from ,woodstock1 ,vt41 and ,walter ,haywood started at ,gardner4 ,j4 ,a4 ,fay and ,edward ,josslyn began manufacturing woodworking machinery as ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,company at ,keene1 in #ahcf4 ,in #ahec they felt the need of better facilities and purchased ,tainter ,childs' shop at ,worcester1 which was manufacturing the ,daniels wood planer4 ,mr4 ,fay died soon after1 and the business passed through the hands of ,h4 ,a4 ,richardson1 ,josslyn's nephew1 to ,richardson1 ,merriam ,company4 ,they built up a good business before the ,civil ,war1 and had branch offices in ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 and ,cincinnati4 ,in the early sixties the western agents bought the name of ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,company and started manufacturing at ,cincinnati4 ,later this was united with the ,egan ,company1 and the present ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,egan ,company formed4 ,when ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,company was started at ,cincinnati1 machinery1 superintendent and mechanics were brought from ,worcester1 and1 as the name implies1 the present company was a direct descendant from the old ,worcester and ,keene enterprise4 ,winchendon1 in the center of the district referred to1 has long been known for its woodworking machinery4 ,baxter ,d4 ,whitney began there before #ahdj4 ,he died in #aiae1 aged ninety-eight years1 the last of the early generation of mechanics4 ,for many years he was a leader in the development of woodworking tools1 and the business which he founded is still in successful operation under the management of his son1 ,william ,m4 ,whitney4 ,springfield1 although an important manufacturing city1 has had few prominent tool builders4 ,one company1 however1 the ,baush ,machine ,tool ,company1 has built up a wide reputation for drilling machines1 especially large multiple spindle machines4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,naugatuck ,,valley ,the most casual consideration of ,new ,england's mechanical development brings one squarely against a most interesting and baffling phase of ,american industrial life1 the brass industry of the ,naugatuck ,valley4 ,here1 in a narrow district scarcely thirty miles long1 centering about ,waterbury1 is produced approximately #hj per cent of the rolled brass and copper and finished brass wares used in the ,united ,states1 an output amounting to upward of #hj1jjj1jjj a year4 ,no concentration on so large a scale exists elsewhere in the country4 ,for example1 in #aijj1 ,pennsylvania produced but #ed per cent of the iron and steel1 and ,massachusetts but #de per cent of the boots and shoes4 ,furthermore1 there seems to be no serious tendency to dislodge it4 ,while there is more competition from outside1 its ascendency is nearly as marked today as it was a generation ago4 ,why should this small district1 a thousand miles or more from its sources of raw material1 far from its market1 and without cheap coal or adequate water power1 gain and hold this leadership8#aig #aig ,the best study of the brass industry of the ,naugatuck ,valley has been made by ,william ,g4 ,lathrop1 and has been published by him at ,shelton1 ,conn41 #aiji1 under the name of 8,the ,brass ,industry40 ,mr4 ,lathrop had intimate knowledge of the subject and1 in addition1 unusual facilities for investigation4 ,the personal history of many of the men who have figured in its growth will be found in ,anderson's 8,history of the ,town and ,city of ,waterbury10 #c vols4 #ahie4 ,it was not the first in the field4 ,the ,revere ,copper ,company1 in ,massachusetts1 founded by ,paul ,revere1 began rolling copper in #ahja1 and the ,soho ,copper ,company1 at ,belleville1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahac4 ,the brass business in ,connecticut had its origin with ,henry ,grilley1 of ,waterbury1 who began making pewter buttons there in #agij4 ,in #ahjb ,abel and ,levi ,porter joined him1 and they started making brass buttons under the name of ,abel ,porter ,company4 ,in #ahaa all the original partners retired and a new firm was formed1 ,leavenworth1 ,hayden ,scovill4 ,in #ahbg ,leavenworth and ,hayden sold out to ,william ,h4 ,scovill1 and the firm became ,j4 ,m4 ,l4 ,w4 ,h4 ,scovill4 ,j4 ,m4 ,l4 ,scovill did the selling and his brother ran the shop and the finances4 ,in #ahej the firm was incorporated as the present ,scovill ,manufacturing ,company4 ,meantime1 ,aaron ,benedict established1 in #ahab1 a factory at ,waterbury for making bone and ivory buttons1 and1 in #ahbc1 he too began making brass buttons4 ,about #ahbj ,james ,croft1 a brass worker from ,birmingham1 ,england1 came to the ,scovills4 ,a year later ,benedict secured him1 and when ,benedict and ,israel ,coe formed the firm of ,benedict ,coe1 in #ahbi1 ,croft became one of the partners4 ,croft's coming marks a vital point in the history of the industry4 ,on his advice1 both ,scovill and ,benedict began to do their own rolling4 ,it was his influence which induced them to import from ,birmingham workmen1 processes and machinery4 ,he went to ,england seven times for ,benedict1 and ,israel ,holmes went three times for ,scovill to bring back ,english machinery1 rollers and finishers4 ,israel ,coe also went to ,england when the ,wolcottville ,brass ,company was started4#aih ,from that time1 the business may be said to have passed the experimental stage1 and its growth from #ahcj was rapid4 ,william ,lathrop1 who has made a study of it1 has traced1 perhaps better than any other1 the coincident growth of the market and the industry4 ,the raw material was at first mainly scrap copper1 old ship sheathing1 kettles1 boilers and stills1 collected by the ,connecticut peddlers4 ,more and more copper was imported until after #ahej when the mining of western copper began developing4 ,all of the zinc was imported until about #ahgj4 #aih ,lathrop1 p4 #hi4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #dh4 ,,hiram ,w4 ,,hayden ,illustration3 ,,figure #di4 ,,israel ,,holmes ,at first they rolled brass only for their own use1 but new demands for it were arising4 ,by #ahdj ,chauncey ,jerome had developed the cheap brass clock4 ,the discovery and refining of petroleum created a lamp industry4 ,the pin machinery1 invented by ,dr4 ,j4 ,i4 ,howe1 ,fowler1 and ,slocum ,jillson1 opened up another great outlet4 ,daguerreotype plates gave another1 and metallic cartridges another1 while the invention of the telegraph enormously extended the use of copper wire4 ,the ,waterbury men were best able to meet these new demands1 as they were the only ones in the country with the facilities and experience needed1 and they 8got in first40 ,while the rolling and the drawing processes were imported bodily from ,england1 and have continued almost unchanged1 ,yankee ingenuity was constantly at work devising new articles made of brass and improving the machinery for making the old ones4 ,with the increasing demand1 firms began to multiply4 ,israel ,holmes1 who had been with the ,scovills for ten years1 started ,holmes ,hotchkiss in #ahcj1 and with ,english workmen and machinery made wire and tubing for the market4 ,after several changes in partnership1 the firm became ,brown ,elton in #ahch4 ,meantime1 ,holmes1 with ,israel ,coe1 ,anson ,phelps and ,john ,hungerford1 started the ,wolcottville ,brass ,company in #ahcd1 in what is now ,torrington4 ,they built up a prosperous business in sheet-brass kettles1 but lost heavily when ,hiram ,w4 ,hayden1 then with ,scovill1 invented the spinning process4 ,their property was eventually sold to ,lyman ,coe1 and became the ,coe ,brass ,company4 ,the ,waterbury ,brass ,company was started in #ahde1 with ,holmes as president4 ,associated with him were ,h4 ,w4 ,hayden1 ,elton1 and ,lyman ,coe1 son of ,israel ,coe4 ,in #ahec ,holmes founded ,holmes1 ,booth ,haydens1#aii and in #ahfi ,holmes1 ,booth ,atwood1 which two years later was forced to change its name to ,plume ,atwood on account of its resemblance to the older company4 #aii ,there were two ,haydens in the firm1 ,h4 ,w4 ,hayden was in charge of the manufacturing and ,h4 ,h4 ,hayden in charge of marketing the product4 ,israel ,holmes stands out among the indomitable personalities who built up the brass industry4 ,in addition to his invaluable work for the ,scovills1 he started five of the strongest firms in the valley1 and was the first president of three4 ,benedict ,coe became ,benedict ,burnham in #ahcd1 and from this firm has come the ,american ,pin ,company1 the ,waterbury ,button ,company and the ,waterbury ,clock and ,watch companies4 ,anson ,phelps soon withdrew from the ,wolcottville ,brass ,company and started ,smith ,phelps at ,derby in #ahcf4 ,encouraged by its success1 ,phelps planned to organize a large manufacturing community there1 but he was held up by a man who raised the price of some necessary land from #e1jjj to #cj1jjj1 so he moved two miles up the river and founded what is now the city of ,ansonia4 ,in #ahed the firm was incorporated as the ,ansonia ,brass ,copper ,company4 ,mr4 ,george ,p4 ,cowles1 who came from ,wolcottville in #ahdh1 was its executive head for forty years until his death4 ,from it sprang the ,ansonia ,clock ,company1 of ,brooklyn1 ,wallace ,sons1 which failed in #ahif and became part of the ,coe ,brass ,company1 and a number of other companies4 ,the ,chase ,rolling ,mills ,company developed from the ,waterbury ,manufacturing ,company1 ,benedict ,burnham1 and ,holmes1 ,booth ,haydens4 ,randolph ,clowes came down through ,brown ,brothers1 and ,brown ,elton from the old ,holmes ,hotchkiss firm4 ,illustration3 ,,henry ,,grilley1 #agij ,pewter ,buttons 99#a99 #a ,,abel ,,porter ,,co41 #ahjb ,,aaron ,,benedict1 #ahab ,begins making brass buttons ,bone and ivory buttons4 99#b99 ,started making brass ones #ahbc 99#c99 #b ,,leavenworth1 ,,hayden ,,scovill1 #c #e #ahaa ,,benedict ,,coe1 #ahbi ,fred'k ,leavenworth1 ,david ,hayden1 ,aaron ,benedict1 ,israel ,coe1 ,j4 ,m4 ,l4 ,scovill1 ,james ,croft1 ,jas4 ,croft ,israel ,holmes4 99#f #g99 99#d #e99 #d #aj ,j4 ,m4 ,l4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,holmes ,,hotchkiss1 ,,scovill1 #ahbg #ahcj ,israel ,holmes1 ,israel ,holmes1 ,h4 ,w4 ,hayden ,horace ,hotchkiss1 99#h #i #aj99 ,philo ,brown 99#aa #ab99 #f #g #ab ,howe ,mfg4 ,co41 ,,benedict ,,burnham1 ,,wolcottville ,,brass ,,co41 ,darby2 ,slocum #ahcd #ahcd ,jillson1 ,a4 ,chas4 ,benedict1 ,israel ,coe1 ,israel ,poughkeepsie1 ,g4 ,w4 ,burnham1 ,a4 ,s4 ,holmes1 ,anson ,g4 ,phelps1 ,n4 ,y41 and ,fowler ,chase1 ,f4 ,a4 ,mason1 ,john ,hungerford1 ,geo4 ,p4 ,bros41 ,northford1 ,geo4 ,somers ,cowles1 ,john ,davol-- ,ct41 developed 99#ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai #bj99 ,torrington1 ,conn4 successful pin 99#ba #bb #bc99 machinery 99#ac99 #aa #ac #bj #bc ,,brown ,,elton1 ,,waterbury ,,button ,,co41 ,,smith ,,phelps1 #ahcf #ahch #ahdi ,anson ,g4 ,phelps1 ,geo4 ,p4 ,philo ,brown1 ,j4 ,cowles1 ,thos4 ,wallace1 ,p4 ,elton--,sold ,thos4 ,james4,first at to ,brown ,bros4 ,derby--,co4 founded at and ,holmes1 ,ansonia in #ahdd ,booth ,haydens 99#bi #cj #ca99 99#bd #be #bf #bg99 #ad #bg #bb ,,american ,,pin ,,co41 #ahdf ,davol organised ,brooklyn ,brass ,copper ,co4 in #ahec 99#bh99 #i #ba #bf #bi #ca ,,waterbury ,,brass ,,wallace ,,son1 #ahdh ,,humphreysville ,,copper ,,co41 #ahde ,thos4 ,wallace--,co4 ,,co41 #ahdi ,israel ,holmes1 ,j4 failed in #ahie--,plant ,thos4 ,james1 ,seymour1 ,ct4 ,p4 ,elton1 ,h4 ,w4 sold to ,coe ,br4 ,co4 in 99#ce99 ,hayden1 ,lyman ,w4 #ahif ,coe1 son of ,israel ,coe 99#cb #cc #cd99 #h #ai #ce ,,scovill ,,mfg4 ,,co41 ,,waterbury ,,clock ,,co41 ,,new ,,haven ,,copper ,,co41 #ahej #aheg #ahee ,the ,scovill ,brothers1 ,f4 ,j4 ,kingsbery1 ,sr4 #bd #cd ,,brown ,,bros41 #ahea ,,coe ,,brass ,,co41 #ahfc ,philo ,brown--,failed in #ahhf4 ,l4 ,w4 ,coe1 ,chas4 ,f4 ,brooker ,geo ,h4 ,clowes 99#ch99 99#cf #cg99 #ae #be #cb #cj ,,holmes1 ,,booth ,,haydens1 #ahec ,,ansonia ,,brass ,,copper ,,co41 ,israel ,holmes1 ,g4 ,w4 ,burnham1 #ahed ,a4 ,s4 ,chase1 ,l4 ,j4 ,atwood ,anson ,phelps1 ,geo4 ,p4 ,cowles 99#ci #dj #da #db99 99#dc99 #ci #ah #bh #dc ,holmes1 ,booth ,,bridgeport ,,brass ,,ansonia ,,clock ,,co41 ,atwood1 #ahfi4 ,,co41 #ahfe #ahgh ,name changed to ,john ,davol1 ,f4 ,a4 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,plume ,,atwood1 ,mason1 ,geo4 ,somers1 #ahga ,f4 ,j4 ,kingsbury1 ,israel ,holmes1 ,jr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,booth1 ,l4 ,j4 ,atwood #dj #ag ,,waterbury ,,mfg4 ,,co41 ,,waterbury ,,watch #ahgf ,,co41 #ahhj ,a4 ,s4 ,chase1 ,henry #dd ,s4 ,chase1 ,fredk4 ,s4 ,,chase ,,rolling ,,mill ,chase ,,co41 #aijj 99#dd99 ,henry ,s4 ,chase1 #cg #db ,fredk4 ,s4 ,chase ,,seymour-,,mfg4 ,,co41 ,,waterbury ,,brass 99#de99 #ahgh ,,goods ,,corporation #cf #af #cc #ch #da #de ,,randolph ,,clowes1 ,,american ,,brass ,,co41 ,,chase ,,metal ,,works1 #ahhf #ahii #aiad ,r4 ,f4 ,randolph1 ,chas4 ,f4 ,brooker ,geo4 ,h4 ,clowes ,,figure #ej4 ,,genealogy ,,of ,,the ,,naugatuck ,,brass ,,industry ,the ,american ,brass ,company was formed in #ahii1 and now comprises the ,waterbury ,brass ,company1 ,holmes1 ,booth ,haydens1 ,benedict ,burnham1 the ,coe ,brass ,company and the ,ansonia ,brass ,copper ,company4 ,this is the largest brass company in the world4 ,such1 briefly1 is an outline of the history of the larger companies4 ,to an outsider their interrelations are almost inextricable4 ,the chart 7,fig4 #ej7 does little more than indicate them4 ,as phases of the business grew1 there was a clearly defined policy of setting them off as separate enterprises4 ,the ,american ,pin ,company1 the ,clock1 ,watch and ,button companies1 and the ,brass ,goods ,corporation are examples4 ,only the more important of these manufacturing companies are shown4 ,while there has been at times sharp competition among them1 it always stopped short of war1 and when facing outside competition the companies pull together4 ,many of the heavy stockholders1 as ,holmes1 ,elton1 ,burnham and ,chase1 were interested in several companies4 ,nearly all of the leaders were born and grew up in the valley and were full of local spirit4 ,israel ,coe1 ,holmes1 the ,scovill brothers and ,phelps1 of the earlier order1 were men of great ability1 as also ,lyman ,coe1 ,cowles and ,charles ,f4 ,brooker1 of the later generation4 ,the inventions of ,hiram ,w4 ,hayden vitally affected the history of four companies4 ,they seriously undermined the old ,wolcottville company1 shut the ,brooklyn ,brass ,company out of important phases of its business1 and built up the prosperity of the ,waterbury ,brass ,company1 and ,holmes1 ,booth ,haydens4 ,l4 ,j4 ,atwood1 of ,holmes1 ,booth ,haydens1 and1 later1 ,plume ,atwood1 ,l4 ,s4 ,white1 of ,brown ,brothers1 and ,w4 ,n4 ,weeden1 of ,benedict ,burnham1 were prolific inventors1 and their work contributed to the growth of the industry4 ,other influential men have built machinery for the large companies4 ,almon ,farrel founded the ,farrel ,foundry ,machine ,company in #ahea1 and had two establishments1 one in ,ansonia and one in ,waterbury4 ,the ,waterbury plant was operated for many years by ,e4 ,c4 ,lewis as agent4 ,he bought it in #ahhj1 but as a matter of sentiment retained the old name1 prefixing the word ,waterbury4 ,the two plants have come to specialize somewhat1 the ,waterbury one building mainly presses and stamping machines1 and the ,ansonia one rolling mills and heavy machinery4 ,e4 ,j4 ,manville1 an expert mechanic from the ,pratt ,whitney shop in ,hartford1 with his five sons1 founded the ,e4 ,j4 ,manville ,machine ,company1 which has built up a wide reputation for its presses and headers4 ,among the many others are ,william ,wallace of ,wallace ,sons1 ,ansonia1 ,charles ,johnson and ,a4 ,c4 ,campbell4 ,the answer1 then1 to our question as to origin and success of the ,naugatuck brass industry is as follows4 ,it sprang from the local manufacture of buttons4 ,a small group of able1 forceful and ingenious men developed the best facilities in the country for rolling and drawing brass1 and when new demands came they were the only ones with experience prepared to meet them4 ,they were originally well situated for raw material4 ,later they bought their copper in ,baltimore4 ,by the time copper began coming from the ,west1 the ,waterbury companies were firmly established4 ,copper is expensive1 its unit of weight is the pound and not the ton1 and freight rates are far less important than with steel1 so the industry's detached location did not outweigh the advantage of its early start4 ,a large force of workmen skilled in handling brass has been developed in these factories and no large enterprise could now be started elsewhere without drawing upon them4 ,many of these workmen own their homes1 and their relations with the employers have generally been so friendly that higher wages elsewhere do not seem to attract them4 ,finally1 and perhaps most important of all1 are the men who have designed and built the tools used4 ,connecticut leads all other states in the ratio of patents to the population1 and ,waterbury has led the rest of ,connecticut in the proportion of nearly two to one4 ,all the finishing or 8cutting up0 shops1 as they are locally known1 contain highly developed machinery--nearly all of it special1 much of it designed and built in the shop where it is used4 ,this includes machinery for making eyelets1 hooks and eyes1 pins1 cartridges1 wire forming machinery1 thread rolling1 and headers and stamping machinery4 ,some of these machines1 as1 for instance1 the last two mentioned1 are more or less standard1 but their tool equipment has been wonderfully developed and is bewildering in its variety4 ,much of this machinery has never been made public1 and nearly all of it is too special1 too intricate and too varied for description here4 ,it is natural1 under these circumstances1 that the mechanics who developed these tools should be comparatively little known4 ,they have1 however1 been a vital element in the ,naugatuck brass industry1 and should be recognized as successful ,american tool builders4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,philadelphia ,although the commercial manufacture of machinery began in ,new ,england1 ,philadelphia became1 and for a long time remained1 the largest tool building center in the country4 ,its large population and nearness to coal1 iron and tide water1 made this almost inevitable1 but it was hastened by the work of two brilliant mechanics1 ,william ,sellers and ,william ,bement4 ,bishop1 in his 8,history of ,american ,manufactures10#bjj says3 8,in the invention and construction of machinery and instruments for practical and scientific purposes1 ,philadelphia mechanics early acquired a reputation for skill4 ,the records of original ,american invention contain few names more distinguished than those of ,godfrey1 the inventor of the quadrant1 of ,rittenhouse1 who made the first telescope constructed in ,america1 and whose orrery and other scientific instruments displayed unusual mechanical and mathematical genius2 of ,franklin1 ,evans1 ,fulton1 ,fitch1 and others whose inventive and constructive skill have added to the permanent wealth of the ,state and the ,union40 ,of these1 ,oliver ,evans seems to have affected modern manufacturing methods the most4 #bjj ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #egf4 ,evans was born in ,delaware in #agee4 ,he was apprenticed to a wheelwright1 and invented a card machine as early as #aggg1 but never followed it up4 ,in #aghe he built a flour mill in ,newcastle ,county1 ,del42 and1 impatient at the crude methods in use1 he began a series of improvements which form the basis of the modern art of handling materials4 ,it has been claimed that ,evans stole many of these ideas from the ,ellicotts in ,maryland4 ,this does not seem probable4 ,thomas ,ellicott wrote a portion of the 8,millwright and ,millers ,guide0 which ,evans published to help introduce his machinery1 and in this ,ellicott himself refers to 8the elevators1 hopper-boys1 etc41 invented by ,oliver ,evans1 late of ,delaware1 though now of ,philadelphia40 ,evans developed a number of closely related transporting devices about which no question is raised and no claims on behalf of the ,ellicotts made2 and many years later1 in #ahab1 ,evans sued those ,ellicotts who were then operating for infringement of his patents and obtained judgment4 ,if they could have proved priority it seems natural that they would have done so4 ,evans' improvements related chiefly to the movement of materials during the processes of manufacture4 ,he modified the ancient ,egyptian chain of pots1 used for irrigation1 by using an endless belt carrying iron buckets so arranged as to fill with dry material from a boot at the bottom and to empty by gravity into a hopper as they went over the head pulley4 ,he used a belt conveyor for horizontal movement1 without however the troughing feature which is a later improvement4 ,when the discharge end was lowest1 ,evans utilized gravity to drive it1 and called it a 8descender40 ,what ,evans called a 8drill0 was an 8elevator laid horizontally0 and provided with wooden cleats which scraped the grain along the bottom of the box in which it ran1 and was nothing more nor less than our modern flight or scraper conveyor4 ,evans' 8conveyor0 was a round1 wooden shaft on which he nailed a sheet-iron spiral which pushed the grain along a trough in which the shaft rotated2 and when he wished to stir or dry the material as he moved it1 he broke up the continuous helix into a number of separate arms arranged spirally4 ,these of course correspond to the modern screw conveyor4 ,his so-called 8hopper-boy0 consisted of a vertical shaft with a horizontal cross bar at its lower end provided on its lower side with flights which spread the meal for drying1 and slowly worked it in a spiral toward a hopper at the center4 ,the angle of the flights was adjustable so that the time allowed for cooling could be varied4 ,he also used pivoted wooden spouts at the discharge of the elevators to deliver the grain into different bins4 ,these improvements are said to have effected a saving of over #cj1jjj a year in the ,ellicott ,mill at ,patapsco1 ,md41 on an output of #cbe barrels a day4#bja ,in his patents and various books ,evans shows nearly all of the modern transporting devices in substantially their present forms4#bjb #bja ,paper by ,coleman ,sellers on 8,oliver ,evans and his ,inventions40 ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,cxxii1 p4 #a4 #bjb ,sections of ,evans' mills are shown in the ,american ,machinist of ,november #g1 #aijg1 and ,december #ag1 #aiad4 ,in both cases the conveyor system was arranged to take material either from wagons on one side of the mill or from boats on the opposite side4 ,evans moved to ,philadelphia some time prior to #agij4 ,in #ahjj he had a mill near ,third and ,market ,streets and the next year was selling mill supplies at ,ninth and ,market ,streets4 ,as a boy he had become interested in the steam engine4 ,a description of the ,newcomen engine fell into his hands and he was struck with the fact that the steam was used only to produce a vacuum and saw that more power could be obtained if it were used to produce pressure4 ,after his removal to ,philadelphia he made an engine #f inches diameter by #ah inches stroke1 which was running in #ahjb1 grinding plaster of ,paris and sawing wood4 ,it cost1 boiler and all1 more than #cgjj and nearly impoverished him4 ,its successful operation1 however1 led to an order for an engine to drive a steamboat on the ,mississippi1 which was sent to ,new ,orleans but never used for its original purpose4 ,the boat it was intended for had been stranded high and dry during a flood1 so the engine was set to running a saw mill and later a cotton press4 ,in #ahjc ,evans began business as a regular engine builder and was unquestionably the first one in the ,united ,states4 ,he advocated long stroke engines operating under high steam pressure1 of which he had built fifty by #ahaf4 ,in #ahjd he built a flat bottomed boat1 fitted with a steam driven1 chain bucket dredge1 which he called the 8,oruktor ,amphibolos0 or in good ,english the ,amphibious ,digger4 ,it was built more than a mile from the river1 and was mounted on rollers connected with the engine4 ,after moving around what is now the ,city ,hall ,square each day for several days1 the boat walked out ,market ,street to the ,schuykill and into the water2 its rollers were disconnected1 a stern paddle wheel substituted1 and it steamed down the ,schuykill and around up the ,delaware to the city4 ,in #ahje he advertised a new book1 8,the ,young ,engineer's ,guide10 which he intended to be very complete and 8abstruse40 ,disappointed in his application for the extension of his patents and crippled by his first engine ventures1 he issued it much abridged1 with only part of the illustrations planned1 and called it 8,the ,abortion of the ,young ,engineer's ,guide40 ,the proportions given in this book for one of his steam engines were3 diameter of cylinder1 #bj inches2 stroke1 #e feet2 steam pressure1 #aid to #bbj pounds4 ,the boilers were of cast iron1 #cj inches in diameter1 #bd feet long1 fired at one end1 with a single return flue4 ,an engine was actually built to these proportions for the ,fairmount ,water ,works4 ,it may be added that the boilers burst on three different occasions4 ,in #ahjg ,evans was established as 8,millwright and ,engineer0 at the ,mars ,works at ,ninth and ,vine ,streets4 ,an old description of the plant says that it consisted of an iron foundry1 mould-maker's shop1 steam engine manufactory1 blacksmith's shop1 and mill-stone manufactory1 and a steam engine used for grinding materials for the use of the works1 and for turning and boring heavy cast or wrought iron work4 ,the buildings occupy one hundred and eighty-eight feet front and about thirty-five workmen are daily employed4 ,they manufacture all cast or wrought-iron work for machinery for mills1 for grinding grain or sawing timber2 for forges1 rolling and slitting-mills1 sugar-mills1 apple-mills1 bark-mills1 c4 ,pans of all dimensions used by sugar-boilers1 soap-boilers1 c4 ,screws of all sizes for cotton-presses1 tobacco-presses1 paper-presses1 cast iron gudgeons1 and boxes for mills and wagons1 carriage-boxes1 c41 and all kinds of small wheels and machinery for ,cotton and ,wool spinning1 c4 ,mr4 ,evans also makes steam engines on improved principles1 invented and patented by the proprietor1 which are more powerful and less complicated1 and cheaper than others2 requiring less fuel1 not more than one-fiftieth part of the coals commonly used4 ,the small one in use at the works is on this improved principle1 and it is of great use in facilitating the manufacture of others4 ,the proprietor has erected one of his improved steam engines in the town of ,pittsburg1 and employed it to drive three pair of large millstones with all the machinery for cleaning the grain1 elevating1 spreading1 and stirring and cooling the meal1 gathering and bolting1 c41 c4 ,the power is equal to twenty-four horses and will do as much work as seventy-two horses in twenty-four hours2 it would drive five pair of six-feet millstones1 and grind five hundred bushels of wheat in twenty-four hours4#bjc #bjc ,freedley3 8,philadelphia and its ,manufactures10 pp4 #ed-ee4 ,philadelphia1 #aheh4 ,incidentally the last sentence is an admirable illustration of the origin of the term 8horse power40 ,this business was carried on until ,evans' death4 ,it would be interesting to know how far he influenced the design of ,mississippi river boat engines which have retained the proportions characteristic of the engines which he first built for that service4 ,evans' best-known book1 8,the ,young ,millwright and ,miller's ,guide10 went through a number of editions and was translated and published abroad4 ,in this he gives his idea of 8,the ,true ,path to ,inventions40 ,it is well worth quoting1 as it explains1 in part1 his own success as an inventor4 ,necessity is called the mother of ,invention--but upon inquiry we shall find that ,reason and ,experiment bring them forth4--,for almost all inventions have resulted from such steps as the following3 ,step ,i4 ,is to investigate the fundamental principles of the theory1 and process1 of the art or manufacture we wish to improve4 ,,ii4 ,to consider what is the best plan1 in theory1 that can be deduced from1 or founded on1 those principles to produce the effect we desire4 ,,iii4 ,to inquire whether the theory is already put in practice to the best advantage2 and what are the imperfections or disadvantages of the common process1 and what plans are likely to succeed better4 ,,iv4 ,to make experiments in practice1 upon any plans that these speculative reasonings may suggest1 or lead to4--,any ingenious artist1 taking the foregoing steps1 will probably be led to improvements on his own art3 for we see by daily experience that every art may be improved4 ,it will1 however1 be in vain to attempt improvements unless the mind be freed from prejudice1 in favour of established plans4#bjd #bjd pp4 #cde-cdf4 ,evans was certainly an independent1 and probably the first1 inventor of the high pressure steam engine1 a type of engine which he saw was well suited to ,american pioneer conditions4 ,he was interested in steam locomotion1 and predicted the development of railways with singular accuracy4 ,the time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines from one city to another almost as fast as birds fly--fifteen to twenty miles an hour4 ,passing through the air with such velocity--changing the scenes in such rapid succession--will be the most exhilarating1 delightful exercise4 ,a carriage will set out from ,washington in the morning1 and the passengers will breakfast at ,baltimore1 dine at ,philadelphia1 and sup at ,new ,york the same day4 ,to accomplish this1 two sets of railways will be laid so nearly level as not in any place to deviate more than two degrees from a horizontal line1 made of wood or iron1 on smooth paths of broken stone or gravel1 with a rail to guide the carriages so that they may pass each other in different directions and travel by night as well as by day2 and the passengers will sleep in these stages as comfortably as they do now in steam stage-boats4 ,a steam engine that will consume from one-quarter to one-half a cord of wood will drive a carriage #ahj miles in twelve hours1 with twenty or thirty passengers1 and will not consume six gallons of water4 ,the carriages will not be overloaded with fuel or water4444 ,and it shall come to pass that the memory of those sordid and wicked wretches who oppose such improvements will be execrated by every good man1 as they ought to be now4 ,posterity will not be able to discover why the ,legislature or ,congress did not grant the inventor such protection as might have enabled him to put in operation these great improvements sooner--he having asked neither money nor a monopoly of any existing thing4#bje #bje ,evans3 ,extract from 8,address to the people of the ,united ,states10 quoted in the ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,cxxii1 p4 #ac4 ,he practically initiated the modern science of handling materials4 ,while many of his theories were faulty1 his mechanical practice was seldom wrong4 ,he was a restless man1 discontented and inclined to air his grievances in public4 ,once1 in a fit of pique1 he destroyed the drawings and records of1 it is said1 more than eighty inventions--an act which he regretted later4 ,though frequently disappointed1 he was in the end fairly successful1 and was unquestionably one of the foremost of the early ,american mechanics4 ,in ,philadelphia1 as in ,new ,england1 many of the early shops made textile machinery4 ,arkwright machines were built by ,james ,davenport at the ,globe ,mills at the north end of ,second ,street1 which ,washington visited in #agig when the new ,federal ,government inaugurated its policy of developing ,american industries4 ,davenport died soon after1 the business ceased and the factory was sold in #agih4 ,cotton machinery is said to have been manufactured also by ,eltonhead in #ahjc4 ,philadelphia was then the largest city in the country1 with an active industrial life4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that the tools and methods developed in and about ,pawtucket should1 sooner or later1 take root there4 ,in #ahaj ,alfred ,jenks1 a direct descendant of ,joseph ,jenks1 of ,lynn1 having served his time with ,samuel ,slater in ,pawtucket1 moved to ,holmesburg1 ,pa41 and started the first factory in ,pennsylvania for making textile machinery4 ,his business grew rapidly and in #ahbj he moved to ,bridesburg1 now a part of ,philadelphia1 bringing his shop along with him on rollers4 ,by #ahbe there were thirty cotton mills in and about the city1 most of which he had equipped4 ,as the demand for woolen machinery arose ,jenks met it and he equipped the first woolen mill built in the state4 ,under his leadership and that of his son1 ,barton ,h4 ,jenks1 the shop had a wide influence and was the foremost of the early ,philadelphia plants building textile machinery4 ,other early shops in this field were those of ,j4 ,t4 ,wood1 ,hindle ,sons1 ,james ,smith ,company1 ,w4 ,p4 ,uhlinger ,company4#bjf #bjf ,freedley3 8,philadelphia and its ,manufactures10 pp4 #bii-cjb1 #dbg4 ,philadelphia1 #aheh4 ,the two plants which gave ,philadelphia its great reputation for tool building were those established by ,sellers and ,bement4 ,probably no one has had a greater influence on machine tools in ,america than ,william ,sellers4 ,he has been called the ,whitworth of ,america1 and there is a singular parallelism in the work and influence of the two men4 ,sellers was born in ,pennsylvania in #ahbd1 was educated in a private school maintained by his father1 and later apprenticed to his uncle1 ,john ,m4 ,poole1 at ,wilmington1 ,del4#bjg ,when only twenty-one he took charge of the machine shop of ,fairbanks1 ,bancroft ,company in ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,three years later he began the manufacture of machine tools and mill gearing at ,thirtieth and ,chestnut ,streets1 ,philadelphia1 and was soon after joined by ,edward ,bancroft1 who moved from ,providence1 the firm becoming ,bancroft ,sellers4 ,john ,sellers1 ,jr41 a brother of ,william1 became a partner and in #ahec they moved to ,sixteenth ,street and ,pennsylvania ,avenue4 ,mr4 ,bancroft died in #ahee and the firm became ,william ,sellers ,company1 which was incorporated in #ahhf1 with ,william ,sellers as president4 #bjg ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,clix1 pp4 #cfe-chc4 ,bancroft was the inventive member of the firm and ,mr4 ,sellers the executive4 ,sellers' designing ability did not develop until after ,bancroft's death4 ,his first patent was granted in #aheg4 ,in all he was granted over ninety ,united ,states patents and many others in foreign countries1 covering a wide variety of subjects2 machine tools of all kinds1 injectors which he introduced into the ,united ,states1 rifling machines1 riveters1 boilers1 hydraulic machinery1 hoisting cranes1 steam hammers and engines1 ordnance1 turntables1 etc4 ,one of the best known and most original of ,sellers' machines was the spiral geared planer patented in #ahfb1 which has always been associated with his name4 ,almost from the first ,sellers cut loose from the accepted designs of the day4 ,he was among the first to realize that red paint1 beads and mouldings1 and architectural embellishments were false in machine design4 ,he introduced the 8machine gray0 paint which has become universal2 made the form of the machine follow the function to be performed and freed it from all pockets and beading4 ,like ,bement he realized that ,american tools then being built were too light2 and they both put more metal into their machines than was the practice elsewhere4 ,from the first he adopted standards and adhered to them so closely that repair parts can be supplied today for machines made fifty years ago4 ,in ,april1 #ahfd1 ,sellers1 as president of the ,franklin ,institute1 read a paper on 8,a ,system of ,screw ,threads and ,nuts10 in which he proposed the system of screw threads since variously known as the ,sellers1 ,franklin ,institute1 or ,u4 ,s4 ,standard4#bjh ,they embodied the sixty degree angle and a flat of one-eighth of the pitch at the top and bottom of the thread4 ,in this paper ,sellers stated clearly the need for some generally accepted standard1 reviewed the various threads then used1 particularly the ,whitworth thread1 with its fifty-five degree angle and rounded corners1 which he disapproved of on three grounds2 first1 that it was difficult to secure a fit at the top and bottom2 second1 that the angle was difficult to verify2 and third1 the high cost of making cutting tools which would conform accurately to the standard4 ,he proposed the sixty degree angle as easier to make and already in general use in this country1 and the flat top as easy to generate and to verify4 ,he went a step further1 and proposed at the same time a standard for bolt-heads and nuts1 in which the dimensions were derived from a simple formula and the distance across flats was the same for square and hexagon nuts1 so that the same wrench would do for either style of nut4 #bjh ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,lxxvii1 p4 #cdd4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ea4 ,,william ,,sellers ,this paper had as great influence in ,america as ,whitworth's paper of #ahda had in ,england4 ,a committee was appointed to investigate the question and recommend a standard4 ,on this committee1 among others1 were ,william ,b4 ,bement1 ,c4 ,t4 ,parry of the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works1 ,s4 ,v4 ,merrick1 ,j4 ,h4 ,towne1 and ,coleman ,sellers4 ,early in the next year the committee reported in favor of the ,sellers standard1 the ,franklin ,institute communicated their findings to other societies1 and recommended the general adoption of the system throughout the country4 ,the ,sellers' thread was adopted by the ,united ,states ,government for all government work in #ahfh1 by the ,pennsylvania ,railroad in #ahfi1 the ,master ,car ,builders' ,association in #ahgb1 and soon became practically universal4 ,after exhaustive investigation the ,sellers' form of thread was adopted in #ahih by the ,international ,congress for the standardization of screw threads1 at ,zurich1 and is now in general use on the continent of ,europe4#bji #bji ,for the discussion of the ,sellers' screw thread and the circumstances surrounding its adoption1 see3 ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,lxxvii1 p4 #cdd2 ,vol4 ,,lxxix1 pp4 #ec1 #aaa2 ,vol4 ,,cxxiii1 p4 #bfa2 ,vol4 ,,cxxv1 p4 #ahe4 ,in #ahfh ,william ,sellers organized the ,edgemoor ,iron ,company which furnished the iron work for the principal ,centennial buildings and all the structural work of the ,brooklyn ,bridge4 ,in the development of this business1 he led the way in the distinctly ,american methods and machinery by which the building of bridges has been1 to a great extent1 put upon a manufacturing basis4 ,this involved the design and introduction of hydraulic machinery1 large multiple punches1 riveters1 cranes1 boring machines1 etc4 ,the excellence of his machinery soon brought him into contact with government engineers and throughout his life his influence in the ,war and ,navy ,departments was great4 ,in #ahij the ,navy ,department called for bids on an eight-foot lathe1 with a total length of over #abh feet1 to bore and turn sixteen-inch cannon for the ,naval ,gun ,factory at ,washington4 ,sellers disapproved of the design and refused to bid on it4 ,he proposed an alternative one of his own1 argued its merits in person before the ,board of ,engineers1 and secured its adoption and a contract for it4 ,this great lathe1 weighing over #ejj1jjj pounds1 has attracted the attention of engineers from all parts of the world4 ,in #ahgc ,mr4 ,sellers reorganized the ,william ,butcher ,steel ,works as the ,midvale ,steel ,company and became its president4 ,under his management the company grew rapidly1 and later became a leader in production of heavy ordnance4 ,it was here that ,frederick ,w4 ,taylor began in #ahhj his work on the art of cutting metals1 which resulted in modern high-speed tool steels and a general re-design of machine tools4 ,these experiments1 covering a period of twenty-six years1 cost upwards of #bjj1jjj4 ,mr4 ,taylor has frequently acknowledged his indebtedness in this work to the patience and courage of ,mr4 ,sellers1 who was then an old man and might have been expected to oppose radical change4 ,it was he who made the work possible1 however1 and he supported ,taylor unwaveringly in the face of constant protests4#baj ,mr4 ,sellers was a man of commanding presence1 direct but gracious in manner1 who won and held the respect and loyalty of all about him4 ,his judgment was almost unerring and he dominated each of the great establishments he built up4 #baj ,f4 ,w4 ,taylor3 ,paper on the 8,art of ,cutting ,metals10 ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 p4 #cd4 ,the firm of ,william ,sellers ,company had another master mind in that of ,dr4 ,coleman ,sellers1 a second cousin of ,william ,sellers4#baa ,he was born in ,philadelphia in #ahbg1 his father1 ,coleman ,sellers1 being also an inventor and mechanic4 ,like ,nasmyth he spent his school holidays in his father's shop1 which was at ,cardington4 ,in #ahdf1 when he was nineteen years old1 he went to ,cincinnati and worked in the ,globe ,rolling ,mill1 operated by his elder brothers1 where the first locomotives for the ,panama ,railroad were built2 and in two years he became superintendent4 ,in #ahea he became foreman of the works of ,james and ,jonathan ,niles1 who were then in ,cincinnati and building locomotives4 ,six years later he returned to ,philadelphia1 became chief engineer of ,william ,sellers ,company1 and remained with them for over thirty years1 becoming a partner in #ahgc4 ,during these years he designed a wide range of machinery1 which naturally covered much the same field as that of ,william ,sellers1 but his familiarity with locomotive work especially fitted him for the design of railway tools4 ,his designs were original1 correct and refined4 ,the ,sellers coupling was his invention and he did much to introduce the modern systems of power transmission4 #baa ,see ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xxix1 p4 #aafc2 ,cassier's ,magazine1 ,august1 #aijc1 p4 #ceb2 ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,cxlix1 p4 #e4 ,doctor ,sellers was a good physicist1 an expert photographer1 telegrapher1 microscopist1 and a professor in the ,franklin ,institute1 his lectures always drawing large audiences4 ,like ,william ,sellers1 he was a member of most of the great engineering and scientific societies1 here and abroad2 and he was president of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 of which he was a charter member4 ,he was received with the greatest distinction in his visits to ,europe4 ,in #ahhf impaired health compelled his relinquishing regular work and he resigned his position of engineer for ,william ,sellers ,company1 being succeeded by his son1 the present president of the company4 ,his last great work was in connection with the power development of ,niagara ,falls4 ,he was engineer for the ,cataract ,construction ,company and served on the commission which determined the types of turbines and generators and the methods of power transmission finally adopted4 ,among the others on this commission were ,lord ,kelvin1 ,colonel ,turretini1 the great ,swiss engineer1 and ,professor ,unwin1 and its report forms the foundation of modern large hydro-electric work4 ,william ,sellers ,company has a unique distinction among the builders of machine tools in having had the leadership of two such men as ,william and ,coleman ,sellers4 ,william ,b4 ,bement1 the son of a ,connecticut farmer and blacksmith1 was born at ,bradford1 ,n4 ,h41 in #ahag4 ,his education was obtained in the district schools and in his father's blacksmith shop4 ,his mechanical aptitude was so clear that he was apprenticed to ,moore ,colby1 manufacturers of woolen and cotton machinery at ,peterboro1 ,n4 ,h4 ,his progress at first was rapid4 ,within two years he became foreman1 and on the withdrawal of one of the partners1 was admitted into the firm4 ,he continued there three years1 already giving much thought to machine tools1 for which he saw the rising need4 ,in #ahdj he went to ,manchester and entered the ,amoskeag shop when it was just finished1 remaining there two years as a foreman and contractor under ,william ,a4 ,burke1 to whom we have referred elsewhere4 ,from there ,bement went to take charge of a shop for manufacturing woolen machinery at ,mishawaka1 ,ind4 ,unfortunately it was burned to the ground while ,bement had gone back to ,new ,hampshire for his family1 so that when he returned with them he found himself without employment and with only ten dollars in hand4 ,for the time being he worked as a blacksmith and gunsmith1 and made an engine lathe for himself in the shop of the ,st4 ,joseph ,iron ,company1 which gave him permission to use their tools in return for the use of his patterns to make a similar machine for themselves4 ,much of the work in making this lathe was done by hand as there was no planer within many hundred miles4 ,the ,st4 ,joseph ,iron ,company1 seeing his work1 offered him the charge of their shop1 to which he agreed1 provided the plant were enlarged and equipped with proper tools4 ,this was done1 but just as everything was completed this plant also was burned down4 ,bement had plans for another shop ready the following day1 went into the woods with others1 cut the necessary timber1 and a new shop was soon completed4 ,he remained there for three years1 constructing a variety of machine tools1 one of which was a gear cutter said to have been the first one built in the ,west1 or used beyond ,cleveland4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #eb4 ,,coleman ,,sellers ,illustration3 ,,figure #ec4 ,,william ,b4 ,,bement ,he returned to ,new ,england as a contractor in the ,lowell ,machine ,shop under ,burke1 who had gone there from the ,amoskeag ,mills in #ahde4 ,on account of ,bement's resourcefulness and skill in designing1 ,burke induced him to relinquish his contracts and take charge of their designing1 which he did for three years1 his residence at ,lowell covering in all about six years4 ,in #ahea ,elijah ,d4 ,marshall1 who had established a business of engraving rolls for printing calicos in #ahdh and had a small shop at ,twentieth and ,callowhill ,streets in ,philadelphia1 offered ,bement a partnership4 ,he moved to ,philadelphia in ,september of that year1 and with ,marshall and ,gilbert ,a4 ,colby1 a nephew1 he began the manufacture of machine tools under the name of ,marshall1 ,bement ,colby1 thus starting only a year or so after ,sellers4 ,marshall was a large man1 dignified and deliberate in speech4 ,bement was strong1 vigorous1 a born designer1 a remarkably rapid draftsman1 and had a capacity for work rarely equalled4 ,colby was also a man of considerable mechanical ability1 with advanced business ideas4 ,their shop consisted of a single three-storied1 stone1 whitewashed building1 #dj by #ij feet4 ,their entire machine shop was on the first floor1 with a #aj- by #ab-;foot room for an office4 ,the engine1 boiler and blacksmith shop were in small outbuildings4 ,part of the second floor was rented to another factory and the rest was sometimes used for religious meetings1 while the third floor was used for engraving printing rolls4 ,their tools were few and crude2 among them were a #cf-;inch lathe with a wooden bed and iron straps for ways1 and a #dh-;inch by #ad-;foot planer with ornate ,doric uprights4 ,marshall and ,colby soon retired1 the latter going to ,niles1 ,mich41 where he was very successful4 ,james ,dougherty1 an expert foundryman1 and ,george ,c4 ,thomas entered the firm1 which became ,bement ,dougherty1 the plant being known as the 8,industrial ,works40 ,mr4 ,thomas contributed considerable capital1 and a new shop and a foundry were built4 ,at the same time they installed a planer #aj feet wide by #h feet high1 to plane work #de feet long1 a notable tool for that day4 ,after a few years of struggle1 the plant began to grow rapidly and at one time was the largest of its kind in the country4 ,bement and ,sellers were among the first to concentrate wholly on tool building4 ,they confined themselves to work of the highest quality4 ,both made much heavier tools1 as we have said1 than the ,new ,england builders1 their only competitors1 and in a short time had established great reputations4 ,bement relied little on patent protection1 trusting to quality and constant improvement4 ,thomas retired from the partnership in #ahef and ,dougherty in #ahgj2 and ,clarence ,s4 ,bement joined the firm1 which became ,william ,b4 ,bement ,son4 ,john ,m4 ,shrigley became a partner in #ahge1 ,william ,p4 ,bement in #ahgi1 and ,frank ,bement in #ahhh4 ,frederick ,b4 ,miles was an employee of ,bement ,dougherty who established a tool business under the name of ,ferris ,miles1 which afterward became the ,machine ,tool ,works4 ,while head of these works1 ,miles greatly improved the steam hammer1 particularly its valve mechanism1 and many details of what is known as the ,bement hammer were invented by ,miles4 ,in #ahhe the ,machine ,tool ,works consolidated with ,william ,bement ,son1 forming ,bement1 ,miles ,company4 ,mr4 ,miles was an accomplished engineer and designer1 with the unusual equipment of six languages at his command1 an asset of value in the firm's foreign business4 ,william ,bement1 ,senior1 died in #ahig1 and in #aijj the business became a part of the ,niles-,bement-,pond ,company4 ,mr4 ,miles retired at that time and has not since been active in the tool business4#bab #bab ,most of the foregoing details in regard to the ,bement ,miles ,works have been obtained from ,mr4 ,clarence ,s4 ,bement and ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,hagman1 their present general manager4 ,although ,bement and ,sellers contributed more to the art of tool building than any of the other ,philadelphia mechanics1 some of these others ought to be mentioned4 ,matthias ,w4 ,baldwin1 a native of ,new ,jersey1 began as a jeweler's apprentice4 ,in partnership with ,david ,h4 ,mason he began making bookbinders' tools1 to which he added in #ahbb the engraving of rolls for printing cotton goods and later of bank notes4 ,from the invention and manufacture of a variety of tools used in that business they were led gradually into the machine tool business1 the building of hydraulic presses1 calender rolls1 steam engines1 and finally locomotives4 ,in #ahcj ,baldwin built a model locomotive for the ,peale ,museum which led to an order from the ,philadelphia ,germantown ,railroad for an engine which was completed in #ahcb and placed on the road in ,january1 #ahcc4 ,an advertisement of that time says3 8,the locomotive engine built by ,mr4 ,m4 ,w4 ,baldwin of this city will depart daily1 when the weather is fair1 with a train of passenger cars4 ,on rainy days horses will be attached in the place of the locomotive40 ,from this beginning has sprung the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works1 which employs approximately #bj1jjj men4 ,in #ahcd they built five locomotives2 in #ahce1 fourteen2 in #ahcf1 forty4 ,their one thousandth locomotive was built in #ahfa2 the five thousandth in #ahhj and the forty thousandth in #aiac4 ,these works have naturally greatly influenced the neighboring tool makers4 ,from the beginning1 both ,bement and ,sellers specialized on railway machinery and they have always built a class of tools larger than those manufactured in ,new ,england4 ,the ,southwark ,foundry was established in #ahcf1 first as a foundry only1 but a large machine shop was soon added4 ,the owners were ,s4 ,v4 ,merrick1 who became the first president of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company1 and ,john ,henry ,towne1 who was the engineering partner4 ,the firm designed and built steam engines and other heavy machinery and introduced the steam hammer into the ,united ,states under arrangement with ,james ,nasmyth4 ,from the designs of ,capt4 ,john ,ericsson they built the engines for the 8,princeton10 the first ,american man-of-war propelled by a screw1 and later were identified with the ,porter-,allen steam engine4 ,mr4 ,towne withdrew from the firm about #ahdh1 and the firm name became successively ,merrick ,son1 ,merrick ,sons1 ,henry ,g4 ,morris1 and finally the ,southwark ,foundry ,machine ,company4 ,i4 ,p4 ,morris ,company came from ,levi ,morris ,company1 founded in #ahbh1 and for many years were engaged in a similar work4 ,in #ahfb ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,towne1 above referred to1 was admitted to the firm as the engineering partner1 and the firm name then became ,i4 ,p4 ,morris1 ,towne ,company1 until about #ahfi when ,mr4 ,towne withdrew4 ,at his withdrawal the firm name was restored to its original form1 ,i4 ,p4 ,morris ,company4 ,it is now a department of the ,cramp ,ship ,building ,company4 ,during the ,civil ,war the works were occupied largely in building engines and boilers for government vessels1 and blast furnace and sugar mill machinery4 ,during this period ,henry ,r4 ,towne1 son of ,j4 ,h4 ,towne1 entered the works as an apprentice1 served in the drawing room and shops1 and finally was placed in charge of the erection at the navy yards of ,boston and ,kittery of the engines1 boilers1 etc41 built for two of the double-turreted monitors4 ,returning to ,philadelphia1 he was made assistant superintendent of the works4 ,j4 ,h4 ,towne was a mechanical engineer of eminence in his day1 whose work as a designer showed unusual thoroughness and finish4 ,he was a warm friend and admirer of both ,william and ,coleman ,sellers1 and through his influence1 ,henry ,r4 ,towne was at one time a student apprentice in the shops of ,william ,sellers ,company1 acquiring there an experience which had a marked influence on his future work4 ,both of the firms with which ,j4 ,h4 ,towne was connected built machine tools for themselves and for others1 especially of the heavier and larger kinds1 and thus were among the early tool builders4 ,i4 ,p4 ,morris ,company1 about #ahfj1 designed and built for their own use what was then the largest vertical boring mill in this country4#bac #bac ,from correspondence with ,mr4 ,henry ,r4 ,towne4 ,it may surprise some to learn that the well-known ,new ,england firm1 the ,yale ,towne ,manufacturing ,company in ,stamford1 ,conn41 is a descendant of these ,philadelphia companies4 ,it was organized in ,october1 #ahfh1 by ,linus ,yale1 ,jr41 and ,henry ,r4 ,towne1 who were brought together by ,william ,sellers4 ,mr4 ,yale died in the following ,december4 ,this company1 under the direction and control of ,mr4 ,towne1 has had a wide influence on the lock and hardware industry in this country4 ,while the products of the ,yale ,towne ,manufacturing ,company have always consisted chiefly of locks and related articles1 they have added since #ahgf the manufacture of chain blocks1 electric hoists1 and1 during a considerable period1 two lines allied to tool building1 namely1 cranes and testing machines4 ,this company was the pioneer crane builder of this country1 organizing a department for this purpose as early as #ahgh1 and developing a large business in this field1 which was sold in #ahid to the ,brown ,hoisting ,machine ,company of ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,the building of testing machines was undertaken in #ahhb1 to utilize the inventions of ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,emery1 and was continued until #ahhg1 when this business was sold to ,william ,sellers ,company1 for the same reason that the crane business was sold2 namely1 that both were incongruous with the other and principal products of the company4 ,in recent years the ,bilgram ,machine ,works1 under the leadership of ,hugo ,bilgram1 an expert ,philadelphia mechanic1 has made valuable contributions to the art of accurate gear cutting4 ,in the cities between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 and here and there in the smaller towns of ,pennsylvania1 are several tool builders of influence4 ,gould ,eberhardt in ,newark is one of the oldest firms in the business1 having been established in #ahcc4 ,ezra ,gould1 its founder1 learned his trade at ,paterson1 and started in for himself at ,newark in a single room1 #af feet square4 ,within a few years the ,gould ,machine ,company was organized1 the business moved to its present location1 and a line of lathes1 planers and drill presses was manufactured4 ,to these they added fire engines4 ,ulrich ,eberhardt started as an apprentice in #aheh and became a partner in #ahgg1 the firm name becoming ,e4 ,gould ,eberhardt1 and later ,gould ,eberhardt4 ,mr4 ,gould retired in #ahia1 and died in #aija4 ,mr4 ,eberhardt also died in #aija2 the business has since been incorporated and is now under the management of his three sons4 ,they employ about #djj men in the manufacture of gear and rack cutting machinery and shapers4 ,the ,pond ,machine ,tool ,company1 which moved from ,worcester to ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahhh1 was founded by ,lucius ,w4 ,pond4#bad ,it is a large and influential shop and one of the four plants of the ,niles-,bement-,pond ,company4 ,their output is chiefly planers1 boring mills and large lathes4 #bad ,see p4 #bbb4 ,the ,landis ,tool ,company1 of ,waynesboro1 ,pa41 builders of grinding machinery1 springs from the firm of ,landis ,brothers1 established in #ahij by ,f4 ,f4 and ,a4 ,b4 ,landis4 ,one was superintendent and the other a tool maker in a small plant building portable engines and agricultural machinery4 ,a small ,brown ,sharpe grinding machine was purchased for use in these works4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,landis became interested in the design of a machine more suited to their particular work1 and from this has developed the ,landis grinder4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,western ,,tool ,,builders ,prior to #ahhj practically all of the tool building in the ,united ,states was done east of the ,alleghenies4 ,the few tools built here and there in ,ohio and ,indiana were mostly copies of eastern ones and their quality was not high4 ,in fact1 there were few shops in the ,west equipped to do accurate work4 8,chordal's ,letters10 published first in the ,american ,machinist and later in book form1#bae give an excellent picture of the western machine shop in the transition stage from pioneer conditions to those of the present day4 #bae ,henry ,w4 ,see3 8,extracts from ,chordal's ,letters02 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 #abth ,edition4 #aiji4 ,good tool building appeared in ,ohio in the early eighties1 and within ten years its competition was felt by the eastern tool builders4 ,the first western centers were ,cleveland1 ,cincinnati and ,hamilton4 ,of these1 ,cleveland seems to have been the first to build tools of the highest grade4 ,we have already noted that the ,pratt ,whitney shop in ,hartford furnished ,cleveland with a number of its foremost tool builders4 ,the oldest of these and perhaps the best known is the ,warner ,swasey ,company4 ,this company has the distinction1 shared with only one other1 of having furnished two presidents of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,oddly enough the other company is also a ,cleveland firm1 the ,wellman1 ,seaver1 ,morgan ,company1 builders of coal- and ore-handling machinery1 and of steel mill equipment4 ,worcester ,e4 ,warner1 of the ,warner ,swasey ,company1 was born at ,cummington1 ,mass41 in #ahdf4 ,although a farmer's son and denied a college education1 he had access in his own home to an admirable library1 which he used to great advantage4 ,when nineteen years old he went to ,boston and learned mechanical drawing in the office of ,george ,b4 ,brayton4 ,shortly afterwards he was transferred to the shop at ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h41 where he first met ,ambrose ,swasey4 ,mr4 ,swasey was born at ,exeter1 also in #ahdf1 went to the traditional 8little red schoolhouse10 and learned his trade as a machinist in the shop to which ,warner came4 ,in #ahgj they went together to ,hartford1 entered the ,pratt ,whitney shop as journeymen mechanics1 and in a short time had become foremen and contractors4 ,mr4 ,swasey soon gained a reputation for accurate workmanship and rare ability in the solution of complex mechanical problems4 ,he had charge of the gear department1 and invented and developed a new process of generating spur gear teeth1 which was given in a paper before the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4#baf ,mr4 ,warner1 also1 became one of the company's most trusted mechanics1 was head of the planing department1 and had charge of the ,pratt ,whitney exhibit at the ,centennial ,exposition in ,philadelphia4 #baf ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #bfe4 ,in #ahha they left ,hartford and went first to ,chicago1 intending to build engine lathes1 each putting #ejjj into the venture2 but finding difficulty in obtaining good workmen there1 they moved in about a year to ,cleveland1 where they have remained4 ,their first order was for twelve turret lathes1 and they have built this type of machine ever since4 ,at various times they have built speed lathes1 die-sinking machines1 horizontal boring mills1 and hand gear-cutters1 but they now confine their tool building to hand-operated turret lathes4 ,they have never built automatics4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ed4 ,,worcester ,r4 ,,warner ,illustration3 ,,figure #ee4 ,,ambrose ,,swasey ,the building of astronomical instruments was not in their original scheme1 but ,mr4 ,warner's taste for astronomy and ,mr4 ,swasey's skill in intricate and delicate mechanical problems1 led them to take up this work4 ,these instruments1 usually designed by astronomers and instrument makers1 were in general much too light2 at least the large ones were4 ,from their long experience as tool builders1 ,warner and ,swasey realized that strength and rigidity are quite as essential as accuracy of workmanship where great precision is required4 ,the design of a large telescope carrying a lens weighing over #ejj pounds at the end of a steel tube forty or sixty feet long1 and weighing five or six tons1 which must be practically free from flexure and vibration and under intricate and accurate control1 becomes distinctly an engineering problem4 ,to this problem both ,mr4 ,warner and ,mr4 ,swasey brought engineering skill and experience of the highest order4 ,when the trustees of the ,lick ,observatory called in #ahhf for designs for the great #cf-;inch telescope1 ,warner ,swasey submitted one which provided for much heavier mountings than had ever been used before1 and heavier construction throughout4 ,they were awarded the contract and the instrument was built and installed under ,mr4 ,swasey's personal supervision4 ,it is located on the very top of ,mount ,hamilton in ,california1 #dbjj feet above sea-level2 and to give room for the observatory #db1jjj tons of rock had to be removed4 ,the great instrument1 weighing with its mountings more than forty tons1 8was transported in sections1 over a newly made mountain road1 sometimes in a driving snowstorm1 with the wind blowing from sixty to eighty miles an hour40#bag #bag ,cassier's ,magazine1 ,march1 #ahig1 p4 #djc4 ,as is well known1 the instrument was a brilliant success4 ,the ,warner ,swasey ,company has since designed and built the mountings for the ,united ,states ,naval ,observatory telescope1 the #dj-;inch ,yerkes telescope1 the #gb-;inch reflecting telescope for the ,canadian ,government1 and the #fj-;inch reflecting telescope for the ,national ,observatory at ,cordoba1 ,argentina1 the largest in use in the southern hemisphere4 ,in addition to this large work1 the firm has built meridian circles1 transits and other instruments for astronomical work1 range finders for the ,united ,states ,government1 and introduced the prismatic binocular into this country4 ,in connection with this astronomical work ,mr4 ,swasey designed and built a dividing engine capable of dividing circles of #dj inches in diameter with an error of less than one second of arc4 ,a second of arc subtends about one-third of an inch at the distance of one mile4 ,although the graduations on the inlaid silver band of this machine are so fine that they can scarcely be seen with the naked eye1 the width of each line is twelve times the maximum error in the automatic graduations which the machine produces4 ,although their reputation as telescope builders is international1 ,warner ,swasey are1 and always have been1 primarily tool builders4 ,they were not the first to build tools in the ,middle ,west1 but they were the first to turn out work comparable in quality with that of the best shops in the ,east4 ,the ,warner ,swasey shop has had the advantage of other good mechanics besides its proprietors4 ,walter ,allen1 an expert tool designer1 did his entire work with them1 rising from apprentice to works manager4 ,frank ,kempsmith1 originally a ,brown ,sharpe man1 was at one time their superintendent4 ,lucas1 of the ,lucas ,machine ,tool ,company1 was a foreman4 ,george ,bardons1 who served his apprenticeship with ,pratt ,whitney1 went west with ,warner and ,swasey when they started in business and was their superintendent2 and ,john ,oliver1 a graduate of ,worcester ,polytechnic1 was their chief draftsman4 ,the last two left ,warner ,swasey in #ahia and established the firm of ,bardons ,oliver for building lathes4 ,another old ,pratt ,whitney workman is ,a4 ,w4 ,foote of the ,foote-,burt ,company1 builders of drilling machines4 ,unlike the others1 however1 ,foote did not work for ,warner ,swasey4 ,the first multi-spindle automatic screw machines were manufactured in ,cleveland4 ,the ,cleveland automatic was developed in the plant of the ,white ,sewing ,machine ,company for their own work1 and its success led to the establishment of a separate company for its manufacture4 ,the ,acme automatic was invented by ,reinholdt ,hakewessel and ,e4 ,c4 ,henn in ,hartford4 ,mr4 ,hakewessel was a ,pratt ,whitney man and ,mr4 ,henn a ,new ,britain boy1 who had worked first in ,lorain and ,cincinnati and then for twelve years in ,hartford with ,pratt ,cady1 the valve manufactures4 ,in #ahie ,henn and ,hakewessel began manufacturing bicycle parts in a little ,hartford attic1 developing for this work a five-spindle automatic4 ,seven years later the business was moved to ,cleveland1 where it became the ,national-,acme ,manufacturing ,company1 organized by ,e4 ,c4 and ,a4 ,w4 ,henn and ,w4 ,d4 ,b4 ,alexander1 who came from the ,union ,steel ,screw ,works4 ,their business of manufacturing automatic screw machinery and screw machine products has grown rapidly and is now one of the largest industries in ,cleveland4 ,the ,white ,sewing ,machine ,company and the ,union ,steel ,screw ,works were among the first in ,cleveland to use accurate methods and to produce interchangeable work4 ,it was at the ,union ,steel ,screw ,works that ,james ,hartness1 of the ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,company1 got his first training in accurate work4 ,their shop practice was good and was due to ,jason ,a4 ,bidwell1 who came from the ,american ,tool ,company of ,providence4 ,the ,standard ,tool ,company is an offspring of ,bingham ,company1 ,cleveland1 and of the ,morse ,twist ,drill ,company of ,new ,bedford1 ,mass4 ,from the ,standard ,tool ,company has come the ,whitman-,barnes ,company of ,akron1 and from that the ,michigan ,twist ,drill and ,machine ,company4 ,newton ,cox was established in #ahgf1 and built planers and milling machines4 ,mr4 ,newton sold his share in the business to ,f4 ,f4 ,prentiss in #ahhj1 went to ,philadelphia1 and started the ,newton ,machine ,tool ,works4 ,cox ,prentiss later became the ,cleveland ,twist ,drill ,company4 ,they drifted into the drill business through not being able to buy such drills as they required4 ,they began making drills first for themselves1 then for their friends1 and gradually took up their manufacture1 giving up the business in machine tools4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cincinnati is said to have upwards of #ae1jjj men engaged in the tool building industry1 and to be the largest tool building center in the world4 ,there are approximately forty firms there engaged in this work1 many of them large and widely known4 ,this development1 which has taken place within the past thirty-five years1 may possibly have sprung indirectly from the old river traffic4 ,seventy years ago this traffic was large1 and ,cincinnati did the greater part of the engine and boat building and repair work4 ,when the river trade vanished1 the mechanics engaged in this work were compelled to turn their attention to something else1 and there may be some significance in the coincidence of the rise of tool building with the decline of the older industry4 ,there had been more or less manufacturing in ,cincinnati for many years1 but little of it could be described as tool building4 ,miles ,greenwood established the ,eagle ,iron ,works in #ahcb on the site now occupied by the ,ohio ,mechanics ,institute4 ,it comprised a general machine shop1 an iron foundry1 brass foundries1 and a hardware factory which rivaled those of ,new ,england1 employing in all over #ejj men4 ,the hardware factory was important enough to attract the special attention of the ,english commissioners who visited this country in #ahec4 ,in the fifties and early sixties1 ,niles ,company built steamboat and stationary engines1 locomotives and sugar machinery1 and employed from #bjj to #cjj men4 ,this company was the forerunner of the present ,niles ,tool ,works in ,hamilton4 ,lane ,bodley were building woodworking machinery about the same time1 and ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,company1 another firm building woodworking machinery1 which started in ,keene1 ,n4 ,h41 began work in ,cincinnati in the early sixties4 ,the first builder of metal-working tools in ,cincinnati was ,john ,steptoe2 in fact1 he is said to have been for many years the only tool builder west of the ,alleghenies4 ,steptoe came to this country from ,oldham1 ,england1 some time in the forties4 ,it is said that he was a foundling and that his name came from his having been left on a doorstep4 ,he was married before he came to ,cincinnati1 and had served an apprenticeship of seven years1 although he was so young in appearance that no one would believe it4 ,after working some time for ,greenwood1 he started in business for himself1 making a foot power mortising machine and later a line of woodworking tools4 ,the first metal-working tool which he built was a copy of the ,putnam lathe4 ,with ,thomas ,mc,farlan1 another ,englishman1 he formed the firm of ,steptoe ,mc,farlan1 and his shop1 called the ,western ,machine ,works1 employed by #ahgj about #cjj men4 ,their old payrolls contain the names of ,william ,e4 ,gang of the ,william ,e4 ,gang ,company2 ,mr4 ,oesterlien of the ,oesterlien ,machine ,company2 and ,mr4 ,dietz of the old ,dietz1 ,schumacher ,boye ,company1 now the ,boye ,emmes ,machine ,tool ,company4 ,steptoe was not an originator or an inventor4 ,he was a rough man1 plain spoken1 honest and well informed4 ,he died in #ahhh at about eighty-four years of age4 ,thomas ,p4 ,egan of the ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,egan ,company1 who had worked for ,steptoe and was the administrator of his estate1 sold the business for the widow to ,otting ,lauder4#bah ,in compliance with ,steptoe's wish it was stipulated that his name should be retained and it has been perpetuated in the various changes through which the business has gone4 ,today the ,john ,steptoe ,company manufactures shapers and milling machines4 ,steptoe's name should be remembered1 for ,cincinnati tool building owes its start more to him than to anyone else1 with the possible exception of ,william ,lodge1 who was himself one of ,steptoe's workmen4 #bah ,the above facts are given by several of ,steptoe's old workmen4 ,mr4 ,lodge1 the son of ,george ,lodge1 a skilled mechanic in the textile industry1 was born in ,leeds1 ,england1 in #ahdh4 ,after serving his apprenticeship in the shops of ,fairbairn ,company1 ,leeds1 he came to ,philadelphia1 where he worked for ,chambers ,brothers from #ahfi to #ahgb1 making paper-folding machinery4 ,he came to ,cincinnati in #ahgb and worked for ,steptoe for eight years1 first as a journeyman machinist and later as a foreman4 ,having saved #ajjj1 he formed a partnership with ,william ,barker and they started in business the first day of ,january1 #ahhj1 at ,fifth ,street and the ,c4 ,h4 ,d4 tracks4 ,associated with them for a short time was ,mr4 ,bechle1 another ,steptoe workman4 ,their first task was to true up a few second-hand machines which they had bought for their shop1 after which they went out1 secured some business1 and came back and executed it themselves1 since they had no one in their employ4 ,part of this first business was making some opening dies for ,powell and a small turret lathe for ,lunkenheimer4 ,lunkenheimer immediately ordered three more and during the following year eighteen lathes were made and sold4 ,beginning with #ajjj1 the business inventoried at the end of the first year #gjjj2 at the end of the second year #cb1jjj2 and at the end of ten years #djj1jjj4 ,fifteen months after starting they employed seventy-five men4 ,there is little doubt that this rapid success induced quite a number of the better and more ambitious mechanics in ,cincinnati to take up similar work4 ,mr4 ,lodge was well known among the mechanics of the city and had been president of their union4 ,if one of their own number could build up a successful business1 why could they not do the same8 ,some of the best known of the ,cincinnati tool building firms were established during the few years after ,mr4 ,lodge's start4 ,in #ahhf ,mr4 ,barker sold his interest to ,charles ,davis and began making ,fox lathes and monitors independently4 ,lodge and ,davis continued in partnership until #ahib1 when ,mr4 ,lodge sold his interest to ,mr4 ,thomas ,p4 ,egan and the firm became ,davis ,egan1 and later the ,american ,tool ,works4 ,mr4 ,lodge1 meanwhile1 organized the ,ohio ,machine ,tool ,company and a year later became associated with ,murray ,shipley1 forming the present ,lodge ,shipley ,machine ,tool ,company4 ,mr4 ,lodge's first export order was received in #ahhi4 ,alfred ,herbert1 who had just started in ,coventry1 sent an inquiry in regard to drill presses to ,cincinnati1 which was forwarded to ,mr4 ,lodge in ,london4 ,mr4 ,lodge went down to see him and asked whether the inquiry was for purposes of information or for purchase4 ,mr4 ,herbert said that if ,lodge had a better machine he would buy4 ,mr4 ,lodge asked to see his machine and after a little hesitation he was taken out into the shop4 ,the first machine he saw was a planer4 ,he said that he could save #cj per cent on the work as it was being done1 and would sell them a machine which would do it for #ajj4 ,he was told that the planer they were looking at cost only #fe and replied that that was all it was worth4 ,he spent several hours in the shop1 and left the plant not only with an order1 but with the check in payment thereof4 ,this was the beginning of a large export business4 ,while the firm was ,lodge ,davis1 it built lathes1 planers and drill presses4 ,mr4 ,lodge wanted to manufacture rather than build1 and to specialize upon lathes4 ,mr4 ,davis1 who was a business man1 wanted a complete line of tools1 as he saw the opportunities of selling other machines with the lathes4 ,this led to a policy1 the effect of which was to build up a number of small tool building enterprises1 independent of each other1 but not competing4 ,about #ahhg ,lodge ,davis began concentrating their manufacturing upon engine lathes1 and placing orders for other types of tools with mechanics known to them who were just starting up1 or with workmen or foremen from their own plant whom they helped to start in business4 ,for instance1 to ,smith ,mills1 who had been foremen with ,steptoe and had started making set screws and cap screws1 they gave an order for #cjj shapers4 ,another firm1 ,smith ,silk1 also built shapers for ,lodge ,davis4 ,later they added planers1 and in the early nineties they moved to ,kenton1 ,ohio1 and began building shapers and planers for their own account4 ,to ,r4 ,k4 ,le,blond1 who had served his apprenticeship with ,brown ,sharpe and had come to ,cincinnati to make printers' machinery and supplies1 ,lodge ,davis gave a large order for slide-rests4 ,to ,william ,owen1 one of their workmen1 they gave an order for ,fox monitors4 ,owen went into partnership with ,philip ,montanus and started the ,springfield ,machine ,tool ,company1 and ,lodge ,shipley bought their entire product for eight years4 ,through ,mr4 ,lodge's influence1 ,frank ,kempsmith came from ,warner ,swasey as one of the partners in this firm4 ,he afterwards moved to ,milwaukee and started the ,kempsmith ,manufacturing ,company4 ,this policy on the part of ,lodge ,davis unquestionably set upon their feet a number of small companies which have since grown into successful1 independent enterprises4 ,william ,e4 ,gang worked for ,lodge as vice-foreman4 ,greaves was his planer foreman2 ,henry ,dreses was his chief draftsman2 and ,william ,herman1 of the ,fosdick ,machine ,tool ,company1 was his superintendent4 ,gang ,dietz1 and ,fosdick ,plucker also began by doing work for ,lodge ,davis4 ,through various changes the former has become the present ,boye ,emmes ,machine ,tool ,company and the latter the ,fosdick ,machine ,tool ,company4 ,dreses1 with ,oscar ,mueller1 started ,dreses1 ,mueller ,company in #ahif4 ,in #aijb they separated and each formed a company of his own4 ,greaves1 with ,h4 ,klussman1 began building woodworking machinery about #ahij1 to which they have since added the building of engine lathes4 ,the ,cincinnati ,planer ,company is another offshoot of ,lodge ,davis and ,davis ,egan through ,b4 ,quillen and ,w4 ,burtner1 who were in their office4 ,it is impossible here to give the history of all the ,cincinnati tool builders and only a few can be mentioned4 ,henry ,bickford1 a native of ,new ,hampshire and an employee of ,j4 ,a4 ,fay ,company1 started a few years before ,mr4 ,lodge4 ,in #ahgd he began building five sizes of upright drills1 from #bj to #ch inches in capacity4 ,while his growth was not so rapid as ,mr4 ,lodge's1 it was steady and by #ahhe he had built #cjjj machines4 ,the first machines were cheap and built for competition1 but from them has developed a product of the highest quality4 ,the ,bickford ,drill ,company was organized in #ahhg and the business was extended to include radial and universal drills4 ,the company was reorganized in #ahic1 and in #ahid it absorbed the ,universal ,radial ,drill ,company1 its only competitor in this special field in the city4 ,some years ago the name was changed to the ,cincinnati ,bickford ,tool ,company4 ,mr4 ,anton ,mill and ,mr4 ,henry ,m4 ,norris have in the main been responsible for their engineering practice4 ,mr4 ,mill was a ,german who came to them from the ,cincinnati ,milling ,machine ,company and ,mr4 ,norris is a ,cornell graduate with a wide experience in the eastern tool building shops4 ,the ,cincinnati ,milling ,machine ,company comes from the ,cincinnati ,screw ,tap ,company1 started by ,frederick ,holtz1 who began making screws and taps in a kitchen about #ahhj4 ,he made a milling machine with a wooden base for fluting his taps1 because he was too poor to buy one4 ,lunkenheimer saw this machine and ordered one1 and from this start came their present milling machine business4 ,the firm became the ,cincinnati ,milling ,machine ,company in #ahhi with ,mr4 ,frederick ,a4 ,geier as president4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,de,leeuw was for a number of years engineer for this company and his experiments in cutting tools have had a wide influence on all milling machine practice4 ,the prominence of ,hamilton1 ,ohio1 in tool building is due chiefly to the ,niles ,tool ,works1 which moved thither from ,cincinnati about #ahgf4 ,before the war the old firm1 ,niles ,company1 to which we have already referred1 occasionally built tools for their own use4 ,after the war1 ,george ,gray1 who was their designer and superintendent1 was sent through the eastern states to familiarize himself with machine tool building and the company took it up as part of their regular work4 ,after their removal to ,hamilton1 they confined themselves wholly to this work and have grown to be one of the largest firms in the country in this field4 ,about #aijj the ,niles ,tool ,works were brought under the same management as ,bement1 ,miles ,company of ,philadelphia1 the ,pond ,machine ,tool ,company of ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j41 and the ,pratt ,whitney ,company of ,hartford1 and they are now operated as one of the plants of the ,niles-,bement-,pond ,company4 ,in #ahhj ,gray left the ,niles ,tool ,works and started the ,universal ,radial ,drill ,company in ,cincinnati4 ,this company built the first round column radial drills1 plain and universal1 after ,mr4 ,gray's designs4 ,he left the company in #ahhc and about ten years later it ceased business4 ,the ,g4 ,a4 ,gray ,company1 which he started in #ahhc1 at first built lathes1 but has specialized on planers and is now one of the foremost firms in the country specializing in this type of tool4 ,as the demand for machine tools spread westward1 tool building has followed it1 and an increasing number of companies are springing up in ,indiana1 ,illinois and ,wisconsin4 ,the oldest of these1 the ,w4 ,f4 ,john ,barnes ,company of ,rockford1 ,ill41 began making jig saws in #ahgb4 ,six years later they added the building of small lathes4 ,about the same time they made some drill presses for their own use and then began manufacturing them for the trade4 ,later1 tool grinders1 arbor presses1 radial and gang drills were added successively to their line of machines4 ,their only competitors were in ,worcester and ,cincinnati1 and the high freight rates at that time gave them an important advantage in the ,west4 ,their early machinery1 built to meet pioneer conditions1 found a considerable market in the less developed foreign countries and they have built up a widespread export business4 ,rockford has become a clearly defined center for tool builders4 ,for many years the ,w4 ,f4 ,john ,barnes ,company was the only one in the city1 but in #ahhh the ,mechanics ,machine ,company was established4 ,about #ahic the ,ingersoll ,milling ,machine ,company moved to ,rockford from ,cleveland1 where ,mr4 ,ingersoll had been associated with ,cox ,prentiss4 ,this company has been the leader in the development of heavy multiple-head milling machines of the planer type4 ,the ,barber-,coleman ,company began making mechanics' tools and gear cutters about #ahif4 ,the ,b4 ,f4 ,barnes ,company1 now the ,rockford ,drilling ,machine ,company1 and the ,barnes ,drill ,company were established in #ahig1 by ,b4 ,f4 ,barnes1 a brother of ,w4 ,f4 and ,john ,barnes1 who had been associated with them for twenty years as superintendent4 ,in addition to these firms there are the ,rockford ,machine ,tool ,company1 the ,rockford ,milling ,machine ,company1 the ,rockford ,lathe ,tool ,company1 the ,rockford ,iron ,works and ,w4 ,f4 ,lingren ,company4 ,the first of these companies started in #ahig1 making shapers and planers4 ,in #aiac it bought out the drill business of the older ,mechanics ,machine ,company4 ,it is said that one of the reasons why ,rockford has become such a tool building center is that the neighborhood was settled by ,swedish immigrants1 who have furnished excellent material for the development of skilled mechanics4 ,the ,international ,machine ,tool ,company of ,indianapolis was established in #aijf4 ,this company manufactures the turret lathes developed by ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,libbey1 who was for eleven years chief engineer and superintendent of the ,bullard ,machine ,tool ,company of ,bridgeport2 afterwards superintendent of the ,pacific ,iron ,works of the same city1 and of the ,ludwig-,loewe ,company1 ,berlin1 ,germany2 and for four years and a half construction engineer of the ,gisholt ,machine ,company of ,madison1 ,wis4 ,from ,madison he went to ,indianapolis4 ,there are a number of tool builders in ,chicago1 but though a great manufacturing center1 ,chicago1 like ,new ,york1 has not specialized in tool building as have some of the smaller places4 ,there are perhaps a dozen firms making large and small tools4 ,of those who build the larger types of tools1 ,charles ,h4 ,besly ,company1 manufacturers of grinding machines1 are best known4 ,frederick ,m4 ,gardner1 of ,beloit1 ,wis41 who was at one time with this company1 was largely responsible for the development of disk grinding machines4 ,mr4 ,gardner was born in ,ashfield1 ,mass41 and served his apprenticeship with ,wiley ,russell in ,greenfield4 ,from there he went to ,pratt ,whitney's1 was later placed in charge of the small tool department until1 about #ahhe1 he was transferred to ,chicago as their special western representative on the ,pratt ,whitney tools then being sold by ,charles ,h4 ,besly ,company4 ,his acquaintance with ,mr4 ,besly led to the formation of a company1 of which ,mr4 ,gardner was superintendent1 located at ,beloit because of ,mr4 ,besly's interest in the water power there4 ,this company manufactured taps1 dies1 clamps and other small tools4 ,the disk grinder was originated about #ahij for use in the manufacture of their clamps4 ,for a number of years it retained substantially its first form1 but with the advent of coarser grades of emery1 a more powerful design with various refinements and adjustments was developed4 ,in #aije ,mr4 ,gardner organized a separate company known as the ,gardner ,machine ,company4 ,since that time still larger and more powerful machines have been designed1 lever feeds and micrometer stop screws added1 and various types1 such as double spindle1 vertical spindle and pattern makers' grinders1 built4 ,abrasive ring wheels1 interchangeable with disk wheels allow the use of wet grinding and thus extend the field of this type of machine4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,n4 ,gardner died in #aiac4 ,his sons1 who were with him from the origin of the disk grinder1 are continuing his work in the ,gardner ,machine ,company4 ,the ,gisholt ,machine ,works at ,madison1 which grew out of a plant manufacturing agricultural machinery1 has developed a widely used turret machine for chucking work invented by ,mr4 ,conrad ,n4 ,conradson4 ,this machine applied the turret principle to much larger work than it had been used for up to that time4 ,mr4 ,conradson has left the ,gisholt ,company and has since designed a powerful1 multi-spindle automatic lathe which1 like the ,bullard machine 7shown in ,fig4 #ef71 is vertical1 and1 although a lathe1 it has assumed a form which would scarcely be recognized as such4 ,this machine is built by the ,giddings ,lewis ,manufacturing ,company of ,fond du ,lac1 ,wis4 ,milwaukee is rapidly establishing a reputation for tool building4 ,kearney ,trecker and the ,kempsmith ,manufacturing ,company are well-known builders of milling machines4 ,mr4 ,kempsmith1 as we have already seen1 was a ,brown ,sharpe man1 afterwards superintendent of ,warner ,swasey and for sixteen years at ,springfield1 ,ohio1 with ,william ,smith and ,philip ,montanus4 ,other tool builders such as the ,milwaukee ,machine ,tool ,company and the ,steinle ,turret ,machine ,company of ,madison are helping to spread the art of tool building in this new region4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ef4 ,,the 8,,mult-,,au-,,matic0 ,,lathe #aiad ,we have not been able to mention all of the western tool builders4 ,most of these firms have been established in recent years and are busy building up a market and a reputation4 ,some of them will take positions of leadership as ,warner ,swasey and ,lodge ,shipley have done1 but this of course requires time4 ,there can be no 8conclusion0 to the history of a live and growing industry4 ,a few of the present tendencies1 however1 may be pointed out4 ,one of the most far-reaching influences ever received by tool building came from the introduction of high speed steel through the work of ,frederick ,w4 ,taylor and his associates4 ,these steels made possible much heavier cuts1 and increases in cutting speeds1 to two or two and one-half times the previous prevailing practice4 ,mr4 ,taylor also made a remarkable investigation of the lathe-planer type of cutting tool4 ,a4 ,l4 ,de,leeuw and others have studied the milling cutter and twist drill and examined the causes of the failure of cutting edges in action1 and the influence of large clearances for chips and coolants4 ,the new cutting steels and these investigations have compelled an extensive redesign of machine tools during the past fifteen years1 a process which is still going on as new demands are made upon the tool builders4 ,these years have also witnessed a development of the 8station-type0 of machine1 or one in which there are multiple chucks1 indexed from station to station1 one position being used for putting in and taking out work while a succession of operations is simultaneously going on at the other stations4 ,in general these are high production machines suitable for long runs of standard work4 ,the multi-spindle automatic bar-stock lathe is an example4 ,one of the latest of these station-type tools is the vertical machine shown in ,fig4 #ef1 which performs all the functions of an engine lathe and is in effect five lathes in one machine4 ,another development of recent years has been the extension of the grinding process1 both for the rapid removal of metal and for precision work4 ,this has been made possible by the introduction of new and more active abrasives4 ,the map1 ,fig4 #eg1bai gives a bird's-eye view of the distribution of the tool building industry in the ,united ,states1 and shows that it is located in a rectangle which includes southern ,new ,england and that portion of the ,atlantic and ,middle ,states lying roughly north of the ,potomac and ,ohio and east of the ,mississippi rivers4 ,the strong tendency toward concentration in certain localities is clearly seen4 7,each dot in the map represents a shop47 ,of the #egj plants shown1 #aag are in ,ohio1 #ih in ,massachusetts1 #ff in ,connecticut1 #fj in ,pennsylvania1 #eg in ,new ,york1 #db in ,illinois1 #bi in ,michigan and #ah in ,wisconsin4 ,thirty years ago practically none would have been found west of ,buffalo4 ,today the majority are there1 although most of the more important companies are still in the ,east4 ,unquestionably this will equalize itself as the newer western shops develop4 #bai ,from the ,american ,machinist1 ,january #bi1 #aiad1 p4 #baj4 ,the general types of machine tools seem to be firmly established1 and new or startling inventions and revolutionary changes seem unlikely4 ,the present trend is toward higher speeds1 heavier cuts with the use of great quantities of lubricant1 further refinements of jigs and holding devices1 and the use of highly developed automatic machines which may be operated by unskilled labor4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #eg4 ,,machine ,,tool ,,building ,,area ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #aiae ,the unprecedented demand upon ,american tool builders made by the ,european ,war has vastly increased their facilities1 and will probably tend to establish them even more firmly as world leaders in the industry4 ,,appendix ,a ,shortly before his death ,richard ,s4 ,lawrence wrote for his son1 ,ned ,lawrence1 an account of his life1 which has never been published4 ,it unconsciously reveals his genuine worth1 and draws a simple but accurate picture of the life and struggles of an ,american mechanic seventy years ago4 ,through the kindness of ,mr4 ,ned ,lawrence it is given below4 ,a few portions1 only1 dealing with family matters of no general interest1 are omitted4 ,hartford1 ,conn41 ,dec4 #agth1 #ahij4 ,to my son ,ned ,lawrence4 ,by your request ,i will give you from memory in part a history of my life4 ,i was born in ,chester1 ,vermont1 ,november #bb;d1 #ahag4 ,when ,i was two years old my ,father moved to ,hounsfield1 ,jefferson ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 located on a farm half way between ,watertown and ,blanchard's ,corners4 ,when ,i was four years old my ,father moved to ,blanchards ,corners and kept a ,log ,tavern4 ,this was on the road from ,watertown to ,sackett's ,harbour4444 ,when ,i was six years old my ,father moved on to a farm one-half mile north of ,blanchards ,corners4 ,at this time my ,father had a hard time in clearing up a new farm of #ajj acres4 ,in order to make ends meet1 ,father1 when farm work was not driving1 carted cannon and grape shot from ,sackett's ,harbour to ,watertown4 ,this material was sent to the ,harbour during the ,war of #ahab1 and condemned and sold after the ,war by the ,u4 ,s4 ,government4444 ,this was the time that ,i first commenced going to school1 which did not amount to much4 ,father died on this farm when ,i was nine years old1 leaving ,mother with three children4444 ,mother moved about this time with her ,father to the town of ,pamelia4 ,here they lived about three years1 then moved to another small farm in the same town4 ,i spent most of my time helping on these two farms1 and breaking steers4 ,had yokes made for yearlings1 had a little sled1 and many times in winter drove to ,watertown ,village to mill with grists4 ,when ,i was fifteen years old ,grandfather and ,mother moved to what is now called ,north ,watertown onto a small farm4 ,about this time ,i began to feel a little uneasy1 and wanted to try something else for a living4 ,i went to live with ,uncle ,judah ,lord in ,jewellville1 ,north ,watertown4 ,worked for him making ,carpenters' and ,joiners' ,tools4 ,my work for the first year was sawing by hand seasoned beach plank into blocks for planes4 ,this was hard work and ,i wished myself in some better place 7many times74 ,there was nothing in the least to give me courage1 but after a while ,i could make tools very well4 ,what little spending money ,i had was earned by night work1 making packing boxes for a paper-mill nearby4 ,worked half the night for #be4 ,up to this time ,i never had but one suit of clothes at the same time1 and was doing about as much work as those that had much more pay4 7,i only had my board4 ,my folks furnished my clothes47 ,lord's business was dull1 and ,i went to work for ,orange ,woods ,co4 making window sashes4 7,will say here that in the basement of ,lord's ,tool ,shop was a ,custom ,gun ,shop4 ,i was always anxious to learn what ,i could of anything in mechanical line1 and spent my spare time with a young man employed in this shop1 tinkering on guns1 and became quite handy with tools1 and could do general repairs quite well4 ,this was the fore-runner of my gun work47 ,made sash and doors under contract4 ,all work was done by the best machines1 and this gave me a good chance to instruct myself on machines4 ,at the end of one year the shop burnt up1 and ,i was left out in the cold4 ,after a while ,wood ,co4 bought out ,judah ,lord's ,tool ,shop and commenced tool making4 ,they hired me to work on tools4 ,in about six months this shop burnt up and ,i was left out in the cold again4 ,at this time ,i was about seventeen years old1 was nearly disheartened and thought ,i must try some new business4 ,lord had moved to ,brownsville and had charge of a ,rope ,factory and ,plaster ,mill4 ,he hired me to run the mill #ab hours each day4 ,this was very unpleasant work1 terribly dirty4 ,in about one year this mill stopped and ,i was left in the cold again4 ,lord moved into a ,hotel and hired me to go with him as ,bartender1 ,hostler1 etc4 ,when about twenty years old 7living with ,lord7 was drafted out in the service of ,u4 ,s4 to guard the ,frontier in the ,canada ,rebellion of '#cg-'ch4 ,served three months1 was regularly discharged1 paid off1 and drew my ,bounty land 7and sold it74 ,returned to ,brownsville and decided to strike out in something new4 ,being in my #bast year ,i thought it time to settle on something in a larger field than found in ,brownsville4 ,thought ,i would start for ,vermont4 ,went to ,utica with a friend in york wagon 7no railroad then74 ,this friend was taking two children to their ,father who was the ,engineer 7,mr4 ,hardy7 on the ,albany ,schenectady ,rail ,road1 the only road then built that ,i knew of4 ,this friend was taken sick at ,utica and sent me on with the children to ,schenectady1 which was no small job1 as the journey was on the ,canal4 ,after seeing the children safe with their ,father1 ,i changed my mind and thought ,i would go west1 so boarded a ,canal boat and started4 ,on arriving at ,utica stept off the ,boat and a farmer living ten miles from ,utica in the town of ,clay1 hired me for a month4 ,worked out my month1 and two weeks for another farmer1 then ,i thought it best to visit my friends in ,vermont1 and took ,canal boat for ,albany1 thence by stage over the ,green ,mountains to ,windsor4 ,i found ,windsor ,village a dull place4 ,the next morning ,i started on foot for the west part of the town where my friends all lived4 ,on the road met a man with a team1 made enquiry where ,mr4 ,foster ,farwell lived1 an uncle who married my ,father's sister4 ,he looked at me and said1 8,get into my wagon and ,i will take you back to ,windsor and then show you one of the best ,aunts you ever had4 ,i know you by your looks--your name is ,smith ,lawrence40 ,he had not seen me before since ,i was two years old4 ,found my friends all glad to see me4 ,visited with them for several weeks4 ,while with ,doct4 ,story found he had two ,rifles1 one made by his ,brother1 ,asa ,story1 who had a gun shop close by4 ,this he called his ,turkey ,rifle1 the other was an old ,pennsylvania ,rifle1 full stock1 barrel #d feet long1 all rusty4 ,the ,doctor said it had been one of the best4 ,he had killed many a deer with it4 ,i asked him to let me repair the rifle and put on a peep sight4 ,he had heard of this sight but had never seen one4 ,was very much interested about the sight but did not dare let me repair the ,rifle for fear ,i would spoil it4 ,after a while he consented to let me make the trial and went over with me to his brother's shop and obtained his consent to let me use his shop and tools4 ,i went to work1 took the gun all apart1 leaded out the barrel1 forged out the sight1 finished it and put it on the gun4 ,his brother watched me all day4 ,he had never seen a peep sight and a mere boy handling tools and forging out work as ,i did was a little astonishing to him4 ,on the ,doctor's return from his daily trip he made for the shop to see what ,i had done with his ,rifle4 ,he found it in such nice shape that he could not say too much in my praise4 ,he made an appointment for a trial the next day as to the shooting qualities4 ,i had most of the day to give the ,rifle a trial and adjust the sights4 ,we went out1 he paced off #ab rods from a maple tree which had a auger hole in 7made for sap spill74 ,he said to fire at that4 ,i found a good rest1 lay down on the ground and fired4 ,the ,doct4 tended target4 ,could find no ball hole4 ,said ,i had missed the tree4 ,i fired again--no ball hole to be found4 ,doct4 came up to me and said ,i had spoiled his ,rifle4 ,before my repairs he could kill a chicken every time at #ab rods4 ,i said1 8,uncle1 ,i am very sorry1 but ,i will make the gun all right before ,i leave it40 ,he said he could not consent to my doing anything more to improve the shooting qualities--the sight he liked very much4 ,i said that as the gun was loaded would take one more shot and see if ,i could not hit the tree4 ,after the third shot ,i went up to the tree to investigate1 and all of the three balls which ,i had fired were found in the auger hole4 ,the ,doct4 was astonished--dumbfounded4 ,said he never heard of such shooting4 ,we spent half of the night talking about guns4 ,he said we must go down to ,windsor ,prison where ,n4 ,kendall ,co4 were making guns4 ,they must know about the peep sights4 ,mine was the first ever seen in that section4 ,we went down to the ,prison the next day4 ,the ,doct4 told them all about the sight and his ,rifle4 ,the ,company hired me at once for the term of two years at about #ajj4 per year and board4 ,my first work was stocking rifles 7short stocks1 their rifles were stocked only on the breech74 ,the first day ,i put on five stocks1 all hand work4 ,the next morning ,mr4 ,smith1 one of the ,company1 came along and looked the work over4 ,said the work was done well but it would never do to rush work as ,i had1 for ,i would soon gun-stock them out of town--must hold up a little and take it more easy4 ,after a few days ,i was put on iron work4 ,i made it a point not to let anything be done in the shop that ,i did not make myself familiar with1 and soon found myself capable of doing the best work4 ,the ,co4 had quite a number of free men to work on various branches of the work1 nice parts1 engraving1 etc4 ,i found that ,i was equal to any of them except engraving4 ,could not at the end of six months do as nice engraving as the older hands1 but soon after could compete with any of them4 ,at the end of six months from beginning was put in charge of the shop1 much to the dislike of the older hands1 but ,i carried the work along without any trouble1 to the satisfaction of all4 ,the foreman of each shop by the rules of the prison acted as turnkey1 so ,i had one section of prisoners to lock up4 ,i worked out my two years engagement4444 ,in #ahdj ,i again entered into the employ of ,n4 ,kendall ,co41 wages #a4jh per day and board4444 ,i continued work at the ,prison4 ,this was in #ahdb4 ,during this year the ,co4 gave up the gun business4 ,i then engaged with the ,state as foreman in the carriage department1 continued in this position for about one and one-half years1 then in company with ,n4 ,kendall1 hired a shop in ,windsor ,village on ,mill ,river and started the ,custom ,gun ,works and ,jobbing4 ,carried on the business for about one year1 done a fair business4 ,one day in the winter of #ahdd ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,robbins came into the shop and spoke of the ,government asking for bids for ,rifles4 ,we talked the business over and decided to put in a bid for #aj1jjj ,u4 ,s4 ,rifles4 ,mr4 ,robbins1 with a friend ,price1 went on to ,washington to put in a bid for the ,rifles at #aj4ij each1 appendages extra4 ,this was #aj below any other bid4 ,the contract was awarded to ,robbins1 ,kendall ,lawrence4 ,this was in the time of the ,mexican ,war and the ,government was very much in want of ,rifles4 ,we made the contract to finish the job in three years4 ,guns were not made at this day very fast4 ,we had nothing to start with--buildings or capital4 ,we had much opposition from all the ,government ,gun ,contractors4 ,they said we could never do the work4 ,we had nerve and pluck and were determined to carry out the contract4 ,the real work fell upon myself1 ,robbins not being a mechanic and ,kendall not exactly calculated for such nice work1 made it hard for me4 ,we went to work with a will--bought land1 built factories1 bought and made machinery with determined will4 ,we started the business in good shape4 ,soon after finishing the ,rifles1 ,robbins and myself bought out ,kendall4 ,robbins then said to me1 8,lawrence1 if it were not for you as a mechanic and by your attention to business we could never go along with the heavy outlay 7debts7 on our hands40 ,we finished the contract #ah months inside of the time4 ,made a nice thing out of the job4 ,went on to ,washington4 ,the ,ordinance ,board 7,gen4 ,talcott7 told us that ours was the only ,gun ,contract ever finished within the contract time4 ,he said1 8,what do you want now8 ,you have done well and finished40 ,we said1 8,we want another contract for ,rifles40 ,he said1 8,come with me over to the ,secretary of ,war's ,office0 7,sec4 ,marcy74 ,gen4 ,talcott told the ,secretary all about our work and wants4 ,the ,secretary said they would see about it4 ,on our way back to ,gen4 ,talcott's office he saw that we were a little disappointed4 ,he said1 8,go right home and a contract will be sent to you in a few days40 ,the contract came for #ae1jjj ,rifles1 which placed us above board4 ,in manufacturing ,govt4 ,rifles a loss of about #ch was considered for bad material and workmanship4 ,about this time the ,california ,gold excitement was raging4 ,guns were in great demand4 ,we sold all of our second quality work and good mixt with it1 anything to make up the gun for full ,govt4 price4 ,this was a great relief every way4 ,things looked very bright4 ,this was in #ahdi-ej4 ,about this time we contracted with ,courtland ,c4 ,palmer for the manufacture of #e1jjj of the ,jennings ,rifles1 now the ,winchester 7improved74 ,this required new buildings and machinery4 ,we made the guns4 ,before this date we were very unfortunately situated about freight1 as no ,rail ,road passed through ,windsor4 ,most of our freight came by team from ,boston4 ,about this time the ,rail ,road was built through ,windsor1 which put us in the market much to our advantage4 ,the ,rail ,road contractor1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,f4 ,belknap1 came to us and wanted to start the car business with us1 led us to believe that he could control all the ,rail ,road car work in that section4 ,we went into the business with him4 ,he put in #bj1jjj as a silent partner4 ,we went to a large outlay1 and about the time we finished the first cars1 ,belknap had a quarrel with the ,president of the ,road and we could not sell a car when we expected to sell4 ,we sold the cars to the ,rutland and ,burlington ,road1 took stock and lost every dollar to the tune of #dj1jjj4 ,then we sold #ad1jjj to ,boston1 ,concord ,montreal ,road1 lost it all2 #e1jjj to ,sullivan ,road1 #ge1jjj to ,vermont ,central4 ,this total loss of #acd1jjj was a drain on the gun work and cramped us terribly4 ,about this time ,belknap died4 ,in settling his estate they brought in a charge of #aje1jjj against ,robbins ,lawrence as money lent4 ,this ,i knew nothing about4 ,as near as ,i could learn ,belknap ,robbins lost this money in stocks in ,boston4 ,we had to pay the charge1 which made a total loss up to this time of #bci1jjj1 all paid from gun shop business4 ,we gave up the car business after a while4 ,it was a mistake in ever going into this business4 ,while we were finishing the #ae1jjj ,government ,rifles and ,jennings guns in #aheb1 we contracted with the ,sharps ,company for the manufacture of #e1jjj ,sharpes' carbines in ,windsor1 and #ae1jjj ,carbines and ,rifles in ,hartford4 ,sharps ,co4 advanced #dj1jjj to enable us to build the factories in ,hartford4 ,i moved to ,hartford in #ahec1 and after much trouble and many trials started up the works4 ,want of funds by heavy former losses made it very hard and troublesome work to start the business4 ,after starting the business on the ,sharps gun in ,hartford1 the ,minie ,rifle contract was taken from ,fox ,henderson ,co4 for #be1jjj ,minie ,rifles4 ,before this contract was taken we had the assurance from ,dr4 ,black1 ,fox ,henderson ,co4's ,agent1 that he had in his pocket contracts for #cjj1jjj more as soon as we finished the #be1jjj4 ,fox ,henderson ,co4 agreed and did advance on the contract #ajj1jjj4 ,i did not like to enter into this contract for #be1jjj only1 as the outlay for the work would cost more than all the profits twice over4 ,i objected to signing the contract without seeing the large contract in ,dr4 ,black's pocket1 and proposed to ask the ,doctor to show it4 ,this ,mr4 ,robbins objected to strongly1 said it would be an insult to ,dr4 ,black4 ,after a long talk ,i yielded the point1 but told ,mr4 ,robbins that the minute we signed the contract we would be floored4 ,we had better have cut off our right hands4 ,we signed the contract4 ,it proved that ,doct4 ,black had no additional contract4 ,part of the work was done at ,windsor and part in ,hartford4 ,for want of funds the whole thing was a total failure4 ,the inspection as far as we went was very severe4 ,with all the gun work on my hands in #ahee and #ahef had a very hard time4 ,the failure of the ,robbins ,lawrence ,co4 at ,windsor brought ,robbins ,lawrence under4 ,a new ,company was formed at ,windsor4 ,i stept out and engaged with the ,sharps ,co4 on a salary of #d1jjj4 ,about this time ,robbins ,lawrence's ,agent1 ,mr4 ,robbins' friend1 failed4 ,i had a notice of his indebtedness to ,robbins ,lawrence of #dc1jjj4 ,i went immediately to ,mr4 ,robbins for an explanation4 ,he said that he put this money into ,foster's hands to fall back on in case he had any trouble4 ,i said1 8,you left me out in the cold40 ,then he said1 8,you are all right--can demand a large salary any time40 ,this was the very money that ,sharps ,co4 had advanced to ,robbins ,lawrence to aid them in starting the ,hartford shops4 ,robbins done all the financing and ,i attended to the mechanical work--never could find out much about our books4 ,he kept all mostly on memorandum books as ,i found at last4 ,this #dc1jjj made in all as far as ,i know of #bhb1jjj lost in the business4 ,i had laboured night and day to build up a business and make myself comfortable and well off for old age4 ,all the disappointments were about all that ,i could stand under1 but ,i said to myself that ,i started out in life with nothing but good health1 and would try once more1 and try and keep a part of my earnings4 ,while in the employ of ,sharps with my salary1 patents and speculations on machinery in war time1 ,i found myself as ,i thought worth over #ajj1jjj4 ,i went to friends for advice what to invest in4 ,all said1 8,put your money into real estate4 ,it never will decrease in ,hartford40 ,i took this advice which proved a very disastrous speculation4 ,in #ahgb1 after leaving ,sharps ,co4 went into the ,street ,department1 thinking myself well off in this world's goods1 but the hard times of #ahgc came unexpected1 and it took all my salary to furnish my family with a respectable living1 and take care of my real estate4 ,it would have been better to let the whole go and pass through bankruptcy as many others did4 ,my pride and the name of my family prevented me from doing this4 ,it was a mistake but cannot now be helped4 ,i have served #ah years as ,supt4 of ,streets in ,hartford1 #i years on ,water ,board1 #ad years on ,fire ,board as ,chairman1 #d years on ,board of ,aldermen1 and one year on ,council ,board1 #df years in all4 ,,note ,when we first commenced the gun business at ,windsor we commenced building nice machinery1 made many machines for other gun makers4 ,made at ,windsor for the ,english ,government most of their gun machines for the ,enfield armory4 ,we ran a regular machine shop also4 ,in ,hartford we ran a machine shop and ,sharps ,co4 continued the work4 ,in ,hartford made most of the machines used in the factory1 and many others for the ,english and ,spanish ,governments1 and other ,gun and ,sewing ,machine ,makers4 ,started the manufacturing of gun machinery in ,hartford which brought ,pratt and ,whitney into the business4 ,i tried to have ,sharps ,co4 enter into the business more extensively as there were bright prospects in the future1 but they could not see it1 and declined4 ,sharps ,co4 commenced on a capital of #ajj1jjj1 increased it to #abe1jjj4 ,the stockholders were paid back their full subscription of stock1 about #bjj1jjj in dividends4 ,sharps was paid #a4jj on each gun made2 ,penfield was paid about #a4be on each gun or #aj per cent on all sales4 ,the ,company could not agree on anything and sold out the whole plant for about #bbe1jjj4 ,it will be seen that the stockholders made a good thing out of the enterprise4 ,this was all accomplished by the use and skill of my brain1 as ,i had the full charge and control of the business4 ,if the ,company had taken my urgent advice they might today be in the position and place of the ,pratt ,whitney ,co4 ,one of my misfortunes in business all my life was being engaged with men not mechanics1 therefore not being able to comprehend the points coming up every day in business4 ,sharps ,co4 had the chance of taking several contracts which ,i worked up for them where the profits would have been over half a million4 ,they could not see it and declined4 ,when too late they saw their mistake4 ,,note #b ,i introduced the first edging machine ever in use1 on the ,sharps gun in ,windsor4 ,the principle of this machine is now in general use4 ,also introduced the first machine for pressing on car wheels on a taper without splining or keying4 ,this was done at ,windsor4 ,this principle has since been used in all ,rail ,road shops4 ,made a great mistake in not securing patents on both of the above4 ,,note #c ,introduced the principle of lubricating the bullet for breach loading guns which was the salvation of breach loading guns4 ,the guns were of no use before this4 ,this was done in the winter of #ahej4bbj #bbj ,see ,appendix ,b4 ,,note #d ,before #ahee all annealing and case hardening was done with ,char coal which was very expensive4 ,about this time in ,hartford ,i introduced the plan and furnaces for using hard coal which proved a great success and is now used everywhere for both case hardening and annealing4 ,many other improvements on gun work and machinery which ,i have made might be mentioned1 but the above is sufficient4 ,,appendix ,b ,,the ,,jennings ,,gun 8,reminiscences of the first magazine rifle4 ,most important discovery by ,r4 ,s4 ,lawrence of this city 7,hartford1 ,conn474--,original use of lubricating material in fire arms40 ,a few days ago ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,brooks of this city 7,hartford1 ,conn47 received a very curious and interesting magazine gun from ,new ,york1 bearing the name of ,ex-,superintendent ,r4 ,s4 ,lawrence of the street department as the manufacturer4 ,conceiving that there must be a good story connected with the arm which was one of the first magazine guns ever made in this country1 a reporter of ,the ,post sought out ,mr4 ,lawrence and learned the history of the gun4 8,the rifle which ,mr4 ,brooks brought to my notice1 with my name on it10 said ,ex-,superintendent ,lawrence1 8is one of a lot of #e1jjj manufactured at ,windsor1 ,vermont1 by ,robbins ,lawrence1 for ,mr4 ,courtland ,c4 ,palmer of ,new ,york4 ,this rifle was known as the ,jennings gun4 ,a portion of the lot was then called single loaders1 and a portion repeating rifles1 carrying twenty charges4 ,the charge of powder was contained in the ball1 consisting of twenty-two grains of powder only4 ,with the repeating rifle ,i have often fired twenty shots within one minute1 but not with any accuracy1 for the reason that all breech-loading guns up to this time used what is called the naked ball without any patch or lubricating material4 ,the result in firing the gun was that the ball leaded the barrel1 by building on1 to such an extent that in firing twenty shots from a #ej-ajj calibre bore there would be a hole in the barrel less than #be-ajj40 8,in the winter of #ahej1 while the guns were being manufactured at ,windsor1 ,kossuth arrived in this country1 as was supposed by many for the purpose of purchasing rifles4 ,mr4 ,palmer was anxious to sell his rifles1 and telegraphed on to ,windsor that ,kossuth would purchase largely1 if he could be shown that the ,jennings rifle could be fired with sufficient accuracy to hit the size of a man ten times out of twenty-five at the distance of #ejj yards4 ,i answered by saying that it was impossible to do any such thing with the ,jennings rifle4 ,another message was sent to ,windsor to come to ,new ,york by the first train and bring the best gun and ammunition4 ,i complied with the request4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,p4 ,dixon1 ,mr4 ,palmer's agent1 had all things arranged for the trial at ,astoria1 ,l4 ,i4 ,i did my best in trying to accomplish the desired effect asked for1 but not one of the twenty-five shots hit the target4 ,mr4 ,dixon said that we must make another trial the next day4 ,i went to his hotel1 more than ever disgusted with breech loading rifles1 as all efforts had failed to make any accurate shooting with any naked balls4 ,all gun men will understand this4 ,my business was manufacturing rifles for the ,government and for the ,sharps ,rifle ,mfg4 ,co4 ,most of the night at the hotel was spent in trying to devise some way to remedy the trouble then existing with breech loading guns4 ,at last the simple remedy came1 which has proven the salvation of all breech loading guns40 8,early the next morning we started for the target field4 ,i did not tell ,mr4 ,dixon at first of my discovery4 ,i simply told him that the trouble was all over with4 ,if he would stop at the ,fulton ,market and purchase a small piece of tallow the rifle would do all that was required of it1 but he had so little confidence in the gun that he would not be prevailed upon to purchase the tallow4 ,i then thought that ,i would keep the new discovery to myself for awhile1 but changed my mind on arriving on the target field1 and tramped a mile on the ice to a farmhouse1 and purchased a small piece of tallow4 ,with the aid of a lathe in the cartridge shop on the ground1 ,i turned out a number of grooves on the balls and filled them with tallow4 ,i then went on to the stand and hit the target ten times in twenty shots4 ,by this time ,i had the sights regulated and could hit the target about every shot1 and finished after many shots with a clean gun barrel4 ,this was the first instance of lubricating material being used in breech loading guns or any other guns4 ,i challenge any dispute on this subject4 ,this was the salvation of breech loading guns40 8,at this time ,william ,e41 a brother of ,mr4 ,courtland ,c4 ,palmer1 was in ,paris with the ,jennings gun4 ,all parties were so interested with the success of the gun that ,mr4 ,dixon1 the agent1 had two boxes of ammunition made up and sent by the next steamer to ,w4 ,e4 ,palmer in ,paris4 ,in two weeks from the time of the trial in ,new ,york1 the invention was known in ,paris and applied to the ,french guns with the same success as was met with in the ,jennings rifle4 ,the same principle is used today in all breech loading guns4 ,i came direct from ,new ,york to ,hartford1 and informed the president of the ,sharps ,rifle ,mfg4 ,co4 of my new discovery and tried to induce the company to introduce the lubricating material in the ,sharps ,rifle1 as this rifle then used the naked ball and was subject to the same very serious trouble as the ,jennings4 ,mr4 ,sharps was called on and the use of the lubricating explained1 but he ignored the whole matter1 calling it a #8humbug4' ,i returned to ,vermont somewhat disgusted4 ,in less than one week the president of the ,sharps ,rifle ,mfg4 ,co4 wrote to ,windsor to stop all work until ,mr4 ,sharps and himself arrived1 stating that ,mr4 ,sharps had tried the lubricating material and found that it was indispensable1 and that no more guns must go out before the change was made for lubrication4 ,the ,jennings rifles1 of which a few had been made for samples1 were in a crude state4 ,robbins ,lawrence made new models and manufactured the #e1jjj for ,mr4 ,courtland ,c4 ,palmer4 ,after this ,mr4 ,tyler ,henry1 an old and first-class workman of ,robbins ,lawrence1 made in ,new ,haven great improvements on the ,jennings rifle4 ,after this it went into the hands of the ,winchester ,arms ,company of ,new ,haven4 ,they made great improvements on the gun and called it the ,winchester ,repeating ,rifle4 ,it is the outcrop of the old ,jennings rifle40#bba #bba ,from the ,hartford ,evening ,post1 ,tuesday1 ,feb4 #be1 #ahij4 ,a ,,partial ,,bibliography ,,on ,,tool ,,building ,smiles3 ,industrial ,biography4 ,boston1 #ahfd4 ,smiles3 ,men of ,invention and ,industry4 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhe4 ,smiles3 ,boulton and ,watt4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,smiles3 ,the ,stephensons4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,smiles3 ,smeaton and ,rennie4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,beck3 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte des ,maschinenbaues4 ,berlin1 #aijj4 ,matschoss3 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,technik und ,industrie4 ,berlin1 ,bnde ,i-,v1 #aiji-aiac4 ,sargant3 8,sir ,samuel ,bentham10 in 8,essays of a ,birmingham ,manufacturer40 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,bentham1 ,mary ,s43 ,memoirs of ,brigadier-,general ,sir ,samuel ,bentham1 in ,papers and ,practical ,illustrations of ,public ,works4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,beamish3 ,life of ,sir ,marc ,isambard ,brunel4 ,london1 #ahfb4 ,nasmyth3 ,autobiography of ,james ,nasmyth1 ,edited by ,smiles4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,holtzapffel3 ,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,buchanan3 ,millwork and other ,machinery4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,perrigo3 ,modern ,american ,lathe ,practice4 ,n4 ,y41 #aijg4 ,perrigo3 ,change ,gear ,devices4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiae4 ,camus3 ,treatise on the ,teeth of ,wheels 7,english ,translation74 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,willis3 ,principles of ,mechanism4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,fairbairn3 ,mills and ,millwork4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,pole3 ,life of ,sir ,william ,fairbairn4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,memoir of ,john ,george ,bodmer1 in ,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,farey3 ,treatise on the ,steam ,engine4 ,london1 #ahbg4 ,price3 ,fire and ,thief-proof ,depositories1 and ,locks and ,keys4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,baker3 ,elements of ,mechanism4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,bishop3 ,history of ,american ,manufactures4 #c ,vols4 ,philadelphia1 #ahfh4 ,weeden3 ,economic and ,social ,history of ,new ,england4 #b ,vols4 ,boston1 #ahij4 ,field3 ,state of ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations4 ,goodrich3 ,history of ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 ,pawtucket1 #ahgf4 ,wilkinson3 ,memoir of the ,wilkinson ,family4 ,jacksonville1 ,ill41 #ahfi4 ,fitch3 ,report on ,manufactures of ,interchangeable ,mechanism1 in ,u4 ,s4 ,census1 #ahhj4 ,volume on 8,manufactures40 ,durfee3 8,development of the ,art of ,interchangeable ,construction in ,mechanism10 in ,transactions of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 p4 #abbe4 ,olmstead3 ,memoir of ,eli ,whitney4 ,new ,haven1 #ahdf4 ,woodworth3 ,american ,tool ,making and ,interchangeable ,manufacturing4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiaa4 ,blake3 ,history of ,hamden1 ,conn4 ,new ,haven1 #ahhh4 ,blake3 ,new ,haven ,colony ,historical ,papers1 ,vol4 ,v4 ,new ,haven1 #ahid4 ,north3 ,memoir of ,simeon ,north4 ,concord1 #aiac4 ,washburn3 ,manufacturing and ,mechanical ,industries of ,worcester4 ,philadelphia1 #ahhi4 ,iles3 ,leading ,american ,inventors4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiab4 ,parton3 ,captains of ,industry4 ,boston1 #ahia4 ,van ,slyck3 ,representatives of ,new ,england4 ,boston1 #ahga4 ,goddard3 ,eminent ,engineers4 ,n4 ,y41 #aije4 ,lathrop3 ,the ,brass ,industry4 ,shelton1 ,conn41 #aiji4 ,anderson3 ,the ,town and ,city of ,waterbury4 #c ,vols4 ,new ,haven1 #ahif4 ,evans3 ,the ,young ,millwright and ,miller's ,guide4 ,philadelphia1 #ahbf4 ,freedley3 ,philadelphia and its ,manufactures4 ,philadelphia1 #aheh4 ,cist3 ,cincinnati in #ahea4 ,cincinnati1 #ahea4 ,cist3 ,cincinnati in #ahei4 ,cincinnati1 #ahei4 ,porter3 ,engineering ,reminiscences4 ,n4 ,y41 #aijh4 ,transactions of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,london4 ,transactions of the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,london4 ,transactions of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute4 ,philadelphia4 ,files of 8,american ,machinist10 ,new ,york4 ,files of 8,machinery10 ,new ,york4 ,files of 8,engineering ,magazine10 ,new ,york4 ,files of 8,cassier's ,magazine10 ,new ,york4 ,files of 8,engineering ,news10 ,london4 ,files of 8,engineering10 ,london4 ,much of the data in the latter portions of this book is derived from private correspondence and personal interviews1 and is1 therefore1 not available for reference4 ,,index ,,index ,acme ,wire ,co43 #afj4 ,allen1 ,ethan3 #bbf4 ,allen1 ,walter3 #bfd4 ,alvord1 ,j4 ,d43 #aib1 #aig4 ,american ,brass ,co43 #bcf4 ,american industries3 reasons for delayed development1 #aji-aad2 influence of the cotton gin1 #aad4 ,american iron3 results of exportation to ,england1 #aaj-aac2 early production1 #aae4 ,american ,pin ,co43 #bcd4 ,american ,screw ,co43 #abe1 #aih1 #bbf2 pointed screw1 #abf4 ,american ,steel ,wire ,co43 #bbe-bbf4 8,american system03 see ,interchangeable manufacture4 ,american ,tool ,works3 #bfi4 ,american ,watch ,co43 interchangeable system1 #add1 #afd4 ,american ,wire ,gauge3 #bje4 ,ames ,manufacturing ,co43 gun-making machinery1 etc41 #ach1 #adj1 #bbh-bbi4 ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,co43 #abc1 #abd1 #baf-bag1 #bec4 ,andover1 ,mass43 scythe mill1 #aag4 ,angell1 ,william ,g43 #abf4 ,ansonia ,brass ,copper ,co43 #bcd4 ,ansonia ,clock ,co43 #bcd4 ,arkwright1 ,sir ,richard3 #f1 #fd1 #aba1 #aej1 #afa4 ,armstrong1 ,sir ,william3 #aje4 ,arnold1 ,asa3 partner of ,pitcher1 #abd4 ,arnold1 ,jeremiah ,o43 #abe4 ,arnold1 ,joseph3 brother of ,jeremiah1 #abe4 ,atwood1 ,l4 ,j43 #bcg4 ,babbage1 ,charles3 calculating machine1 #ei4 ,baldwin1 ,matthias3 ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works1 #bef4 ,bancroft1 ,edward3 ,bancroft ,sellers1 #bdg4 ,barber-,coleman ,co43 #bgd4 ,bardons ,oliver3 #ahc1 #bfe4 ,barker1 ,william3 partner of ,lodge1 #bfi-bgj4 ,barnes1 ,b4 ,f43 #bgd4 ,barnes1 ,w4 ,f4 ,john1 ,co43 #bgc4 ,barnes ,drill ,co43 #bgd4 ,baush ,machine ,tool ,co43 drilling machines1 #bcj4 ,bayley1 ,o4 ,w43 #bag4 ,beach1 ,h4 ,l43 #afe4 ,beach1 ,h4 ,b41 ,son3 #afe4 ,beale1 ,oscar ,j43 accurate standards1 #bje4 ,beckley1 ,elias3 gun shop1 #afb4 ,bellows1 ,e4 ,h43 #bbb4 ,bement1 ,clarence ,s43 #bee4 ,bement1 ,william ,b43 #bag1 #bai1 #bdi1 #beb-bed2 estimate of1 #bee2 hammer1 #bee4 ,bement ,dougherty3 #bed4 ,bement1 ,miles ,co43 history of1 #bed-bee4 ,benedict1 ,aaron3 brass worker1 #bcb4 ,benedict ,burnham3 #bcd4 ,benedict ,coe3 brass workers1 #bcb4 ,bentham ,jeremy3 #bb1 #be4 ,bentham1 ,sir ,samuel3 #g1 #bb1 #di1 #hi1 #ajg2 work on ,portsmouth block machinery1 #h1 #i1 #ah1 #bb1 #bf1 #bh2 in ,russia1 #bc1 #bd2 in ,british navy service1 #bd2 woodworking machinery1 #bd1 #be2 planer1 #ea2 patent of #agic1 #ch2 slide-rest1 #f1 #ch2 relations with ,maudslay1 #hi4 ,bessemer1 ,sir ,henry3 #if4 ,besly1 ,charles ,h41 ,co43 #bge4 ,bibliography3 #bie-big4 ,bickford1 ,henry3 #bgb4 ,bidwell1 ,jason ,a43 #aih1 #bff4 ,bilgram ,machine ,works3 gear cutting1 #bei4 ,billings1 ,charles ,e43 #agj1 #agd-age1 #bja4 ,billings ,spencer ,co43 #age-agf4 ,blake1 ,eli ,whitney3 #afj4 ,blake1 ,philos3 #afj4 ,blaisdell1 ,p41 ,co43 #bbb4 ,blanchard1 ,thomas3 #bbj-bba2 lathe for turning gun-stocks1 #f1 #adj1 #adb1 #bai1 #bbj-bba4 ,blenkinsop3 ,locomotives1 #ef4 ,block machinery3 see ,portsmouth block machinery4 ,bodmer1 ,john ,george3 #ge-hj2 estimate of1 #gi2 diametral pitch1 #gj note #ff2 interchangeable manufacture1 #gf1 #aca2 firearms1 #gf2 two patents1 #gg-gi2 traveling crane1 #gg1 #hj2 mill machinery1 #gf4 ,bond1 ,george ,m43 ,rogers-,bond ,comparator1 #ahj-ahb4 ,boring machines3 ,smeaton's1 #b1 #ac2 ,wilkinson's1 #c1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #fj2 in #ahth century1 #d4 ,boston1 ,mass43 heavy forge1 #aag4 ,boston ,worcester ,r4 ,r43 #bbj4 ,boulton1 ,matthew3 #ade2 on ,wilkinson's boring machine1 #c2 on ,wilkinson1 #ade4 ,boulton ,watt3 #c1 #aa1 #df1 #ee2 relations with ,wilkinson1 #ab1 #ac4 ,bow-string truss3 #hb4 ,boye ,emmes ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bfh1 #bga4 ,bramah1 ,joseph3 #g1 #h1 #ae1 #ajg2 estimate of1 #ai1 #bj2 invention of slide-rest1 #f1 #cf2 planer1 #ej2 hydraulic press1 #ah2 machine for numbering banknotes1 #ai2 woodworking machinery1 #ah1 #ai1 #bd2 other inventions1 #ah2 relations with ,maudslay1 #ag1 #ai1 #cc1 #cd2 with ,watt1 #ah2 with ,clement1 #ai1 #eh4 ,bridgeport ,brass ,co43 micrometer1 #baa-bac4 ,bridgeport ,machine ,tool ,co43 #ahd4 ,british ,small ,arms ,commission3 #ach1 #adj1 #ada4 ,brooker1 ,charles ,f43 #bcf4 ,brown1 ,david3 #abf1 #bjb4 ,brown1 ,capt4 ,james ,s43 #abd4 ,brown1 ,joseph ,r43 #abf1 #bjb2 estimate of1 #bae2 8,universal0 miller1 #ach note #afc1 #aif1 #bjh-bji2 linear dividing engines1 #bjb1 #bjd-bje1 #bjf2 vernier caliper1 #bjc2 formed milling cutter1 #bjf1 #bjg2 improvements on turret screw machine1 #bjg2 universal grinder1 #bad4 ,brown1 ,moses3 textile industry1 #abj1 #aba4 ,brown1 ,sylvanus3 #abd4 inventor of slide-rest1 #f2 slide lathe1 #abj4 ,brown ,hoisting ,machine ,co43 #beh4 ,brown ,elton3 wire and tubing1 #bcc4 ,brown ,sharpe ,manufacturing ,co43 #abe1 ,chapter ,,xvi2 ,j4 ,r4 ,browne ,sharpe1 #bjb1 #bjd2 8,universal0 miller1 #ach note #afc1 #aif1 #bjh2 linear dividing engines1 #bjf2 precision gear cutter1 #bjf2 turret screw machines1 #bjg-bjh2 limit gauges1 #baj2 micrometer caliper1 #baa-bac2 cylindrical grinder1 #bac2 automatic gear cutters1 #bad4 ,brunel1 ,sir ,isambard ,k43 #cb4 ,brunel1 ,sir ,marc ,i43 #g1 #bf1 #bg1 #ca1 #di1 #ajg2 slide-rest1 #f2 inventions1 #bg2 ,portsmouth block machinery1 #h1 #i1 #bb1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh4 ,bryant1 ,william ,l43 chucking grinder1 #bjj4 ,buchanan3 ,english writer1 #ej4 ,builders ,iron ,foundry or 8,high ,street ,furnace03 #abe4 ,bullard1 ,e4 ,p43 #ahc-ahd4 vertical boring and turning mill1 #ahd-ahe4 ,bullard ,machine ,tool ,co43 #ahd4 ,burke1 ,william ,a43 #bec2 ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,co41 #bag2 ,lowell ,machine ,shop1 #bag1 #bah4 ,burleigh1 ,charles3 rock drill1 #bbh4 ,burlingame1 ,l4 ,d43 history of micrometer1 #bac4 ,burton1 ,james ,h43 ,enfield gun machinery1 #adj4 ,calipers3 8,lord ,chancellor10 #de1 #baa2 vernier1 #bjc2 micrometer1 origin of1 #baa-bac4 ,campbell1 ,a4 ,c43 #bcg4 ,camus3 #fd2 8,the ,teeth of ,wheels10 #fd-fe1 #fh4 ,carmichaels1 of ,dundee3 engine makers1 #hf4 ,carron ,iron ,works3 #b1 #he4 ,change-gear box3 #ahb4 ,chase ,rolling ,mills ,co43 #bcf4 8,chordal's ,letters03 #bfa4 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio3 tool building in1 #bff-bfg4 ,cincinnati ,bickford ,tool ,co43 #bgb4 ,cincinnati ,milling ,machine ,co43 #bgb4 ,cincinnati ,planer ,co43 #bga-bgb4 ,cincinnati ,screw ,tap ,co43 #bgb4 ,clement1 ,joseph3 #g1 #h1 #i1 #eg-eh1 #ei1 #ii1 #ajg2 screw-thread practice1 #aj1 #ai1 #eg1 #eh-ei1 #aja2 gear practice1 #fh2 taps and dies1 #aj1 #ai1 #eh2 lathes1 #ai1 #eg2 planers1 #ai1 #ej1 #eb1 #ed1 #ei2 relations with ,bramah1 #ai1 #eh2 with ,maudslay ,field1 #ai1 #df1 #eh4 ,cleveland1 ,ohio3 #ahc4 tool builders in1 #bfa-bff2 first multi-spindle automatic screw machines1 #bfe4 ,cleveland ,twist ,drill ,co43 #bff4 ,clock industry in ,connecticut3 #aga-agb4 ,coe1 ,israel3 #bcf4 ,coe1 ,lyman3 #bcd1 #bcf4 ,coe ,brass ,co43 #bcd4 ,coes ,wrench ,co43 #bbf4 ,colby1 ,gilbert ,a43 #bed4 ,collins ,co43 axe makers1 #afi4 ,colt1 ,samuel3 #aff-afh2 interchangeable system1 #acg1 #afh2 ,colt revolver1 #aff1 #afg2 erection of ,armory1 #afg1 #afh4 ,colt ,armory3 #afe1 #aff2 erection of1 #afg1 #afh2 a 8contract shop10 #agh4 ,conradson1 ,conrad ,n43 turret machine1 #bgf4 ,cook1 ,asa3 #agd4 ,coombs1 ,s4 ,c43 #bbb4 ,corliss ,machine ,works3 #abf4 ,cotton crop3 growth of1 #aej-aea4 ,cotton gin3 invention of1 #aca1 #adh et seq42 influence1 #aad1 #aca1 #ade1 #adi1 #aej-aea1 #afa2 patent rights of1 #aea-aeh4 ,cowie1 ,pierson3 #bba-bbb4 ,cramp ,ship ,building ,co43 #beg4 ,croft1 ,james3 brass worker1 #bcb4 ,crompton1 ,william3 #aad4 ,cup-leather packing3 #ah4 ,currier ,snyder3 #bbb4 ,cushman1 ,a4 ,f43 #agc4 ,darby1 ,abraham1 #c;d3 first iron bridge1 #ae4 ,darling1 ,samuel3 graduating engine1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,davenport1 ,james3 textile machinery1 #bdf4 ,davenport1 ,william ,s43 #bad4 da ,vinci1 ,leonardo3 anticipation of modern tools1 #f1 #cf4 ,davis1 ,charles3 #bfi4 ,davis1 ,jefferson3 on ,whitney's steel-barreled muskets1 #afj4 ,davis ,egan3 #bfi4 ,d',eichthal1 ,baron3 partner of ,bodmer1 #ge4 ,de la ,hire3 gear teeth1 #fc1 #fd1 #fg4 ,de,leeuw1 ,a4 ,l43 #bgc1 #bgg4 ,dennison1 ,a4 ,l43 ,american ,watch ,co41 #add4 de ,vaucanson1 ,jacques3 milling cutter1 #bjf4 ,diametral pitch3 8,manchester pitch10 #gj note #ff2 ,bodmer1 #hj4 ,die forging3 #acg4 ,dietz1 ,schumacher ,boye ,co43 #bfh4 ,dodge1 ,cyril3 #abf4 ,dodge1 ,nehemiah3 goldsmith1 #abf4 ,dougherty1 ,james3 #bed4 ,draper ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bbb4 ,dresses1 ,henry3 #bga4 ,dresses1 ,mueller ,co43 #bga4 ,drilling machines3 in #ahth century1 #d4 ,drop hammer3 developed in ,america1 #e1 #adc1 #age4 ,dwight1 ,dr4 ,timothy3 on ,pawtucket1 #aba4 ,eagle ,screw ,co43 #abf4 ,earle ,williams3 #bai4 ,eberhardt1 ,ulrich3 #bei4 ,edgemoor ,iron ,co43 #bdi-bej4 ,egan1 ,thomas ,p43 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,eminent ,men of ,science ,living in #ahjg-ahjh4 engraving by ,walker1 #bj4 ,enfield ,armory3 #e1 #if1 #ajc2 ,nasmyth on reorganization of1 #adj-ada2 ,british ,small ,arms ,commission1 #ach1 #adj2 gun-machinery1 #ach-ada2 ,robbins ,lawrence1 #aia-aib4 ,epicyclic curve3 #fc1 #fg1 #fh4 ,essex ,machine ,shop3 #bai4 ,euler3 gearing1 #fd4 ,evans1 ,oliver3 #bci-bdf2 conveyors for handling materials1 #bdj-bda1 #bdf2 steam engine1 #bda-bdb1 #bde2 description of shop1 #bdc2 steamboat1 #bdb2 prediction of railways1 #bde2 8,engineer's ,guide10 #bdb2 8,miller's ,guide10 #bdd4 ,fairbairn1 ,sir ,peter3 #ga1 #gd1 #ajg4 ,fairbairn1 ,sir ,william3 #fb1 #ajg2 on machine tools1 #aj2 with ,george ,rennie1 #ed1 #ga2 millwork1 #ga2 on 8a good millwright10 #gb2 ,fairbairn ,lillie1 #gb-gc1 #gg2 treatise on 8,mills and ,millwork10 #gc2 iron ships1 #gc-gd2 bridge building1 #gd4 ,fairbairn ,co43 #bfh4 ,fairfield1 ,george ,a43 #agj1 #agd1 #agf4 ,fales ,jenks ,machine ,co43 #abe4 ,farrel ,foundry ,machine ,co43 #bcg4 ,fay1 ,j4 ,a41 ,co43 woodworking machinery1 #bbi-bcj1 #bfg4 ,fay1 ,j4 ,a41 ,egan ,co43 #bcj4 ,fellows1 ,e4 ,r43 #aii4 ,fellows ,gear ,shaper ,co43 #aii4 ,field1 ,joshua3 #ce1 #hi2 relations with ,maudslay1 #h1 #ce1 #ij2 founder of ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 #ij4 ,fire engine3 first in ,america1 #aaf4 ,fitch1 ,john3 steamboat1 #hb4 ,fitch1 ,stephen3 horizontal turret1 #aig4 ,fitchburg1 ,mass43 #bai1 #bbg-bbh4 ,fitchburg ,machine ,works3 #bbh2 ,lo-swing lathe1 #bjj4 ,flagg1 ,samuel1 ,co43 #bba1 #bbb4 ,flather ,manufacturing ,co43 #bbh4 ,flax industry3 ,murray's influence on1 #eg4 ,foote-,burt ,co43 #ahc2 drilling machines1 #bfe4 ,forehand ,wadsworth3 #bbf4 ,forq1 ,nicholas3 planer1 #ej4 ,fosdick ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bga4 ,fosdick ,plucker3 #bga4 ,fox1 ,james3 #g1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed4 ,fox ,taylor3 manufacturers of blocks1 #bh4 ,fox1 ,henderson ,co43 #aib4 ,francis1 ,james ,b43 hydraulic engineer1 #bah4 ,franklin ,machine ,co43 #abe4 ,fulton1 ,robert3 #aej1 #aea1 #afa4 ,gage1 ,warner ,whitney3 #bah1 #bbh4 ,gang1 ,william ,e43 #bfh1 #bga4 ,gang ,dietz3 #bga4 ,gardner1 ,frederick ,m43 disk grinding machines1 #bge4 ,gardner ,machine ,co43 #bgf4 ,garvin ,machine ,co43 #abg4 ,gascoigne1 ,william3 principle of micrometer1 #baa4 ,gay1 ,ira3 #abd1 #baf-bag4 ,gay1 ,zeba3 #abd1 #bag4 ,gay ,silver ,co43 #aie1 #aig1 #bag2 planer1 #ec4 ,gearing and ,millwork3 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,geier1 ,frederick ,a43 #bgb-bgc4 8,genealogies03 ,early ,english ,tool ,builders1 ,fig4 #e2 ,new ,england ,gun-makers1 ,fig4 #bg2 ,robbins ,lawrence ,shop1 ,fig4 #cg2 ,worcester ,tool ,builders1 ,fig4 #de2 ,naugatuck ,brass ,industry1 ,fig4 #ej4 ,giddings ,lewis ,manufacturing ,co43 #bgf4 ,gisholt ,machine ,works3 #bgf4 ,gleason ,works3 #ahc4 ,globe ,rolling ,mill3 #bea4 ,goddard1 ,benjamin3 #bbe4 ,gorham1 ,jabez3 #abg4 ,gorham ,manufacturing ,co43 founded1 #abg4 ,gould ,eberhardt3 #bei4 ,grant1 ,john ,j43 #bad4 ,gray1 ,g4 ,a41 ,co43 #bgc4 8,great ,eastern10 ,the3 #cb4 8,great ,western10 ,the3 #cb4 ,great ,western ,railway3 steamers1 #ic4 ,greene1 ,nathaniel3 cannon factory of1 #aah4 ,greene1 ,mrs4 ,nathaniel3 friend to ,eli ,whitney1 #adg2 connection with cotton-gin1 #adh-adi4 ,greene1 ,timothy3 #aai1 #aba4 ,greenwood1 ,miles3 #bfg4 ,gridley1 ,george ,o43 automatic lathes1 #aid1 #bjj4 ,grilley1 ,henry3 founder of brass industry1 #bcb4 ,grinder3 developed in ,america1 #e2 ,brown ,sharpe's1 #bac-bad2 disc1 #bge-bgf4 ,hakewessel1 ,reinholdt3 #ahc2 ,acme automatic1 #bfe4 ,hamilton1 ,alexander3 entertains ,brunel1 #h1 #bg4 ,hamilton1 ,ohio3 tool builders in1 #bgc4 ,hampson1 ,john3 with ,maudslay1 #ih4 ,hanks1 ,alpheus and ,truman3 foundry1 #afe4 ,harper's ,ferry ,arsenal3 #adj1 #adc1 #afc2 established1 #acf2 interchangeable equipment1 #acg2 rifle1 #afj4 ,harrington ,richardson3 #bbf4 ,hartford1 ,conn43 #abg2 manufactories of1 #afd1 #afe1 #agj2 gun makers of1 #afd1 #aff4 ,hartford ,machine ,screw ,co43 #agj1 #agd1 #agf4 ,hartness1 ,james3 #aid1 #aig-aih1 #bff2 designer of machine tools1 #aih2 flat-turret lathe1 #aih2 ,lo-swing lathe1 #bjj4 ,haskell1 ,co41 ,the ,william ,h43 #abd4 ,hawkins1 ,john ,isaac3 #fi2 on early gear tooth practice1 #fe-fh1 #gj4 ,hayden1 ,hiram ,w43 #bcd1 #bcf4 ,hendey ,machine ,co43 tool-room lathe1 #ahb4 ,henn1 ,e4 ,c43 ,acme automatic1 #bfe4 ,herman1 ,william3 #bga4 ,hick1 ,b41 ,son3 #ge4 ,high ,street ,furnace3 #abe4 ,hildreth1 ,s4 ,e43 #bbb4 ,hobbs1 ,alfred ,c43 picks ,bramah's lock1 #af4 ,holmes1 ,hodgin3 cotton gin1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,holmes1 ,israel3 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bcf4 ,holmes1 ,joseph3 pioneer iron worker1 #aag4 ,holmes ,hotchkiss3 #bcc4 ,holmes1 ,booth ,haydens3 #bcd1 #bcg4 ,holtz1 ,frederick3 milling machine1 #bgb4 ,holtzapffel1 ,charles3 #gd1 #ii2 on ,roberts1 #fj-fa2 plane surfaces1 #ajj4 ,hovey1 ,p43 partner of ,pitcher1 #abd4 ,howe1 ,elias3 sewing machine1 #add4 ,howe1 ,frederick ,w43 #aie1 #aif1 #bji1 #bag2 milling machines1 #ach1 #aif1 #bjh1 #bji2 profiling machine1 #adc1 #aia2 turret-head screw machine1 #aie-aif1 #bjg2 turret lathe1 #aig1 #aii4 ,howe1 ,hezekiah3 #aai4 ,humphries3 suggests invention of large hammer1 #ic4 ,hydraulic press3 invented by ,bramah1 #ah1 #cd4 ,industrial conditions3 new elements in #ahth century1 #a4 ,ingersoll ,milling ,machine ,co43 #bgd4 ,institution of ,civil ,engineers3 founding of1 #ij4 ,interchangeable manufacture3 rise of1 ,chapter ,,xi2 developed in ,america1 #e1 #abi2 defined1 #abh2 abroad1 #ach1 #adj2 in ,france1 #abi-aca2 in ,hartford1 #afd2 tools for1 #adb-adc4 clock1 watch and sewing machine industries1 #add2 ,bodmer1 #gf2 ,colt1 #acg1 #afh2 ,enfield1 #ach1 #ada2 ,simeon ,north1 #aca1 #acc1 #ace-acf1 #acg1 #afb2 ,robbins ,lawrence1 #aia2 ,eli ,whitney1 #aca-acc1 #acf4 ,international ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bge4 ,involute gears3 #fc1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #bjg4 ,iron bridge1 the first3 #ae4 ,iron boats3 ,wilkinson builds the first1 #ad2 ,symington1 #ad1 #hb2 ,brunel1 #cb2 ,onions ,sons1 #ad2 ,jervons1 #ad2 at ,horsley ,works1 #ad2 8,great ,eastern0 and 8,great ,western10 #cb2 ,fairbairn1 #gc-gd4 ,jefferson1 ,thomas3 on interchangeable system in ,france1 #abi-aca2 on ,whitney1 #ace4 ,jenks1 ,alfred3 textile machinery1 #abc1 #bdf-bdg4 ,jenks1 ,alvin3 cotton machinery1 #abd-abe4 ,jenks1 ,barton ,h43 #bdg4 ,jenks1 ,eleazer3 spinning machinery1 #abc4 ,jenks1 ,joseph3 #aae-aaf1 #abe4 ,jenks1 ,joseph1 ,jr43 founder of ,pawtucket1 #aah4 ,jenks1 ,joseph1 #c;d3 governor of ,rhode ,island ,colony1 #aah4 ,jenks1 ,capt4 ,stephen3 guns1 #aag2 nuts and screws1 #abd2 ,jenks ,sons1 #abe4 ,jennings gun3 origin of1 #bib-bid4 ,jerome1 ,chauncey3 brass clocks1 #add1 #aga-agb1 #bcc4 ,jervons3 iron boat1 #ad4 ,jewelry industry in ,providence3 #abf-abg4 ,johnson1 ,charles3 #bcg4 ,johnson1 ,iver3 #bbf4 ,johnson1 ,judge3 decision1 ,whitney vs4 ,fort1 #aee-aeg4 ,jones ,lamson ,machine ,co43 #aia1 #aic1 #aid1 #aig2 flat-turret lathe1 #aih-aii2 ,fay automatic lathe1 #bjj4 ,kaestner3 gearing1 #fd4 ,kearney ,trecker3 #bgf4 ,kempsmith1 ,frank3 #bfd-bfe1 #bga4 ,kempsmith ,manufacturing ,co43 #bga1 #bgf4 ,kendall1 ,n41 ,co43 #ahf1 #ahi4 ,key-seater3 #fa4 ,lamson1 ,goodnow ,yale3 #aib1 #aic4 ,lamson ,machine ,co43 #aih4 ,landis ,tool ,co43 #bei-bfj4 ,lane ,bodley3 #bfg4 ,lapointe1 ,j4 ,n43 broaching machine1 #ahc4 ,lathes3 pole1 #c1 #da2 engine1 #d2 in #ahth century1 #c1 #d2 automatic1 #e1 #agf2 ,french rose engine1 #f2 screw-cutting1 #ai1 #ce1 #dj1 #aai-abj2 tool-room1 #ahb2 ,lo-swing1 #bjj2 ,bramah and ,maudslay1 #ag2 ,ramsden1 #ch2 ,bentham1 #ch2 ,maudslay1 #dj-db1 #df2 ,wilkinson1 #aai-abj2 ,blanchard1 #adj1 #adb-adc2 ,spencer's turret lathe1 #agf2 ,fay automatic1 #bjj2 ,sellers1 #bej4 ,lathe1 ,morse ,co43 #bbb4 ,lawrence1 ,richard ,s43 #ahh-ahi1 #aie2 profiling machine1 #adc2 master armorer1 ,sharps ,works1 #agj1 #aid2 lubricated bullet1 #aid2 miller1 #aia1 #aid2 split pulley1 #aid2 turret lathe1 #aig2 autobiography1 #bha-bia4 ,lawrence1 ,mass43 #abg4 ,lawrence ,machine ,shop3 #bai4 ,lead screw3 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dc4 ,le ,blanc3 interchangeable gun manufacture in ,france1 #acj4 ,le ,blond1 ,r4 ,k43 #bga4 ,lee-,metford rifle3 #aje4 ,leland1 ,henry ,m43 #bad2 on ,j4 ,r4 ,brown1 #bae4 ,leonards3 #aaf4 ,libbey1 ,c4 ,l43 turret lathes1 #bge4 ,limit gauges3 developed in ,america1 #e4 ,lincoln1 ,levi3 #afe1 #aga4 ,lincoln ,co41 ,the3 #afe4 ,lincoln1 ,charles ,l41 ,co43 #afe4 ,lincoln1 ,george ,s41 ,co43 #acg1 #afe4 ,lincoln miller3 #acg1 #afe-aff1 #bjh4 ,linear dividing engines3 #bjf4 ,lingren1 ,w4 ,f41 ,co43 #bgd4 ,locomotives3 early inventions1 #ef2 ,sharp1 ,roberts ,co41 #fa-fb2 ,nasmyth1 #ic4 ,lodge1 ,william ,e43 #bfh-bga4 ,lodge ,davis3 policy of1 #bgj-bga4 ,lodge ,shipley ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bgj4 ,lowell1 ,mass43 #abg2 machine shops of1 #bah4 ,lowell ,machine ,shop3 #bag1 #bah1 #bec4 ,lucas ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bfe4 ,mc,farlan1 ,thomas3 #bfh4 ,macaulay1 ,lord3 on ,eli ,whitney1 #afa4 ,machine tools3 effect of modern1 #a2 crudity in #ahth century1 #c1 #d2 developments of1 #d1 #e1 #fc1 #ajg2 ,fairbairn on1 #aj2 ,bramah and ,maudslay1 #cd2 ,whitworth1 #ii2 ,greek or ,gothic style1 #fc2 developed by cotton industry1 #abj4 ,machine ,tool ,works3 #bee4 ,machinist ,tool ,co43 #bbb4 ,madison1 ,wis43 #bgf4 ,manchester1 ,n4 ,h43 #abc1 #abg2 founding of1 #bag4 ,manchester ,locomotive ,works3 #bag4 ,manchester pitch3 #gj note #ff1 #hj4 ,manville1 ,e4 ,j43 #bcg4 ,map of tool building industry3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,marshall1 ,elijah ,d43 #bed4 ,marvel1 ,c4 ,m41 ,co43 #bai4 ,mason1 ,william3 #agj1 #agc-agd4 ,massachusetts ,arms ,co43 #afb4 ,maudslay1 ,henry3 #g1 #h1 ,chapter ,,iv2 estimates of1 #i1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 #di1 #hh2 taps and dies1 #aj1 #db1 #hh2 ,portsmouth block machinery1 #h1 #bi1 #ce2 screw thread practice1 #aj1 #dj1 #db1 #hh1 #aja2 cup-leather packing1 #ah1 #cd2 the slide-rest1 #f1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc1 #di1 #adc2 screw-cutting lathe1 #ce1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #ej1 #abj2 engine improvements1 #dc2 work on plane surfaces1 #dd1 #de1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,maudslay ,field3 #h1 #ai1 #ce1 #eh1 #ih2 influence on ,english tool builders1 #df2 ,moon's description of shop1 #df-dh4 ,maynard ,rifle ,co43 #afa4 ,mechanics ,machine ,co43 #bgd4 ,merrick1 ,s4 ,v43 introduces steam hammer into ,united ,states1 #if1 #beg4 ,merrimac ,valley3 textile works1 #abd1 #abg2 shops of1 #baf-bai4 ,michigan ,twist ,drill ,machine ,co43 #bff4 ,midvale ,steel ,co43 #bej4 ,miles1 ,frederick ,b43 steam hammer1 #bee4 ,mill1 ,anton3 #bgb4 ,miller1 ,patrick3 #hb4 ,miller1 ,phineas3 partner of ,eli ,whitney1 #adh-adi1 #aec1 #aed4 ,miller ,whitney3 #adi1 #aeb4 ,miller1 universal3 origin of1 #e1 #ach note #afc1 #bjh-bji4 ,milling cutter1 formed3 #bjf-bjg1 #bjh4 ,milling machine3 ,whitney1 #adb2 first in ,hartford1 #agj1 #aid2 ,lawrence1 #aia2 ,lincoln1 #acg1 #afe-aff1 #bjh4 ,millwork3 ,chapter ,,vi2 ,nasmyth on1 #ga4 ,milwaukee1 ,wis43 tool builders in1 #bgf-bgg4 ,milwaukee ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bgg4 ,moen1 ,philip ,l43 #bbe4 ,montanus1 ,philip3 #bga4 ,moody1 ,paul3 expert in cotton machinery1 #bah4 ,moore ,colby3 #beb4 ,morris1 ,i4 ,p41 ,co43 #beg1 #beh4 ,mueller1 ,oscar3 #bga4 ,murdock3 #ee2 ,d-slide valves1 #ea4 ,murray1 ,matthew3 #g1 #ed-eg1 #ajg2 planer1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #eg2 ,d-slide valve1 #ee2 steam heating1 #ef2 locomotives1 #ef2 influence on flax industry1 #ef4 ,nashua ,manufacturing ,co43 #abd4 ,nasmyth1 ,alexander3 #ha1 #hb1 #hc4 ,nasmyth1 ,james3 #g1 #h1 ,chapter ,,viii2 with ,maudslay1 #df1 #dh1 #hg1 #hh2 millwork1 #ga1 #hh2 steam road carriage1 #hf2 milling machine1 #hi2 shaper1 #ib2 method of invention1 #ib2 steam hammer and other inventions1 #ic-if2 study of the moon1 #ig2 on interchangeable system of manufacture1 #adj-ada4 ,nasmyth ,gaskell3 #ib4 ,national ,acme ,manufacturing ,co43 multi-spindle automatic lathe1 #ahc1 #bfe4 ,naugatuck ,valley3 ,chapter ,,xviii2 brass industry in1 #bca-bch2 pin machinery1 #bcc4 ,new ,britain1 ,conn43 hardware manufacture in1 #aga4 ,newell1 ,stanford3 ,franklin ,machine ,co43 #abe4 ,new ,england industries3 early development of1 #aji-aaj2 cotton1 #aad2 iron1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah4 ,new ,england ,screw ,co43 #abf4 ,newton ,cox3 #bff4 ,newton ,machine ,tool ,works3 #bff4 ,new ,york3 early steamboat trade1 #abg4 ,niles1 ,james and ,jonathan3 #bea4 ,niles ,co43 #bfg1 #bgc4 ,niles-,bement-,pond ,co43 #agi1 #bbb1 #bee1 #bei1 #bgc4 ,niles ,tool ,works3 #bfg1 #bgc4 ,norris1 ,henry ,m43 #bgb4 ,north ,chelmsford ,machine ,supply ,co43 #abd4 ,north1 ,henry3 #afe4 ,north1 ,selah3 filing jig1 #adb4 ,north1 ,simeon3 #afa-afc2 gun contracts1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace1 #acg1 #afb1 #afc2 interchangeable system1 #acc-acd1 #acf1 #adb1 #ade1 #afb4 ,norton1 ,charles ,h43 precision grinding1 #bad1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,norton1 ,f4 ,b43 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,norton ,company1 ,the3 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,norton ,emery ,wheel ,co43 #bbd4 ,norton ,grinding ,co43 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,norwalk ,iron ,works ,co43 #ahd4 ,oesterlien ,machine ,co43 #bfh4 ,ohio ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bfi4 ,orr1 ,hugh3 early mechanic1 #aaf-aag4 ,orr1 ,robert3 master armorer at ,springfield1 #aag4 ,otting ,lauder3 #bfh4 ,owen1 ,william3 #bga4 ,palmer1 ,courtland ,c43 #aij4 ,palmer1 ,jean ,laurent3 screw caliper1 #bab1 #bac4 ,palmer ,capron3 #abg4 ,parallel motion3 #c note #f4 ,parkhurst1 ,e4 ,g43 #ahb4 ,parks1 ,edward ,h43 automatic gear cutters1 #bad4 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i43 manufacturing center1 #aah1 #abg2 ,dr4 ,dwight on1 #aba2 manufactures of1 #aah-abe4 ,peck3 lifter for drop hammer1 #adc4 ,pedrick ,ayer3 planer1 #ec4 ,phelps ,bickford3 #bbb4 ,phnix ,iron ,works3 #afe4 ,philadelphia1 ,pa43 tool builders in1 ,chapter ,,xix2 early textile machinery1 #bdf4 ,pin machinery3 #bcc4 ,pitcher1 ,larned3 ,amoskeag ,manufacturing ,co43 #abc2 ,pitcher ,brown1 #abd4 ,pitkin1 ,henry and ,james ,f43 ,american lever watches1 #afd4 ,pitkin1 ,col4 ,joseph3 pioneer iron worker1 #afd4 ,planer3 in #ahth century1 #d2 developed in ,england1 #d2 ,bramah1 #ah2 ,clement1 #ai1 #eb2 inventors of the1 ,chapter ,v2 early ,french1 #ej2 ,roberts1 #ea2 ,murray1 #eg2 ,bodmer1 #ge1 #gf2 ,sellers1 #bdh4 ,plane surfaces1 scraping of3 ,maudslay1 #dd1 #de2 ,whitworth1 #dd1 #ih-aja4 ,plume ,atwood3 #bcd4 ,plumier3 ,french writer1 #ej4 ,pond ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bbb1 #bei4 ,pope ,manufacturing ,co43 #agj4 ,portsmouth block machinery3 influence on general manufacturing1 #e2 work of ,bentham and ,brunel1 #h1 #i1 #bb1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh2 ,maudslay's contribution to1 #bi1 #ce2 description of1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca2 ,roberts1 #fj2 ,maudslay and ,bentham1 #hi2 approaches interchangeable system1 #aca4 ,potter ,johnson3 #ahc4 ,pratt1 ,francis ,a43 #acg1 #agj1 #agg2 ,lincoln miller1 #afe1 #aia4 ,pratt ,whitney3 #acg1 #agh-ahc2 ,interchangeable system1 #agi2 gun machinery and manufacture1 #agi-ahj1 #ahb2 screw threads1 #ahj-ahb2 tool-room lathe1 #ahb2 thread-milling1 #ahc2 workmen1 #ahc2 turret screw machines1 #bjg4 ,precision gear cutter3 #bjf4 ,prentice1 ,a4 ,f43 #bbd4 ,prentiss1 ,f4 ,f43 #bff4 ,priority in invention3 #e4 ,pritchard1 ,benjamin3 #baf4 ,profiling machine3 inventors of1 #adc4 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i43 early cannon manufacture1 #aag2 trading center1 #aah2 textile industry1 #abc2 manufactures in1 #aah-abf2 jewelry industry of1 #abf-abg4 ,providence ,forge ,nut ,co43 #abe4 ,providence ,tool ,co43 #abe2 turret screw machine built for1 #bjg2 universal miller built for1 #bji4 ,providence ,worcester ,canal3 #bai-bbj4 ,punching machine1 ,maudslay's3 #dc4 ,putnam1 ,john3 #bbg-bbh4 ,putnam1 ,salmon ,w43 #bbg-bbh4 ,putnam ,machine ,co4 ,works3 #bjj1 #bbg-bbh4 ,ramsden1 ,jesse3 lathe1 #ch4 ,randolph ,clowes3 #bcf4 ,reed1 ,f4 ,e43 #bbd4 ,reed ,prentice ,co43 #bbb4 ,remington ,arms ,co43 #afa4 ,remington1 ,e41 ,sons3 #age4 ,rennie1 ,george3 #ed2 planer1 #ej1 #ea4 ,rennie1 ,sir ,john3 #ed4 ,rennie1 ,john3 millwright1 #ed4 ,rhode ,island ,tool ,co43 #abe4 ,richards1 ,charles ,b43 #agc4 ,richards1 ,john3 on ,bodmer1 #gi4 ,robbins ,lawrence3 ,chapter ,,xv2 interchangeable system1 #ach2 turret lathe1 #adc1 #aig2 miller1 #afe1 #aia2 government contracts1 #aij2 ,enfield rifle and gun machinery1 #aia-aib2 cause of failure1 #aib2 successive owners of plant1 #aib-aid1 #bjj4 ,robbins1 ,kendall ,lawrence3 #ahi-aij4 ,roberts1 ,richard3 #g1 #i1 #ei-fj1 #fb1 #ajg2 with ,maudslay1 #df1 #fj2 planer1 #ej1 #ea1 #fj2 locomotives1 #fa-fb2 ,sharp1 ,roberts ,co43 #fa1 #fb4 ,robinson1 ,anthony3 screw thread1 #ci4 ,rockford1 ,ill43 tool builders in1 #bgd-bge4 ,rockford ,drilling ,machine ,co43 #bgd4 ,rockford ,iron ,works3 #bgd4 ,rockford ,lathe ,tool ,co43 #bgd4 ,rockford ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bgd4 ,rockford ,milling ,machine ,co43 #bgd4 ,roemer3 epicyclic curve1 #fc4 ,rogers1 ,william ,a43 ,rogers-,bond comparator1 #ahj-ahb4 ,root1 ,elisha ,k43 #afh-afi1 #agj2 influence on die forging1 #acg2 profiling machine1 #adc2 drop hammer1 #adc1 #afi2 ,colt ,armory1 #afi2 machinery invented by1 #afi2 horizontal turret principle1 #aig4 ,roper ,repeating ,arms ,co43 #age4 ,st4 ,joseph ,iron ,co43 #bec4 ,savage ,fire ,arms ,co43 #afa4 ,saxton3 gear teeth1 #ff-fg4 ,schneider1 ,m41 and ,nasmyth's steam hammer3 #ie-if4 ,scituate1 ,r4 ,i43 ,hope ,furnace1 #aag4 ,scovill ,manufacturing ,co43 #bcb4 ,screw machines1 multi-spindle automatic3 #bfe4 ,screw-thread practice3 ,maudslay and ,clement1 #aj1 #ai1 #db1 #eh-ei1 #hh2 ,whitworth standardizes1 #aj1 #aja2 early methods of screw cutting1 #ch-dj2 ,pratt ,whitney1 #ahj-ahb2 history of ,sellers' or ,u4 ,s4 ,standard1 #bdi4 ,sellers1 ,dr4 ,coleman3 #bea-beb2 design of railway tools1 #bea2 screw thread1 ,u4 ,s4 ,standard1 #bdi4 ,sellers1 ,william3 #bdg-bea1 #bee2 inventions1 #bdg-bdh2 planer1 #bdh2 system of screw threads1 #bdh-bdi2 bridge building machinery1 #bej2 great lathe1 ,washington ,navy ,yard1 #bej4 ,sellers1 ,william1 ,co43 #bea1 #beb4 ,sentinel ,gas ,appliance ,co43 #afj4 ,shapers3 developed in ,england1 #d2 ,brunel's1 #bg2 ,nasmyth's 8,steel ,arm10 #ib4 ,sharp1 ,roberts ,co43 #fa1 #fb4 ,sharpe1 ,lucian3 #bjb2 ,american wire gauge1 #bje4 ,sharps1 ,christian3 breech loading rifle1 #agj1 #aib4 ,sharps ,rifle ,works3 #aib1 #aid1 #aie4 ,shaw1 ,a4 ,j43 #bad4 ,shepard1 ,lathe ,co43 #bbb4 ,shipley1 ,murray3 #bgj4 ,slater1 ,samuel3 #aad1 #aai1 #aba2 ,arkwright cotton machinery1 #abj1 #aba2 textile industry1 #abb2 ,amoskeag ,co41 #baf-bag4 ,slide-rest3 in #ahth century1 #d2 inventors of1 #f2 early forms of1 #f1 #cf2 ,bramah and ,maudslay1 #ag2 ,maudslay1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc1 #di4 ,sloan1 ,thomas ,j43 screw machine1 #abf4 ,slocomb1 ,j4 ,t43 #bad4 ,slotter3 #fa4 ,smeaton1 ,john3 #b1 #c2 boring machine1 #b1 #ac2 cast iron gears1 #fd4 ,smith1 ,george3 #bad4 ,smith ,mills3 #bgj4 ,smith ,phelps3 #bcd4 ,smith ,silk3 #bga4 ,smith ,wesson3 #ach4 ,snyder1 ,j4 ,e41 ,son3 #bb4 ,southwark ,foundry ,machine ,co43 #agc1 #bef-beg4 ,spencer1 ,christopher ,m43 #agj1 #age-agg2 turret lathe1 #adc1 #agf2 board drop1 #adc2 silk-winding machine1 #age2 repeating rifle1 #age4 ,spencer ,arms ,co43 #agg4 ,spring3 planer1 #ej1 #ec4 ,springfield1 ,mass43 #bcj4 ,springfield ,armory3 #ajc1 #acf1 #ach1 #adc1 #afc2 ,blanchard's lathes1 #adb-adc4 ,springfield ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bga4 ,standard ,tool ,co43 #bff4 ,stannard1 ,monroe3 with ,pratt ,whitney1 #agh4 ,steam boats3 early1 #hb2 ,wilkinson's1 #aai4 ,steam engine1 ,watt's3 new element in industry1 #a2 problems in building1 #a-c2 first built at ,soho1 #ab2 ,maudslay's improvements1 #dc4 ,steam hammer3 #d2 ,nasmyth's invention of1 #ic-if4 ,steam heating apparatus3 ,murray1 #ef4 ,steinle ,turret ,machine ,co43 #bgg4 ,stephenson1 ,george3 #f1 #cb1 #ef1 #aej4 ,steptoe1 ,john3 #bfg-bfh4 ,steptoe ,co41 ,the ,john3 shapers and milling machines1 #bfh4 ,stone1 ,henry ,d43 #aib1 #aic1 #aif2 turret lathe1 #adc1 #aig4 ,swasey1 ,ambrose3 #ahc1 #bfb1 #bfc2 dividing engine1 #bfd4 ,syme1 ,johnie3 ,nasmyth on1 #hd4 ,symington1 ,william3 iron boat1 #ad1 #hb4 ,taps and dies3 developed in ,england1 #d2 ,maudslay's1 #aj1 #db2 ,clement's1 #ei4 ,taylor1 ,frederick ,w43 high-speed tool steels1 #bej1 #bgg4 ,taylor ,fenn ,co43 #afe4 ,terry1 ,eli3 clocks1 #add1 #aga1 #agb4 ,textile industries3 ,arkwright and ,strutt1 #ec2 influence of ,whitney's cotton gin1 #aad2 in ,new ,england1 #aad1 #abj1 #abc1 #abg2 ,slater's influence on1 #abb4 ,textile machinery3 ,robert's spinning mule1 etc41 #fa2 ,bodmer1 #gg2 in ,new ,england1 #aad1 #abj-aba2 ,wilkinson1 #abb2 ,alfred ,jenks1 #abc4 ,thomas1 ,seth3 clocks1 #add4 ,thomaston1 ,conn43 clock manufacture1 #aga4 ,thurber1 ,isaac3 ,franklin ,machine ,co41 #abe4 ,thurston1 ,horace3 #bad4 ,tool builders3 general estimate of early1 #ajg2 in ,central ,new ,england1 ,chapter ,,xvii2 ,western1 ,chapter ,,xx4 ,tool building centers3 #abg2 map of1 ,fig4 #ef4 ,torry1 ,archie3 ,nasmyth's foreman1 #ia4 ,towne1 ,henry ,r43 #beg1 #beh4 ,towne1 ,john ,henry3 #bef-beg1 #beh2 screw thread1 ,u4 ,s4 ,standard1 #bdi4 ,traveling crane1 first3 #gg1 #hj4 ,trevithick3 steam road engine1 #ef4 ,turret lathes3 #adj2 early producers of1 #adc2 ,spencer1 #agf2 ,howe and ,lawrence1 #aig2 ,hartness' flat-turret1 #aih2 ,warner ,swasey1 #bfb4 ,turret screw machine1 improvements on3 #bjg4 ,union ,steel ,screw ,works3 #aih1 #bfe1 #bff4 ,universal ,radial ,drill ,co43 #bgc4 ,wadsworth1 ,capt4 ,decius3 on ,whitney's interchangeable system1 #acd-ace4 ,waldo1 ,daniel3 ,hope ,furnace1 #aag4 ,wallace1 ,william3 #bcg4 ,wallace ,sons3 #bcd4 ,waltham ,watch ,works1 see ,american ,watch ,co4 ,warner1 ,worcester ,r43 #ahc1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,warner ,swasey ,co43 #bfa-bfe2 building of astronomical instruments1 #bfc-bfd4 ,washburn1 ,ichabod3 ,american ,steel ,wire ,co41 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,washburn ,moen ,co43 #bbe4 ,waterbury ,brass ,co43 #bcd1 #bcg4 ,waterbury ,button ,co43 #bcd4 ,waterbury ,clock ,watch ,co43 #bcd4 ,waters1 ,asa3 #bbf4 ,waston1 ,william3 ,nasmyth on1 #hd4 ,watt1 ,james3 #c1 #f1 #hb1 #hc1 #aej1 #afa2 invention of steam engine1 #a1 #b1 #ade2 parallel motion1 #c note #f2 dependence on ,wilkinson's boring machine1 #c2 opposed by ,bramah1 #ah4 ,weed ,sewing ,machine ,co43 #agj1 #agd1 #age4 ,weeden1 ,w4 ,n43 #bcg4 ,wheeler1 ,william ,a43 #bba4 ,wheeler ,wilson3 #aib4 ,whipple1 ,cullen3 #abf4 ,whitcomb1 ,carter1 ,co43 #bbb4 ,whitcomb-,blaisdell ,machine ,tool ,co43 #bbb4 ,white1 ,zebulon3 ,j4 ,s4 ,white ,co41 #abb4 ,white ,sewing ,machine ,co43 #aic1 #bff4 ,whitman-,barnes ,co43 #bff4 ,whitney1 ,amos3 #acg1 #agj1 #agg1 #bai4 ,whitney1 ,baxter ,d43 #agg1 #bcj4 ,whitney1 ,eli3 #f1 #adf-adg1 #afa1 #agg2 interchangeable system1 #gf1 #acb-acc1 #acd-ace1 #acf1 #ade1 #adf1 #aeh-aei2 cotton gin1 #aad1 #aca1 #ade1 #adh-aeh2 ,u4 ,s4 contract of #agih1 #aca-acb1 #aeh1 #aei2 ,whitneyville plant1 #acb1 #afb1 #aeh1 #afj2 method of manufacture1 #aeh-aei2 milling machine1 #adb2 ,miller ,whitney1 #adi4 ,whitney1 ,eli1 ,jr43 contract for 8,harper's ,ferry0 rifle1 #afj2 steel-barreled muskets1 #afj1 #afb4 ,whitney ,arms ,co43 #afj-afa2 first ,colt revolvers made by1 #afg4 ,whitworth1 ,joseph3 #g1 #h1 #i1 #ic2 ,chapter ,,ix2 screw-thread practice1 #aj1 #ei1 #aja1 #ajb note #aje2 manufacture of plane surfaces1 #dd1 #de1 #ih-aja2 with ,maudslay1 #df1 #ih2 shaper and improvements in machine tools1 #ii2 improved methods of measurement1 #aja2 ordnance and armor1 #ajd-aje2 on ,american automatic machinery1 #ajb-ajd2 ,william ,armstrong1 #aje4 ,wilcox ,gibbs ,sewing ,machines3 #bjh1 #baj1 #bac4 ,wilkinson1 ,abraham3 #aai4 ,wilkinson1 ,daniel3 #aai1 #abb4 ,wilkinson1 ,david3 #abc1 #abd1 #abe2 patent on slide-rest1 #f2 steamboat1 #aai2 slide lathe1 #aai-abj2 textile machinery1 #abb2 nail manufacture1 #abb4 ,wilkinson1 ,isaac3 #aai1 #abe4 ,wilkinson1 ,john3 #b1 #h1 #aa1 #ae2 boring machine1 #c1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #fj2 first iron boat1 #ad2 first iron bridge1 #ae2 relations with ,boulton ,watt1 #ab1 #ac4 ,wilkinson1 ,ozeal3 #aah-aai1 #aba1 #abb4 ,wilkinson1 ,william3 #aai1 #aba4 ,willimantic ,linen ,co43 #age1 #agh4 ,willis1 ,robert3 #fi note #fd2 gear teeth1 #fc1 #fd1 #fi-gj4 ,wilmot1 ,s4 ,r43 micrometer1 #bab4 ,winchendon1 ,mass43 woodworking machinery1 #bcj4 ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co43 #afj1 #agd4 ,windsor1 ,vt43 #abg1 #ahf4 ,windsor ,machine ,co43 ,gridley automatic lathes1 #aid1 #bjj4 ,windsor ,manufacturing ,co43 #aic4 ,wolcott1 ,oliver3 #acb4 ,wolcottville ,brass ,co43 #bcc-bcd4 ,wood1 ,light ,co43 #bbb4 ,woodruff ,beach3 #afe4 ,woodward ,powell ,planer ,co43 #bbd4 ,woodworking machinery3 ,bramah1 #ah1 #ai1 #bd2 ,bentham1 #bd1 #be2 ,brunel1 #ca2 in ,massachusetts1 #bbi4 ,worcester1 ,mass43 #abg2 tool builders in1 #bai-bbf2 early textile shops of1 #bbj2 gun makers in1 #bbf4 ,worm-geared tilting pouring-ladle1 ,nasmyth's3 #ia-ib4 ,worsley1 ,s4 ,l43 automatic screw machine1 #bjh4 ,wright1 ,sylvester3 #bjj1 #bbh4 ,yale ,towne ,manufacturing ,co43 #beh4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation1 etc4 have been retained1 in particular in quoted material4 ,minie rifles and ,mini rifles both occur in the text4 ,depending in the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,page #bj1 ,group portrait ,eminent ,men of ,science3 there are #ej people in the portrait1 but only #dh are identified in the accompanying list4 ,page #bag1 444 he and his brother1 ,ziba ,gay1 4443 also referred to as ,zeba ,gay in this text4 ,page #bbc1 ,figure #de3 ,the source document does not show any links to or from the entry ,a4 ,f4 ,prentice4 ,page #bce1 ,f4 ,j4 ,kingsbery1 ,sr4 and ,f4 ,j4 ,kingsbury1 ,jr43 as printed in the source document2 either one may be an error or misprint4 ,index3 sorting errors have not been rectified4 ,changes made ,footnotes1 illustrations and charts have been moved out of text paragraphs2 footnotes have been renumbered consecutively throughout the book 7and footnote references have been adjusted where necessary74 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,apart from the first one 7,fig4 #e71 the 8genealogical charts0 are too intricate and complicated to be represented completely in this text4 ,instead1 the charts have been transcribed1 and the relationships between individuals and companies are indicated by numbers1 with numbers between 99 and between indicating the start and the end of the arrows used by the author1 respectively4 ,list of names after page #bj3 ,patrick ,millar changed to ,patrick ,miller4 ,index3 the inconsistent lay-out has been standardised2 some entries 7mainly proper names7 have been changed to conform to the spelling used in the text4