,transcriber's ,notes ,texts between underscores represents texts printed in italics4 ,small capitals have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,please see the end of this text for more ,transcriber's ,notes4 ,illustration3 ,faithfully yours ,charles ,t4 ,porter ,engineering ,reminiscences ,,contributed ,,to 8,power0 and 8,american ,machinist0 ,,by ,,charles ,t4 ,,porter ,,honorary ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,society ,,of ,,mechanical ,,engineers ,author of 8,a ,treatise on the ,richards ,steam-engine ,indicator and the ,development and ,application of ,force in the ,steam-engine10 #ahgd2 8,mechanics and ,faith10 #ahhe ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,,first ,,edition ,,first ,,thousand ,,new ,,york ,,john ,,wiley ,,sons ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,limited #aijh ,copyright #aijh ,,by ,,charles ,t4 ,,porter ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,my ,,father ,,and ,,mother ,illustration3 ,,my ,,father ,illustration3 ,,my ,,mother ,,preface ,a word of explanation seems due to both the reader and myself4 ,the idea of writing these reminiscences did not originate with me4 ,i was invited to write them by ,mr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,low1 the editor of ,power4 ,this invitation ,i declined1 saying that ,i felt averse to writing a story in which ,i must be the central figure4 ,mr4 ,low replied that ,i should regard it as a duty ,i owed to the profession4 ,engineers demanded to know the origin and early development of the high speed system of steam engineering4 ,i was the only person who could meet this demand2 no one else possessed the necessary information4 ,i felt obliged to yield to this view1 and can only ask the reader to imagine that ,i am writing about somebody else4 ,c4 ,t4 ,p4 ,,montclair1 ,n4 ,j41 ,december1 #aijg4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,birth1 ,parentage and ,education4 ,experience in the ,practice of ,law4 ,introduction to ,centrifugal ,force4 ,invention and ,operation of a ,stone-dressing ,machine #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,evolution and ,manufacture of the ,central ,counterpoise ,governor4 ,introduction of ,mr4 ,richards #ag ,,chapter ,,iii ,invention and ,application of my ,marine ,governor #cd ,,chapter ,,iv ,engineering ,conditions in #ahfj4 ,i meet ,mr4 ,allen4 ,mr4 ,allen's ,inventions4 ,analysis of the ,allen ,link #db ,,chapter ,v ,invention of the ,richards ,indicator4 ,my ,purchase of the ,patent4 ,plan my ,london ,exhibition4 ,engine ,design4 ,ship ,engine ,bed to ,london1 and sail myself #eh ,,chapter ,,vi ,arrival in ,london4 ,conditions ,i found there4 ,preparations and ,start #fe ,,chapter ,,vii ,my ,london ,exhibit1 its ,success1 but what was the matter8 ,remarkable ,sale of the ,engine #ga ,,chapter ,,viii ,sale of ,governors4 ,visit from ,mr4 ,allen4 ,operation of the ,engine ,sold to ,easton1 ,amos ,sons4 ,manufacture of the ,indicator4 ,application on ,locomotives #hj ,,chapter ,,ix ,designs of ,horizontal ,engine ,beds4 ,engine ,details4 ,presentation of the ,indicator at the ,newcastle ,meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science #ic ,,chapter ,x ,contract with ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 ,engine for ,evan ,leigh1 ,son ,co4 ,engine for the ,oporto ,exhibition4 ,getting ,home from ,portugal #aja ,,chapter ,,xi ,trouble with the ,evan ,leigh ,engine4 ,gear ,patterns from the ,whitworth ,works4 ,first ,order for a ,governor4 ,introduction of the ,governor into ,cotton ,mills4 ,invention of my ,condenser4 ,failure of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 #aac ,,chapter ,,xii ,introduction to the ,whitworth ,works4 ,sketch of ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,experience in the ,whitworth ,works4 ,our ,agreement ,which was never ,executed4 ,first ,engine in ,england ,transmitting ,power by a ,belt #abb ,,chapter ,,xiii ,the ,french ,exposition of #ahfg4 ,final ,break with ,mr4 ,whitworth #aci ,,chapter ,,xiv ,study of the ,action of ,reciprocating ,parts4 ,important ,help from ,mr4 ,frederick ,j4 ,slade4 ,paper before ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,appreciation of ,zerah ,colburn4 ,the ,steam ,fire ,engine in ,england #aec ,,chapter ,,xv ,preparations for ,returning to ,america4 ,bright ,prospects #afe ,,chapter ,,xvi ,return to ,america4 ,disappointment4 ,my ,shop4 ,the ,colt ,armory ,engine ,designed by ,mr4 ,richards4 ,appearance of ,mr4 ,goodfellow4 ,my ,surface ,plate ,work4 ,formation of a ,company #agc ,,chapter ,,xvii ,mr4 ,allen's ,invention of his ,boiler4 ,exhibition at the ,fair of the ,american ,institute in #ahgj #aij ,,chapter ,,xviii ,demonstration to the ,judges of ,action of ,reciprocating ,parts4 ,explanation of this ,action4 ,mr4 ,williams' ,instrument for ,exhibiting this ,action #aih ,,chapter ,,xix ,boiler ,tests in ,exhibition of #ahga4 ,we ,lose ,mr4 ,allen4 ,importance of ,having a ,business ,man as ,president4 ,devotion of ,mr4 ,hope #bjh ,,chapter ,,xx ,close of the ,engine ,manufacture in ,harlem4 ,my ,occupation ,during a ,three ,years' ,suspension #bai ,,chapter ,,xxi ,production of an ,original ,surface ,plate #bcc ,,chapter ,,xxii ,efforts to ,resume the ,manufacture4 ,i ,exhibit the ,engine to ,mr4 ,holley4 ,contract with ,mr4 ,phillips4 ,sale of ,engine to ,mr4 ,peters #bch ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,experience as ,member of the ,board of ,judges at the ,philadelphia ,centennial ,exhibition #bde ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,engine ,building in ,newark4 ,introduction of ,harris ,tabor #bei ,,chapter ,,xxv ,engine for the ,cambria ,iron and ,steel ,company #bga ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,my ,downward ,progress #bge ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,my ,last ,connection with the ,company #cbe ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,the ,fall and ,rise of the ,southwark ,foundry and ,machine ,company4 ,popular ,appreciation of the ,high-speed ,engine #cca ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page #a4 ,my ,first ,mechanical ,drawing4 ,longitudinal ,section of my ,stone- dressing ,machine #g #b4 ,the ,first ,porter ,governor #ba #c4 ,the ,porter ,marine ,governor #cg #d4 ,porter-,allen ,engine4 ,diagram of ,admission--,valve ,movements #dh #e4 ,vertical ,adjustment of ,sustaining ,pin for ,trunnions of the ,allen ,link #eb #f4 ,my ,improvement in ,cranks and ,journal ,boxes #ed #g4 ,my ,improvement in ,eccentrics #ef #h4 ,diagram from the ,first ,allen ,engine taken with the ,first ,richards ,indicator #ei #i4 ,mr4 ,porter's ,exhibit at the ,london ,international ,exhibition1 #ahfb #ga #aj4 ,diagram from ,allen ,engine in ,london ,exhibition of #ahfb #gc #aa4 ,spring-testing ,instrument ,used in the ,manufacture of the ,richards ,indicator #hf #ab4 ,plan of ,spring-testing ,instrument #hi #ac4 ,diagrams from ,english ,locomotives1 taken with the ,richards ,indicator #ia #ad4 ,engine ,bed ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter #ie #ae4 ,cross-head ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter #if #af4 ,connecting-rod and ,strap #ii #ag4 ,attaching a ,steam-drum to a ,lancashire ,boiler #ajg #ah4 ,diagrams from ,engine of ,evan ,leigh1 ,son ,co4 #aad #ai4 ,condenser and ,air-pump ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter4 7,cross-section7 #aah #bj4 ,diagrams from ,engine ,built for ,mr4 ,adams #ach #ba4 ,exposition ,universelle1 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,diagrams from the 8,allen0 ,engine ,employed in ,driving ,machinery #adb #bb4 ,pair of ,diagrams from #ahcj ,allen ,engine at ,south ,tyne ,paper ,mill1 #ajh ,revolutions1 ,vacuum #bh ,inches4 ,only ,half ,intended ,load on ,engine #afj #bc4 ,cross-section of ,machine ,shop ,proposed by ,mr4 ,porter in #ahfh1 after the ,design of ,smith ,coventry #afh #bd4 ,card from ,allen ,engine in ,colt's ,armory #agh #be4 ,sectional and ,front ,elevations of ,one of the ,two ,pairs of ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 #ahj #bf4 ,sectional and ,side ,elevations of ,one of the ,two ,pairs of ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 #aha #bg4 ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,front ,view #aha #bh4 ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,rear ,view #aha #bi4 ,surface ,plates ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter #ahb #cj4 ,diagram from ,allen ,engine1 ,back ,end of ,cylinder1 at ,fair of ,american ,institute1 #ahgj #aid #ca4 ,friction ,diagram from ,allen ,engine at ,fair of ,american ,institute1 #ahgj #aif #cb4 ,diagram from ,allen ,engine1 ,fair of ,american ,institute1 #ahgj1 ,cutting ,off at ,stroke #aif #cc4 ,apparatus for ,graphically ,showing the ,acceleration and ,retardation of the ,reciprocating ,parts of an ,engine #bje #cd4 ,the ,allen ,boiler ,facing #bjh #ce4 ,the ,prototype of the ,modern ,high-speed ,engine1 ,fly-wheel ,side #bbc #cf4 ,prototype of the ,modern ,high-speed ,engine1 ,crank ,side #bbd #cg4 ,longitudinal ,section of ,cylinder and ,valves #bbe #ch4 ,cross-section of ,cylinder and ,valves #bbf #ci4 ,connections of ,admission ,valves #bbf #dj4 ,first ,arrangement of ,exhaust ,valves #bbh #da4 ,main ,bearing #bcj #db4 ,eccentric and ,cross-head and ,crank-pin ,lubricators #bcj #dc4 ,surface ,plate for ,producing a ,true ,plane #bcd #dd4 ,mr4 ,porter's ,regulating ,valve #bdd #de4 ,the ,corliss ,engine ,exhibited at the ,centennial ,exhibition #bdi #df4 ,porter-,allen ,engine ,equal in ,power to the ,exhibited ,corliss ,engine #bej #dg4 ,mr4 ,porter's ,fly-wheel #bfi #dh4 ,connection of ,arms and ,rim in ,mr4 ,fritz' ,fly-wheel #bgc #di4 ,mr4 ,allen's ,patent ,pressure ,plate #bic #ej4 ,diagrams from the ,otis ,engine #caa #ea4 ,otis ,engine4 ,dash ,pot for ,governor #cac #eb4 ,diagrams from my ,first and ,only ,compound ,engine #cah ,,list ,,of ,,full-,,page ,,half-,,tone ,,portraits ,,page #a4 ,,charles ,t4 ,,porter ,facing title page #b4 ,,my ,,father ,after dedication #c4 ,,my ,,mother #d4 ,,george ,t4 ,,hope #f #e4 ,,charles ,b4 ,,richards1 ,a4,d4 #aheh #bf #f4 ,,john ,f4 ,,allen #dh #g4 ,,joseph ,e4 ,,holmes #fj #h4 ,,alexander ,,gordon #fb #i4 ,,wellington ,,lee #ff #aj4 ,,charles ,t4 ,,porter1 ,a4,d4 #ahfb #fh #aa4 ,,frederick ,e4 ,,sickels #gh #ab4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,maw #ib #ac4 ,,william ,j4 ,,hoyle #abb #ad4 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,whitworth #abd #ae4 ,,frederick ,j4 ,,slade #aed #af4 ,,professor ,,charles ,b4 ,,richards #agh #ag4 ,,president ,f4 ,a4 ,p4 ,,barnard #aih #ah4 ,,joseph ,,nason #bjd #ai4 ,,edwin ,f4 ,,williams #bjf #bj4 ,,professor ,,robert ,h4 ,,thurston #bjh #ba4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,hoadley #bbj #bb4 ,,alexander ,,lyman ,,holley #bch #bc4 ,,william ,r4 ,,jones #bdd #bd4 ,,professor ,,francis ,,reuleaux #bdf #be4 ,,colonel ,,alexis ,,petroff #beb #bf4 ,,james ,,moore #bed #bg4 ,,emil ,,brugsch #bef #bh4 ,,robert ,w4 ,,hunt #bfb #bi4 ,,stephen ,w4 ,,baldwin #bfd #cj4 ,,harris ,,tabor #bff #ca4 ,,daniel ,n4 ,,jones #bgb #cb4 ,,john ,,fritz #bgd #cc4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,leavitt #cjh #cd4 ,,samuel ,t4 ,,wellman #caj #ce4 ,,charles ,a4 ,,otis #cab #cf4 ,,daniel ,j4 ,,morrell #cad #cg4 ,,benjamin ,f4 ,,avery #cbd #ch4 ,,james ,c4 ,,brooks #ccb ,,engineering ,,reminiscences ,,chapter ,i ,birth1 ,parentage and ,education4 ,experience in the ,practice of ,law4 ,introduction to ,centrifugal ,force4 ,invention and ,operation of a ,stone-dressing ,machine4 ,i was born in ,auburn in the ,state of ,new ,york1 ,january #ahth1 #ahbf4 ,my parents were both of ,new ,england descent4 ,my father1 ,john ,porter1 was born in ,hadley1 ,mass4 ,his father1 ,william ,porter1 was the son of ,eleazer ,porter and his wife ,susannah1 one of the daughters of ,jonathan ,edwards4 ,my father's mother was ,lois ,eastman4 ,my mother was born in ,middletown1 ,conn4 ,her maiden name was ,abigail ,phillips4 ,her ancestry in the maternal line is traced back to ,governors ,saltonstall1 ,dudley and the two ,winthrops4 ,i graduated at ,hamilton ,college1 ,new ,york1 in #ahde1 read law in my father's office1 and in the fall of #ahdg was admitted to the bar4 ,practiced my profession for six or seven years1 first in ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 afterwards in ,new ,york ,city4 ,my knowledge of mechanics may be illustrated by a story ,i once heard in ,england of a man who had been prosecuted for selling adulterated tobacco4 ,he got off by proving that there was no tobacco at all in the article that he sold4 ,but this illustration hardly does the case justice4 ,i had some mechanical ideas1 but they were exactly wrong4 ,for example1 ,i could not see any difficulty in perpetual motion4 ,all one had to do was to pump up water1 which by its fall would furnish power to run the pump4 ,this1 however1 was no more absurd than were two inventions which were brought out in ,england while ,i was there4 ,one of these was corrugating the faces of the piston1 so as to present more extended surfaces for the steam pressure to be exerted upon4 ,the other was a device for utilizing that half of the force of the steam which had been wasted against the cylinder heads4 ,both of these were published with commendatory remarks in the ,mechanics' ,magazine4 ,the last1 if ,i recollect rightly1 was the original bottom feature of the ,wells balance-engine4 ,my error was that ,i made no account of friction1 which must be overcome before motion can take place4 ,we shall see before long the same disregard of friction by men who ought to have known better4 ,my utter ignorance of everything mechanical at that time is capable of proof4 ,i stepped right into one of those 8springes to catch woodcocks0 which were being set in those days1 and proved myself to be about as green a gosling mechanically as ever was plucked4 ,i had a client by the name of ,searle1 who was a 8dead-beat40 ,he owed me about #ajj1 which ,i could not collect4 ,he finally called upon me and told me frankly that he could not pay me one red cent1 because he had no money2 but he could put me in the way of making a fortune1 and he was anxious in that way to discharge the great obligation which he felt himself under to me4 ,a new invention had appeared1 called the ,gwynne ,sawyer static-pressure engine1 that was bound to revolutionize all applications of power4 ,it was1 he told me1 attracting great attention in engineering circles1 and there had been a hot discussion over its theoretical principles1 but its advocates had successfully vanquished all their antagonists and now the invention was established on a perfectly sound scientific basis4 ,if ,i would give him a receipt in full for the money that he owed me and put another #ajj into this enterprise1 he was in a position to secure for me a number of rights to use the machine4 ,he kindly offered to introduce me to ,mr4 ,sawyer4 ,mr4 ,gwynne was unfortunately absent from home at the time4 7,i learned afterwards that he was in jail47 ,mr4 ,sawyer received me most graciously4 ,i think he had been told by ,mr4 ,searle about how much taffy ,i might be expected to swallow1 but he must have ventured far beyond his instructions4 ,he told me that he was delighted to make my acquaintance2 he had frequently heard of me through our mutual friend1 ,mr4 ,searle1 and of my triumphs at the bar1 and had come to feel a great admiration for me1 and was proud to show this great invention to a man so eminently capable of appreciating it4 ,he told me that the invention was a practical method of utilizing that wonderful power known as centrifugal force4 ,this force could be obtained in any amount4 ,in fact1 it was the force that kept the universe in motion4 ,it had lain unutilized for so long a time because engineers had never been able to apply it practically4 ,this difficulty had been completely overcome in this great invention1 and this wonderful power was now to be made available for the world4 ,he gave me quite an oration on the subject1 saying1 8,we do not antagonize the forces of nature1 we utilize them and apply them to beneficial purposes2 consequently all nature co-operates with us10 and more to the same effect4 ,he was able to show me a working model of this great invention2 was very sorry that he could not put it in motion for me that day1 as it happened to be a little out of order2 but ,i would be able to see the principle of its operation very distinctly4 ,i was flattered into believing that ,i saw the principle1 with the result that ,mr4 ,sawyer saw the principal1 and with the further result that after that ,i never saw or heard of either principal or interest4 ,our mutual friend1 ,mr4 ,searle1 also disappeared4 ,this was my first lesson in mechanics1 given to me by a master of his art4 ,i am not sure1 on the whole1 but that in one way and another it has been worth the trifle it cost me4 ,had any one at that time told me that the expression 8centrifugal force0 is entirely misleading1 that in reality there is no such force1 that what goes by this name is not a force at all1 nothing but a resistance1 the resistance which a body revolving around an exterior point opposes to being continually deflected from a straight line of motion1 and which ceases the instant the deflecting force ceases1 when the body merely moves on in a straight line tangent to the circle1 and in bodies revolving around their own axes or centers of gravity is the same resistance of their atoms1 he would probably have had about the same success in making me see it that ,i long afterwards had with some engineering friends4 ,it is difficult at the present day to conceive the confusion of thought which then prevailed on this subject4 ,the language of text-books was vague in the extreme4 ,the coincidence is not without interest1 that my first mechanical experience1 though in this ridiculous fashion1 should have been with what was to become so prominent a feature of the high speed governors and engine4 ,i had for some time felt a growing disgust with the profession of the law4 ,the contrast between the glorious science of human rights and the art of its practical application was very forcibly presented to my mind4 ,i realized the fitness of the protest of ,bryant1 who described himself as being 8forced to drudge for the dregs of men40 ,i was a regular reader of the ,evening ,post1 in which an article appeared one day1 written by ,john ,bigelow1 then the editor of the ,post1 laudatory of a certain judge whose term on the bench had lately closed1 and who then retired from the profession4 ,on this act ,mr4 ,bigelow warmly congratulated him4 ,among a number of pungent expressions in the article ,i was particularly struck by this one3 8,the association of lawyers is mostly with knaves and fools40 ,my own experience bore witness to the truth of this statement4 ,a few legal successes1 which cost me incredible labor1 interspersed of course with disappointments1 weighed nothing compared with the daily association which ,i seemed compelled to endure4 ,i formed a scheme for establishing a conciliation office for the amicable settlement of disputes1 but found every man prepared to compromise on the extreme verge of his own position4 ,so ,i gave that up4 ,i had another client1 a ,mr4 ,hastings1 who had invented a stone-dressing machine1 which he had patented1 and the patent for which he wanted to dispose of4 ,he had a working model of his invention1 which was operated for visitors in the shop where it was built4 ,he invited me to go and see it1 which ,i did1 and it certainly worked very well indeed4 ,i recalled afterwards that the stone was carefully bedded on the table of the machine4 ,i was quite fascinated with it and took some friends to see it1 who were equally captivated1 and the result was that we bought the patent4 ,to make sure of its value1 however1 ,i first called with ,mr4 ,hastings on ,mr4 ,munn1 his patent solicitor1 and received ,mr4 ,munn's assurance that he had a very high opinion of it4 ,i gradually abandoned my law business1 and devoted myself to the exploitation of this invention4 ,i put into it all the money ,i had and all that ,i could borrow4 ,after a while a large working machine was completed for us1 the drawings for which ,i had made by a ,german draftsman1 and which was built under my direction at the works of ,mott ,ayers1 near the foot of ,west ,twenty-sixth ,street4 ,when this machine was finished the parties in interest assembled at these works to see it tried4 ,one experiment was enough4 ,i had put into the machine a stone that was quite a foot thick and which was supported at two points4 ,at the first cut made across this stone it broke in two in the middle4 ,i found myself1 in the words of ,president ,cleveland1 8confronted not by a theory but by a condition40 ,the machine was absurd4 ,the patent was worthless4 ,the enterprise was a failure4 ,our money had all been thrown into the sea4 ,nothing could be done unless ,i did it2 and ,i knew nothing of mechanics1 of machine design or construction1 or of mechanical drawing1 except the little that ,i had picked up in the works of ,mott ,ayers while this machine was in process of construction4 ,i should say1 however1 that the head draftsman in that establishment had given me some instruction in mechanical drawing1 so that ,i knew the use of the instruments and what kind of ink to use4 ,i cannot recollect that ,i was in the least cast down or discouraged4 ,i cannot now account for my confidence4 ,i believed that the fundamental features of this machine were correct4 ,these were3 cutting stone by a blow given by a hammer moving in an inclined direction1 and which was thrown up by a cam and thrown down by springs4 ,the more ,i reflected upon it the more ,i became convinced that a successful stone-dressing machine could be made on those general lines1 and in no other way2 and ,i also became impressed with what seems the almost absurd conviction that ,i could make it4 ,the machine that broke the stone had a broad hammer--a cast-iron plate with tongues on the sides running in grooves in a frame1 and to the end of which a long steel blade was bolted4 ,my first idea was to divide the single broad hammer into several hammers working side by side and striking their blows successively2 the second was to separate the hammers from the tool-holders1 the third1 to employ the same tools that were used by stone-cutters1 namely1 the point1 tooth-chisel and drove1 and to give them as nearly as possible the same blow that was given to them by the workman1 and the fourth1 to give to the tools only the blow necessary to do their work4 ,i infused my own enthusiasm into my associates to such a degree that they agreed to put up the money and let me try the experiment4 ,that also is something that ,i now wonder at4 ,the most influential member of this devoted band was ,george ,t4 ,hope1 ,president of the ,continental ,fire ,insurance ,co41 a gentleman whom ,i shall have frequent occasion to mention1 and who remained my steadfast friend till his death1 which occurred soon after the close of my engineering career4 ,i set about my work in this manner4 ,my house1 on the south side of ,twenty-second ,street west of ,seventh ,avenue1 had been arranged in its construction to use the extension room back of the parlor as a dining-room4 ,that left the front basement available for me4 ,this ,i equipped for a drawing-office1 and set myself at work to learn mechanical drawing1 and at the same time to design this machine4 ,i bought a ,scotch instruction book1 and a sheet of 8antiquarian0 drawing-paper4 ,in those days all drawings were made on white linen paper1 and this was nearly the largest size that was made1 and cost #ge cents a sheet4 ,my principal drawing-implement was india-rubber4 ,as my plans grew in my mind ,i had to rub out my preceding sketches4 ,i spent a great deal of my time in visiting the large engineering works on the ,east ,river--the ,allaire ,works1 the ,morgan ,works and the ,novelty ,works--and studying tools and machines and principles and methods of construction4 ,i tried to get my mind saturated with mechanics4 ,i finally succeeded in producing the design1 this vertical section of which ,i have sketched from memory after fifty years4 ,it will be seen that this machine was massive in its construction4 ,this was required on account of the speed--#cjj rotations of the shaft per minute--at which ,i had determined to run it4 ,this was my first employment of high speed4 ,illustration3 ,,george ,t4 ,,hope ,the original model of the machine made #fj strokes per minute4 ,in the machine that broke the stone ,i had increased the speed to #ajj strokes per minute4 ,in designing the successful machine ,i made the great jump to #cjj revolutions of the cam-shaft per minute4 ,this was done after much study of practical requirements4 ,i observed carefully the speed of planing-machines4 ,i had also the opportunity of witnessing the operation of the first wood-moulding machine1 and was much impressed by the speed of the rotary cutters and the rapidity with which the work was turned out4 ,i wanted a motion of #dj inches a minute for the stone table1 which would make the output of the machine satisfactory2 #cjj revolutions would give this motion1 the table advancing 4#acc of an inch at each blow4 ,illustration3 ,side frame not shown1 except ,channels for ,elevating ,screws ,my ,first ,mechanical ,drawing4 ,longitudinal ,section of my ,stone-dressing ,machine4 ,the machine contained six hammers1 each #f inches wide and weighing about #bjj pounds1 which ran in a suspended frame4 ,the front member of this frame was a wrought-iron bar #f inches square1 with a projection on the lower side1 as shown4 ,at the ends this bar was first reduced to #e inches square1 the corners rounded to #a inch radius1 and mortised into cast-iron side-bars #d inches thick1 one of which is shown in the sectional view4 ,beyond these side-bars the wrought-iron bar was turned down to journals #c inches in diameter1 which turned in the heads of large screws1 one of which is represented4 ,beyond those journals it was further reduced to #b inches diameter1 and the ends threaded4 ,these projections extended through slots in the main framing1 and nuts on the outside provided with long handles enabled the whole to be bound fast in its position1 when that had been determined4 ,the hammers had two faces2 the upper faces struck on this #f-;inch square bar1 the lower faces struck the backs of the heavy tool-holders4 ,these tool-holders were held in position in the manner shown4 ,at the extreme back end they rocked downward upon a heavy cross-bar4 ,at the front they rose against the #f-;inch cross-bar4 ,they were made with a heavy hook at the back1 which prevented them from coming forward further than the projection at the bottom of this cross-bar permitted4 ,a curved spring held them up to the cross-bar when the weight of the hammer was removed4 ,between the #f-;inch cross-bar and the tool-holders and the hammer faces ,i introduced a sheet of heavy leather belting1 which deadened the force of the blow4 ,a stone-cutter uses a wooden mallet to drive the tooth-chisels and droves1 because the impact of iron on iron has a disintegrating effect upon the stone1 which the stone-cutters call 8stunning the stone40 ,it produces a vibration in the body of the stone to a depth of perhaps inch1 and1 however well the surface of the stone may appear when it is finished1 after a while the outside will flake off to the depth to which these vibrations have extended4 ,this leather buffer served the purpose of the wooden mallet1 completely avoiding this difficulty4 ,incidentally also it made the building habitable1 by transforming the blow into a dull thud1 which at the rate of #ahjj blows per minute from the six hammers was itself quite important to be done4 ,the large screws on each side of the machine at the front were provided at the top with long nuts resting on a cross-bar and combined with worm-wheels4 ,a shaft carrying two worms engaging with these wheels extended across the top of the machine1 so that the nuts were rotated identically1 and the front of the suspended frame was raised or lowered as the thickness of the stone or depth of the cut required4 ,the machine could cut stone from the thinnest ashlar up to a thickness of about #c feet4 ,the hammers ran on rollers as shown4 ,at the back the frame and hammers were carried on similar rollers on the same shaft4 ,the ends of this shaft also turned in square heads of screws1 and by a mechanism similar to that already described the back of the frame could be elevated or depressed to the height required and be set at any desired angle4 ,the six tool-holders were made in the following manner3 ,i got from ,england a bar of steel long enough to make them all4 ,this was planed into the form shown in the section1 and the sockets for the shanks of the tools were finished to an equal depth and perfectly in line4 ,it was then parted1 and the ends of each finished in a slotting-machine4 ,the blows struck by the hammers were very effective4 ,the cams had a throw of #a inches1 but they threw the hammers back against the springs #a inches further1 making their fall #b inches4 ,this ,i ascertained by holding a piece of thin board edgeways between the upper end of a hammer and the cross-bar at the back1 when the hammer crushed it up to this height4 ,we never ran over the stone with the points but once4 ,they made everything before them fly4 ,on the other hand1 the droves merely dusted the surface1 to take out the marks of the tooth-chisels4 ,all surplus force in the blow was received on the #f-;inch cross-bar4 ,the tools stood motionless unless pushed back by the stone1 when they received a sufficient portion of the blow to drive them forward to their position4 ,the feed motion was powerful1 being imparted by a worm engaging in a worm-wheel #bd inches in diameter1 while the run back was swift1 quite #ajj feet in a minute4 ,the sides of the steel tool-holders1 rubbing against each other1 became after a while badly abraded4 ,i was obliged to plane them off and dovetail thin strips of hardened steel into them4 ,these prevented any further trouble4 ,the sides of the end tool-holders1 however1 which rubbed against the cast-iron side-bars1 ,i observed1 were polished without sensible wear4 ,this was a very important observation4 ,these surfaces all rubbed together dry4 ,the pressure was only the side thrust1 which was very trifling4 ,under these conditions the molecules of the same material interlocked1 while those of the different materials did not4 ,these two materials were1 however1 extremely different in their constituent features4 ,perhaps this point of freedom of some different materials from interlocking was still better illustrated by the set-screws1 where this difference of molecular structure did not exist in the same degree4 ,these were made of ,ulster iron1 a superior quality of ,american iron then largely used in ,new ,york ,city for bolts4 ,they were -inch screws1 and were also used dry1 no oil being allowed anywhere over the stones4 ,each tool-holder contained three of these set-screws4 ,the outside ones were tightened and loosened sixty times every day4 ,the middle ones1 where only the points were used1 were tightened and loosened twenty times every day and at other times stood loose in their threads4 ,the tool-holders being massive1 and the blows of the hammers also coming on the leather cushion1 there was no vibration4 ,at the end of the two years' running the outer bolts were all perfect fits4 ,the middle ones were loose1 but still held the tools perfectly4 ,the rollers on which the hammers ran were hardened and turned on hardened shafts4 ,the hammers themselves had chilled faces1 and their surfaces running on the rollers were also chilled4 ,the surfaces of the tool-holders and of the bar on which these rocked were provided with hardened strips to the extent that they came in contact with each other4 ,the cams and rollers and their pins were also hardened4 ,when built this machine was found to require only a single alteration4 ,i had welded the cams onto the shaft1 the welds being guaranteed by the smith to be perfectly sound4 ,no appearance of unsoundness could be detected when the shaft was finished1 but after running a week or two the cams became loose4 ,this also gave me a useful lesson4 ,i was obliged to send to ,england for blocks of steel1 which were bored1 finished and keyed on the shaft in the manner shown1 and the working surfaces of the cams were hardened4 ,this required the substitution of new hammers1 because the cams could not be threaded through the old ones4 ,the hubs of these cams were #f inches long1 covering the shaft4 ,our company1 being satisfied from its design that the machine when finished would prove a success1 rented from ,mr4 ,astor a large lot on the south side of ,fourteenth ,street1 west of ,ninth ,avenue1 extending through to ,thirteenth ,street1 and erected and equipped a building and established a stone-yard1 where the machine ran successfully for two seasons1 principally employed in facing ashlar1 as the flat-faced stones of buildings are termed4 ,it turned out with ease #fjj square feet of finished surface per day1 which was the work of thirty men1 and it never broke a stone1 however thin4 ,for facing in the machine the stones were set on bars #b inches thick and #d inches high1 cast on the surface of sliding tables4 ,these were both longitudinal and cross bars1 and were provided with holes inch in diameter and about #c inches apart4 ,there were two tables1 each #af feet in length4 ,several pieces of ashlar were set upon each table and held by dogs and wedges on these bars4 ,they were wedged up very easily by skilled workmen1 so that they would finish at the same level4 ,at one side of the ways on which the tables moved1 near each end1 was placed a swing-crane1 which was double- and triple-geared1 so that by means of it any stone that the machine was adapted to cut could be lifted by two men4 ,the operations of cutting the stones on one table and removing the stones and setting others on the other table went on simultaneously1 so that the cutting was never interrupted1 except to change the tools and the tables4 ,this last was done as follows3 ,each table1 when the work on it was completed1 was run rapidly backward or forward to attach it to the other table4 ,it was then connected with this by a couple of hooks1 and1 the motion being reversed1 pulled it into place under the tools1 and in doing this took its own place under a crane1 so that the work of removing the finished stones and setting rough ones went on continuously at one end or the other of the ways4 ,in addition to the machine ,i designed the building and the whole plant and the plan of its operation1 which moved like clockwork4 ,i made every drawing myself4 ,the cranes ,i obtained in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 of a pattern which the builders made for railroads for handling heavy freight4 ,i bought from a stone-dressing company that had failed a rubbing machine called the ,jenny ,lind rubber1 from the fact that it was started the same year in which that songstress was brought to the ,united ,states by ,mr4 ,barnum4 ,this rubbing-machine was quite a success4 ,from a central vertical spindle a jointed arm extended in three lengths1 each about #ab feet long4 ,the sections of this arm were very deep1 so that there was no sag at the end1 where the rubbing-plate was driven by belting and could be moved from stone to stone around a circle of #cf feet radius4 ,half of this circle was sufficient for our use4 ,i made only one change in this machine4 ,the pulleys1 two pairs on each joint1 one at the top and one at the bottom1 about two feet in diameter by three inches face1 were of course horizontal4 ,the makers were afraid the belts would fall off2 so they made these pulleys with two square grooves1 inch wide by inch deep1 in their faces1 and had corresponding strips of leather sewn on the belts to run in these grooves4 ,i threw all these away and substituted ordinary pulleys with their faces slightly crowning4 ,never had the least trouble4 ,indeed1 these pulleys did better than ,i expected4 ,i supposed the belts would need to be taken up occasionally1 on account of becoming stretched1 but they did not4 ,perhaps they would have done so if the strain on them had been greater4 ,this rubbing machine resembled the stone-dressing machine in one respect3 everything about it was arranged for continuous operation and the largest output4 ,the business was carried on the first season under the management of ,mr4 ,john ,mc,clave1 a master stone-cutter1 and the second season under the management of the firm of ,brown ,young1 stone-cutters4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,young1 of this firm1 has since been prominent in the stone-cutting business in ,new ,york4 ,the machine was found to possess a remarkable advantage over hand work4 ,the sun was called by stone-cutters 8the great revealer40 ,when its rays fell at a small angle on a surface finished by hand they showed very considerable irregularities4 ,the same test showed work in the machine to be true planes4 ,it won a high reputation2 stone-cutters were anxious to get their surfaces done in the machine1 and we had more work offered us than we could do4 ,the following incident illustrates the favorable impression made by the machine upon everyone who witnessed its operation3 ,at a meeting of the ,directors of the ,company at which ,i was present ,mr4 ,daniel ,s4 ,miller1 a gentleman somewhat prominent in financial ,new ,york1 was late4 ,he made the following explanation4 8,i thought that before the meeting ,i would visit the stone yard and see how the work was going on4 ,i stayed longer than ,i had intended1 and ,i want five thousand dollars more of the stock of this company40 ,we were much elated over our success1 and plans were made for enlarging the business4 ,i completed the drawings for an additional machine1 wide enough to take in platforms1 for which provision had been made by me in the plan of the building4 ,the only change suggested by our two years' experience was the use of air-cushions behind the hammers in place of steel springs4 ,but the best-laid schemes o' mice an' men1 the poet tells us1 8,gang aft a-gley2 ,and leave us naught but grief and pain ,for promised joy40 ,our plans were suddenly ruined4 ,a change in the method of facing ashlar was introduced and soon became universally adopted4 ,instead of being faced by hand1 it began to be sawn out of large blocks4 ,i have since wondered why this had not been done long before4 ,blocks of marble had been sawn into slabs by gang-saws no one knows how long1 and all that had to be done was to apply the same system to blocks of building-stone4 ,it was found to cost no more to saw ashlar than it had done to split it out at the quarry4 ,all the cost of facing and much stone were saved4 ,our stone-cutting machine became useless1 and ,i learned that disappointments were not confined to the legal profession4 ,the speed of #cjj revolutions per minute had proved to be admirably suited for the machine4 ,familiarity with this speed in the running of the stone-dressing machine made me alive to the value of high rotative speeds in all cases to which they are adapted4 ,in looking back over this period ,i see that the success of the stone-dressing machine was due to the following causes3 ,first1 ,i went about the work of facing stone by machinery in the natural way4 ,second1 the machine was superabundantly strong and substantial in every part4 ,third1 it was made with absolute mechanical truth4 ,fourth1 the speed was splendid4 ,fifth1 the blow was peculiar4 ,in the ,hastings machine the cutting-tool was driven into the stone4 ,in mine it rested on the stone and was moved back horizontally by the feed4 ,this changed slightly the angular position of the tool-holder1 so that the blow was received by it at the lower edge of its back4 ,this gave to the tool a motion forward and upward1 so that the vertical effect on the stone was trifling4 ,this was the vital feature of my improvement1 and that in a double sense2 for it was only by convincing my associates beforehand that a machine operating in this manner could not break the stone that ,i was able to obtain their financial support4 ,sixth1 the two-faced hammer saved the stone from all unnecessary force of the blow4 ,the final cause of its success was the two-table system4 ,the two operations of setting and cutting occupied each about the same time1 and twenty tables each averaging thirty square feet of surface1 measured after being squared up1 were easily finished in a day of ten hours4 ,a description of some of the constructive methods employed by me may be interesting3 ,the bar of steel which was to be made into six separate tool-holders had to have eighteen sockets mortised in it4 ,these were #a inch square4 ,i had made the tools with square shanks so as to insure their proper position4 ,these mortises must be absolutely in line and of equal depth4 ,these objects were accomplished as follows3 ,a cast-iron angle-bar with planed surfaces was first bolted on the table of the drilling-machine1 and for drilling the holes the bar of steel was kept in contact with this angle-bar4 ,a uniform depth was insured by employing a bottoming-drill with a collar formed on the shank4 ,the drilling was finished when this collar rubbed on the steel bar4 ,i had this work done by ,mr4 ,joseph ,banks1 whose shop was in a large building at the corner of ,second ,avenue and ,twenty-second ,street4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,cameron1 the inventor and manufacturer of the celebrated ,cameron steam-pumps1 was then an apprentice in that shop4 ,mr4 ,banks was an excellent mechanic1 and ,i was greatly indebted to him for the accuracy of the work that ,i procured4 ,he devised an expanding-drill to cut a groove at the bottom of these sockets1 in which the chips from the slotting-tool made in squaring the holes would come off4 ,the finishing slotting-tool ,i designed myself4 ,i had noticed in all slotting-machines that came under my observation at that time that the tool would spring off a little at the commencement of the cut1 so that a full square angle was never obtained4 ,to avoid this defect and to size the slots equally ,i made a slotting-tool to cut on opposite sides4 ,the cutting edges were each about inch long and the corners rounded4 ,the bar for the tool-holders had to be set three times on account of its length4 ,it was set in contact with the same angle-bar1 which was bolted on this table parallel with its transverse feed4 ,this finishing-tool being once set1 the upper and lower faces of all the sockets were thus readily finished in perfect line and with square edges4 ,the tool being then turned at right angles to its first position1 for which purpose its shank had been planed square1 finished the sides of the sockets4 ,these were identical in every respect1 and any tool could go anywhere4 ,the springs behind the hammers were prepared with great care4 ,i had large bars of spring steel reduced under a tilt-hammer to a section inch square4 ,these were coiled with only inch space between the coils1 so that in case a spring broke within the hammer it could not get out of place4 ,these springs were exceptionally durable4 ,we took off the back cross-bar occasionally--perhaps once a month--to examine for broken springs1 and sometimes we found one1 which was replaced with a new one because we assumed that it was fatigued1 but the hammers worked just as well with broken springs as they did with whole ones4 ,the springs1 having considerable initial compression1 did not become loose4 ,it seems proper to add that1 except the help from ,mr4 ,banks1 ,i did not in designing the machine or organizing the work receive assistance or suggestion from anyone4 ,with these details ,i bid a final good-by to you1 my old schoolmaster4 ,i have a warm place in my heart for you4 ,you set me my first lessons in mechanics4 ,your life was short4 ,you were not ordained to cut much of a figure in the world4 ,but you were faithful4 ,you always did your work and did it well4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,evolution and ,manufacture of the ,central ,counterpoise ,governor4 ,introduction of ,mr4 ,richards4 ,when the stone-dressing machine was started a difficulty presented itself4 ,the governor was in constant motion a short distance up and down1 causing the engine to oscillate1 running alternately too fast and too slow4 ,there was nothing that should have caused this action1 so far as ,i could observe4 ,the load on the engine was constant4 ,however the work done on the stone may have varied1 the work of the engine was to lift the hammers1 and these1 being lifted successively1 presented a uniform resistance4 ,the oscillation was not very great1 as nearly as ,i can remember about #ab per cent4 of the speed2 which would give to each hammer a variation of thirty-six blows per minute4 ,this1 however1 produced a waving surface on the stone4 ,the more rapid the blow1 the stronger it was and the deeper the cut4 ,these waves were slight1 only about of an inch variation in depth1 but yet it was not possible for our rubbing-machine to grind them off without great loss of time4 ,so we had to employ three or four stone-cutters to chisel off these ridges1 which were about #d inches apart4 ,it was evident that this oscillation must be stopped4 ,i tried to remedy it by changing the pressure of the steam1 and then by changing the pulleys so as to run the engine faster1 the speed of the governor1 however1 necessarily remaining the same4 ,but these had no effect4 ,having exhausted my own stock of ignorance on the subject1 ,i applied to professional experts for more1 and ,i got it4 ,three persons1 who ,i supposed ought to know1 and who probably did know1 all that was then known on the subject1 gave me the same advice4 ,it was that ,i should get a larger engine and a great deal larger fly-wheel4 ,this advice did not seem to me reasonable4 ,i knew that the engine was large enough1 because while the governor was in the lowest position1 in which it did not open the throttle entirely by any means1 the machine ran too fast4 ,they then told me ,i must have a heavier fly-wheel at any rate1 and they explained to me that the fly-wheel performed two offices--one to carry the crank over its dead centers with an approximately uniform motion1 and the other to give the governor time to act4 ,i replied that the engine passed its dead centers with absolute uniformity then1 as nearly as ,i could see1 and as was shown by the surface of the stone1 and consequently for that purpose the fly-wheel ,i had must be sufficient4 ,the oscillations were regular1 occupying about #cj revolutions of the machine1 or #f seconds of time1 and had no connection with the dead centers1 and ,i did not see why the governor should require any time to act4 ,they told me that all governors required time to act1 of course4 ,i then examined the governor more critically1 and made up my mind that its action was hindered by friction in the driving-joints at the top of the spindle4 ,these joints were about #d inches apart1 on opposite sides of the spindle1 and were of a character in which the force transmitted through them to drive the balls produced a pinch between the broad faces of the joints4 ,the governor could not act until by change of its speed it had accumulated force enough to overcome this pinch1 and then it moved too far4 ,again ,i applied to my authorities for some way of getting rid of this friction4 ,they told me that was easy enough4 ,all ,i had to do was to put a yoke on the governor spindle1 through which the governor arms were threaded and by which the driving pressure was applied close to the balls4 ,so for the first time ,i took their advice and had a yoke put on the governor4 ,i could not discover that this helped the matter at all4 ,the improvement was too trifling to be noticed4 ,i also saw clearly enough why this was so4 ,the pressure applied was lighter than that applied through the joints1 but it was also applied at a correspondingly increased distance from the axis1 so that the effect in retarding the action of the governor was substantially the same4 ,i saw that if ,i got any relief ,i must find a way to it myself4 ,so ,i began studying the subject of governors4 ,my engineering library at that time consisted of ,haswell's ,engineers' ,pocket ,book4 ,what little book-knowledge ,i had respecting mechanics ,i had learned from ,haswell4 ,i turned to ,haswell and read what he had to say about governors4 ,i learned that they were conical pendulums and made half as many revolutions in a minute as the vibrations of a pendulum whose length was equal to the height of the cone1 the base of which was the plane in which the center of oscillation of the balls and arms revolved1 and its apex the point of intersection of the axes of the arms1 if produced upward1 and that their revolutions varied inversely as the square root of the height of this cone4 ,i did not see that this got me out of my difficulty at all4 ,i then referred to the subject of centrifugal force1 with which ,i had made some acquaintance before1 and ,i read this champion mind-muddler3 8,all bodies moving around a center or fixed point have a tendency to fly off in a straight line4 ,this is termed centrifugal force40 ,this did not help me any more1 nor interest me much at that time4 ,but ,i read further that the centrifugal force of a body revolving in any given circle varies as the square of the speed4 8,thus a body making #aj revolutions per minute will exert four times as much centrifugal force as will be exerted by the same body making #e revolutions per minute40 ,the governor on my engine was making #ej revolutions per minute1 and in thinking the matter over it occurred to me that if the governor could be run as fast as my machine1 namely1 at #cjj revolutions per minute1 the centrifugal force of one pound would be as great as that exerted by #cf pounds at #ej revolutions per minute4 ,i cried1 8,eureka6 ,i have found it40 ,one-pound balls in place of #cf-pound balls would be easily driven4 ,i told my experts of the great find that ,i had made1 and they laughed at me4 ,they told me ,i ought to know that the momentum of the balls increased in the same ratio with their centrifugal force1 ,,mv being the expression common to both1 so1 in the same circle1 while the centrifugal force of the balls at #cjj revolutions per minute would be #cf times greater than at #ej revolutions1 it would require also #cf times the force to drive them1 and that ,i would gain nothing by my proposed change1 but instead ,i would have to rotate also the weight that ,i would need to use to hold the small balls down1 and the last case would be worse than the first4 ,this staggered me1 and ,i pondered awhile what ,i should do4 ,i had a friend living near by on ,fourteenth ,street1 west of ,seventh ,avenue--a ,mr4 ,thompson1 a mathematician and the author of a series of mathematical books then largely used4 ,so ,i called upon him and stated my trouble and asked his advice4 ,he illuminated the subject to me as follows3 8,you seem to be a persevering young man2 keep hard at it and you will solve the difficulty by and by40 ,in my despair ,i just had before me this one thought3 ,the friction must be cured at any rate4 ,after a time ,i thought that if ,i made a long joint at the top embracing the center of gyration of the counterpoise1 so that the pressure required to drive the balls and counterpoise would be applied at some distance from the axis of the spindle and for that reason would be much lighter1 and also would be normal to the surface of the joint-pin instead of being a pinch between opposite faces1 the difficulty would be cured1 as the force to overcome the friction would be exerted at the ends of levers #ej or #ajj times the radius of the pin4 ,i felt so sure of this that ,i risked making a governor with a single joint at the apex of the cone1 as originally employed by ,watt1 thus making the governor more sensitive1 as the height of the cone would not be changed at both ends1 still fortunately holding to my little balls and high speed1 though ,i cannot tell why4 ,the joint at the top ,i made #f inches in length4 ,when this governor was started1 the trouble absolutely vanished4 ,the engine ran with perfect uniformity while the load was constant4 ,i use the adjective 8perfect0 advisedly1 for the governor slide was as motionless on the spindle as if it were screwed tight1 and the governor proved to be the most sensitive possible index of the variations of speed4 ,when the belt was thrown off to the loose pulley the engine ran idle4 ,the counterpoise then rose promptly but gently to its fixed highest position1 and stood there motionless until the belt was thrown on and the hammers were started1 when it moved as gently but promptly down to its lower position and stood there again motionless so long as the hammers were running4 ,we could not detect by the eye the variation in speed that caused this action of the governor4 ,the heaviest load on the engine1 however1 was dragging rapidly the two tables loaded with stone4 ,this caused the governor to settle still further1 but always the motion of the engine seemed to be the same so far as ,i could detect4 ,the surface produced on the stone left nothing to be desired4 ,the machine cut true planes1 free from any windage1 and the surfaces were left so smooth that the rubbing-machine had but little to do1 and kept up with the cutting-machine very easily4 ,the governor fascinated everybody who witnessed its operation4 ,illustration3 ,the ,first ,porter ,governor4 ,i first made the drawing for the governor with the weight hanging to the slide4 ,mr4 ,john ,mc,laren1 a machinist who had done good work for me1 when ,i showed it to him said1 8,why don't you turn your weight upside down and put it between the arms80 ,i was not long in acting upon this suggestion1 and that made the ,porter governor complete4 ,i had it described and illustrated in the ,scientific ,american4 ,they took a photograph of it as photographs were taken in those days--that is1 they sent their artist up to make a sketch of it1 and this sketch 7shown here7 and description will be found in the ,scientific ,american of ,october #i1 #aheh4 ,this governor has never been changed by me except in the shape of the counterpoise4 ,i believed the mathematics of my advisers to be sound1 and that the perfect action of the governor was obtained entirely by the long driving-joint1 which ,i supposed would have enabled the #cf-lb4 balls at #ej revolutions per minute to do just as well as #a-lb4 balls at #cjj revolutions1 but ,i never tried the experiment4 ,in that belief ,i remained for #ej years4 ,now1 at the age of over #hj years1 after long rest from business activities1 in revising these reminiscences for publication1 the idea has first occurred to me1 and has grown into a conviction1 that my advisers were wrong here as they had been in every other respect4 ,they overlooked the fact that the angular velocity of the driving-joint increased equally with that of the balls1 so that the ratio between them would remain constant4 ,the law that the driving force required increases as the square of the speed imparted applies only to the original source of power1 as1 to the force of the steam exerted in the cylinder of an engine1 the motion of the piston remaining the same1 and to the transmitting belts or gears whose speed also remains the same4 ,at all these points the force exerted must increase as the square of the speed imparted2 but this does not apply to the pressure exerted in the governor joint4 ,its speed does not remain the same1 but increases with that of the balls4 ,so1 while the centrifugal force of the balls1 changes in which produce the vertical movements of the counterpoise1 varies as the square of the speed1 the force required to be exerted in this joint to drive the balls1 and which produces the friction to retard these movements1 does not increase at all1 whatever the speed of revolution may be4 ,this fact1 unobserved by me or any one else so far as ,i ever heard1 has all the time been the secret1 a pretty open secret when once seen1 of the surprising combination of sensitiveness and stability in the action of this governor which has led to its general use1 and at which ,i myself have never ceased to wonder because ,i was ignorant of its cause4 ,this1 however1 was not the only time that ,i builded better than ,i knew4 ,i can imagine some persons1 after having read the above explanation1 to say1 some of them perhaps flippantly1 and some possibly sneeringly1 8,to a properly educated engineer this is obvious at a glance40 ,i think it will be so hereafter1 but has it been so hitherto8 ,if any one will produce the record of its observation ,i will cheerfully yield to him the priority and will congratulate him upon it4 ,some things1 however1 make me doubt if this observation has ever been made4 ,at the ,london ,exhibition of #ahfb this governor attracted much attention from its novel appearance1 rapid rotation and remarkable action4 ,many engineers spoke to me about it4 ,in their conversation ,i observed two things3 first1 no one ever asked me a question1 but every one explained its action to me2 and second1 while each had an explanation of his own to make1 they all agreed in a fundamental respect4 ,their minds ran in the same groove4 ,they considered the governor only in its theoretical action4 ,no one ever took notice of the incident of friction1 which was the controlling factor4 ,an improved governor was in their view one contrived in some way to free the governor from the limitation to its action1 which is imposed by the law of the conical pendulum1 and every one explained to me how my governor was adapted to do this4 ,the following illustrates this universal view among ,english engineers3 ,in the ,appendix to the #ajth edition of ,rankine's 8,manual of the ,steam-engine and other ,prime ,movers10 published in #ahhb1 one reads as follows3 8,,isochronous ,,governors4 ,the ordinary governor is not isochronous2 for when1 in order to adapt the opening of the regulating-valve to different loads1 it rotates with its revolving pendulums at different angles to the vertical axis1 the altitude of the cone assumes different values1 corresponding to different speeds4 ,the following are expedients for diminishing or removing this defect4 #a4 ,loaded ,governor 7,porter's74--,from the balls of the common governor1 whose collective weight is 7say7 ,a1 let there be hung by a pair of links of lengths equal to the pendulum arms1 a load1 ,b1 capable of sliding up and down the spindle1 and having its center of gravity on the axis of rotation4 ,then the centrifugal force is that due to ,a alone1 and the effect of gravity that due to ,a #b;,b2 consequently the altitude for a given speed is increased in the ratio ,a #b;,b 3 ,a1 as compared with that of a simple revolving pendulum2 and a given absolute variation of altitude in moving the regulating-valve produces a smaller proportionate variation of speed than in the common governor40 ,that is the whole of it4 ,respecting this ,i have to say3 #ast4 ,the vertical motion of the counterpoise 7variation of altitude71 if the links had also a single joint at the bottom1 could not be either more or less than twice that of the balls1 which equal lengths of the arms and links give also in the common governor1 so in this respect the governor is no improvement4 #b;d4 ,no notice is taken of the small size of the balls or of the speed of rotation4 #c;d4 ,professor ,rankine is not responsible for this absurd piece of reasoning4 #dth4 ,it only shows how far the ,english engineering mind has been from considering the subject of hindrance to the governor action from friction4 ,my governor works within the law of the conical pendulum4 ,i never dreamed of attempting in this form of governor to avoid it4 ,in fact it is this law which gives to the governor its action4 ,a change of speed is necessary to produce a motion of the counterpoise4 ,but as the governor was designed by me1 this change of speed is very small1 probably no more than is required for stability1 and is not sensible in any way except in the motion of the counterpoise itself1 which is simultaneous with the most minute changes of speed4 ,quite a variety of modifications of this governor are being made in this country1 but ,i think not elsewhere4 ,the makers have been kind enough to invent the name 8the central counterpoise governor40 ,for this ,i feel greatly obliged1 as ,i should be mortified to find my name attached to any of them4 ,their action is always more or less unsatisfactory1 sometimes very much so4 ,but ,i do not think it likely that the secret of the remarkable action of the ,porter governor has been detected by any of these people4 ,i am glad that this was not explained to me at first2 if it had been ,i might not have thought of the single long driving-joint1 which is a valuable feature4 ,when the stone-dressing machine proved to be valueless1 as already described1 ,i found myself out of business2 but the governor had attracted so much attention and had been so favorably received that ,i thought ,i could establish a business of manufacturing these governors1 and ,i am proud to say that the gentlemen already associated with me and who had lost their money in the abandonment of the stone-dressing machine were so decidedly of the same opinion1 and ,i had won their confidence to such an extent1 that they furnished the money to enable me to establish this manufacture4 ,i rented a shop on the second floor of a triangular building on ,thirteenth ,street1 at the junction of ,hudson ,street and ,ninth ,avenue1 owned by ,mr4 ,herring1 the safe-manufacturer1 the lower part of which was occupied by him for his own business4 ,this was a large room and had light on three sides4 ,i proceeded to equip this shop with the necessary tools1 some of which ,i purchased of ,mr4 ,freeland1 then considered the best toolmaker in the ,united ,states1 and who had gone to ,england and worked for some years as a journeyman in the celebrated ,whitworth ,works1 in ,manchester1 for the purpose of learning everything that was known there4 ,those which ,mr4 ,freeland could not supply ,i obtained from ,geo4 ,s4 ,lincoln ,co41 of ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,during the time these tools were building ,i was waited upon by ,mr4 ,chas4 ,b4 ,richards1 who was then removing from ,hartford to ,new ,york to establish himself as a designer of machinery1 and who brought me a letter from ,geo4 ,s4 ,lincoln ,co4 ,i was at that time engaged in scheming as well as ,i could a machine for drilling the arms and balls and counterweight and spindle of my governor1 and immediately employed ,mr4 ,richards to assist me in getting out the drawings for this machine4 ,this he did quite to my satisfaction1 and the machine was made by ,geo4 ,s4 ,lincoln ,co41 ,mr4 ,pratt1 for so many years head of the firm of ,pratt ,whitney1 afterwards the ,pratt ,whitney ,company1 being then their foreman2 so that all my tools from that concern were made by ,mr4 ,pratt4 ,he also cut for me superb iron patterns for the governor gears4 ,this machine always interested me very much4 ,it solved every problem which was involved in the perfect and rapid performance of these operations4 ,it had two parallel spindles running horizontally in the same plane1 one fixed and the other adjustable4 ,distance pieces laid between the spindle heads insured the equal length of the arms of all governors of the same size4 ,the table was made with a back to it1 so that1 a parallel block being laid on the table behind the arms1 these were always brought in position parallel with its back4 ,the arms were supported on blocks of proper height4 ,these provisions insured that the joint-holes1 which were drilled simultaneously1 should intersect the axes of the arms and of the balls and spindle at right angles4 ,this machine fitted up all the governors that ,i ever made4 ,i gradually built up an excellent business in their manufacture1 on account of the extreme pains taken to produce perfect work1 so that the governors always gave the highest satisfaction4 ,i think of only one instance to the contrary4 ,i sold a governor to ,mr4 ,winslow1 of ,troy1 afterwards of the firm of ,corning ,winslow1 the first manufacturers of ,bessemer steel rails in this country under the inspiration of ,mr4 ,alexander ,l4 ,holley4 ,soon after this governor had been shipped ,i received a letter from ,mr4 ,winslow telling me that the governor would not answer at all1 and ,i should come and see about it4 ,i found the governor had been placed on a second-hand ,burden engine1 which was a well-known type of horizontal engine at that time1 made in ,brooklyn4 ,the engine had been built to make #ej revolutions per minute1 but being a great deal too large for their use they had reduced the speed to #be revolutions per minute1 and the complaint was that every time the crank passed its centers the governor dropped to its seat4 ,i told them what ,i thought the difficulty was2 that any one could see that the engine very nearly stopped as the crank passed its centers1 and the governor had to drop4 ,to show them this action1 ,i disconnected the governor from the valve and throttled the engine by hand1 and showed them that the governor1 when not connected with the throttle-valve1 rose and dropped on every stroke1 in the same way as when connected4 ,they asked me what ,i was going to do about it4 ,i told them ,i should do nothing about it2 that ,i presumed they might possibly get a governor somewhere that would stand that alternation of speed without winking1 but they had better send mine back1 because it was not made for any such service4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,b4 ,,richards ,a4,d4 #aheh ,the following is an amusing illustration1 doubtless an extreme one1 of the degree in which the lay mind may be incapable of mechanical perception4 ,my governors were usually set on the engine bed of horizontal engines near the shaft1 and were connected with the throttle-valve over the cylinder by means of a bell-crank lever and a long rod4 ,one day a gentleman called to make a personal examination of the governor and its manufacture1 with a view to investing in the business4 ,i showed him a governor in action on the testing platform1 and a woodcut on my circular which represented the governor in its position1 as above described1 with a short piece of the connecting-rod attached to the lever4 ,he looked at this cut intently for some time1 and then1 putting his finger on the broken-off end of the little rod1 said1 8,ah1 ,i see2 the steam enters there40 ,i made no reply1 and he was so much pleased with his own penetration that he invested at once4 ,i know of only one case in which this governor needed the help of a dash-pot or controlling vessel4 ,in the great plate-mill of the ,otis ,works1 in ,cleveland1 when the enormous mass of steel struck the rolls1 the governor dropped sharply to its seat1 and jumped as sharply to the upper limit of its action when this mass was shot out4 ,mr4 ,wellman1 their general manager1 suggested to me an elegant arrangement of air-chambers at the top and bottom of a cylinder1 which permitted free motion to the governor through its whole range of action1 but cushioned it on confined air at the ends4 ,for several years ,i made the counterpoise of the governor in the form of a vase4 ,the present form with hemispherical top was suggested by ,mr4 ,whitworth in #ahff1 and shown by me in the ,paris ,exposition of #ahfg4 ,it has three advantages4 ,it is more readily turned with a circular tool-rest1 and it contains more metal and looks more mechanical4 ,i exhibited the governor in operation at a fair of the ,american ,institute held on ,fourteenth ,street between ,sixth and ,seventh avenues1 ,new ,york ,city 7where the armory of the ,twelfth ,regiment now stands71 making an arrangement with an exhibitor of an engine for that purpose4 ,i remember that ,mr4 ,george ,h4 ,reynolds1 then an engineer in the works of ,mr4 ,delamater at the foot of ,west ,thirteenth ,street1 as he passed it with a friend a day or two after it was started1 remarked in my hearing1 8,it will take a horse-power to drive that governor40 ,it would not do to let any such nonsense get around as the opinion of an engineer1 so the next morning the governor was driven by a belt of an inch wide1 and continued to be so through the fair4 ,i was sorry afterwards that ,i did not use a half-inch belt1 which would have driven it just as well1 and indeed ,i think even a narrower belt would have done1 as the foot of the spindle was of hardened steel1 a segment of a sphere1 running in a puddle of oil in a hardened step cupped to a larger radius4 ,the funniest application of the governor ,i ever made was the following3 ,the ,civil ,war had just broken out1 and every ,yankee was making some warlike invention4 ,the most ridiculous of all was a centrifugal gun4 ,a company was formed for its manufacture4 ,the shot1 about an inch in diameter1 was fed in at the center of a swiftly revolving wheel and thrown out through a barrel at the periphery1 with a velocity that1 it was estimated by the inventor1 would carry it about two miles4 ,this velocity was to be got up in about one second4 ,the governor would not act quickly enough1 and the engine was stopped4 ,the parties heard of my governor1 and ordered one1 offering to pay for it in a tempting amount of their stock4 ,i preferred the cash and got it4 ,the governor filled the bill1 the shot was delivered1 the velocity of revolution not falling sensibly1 but we judged by the sharp fall of the counterpoise that it required not less than twenty horse-powers to do it4 ,the gun was tried on the bank of the ,hudson1 the ,palisades opposite being the target4 ,the inventor declared that every shot hit the mark1 but some evil-minded persons insisted that they fell into the water within a quarter of a mile of the shore from which they were fired4 ,about the same time the absurdity of sending into the field a tank of water1 a boiler1 an engine and the gun1 on separate wheels1 connected by pipes or belting1 which would be ruined by the least damage to anything1 began to dawn on the enthusiasts1 and the thing was abandoned4 ,i furnished one of my first governors to ,mr4 ,james ,horner to regulate a rolling-mill near ,boonton1 ,n4 ,j41 a sale which is worth recording4 ,this mill was employed in rolling steel pretty high in carbon into rods for making gimlets1 and the three-high train had not yet issued from the brain of ,mr4 ,fritz4 ,the rolling was slow work4 ,the resistance brought down the speed of the engine before the governor could act1 and they could have only one pass in the rolls at a time4 ,the workmen had to carry the end of the rod around and insert it in the next groove after it had run out of the former one4 ,the rod would be black before it was finished1 and often it was difficult to get it finished at all4 ,i do not know of any change that so much impressed me at the time as did that which followed the putting of my governor on this engine4 ,the full speed was kept up1 the billets seemed to rush through the rolls1 two and even three passes could be in them at the same time1 and the rods were still at a dull red heat when finished4 ,this success induced me to make a raid on ,pittsburg4 ,i found there very different conditions4 ,they then rolled nothing but iron1 so far as ,i saw or heard4 ,in the first mill ,i visited1 after ,i had discussed the subject with one of the proprietors1 an old man came up to me and said1 8,do you see that chair8 ,i have sat in that chair twenty-four years40 ,the chair corroborated his story4 8,i watch the rolls2 when a bar enters them1 ,i turn on more steam2 when it goes out ,i shut it off4 ,if you put in a governor that will do as well1 ,i shall be discharged4 ,i don't know how to do anything else2 ,i have a family dependent on me1 and ,i don't know what ,i should do40 ,i did not hesitate long about what ,i should do4 ,i could not improve on the old man's action4 ,he regulated the speed perfectly4 ,the only result of my success would be to beggar him4 ,superseding hand labor by machinery ,i did not in this particular case care to be responsible for4 ,i concluded that the ,pittsburg way was good enough for them1 and took the next train for home4 ,the first governor ,i sold was to ,mr4 ,william ,moller for his sugar-refinery on ,vandam ,street4 ,the engine to be regulated was an old-fashioned beam-engine4 ,the governor was to be set on a bracket that we had to bolt to the wall1 and a pulley some #c feet or more in diameter had to be made in halves and put on the shaft4 ,to make sure that no mistake would be made1 ,i went down myself to make a gauge of that shaft4 ,i took a -inch steel rod bent to span the shaft1 and made of this an outside gauge with great care4 ,now this was not what ,i wanted1 but ,i did not know it4 ,i wanted an inside gauge1 representing the diameter of the shaft1 and what ,i did make was useful only to compare the two4 ,i returned highly satisfied with my work1 leaving the real gauge to be made in the shop1 where it could not be compared with the shaft4 ,what might reasonably have been expected to happen did happen4 ,in some unaccountable way something happened to my gauge1 and when we went to install the governor we found the pulley had been bored inch too small4 ,we had to work hard all night1 and got through only just in time for the engine to start at its usual hour in the morning4 ,if ,i had sent a man who knew his business to make this gauge ,i should have avoided a lot of trouble1 but ,i should not have learned anything4 ,in preparing for the establishment of the governor manufacture ,i visited the works of ,geo4 ,s4 ,lincoln ,co41 in ,hartford1 and saw twist-drills in use1 cutting chips instead of scraping4 ,they attracted my attention and ,i inquired about them1 and was told that they made them themselves4 ,they kindly took me into the smith-shop and had one made for me to witness the operation4 ,the smith heated a round bar of steel and swaged channels in it on opposite sides4 ,they had quite a set of top and bottom swages for different-sized channels4 ,he then took another heat on the bar and twisted it by hand1 giving a gradually increasing twist1 which at the end was quite rapid4 ,an increasing twist was obtained in this way4 ,the drill was held in a vise1 so that only the projecting end of it could receive the amount of twist then being imparted4 ,the drill had to be moved in the vise of course a number of times4 ,the channels were smoothed out with files1 and when the drill was turned in the lathe sharp cutting edges were developed1 which needed only to be backed off by grinding4 ,i took one of these drills home with me to serve as a pattern and equipped my shop with them4 ,they were of the highest use to me4 ,the small ones drilled the holes for the governor joints1 and the large ones drilled the counterpoise and the column for the governor spindle4 ,i suppose the twist-drill had its origin in these ,hartford works4 ,i never saw any twist-drills in ,england except at ,mr4 ,whitworth's1 and these ,i thought were the funniest things ,i ever did see4 ,they were twisted by the blacksmith out of square bars and with a uniform quick twist1 were left rough1 and did not fill the hole1 and the ends were flattened out in the form of the common drill to scrape1 and not to cut4 ,when ,i returned from ,england in #ahfh twist-drills were coming into general use in this country4 ,after #ahgf the firm of ,smith ,coventry introduced them in ,england4 ,at that time almost everything in machine-shops was done in the old-fashioned way1 and accuracy depended entirely on the skill of the workman4 ,the tool work left much to be done by the fitter4 ,interchangeability was unknown1 even in screw-threads4 ,for example1 when nuts were removed from a cylinder head1 pains had always to be taken that each nut was replaced on its own bolt1 as no two were exactly of a size4 ,this condition developed a class of very skillful all-round workmen2 but my earliest observation showed me that in manufacturing it was important that so far as possible the personal factor should be eliminated4 ,i adopted the rule that in mechanical work there was only one way to insure that anything should always be done right1 and that was to make it impossible that it should be done wrong4 ,for example1 in my governor gears their true running required that the bore should be absolutely correct1 both in position and in direction4 ,i had seen many gears bored4 ,they were held in the jaws of a chuck and trued by marking their projecting side when running with a piece of chalk4 ,it was evident that absolute truth could hardly ever be reached in this way1 and the approximation to it depended wholly on the skill and pains of the workman4 ,besides1 much time was lost in setting each wheel4 ,these objections were much aggravated in the case of bevel-gears4 ,i met these difficulties in this way4 ,in standardizing my governors ,i found it necessary to make eight sizes1 but managed to use only three different pairs of gears4 ,i made a separate chuck for each of these six wheels1 the faces of which were turned to fit the top and inner ends of the teeth1 the same surfaces to which ,i had seen the chalk applied4 ,when the castings were received from the foundry the first operation on them was to bed them to their chucks1 which were covered with a thin coating of red lead for this purpose4 ,the workman was careful to remove only projecting imperfections without touching the true surfaces of the teeth4 ,after this the gears1 being held firmly to their chucks by means of a yoke1 were bored rapidly and always with absolute truth4 ,result3 their running was practically noiseless4 ,mr4 ,freeland taught me the secret of producing true cylindrical surfaces by grinding with a wheel4 ,it was to let the swiftly revolving wheel traverse the surface as it rotated1 touching only the highest points1 and these very lightly4 ,this avoided the danger of errors from the springing of either the piece or the wheel1 which under strong pressure is sure to take place to some extent1 even in the best grinding-machines4 ,i have found this delicacy of touch to be a most difficult thing to teach the ordinary workmen4 ,they often manage to produce by grinding a surface more imperfect than it was before4 ,i took extreme pains to insure that the axes of the joint pins should intersect the axis of the governor spindle and those of the governor balls1 and should be equidistant from the center of the counterpoise1 these parts of the joints having been turned to true spherical forms by means of a circular tool-rest4 ,for this purpose ,i employed a feeling-gauge1 consisting of a cylindrical stem fitting the hole as drilled1 with a curved arm projecting from this stem and terminating in a point that would rub on the external surface of the balls4 ,by this means we almost always detected some slight inaccuracy1 which was remedied by the use of a round file4 ,the joint holes were afterwards finished with long reamers1 the cutting portion of which was in the middle of their length4 ,the front end of the reamer fitted the drilled hole and extended quite through the joint1 so guiding the cutting edges as they entered1 and the back end of the reamer filled the hole that had been reamed4 ,i finally tested their alignment by bringing the last of the five joints together after the others had been united1 when the forked link should swing freely to the ball without the least tendency in either direction from its exact place4 ,this it always did4 ,some time afterwards ,i adopted the plan of dispensing with heads and washers on the joint pins1 reaming the holes in the central portions of the joint slightly smaller than those in the arms and making the pin a hard fit in the former4 ,there was never any tendency for a pin to get loose in the running of the governor4 ,i also at a later date cut the counterpoise in two a short distance above the joints1 so that the mass of its weight did not need to be started and stopped when the speed of the governor changed4 ,i could not see1 however1 that this was of any advantage1 although when the governor balls were pulled around by hand no motion was imparted to the mass of the counterpoise4 ,the action was apparently quite perfect before4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,invention and ,application of my ,marine ,governor4 ,i was anxious from the first to produce a governor capable of being used on marine engines--which the governor already described could not be1 as it needed to stand in a vertical position--and also one that should be free from the limitations of the conical pendulum4 ,i gave a great deal of study to the subject1 and after worrying about it--,i am ashamed to say how long1 for the principle when once seen is found to be exceedingly simple1 being merely maintaining a constant ratio between the compression of the spring and the radius of the circle of revolution of the balls--,i finally perfected my marine governor and tried it in my shop1 running it from a hand-driven pulley1 and found it perfectly isochronous4 ,it was capable of being adjusted to be as nearly isochronous as we thought expedient consistent with stability of position4 ,this governor is represented in the cut that follows4 ,the motion imparted was small1 from to #a inches in the different sizes1 but the governor was very strong4 ,the balls are shown half expanded4 ,before expansion their circle of revolution is #aj inches diameter2 when fully expanded it is #ae inches diameter2 increase in diameter1 and so in centrifugal force1 #ej per cent4 ,the spring has an initial compression given by the nut of #b inches2 additional compression imparted by the expansion of the balls1 #a inch1 giving an increase of #ej per cent4 in the resistance4 ,so in every position of the balls the two forces are in equilibrium1 at a constant number of revolutions per minute4 ,my friend ,mr4 ,mc,laren had the job of making repairs on the vessels of the newly started ,north ,german ,lloyd ,line1 and feeling confident that my governor was what that line needed very much1 he obtained from the agents in ,new ,york an order for me to put one on the steamer 8,new ,york0 on a guarantee of perfect performance4 ,this was the first steamship of this line4 ,the chief engineer of the vessel1 an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,sparks1 told me in conversation that ,i could have no idea how anxious they were in the engineering department for my governor to be a success1 because they had to throttle the ship by hand1 and it seemed sometimes as though their arms would drop off before the end of their watch2 but he was sorry to say that ,i could not do it1 and he would tell me why4 8,we know when the screw is coming out of the water by the rising of the stern of the vessel1 and we shut the steam off beforehand1 and so when the stern goes down we know that it is going down into the sea and admit the steam to the engine beforehand4 ,now1 your governor cannot tell what is going to happen4 ,it cannot act until a change of motion has taken place which will be too late1 and so ,i am sorry to say that you cannot succeed40 ,but in spite of his want of faith ,i obtained authority to attach the governor4 ,on returning from his first voyage with it1 ,mr4 ,sparks said to me3 8,i have nothing to say1 ,mr4 ,porter1 except that we have sat quietly in our chairs all the voyage1 which has been a very stormy one1 and watched the engine moving as regularly as a clock1 while the governor has been in a state of incessant activity40 ,the captain joined with him in giving me the following testimonials3 8,steamship #8,new ,york1' 8,pier #cj1 ,north ,river4 8,to ,mr4 ,chas4 ,t4 ,porter3 8,sir3 ,it affords me sincere pleasure to acknowledge the perfect success of your patent marine governor1 as applied to the engines of the above ship4 8,on our passage from ,southampton we had an excellent opportunity of testing its merits fully1 and ,i can assure you it had complete control over the engines at all times4 ,not the slightest racing occurred1 nor any of those sudden shocks that happen with the best hand-throttling4 ,it closed the valve at the right moment1 and as freely opened it again1 thus maintaining a uniform speed throughout4 8,to the proprietors of steamships1 or engineers having charge of marine engines1 ,i can confidently recommend this most valuable invention1 wishing it the success so perfect a governor deserves4 8,i am 8,respectfully yours1 8,h4 ,,sparks1 8,chief ,engineer4 8,may #cj1 #ahfa40 8,i cordially concur in the approbation of ,mr4 ,porter's governor1 contained in the foregoing letter of the chief engineer4 ,we had several days of bad weather on the last passage1 and the ship1 being very lightly laden1 pitched excessively1 so as to throw the screw at times entirely out of the water4 8,the motion of the engines and ship was at all times perfectly steady2 scarcely a jar was felt in the ship more than in calm weather4 8,i would strongly recommend to all masters and engineers of screw steamships to use this governor4 8,g4 ,,wenke1 8,master of the ,s4 ,s4 #8,new ,york4' 8,new ,york1 ,june #a1 #ahfa40 ,it may be supposed that with such an unqualified endorsement we would have no difficulty in obtaining many orders4 ,in fact1 so long as simple engines were used a good business was done in the manufacture of these governors1 but when compounding came into use it was found that they regulated no more4 ,the intermediate receiver held steam enough when admitted to the low-pressure cylinder to run the engine away when the screw came out of the water1 and the use of marine governors entirely ceased1 and the engines have ever since been allowed to race without any attempt to control them4 ,this governor was not1 however1 to vanish like the stone-dressing machine4 ,about the time when the patent on it expired1 its principle came to be utilized in shaft governors4 ,i do not know by whom this application of it1 which afterwards became so extensive1 was first made4 ,illustration3 ,the ,porter ,marine ,governor4 ,on the 8,new ,york0 ,i made my first and only observation on the subject of electrolysis4 ,i was required to put in a special valve to be operated by the governor4 ,i put in a throttle valve of steam metal in a cast-iron chamber4 ,the spindle was of steel1 #b inches diameter1 and the valve was secured on it by three steel taper pins inch diameter at one end and inch at the other4 ,for some reason1 what it was ,i have now no idea1 on the return of the ship ,i took this valve chamber out of the pipe1 and found something ,i was not looking for4 ,the projecting ends of these pins1 fully inch long1 had been completely eaten away in one round trip4 ,i had to replace them with composition pins1 which ,i always used afterwards4 ,directly after the success of my marine governor on the 8,new ,york0 ,i went ,west to attempt its introduction on propellers running on the ,great ,lakes4 ,this journey resulted in the same financial success that ,i had achieved at ,pittsburg2 but some incidents make it interesting to me4 ,on taking my seat in a car for ,albany ,i found my companion to be ,mr4 ,hiram ,sibley1 afterwards the founder of ,sibley ,college of the ,mechanic ,arts in ,cornell ,university4 ,when ,i lived in ,rochester ,mr4 ,sibley was sheriff of ,monroe ,county1 of which ,rochester is the capital or shire town1 and as a lawyer ,i was occasionally brought into some relations with him4 ,we had not met in eleven years1 but we instantly recognized each other4 ,he was then enjoying the triumphant outcome of his amazing foresight and boldness1 and he loved to talk about his experience1 especially with an old ,rochester man who had known his associates there4 ,in fact1 he entertained me all the way to ,albany4 ,on the first burst of enthusiasm over the invention of the telegraph1 companies had been incorporated in many of the ,states for the establishment of lines4 ,these companies1 it was found directly1 could not even pay their running expenses1 because their operations were confined to their respective ,states4 ,mr4 ,sibley was the man for the hour4 ,he conceived the plan of buying up the stock of all these companies1 which could be got for very little1 and after this had been secured incorporating a company to operate throughout the ,united ,states4 ,it is difficult now to put ourselves back to that time1 when the vastness of such a scheme would take men's breath away4 ,mr4 ,sibley succeeded in interesting the financial men of ,rochester in the enterprise1 and the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company was formed4 ,the story of his struggles to hold his subscribers1 resisting the appeals of some of them for the sake of their families to be released from their obligations1 was very amusing4 ,he was obdurate and enriched them all4 ,a few years later ,mr4 ,sibley conceived a plan for a telegraph line to ,san ,francisco1 and at his request a meeting was held of parties holding large interests in the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company to consider the proposition4 ,this was referred to a committee1 who in their report pronounced the scheme utterly visionary1 and indulged in considerable merriment over its absurdity1 and the proposal was unanimously rejected4 ,mr4 ,sibley then got up and said1 8,gentlemen1 if ,i were not so old a man ,i would build the line myself40 ,this declaration was received with peals of laughter4 ,then he got mad and shouted over the din1 8,damn it1 gentlemen1 ,i'll bar the years and do it02 and now he had done it4 8,and this very day10 said he1 8,i have been solicited by merchants in ,new ,york to let them have shares in ,california telegraph stock at the rate of five dollars for one1 men whom ,i had almost on my knees begged in vain for help to build the line2 but they could not get the stock40 ,i asked him1 8,don't you have trouble from the ,indians80 to which he replied3 8,the ,indians are the best friends we have got4 ,they believe the ,great ,spirit is in that wire2 in fact1 they know it1 for they have seen him4 ,the linemen had shown them the electric sparks4 ,the only trouble we have had has been from the border ruffians of ,missouri4 ,we are now building a line through ,iowa1 around the ,state of ,missouri40 ,on arriving at ,buffalo ,i called first upon the firm of ,shepard ,company1 who were the largest builders of engines for the lake steamers4 ,i did not succeed in persuading them that it would be for their advantage to add to the cost of the engines they were building1 but they were very courteous and advised me to apply to the companies owning the boats4 ,i did not make much progress with them1 but the matter was left open for further consideration on my return from ,chicago4 ,an official of one of the transportation companies showed me over a new boat4 ,i saw a valve in the steam-pipe at some little distance from the engine1 and asked him what it was4 ,he told me that was the cut-off4 ,i asked him1 8,why not place it on the boiler80 ,he did not see the humor of the question1 but replied to me quite seriously1 8,because it is a part of the engine40 ,at the ,shepard ,works ,i said to the gentleman who conducted me over the works1 8,i see you use the ,corliss valve40 8,corliss valve1 indeed60 said he4 8,come with me40 ,he then showed me their own engine driving the shop1 and fitted with the same valve1 cutting off1 of course1 at a fixed point4 ,he said to me3 8,that engine has been running in that very spot more than twenty years4 ,mr4 ,corliss once visited these works1 and ,i showed him around just as ,i am showing you around4 ,he was very much interested in the valves we were making1 and asked me a great many questions about them4 ,it was not very long afterwards that we began to hear from ,providence about the ,corliss valve40 ,i went on to ,chicago1 arriving on a ,saturday afternoon4 ,i went to the house of an uncle1 the ,rev4 ,jeremiah ,porter1 who was a man of some local prominence1 having been the first missionary sent by the ,american ,home ,missionary ,society to ,fort ,dearborn1 which stood where ,chicago is before ,chicago was4 ,i expected to set out ,monday morning to look for customers1 but ,i changed my mind1 for that morning the telegraph brought the news of the battle of ,bull ,run1 which had been fought the day before1 while ,i was in church hearing my uncle preach4 ,i did not think any one would have much heart for business for some time to come1 so hurried back home as fast as steam could take me1 not stopping in ,buffalo4 ,some years afterwards ,i had an amusing experience in attempting to introduce my governor into the ,british navy4 ,i called upon ,mr4 ,john ,penn1 to whom ,i had sold one of my stationary governors for his own works and who had become very much interested in the ,richards indicator1 and ,i thought he would surely adopt my marine governor4 ,he told me1 however1 that he must set his face against it like a flint1 and explained as follows3 8,i do business entirely with governments1 principally the ,english government1 and ,i come in contact with the official mind1 and ,i have to adapt myself to it4 ,should ,i put one of your governors on an engine1 my competitors would say3 #8,mr4 ,penn is afraid to send his engines to sea without a governor1 they are made so delicately4 ,our engines1 gentlemen1 do not require any governor1' and they would take all the orders40 ,marine-engine builders generally did not seem to appreciate this governor4 ,while in ,manchester ,i had an inquiry from ,caird ,co4 of ,greenock1 the builders of the engines for the 8,new ,york10 and indeed of the entire ship4 ,they asked the price of my smallest marine governor4 ,i inquired the size of the vessel for which it was wanted4 ,their reply was brief4 8,none of your business4 ,we would like an answer to our question40 ,some months after ,i received a letter from my foreman in ,new ,york3 8,mr4 ,porter1 what in the name of common sense did you put such a little governor on the #8,america' for80 ,caird ,co4 had performed their contract to supply a ,porter governor1 and had left a suitable one to be ordered from my shop in ,new ,york4 ,soon after the first arrival of the steamer 8,kaiser ,wilhelm der ,grosse10 about #aijj 7,i forget the year71 ,i obtained a letter of introduction to the chief engineer of that vessel1 and called upon him for the purpose of asking him to favor me with indicator diagrams from its engines4 ,in the course of conversation ,i said to him3 8,i have rather a partiality for this line1 for ,i put my first marine governor on its first vessel1 the old #8,new ,york1' in '#fa40 ,he replied to me3 8,i remember that very well1 ,mr4 ,porter2 ,i was an oiler on that ship40 ,he had risen from that position to be chief engineer of the line4 ,at that time the ,germans were commencing to form a steam marine4 ,they had not only to procure their vessels abroad1 but also engineers to run the machinery4 ,they set in earnest about this development1 and took out of their polytechnic schools the brightest young men to put them on foreign-built vessels and in foreign shops to learn the business1 with the wonderful results we are now witnessing1 and the chief engineer was one of those lads4 ,he said to me3 8,i have an acquaintance in your town1 ,montclair--,mr4 ,clemens ,herschel10 a prominent civil engineer4 8,he was an old friend and fellow student of mine in the polytechnic40 ,about the diagrams1 he said he would take a set for me on their next voyage4 ,he kept his promise4 ,i have the diagrams now1 and very instructive ones they are4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,engineering conditions in #ahfj4 ,i meet ,mr4 ,allen4 ,mr4 ,allen's inventions4 ,analysis of the ,allen link4 ,before resuming my narrative1 it seems desirable to present a brief sketch of steam engineering conditions forty years ago4 ,the science of thermodynamics had been established on the foundation laid in the experiments of ,joule1 determining with precision the rate at which1 through the medium of water1 heat is converted into dynamical force4 ,this science was1 however1 as yet without practical results4 ,the condensation of steam in the cylinder from the conversion of its heat into mechanical energy was unregarded4 ,the same was true also respecting the far greater loss from the changing temperatures of the surfaces with which the steam comes in contact in alternately entering and leaving the cylinder4 ,the action of these surfaces in transmitting heat from the entering to the exhaust steam without its doing any work was imagined by very few4 ,in the ,united ,states economy of steam was sought only by mechanical means--by cutting off the admission of the steam at an early point of the stroke in a single cylinder and permitting the confined steam to complete the stroke by its expansion4 ,by this means a large saving of steam over that consumed in earlier practice was effected1 and with this gain the universal disposition was to rest content4 ,america was eminently the land of the cut-off system1 an early application of which was on steamboats4 ,the earliest device for this purpose was the elegant ,stevens cut-off1 which still keeps its position on the class of boats to which it was first applied1 though commonly modified by the ,sickles improvement4 ,in this system the exhaust and the admission valves are operated by separate eccentrics on opposite sides of the engine1 and all the valves have the amount and rapidity of their opening and closing movements increased by the intervention of wiper cams1 those for the admission valves being very long and giving a correspondingly greater enlargement of opening4 ,the valves were double poppet valves1 moving nearly in equilibrium in directions vertical to their seats4 ,this cut-off was found to be capable of improvement in one important respect4 ,the closing motion of the valve grew slower as the valve approached its seat1 and while the piston was moving most rapidly much steam passed through the ports at a lower pressure1 and so a great part of its expansive value was lost4 ,this was technically termed 8wire-drawing40 ,to remedy this defect ,mr4 ,sickels invented his celebrated trip cut-off4 ,the valve1 lifted by the ,stevens wiper1 was liberated by tripping the mechanism1 and fell quickly to its seat1 which it was prevented from striking forcibly1 being caught by water in a dash-pot4 ,the steam was thus cut off sharply and the economy was much improved4 ,the pressure used in this system was only about #be pounds1 the vacuum being relied upon for the larger portion of the power4 ,on the ,great ,lakes a pressure of #fj pounds was commonly employed1 and the valves were the four cylindrical rotating slide valves afterwards adopted by ,mr4 ,corliss4 ,what was called the cut-off was made by a separate valve located in the steam-pipe somewhere between the engine and the boiler4 ,on the ,mississippi and its tributaries1 much higher pressures were carried1 condensers were not used1 and the admission and release of the steam were generally effected by four single poppet valves1 lifted by cams against the pressure of the steam4 ,on land engines ,mr4 ,sickels' invention of the trip cut-off stimulated inventors to a multitude of devices for working steam expansively4 ,of these the one of enduring excellence proved to be that of ,mr4 ,corliss4 ,he applied the trip cut-off to the rotating slide valve1 and arrested the motion of the liberated valve by an air-cushion4 ,this proved a satisfactory method1 as the valve1 moving in directions parallel to its seat1 did not need to be stopped at a determinate point4 ,mr4 ,corliss applied the governor to vary the point of liberation of the valve1 and so produced a variable cut-off1 which effected a large saving of steam and regulated the motion of the engine more closely than could be done by a throttle valve outside the steam-chest4 ,this was by far the most prominent of the numerous forms of automatic variable cut-offs1 to all of which it was supposed that the liberating feature was essential4 ,in ,england1 when the steam was worked expansively1 it was cut off by a separately driven valve on the back of the main slide valve1 the point of cut-off being fixed2 and the regulation was effected by means of the throttle4 ,this system was also largely employed in this country4 ,the compound engine was unknown in the ,united ,states4 ,i once saw at some place in ,new ,york ,city1 now forgotten1 a ,wolff engine--a small beam-engine1 which had been imported from ,england4 ,it was visited as a curiosity by several engineers1 and ,i remember ,mr4 ,horatio ,allen1 then president of the ,novelty ,iron ,works1 remarking1 8,it is only a cut-off40 ,in the south of ,england the ,wolff system was used to a limited extent4 ,i was much interested in the ,mc,naught system1 devised1 ,i think1 by the same ,scotchman who first applied a rotating paper drum to the ,watt indicator4 ,the cotton and woolen mills1 as their business grew1 felt the need of additional power1 but dared not employ higher steam pressures in their cylinders1 because the beam centers of their engines would not stand the additional stress4 ,mc,naught provided an additional cylinder to carry a higher pressure1 and applied this pressure directly to the connecting-rod end of the beam4 ,the exhaust from this cylinder was taken into the old cylinder at the old pressure4 ,this latter cylinder then exerted the same power it always had done4 ,the stresses on the beam centers were not increased1 but the power of the engine was doubled1 and only a little more steam was used than before4 ,this method of compounding was known as ,mc,naughting1 and became common in the manufacturing districts of ,england and ,scotland4 ,there was one feature which was common to all engines in ,america and ,europe1 both ashore and afloat1 and of whatever make or name1 except locomotives4 ,that was the piston speed1 which varied only from #bjj to #cjj feet per minute4 ,this last was the maximum speed1 to which every new engine1 however novel in other respects1 was made to conform4 ,i come now to the turning-point in my career1 and the reflection forces itself upon me1 how often in the course of my life incidents trivial in themselves have proved afterwards to have been big with consequences2 and how events1 sometimes chains of events1 beyond my control1 of which indeed ,i had no knowledge1 have determined my course4 ,the same must be the case in the lives of many persons1 and the thoughtful mind cannot look back on them without being impressed by the mysterious interrelations of our being4 ,one morning in the winter of #ahfj-fa1 ,mr4 ,henry ,a4 ,hurlbut1 of the firm of ,swift1 ,hurlbut ,co41 wholesale dealers in hats at ,no4 #fe ,broadway1 and who was interested in my governor manufacture1 called upon me to tell me that a friend of his1 ,mr4 ,henry ,a4 ,burr1 manufacturer of felt hat bodies at the corner of ,frankfort and ,cliff streets in ,new ,york1 had been having trouble with his engine4 ,he thought my governor was just what he needed1 and asked me to accompany him to ,mr4 ,burr's office1 where he would give me the advantage of his personal introduction4 ,in the interview with ,mr4 ,burr which followed1 ,i did not have an opportunity to say a word4 ,after ,mr4 ,hurlbut had explained the object of our visit1 ,mr4 ,burr replied that he had had a great deal of trouble with the regulation of his engine1 and had thought seriously of getting a ,corliss engine in the place of it2 but two or three weeks before the builders of the engine had sent him a very skillful engineer1 and since he came there had been no further trouble1 so he should not need my governor4 ,he invited us to see his engine1 in which--since it had been taught to behave itself--he evidently took much pride4 ,we found a pair of beam-engines of #e feet stroke1 running at #be revolutions per minute1 made by ,thurston ,gardiner of ,providence4 ,they had the usual poppet valves and the ,sickels cut-off4 ,this was made adjustable1 and was regulated by the governor4 ,at the time of our entrance1 ,mr4 ,allen1 the new engineer1 was engaged on the scaffold4 ,mr4 ,burr called him and he came down1 and at ,mr4 ,burr's request explained to us the variable liberating mechanism and what he had done to make it work satisfactorily4 ,the regulation did not appear to me to be very close1 and ,i made a determined effort to induce ,mr4 ,burr to substitute one of my governors4 ,i showed him a cut of the governor1 and pointed out its combination of power and sensitiveness1 but all in vain4 ,he was satisfied with things as they were1 and ,i went away crestfallen1 having lost not only the sale of a governor1 but also an opportunity for a triumph in a very important place4 ,but ,i did not know to whom ,i had in fact been talking4 ,as we were leaving1 ,mr4 ,allen asked me if ,i would call some time and see him--he had something he thought ,i would be interested in4 ,i called soon after4 ,he told me he had a plan for a variable cut-off with positive movements1 which he thought would avoid defects in the liberating gear4 ,he had had it in his mind a good while1 but did not think it could be used1 because the governor could not handle the block in his link so as to maintain uniform motion1 and he had been inclined to abandon the idea2 but when he heard me describing my governor to ,mr4 ,burr1 it occurred to him that that governor would do it1 and he would like to explain his plan to me4 ,he had no drawing1 not a line2 the design existed only in his mind4 ,he put down his ideas1 as he fitly expressed it1 with chalk on the engine-room floor1 and that rude sketch represented the perfect system4 ,when his plan came to be analyzed1 it was found that everything had been thought out and provided for1 with a single exception afterwards provided by ,mr4 ,allen1 as will be described4 ,but the wonder did not stop there4 ,mr4 ,allen had remedied the defect in the link motion of making a narrow opening for admission when cutting off early1 by employing a four-opening admission valve of unique design at each end of the cylinder1 and also by greatly enlarging the opening movements4 ,the four-opening valve required four seats in one plane1 and it was important that these should be as narrow as possible4 ,for this purpose ,mr4 ,allen employed the ,corliss wrist-plate movement to reduce the lap of the valve1 and1 by an elegant improvement on this movement1 he made it available also to enlarge the openings4 ,this improvement consisted in the employment of two rockers having a common axis and separate driving-arms1 as well as driven arms1 for each valve4 ,the driving-arms were made to vibrate a long way towards their dead points1 and the increased opening movement in arc thus obtained was imparted directly to the valve4 ,this combination of an enlarged opening with a reduced lap was perhaps the most surprising feature of ,mr4 ,allen's system4 ,the four-opening equilibrium valve1 afterwards invented by ,mr4 ,allen and since #ahgf always employed1 requires but two seats in one plane4 ,these could therefore be made wider4 ,the division of the driving-arm was then dispensed with1 and the enlarged openings were obtained by increasing the length of the driven arms4 ,that this remarkable system of ports and movements should have been elaborated in the mind of a man who had no knowledge of mechanics except what he had absorbed in engine-rooms must stand among the marvels of inventive power4 ,the accompanying diagram represents the lines put down by ,mr4 ,allen on his engine-room floor and since retained1 except that it is now adapted to the more simple movement1 with a single driving-arm on the rocker1 as previously described4 ,the eccentric is formed on the shaft coincident with the crank of the engine1 so that the two arrive at their dead points simultaneously4 ,the angular vibration of the line connecting the center of the eccentric with the trunnions of the link is the same as that of the connecting-rod4 ,the connecting-rod of the length always used by me1 namely1 six cranks1 makes the piston velocity at the head end of the cylinder #dj per cent4 greater than at the crank end4 ,by this construction the valve velocities were made to vary in the same ratio4 ,a connecting-rod five cranks in length would increase this difference in piston velocities to #ej per cent41 and one four cranks in length would increase it to #ff per cent4 ,after ,mr4 ,allen had explained his plan to me1 ,i expressed my confidence that my governor would meet its requirements1 and observed that it would enable a variable cut-off engine to be run as fast as a locomotive4 ,somewhat to my surprise1 he replied that he wanted his cut-off compared with the liberating cut-off turn for turn2 that it had an advantage which he thought would cause it to be generally preferred at the same speed4 ,illustration3 ,,porter-,,allen ,,engine4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,admission-,,valve ,,movements4 ,,release ,,and ,,compression ,,of ,,the ,,stroke ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,cut ,,off ,,to ,,valve ,,at ,,crank ,,end ,,mean ,,position ,,of ,,rod ,,radius ,,of ,,link ,,to ,,valve ,,at ,,head ,,end ,a4 ,,points ,,of ,,admission ,,and ,,cut-,,off4 ,,for ,,distinctness ,,of ,,representation1 ,,the ,,throw ,,of ,,the ,,eccentric ,,is ,,shown ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,crank4 ,,in ,,practice ,,it ,,is ,,only ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,crank4 ,the ,diagram ,drawn by ,mr4 ,allen on his ,engine-room ,floor4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,f4 ,,allen ,i was then ignorant of his state of mind on that subject1 or of what had produced it4 ,i learned these afterwards1 and will state them here4 ,in one of our interviews1 in reply to my question as to what had led him to make this invention1 he told me it was his experience when he was engineer of the propeller 8,curlew10 a freight-boat running on ,long ,island ,sound1 between ,new ,york and ,providence1 which had a ,corliss engine4 ,he became impressed with what he thought to be a serious defect in the liberating system4 ,the governor did not control the point of cut-off1 but the point of release2 this point being at the beginning of the closing movement of the valve1 while the cut-off took place near the end of that movement4 ,when the engine was worked up to nearly its capacity1 as was the case in a ship1 the port was opened wide1 and quite an appreciable time elapsed between the release and the cut-off4 ,during this interval the piston advanced considerably1 and if the engine ran fast enough it might get to the very end of the stroke before the cut-off took place4 ,he said that in smooth water they had no trouble1 but in the open ocean1 going around ,point ,judith1 it was always rough1 and sometimes in stormy weather the screw would be thrown quite out of the water1 and the engine1 having no fly-wheel1 would race most furiously4 ,the faster it ran the further the steam would follow1 and was pumped out of the boiler very rapidly4 ,springs were employed to accelerate the closing movement of the valves1 but in these cases they seemed to be of little use1 and were continually breaking4 ,he saw that this difficulty could be avoided only by a positive motion gear which would enable the governor to control the point of cut-off itself2 and1 accordingly1 he set himself to work to devise such a system4 ,we know now that this judgment1 formed from observations made under very exceptional conditions1 was not well founded4 ,the difficulty in question does not practically exist in engines having fly-wheels and the present improved liberating gear1 and running at moderate speeds2 but the experience naturally made a deep impression upon ,mr4 ,allen's mind1 and led to the invention of the positive motion system4 ,this he did not tell me at the time1 so that ,i was at a loss to understand his reluctance to admit what was really the great value of his invention4 ,however1 ,i told him ,i would be willing to attempt its introduction1 provided he would allow me to apply it at once to a high-speed engine2 that being a field into which the liberating system could not enter4 ,we had quite an argument on this point4 ,i told him his invention interested me only because it would enable two or three times the power to be obtained from a given engine without additional stress on any part1 the fly-wheel to be reduced in size1 and the means for getting up the speed of machinery to be largely dispensed with4 ,i represented to him also that a high-speed engine ought to be more economical and to give a more nearly uniform motion4 ,he finally agreed to my condition1 and ,i took him directly to the office of ,mr4 ,richards and engaged him to make an analysis and drawing of ,mr4 ,allen's system under his direction1 and soon afterwards gave him an order for the plans for an experimental engine1 #fae inches1 to make #afj revolutions per minute4 ,as the diagram of the link motion was at first drawn1 the center of the trunnions vibrated in an arc which terminated at points on the line connecting the center of the engine shaft with the ends of the rocker arms1 and which in the diagram on page #dh is named 8radius of link40 ,i determined to work out this link motion myself on a large scale4 ,for this purpose ,i drew a diagram in which the throw of the eccentric was #d inches1 and the distance from the center of the shaft to that of the trunnions of the link in their mid-position was #ab inches4 ,i made a three-point beam compass4 ,two of these points were secured permanently on the beam1 #ab inches apart4 ,as one of these points traversed the path of the center of the eccentric1 the other could be made to traverse the arc of vibration of the trunnions of the link4 ,i divided the former into #dj equal divisions measured from its dead points1 making needle-holes in the circle1 in which the taper compass-points would center themselves accurately4 ,the paper was firm and the points of division were fixed with extreme care2 and they lasted through all my experiments4 ,i then set out #bj corresponding divisions in the arc of vibration of the center of the trunnions4 ,these showed distinctly the modification of the motion at the opposite ends of this vibration as already described4 ,the third point was adjustable on a hinged beam which could be secured in any position4 ,i drew two arcs representing the lead lines of the link1 or the lines on which the link would stand when the eccentric was on its dead points4 ,the third point was now secured on its beam at any point on one of the lead lines1 when the other points stood1 one on the dead point of the eccentric and the other at the end of the trunnion vibration4 ,the apparatus was now ready for use1 the corresponding points on the circle and the arc being numbered alike4 ,by setting the first two points in any corresponding holes1 the third point would show the corresponding position of that point of the link at which it was set4 ,i thus set out the movements of six different points of the link1 the highest being #ab inches above the trunnions4 ,these represented the movements of the valves of the engine when the block was at these points in the link4 ,the apparatus being firm1 it worked with entire precision4 ,to my surprise1 it showed much the larger valve opening at the crank end of the cylinder1 where the movement of the piston was slowest4 ,that would not do2 we wanted just the reverse4 ,i called ,mr4 ,allen in and showed him the defect4 ,after considering it a few minutes1 he said he thought it would be corrected by lowering the trunnions1 so that their arc of vibration would coincide with the line of centers at its middle point1 instead of terminating on it4 ,this was done1 and the result was most successful4 ,the lead was now earlier and the opening wider at the back end of the cylinder1 as the greater velocity of the piston at that point required1 and the cut-offs on the opposite strokes more equal4 ,the link has always been set in this way1 as shown in the diagram4 ,from this description of the link motion1 it will be seen that the correct vertical adjustment of the trunnions of the link was an important matter4 ,to enable this adjustment to be made with precision1 and to be corrected1 if from wear of the shaft-bearings or other cause this became necessary1 ,i secured the pin on which these trunnions were pivoted to the side of the engine bed in the manner shown in the following figure4 ,to hold the wedge securely1 the surface of the bed below was reduced1 so that the wedge was seized by the flange4 ,the correct position of this pin was determined by the motions given to the valves4 ,illustration3 ,,vertical ,,adjustment ,,of ,,sustaining ,,pin ,,for ,,trunnions ,,of ,,the ,,allen ,,link ,i now took a more prominent part myself in steam-engine design4 ,i had got an idea from ,mr4 ,sparks that took full possession of my mind4 ,this was the exceedingly unmechanical nature of the single or overhanging crank4 ,the engines of the 8,new ,york10 built by ,caird ,co41 of ,greenock1 were among the first of the direct inverted-cylinder engines applied to screw propulsion4 ,they were then known as the steam-hammer engines1 their leading feature being taken from ,mr4 ,nasmyth's invention4 ,i am not sure but ,caird ,co4 were the first to make this application4 ,the forward engine had a single crank4 ,the vital defect of this construction became especially apparent in these vertical engines of large power4 ,the stress on the cap bolts during the upward strokes and the deflection of the shaft alternately in opposite directions over the pillow-block as a fulcrum were very serious4 ,mr4 ,sparks told me that on his very first voyage he had a great deal of trouble with this forward bearing1 and it caused him continual anxiety4 ,he got into such a state of worry and apprehension that as soon as he reached ,new ,york he wrote to the firm3 8,for ,god's sake1 never make another pair of engines without giving a double crank to the forward engine40 ,the reply he got was1 to mind his own business3 they employed him to run their engines2 they would attend to the designing of them4 ,he told me not long after that he had the satisfaction of seeing every ship they built except his own disabled1 either by a broken shaft or broken pillow-block bolts4 ,he attributed the escape of the 8,new ,york0 from a like disaster to his own extreme care4 ,they did1 however1 adopt his suggestion on all future vessels1 and1 moreover1 added a forward crank and pillow-block to the engines already built4 ,this they evidently found themselves compelled to do4 ,i saw this addition afterwards on the 8,bremen10 sister ship to the 8,new ,york40 ,the added pillow-block was supported by a heavy casting bolted to the forward end of the bedplate4 ,i went everywhere visiting engines at work and in process of construction1 to observe this particular feature of the overhanging crank1 which was universal in horizontal engines4 ,in this class of engines1 running slowly1 its defective nature was not productive of serious consequences1 because no stress was exerted on the cap bolts and the shaft was made larger in proportion to the power of the engine1 as it had to carry the fly-wheel4 ,but ,i was astonished to see the extent to which the overhang of the single crank was allowed4 ,builders seemed to be perfectly regardless of its unmechanical nature4 ,first1 the crank-pin was made with a length of bearing surface equal to about twice its diameter2 then a stout collar was formed on the pin between its bearing surface and the crank4 ,the latter was made thick and a long hub was formed on the back of it4 ,i was told that the long hub was necessary in order to give a proper depth of eye to receive the shaft4 ,this being turned down smaller than the journal1 so that the crank might be forced on up to a shoulder1 the eye needed to be deep or the crank would not be held securely4 ,finally1 the journal boxes were made with flanges on the ends1 sometimes projecting a couple of inches4 ,altogether1 the transverse distance from the center line of the engine to the solid support of the shaft in the pillow-block was about twice what it needed to be4 ,i also saw in some cases the eccentric placed between the crank and the pillow-block4 ,fifteen years later ,i saw a large engine sent from ,belgium to our #ahgf ,exhibition which was made in this manner4 ,i determined at once that such a construction would not do for high-speed engines1 and proceeded to change every one of these features4 ,the single crank could not be avoided1 but its overhang could be much reduced4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,cranks ,,and ,,journal ,,boxes4 ,,the ,,cranks ,,are ,,shown ,,in ,,the ,,vertical ,,position4 ,,cranks ,,and ,,top ,,and ,,bottom ,,boxes ,,are ,,shown ,,in ,,section4 ,the following sketches show the changes which were then made1 and all of which have been retained4 ,the inside collar on the crank-pin was dispensed with and the diameter of the pin was made greater than its length1 the projected area being generally increased4 ,the shank of the pin was made larger and shorter1 and was riveted at the back4 ,instead of turning the shaft down smaller than the journal to receive the crank1 ,i made it with a large head for this purpose4 ,the keyway could then be planed out and the key fitted above the surface of the journal1 and the joint was so much further from the axis that but little more than one half the depth was required in the crank-eye4 ,mr4 ,corliss had already discarded the flanged boxes4 ,he also first made this bearing in four parts4 ,the wear in the horizontal direction1 the direction of the thrust1 could then be taken up4 ,for this purpose he used two bolts behind the front side box only4 ,i modified his construction by making the side boxes wider and taking up their wear by wedges behind both of them1 thus preserving the alignment4 ,one wedge could also be placed close to the crank4 ,the dotted lines show the width of the side boxes and the location of the wedges4 ,the shaft was made with a collar to hold the bearings in place1 and was enlarged in its body4 ,the substitution in place of the crank of the entire disk carrying a counterweight completed these changes4 ,this was the fruit of my first lesson in high-speed engine designing1 which had unconsciously been given to me by ,mr4 ,sparks4 ,the oil passage in the pin was added later1 as will be described4 ,i had another piece of good luck4 ,i happened one day to see in the ,novelty ,iron ,works the hubs being bored for the paddle-wheels of the new ship for the ,collins line--the 8,adriatic40 ,these were perhaps the largest castings ever made for such a purpose4 ,i observed that they were bored out only half-way around4 ,the opposite side of the hole had been cored to about half an inch greater radius1 and three key-seats were cored in it1 which needed only to be finished in the key-seating machine4 ,the idea struck me that this would be an excellent way to bore fly-wheels and pulleys4 ,as commonly bored1 so that they could be put on the shaft comfortably they were bored too large1 their contact with the shaft could then be only on a line opposite the key1 and the periphery could not run perfectly true4 ,i adopted the plan of first boring to the exact size of the shaft and then shifting the piece about an eighth of an inch1 and boring out a slender crescent1 the opposite points of which extended a little more than half-way around4 ,the keyway was cut in the middle of this enlargement4 ,the wheel could then be readily put on to the shaft1 and when the key was driven up contact was made over nearly one half the surface and the periphery ran dead true4 ,i remember seeing this feature much admired in ,london1 and several times heard the remark1 8,i should think the key would throw it some40 ,to prevent fanning ,i made the fly-wheel and pulley with arms of oval cross-section4 ,these have always been used by me4 ,they have done even better than ,i expected4 ,they are found to impart no motion to the air1 however rapidly they may be run4 ,illustration3 ,flanges on the ,eccentric4 ,illustration3 ,flanges on the ,strap4 ,as already stated1 the ,allen valve-gear required the position of the eccentric to coincide with that of the crank1 so that these should pass their dead points simultaneously4 ,to insure this and to make it impossible for the engineer to advance his eccentric1 which he would be pretty sure to do if he could1 ,i made the eccentric solid on the shaft4 ,this also enabled me to make it smaller1 the low side being brought down nearly to the surface of the shaft4 ,the construction1 moreover1 was substantial and saved some work4 ,all eccentrics that ,i had seen were flanged on each side to keep the strap in place4 ,i observed the oil to work out freely between the flanges and the strap4 ,this action would of course be increased in high-speed engines4 ,so ,i reversed the design1 as shown in the above sections of these two bearings at the top of the eccentric1 putting the flanges on the strap instead of on the eccentric4 ,it will be seen that the more rapid the speed the more difficult it becomes to keep the oil in the first bearing1 and the more difficult it becomes for it to get out of the second one4 ,i ought to have adopted the same construction for the main shaft journal1 but in all the years ,i was making engines it never occurred to me4 ,i contented myself with turning a groove in the hub of the crank1 as shown to prevent the oil from getting on the disk4 ,the problem of crank-pin lubrication at high speed at once presented itself and had to be met4 ,i finally solved it in the manner partially shown on page #ed4 ,a wiper was bolted on the back of the crank1 and from it a tube entered the diagonal hole in the pin4 ,this always worked perfectly4 ,this wiper and the oil cup are shown on page #bcj4 ,other devices have been employed by various makers of high-speed engines1 but ,i always adhered to this one4 ,it has the advantage of being equally applicable to double-crank engines4 ,aside from the above features1 the design for my exhibition engine was made by ,mr4 ,richards4 ,,chapter ,v ,invention of the ,richards ,indicator4 ,my ,purchase of the ,patent4 ,plan my ,london ,exhibition4 ,engine ,design4 ,ship ,engine ,bed to ,london1 and sail myself4 ,the subject of an indicator directly presented itself4 ,mr4 ,allen invited ,mr4 ,richards and myself to his engine-room1 and took diagrams for us with a ,mc,naught indicator4 ,this was the first indicator that either of us had ever seen4 ,indicators were then but little known in this country4 ,the ,novelty ,iron ,works made a very few ,mc,naught indicators1 almost the only users of which were the ,navy ,department and a few men like ,mr4 ,ericsson1 ,mr4 ,stevens1 ,mr4 ,sickels1 and ,mr4 ,corliss4 ,i told ,mr4 ,richards that we must have a high-speed indicator and he was just the man to get it up for us4 ,he went to work at it1 but soon became quite discouraged4 ,he twice gave it up4 ,he could not see his way4 ,i told him ,i was not able to make any suggestion1 but the indicator we must have1 and he had to produce it4 ,after some months he handed me a drawing of an indicator which has never been changed1 except in a few details4 ,this important invention1 which has made high-speed engineering possible1 came from the hands of ,mr4 ,richards quite complete4 ,its main features1 as is well known1 are a short piston motion against a short1 stiff spring2 light multiplying levers1 with a ,watt parallel motion1 giving to the pencil very nearly a straight line of movement2 and a free rotative motion of the pencil connections around the axis of the piston1 which itself is capable of only the slight rotation caused by the compression or elongation of the spring4 ,elegant improvements have since been made1 adapting the indicator to still higher engine speeds2 but these have consisted only in advancing further on the lines struck out by ,mr4 ,richards4 ,in fact1 this was all that could be done--giving to the piston a little less motion1 lightening still further the pencil movement1 and making the vertical line drawn by the pencil more nearly a straight line4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,taken ,,september #ac1 #ahfa1 ,,from ,,the ,,first ,,allen ,,engine ,,by ,,the ,,first ,,richards ,,indicator4 ,,engine1 #f ,,inches ,,by #ae ,,inches1 ,,making #afj ,,revolutions ,,per ,,minute4 ,,this ,,card ,,was ,,run ,,over ,,twenty ,,times4 ,i took ,mr4 ,richards' drawing to the ,novelty ,iron ,works and had an indicator ready for use when the engine was completed4 ,the engine was made by the firm of ,mc,laren ,anderson1 on ,horatio ,street1 ,new ,york1 for their own use4 ,it was set up by the side of their throttle-valve engine1 and was substituted for it to drive their machinery and that of a kindling-wood yard adjoining for which they furnished the power4 ,it ran perfectly from the start1 and saved fully one half of the fuel4 ,in throttle-valve engines in those days the ports and pipes were generally so small that only a part of the boiler pressure was realized in the cylinder1 and that part it was hard to get out1 and nobody knew what either this pressure or the back pressure was4 ,i have a diagram taken from that engine1 which is here reproduced4 ,the indicator was quickly in demand4 ,one day when ,i was in the shop of ,mc,laren ,anderson1 engaged in taking diagrams from the engine1 ,i had a call from the foreman of the ,novelty ,iron ,works4 ,he had come to see if the indicator were working satisfactorily1 and if so to ask the loan of it for a few days4 ,the ,novelty ,iron ,works had just completed the engines for three gunboats4 ,these engines were to make #ge revolutions per minute1 and the contract required them to be run for #gb consecutive hours at the dock4 ,they were ready to commence this run1 and were anxious to indicate the engines with the new indicator4 ,i was glad to have it used1 and he took it away4 ,i got it back after two or three weeks1 with the warmest praise2 but none of us had the faintest idea of the importance of the invention4 ,i remember that ,i had to go to the ,novelty ,works for the indicator1 and was asked by ,mr4 ,everett1 then president of the company1 if we had patented it1 for if we had they would be glad to make them for us4 ,the idea had not occurred to me1 but ,i answered him promptly that we had not1 but intended to4 ,i met ,mr4 ,allen at ,mr4 ,richards' office1 and told them ,mr4 ,everett's suggestion1 and added1 8,the first question is1 who is the inventor1 and all ,i know is that ,i am not40 ,mr4 ,allen added1 8,i am not40 8,then10 said ,mr4 ,richards1 8,i suppose ,i shall have to be40 8,will you patent it80 said ,i4 8,no10 he replied2 8if ,i patent everything ,i think of ,i shall soon be in the poorhouse40 8,what will you sell it to me for if ,i will patent it80 ,i asked4 8,will you employ me to obtain the patent80 he replied4 8,yes40 8,well1 ,i will sell it to you for a hundred dollars40 8,i will take it1 and if ,i make anything out of it will pay you ten per cent4 of what ,i get40 ,this ,i did1 so long as the patent remained in my hands4 ,the success of the stationary and the marine governors and of the engine and the indicator fired me1 in the summer of #ahfa1 with the idea of taking them all to the ,london ,international ,exhibition the next year4 ,the demonstration of the three latter seemed to have come in the very nick of time4 ,for this purpose ,i fixed upon an engine #h inches diameter of cylinder by #bd inches stroke1 to make #aej revolutions per minute1 and at once set ,mr4 ,richards at work on the drawings for it4 ,i thought some of speeding it at #bjj revolutions per minute1 but feared that speed would frighten people4 ,that this would have been a foolish step to take became afterwards quite apparent4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph ,e4 ,,holmes ,that summer ,i made application for space in the ,london ,exhibition of #ahfb1 and soon after was waited upon by the ,assistant ,united ,states ,commissioner1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,e4 ,holmes4 ,so far as the engine to be exhibited was concerned1 ,i had nothing to show ,mr4 ,holmes4 ,the drawings were scarcely commenced4 ,i1 however1 took him to ,mc,laren ,anderson's shop and showed him the little engine at work there and took diagrams from it in his presence1 and expatiated on the revolution in steam-engineering that was there inaugurated1 but which has not yet been realized to the extent ,i then dreamed of4 ,it was evident that ,mr4 ,holmes was much impressed with the assurance of the success of the new system that the perfect running of this first little engine seemed to give4 ,i told him that the engine for the exhibition would certainly be completed1 and on that assurance he accepted my entire proposed exhibit4 ,i did not see him again until we met the next spring in ,london1 under the somewhat remarkable circumstances hereafter to be related4 ,in spite of all efforts it was found impossible to complete the engine and have it tested before shipment as ,i had intended4 ,indeed1 as the time approached after which no further exhibits would be received1 two things grew more and more doubtful4 ,one was whether the engine could be got off at all1 and the other whether ,i could obtain the means to make the exhibit4 ,finally ,i managed to get the engine bed finished and immediately shipped it by a mail steamer4 ,a small1 slow steamer chartered by the ,united ,states ,commission and loaded with exhibits had sailed previously1 carrying the assistant commissioner and a number of exhibitors and their representatives1 who1 until they reached their destination1 remained in blissful ignorance of what happened directly after their departure4 ,but to return to my own movements4 ,mr4 ,hope one day said to me3 8,i understand you shipped your engine bed last ,saturday2 what did you do that for8 ,you don't know yet whether you can go yourself40 ,i replied3 8,if ,i had not shipped it then1 ,i should lose my space and would have to abandon the exhibition altogether4 ,if ,i find that ,i can't go1 the bed can come back40 ,i redoubled my exertions to get the remaining parts of the engine completed and to raise the necessary funds4 ,the next ,saturday ,i shipped everything that was ready4 ,on the following ,monday1 by making a large sacrifice1 ,i realized a sum that could be made to answer1 and on ,wednesday ,i sailed on the ,cunard steamer 8,africa10 leaving to my reliable clerk1 ,alexander ,gordon1 long ,president of the ,niles ,tool ,works1 and now ,chairman of the ,board of ,directors of the ,niles-,bement-,pond ,company1 the responsibility of seeing that everything still wanting should follow as rapidly as possible4 ,i left1 not knowing an ,englishman in the whole island1 to have the parts of an engine1 the first one from the drawings and the first engine ,i ever made1 brought together for the first time by ,i had no idea whom1 and assembled and put in motion before the eyes of the world4 ,but ,i had no misgivings4 ,the engine had been built in my own shop1 under my constant supervision1 and by workmen trained to the greatest accuracy4 ,the crank-pin ,i had hardened and ground by my friend ,mr4 ,freeland4 ,i knew the parts would come together perfectly4 ,the result justified my confidence4 ,one incident of the voyage is worth recording4 ,as we were leaving port we passed the 8,china10 the first screw steamer of the ,cunard fleet1 coming in on her maiden voyage4 ,we had some rough weather1 sometimes with a following sea4 ,i was much interested at such times in watching the racing of the engines1 when occasionally both paddle-wheels would be revolving in the air in the trough of the sea4 ,the feature that especially attracted my notice was that the faster the engines ran the more smoothly they ran4 ,it was certainly a fascinating sight to see these ponderous masses of metal1 the parts of great side-lever engines1 gliding with such velocity in absolute silence4 ,the question what caused them to do so it did not occur to me to ask4 ,illustration3 ,,alexander ,,gordon ,being anxious to reach ,london as quickly as possible1 after a tedious voyage of twelve days1 ,i left the steamer at ,cork1 to go through with the mail4 ,the custom-house inspectors first interested me4 ,on the little boat by which the mail is transferred from the ship to the shore1 two of the representatives of ,queen ,victoria were anxious to know if ,i had any liquor or tobacco in my trunk1 these being the only dutiable articles4 ,they were quite satisfied with my reply in the negative4 ,a personal examination they never thought of4 ,truthful themselves1 ,i moralized1 they do not suspect untruth in others4 ,their next question was1 8,have you got the price of a glass of beer about you80 ,i made them happy with a half crown1 several times their modest request1 and they stamped me as an ,american free with his money4 ,i purchased a first-class ticket to ,london1 and received the assurance that ,i should go through with the mail4 ,i was the only passenger on the train of two coaches1 besides the mail-van4 ,it was late at night4 ,the regular passenger-train had gone some hours before4 ,not being up in the ,english ways1 ,i did not know how ,i might make myself comfortable1 but sat up all night1 dozing as ,i could4 ,i did not sleep after two o'clock4 ,in that high latitude it was already light enough to see fairly well4 ,after that hour the railroad ran through a farming country all the way to ,dublin4 ,i was amused with the queer shapes of the fields4 ,these were generally small1 and running into sharp corners1 regardless of convenience in cultivation4 ,they were separated always by hedges and ditches4 ,a ditch was dug some two feet deep and three or four feet wide1 the dirt was thrown up into a bank to correspond on one side1 and on this bank was planted a hedge of hawthorn--8quick-set0 they commonly called it4 ,these hedges were of all ages1 from those young and well kept to those in all stages of growth and dilapidation4 ,i could have passed everywhere from field to field through breaks in the hedges1 sometimes wide ones4 ,i could not see of what use they were except for hunters to jump over4 ,saw occasionally a laborer's cabin1 sometimes a group of them4 ,when an ,irishman came out to sun himself1 he always stood higher than the eaves of his thatched roof4 ,occasionally a more pretentious house would appear4 ,these were all alike1 painted white1 full of windows1 very thin from front to back1 and looked like waffles set on edge4 ,never did ,i see a tree or a bush about a house to relieve the appearance of barrenness1 but there were often small trees in the hedge-rows4 ,the railway station on one side of ,dublin was about four miles from the station on the opposite side1 from which a short railway ran to ,kingston1 a point a little distance south of ,dublin1 from which the channel boats crossed to ,holyhead4 ,there being no other means of conveyance1 ,i rode through ,dublin in an open van sitting on the mail-bags4 ,at the ,kingston station an empty train stood waiting for the mails4 ,the regular passenger-train had gone some time before1 but the boat at ,kingston was also waiting for the mail4 ,i got into a carriage1 having ordered my trunk put into the baggage-van1 but was ordered out by the guard4 ,i showed him my ticket1 and was told that ,i would have to see the superintendent4 ,that official appeared1 and told me this train was for the mails4 ,it had an empty passenger-coach4 ,i showed him my ticket and told him the assurance on which ,i had bought it1 that ,i should go through with the mails4 ,he replied that the passenger-train had gone1 ,i should have been here to take it4 ,said he was very sorry1 but it was impossible4 ,i got mad4 ,my trunk stood on the platform4 ,as nobody would touch it1 ,i took it up and put it into the open door of the baggage-van myself4 ,the superintendent ordered two men to take it out1 which they did4 ,i told him of my great anxiety to reach ,london that afternoon4 ,all the reply he made was to repeat that he was very sorry1 but it was impossible1 and ,i was compelled to stand there and see that train move off1 and fool away the whole day in ,dublin4 ,does the reader want to know what the matter was8 ,if he does not know already1 he is as green as ,i was4 ,i had not given the superintendent two and sixpence4 ,but ,i had more yet to learn about ,england and the ,english1 and much more serious4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,arrival in ,london4 ,conditions ,i found there4 ,preparations and ,start4 ,i reached ,london very early next morning1 and drove directly to the lodgings of my friend1 ,mr4 ,wellington ,lee1 the only ,american resident in ,london whom ,i knew4 ,these were on a short street extending from the ,strand down to the river1 a short distance west of ,temple ,bar1 the ancient city gate1 which was then standing4 ,who was ,mr4 ,lee and what was he doing in ,london8 ,these were questions in which ,i had an interest of which ,i was as yet entirely ignorant4 ,the firm of ,lee ,larned were the first successful designers of steam fire-engines in this country4 ,more than seventy of these steamers had been built from their plans and under their direction by the ,novelty ,iron ,works in ,new ,york1 and the fire department of that city was completely equipped with them4 ,one of their engines had been sold to the city of ,havre1 and ,mr4 ,lee had gone over with it to test it publicly on its guaranteed performance4 ,mr4 ,amos1 one of the senior members of the great ,london engineering firm of ,easton1 ,amos ,sons1 went over to ,havre to witness this trial1 with a view to the manufacture of these steam fire-engines in ,london4 ,he was so much pleased that he determined to make the fire-engines1 and engaged ,mr4 ,lee to take the direction of their manufacture4 ,so it came to pass that at this particular time ,mr4 ,lee was in ,london superintending the first manufacture of his steam fire-engines by this firm4 ,after our salutations ,mr4 ,lee said3 8,first of all ,i have something to tell you40 ,before relating this1 ,i must mention something that ,i knew before ,i sailed4 ,about the time when the cargo of ,united ,states exhibits started1 the well-known ,mason and ,slidell incident occurred4 ,these gentlemen1 commissioners sent by the ,confederacy to represent their cause before ,european governments1 had sailed on a ,british vessel flying the ,british flag4 ,this vessel was overhauled on the high seas by one of our cruisers1 and the commissioners were taken off and brought prisoners to ,new ,york4 ,mr4 ,lincoln made haste to disavow this illegal proceeding1 so singularly inconsistent with our own principles of international law1 and to make all the reparation in his power4 ,but a bitter feeling towards ,england was then growing in the ,northern ,states1 and in a moment of resentment ,congress hastily passed a resolution repealing the law creating the ,exhibition ,commission and making an appropriation for its expenses1 and ,secretary ,seward issued a proclamation dissolving the commission4 ,the vessel carrying the exhibits had been gone scarcely more than a day when this action of ,congress and ,mr4 ,seward surprised the country4 ,i now take up ,mr4 ,lee's narrative4 ,the news of this action1 carried by a mail steamer1 had reached ,london several days before the arrival of the exhibits4 ,under the pressure of an urgent demand the ,royal ,commission confiscated the space allotted to the ,united ,states and parceled it out to ,british exhibitors4 ,mr4 ,holmes on his arrival found not a spot in the ,exhibition buildings on which to set his foot4 ,but he was a man of resources4 ,he went before the commission with an eminent ,queen's counsel1 who made the point that they had received no official notification of any such action by the ,united ,states ,government1 but had proceeded on a mere newspaper rumor1 which they had no right to do2 and there was the ,united ,states assistant commissioner with his credentials and a shipload of exhibits1 and they must admit him4 ,the commissioners yielded most gracefully4 ,they said3 8,now1 ,mr4 ,holmes1 the ,american space is gone2 we cannot restore that to you1 but there are unoccupied spots all over the ,exhibition1 and you may take up any of these1 and we will undertake that your whole exhibit shall be well placed40 ,upon this ,mr4 ,holmes had gone to work and had been able to find locations for every exhibit1 except my engine4 ,illustration3 ,,wellington ,,lee 8,but only yesterday10 said ,mr4 ,lee1 8,mr4 ,holmes learned that an engine ordered by the commission to drive the ,british exhibit of looms1 of which there were thirty-three exhibitors1 had been condemned by the superintendent of machinery1 ,mr4 ,daniel ,kinnear ,clark1 and ordered out of the building40 ,he added that ,mr4 ,holmes went directly to ,mr4 ,clark and applied for the place for my engine1 the bedplate of which1 thanks to my precipitate action1 had arrived and was then on a truck1 in ,england called a lurry1 waiting to be unloaded4 ,in answer to ,mr4 ,clark's questions1 ,mr4 ,holmes had given him his personal assurance that ,i would be there1 and the rest of the engine would be there in ample time1 and it would be all that he could possibly desire2 and on that assurance he had got the place for me4 ,i informed ,mr4 ,lee that ,i also had something to tell him4 ,i then gave him the situation as already related4 ,he looked very grave4 ,when ,i had finished he said3 8,well1 you are in a hole1 sure enough2 but come1 let us get some breakfast1 and then we will see what ,easton ,amos can do for you40 ,after eating my first ,english mutton-chop in a chop-house on the ,strand1 ,i accompanied ,mr4 ,lee to their works in the ,borough1 a long distance away1 on the south or ,surrey side of the ,thames1 to reach which we crossed the ,southwark bridge4 ,none of the partners had yet reached the office4 ,very soon ,mr4 ,james ,easton arrived4 ,he was a young man about my own age4 ,mr4 ,lee introduced me and told my story4 ,the instant he finished ,mr4 ,easton came across the room and grasped my hand most cordially4 8,that's the kind of pluck ,i like10 said he2 8we will see you through1 ,mr4 ,porter2 we will build this engine for you1 whatever else may have to wait40 ,directly he added3 8,we have a good deal of #8red tape' here1 but it won't do in this case4 ,there will be no time to lose4 ,come with me40 ,he then took me through the shops and introduced me to every foreman1 telling them what he had undertaken to do1 and gave each of them the same instruction1 as follows3 8,mr4 ,porter will come directly to you with his orders4 ,whatever he wants done1 you are to leave everything else so far as may be necessary1 and do his work as rapidly as possible40 ,as ,i listened to these orders1 ,i could hardly believe my senses or keep back the tears4 ,coming on top of the devotion of ,mr4 ,holmes they nearly overcame me4 ,the sudden relief from the pressure of anxiety was almost too much4 ,it seemed to me to beat all the fairy stories ,i had ever heard4 ,this whole-hearted cordiality of the first ,englishman ,i had met gave me a high idea of the people as a whole1 which1 ,i am happy to say1 a residence of over six years in ,england served only to increase4 ,returning to the office1 we found ,mr4 ,lee1 who said1 8,now1 ,mr4 ,porter1 ,i think ,mr4 ,holmes would like to see you40 ,getting the necessary directions1 in due time ,i found myself in the ,exhibition building on ,cromwell ,road and in the presence of ,mr4 ,holmes1 who received me joyfully and led me at once to ,mr4 ,clark's office4 ,as he opened the door1 ,mr4 ,clark looked up from his desk and exclaimed1 8,good morning1 ,mr4 ,holmes2 where is that engine80 8,well10 replied ,mr4 ,holmes1 8here is ,mr4 ,porter1 and the engine is here or on the way40 ,mr4 ,clark asked me a number of questions about the engine1 and finally how many revolutions per minute it was intended to make4 ,i replied1 8,one hundred and fifty40 ,i thought it would take his breath away4 ,with an expression of the greatest amazement he exclaimed3 8,what6 a hundred and fifty6 ,b--b--b--but1 ,mr4 ,porter1 have you had any experience with such a speed as that80 ,i told him my experience with the little engine1 which did not seem to satisfy him at all4 ,finally he closed the matter1 or supposed he had done so1 by saying3 8,i cannot allow such a speed here2 ,i consider it dangerous40 ,i decided instantly in my own mind not to throw away all that ,i had come for2 but ,i made no sign1 but humbly asked what speed ,i might employ4 ,after a little consideration ,mr4 ,clark replied3 8,one hundred and twenty revolutions2 that must not be exceeded40 ,this he considered a great concession1 the usual speed of stationary engines being from fifty to sixty revolutions4 ,i meekly acquiesced1 then made my plans for one hundred and fifty revolutions1 and said nothing to anybody4 ,i had no idea of the gravity of my offence4 ,it was the first time since ,i was a child that ,i had been ordered to do or not to do anything1 and ,i had no conception of orders except as given by myself4 ,if there was any risk1 ,i assumed it gaily1 quite unconscious how such a daredevil defiance of authority would appear to an ,englishman4 ,mr4 ,clark showed me my location1 and gave me an order for my engine-bed to be brought in immediately1 and also other parts of the engine as soon as they arrived4 ,trucks generally1 ,i was told1 had to wait in the crowd about ten days for their turn to be unloaded4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,t4 ,,porter ,a4,d4 #ahfb ,i hurry over the time of erection4 ,everything arrived promptly and the whole came together without a hitch1 as ,i knew it would4 ,the fly-wheel and pulley and cylinder lagging ,i had left to be made in ,england4 ,i was at the works of ,easton1 ,amos ,sons every morning at #f o'clock1 and laid out the work for the day4 ,i made the gauges for boring the fly-wheel and pulley1 which ,i had now learned how to do1 and adjusted everything about the engine myself1 and knew it was right4 ,i had a talk with the foreman of the pattern-shop about the best thickness of felt on the cylinder to be covered by the mahogany lagging1 in the course of which ,i remarked1 8,it is the air that is the real non-conductor40 8,yes10 he replied1 8and felt1 you know1 is #8air'40 ,i learned several things ,i did not know before1 among others how the ,english made a steam-pipe joint1 using parallel threads and a backing-up nut1 packed with long hemp which was filled with a putty made of red and white lead rubbed together dry4 ,i had great luck in the way of a driving-belt4 ,an ,american exhibitor of india-rubber belting asked the privilege of exhibiting a belt in use on my engine1 which ,i was glad enough to have him do4 ,otherwise ,i hardly know what ,i should have done4 ,the widest ,english belts were #ab inches wide1 double1 and sewn together from end to end with five rows of sheepskin lacing4 ,the belt ran on the knobs of this lacing4 ,english machinists then knew nothing of the hold of belts by excluding the air4 ,the ends of all belts were united by lapping them about two feet and sewing them through and through with this same lacing4 ,fine pounding these joints would have made on the pulleys4 ,i got a governor belt from him also4 ,both belts were united by butt-joints laced in the ,american fashion4 ,i did this job myself1 and1 indeed1 ,i put the whole engine together mostly with my own hands1 although ,easton1 ,amos ,sons sent two of their best fitters to help me4 ,i learned afterwards that ,i should have had a sorry time driving my governor by a belt laced in the ,english way4 ,in spite of all efforts and all our good luck1 we were not ready to start until a week after the opening day1 ,may #a1 and the exhibitors were in despair1 for none of them believed that this new-fangled ,american trap would work when it did start at the frightful speed of a hundred and twenty revolutions per minute1 which they had learned from ,mr4 ,clark it was to make4 ,finally one day after our noon dinner ,i turned on the steam1 and the governor rose at the speed of one hundred and fifty revolutions precisely4 ,it was immediately surrounded by a dense crowd1 every man of whom looked as if he expected the engine to fly in pieces any instant4 ,it was not more than two minutes after it started when ,i saw ,mr4 ,clark coming with his watch in his hand4 ,some one had rushed to his office and told him the ,yankee engine was running away4 ,the crowd opened for him1 and he came up to the engine and watched it for some time1 walking leisurely around it and observing everything carefully from all points of view4 ,he then counted it through a full minute4 ,at its close he turned to me and exclaimed1 8,ah1 ,porter--but10 slapping me cordially on the shoulder1 8it's all right4 ,if you will run as smoothly as this you may run at any speed you like40 ,and so the high-speed engine was born1 but neither ,mr4 ,clark1 nor ,i1 nor any human being then knew what it was that made it run so smoothly4 ,i have since realized more and more what a grand man ,mr4 ,clark then showed himself to be4 ,a small souled man might have regarded the matter entirely from a personal point of view1 and been furious at my defiance of his authority4 ,there are such men4 ,i will show one to the reader by and by4 ,officialism is liable to produce them4 ,i was quite unconscious of the risk in this respect that ,i was running4 ,i have always felt that ,i could not be too thankful that at this critical point ,i fell into the hands of so noble a man as ,daniel ,kinnear ,clark4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,porter's ,exhibit at the ,london ,international ,exhibition1 #ahfb ,,chapter ,,vii ,my ,london ,exhibit1 its ,success1 but what was the matter8 ,remarkable ,sale of the ,engine4 ,thus1 as the result of a remarkable combination of circumstances1 upon which ,i look back with feelings more of awe than of wonder1 the high-speed system made its appearance in the ,london ,international ,exhibition of #ahfb1 installed in the midst of the ,british machinery exhibit1 under conditions more advantageous than any which ,i could have imagined4 ,but the engine had a weak feature3 it was wanting in an essential respect1 of which ,i was1 and remained to the end1 quite unconscious1 as will presently appear4 ,before entering on this subject ,i will give the reader an idea of what the exhibit was like4 ,the accompanying half-tone from a photograph will1 with the help of a little explanation1 make this quite real4 ,the location was in a narrow space between a side aisle and the wall of the temporary wooden structure1 #cjj feet wide by nearly #ajjj feet long1 which formed the machinery hall4 ,the engine was crowded closely by looms on both sides4 ,here were shown together the first high-speed engine1 the first high-speed governor1 and the first high-speed indicator4 ,my marine governor could not be accommodated there1 and had to be shown elsewhere4 ,i was so much afraid of deflection or vibration of the shaft that ,i shortened up the length between the bearings and placed the driving-pulley on the overhanging end of the shaft1 which for the light work to be done there answered sufficiently well4 ,i showed also the largest and the smallest sizes of my stationary-engine governors4 ,these were belted from the shaft to revolve so as to stand always in positions coincident with those of the governor which regulated the engine4 ,on a table between the railing and the head of the engine ,i showed mahogany sectional models of the valves at one end of the cylinder in the engine exhibited1 and of the now well-known ,allen slide valve1 with double opening for admission made by a passage over the exhaust-cup4 ,the ,richards indicator is seen placed on the cylinder midway of its length1 and connected by pipes with the ends over the clearances1 so that in the familiar manner by means of a three-way cock the opposite diagrams could be taken on the same sheet4 ,after a few days' use ,i mistrusted that the lead lines were not correctly drawn1 and ,i took away these pipes1 placing the indicator on the cylinder itself1 at the opposite ends alternately4 ,the diagrams then taken showed that the error from transmission through these pipes had been even greater than ,i had feared4 ,i have1 of course1 employed the close connection ever since4 ,this identifies the time when the photograph was taken4 ,it must have been within a few days after starting4 ,the center of the eccentric coinciding with the crank1 as already stated1 and the center line of the link being in the same horizontal plane with that of the engine1 ,i was able to take the motion of the paper drum from the sustaining arms of the link instead of from the cross-head4 ,this was very convenient4 ,during the first two or three weeks the steam pressure was kept up to #ge pounds1 as intended1 and ,i was able to get diagrams cutting off quite early1 which were then erroneously supposed to show superior economy4 ,but when all the steam-eaters had got in their work the pressure could not be maintained much above #dj pounds1 and for that exhibition the day of fancy diagrams was over4 ,gwynne ,co4 showed a large centrifugal pump driven by a pair of engines which always brought the pressure down at the rate of a pound a minute4 ,they were not allowed to run longer than fifteen minutes at a time1 but it took a long time after they stopped before the pressure could be got up again even to #dj pounds4 ,whenever ,i took a diagram somebody was always standing ready to take it away1 and so among my mementoes ,i have been able to find none cutting off earlier than the one here represented4 ,on the wall at the back ,i hung the largest ,united ,states flag ,i could find1 with a portrait of ,president ,lincoln4 ,this seems all that needs to be said about the photograph and the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,international ,,exhibition1 ,,united ,,states ,,department #ahfb ,,diagram ,,taken ,,from #ahfb ,,the ,,allen ,,engine ,,by ,,the ,,richards ,,indicator4 ,,engine1 #h ,,inches ,,by #bd ,,inches1 ,,revolutions ,,per ,,minute1 #aej4 ,,scale1 #dj ,,lbs4 ,,to ,,the ,,inch4 ,but what was the matter8 ,i will clear the way to answering this question by relating the following incident3 ,six months later1 with a feeling of bitter disappointment1 ,i contemplated my engine standing alone where the place had been thronged with surging life4 ,all the other exhibits had been removed4 ,this was left in stillness and desolation1 and ,i was making up my mind to the necessity of shipping it home again1 its exhibition to all appearance absolutely fruitless--a failure1 which ,i was utterly at a loss to comprehend1 when ,i had a call from ,mr4 ,james ,easton1 the same man who had first welcomed me in ,england4 ,his firm had perhaps the largest exhibit in the ,machinery ,hall1 of a waterfall supplied by a centrifugal pump1 and they had been frequent observers of the running of my engine1 which was quite near them4 ,mr4 ,easton bluntly asked me if ,i thought my engine could be run #ej per cent4 faster or at #bbe revolutions per minute1 because they had concluded that it could be1 and if ,i agreed with them they had a use for it themselves4 ,under the circumstances ,i did not hesitate long about agreeing with them in respect to both ability and price1 and the sale was quickly concluded4 ,i noted an entire absence of any disposition to take an undue advantage4 ,mr4 ,easton then told me that they were troubled with lack of power every afternoon when the foundry blower was on1 and had long wanted to drive this blower independently4 ,it needed to make #bjbe revolutions per minute to give the blast they required1 and they had planned to drive it by a frictional gearing1 nine to one1 if my engine could run at the necessary speed4 ,so this most peculiar and exceptional opportunity for its application1 absolutely the only chance for its sale that had appeared1 and that at the very last moment1 prevented my returning home in disappointment4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that the engine proved completely successful4 ,i shall refer to it again4 ,the point of the incident is this3 ,it established the fact1 the statement of which otherwise no one from the result would credit for an instant1 that1 from the afternoon when the black and averted looks of my loom exhibitors were changed to smiling congratulations down to the close of the exhibition1 the engine never once had a warm bearing or was interrupted for a single moment4 ,it was visited by every engineer in ,england1 and by a multitude of engine users1 was admired by every one1 and won the entire confidence of all observers in its speed1 its regulation1 and the perfection of its diagrams2 and yet in all that six months not a builder ever said a word about building it1 nor a user said a word about using it2 and1 as week after week and month after month passed without a sign1 ,i became almost stupefied with astonishment and distress4 ,the explanation of this phenomenon was entirely simple1 but ,i did not know it1 and there was no one to even hint it to me4 ,i was among a people whose fundamental ideas respecting steam-engines were entirely different from those to which ,i had been accustomed1 and ,i knew nothing about them1 and so could not address myself to them4 ,in the view of every ,englishman a non-condensing engine was rubbish4 ,those which were made were small1 cheap affairs1 mostly for export4 ,neither a builder nor a user could regard a non-condensing engine with the slightest interest4 ,now ,i do not think that in my limited sphere of observation at home ,i had ever seen a condensing stationary engine1 except the engine which pumped out the dry-dock at the ,brooklyn ,navy ,yard4 ,in my mind condensing engines were associated with ships and steamboats4 ,at this exhibition also there were shown only non-condensing engines4 ,i did not think of the reason for this1 that in this part of ,london1 far away from the ,thames1 no water could be had for condensing purposes4 ,i took it all as a matter of course1 though ,i was astonished at the queer lot of engines in the company of which ,i found myself4 ,i was1 of course1 familiar with the development of the stationary engine in ,england from the original type1 in which the pressure of steam below that of the atmosphere1 and sometimes the pressure of the atmosphere itself furnished the larger proportion of the power exerted2 but after all ,i carried with me my ,american ideas1 which were limited to non-condensing engines1 and had no conception of the gulf that separated my thoughts from those of the men about me4 ,my visitors always wound up with the same question1 8,how do you drive your air-pump80 ,and in my innocence ,i uniformly replied1 8,the engine is a non-condensing engine2 it has no air-pump02 all unconscious that every time ,i said that ,i was consigning the engine to the rubbish heap4 ,this reply was taken necessarily as a frank admission that the high-speed engine was not adapted for condensing4 ,of course1 then1 it had no interest for them4 ,no doubt many wondered why ,i should have troubled myself to show it there at all4 ,if ,i had thought more deeply ,i must have been struck by the unvarying form of this question1 always assuming the air-pump to be a part of the engine1 but which1 of course1 could not be used there1 and only inquiring how ,i worked it2 and also by the fact that after getting my answer the questioner soon departed1 and ,i scarcely ever saw the same visitor again4 ,but ,i did not think deeply4 ,perhaps the conditions of excitement were not favorable to reflection4 ,all ,i thought was that this same everlasting question1 which at home ,i would never have heard1 was getting awfully monotonous4 ,after a while this annoying question came to be asked less and less frequently1 and also the engine attracted less and less attention4 ,the engine had failed in a vital respect1 and ,i did not know it4 ,that the fact of the engine being non-condensing should have been an objection to it never once entered my mind4 ,but ,i doubt if ,i could have bettered the matter1 however alive to this difficulty ,i might have been4 ,i showed all ,i had yet accomplished4 ,in the minds of my visitors it no doubt appeared impossible to run an air-pump successfully at such a speed2 the water and air would be churned into foam1 and the valves would not close in time4 ,this objection ,i was not prepared to meet1 for ,i had not thought on the subject at all4 ,moreover1 it could not have been met in any way except by a practical demonstration4 ,for that demonstration ,i had yet to wait five years4 ,there were many things connected with this season which were well worth remembering4 ,one of these was the visit of the jury4 ,it was the only time ,i ever met ,professor ,rankine4 ,there were two or three ,frenchmen on the jury1 and they engaged in an animated discussion of the question whether the steam could follow the piston at so great a speed4 ,i well remember the sharp exclamation with which ,professor ,rankine put an end to this nonsense1 when he had got tired of it4 8,there is no limit to the speed at which steam will follow a piston40 ,one day ,i had a call from ,mr4 ,john ,penn1 ,mr4 ,william ,fairbairn1 and ,mr4 ,robert ,napier1 who came together on a visit of ceremony1 and presented me their cards4 ,in return ,i presented to them the cards of the engine4 ,but their visit1 like most others1 closed with the same inevitable question4 ,it was a delightful hour that ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,webb spent with me4 ,he was then assistant engineer of the ,london ,northwestern ,railway under ,mr4 ,ramsbottom1 afterwards ,mr4 ,ramsbottom's successor1 and the pioneer builder of compound-cylinder locomotives4 ,he told me about the new form of traveling-crane invented by ,mr4 ,ramsbottom for the shops at ,crewe1 which was driven by a flying-rope1 a -inch cotton cord1 and also of other inventions of ,mr4 ,ramsbottom--among these the automatic cylinder lubricator1 in which the condensation of the steam was so rapid1 from the locomotive rushing through the atmosphere1 that only the water formed on the conical end of a bolt was permitted to drop into the oil1 other condensation running into a circular trough and back through an external gooseneck pipe to the steam-chest2 and of their experiments to observe the rate of this condensation4 ,for this purpose they used soda-water bottles1 which they found capable of resisting a pressure of #bjj pounds on the square inch1 and in which they could see the rapidity with which the condensed water displaced the oil1 thus leading to the above device for limiting this action2 also about the ,ramsbottom piston rings1 which came to be1 and still are1 so largely used4 ,these consist1 as is well known1 of square wrought-iron rods1 say inch square1 two for each piston1 sprung into grooves4 ,what is not so generally known is the way in which these rings were originated1 which ,mr4 ,webb then described to me4 ,as sold1 these are not circular rings1 but when compressed in the cylinder they become truly circular and exert the same pressure at every point4 ,the original form was found for each size in this way3 ,a circular iron table was prepared1 provided with a large number of pulleys located radially and equidistant around its edge4 ,a ring having the section of the proposed rings1 turned to the size of the cylinder1 and cut on one side1 was laid on this table1 and cords were attached to it at equal distances passing over these pulleys4 ,equal weights were hung on these cords1 sufficient to expand this ring to the extent desired4 ,the form of the expanded ring was then marked on the table1 and to the lines thus obtained the rings were then rolled4 ,he told me also of the trough and scoop invented by ,mr4 ,ramsbottom1 and now used the world over1 for refilling locomotive tanks while running at full speed4 ,being a locomotive man1 ,mr4 ,webb did not ask about the way ,i drove my air-pump4 ,mr4 ,clark formed a scheme to indicate all the engines in the exhibition1 twenty-four in number1 all ,english except mine1 so far as ,i remember1 and employed my indicator for the purpose1 the diagrams being taken by myself4 ,only two exhibitors declined to have their engines indicated4 ,as ,i afterwards learned1 most of the engines were bought for use there1 as exhibitors would not exhibit non-condensing engines4 ,one of those who refused permission were ,gwynne ,co41 the principal partner a nephew of my centrifugal-force friend of earlier days4 ,they exhibited a centrifugal pump supplying a waterfall4 ,they employed ,mr4 ,zerah ,colburn1 then editor of ,the ,engineer1 to investigate their pair of non-condensing engines and find out why they used so much steam4 ,he borrowed my indicator to make a private test4 ,of course1 ,i never saw the diagrams1 but ,mr4 ,colburn informed me that by making some changes he had reduced the back pressure to #g pounds above the atmosphere1 which he claimed to be as good as could be expected4 ,no material improvement in the engines was to be observed1 however4 ,some of the diagrams taken on these tests exhibited almost incredible faults4 ,the only really good ones were from a pair of engines made by ,easton1 ,amos ,sons1 also to drive a large centrifugal pump1 built for drainage purposes in ,demerara1 and sustaining another waterfall4 ,these showed the steam cut off sharply at one third of the stroke by separately driven valves on the back of the main slides4 ,a mortifying feature of this work for myself was that on testing the indicator ,mr4 ,clark found that the area of the piston1 which was represented to be one quarter of a square inch1 was really considerably less than this1 showing lamentable inaccuracy on the part of the makers1 as well as my own neglect to discover it4 ,this rendered the instrument valueless for measuring power1 but it showed the character of the diagrams all right4 ,the finest mechanical drawing ,i ever saw--or any one else1 ,i think--was shown in this exhibition4 ,it was a drawing of the steamship 8,persia10 then the pride of the ,cunard fleet1 and was the only mechanical drawing ever admitted to the walls of the ,national ,gallery1 where it had appeared the year before4 ,it represented side and end elevations and plan1 as well as longitudinal and cross-sections1 was painted and shaded in water-colors1 and involved an almost incredible amount of work4 ,it was made by ,mr4 ,kirkaldy1 then a draftsman in the employ of the ,napiers1 of ,glasgow1 the builders of the vessel4 ,i am tempted to refer to this1 as it forms a prominent datum point from which to measure the development of steam navigation in the brief space of forty years4 ,the vessel did not possess a single feature1 large or small1 that now exists4 ,it was of only about #cjjj tons burden4 ,it was an iron ship built in the days of the rapid transition from wood to steel4 ,it was propelled by paddle-wheels4 ,these were driven by a pair of side-lever engines4 ,the engines had each a single cylinder4 ,the steam pressure carried was nominally #be pounds above the atmosphere1 but practically only from #ae to #bj pounds4 ,full pressure was not pretended to be maintained4 ,they had jet condensers4 ,all forged work was of iron4 ,the vessel was steered by hand4 ,the rigging1 standing as well as running1 was of hemp4 ,it was full bark-rigged4 ,illustration3 ,,frederick ,e4 ,,sickels ,there ,i first met ,mr4 ,frederick ,e4 ,sickels1 the inventor of the trip cut-off2 that immortal man who conceived the idea of tripping the valve mechanism of a steam-engine at any point in its opening movement1 thus releasing the valve and permitting it to be suddenly closed4 ,he had come over to exhibit his steam steering gear1 which is now used throughout the world4 ,it was astonishing how little attention it attracted4 ,he had it connected and showed it in operation4 ,while he turned the wheel precisely as the steersman did1 the steam did all the work of moving the rudder and holding it in any position4 ,nobody seemed to take the slightest interest in it4 ,i attributed this largely to his mistake in showing a very rough affair1 the very thing which he thought would add to its effect4 ,he had an apparatus that had been used on a coasting steamer which was captured by the ,confederates and employed by them as a blockade-runner1 and afterwards captured by our cruisers1 taken into ,new ,york and condemned4 ,he bought this gear out of it at auction and sent it to the exhibition just as it was4 ,he believed that the more evidences of neglect and rough usage it showed1 the greater admiration its perfect action would inspire4 ,he learned better4 ,polished iron and brass and mahogany would have led people to believe that he himself thought it was worth showing properly4 ,the picture gallery in the second story of the main building of this exhibition was really wonderful4 ,its most prominent feature was a collection of paintings representing the progress of ,british art from the days of ,hogarth4 ,all ,europe was represented4 ,i was told that the entire wall surface was seven eighths of a mile long4 ,we also had a gallery of ,american art1 consisting of a number of remarkable large photographs of the ,yosemite ,valley1 ,california1 and one painting4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,cropsey1 an ,american landscape artist of considerable celebrity at home1 had formed a scheme for establishing himself in ,london4 ,he took with him a number of his works4 ,his pice de rsistance was 8,autumn on the ,hudson10 which was greatly admired and for which he was offered a large price1 but he preferred to show it in ,london4 ,he had sent it to the ,national ,gallery1 and1 to his consternation1 it was refused1 the committee declaring that there were no such colors in nature4 ,it also offended the ,english taste1 by which our autumnal tints are regarded as 8very gaudy10 so he hung it in ,mr4 ,holmes' office at the exhibition4 ,he and ,i had each a lot to learn about the way things look to our cousins4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,sale of ,governors4 ,visit from ,mr4 ,allen4 ,operation of the ,engine ,sold to ,easton1 ,amos ,sons4 ,manufacture of the ,indicator4 ,application on ,locomotives4 ,the governor seemed to please every one4 ,in anticipation of a demand for them1 ,i had shipped a number to ,london1 which met a ready sale4 ,the most appreciative persons as a class were the linen-manufacturers of ,belfast4 ,one of them early took a license to sell them there4 ,the first one ,i sold in ,london was to my friends ,easton1 ,amos ,sons4 ,as soon as they saw it in operation it struck them as the very thing they needed4 ,in connection with their engineering works they carried on the manufacture of lead pipe by hydraulic pressure4 ,the engine which drove a large section of their machine tools also drove the hydraulic pumps for this manufacture4 ,it was a very trying service4 ,the resistance was very heavy and came on and off the engine instantly4 ,the action of the common governor was not prompt enough to control it1 and they had to employ a man handling a disk valve with a very short motion4 ,he had to keep his eye fixed on a column of mercury4 ,when this rose he must open the valve1 and when it dropped he must shut it4 ,it had been found that this was a poor reliance for the instantaneous action required4 ,they got a governor from me at once4 ,i received a message from them the next day4 ,the governor would not answer at all2 would ,i come down and see about it8 ,i happened first to meet an old man1 foreman of the turners4 8,what is the matter80 8,matter6 ,the governor won't work1 that's what's the matter40 ,i was rather an impulsive young man and replied1 8,it will work1 or ,i'll eat it40 ,he sharply responded1 8,if it does work ,i'll eat it1 and ,i haven't a tooth in my head40 ,foolish old man6 he was more rash than ,i4 ,i saw at a glance that the governor went through but half its action4 ,there was evidently some resistance in the valve1 a common fly-throttle4 ,after they shut down at night ,i had the valve pulled out1 and found that the chamber was larger than the pipe and that the wings of the valve were long and their points caught on the ends of the pipe4 ,the wings of the valve were soon shortened and rebedded in the chamber1 and when started again the governor controlled the motion of the engine perfectly1 to the great gratification of everybody1 and the delight of the boys1 who had heard the old man promise to eat it4 ,the valve had been put in for my governor to work1 and the fitters had put up a job on me4 ,the old man was not in the secret4 ,so the laugh was on him instead of on me4 ,directly after this triumph ,i received an order from ,mr4 ,john ,penn for a governor to regulate the engine driving his marine-engine works at ,greenwich4 ,this was the first and only engine ,i ever saw of the grasshopper class1 quite common1 ,i learned1 in earlier days4 ,the superintendent of his works afterwards told me1 laughingly1 that he had a large account against me for loss of time2 that he had become so fascinated with the governor action that he had stood watching it sometimes for twenty minutes4 ,he knew by the position of the governor every large tool that was running and what it was doing1 if light or heavy work1 and especially every time a planer was reversed4 ,one day a gentleman asked me if ,i thought the governor could regulate his engine4 ,he was a manufacturer of the metal thread used in making gold lace4 ,a bar of silver1 #b inches in diameter and #b or #c feet long1 was covered with three or four thicknesses of dentists' gold leaf1 and then drawn down to exceedingly fine threads1 and the gold surface was never broken4 ,i have often wondered how thick that gold covering finally was4 ,the heavy drawing of the cold bars required a great deal of power1 and when they shot out the engine would run away and the fine threads would be broken4 ,no governor nor heavy fly-wheel would help the matter1 and they had to do their heavy drawing in the night4 ,my governor maintained the motion absolutely4 ,not only were the finest threads not broken by the sudden changes in the heavy drawing1 but the occasional breakages that they had been accustomed to nearly ceased4 ,in this connection ,i cannot refrain from telling a good story on ,mr4 ,ramsbottom and ,mr4 ,webb1 although the incident happened the next year4 ,i received an order for a governor for the engine driving the shops of the ,london ,northwestern ,railway at ,crewe4 ,soon after its shipment there came a line from the office there that the governor was behaving badly and ,i would have to go and see about it4 ,i found that the engine consisted of a pair of locomotive cylinders set upright on the floor and directly connected above1 the cranks at right angles with each other1 to the line-shaft1 a plan which ,i have always admired1 as a capital way of avoiding belts or gearing4 ,they were running at #abj revolutions per minute1 and were connected in the middle of the shaft1 which was about #djj feet long4 ,the governor was flying up and down quite wildly4 ,i had never seen such an action before1 and was at a loss what to make of it4 ,i saw no fly-wheel1 but it did not seem that its absence could account for this irregularity4 ,indeed1 with coupled engines running at this speed1 and only trifling changes of load1 and a governor requiring no time to act1 a fly-wheel seemed superfluous4 ,pretty soon it came out that the want of fly-wheel could not cause the trouble1 for they had two4 ,where were they8 ,there was one at each end of the shaft1 close to the end walls of the building1 where wall boxes afforded excellent supports4 ,fly-wheels at the ends of #b-;inch shafts and #bjj feet from the engine6 ,i fairly shouted with laughter1 told them to take off their fly-wheels1 and came home4 ,the fly-wheels were taken off1 and there was no further trouble4 ,well1 what should railway engineers1 absorbed in locomotive designs and everything pertaining to railroading1 be expected to know about fly-wheel inertia and shaft torsion8 ,about midsummer ,i had the pleasant surprise of a visit from ,mr4 ,allen1 whose gratification at the show ,i had made was unbounded4 ,we saw much of the exhibition together4 ,perhaps the most interesting exhibits in the machinery department1 to us both1 were the working models shown by the marine-engine builders4 ,there were a large number of these1 generally not much over one foot in any dimension1 but complete to every bolt and nut1 superbly finished1 and shown in motion4 ,they had evidently been made regardless of cost4 ,in the progress of engineering science1 everything represented by these elegant toys has long since vanished4 ,we were much impressed by a cylinder casting1 #abj inches in diameter1 shown by ,mr4 ,penn1 one of a pair made for a horizontal engine for a ,british warship1 to work steam at #be pounds pressure4 ,everything there shown pertaining to steam engineering1 except our own engine1 was about to disappear forever4 ,how long before that also shall follow8 ,soon after ,mr4 ,allen's return he sent me a drawing of his four-opening equilibrium valve with adjustable pressure-plate4 ,i realized the great value of this most original invention1 now so well known1 but its adoption required a rescheming of the valve-gear1 and that had to be postponed for some years4 ,in setting up the engine in the works of ,easton1 ,amos ,sons1 ,i had a curious example of ,english pertinacity4 ,old ,mr4 ,amos said to me1 8,porter1 where is your pump80 8,the engine has no pump40 8,no pump60 8,no1 sir2 we consider a feed-pump as an adjunct to the boiler1 never put it on the engine1 and generally employ independent feed-pumps which can be adjusted to the proper speed4 ,besides1 a feed-pump could not be run satisfactorily at the speed of this engine40 ,he heard me through1 and then1 with a look of utter disgust1 exclaimed3 8,if a man should sell me a musket and tell me it had no stock1 lock1 or barrel1 these were all extra1 ,i should think it just about as sensible40 ,nothing would do but that this engine must have a pump4 ,i had intended to cut off the projecting end of the shaft1 but ,mr4 ,amos ordered this to be left1 and had an eccentric fitted on it1 and set a vertical pump on the floor to be driven by this eccentric1 at #bbe double strokes per minute4 ,also the feed-pipe had to be over #ej feet long1 with three elbows4 ,of course1 as the boys say1 we had a circus4 ,a mechanic had a daily job1 mornings1 when the engine was not running1 securing that pump on its foundation4 ,the trembling and pounding in the feed-pipe were fearful4 ,i suggested an air-chamber4 ,they sent word to me that they had put on an air-chamber1 but it did no good4 ,i went to look at it1 and found a very small air-chamber in the middle of the length of the pipe1 where it seemed to me more likely to do harm4 ,at my suggestion they got one of suitable size and attached it to the pump outlet1 when the noise and trembling mostly disappeared1 as well as the disposition of the pump to break loose4 ,it did fairly well after that1 and they made it answer1 although ,i do not suppose it ever one quarter filled4 ,mr4 ,amos was the consulting engineer of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,at this exhibition ,american reapers made an invasion of ,england4 ,mr4 ,amos set his face against them1 and in reply to my question1 what objection he made to them1 he said1 8,we prefer to get our grain into the barn1 instead of strewing it over the field40 ,and yet this man1 the engineering head of this firm1 was the only man in ,england1 so far as ,i knew1 advanced enough to take up the ,wolff system of compounding1 and who had bought my engine to run at #bbe revolutions per minute1 which it continued to do with complete satisfaction until some years later1 when these works were removed to a location on the ,thames1 east of ,london1 when ,i lost sight of them4 ,during the latter part of the exhibition ,i learned that the ,mc,naught and the ,hopkinson indicators were in common use in ,england2 that one or both of these were to be found in the engine-rooms of most mills and manufacturing establishments1 and that if the ,richards indicator were properly put on the market there would probably be some demand for it1 although at existing engine speeds the indicators in use appeared to be satisfactory4 ,a special field for its employment would doubtless be found1 however1 in indicating locomotives4 ,i felt sufficiently encouraged to set about the task of standardizing the indicator1 and during the winter of #ahfb-c made a contract with the firm of ,elliott ,brothers1 the well-known manufacturers of philosophical apparatus and engineering and drawing instruments1 to manufacture them according to my plans4 ,this was my first attempt to organize the manufacture of an instrument of any kind1 and ,i set about it under a deep sense of responsibility for the production of an indicator that should command the confidence of engineers in its invariable truth4 ,i found that the opportunity ,i had enjoyed for studying the subject had been most important4 ,the daily use of the indicator which ,i had brought to the exhibition was an invaluable preparation for this work4 ,i decided1 first1 to increase the multiplication of the piston motion1 by means of the lever1 from three times to four times1 thus reducing by one quarter the movement of the piston required to give the same vertical movement to the pencil1 and1 second1 to increase the cylinder area from one quarter to one half of a square inch4 ,the latter was necessary in order to afford sufficient room for springs of proper size1 and correct reliable strength in their connections4 ,the first problem that presented itself was how to produce cylinders of the exact diameter required1 4#gigi of an inch1 and to make an error in this dimension impossible4 ,this problem ,i solved in the following manner3 ,at my request ,elliott ,brothers obtained from the ,whitworth ,company a hardened steel mandrel about #bj inches in length1 ground parallel to this exact size and certified by them4 ,brass tubes of slightly larger size and carefully cleaned were drawn down on this mandrel4 ,these when pressed off presented a perfect surface and needed only to be sawed up in lengths of about #b inches for each cylinder4 ,through the whole history of the manufacture that removed all trouble or concern on this account4 ,the pistons were made as light as possible1 and were turned to a gauge that permitted them to leak a little4 ,the windage was not sufficient to affect their accuracy2 a thickness of silk paper on one side would hold the pistons tight2 but they had a frictionless action1 and the cover of the spring case having two holes opening to the atmosphere1 there could be no pressure above the piston except that of the atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,,spring-,,testing ,,instrument4 ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,the ,,richards ,,indicator4 ,designed by ,charles ,t4 ,porter4 ,,longitudinal ,,section4 ,,scale1 ,,half ,,size4 ,,end ,,view ,the second problem was to insure the accuracy of the springs4 ,this was more serious than the first one4 ,the brass heads of the springs were provided with three wings instead of two1 which mine had4 ,the spring1 after being coiled and tempered1 was brazed into the grooves in the first two wings1 and the third wing was hammered firmly to it4 ,this prevented the stress on the spring from reaching the brazed joints1 and these heads never worked loose4 ,one head was made fast at once2 the other was left free to be screwed backward or forward until the proper length of the spring was found4 ,to insure freedom from friction1 ,i determined to adjust and test the springs in the open air1 quite apart from the instrument4 ,for this purpose ,i had a stout cast-iron plate made1 with a bracket cast on it1 in which the slides were held in a vertical groove1 and bolted this plate on the bench1 where it was carefully leveled4 ,the surface of the plate had been planed1 a small hole drilled through it at the proper point1 and a corresponding hole was bored through the bench4 ,a seating for the scales also was planed in the bracket1 normal to the surface of the block4 ,the spring to be tested1 in its heads as above described1 was set on the block1 and a rod which was a sliding fit in the hole was put up through the bench1 block1 and spring4 ,this rod had a head at the lower end1 and was threaded at the upper end4 ,under the bench a sealed weight1 equal to one half the extreme pressure on the square inch to be indicated by the spring1 was placed on the rod4 ,between the spring and the scale ,i employed a lever1 representing that used in the indicator1 but differing from it in two respects4 ,it was of twice its length1 for greater convenience of observation1 and it was a lever of the first order1 so that the weight acting downward should represent the steam pressure in the indicator acting upward4 ,the weight was carried by a steel nut screwed on the end of the rod and resting on the upper head of the spring to be tested4 ,this nut carried above it a hardened stirrup1 with a sharp inner edge1 which intersected the axis of the rod1 produced4 ,a delicate steel lever was pivoted to turn about a point at one fifth of the distance from the axis of the rod to the farther side of the scale seat4 ,the upper edge of this lever was a straight line intersecting the axis of its trunnions4 ,the short arm of the lever passed through the stirrup1 in which it slid as the spring was compressed1 while the long arm swung upward in front of the scale4 ,the latter was graduated on its farther side1 and the reading was taken at the point of intersection of the upper edge of the lever with this edge of the scale4 ,the free head on the spring was turned until the reading showed it to be a trifle too strong4 ,it was then secured1 and afterwards brought to the exact strength required by running it rapidly in a lathe and rubbing its surface over its entire length with fine emery cloth4 ,this reduced the strength of each coil equally4 ,this was a delicate operation1 requiring great care to reduce the strength enough and not too much4 ,a great many springs had to be made1 several being generally required1 often a full set of ten1 with each indicator4 ,this testing apparatus was convenient and reliable1 and the workmen became very expert in its use4 ,the spring when in use was always exposed to steam of atmospheric pressure4 ,at this temperature of #bab we found by careful experiment that all the springs were weakened equally1 namely1 one pound in forty pounds4 ,so the springs were made to show1 when cold1 #ci pounds instead of #dj pounds1 and in this ratio for all strengths4 ,this system of manufacture and testing was examined in operation by every engineer who ordered an indicator1 the shop on ,st4 ,martin's ,lane being very convenient4 ,they generally required that the indicator should be tested by the mercurial column4 ,the ,elliotts1 being large makers of barometers1 had plenty of pure mercury1 so this requirement was readily complied with1 and the springs were invariably found to be absolutely correct4 ,we never used the mercurial column in manufacturing1 but were glad to apply it for the satisfaction of customers4 ,i employed the following test for friction4 ,the indicator when finished was set on a firm bracket in the shop4 ,the spring was pressed down as far as it could be1 and then allowed to return to its position of rest very slowly1 the motion at the end becoming almost insensible4 ,then a fine line was drawn with a sharp-pointed brass wire on metallic paper placed on the drum4 ,the spring was then pulled up as far as possible and allowed to return to its position of rest in the same careful manner4 ,the point must then absolutely retrace this line4 ,no indicator was allowed to go out without satisfying this test4 ,the workmanship was so excellent that they always did so as a matter of course4 ,mr4 ,henry ,r4 ,worthington once told me1 long after1 that on the test of an installation of his pump in ,philadelphia1 after he had indicated it at both steam and water ends1 the examining board asked him to permit them to make a test with their own indicator1 which they did the next day4 ,they brought another indicator1 of ,elliott's make like his own1 but the number showed it to have been made some years later4 8,would you believe it10 said he1 8the diagrams were every one of them absolutely identical with my own60 ,i replied that the system of manufacture was such that this could not have been otherwise4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,spring-testing ,instrument4 ,i wish to acknowledge my obligation to ,elliott ,brothers for their cordial co-operation1 their excellent system of manufacture1 and the intelligent skill of their workmen1 by one of whom the swiveling connection of the levers with the piston-rod was devised4 ,the indicator was improved in other important respects1 but ,i here confine myself to the above1 which most directly affected its accuracy4 ,this soon became established in the public confidence4 ,during my stay in ,england1 about five years longer1 the sale of indicators averaged some three hundred a year1 with but little variation4 ,the ,elliotts then told me that they considered the market to have been about supplied1 and looked for a considerable falling off in the demand1 and had already reduced their orders for material4 ,eight years after my return ,i ordered from them two indicators for use in indicating engines exhibited at our ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia4 ,the indicators had from the first been numbered in the order of their manufacture4 ,these came numbered over #aj1jjj4 ,the indicators were put on the market in the spring of #ahfc1 and ,i sought opportunity to apply them on locomotives4 ,in this ,i had the efficient co-operation of ,zerah ,colburn1 then editor of ,the ,engineer4 ,the first application of them was on a locomotive of the ,london and ,southwestern ,railway1 and our trips1 two in number1 were from ,london to ,southampton and return4 ,the revelations made by the indicator were far from agreeable to ,mr4 ,beattie1 the chief engineer of the line4 ,mr4 ,beattie had filled his boilers with tubes of an inch in diameter4 ,the diagrams showed the pressure of blast necessary to draw the gases through these tubes to average about ten pounds above the atmosphere1 the reduction of the nozzles producing this amount of back pressure throughout the stroke4 ,another revelation was equally disagreeable4 ,the steam showed very wet4 ,we learned that ,mr4 ,beattie surrounded his cylinders with a jacket4 ,this was a large corrugated casting in which the cylinder was inserted as a liner4 ,to keep the cylinder hot the exhaust was passed through this jacket4 ,mr4 ,colburn made both of these features the subjects of editorials in ,the ,engineer1 written in his usual trenchant style4 ,the last one was entitled 8,mr4 ,beattie's ,refrigerators10 and produced a decided sensation4 ,our next trips were made on the ,great ,eastern ,road1 one from ,london to ,norwich and one from ,london to ,great ,yarmouth4 ,on these trips we were accompanied by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,maw1 then head draftsman of the ,great ,eastern ,locomotive ,drawing ,office1 under ,mr4 ,sinclair1 the chief engineer1 and by ,mr4 ,pendred4 ,these gentlemen were afterwards1 respectively1 the editors of ,engineering and ,the ,engineer4 ,illustration3 ,diagrams from ,english ,locomotives taken with ,richards ,indicator4 ,the diagrams from the ,great ,eastern engines were1 on the whole1 the best which were taken by us4 ,on one of these trips ,i was able to get the accompanying most interesting pair of diagrams1 which were published by me in the appendix to my treatise on the ,indicator4 ,one of them was taken at the speed of #ej revolutions per minute1 and the other at the speed of #bfj revolutions per minute1 running in the same notch with wide-open throttle4 ,the steam pressure was higher at the rapid speed4 ,they afford many subjects of study1 and show the perfect action of the indicator as at first turned out1 at this great speed4 ,i learned afterwards that the almost entire freedom from vibration at the most rapid speed was due to the gradual manner in which the pressure fell from the beginning of the stroke4 ,this fall of pressure before the cut-off ,i fancy was caused largely by a small steam-pipe4 ,our last diagrams were taken from a locomotive on the ,london and ,northwestern1 by the same four operators as on the ,great ,eastern trips4 ,we ran from ,london to ,manchester4 ,on our return trip ,mr4 ,webb joined us at ,crewe1 and accompanied us to ,london4 ,i am sorry to say that in one respect the revelation of the indicator here was almost inconceivably bad4 ,mr4 ,ramsbottom did not protect his cylinders1 but painted these and the steam-chests black1 and in this condition sent them rushing through the moist air of ,england4 ,if the steam cooled by 8,mr4 ,beattie's refrigerators0 was wet1 that in ,mr4 ,ramsbottom's cylinders seemed to be all water4 ,a jet of hot water was always sent up from each of the holes in the cover of the spring case to a height of between one and two feet4 ,we had much trouble to protect ourselves from it1 and it nearly always drenched the diagram4 ,i never saw this phenomenon before or since4 ,i have seen the steam blow from the indicator cocks white with water when the indicators were removed4 ,but ,i never saw water spurt through the spring-case cover1 except in this instance4 ,truly1 we said to each other1 ,mr4 ,ramsbottom has abundant use for his trough and scoop to keep water in his tanks4 ,it was on this trip that ,i observed how enormously the motion of a black surface increased the power of the surrounding air to abstract heat from it4 ,while we were running at speed ,i many times laid my hand on the smoke-box door without experiencing any sensation of warmth4 ,i wondered at this1 for ,i knew that a torrent of fire issuing from the tubes was impinging against the opposite surface of this quarter-inch iron plate4 ,in approaching ,rugby ,junction ,i observed that the speed had not slackened very much when ,i could not touch this door1 and when we stopped1 although the draft had mostly ceased1 ,i could not come near it for the heat4 ,at the full velocity with which the air blew against this door the capacity of the air to absorb heat evidently exceeded the conducting power of the metal4 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,h4 ,,maw ,,chapter ,,ix ,designs of ,horizontal ,engine ,beds4 ,engine ,details4 ,presentation of the ,indicator at the ,newcastle ,meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 ,much of my time was now devoted to working out improvements in the design of the engine1 some of which had occurred to me during the exhibition1 and which ,i was anxious to have completed before bringing the engine to the notice of builders4 ,the first point which claimed my attention was the bed4 ,the horizontal engine bed had already passed through three stages of development4 ,the old form1 in common use in the ,united ,states1 was a long and narrow box1 open at top and bottom4 ,the sides and ends of this box were all alike1 and their section resembled the letter ,h laid on its side1 thus 4 ,this on some accounts was a very convenient form4 ,the surface of the bed was planed1 and everything was easily lined from this surface4 ,the cylinder was made with two flanges on each side1 which rested on the opposite surfaces of the bed1 permitting the cylinder to sink between them as desired4 ,the pillow-block rested on one or the other of these surfaces1 according as the engine was to be right or left hand4 ,the guide-bars were bolted on these opposite surfaces4 ,the first break in this monotony was made by ,mr4 ,corliss1 and was remarkable for the number and the radical nature of its new ideas4 ,the cylinder was provided with broad feet near its ends1 and was planted on the foundation4 ,the pillow-block was provided with similar supports and was also secured to the foundation4 ,the bed1 so called1 was a tie-beam uniting the cylinder and pillow-block1 and not otherwise supported4 ,it was of ,t section4 ,the horizontal member was behind the center line of the engine1 and was made very deep in the middle of its length to prevent deflection4 ,the vertical member extended equally above and below the former and carried the guides1 which were top and bottom ,v-grooves1 between which the cross-head ran and the connecting-rod vibrated4 ,the cross-head was provided with shoes fitting these ,v's1 and was adjustable vertically between them4 ,the connection with the cylinders was made by a circular head supported by curved brackets4 ,this connection was firm on one side only4 ,the bed was reversible to suit right- or left-hand engines by merely turning it over4 ,in the bed for my engine1 ,mr4 ,richards struck out another design1 which avoided some objections to the ,corliss bed4 ,the guides were supported from the foundation1 and the connection with the cylinder was more substantial1 but the reversible feature had to be sacrificed4 ,mr4 ,richards' bed1 shown in the illustration facing page #gj1 was designed in the box form1 the superior rigidity of which had been established by ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,it was a box closed at the top and flanged internally at the bottom4 ,it rested on the foundation through its entire length4 ,the main pillow-block was formed in the bed1 as were also the lower guide-bars4 ,the cylinder was secured on its surface in the old-fashioned way4 ,illustration3 ,engine ,bed ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter4 ,engraving made from an ,old ,print4 ,it occurred to me that the best features of the ,corliss and the ,richards designs might be combined to advantage4 ,this idea ,i worked out in the bed shown in the accompanying illustration1 taken from a circular issued by ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 of ,manchester1 and which was made from a photograph of an engine sent by that firm to the ,oporto ,international ,exhibition in #ahfe4 ,it will be seen that this is ,mr4 ,richards' bed with the cylinder bolted to the end after ,mr4 ,corliss' plan4 ,the great strength of the bed enabled the supports under the cylinder to be dispensed with4 ,this left the cylinder free to expand by heat1 and made it convenient to attach the steam or exhaust connections or both underneath4 ,this bed has remained without change1 except in one important respect4 ,i made the first cylinders with a bracket which was keyed up from the base of the bed4 ,in the illustration a corner of this bracket appears4 ,at the ,paris ,exposition in #ahfg ,mr4 ,beyer1 of the firm of ,beyer ,peacock1 the ,manchester locomotive-builders1 when he saw it1 told me ,i did not need that bracket4 ,i then left it off1 but found the cylinder to wink a little on every stroke when the heavy piston was at the back end4 ,to find the weak place1 ,i tried the following experiment on an engine built for the ,india ,mills in ,manchester4 ,i filed two notches in the edges of the brackets on the bed1 opposite each other and about ten inches forward of the head1 and fitted a piece of wire between them4 ,this wire buckled very decidedly on every revolution of the engine1 when the piston was at the back end of its stroke4 ,i then united these brackets into a hood1 and lengthened the connection with the surface of the bed1 as it is now made4 ,this affords a perfect support for the cylinder4 ,experiments tried at the ,cambria ,iron ,works on a cylinder of #dj-;inch bore and #dh-;inch stroke1 with a piston weighing #cfjj pounds and running at #ajj double strokes per minute1 showed the back end of the cylinder standing absolutely motionless4 ,this experiment will be described hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,cross-head ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter4 ,the cross-head which ,i designed at this time has always interested me1 not only on account of its success1 but also for the important lesson which it teaches4 ,i abolished all means of adjustment4 ,the cross-head was a solid block1 running on the lower guide-bars if the engine were running forward1 as was almost always the case1 and these guide-bars were formed on the bed4 ,the pin was of steel1 with the surface hardened and ground truly cylindrical1 set in the middle of the cross-head1 and formed with square ends larger than the cylindrical portion4 ,these were mortised parallel into the cross-head1 and a central pin was forced through the whole4 ,the flats on the pin ,i afterwards copied from a print4 ,these prevent the formation of shoulders at the ends of the vibration of the boxes4 ,i would like to know to whom we are indebted for this valuable feature4 ,every surface was scraped to absolute truth4 ,the lubrication was internal1 as shown4 ,there are many of these cross-heads which have been running at rapid speeds in clean engine-rooms from twenty to thirty years1 where the scraping marks on the lower bars are still to be seen4 ,the lesson is a most important one for the future of steam engineering4 ,it is this4 ,two flat cast-iron surfaces1 perfectly true and incapable of deflection1 with the pressure equally distributed over a sufficient area1 protected from dirt and properly lubricated1 will never have the clean film of oil between them broken or even varied in thickness1 and will run together without wear perpetually and at any speed whatever4 ,the conclusion is also abundantly warranted that a tendency to heat need not exist anywhere in even the least degree1 in engines running at the greatest speeds4 ,this can always be prevented by truth of design and construction1 and the selection of suitable material4 ,this fact is abundantly established by varied experience with cylindrical as well as with flat surfaces1 and for other materials1 though not for all1 as well as for cast iron4 ,the solid end connecting-rod appears in this engine4 ,this was shown to me by ,mr4 ,james ,gulland1 a ,scotch draftsman at ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4's4 ,he did not claim to have originated it1 but only told me that it was designed in ,scotland4 ,i saw at once its peculiar value for high-speed engines4 ,every locomotive designer knows the pains that must be taken to prevent the straps on the crank-pins from spreading at high speeds1 under the pressure exerted by the transverse fling of the connecting-rod4 ,this solid end renders the connecting-rod safe in this respect1 even at thousands of revolutions per minute4 ,for single-crank engines1 on which only it can be applied1 it is invaluable4 ,this solid rod-end possesses also another advantage4 ,the wear of the crank-pin boxes and that of the cross-head-pin boxes are both taken up in the same direction1 so the position of the piston in the cylinder will be varied only by the difference1 if any1 between the two4 ,with a strap on both ends1 the connecting-rod is always shortened by the sum of the wear in the two boxes4 ,the solid rod-end enabled me to reduce the clearance in the cylinder to one eighth of an inch with entire safety4 ,the piston never touched the head4 ,as this construction was shown to me1 the wedge was tapered on both sides4 ,it seemed that this would be difficult to fit up truly1 and it also involved the necessity of elongating the bolt-holes in the rod1 so that the wedge might slide along in taking up the wear4 ,i changed it by putting all the taper of the wedge on the side next to the brass1 making the other side parallel with the bolt-holes4 ,this enabled the opening in the rod-end to be slotted out in a rectangular form1 and made it easy for the wedge-block to be truly fitted4 ,while on this subject ,i may as well dispose of the connecting-rod1 although the other changes were made subsequently1 and ,i do not recollect exactly when4 ,the following shows the rod and strap as they have been made for a long time4 ,the taper of the rod1 giving to it a great strength at the crank-pin neck to resist the transverse fling1 was1 ,i presume1 copied by me from a locomotive rod4 ,the rounded end of the strap originated in this way4 ,i had often heard of the tendency of the cross-head-pin straps to spread4 ,this was in the old days1 when these pins were not hardened1 indeed were always part of the iron casting4 ,the brasses1 always used without babbitt lining1 would wear these pins on the opposite acting sides only4 ,brass1 ,i learned afterwards1 will wear away any pin1 even hardened steel1 and not be worn itself4 ,when this wear would be taken up1 the brasses would bind at the ends of their vibration1 coming in contact there with the unworn sides of the pin4 ,to relieve this binding it was common for engineers to file these sides away4 ,all ,i knew at that time was that the straps would yield and spread4 ,it occurred to me to observe this deflection in a spring brass wire bent to the form of a strap4 ,the pressure being applied on the line of the pin center1 the deflection appeared to take place mostly at the back1 and so ,i stiffened it4 ,since the introduction of the flats on the pin1 which prevent the exertion of any force to spread the strap1 this form seems to be rather ornamental than useful4 ,illustration3 ,connecting-rod and ,strap4 ,to this strap ,i added a wiper for lubricating the cross-head pin automatically4 ,the drop of oil hung from the center of a convex surface provided above the wiper4 ,the latter was inclined forward1 and its edge partook of the vibration of the connecting-rod4 ,on the backward stroke this edge cleared the drop4 ,at the commencement of the forward stroke it rose to take it off4 ,a note of the change then made by me in stop-valves will conclude the record of these changes4 ,the valve and its seat had always been made of brass4 ,the latter was fitted in a cast-iron chamber1 and1 expanding more than the iron1 was apt to work loose4 ,i disused brass entirely1 employing a cast-iron valve in the cast-iron seat4 ,these always remained perfectly tight1 showing the additional cost and trouble of brass to be unnecessary4 ,at the meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science in #ahfc1 held in ,newcastle1 ,i read before the ,mechanical ,section a paper on the ,richards indicator1 illustrated by one of the instruments and diagrams taken by it from locomotives4 ,the paper was very favorably received4 ,the description of the action of the arms1 in preventing by their elasticity in combination with a stop any more than a light pressure being applied to the paper1 called out especial applause4 ,the president of the ,mechanical ,section that year was ,professor ,willis1 of ,cambridge1 the designer of the odontograph form of tooth1 which enables gear-wheels of the same pitch to run together equally well1 whatever may be the difference in their diameters4 ,i felt very deeply impressed at standing before a large assembly of the leading mechanical engineers of ,great ,britain1 and where so many important things had first been presented to the world1 where ,sir ,william ,armstrong had described his accumulator1 by which enormous power is supplied occasionally from small pumps running continuously1 and where ,joule had explained his practical demonstration of the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,on my journeys to ,newcastle and back to ,london ,i met two strangers1 each of whom gave me something to think about4 ,it happened that each time we were the only occupants of the compartment4 ,englishmen1 ,i observed1 were always ready to converse with ,americans4 ,soon after leaving ,london1 my fellow-passenger1 a young gentleman1 said to me1 8,did you observe that young fellow and young woman who bade me good-by at the carriage door8 ,he is my brother1 and they are engaged4 ,he is first mate on a ship1 and sails to-morrow for ,calcutta4 ,he hopes on his next voyage to have command of a ship himself1 and then they expect to be married40 ,i did not learn who he was1 but he said they were making large preparations to welcome the scientists1 and added that he owned about six hundred houses in ,newcastle4 ,evidently he was the eldest son4 ,on my return my companion was an elderly gentleman1 a typical ,tory4 ,he waxed eloquent on the inhumanity of educating the laboring classes1 saying that its only effect must be to make them discontented with the position which they must always occupy4 ,i told him ,i had thought of a motto for the ,social ,science ,congress1 which was just then in session4 ,it was a parody on ,nelson's celebrated order1 8,england expects every man to do his duty40 ,my proposed motto was1 8,england expects every man to know his place40 ,he did not see the humor1 but took me seriously1 and thought it excellent4 ,,chapter ,x ,contract with ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 ,engine for ,evan ,leigh1 ,son ,co4 ,engine for the ,oporto ,exhibition4 ,getting ,home from ,portugal4 ,i could do nothing with the engine in ,england unless it was put on the market as a condensing engine4 ,this fact was finally revealed to me1 and ,i applied myself to meet the requirement4 ,the question as it addressed itself to me was1 not 8,how do you work your air-pump80 but 8,how are you going to work your air-pump80 ,my friends ,easton1 ,amos ,sons told me frankly that in their judgment ,i could not do it at all4 ,their opinion was expressed very decidedly1 that as a condensing engine the high-speed engine was not to be thought of4 ,this was not surprising1 seeing that the beam ,wolff engines made by them ran at only #be revolutions per minute1 which was the speed of beam-engines generally1 and all stationary engines were beam-engines2 but it was discouraging4 ,i made up my mind that they did not know everything1 and ,i would show them a thing or two as soon as ,i got a chance4 ,this ,i found easier to get than ,i expected1 when ,i had matured a satisfactory system of condensation4 ,my first plan was to use an independent air-pump running at the usual slow speed and driven by a belt1 the speed being reduced by intermediate gearing4 ,i was able very readily to make an agreement on this basis with the firm of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 of ,manchester1 for the manufacture of the engines and governors1 and we started on our first order on the first day of ,january1 #ahfd4 ,the ground occupied by these works bordered on the ,duke of ,bridgewater's canal from ,liverpool to ,manchester1 where ,i one day saw a cow and a woman towing a boat1 a man steering4 ,a railway ran through these works1 parallel with the canal1 at about #cjj feet distance1 but it was not at all in the way4 ,it was built on brick arches1 and the construction was such that the passing of trains was scarcely heard4 ,the arches were utilized for the millwright shop1 pattern shop1 gear-cutting shop1 and the storage of lumber and gear-wheel patterns1 the number and size of which latter astonished me4 ,on a previous visit ,mr4 ,grierson had shown me several things of much interest4 ,the one most worthy of being related was a multiple drill1 capable of drilling ninety holes1 inch diameter1 simultaneously4 ,this had been designed and made by themselves for use in building a lattice-girder bridge1 for erection over the river ,jumna1 near ,delhi1 to carry a roadway below and a railway above4 ,the ,english engineers then made all bridge constructions on this system1 having no faith in the ,american truss4 ,one length of this bridge still stood in their yard1 where it had been completely riveted up for testing1 after which all the rivets would have to be cut out4 ,the other lengths had been shipped in pieces4 ,the advantage of this multiple drill was twofold--the ability to drill many holes simultaneously and the necessary accuracy of their pitch4 ,i was especially interested in the massiveness of this tool and impressed with the importance of this feature4 ,the drills rotated in place1 and the table carrying the work was fed upward by two hydraulic presses4 ,the superintendent told me that they never broke a drill1 and that to exhibit its safety in this respect they had successfully drilled a single hole of an inch in diameter through one inch of steel4 ,he attributed this success partly to the steady feed1 but chiefly to absolute freedom from vibration4 ,he said a toolmaker had had an order for a similar drill1 and on visiting this one pronounced its great weight to be absurd4 ,he made one weighing about half as much1 which proved a failure1 from the liability of the drills to break4 ,this gave me one of the most valuable lessons that ,i ever received4 ,we soon had our first engine running successfully1 in spite of some annoyances4 ,i insisted on having the joints on the steam-chest and cylinder heads made scraped joints1 but the foreman put them together with the white and red lead putty just the same1 so that work was thrown away1 and when we wanted to open a joint we had to resort to the familiar wedges4 ,the pipes were of cast iron1 with square holes in the flanges4 ,the ends were left rough4 ,they were put together with the same putty4 ,the joints were encircled by clips1 which prevented the putty from being forced outward to any great extent in screwing the flanges together4 ,what went inside had to work its way through as it was broken off by the rush of steam and hot water4 ,when the engine was started we could not get much vacuum4 ,on taking the pipes apart to find what the matter was1 we discovered that the workmen had left a wooden plug in the condenser-nozzle1 where it had been put to prevent anything from getting in during its transportation4 ,the proper mode of protection would of course have been to bolt a board on the flange4 ,the worst trouble was from a blunder of my own4 ,my exhibition engine had cast-iron valves running on cast-iron seats1 and the friction between these surfaces under the steam pressure was so little that it did not injure the governor action appreciably4 ,but ,i could not let well enough alone4 ,mr4 ,lee had told me that in the steam fire-engines they used gun-metal valves on steel seats1 which ,i thought must have some wonderful advantages1 so at considerable additional expense ,i fitted up my first engine in the same way4 ,the governor worked very badly4 ,i had the pleasure of demonstrating the fact that brass on steel is the very best combination possible for producing friction4 ,i went back to cast-iron valves1 when the trouble disappeared4 ,we had an order for an engine to drive the works of ,evan ,leigh1 ,son ,co4 ,mr4 ,leigh was quite a famous man1 the inventor of ,leigh's top roller1 used universally in drawing-machines4 ,i was told he was the only man then living who had invented an essential feature in spinning machinery4 ,i struck out a new design1 which proved quite successful4 ,they wished to give #ajj revolutions per minute to their main line of shafting running overhead through the center of their shop4 ,i planned a vertical engine1 standing on a bed-plate1 which carried also an ,a frame4 ,the engine-room was located at the end of the shop4 ,the line of shaft passed through a wall-box and then #c feet further to its main bearing at the top of this upright frame4 ,the latter was stayed from the wall by two ample cast-iron stays4 ,the fly-wheel was outside this frame and carried the crank-pin4 ,the shaft was continued quite stiff through the wall-box1 with long bearings4 ,by this plan ,i got rid of gears4 ,belts for taking power from a prime mover were then unknown in ,england4 ,the fly-wheel was only #aj feet in diameter1 with rim #haj inches1 and was of course cast in one piece4 ,it proved to be ample4 ,the engine was the largest ,i had yet made1 #bb inches diameter of cylinder by #cf inches stroke1 making #ajj revolutions4 ,i was still tied to #fjj feet piston travel per minute4 ,i did not venture to suggest any greater speed than that2 could not have sold an engine in ,lancashire if ,i had4 ,i introduced in this engine a feature which ,i afterwards sincerely wished ,i had not done1 though not on my own account4 ,this was a surface condenser4 ,it worked well1 always maintaining a good vacuum4 ,i shall have more to say respecting this engine later1 which will explain my regret about the condenser4 ,i had about this time the pleasure of a visit from two ,american engineers1 ,robert ,briggs and ,henry ,r4 ,towne1 who were traveling together in ,england1 and were at the trouble to look me up4 ,i took them to see this engine1 and ,i am sorry to say they were not so much carried away with the novel design as ,i was4 ,but if ,i had the same to do again ,i do not think ,i could do better4 ,the last time ,i saw that engine ,i found no one in the engine-room4 ,i inquired of some one where the engineer was1 and was told ,i would find him in the pipe-shop4 ,i found him there at work4 ,he told me he had not been staying in the engine-room for a long time1 he had 8nowt to do10 and so they gave him a job there4 ,when ,i went with ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 they were deep in the execution of a large order known as the ,oporto ,crystal ,palace4 ,portugal was behind every other country in ,europe in its arts and manufactures4 ,in fact1 it had none at all4 ,at ,oporto there was a large colony of ,english merchants1 by whom all the trade of the port was carried on4 ,these had conceived the idea of holding at ,oporto an international exposition1 which idea was put into execution4 ,our firm had secured the contract for all the iron-work for a pretty large iron and glass building1 and for the power and shafting for the ,machinery ,hall4 ,i was soon called on for the plans for an ,allen engine to be shown there4 ,this was to be a non-condensing engine1 #adbd1 to make #aej revolutions per minute1 and which accordingly was made and sent1 with two ,lancashire boilers4 ,i went on to attend the opening of the exposition on the first of ,may1 #ahfe1 and see that the engine was started in good shape4 ,i sailed from ,london on a trading-steamer for ,oporto1 and on the voyage learned various things that ,i did not know before4 ,one of these was how to make port wine4 ,i asked the captain what his cargo consisted of4 ,he replied3 8,nine hundred pipes of brandy40 8,what are you taking brandy to ,portugal for80 8,to make wine40 8,but what kind of brandy is it that you take from ,england80 8,british brandy40 8,what is it made from80 8,corn40 ,by this word he meant wheat4 ,in ,england ,indian corn is called maize4 ,i do not know whether 8corn0 included barley and rye or not4 ,we had the pleasure in ,oporto of meeting a ,portuguese inventor4 ,in ,england there then existed the rude method of announcing at each principal seaport the instant of noon by firing a cannon by an electric current from the ,greenwich ,observatory4 ,the more accurate method now in use substitutes sight for sound4 ,this inventor proposed planting a cannon for this purpose in an opening in a church tower1 of which there were plenty4 ,the hammer1 by the fall of which a pill of fulminate was to be exploded and the cannon fired1 was to be held up by a string4 ,the rays of the sun were focused by a burning-glass on a point1 which at the instant that the sun reached the meridian would reach this string4 ,the string would be burned off1 and the cannon would go off4 ,in the rare case for ,oporto of a cloudy day1 or if for any reason the automatic action failed1 it would be the duty of a priest1 after waiting a few minutes to be sure of the failure1 to go up and fire the gun4 ,the enthusiastic inventor urged it on the ,english4 ,it was thought1 however1 that the more feeble power of the sun's rays in the higher latitude of ,england would not warrant the application of this ingenious invention there1 and besides neither perforated church towers nor idle priests were available for the purpose4 ,in order to get the full point of the following story it must be remembered that at that time there was not a stationary steam-engine in ,portugal4 ,english enterprise and capital had recently built a line of railway between ,lisbon and ,oporto1 and the locomotives on that line furnished the only exhibition of steam power in the country4 ,to the educated classes of the ,portuguese1 therefore1 the steam-engine to be shown at the ,oporto ,crystal ,palace was the object of supreme interest4 ,in one respect they used to have on the ,continent a way of managing these things which was better than ours4 ,the exhibitions were completely ready on the opening day4 ,for example1 in the ,french ,exposition of #ahfg1 which was the last one ,i attended1 the jurors commenced their work of examination on the day after the opening1 and completed it in three weeks4 ,the only exception1 ,i think1 was in the class of agricultural machinery1 the examination of which had to wait for the grain to grow4 ,no imperial decree could hasten that4 ,so the ,oporto ,exposition was to be complete in all its departments when the ,king of ,portugal should declare it to be open4 ,i arrived in ,oporto a week before the day fixed for the opening1 and found a funny state of affairs existing in the engineering department4 ,a very capable and efficient young man had been placed by our firm in charge of their exhibit4 ,i found his work finished4 ,the engine and shafting were in running order4 ,only the boilers were not ready1 in explanation of which ,i heard this statement3 ,some time previously an ,englishman had presented himself1 bearing a commission1 duly signed by the executive officials1 constituting him 8,chief ,engineer of the ,oporto ,exposition10 and demanded charge of our engine and boilers1 which were all there was for him to be chief engineer of4 ,our man very properly refused to recognize him1 telling him that he had been placed in charge of this exhibit by its owners1 and he should surrender it to nobody4 ,but the new man had a pull4 ,the managers were furious at this defiance of their authority4 ,on the other hand1 the guardian of our interests was firm4 ,finally1 after much altercation and correspondence with ,manchester1 a compromise had been arranged1 by which our representative retained charge of the engine and shafting1 and the boilers were handed over to the 8chief engineer40 ,i was introduced to this functionary1 and received his assurance that the boilers would be 8in readiness to-morrow40 ,this promise was repeated every day4 ,finally the morning of the opening day arrived4 ,the city put on its gala attire4 ,flags and banners waved everywhere4 ,the people were awakened to a holiday by the booming of cannon and the noise of rockets1 which the ,portuguese sent up by daylight to explode in the air4 ,the ,king and ,queen and court came up from ,lisbon1 and there was a grand opening ceremonial1 after which a royal procession made the circuit of the building4 ,at the hour fixed for the opening the 8chief engineer0 was just having a fire started under the boilers for the first time4 ,i was1 of course1 pretty nervous1 but our man said to me3 8,you go and witness the opening ceremonies4 ,they will last fully two hours1 and we shall doubtless be running when you get back40 ,when at their conclusion ,i hurried through the crowds back to ,machinery ,hall1 there stood the engine motionless4 ,the door to the boiler-room was shut as tightly as possible1 but steam was coming through every crevice4 ,i could not speak1 but looked at our man for an explanation4 8,the fool10 said he1 8did not know enough to pack the heads of his drum-bolts2 he can get only two pounds of steam1 and it blows out around all the bolts1 so as to drive the firemen out of the boiler-room40 ,there was no help for it4 ,the boilers had to be emptied and cooled before a man could go inside and pack those bolt-heads4 ,illustration3 ,attaching a ,steam-drum to a ,lancashire ,boiler4 ,i must stop here and explain how a steam-drum is attached to a ,lancashire boiler1 or1 at least1 how it was in those days4 ,the accompanying section will enable the reader to understand the description4 ,the 8drum0 was of cast iron4 ,the upper part1 not shown1 was provided with three raised faces on its sides1 to two of which branch pipes were bolted1 each carrying a safety-valve1 while the steam-pipe was connected to the third4 ,the manhole was in the top4 ,a cast-iron saddle was riveted on the boiler1 and was provided at the top with a broad flange turning inward4 ,this flange and the flange at the base of the drum had their surfaces planed1 and a steam-joint was made between them with the putty4 ,square bolt-holes were cored in the flange of the saddle1 and corresponding round holes were bored in the flange of the drum4 ,the bolts were forged square for a short distance under the heads1 so that they would be held from turning in the square holes4 ,these bolts were inserted from the inside of the saddle1 and were packed by winding them1 under the heads1 with long hemp well filled with this putty4 ,as the nut on the outside was tightened the putty was squeezed into the square hole around the bolt1 and soon became hard4 ,this packing was what the 8chief engineer0 had omitted4 ,the reader is now prepared to appreciate the situation4 ,it was not long before the royal procession appeared at the extreme end of the hall1 the ,king and ,queen in advance1 and a long line of the dignitaries of state and church1 with a sprinkling of ladies1 following at a respectful distance4 ,slowly1 but inevitably1 the procession advanced1 between the rows of silent machinery and mad exhibitors1 until1 arriving near us1 the ,king stopped4 ,an official immediately appeared1 of whom the ,king inquired who was present to represent the engine1 or at least ,i suppose he did1 for in reply ,i was pointed out to him4 ,he stepped briskly over to me1 and what do you think he said8 ,i defy any living ,yankee to guess4 ,with a manner of the utmost cordiality1 and speaking in ,english as if it were his native tongue1 he said3 8,i am extremely sorry that the neglect of some one has caused you to be disappointed to-day40 ,me disappointed6 ,it almost took my breath away4 ,without waiting for me to frame a reply 7,i think he would have had to wait some time71 ,his ,majesty continued cheerily3 8,no doubt the defect will be remedied directly1 and your engine will be enabled to run to-morrow40 ,then1 looking the engine over quite leisurely1 he observed3 8,it certainly presents a fine appearance4 ,i expect to visit the exposition again after a few days1 when ,i shall have more leisure1 and will then ask you to explain its operation to me40 ,he then turned and rejoined the ,queen1 and the procession moved on1 leaving me with food for reflection for many a day4 ,i had met a gentleman1 a man who under the most sudden and extreme test had acted with a courtesy which showed that in his heart he had only kind feelings towards every one4 ,an outside imitation must have been thrown off its guard by such a provocation as that4 ,in reflecting on the incident1 ,i saw clearly that in stopping and speaking to me the ,king had only one thought1 and that was to say what he could to relieve my feelings of disappointment and mortification4 ,he had evidently been informed that ,i could not get any steam1 and took pains and went out of his way to do this2 showing a kindly and sympathetic feeling that must express itself in act and conduct even towards a stranger4 ,i left the next day for ,england with some new ideas about the 8effete monarchies10 and with regret that ,i should see ,his ,majesty no more4 ,one or two observations on the ,portuguese peasantry may be interesting4 ,they did not impress me so favorably as did their ,king4 ,on my first arrival ,i wished to have the engine turned over1 that ,i might see if the valve motions were all right4 ,the engineer ordered some men standing around to do this4 ,six of them laid hold of the flywheel1 three on each side1 and tugged away apparently in earnest4 ,it did not move4 ,i looked at the engineer in surprise4 ,he said1 8,i will show you what is the matter10 ordered them all away1 and himself pulled the wheel around with one hand4 ,then he explained3 8,i only wanted you to see for yourself what they are good for4 ,we have had to bring every laborer from ,england4 ,these men are on the pay-roll1 and spend their time in lounging about1 but no ,portuguese man will work4 ,women do all the work in this country40 ,the exposition buildings were located on a level spot on a hilltop overlooking the river ,douro1 at an elevation1 ,i judged1 of about #bjj feet4 ,they wished to surround them with a greensward4 ,between the heat and the light soil1 the grass could be made to grow only by continual watering1 and this is the way they did it4 ,about #djj women and children brought up water from the river in vessels on their heads4 ,all day long this procession was moving up and down the hill1 pouring the water on the ground1 performing the work of a steam-pump and a #b-;inch pipe4 ,i went to ,portugal without a passport4 ,our financial partner told me it would be quite unnecessary4 ,he himself had just returned from ,oporto1 where he went without a passport1 and found that half a crown given the custom-house inspector on his arrival and departure was all he needed4 ,i understood the intimation that if ,i got a passport1 the fee of1 ,i believe1 a guinea would not be allowed me4 ,so1 although ,i went from ,london and could very conveniently have obtained a passport at the ,united ,states legation1 ,i omitted to do it4 ,on landing at ,oporto the two-and-sixpenny piece opened the kingdom of ,portugal to me quite readily4 ,getting out1 the process was different4 ,i found that the steamer on which ,i had come from ,london would not return for a week or more after the opening of the exposition1 and ,i was impatient to get back4 ,a line between ,liverpool and ,buenos ,ayres made ,lisbon a port of call1 and a steamer was expected en route to ,liverpool in the course of three or four days after the opening2 so ,i determined to come by that4 ,the morning after the opening ,i was awakened early by a telegram informing me that the steamer had arrived at ,lisbon during the preceding night1 having made an unexpectedly quick run across the ,south ,atlantic1 and would sail for ,liverpool that evening4 ,the railroad ran only two trains a day1 and my only way to get to ,lisbon in time was to take the nine-o'clock train from ,oporto4 ,the station was on a hill on the opposite side of the ,douro4 ,there was only one bridge across the river1 and that was half a mile up the stream from the hotel and from the station4 ,oporto boasted no public conveyance4 ,so ,i hired a couple of boys to take my trunk down to the river1 row me and it across1 and carry it up the hill to the station4 ,i got off with two minutes to spare4 ,on applying at the steamship office in ,lisbon for a passage ticket1 ,i was informed by the very gentlemanly ,english clerk that they were forbidden to sell a ticket to any one without a passport4 8,however10 he added1 8this will cause you no inconvenience4 ,the ,united ,states legation is on the second block below here4 ,i will direct you to it1 and you can obtain a passport without any trouble40 ,by the way1 how did he recognize me as an ,american1 and how was it that ,i was always recognized as an ,american8 ,i never could explain that puzzle4 ,on knocking at the door of the legation1 it was opened by a colored man1 who informed me that this was a fte day1 and that the minister was attending a reception at the palace 7this was the first time ,i ever heard of a royal reception in the forenoon71 but if ,i would call again at three o'clock the passport would be ready for me4 ,so1 leaving with him my address1 ,i left1 to amuse myself as best ,i could till three o'clock4 ,on presenting myself at that hour ,i was informed by the same darkey that the minister would not give me a passport2 that he had bidden him tell me he knew nothing about me2 ,i might be an ,american or ,i might not3 at any rate1 he was not going to certify that ,i was4 ,i had got into the country without a passport1 and ,i would have to get out without one for all him4 ,i inquired if the minister were at home4 8,yes1 sir10 replied the darkey1 8he is at home1 but he will not see you2 he told me to tell you so10 and with that he bowed me out and shut the door4 ,i went back to the steamship office and reported my failure to my friend the clerk4 ,he drew a long whistle4 8,not see you6 ,what's he here for8 ,he must be drunk2 that's it1 he's drunk40 ,after a minute's reflection he added3 8,we must see the ,secretary of ,state2 ,i am well acquainted with him1 and he will get you out of this mess directly4 ,if you will kindly wait till ,i have finished my correspondence1 which will occupy me for about half an hour1 ,i will take you to his office4 ,you can amuse yourself with this copy of the ,times10 handing it to me4 ,when we reached the office of the ,secretary of ,state we found the door locked4 8,oh10 said he1 8,i had forgotten1 this is a saint's day1 and the public offices are closed4 ,we must go to his house40 ,we found the ,secretary at home4 ,i was introduced1 and the ,englishman told my case1 of course in ,portuguese4 ,as he proceeded ,i saw the official brow darken4 ,i woke up to the enormity of my offense4 ,little kingdom1 big dignity4 ,i had defied their laws and corrupted their official4 ,the case looked serious4 ,the ,secretary1 in fact1 found it so serious that he did not feel like taking the sole responsibility of its decision1 but sent out for two others of ,his ,majesty's advisers to consult with him4 ,the assembling of this court caused a delay of half an hour1 during which ,i had time to conjure up all sorts of visions1 including an indefinite immurement in a castle and a diplomatic correspondence1 while the deuce would be to pay with my business at home4 ,finally the officials sent for arrived4 ,the instant they entered the room ,i was recognized by one of them4 ,he had accompanied the ,king to the opening of the exposition the day before1 which the pressure of public business or some game or other had prevented the ,secretary of ,state from doing4 ,in fact1 he had headed the procession behind their ,majesties and so had seen the graciousness of the ,king's favor to me4 ,he spoke a few words to the ,secretary of ,state1 when1 presto1 everything was changed4 ,the court did not convene1 but instead cordial handshaking with the man on whom the beams of royal favor had shone4 ,i left my smiling friends with a passport or something just as good1 added my twelve pounds sterling to the account of the ship1 and had time before it sailed to eat a sumptuous dinner at the hotel4 ,i was in the land of olives1 and ate freely of the unaccustomed delicacy1 in consequence of which ,i lost my dinner before the ship was well out of the ,tagus and have never cared much for olives since4 ,i was full of wrath against the ,united ,states minister1 and determined to send a protest to the ,state ,department as soon as ,i reached ,manchester4 ,but there ,i found something else to attend to and dropped the matter4 ,i read1 however1 with satisfaction1 a few months after1 that the item of the salary of the minister to ,portugal had been cut out of the appropriation bill by the ,house of ,representatives4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,trouble with the ,evan ,leigh ,engine4 ,gear ,patterns from the ,whitworth ,works4 ,first ,order for a ,governor4 ,introduction of the ,governor into ,cotton ,mills4 ,invention of my ,condenser4 ,failure of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 ,the ,evan ,leigh engine was not quite ready to be started when ,i left ,england4 ,on my return ,i found an unexpected trouble and quite an excitement4 ,the engine had been started during my absence1 and ran all right1 but it was found almost impossible to supply the boilers with water4 ,two injectors were required1 and two men feeding the furnaces1 and everybody was agreed that the fault lay with the engine4 ,the boilers were a pair of ,harrison boilers1 from which great results had been expected4 ,these were formed of cast-iron globes1 #h inches internal diameter1 with #c-;inch necks1 held together by bolts running through a string of these globes4 ,they were an ,american invention1 and naturally ,mr4 ,luders 7who was introducing them in ,england7 and ,i fraternized4 ,i felt greatly disappointed4 ,i did not then see ,mr4 ,leigh1 but had the pleasure of an interview with his son4 ,this young gentleman denounced me in good ,saxon terms as a fraud and an impostor1 and assured me that he would see to it that ,i never sold another engine in ,england4 ,he knew that the boilers were all right4 ,his friend ,mr4 ,hetherington1 an extensive manufacturer of spinning and weaving machinery1 and who had taken the agency to sell these boilers1 had had one working for a long time in company with a ,lancashire boiler1 and there was no difference in their performance4 ,he finished by informing me that the engine would be put out as quickly as they could get another4 ,i put an indicator on the engine1 and show here the diagrams it took4 ,i could not see that much fault was to be found with those diagrams4 ,old ,mr4 ,leigh1 after looking at them1 said nothing1 but he did something4 ,he went to an old boiler-yard and bought a second-hand ,lancashire boiler1 had it carted into his yard and set under an improvised shed alongside his boiler-house1 and in two or three days it was supplying the steam for my engine1 and all difficulties had vanished4 ,the consumption of steam and coal fell to just what it had been calculated that it should be1 and everybody felt happy1 except my friend ,mr4 ,luders1 who1 notwithstanding his grievous disappointment1 had never gone back on me1 and young ,mr4 ,leigh1 who owed me an apology which he was not manly enough to render4 ,repeated efforts were tried to make the ,harrison boilers answer1 but the result was always the same1 and they were abandoned4 ,illustration3 ,diagrams from ,engine of ,evan ,leigh1 ,son ,co4 ,sixteen ,pounds to the ,inch4 ,and1 after all1 the fault was largely mine4 ,i did not think of it till long afterwards1 and it did not occur to anybody else1 not even to those most deeply interested in the boiler4 ,my surface condenser was the cause of all the trouble1 and that was why ,i have to this day deeply regretted having put it in4 ,the oil used in the cylinder was all sent into the boilers1 and accumulated there4 ,it saponified and formed a foam which filled the whole boiler and caused the water to be worked over with the steam as fast as it could be fed in4 ,i have always wondered why the engine1 being vertical1 should not have exhibited any sign of the water working through it at the upper end of the cylinder4 ,the explanation after all appears simple4 ,the water on entering the steam chest mostly fell to the bottom and little passed through the upper ports4 ,the trouble from oil was not felt at all in the ,lancashire boiler4 ,this1 ,i suppose1 was due to three causes4 ,the latter held a far greater body of water1 had a much larger extent of evaporating surface1 and far greater steam capacity4 ,i was always sorry that ,i did not give the ,harrison boiler the better chance it would have had with a jet condenser4 ,in this pair of diagrams1 which are copied from the catalogue of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 the low steam pressure1 #bi pounds above the atmosphere1 will be observed4 ,this was about the pressure commonly carried4 ,the pressure in the exhibition boilers1 #ge pounds1 was exhibited by ,mr4 ,john ,hick1 of ,bolton1 as a marked advance on the existing practice4 ,in preparing for the governor manufacture ,i had my first revelation of the utter emptiness of the ,whitworth ,works4 ,iron gear patterns were required1 duplicates of those which had been cut for me at home by ,mr4 ,pratt4 ,the blanks for these gears were turned as soon as possible after ,i reached ,manchester1 and sent to the ,whitworth ,works to be cut4 ,it seemed as though we should never get them4 ,finally1 after repeated urging1 the patterns came4 ,i was sent for to come into the shop and see them4 ,they were in the hands of the best fitter we had1 who1 by the way1 was a ,swedenborgian preacher and preached every ,sunday4 ,the foreman told me he had given them to this man to see if it was possible to do anything with them1 and he thought ,i ought to see them before he set about it4 ,i could hardly believe my eyes4 ,there was no truth about them4 ,the spaces and the teeth differed so much that the same tooth would be too small for some spaces and could not be wedged into others2 some would be too thick or too thin at one end4 ,they were all alike bad1 and presented all kinds of badness4 ,it was finally concluded to make the best of them1 and this careful man worked on them more than two days to make them passable4 ,the first governor order that was booked was the only case that ever beat me4 ,i went to see the engine4 ,it was a condensing beam-engine of good size1 made by ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 to maintain the vacuum in a tube connecting two telegraph offices in ,manchester1 and had been built to the plans and specifications of the telegraph company's engineer4 ,the engine had literally nothing to do4 ,a little steam air-pump that two men could have lifted and set on a bench would have been just suitable for the work4 ,they could not carry low enough pressure nor run slowly enough4 ,on inspection ,i reported that we should have nothing to do with it4 ,the custom of making whatever customers order and taking no responsibility was first illustrated to me in this curious way4 ,i saw a queer-looking boiler being finished in the boiler-shop4 ,in reply to my question the foreman told me they were making it for a cotton-spinner1 according to a plan of his own4 ,it consisted of two boilers1 one within the other4 ,the owner's purpose was to carry the ordinary steam pressure in the outer boiler1 and a pressure twice as great in the inner one1 when the inner boiler would have to suffer the stress of only one half the pressure it was carrying4 ,i asked the superintendent afterwards why they did not tell that man that he could not maintain steam at two different temperatures on the opposite sides of the same sheets4 ,he replied3 8,because we do not find it profitable to quarrel with our customers4 ,that is his idea4 ,if we had told him there was nothing in it1 he would not have believed us1 but would have got his boiler made somewhere else40 ,perhaps the most curious experience ,i ever had was that of getting the governor into cotton-mills4 ,there was a vast field all around us1 and we looked for plenty of orders4 ,this was the reception ,i met with every time4 ,after listening to the winning story ,i had to tell1 the cotton lord would wind up with this question3 8,well1 sir1 have you got a governor in a large cotton-mill80 ,after my answer in the negative ,i was bowed out4 ,i early got an order from ,titus ,salt ,son1 of ,saltaire1 for two large governors but these did not weigh at all with a cotton-spinner2 they made alpaca goods4 ,the way the governor was finally got into cotton-mills1 where afterwards its use became general1 was the most curious part4 ,a mill in the city of ,manchester was troubled by having its governor fly in pieces once in a while4 ,after one of these experiences the owners thought that they might cure the difficulty by getting one of my governors4 ,that flew in pieces in a week4 ,i went to see the engine4 ,the cause of all the trouble appeared at a glance4 ,the fly-wheel was on the second-motion shaft which ran at twice the speed of the main shaft1 and the gearing between them was roaring away enough to deafen one4 ,the governor was driven by gearing4 ,the vibrations transmitted to the governor soon tired the arms out4 ,i saw the son of the principal owner1 and explained the cause of the failure of every governor they had tried1 and told him the only remedy1 which would be a complete one1 would be to drive the governor by a belt4 ,that1 he replied1 was not to be thought of for an instant4 ,i told him he knew himself that a governor could not endure if driven in any other way1 and that ,i had hundreds of governors driven by belts1 which were entirely reliable in all cases4 8,but10 said he1 8supposing the belt runs off the pulley40 8,the consequence10 ,i replied1 8cannot be worse than when the governor flies in pieces40 ,after wasting considerable time in talk1 he said1 8,well1 leave it till my father comes home2 he is absent for a few days40 8,no10 said ,i1 8if ,i can't convince a young man1 ,i shall not try to convince an old man40 ,finally1 with every possible stipulation to make it impossible for the belt to come off1 he yielded his assent1 and ,i had the governor on in short order1 lacing the belt myself1 to make sure that it was butt-jointed and laced in the ,american fashion4 ,more than three years afterwards1 two days before ,i was to sail for home1 ,i met this man on ,high ,street1 in ,manchester4 ,it was during the ,whitsuntide holidays1 and the street was almost deserted4 ,he came up to me1 holding out both hands and grasping mine most cordially4 8,do you know10 said he1 8that we have increased our product #aj per cent41 and don't have half as many broken threads as we had before1 and it's all that belt40 ,illustration3 ,condenser and ,air-pump designed by ,mr4 ,porter4 7,cross-section7 ,the tendency towards the horizontal type of engine1 in place of the beam-engine1 began to be quite marked in ,england about that time4 ,this was favorable to the use of the ,allen engine4 ,the only thing that seemed wanting to its success was a directly connected jet condenser4 ,no one believed that an air-pump could be made to run successfully at the speed of #aej double strokes per minute4 ,yet this had to be done1 or ,i could not look for any considerable adoption of the high-speed engine4 ,this subject occupied my mind continually4 ,when ,i returned from ,oporto1 ,i had thought out the plan of this condenser1 and at once set about the drawings for it4 ,no alteration was ever made from the first design of the condenser1 which ,i intended to show with the engine at the coming ,paris ,exposition in #ahfg1 and which ,i finally did succeed in showing there1 but under very different and unexpected relations4 ,the philosophy of this condenser is sufficiently shown in the accompanying vertical cross-section4 ,a hollow ram1 only equal in weight to the water which it displaced1 ran through a stuffing-box at the front end of the chamber1 and was connected with an extension of the piston-rod of the engine4 ,so the center line of the engine extended through this single-acting ram1 which had the full motion of the piston4 ,it ran through the middle of a body of water1 the surface of which fell as the ram was withdrawn1 and rose as it returned4 ,a quiet movement of the water was assured by three means3 ,first1 the motion of the ram was controlled by the crank of the engine1 and so began and ceased insensibly4 ,second1 the motion of the ram1 of two feet1 produced a rise or fall of the surface of the water of only about one inch4 ,third1 the end of the ram was pointed1 a construction which does not appear in this sectional view1 permitting it to enter and leave the water at every point gradually4 ,both the condenser and the hot-well were located above the chamber in which the ram worked4 ,the problem was to obtain complete displacement by means of solid water without any admixture of free air1 the expansion of which as the plunger was withdrawn would reduce the efficiency of the air-pump4 ,to effect this object the air must be prevented from mingling with the water1 and must be delivered into the hot-well first4 ,this was accomplished by two means3 ,first1 placing the condenser as well as the hot-well above the air-pump chamber1 as already stated1 and secondly1 inclining the bottom of the condenser1 so that the water would pass through the inlet valves at the side farthest from1 and the air at the side nearest to1 the hot-well4 ,thus the air remained above the water1 and as the latter rose it sent the air before it quite to the delivery valves4 ,pains were taken to avoid any place where air could be trapped1 so it was certain that on every stroke the air would be sent through the delivery valves first1 mingled air and water1 if there were any1 next1 and the solid water last1 insuring perfect displacement4 ,i have a friend who has often asked me1 with a manner showing his conviction that the question could not be answered1 8,how can you know that anything will work until you have tried it80 ,in this case ,i did know that this condenser would work at rapid speed before ,i tried it4 ,the event proved it1 and any engineer could have seen that it must have worked4 ,the only question in my mind was as to the necessity of the springs behind the delivery valves4 ,experiment was needed to settle that question1 which it did in short order4 ,at the speed at which the engine ran1 the light springs improved the vacuum a full pound1 showing that without them these valves did not close promptly4 ,the following important detail must not be overlooked4 ,the rubber disk valves were backed by cast-iron plates1 which effectually preserved them from being cut or even marked by the brass gratings4 ,these plates were made with tubes standing in the middle of them1 as shown4 ,these tubes afforded long guides on the stems1 and a projection of them on the under side held the valves in place without any wear4 ,they also determined the rise of the valves4 ,the chambers1 being long and narrow1 accommodated three inlet and three outlet valves4 ,the jet of water struck the opposite wall with sufficient force to fill the chamber with spray4 ,when the plans for this condenser were completed1 and the ,evan ,leigh engine had been vindicated1 ,i felt that the success of the high-speed system was assured1 and looked forward to a rapidly growing demand for the engines4 ,we got out an illustrated catalogue of sizes1 in which ,i would have put the condenser1 but the firm decided that it would be better to wait for that until it should be on the same footing with the engine1 as an accomplished fact4 ,suddenly1 like thunder from a clear sky1 ,i received notice that ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 were in difficulties1 had stopped payment1 placed their books in the hands of a firm of accountants1 and called a meeting of their creditors1 and the works were closed4 ,some of their enormous contracts had proved losing ones4 ,i had made such provision in my contract with them that on their failure my license to them became void4 ,otherwise it would have been classed among their assets4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,introduction to the ,whitworth ,works4 ,sketch of ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,experience in the ,whitworth ,works4 ,our ,agreement which was never ,executed4 ,first ,engine in ,england ,transmitting ,power by a ,belt4 ,i was still debating with myself what course to take1 when ,i received a note from ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,hoyle1 secretary of the ,whitworth ,company1 inquiring if ,i were free from any entanglement with the affairs of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 to which ,i was able to make a satisfactory reply4 ,mr4 ,hoyle was then a stranger to me4 ,it appeared that he was an accomplished steam engineer1 and had been employed as an expert to test one of my engines in operation1 an engine which we had made for a mill-owner in ,bradford4 ,he had been very favorably impressed by the engine1 so much so as to form this scheme4 ,he had been with the ,whitworth ,company only a short time1 and was struck with the small amount of work they were doing in their tool department2 and after his observation of the engine at ,bradford1 learning of the stoppage of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 it occurred to him that it would be a good thing for his company to undertake the manufacture of these engines4 ,after receiving my answer to his preliminary inquiry1 having ,mr4 ,whitworth1 as he afterwards told me1 where he could not get away1 on a trip from ,london to ,manchester1 he laid the plan before him and talked him into it4 ,i directly after received an invitation to meet ,mr4 ,whitworth at his office1 and here commenced what ,i verily believed was one of the most remarkable experiences that any man ever had4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,j4 ,,hoyle ,in the course of our pretty long interview1 which terminated with the conclusion of a verbal agreement1 ,mr4 ,whitworth talked with me quite freely1 and told me several things that surprised me4 ,one was the frank statement that he divided all other toolmakers in the world into two classes1 one class who copied him without giving him any credit1 and the other class who had the presumption to imagine that they could improve on him4 ,his feelings towards both these classes evidently did not tend to make him happy4 ,another thing1 which ,i heard without any sign of my amazement1 was that he had long entertained the purpose of giving to the world the perfect steam-engine4 8,that is10 he explained1 8an engine embodying all those essential principles to which steam-engine builders must sooner or later come40 ,this1 he stated1 had been necessarily postponed while he was engaged in developing his system of artillery1 but he was nearing the completion of that work and should then be able to devote himself to it4 ,i cannot perhaps do better than stop here and give my impressions of ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,he was in all respects a phenomenal man4 ,as an engineer1 or rather a toolmaker1 he addressed himself to all fundamental constructive requirements and problems1 and comprehended everything in his range and grasp of thought1 continually seeking new fields to conquer4 ,long after the period here referred to he closed his long and wonderful career by giving to the world the hollow engine shaft and the system of hydraulic forging4 ,at that time he was confidently anticipating the adoption by all nations of his system of artillery4 ,he had made an immense advance1 from spherical shot1 incapable of accurate aim and having a high trajectory1 to elongated shot1 swiftly rotating in its flight and having a comparatively flat trajectory1 and which could hit the mark and penetrate with destructive effect at distances of several miles4 ,these fundamental features of modern artillery thus originated with ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,all his other features have been superseded1 but his elongated pointed rotating projectile will remain until nations shall learn war no more2 a time which in the gradual development of humanity cannot be far away4 ,before ,i left ,england1 however1 he had abandoned his artillery plans in most bitter disappointment4 ,he had met the ,english official mind4 ,by the authorities of the war and navy departments it had been unanimously decided that what ,england wanted was1 not accuracy of aim and penetration at long range1 but smashing effects at close quarters4 ,the record of that is to be found in the proceedings of the ,house of ,commons in #ahfh1 only thirty-nine years ago4 ,think of that6 ,mr4 ,whitworth was not only the most original engineering genius that ever lived4 ,he was also a monumental egotist4 ,his fundamental idea was always prominent1 that he had taught the world not only all that it knew mechanically1 but all it ever could know4 ,his fury against tool-builders who improved on his plans was most ludicrous4 ,he drew no distinction between principles and details4 ,he must not be departed from even in a single line4 ,no one in his works dared to think4 ,this disposition had a striking illustration only a short time--less than a year--before ,i went there4 ,he had no children4 ,his nearest relatives were two nephews1 ,w4 ,w4 and ,j4 ,e4 ,hulse4 ,the latter was a tool-manufacturer in ,salford4 ,w4 ,w4 ,hulse was ,mr4 ,whitworth's superintendent1 and had been associated with him for twenty-four years1 for a long time as his partner1 the firm being ,joseph ,whitworth ,company4 ,lately the business had been taken over by a corporation formed under the style of the ,whitworth ,company1 and ,mr4 ,hulse became the general superintendent4 ,mr4 ,whitworth was taken sick1 and for a while was not expected to live1 and no one thought1 even if he did get better1 that he would ever be able to visit his works again4 ,mr4 ,hulse had been chafing under his restraint1 and during ,mr4 ,whitworth's absence proceeded to make a few obvious improvements in their tools1 such1 for example1 as supporting the table of their shaper1 so that it would not yield under the cut4 ,to the surprise of every one1 ,mr4 ,whitworth got well1 and after more than six months' absence1 he appeared again at the works4 ,walking through1 he noted the changes that had been made1 sent for ,mr4 ,hulse1 discharged him on the spot1 and ordered everything restored to its original form4 ,to return now to my own experience4 ,since ,mr4 ,whitworth had been absorbed in his artillery development he had given only a cursory oversight to the tool manufacture4 ,mr4 ,hulse had been succeeded as superintendent by a man named ,widdowson1 whose only qualification for his position was entire subserviency to ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,illustration3 ,sir ,,joseph ,,whitworth ,my drawings and patterns were purchased by the ,whitworth ,company1 and ,i was installed with one draftsman in a separate office1 and prepared to put the work in hand at once for a #abbd-;inch engine for the ,paris ,exposition1 where ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 had secured the space1 and the drawings for which ,i had completed4 ,if ,i remember rightly1 the patterns were finished also4 ,while ,i was getting things in order1 ,mr4 ,widdowson came into my office1 and in a very important manner said to me3 8,you must understand1 sir1 that we work here to the decimal system and all drawings must be conformed to it40 ,i received this order meekly1 and we went to work to make our drawings all over1 for the single purpose of changing their dimensions from binary to decimal divisions of the inch4 ,there was of course quite a body of detail drawings1 and to make these over1 with the pains required to make these changes to an unaccustomed system1 and make and mount the tracings1 took us nearly three weeks4 ,when finished ,i took the roll of tracings to ,mr4 ,widdowson's office4 ,he was not in1 and ,i left them for him4 ,an hour or so later he came puffing and blowing into my office with the drawings4 ,he was a heavy man1 and climbing upstairs exhausted him4 ,when he got his breath1 he broke out3 8,we can't do anything with these4 ,haven't got a decimal gauge in the shop40 8,you gave me express orders to make my drawings to the decimal system40 8,damn it1 ,i meant in halves and quarters and all that1 and write them decimals40 ,so all that work and time were thrown away1 and we had to make a new set of tracings from the drawings ,i had brought1 in order to figure the dimensions in decimals4 ,he told me afterwards that when ,mr4 ,whitworth commenced the manufacture of cylindrical gauges he made them to the decimal divisions of the inch1 imagining that was a better mode of division than that by continual bisection1 and supposing that he had influence enough to effect the change4 ,but nobody would buy his gauges4 ,he had to call them in and make what people wanted4 8,and now10 said ,mr4 ,widdowson1 8there is not a decimal gauge in the world40 ,he knew1 too1 for up to that time they made them all4 ,so ,mr4 ,whitworth could make a mistake1 and ,i found that this was not the worst one that he had made4 ,while time was being wasted in this manner1 the subject of manufacturing the governors came up4 ,mr4 ,whitworth concluded that he would first try one on his own shop engine1 so one was bought from ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 ,i had a message from ,mr4 ,widdowson to come to the shop and see my governor4 ,it was acting in a manner that ,i had seen before1 the counterpoise rising and dropping to its seat twice every time the belt lap came around4 8,total failure1 you see10 said ,mr4 ,widdowson1 8and ,i got a new belt for it1 too40 ,i saw a chance to make an interesting observation1 and asked him if he would get an old belt and try that4 ,this he did1 lapping the ends as before about #ah inches1 according to the universal ,english custom1 which ,i had long before found it necessary carefully to avoid4 ,as ,i knew would be the case1 the action was not improved at all4 ,i then cut off the lap1 butted the ends of the belt1 and laced them in the ,american style1 and lo6 the trouble vanished4 ,the governor stood motionless1 only floating up and down slightly with the more important changes of load4 ,mr4 ,whitworth was greatly pleased1 and at once set about their manufacture1 in a full line of sizes4 ,he made the change1 to which ,i have referred already1 from the urn shape to the semi-spherical form of the counterpoise4 ,in this connection he laid the law down to me in this dogmatic fashion3 8,let no man show me a mechanical form for which he cannot give me a mechanical reason40 ,but ,jove sometimes nods4 ,they were to exhibit in ,paris a large slotting-machine4 ,the form of the upright did not suit ,mr4 ,whitworth exactly4 ,he had the pattern set up in the erecting-shop1 and a board tacked on the side1 cut to an outline that he directed4 ,he came to look at it every day for a week1 and ordered some change or other4 ,finally it was gotten to his mind1 the pattern was altered accordingly1 and a new casting made4 ,this was set up in the shop1 and ,i happened to be present when he came to see it4 8,looks like a horse that has been taught to hold his head up10 said he4 8,mechanical reason10 thought ,i1 fresh from my lesson4 ,when finished the slotting-machine was tried in the shop1 and found to yield in the back4 ,the tool sprang away from its work and rounded the corner4 ,mr4 ,whitworth had whittled the pattern away and ruined it4 ,instead of being sent to ,paris1 it was broken up4 ,my experiment with the governor proved the defect in the ,english system of lacing belts4 ,every machine in the land1 of whatever kind1 tool or loom or spinning or drawing frame1 or whatever it was1 driven by a belt1 halted in its motion every time the lap in the belt passed over a pulley1 sufficiently to drop my governor1 when the same motion was given to it1 and no one had ever observed this irregularity4 ,i thought they would never be ready to set about work on the engine4 ,first1 ,mr4 ,widdowson ordered that every casting and forging1 large and small1 must be in the shop before one of them was put in hand4 ,after this was done ,i found a number of men at work making sheet-iron templets of everything4 ,i saw one man filing the threads in the edges of a templet for a -inch bolt4 ,when these were all finished and stamped1 an operation that took quite a week1 a great fuss was made about commencing work on everything simultaneously4 ,i went into the shop to see what was going on4 ,the first thing to attract my attention was the steam-chest1 then made separate from the cylinder4 ,a workman--their best fitter1 as ,i afterwards learned--was engaged in planing out the cavities in which the exhaust valves worked4 ,i saw no center line1 and asked him where it was4 ,he had never heard of such a thing4 8,what do you measure from80 8,from the side of the casting40 ,i called his attention to the center line on the drawing1 from which all the measurements were taken1 and told him all about it4 ,he seemed very intelligent1 and under my direction set the chest up on a plane table and made a center line around it and another across it1 and set out everything from these lines1 and ,i left him going on finely4 ,an hour later ,i looked in again4 ,he was about his job in the old way4 ,to my question he explained that his foreman had come around and told him ,i had no business in the shop1 that he gave him his directions1 and he must finish his job just as he began it4 ,i made no reply but went to ,mr4 ,hoyle's office1 and asked him if he knew what they were doing in the shop4 ,he smiled and said1 8,i suppose they are finally making an engine for you40 8,no1 they are not40 8,what are they doing80 8,making scrap iron40 8,what do you mean80 ,i told him the situation4 ,he took his hat and went out1 saying1 8,i must see this myself40 ,a couple of hours later he sent for me1 and told me this4 8,i have been all around the works and seen all that is doing4 ,it is all of the same piece4 ,i have had a long interview with ,mr4 ,widdowson1 and am sorry to tell you that we can't make your engine2 we don't know how4 ,it seems to be entirely out of our line4 ,the intelligence does not exist in these works to make a steam-engine4 ,nobody knows how to set about anything4 ,i have stopped the work1 and want to know what you think had better be done about it80 ,i asked him to let me think the matter over till the next morning4 ,i then went to him and suggested to him to let me find a skilled locomotive-erecter who was also a trained draftsman1 and to organize a separate department for the engine and governor manufacture1 and put this man at the head of it1 to direct it without interference4 ,this was gladly agreed to4 ,i found a young man1 ,mr4 ,john ,watts1 who proved to be the very man for the place4 ,in a week we were running under ,mr4 ,watts' direction1 and the engine was saved4 ,but what a time the poor man had6 ,everything seemed to be done wrong4 ,it is hardly to be believed4 ,he could not get a rod turned round1 or a hole bored round4 ,in their toolmaking they relied entirely on grinding with 8,turkey dust40 ,i once saw a gang of a dozen laborers working a long grinding-bar1 in the bore1 #aj inches diameter by #h feet long1 in the tailstock of an enormous lathe4 ,i peered through this hole when the bar was withdrawn4 ,it looked like a ploughed field4 ,scattered over it here and there were projections which had been ground off by these laborers4 ,on the other hand1 the planing done in these works was magnificent4 ,i never saw anything to equal it4 ,but circular work beat them entirely4 ,i found that the lathe hands never thought of such a thing as getting any truth by the sliding cut4 ,after that they went for the surface with coarse files1 and relied for such approximate truth as they did get upon grinding with the everlasting ,turkey dust4 ,mr4 ,whitworth invented the duplex lathe tool1 but ,i observed that they never used it4 ,i asked ,mr4 ,widdowson why this was4 8,because10 said he1 8the duplex tool will not turn round40 ,after a while ,i found out why4 ,when our engine was finished1 ,mr4 ,widdowson set it upon two lathe beds and ran it4 ,lucky that he did4 ,the bottom of the engine bed was planed1 and it could be leveled nicely on the flat surfaces of their lathe beds4 ,the fly-wheel ran nearly a quarter of an inch out of truth4 ,he set up some tool-boxes on one of the lathe beds1 and turned the rim off in place1 both sides and face being out4 ,that1 of course1 made it run perfectly true4 ,i asked the lathe hand how he could turn out such a job4 ,he replied1 8,come and see my lathe40 ,i found the spindle quite an eighth of an inch loose in the main bearing1 the wear of twenty or thirty years4 ,he told me all of the lathes in the works were in a similar condition4 ,that explained many things4 ,the mystery of those gear patterns was solved4 ,every spindle in the gear-cutting machine was wabbling loose in its holes4 ,i can't call them bearings4 ,now it appeared why they could not use the duplex tools4 ,with a tool cutting on one side1 they relied on the pressure of the cut to keep the lathe spindle in contact with the opposite side of its main bearing1 and a poor reliance that was1 but with a tool cutting on each side1 fancy the situation4 ,then boring a true hole was obviously impossible4 ,the workmen became indifferent2 they had no reamers1 relied entirely on grinding4 ,i asked1 ,why do you not renew these worn-out bushings8 but could never get an answer to the question4 ,some power evidently forbade it1 and the fact is that no man about the place dared to think of such a thing as intimating to ,mr4 ,whitworth that one of his lathe bearings required any fixing up1 or that it was or could be anything short of perfect4 ,he 7,mr4 ,whitworth7 had designed it as a perfect thing2 ergo1 it was perfect1 and no man dared say otherwise4 ,our engine work was finally1 as a last resort1 done by ,mr4 ,watts on new lathes1 made for customers and used for a month or two before they were sent out4 ,not only in ,england1 but on the ,continent and in ,america1 the ,whitworth ,works were regarded as the perfect machine-shop4 ,i remember a visit ,i had at the ,paris ,exposition from ,mr4 ,elwell1 of the firm of ,varrell1 ,elwell ,poulot1 proprietors of the largest mechanical establishment in ,paris4 ,after expressing his unbounded admiration of the running of the engine1 he said1 8,i warrant your fly-wheel runs true40 ,after observing it critically1 he exclaimed1 8,ah1 they do those things at ,whitworth's60 ,the fact was ,mr4 ,whitworth had cursed the ,british nation with the solid conical lathe-spindle bearing1 a perfect bearing for ordinary-sized lathes and a most captivating thing--when new4 ,these hardened steel cones1 in hardened steel seats1 ran in the most charming manner4 ,but they wore more loose in the main bearing every day they ran1 and there were no means for taking up the wear4 ,it came on insensibly1 and no one paid any attention to it4 ,the cream of the joke was that people were so fascinated with this bearing that at that time no other could be sold in ,england1 except for very large lathes4 ,all toolmakers had to make it4 ,i remember afterwards that ,mr4 ,freeland1 our best ,american toolmaker1 who1 as ,i have already mentioned1 went to ,england and worked for some years as a journeyman in the ,whitworth ,works for the purpose of learning everything there that he could1 did not bring back to ,america the conical bearing4 ,the firm of ,smith ,coventry were the first to fit their lathes with the means for taking up this wear1 which took place only in the main bearing1 where both the force of the cut and the weight of the piece were received4 ,they made the conical seat for the back end of the spindle adjustable in the headstock and secured it by a thin nut on each end4 ,this then could be moved backward sufficiently to let the forward cone up to its seat4 ,this made it possible to use the solid bearing1 but it involved this error1 that after this adjustment the axis of the spindle did not coincide with the line connecting the lathe centers2 but the two lines formed an angle with each other1 which grew more decided every time the wear was taken up4 ,this1 however1 was infinitely better than not to take up the wear at all4 ,at that time the ,whitworth ,works were divided into four departments4 ,these were screwing machinery1 gauges1 guns and machine tools4 ,the first three of these were locked4 ,i never entered either of them4 ,the latter also1 like most works in ,england1 was closed to outsiders4 ,no customer could see his work in progress4 ,this department was without a head or a drawing-office4 ,it seemed to be running it on its traditions4 ,i once said to ,mr4 ,hoyle1 8,there must at some time have been here mechanical intelligence of the highest order1 but where is it80 ,they had occasionally an order for something out of their ancient styles1 and their attempts to fill such orders were always ruinous4 ,the following is a fair illustration4 ,they had an order for a radial drill to be back-geared and strong enough to bore an #h-;inch hole4 ,mr4 ,widdowson had the pattern for the upright fitted with the necessary brackets1 and thought it was such a good thing that he would make two4 ,the first one finished was tried in the shop1 and all the gears in the arm were stripped4 ,he woke up to the fact that he had forgotten to strengthen the transmitting parts1 and moreover that the construction would not admit anything stronger4 ,there was nothing to be done but to decline the order1 chip off the brackets1 and make these into single-speed drills4 ,this ,i saw being done4 ,mr4 ,widdowson told me the following amusing story4 ,the ,london ,times had heard of the wonderful performance of ,mr4 ,hoe's multiple-cylinder press1 and concluded to have one of them of the largest size1 ten cylinders4 ,but1 of course1 ,mr4 ,hoe did not know how to make his own presses4 ,his work would do well enough for ignorant ,americans1 but not for an ,english ,journal4 ,the press must be made in ,england in the world-renowned ,whitworth ,works4 ,mr4 ,hoe sent over one of his experts to give them the information they might need1 but they would not let him in the shop4 ,mr4 ,hulse told him they had the drawings and specifications and that was all they needed4 ,when the press was finished they set it up in the shop and attempted to run it4 ,the instant it started every tape ran off its pulleys1 and an investigation showed that not a spindle or shaft was parallel with any other4 ,they had no idea of the method that must be employed to ensure this universal alignment4 ,after enormous labor they got these so that they were encouraged to make another trial1 when after a few revolutions every spindle stuck fast in its bearings4 ,mr4 ,whitworth1 absorbed in his artillery and spending most of his time in ,london1 of course had no knowledge of how things were going on in his shop1 of the utter want of ordinary intelligence4 ,i formed a scheme for an application of ,mr4 ,whitworth's system of end measurement to the production of an ideally perfect dividing-wheel4 ,in this system ,mr4 ,whitworth employed what he termed 8the gravity piece40 ,this was a small steel plate about of an inch in thickness1 the opposite sides of which were parallel and had the most perfectly true and smooth surfaces that could be produced by scraping4 ,the ends of the piece to be tested were perfectly squared1 by a method which ,i will not stop here to describe1 and were finished in the same manner4 ,the gravity piece was held fast between two such surfaces4 ,none of the pieces were permitted to be touched by hand while an observation was being made4 ,if now one of these pieces were loosened the millionth of an inch1 the gravity piece would slide slowly down4 ,if loosened two millionths of an inch1 the gravity piece would descend twice as fast1 and so on4 ,i made a design for the application of this system to the correction of the dividing-wheel1 so that a difference of pitch of one millionth of an inch could be shown and removed1 the gravity piece being made to descend at the same rate of motion to whatever tooth it might be applied4 ,i thought ,mr4 ,whitworth would be interested in this novel and important application of his method1 and ,i showed it to him4 ,this was the encouraging and patronizing reply ,i received3 8,you had better inform yourself1 sir1 about what already exists4 ,you will find a perfect dividing-wheel in my shop4 ,what do you want better than that80 ,this wheel had divided my governor gear patterns1 but spindles wabbling loose in their holes accounted for most of their defects4 ,the above recital is sufficient to show the conditions by which ,i found myself surrounded and the kind of man ,i had to deal with4 ,it may be supposed that when my agreement with ,mr4 ,whitworth was concluded1 the disappointment ,i had experienced on the stoppage of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co4 was quite relieved4 ,but that does not express it4 ,in fact1 my revulsion of feeling could hardly be described4 ,i believed that ,i had met a piece of good fortune that was unparalleled4 ,i had got into the most famous machine-shop in the world1 a shop in which in years gone by had been originated almost everything then regarded as most essential in machine construction4 ,no one had ever before introduced anything into that shop4 ,its business1 in its various departments1 was confined to the manufacture of ,mr4 ,whitworth's own creations4 ,i should never have dreamed of such a thing as getting into it4 ,that ,i was there1 and had been received so cordially1 bewildered me4 ,i could scarcely believe it4 ,i knew also that ,mr4 ,whitworth's name was a tower of strength4 ,his influence with the public at large respecting everything mechanical seemed really that of a magician4 ,i felt that the fact that the manufacture of my engine and governor had been taken up by ,mr4 ,whitworth placed them on an eminence at once4 ,i was conscious also that ,i was quite prepared to improve this opportunity1 grand as it seemed to be4 ,the engine had been abundantly proved4 ,the success of the condenser ,i felt sure of1 a confidence that was found to have been fully justified4 ,everything on my part was in readiness4 ,the drawings and patterns for several sizes of the engines were complete4 ,i was certainly excusable for anticipating that ,i should enter at once upon a rapidly growing and prosperous business4 ,with my rude awakening from this 8dream of bliss0 the reader has already been made acquainted4 ,the causes which had brought these works1 so far as their machine-tool department was concerned1 down from such a height of excellence as they must for a long time have occupied1 to such a depth of ignorance and helplessness as existed on my entrance into them1 ,i never fully knew4 ,i heard that some years before there had been an extensive strike in the works1 and that ,mr4 ,whitworth had discharged a large body of skilled workmen and had filled their places with laborers4 ,they had a pretty large drawing-office--empty4 ,i was told that until a short time before my coming they had kept one draftsman employed1 but no one paid any attention to his drawings4 ,mr4 ,widdowson regarded them merely as suggestions1 and he and the foreman pattern-maker altered them as they liked1 and finally the farce of having drawings made at all was abandoned4 ,it was not found difficult to run these closely shut works for a long time on their reputation4 ,the state of affairs was distressing enough4 ,the few engines that we could manage to finish we could only build1 in many of their parts1 on new lathes1 which were used by them as long as they dared to1 before sending them to their owners4 ,but ,i kept up a brave heart4 ,at any rate the personal influence of ,mr4 ,whitworth remained4 ,indeed ,i already saw its value in many ways4 ,then the pattern-shop1 foundry and smith-shop were equal to our requirements1 and ,i felt confident that ,mr4 ,hoyle could induce ,mr4 ,whitworth to have the improvements and changes made1 especially in the lathes and boring-machines1 which would make it possible for us to do the work4 ,mr4 ,hoyle had become famous in the shop as the only man who had ever been able to influence ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,he had lately given a striking example of his power4 ,mr4 ,whitworth was1 years before1 the designer of the box frame1 which gave to many machine tools a rigidity incomparably superior to that which could be got by any method of ribbing4 ,this box system was then established in universal use1 both in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,not long before my coming ,mr4 ,whitworth had been looking into the cost of the cores that these box forms required1 and concluded that he could not allow such an expense any longer1 and ordered a return to the method of ribbing4 ,the superintendent and foremen1 to whom this order was communicated1 were amazed at so ruinous and indeed insane a step4 ,no one else dared to open his mouth2 but ,mr4 ,hoyle undertook the task of dissuading him from it1 and after a long struggle finally succeeded in inducing him to rescind his order4 ,so ,i confidently looked to him for the salvation of the engine4 ,then suddenly a new trouble arose4 ,after a delay of some months1 the agreement between ,mr4 ,whitworth and myself1 reduced to writing by his solicitor1 was put into my hands for signature4 ,i found that it corresponded with our verbal agreement1 except that ,mr4 ,whitworth reserved to himself the right to make alterations in the engine1 in any respect whatever1 in his discretion4 ,to say that ,i hesitated about signing such an abandonment would not be true2 ,i never thought of such a thing as signing it4 ,mr4 ,whitworth was probably the only man in the world who would have thought of making such a demand1 and was certainly the last man in the world to whom it should be granted4 ,the first thing he would probably have done would have been to make the crank and cross-head pins run in solid bearings4 ,i had regarded his talk about 8the perfect steam-engine0 at our first interview as idle words2 but here was the provision for giving these words effect4 ,indeed1 he now assured me that the opening to his scheme afforded by my engine formed his inducement for taking it up1 and that he expected me to understand that from what he then said4 ,here was a situation6 ,i knew that in the multifarious excursions of his restless mind the steam-engine had never been included4 ,these excursions seemed to have led in all directions except that4 ,about the steam-engine and its 8fundamental principles10 except those constructive principles that it had in common with all machines1 ,i was sure he had not the least idea4 ,the scheme was childish4 ,i could only think of the little boy who wanted a penny to go down-town4 8,what are you going to buy80 said his amused father4 8,i don't know2 shall see something ,i want when ,i get there40 ,this seemed to me1 and correctly as ,i afterwards became satisfied1 to represent ,mr4 ,whitworth's 8open-mindedness0 on this subject4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,whitworth was the most dangerous man possible to be entrusted with such a power4 ,he could not work with anybody else4 ,his disposition was despotic4 ,he looked only for servile obedience to his orders4 ,besides this1 he had no conception of the law of growth4 ,in his own mind he had anchored both tool construction and gunnery where they were to remain forever1 and he purposed to do the same thing with the steam-engine1 as soon as he should have time to attend to it4 ,so our agreement never was executed4 ,i confidently expected him to yield on this point1 which ,i was settled that ,i would never do1 and ,i found in the end that he as confidently expected me to yield1 which he was settled that he would never do4 ,meanwhile we got along on a modus vivendi plan1 which could only last through an emergency1 and during which1 of course1 nothing could be done towards settling the business on a substantial foundation4 ,the emergency in this case was getting through the ,paris ,exposition4 ,before coming to that1 however1 ,i have something else to relate4 ,we received an order from ,pooley ,son1 proprietors of the ,india ,mills1 ,manchester1 for a horizontal condensing engine to drive the machinery of their blowing-room1 that in which the cotton is opened and cleaned and receives its first carding operations4 ,the growth of their business had made it necessary for them to increase their power1 which they planned to do by driving this portion of their machinery separately4 ,this engine was interesting for two reasons4 ,it was the first engine ordered in ,england to which my horizontal condenser was applied1 and it was the first mill engine in ,england from which the power was transmitted by a belt4 ,my business was transacted entirely with the younger ,mr4 ,pooley1 who seemed to be the practical head of the concern4 ,our first meeting has remained vivid in my recollection1 as illustrating the ,english brusqueness of manner4 ,calling at his office in response to an invitation by post1 ,i was met on opening the door after the call 8come in0 by the abrupt question1 8,what do you want80 ,i was not wholly unused to this kind of greeting and so told him who ,i was and what ,i wanted1 when of course his manner changed at once4 ,we became very good friends1 and should he be living and this meet his eye1 ,i send him my salutation4 ,we had quite a discussion on the question of a belt4 ,i urged it1 and he would not listen to it4 ,my statement that belts were used exclusively in cotton-mills in ,america had no influence4 ,i discovered that it makes all the difference in the world who tells a thing4 ,after he had1 as we both supposed1 made his final decision to follow the universal custom and employ gearing1 he happened to meet his friend ,mr4 ,hetherington1 the same man already mentioned in connection with the ,harrison boiler4 ,mr4 ,hetherington had just returned from a trip to 8the ,states10 and had visited the ,lowell and ,lawrence cotton-mills1 and this was part of their conversation3 8,did you see anywhere power taken from a prime mover by a belt80 8,i did not see anything else40 8,is that so8 ,this is just what ,porter told me1 but ,i could not credit it4 ,did they seem to give satisfaction80 8,that is what every one assured me4 ,they would not use anything else40 ,and so ,i received an order for a belt1 #bd inches wide1 to be imported from ,america1 with the clamps1 rivets1 and cement needed to put it on endless1 an operation of which no workman in ,england had any idea1 so ,i had to do it myself4 ,i sent the order to ,mr4 ,allen to be placed1 and received quite promptly a carefully selected belt1 of hides of uniform thickness1 which gave the highest satisfaction4 ,the following is a copy of the bill for the first ,american belt ever sent to ,england4 ,i included an order for a side of lace leather1 to enable them to try the ,american style of lacing belts4 ,this leather is horse hide1 their sheep-skin lacing would not be strong enough4 ,,new ,,york1 ,december #ae1 #ahff4 ,mr4 ,,chas4 ,,pooley4 ,bought of ,,stephen ,,ballard1 7,successor to ,,stearns ,,ballard71 ,manufacturer of ,every ,description of ,leather ,belting1 ,also1 ,dealer in ,vulcanized ,rubber ,belting1 ,hose and ,packing1 ,belt ,rivets1 ,belt ,hooks1 etc41 ,extra ,quality ,lacing ,leather1 ,no4 #ccc ,pearl ,street1 ,franklin ,square 7,harpers' ,building74 #ea ft4 #bd-;inch ,donb ,belt #fib #ceb4ia #b lbs4 ,rivets #hj #a4fj #a ,cement #a4jj #a ,side ,lacing #e4jj ,cartage 4#ej #a ,cask #a4be ,insurance #d4ae #cff4eb ,collection #b #i4af --------- #cge4fh ,i put this belt on quite loose4 ,the bottom side was the tight one1 and the upper side hung in a loop nearly three feet deep4 ,this exhibited the uniform running of the engine in a striking manner4 ,as is well known1 variations of speed produce waves in such a loop1 the height of which waves indicates the amount of these variations4 ,this belt hung motionless4 ,the most careful observations on the loop did not indicate that it was running at all4 ,the engine had no fly-wheel2 the belt drum1 #aj feet in diameter1 served this purpose also4 ,this showed the value in this respect of high speed1 #aej turns per minute4 ,this absolute uniformity of motion surprised me1 ,i knew nothing about the equalizing action of the reciprocating parts of the engine1 to which this remarkable result was largely due4 ,i was then absorbed in balancing1 which was as far as ,i had advanced1 and in this case1 as previously in the governor1 ,i 8had builded better than ,i knew40 ,the accompanying diagrams are from a duplicate of the ,pooley engine built at the same time for a ,mr4 ,adams1 a paper-maker in the north of ,england4 ,this engine was directly connected to the line of shaft4 ,i was called home from ,paris to go to ,mr4 ,adams' mill and start that engine4 ,mr4 ,adams' mill was not yet connected1 and ,i was obliged to return to ,paris after taking friction diagrams1 of which the following are examples4 ,illustration3 ,,atmosphere ,,scale1 #af ,,lbs4 ,,to #a ,,inch ,,atmosphere ,,scale1 #af ,,lbs4 ,,to #a ,,inch ,diagrams from ,engine ,built for ,mr4 ,adams4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,the ,french ,exposition of #ahfg4 ,final ,break with ,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,the ,french ,exposition of #ahfg was the second in the series of expositions held in ,paris at intervals of eleven years1 from the first in #ahef to the last1 thus far1 in #aijj4 ,in this exposition the ,emperor ,napoleon planned to celebrate his entrance uninvited into the select circle of crowned heads by bringing all his new cousins to visit him in his capital4 ,he succeeded pretty well4 ,asia was represented by the ,sultan of ,turkey and the ,shah of ,persia4 ,all the sovereigns of ,europe were there 7but not all at the same time7 with the exceptions of ,victor ,emmanuel1 who said he was too poor to go1 and ,queen ,victoria1 who could not be induced to leave her retirement4 ,the sovereign people of the ,united ,states were also pretty well represented4 ,one other 8emperor0 was not there4 ,with the zeal of a new convert1 ,louis ,napoleon had attempted to take advantage of the circumstance that the ,united ,states had business enough of their own to attend to1 and improve the opportunity to plant monarchical institutions on this continent4 ,maximilian1 a brother of the ,emperor of ,austria1 the first and last ,emperor of ,mexico1 was installed under the protection of ,french bayonets4 ,affairs in the ,united ,states did not take the turn that ,napoleon had hoped for1 and in compliance with a courteous request from the ,president that he would withdraw his troops from ,mexico and save him the disagreeable necessity of driving them out1 the ,french withdrew1 leaving the unfortunate ,maximilian a prisoner in the hands of the ,mexicans4 ,on a day in the summer of #ahfg1 a grand function was celebrated in the ,palais de l',industrie1 the building on the ,avenue des ,champs ,elyses in which the exposition of #ahef had been held1 for the distribution of gold medals to the successful exhibitors in this exposition of #ahfg4 ,the ,emperor presided1 surrounded by sovereigns and their suites1 and an assembly of #bj1jjj invited guests and holders of season tickets4 ,in the midst of the ceremonies1 an official entered and handed to the ,emperor an envelope4 ,after reading its contents he crossed over to the seat of the ,austrian ambassador and placed it in his hands4 ,after reading it the ambassador withdrew with his suite1 and the proceedings were continued to their close4 ,that evening the public learned what this envelope contained4 ,it was a cablegram announcing the execution of the quondam emperor1 ,maximillian1 by the ,mexican government4 ,from this point the fall of ,napoleon proceeded steadily until he became 8the man of ,sedan40 ,this dramatic scene1 marking the culminating point in his career1 has1 ,i believe1 escaped the notice of historians4 ,the main building of the exposition of #ahfg1 the first one held on the ,champ de ,mars1 was designed on a plan that has not been repeated4 ,it was a long building with semicircular ends1 built around a narrow open court1 the length of which was equal to that of its parallel sides4 ,it was divided among the nations as a ,yankee would divide a pie if baked in a dish of similar form1 while the various classes of exhibits occupied1 in the several nations1 spaces equally distant from the central court4 ,thus1 as assumed in the plan1 the visitor passing through any radial avenue would see all the exhibits from one country1 and passing through an avenue laid out around the central court would see all the exhibits of one class4 ,the fine arts were at the center1 much of the statuary in the open court1 then decorative art1 and so on1 class after class1 until that of machinery which surrounded the whole1 except that outside of this were the restaurants of all nations4 ,the plan was practically on many accounts a failure1 first1 from the exceedingly unequal lengths of floor spaces allotted to the different departments1 the mean length of the machinery court1 for example1 being between two and three times that devoted to the fine arts1 and1 second1 that it was utterly inadequate to accommodate the exhibits in many departments4 ,there was no adaptability in the system4 ,the consequence was the erection1 in the ample outside area of the ,champ de ,mars1 of an enormous number of separate buildings1 by all nations1 for particular classes of exhibits1 some of which buildings were quite large4 ,although ,i exhibited in the ,british section1 ,i sympathized deeply with the ,american exhibitors1 who were having lots of trouble4 ,mr4 ,seward had appointed as the ,united ,states commissioner an ,american gentleman who had lived in ,france for twenty years1 who was ignorant of ,america and ,americans in a phenomenal degree1 and was indifferent and despotic in his treatment of the helpless exhibitors1 until their exasperation reached such a pitch that ,i heard it said every one of them would be glad to pull on a rope to hang him4 ,i will give two illustrations4 ,mr4 ,corliss had been persuaded by ,mr4 ,pickering to send over an engine to drive the ,united ,states machinery exhibit4 ,when the engine arrived1 it was found that the commissioner1 although he had been advised of this arrangement1 had paid no attention to it1 but had purchased a ,french engine and installed it already for this purpose4 ,the ,corliss engine was set by the side of this one1 and ran idle through the exhibition2 never had a belt on4 ,to make the matter worse1 the ,french engine was run every ,sunday1 although the entire ,united ,states exhibit was covered up1 and1 as it could not run longer than a week without stopping for repairs1 it was idle for this purpose every ,monday1 and this arrangement was sustained by the commissioner4 ,as other nations were putting up separate buildings for the overflow of their exhibits1 the commissioner thought the ,united ,states should do the same4 ,so in the winter previous he had got a special appropriation for this purpose through ,congress1 and erected his building4 ,when finished he found it was all a blunder3 he had absolutely nothing to put in it4 ,the ,united ,states exhibitors were fully accommodated in the main building4 ,what does he do but order enough of them into the side building to fill it1 leaving unoccupied spaces in the main building4 ,a number of our most eminent firms were driven there1 being refused space in the main building4 ,in the machinery court an enormous empty space was rented by the commissioner to a concern manufacturing collars and cuffs4 ,so far as space was concerned1 the machinery department seemed to have the place of honor4 ,it surrounded all the other classes of exhibits1 and was much wider and higher than any other4 ,it had a central gallery which ,i was told was seven eighths of a mile around4 ,this gallery carried the shafting4 ,the exterior location of this department was necessary1 in order to have proper connection with the boilers and systems of piping for both steam and water4 ,except the ,american section1 which was only one half occupied1 it was crowded with exhibits4 ,the engines exhibited in motion in the main building1 of which there were a large number1 were all condensing engines1 water from the ,seine being quite convenient4 ,illustration3 ,,exposition ,,universelle1 ,,paris1 #ahfg4 ,,diagram ,,from ,,the 8,,allen0 ,,engine1 ,,employed ,,in ,,driving ,,machinery ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,section1 ,,and ,,manufactured ,,by ,,the ,,whitworth ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,manchester4 ,,engine1 #ab ,,inches ,,by #bd ,,inches1 ,,revolutions ,,per ,,minute1 #bjj4 ,,scale1 #af ,,lbs4 ,,to ,,the ,,inch4 ,i took to this exposition five engines4 ,one of them was #abbd inches1 making #bjj revolutions per minute4 ,i advanced the speed from #fjj feet to #hjj feet per minute1 to show what both the engine and the condenser could do4 ,after all1 however1 ,i did not show one half of what with proper port areas the high-speed system was capable of4 ,the ports were insufficient1 having been adapted to a speed of #aej revolutions per minute4 ,i took great satisfaction in showing the condenser to my old friends1 ,easton1 ,amos ,sons1 who were all there1 at one time or another1 during the exposition4 ,before the exposition opened we had on hand at the works four condensers1 one for an engine the ,whitworth ,company were building for themselves1 two for the parties already mentioned1 and the one for the exposition engine4 ,as this was the first one required to be running1 ,i had to make the first test of the condenser in this public way1 which ,i immensely enjoyed doing4 ,through the influence of ,mr4 ,whitworth1 we received an order from ,trinity ,house1 which is the ,british lighthouse board1 for two engines to drive the machinery of an electric light4 ,the ,english and the ,french governments each made an exhibit of such a light1 at the summit of a high tower4 ,the current was produced by rapidly revolving magnets1 a large number of which were set in a wheel4 ,everything in this ,english exhibit was in duplicate4 ,the requirement was that either engine should drive either or both electric machines4 ,this involved the use of four clutches and a lot of gearing4 ,i measured the power required by one machine1 at the works in ,london where they were made1 indicating their shop engine with the light on and with the light off4 ,to make sure ,i repeated this three times4 ,i found that one of my engines1 #fab inches1 non-condensing1 at #cjj revolutions per minute1 would drive the two machines1 with the steam pressure we were to have1 ,i think #gj pounds1 and cut off at one quarter of the stroke1 while it was capable of following five eighths of the stroke4 ,so two of these engines were furnished4 ,the exposition was well advanced before this machinery was ready for its trial4 ,a large crowd had assembled to witness it4 ,with both machines on1 the engines could only crawl along4 ,the superintendent of the ,british mechanical section ordered one machine taken off4 ,there was very little improvement4 ,then this royal engineer1 detailed from the army1 and whose qualifications for his position consisted in absolute ignorance of anything mechanical1 declared the trial finished1 and strutted off with the remark1 8,there has been a great blunder made here in providing the power40 ,the men in charge of the machinery looked at me quite speechless4 ,i asked them to throw off the other machine also4 ,this was done1 when it appeared that both engines1 with steam following five eighths of the stroke--for ,i had indicators on both of them to show it--could not drive the gearing1 except at a snail's pace4 ,they were then driven to examine the gearing for resistances1 and found the teeth wedged in the spaces throughout4 ,this gearing was removed and proper running gears substituted for it1 and after ten days' delay away went the engines at full speed4 ,on this second trial one engine could drive both machines1 cutting off at one-quarter stroke1 precisely as my measurement of the power had shown4 ,they then ran perfectly through the exposition and were accepted by ,trinity ,house4 ,did the superintendent apologize to me for his hasty judgment or congratulate me on my success8 ,he never made the slightest allusion to it4 ,my fourth engine1 of the same size1 had been spoiled for practical use by having the upper half of the cylinder and steam-chest planed off1 to show the cylinder and valves in section4 ,it was belted from the large engine to run very slowly1 and thus exhibited the valves and gear in motion to the end of the exposition4 ,mr4 ,whitworth wanted his friend ,mr4 ,owen to purchase this model for the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 but it appeared to ,mr4 ,owen that ,mr4 ,whitworth ought to present it to the museum4 ,this ,i learned from ,mr4 ,hoyle4 ,what was finally done with it ,i have forgotten1 if1 indeed1 ,i ever knew4 ,my fifth engine1 of the same size1 #fab inches1 ,i got up to show what the capabilities of high speed really were1 so far as smooth and safe running were concerned4 ,the reciprocating parts1 which weighed altogether only #dj pounds1 were exactly balanced4 ,i did this by rolling the crank-disk on a boring-table1 with #dj pounds hung on the crank-pin1 and cutting out the lead from the hollow disk opposite the pin1 where ,i had purposely put it in somewhat in excess1 until the pin came down to the horizontal position4 ,this brought the inertia of the reciprocating parts of the engine1 at every point in the revolution1 into equilibrium with the horizontal component of the centrifugal force of the revolving counterweight4 ,the vertical component of this force1 or rather its upward stress1 for downward it would be resisted by the whole mass of the earth1 remained to be dealt with4 ,to prevent the whole engine from being lifted at the crank end by this stress at every revolution might have been accomplished by putting on a heavy fly-wheel2 but for my use ,i wanted a very small one4 ,the fly-wheel ,i put on the shaft was a solid disk1 #ah inches in diameter and inch thick1 with a rim #a inch square4 ,the bed of the engine ,i filled with lead1 and set it on a block of ,caen stone #c feet thick and wide and #e feet long4 ,to this stone it was firmly bolted1 and ,i was ready for business4 ,the governor was speeded to hold the engine at #ejj turns per minute4 ,as it might be difficult for some persons to count this speed1 ,i put a little pinion on the end of the shaft1 engaging with a larger wheel1 one to ten4 ,fifty revolutions per minute could be accurately counted1 and the speed was put beyond dispute4 ,i was guilty of one oversight3 ,i did not protect this gear4 ,a ,french gentleman had the skirt of his frock-coat caught in it1 and ,i thought it never would be got out4 ,the engine had been running only two or three days1 but the speed being then well established1 ,i took off the gear4 ,i ought to have protected it instead1 and have had it to substantiate the big story ,i am going to tell1 but it never occurred to me4 ,the engine running idle1 ,i commenced very soon the exhibition for which ,i had made all this preparation4 ,that was to hold the governor down by pulling the end of the lever up and letting the engine fly2 which it did without a jar or a sound1 only phantoms of the cross-head and connecting-rod being visible4 ,that was my daily amusement and must have been repeated many hundred times in the course of the exposition1 and of course always attracted a crowd4 ,we had no means of counting the speed1 but ,i judged it to be more than #bjjj turns per minute4 ,when ,i released the governor and the speed fell gradually to #ejj turns1 it appeared to every one as if the engine were going to stop4 ,but the governor never reacted1 and soon the eye became accustomed to the slower speed4 ,this presented quite a curious phenomenon4 ,the connecting-rod was especially adapted to this enormous speed1 by being made of the form already shown1 and which ,i afterwards adopted for all my engines4 ,this engine never gave any trouble1 and was sold1 ,i think to ,ducommen ,co41 the purchasers of the large engine4 ,the electric light with its engines was installed at the ,south ,foreland ,lighthouse1 on the ,shakespeare ,cliff1 east of ,dover1 if ,i remember rightly4 ,we brought nothing back to ,england with us4 ,i went to ,paris a few days before the opening of the exposition1 and found my main engine already in running order1 installed next to the ,whitworth exhibit of tools1 and selected by the imperial commission as one of the engines employed to give motion to the machinery exhibited4 ,by an imperial decree1 the opening ceremonial of the exhibition was to take place on ,monday1 ,april #b1 at #b ,p4,m41 and everything was to be absolutely completed before that hour4 ,the engines were to have been tested the previous ,saturday4 ,every engine in the building was ready1 but the imperial commission itself was behind4 ,there was no steam4 ,the first interview ,i had with the superintendent of the ,british machinery department was on this ,saturday1 when he came around to notify the several ,english engine exhibitors to be in readiness to run their engines the next day1 ,sunday1 in order to make sure that there should be no hitch on ,monday1 ,i told him ,i should not run my engine on ,sunday4 8,very well10 said he1 8we will run it for you10 and stalked off4 ,before going away ,i took out the pin at the end of the governor lever connecting the governor with the valve motion and put it in my pocket4 ,never heard any reproof1 put the pin back on ,monday1 and when they gave us steam the engine started off as if it had always been running1 and continued to do so until the signal for shutting down at #e o'clock4 ,i had my hand on the wheel of the stop-valve to close it1 when suddenly all the valve-rods of the engine bent and tangled up1 and the exclamation was heard on all sides1 8,the high-speed engine has come to grief the very first day40 ,on examination it was found that the cast-iron stuffing-box gland on one of the valve-stems had fired1 and was fast on the stem4 ,one of our troubles at the ,whitworth works was the habit of the workmen1 which may have been common to all toolmakers1 of making close fits4 ,we had no standard reamers nor any system whatever1 and ,mr4 ,watts1 finding on his inspection everything too tight to run1 had to have holes enlarged and stems reduced by grinding with ,turkey dust4 ,sometimes this had to be done over and over4 ,he was very thorough1 but this once he missed it1 with the above result4 ,the case looked pretty bad1 but luckily nothing was broken1 and when the exposition opened at #i o'clock the next morning every trace of the accident had disappeared and the engine ran as if nothing had happened1 and continued to do so for several months1 till the close of the exposition4 ,we took pains that night1 while we were about it1 to make sure against any repetition of that performance4 ,i had nearly forgotten to mention a little surprise that ,i had3 ,the day after my arrival a friend who had preceded me a few days said to me1 8,come with me2 ,i want to show you something40 ,he led me through the entire circuit of the machinery hall1 and showed me engines with my central counterweight governor brought to that exposition from every country in ,europe4 ,i learned afterwards in conversation that1 following its exhibition in ,london1 five years before1 the use of this governor on the ,continent had become quite general4 ,the day after the opening ,i asked the superintendent when ,i ought to expect a visit from the jury of award4 ,i told him it was necessary that ,i should return to ,manchester to bring over my family1 and ,i was anxious not to miss the jury4 8,i would advise you10 said he1 8to go at once4 ,the jury will not be organized for a week or more40 ,i left that night1 leaving the engine in charge of a young ,frenchman to run it1 and was back in five days4 ,the first thing this man had to tell me was3 8,the jury were here yesterday4 ,they did not stay but a few minutes4 ,all their remarks that ,i heard were in ,french1 so ,i think they must all have been ,frenchmen4 ,i heard them say1 #8,an engine running at that speed 7#bjj revolutions per minute7 will knock itself to pieces before the exposition is over40 ,this although it was running in absolute silence before their eyes4 8,they did not ask me any questions40 8,what did they say about the condenser80 7,the ,bourdon gauge showed more than #bh inches vacuum all the time47 8,they laughed at that2 said no engine ever maintained such a vacuum10 which was quite true4 ,i hurriedly sought out the superintendent4 ,in answer to my complaint he said flippantly1 8,oh1 that visit was only preliminary4 ,they will be around again in a few days40 ,i have waited for that visit ever since4 ,never saw or heard of the jury any more1 but when the list of gold medal awards was published my name was not on it4 ,i learned afterwards that the order to all the juries was to commence their labors the morning after the opening of the exposition1 and have their reports in within three weeks4 ,the superintendent must have been officially informed of this order1 and he deliberately misled me4 ,i have always wondered if this was his revenge on me for not having run on ,sunday as he ordered4 ,so far as concerns their judgment on the engine1 8before the exposition was over0 it had won the admiration of every engineer in ,europe4 ,mr4 ,john ,hick of ,bolton1 then the leading builder of stationary engines in ,england1 and afterwards the head of the great engineering firm of ,hick1 ,hargreaves ,co41 made a visit to the engine every afternoon during his stay1 sometimes watching it for a long time4 ,it had a fascination for him4 ,he told me that no amount of testimony would have made him believe that an engine could have been made to run so smoothly and silently at such a speed1 or to maintain such a vacuum4 ,he said that if my engine shown in ,london had made anything like so favorable an impression on his mind1 he would have made me a proposition for its manufacture2 but it did not4 ,the reason for this ,i had learned long before1 the reason why it did not impress any one favorably1 it was non-condensing4 ,he added that he had since made other arrangements which made such proposition now impossible4 ,i knew what those arrangements were4 ,he had two years before taken up the manufacture of the ,corliss engine1 under the management of ,mr4 ,william ,inglis1 a ,canadian engineer1 by whom this engine had been successfully introduced into ,england4 ,i knew ,mr4 ,inglis well1 and rejoiced in his success1 as every one who knew him must have done4 ,as for any rivalry between us such a thing was never thought of1 there was room for both of us ten times over4 ,i was very courteously waited upon by a ,french engineer1 who asked me if ,i were acquainted with the ,deluel vacuum-gauge4 ,i told him that ,i was not4 ,he said that he was happy to introduce it to my notice4 ,the vacuum shown by the ,bourdon gauge on my condenser was so remarkable1 especially with an air-pump running so swiftly1 that it could not be accepted with confidence by engineers1 unless actually shown by the mercurial column4 ,the ,deluel gauge was the only one in which this was employed4 ,with many apologies for what was indeed the greatest kindness to me1 he ventured to suggest that the ,deluel gauge be placed on the condenser4 ,he kindly gave me the address of the firm in ,paris4 ,a sharp ,yankee will probably recognize him as an accomplished drummer for the house4 ,this did not occur to me1 but ,i am under obligation to him all the same4 ,i lost no time in getting a ,deluel gauge1 and the same night had the condenser drilled to put it on4 ,to my disgust no tap could be found to fit its thread4 ,so ,i had to drive a wooden plug in the hole4 ,the next day ,i called again at their store1 nearly three miles from the ,champ de ,mars1 and told them of my predicament4 ,with a profusion of regrets for the inconvenience ,i had been put to1 which he must have known that ,i would be1 the gentleman produced a set of taps1 and kindly loaned them to me1 observing with evident pride that this was 8a thread peculiar to their house40 ,the ,deluel gauge was put on that night1 and next morning ,i had the great satisfaction of seeing that its reading agreed with that of the ,bourdon gauge precisely4 ,i neglected to patent this condenser1 so there was nothing to connect me with it1 and the next year coming home1 where ,i had no occasion for it1 ,i quite lost sight of it4 ,but at our ,centennial ,exhibition1 nine years after1 ,i saw a large horizontal engine sent from ,belgium with the old familiar box behind the cylinder1 and about twenty years after that ,i had the pleasure of having the condenser described to me1 as if ,i were a stranger to it1 by ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,wheeler1 who mentioned particularly the inclined bottom of the condensing chamber1 the feature by which the air was prevented from mingling with the water4 ,he informed me that it was a condenser then commonly used in ,europe1 and was seen in all illustrations of horizontal condensing engines4 ,i have forgotten whether or not ,i told him what ,i knew about the origin of this condenser4 ,at this exposition only the ,english had a building devoted to the show of artillery4 ,the principal features that ,i remember were the ,whitworth and the ,armstrong systems1 which were elaborately represented4 ,i used to say that the ,british lion here invited the other beasts to examine his teeth4 ,the ,french and the ,english had each a large building on the bank of the ,seine devoted to naval exhibits4 ,in the former ,i happened to be present at a reception held by the young ,prince ,imperial1 at which he received the congratulations of1 among others1 many prominent ,englishmen1 some of whom ,i recognized4 ,how bright1 then1 seemed his prospects6 ,how sad his end6 ,but how grand for ,france1 her return to a free republic2 long may it live6 ,in the ,english naval exhibit three men made an exhibition of their childish extravagance4 ,models were shown of a fleet of eight vessels1 each quite #aj feet long1 completely and superbly finished inside and out1 and entitled 8,england's ,fleet of the ,future40 ,the vessels1 full rigged1 were built by ,robert ,napier4 ,they were provided with engines made by ,john ,penn1 and carried broadsides of ,whitworth guns4 ,recalled in the light of to-day1 this costly show appears supremely ridiculous4 ,it did not present a single feature that has not long since vanished and become almost forgotten4 ,both the prince and the toys furnish a lesson to the moralist4 ,how swiftly1 as by a cyclone1 has all that each represented been swept away forever6 ,what is there1 in governments or in mechanism1 that shall endure8 ,it was my good fortune one day in the latter building to meet ,admiral ,farragut4 ,i heard him say1 respecting this proud fleet1 8,when it is built1 some ,yankee will come with a torpedo and blow it out of the water40 ,one other terse reply of the old hero which ,i then heard is worthy to be recorded4 ,he was asked his opinion of the monitor4 8,a machine to drown a man in like a rat1 sir10 was his answer4 ,about midsummer ,i received an application from the firm of ,ducommen et ,cie4 of ,mulhouse1 a city in the southern part of ,alsace1 and an important manufacturing center1 whose people also had no foreboding of what was so soon to befall them1 for a concession to manufacture my engines in ,france4 ,they had a large exhibit at the exposition1 and impressed me quite favorably4 ,i consulted with ,mr4 ,hoyle and replied1 deferring action until a later period of the exposition4 ,some time in ,september1 not having received any other application1 ,i accepted this one4 ,there ,i made a mistake4 ,just before the close of the exposition ,i received a very flattering letter from the firm of ,farcot et ,cie41 the most eminent stationary engine-builders in ,france1 and who showed the largest engine at the exposition4 ,their works were near ,paris1 and on their invitation1 in company with ,mr4 ,hoyle1 ,i had visited them4 ,they stated that1 having observed closely the performance of the engine through all these months1 they had become convinced of its excellent and durable qualities1 and solicited the right to manufacture the engine in ,france4 ,i had to pay the penalty for my premature action in explaining to them with deep regret that this right was already disposed of4 ,my regret was deepened when1 in the course of the following winter1 ,i received in ,manchester copies of drawings according to which ,ducommen et ,cie4 proposed to construct the engines4 ,the changes they had made1 all in the direction of complication1 amazed me4 ,it seemed to have rained bolts and nuts4 ,every constructive requirement of a successful high-speed engine was ignorantly sacrificed4 ,after full consultation ,mr4 ,hoyle and ,i agreed that the case was hopeless1 that they would never do anything2 and they never did4 ,i have no photographs of the ,paris ,exposition4 ,it was a very singular thing that none were taken there1 so far as ,i ever heard4 ,near the close of the exposition ,i had another visit from ,mr4 ,allen4 ,he had been sent over by our associates to see for himself and to report to them what ,i had really accomplished4 ,he stayed with me a little while after our return to ,manchester4 ,mr4 ,whitworth treated us with the greatest civility4 ,on his invitation we rode out to his country home and spent the day with him4 ,this visit is worth recording4 ,his estate lay in ,derbyshire1 adjacent to ,chatsworth1 the well-known seat of the ,duke of ,devonshire4 ,it occupied a rather broad valley1 extending to the sky-line of high ranges of hills on each side1 and comprised three thousand acres4 ,he told me that three adjoining estates fell into the market1 one after another1 and he succeeded in getting the whole of them4 ,in the middle of this valley was a lower isolated hill1 containing stone quarries that had been worked from time immemorial1 and which1 when he bought1 were surrounded by unsightly heaps of dbris4 ,mr4 ,whitworth had closed the quarries1 covered these heaps with earth on which trees were then growing1 and transformed the whole into most picturesque ornamental grounds4 ,after lunch ,mr4 ,whitworth took his cane and1 with a step as sprightly as a schoolboy's1 led us a tramp over this region4 ,in the quarries he had formed galleries at different elevations4 ,finally1 at the top of the hill1 commanding views of his whole estate1 he had leveled a space about #ajj by #bjj feet and surrounded it with a rustic battlement of rocks4 ,here a grassy sward smooth and level as a billiard table was used as a croquet ground1 this being at that time a universal outdoor game in ,england4 ,he had a democratic park4 ,it had no wall1 and wire fences were as yet unknown1 so he could not keep deer4 ,but on his fields we saw many cattle grazing4 ,he told us he was raising blooded stock1 and expected the next year to commence annual sales4 ,we observed the very pleasant house beautifully located in the valley1 but he told us he was planning to remove it and build a baronial hall in its place4 ,i learned afterwards from ,mr4 ,hoyle that he had for some time kept two ,london architects employed on designs for this hall1 which designs he then employed another draftsman to combine into a plan to suit himself1 but had not as yet determined on anything4 ,as he was an old man1 and had no one in the world to leave this estate to1 ,i could account for his devotion to it only by his restless temperament1 that must always find some new outlet for his energy4 ,i1 however1 did not want him to expend any of this energy in getting a steam-engine to suit him1 and so the passing months brought us no nearer to an agreement4 ,my experience with ,ducommen et ,cie4 confirmed me in my decision not to let the mechanical control of the engine in ,england pass out of my hands1 and ,mr4 ,hoyle told me that he could not advise me to do so4 ,mr4 ,whitworth was at that time in the death agonies of his artillery system1 and ,i did not meet him1 but ,i learned through ,mr4 ,hoyle that he was highly indignant at me for presuming to take the position ,i had done1 and was immovably fixed in his own4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,study of the ,action of ,reciprocating ,parts4 ,important ,help from ,mr4 ,frederick ,j4 ,slade4 ,paper before ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,appreciation of ,zerah ,colburn4 ,the ,steam ,fire ,engine in ,england4 ,after the close of the ,paris ,exposition ,i devoted myself in earnest to the study of the action of the reciprocating parts of the engine1 and will here give a sketch of its development4 ,in the high-speed steam-engine the reciprocating parts were found to be a most essential feature4 ,besides transmitting the pressure of the steam to the crank they perform quite another office4 ,it is their inertia1 relieving the crank from shocks on the dead centers1 and equalizing the distribution of the pressure on it through the stroke1 that makes the high-speed engine possible4 ,i employed this inertia before ,i knew anything about it4 ,i had been occupied with the subject of balancing4 ,i had demonstrated practically that the centrifugal force of a weight equal to that of the reciprocating parts1 opposite the crank and at the same distance from the center as the crank-pin1 perfectly balanced a horizontal engine1 and had shown this fact conclusively at this exposition4 ,the problem before me was1 8,what is it that makes my engine run so smoothly80 ,i am not a mathematician1 and so could not use his methods4 ,i got along by graphic methods and study of the motion of the piston controlled by the crank4 ,my recollection of the several steps of my progress is quite indistinct4 ,one thing ,i do remember distinctly1 and that is the help that ,i got from my friend ,frederick ,j4 ,slade1 who was younger than ,i1 but who died several years ago4 ,mr4 ,slade was a mathematical genius4 ,the firm of ,cooper1 ,hewitt ,co4 were at a later date the pioneer makers in the ,united ,states of wrought-iron beams and other structural shapes2 and all their designs and computations were the work of ,mr4 ,slade4 ,i had formed his acquaintance in ,london in '#fc4 ,i met him again in ,paris in '#fg4 ,he was then in ,france in the employ of ,abram ,s4 ,hewitt1 investigating the ,siemens-,martin process of steel manufacture4 ,he took much interest in the engine4 ,one day he brought to me a diagram representing the two now famous triangles1 and a demonstration of them which he had made1 showing that the ordinates1 representing the acceleration or retardation of the piston motion at every point1 if erected on the center line of the engine1 terminate in a diagonal line1 which1 with a connecting-rod of infinite length1 would cross this center line at its middle point4 ,this exhibited at once the equalizing action of the reciprocating parts in a cut-off engine1 absorbing the excessive force of the steam at the commencement and imparting it to the crank at the end of the stroke4 ,i feel myself more indebted to ,mr4 ,slade than to any one else1 and would here record the tribute of my grateful acknowledgment4 ,on ,january #cj1 #ahfh1 ,i had the honor of reading a paper on the ,allen engine before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,the discussion of the paper was postponed until the next meeting1 ,april #cj1 and the paper was ordered meantime to be printed and sent to the members4 ,the result was that on the latter date we had a very interesting discussion4 ,i may mention two things which occurred at the first meeting1 but do not appear in the report of the transactions4 ,when the secretary reached the statement that the acceleration of the piston was greatest at the commencement of the stroke1 the president of the meeting1 ,sampson ,lloyd1 ,esq41 one of the vice-presidents of the ,institution1 stopped the reading and said to me1 8,you do not mean1 ,mr4 ,porter1 that this is on the commencement of the stroke1 but at a point near its commencement40 ,i was obliged to answer him that ,i intended to say that precisely on the dead center1 at the point where motion in one direction had ceased and that in the opposite direction had not yet commenced1 at that precise point the stress on the crank was at its maximum1 the crank having brought the reciprocating parts to rest1 and then by a continuance of the same effort putting them in motion in the reverse direction4 ,illustration3 ,,frederick ,j4 ,,slade ,after the reading was concluded1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,cowper took the floor1 and stated that ,i was entirely mistaken in my explanation of this action1 that this had been investigated by a gentleman whose name he gave but which ,i have forgotten1 and who had demonstrated that this retarding and accelerating action was represented by a curve1 which approximately he drew on the blackboard1 but which he excused himself from demonstrating there1 as it would require the use of the calculus and would take considerable time4 ,for this reason the discussion was postponed4 ,at the next meeting ,mr4 ,cowper did not present this demonstration1 and long afterwards he wrote a letter to the editors of ,engineering1 stating that on full investigation he had found the retardation and acceleration of the piston to be represented by triangles and not by a curve4 ,at the discussion of the paper my view was supported by all the speakers who addressed themselves to this point1 except ,mr4 ,cowper4 ,an especially careful and valuable exposition of the action of the reciprocating parts was given ,mr4 ,edwin ,reynolds1 then of the ,don ,steel ,works1 ,sheffield4 ,zerah ,colburn1 the editor of ,engineering1 had always taken a warm interest in my engine1 and in the winter following the ,paris ,exposition he invited me to furnish him the drawings and material for its description in his paper4 ,this ,i did1 and from these he prepared a series of articles written in his usual clear and trenchant style4 ,these will be found in ,volume ,v of ,engineering1 the cuts following page #ib1 and the articles on pages #aai1 #adc1 #aeh1 #ahd1 and #bjj4 ,mr4 ,colburn's articles in ,engineering are so interesting in themselves that ,i think ,i need make no apology for quoting from them his remarks on this subject of the inertia of the reciprocating parts1 and those in which is depicted the revolutionary nature of the high-speed engine1 as viewed at that time4 ,after a prelude1 with most of which the reader is already acquainted1 ,mr4 ,colburn says3 8,when a steam-engine is brought from abroad to the very spot where the steam-engine originated1 and where it has received1 so far at least as numbers are concerned1 its greatest development1 and is claimed to be superior to those produced here1 and to be able to run advantageously at a speed hitherto deemed impracticable1 its promoters must not expect to have much attention paid to its claims until such attention has been actually compelled1 and then they must be prepared for an ordeal of severest criticism4444 8,in employing a high grade of expansion1 especially with the considerable pressure of steam now usually carried in stationary boilers1 two serious practical difficulties are met with4 ,the first arises from the injurious effect of the sudden application of so great a force on the centers1 which the beam-engine1 indeed1 cannot be made to endure1 and the second is found in the extreme difference between the pressures at the opposite ends of the stroke1 which is such that the crank1 instead of being acted upon by a tolerably uniform force1 is rotated by a succession of violent punches1 and these applied when it is in its most unfavorable position4444 8,in the ,allen engine the action of high speed causes all the practical difficulties which lie in the way of the successful employment of high grades of expansion combined with high pressure of steam completely to disappear4 ,the crank receives as little pressure on the centers as we please2 none at all if we like2 the force is applied to it as it advances1 in a manner more gradual than the advocates of graduated openings and late admission ever dreamed of1 and a fair approximation is made to a uniform rotative force through the stroke4 ,so that1 in a properly constructed engine1 the higher the speed the smoother and more uniform and more silent the running will be40 ,after a page or more devoted to a demonstration of this action1 ,mr4 ,colburn sums up the advantage of high speed in the following illustration3 8,let us suppose that1 in an engine making #ge revolutions per minute1 the reciprocating parts are of such a weight that the force required at the commencement of the stroke to put them in motion is equal to a pressure of #bj pounds on the square inch of piston4 ,this will not modify the diagram of pressure sufficiently to produce much practical effect4 ,but let the number of revolutions be increased to #aej per minute1 the centrifugal force of these parts as the crank passes the centers is now equal to #hj pounds on the square inch of piston1 and any pressure of steam below this amount acts only as a relieving force1 taking the strain of these parts partly off from the crank4 ,it makes no matter how suddenly it is admitted to the cylinder1 not an ounce can reach the crank2 but as the latter advances1 and the acceleration of the reciprocating parts becomes less1 the excess of force not required to produce this becomes1 in the most gradual manner1 effective on the crank4 8,it will be observed how completely the designer has this action of the reciprocating parts under control4 ,he can proportion their speed and weight to the pressure of steam in such a manner as to relieve the crank from the blow on the center to whatever extent he may wish4 ,the notion that the reciprocating parts of high-speed engines should be very light is therefore entirely wrong4 ,they should be as heavy as they can be made1 and the heavier the better4 8,the advantages of more rapid rotation are largely felt in the transmission of power4 ,engineers understand very well that1 theoretically1 the prime mover should overrun the resistance4 ,motion should be not multiplied but reduced in transmission4 ,this can seldom be attained in practice1 but high speed gives the great advantage of an approximation to this theoretical excellence4 ,on the other hand1 slow-speed engines work against every disadvantage4 ,coupled engines and enormous fly-wheels have to be employed to give a tolerably uniform motion2 often great irregularities are endured1 or the abominable expedient is resorted to of placing the fly-wheel on the second-motion shaft4 ,then comes the task of getting up the speed1 with the ponderous gearing and the enormous strains4 ,slow motion also prevents the use of the belt1 immeasurably the preferable means of communicating power from a prime mover4 8,but how about the wear and tear8 ,the question comes from friends and foes alike4 ,the only difference is in the expression of countenance1 sympathetic or triumphant4 ,the thought of high speed brings before every eye visions of hot and torn bearings1 cylinders and pistons cut up1 thumps and breakdowns1 and engines shaking themselves to pieces4 ,it is really difficult to understand how so much ignorance and prejudice on this subject can exist in this day of general intelligence4 ,the fact is1 high speed is the great searcher and revealer of everything that is bad in design and construction4 ,the injurious effect of all unbalanced action1 of all overhanging strains1 of all weakness of parts1 of all untruth in form or construction1 of all insufficiency of surface1 increases as the square of the speed4 ,put an engine to speed and its faults bristle all over4 ,the shaking drum cries1 #8,balance me1 balance me6' the writhing shaft and quivering frame cry1 #8,see how weak we are6' the blazing bearing screams1 #8,make me round6' and the maker says1 #8,ah1 sir1 you see high speed will never do6' 8,now1 nothing is more certain than that we can make engines1 and that with all ease1 in which there shall be no unbalanced action1 no overhanging strains1 no weakness of parts1 no untruth of form or construction1 no insufficiency of surface2 in which1 in short1 there shall be no defect to increase as the square of the speed1 and then we may employ whatever speed we like4 #8,but that1' interposes a friend1 #8requires perfection1 which you know is unattainable4' ,no1 we reply1 nothing unattainable1 nothing even difficult1 is required1 but only freedom from palpable defects1 which1 if we only confess their existence1 and are disposed to get rid of1 may be easily avoided4 ,it is necessary to throw all conceit about our own work to the dogs1 to lay down the axiom that whatever goes wrong1 it is not high speed1 but ourselves who are to blame1 and to go to high speed as to our schoolmaster4 8,among the many objections to high speed1 we are often told that the beam-engine will not bear it1 and the beam-engine1 sir1 was designed by ,watt4 ,in reverence for that great name1 we yield to no one4 ,the beam-engine1 in its adaptation to the conditions under which it was designed to work--namely1 a piston speed of #bbj feet per minute and a pressure of one or two atmospheres--was as nearly perfect as any work of human skill ever was or will be2 but we wonder why the outraged ghost does not haunt the men who cling to the material form they have inherited1 when the conditions which it was designed to meet have been all outgrown1 who have used up his factor of safety1 and now stand among their trembling and breaking structures1 deprecating everything which these will not endure4 8,a journal and its bearings ought not only never to become warm1 but never even to wear1 and1 if properly made1 never will do so with ordinary care to any appreciable extent1 no matter how great speed is employed4 ,it is well known that there exists a very wide difference in bearings in this respect1 some outlasting dozens of others4 ,now1 there need be no mystery about this3 the conditions of perfect action are so few and simple that it seems almost idle to state them4 ,the first is rigidity of a shaft or spindle between its bearings2 but everybody knows that if this is flexible1 just in the degree in which it springs1 the journals must be cast in their bearings1 though in actual practice this perfect rigidity is not once in a thousand times even approximated to4 ,the point of excellence in the celebrated ,sellers bearing for shafting is that it turns universally to accommodate itself to this flexure of the shaft1 and the result is a durability almost perfect4 8,the second requirement1 when we have a shaft capable of maintaining perfect rigidity under all the strains it may be subjected to1 is abundant extent of bearing surface both in length and circumference1 a requirement1 it will be seen1 entirely consistent with the first4 ,it is a mistake to use journals of small diameter with the idea that their enlargement will occasion loss of power on account of the increased surface velocity1 as1 in fact1 the coefficient of friction will diminish in a greater ratio than that in which the velocity is increased4 ,in the ,allen engine it is intended to make all shafts and journals too large4 8,but all is of little use unless the journal is round4 ,high speed under heavy pressure has a peculiar way of making it known when a journal is not round1 which1 we suppose1 is one of its faults4 ,now the difference between a true cylindrical form and such an approximation to it as a good lathe will produce in turning ordinarily homogeneous metal is simply amazing2 but when we compare with this the forms of journals as commonly finished1 the wonder is how many of them run at all at any speed4 ,when ground with a traversing wheel in dead centers1 which have themselves been ground to true cones1 the only known method by which a parallel cylindrical form can be produced1 their inequalities stand disclosed1 and these are usually found to be greater1 often many times greater1 than the thickness of the film of oil that can be maintained in running4 ,then under pressure this film is readily broken1 the metal surfaces come into contact and abrasion begins4 ,but a true cylindrical journal swims in an oil-bath1 separated from its bearing at every point by a film of oil of uniform thickness1 and sustaining a uniform pressure1 which cannot be anywhere broken1 and which has very little inclination to work out2 and if it revolves without deflection and the pressure per square inch of surface is not sufficient to press out the lubricant1 the speed is absolutely immaterial and wear is impossible1 except that due to the attrition of the oil itself1 which on hardened surfaces has no appreciable effect40 ,from the illustrations contained in these articles1 ,i copy only the following pair of diagrams with the accompanying note4 ,illustration3 ,pair of ,diagrams from #ahcj ,allen ,engine at ,south ,tyne ,paper ,mill1 #ajh ,revolutions1 ,vacuum #bh ,inches4 ,only ,half ,intended ,load on ,engine4 ,the winter of #ahfg-h was devoted by me partly to watching the dissolving view of my engineering prospects in ,england4 ,it grew more and more evident that through my difference with ,mr4 ,whitworth all my efforts and successes there would come to naught1 as they did4 ,but my friend1 ,mr4 ,lee1 had even worse luck than ,i had4 ,it will be some relief from the monotony of my reverses if ,i go back a little and tell of a reverse that befell another man4 ,curiously enough1 ,mr4 ,lee's reverse came from the overwhelming character of his success4 ,the ,english engineers had their breath quite taken away and lost their heads1 with the result that ,mr4 ,lee lost his position4 ,he was ambitious to show his steam fire-engine doing its utmost4 ,if he had been wiser and had realized the limit of what his judges could stand1 he would have shown about one half its capacity and all parties would have been happy4 ,to understand how naturally this most unexpected dnouement came about1 we must recall what the ,english people had been accustomed to4 ,in ,london fires were rare and trifling4 ,buildings were low1 built of brick with tile roofs4 ,open grates afforded the means of cooking and of warming sufficiently for their climate4 ,every tenant of a building who called in the fire department was fined five pounds1 which encouraged careful habits4 ,the apparatus itself was something quite ridiculous4 ,it consisted of little hand-engines1 worked by about a dozen men4 ,on the side of a corner building occasionally one saw painted a distance in feet and inches4 ,this meant that by measuring this distance from this corner out into the street and digging a little into the macadam pavement1 a connection would be found with the water-main4 ,from this the water was permitted to flow gently into an india-rubber saucer some #f feet in diameter spread on the ground4 ,out of this saucer the engine drew its water for a feeble little stream4 ,mr4 ,lee's engine1 with ,worthington duplex pump1 was1 on its completion1 exhibited before a large company of invited guests1 principally officials of the fire department and prominent engineers4 ,the engine maintained a vertical column of water1 delivered from a much larger nozzle than had ever before been used in ,england1 and considerably over #ajj feet high4 ,there was also a corresponding column of sparks from the chimney of the steam-pump4 ,the exhibition was made late in the afternoon of a short winter day1 and before it was over the coming darkness showed the column of incandescent cinders to the best advantage4 ,the few ,americans there enjoyed this miniature ,vesuvius hugely4 ,the ,englishmen were frightened out of their wits4 ,their unanimous verdict was that the engine would evidently put out a fire1 half a dozen of them for that matter1 but it would kindle twenty4 ,and this where the engine had been pushed to its utmost1 and had not kindled one fire4 ,easton1 ,amos ,sons instantly decided that they could never sell a steam fire-engine under ,mr4 ,lee's management1 and they discharged him the next morning4 ,during the following season we had quite a steam-fire-engine excitement4 ,some one1 ,i have forgotten who1 but think it was the ,duke of ,sutherland1 made a public offer of a thousand pounds sterling for the best steam fire-engine1 competition to be open to all the world1 the engines to be tested for six days in the park of the ,crystal ,palace at ,sydenham1 in the month of ,july following4 ,there were a number of amusing incidents connected with that exhibition4 ,one was the following3 ,the common council of ,new ,york ,city determined that the city must have that prize1 so they sent over engine ,no4 #g1 a favorite engine1 one of ,mr4 ,lee's make1 and which had been three or four years in service4 ,a junket committee of the city fathers accompanied it4 ,the ,london ,fire ,department received this delegation with great enthusiasm1 and devoted itself to making them happy4 ,they took entire charge of their machine and exhibited it in ,london to admiring crowds4 ,a few days before the time fixed for the opening of the trial they took the engine to ,sydenham1 where on the way to its station it accidentally rolled down a hillside and was pretty well broken up4 ,mr4 ,lee being in ,london was hurriedly sent for to see if it could be repaired in time for the trial4 ,he found that the injuries were of so serious a nature that the repairs could not be completed in less than three weeks4 ,so that competitor was out of the way4 ,their sympathizing friends were full of condolence1 and assumed all the cost of the repairs4 ,they also proposed that when the engine was put in proper order they should have an excursion down the ,thames to ,greenwich and have there an exhibition of its powers4 ,so a steamboat was chartered and a large party accompanied the machine to ,greenwich4 ,on arrival there it was found that the two nozzles1 a large one and a smaller one for long-distance streams1 which had been taken especial charge of by the members of a fire company1 had been accidentally dropped into the ,thames4 ,the ,new ,york delegation were glad to get their engine back to ,new ,york without further accident4 ,easton1 ,amos ,sons also concluded that they would like that prize4 ,after they had taken the engine into their own hands1 they found a number of features which seemed to them to need amendment1 so they made some quite important changes4 ,on the second day of the trial this engine broke down and had to be withdrawn4 ,i have forgotten how many competitors remained in the field1 but the prize was awarded to a ,london firm1 builders of hand fire-engines1 who had only lately taken up this new branch of manufacture4 ,this successful firm applied to the government for an order to supply steam fire-engines for the protection of the public buildings4 ,this application was referred to ,easton1 ,amos ,sons1 the consulting engineers of the government4 ,this firm concluded if possible to have this order given to themselves1 and applied to ,mr4 ,lee to recommend the changes in his engine necessary to put it in proper working order4 ,mr4 ,lee replied that it was only necessary to put the engine back in the precise condition in which he left it4 ,they finally agreed to do this1 and employed ,mr4 ,lee to direct the work4 ,when completed the engine was tried in the gardens of ,buckingham ,palace1 in competition with the prize winner1 before a large body of government officials4 ,the ,easton1 ,amos ,sons engine proved its superiority on every point so completely that the government immediately purchased it4 ,some time before this1 however1 ,mr4 ,lee had associated himself with a capitalist for the manufacture of steam fire-engines in ,england1 and was then engaged on plans for them4 ,his financial associate was ,judge ,winter1 by which title only he was known to us4 ,he was an ,american1 and before the war was the proprietor of the ,winter ,iron ,works in ,georgia 7the precise location ,i have forgotten71 the most prominent engineering establishment in the ,southern ,states1 in which business he had become wealthy4 ,he will be remembered by some gray heads as having been an exhibitor in the ,new ,york ,crystal ,palace in #ahec4 ,he sent to it a steam-engine bearing the name of 8,the ,southern ,belle40 ,this stood in the machinery department1 close to a ,corliss engine1 the two being the only engines of any size which were exhibited there4 ,this engine was beautifully finished1 polished pretty much all over1 but its working features were of the most ordinary character4 ,mechanically it was valueless4 ,judge ,winter was a determined opponent of secession1 and on the adoption of that ordinance by the ,state of ,georgia1 was compelled to fly from the country4 ,he then took up his residence in ,london1 to which he had transferred such portion of his wealth as he was able to convert into money4 ,he took a deep interest in the new steam fire-engine1 and spent part of nearly every day in the office where ,mr4 ,lee and ,mr4 ,taylor1 an ,american engineer whom ,mr4 ,lee had associated with himself1 were engaged on their plans4 ,the point of interest to myself in this story lies here4 ,the old judge had no sound mechanical education1 but was very fertile minded4 ,he came almost every morning with a new idea that he wanted embodied4 ,it was always absurd4 ,he generally protested vigorously against being overruled4 ,when he was furnishing all the money he could not see why he should not be allowed to have something to say about it4 ,i happened to be present in their office one morning when he got particularly excited over their opposition4 ,he was a stout party1 and on this occasion ,i had the fun of joining in the shout of laughter that greeted him1 when1 after pacing the floor in silence for a few minutes1 he exclaimed1 with his hand on the fabled seat of his sympathies1 8,i thank my ,god that if there is one thing ,i am free from1 it is pride of opinion40 ,my recollection of the above action of ,easton1 ,amos ,sons and of ,judge ,winter contributed materially to form my imagination of the predicament in which ,i would certainly find myself1 should ,i yield to ,mr4 ,whitworth the power to make whatever changes might occur to him in my engine4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,preparations for ,returning to ,america4 ,bright ,prospects4 ,having but little practical work to occupy me that winter1 ,i devoted myself to getting out for ,elliott ,bros4 a second edition of my instruction book to accompany the ,richards indicator1 and my paper for the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers and the illustrations and material for ,mr4 ,colburn's articles on the ,allen engine published in ,engineering4 ,i found in the library of the ,manchester ,philosophical ,society a copy of the twentieth volume of the 8,memoirs of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences10 containing the report of the experiments of ,m4 ,regnault to determine the properties of steam1 with the leaves uncut1 of which ,i was then able to make some use4 ,i was anxious to obtain a copy of this volume for myself1 and also of ,volume #ba1 containing other memoirs by ,m4 ,regnault4 ,this object ,i succeeded in accomplishing when in ,paris that winter through the kind interest of ,m4 ,tresca1 the well-known ,sous-,directeur of the ,ecole des ,arts et ,mtiers4 ,this was a matter of so much difficulty1 that a letter from ,m4 ,tresca to the publisher was found not to be sufficient4 ,it was necessary that ,m4 ,tresca should personally identify me as the 8savant0 to whom he had given the letter4 ,i was then able to obtain both the volumes1 which ,i brought home with me on my return to ,america4 ,now was the winter of my discontent made glorious summer1 and all the clouds that lowered about my enterprise in the deep bosom of the ocean buried1 by the receipt of a letter from ,mr4 ,hope1 telling me that ,mr4 ,allen's report after his visit of inspection was of so entirely satisfactory a character that1 after full consideration1 it had been concluded to write me to leave everything in ,england in whatever condition ,i might be obliged to1 and return home and join with ,mr4 ,allen in the manufacture of the engines1 for which ample capital would be furnished4 ,so in my ecstasy ,i went about quoting to myself ,shakespeare's lines and applying them to my reviving fortunes4 ,mr4 ,hoyle congratulated me warmly on this favorable turn in my affairs1 seeing clearly that ,i would never do anything with ,mr4 ,whitworth1 unless on his own inadmissible terms4 ,after ,i had sobered down from my excitement1 ,i began to consider the matter carefully1 and to determine upon the preparations that ought to be made as a foundation for what1 by judicious management1 should grow to be a great and profitable business4 ,i fully realized the responsibility that was devolved upon me1 and determined that both in foresight and prudence ,i would prove myself equal to its requirements4 ,i wrote a glad acceptance of the proposition and expatiated on the advantage we should enjoy from what ,i had learned in ,england4 ,i told them that the selection of a suitable location was of the first importance1 and suggested that a plot of twenty or thirty acres should be purchased in the environs of a large manufacturing town1 affording a good labor market and having good railway facilities1 and where the land could be got at farm prices4 ,i would plan shops on a scale large enough for a great business and of a form adapted for enlargement from time to time1 and build at first a small part1 which as the business grew could be added to without alteration4 ,i asked them to look about for the best place1 but do nothing further until ,i got home1 when ,i would have carefully studied plans1 embodying the most recent improvements in building and tools to lay before them4 ,i then entered with enthusiasm into the preparation of my plans4 ,the model shop1 now in common use1 had then lately been designed by the firm of ,smith ,coventry1 tool makers of ,salford1 which is a suburb of ,manchester1 separated from it only by a narrow stream1 the river ,irwell1 and their plan had been at once followed by the firm of ,craven ,brothers of ,manchester1 also tool makers4 ,it was1 of course1 still unknown in the ,united ,states4 ,the general idea of this shop was taken from the nave and side aisles of ,gothic cathedrals4 ,the central and wider portion1 which we may call the nave1 was one story in height and was commanded by the travelers1 and its floor was occupied by the largest tools only1 and for erection4 ,the side aisles were two stories in height4 ,the smallest work1 of course1 was on the upper story1 and tools and work of medium size on the floors below1 the latter being transported by carriages suspended from the floor above4 ,no rails were laid or gangways kept open on any floor4 ,all transportation of heavy objects was through the air4 ,the great value of this improvement1 made by this firm in shop design1 and which has brought this design into general use1 lay in its natural classification of the work4 ,travelers were already quite common in ,england1 but under them large and small tools1 often very small ones1 were found mingled quite promiscuously4 ,their shop had an entire glass roof1 made on the ridge and furrow plan1 first used in the ,crystal ,palace in ,hyde ,park for the ,international ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,that roof would not answer1 however1 in this climate1 on account of our snow in winter1 so ,i had to plan a different one4 ,but in every other respect their plan was perfect4 ,the columns1 of course1 at that time were of cast iron4 ,these were cast in pairs connected by a web1 the longer columns in each pair supporting the roof1 the short ones the rails for the travelers4 ,in ,smith ,coventry's shop the traveler was operated from the floor by means of a loop hanging from a wheel on the crab4 ,the arrangement was exceedingly convenient in every respect4 ,i obtained full detail drawings of ,smith ,coventry's shop4 ,the accompanying outline presents a cross-section of this shop1 and is figured to the dimensions ,i proposed to adopt4 ,i proposed to build a length of only #ge feet1 which by successive additions could be extended to #ejj feet if required4 ,moreover1 at first the office1 drawing-office1 pattern shop1 and storeroom1 besides the machine shop1 in short everything1 except only the engine and boiler1 smith shop and foundry1 were to be accommodated in this one building4 ,i was greatly pleased with my plan1 and felt sure that it would commend itself to my associates1 as no shop possessing these conveniences then existed in the ,united ,states4 ,i1 however1 introduced one modification of the ,english shops1 or rather one addition4 ,i had observed that reliance on the traveler for local work involved a serious loss of time4 ,i had seen in various shops men standing idle1 sometimes from fifteen to thirty minutes1 waiting for the traveler to be at liberty to come and give them a lift4 ,it appeared evident to me that the province of the traveler was to fetch and carry2 not to perform local work1 unless of the heaviest class4 ,so for the latter purpose ,i provided swing cranes1 which could be operated by the workman himself without assistance4 ,this also enabled one traveler to cover a much longer extent of floor4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section of ,machine ,shop ,proposed by ,mr4 ,porter in #ahfh1 after the ,design of ,smith ,coventry4 ,smith ,coventry had made numerous improvements on ,mr4 ,whitworth's tools4 ,i have already mentioned their arrangement which made it possible to take up the wear of the lathe spindle bearings4 ,in the radial drill1 an invention of ,mr4 ,whitworth's1 as made by him1 in order to bring the drill to the right position longitudinally1 the workman was obliged to go to the end of the arm and turn the screw4 ,from this point he could not see his work1 and had to guess at the proper adjustment4 ,i have seen him in the ,whitworth works go back and forth for this purpose three or four times1 and have always doubted if he got it exactly right after all4 ,smith ,coventry introduced an elegant device by which the workman was able to make this adjustment without moving from his place4 ,they also first made the arm of the radial drill adjustable vertically by power4 ,by simply reversing the curve of the brackets under ,mr4 ,whitworth's shaper tables1 they made these unyielding under the pressure of the cut4 ,this firm also first employed small cutting tools set in an arm which was secured in the tool-post1 and put an end to tool-dressing by the blacksmith1 which had caused a fearful waste of time1 and also encouraged idle habits among the workmen4 ,this improvement has since come into common use4 ,their system of grinding these small tools interested me very much4 ,the workman never left his machine4 ,he was provided with a number of tools1 set in compartments in a box4 ,when a tool became dull he took it out1 set it in the box upside down1 and substituted another4 ,a boy went regularly through the shop1 took up all the upside-down tools1 ground them1 and brought them back4 ,the grindstones were provided with tool-holders and a compound screw feed1 by which the tools were always presented to the stone at the same desired angle1 and were prevented from wearing out the stone by running into grooves or following soft spots4 ,the whole surface of the stone was used uniformly and kept in perfect condition4 ,i picked up in that shop the solid wrench made with the elegant improvement of inclining the handle at the angle of #ae degrees from the line of the jaws2 enabling it1 by turning the wrench over1 to be worked within a radial angle of #cj degrees4 ,this adapted it for use in tight places4 ,i brought the idea home with me and always supplied my engines with wrenches made in that way4 ,i offered the plan to ,billings ,spencer for nothing1 but they did not think it worth making the dies for4 ,mr4 ,williams was more appreciative4 ,i believe it is now in quite common use4 ,at that time toolmaking in this country1 which has since become so magnificently developed1 was in many important respects in a primitive condition1 and ,i proposed to introduce into my shop every best tool and method1 adapted to my requirements1 that ,i could find in ,england4 ,for this purpose ,i visited and carefully studied all the tool works of good standing1 and my final conclusion was that the best tools for design1 strength1 solidity1 facility of operation and truth of work were those made by ,smith ,coventry4 ,this may be guessed from the few examples ,i have given of their fertile mindedness and advanced ideas4 ,so ,i prepared a careful list of tools that ,i proposed to order from them in time to be ready for use as soon as my shop should be completed4 ,i found also the remarkable fact that ,i could obtain these tools1 duty and freight paid1 decidedly cheaper than corresponding inferior tools could then be got from ,american makers4 ,before bidding good-by to ,england1 ,i must tell the luck ,i had in endeavoring to introduce ,mr4 ,allen's double-opening slide valve1 shown in the general view of my ,london exhibit1 now in common use the world over4 ,no locomotive engineer would even look at it4 ,finally ,i got an order from ,mr4 ,thomas ,aveling for one of these valves with single eccentric valve-gear1 to be tried on one of his road locomotives or traction engines4 ,mr4 ,aveling is known to fame as the inventor of the road locomotive and steam road roller4 ,he once told me how he came to make this invention4 ,he was a maker of portable engines in ,rochester1 which was the center of a wheat-growing district4 ,these engines were employed universally to drive threshing machines4 ,horses were used to draw both the machine and the engine from farm to farm4 ,the idea occurred to him that this was almost as foolish as was the practice of the ,spanish muleteers1 in putting the goods they transported on one side of the animal and employing a bag of stones on the other side to balance them4 ,why not make the engine capable of moving itself and drawing the threshing machine1 and dispense with the horses altogether8 ,so he applied himself to the job and did it4 ,then it was found that the self-propelling threshing-machine engines could draw a great many other things besides threshing machines1 and the business grew to large proportions4 ,mr4 ,aveling made an engine with valve and valve-gear from my drawings1 and ,i took a ride with him on it from ,rochester to ,london1 the engine drawing two trucks loaded with the two halves of a fly-wheel4 ,the performance was entirely satisfactory4 ,he said the engine was handled more easily than any other he ever made1 and it maintained its speed in going up hill in a manner to astonish him1 which was accounted for by the double valve opening4 ,the little engine ran very rapidly1 about #cjj revolutions per minute1 being geared down to a slow motion of the machine1 about #d miles travel per hour4 ,with a single opening for admission it had admitted only a partial pressure of the steam1 but the double opening valve admitted very nearly the whole pressure and made a sharp cut-off1 all which ,i showed by the indicator4 ,he told me that he was then filling a large order for traction engines for ,australia1 and this valve and valve-gear were the very thing for them4 ,i went back to ,manchester happy in the satisfaction of having accomplished one thing in the engine line at any rate4 ,a few weeks after1 being in ,london1 ,i went to ,rochester to see how the new valve-gear was progressing4 ,the first thing ,i saw was my valve and valve-gear hanging up in the storeroom4 ,mr4 ,aveling explained to me that he had been advised by engineers1 whose advice by his contract with his financial partner he was obliged to follow1 that the narrow faces on my valve would wear away faster than the wider faces1 and the valve would come to leak1 and if he put it on his engine it would ruin his business4 ,he did not believe it2 it seemed to him absurd1 but he was powerless4 ,this was the nearest approach ,i ever made myself towards the introduction of this valve4 ,in #ahge ,i seemed to have a promising opening4 ,i received a note from ,mr4 ,m4 ,n4 ,forney1 then editor of the ,railway ,gazette1 calling my attention to this valve and its description in his 8,catechism of the ,locomotive10 just published1 and stating that this was the only patented invention in the book4 ,he added that he had had conferences with ,mr4 ,buchanan1 foreman of the ,new ,york ,central and ,hudson ,river ,railroad repair shops in ,new ,york ,city1 about trying this valve on their locomotives1 and ,mr4 ,buchanan would like to see me4 ,on my calling1 ,mr4 ,buchanan asked me what arrangement ,i was willing to make4 ,i replied that they might put the valve on six locomotives free of royalty4 ,if these valves worked well ,i would give them a license on liberal terms4 ,he said he had an express locomotive then in the shop for which he was making new cylinders2 these were already bored and the valve seats planed1 but not yet trimmed1 and in this state there was room to put in these valves1 which he would do2 they would be ready in about a fortnight1 when he would send me word1 and would be glad to have me go up to ,albany and back on the locomotive and indicate the engines4 ,i have been waiting for that 8word0 ever since4 ,a few days after ,i met in the street an acquaintance1 who asked me if ,mr4 ,buchanan had agreed to put the ,allen valve on an engine4 ,i replied that he had4 ,why1 said he1 ,buchanan will no more dare put that valve on unless ,commodore ,vanderbilt orders him to1 than he would to cut his head off4 ,he will never persuade the old man to give that order1 and you will never hear of it again2 and ,i never did4 ,the recollection of another experience with ,mr4 ,aveling has often amused me4 ,he had an order from the ,chatham ,dock ,yard for a stationary engine of perhaps #ajj horse-power4 ,it was to be inspected in operation before its acceptance by the government4 ,he wrote me to come down and bring my indicator and assist him in exhibiting it running under a friction brake in his shop4 ,at the hour appointed the inspector appeared1 accompanied by half-a-dozen young officers4 ,he spoke to no one1 observed the engine in operation1 took the diagrams from my hand1 asked no question1 but proceeded to discourse to his followers on the engine4 ,i could hardly believe my senses as ,i listened to the absurdities that he gravely got off2 not a sentence was intelligible4 ,i can see ,mr4 ,aveling now quietly winking at me1 as we stood with respectful gravity till he had finished1 when he turned and marched off without noticing anybody4 ,this was my only personal encounter with the ,english official mind4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,return to ,america4 ,disappointment4 ,my ,shop4 ,the ,colt ,armory ,engine designed by ,mr4 ,richards4 ,appearance of ,mr4 ,goodfellow4 ,my ,surface ,plate ,work4 ,formation of a ,company4 ,in ,june1 #ahfh1 having completed my preparations1 ,i bade what has proven to be a long good-by to ,england1 and buoyant with anticipations turned my face homeward4 ,during the voyage my mind dwelt constantly on the bright career for which it clearly appeared that my experience in ,england was the fit preparation1 and on my projected work1 every detail of which ,i revolved over and over in imagination4 ,the first thing after ,i got home ,i made an important discovery1 one of that kind which generally men have to make for themselves4 ,my discovery was this3 ,put not your trust in riches1 especially when they belong to another man4 ,mr4 ,hope had made the blunder of relying on a single capitalist4 ,i had expected to find at least half-a-dozen subscribers to a capital of not less than #ajj1jjj4 ,his single financial associate and reliance was a gentleman of wealth1 retired from active business1 and whom ,i introduce to the reader as ,mr4 ,smith4 ,under his direction ,mr4 ,hope had written to me the invitation and promise to which ,i have already referred4 ,the wealth and the ideas of ,mr4 ,smith seemed to be in inverse proportion to each other4 ,the greatness of the former was represented by the smallness of the latter4 ,he entered with earnestness and energy into our work--according to his own plans4 ,he paid no regard to my suggestions1 and instead of heeding my request to postpone definite action until my return he hurried his scheme to completion so that ,i would find everything settled beyond the possibility of my interference4 ,in ,harlem1 then a somewhat remote and quite dead suburb of ,new ,york1 on ,fourth ,avenue between #acjth and #acast streets1 within a block or two of the termination of the avenue on the ,harlem ,river1 he found a little abandoned foundry1 about #dj feet square1 with a lean-to in the rear1 used for cleaning castings4 ,it had been dismantled and idle for several years1 never1 of course1 had a floor1 and the windows were broken4 ,this he hailed as the very place he wanted1 and at once leased it for five years at a small rent1 with the ground belonging to it1 extending from #acjth to #acast ,street1 #bjj feet front by #ajj feet deep1 and vacant1 except this building and a little office1 #ajae feet1 on the upper corner4 ,he then turned his attention to providing the 8ample capital40 ,my governor shop on ,west ,thirteenth ,street had during my long absence been run quite successfully by my faithful foreman1 ,nelson ,aldrich4 ,mr4 ,smith planned to remove this shop to ,harlem1 and to furnish ,mr4 ,allen money enough to enable him to enter into an equal partnership with me1 adding the engine business to my governor manufacture4 ,everything in my shop was appraised at the round sum of #aj1jjj1 and this magnificent amount1 as he regarded it1 he advanced to ,mr4 ,allen as a loan4 ,mr4 ,allen had put his savings of several years into a little home in ,tremont1 a village on the line of the railroad1 some three or four miles above the ,harlem ,river4 ,this place had cost him #bejj4 ,mr4 ,smith told ,mr4 ,allen that he must secure him the repayment of this loan1 so far as he could do so1 by the mortgage of his house and lot4 ,this demand caused ,mr4 ,allen great distress and half killed his wife4 ,mr4 ,smith was inexorable--no mortgage1 no money4 ,mr4 ,allen thought of a scheme for outwitting him1 and the mortgage was executed and the money paid over4 ,he applied this first to making the premises habitable1 laying a floor and putting a floor above1 which would give a story under the roof1 and the beams of which would carry the shafting for driving the tools4 ,he repaired the broken windows and put windows in the front gable to light the new upper story1 put on a new roof1 installed a portable engine and boiler1 and equipped a little smith shop in the lean-to4 ,my tools1 etc41 were then moved into their new quarters4 ,these tools were all small4 ,in order to make engines some larger ones would be needed4 ,mr4 ,allen procured from the firm of ,hewes ,phillips1 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 a very good planer1 large enough to pass work #d feet wide and high1 and a #bj-;inch lathe4 ,when this installation was completed1 ,mr4 ,allen had expended #gejj4 ,then he stopped making purchases and said nothing4 ,the work of my governor manufacture was resumed1 and nothing more attempted4 ,this was the state of affairs that stared me in the face on my return4 ,the shop had been running about a fortnight4 ,mr4 ,smith told me he had supplied all the money he expected to4 ,mr4 ,allen said he had not obliged himself to put all the money loaned him into the business1 and the amount for which he had mortgaged his house was in a safe place1 where it could be got when wanted to pay off that mortgage4 ,i was stupefied4 ,as ,i began to realize my utter helplessness1 ,i broke down entirely4 ,what rational motive could any man have had in getting me home and leaving me powerless to do anything8 ,had ,i imagined the character of his plans ,i should have remained in ,england1 signed anything that ,mr4 ,whitworth wanted me to1 and trusted ,providence and ,mr4 ,hoyle for the result4 ,the absurdity of the case presented itself to me sometimes in its humiliating and sometimes in its ludicrous aspect1 according to my mood4 ,after a while ,i saw that ,i must reconcile myself to the situation1 and see what could be done under the circumstances4 ,we could only do a little business in making small non-condensing engines4 ,not more than from #ae to #bj men could work in the shop4 ,as for facilities for handling machinery1 there were none4 ,we yet needed several expensive tools4 ,we had to make patterns2 we must have money to run the place until returns came in4 ,i laid the matter before ,mr4 ,smith4 ,first of all1 that mortgage must be discharged2 ,i would not stir till that was done4 ,he had overreached himself4 ,i rejoiced that ,mr4 ,allen had got the better of him4 ,it would be idle to set about the business without at least #aj1jjj additional capital2 this ,i finally got1 and1 with the advance to ,mr4 ,allen1 made free from interest1 by assigning the entire indicator patents to ,mr4 ,smith and ,mr4 ,hope4 ,as it turned out1 we bought that money at an enormous price2 but we did not know this at the time4 ,we must have money and this was the only way to get it4 ,we congratulated ourselves that by any sacrifice we had secured the sum of #bj1jjj and without the burden of interest4 ,now ,i took heart and set at work in earnest1 feeling sure that ,i could soon bring the engine into a position that would command the means required to do it justice4 ,i ordered from ,smith ,coventry a stationary drilling machine1 a #f-;inch slotting machine1 a bolt-threading machine1 and a set of cylindrical gauges1 and had them all in place by the time we were ready to use them4 ,this bolt-threading machine was a wonder1 and has not been surpassed since4 ,the rod was fed through a hollow spindle1 seized in the jaws of a self-centering chuck1 and the projecting end finished4 ,the threading dies were backed by eccentric wedges in a solid ring1 which was turned out of the way during the sliding operation4 ,these were closed or opened by a lever which carried a stud moving in a circular slot4 ,this stud was brought up to a stop1 which could be set to cut threads of any depth4 ,the threads were finished in a single motion4 ,for standing bolts1 we threaded one end1 so that it screwed hard into its seat1 and by moving the stop a trifle the threads on the other end were cut deeper1 so that the nuts turned on it more easily4 ,the rapidity1 uniformity and precision with which this was done could not be surpassed4 ,smith ,coventry had lately commenced the manufacture of cylindrical gauges1 of which up to that time ,mr4 ,whitworth had had the monopoly4 ,flat gauges did not then exist4 ,the above tools were almost incredibly superior to those then made in this country4 ,i was anxious for one of their radial drills1 but had no place to set it4 ,i adopted the ,franklin ,institute screw-thread1 and obtained a set of hobs from ,william ,sellers ,co4 ,i equipped our little office to accommodate one draftsman besides myself1 and soon had a good man at work1 engaged mostly in preparing drawings from the tracings ,i had brought from ,england4 ,the story over the shop1 in the middle half of which a man could stand upright1 was made a pattern shop1 and two patternmakers were soon at work there4 ,they found the shop very hot4 ,the roof was covered with paper and tar4 ,i could not bear my hand on the under side of the roof boards4 ,i whitewashed the roof1 making the whitewash rainproof1 and this heat entirely disappeared4 ,i have borne in mind this interesting result1 the complete prevention of heat absorption by changing the color of the surface to one absolutely white2 and am now proposing a similar change in brick boiler settings and chimneys1 using white enameled tiles1 which also prevent percolation of the external air4 ,i will improve the time while we are waiting for this preparatory work to be finished by telling of two ,allen engines already running and made in the ,united ,states4 ,the first one had been made by my old friend ,mr4 ,richards1 the inventor of the indicator4 ,he was at that time the engineer of the ,colt ,armory in ,hartford4 ,they built a new shop four stories in height and #ejj feet long4 ,mr4 ,richards designed and arranged the power in this shop and its transmission4 ,he adopted the ,allen engine1 with which he alone in this country was familiar4 ,i have written to ,professor ,richards for a description of these engines and received the following reply3 8#bbg ,edwards ,st41 ,new ,haven1 ,ct4 8,october #i1 #aijc4 8,dear ,mr4 ,porter3 8,in a sort of way you rather stole a march on me1 by writing me before ,i had written to you1 for it had been my intention for a number of weeks to write1 thanking you for the frequent mention of my name in your #8,reminiscences' and for the kindly way in which you have spoken of me4 ,your papers have interested me greatly and bring back recollections of times which were for me very happy1 when ,i first made your acquaintance and afterwards enjoyed the intimacy which grew up4 8,my neglect to write came from my almost unsurmountable repugnance to letter writing1 which1 if anything1 grows yearly4 8,i am as nervous as usual1 but in excellent strength1 and by putting sulphur in my boots 7and wearing the boots7 am apparently pretty much cured of rheumatism4 ,my students and ,i get along together very well2 there are1 however1 so many of them now that ,i feel quite overwhelmed at times4 ,about fifty men come to my classes1 and in my department there are in all about one hundred and forty4 8,now for the ,colt's ,armory engines4 ,there are two pairs in line with each other1 vertical engines1 ,porter-,allen type1 in the second story and in the middle of the building1 which is #ejj feet long4 ,the line shaft1 stretching #bej feet each way from the engines1 forms an extension of the engine crank-shaft4 ,between the engines are pulleys driving the first-story line shaft beneath them and the third-story line above4 ,all #ejj feet long4 ,cylinder bore1 #ab inches2 stroke1 #bd inches2 speed1 #acj revolutions per minute4 8,the dimensions and general form of the running gear were made from drawings sent to me by you4 ,the valve-gear differs only in divorcing the exhaust valves from the steam valves by placing them on the opposite side of the cylinder and driving them from a separate eccentric on that side1 and not from the link4 8,the framing for each engine of a pair is like a ,porter bed standing on end with two posts forming what would be the lower part of the bed if it were lying down4 ,there are therefore eight posts in the two pairs of engines1 which form the second-story columns of the framing of the building1 and the whole framing of the engines makes an integral part of the building construction1 being rigidly connected with the beams of the fireproof flooring of all three floors4 ,the building is four stories high4 8,the engines were started in #ahfg4 ,they have been in continuous service ever since4 ,ten or twelve years ago ,i had an opportunity to measure the thickness of the crowns of the crank-pin boxes4 ,they did not differ perceptibly from the thickness marked on the drawing from which they were made4 ,knowing the accuracy with which the work was made to correspond with the drawings 7gun-shop work71 ,i am confident that the wear of the box after twenty-six years of service had not amounted to five one-thousandths of an inch4 ,all the parts give evidence of an almost indefinite durability4 8,all the work except that on the governors was done in the shops of the ,colt company4 ,the beds were cast in the foundry of one of the distinguished old engine-builders of ,hartford1 who felt it his duty to call on ,general ,franklin1 the general manager of the company1 to warn him that if ,richards were permitted to put a number of #ge horse-power engines running at #ajj revolutions per minute1 in the second story of a great building like the armory1 disaster was certain4 ,the building would be shaken so terribly4 ,the fact is that any one standing on the third floor directly over the cranks would not know1 from the movement of the floor or from sound1 that the engines were running4 ,the usual steam pressure carried when ,i was in the armory was from #ej to #fj pounds4 ,the boilers then were large1 of the drop-flue type4 ,illustration3 ,card from ,allen ,engine in ,colt's ,armory4 8,enclosed is a card taken in #ahgh with the #8pantographic' indicator1 for which a silver medal was awarded me at ,paris in that year4 ,the particular indicator with which this card was taken is in the ,museum of the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,mtiers4 8,very sincerely yours1 8,c4 ,b4 ,,richards40 ,this bold and successful piece of engineering would have made easy the introduction of these engines in ,new ,england4 ,illustration3 ,professor ,,charles ,b4 ,,richards ,the second engine had been built by a prominent iron works in ,new ,york1 from ,mr4 ,allen's drawings1 for a paint mill in ,south ,brooklyn4 ,both names ,i have forgotten4 ,mr4 ,allen took me to see this engine soon after ,i came home4 ,it had then been running for a year or more1 and had given high satisfaction4 ,its local influence was found quite valuable to us4 ,this engine is memorable for the following reason3 ,ten years afterwards1 while building engines in ,newark1 ,i received from ,mr4 ,mathieson1 manager of the ,national ,tube ,works in ,mc,keesport1 ,pa41 a letter containing an invitation to make him a tender for two large ,allen engines1 the largest ,i had yet attempted1 and which resulted in my building these engines for him4 ,after they were successfully running1 ,mr4 ,mathieson told me how he came to write me4 ,he said he was the superintendent of the iron works in ,new ,york in which ,mr4 ,allen had this engine built1 and was very much impressed by its advantages1 especially after he saw it in operation2 and in planning this mill these engines seemed to be just what he wanted4 ,illustration3 ,sectional and ,front ,elevations of ,one of the ,two ,pairs of ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,illustration3 ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,front ,view ,illustration3 ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,rear ,view ,illustration3 ,sectional and ,side ,elevations of ,one of the ,two ,pairs of ,porter-,allen ,engines in the ,colt ,armory1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,in preparing for the engine manufacture one of my first aims was the production of true surface plates for finishing my guide-bars1 cross-heads1 valves1 and seats1 and cylinder and steam-chest joints1 all of which ,i made steam-tight scraped joints requiring no packing4 ,this was a new departure in steam-engine work in this country4 ,i fancied myself an expert in the art1 but found out that there was one degree at least that ,i had not taken4 ,i designed several sizes of surface plates1 intended primarily to fit the guide-bars of the engines1 and also straight edges #f feet in length by #b inches wide4 ,these are represented in the accompanying cuts4 ,illustration3 ,surface ,plates ,designed by ,mr4 ,porter4 ,i found still working in my governor shop a man named ,meyers4 ,he was the best fitter ,i ever had2 had fitted every governor made in my shop1 the little engine or the parts of it that ,i took to ,england1 and long before had fitted my stone-cutting machine in ,mr4 ,banks' shop4 ,this man ,i taught all ,i knew about the art of producing true planes by the system of scraping1 and he produced surface plates and straight edges that seemed to me quite perfect4 ,the following incident illustrates the general intelligence on this subject at that time among skilled workmen in this country4 ,as ,i was inspecting ,mr4 ,meyers' first work in scraping1 my foreman came along1 and after observing it quite a while remarked1 8,it is my opinion you will never make a proper job of that1 till you put it on the planer and take a light cut over it40 ,one day1 not long after we started1 ,george ,goodfellow walked into my shop4 ,he had come from the ,whitworth works1 had been foreman there of the upstairs room in which most of the fine scraping on their tools was done4 ,i had a slight acquaintance with him1 but could not remember having been in his room but once1 and then only for a minute or two4 ,he had become disgusted with ,mr4 ,widdowson and the way things were going on under his management1 and had resigned his position and emigrated to the ,united ,states2 found out where ,i was hiding1 ,i never learned how1 and applied to me for a job1 which ,i was glad to give him4 ,i cannot imagine any greater contrast than between ,mr4 ,goodfellow and every other man ,i met in the ,whitworth shops4 ,i had then on hand two orders for standard surface plates and straight edges1 one from the ,colt ,armory and one from ,pratt ,whitney4 ,mr4 ,meyers had just finished work on these when ,mr4 ,goodfellow appeared4 ,he had not been at work in the shop but a day or two when he asked me if ,i had got the cross-wind out of those straight edges4 ,i made him the ignorant answer that they were so narrow the matter of cross-wind had not occurred to me as important1 as our planer did very true work4 ,he said nothing1 but pulled a hair out of his head and laid it across a straight edge at its middle point4 ,he then inverted another straight edge on it and swung this on the hair as a pivot4 ,it swung in one direction freely1 but in the other direction the corners caught and it was revealed that the surfaces were spirals4 ,i gave him the job of taking out this twist4 ,he was occupied about two days in making the three interchangeable straight edges quite true4 ,when finished ,i tried them with great satisfaction1 the test showing also their absolute freedom from flexure4 ,the first swing on the hair pivot was in each direction as if the upper straight edge were hanging in the air4 ,as this was repeated back and forth1 ,i felt the surfaces gradually approaching each other1 the same increasing resistance being felt in each direction of the swing1 and finally they were in complete contact4 ,what became of the hair ,i could not find out4 ,this refinement of truth1 so easily attained and demonstrated when we know how1 was of course a necessity4 ,i made the engines at that time with the steam-chest separate from the cylinder2 so two long steam joints had to be made between cylinder1 chest1 and cover4 ,i fitted up these standards1 both surface plates and straight edges1 with their edges scraped also to true planes and all their angles absolute right angles4 ,for this and other purposes ,i made two angle plates1 each face #h inches square1 with diagonal ribs4 ,these were scraped so that when the two were set on a surface plate1 either surface of one would come in complete contact with either surface of the other1 and also when one or the other was set on its edges4 ,this angle plate also is shown4 ,for our screw-thread work ,i made a pair of steel #fj-;degree standards1 the truth of which was demonstrated as follows3 ,the outside gauge being set up on a surface plate1 the inside triangular block set on the surface plate passed through the former in exact contact1 whichever angle was up and whichever side was presented4 ,from the cylindrical gauges of ,smith ,coventry ,i made flat inside and outside gauges of steel with faces hardened1 reserving the former for reference only4 ,i had wondered why this was not done in ,england4 ,presume they have learned the importance of it long ago4 ,we could not advertise--the fact is ,i was ashamed to2 but we had as many orders as we could take with our very limited means of production4 ,indeed1 we had frequent applications which called for engines too large for us to consider them4 ,we had some applications from parties who were short of power1 and on measuring their engines with the indicator always found that we could supply their requirements by putting in smaller engines4 ,in one case ,i remember we put in an engine of just one half the size1 and requiring but one quarter the weight of fly-wheel1 of the one taken out1 and gave them all the additional power they wanted1 and more uniform motion4 ,this would seem an extravagant statement were not its reasonableness proved by the experience of makers of high-speed engines generally4 ,sometimes the indicator showed ludicrous losses of pressure between boiler and engine4 ,on account of his familiarity with the requirements of more exact construction1 ,i made ,mr4 ,goodfellow my foreman after he had been with me a short time1 and he proved to be the very man for the position4 ,he made all my engines in ,harlem and afterwards in ,newark1 and ,i was largely indebted to him for my success4 ,before the close of our first year ,mr4 ,smith proposed that our business be transferred to a company1 to which he would pay in a little additional money1 in consideration of which1 and of his previous advances to the business1 he demanded a controlling interest in the stock4 ,i did not like the idea1 but ,mr4 ,hope and ,mr4 ,allen favored it1 and ,i consented4 ,so the company was incorporated4 ,mr4 ,smith was made its president1 and one of his sons was made secretary and treasurer4 ,he transferred to this son and also to another one qualifying shares of his stock1 and both were added to the board of directors1 that making six of us4 ,the admirable way in which this machinery worked will appear by and by4 ,mr4 ,smith proceeded at once to get out a catalogue and build on the vacant lot a new business office1 of quite respectable size and two stories high1 finishing the second story for ,mr4 ,goodfellow with his family to live in4 ,when this building was ready ,mr4 ,smith installed himself in the office and busied himself in meddling and dictating about the business1 impressing me with the great advantage of having a thorough business man at the head of it4 ,if ,i ventured any word on this subject1 ,i always received the sneering reply1 8,what do you know about business80 ,the following incident in this connection may amuse the reader as much as it did me4 ,i may mention in the first place that when1 as already stated1 he with ,mr4 ,hope acquired the entire indicator patents1 of which he assumed the individual management and so ,i always supposed had secured the larger part1 the first thing he did was to repudiate my agreement with ,mr4 ,richards to pay to him #aj per cent4 of the receipts from the patents1 this being a verbal agreement 7as all the transaction was71 and so ,mr4 ,richards never received another penny4 ,one morning ,mr4 ,smith came into my office and said1 8,do you know that the license to ,elliott ,brothers to manufacture the indicators has expired80 ,i had licensed them only for seven years1 not knowing whether or not they would prove satisfactory licensees4 8,well10 said ,i1 8suppose it has80 8,would you let them go on without a license80 he demanded2 8that shows how much you know about business40 8,if it were my affair10 ,i replied1 8,i should not stir it up4 ,i see every reason for letting it alone4 ,it is the business of the licensee1 if he feels unsafe1 to apply for the extension of his license40 ,with a contemptuous sneer ,mr4 ,smith left me and immediately wrote ,elliott ,brothers1 reminding them that their license had expired and requesting an answer by return mail to say if they wanted to renew it4 ,he received the answer that ,i knew he would1 for what good business man ever lets such an opening go by him8 ,they said they were just on the point of writing him that they did not wish to renew unless on very different terms4 ,by the contract they made with me they paid a royalty of #b on each indicator sold at retail1 and #a #aj shillings on each one sold at wholesale4 ,the selling price was #h #aj shillings4 ,they made a large profit on extra springs1 of which they sold a great number at #aj shillings each1 and which cost them about #b shillings4 ,they wrote at length on the difficulty of holding the market against the competition of cheap indicators selling at #d 7which was just the competition against which the indicator was at first introduced but which had long before ceased to be serious7 and closed by saying that if ,mr4 ,smith would agree to accept one half the former royalty1 they would themselves make a corresponding reduction in their profits and would be able to put the indicators at a price that would probably make the business satisfactory4 ,otherwise they would find themselves compelled to discontinue the manufacture altogether1 which they should do unless they received an affirmative reply at once4 ,of course they got the affirmative reply4 ,mr4 ,smith had no alternative4 ,they never reduced the selling price one penny4 ,they had no competition during the life time of the patent1 and their sales were enormous4 ,the amount of royalties lost during the remaining seven years of the patent was certainly not less than #ce1jjj4 ,the following is a story with a moral4 ,the moral is1 working to gauges is an excellent plan1 providing the gauges are mixed with brains4 ,no manufacturing system is perfect that is not fool-proof4 ,if a mistake is possible it is generally made4 ,a company of ,english capitalists were spending a good deal of money on the west coast of ,south ,america in building railroads into and over the ,andes4 ,one of these roads was intended to reach a famous silver mine1 from which the ,spaniards1 two or three hundred years before1 had taken large quantities of the precious metal1 but which had long ago been drowned out and abandoned4 ,the railroad was to take up pumping machinery by which the mine could be cleared of water and to bring down the ore in car-load lots4 ,for some purpose or other they wanted a stationary engine in those high altitudes1 and their agent in this country ordered one from me4 ,i was having my fly-wheels and belt drums cast by ,mr4 ,ferguson1 whose foundry was on #acth ,street1 west of ,ninth ,avenue1 some seven miles distant from my shop in ,harlem4 ,he had a wheel-lathe in which ,i could have them turned and bored1 and they were bored to gauges and shipped direct to their destinations4 ,this time ,i had two wheels to be finished1 so ,i sent the gauges with a tag attached to each describing the wheel it was for1 but neglected to go and make a personal inspection of the work4 ,some months after ,i received a bitter letter from ,south ,america1 complaining that they found the wheel had been bored half an inch smaller than the shaft1 and that they had to chip off a quarter of an inch all around the hole where the barometer stood at #ag inches1 and physical exertion was something to be avoided4 ,the case was somewhat relieved by the fact that ,i always cored out a larger chamber in the middle of the hub for the purpose of getting rid of a mass of metal which would cause the hub to cool too slowly1 finishing only a length of two inches at each end of the hub1 which was #aj or #ab inches long4 ,as the engine had been paid for on shipment and ran well when put together1 there was no great harm done1 but ,i was sorry for the poor fellows who had to do the work4 ,except the one already mentioned in my first governor pulley1 ten or twelve years before1 this was the only misfit ,i can recall in my whole experience4 ,mr4 ,ferguson told me the best piece-work story ,i ever heard4 ,he said he had a contract for making a large number of the bases for the columns of the elevated railroad2 these castings were quite large and complicated4 ,he gave the job to his best molder1 but the man could turn out only one a day4 ,he thought it was slow work and spoke to him about it1 but he protested that was all he could make4 ,mr4 ,ferguson found he could never complete his contract at that rate1 and as he was paying the man three dollars a day1 he told him he would pay him three dollars for each perfect casting and asked him to do his best and see how many he could turn out4 ,the man employed a boy to help him1 and by systematizing his work he turned out six perfect castings every day and drew his eighteen dollars with supreme indifference4 ,this is a big story to swallow1 but the incident was then recent4 ,i had the story from ,mr4 ,ferguson himself1 and he was a sterling1 reliable man1 so that there could be no doubt as to its absolute truth4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,mr4 ,allen's ,invention of his ,boiler4 ,exhibition at the ,fair of the ,american ,institute in #ahgj4 ,at that time the 8,field boiler tubes0 were attracting considerable attention in ,london4 ,these were designed to prevent the water from being lifted from the closed bottom of vertical tubes over the fire1 which would cause them to be burned out4 ,the ,field tubes were smaller internal tubes1 provided at the upper end with three wings which centered them in the middle of the external tubes1 in which they reached nearly to the bottom4 ,they were made slightly bell-mouthed at the top4 ,the circulation was down the internal tube and upwards1 through the annular space4 ,the bell mouth prevented these currents from interfering with each other4 ,one morning ,mr4 ,allen said to me that he had an idea that by inclining the tubes at a small angle from the vertical a better circulation would be got than in the ,field tubes4 ,he thought the steam as fast as formed would all go to the upper side of the inclined tubes1 and would rush up along that surface without driving the water before it1 and so the water would always be at the bottom of the tube1 no matter how hard the boiler was fired4 ,i was struck with the idea and determined to test it4 ,i got the largest test-tube ,i could find1 #a inches in diameter and #ae inches long1 and set it in an adjustable support1 and applied the flame of four ,bunsen burners1 bunched together1 at the bottom4 ,in a vertical position the water was instantly thrown clean out of the tube4 ,at about the angle of #bj degrees ,mr4 ,allen's idea was completely realized4 ,the bubbles of steam united in a continuous stream on the upper side and rushed up with no water before them4 ,with the most rapid generation of steam the water remained solid at the bottom of the tube4 ,the sight was a very interesting one4 ,i reasoned that if this satisfactory result was got under a short column of water1 and only the pressure of the atmosphere and in a small tube1 it could certainly be relied upon under a column of water several times longer1 under a pressure of several atmospheres and in a much larger tube4 ,the greater the pressure the smaller the bubbles of steam would be4 ,those formed under one atmosphere were about as large as kidney beans4 ,mr4 ,smith was anxious to have us exhibit the engine at the ,fair of the ,american ,institute in ,new ,york in the fall of #ahgj4 ,this ,institute was then at the height of its usefulness1 and its annual fairs were crowded with exhibits and attracted wide attention4 ,mr4 ,allen and ,i consulted about it1 and on account of the liability of getting more hot water than steam from the queer boilers that might be exhibited1 we agreed that1 as the engine would have to be tested for economy1 it would not be safe to exhibit unless we could make a boiler according to ,mr4 ,allen's plan to supply the steam4 ,with this boiler we could certainly get dry steam1 and felt confident of getting it superheated4 ,our recommendation to that effect was adopted1 and we prepared to exhibit two engines1 one of them #af inches diameter of cylinder by #cj inches stroke to make #aej revolutions per minute1 and the other #f inches in diameter by #ab inches stroke to make #cjj revolutions per minute1 and a boiler4 ,we also made to drive our own shop1 to take the place of the portable engine and boiler1 an engine of the smaller size above named1 except that the cylinder was1 by thickening its walls1 made #e inches in diameter only4 ,this was because this size would be ample for the power we required1 and ,i would be able to show the effect of inertia of the heavy reciprocating parts in producing smooth and silent running1 much better than with a #f-;inch cylinder1 which would have about #ej per cent4 larger area with no greater weight in the reciprocating parts1 except only in the piston4 ,this exhibition1 as we shall see1 became of great importance4 ,we made also an ,allen boiler for ourselves1 of four sections2 really1 as it proved1 three or four times as large as we needed1 but we could not well make it smaller4 ,this exhibition at the ,american ,institute was in every respect a great success1 not a drawback of any kind about it4 ,the little engine was used by ,merrill ,sons to drive their exhibit of forging machinery1 hammers and drops4 ,the large engine gave motion to a miscellaneous exhibit of machinery in motion4 ,the exhibition of machinery in motion closed each day for an hour from #ab to #a1 and again from #f to #g1 but ,i ran these engines continuously from #i ,a4,m4 to #aj ,p4,m41 to show that high speed asked no favors4 ,there were five boilers1 including our own1 from the start4 ,the other four were smaller than ours4 ,another boiler1 the largest of all except ours1 was started later1 as will be told4 ,ours had a brick flue and chimney1 but only #cj feet high4 ,those of the others were iron4 ,there were a number of other engines and pumps and pulsometers1 all steam eaters4 ,it was found impossible to keep up steam4 ,it fell to half pressure every day before stopping time came4 ,one morning1 about a week after the opening1 on my arrival my friend ,mr4 ,lee1 who was superintendent of the machinery department1 came to me and said1 8,do you know what they are all saying about here80 8,no10 ,i replied4 8,well10 said he1 8you ought to know4 ,it is that your engines use all the steam1 and your boiler does not make any1 and that is where all the trouble is40 ,i replied3 8,i am ready for them4 ,you see that valve up there4 ,i put it in expressly to meet whatever questions might arise4 ,by closing it ,i can shut my system off from the general steam connections and run my two engines from my own boiler1 and will try to get on without their assistance40 ,so a ladder was brought and ,i went up and shut the valve4 ,directly my pressure rose to #gj pounds1 the pressure allowed2 my automatic damper closed as nearly as it was permitted to do1 and the steam began to blow off4 ,to prevent this1 the fireman had to set his door a little way open1 and in this condition we ran all day4 ,in the rest of the show the steam ran down until at noon there was barely #ae pounds pressure1 but the wrath of the exhibitors of machinery driven by other engines was blowing off4 ,after the noon hour the additional boiler was started and helped them a good deal1 so that1 starting with #gj pounds at #a o'clock1 at #e o'clock they still had #be pounds pressure4 ,mr4 ,lee asked me several times during the day to open the valve and ,i refused to do it4 ,finally1 at about #e o'clock1 he said to me1 8,if you don't open that valve1 ,i shall40 8,well10 said ,i1 8there will be a number of the managers of the ,institute here at this hour1 ,i presume1 and if you will send for them and have them come here and see the state of the case for themselves then ,i will open the valve40 ,so this was done4 ,half a dozen of these gentlemen came and made an inspection of the boilers and said to me3 8,we are quite satisfied4 ,it is evident that you have been supplying most of the steam and using very little40 ,so ,i opened the valve and there was no further trouble4 ,the assistance of the large boiler added that day prevented any serious fall of pressure afterwards4 ,a few days after the above incident a committee of the managers waited on me and said3 8,we have heretofore had a good deal of trouble with our steam supply1 and would like next year to have a boiler that we can rely upon4 ,what will you ask to leave this boiler here for our use next season80 ,i agreed with them for three hundred dollars1 and so the boiler remained for the next exhibition1 when there will be something more to be said about it and views of it will be shown4 ,that winter ,barnum wintered his animals in that building1 and paid me three hundred dollars more for the use of the boiler to warm it4 ,in my ignorance of business these items of good luck came in very handy4 ,mr4 ,allen said he never heard of a new thing so successful from the start4 ,the remark respecting my exhibit of engines and boiler at the fair of the ,american ,institute in #ahgj1 that there was not a drawback of any kind about it1 must1 however1 be qualified in one respect4 ,i was not able to run my #afcj engine at the speed of #aej revolutions per minute1 as ,i had intended4 ,a blunder had been made in the size of the driven pulley on the line of shafting4 ,it was smaller than specified1 because the contractor for the shafting put on a pulley he had1 and this was not observed till we were running1 when it was too late to change it4 ,the exhibitors of machinery in motion all complained that their machines were running too fast1 and after two or three days the directors ordered me to reduce the speed of my engine to #abe revolutions per minute1 at which speed it was run through the rest of the fair4 ,i was much disappointed1 but consoled myself with thinking that perhaps this speed would please the general public better than the higher one1 the engine even then being three or four times too large for its work4 ,the boiler gave me at the engine steam superheated #bc degrees all the time4 ,this ,i proved by transposing the thermometers4 ,i had two thermometers1 duplicates1 one on the steam-chest and the other on the first boiler drum1 in which the steam was not superheated4 ,the former indicated #bc degrees higher temperature4 ,when these were exchanged the same difference continued to be shown4 ,i was greatly interested in observing in my own and other engines the relative amounts of initial cylinder condensation1 as this was shown in the steam blown from the indicator stop-cocks4 ,i had one of these on my steam-chest1 and the steam blown from this was not visible until three or four inches above it4 ,that blown from the stop-cocks on my cylinder had a very little tinge of white1 showing the superheating to have been lost and a slight initial condensation to take place4 ,as the piston advanced1 the blowing steam became invisible1 showing re-evaporation1 through the falling of the boiling-point on the expansion4 ,on other engines1 of which several were exhibited1 the observation showed large amounts of initial condensation4 ,from one of them ,i remember the blowing steam looked like a white painted stick4 ,i observed that the steam only lost three degrees of its superheat in passing through #be feet of #f-;inch pipe from the boiler to the engine4 ,for this comparison ,i placed a thermometer on the second steam drum1 in which the steam was superheated1 where it showed about #bf degrees of superheat4 ,this measured the rate at which the heat was lost through the felt covering of the pipe1 and suggested an excellent method of comparing the protective value of different coverings under absolutely the same conditions4 ,the superheating of the steam for our own engine was not affected by the connection of our steam-pipe with those of the other engines4 ,the explanation of this phenomenon seemed to be that as our boiler generated far more steam than our own engines required1 the current was always from our pipe into the connected pipes4 ,illustration3 ,diagram from ,allen ,engine1 back end of cylinder1 at ,fair of ,american ,institute1 #ahgj4 ,i was here first made alive to the enormous waste of steam in the feed-pumps1 a separate one for every boiler1 including our own4 ,in these the steam has to follow full stroke1 at a pressure sufficient1 on the larger area of the steam piston1 to overcome the pressure in the boiler4 ,moreover1 the extreme heat interval between the temperatures of the entering and the exhaust steam and the slow motion1 permitting the walls of cylinder1 heads and piston to be cooled very deeply by the exhaust1 produces the condensation of probably from five to ten times as much steam as is usefully employed1 differing according to the rate of piston motion4 ,i began to rather admire the practice of the ,english1 who knew nothing about boiler feed-pumps1 except those on the engine1 and ,i certainly wonder that the genius did not arise long before he did1 who first thought of exhausting the feed-pump into the feed-water under atmospheric pressure only1 so returning to the boiler all the heat received in the pump that is not converted into the work of overcoming the boiler pressure and the atmospheric resistance or lost in external radiation4 ,the above diagram represents the performance of this engine in its regular work4 ,it shows distinctly the compression curve1 the points of cut-off and release1 and the back pressure required to expel the exhaust4 ,it will be seen that the expansion fell to #e pounds below the atmosphere4 ,i have added to it a line representing the waste room in ports and clearance1 and the theoretical expansion curve plotted according to the law of ,mariotte1 showing the expansion terminating #b4e pounds above this curve1 from the re-evaporation already noted and the heat abandoned by the steam as the pressure fell4 ,after the close of the fair this engine was run on several days1 under a variety of loads applied by a ,prony brake1 in the presence of a number of engineers and others who had been invited to witness the trials4 ,of the diagrams taken on these trials1 ,i find that ,i have preserved only the two here shown1 namely1 a single friction diagram from the back end of the cylinder1 on a scale of #bj pounds to the inch1 and a diagram showing large power1 taken from the front or crank end1 on a scale of #bd pounds to the inch4 ,the former shows the trifling loss from friction in this engine4 ,i have measured this card1 and find the mean effective pressure1 or difference between the areas showing the excess of the forward over the back pressure1 to be #a4a pounds on the square inch1 which1 assuming the opposite card to be equal with it1 was the friction of the engine4 ,the exhaust line shows the power required to reverse the direction of motion of the exhaust1 which at the end of the stroke was rushing back into the cylinder4 ,the latter is especially interesting as showing the identity of the expansion curve with the theoretical1 three points on which are marked by the crosses4 ,the sharp reaction of the indicator while the crank was passing the dead center will also be observed4 ,after this trial ,i made a careful comparison of the diagrams taken under the different loads with the friction diagrams1 and found the uniform results to be that the friction diagrams subtracted from the diagrams taken under the load left in each case1 of six different loads1 exactly the same effective work done that was shown by the brake4 ,illustration3 ,friction ,diagram from ,allen ,engine at ,fair of ,american ,institute1 #ahgj4 ,illustration3 ,diagram from ,allen ,engine1 ,fair of ,american ,institute1 #ahgj1 cutting off at stroke4 ,from this ,i concluded that in these engines the use of the friction brake is unnecessary2 the friction is sensibly the same under all loads1 and the friction diagram only needs to be subtracted to learn from the diagram the amount of effective work done4 ,the verdict of the judges1 ,president ,barnard of ,columbia ,college1 ,thomas ,j4 ,sloane1 the proposer of the gimlet-pointed wood screw1 now in universal use1 in place of the flat-ended screws formerly used1 and inventor of the special machinery required for their manufacture1 and ,robert ,weir1 engineer in the ,croton ,aqueduct department1 may be summed up in the single expression from their report1 8,the performance of this engine is without precedent40 ,for its success ,i was largely indebted1 first1 to the remarkable circulation and steam-generating power of the boiler1 and1 second1 to the superheating of the steam in the second drum4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,demonstration to the ,judges of ,action of ,reciprocating ,parts4 ,explanation of this ,action4 ,mr4 ,williams' ,instrument for ,exhibiting this ,action4 ,the subject of the equalizing action of the reciprocating parts of the engine was not considered in the report of the judges4 ,indeed1 the speed of that engine1 #abe revolutions per minute1 was not sufficient to develop this action to any important extent4 ,but there was another reason behind that4 ,i invited the judges directly after the close of the fair1 but before making their report1 to witness a demonstration of this action in my little shop engine1 which invitation was accepted by them1 and the following exhibition was made1 but this was not alluded to in their report1 the reason of which will be given on a later page4 ,the engine had a #e-;inch cylinder by #ab inches stroke1 and its regular speed was #cjj revolutions per minute4 ,i kept ,saturday afternoon holiday1 one of the good things ,i had brought from ,england1 and so on ,saturday afternoon ,i had a clear field for this exhibition4 ,i had previously prepared two governor pulleys to speed the engine up to the increased speeds required1 which speeds had been ascertained by calculation4 ,i was so certain of the correctness of this calculation that ,i did not make any preliminary trial1 did not think of such a thing4 ,illustration3 ,president ,f4 ,a4 ,p4 ,,barnard ,after running the engine for a short time at its usual speed1 ,i changed the governor pulley for the smaller one of the two ,i had prepared1 by which the speed would be increased to about #djj revolutions per minute1 and loosened the crank-pin brasses so that they were slack fully a thirty-second of an inch4 ,on starting the engine in this condition1 of course1 it pounded violently on the crank-pin4 ,as the speed was gradually permitted to increase the knock softened1 and just before the governor rose it disappeared entirely1 and at the calculated speed the engine ran in entire silence4 ,after running in this manner for a while ,i prepared for the second part of my show4 ,i put the crank-pin brasses back to their usual running adjustment1 loosened the brasses of the cross-head pin fully a thirty-second of an inch1 and put on a larger governor pulley1 which1 if ,i remember rightly1 ran the engine at about #eej revolutions per minute4 ,under these conditions we utilized only the inertia of piston1 rod and cross-head1 without that of the connecting-rod4 ,on starting1 the engine of course pounded heavily on the cross-head pin4 ,as the speed increased the same decrease in the noise was observed as on the first trial1 only later in the course of the acceleration1 and again just before the governor rose the pounding had completely died away1 and at the calculated speed the engine ran again in entire silence4 ,like everything else1 this action seems mysterious until it comes to be understood1 when it is seen to be quite simple1 as the following explanation will show4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,reciprocating ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,horizontal ,,steam ,,engine ,let us take a horizontal engine of #b feet stroke1 making #bjj revolutions per minute1 so having a piston travel or average velocity of #hjj feet per minute1 which was my engine in the ,paris ,exposition of #ahfg4 ,we will suppose the piston to be driven through the crank1 by which its motion is controlled1 the power being got from some other motor1 and that the cylinder heads have been removed so that the piston meets no resistance4 ,we will also disregard the effect of the angular vibration of the connecting-rod1 and assume the motion of the piston to be the same at each end of the cylinder4 ,on each stroke the crank does two things3 ,first1 it increases the motion of the piston from a state of rest to a velocity equal to the uniform velocity of the crank-pin in its circular path3 and1 second1 it brings the piston to rest again1 ready to have the same operation repeated in the reverse direction during the return stroke4 ,at the mid-stroke the crank is at right angles with the line of centers1 and the velocity of the piston is #hjj #abef4fd feet per minute1 or #bj4idd feet per second1 and no pressure is being exerted on the piston either to accelerate or retard its motion4 ,illustration ,the pressure of the crank during a stroke1 first to impart motion to the piston and second to arrest this motion1 is represented by two opposite and equal triangles4 ,let the line ,,ab1 in the above figure1 be the center line of a cylinder and its length represent the length of the stroke4 ,let the line ,,ac1 normal to the line ,,ab1 represent the force required to start the piston from a state of rest4 ,then the triangle ,,aoc will represent the accelerating force that must be exerted on the piston at every point in the half stroke to bring up its velocity1 until at ,o this equals that of the crank-pin in its circle of revolution1 and the accelerating force1 diminishing uniformly1 has ceased4 ,the opposite equal triangle ,,bod shows the resistance of the crank required to bring the piston to rest again4 ,how do we know this8 ,i will answer this question by the graphical method1 the only one ,i know1 and which ,i think will be understood by readers generally4 ,first1 we observe that the distance the piston must move from the commencement to any point in the first half of its stroke1 in order that it shall keep up with the crank1 is the versed sine of the angle which the crank then forms with the line of centers4 ,so the table of versed sines tells us where the piston is when the crank is at any point in its revolution1 from #j to #ij4 ,illustration ,for example1 let the quadrant ,,ab in the following figure represent the path of the crank1 and the line ,,ao that of the piston4 ,let ,,of be the position reached by the crank4 ,,aof is the angle formed by the crank with line of centers1 and supposed to be #fj4 ,,fe normal to ,,ao is the sine of this angle1 and ,,ae the versed sine4 ,the latter is the distance traveled by the piston from the point ,a1 and is 4#e1 the length of the crank being #a4 ,secondly1 we ascertain how far the piston must advance for every degree or minute or second of the revolution of the crank in its quadrant by merely subtracting from its versed sine that of the preceding one4 ,thus the versed sine of #fj being 4#e1 and that of #ei being 4#dhdifaibea1 the difference 4#jaejchjgdi is the motion of the piston1 or its mean velocity while the crank is traversing the #fjth degree of its revolution4 ,thirdly1 we want to know the rate at which the motion of the piston is accelerated during any interval4 ,this acceleration is found by subtracting from the motion during each interval that during the preceding one4 ,for example1 the motion of the piston during the #fjth degree being1 as already seen1 4#jaejchjgdi1 and that during the #eith degree being 4#jadhhaahic1 the difference between them1 4#jjjaefhhef1 is the acceleration or amount of motion added during the #fjth degree4 ,by this simple process we find the acceleration of the piston during the first degree of the revolution of the crank to be 4#jjjcjdfjif1 and that during the #ijth degree to be 4#jjjjjecafa4 ,but this latter is the amount by which the acceleration was reduced during the preceding degree4 ,therefore at the end of this degree the acceleration has ceased entirely4 ,now1 by erecting on the center line ,,ac1 at the end of each degree1 ordinates which are extensions of the sine of the angle1 and the lengths of which represent the acceleration during that degree we find that these all terminate on the diagonal line ,,co4 ,thus1 when the crank has reached the #fjth degree1 and the piston has advanced half the distance to the mid-stroke or to ,e1 ,fig4 #cb1 the acceleration during the #fjth degree has been 4#jjjaebcjdi1 or one half of that during the first degree4 ,but how do we know the amount of the accelerating force exerted by the crank at the beginning of the stroke8 ,this question is answered as follows3 ,we find that for the first three degrees the accelerating force is1 for the purpose of our computations1 constant1 the diminution not appearing until we have passed the sixth place of decimals4 ,let us now suppose the crank #a foot in length to make #a revolution per minute1 so moving through #f of arc in #a second4 ,at this uniform rate of acceleration the piston would be moved in #a second the versed sine of #a 4#jjjaebcjdh #f 4#jjedhbigbh of a foot4 ,a falling body uniformly accelerated by a force equal to its own weight moves in #a second #af4jhc feet4 ,therefore this uniform stress on the crank is 4#jjedhbigbh ----------- 4#jjjcda1 #af4jhc which is the well-established coefficient of centrifugal force--the centrifugal force of one pound making one revolution per minute in a circle of one foot radius4 ,so we find that the height ,,ac of this triangle represents the centrifugal force of the reciprocating parts which1 in any case1 we can ascertain by the formula ,w,rr,c1 ,w being the weight of the body2 ,r being the length of the crank2 r being the number of revolutions per minute1 and ,c being the coefficient 4#jjjcda4 ,this accounts for the fact that the reciprocating parts are perfectly balanced by an equal weight revolving opposite the crank4 ,in my treatise on the ,richards ,indicator and the ,development and ,application of ,force in the ,steam-engine1 ,i have given a full exposition of this action here briefly outlined1 and to that the reader is referred4 ,i have only to add that this computation is for horizontal engines4 ,in vertical engines the effect of gravity must be considered1 adding on the upward stroke and deducting on the downward stroke4 ,also the counterbalance in the crank-disk of vertical engines must be limited to the horizontal fling of the crank end of the connecting-rod1 and all balancing must be as nearly as possible in the same plane4 ,in this respect double-crank engines have this advantage1 that one half of the counterweight can be put on each side of the center line4 ,it is evident that the heavier the reciprocating parts and the more rapid the speed the greater the security for smooth and silent running4 ,however loose the brasses and however sudden the impact of the steam on the piston1 and however early or late the admission1 there can be no sound or jar1 if the inertia of the reciprocating parts is sufficient to equal the force of the entering steam1 and if this is in excess it can do no harm4 ,it is also evident that under these conditions at any point in the stroke the change of pressure to the opposite side of the crank-pin is made insensibly4 ,some two or three weeks after this exhibition ,i received a note from ,president ,barnard asking me to call upon him4 ,on my responding to this invitation1 he said to me that he had listened to my exposition of this action before the ,polytechnic ,club of the ,institute1 but he did not understand it2 he had witnessed the experiments with my shop engine1 but while he could not question the action in silencing all knock on the centers1 still he did not understand it1 and not until he investigated the problem in his own way by the method of the calculus did it become plain to him1 and he could not see how ,i had ever been able to arrive at the exposition of the action without employing that method4 ,this explains why the subject had not been considered in the report of the judges4 ,president ,barnard afterward kindly gave me a copy of his demonstration1 to insert in my book on the ,richards ,indicator4 ,it seems appropriate to insert here the following letter received long after from a very prominent engineer of that day4 8,,long ,,branch1 ,n4 ,j41 ,aug4 #gth1 #ahgb4 8,mr4 ,,chas4 ,t4 ,,porter3 8,my dear ,sir3 ,since ,i had the pleasure of reading the paper which you read before the ,polytechnic ,club last winter1 ,i have regarded your demonstration as not less original than subversive4 ,it is1 for the first time ,i believe1 apprehended and asserted1 not merely that the vis inertia of the reciprocating masses is not primarily an adverse element in the economy of the crank-engine1 but that a certain amount of weight in the piston and its connections1 and in high-speed engines a very considerable amount1 is an absolute theoretical necessity4 8,as this will be deemed rank heresy by folks who have been making skeleton pistons of wrought iron1 it is well perhaps that you are entrenched at the outset behind the experimentum crucis of loose brasses4 8,very truly yours1 8,,joseph ,,nason40 ,the following figures represent an elegant invention of ,mr4 ,edwin ,f4 ,williams1 which exhibits graphically the acceleration and retardation of the reciprocating parts of an engine4 ,in these views1 ,a is the cross-head in its mid-position2 ,b is the lath by which the paper drum of an indicator is actuated through the cord n4 ,the lower end of this lath is fixed in its position on the cross-head by the stud j1 on which it turns freely4 y is the end of a vibrating arm1 which permits the point of suspension of the lath ,b to fall below the position shown1 as required in the motion of the cross-head on account of the lower end of the lath being so fixed4 d is a cylindrical box1 partly open1 which is secured on the side of the cross-head1 in a position parallel with motion1 by the arm ,p4 ,the end of this arm is on the stud j1 inside the lath ,b4 ,it is prevented from turning on this stud by the set-screw ,k1 and its fixed position is further assured by the stud r4 ,in the box d is the cylindrical weight h1 running freely on rollers1 not shown1 and bored to receive a spring e1 of known strength4 ,this spring is secured in two heads1 one of which is screwed into the box and the other into the weight4 ,the force required to move the weight h is thus applied to it through the spring4 ,the operation of this instrument is as follows3 ,the cross-head being at its mid-stroke1 as represented1 has acquired its full velocity4 ,at this point no force is being exerted1 either to impart or to arrest its motion4 ,the same is the case with the free weight h4 ,no pressure is here being exerted1 either to compress or to elongate the spring e4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph ,,nason ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #e ,,scale #dj #bfe ,,revs4 ,,per ,,min4 #aa #af ,,porter-,,allen4 ,fig4 #d ,,scale #dj #bfe ,,revs4 ,,per ,,min4 #d4daf ,,sec4 ,fig4 #c ,apparatus for ,graphically ,showing the ,acceleration and ,retardation of the ,reciprocating ,parts of an ,engine4 ,let the motion be in the direction from the crank4 ,the crank now begins insensibly1 by pulling through the spring e1 to arrest the motion of the weight h4 ,this pull will increase in intensity to the end of the stroke1 when the weight is brought to rest1 and the spring will become correspondingly elongated4 ,then1 by a continuance of the same pull1 the crank puts the cross-head and this free weight in motion in the reverse direction4 ,this pull gradually relaxes1 until at the mid-stroke it has ceased4 ,the weight h has acquired its full velocity again2 all stress is off the spring1 and the spring and weight are back in the positions in the box d from which they started4 ,this action is repeated during the opposite half of the revolution1 but in the reverse direction1 the pull being changed to a push1 and the spring being compressed instead of elongated4 ,thus at every point the position of this free weight shows the amount of the accelerating or retarding force that is being exerted upon it at that point1 elongating or compressing the spring4 ,this varying accelerating or retarding force is recorded as follows3 ,a paper b1 ,fig4 #b1 is stretched on the surface ff4 ,this surface is the arc of a circle described about the center j1 and is secured on the lath ,b1 so that as this lath vibrates by the motion of the cross-head the different points in the length of the paper pass successively under the pencil4 ,this is set in the end of the long arm a of the right-angled lever-arms #d to #a seen in ,fig4 #b1 which is actuated by the rod e passing centrally through the spring and secured in the head c4 ,this pencil has thus imparted to it a transverse motion four times as great as the longitudinal motion of the weight h in the box d4 ,the pencil is kept lifted from the paper 7as permitted by the elasticity of the arm a7 by the cord m4 ,by letting the pencil down and turning the engine by hand1 the neutral line x1 ,fig4 #b1 is drawn4 ,then when the engine is running1 on letting the pencil come in contact with the paper1 the diagonal lines are drawn as shown on ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,edwin ,f4 ,,williams ,if the rotation of the shaft were uniform and there were no lost motion in the shaft or connecting-rod1 this diagonal line would repeat itself precisely1 and would be a straight line modified by the angular vibration of the connecting-rod4 ,on the other hand1 these lost motions and the variations in the rotative speed must be exactly recorded1 the latter being exhibited with a degree of accuracy not attainable by computation and plotting1 and their correctness would be self-demonstrated4 ,for this purpose this instrument must be found highly valuable1 if it is really desired to have these variations revealed rather than concealed4 ,fig4 #e represents the inertia diagram drawn by this instrument applied to a ,porter-,allen engine running in the ,boston ,post ,office at the speed of #bfe revolutions per minute4 ,fig4 #d shows the same diagram with the transverse motion of the pencil enlarged to correspond with the scale of the indicator1 so exhibiting the force actually exerted on the crank-pin at every point1 which is represented by the shaded area1 and from which the rotative effect on the crank can be computed4 ,the steam pressure absorbed at the commencement of the stroke by the inertia of these parts is represented by the blank area above the atmospheric line xx4 ,this is not all imparted to the crank at the end on account of the compression4 ,i have myself had no experience in the use of this instrument1 but ,i do not see why it might not be so made that the diagonal line or lines in ,fig4 #d would be drawn at once4 ,the variations of motion would thus be shown much more accurately than they can be by the enlargement of these small indications4 ,this would require the spring e to bear the same relation to the inertia of the weight h that the spring of the indicator bears to the steam pressure on its piston area4 ,the steam diagram and the inertia diagram would then be drawn to the same scale4 ,a separate instrument would be required for each scale4 ,it would seem desirable that this instrument1 which is not expensive1 should be brought before the public in this practical shape4 ,the #afcj engine exhibited at this fair of the ,american ,institute was sold from the exhibition to the ,arlington ,mills1 at ,lawrence1 ,mass4 ,for a reason that will appear later1 ,i have always regarded this sale as the most important one that ,i ever made4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,boiler ,tests in ,exhibition of #ahga4 ,we ,lose ,mr4 ,allen4 ,importance of ,having a ,business ,man as ,president4 ,devotion of ,mr4 ,hope4 ,the next year we were not exhibitors at the ,institute fair1 but our boiler remained in its place and was run by the ,institute4 ,this boiler and its setting are shown correctly in the accompanying reproduction of a drawing made about that time1 except that it consisted of nine sections instead of six4 ,at the close of the exhibition a boiler test was made by the ,institute1 through a committee of which ,professor ,thurston1 at that time ,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering in the ,stevens ,institute1 afterwards until his death ,director of the ,sibley ,college of ,mechanic ,arts1 in ,cornell ,university1 was the chairman4 ,five boilers1 including the ,allen boiler1 were tested1 one on each day1 in a continuous run of twelve hours4 ,the four besides our own were all different from the boilers exhibited the year before4 ,a week was spent in preparation for this test4 ,a large wooden tank was constructed1 in which was built a surface condenser1 consisting of a pile of sections of the ,root boiler1 laid horizontally1 having a total of #aajj square feet of cooling surface4 ,the steam was exhausted into the pipes which were surrounded by the cooling water1 thus reversing the construction of surface condensers4 ,illustration3 ,professor ,,robert ,h4 ,,thurston ,illustration3 ,,allen ,,boiler4 ,,of #hj ,,horse ,,powers4 ,area of ,effective ,heating ,surface #haj-,square ,feet4 ,grate #bd scale-#a inch-#a foot4 ,allen ,engine ,works4 ,july-#ahgb4 ,each boiler was tested by setting its damper and its steam-valve wide open1 so burning all the coal that could be burned by it under its draft1 and delivering freely all the steam that it made4 ,this latter entered the condenser at the top1 and the water formed by condensation was drawn off at the bottom1 while the condensing water entered the tank at the bottom and was drawn off at the top1 the currents of steam and water being thus opposite to each other1 which was an ideal construction4 ,the condensing water at a temperature of #de4e degrees flowed in under the pressure in the city main and was measured in a ,worthington meter1 and the temperature of the overflow taken4 ,the condensed steam was drawn off into a barrel and weighed1 #cjj pounds at a time1 and its temperature taken4 ,this method was an excellent one4 ,not having high chimneys1 no boiler had a strong draft1 as shown by the coal burned per square foot of grate4 ,our draft was the strongest of all4 ,only the ,allen boiler and the ,root boiler gave superheated steam1 and the competition between them was very close4 ,the valve being wide open1 giving a free current into the condenser1 the superheat of our steam fell to #ac4bc degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,root's superheat was #af4jh degrees4 ,root's boiler1 the trial of which occupied the first day1 blew steam from the open try-cock1 from water at #df degrees ,fahrenheit1 in sixteen minutes from lighting the fire4 ,next morning our boiler blew steam from water at the same temperature1 in twelve minutes1 and ,mr4 ,root holding his watch could not resist the ejaculation1 8,wonderful boiler60 ,the ,allen boiler1 burning #ac4hh pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour1 evaporated one cubic foot of water per hour from each #ag4da square feet of heating surface4 ,root's boiler1 burning #aa4gc pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour1 required #bc4ei square feet of heating surface to evaporate one cubic foot of water per hour4 ,our stronger draft1 #ac4hh against #aa4gc1 accounted for #c4b pounds of the above superior evaporative efficiency1 leaving #c pounds to be accounted for by the more rapid circulation in the ,allen boiler4 ,the great value of the inclination of the tubes was thus established4 ,the report contains this sentence3 8,the ,committee desire to express their appreciation of the excellent general arrangement and proportions which gave to the ,allen boiler its remarkably high steaming capacity40 ,the reader will observe in the plan of this boiler the pains taken to maintain as far as possible parallel currents of the heated gases through the boiler1 and taking the flues off at the bottom1 thus bringing all the heating surfaces at the same distance from the furnace into approximately equal efficiency4 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,competitive ,,trial ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers ,,at ,,the ,,fair ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,institute1 ,,november1 #ahga4 ---------------------------------- ,square ,feet4 ---------------- ,ratio of heating surface to ,grate ,heating grate ,name4 surface4surface4surface4 --------------------------------- ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,root #bg #hgf #cb4e ,allen #cb #ibj #bh4e ,phleger #bc #fjj #bf4a ,lowe #cg #iac #bd4b ,blanchard #h #ddj #ea4h --------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,total ,weights4 ------------------------------------ ,ratio of water primed to water ,com- ,primed evapo- ,name4 ,coal4bustible4 ,feed4 ,steam4 water4 rated4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 ,i4 ,root #chjj #cahe4e #bghif #bghif #j4 #j4 ,allen #ecge #debg #cifgj #cifgj #j4 #j4 ,phleger #bhjj #bbgd #bjdbh #aighb4id #fde4jf #c4bf ,lowe #ddjj #cgje #cdjjj #caffc4cebccf4fe #f4i ,blanchard #abcb #ajdg4e #ajaeb4e #ihee4f #bif4i #c4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,mean ,temperatures4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,water of ,injec- conden- ,dis- ,super ,name4 tion4 ,feed4sation4charge4 ,steam4 heat4 ,flues4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,j4 ,k4 ,l4 ,m4 ,n4 ,o4 ,p4 ,root #de4idde4id #eh4caadc4a #ccd4f #af4jhdaf4f ,allen #de4e #de4e #fc4dhaed4gfccj4fcac4bccde4hg ,phleger #de4fede4fe #ed4chabj4hccba4jf #j4 #ejc4gf ,lowe #de4j #de4j #ed4h #aca4e #cai4dh #j4 #chi4f ,blanchard#dd4d #dd4d #di4diajf4adcbc4ge #j4 #bba4fg ---------------------------------------- --------------- -------------------------------- ,total units per ,total pound ,british of thermal com- ,name4 units4 bustible4 -------------------------------- ,q4 ,r4 ,root #cb1gea1hcd4cd #aj1bha4ec ,allen #df1chg1hbg4a #aj1bdf4ib ,phleger #bc1jff1fhe4ci #aj1adc4ff ,lowe #cg1bbh1gci4jgbaj1jdh4bd ,blanchard#aa1dhe1ggg4ce #aj1ifd4id -------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,actual ,apparent ,evaporation4 ,evaporation4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,per ,per square square ,per foot offoot of ,per ,per pound grate heating ,per pound pound of surfacesurfacepound of of com- per per of com- ,name4 coal4bustible4 hour4 hour4 coal4bustible4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,s4 ,t4 ,u4 ,v4 ,w4 ,x4 ,root #g4cd #h4gf #hf4ji #b4fe #g4cd #h4gf ,allen #g4ch #h4gf #ajb4ea #c4ei #g4ch #h4gf ,phleger #g4bf #h4ie #gc4gj #b4hc #g4jg #h4gj ,lowe #g4fh #i4ab #ge4jf #c4aj #g4bj #h4ee ,blanchard #h4bd #i4fi #ii4ec #a4ib #h4jj #i4da ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,equiv- ,square ,effi- alent feet ,coal1 ciency2 evapo- of heating lbs4 actual ration surface per evapo- of water required square ration at #bab to evapo- foot1 of fuel ,fahr4 and rate one grate divided atmos- cubic footsurface by pheric of water per theo- ,name4 pressure4 per hour4 hour4 retical4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,y4 ,z4 ,z4 #a ,z4 #b ,root #aj4fd #bc4ei #aa4gc #j4gji ,allen #aj4fj #ag4da #ac4hh #j4gjg ,phleger #aj4di #bb4gd #aj4ac #j4fii ,lowe #aj4dj #ba4fc #i4ga #j4fic ,blanchard #aa4cd #cc4dh #ab4aj #j4gef ---------------------------------------- --- ,the boiler had one defect1 seen in the front view1 cross-section4 ,a straight passage #b inches wide was given to the gases between each pair of tubes4 ,the boilers having all had a preliminary trial during the first week1 ,i observed the vapor arising from the exposed surface of the water in the tank1 and that this unmeasured loss of heat differed considerably in the different boilers1 and was enormously greatest on the trial of the ,allen boiler4 ,i said nothing1 but went down early on next ,monday morning and on my way bought a common tin cup about #c inches deep and #d inches in diameter1 and secured it in one corner of the tank1 immersed to a quarter of an inch below its rim1 and filled even full of water4 ,this was completed before the arrival of the ,committee1 and was at once approved by them4 ,i made it my business every day to note the fall of the water level by evaporation from this cup4 ,on the trial of the ,allen boiler only the water in the cup was all evaporated1 and ,i had to fill it again4 ,the temperature of the water in the cup was always #h degrees below that of the surrounding water4 ,it was thus obvious that the evaporation from the tank was greater than the fall of the level in the cup would indicate4 ,the ,committee considered that this should be increased as the tension of the vapors4 ,the result was that the report contained the following item3 ,units of heat carried away by evaporation at the surface of the tank3 ,root boiler #gba1cij4h units ,allen boiler #a1agh1djd4e ,phleger boiler #cgh1cga ,lowe boiler #fib1jee ,blanchard boiler #bfh1gjg ,the same ,bulkley pyrometer was used in all the furnaces to indicate the temperature of the escaping gases4 ,on ,tuesday morning1 when my boiler was to be tried1 ,i saw that before my arrival the pyrometer had been set in the brick chimney1 where the readings could be conveniently taken by a person standing on the brick surface of the boiler chamber4 ,its readings averaged #bfj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,i did not believe this to be true4 ,at about half-past two o'clock1 when seven readings had been taken1 one each half hour1 having got ready some bricks and mortar and tools1 ,i pulled the pyrometer out and filled up the hole4 ,i then knocked a hole in the side of the brickwork at the bottom1 in front of the flue1 and set the pyrometer there4 ,the reading rose to #dje degrees1 which was the temperature at which the gases then entered the flue1 and averaged about #che degrees during the remainder of the sixteen readings4 ,root's average was #daf degrees1 and ,phleger's 7also tubular7 averaged #ejc4 ,obviously the readings taken before the pyrometer was moved should have been rejected2 but the boys who did this kind of work added them all together1 and our average temperature is printed #cde4hg degrees1 giving the boiler more credit than it was entitled to by about #dj degrees4 ,i lost a little by this operation4 ,while ,i was bricking up the hole the fireman came around and told me ,i was spoiling his fire4 ,when ,i got the figures of water evaporated and coal burned1 ,i found that in that half hour ,i had only #ijj pounds 7three barrels7 credited to the boiler1 instead of #ahjj pounds 7six barrels7 during every other half hour1 being a loss of about 4#jbc in water weighed in the barrel1 #ch1djj pounds1 instead of #ci1cjj pounds1 while1 curiously enough1 the coal burned was rather increased4 ,the point of interest in this incident was the fact that the gases had lost #abe degrees of heat in traversing a distance in flues and chimney of less than #bj feet4 ,this seems difficult to believe1 but they did4 ,there was no leakage as the excellent draft clearly proved1 nor any other way of accounting for the discrepancy4 ,the length of the pyrometer tube exposed to the heated gases was the same in both positions4 ,the heat had been lost by radiation through the brickwork4 ,i have been waiting ever since for a chance to turn this knowledge to useful account1 but it has not come yet4 ,i will content myself with suggesting to somebody else the idea of facing the boiler setting1 flues and chimney1 not only outside but inside also after leaving the furnace1 with white encaustic tiles1 which will neither absorb nor radiate heat appreciably4 ,this will pay in maintaining the temperature in a large degree to the top of the chimney1 so increasing1 perhaps doubling1 the strength of the draft4 ,an enormous amount of heat must be lost through the extended surface of the brick boiler setting4 ,it is always observed that the hotter a boiler-room is kept the greater the efficiency of the boiler becomes4 ,this is a slight indication of the great gain which might be effected by the plan ,i propose4 ,before this boiler trial we had lost ,mr4 ,allen4 ,he had conceived the idea of the pneumatic riveter and the high-speed air-compressor to furnish this riveter with power4 ,in the latter he utilized the inertia of the reciprocating parts1 including two pistons1 the steam and the air piston4 ,this he did with my cordial consent1 and indeed there was nothing patentable about that feature anyway4 ,mr4 ,allen thus became the originator of the important system of pneumatic riveting1 in its two methods1 by percussion and by pressure4 ,mr4 ,allen sold out his stock in the engine company to ,mr4 ,hope and ,mr4 ,smith1 and built a shop in ,mott ,haven for the manufacture of the riveters and compressors4 ,he took the boiler in the fair in part payment1 and sold it directly to a party who had erected a wood-working shop at some point on the ,harlem ,river4 ,the ,croton water which had been fed to the boiler contained no lime1 but some sediment4 ,mr4 ,allen had the boiler taken down and brought to our shop for inspection and cleaning4 ,i determined to improve the opportunity to observe the effect of the circulation on the deposit of sediment1 and the result of the examination proved most interesting4 ,each inclined tube had been provided at the end with a brass plug1 by removing which it could be cleaned by the running out of the water which it contained4 ,this had not yet been done4 ,i took out the tubes on one side of one section1 ten in all1 five over the furnace and five behind the bridge wall1 and planed them in two longitudinally1 and had the following revelation3 ,the tubes over the furnace were entirely empty4 ,in those back of the bridge wall a deposit of sediment appeared1 only about an inch deep in the first one1 and increasing regularly to a depth of #ah inches in the last one1 which was not the tube receiving the feed-water4 ,so the water fed into the last tube of each section deposited its sediment most largely in the first tube it reached1 in which the circulation was least active1 and had deposited it all before reaching the tubes over the furnace4 ,the remaining long tubes were then cleaned1 the tubes cut in two were replaced by new ones1 and the boiler delivered to ,mr4 ,allen4 ,the next stage in its history was very funny4 ,the purchaser1 to save the cost of ,croton water1 fed his boiler from the ,harlem ,river1 and within a month it was found to be filled solid with salt4 ,what was done about it ,i never heard4 ,i thought ,i could sell the boilers where1 as in ,new ,york ,city1 they could be fed with water free from lime1 and ,i made a few such sales1 but the inspiration which led me to employ the second drum for superheating the steam had deserted me4 ,i came to the conclusion that by making the first drum a large one1 and not extending the nipples into the drum to trap a puddle of water1 as ,i had done1 ,i could superheat the steam in one drum4 ,that was a blunder4 ,i had underestimated the furious circulation1 which carried a large amount of spray into the drum4 ,i was misled by the quiet position of the water-level1 as always shown in the glass gauge4 ,instead of superheated steam1 ,i found the boiler to give very wet steam4 ,that fault1 of course1 ,i could have remedied by returning to my first design4 ,but ,i was discouraged by other things4 ,the first1 of course1 was the impossibility of removing scale by any mechanical means4 ,the most serious discouragement was a cracked header4 ,the inclined tubes1 on any plan for their use that ,i could then design1 made cast-iron headers necessary4 ,i had taken great pains to obtain perfect castings1 making them of the best iron in baked molds in iron flasks1 of uniform thickness1 in41 and in4 where threaded1 with cores held perfectly central and remarkably well vented1 and felt that ,i could rely on their soundness2 but this defect showed that ,i could not4 ,so reluctantly ,i abandoned the manufacture of the boiler4 ,i believe1 however1 that there is yet a future for the inclined boiler tube1 with independent circulation in each tube1 the whole made entirely from forged steel2 and that better results will be obtained from it than any other form of boiler has as yet given4 ,i have been told by ,chief ,engineer ,melville that all water admitted to the boilers in the ,united ,states ,navy is made pure enough for pharmaceutical purposes4 ,if this can be done in the navy1 where sea water and the mud of harbors have to be used1 it can be done anywhere4 ,cooling towers make it practicable to return all water to the boiler even from non-condensing engines4 ,then only the waste needs to be made good1 and any water can be purified for this purpose4 ,oil or grease with the feed-water is readily avoided4 ,only electrolysis remains to be provided against1 which can be done by avoiding the use of any alloy of copper in contact with the water4 ,we may then have boilers of the most durable character and safe to carry any desired pressure4 ,the following incident near the close of my experience in ,harlem would be too ridiculous to print except for its consequence4 ,one day ,mr4 ,smith sent me word that he would like to see me in his office4 ,when ,i entered he asked me1 8,what do you pay for the castings of your governor arms and balls80 ,of course he knew perfectly well1 as he had the bills and the books1 but that was his way of introducing the subject4 ,i replied1 8,forty cents a pound40 ,he held up both hands in affected amazement1 and exclaimed1 8,forty cents a pound6 ,well1 sir1 ,i can assure you of one thing1 no more of this company's money is going to be squandered in that way40 ,i overlooked his insulting language and manner1 and said quietly1 8,are you sure1 ,mr4 ,smith1 that you have all the information you need to form a correct judgment in this matter80 8,i am sure10 he replied1 8what the market price is of copper and tin1 and that ,i can get castings made from our own metal at a price that will bring the cost to not more than #be cents a pound40 8,this1 then1 ,i presume1 is all you know about the subject10 ,i said1 8and you ought to know a great deal more1 which ,i will tell you4 ,it is necessary that ,i can rely upon getting a pure copper and tin alloy1 in the proportion known as gun-metal1 on account of its strength1 its rigidity1 and its wearing qualities4 ,the latter is of especial importance1 because the governor joints are in continual motion under the weight of the heavy counterpoise4 ,experience shows that this purity cannot be relied upon where it is possible that any inferior metal can become mixed with this alloy in even the smallest proportion4 ,this for us1 not making our own castings1 must be wholly a matter of confidence4 8,another risk must be avoided1 that is1 of getting bad castings4 ,the castings must not have the least imperfection4 ,the time lost1 through finding defects that make it necessary to reject arms after more or less work has been put on them1 would soon wipe out all the little gain you look for2 as these castings1 at #dj cents a pound1 only cost about five dollars a set1 as an average of all the sizes4 8,i made a careful study of this subject when ,i commenced the governor manufacture about fifteen years ago1 and found ,david ,francis1 who had a small gun-metal foundry on ,vestry ,street1 to be just the man ,i wanted4 ,no inferior metal ever goes into his place4 ,he enjoyed the entire confidence of manufacturers4 ,he has made my governor arms and balls ever since4 ,i have never had a bad casting from him1 and always got the pure metal1 and have paid him the same price that everybody pays him for small castings4 ,i consider the security that ,i have had respecting this metal to have been fundamental to the great success of my governors1 and that ,i would be crazy to make any such change as you propose40 ,he made no reply1 and ,i left him1 supposing my statement to have been perfectly satisfactory4 ,what was my amazement when1 a few days after1 he informed me that he had made a contract with a brass molder on ,rose ,street for casting our governor arms1 8subject to your approval1 sir10 and he asked me to visit the place and see what its facilities were4 ,i told him ,i would go1 but that my position on the subject was already well known to him4 ,i found the place on a little lane1 and that the business done in it was making brass castings for plumbers4 ,the proprietor told me he had never made gun-metal castings1 but he could make any kind of composition1 and ,i could rely on getting them of just the metal ,i furnished him4 ,i reported to ,mr4 ,smith that such an arrangement would be ruinous1 that his plan of furnishing the metal was most unbusinesslike4 8,what do you know about business80 he shouted with a sneer4 8,i know10 said ,i1 8that if you should propose this plan to any well-informed1 practical man1 he would laugh in your face1 and tell you if you wanted to ruin your business this would be as good a way as any to do it40 ,he replied1 8,that is not the question1 sir2 the only question is1 will you1 or will you not1 approve the contract ,i have made80 8,i will not10 ,i replied1 and walked out of his office4 ,a few days after ,i received a note from ,mr4 ,hope1 asking me to call on him4 ,i called next day1 and he told me that ,mr4 ,smith had been to see him1 with a bitter complaint of my insubordination and defiance of his authority1 which he would not endure1 and he asked me to tell him what the trouble was about4 ,i told him substantially as above related4 8,is that all80 said he4 ,i assured him that it was all the trouble that ,i knew of4 ,mr4 ,hope replied1 8,i cannot express my amazement at his interference with your management4 ,that must be absolutely entrusted to you1 and he ought to see it4 ,he is a rational man and ,i can easily show him his error1 and that you must take the stand you have done4 ,i don't think you will have any more trouble40 ,i did not hear again from ,mr4 ,hope for a fortnight1 during which time ,i had no occasion to meet ,mr4 ,smith4 ,finally a letter came from him1 telling me that ,i must prepare for the worst2 he had exhausted all his efforts on ,mr4 ,smith1 and found him absolutely immovable1 declaring that ,i must go1 ,i was of no use there1 anyway4 ,mr4 ,hope said he told him his conduct was outrageous and suicidal4 ,if ,i went1 that ,i would be the end of the business4 ,he snapped his fingers at that1 saying1 8,mr4 ,goodfellow can make the engines1 and ,i can sell them2 what more do you want80 ,he declared that no business could succeed unless the will of the president was law4 ,they had several very disagreeable conferences1 which ,mr4 ,smith always closed by saying1 8,repay me my investment in this company10 which he figured at #bd1jjj1 8and ,i'll give you my stock40 ,he had announced to ,mr4 ,hope his determination to call a meeting of the directors to discharge me1 and as he had a majority of votes1 having some time before given to each of his two sons qualifying shares and had them elected members of the board of directors1 he held the power in his hands to do it4 ,directly after1 ,i received a copy of a notice of a regular meeting of the board1 convened strictly according to law4 ,i could see no ray of light4 ,the night before the meeting ,i walked the ,third ,avenue bridge half the night4 ,the meeting was called to order by ,mr4 ,smith at the appointed hour4 ,mr4 ,hope was absent4 ,mr4 ,smith said ,mr4 ,hope had sent word to him the day before that he might be detained1 but if so would come up on the next boat1 which ran hourly1 and asked ,mr4 ,smith to wait that time for him4 ,so the meeting was adjourned for an hour1 when ,mr4 ,hope arrived4 ,mr4 ,smith prefaced the resolutions discharging me from my position as superintendent and electing ,mr4 ,goodfellow in my place1 by quite an oration1 setting forth the solemn sense of his ,christian duty which left him no alternative1 and the necessity of proper subordination in any business1 if it was to be successful1 and the especially aggravated character of my offense1 and the demoralizing nature of my example4 ,he was about to put the question on the adoption of the resolutions1 when ,mr4 ,hope said1 8,before you put this question to vote1 ,mr4 ,smith1 ,i would like to say a word4 ,i have concluded to accept your offer4 ,here is my certified check for #bd1jjj to your order1 and ,i demand from you the transfer to me of the stock in this company standing in your name and the names of your sons40 ,when the ,smiths were gone 7they left by the next boat7 ,mr4 ,hope and ,i sat down to confer on the business of the company4 ,when these matters were concluded1 ,i said to him1 8,mr4 ,hope1 if you had determined to make this grand proof of your confidence in the engine and in myself1 why did you not tell me sooner1 and save my wife and myself a great deal of distress80 8,my dear fellow10 he replied1 8,i did not know till this morning that ,i should be able to do it4 ,that is why ,i was late40 ,,chapter ,,xx ,close of the ,engine ,manufacture in ,harlem4 ,my ,occupation ,during a ,three ,years' ,suspension4 ,in the autumn of '#gb1 following the above incident1 we had a proof of the sagacity of ,mr4 ,smith in rejecting my plan for the establishment of works for the manufacture of the engines1 and taking a five years' lease of an abandoned shanty4 ,the property had changed hands1 and we received a note from the new owner1 saying that he had purchased the property with a view to its improvement4 ,he should therefore be unable to renew our lease1 and he gave us six months' notice1 that we might have time in which to make other arrangements before its expiration4 ,here was a situation4 ,to move and establish the business in a new locality would require a large expenditure1 and we had no money4 ,the natural thing to do would be to enlarge our capital4 ,on consultation with several parties1 ,mr4 ,hope found the financial situation at that time would not warrant this attempt4 ,the ,civil ,war had ended between seven and eight years before4 ,hard times had been generally anticipated after its close1 but to the surprise of capitalists these did not come4 ,the country continued to be apparently prosperous4 ,the best observers were1 however1 convinced that a financial reaction was inevitable1 and the longer it was delayed the more serious it was likely to be2 an anticipation that was more than realized in ,black ,friday in ,september1 #ahgc1 and the collapse of values and years of absolute stagnation that followed4 ,for some time before that eventful day capitalists had felt anxious and there had been a growing timidity and indisposition to invest in any enterprise1 however substantial it might be1 so there was nothing for us to do but to wind up our business and wait for more propitious times1 when we might attempt its revival4 ,in the winter of '#gb-c ,i had a call from my friend1 ,j4 ,c4 ,hoadley1 accompanied by ,mr4 ,charles ,h4 ,waters1 manager of the ,clinton ,wire ,cloth ,company4 ,mr4 ,waters wished to obtain one of our engines4 ,i told him ,i was very sorry1 but we should not be able to make one for him4 ,i then explained our situation4 ,our lease would expire in a month or two1 and could not be renewed1 and we had made arrangements then to close our business1 had sold all our tools deliverable before that date1 were rushing two engines to completion1 but absolutely could not undertake another order4 8,never mind10 said he1 8one of your engines ,i must have40 ,he then told me that he was about to introduce a new feature in weaving wire cloth4 ,this was then woven in various narrow widths1 according to customers' orders1 having a selvage on each side4 ,he had satisfied himself that this latter was unnecessary4 ,the wire1 being bent in weaving1 had no tendency to ravel1 and he had planned a loom to weave the cloth seven feet in width1 and slit it up into narrow widths as required4 ,in this loom the shuttle alone would weigh a hundred and fifty pounds1 besides the great weight of wire it would carry2 it had to be thrown nearly twelve feet1 and he wanted to make as many picks per minute as any narrow loom could do4 ,in order to make these throws uniformly1 he required absolutely uniform motion4 ,from a careful study of slow-moving variable cut-off engines1 he had satisfied himself that none of them could give him the uniformity of motion he needed4 ,they were driven by a succession of violent punches1 these excessive amounts of force at the commencement of each stroke were absorbed by the fly-wheel1 the velocity of which had to be increased to do it1 and at the end of the stroke its velocity had to be reduced in the same degree1 to supply the total failure of the force of the steam4 ,this involved a variation of speed which in ordinary business would not be regarded1 but which would ruin the action of this new loom4 ,in the high speed of my engine1 and the action of the reciprocating fly-wheel1 which compensated the inequalities of the steam pressure without affecting the uniformity of the speed1 he found just what he needed1 and that engine he must have4 ,i was astonished at the man's penetration4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,c4 ,,hoadley ,i was able to get from our landlord and purchasers of our tools the necessary extension of time1 and made the engine for him4 ,it and the loom were each a complete success4 ,mr4 ,waters told me long after that he never observed a single variation from exact uniformity of motion1 without which his loom would have had to be abandoned4 ,i had one day the pleasure of meeting there the president of the ,lancaster mills1 the only other great industry of ,clinton1 who had come over expressly to examine the running of our engine4 ,before he left he said to me that the engine certainly presented a remarkable advance in steam engineering4 ,i saw there one thing that interested me greatly4 ,that was1 the method of painting wire cloth4 ,this was carried on in a large tower high enough to enable a twenty-yard length of the 8cloth0 to be suspended in it4 ,this was taken through a tub of paint1 and drawn slowly upward between three successive pairs of rollers1 the last pair of india-rubber1 held firmly together4 ,by these the paint was squeezed into every corner1 both sides were thoroughly painted1 and the surplus paint removed1 so that every mesh was clear1 a uniform perfection unattainable by hand painting1 and two boys would paint in ten minutes as much as a painter could paint in a day4 ,i think this was an invention by ,mr4 ,waters4 ,with the completion of the engine for the ,clinton ,wire ,cloth ,company1 the manufacture of the high-speed engine was closed for three years1 from the spring of #ahgc to the spring of #ahgf4 ,this long rest proved to be most valuable4 ,looking back upon it1 ,i have always been impressed with its importance at that very time to the development of the high-speed system4 ,the design of the engine needed to be revised1 and this revision involved study1 to which time and leisure were essential4 ,i had also an order from ,elliott ,brothers of ,london1 to prepare a new and enlarged edition of the pamphlet descriptive of the ,richards ,indicator4 ,i determined to make this a comprehensive book1 embracing new information required by the steam engineer1 so far as ,i knew it4 ,this was published simultaneously in ,london and ,new ,york in the summer of #ahgd4 ,i was enabled also to turn to account the report of the experiments of ,m4 ,regnault1 which ,i had been at so much trouble to get1 and with the help of ,english authorities to prepare and embody in this book ,tables of the ,properties of ,saturated ,steam1 which the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers honored me by adopting as its standard4 ,i felt warranted in giving to this edition an amended title1 as follows3 8,a treatise on the ,richards ,steam ,engine ,indicator1 and the ,development and ,application of ,force in the ,steam ,engine40 ,this also was a job requiring much time and undivided application4 ,it is needless to say that without this long and entire rest from business neither of these tasks could have been undertaken4 ,i found in the ,astor ,library a remarkable old book1 entitled 8,canon triangulorum10 published at ,frankfurt in #afab1 containing a ,table of ,natural ,trigonometrical ,functions1 computed for every minute of arc1 and extended to the fifteenth place of decimals4 ,the column of versed sines enabled me to prepare tables exhibiting the rates of acceleration and retardation of the motion of a piston controlled by a crank1 neglecting the effect of the angular vibration of the connecting-rod4 ,this effect was afterwards shown separately4 ,for my treatment of this subject1 ,i must refer the reader to the book itself4 ,a little incident in connection with this work1 which made a deep impression on my mind1 and has since afforded me some food for reflection1 seems worth relating4 ,the printing was done in ,london1 and ,i did not see the proof1 so ,i had to take especial pains with the copy1 having no opportunity to revise it4 ,i was living in ,harlem1 and at one time having no suitable envelope for mailing1 and none being obtainable there1 ,i took a ,third ,avenue horse-car for an eight-mile ride down to the ,new ,york post office1 intending to get some envelopes at a stationery store on ,beekman ,street1 and mail the portion of the copy which ,i then had ready at the general post office4 ,i had hardly taken my seat when ,mr4 ,allen got into the car4 ,he was living in ,mott ,haven1 and ,i had not seen him for a long time4 ,besides ourselves the car was nearly if not quite empty4 ,he came and sat down by me1 and ,i opened my copy and read to him something in which ,i knew he would be interested4 ,he said to me1 in his gentle way1 8,you would not express it exactly that way1 would you80 ,on the instant it flashed on my mind that ,i had made a stupid blunder1 and ,i replied1 8,i guess ,i wouldn't10 and1 thanking him for calling my attention to it1 ,i left the car1 and returned home and corrected it4 ,i have quite forgotten what the point was1 and if ,i remembered it1 ,i would not tell4 ,but ,i have often asked myself who sent ,mr4 ,allen there1 saving me from publishing a mortifying blunder4 ,i expect some sweet spirit will tell me before long4 ,illustration3 ,the ,prototype of the ,modern ,high-speed ,engine1 ,fly-wheel ,side4 ,illustration3 ,the ,prototype of the ,modern ,high-speed ,engine1 ,crank ,side4 ,as soon as this book was off my hands1 ,i devoted myself to the revision and standardizing of the engine4 ,as made up to that time1 it was not reversible1 and the valves could not be handled4 ,it could not therefore be used in rolling-mills1 the field to which ,i felt already that it was especially adapted4 ,moreover1 every engine should be capable of being backed in starting1 as otherwise whenever it had stopped with the piston at a point later than the latest point of cut-off1 or say in the last half of the stroke1 which it would do half the time1 it would need to be pulled around by hand to a position in which one of the admission ports would be open4 ,this in a large engine1 or one connected with extensive lines of shafting1 would be a serious matter1 so much so that in some engines little starting cylinders are required4 ,illustration3 ,longitudinal ,section of ,cylinder and ,valves4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section of ,cylinder and ,valves4 ,illustration3 ,elevation and ,plan of ,valve ,connections4 ,i had also determined to use the equilibrium admission valves with adjustable pressure plates1 according to the drawings sent to me by ,mr4 ,allen in #ahfc1 and to abandon the separate steam chest1 and put the exhaust valves on the opposite side of the cylinder4 ,then the engine needed to be standardized1 so as to cover the field with the fewest number of sizes1 symmetrically distributed4 ,the existing practice with all makers of engines had been to let the purchaser dictate the size and speed of the engine he wanted1 a practice which resulted in a lot of patterns and drawings not adapted to other people's requirements1 and not properly distributed4 ,for an organized manufacturing business1 this habit must be entirely broken up4 ,mr4 ,allen had in his shop in ,mott ,haven an unoccupied second story1 in which ,i had stored our patterns and drawings and drawing implements4 ,here ,i established my quarters1 and spent my working hours until this second job was finished4 ,the two perspective views of opposite sides of the engine1 show these changes as they appear externally1 and the remaining views show some constructive details4 ,these latter show the exhaust valves transferred to the front side of the engine1 and located so as to drain the cylinder1 and the admission valves set at different elevations1 to accommodate the differential connection1 the abandonment of the separate steam-chest1 and this chest with the exhaust chambers cast with the cylinder1 with openings over the valves2 the levers by which the differential movements are given to the admission valves2 and the single-link rod1 and the gab by which this rod is unhooked1 with the method of moving the admission valves by hand4 ,in place of the levers on the steam rock shaft1 ,i at that time drew cast-iron disks1 which being polished and vibrating in place ,i thought very handsome4 ,they gave me lots of trouble1 till ,i learned enough to get rid of them1 the story of which ,i will tell by and by4 ,the front view shows the admission valve stems balanced by being extended through at the back end1 a feature which helped the governor action when high steam pressures were employed1 but which was abandoned as unnecessary after ,i abandoned the disks on the rocker shaft4 ,illustration3 ,first ,arrangement of ,exhaust ,valves4 ,the first two figures show the valves in section and the adjustable pressure plate and mode of its adjustment4 ,the closeness of the piston to the head may be observed4 ,i never allowed more than one-eighth inch clearance1 and never had a piston touch the head4 ,this was because the connecting-rod maintained a constant length1 the wear of the boxes being taken up in the same direction4 ,these illustrations show the exhaust valves after alteration made several years later in ,philadelphia4 ,as first designed by me1 these are shown in the foregoing sectional views4 ,as will be seen1 the exhaust valves lay with their backs towards the cylinder1 worked under the pressure of the steam in the cylinder1 made four openings for release and exhausted through the cover4 ,i consented to the change in ,philadelphia because this arrangement involved too much waste room1 but the change was not satisfactory after all4 ,i had become possessed with the idea that the engine running at high speed needed #ej per cent4 more room for exhausting than for admission4 ,this was not the case4 ,i have always regretted that ,i did not retain this design1 and content myself with reducing the exhaust area4 ,the lightness of the piston in this view will be observed4 ,this was a special design for adapting the engine to be run at #bjj revolutions1 giving #abjj feet piston travel per minute4 ,the stuffing-box was a freak which was abandoned4 ,the next figures show the valve-stem guides1 rocking-levers1 coupling-rods and gab1 which latter when thrown over unhooks the link-rod1 as is done on steamboat engines4 ,the following figures show the construction of the main bearing with adjustments on opposite sides1 by which the shaft is kept in exact line1 and shows also the solid support of the shaft quite out to the hub of the crank4 ,this view contains one error4 ,the cap is not made a binder4 ,i relied on the strength of the thick continuous web of the bed under the boxes in addition to the depth of the bed4 ,but we once had a bed break right here under enormous strain1 and since then the caps have been made binders4 ,it will be observed that the wedges are drawn upward to tighten the boxes4 ,it is not necessary to explain why4 ,illustration3 ,main ,bearing4 ,illustration3 ,eccentric and ,crosshead ,pin ,lubricator4 ,illustration3 ,front ,view of ,wiper ,section on the ,line a-b ,center ,line of ,shaft ,crank-pin ,lubricator4 ,the above left-hand cut shows the automatic lubricator of the eccentric and the cross-head pin4 ,the stud ,a1 on the eccentric strap and on the strap of the connecting-rod1 carries a curved blade1 a1 which at the beginning of each forward stroke rises to take the drop of oil from the stem of the sight-feed lubricator4 ,this is set on an arm fixed on the cap of the main-bearing and on a bridge between the upper guide-bars4 ,the drop is made sure to come to this central point by a wire ,b filling the brass tube1 grooved on opposite sides and terminating in a point4 ,the automatic lubrication of the crank-pin presented a still more serious problem4 ,it was solved by the construction shown1 in the right hand view1 which will be understood without further description4 ,it will be seen that here the oil tube is inclined1 and the drop follows it to a point on its lower side4 ,both these lubricators proved absolutely reliable4 ,the last one is equally applicable on double-crank engines4 ,dimensions of ,cylinders4 ,travel of ,indicated ,powers4 --------------,revolutions,piston in-------------------------- of ,crank ,feet per ,without ,with ,bore4 ,stroke4per ,minute4 ,minute4 ,condensation4,condensation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,inches4,inches4 ,horse ,powers4,horse ,powers4 #f #ab #cej #gjj #be #g #ab #cej #gjj #ce #h #af #bhj #gdf #de #fj #i #af #bhj #gdf #fj #ge #aj #bj #bcj #gff #ge #ajj #aa4e #bj #bcj #gff #ajj #abe #ac #bd #bjj #hjj #acj #afj #ad4e #bd #bjj #hjj #afj #bjj #af #cj #afe #hbe #bjj #bfj #ah #cj #afe #hbe #bej #ccj #bj #cf #adj #hdj #cbj #djj #bb #cf #adj #hdj #djj #ejj #bd #db #abe #hge #dhj #fbj #bf #db #abe #hge #efj #gcj #bh #dh #aab4e #ijj #fgj #hgj #cb #dh #aab4e #ijj #hgj #aadj #cf #dh #aab4e #ijj #aajj #adcj #dj #dh #aab4e #ijj #acfj #agej #dd #dh #aab4e #ijj #afjj #bajj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,fly-wheels4 ,dimensions of ,made when ,practicable to ,cylinders4 ,serve also as ,belt-,drums4 ,driving ,belts4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,weight of ,bore4 ,stroke4 ,diameter4 ,rim4 ,velocity4 ,width4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,feet per ,inches4,inches4,feet4 ,inches4 ,lbs4 minute4 ,inches4 #f #ab #c #cej #ccjj #i single4 #g #ab #c #f #djj #chej #aj #h #af #d #fej #cebj #ab double4 #i #af #d #f #gjj #cifj #ab #aj #bj #e #acjj #cfaj #ad #aa4e #bj #e #f #adej #cigj #ad #ac #bd #f #f #bajj #djhd #ah #ad4e #bd #g #bcej #ddjj #bj #af #cj #h #djjj #daej #bf #ah #cj #i #djjj #dfgj #cj #bj #cf #aj #fjjj #ddjj #ch #bb #cf #aa #fjjj #dhdj #db #bd #db #ab #bf #db #ac #bh #dh #af #cb #dh #cf #dh #dj #dh #dd #dh ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,the powers are those given by an initial pressure of #he lbs4 on the square inch1 cut off at about one quarter of the stroke4 ,for the best economy steam should not be cut off earlier than this1 unless a higher pressure is carried4 ,at the latest point of cut off1 the powers developed are double those given in the above ,table4 ,the engines can be worked under locomotive pressures1 with corresponding increase of power4 ,after considerable study ,i finally adopted the above table of standard sizes and speeds1 covering the ground from #be horse-power up with nineteen sizes4 ,as the bed could not be reversed1 ,i needed both a right-hand and a left-hand bed for each size4 ,i avoided half of this expense in patterns by planning two diameters of cylinders with the same stroke1 and making one bed answer for both4 ,until ,i found something else to do1 ,i employed myself in preparing complete drawings for three or four smaller sizes of engines2 a work which afterwards proved exceedingly useful4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,production of an ,original ,surface ,plate4 ,i will introduce here a description of the method of producing an original surface plate4 ,the production of mechanically true planes by the method of scraping was first suggested by ,mr4 ,whitworth1 and was brought to perfection in his works4 ,having had and having improved the opportunity there to study this system1 and having employed it largely in the manufacture of high-speed engines1 it seems to me that an account of it should find a place in these reminiscences1 especially as the importance of mechanical truth is coming to be more and more realized in this country4 ,i will therefore describe the process of producing an original standard surface plate4 ,the first point1 of course1 is the design4 ,the square form1 #cj inches square1 has been found most suitable4 ,i could not1 however1 use this form myself1 a long surface plate being required for the guide-bars and steam-chest joints of my engine4 ,the plate must be incapable of deflection4 ,to insure this it is ribbed on the under side with ribs seven inches deep1 and is supported at three points1 equidistant from each other and from the center1 so that its equal support cannot vary1 whatever may be the surface on which it stands4 ,it is provided on two opposite sides with handles1 by which it can be lifted and rotated4 ,the arrangement of the ribs and feet is here shown4 ,it must be cast of hard and close-grained iron1 which will possess the most durable qualities1 in a baked mold without a cope1 so that the gas shall escape most freely4 ,as cast1 the plate should be one inch thick4 ,about three eighths of an inch is planed off1 removing all dirt1 and leaving a perfectly sound surface1 with a thickness of about five eighths of an inch4 ,three of these plates are made4 ,after these have been planed1 their edges squared and steel handles put in they are delivered to the fitter4 ,illustration3 ,surface ,plate for ,producing a ,true ,plane4 ,i will first describe the tool used in scraping4 ,originally this was a hooked tool1 and the scraping was done by a drawing motion4 ,two of these tools were employed1 one for the roughing work1 in which the hook projected downward about three quarters of an inch1 and the other for fine scraping4 ,in the latter the hook projected downward only about one quarter of an inch1 and absolute freedom from vibration was aimed at4 ,these tools were used for a number of years1 but afterwards a radical change was made4 ,the modern method is to employ a single straight tool1 like a carpenter's chisel1 about an inch and a quarter wide and an eighth of an inch thick1 with a square end4 ,this end is slightly curved1 and its corners are rounded to avoid scratching the plate4 ,the scraping is done by a pushing motion4 ,this tool has been found preferable on all accounts4 ,projections needing to be removed are in front of the tool1 instead of being covered by it4 ,the tool is perfectly rigid1 and can be inclined to the surface at any desired angle4 ,the cutting edge is a square angle1 and being well supported keeps sharp for a considerably longer time than when it is an acute angle1 and when ground or honed two edges are formed4 ,moreover1 the pushing motion is preferred4 ,two of the plates only are first brought together4 ,for disclosing the high points1 one of these is covered with a raddle made of finely sifted red lead and oil4 ,this is made quite stiff1 and all of it that can be removed by the palm of the hand is rubbed off1 leaving only a very thin uniform film on the surface4 ,any dust having been carefully removed from both surfaces by a soft brush1 one of these plates is inverted on the other1 and at one corner each plate is marked in the edge with a prick-punch4 ,the upper plate is then rubbed about on the lower one for1 say1 half a minute4 ,when lifted off1 the high portions of the surfaces are shown on one plate by the raddle put on1 and on the other by that rubbed off4 ,the workman then gives to these parts of the surfaces a general scraping1 giving to his tool a long sweep1 say from four to six inches4 ,this is repeated two or three times1 the stroke being shortened each time1 and the upper plate being placed in a position at right angles with its last one1 which can be determined by the prick-punch marks4 ,this change of position is necessary to avoid a cross-wind or spiral form4 ,the scraping should now extend over the entire surfaces1 and these should have a general uniform bearing on each other1 with the points of contact uniformly distributed and equally distinct4 ,the work should be continued in the same way until all these requirements are fulfilled4 ,now appears the use of the third plate4 ,the two surfaces thus formed are sure to be1 one of them convex and the other concave1 in some corresponding degree4 ,the workman now numbers the plates1 by numbers stamped in the edges1 these being marked ,nos4 #a and #b1 and the third plate ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #b is now set aside1 and ,no4 #c is scraped to fit ,no4 #a4 ,it is thus made a duplicate of ,no4 #b4 ,next1 ,no4 #a is set aside and ,nos4 #b and #c are brought together4 ,supposing these to be convex1 they will bear together at the middle point1 on which the upper plate will rock1 and the degree of their convexity will thus be shown4 ,the workman then in the same manner scrapes these plates equally to the best of his judgment1 until their entire surfaces are brought together1 with equal distribution of the points of contact4 ,these two surfaces will now again be1 one convex and the other concave1 though in a much less degree4 ,the next step is to apply ,no4 #a1 which is concave1 to either ,no4 #b or ,no4 #c1 and scrape it to fit4 ,it is then applied to the other1 of which it has now been made a duplicate1 and the same process is repeated1 until the three plates can be interchanged in any way1 and will have a uniform general bearing on each other1 with equal distribution and distinctness of the points of contact4 ,we have thus1 in a general way1 produced three demonstrated true planes1 but the surfaces are yet far from the desired approximation to absolute truth4 ,now follows the fine scraping1 which is not attempted until general truth has thus been established4 ,the object of this is to multiply the points of contact and perfect their equal distribution and prominence4 ,for this operation no raddle is used1 but the surfaces are rubbed together dry4 ,when the plates are separated1 the points of contact shine like stars4 ,here skill and care are pre-eminently required4 ,the scraping takes off only a dust4 ,if too strong depressions may be made deeper than before1 and requiring the reduction of the entire surface4 ,the superiority of the modern tool is now especially shown4 ,by lowering the angle of the tool1 the workman presents the slightly curved edge to the surface in a position as nearly parallel with it as he desires4 ,interchanges similar to the former ones are now repeated1 until the bright points are brought as close together as is desired1 with uniform distribution and distinctness4 ,the tedious operation is now finished1 and these bright points remain as witnesses4 ,the three plates were necessary to the production of one4 ,they have also a permanent use4 ,they are indispensable to the preservation of the true plane1 which it has cost so much patient labor to produce4 ,the date of their completion is stamped on their edges4 ,then plates #a and #b are put away in the store-room1 their surfaces carefully protected from rust or injury1 which last is best avoided by inverting one on the other1 and ,no4 #c is put into use4 ,a prominent use is for the production of smaller plates or straight-edges adapted to special purposes4 ,after a while1 perhaps in a little while1 this plate loses its truth by unequal wear4 ,indeed1 speaking with absolute truth1 it may be said that the first time this plate is used it is ruined4 ,but by taking pains to use different parts of its surface as equally as possible1 it may be kept in fair condition for some time4 ,it can at any time be restored to its original condition by scraping it to ,no4 #b1 taking the same pains to turn it one quarter way around at every rub4 ,in the course of time ,no4 #b will itself become worn unequally1 when its truth can be restored by rubbing it on ,no4 #a4 ,finally the three plates can all be restored to their original condition by rubbing them together interchangeably as at first4 ,thus the true plane can be absolutely perpetuated4 ,the importance of this work can only be realized when we consider that the true plane affords the only means by which true cylindrical work also can be either produced or verified4 ,it is thus seen to be fundamental to all mechanical truth4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,efforts to ,resume the ,manufacture4 ,i ,exhibit the ,engine to ,mr4 ,holley4 ,contract with ,mr4 ,phillips4 ,sale of ,engine to ,mr4 ,peters4 ,in the years '#gd and '#ge ,i was filled with eagerness to get the engine on its legs again1 and tried a number of schemes in vain4 ,one morning ,i read in the paper that ,alexander ,l4 ,holley had just returned from ,europe1 where he had been making a tour of the steel-making establishments1 studying both the ,bessemer and the open hearth or ,siemens-,martin processes1 on a scheme of interchanging improvements in manufacture between ,american and foreign licensees under both these systems4 ,it occurred to me that ,mr4 ,holley might be the very man ,i wanted4 ,if he could be got to recommend the engine to the steel-makers1 they might take it up for their own use4 ,i had not applied the engine in rolling-mill work1 but felt sure that it would prove especially adapted to that service4 ,so ,i called on ,mr4 ,holley at his home in ,brooklyn4 ,i had never before met him1 but ,i found that he knew something about the engine from its exhibition in ,paris1 and from his brother-in-law1 ,frederick ,j4 ,slade1 then an officer of the ,new ,jersey ,steel ,company1 and who was one of the engine's warm admirers4 ,i have already mentioned ,mr4 ,slade and the help he gave me while in ,paris in solving the problem of piston acceleration4 ,illustration3 ,,alexander ,,lyman ,,holley ,so ,i found no difficulty in arranging with ,mr4 ,holley to take a trip with me1 and visit some of my engines in operation1 for the purpose of forming a judgment as to its suitability for the use of his clients4 ,this he agreed to do as soon as he had finished the report of his trip1 on which he was then engaged4 ,our inspection took in the engines running in ,new ,york and ,brooklyn and vicinity and in ,new ,england1 finishing with the engine at the ,arlington ,mills in ,lawrence4 ,they were all found to be on their best behavior1 but ,mr4 ,holley told me that the engine at ,lawrence1 which was running there at its intended speed of #aej revolutions per minute1 impressed him more than all the rest put together2 not that it was doing any better1 for they all ran equally well1 but solely because it was larger4 ,it made him awake to the great possibilities of the engine4 ,on his return ,mr4 ,holley prepared a report on the performance of the engine1 and cordially endorsed it as sure of ultimate general adoption4 ,but he found capitalists to be absolutely dead4 ,not even his great influence could awaken in them the least interest4 ,the time for the promoter had not yet come4 ,and still my success in winning ,mr4 ,holley's support proved to be vital to my subsequent progress4 ,as a last possible resort ,i finally thought of ,mr4 ,phillips of ,newark4 ,the firm of ,hewes ,phillips had become dissolved by the death of ,mr4 ,hewes1 and so1 by purchase of ,mr4 ,hewes' interest from his heirs1 ,mr4 ,phillips was the sole proprietor of the largest engineering works in ,new ,jersey4 ,that concern had some time before the death of ,mr4 ,hewes given up the manufacture of steam-engines1 a style made by them having proved unsuccessful1 and confined themselves to making machine tools4 ,in this line their business was exceedingly dull1 being disastrously affected by the depressed and stagnant condition of the times4 ,i found ,mr4 ,phillips ready to listen to me4 ,he said that what he knew about the engine was favorable1 although he had not heard of it for the last two or three years1 but he was willing to consider a proposition to take up its manufacture4 ,i told him frankly that ,i had no proposition of that kind to make4 ,i wished to get the manufacture of the engine revived1 but to retain the business in my own hands1 to carry it on myself in my own name1 with the view of gaining for the engine a reputation that would enable me to command the capital necessary to establish its manufacture in works that ,i had long before planned for that purpose1 and in which ,i could devote myself to the development and building up of the business2 that ,i hoped to be able to reach this point in the course of two or three years1 when probably the anticipated financial revival would fill his works with business in his own line of toolmaking4 ,he said that my proposal was entirely inadmissible1 that he could not permit any independent business to be carried on in his establishment1 and stated firmly the impossibility of any arrangement of the kind ,i suggested1 which would be something quite unheard of4 ,i stood firmly on my own position1 but was obliged to leave him without any sign of yielding on his part4 ,the negotiation was1 however1 renewed1 exactly how ,i cannot now recall1 but it ended in my carrying my point4 ,we finally concluded a bargain1 in which ,i held onto the business1 but1 of course1 had to insure to him pretty much all the profits4 ,this ,i did not mind1 my object was to obtain a position1 which it will be seen ,i fully accomplished1 but did not know what to do with it4 ,i was conscious that ,i could never have made this arrangement but for the extreme stagnation of the times2 but was not aware of an additional reason which impelled ,mr4 ,phillips to agree to my terms1 when he found he could not do any better4 ,what this reason was will appear pretty soon4 ,the arrangement was to go into effect as soon as ,i got an order4 ,this was my next job4 ,i learned that ,mr4 ,peters1 a manufacturer of high-grade knit fabrics in ,newark1 all which1 by the way1 were sold by him to importers in ,new ,york1 was carrying on also a manufacture of light oilcloths in ,newark in temporary quarters1 and was building a large structure for this purpose in ,east ,newark1 the building now and for many years past occupied by the ,edison lamp manufactory1 and was in the market for an engine4 ,i called on ,mr4 ,peters1 and got from him the privilege of submitting an estimate for this engine4 ,for this purpose ,i went to his then present works1 and measured the amount of power he was using1 and found that one of my #haf engines would give him that power with the additional amount he wished to provide for4 ,on calling with my estimate early one morning1 ,i found ,mr4 ,peters ready to bow me out4 ,he told me that he had been informed that the high-speed engines had proved a failure1 and the manufacture of them had been abandoned three or four years ago4 ,i said to him1 8,mr4 ,peters1 ,i would like to make you a proposition40 ,he replied that he would hear it4 ,i then said1 8,your engineer1 ,mr4 ,green1 ,i suppose never saw a high-speed engine1 but he strikes me as a fair-minded1 cool-headed man4 ,i have three engines made by me in ,harlem1 and which have been running from four to six years1 two in ,new ,york and one at the ,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,iron ,works at ,mott ,haven4 ,these can all be visited in one trip4 ,i propose that you send ,mr4 ,green to see them in operation1 and talk with the engineers and owners and learn all about them1 and that you suspend your decision until you get his report40 8,that is a fair offer10 said he4 8,i will send him to-day40 ,i called again the next day1 and found ,mr4 ,peters ready to throw the order into my hands4 ,mr4 ,green told me afterwards what his impressions were4 ,in the most cool manner1 entirely free from any excitement1 he said3 8,my only wonder is that everybody does not use this engine and that all builders don't make it4 ,i got the same report everywhere4 ,would not have anything else4 ,costs less money1 occupies less space1 burns less coal1 needs less attention1 never cost a cent for repairs1 never anything the matter1 never varies its speed40 ,and so ,i began business in ,mr4 ,phillips' shop1 where ,i continued for four years1 the most delightful period in my active life4 ,i had ,mr4 ,goodfellow in his old place as my foreman1 and three or four of my best men back again at the work they loved4 ,everything went smoothly and harmoniously1 and the business grew steadily until the orders thrust upon me became larger than ,i could have filled if ,i had had the whole works to myself4 ,in re-introducing the engine to the public1 ,i determined to change its name4 ,i had been asked occasionally what ,i had to do with the ,allen engine4 ,it struck me that ,i had a good deal to do with it4 ,starting from ,mr4 ,allen's single eccentric link motion1 and four-opening equilibrium valve and my own governor1 ,i had1 with the help which ,i have been happy to acknowledge1 created the high-speed engine1 had solved every problem1 theoretical and practical1 which it involved1 and designed every part of it4 ,so ,i felt it to be proper that it should thereafter be known as the ,porter-,allen engine4 ,the following incident illustrates the ease with which everything down to the smallest detail may unconsciously be prepared to insure a disaster at some time4 ,mr4 ,peters' engine-room was a long1 narrow room on one side of the boiler-room1 from which was the only entrance to it directly opposite the guide-bars of the engine4 ,the door opened inward1 and the latch was not very secure4 ,they burned soft coal1 which was wheeled in on an elevated plank and dumped into a heap in front of the furnace4 ,one day1 about a year after the engine was put in1 there was a great wind blowing4 ,a gust of unusual force blew the engine-room door open at the instant when a barrowful of coal was being dumped1 and carried a cloud of its dust over the guide-bars4 ,the engine was soon brought to a standstill4 ,all the faces of cross-head and guide-bars were deeply scored4 ,it was found1 however1 that when these were cleaned up and scraped over to remove all projections that they ran as well as ever1 the grooves proving good oil distributors1 but they were not so pretty to look at4 ,one day1 two or three weeks after we commenced work on this engine1 ,mr4 ,phillips' bookkeeper came to me and said3 8,mr4 ,peters' engine is contracted to be running on the first of ,may1 is it not80 8,yes40 8,do you think it will be ready80 ,i replied that the work was in a good state of forwardness1 and ,i thought most likely it would be running before that time4 ,i should say that was a size for which ,i had made the revised drawings already1 and the old cylinder pattern had been readily altered to the new style4 8,well10 said he1 8,mr4 ,phillips is a little short to-day1 and he would be much obliged if you would give him your note for a thousand dollars to come due1 say1 the fifteenth of ,may40 ,so ,i gave him the note1 the engine was ready on time1 accepted and paid for1 and the note met at maturity4 ,this was the beginning of a uniform process1 which continued for four years4 ,it was disclosed that ,mr4 ,phillips' financial position was the same as my own1 neither of us had a cent of money4 ,the way we managed was this4 ,i always afterwards required payments in instalments1 one quarter with the order1 one quarter when the engine was ready for shipment1 and the balance when running satisfactorily4 ,thus with my notes we got along famously4 ,my orders were always from first-class parties1 engines always ready on time1 always gave satisfaction1 and promptly paid for4 ,i had many thousands in notes out all the time1 and never had to renew a note4 ,mr4 ,james ,moore of ,philadelphia1 the celebrated builder of rolling mill machinery1 once long after remarked to me1 8,i keep my bank account in the shop40 ,it occurred to me that ,i had always done the same thing4 ,directly after we got running ,i received a letter from ,william ,r4 ,jones1 superintendent of the ,edgar ,thompson ,steel ,company1 running a rail mill recently started at ,braddocks by ,carnegie ,brothers1 saying that they were in need of an engine to drive a circular saw at a very high rate of speed to cut off steel rails cold4 ,they had been recommended by ,mr4 ,holley to get one of mine1 and if ,i could furnish a suitable engine immediately he would order it4 ,fortunately ,i could4 ,while ,i was building engines in ,harlem1 the city of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 went into the system of wooden pavements1 and the contractor obtained an engine from me for sawing up the blocks4 ,about the very time ,i received ,mr4 ,jones' letter ,i had learned that the wooden pavement system was being abandoned in ,washington for asphalt and the sawing-mill was closed4 ,i at once wrote to the contractor making him an offer for the engine4 ,i received by return mail a reply accepting my offer1 and adding most complimentary words concerning the engine4 ,these ,i remember closed by saying that his admiration of it was such that if he were able he would put the engine in a glass case and keep it there as long as he lived4 ,the engine proved just right for ,mr4 ,jones' use4 ,i went myself to ,braddocks to see it started4 ,all were much interested in the governor action1 ,i as much as any one1 for ,i had never before seen this particular application of it4 ,in sawing through the head and web and bottom flange of the rail1 the width of section being cut varied continually1 and the gentle rising and falling of the counterpoise1 adjusting the power to the resistance1 while the engine kept1 so far as the eye could detect1 a uniform motion1 had about it a continual fascination4 ,the success of this engine brought me several orders for governors1 the most important of which was one from ,mr4 ,jones himself for governors and throttle valves for his blooming mill and rail-mill engines4 ,i got up for him balanced piston valves which operated perfectly4 ,in iron valves and seats of this character it had been found1 where the steam contained primed water1 that their edges wore rounded1 and their action in regulating the motion became less and less satisfactory4 ,i knew that these boilers primed badly1 and avoided this defect by setting brass rings in the edges4 ,the following illustrations show this regulating valve which ,i designed and made in two sizes4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,porter's ,regulating ,valve4 ,the brass liner for the lower seat was passed through the upper seat by being made thinner than the upper liner4 ,those for the valve were made inch too long1 and guttered in the lower edge4 ,they were then driven down by a set and sledge on an anvil4 ,by going around them three times the lower edges were spread out to fill the chamfer1 and the flanges brought down to their seats4 ,those for the lower valve were put in in halves4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,r4 ,,jones ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,experience as ,member of the ,board of ,judges ,at the ,philadelphia ,centennial ,exhibition4 ,one day in ,april ,i was surprised to receive by mail a commission as a member of the ,board of ,judges in ,group ,twenty of the ,philadelphia ,international ,exhibition4 ,i was at a loss to know how ,i got it1 but learned afterwards that ,i had been appointed on the recommendation of ,mr4 ,holley1 who was consulted by the commissioners about the judges in several groups4 ,the exhibition was opened on ,may #a1 but the judges were not to assemble until the #bdth1 and on that day we had quite a ceremony in the judges' hall4 ,the ,american judges were seated at one side of the hall and rose to receive the foreign judges who filed in from some place where they had been corralled1 while a fine band played the national airs of all nations that had any airs4 ,after a time spent in welcoming and responsive addresses1 we were marched to a large caf and given luncheon1 after which the different groups were organized4 ,there ,i had the pleasure of first meeting ,mr4 ,james ,moore1 also ,professor ,reuleaux of ,berlin and ,colonel ,petroff of ,st4 ,petersburg2 and ,emil ,brugsch the interesting ,egyptian commissioner1 also serving as a judge in our group4 ,i observed that these foreigners used the ,english language more accurately than ,i did4 ,we organized by the election as president of ,horatio ,allen1 formerly president of the ,novelty ,iron ,works 7then extinct71 he being the oldest and the biggest man among us4 ,under ,mr4 ,allen's administration we had a fine illustration of how not to do anything--of endless preparation and never getting to work4 ,he had an interminable series of subjects for discussion and was accustomed to say3 8,these questions must be all settled before we can enter upon the discharge of our duties1 gentlemen40 ,this had the effect upon our foreign judges that they absented themselves from our meetings4 ,i remember ,mr4 ,moore saying to me3 8,porter1 if you and ,i had had this work to do we would have had it half done by this time40 ,directly after that ,mr4 ,moore resigned1 ostensibly pleading want of time to attend to it1 but really disgusted at the waste of time4 ,our work was in a state of chaos4 ,the field was very extensive1 as it embraced all exhibits pertaining to steam and water except locomotives4 ,one morning ,i came to the meeting with a copy of the catalogue on which ,i had divided the exhibits into three classes1 lettered ,a1 ,b1 and ,c3 class ,a embraced steam-engines and their accessories1 class ,b boilers and their accessories and class ,c pumps and their accessories2 ,i had prefixed these letters to the names of all our exhibits according to their class4 ,at this meeting1 at which ,i had procured the attendance of the foreign judges1 this classification was unanimously adopted1 and the judges formed themselves into these classes accordingly4 ,our work was then undertaken in earnest2 it was found to be really too extensive to be accomplished otherwise4 ,mr4 ,charles ,e4 ,emery was appointed a judge to fill the vacant place made by ,mr4 ,moore's resignation1 and he proved most efficient4 ,as is well known1 medals were not awarded1 but brief written reports were made on those exhibits which were deemed most deserving2 these reports were signed by all the judges4 ,illustration3 ,professor ,,francis ,,reuleaux ,the firm of ,e4 ,p4 ,allis ,co4 of ,milwaukee1 exhibited a sawmill4 ,this exhibit consisted of two large circular saws1 each driven by a horizontal engine4 ,the two engines were united by a common shaft on the ends of which the cranks were set at right angles with each other4 ,the center lines of these engines were nearly #bj feet apart2 the shaft carried two belt drums #h or #aj feet in diameter1 one of them near to the bed of each engine2 at the middle of the shaft was a fly-wheel about #af feet in diameter4 ,the rim of this fly-wheel was in eight or ten segments1 with an arm attached to the middle of each segment2 the segments were bolted together and the arms were bolted to a hub on the shaft4 ,the saws were set behind the cylinders1 and the belts were carried from the drums on the shaft past the cylinders to smaller drums on the saw arbors4 ,on starting these engines the two bearings of the main shaft heated so badly that the engines had to be stopped4 ,the gentleman in charge of the exhibit applied to me for advice4 ,i told him that although his shaft was large it was long1 and the weight of the fly-wheel bent it so much that the two journals ran on the inner edges of their bottom boxes1 which caused the heating4 ,i told him he did not need the fly-wheel at all2 the cranks being quartering1 the momentum of the belt-drums was amply sufficient to maintain uniform motion1 and ,i advised him to take off the fly-wheel4 ,this he did at once1 leaving only the hub on the shaft2 the engines then ran with cold bearings and uniform motion throughout the exhibition4 ,they had made a cut-off gear for these engines1 but it was found not to suit the purpose and was taken off4 ,this firm then did a great stroke of business3 they came to the sensible conclusion that they could do a great deal better than to attempt to work out a new system of engineering for themselves1 so they offered to ,mr4 ,edwin ,reynolds1 the manager of ,mr4 ,corliss' works1 and to his head draftsman1 inducements sufficient for them to leave ,mr4 ,corliss' employment and take the same positions in the ,allis works at ,milwaukee for the manufacture of the ,corliss engine there4 ,with the magnificent result of this action the engineering world is familiar4 ,we had all sorts of queer experiences4 ,one day ,i was demanded by ,mr4 ,jerome ,wheelock to tell him why the engine exhibited by him was not a perfect engine4 ,i glanced over the long slender bed1 a copy of the ,corliss bed without its rigidity1 and declined to answer his question4 ,mr4 ,emery was more compliant2 on receiving the same demand1 he kindly pointed out to ,mr4 ,wheelock one respect in which his engine could hardly be considered perfect2 the steam was exhausted into a large chamber embracing the lower half of the cylinder from end to end4 ,this comparatively cold bath produced the condensation of a large quantity of the entering steam4 ,from the middle of this chamber a pipe took away the exhaust from the opposite ends of the cylinder alternately4 ,mr4 ,wheelock admitted the defect1 and said in future he would avoid it1 so1 as ,i learned1 having two exhaust pipes instead of one1 he gave to each pipe one half the area of the single one4 ,i had the pleasure of renewing my acquaintance with ,professor ,sweet1 who was superintending the exhibit of the mechanical work of his boys at ,cornell2 this was very creditable and included quite a show of surface plates4 ,the ,corliss engine in this exhibition was far the most imposing1 and to the multitude the most attractive single exhibit ever shown anywhere4 ,it consisted of two distinct engines1 each having a cylinder #dj inches in diameter1 with #aj feet stroke of piston1 the motion of which was transmitted through cast-iron walking beams to cranks set at right angles with each other on the opposite ends of a common shaft4 ,this shaft made #cf revolutions per minute and carried a gear-wheel #cj feet in diameter2 this wheel engaged with a pinion #aj feet in diameter on the line of shaft under the floor1 giving to this shaft a speed of #ajh revolutions per minute4 ,one day ,i said to ,professor ,sweet3 8,do you know1 ,professor1 that an engine with a single cylinder of the same bore as these and #e feet stroke directly connected with a line shaft and making #aej revolutions per minute1 with a fly-wheel #aj or #ab feet in diameter1 would exert more power than is afforded by this monster and would run with far greater economy1 because the internal surfaces to be heated by the condensation of the entering steam would be one piston instead of two1 two heads instead of four1 and #e feet length of exposed cylinder instead of #bj feet80 ,he replied3 8,that is all very true1 but how would you get the steam in and out of the cylinder properly with a piston travel of #aejj feet per minute80 ,i was not prepared to answer that question on the instant1 but ,i afterwards found no difficulty about it4 ,the accompanying figures illustrate this engine and my high-speed equivalent drawn to the same scale2 it will be seen that the small engine occupies about one tenth of the floor space needed for the large one1 and would cost less than ten per cent4 of the money4 ,it would also have a more nearly uniform motion1 the impulses received by the crank being #cjj per minute1 against only #add per minute received by both cranks of the large engine1 besides which in the latter the full force of the steam is exerted at the commencement of each stroke and falls to nothing at the end1 while in the smaller engine1 by the inertia of the reciprocating parts1 the forces exerted at the opposite ends of the stroke would be practically equalized4 ,the reader will doubtless inquire1 as ,mr4 ,green did why1 with these enormous advantages1 does not everybody use the high-speed engines and every builder make them8 ,illustration3 ,the ,corliss ,engine ,exhibited at the ,centennial ,exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,porter-,allen ,engine ,equal in ,power to the ,exhibited ,corliss ,engine4 ,at this exhibition the ,bell telephone was first shown to a select company1 among which were ,president ,grant and ,dom ,pedro1 the last emperor of ,brazil4 ,this exhibition was given on ,sunday1 that being the only day when silence could be had4 ,human speech1 both in talking and singing1 was transmitted through the whole length of the main building1 about #ahjj feet2 it has since been transmitted somewhat further4 ,the exhibitors of hand pumps all talked about the ease with which their own pumps could be worked2 one man touched bottom in this respect4 ,he had set his pump so that the spout was nearly on a level with the surface of the pool from which it drew its water2 he boldly claimed that his pumps required no power at all4 ,i was invited1 as ,i suppose multitudes were1 to take hold of the handle and see for myself that his claim was true4 ,i never heard of but one man who ,i think would be satisfied with this demonstration2 that was the engineering editor of the ,new ,york ,tribune4 ,shortly before this he had published an account of a wonderful pump invented by a ,mr4 ,george1 which he concluded by saying that the superiority of ,mr4 ,george's pump lay in the fact that at each stroke not the whole column of water had to be lifted1 but only that which was to be discharged4 ,we had a waterfall maintained by a centrifugal pump1 which received its water on one side only2 the maker evidently knowing nothing about the method of balancing these pumps by admitting the water equally on the opposite sides4 ,the boiler-makers abounded4 ,my old acquaintance1 the ,harrison boiler1 turned up4 ,mr4 ,allen urged a favorable award to ,mr4 ,harrison because of the motives of humanity by which he knew ,mr4 ,harrison was actuated in designing that boiler4 ,a ,mr4 ,pierce invited all the judges to visit his boiler and hear him explain it4 ,he informed us that this boiler had been the subject of three scientific tests by ,professor ,thurston1 but he did not tell us the results of those tests4 ,as we were coming away ,professor ,reuleaux said to me3 8,that is foolishness1 isn't it80 ,an inventor named ,smith came several times to our judges' room to urge upon us the merits of his boiler4 ,he had two on exhibition1 one in use in the boiler-house and the other in ,machinery ,hall2 these were quite different from each other4 ,one day not long after the close of the exhibition ,i received a note from a stranger requesting me to call upon him at the ,astor ,house4 ,i thought1 8,this man doubtless wants an engine1 but his time is too precious to come out to ,newark10 so at the hour appointed ,i was there4 ,when ,i entered the room the first object ,i saw was a sectional model of this ,smith boiler1 and ,i found that the gentleman wanted to know our reasons for overlooking that boiler4 ,i replied to him that ,i had a question to which ,i would like an answer at his earliest convenience2 we observed that the two boilers exhibited by ,mr4 ,smith were quite different from each other1 and ,i saw that this model differed in essential details from both of them1 and ,i would like to know which one he wished us to approve of and bade him good afternoon4 ,one day afterwards ,i happened to be in ,mr4 ,holley's office in ,new ,york when a man came in with a drawing of a boiler which he wished ,mr4 ,holley to recommend4 ,mr4 ,holley turned him over to me1 and he explained to me that the great novel feature of his boiler was that the feed-water was admitted by spraying it into the steam space1 thus avoiding the cooling of any part of the boiler by its admission at one point2 so ,i found one freak boiler that was not at the exhibition4 ,we had a fine exhibit of steam fire-engines4 ,i think every maker in this country was represented1 and we had a trial of these engines lasting three or four days4 ,the committee desired to make a thorough comparative test of their performance1 but the man 7a lieutenant in the navy7 appointed to keep the record put down so few items that we found we had no record at all4 ,we could only guess how he came to do this4 ,an exhibitor from ,canada brought an engine that presented a very fine appearance2 it was made up of a collection of what he believed to be the best features of every steam-engine made in the ,united ,states4 ,the experts looked his machine over and saw where he had got every one of them1 but his different appropriations did not work well together2 his engine broke down every day and he worked all night to be ready for the next day's trial4 ,it afforded a good commentary on the narrow-minded laws of ,canada1 which forbade a citizen of the ,united ,states from taking out a patent there4 ,the show of steam-engines was not large1 and the indicator was not applied to any engines1 so ,i had no use for the indicators ,i had imported from ,england4 ,if ,i remember rightly1 we had only two engines from abroad1 one of these sent by the ,government of ,brazil4 ,this was what was called a 8table0 engine1 in which the cylinder stands on a table in a vertical position and two connecting-rods extend down from the cross-head and connect with the crank under the table4 ,it was copied from a ,scotch elementary drawing-book from which ,i learned mechanical drawing4 ,one of these engines had been made by ,mr4 ,hoe to drive the press of the ,new ,york ,daily ,times when that paper was started in #ahea or #aheb4 ,the other foreign engine was made by a ,brussels manufacturer with the assistance of the ,belgian ,government4 ,it had an ,american cut-off which was used by ,mr4 ,delamater on his engines1 and it had the eccentric between the main bearing and the crank1 giving to the latter therefore three or four inches of unnecessary overhang2 it had my condenser1 which ,i learned was then coming into considerable use on the ,continent4 ,illustration3 ,col4 ,,alexis ,,petroff ,the only ,american engines ,i now recall besides the ,corliss were the ,buckeye and the ,brown engines1 and our awards to these engines did not do them any harm2 the ,corliss engines were not within our jurisdiction and we were not permitted to say anything about them2 ,mr4 ,corliss was not a competitor but a patron of the exhibition4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,e4 ,sickels made an extensive exhibit of his various inventions1 the models of which had been loaned to him for that purpose by the ,patent ,office4 ,only two of these inventions came within our province3 the first was what is known as the celebrated trip cut-off1 patented by him in the year #ahdb2 the latter an arrangement patented in #ahdh4 ,the former invention was an improvement on the ,stevens cut-off1 already in general use in steamboats on our ,eastern waters4 ,the ,stevens invention was applied to equilibrium valves1 rising and falling in a direction vertical to their seats4 ,it enlarged the opening movement of the valve in a degree increasing as the speed of the piston increased1 by means of the device known as the wiper cam2 but the closing motion of the valve1 being the reverse of the opening movement1 grew slower and slower1 until the valve was gently brought to its seat4 ,it was found that during the closing of the port a great deal of steam blew into the cylinder through the contracting openings1 with very little addition to the useful effect4 ,mr4 ,sickels conceived the idea of liberating the valve just before the opening movement was completed and letting it fall instantly to its seat1 which would effect a sharp cut-off and a great economy in the consumption of steam4 ,this action involved the difficulty that the valves would strike their seats with a violent blow1 which would soon destroy both4 ,this difficulty ,mr4 ,sickels met by the invention of the dash-pot4 ,this apparatus performed two functions3 when its piston was lifted above the water it left a vacuum under it1 so the pressure of the atmosphere on this piston was added to the weight of the valve and the pressure of the steam on it to accelerate its fall4 ,this was arrested by the piston striking the surface of the water just in time to prevent the valve from striking its seat1 but not soon enough to prevent the complete closure of the port4 ,this nice point was determined by the ear4 ,the engineer first let water out of the dash-pot gradually1 until he heard the valve strike its seat faintly2 then he admitted water drop by drop1 until the sound had died away4 ,for these inventions and for his steam steering gears the judges made an award4 ,our foreign judges were enthusiastic about them2 ,horatio ,allen had fought ,mr4 ,sickels during his whole business life and would never allow a ,sickels cut-off to be applied in the ,novelty ,iron ,works4 ,for example1 the directors of the ,collins steamship line adopted the ,sickels cut-off1 but it was put on only two of their ships1 the 8,arctic0 and the 8,baltic10 the engines of which were built at the ,allaire works4 ,the 8,atlantic0 and 8,pacific10 which were engined at the ,novelty ,works1 did not have it1 ,mr4 ,allen absolutely refusing to allow it4 ,to my surprise ,mr4 ,allen signed this award with a cordial expression of admiration of ,mr4 ,sickels' genius2 he had softened in his old age4 ,the following is a copy of this award4 ,,international ,,exhibition1 #ahgf4 ,,united ,,states ,,centennial ,,commission1 ,,philadelphia1 #c;d ,august1 #ahgf4 ,,report ,,on ,,awards4 8,group ,no4 ,,xx4 8,catalogue ,no4 #ajbg4 8,product1 ,models of ,improvements in ,steam-engines4 8,name and address of exhibitor1 ,frederick ,e4 ,sickels4 8,the undersigned1 having examined the products herein described1 respectfully recommend the same to the ,united ,states ,centennial ,commission for ,award for the following reasons1 viz3 8,these exhibits possess great historical interest4 8,in the year #ahdb ,mr4 ,sickels patented the trip or liberating cut-off1 an invention which1 in a variety of forms1 has come into use wherever steam-engines are made4 ,in applying this invention to poppet valves1 ,mr4 ,sickels prevented these valves from striking their seats by his invention of the dash-pot1 in which he availed himself of the incompressibility1 the indestructibility and the divisibility of water1 and which is now employed for this purpose in all such applications4 8,in #ahdh he patented an improvement in the method of controlling motive power1 by which method steam is applied at the present time to various uses1 notable among which is the steering of steam vessels1 the steersmen turning the wheel precisely as in steering by hand1 but all the force being exerted by the steam4 8,,charles ,t4 ,,porter1 8,reporting ,judge4 8,approval of ,group ,judges1 ,,horatio ,,allen1 ,,chas4 ,e4 ,,emery1 ,,emil ,,brugsch1 ,f4 ,,reuleaux1 ,n4 ,,petroff40 ,illustration3 ,,james ,,moore ,after our work was finished and ,i had gone home the awards were made public2 to my astonishment the award to ,mr4 ,sickels was not among them1 so ,i wrote to ,general ,walker1 who was our medium of communication with the ,commission1 asking the reason for this omission4 ,he replied that the award had been thrown out by the ,committee of ,revision4 8,committee of ,revision60 ,i had never heard of such a thing4 ,i asked for an explanation and ,i learned that the judges did not make awards1 they only recommended them2 the awards were made by the ,commission after they had passed the scrutiny of the ,committee of ,revision4 ,well1 who were the ,committee of ,revision8 ,i learned that the ,commission consisted of two commissioners from each ,state appointed by the ,governor2 ,mr4 ,corliss was a commissioner from ,rhode ,island4 ,at a meeting of the commissioners ,mr4 ,corliss proposed the novel scheme of a ,committee of ,revision1 to which the action of the judges should be submitted for approval before the awards were made4 ,the idea seemed to please the members of the ,commission1 as tending to magnify their own importance1 and it was adopted2 as a matter of usual courtesy ,mr4 ,corliss was made chairman of the committee1 and the committee threw out the award to ,mr4 ,sickels4 ,i made careful inquiry and could never learn that the ,committee of ,revision threw out any other award1 so it seemed evident that with the throwing out of this award to ,mr4 ,sickels the object of its existence was accomplished4 ,in the ,corliss valve system the liberation of the valve was the fundamental idea2 this was applied by him to valves moving in the direction parallel with their seats4 ,it not being necessary to arrest their motion at any precise point1 they were caught by air cushions at any points after they had covered their ports4 ,mr4 ,corliss had appropriated the liberating idea1 according to 8the good old rule1 the simple plan1 that they may take who have the power1 and they may keep who can10 and all this machinery had been devised by him to prevent the historical fact that the liberating idea had been invented by ,mr4 ,sickels from appearing in the records of the exhibition4 ,by all this enormous expenditure of ingenuity and influence he succeeded in giving to this fact a prominence and importance which it would never otherwise have had1 besides advertising his efforts to suppress it4 ,mr4 ,horatio ,allen's life-long aversion to ,mr4 ,sickels was caused by professional jealousy4 ,mr4 ,allen conceived himself to be an inventor1 and for years had been cherishing a cut-off invention of his own4 ,the original firm was ,stillman1 ,allen ,co41 and for years ,mr4 ,stillman had prevented the ,novelty ,iron ,works from being sacrificed to ,mr4 ,allen's genius1 but later ,mr4 ,allen had obtained supreme control of these works by an affiliation with ,brown ,brothers1 the bankers1 his principal stockholders1 and ,mr4 ,stillman sold out his interest and retired from the firm4 ,mr4 ,allen1 having a clear field1 now determined to put his invention on the new steamer of the ,collins line1 the 8,adriatic10 and ,american engineers were amused at the display of this amazing absurdity on the largest possible scale4 ,in this construction there were four valves2 each valve was a conical plug about six feet long and had four movements2 first it was withdrawn from its seat a distance of three inches so that it could be rotated freely1 then it was rotated first to draw off the lap4 ,up to this point theoretically the port had not been opened1 but the steam had been blowing into the cylinder or out of it1 as the case might be1 through these enormous cracks2 the valves then rotated further to produce the opening movement1 for either admission or release2 the rotation was then reversed until it reached its original position1 then the fourth movement brought it to its seat4 ,it is probable that the ship would have gone to sea working steam after this ridiculous fashion1 if the complicated mechanism required to produce the four movements had not broken down at the trial of the engines at the dock1 beyond the power of ,mr4 ,allen's genius to remedy2 so the valves had to be removed and the ,stevens valves and ,sickels cut-off were substituted for them4 ,the story that any sane man ever designed a four-motion steam-engine valve1 and that he made the first application of it on the largest steamship1 except the ,great ,eastern1 then in the world1 is such a tax on credulity1 that ,i was glad to find the following corroboration of it in a letter to 8,power10 from which ,i copy the essential portion4 ,illustration3 ,,emil ,,brugsch 8,in one of ,mr4 ,porter's #8,reminiscences1' which ,i have mislaid1 he gives an account of the alterations to the last steamer of the ,e4 ,k4 ,collins lines1 the #8,adriatic4' ,his description of ,horatio ,allen's cock-valves and their motions is absolutely correct4 ,the writer made the greater part of the detail drawings by which the new valves and the ,sickels cut-off were placed on the #8,adriatic4' ,,peter ,,van ,,brock4 ,jefferson1 ,iowa40 ,these engines1 as further designed by ,mr4 ,allen1 were afterwards described by ,zerah ,colburn in the ,london ,engineer in his usual caustic style4 ,his description began with this expression3 8,these engines are fearfully and wonderfully made40 ,i had hoped that my old friend ,daniel ,kinnear ,clark might turn up as the ,english member in our group of judges at the ,centennial ,exposition1 but in this ,i was disappointed4 ,the ,english judge in our group was ,mr4 ,barlow1 son of the celebrated author of 8,a ,treatise on the ,strength of ,materials10 which1 if ,i remember rightly1 was the first authoritative treatise on that subject4 ,mr4 ,barlow1 however1 was not of much help to us2 he came late and attended but one meeting4 ,that1 ,i remember very well1 was the meeting at which ,i presented my classification4 ,he left ,philadelphia with his son to visit ,niagara ,falls1 and we never saw him again4 ,i remember his giving me a very cordial invitation to visit him when ,i should find myself in ,england4 ,two of my ,english engineering acquaintances appeared at this exhibition4 ,one of them was a judge in the group which embraced sewing machines4 ,i remember asking him what was the most interesting mechanical device he had seen at the exhibition2 he told me it was the automatic tension in the ,wilcox ,gibbs sewing machine4 ,in a walk with him through ,machinery ,hall one day1 ,i called his attention to a locomotive built by the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works4 ,after looking it over cursorily he remarked that he did not see anything particular in it4 ,i could not help replying1 8,that may not be the fault of the locomotive40 ,i had thought him a light weight in ,england1 and that superficial remark confirmed my opinion4 ,the other friend1 as ,i am proud to call him1 ,i have always considered mechanically the most interesting man ,i ever met4 ,it was ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,smith ,coventry1 the machine-tool builders of ,salford4 ,mr4 ,smith was the brains of the concern4 ,he had come over to learn what ,america could teach him1 and the only thing he took back1 so far as ,i know1 was the twist-drill1 the manufacture of which was begun by that firm after his return4 ,i shall have something to add later to what ,i have already said respecting his wonderful improvements in machine tools4 ,in one of the pleasant walks we took together1 our attention was arrested by the exhibit of ,riehl ,brothers1 the celebrated scale manufacturers of ,philadelphia4 ,among other novel and interesting features of their exhibit this firm showed a -inch bolt broken by a stress applied to it through a nut of only one half the standard thickness1 or three eighths of an inch deep1 and that run on loosely by hand4 ,this astonishing revelation drew from ,mr4 ,smith the ejaculation1 8,why1 old ,whitworth lied40 ,mr4 ,whitworth had stated that he had ascertained by experiment that a nut to be as strong as the bolt must have a depth equal to the diameter of the bolt1 and this had been accepted as mechanical truth by the entire engineering world1 no one ever thinking to make the simple measurement which would show that the force required to strip the threads of any bolt in a nut of this standard depth would be nearly three times the strength of the bolt4 ,he was1 of course1 highly interested in the wonderful steelyards made by this firm1 which would weigh anything that could be lifted by a crane4 ,his only discovery respecting machine tools was1 that their manufacture in the ,united ,states was generally very inferior4 ,it was fortunate that ,i had prepared the drawings according to my revised model for three or four sizes of the engines1 as otherwise ,i should not have been able to accept the position offered me at the ,philadelphia exposition4 ,i received two more orders before ,may #bd1 and two more during the summer1 but with the preparations ,i had made and ,mr4 ,goodfellow's familiarity with the work1 everything went on smoothly during my absence4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,engine ,building in ,newark4 ,introduction of ,harris ,tabor4 ,after my return from ,philadelphia the first order ,i received was a very important one4 ,on the advice of ,mr4 ,holley1 the ,albany and ,rensselaer ,iron and ,steel ,co4 of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 decided to order from me two engines for the new roll trains they were about to establish2 this being the first opportunity ,i had of applying my engine in what proved to be its most important field4 ,these were a #bbcf-;inch engine to drive a #af-;inch train for rolling light steel rails1 and an #ahcj-;inch engine to drive an #h- or #aj-;inch train for rolling merchant steel4 ,these engines did not run rapidly2 the first was a direct-connected engine making only #ge revolutions per minute2 the second made only #aab revolutions per minute1 but was belted to drive the train at twice that speed4 ,mr4 ,corning1 president of the company1 did not like the slow way in which the rails were turned out of the former train4 ,i happened to be standing with him observing this work when he asked a boy why the billets were not fed to the rolls faster4 ,the boy replied1 8,because the gentlemen at the hooks could not catch them1 sir40 ,where are the gentlemen at the hooks to-day1 when rails #bjj feet long are turned out of the rolls8 ,these engines stood near each other1 the trains extending in opposite directions4 ,the battery of boilers was located at a considerable distance from them4 ,i set between them a vertical steam receiver1 four feet in diameter and twelve feet high4 ,this receiver performed two functions3 it maintained the steam pressure at the cylinders and separated the steam from the water carried over4 ,this latter was accomplished by admitting the steam at the top of the receiver by a pipe extending two thirds of the way to the bottom1 draining the water from the bottom by means of a ,nason steam trap1 and taking the dry steam to the engine from the top of the receiver4 ,this was my first application of this method1 which afterwards proved most valuable in cases of greater importance4 ,these engines were of the highest interest to me1 as their successful running opened the door to that important field4 ,while they were still lying on the floor of the shop ready for shipment1 ,i had an opportunity of submitting them to the criticism of ,william ,r4 ,jones1 the manager of the ,edgar ,thompson ,steel ,works1 to whom1 as already related1 ,i had sold a small engine and governors for his large ones4 ,i had not made these engines properly in one respect1 as he pointed out to me that1 for rolling-mill uses1 they must be made capable of being run backwards by hand from any position1 a requirement of which ,i had been ignorant4 ,i soon made the necessary additions to the valve-gear which enabled this to be done4 ,i never knew how ,mr4 ,jones came to make this opportune visit1 but undoubtedly ,mr4 ,holley sent him4 ,i had another visitor before these engines were shipped4 ,it was the manager of the ,laclede rolling mill at ,st4 ,louis1 accompanied by his engineer4 ,they had designed a system of driving several trains of rolls from one engine1 the power of which was to be transmitted through gearing4 ,they were greatly fascinated by the appearance of the engines1 and gave me an order for a large engine on the spot4 ,this engine afforded me a curious experience4 ,when it was started1 teeth were broken out of the gear at the very first revolution1 and ,i received a telegram from them telling me of this misfortune and that ,i must come to ,st4 ,louis immediately and see what was the trouble with the engine4 ,i was too busy to go myself1 but ,mr4 ,phillips kindly permitted his engineer1 ,mr4 ,collins1 to go in my place4 ,mr4 ,collins took with him everything necessary to expose the defect1 whatever it might be1 which we expected would be found in the gearing4 ,among other things he had the pattern-maker prepare for him two or three short pieces of lath about two inches wide and one eighth of an inch thick2 these latter proved to be all that he needed4 ,on his arrival the proprietors assured him there could be no fault with the gearing1 for they had it made by the most eminent engineering firm in ,st4 ,louis4 ,the members of this firm showed him triumphantly the broken pieces and directed his attention to the perfect soundness of the metal1 as proved by the fractured surfaces4 ,his first experiment was to whittle an end of one piece of lath to fit exactly between two teeth of a wheel at one end of the space4 ,to his amazement he found that this templet would not fit in any other space around the whole wheel1 every one was in some degree or other too large or too small2 neither would the templet fit in the opposite end of the same space4 ,this one experiment settled the matter2 the engine1 to be sure1 had broken the gears1 because the larger teeth of the driving-wheels had wedged into the smaller spaces of the driven wheels4 ,how such work could be produced was a puzzle to ,mr4 ,collins2 as for myself1 ,i have never wondered at any imperfection in gearing since my experience with ,mr4 ,whitworth's work4 ,the owners of the rolling mill applied for advice to ,samuel ,t4 ,wellman1 the manager of the ,otis ,steel ,works at ,cleveland4 ,he gave them the sensible advice to abandon altogether the plan of driving through gearing1 and to drive each train by a separate engine1 directly connected1 which my high-speed engine would enable them to do4 ,this was the first ,i heard of ,mr4 ,wellman1 with whom ,i was afterwards to have such pleasant relations4 ,while on the subject of gearing ,i will state a couple of incidents4 ,one of my first small engines ,i sold to ,mr4 ,albright of ,newark1 a harness-maker4 ,half of the power of the engine was to be transmitted to an adjoining building driving a vertical shaft through a pair of miter gears4 ,it was required that these should run noiselessly1 which at #cej revolutions per minute seemed a difficult thing to accomplish4 ,i had the gears cut in the best gear cutter ,i knew of1 and fitted them to run in a lathe1 the spindle of the driven gear running in a frame made for the purpose1 and being provided with a friction wheel and brake4 ,to make sure that the same teeth and spaces should always come together1 ,i made a prick-punch mark on one tooth and behind the corresponding space4 ,when started at #cej revolutions they rattled finely4 ,the resistance of the friction brake was sufficient to make the points of contact on the teeth mark themselves well in #ae minutes' running4 ,i then took them down and carefully removed the bright spots on the surface with a scraper4 ,the next time the noise was more than half gone1 and four successive scrapings by a skillful workman cured it entirely4 ,there is this encouragement in correcting gearing1 that its subsequent running always tends to improve the truth of the surfaces2 they wear to a more general contact4 ,one day ,i had a letter from ,mr4 ,barclay1 the miller for whom ,i had made my first engine in ,harlem1 and which ,i arranged to drive his millstones by belting4 ,he told me he had moved his mill from ,harrison ,street to a building on ,north ,moore ,street1 ,new ,york1 and he found there was something the matter with the engine4 7,in these cases there is always something the matter with the engine47 ,it used to drive three runs of stones1 now it would only drive two1 and he burned a great deal more coal than before4 ,he wanted me to come and see what the matter was4 ,the moment ,i opened the door of his mill ,i knew what the matter was4 ,i heard the roar of rough gearing and was pretty mad4 ,i told him ,i hoped he liked that music1 for it cost him more than half the coal he was burning to keep it up4 ,i gave him a sharp piece of my mind for changing the system of driving from that which ,i had provided without consulting me on the subject4 ,i told him when he threw out his gearing and put the pulleys and belts back just as ,i made them1 he would find the engine would give him the same power that it had done for five or six years in its old location4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,w4 ,,hunt ,in the first engines which ,i built in ,newark the governor had a more or less uncomfortable action4 ,this annoyed me exceedingly4 ,it did not sensibly affect the running of the engine1 but was a drawback to the appearance of the engine in motion4 ,i was utterly at a loss how to account for it1 so ,i finally determined ,i would solve the problem by a comparison of two engines of the same size4 ,one of these was the smaller engine for the rolling mill at ,troy1 where the action of the governor was quite satisfactory2 the other was an engine ,i had made for the ,newark ,lime and ,cement ,company1 in which the action of the governor was very unsatisfactory4 ,after some weeks of comparison ,i gave the problem up3 ,i could get no light on the subject4 ,soon after ,i had occasion to go to ,troy and found my smaller engine running at double its former speed or at #bbd revolutions per minute4 ,mr4 ,robert ,w4 ,hunt1 the general superintendent1 informed me that they planned to employ this speed when rolling steel to finish at very small sizes1 which they were then doing for the first time4 ,the action of the governor which had before been so perfect was now most abominable2 the counterpoise flying up and down furiously between the extreme points of its action4 ,i told ,mr4 ,hunt that something was hindering the action of the governor1 and asked him if he would have an examination made and let me know what he found4 ,a few days after ,i received a letter from him saying he had found nothing at all1 but he added that that order had been completed and the engine was running at its old speed1 and the governor was working as well as ever4 ,in an instant the truth flashed upon me2 it was the inertia of those polished cast-iron disks on the rocker-shaft which ,i had thought so much of that caused all the trouble4 ,this inertia1 increasing as the square of the speed1 had offered four times the resistance to the reversing of their motion when the speed of the engine was doubled1 and the pressure of the link which was necessary to overcome this resistance held the block fast4 ,the governor could not move it until it had accumulated sufficient force by change of its speed2 then it moved it too far1 and so it was kept in constant violent motion from one end to the other of its range of action4 ,i was thoroughly ashamed of myself that when ,i had made the subject of inertia a study for years this action should have been going on so long1 the most prominent thing before my eyes1 and ,i never saw it4 ,i had use enough at once for my new insight as will appear4 ,the ,gautier steel works1 which had been located in ,jersey ,city1 were removing to ,johnstown1 ,penn41 having formed an alliance with the ,cambria ,iron and ,steel ,company4 ,mr4 ,stephen ,w4 ,baldwin1 then manager of the ,gautier ,company1 had given me an order for an engine suitable for driving at #bcj revolutions per minute their ten-inch train1 or it may have been an eight-inch4 ,i went to ,jersey ,city and made a careful measurement of the indicated power required to drive this train4 ,the engine used was rather a large one1 with a large and heavy fly-wheel running at slow speed and driving the train at this rapid speed by means of a belt4 ,i found that my #aj-;inch by #bj-;inch engine directly connected with the train would1 at #bcj revolutions per minute1 be capable of furnishing twice the power they were then using4 ,i built an engine of that size with a fly-wheel about #h feet in diameter1 shipped it to ,johnstown1 and sent ,george ,garraty1 my most trusty erecter1 to set it up4 ,i should say that ,mr4 ,baldwin had meantime severed his connection with the ,gautier ,steel ,company1 and it was then in the hands of parties who were strangers to my engines4 ,i received a letter from ,garraty stating that on his arrival he had found them just about to send the engine back2 everybody about the works had agreed that a man who sent that little engine to drive that train to roll steel was a fool4 ,at his solicitation they promised to do nothing until they should hear from me4 ,i then wrote to the president1 ,mr4 ,douglas1 stating ,i had carefully measured the utmost power which that train had required at ,jersey ,city1 and had furnished an engine capable of supplying double that power with ease1 and ,i was sure he would run no risk in setting it up4 ,this he consented to do4 ,while ,garraty was erecting the engine they were making preparations in the mill to stall it if possible4 ,there was great excitement when it was started2 the furnace men worked like beavers and succeeded in feeding billets to the train twice as rapidly as ever before1 but they could not bring down its speed in the least4 ,finally they lowered the steam pressure1 but the engine did not stop until they had brought this down to #dj pounds4 ,then a great shout went up1 not for themselves but for the engine1 which had shown itself capable of doubling the output of that train1 and telegrams were hurried off to the stockholders of the concern in ,new ,york and ,philadelphia to relieve their anxiety4 ,garraty left that night and reported himself to me the following morning4 ,after giving an account of the success of the engine he added3 8,but the governor is working very badly2 they have not noticed it yet as they have thought only of the running of the train1 but they will40 ,by a remarkable coincidence ,i had that very morning received the letter from ,mr4 ,hunt which had opened my eyes to the cause of this bad action2 the day before ,i could not have understood it4 ,illustration3 ,,stephen ,w4 ,,baldwin ,within twenty-four hours after my interview with ,garraty ,i had started for ,johnstown1 carrying with me two light steel levers to replace those disks4 ,in that time ,i had made the drawings and had the levers forged and finished1 joint-pins set and keyways cut1 perfect duplicates of the disks in all their working features4 ,when ,i told my purpose to ,mr4 ,douglas he smiled and said for the life of him he could not see what disks on the rocker-shaft had to do with the governor action4 ,however1 they had not yet started their night shift1 so ,i might have the engine after #f o'clock1 but it must be ready for use at #f o'clock the next morning4 ,i told him that as the change would probably occupy me less than an hour1 ,i thought ,i might safely assure him on that point4 ,i engaged a machinist with the engineer to help me at #g o'clock in the evening and amused myself the rest of the day about the mill4 ,the furious governor action was so irritating ,i did not stay long in the engine-room4 ,in the evening we had the disks off and the levers on and all connected up1 ran the engine idle for a few minutes to see that all was right and ,i was back in my hotel within the hour1 which illustrated the advantage of working to gauges4 ,i had taken off #bi pounds weight1 that being the difference between the weight of the disks and the levers4 ,next morning ,i went down to see the effect of this change4 ,it seemed magical4 ,the governor appeared to have gone to sleep1 it was not taking any interest in the activity about it2 the counterpoise stood at about the middle of its range of action1 only moving lazily a short distance up or down occasionally4 ,after calling ,mr4 ,douglas in to see what disks on the rocker-shaft1 with their motion reversed #dfj times a minute1 had to do with the governor action1 and hearing his expressions of admiration1 ,i took the next train home4 ,as might be supposed ,i was not long in eliminating all traces of this blunder from drawings and from engines already made4 ,i had an order from ,john ,w4 ,hyatt of ,newark for a #fab-;inch engine to make #dej revolutions per minute1 to drive an attrition mill running at #ijj revolutions per minute1 in which he pulverized bones to dust for manufacturing artificial ivory4 ,this was the highest number of revolutions per minute that ,i had ever employed1 and perhaps it was the most absolutely silent running engine that ,i ever made4 ,not long after its completion ,i had a call from a young gentleman who introduced himself to me as ,harris ,tabor4 ,he told me he had invented a steam-engine indicator which he thought would be superior to the ,richards indicator1 as the pencil movement was very much lighter and would draw a straight vertical line4 ,he said he called in the hope that ,i might give him an opportunity to test his indicator on a very high-speed engine4 ,i told him ,i thought ,i could do just what he wanted4 ,i took him down to ,mr4 ,hyatt's place where the engine was running with the indicator rig on it which ,i had been using2 he was1 of course1 greatly pleased with this remarkable opportunity4 ,he took a number of diagrams with his indicator1 and they proved to be quite free from the vibrations which were produced by the ,richards indicator at the same speed4 ,i gave him a certificate that these diagrams had been taken by his indicator from a ,porter-,allen engine at a speed of #dej revolutions per minute4 ,with these he started for ,boston to see ,mr4 ,ashcroft4 ,with the result of that interview the engineering world is familiar4 ,to my great regret not one of the diagrams taken at that time has been preserved either by ,mr4 ,tabor1 ,mr4 ,ashcroft or myself1 an omission that none of us can account for4 ,the ,hyatt plant was afterwards1 ,i understood1 removed to ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,i had a singular experience with another #fab-;inch engine which ,i sold to ,william ,a4 ,sweet1 elder brother of ,prof4 ,john ,e4 ,sweet1 for use in his spring manufactory in ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,sweet had two batteries of boilers set at some distance from each other and at different elevations2 these were connected by a pipe which was necessarily inclined4 ,about the middle of the length of this pipe a stop-valve had been introduced1 and when this valve was shut the pipe in the upper end of it was1 of course1 partly filled with water4 ,my engine received its steam from the bottom of this pipe below the stop-valve4 ,the boilers at the lower end were one day overloaded1 and while ,i happened to be present ,mr4 ,sweet himself opened the stop-valve for the purpose of getting an additional supply of steam from the upper battery1 but he did not get it4 ,what he did get was a charge of solid water1 which brought my engine to an instantaneous stop from a speed of #cej revolutions per minute4 ,i was standing near the engine and saw shooting out from the joint of the back cylinder head a sheet of water1 which at the top struck the roof of the building4 ,on examination it was found that the steel key of the fly-wheel had been driven into the wrought-iron shaft almost half an inch and the shaft was bent4 ,the engine suffered no other injury2 the bolts of the cylinder head had not been strained to their elastic limit1 and the nuts did not require to be tightened4 ,the shaft was straightened1 new key-seats were cut for the fly-wheel1 and the engine worked as well as ever--a pretty good proof of its general strength4 ,illustration3 ,,harris ,,tabor ,i had a couple of funny experiences arising out of my new way of boring fly-wheels and belt-drums4 ,i sold an engine to ,mr4 ,westinghouse for his original shop in ,pittsburg1 before the appearance of the ,westinghouse engine4 ,they erected it for themselves4 ,i received a telegram from their superintendent1 reading3 8,the hole in your wheel hub is oblong1 what shall we do about it80 ,to which ,i wired back3 8,put the wheel on the shaft and drive in the key40 ,another superintendent discovered the same unaccountably bad piece of work1 and did not communicate with me4 ,he did the best he could by centering the shaft in the hole and filling the spaces on each side with thin iron scarfed down on each edge4 ,then the key would not enter the keyway2 so he reduced it until it would4 ,then the wheel ran an eighth of an inch out of truth4 ,then he unstopped the vials of his wrath and poured out their contents on my devoted head4 ,i had an order from ,mr4 ,mathieson1 manager of the works of the ,national ,tube ,company1 at ,mc,keesport1 ,penn41 for two engines1 #bh and #cb inches diameter1 with #dh inches stroke4 ,the interest of this story centers in the former of these engines1 which made #abe revolutions per minute4 ,one day the governor spindle stuck fast in its column1 an accident ,i never knew to happen before or since1 whether caused by a tight fit or for want of lubrication ,i do not know4 ,of course the engine ran away like mad4 ,mr4 ,mathieson and ,i were in the engine-room2 the last ,i saw of him his coat skirt was nearly horizontal as he rushed through the door4 ,the engineer ran to screw down the starting-valve4 ,i thought that would be too long a process and ran in front of the fly-wheel to unhook the gab4 ,on the instant1 however1 ,i feared what might be the possible effect in the cylinder of instantly arresting the motion of the admission valves at an unknown point in the stroke at that speed1 and ,i did not do it4 ,in a few seconds the engineer had the valve closed1 and the engine soon slowed down4 ,the fly-wheel1 which was #bj feet in diameter1 did not burst1 and ,i was confident it would not4 ,i never had an accident to a fly-wheel1 but this was the most severe test to which my fly-wheels were ever subjected4 ,i have heard of many accidents to fly-wheels1 in which it was evident that they were so carelessly made it seemed as if they were intended to burst on a moderate acceleration of their speed4 ,this fly-wheel was necessarily made in halves in order to transport it1 and the joints were so made as to be as strong as the section of the rim4 ,as the accompanying drawing will show1 they were held together by two steel loops opened out of the solid and shrunk in4 ,it will be seen that any section of cast iron at this point was equal to the section of the rim1 while the steel loops were stronger4 ,the halves of the hub were held together by bolts and steel rings4 ,i sold an engine for a rubber manufactory in ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 and some months after received a letter from the proprietor saying he had been adding to his machinery and the engine would not drive it all and would not give its guaranteed power1 and he wanted me to come immediately and see what was the matter with it4 ,on going into the boiler-room ,i saw that the steam-gauge showed only #ee pounds pressure4 ,i asked the engineer why he carried so little pressure1 and he told me that the safety-valve was set to blow off at #fj pounds1 which he considered to be all the pressure a boiler ought to carry2 that he had been an engineer several years on the ,lakes1 where #fj pounds was the greatest pressure allowed4 ,i asked the proprietor if he had his boiler insured2 he said he had1 in the ,hartford ,boiler ,insurance ,company4 ,i said ,i supposed that company had an agent in ,cleveland4 ,he said3 8,yes1 and his office is around the corner on this block1 and if you want to see him ,i presume ,i can have him here in ten minutes40 ,pretty soon he appeared1 and ,i said to him3 8,i understand you have insured this boiler40 8,yes40 8,have you made a personal examination of it80 8,i have40 8,what would you consider a safe pressure to carry80 8,one hundred and twenty pounds40 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,porter's ,fly-wheel4 8,would you hold it insured at that pressure80 8,certainly1 it would be perfectly safe40 8,now10 said ,i to the proprietor1 8you will observe that my guarantee of power assumes a pressure of #he pounds1 and you have no excuse for not carrying that pressure1 and if you do so you will have no trouble2 as for the practice on the ,lakes1 if you will come to ,new ,york we will show you that on our river and sound steamboats the practice is to carry only #be pounds pressure40 ,he readily agreed to carry the higher pressure1 which he found ample2 so ,i was fooled into going to ,cleveland pretty much for nothing4 ,afterwards ,i went there to a better purpose4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,engine for the ,cambria ,iron and ,steel ,company4 ,the uniform success of my rolling-mill engines encouraged the ,cambria ,iron and ,steel ,company1 of ,johnstown1 ,penn41 again on the advice of ,mr4 ,holley1 to order from me an engine to drive their rail-train4 ,for this purpose ,i made the largest engine ,i had yet made1 #dj-;inch cylinder by #dh-;inch stroke4 ,it was altogether too large to be built in the ,hewes ,phillips ,iron ,works1 so ,i had the parts1 except the valve-gear1 constructed in three different establishments in ,philadelphia4 ,the bed1 which weighed #dj1jjj pounds1 was cast and finished at the ,i4 ,p4 ,morris ,company's works1 the cylinder was cast and finished by ,mr4 ,james ,moore1 who also turned the shaft1 and the crank-disk was turned and bored by ,william ,sellers ,co4 ,the several parts were not brought together until they met at ,johnstown4 ,the ,cambria ,company made their own fly-wheel4 ,i spent considerable time while the work was in progress in traveling between ,newark and ,philadelphia1 carrying measuring-rods1 templets and gauges4 ,i put the engine together myself1 and everything came together without a hitch1 which confirmed me in the belief that putting engines together and taking them down again in the shop was a great waste of time and space1 and the manufacturing system which ,i was planning in my mind ,i intended should be wholly a manufacture of pieces to be kept in stock1 and orders filled by shipment of the separate parts direct from the storehouse4 ,the boilers at ,johnstown were located over the heating furnaces1 utilizing their waste heat1 and were scattered all over the works4 ,the largest steam-pipes were #h inches in diameter4 ,i gave them an order to make a steam-receiver #e feet in diameter and #ae feet high1 to be set close to the cylinder of the engine4 ,they made it #ah feet high1 the width of the sheets favoring this greater height4 ,i took the steam by an #h-;inch pipe entering at the top of this receiver and extending down #ab feet2 from the top of the receiver ,i took the steam over to the engine by a #ab-;inch pipe4 ,i drained the water from the bottom of this receiver by the largest ,nason trap1 from which a one-inch stream of water was delivered continually4 ,i set in the side of this receiver four try-cocks1 one above another four feet apart4 ,from the lowest1 six feet from the bottom1 the steam blew as white as a sheet1 from each one successively it blew with less color1 and from the upper one it was quite invisible4 ,i set a steam-gauge on this receiver1 and it showed that when the greatest resistance was on the engine the pressure did not fall more than three pounds4 ,this assurance of dry steam in the cylinder was vital to the success of the engine4 ,the engine was started at #hj revolutions per minute4 ,this was the same speed at which their old engine was supposed to run1 but practically its speed had always fallen to #fj revolutions whenever two passes were in the rolls together4 ,i should say here that the new engine was set at the opposite end of the train from the old one1 and the only change made was disconnecting the old engine and connecting the new one4 ,the advantage was found in the fact that with the new engine four or even five passes could be in the rolls simultaneously and the speed of the engine never fell sensibly below #hj revolutions per minute4 ,the result was that the first week the train turned out #bdjj tons of rails instead of #abjj tons1 which was the former limit4 ,this latter was a product of which they had been quite proud and which they claimed exceeded that of any other mill4 ,mr4 ,daniel ,n4 ,jones1 their chief engineer1 increased the speed of the engine five revolutions per minute each week for four successive weeks by changing the governor pulley for a larger one4 ,this he did every ,sunday when the mill was idle1 increasing the speed finally to #ajj revolutions per minute and the production to #cjjj tons per week4 ,he prided himself on doing this without the men at the hooks finding it out1 which if they had done might have made trouble4 ,this seems a very small thing to say when for many years the output of a rail-train has been #cjjj tons a day without the aid of human hands2 but at that time it was considered an immense achievement4 ,it was also a remarkable thing for the company financially1 as directly after a greatly increased demand for steel rails appeared and the price rose to #fj per ton1 at which it was maintained for some time4 ,illustration3 ,,daniel ,n4 ,,jones ,this thoughtful act of ,mr4 ,jones was an example of his magnificent co-operation with me in all my work4 ,mr4 ,jones had insisted that the cylinder should have a support at the back end1 as he felt sure that without it the running of the piston1 weighing #cfjj pounds1 would produce a deflection2 so a support was built under the end of the cylinder1 which was cast with a corresponding projection underneath4 ,these surfaces were planed parallel with each other1 but ,i took pains to secure a space between them sufficient to admit a sheet of paper1 and when the engine was running ,i was able to draw a sheet of paper through that space without its being seized1 showing the support of the cylinder from the bed to be sufficient1 as ,i had claimed it would be4 ,mr4 ,jones laughed4 ,illustration3 ,connection of ,arms and ,rim in ,mr4 ,fritz' ,fly-wheel ,the fly-wheel which the ,cambria ,company made for this engine interested me greatly4 ,the hub and arms were cast in one piece as a spider and1 of course1 were free from internal strain4 ,the rim was also cast in one piece4 ,the manner in which the arms were united to the rim is shown in the accompanying cut4 ,the spaces at the sides and end were inch wide2 these were filled with oak1 into which long slender steel wedges were driven from each side1 as many as they would contain4 ,this wonderful fly-wheel1 ,i learned1 was the invention of ,mr4 ,john ,fritz1 made while he was superintendent of the ,cambria ,works4 ,the engine had many visitors1 among whom ,i particularly remember ,mr4 ,otis and ,mr4 ,wellman1 whom ,i happened to meet there4 ,their visit resulted in an order for an engine of the same size to drive the new plate-mill which ,mr4 ,otis was about building4 ,i received also three other orders for duplicates of this engine1 one from the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,company1 one from the ,bethlehem ,steel ,company1 and a second order from the ,cambria ,company themselves4 ,the order from the ,bethlehem ,steel ,company was given me by ,mr4 ,john ,fritz1 then its superintendent and engineer1 the inventor of the three-high train of rolls1 and the designer of all their machinery for rolling both rails and armor-plates4 ,an incident connected with the order from the ,cambria ,company ,i will mention1 as showing the contrast between the brutal and the considerate way of doing business4 ,i received a telegram from the ,cambria ,company1 reading3 8,you are wanted here at once about another engine40 ,i learned afterward that this telegram as written by ,mr4 ,powell ,stackhouse1 the general manager1 did not contain the last three words1 but read3 8,you are wanted here at once40 ,mr4 ,stackhouse had written this telegram and laid it on his table for a boy to take to the telegraph operator4 ,at that moment ,mr4 ,jones came into his office and read the telegram1 when the following conversation took place3 ,mr4 ,jones3 8,it will never do to send this in that shape40 ,mr4 ,stackhouse3 8,why not80 ,mr4 ,jones3 8,it will break ,porter all up40 ,mr4 ,stackhouse3 8,how so80 ,mr4 ,jones3 8,the only thing he can think of will be that some great disaster has happened to his engine40 ,no answer4 ,mr4 ,jones thereupon added the words 8about another engine10 which changed somewhat the impression which the telegram was calculated to produce4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,,fritz ,these orders for four more engines of the largest size on my list were afterwards supplemented by a similar order from the ,albany and ,rensselaer ,iron and ,steel ,company1 making in all five1 or with the one then running six from the same patterns4 ,the more rapid rolling was found to possess advantages beyond the merely increased output4 ,it insured a uniform excellence in the product1 which could not otherwise be attained even by the utmost care1 and it effected several important economies4 ,mr4 ,jones had recently completed and put in operation a new blooming-train1 then the largest in the world1 for which the size of the ingots to be rolled was increased from #ab inches square to #ag inches square at the base1 and the capacity of the ,bessemer converters was increased in the same proportion4 ,the output of this mill was much greater than the rail-train could dispose of1 and a large pile of cold blooms had accumulated in the yard4 ,a force of about thirty men was employed in chipping out all defects in these blooms which might cause rails to be classed as 8seconds40 ,after my engine had been started it was soon observed that1 between the shorter time of exposure and the greater rapidity with which heat was imparted to the rails by the rolling1 the original heat of the blooms was very nearly maintained to the end of the process1 every defect was welded up1 and a perfect rail was produced1 so the chipping of the blooms was no longer necessary4 ,it was not a great while before the accumulation of the blooms in the yard was disposed of and the hot blooms were brought directly from the blooming-mill4 ,these1 of course1 were more readily reheated1 and moreover1 to the surprise of the workmen1 less power was required to roll them1 and the rolls endured much longer without needing to be re-turned4 ,the explanation was that the cold blooms had never been thoroughly heated in the middle4 ,this was the beginning of maintaining the original heat of the ingot1 which has since been turned to such great advantage4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,my ,downward ,progress4 ,i had now reached the top of my engineering career2 ,i had devoted myself for twenty years to the development of the high-speed engine and to the study of the best means and method of its manufacture1 and had introduced into it designs and workmanship of an excellence before unknown in steam-engine construction4 ,i had solved all the theoretical problems involved in the running of high-speed engines1 and1 starting from ,mr4 ,allen's inventions of the single eccentric link and the four-opening balanced valve with the adjustable pressure-plate1 and my governor1 had designed every constructive feature and detail of this engine4 ,i had been for four years carrying on the business of the manufacture of these engines in my own name as sole proprietor1 but1 as already stated1 without a cent of capital4 ,i had in this time built between forty and fifty engines of every size on my list1 from the smallest to the largest1 except two1 the #dd-;inch diameter cylinder having been added after my time4 ,considering my business as an organization1 ,i had been president1 secretary1 treasurer1 general manager1 chief engineer1 inspector1 and draftsman4 ,at any rate1 the duties belonging to all those positions had been performed by me with satisfactory results4 ,i made every drawing1 both general and detail1 with my own hands1 having only the help of a young man who made my tracings1 and when he had time helped me with my section lining4 ,at that time blue-printing had not come into use2 drawings were made on white drawing-paper and were inked in1 and the tracings were made for the shop2 ,i began to use the blue-print system when ,i removed to ,philadelphia4 ,every one was loyal to me1 ,i could always rely upon my instructions being faithfully followed1 so the work ran as smoothly as the engines themselves2 we were1 however1 much hindered by the poor tools we had to use4 ,these were a fair average of ,american tools at that time1 but ,mr4 ,goodfellow and myself estimated their output to average only about one half that which we expected in our contemplated works4 ,besides this1 ,i could not establish piece-work prices or introduce any systematic methods4 ,i became gradually swamped with orders4 ,these outgrew the capacity of the ,hewes ,phillips ,works1 or of that portion which ,i could use4 ,before ,i left there1 besides the four large orders already named1 amounting altogether to #dh1jjj f4o4b41 without fly-wheels1 and which could not be handled in these works1 ,i had accepted orders for smaller engines sufficient to bring the aggregate up to #abe1jjj4 ,these latter were more than ,i could manage alone1 so ,i had arranged to have some of these also made1 or partially made1 in other shops4 ,from this point my path sloped steeply downward to the grave of all my hopes2 in about two years and eight months the business had dwindled to practically nothing1 and ,i1 as the party held responsible for this result1 was turned out of the ,southwark ,foundry into the street4 ,at the bottom this was entirely my own fault4 ,no one could ask to be associated with a better body of men than were those who united to sink their money in the manufacture of the ,porter-,allen engines4 ,my aim had been to reach a point where ,i could command the capital necessary to establish my business according to the plan which ,i had cherished ever since my return from ,england1 but on a much larger scale than ,i then contemplated4 ,i had now reached that point4 ,parties who were finding themselves enriched by my engine were ready to pour out their money like water for my use2 but there was something else that ,i needed even more than their money1 without which indeed1 as the event proved1 their money was of no use at all4 ,that was their respect for me and confidence in me as a strong business man2 my record would have sufficiently justified that confidence1 but of this they were ignorant4 ,they had no means to form a judgment of me except what ,i did then and there4 ,i never thought of this supreme requirement1 and in response to their request made them an offer which1 regarded from their point of view1 appeared so unbusinesslike that they could form only one conclusion1 that while unquestionably ,i could make engines all right1 in matters of business ,i was a mere baby whose opinion on business matters was not to be regarded seriously4 ,how came ,i to do myself1 and them also1 as the victims of their mistaken judgment1 this injustice8 ,my whole life was bound up in the engine2 ,i cared nothing for money except to develop its manufacture2 ,i felt that every dollar paid to myself would leave so much less for this purpose4 ,i asked nothing for the good-will of my business1 for ,i was not selling it2 they were putting money into my business1 which1 of course1 ,i would continue to carry on as ,i had done4 ,this was my mistaken view4 ,i consulted fully with ,mr4 ,hope1 whose interest was equal with mine1 and he viewed the matter precisely as ,i did4 ,although standing at the head of his profession as a fire underwriter1 he had not the special business training or experience that would enable him to give me the advice ,i needed1 so ,i told them that if a company should be formed to manufacture the engines with #hjj1jjj capital1 ,i would assign to it my patents for #ajj1jjj of its stock1 the value of which ,i assumed ,i would increase several fold in a few years4 ,beyond this ,i assumed everything and made sure of nothing1 so our minds never came together4 ,i did not assert myself because it never occurred to me that ,i needed to do so4 ,they could not understand my position4 ,they could not appreciate my sentiment4 ,they were business men1 and did business on strictly business principles4 ,what their position was ,i came to understand later4 ,from the fact that ,i did not stipulate for it they concluded that ,i did not expect the presidency of the company1 but had yielded it to them1 which they accepted1 of course1 in accordance with the general usage that capital takes the direction of a business which it knows nothing about1 relying upon skilled experts in its various departments4 ,thus by my failure to realize their necessary position and to lay before them a thoroughly business-like proposition1 demanding for myself the practical direction of the business and a proper sum for the patents and the good-will of the business1 and assuring to them the safety and disposition of their money the enterprise was doomed from the start4 ,an excellent opportunity seemed to offer itself for going right on with my business without the delay which would be involved in the erection of new works4 ,the ,southwark ,foundry was in the market for sale4 ,these were the old engineering works of the firm of ,s4 ,v4 ,merrick ,sons2 they were famous works before the war1 when they were largely devoted to the manufacture of municipal gas and water plants1 having1 ,i think1 a monopoly of this class of work1 for which they were especially equipped4 ,during the war they had built engines for some government vessels4 ,a few years after the war the elder ,mr4 ,merrick died1 and his two sons1 ,j4 ,vaughan and ,william ,h4 ,merrick1 retired from business1 and these works were closed4 ,in company with several of the gentlemen interested ,i was shown over the works by ,william ,h4 ,merrick and was very favorably impressed with them4 ,they covered a large plot of ground1 the front extending from ,fourth to ,fifth streets on the south side of ,washington ,avenue1 in ,philadelphia2 they were favorably located with respect to transportation facilities1 a branch of the ,philadelphia and ,baltimore ,railroad ran through this avenue to the ,delaware ,river1 and two switches from these tracks entered the works1 one going to the foundry and one to the erecting-floor4 ,this floor was commanded by three cranes1 operated by power1 the largest ,i had ever seen1 while an annex to the foundry was commanded by a steam-crane of equal size1 and the main foundry floor was provided with an overhead traveler1 the only one at that time in the country4 ,the machine-shop was a large three-story building1 the first and second floors of which1 as well as the erecting-shop1 were filled with tools1 some of them of large size4 ,i was particularly impressed by the great planer1 the largest in the country1 capable of passing objects twelve feet square4 ,the office was provided with a large fire-proof vault which was carried up to the second story for the use of the drawing-office4 ,i expressed myself decidedly in favor of purchasing these works4 ,i could form no judgment respecting the tools1 all their working parts being coated with a composition of white lead and tallow2 but ,i did not care much about them1 because ,i should speedily fill the works with the latest improved tools1 most of which ,i expected to import from ,england4 ,a contract was immediately made for the purchase of these works1 in part payment for which the ,merrick brothers were to accept stock in the proposed company4 ,thus they became numbered among our stockholders4 ,i was next invited to attend a meeting of a few gentlemen held at the office of the ,cambria ,company to arrange a slate for the action of the subscribers at a meeting which had been called for organization4 ,this first meeting was full of surprises to me4 ,i went into it expecting the gentlemen to say to me3 8,of course1 ,mr4 ,porter1 you will accept the office of president80 quite unconscious that ,i had made it impossible for them to think of such a thing1 but quite conscious that no amateur in that position could by any possibility make the business successful1 unless he should commit the management entirely to my hands and content himself with being a mere figurehead4 ,mr4 ,townsend1 the president of the ,cambria ,company and the leading mover in this enterprise1 called the meeting to order and announced that the first question to be settled would be the name of the company4 ,i remarked3 8,there can be but one name for it3 the ,porter-,allen ,steam-engine ,manufacturing ,company40 ,then ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,merrick spoke up3 8,i don't know about that2 of course1 no one can imagine that the manufacture of these engines can employ all the resources of these great works2 there is a vast amount of work of the character formerly carried on in them which will naturally flow back to them1 and ,i think the door should be left open for its return40 ,i expressed my amazement at such a view2 ,i had not come there to revive any old business1 but to make the ,porter-,allen engine and nothing else2 that it must be obvious to any observer that my business only required suitable means for carrying it on to grow to great proportions1 and the resources of these works1 whatever they were1 would need to be greatly enlarged for its use1 and besides the name ought to describe and advertise the business4 ,when a vote was taken every man voted for the historic ,philadelphia name of the 8,southwark ,foundry10 to which they added 8and ,machine ,company10 and ,i discovered that my views had no weight at all4 ,i had afterwards the pleasure of being asked by my friends occasionally what good ,i supposed that name would do my business4 ,the next subject was the selection of a president1 and my next discovery was that ,i was not even thought of4 ,if any one had been asked why he had not thought of me he would1 from his point of view1 very properly have replied that 8to commit the interests of this company to a man who had shown so little ability to look out for his own interests did not impress him favorably40 ,every vote was cast for ,william ,h4 ,merrick1 and ,i was selected as vice-president1 with charge of the manufacturing4 ,a day or two after1 the meeting was held which had been called for the purpose of hearing the report of the patent expert and organizing the company4 ,at this meeting the expert was not prepared to report1 as an application for the reissue of an important patent was still pending4 ,mr4 ,merrick moved that a temporary organization be then effected1 so that we might proceed at once with work on pressing orders4 ,on my assurance that this reissue was certain to be allowed1 the motion was adopted and a temporary board of directors was elected4 ,mr4 ,merrick and myself were elected president and vice-president respectively4 ,mr4 ,merrick told me afterwards that he made the motion because he knew that those twenty-one gentlemen there assembled could never be got together again if this meeting should prove fruitless4 ,the directors held a meeting immediately after1 and at this meeting ,i presented a letter which ,i had written to the chairman of the meeting called for organization1 setting forth the requirements of the engine for the latest and most improved tools and asking for an immediate appropriation of #ajj1jjj for their purchase1 as time was of the utmost consequence4 ,to this ,mr4 ,merrick replied that such action would be entirely unnecessary1 saying3 8,i assure you gentlemen1 and ,i assure ,mr4 ,porter1 that for a long time to come he will find in these works everything he can possibly desire40 ,of course ,i could make no reply to this positive statement1 and the matter was dropped4 ,we immediately took possession of the works1 and a large force of men were put at work cleaning the tools and getting them in working order2 ,i also had my drawings1 patterns1 and all work in progress brought from ,newark and from all shops where it had been commenced4 ,prominent among these latter were the bed1 cylinder and shaft of the first of the #djdh-;inch engines which were then ready for finishing4 ,in about two weeks from the date of this meeting ,mr4 ,goodfellow came into the office pale and trembling with excitement1 and addressing himself to me1 ,mr4 ,merrick sitting on the opposite side of the table1 said3 8,mr4 ,porter1 ,i give it up2 we might just as well be set down in a cotton-mill to make steam-engines2 there is not a tool in the place that has not spoiled every job that has been put in it1 from the day we came here4 ,i don't believe another such lot of antiquated and worn-out rubbish exists on the face of the earth40 ,this was not news to me1 as ,i had spent much of my time in the shop4 ,our most serious disappointment was the condition of their great planer2 we had hurried the above-mentioned engine bed on it as soon as it arrived1 and when it had been planed the surface plate was laid on the guide-bars1 which were #g feet #f inches long1 and it was found to rock on two diagonal corners more than an eighth of an inch1 showing a cross-wind of over half an inch in the whole length of the planer bed2 this of course rendered the tool useless in its present condition4 ,i had found that the means for boring the #dj-;inch cylinder and for finishing the shaft1 as well as for doing the other work for this engine1 were all equally useless1 and ,i proposed to ,mr4 ,merrick that these parts should all be sent back to the shops from which they had been brought and finished there1 and the engine altogether built in outside shops1 just as ,i had built the first one4 ,this he flatly refused to do1 saying he would not make such an exposure of our condition4 ,our plight may be understood when ,i state that it was over a year before we could deliver that first large engine1 although every effort was made to complete it1 the castings and forgings waiting for many months4 8,but10 exclaims the reader1 8why1 when this state of affairs was first discovered1 were not steps instantly taken to remedy it80 ,the answer to this question involves a very different subject4 ,when ,i had received in ,newark a letter from ,mr4 ,merrick requesting me to send on my patents for examination by an expert1 ,i was suddenly reminded that ,i had omitted to obtain the reissue of the latest patent which ,mr4 ,allen had obtained1 namely1 the one for his adjustable pressure-plate1 which had been so shockingly muddled by the ,washington agent of the patent solicitors that when we received it we could not understand the specification1 and the claims were absolutely meaningless4 ,however1 ,i had said to myself1 there will be time enough to have it reissued when it becomes necessary1 as applications for reissue are always passed upon immediately4 ,but before sending the patents on1 ,i prepared myself a new and clear specification for that patent and put it in my pocket4 ,in two or three days ,i followed the patents to ,philadelphia and met the patent solicitor2 he told me all the patents seemed to be well enough except this one1 and this he could make nothing out of4 ,i told him how that came to be such a muddle1 that ,i always intended to get it reissued and now would employ him to do it4 ,i produced the amended specification ,i had prepared for that reissue2 he read it and handed it back to me1 saying it would be of no use to him4 ,i instantly thought of the protest of ,mr4 ,perker3 8,really1 ,mr4 ,pickwick1 really1 my dear sir1 when one places a matter in the hands of a professional man he must not be interfered with2 indeed1 he must not1 my dear sir1 really40 ,i made an humble apology for my presumption1 but asked him if he would get the application in the next day at farthest1 that the reissue might be received in time for him to report on it at the meeting called for the organization of the company1 then some days distant4 ,he made no reply4 ,i soon found that ,i had fallen into the hands of a traitor who intended to use his professional power to strangle my enterprise in its birth1 and who never did give up his prey until it was torn from his fangs4 ,not hearing from him for a day or two1 ,i called to see what was the matter1 and was stunned by his telling me that he had determined not to apply for a reissue1 but to report against me on the patent as it stood1 saying that a reissue could not be got1 and if it was it would be good for nothing4 ,i attempted to argue the matter with him1 but found him firm4 ,i then went directly to the office of ,morgan ,lewis1 the attorneys for the company1 and told the story4 ,mr4 ,morgan said1 8,i will go and see him at once20 so we went together4 ,the expert repeated his determination to ,mr4 ,morgan1 and1 anxious that the latter should understand the merits of the case1 ,i presented it to the expert as plainly as ,i knew how1 ,mr4 ,morgan being an attentive listener4 ,many months afterwards ,i realized the vital importance of the lesson ,i then gave to ,mr4 ,morgan4 ,the expert persisted in his determination1 but consented to see ,mr4 ,morgan again the next day4 ,on our way back ,i said to ,mr4 ,morgan3 8,it seems to me that this man does not see the point of the application because he won't see it2 he doesn't want to see it40 ,mr4 ,morgan made the rather enigmatical reply3 8,it seems very plain to me40 ,the next day ,mr4 ,morgan made the point to the expert that he could not afford to take such a position as that--he could not sustain it4 ,he then consented to make the application1 but added what he had already said to me1 that he had no idea it would be granted1 and if it was1 it would be good for nothing4 ,it will hardly be credited that he was over two months in preparing this application1 getting it into a form in which he was sure it could not be allowed4 ,when it was finally shown to me ,i could not understand it4 ,it contained two references1 the pertinence of which ,i could not see2 he assured me1 however1 that it was the very best that could be done1 although he said he had very little hopes that it would be allowed4 ,sure enough1 in a few days the rejection was received from ,washington and a meeting was called to hear his report4 ,he used very strong language in making this report1 saying3 8,this rejection is final and the case is hopeless10 and walking over to where ,i was sitting1 he shook a paper in my face with an air as if ,i had been a detected felon and he held in his hand the proof of my rascality1 saying3 8,this is a paper ,i received from ,washington this morning that settles your hash1 sir40 ,when he sat down the silence might have been felt4 ,every one shrank from what appeared to them the inevitable and final step1 the adoption of a resolution to the effect3 8,whereas ,mr4 ,porter has failed to keep his agreement with us1 the whole matter be now dismissed from our further consideration40 ,i did not allow them much time for reflection1 but rose and made a little speech as follows3 8,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i have but a single word to say4 ,i have taken this case out of the expert's hands2 ,i expect to go to ,washington to-morrow morning and return in the afternoon1 and when ,i come back ,i shall bring this reissue with me40 ,no one said a word1 but ,i knew what was in every man's mind3 8,what a fool1 when our great ,philadelphian authority has spoken1 to imagine that he can do anything to change the result60 ,however1 there was no disposition to cut me off by any precipitate action1 and the meeting adjourned subject to the call of the chair1 every one feeling that it was a mere waste of time4 ,the next morning ,i was received by ,mr4 ,fowler1 the accomplished chief examiner in the class of steam-engines1 with his usual extreme courtesy4 ,he told me that he felt very sorry at finding himself obliged to reject my application1 but the very precedents cited in the application itself left him no alternative4 8,however10 he added1 8if you have anything new to present ,i shall be most happy to receive it40 ,in reply ,i handed to him the specification which had already done duty so ineffectively with the expert and in which ,i had not changed a syllable4 ,he read it through with fixed attention1 and the instant he finished he exclaimed3 8,why1 ,mr4 ,porter1 it is perfectly obvious that you are entitled to this reissue1 and the cases cited in the application have nothing to do with it2 but why was not this presented to me in the first place80 ,i told him ,i had prepared it for that purpose and placed it in the hands of the expert1 who1 after reading it1 returned it to me1 saying it would be of no use to him4 ,mr4 ,fowler instantly asked me if ,i had prepared any claims4 ,i told him ,i had1 because ,i could not get any one to prepare them for me2 but it was a new business to me1 and ,i had asked the advice of the expert about them1 who1 after reading them1 returned them to me without any suggestion1 merely remarking3 8,if you get these allowed you will be doing very well40 ,the moment ,mr4 ,fowler glanced at them he exclaimed3 8,oh1 ,mr4 ,porter1 we cannot allow any such claims as these2 they are functional claims1 which the ,patent ,office never allows40 ,then1 evidently seeing my helpless condition in the hands of a traitor1 he instantly added3 8,i shall be occupied this morning1 but if you will call at three o'clock ,i will have two claims prepared for you which will be allowed40 ,so the expert had let me go to ,washington with claims that he knew could not be allowed1 and sure that my errand would be fruitless4 ,but he did not imagine that the examiner would see through his treachery and thwart it4 ,at three o'clock our interview was brief2 as ,i entered ,mr4 ,fowler's room he handed me a paper1 saying3 8,these have been allowed2 you will receive the reissue in the course of three or four days1 and it will appear in next week's ,gazette4 ,good afternoon40 ,i suppose that ,i never looked on a countenance expressing more amazement than did that of ,mr4 ,merrick when next morning ,i handed him the copy of the claims and told him my brief story4 ,he said he could hardly believe his senses4 ,taking the paper1 he started for ,mr4 ,townsend's office1 and in the course of an hour all the parties in interest had been apprised of my easy triumph4 ,the reissue arrived as promised1 was placed in the expert's hands1 and a meeting was called to receive his report4 ,i thought my troubles were all over2 the case was an absolutely simple one1 there was no pretense that the invention was not new1 and he must report in its favor1 no matter how reluctant he might be to do so4 ,what was my amazement and fury when he quietly stated to the meeting that he had no report to make2 that the case involved very serious questions which would require much time for their consideration2 that the granting of the patent was nothing--it was the business of the ,patent ,office to grant patents1 not to refuse them1 but whether or not they would be sustained by the courts was entirely another matter1 about which in this case he had very grave doubts4 ,i now did what ,i never did before or since1 and what no good business man1 who is accustomed to accomplish his purposes1 ever allows himself to do3 ,i1 who always prided myself on being destitute of such a thing1 lost my temper4 ,and not only my temper1 but1 like ,tam ,o',shanter1 ,i lost my reason altogether4 ,already driven frantic by the frightful condition of affairs at the works1 which had been protracted over three months by this man's machinations1 and which he threatened to continue indefinitely while he should endeavor to find some means to accomplish his purpose of wrecking my business1 without an instant for reflection ,i shouted1 regardless of all proprieties3 8,you rascal6 ,what was the ,patent ,office doing a week ago when you reported to these gentlemen that this reissue had been refused1 that the decision was final and the case was hopeless2 what were they doing then1 ,i would like to know8 ,were they granting patents or refusing them8 ,the fact is1 you are either a traitor or know nothing about your business1 and you may hang on either horn of the dilemma you like10 and ,i sat down1 having in these few seconds done myself and my case more harm than anybody else could have done in a lifetime4 ,i did not reflect that ,i could not have the sympathy of my audience2 they knew nothing of the state of affairs at the works--this they had been kept in ignorance of1--nor of the consistent course of treachery which this man had been following4 ,all they could see was that ,i had used outrageous language1 for which they could not imagine any justification1 toward an eminent patent lawyer who enjoyed their confidence1 and they naturally supposed that was my usual way of doing business4 ,the chairman coldly informed me that the lawyer was their patent adviser and nothing whatever could be done until his report on the reissue should be received4 ,i had entered the room expecting to receive the congratulations of every one on the bold coup by which ,i had saved my business4 ,i left it unnoticed by any one4 ,the reader will not be much surprised to learn that it was months before we heard from him again--months more of frantic helplessness4 ,about the first of ,august ,i called at the expert's office and was informed that he had gone on his vacation and would be absent about six weeks1 and the case could not be taken up until his return4 ,in my desperation ,i called upon ,mr4 ,townsend and made to him a clean breast of our helpless condition1 and offered to pledge all our stock as security for a loan of the money necessary to buy a few of the most indispensable tools4 ,he replied to me3 8,suppose the report of the expert shall be adverse and the enterprise be abandoned1 what do you think your security will be worth80 ,i succeeded in saving one order from the wreck in rather a singular manner4 ,this was an order from ,mr4 ,lewis1 of ,cincinnati1 the projector of the cottonseed-oil business1 for an #ahcj-;inch engine to drive the machinery of their first oil-mill at ,houston1 ,texas4 ,i had built in ,newark an engine of the same size for ,senator ,jones of ,nevada1 to drive an ice-making plant which he was establishing in the city of ,new ,orleans4 ,word came to me sometime that spring that this enterprise had proved a failure1 the work had been abandoned1 and the engine1 their only asset of value1 was for sale4 ,i instantly bought it and sent a man down to transport it to ,houston and erect it there4 ,mr4 ,lewis wrote me from ,cincinnati an indignant letter at my sending him a second-hand engine4 ,i replied to him1 stating first it was my only possible way of filling his order at all1 as ,i did not know when we should be able to build an engine in our new works1 and1 second1 that it was a new engine1 having been run only a few weeks1 long enough to show its excellent condition and not so long as engines are often run in public exhibitions1 from which they are always sold as new4 ,mr4 ,lewis gracefully accepted my explanation1 and the engine was in readiness for them to grind the coming cottonseed crop4 ,the next summer we had a call from the agent of that mill1 who had come ,north during their idle interval1 while they were waiting for their next crop1 to make his report at ,cincinnati1 and had come out of his way to tell us of the wonderful manner in which that engine had carried them through their first season1 which he concluded by saying3 8,that is the engine for the cottonseed-oil business40 ,after he had gone ,i said to ,mr4 ,merrick3 8,that is an old story to me2 everybody says that is the engine for their business1 whatever their business may happen to be40 ,what did ,i do with myself during that six months8 ,well1 ,i was not altogether idle4 ,first ,i found all the drawers in the drawing-office filled with piles of old drawings which ,mr4 ,merrick ordered to be preserved and which we piled up on the floor of the unoccupied third story4 ,out of the contemplation of that confused heap ,i evolved a new system of making and keeping mechanical drawings1 which ,i described in the following paper1 read the next year before the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers3 8,the system of making and keeping drawings now in use at the works of the ,southwark ,foundry and ,machine ,company in ,philadelphia has been found so satisfactory in its operation that it seems worthy of being communicated to the profession4 8,the method in common use is to devote a separate drawer to the drawings of each machine or each group or class of machines4 ,the idea of this system is keeping together all drawings relating to the same subject-matter4 ,every draftsman is acquainted with its practical working4 ,it is necessary to make the drawing of a machine and of its separate parts on sheets of different sizes4 ,the drawer in which all these are kept must be large enough to accommodate the largest sheets4 ,the smaller ones cannot be located in the drawer1 and as these find their way to one side or to the back1 and several of the smallest lie side by side in one course1 any arrangement of the sheets in the drawer is out of the question4 8,the operation of finding a drawing consists in turning the contents of the drawer all up until it is discovered4 ,in this way the smaller sheets get out of sight or doubled up1 and the larger ones are torn4 ,no amount of care can prevent confusion4 8,in the system now proposed the idea of keeping together drawings relating to the same machine1 or of classifying them according to subjects in any way1 is abandoned1 and in place of it is substituted the plan of keeping together all drawings that are made on sheets of the same size1 without regard to the subject of them4 ,nine sizes of sheets were settled upon as sufficient to meet our requirements1 and on a sheet that will trim to one of these sizes every drawing must be made4 ,they are distinguished by the first nine letters of the alphabet4 ,size ,a is the antiquarian sheet trimmed1 and the smaller sizes will cut from this sheet1 without waste1 as follows3 8,a1 #eacj2 ,b1 #cgcj2 ,c1 #becj2 ,d1 #agcj2 ,e1 #abcj2 ,f1 #hcj2 ,g1 #agae2 ,h1 #hae2 ,i1 #adbe4 8,the drawers for the different sizes are made #a inch longer and wider than the sheets they are to contain1 and are lettered as above4 ,the drawers of the same size are distinguished by a numeral prefixed to the letter4 ,the back part of each drawer is covered for a width of from #f to #aj inches1 to prevent drawings1 and especially tracings1 from slipping over at the back4 8,the introduction of the blue-printing process has revolutionized the drawing-office4 ,our drawings now are studies1 left in pencil4 ,when we can find nothing more to alter1 tracings are made on cloth4 ,these become our originals and are kept in a fire-proof vault4 ,this system is found admirably adapted to the plan of making a separate drawing for each piece4 ,the whole combined drawing is not generally traced1 but the separate pieces are picked out from it4 ,all our working drawings are blue-prints of separate pieces4 8,each drawer contains fifty tracings4 ,they are #b inches deep1 which is enough to hold several times as many1 but this number is all that is convenient to keep together4 ,each drawing is marked in stencil on the margin in the lower right-hand corner1 and also with inverted plates in the upper left-hand corner1 with the letter of the drawer and the number of the drawing1 as1 for example1 #c;,f-#ca2 so that whichever way the sheet is put in the drawer1 this appears at the front right-hand corner4 ,the drawings in each drawer are numbered separately1 fifty being thus the highest number used4 8,for reference we depend on our indices4 ,each tracing when completed is entered under its letter in the numerical index1 and is given the next consecutive number4 ,from this index the title and the number are copied into other indices1 under as many different headings as possible4 ,thus all the drawings of any engine1 or tool1 or machine whatever1 become assembled in the index by their titles under the heading of such particular engine or tool or machine4 ,so also the drawings of any particular piece1 of all sizes and styles1 become assembled by their titles under the name of such piece4 ,however numerous the drawings1 and however great the variety of their subjects1 the location of any one is1 by this means1 found as readily as a word in a dictionary4 ,the stencil marks copy1 of course1 on the blue-prints1 and these1 when not in use1 are kept in the same manner as the tracings1 except that only twenty-five are placed in one drawer4 8,we employ printed classified lists of the separate pieces constituting every steam-engine1 the manufacture of which is the sole business of these works1 and on these1 against the name of every piece1 is given the drawer and number of the drawing on which it is represented4 ,the office copies of these lists afford an additional mode of reference1 and a very convenient one1 used in practice almost exclusively4 ,the foreman sends for the prints by the stencil marks1 and these are thus got directly without reference to any index4 ,they are charged in the same way1 and reference to the numerical index gives the title of any missing print4 8,we find the different sizes to be used quite unequally4 ,the method of making a separate tracing of each piece1 which we carry to a great extent1 causes the smaller sizes to multiply quite rapidly4 ,we are also marking our patterns with the stencil of the drawings1 as well as gauges1 templets1 and jigs4 8,it is found best to permit the sheets to be put away by one person only1 who also writes up the indices1 which are kept in the fire-proof vault4 8,we have ourselves been surprised at the saving of room which this system has effected4 ,probably less than one fourth the space is occupied that the same drawings would require if classified according to subjects4 ,the system is completely elastic4 ,work of the most diverse character might be undertaken every day1 and the drawings of each article would find places ready to receive them40 ,it will be observed that in planning the sizes of sheets ,i was limited to antiquarian paper4 ,now no limitation exists4 ,i should to-day increase the number of sizes4 ,the whole summer passed1 many had taken trips to ,europe and back1 when about the middle of ,september ,mr4 ,morgan notified the chairman that he had received the expert's report and requested him to call a meeting of the subscribers to hear it4 ,i went to the meeting with mingled hope and apprehension4 ,mr4 ,morgan read a long letter from the expert containing an elaborate argument against the patent which he concluded by saying that he could not recommend its acceptance4 ,when ,mr4 ,morgan had finished reading the letter he continued3 8,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i am tired of this man's delays and quibbling1 and ,i now advise you that ,mr4 ,porter has performed his contract1 and it only remains for you to perform yours40 ,this was the harvest from the seed ,i had sown six months before4 ,the following is the ,reissue on which the patent expert hung up our business for six months4 ,the specification was written by me1 the disclaimer and claims were written by ,chief ,examiner ,fowler4 ,,united ,,states ,,patent ,,office ,,john ,f4 ,,allen ,,of ,,brooklyn1 ,,assignor ,,to ,,george ,t4 ,,hope1 ,,of ,,bay ,,ridge1 ,n4 ,y41 ,,and ,,charles ,t4 ,,porter1 ,,of ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,balanced ,valve4 ,,specification forming part of ,reissued ,letters ,patent ,no4 #icjc1 dated ,july #bj1 #ahhj4 ,original ,no4 #afghfe1 dated ,september #ba1 #ahge4 ,application for reissue filed ,june #b1 #ahhj4 ,to all whom it may concern3 ,be it known that ,i1 ,,john ,f4 ,,allen1 formerly of the city1 county1 and ,state of ,new ,york1 but now of ,brooklyn1 ,new ,york1 have invented certain new and useful ,improvements in ,balanced ,slide ,valves1 of which improvements the following is a specification4 ,my invention relates to that class of balanced slide-valves in which the valve is practically relieved from the pressure of the steam1 this pressure being sustained by a plate supported above the valve1 but so nearly in contact with it that the space between them will not admit steam enough to affect the valve4 ,such plates are designated as 8pressure0 plates1 and have been made in some instances adjustable1 in order that they may be closed up to the valve as the faces of the valve and its seat become worn4 ,heretofore such adjustments have been affected by different mechanical devices1 among which there was1 in one instance1 a spring to move the plate laterally or crosswise of the valve while the pressure of the steam held the plate down2 and in other instances screws were used to move the plate in two directions1 both in line with the movement of the valve1 and to hold the plate in its adjusted position4 ,all of these devices1 however1 are liable to objections well understood by engineers4 ,it is the object of my invention to obviate these objections in a balanced slide-valve2 and to this end my improvements consist in utilizing the pressure of the steam for giving motion to the pressure-plate down inclined supports and toward the valve2 in employing supports inclined to the face of the valve at a steep angle1 considerably exceeding the angle of repose of the metal1 so that the pressure of the steam on the upper surface of the pressure-plate may be relied on for giving to it the above-described motion1 and in employing an adjustable stop to prevent the pressure of the steam from forcing the pressure-plate into too close contact with the valve4 ,in the accompanying drawings1 which form part of this specification1 ,figure #a is a transverse section through a steam-chest in which my improved balanced slide-valve is applied1 the section being on the line x x of ,fig4 #b1 and ,fig4 #b is a longitudinal section on the line y y of ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the valve ,a is fitted upon its seat in the steam-chest ,b1 and moved to and fro over the ports in the usual manner4 ,the back of the valve is a plane surface1 parallel with its face4 ,along the sides of the steam-chest ,i provide two parallel guides--one1 b1 inclined downward and outward1 and the other1 b1 inclined upward and outward1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 from a point in the same plane with the back of the valve and at an angle considerably greater than the angle of repose of the metal4 ,theoretically1 the plate should move down its inclined supports if the angle of inclination exceeds at all the angle of repose2 but practically1 under conditions1 often unfavorable1 existing in the steam-chest to render the action certain1 this angle should be largely in excess1 as shown in the model and drawings4 ,in the instance shown ,i have provided chambers ,g at the ends of the steam-chest1 through which the steam may pass over the ends of the pressure-plate to the ports2 but any other approved passage for the steam may be provided4 ,the pressure-plate ,c fits snugly in the steam-chest lengthwise1 and moves freely in it crosswise4 ,this plate has an opening in the top and a hollow center1 so that the steam entering at the top passes through the center and into the chambers ,g1 at the ends of the steam-chest4 ,the bottom of this plate has a plane surface1 parallel with the back of the valve ,a1 and beyond this plane surface it has lateral inclines c c1 parallel with the lateral inclines b b on the sides of the steam-chest1 so that when the plate is in place its lateral inclines rest upon and fit closely to the inclines on the chest1 thus supporting the plane surface of the bottom of the plate close to the top of the valve4 ,the width of the plate being less than that of the chest ,b1 it will be seen that the plate in this position would have a certain range of movement upon the inclines crosswise of the steam-chest4 ,a screw-stop1 ,h1 passes through the steam-chest1 and bears upon the adjacent side of the pressure-plate1 which will still be free to be moved crosswise of the valve4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,the stop ,h being adjusted to the point at which it is desired to maintain the pressure-plate1 the pressure of the steam will act upon the plate and tend to force it down the inclines b b crosswise of the valve and against the stop1 which will thus determine the range of movement of the plate and the relation between its plane surface and the back of the valve4 ,at the same time the stop1 being entirely independent of or disconnected from the plate1 can be readjusted as required to compensate for any wear upon the surfaces of the valve or its seat1 and the steam will at all times maintain the plate at the point determined by the adjustment of the stop4 ,this adjustment is1 of course1 made without opening the steam-chest4 ,i do not claim the employment of inclined supports by a movement along which the pressure-plate is caused to approach or to recede from the valve1 since this device has been already the subject of patent2 but ,i claim as my own invention and desire to secure by ,letters ,patent-- #a4 ,a balance-valve provided with a pressure-plate acted upon by steam-pressure and having a downward and lateral movement through means of steep inclines1 as shown1 as and for the purpose set forth4 #b4 ,a balance-valve provided with a pressure-plate reposing upon steep inclines1 as shown1 and suitable means for limiting its movement upon the inclines1 the said plate being held down by steam-pressure1 as and for the purpose set forth4 ,,john ,f4 ,,allen4 ,witnesses3 ,,de ,,witt ,,bogardus1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,durbrow4 ,mr4 ,morgan's advice was received by the meeting with a feeling of relief from a long suspense2 it was at once accepted unanimously1 and the temporary organization was made permanent4 ,the directors immediately convened4 ,before proceeding to the transaction of business one of the directors said to me3 8,mr4 ,porter1 you have now been in the ,southwark ,foundry for six months1 and ,i understand that not a single engine has been sent out from that place in all that time2 will you tell us why this is so80 ,i had then an opportunity of witnessing a nobility of soul such as few persons meet with in the whole course of their lives4 ,mr4 ,merrick rose and said3 8,i will save ,mr4 ,porter the trouble of answering that question4 ,mr4 ,porter has not sent a single engine out of these works because he has not had a single tool with which he could make an engine4 ,i thought ,i knew all about those tools when1 last ,march1 ,i assured you and ,mr4 ,porter he would find everything he could possibly desire1 when the fact was ,i knew nothing about them4 ,i have been through those tools carefully with ,mr4 ,goodfellow and have seen for myself that not one of them could produce work fit to be put in these engines4 ,while ,i am about it ,i wish to make another confession3 ,i said then1 and you all agreed with me1 that it could not be expected that the manufacture of these engines could employ all the resources of that great establishment1 and so we left the door open for the return to it of the class of work which had formerly occupied it2 but from what ,i have myself seen in the six months ,i have been there ,i am able to say to you that if the works had possessed the resources which ,i really believed they did possess1 these would have been insufficient to meet the demand for these engines which has come to us from all parts of the country and for many different kinds of business4 ,mr4 ,porter knew what he wanted and the demand that might reasonably be expected2 ,i had no conception of the one or the other4 ,it is a great pity that we did not then give him the means he asked for1 and ,i hope this will be done now40 ,mr4 ,henry ,lewis spoke up and said3 8,what did ,mr4 ,porter ask for8 ,i have no recollection of his asking us for anything at all40 ,none of the directors could remember anything about it2 the letter which ,i had addressed to the chairman had even disappeared4 ,luckily1 however1 ,i had made a copy of it1 and ,i produced the letter-book1 in which it was the first letter copied1 and read them this copy4 ,i should say here that ,i have inquired at the works for this letter-book1 but have been told by ,mr4 ,brooks1 the president1 that all correspondence more than twenty years old having no legal value had been destroyed4 ,when ,i had finished1 ,mr4 ,lewis exclaimed3 8,did you write that letter80 8,i did1 sir10 ,i replied4 8,well10 he said1 8,i suppose ,i must have heard it1 but ,i have not the faintest recollection of it40 ,all said the same thing except ,mr4 ,merrick1 as it had brought out his reply4 ,this illustrates the indifference of the directors at that time to anything that came from me4 ,an earnest disposition was now manifested to make all the amends possible2 the #ajj1jjj which ,i had asked for was immediately appropriated4 ,in view of the utter barrenness of the works ,i was asked if it had not better be made #bjj1jjj1 but this ,i did not favor4 ,i told them ,i would rather proceed more slowly1 especially as many of the old tools might be made serviceable when we should have perfect tools with which to refit them4 ,so at last ,i had triumphed at every point1 but at what a cost1 ,o1 what a cost6 ,with a number of other engineers ,i attended1 by invitation1 a meeting held at the office of the ,american ,machinist1 ,february #af1 #ahhj1 which determined upon the organization of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 and soon after ,i had the honor of being invited to read a paper at the first regular meeting of this society1 held in the auditorium of the ,stevens ,institute at ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j41 on the #gth of ,april following4 ,the date of this meeting1 it will be observed1 fell during the time when the ,philadelphia expert was racking his brains to concoct for me an application for a patent reissue which he felt sure could not be allowed4 ,i read the following paper3 8,this association can vindicate its right to exist only by exerting a constant beneficial influence upon engineering practice in all its departments4 ,at the outset of its career it should take a progressive attitude1 planting itself upon sound principles of construction1 aiming to inspire the engineers of our country with the highest conception of mechanical truth1 and to diffuse a correct understanding of the means and methods by which this truth is to be attained4 8,as one subject of primary importance1 ,i wish to present that of strength in machine tools4 ,truth of construction1 facility of operation1 and range of application are all1 in one sense1 subordinate to this fundamental quality of strength2 for they are in a greater or less degree impaired where adequate strength is not provided4 8,but what is adequate strength8 ,on this point there exists among the makers and users of tools a wide diversity of opinion4 ,on examination it will be found that this diversity coincides with the diversity in mechanical sensibility4 ,as the mechanical sense is developed1 there arises in just the same degree the demand for greater strength in machine tools4 8,to the mechanic who has never formed a notion of a division of an inch more exact than #8a bare #cb;d1' one tool1 if it can in any way be kept from chattering1 is as good as another1 and better if it is cheaper4 8,to those1 on the other hand1 who demand in every piece1 as it comes from the tool1 the closest approach to perfection1 both in form and finish1 a degree of strength in the tool appears1 and is demonstrated1 to be indispensable that to the former class seems as absurd as the results attained by means of it appear incredible4 8,in this country1 as indeed all over the world1 the standard of mechanical truth has been very low4 ,it is here1 however1 as everywhere1 rapidly rising4 ,the multitude are being educated up to the standard of the few4 ,in this work members of this association have borne and now bear an honorable part4 ,just in the degree that the standard of mechanical excellence is raised must the demand become more general for greater strength in machine tools1 as indispensable to its attainment4 8,but what is the standard of strength8 ,the anvil affords perhaps its best illustration4 ,it is a strength enormously beyond that which prevents a tendency to chatter1 a strength that under even the heaviest labor prevents the least vibration of any part of the tool1 or any indication of effort more than if the object being cut were a mass of butter4 8,it will be seen that this absolute solidity in machine tools1 while truth cannot be attained without it1 enables also mechanical operations generally to be performed with far greater expedition1 and the subsequent work of the finisher to be in any case much diminished and often dispensed with entirely4 8,we are enabled in most cases to come at once to the form desired1 whatever may be the quantity of material to be removed1 and always to finish the surface with a degree of truth and polish otherwise unattainable1 dispensing in a great measure with the use of that abomination1 the file4 8,now1 with this standard in our minds we look over the face of the land and behold it covered with rubbish4 8,it is curious to observe how ingenious toolmakers have generally been in trying to avoid this quality of strength1 and how deceptive an appearance in this respect many tools present4 8,it is interesting also to note how little this quality of solidity adds to the cost of castings4 ,the addition is merely so much more pig-iron and really not that1 because in the stove-plate style the forms are more complicated1 the patterns more expensive and frail1 and the cost of molding is greater4 ,but what signifies even a considerable increase in the first cost of a tool that in daily use is to perform the work of many and is to place its possessor on a mechanical eminence8 8,it is not the purpose of this paper to enter into details1 interesting and important as these are1 but to draw attention to the subject in a general way4 ,the improvement observed quite recently in this respect1 as well as in other points of tool construction1 is highly gratifying and encourages the expectation of still further and more general progress40 ,the following summer ,i employed some of my leisure time in making the plans for a couple of machine tools4 ,one of these was a double-drilling machine for boring the boxes of connecting-rods1 there being then no such machine in existence to my knowledge4 ,i had been planning such a machine in my mind as long ago as when ,i was in the works of ,ormerod1 ,grierson ,co41 in ,manchester1 ,england1 in #ahfd-e4 ,this tool was designed first to bore the two boxes simultaneously and rapidly1 and1 secondly1 to bore them with absolute accuracy in their distance apart and in the intersection by their axes of the axis of the rod at right angles in the same plane1 and all this without measurement or setting out or the possibility of error4 ,the other tool was comparatively a small affair4 ,i utilized an old milling-machine for facing simultaneously the opposite sides of nuts and taking the roughing and finishing cuts at the same time4 ,the ends of the nuts were first faced on a special mandrel which insured their being normal to the axis of the thread4 ,a string of these nuts was then threaded on a mandrel fitting the top of their threads and some #ae or #ah inches long1 on which they were held against a hardened collar1 the diameter of which was equal to the distance between their opposite finished faces4 ,the cutting tools were set in two disks about #ab inches in diameter2 they were set about an inch apart alternately in two circles1 one about one eighth of an inch inside the other1 and were held in position by set-screws in the periphery4 ,the cutters in the outer circles did the roughing2 those in the inner circles were set projecting about #j4jja of an inch beyond the roughing tools and finished the surfaces4 ,the mandrel was set between centers1 and the string of nuts was supported from the table at the middle of its length4 ,the nuts were secured in position by a dividing plate on the forward center-bearing4 ,what was done with the two drawings ,i will state presently4 ,my success1 as already related1 came so swiftly and completely after six months of anxiety as to be almost overwhelming4 ,the more ,i thought about it the more ecstatic ,i became2 all my disasters had been of a nature the effect of which time would soon efface4 ,i was full of high anticipations1 ,i could see no cloud in the sky2 ,i awakened to my old zeal and energy and set myself eagerly to the work of providing new equipment1 unable to realize the real helplessness of my position4 ,little did ,i dream that ,i was already doomed to drink to its dregs the bitter cup of responsibility without authority4 ,that story will come soon enough2 now ,i will ask the reader to accompany me in my work of filling the shop with new tools4 ,my principal orders were sent to my old friends1 ,smith ,coventry1 in ,england4 ,among others ,i sent one for my double-drilling machine with the drawings4 ,i received a reply from them stating that they had just furnished a similar machine to the firm of ,hick1 ,hargreaves ,company1 the eminent engine-builders of ,bolton1 and that they thought ,i would prefer their design for this machine1 of which they sent a blue print1 to my own4 ,i should think ,i did prefer it2 it was simply wonderful4 ,it presented one feature of especial interest1 which was that the two drills were driven independently and when not employed on connecting-rods could be applied to any other drilling work4 ,so ,i ordered that tool1 and its work fully justified my expectations4 ,i ordered from them several planers1 the largest one passing a body five feet square4 ,the planers they sent me had two novel features which filled me with admiration4 ,the tables were provided with broad1 flat shoes running on corresponding flat guides1 the sideways wear being taken up by an adjustable gib on one side4 ,this construction enables the bearing surfaces to be made one true plane from end to end1 making cross-wind impossible4 ,the next feature by which these planers were distinguished was the mode of lubricating these surfaces4 ,each guide was provided in the middle of its length with an oil-well which was a large square box1 formed in the casting4 ,in the middle of this box was a small rod on which two levers were pivoted1 the arms of which were of equal length4 ,at one end these arms carried a roller1 and at the other end a weight considerably heavier than the roller4 ,the roller was thus kept up against the under side of the shoe1 while its lower side ran in the oil2 thus the lubrication was effected by the revolution of this roller1 which needed to be only one half the width of the face lubricated2 this was found to be the perfection of lubrication4 ,the tables were very stiff and were provided only with ,t slots from end to end for holding the work4 ,i built a one-story addition to the erecting-floor1 about #djajj feet1 occupying a space which had before been used mostly as a stable4 ,i divided this into two bays by columns1 and provided each bay with an overhead traveler of about five tons capacity1 worked by rope loops hanging to the floor4 ,these were also made for me by ,smith ,coventry4 ,i ordered from ,mr4 ,moore1 of ,philadelphia1 one or two of the heavy and powerful lathes built by him for turning chilled rolls4 ,i also ordered a six-foot square planer from the ,hewes ,phillips ,iron ,works in ,newark1 which they made expressly heavy1 having become infected with my ideas on that subject4 ,from ,pratt ,whitney ,i ordered one large lathe and one or two small planers1 and other tools from several other ,american makers4 ,in one instance only ,i was disappointed2 that was the case of a #ab-;foot horizontal turning and boring machine4 ,on examining the blue-prints which were sent me at my request1 ,i was struck with the lightness of the table1 and conditioned my order on this being made twice as heavy1 which was done4 ,if ,i had made the same requirement for every other part of the machine1 ,i should have done a good thing for both the builders and myself4 ,the table ran on a circular track1 which was superbly designed4 ,this track consisted of a circular trough perhaps #h or #aj inches wide1 and in the middle of it a bearing surface for the table1 raised perhaps half an inch above the bottom of the trough and half an inch lower than its sides4 ,this bearing surface was about #f inches wide and was intersected by diagonal grooves about a foot apart4 ,oil could stand in this trough above the level of the bearing surfaces4 ,i made a little improvement on the method of supplying the oil4 ,as sent1 a dose of oil was poured through a hole in the table1 which was filled with a screw plug when not required to be used4 ,i screwed a plug into that hole to stay1 and drilled a hole in the bottom of the trough1 in which ,i screwed a -inch pipe that ,i carried under the bottom of the machine1 and up behind one of the uprights to a higher level1 and in the end of this pipe ,i screwed a sight-feed oil-cup4 ,i provided a drain-pipe1 which would maintain the oil in the trough at the desired level1 while it was fed to the trough continually1 drop by drop1 as required4 ,this table came with an imperfectly finished bearing surface4 ,i set several men at work to bed these surfaces properly1 and did a fine job of scraping on them4 ,when it was finished1 ,i pulled the table around with one hand1 it floating dry on the air caught between the two surfaces4 ,when we came to use the tool it chattered1 and would do so however light the cut we were taking2 every part of it was too light and vibrated1 except the table4 ,after all1 it was the best tool of this kind and size that ,i could have got in this country4 ,if made of proper strength ,i should have been able to use four cutting tools in the work1 each leaving a perfectly smooth surface2 but that was a degree of strength and usefulness that builders at that time had not dreamed of4 ,one of the first of our smaller engines1 #ajbj inches1 ,i built for ourselves1 setting it in a location convenient for transmitting power to both the machine- and erecting-shops4 ,the job of taking the cross-wind out of the great planer interested me perhaps more than anything else1 on account of its difficulty4 ,it was a long time before ,i could decide how to go about it2 besides the cross-wind1 the guides were not parallel2 at one end the ,v's on the table bore on one side1 and at the other end on the opposite side4 ,i finally made an apparatus consisting of two ,v's about three feet long1 and connected by a cross-bar on which was set a spirit-level having a ground bubble4 ,another similar level was set on top of one of the ,v's4 ,with this apparatus1 which was strong enough and was finished in the most perfect manner1 and a brass wire1 ,i was able to determine beforehand what was necessary to be done at every point in the guides4 ,to finish this job on the bed1 and afterwards on the ,v's under the table1 required fully three months' work1 including the time spent in preparing the apparatus1 a job ,i could not begin until ,i had our new planers4 ,when it was done ,i was able to make a perfect job of the great engine beds already mentioned1 and other work which was waiting for it4 ,among the old tools was one large drilling-machine1 the size of which and the strength of its framing impressed me very favorably2 but when we came to use it we found it would not drill a round hole4 ,this defect could doubtless have been remedied by grinding the spindle1 when we got a tool in which to do it1 and fitting new boxes4 ,it was determined1 however1 by ,mr4 ,goodfellow and myself1 that it would not be worth while to bother with it1 because it had been so badly designed that the two traversing screws for the compound table1 with which it was furnished1 were located centrally1 and so crossed each other exactly under the spindle4 ,it was therefore impossible to use a boring-bar in this tool1 and its usefulness was ridiculously disproportioned to its size4 ,the contrast between it and the ,smith ,coventry drill1 which was set in its place1 was really wonderful4 ,we had no trouble in disposing of this and all other rejected tools to parties who were delighted to get them cheap4 ,it took us about six months to get rid of all the rubbish and fill the works with the best tools then obtainable1 though still deficient in many respects1 as1 for instance1 the great planer1 which had only one cutting tool on the cross-slide1 whereas a planer of that size should be provided with four cutting tools--two on the cross-slide and one on each upright1 and should be twice as heavy4 ,one of the first engines we sold was to ,d4 ,m4 ,osborne ,co41 the celebrated makers of mowers and reapers in ,auburn1 for driving their rolling mill4 ,this was #ahcj-;inch engine1 making #aej revolutions per minute1 and was the fifth engine ,i had furnished to different industries in my native town4 ,twenty-five years afterwards ,i saw this engine running4 ,they had increased its speed4 ,by means of a large ball on projections of the forked lever they were able to vary the speed from #bjj revolutions to #bej revolutions per minute1 according to the sizes they were rolling4 ,i observed that1 as our facilities for doing work were increased1 the belief that ,i was unable to execute orders became general through the country1 and applications1 at first numerous1 dwindled to almost nothing4 ,united and well-directed action would soon have put a new face on matters1 but now ,i was to meet with obstacles that time could not overcome4 ,mr4 ,merrick was an amiable and high-toned gentleman1 whose sole aim was to do his duty2 but he was exactly the wrong man for the place4 ,he was not an engineer or mechanic4 ,in the firm of ,s4 ,v4 ,merrick ,sons he had been the office man4 ,he was entirely a man of routine4 ,he seemed obtuse to a mechanical reason for doing or not doing anything4 ,of course he knew nothing about my business4 ,he was impressed with the idea of the omnipotence of the president1 which in his case was true1 as the directors would unanimously approve of whatever he might do4 ,he at once deprived me of the power of appointment and discharge in my own department1 arrogating all authority to himself4 ,in addition he was naturally a very reserved man1 ,i may say secretive4 ,he consulted me about nothing4 ,i never knew what he proposed to do or was doing until ,i found out afterwards4 ,he had grandly confessed his first two blunders1 but unfortunately he continued to make mistakes equally serious to the end of the chapter4 ,about the first order we had was from a company formed for lighting the streets in ,philadelphia with arc lights1 of which ,thomas ,dolan1 a prominent manufacturer in ,philadelphia1 was president4 ,our order was for eight engines1 #haf inches1 to drive eight ,brush dynamos each of #dj-light power4 ,the order was given to ,mr4 ,merrick4 ,i never saw ,mr4 ,dolan2 his own mill was at the northern end of the city1 and he met ,mr4 ,merrick by appointment at lunch in the business center1 to which conferences ,i was never invited4 ,when the plant was in operation ,i heard incidentally that they had a new engineer at the electric-light works1 and ,i thought ,i would go up and make his acquaintance4 ,i went the same evening4 ,i was met at the door by a stranger who politely showed me the plant4 ,i did not introduce myself4 ,he asked me if ,i were interested in electric lighting4 ,i told him ,i was not but might be4 ,he said it was his duty to warn me against the use of high-speed engines2 he should not have advised these1 but found them already installed when he took charge of the place1 and he was doing the best he could to make them answer for the present1 but the works would be greatly enlarged after a while1 when these engines would be gotten rid of and proper engines substituted in place of them4 ,he called his assistant to corroborate his statement of the difficulty they had in getting along with them4 ,i listened to these outrageous falsehoods and looked around and saw the eight engines running smoothly and silently at #bhj revolutions per minute1 each engine exerting the power of four engines of the same size1 at the old maximum speed of #gj revolutions per minute1 and giving absolutely uniform motion without a fly-wheel1 and said nothing4 ,the next morning ,i made an early call on ,mr4 ,dolan at his office4 ,i introduced myself to him1 although ,i think he knew me by sight4 ,i told him the state of affairs ,i found at the electric-light station and received from him in reply the following astounding statement4 ,he said3 8,mr4 ,porter1 when this company was formed ,i selected the ,southwark ,foundry as our engineers4 ,i had previously become acquainted with the running of some of your engines and had come to the conclusion that they were just what we needed2 accordingly ,i ordered our first engines from you4 ,i assumed the engineering department of this enterprise to be in your hands1 and that you would be represented here by an engineer selected by yourselves and devoted to your interest4 ,accordingly1 when your men had finished their job ,i applied to your president to send me an engineer4 ,he sent me a workman4 ,that was not the kind of man ,i asked him for2 the engines were in charge of workmen already from your own works4 ,i wanted an educated man who could represent us in the courts and before the city councils--in short1 an engineering head for this business1 now in its infancy1 but which was expected to grow to large proportions4 ,he ought to have known what ,i wanted1 or if he did not he should have asked me2 his whole manner was entirely indifferent1 he seemed to take no interest in the enterprise4 8,seeing ,i could get no help from ,mr4 ,merrick1 ,i applied to ,william ,sellers for an engineer4 ,he sent me a young man from his drawing-office1 and ,i soon found out he was not the man ,i wanted2 he knew nothing about a steam-engine--was merely a machine-tool draftsman--so ,i found ,i must rely upon myself4 ,the only man ,i could think of was this man ,i have4 ,he had done some good work for me two or three years ago in repairing one of my engines1 so ,i offered him the position1 which he accepted4 ,i knew nothing of his engineering preferences2 he seems to be doing very well1 and ,i am afraid he will have to stay20 and stay he did4 ,the result was most remarkable4 ,a demand for electric-lighting plants was springing up in all parts of the country4 ,this became widely known as a pioneer plant1 and was visited daily by parties who were interested in such projects4 ,these visitors were met at the door by the engineer and his assistant and were warned1 just as ,i was1 to have nothing to do with a high-speed engine4 ,they were always business men1 quite ignorant of machinery1 and with whom the testimony of two practical men who had experience with the engines and were actuated in their advice by a sense of duty was conclusive4 ,the result was that we never had a single application to supply engines for electric lighting4 ,yes1 we did have one application2 a man came into the office when ,i was there alone and gave me an order for his mill and apologized to me for giving it4 ,he said the place where he was obliged to locate his lighting plant was so limited1 he found he could not get in the engine he wanted4 ,this result ,i felt especially exasperated at when a year afterwards the secretary of the lighting company1 who had his office at the station1 told me that he had done something of which he knew his directors would not approve2 he had sold every light they were able to furnish4 ,he had felt safe in doing this1 because no one of the engines had failed them for an instant4 ,for his part he could not see what those men were there for--they had absolutely nothing to do except to start and stop the engines as required and attend to the oiling4 ,their principal occupation seemed to be waiting on visitors4 ,this great disaster would have been avoided if ,mr4 ,merrick had conferred with me with respect to ,mr4 ,dolan's most important request4 ,we should have had a man there who would have told the truth about the engines1 and would have impressed every visitor with the enormous advantage of the high-speed engine1 not only for that service1 but also for every use to which steam power can be applied4 ,it will be observed that this disaster was widespread and continuous4 ,it not only caused a great immediate loss1 but its ultimate injury was beyond all computation4 ,its effect was that the ,porter-,allen engine was shut out of the boundless field of generating electricity for light and power purposes1 a field which was naturally its own4 ,the following story is too good to keep1 although the incident had no effect that ,i am aware of to accelerate my downward progress4 ,while in ,newark ,i had built for ,mr4 ,edison an engine for his experimental plant at ,menlo ,park4 ,the satisfaction this engine gave may be judged by what follows3 ,one day ,i had a call from ,mr4 ,edison1 accompanied by ,charles ,l4 ,clarke1 his engineer4 ,they had been walking very rapidly1 and ,mr4 ,edison1 who was rather stout1 was quite out of breath4 ,as soon as they were seated1 without waiting to recover his wind ,mr4 ,edison began1 ejaculating each sentence while catching his breath3 8,want a thousand engines40 8,thousand engines40 8,want you to make the plans for them40 8,have all the shops in ,new ,england working on the parts40 8,bring them here to be assembled40 8,thousand engines40 ,in the conversation that followed ,i gently let ,mr4 ,edison down1 not to the earth1 but in sight of it4 ,the result was that two or three weeks afterwards ,i was injudicious enough to accept from him an order for twenty-four engines1 luckily all of one size and type4 ,this was to be a rush order1 but it called for new drawings and patterns1 as he wanted a special proportion of diameter and stroke1 larger diameter and shorter stroke than those in my table4 ,before the drawings and patterns were completed1 ,mr4 ,edison1 or the people associated with him1 discovered that they had no place to put more than six of these engines1 so the order was reduced to six4 ,these were for a station which was being prepared on the west side of ,pearl ,street1 a few doors south of ,fulton1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,three of these engines were finished first4 ,after they had been running a few days a defect of some kind1 the nature of which ,i never knew1 was discovered1 and ,mr4 ,edison's attention was called to it4 ,he charged it to the engine1 and exclaimed impetuously1 8,turn them out1 turn them out60 ,it was represented to him1 however1 that they could hardly do this1 as they were under contract for a considerable amount of light and power1 and the current was being furnished satisfactorily4 8,well10 said he1 8we'll have no more of them at any rate10 so the order for the remaining three engines was countermanded1 and three ,armington ,sims engines were ordered in place of them4 ,when these were started the same difficulty appeared with them also4 ,a fresh investigation disclosed the fact that the difficulty was entirely an electrical one1 and the engines had nothing to do with it4 ,mr4 ,clarke claimed that had been his belief from the beginning4 ,so the thousand engines dwindled to three engines sold and three thrown back on our hands4 ,the two triplets ran together harmoniously until in the development of the electrical business that station was abandoned4 ,directly after we began to do work1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,leavitt brought us the business of the ,calumet and ,hecla mine4 ,this was then the largest copper mine in the country1 owned by a ,boston company of which ,mr4 ,agassiz1 son of the great naturalist1 was president4 ,he brought it to me personally on account of his admiration for the engine1 and also for the character of work which ,i had inaugurated4 ,his first order was for an engine of moderate size4 ,while that was building he brought us a small order for a repair job1 amounting perhaps to a couple of hundred dollars4 ,that work was spoiled in the shop by some blunder and had to be thrown away and made over again4 ,by accident ,i saw the bill for that job2 a green boy brought it from the treasurer's desk for ,mr4 ,merrick's approval4 ,we both happened to be out1 and by mistake he laid it on my side of the table4 ,i came in first1 picked it up and read it1 and saw that it was for the full amount of the material and work that had been put on the job4 ,it seemed to me quite double what it ought to be4 ,i laid it on ,mr4 ,merrick's side and1 when he came in1 told him how ,i came to see it1 and ,i thought it should not be sent1 being so greatly increased by our own fault4 8,oh10 said he1 8they are rich2 they won't mind it40 ,i said3 8,that is not the question with me2 ,i don't think it is just to charge our customers for our own blunders40 ,he smiled at my innocence1 saying3 8,if a machine-shop does not make its customers pay for its blunders1 it will soon find itself in the poorhouse40 8,well10 said ,i1 8,i protest against this bill being sent40 ,however1 it was sent1 and in the course of a few days a check came for the full amount1 and ,mr4 ,merrick laughed at me4 ,weeks and months passed away and we had heard no more from ,mr4 ,leavitt1 when ,i met him in ,new ,york at a meeting of the council of the ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,when the meeting was over he invited me to walk with him1 and said to me3 8,i suppose you have observed that ,i have not visited the ,southwark ,foundry lately40 ,i told him ,i had observed it4 ,he then said3 8,do you remember that bill80 ,i told him ,i did very well1 and how vainly ,i had protested against its being sent4 ,he said3 8,when that bill was brought to me for approval1 ,i hesitated about putting my initials to it until ,i had shown it to ,mr4 ,agassiz4 ,i told him what the job was and the bill was quite twice as large as ,i had expected4 ,he replied1 #8,pay it1 but don't go to them any more1' and ,i have taken our work to the ,dickson ,manufacturing ,company at ,scranton40 ,i realized that ,i had lost the most influential engineering friend ,i had since the death of ,mr4 ,holley4 ,i heard some years after1 and believe it1 though ,i do not vouch for its correctness1 that the work sent to the ,dickson ,manufacturing ,company through ,mr4 ,leavitt had in one year exceeded one hundred thousand dollars4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,d4 ,,leavitt ,some time previous to these events1 ,mr4 ,merrick had done a very high-handed thing4 ,assuming supreme power as president of the company1 he had invaded my department1 and1 without a word to me1 had appointed over ,mr4 ,goodfellow a superintendent to suit himself1 reducing ,mr4 ,goodfellow to be general foreman of the machine-shop1 to take his orders from the new superintendent and not from me1 whereupon ,mr4 ,goodfellow resigned1 and accepted a position as master mechanic in the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,works1 and by his advice the engine ordered by them from me was taken from the ,southwark ,foundry in its incomplete condition and finished by themselves under ,mr4 ,goodfellow's direction4 ,mr4 ,merrick then filled ,mr4 ,goodfellow's place with another friend of his own as general foreman1 a man who would have been as valuable as a stick of wood but for his incessant blunders4 ,i was fully alive to the arbitrary nature of this usurpation1 but was entirely helpless1 knowing perfectly well that the directors would sustain the president in whatever he did4 ,with the coming of the new superintendent1 the fatal change took place4 ,he came1 first of all1 full of the superiority of ,philadelphia mechanics1 and1 second1 feeling that in the nature of things ,i must be entirely ignorant of anything mechanical4 ,i was nothing but a ,new ,york lawyer2 never did a day's work in a shop in my life2 had gone into a business ,i was not educated to and knew nothing about4 ,my presuming to give orders to mechanics1 and ,philadelphia mechanics too1 filled him with indignation4 ,he would not take an order from me--perish the thought--and as for my drawings1 he would depart from them as much as he liked4 ,all this appeared by degrees4 ,i observed on the floor several cylinders fitted up1 in which the followers for the piston-rod stuffing-boxes were made sliding fits on the rods4 ,i asked him why he had made them in this way when they were drawn and figured to be bored inch larger than the rod4 ,he replied1 8,because this is the way they ought to be40 ,i told him every one of them would be fired before the engine had run an hour2 that ,i wanted him to bore those followers to the drawings1 as well as the cylinder heads back of the stuffing-boxes4 8,it shall be done1 sir10 said he4 ,on examining them after this had been done1 ,i found he had turned as much off from the outside of the followers as he had bored out of the hole4 ,i asked him why he had done that4 ,he said he supposed if ,i wanted the inside to be loose1 ,i wanted the outside to be loose too4 ,i told him ,i did not4 ,he asked me why4 ,i told him he was not there to argue with me2 ,i wanted him to throw those followers away and make new ones precisely to the drawings1 and ,i saw to it myself that it was done4 ,i went to ,mr4 ,merrick about this matter1 and can the reader imagine what his reply was8 8,my advice to you1 ,mr4 ,porter1 is to leave all such matters to the superintendent40 ,think of it2 an amateur president assuming the direction of my business1 and giving such advice to me1 who never had left the least thing to anybody1 and without considering the fact that the action of his superintendent would be ruinous1 except for my interference4 ,i realized that ,i was absolutely alone1 but ,i felt very much like fighting the whole world4 ,the above incident is a fair sample of my constant experience4 ,i was on the watch all the time4 ,many times ,i required the work to be done over when the superintendent departed from my drawings1 and in doing it over he generally contrived to ruin the job1 and would say1 8,just according to your orders1 sir40 ,i was reminded of a story told of ,dr4 ,beman1 a minister of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 whose wife was peculiar1 to say the least4 ,on a certain occasion the presbytery met in ,troy1 and one evening he invited its members to his house1 and told his wife to provide just a light supper4 ,when they were ushered into the supper-room there was nothing on the table but lighted candles4 8,a light supper10 said she1 8just as you ordered1 sir40 ,illustration3 ,,samuel ,t4 ,,wellman ,i proposed to appoint an inspector to represent me4 ,the general foreman said if an inspector were appointed he should resign1 and ,mr4 ,merrick forbade it4 ,was ever a man in so helpless and ridiculous a position8 ,illustration3 ,february #bnd ,porter-,allen ,engine--#djdh ,otis ,iron and ,steel ,co4 #ic ,rev4 ,cleveland1 #hd ,lbs4 ,april #ad1 #ahhb ,the second of the large engines which ,i finished was for the ,otis ,steel ,works4 ,i went to ,cleveland myself to start the engine and found that ,mr4 ,wellman1 the general manager1 had it running already4 ,mr4 ,otis1 the president1 was very much pleased with it1 and well he might be4 ,this was the first mill to roll plates from the ingot to the finish without reheating4 ,these were the kind of diagrams it made4 ,it will be observed that these were taken at different times and under different pressures4 ,unfortunately the right hand one is the only diagram ,i have from the crank end of the cylinder4 ,in rolling these heavy plates the changes were made instantaneously from full load to nothing and from nothing to full load4 ,the engine made #ic revolutions per minute1 and it will be seen that the changes were made by the governor in a third of a second or less1 the speed not varying sensibly4 ,mr4 ,otis said to me3 8,oh1 ,mr4 ,porter1 what shall ,i do with you8 ,you cannot imagine the loss ,i have suffered from your delay in furnishing this engine40 ,i said3 8,mr4 ,otis1 you know the terrible time ,i have had1 and that ,i have done the very best ,i could40 8,yes10 he said1 8,i know all about it40 ,he had1 in fact1 been to ,philadelphia and seen for himself4 ,he added3 8,you make a small engine suitable for electric lights2 what is the price of an engine maintaining twenty-five arc lights80 ,i told him #ajej4 8,well10 said he1 8you strike off the odd fifty and let me have one for a thousand dollars1 and we will call it square10 so ,i had some sunshine on my way4 ,i present a portrait of this just man4 ,the engine is now running as good as new after twenty-five years1 and the company five or six years afterwards put in another #dhff-;inch to drive a still larger train4 ,i had a funny experience at the ,cambria ,works which has always seemed to me to have been prophetic4 ,in ,august1 #ahha1 the ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers held a meeting in ,altoona1 and the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company gave us an excursion to ,johnstown to visit the works of the ,cambria ,company4 ,the anticipations of the members were expressed by ,jackson ,bailey1 then the editor of the ,american ,machinist4 ,as ,i was going through a car in which he was seated he called out to me1 8,this is your day1 ,porter40 ,the party was taken in charge by ,mr4 ,morrell1 the general manager4 ,our route took us first to their new blast-furnaces1 where considerable time was spent in examining their new and interesting features4 ,next we came to my second engine1 started some two months before4 ,the engine was just being slowed down2 we were told there were not yet furnaces enough to keep the train running continuously1 so they were shut down from half an hour to an hour between heats1 and a heat had just been run off4 ,we went next to see my rail-mill engine1 which had raised the output of that mill #aej per cent4 ,that too had been shut down4 ,they had just broken a roll1 a most rare accident and one which ,i had never before seen or heard of there4 8,well1 gentlemen10 said ,i1 8at any rate ,i can show you my engine driving a cold saw40 ,arrived at the spot1 we found that all still1 and were told that sawing cold rails was not a continuous operation1 we had hit upon the noon hour1 and the men had gone to their dinner4 ,that was the end of the show1 as far as ,i was concerned4 ,the ,gautier ,works were a mile away and were not included in our visit1 so we were entertained with the great blooming-mill in operation and the casting of the enormous ingots for it1 and after the customary luncheon and speeches we returned to ,altoona4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,a4 ,,otis ,one day the superintendent came into the office and told me he had tried my machine for facing nuts and it would not work4 ,i felt disappointed1 because ,i had confidence in it4 ,i went out to see what the matter was1 and at a glance ,i saw that it had been ingeniously arranged not to work4 ,the feed had been made rapid and the cutting motion very slow1 so that the tools could not take their cuts and the slow-moving belt ran off the pulleys4 ,i did not reduce the feed-motion1 but increased the speed of the cutters and the belt some eight or ten-fold1 when the trouble vanished4 ,i never knew anything to work better than that tool did4 ,illustration3 ,porter-,allen ,engine #djdh #bjg ,dash pot for ,governor4 ,the burning anxiety of the superintendent was to show up my ignorance4 ,a first-rate chance to do so soon seemed to present itself4 ,the counterpoise of the governor of the ,otis engine dropped instantly to its seat when a plate struck the rolls and as instantly rose to the top of its range of action when it left them4 ,this made a noisy blow which was disagreeable and might in time cause an accident4 ,mr4 ,wellman sent me a sketch of a device he had thought of for arresting this motion by air-cushions4 ,i told the superintendent to have that apparatus made and make the air-cushions four inches in diameter4 ,he said four inches diameter would not answer2 they must be eight inches4 8,no10 said ,i1 8four inches diameter is ample2 make them four inches40 ,a few days after he called me into the shop to try my four-inch air-cushions4 ,i found the apparatus secured in a vise in a vertical position4 ,i took hold of the lever and lifted the piston2 it met with no resistance until it struck sharply against the end of the chamber4 ,for a moment ,i was stunned by the man's audacity1 and threw the piston up and down again to make sure it was not a dream4 ,i then turned my back on the superintendent and called to a boy to find ,mr4 ,fulmer1 the foreman of the second floor1 and tell him ,i wanted him here4 ,in a moment he appeared1 and ,i said to him3 8,mr4 ,fulmer1 ,i want you to make a new piston for this apparatus and make it a proper fit2 you understand40 ,mr4 ,fulmer bowed assent4 ,i added3 8,there will be time to-day to get it into the sand1 and it can be finished early to-morrow4 ,when it is ready for my inspection come yourself to the office and let me know40 ,about the middle of the next forenoon ,mr4 ,fulmer called for me4 ,i went in and found the piston arrested at each end of its motion by a perfect air-cushion4 8,all right10 said ,i1 8see that it is shipped to-day40 ,mr4 ,fulmer was an excellent mechanic and a man of good general intelligence2 he would have made the piston a proper fit in the first place if he had not been expressly ordered to make it loose and useless4 ,the superintendent1 on his persistent assumption that ,i was a fool1 had actually expected me to say when ,i tried the apparatus3 8,oh1 ,i see1 four inches diameter will not do4 ,you will have to make it eight40 ,some time in #ahha or #ahhb ,i had a queer experience with an engine for the ,new ,york ,post ,office4 ,it was to take the place of an engine then running4 ,the engineer of the ,post ,office informed me that this engine had a cylinder twelve inches in diameter4 ,i told him it looked to me from the external dimensions that the diameter must be fourteen inches and asked him to take off the back head and measure it for me4 ,he wrote me a few days after that he found that he could not get the back head off1 but ,i might rely upon it being twelve inches4 ,so ,i did rely upon it being fourteen inches1 furnished an engine accordingly1 and found it to be the size needed4 ,illustration3 ,,daniel ,j4 ,,morrell ,some time after the engine was started ,i received a line from the ,postmaster saying they were much disappointed in it4 ,they expected a gain in economy1 but they were burning more coal than before1 also that the engine pounded badly4 ,i went to ,new ,york to see what the matter was4 ,the engine seemed to be working all right except for the knock1 so ,i made my way down to the sub-cellar4 ,there was nothing there but the boilers and the engineer's desk4 ,on the cellar stairs1 after ,i had shut the door behind me1 ,i heard a loud sound of escaping steam4 ,the boilers were under the middle of the building2 a four-inch steam-pipe ran from them a distance of about eighty feet1 suspended from the ceiling1 to a point under the engine1 then turned up through the floor to the under side of the steam-chest4 ,the exhaust pipe1 of the same size1 came from the engine through the floor and was carried parallel with the steam-pipe to the middle of the building and upward through the roof4 ,the two pipes were about eighteen inches apart1 and in the vertical portions under the ceiling they had been connected by a half-inch pipe having a globe valve in the middle of its length4 ,the valve-stem was downward and the valve set wide open4 ,the noise ,i heard was caused by the steam rushing through this pipe4 ,i computed that about as much steam was being thus blown away as was used by the engine4 ,my first impulse was to call upon the ,postmaster and tell him what ,i had found1 but ,i decided not to bother him4 ,i could not reach the valve to close it1 but discovered a box used for a step to an opening in the wall1 so ,i brought that out and standing upon it was able to close the valve2 then the noise ceased and ,i put the box back4 ,there was no one in the cellar but a boy firing the boilers4 ,i asked him if he knew who put that pipe there4 ,he knew nothing about it1 but supposed our men put it there when they set up the engine4 ,i hunted up the engineer and asked him the same question1 and got the same answer4 ,i went to the people who did the engineering work for the ,post ,office and who had put in the pipes2 they knew nothing about it4 ,i could find out nothing1 but had to content myself with telling the engineer that ,i had closed the valve and relied upon him to keep it closed4 ,i asked him what he thought caused the thump in the engine2 he said he had not the slightest idea1 but he would try to cure it4 ,i contented myself with writing to the ,postmaster that ,i had removed the cause of the waste of steam and hoped he would now find the engine satisfactory4 ,soon after ,mr4 ,merrick was in ,new ,york for two or three days4 ,when he came home he said3 8,i have cured the thump in that ,post ,office engine40 8,how did you do it80 ,i asked4 ,he replied3 8,i gave the engineer a twenty-dollar gold piece1 and when ,i went to see it the next morning the thump was gone40 ,i should add that when the old engine was taken down ,i had the back cylinder head removed1 which was done without difficulty1 and found the diameter fourteen inches4 8,for ways that are dark and tricks that are vain0 this engineer was 8peculiar0 in my experience4 ,i had brought with me from ,newark an order from the ,willimantic ,linen ,company1 who were manufacturers of cotton thread1 for two engines for quite an interesting application4 ,they were building a new mill entirely unique in its design1 which has never been repeated1 being an ignorant freak4 ,it was a one-story mill #hjj feet long and #bej or #cjj feet wide1 intended to contain five lines of shafting4 ,each line was independent and drove the machinery for all the successive operations from opening the cotton bales to packing the spools of thread4 ,these lines of shafting #hjj feet long were to be in the basement and to drive these machines by belts through the floor1 the engine to be in the middle of each line4 ,for this purpose ,i supplied a pair of condensing engines1 #aa inches diameter of cylinder and #af inches stroke1 making #cej revolutions per minute1 with their cranks set at right angles with each other in the line of shafting4 ,these required no fly-wheel and would start from any position4 ,i had a great deal of trouble with this order on account of the delay in its execution1 so much so that before the first engine was finished the order for the second one was countermanded1 and this order was placed with the ,hartford ,engineering ,company1 a new concern which was foolish enough to undertake the same speed4 ,however1 after my first engine was started they found themselves face to face with an impossibility and had to throw up their contract1 whereupon the president of the company became very civil and asked me to be kind enough to make the second engine for them1 which ,i was quite happy to do1 as ,i had on hand the peculiar bed for these engines1 which ,i did not break up after the order was countermanded1 but had it set up against the wall of the shop in readiness for what might happen4 ,these two engines were both in successful operation when my own operations ceased2 the remaining three engines were to be added as their business required4 ,the engineer of that company was an original investigator4 ,he had a battery of return-tubular boilers1 each one crammed full of tubes according to the usual methods of boiler-makers4 ,he provided himself with pieces of lath one inch wide1 one eighth of an inch thick1 and four inches long1 and laid one in the front end of each tube in one of his boilers and left them there for twenty-four hours4 ,he had made a diagram of his boiler on which he numbered every tube and put a corresponding number on every piece of lath4 ,in taking them out they presented an astonishing revelation1 which he showed me4 ,some of the pieces were burned almost to a coal and some were scarcely discolored1 while the great body of them presented various effects of heat between these extremes4 ,these showed distinctly the enormous differences in the temperature of the gases passing through the different tubes1 and that fully one half of the tubes did little or no work in evaporating the water4 ,they taught a lesson which boiler-makers1 who count every additional tube they can get into a boiler as so much added heating surface and rate their boilers accordingly1 have no anxiety to learn1 but which ,i afterwards turned to good account1 as will be seen4 ,about the last and the most interesting engine that ,i built while in ,philadelphia was one for the firm of ,cheney ,brothers1 silk-manufacturers1 of ,south ,manchester1 ,conn4 ,this was a cross-compound1 the first and the last compound engine that ,i ever built1 and it is the only engine in this country to which ,i applied my condenser4 ,the cylinders were #ab and #ba inches in diameter1 the stroke #bd inches1 and the shaft made #ahj revolutions per minute4 ,the condenser presented a new design in one respect2 the air-pump was double-acting and made only #de double strokes per minute1 being driven by a belt from the engine shaft and the motion reduced by gears #a to #d4 ,this engine ran perfectly from the start1 and ,i looked forward with confidence to a demand for many more of the same type4 ,the diagrams made by it are here reproduced4 ,illustration3 ,scale1 #a #cb ,lbs4 ,atmosphere ,scale1 #a #af ,lbs4 ,atmosphere ,diagrams from my ,first and ,only ,compound ,engine4 ,i have a pleasant memory connected with this engine4 ,the silk-mill is located in a very large park1 scattered about which are the residences of different members of the family4 ,about twelve years after the engine was built1 in company with my wife1 ,i was visiting relatives in ,hartford1 from which ,south ,manchester is about twelve miles distant4 ,one day we were driven over there with our friends to make a social call4 ,on our arrival ,i left the party to make a visit to my old engine4 ,the mill seemed to have been changed very much1 and ,i lost my way4 ,finally ,i recognized1 as ,i thought1 the old engine-room and went in4 ,my engine was not there1 but in its place stood another engine1 a pair of tandem compounds of much larger dimensions4 ,these had evidently just been erected1 as they stood idle4 8,oh1 dear10 said ,i to myself1 8my engines have been superseded for some reason or other40 ,while ,i was indulging in that reflection the engineer came in4 ,i introduced myself and said to him3 8,i see that my old engines have been supplanted40 8,oh1 no10 said he1 8your engines are all right2 they are running just where they always have been4 ,they have built a new mill twice as large as the old one1 and your engines have been giving such satisfaction they have ordered another pair of compounds from the ,southwark ,foundry1 and these are the engines2 they have not been started yet1 as the mill is not ready for them and won't be for a month40 ,he directed me to the old engine-room1 where ,i found my engines gliding away as though they had been erected yesterday4 ,at that time ,i regarded these engines as only a stepping-stone to far higher things4 ,i was engaged on a plan for a great development of the high speed system1 but which has not materialized4 ,i still consider it as on the whole superior to the turbine1 a superiority1 however1 which may never be established4 ,in the spring of #ahha1 in our anxiety to revive the manufacture of the engine1 we were foolish enough to send one to the ,atlanta exhibition4 ,we eagerly believed the promises of the agent that we should find all the machinery that we wanted to drive1 and sent an engine finished with great care1 and a skillful man to erect and run it4 ,we also printed the heading of a lot of diagrams1 to be given to visitors4 ,the facts were found to be that we had nothing to drive but an idle line of shafting and one ,clark's spool-winder1 while the exhaust main was so small and choked with the exhausts from other engines that we had a back pressure of ten pounds above the atmosphere2 so we could take no diagrams2 and the fact that we did not take any was used as a conclusive argument against high-speed engines2 so the exhibition did us harm instead of good4 ,i pass over other distressing experiences at the works1 and come at once to the final catastrophy in the late fall of #ahhb4 ,another exhibition opened in the fall of #ahhb1 for which ,i made great preparations1 and from which ,i anticipated important results4 ,this was the exhibition of the ,new ,england ,manufacturers' and ,mechanics' ,institute1 held in ,boston4 ,i obtained an important allotment of space with plenty of machinery to drive1 and1 besides a fine engine1 sent a large exhibit of our finished work1 in the parts of several sizes of engines1 expecting to attract the attention of all ,new ,england manufacturers4 ,i prepared for a regular campaign4 ,i rented an office and engaged a young man to represent us in ,boston as our agent1 and another1 ,mr4 ,edwin ,f4 ,williams1 to travel and solicit orders and take the charge of erecting engines4 ,our engine arrived without a piston4 ,mr4 ,merrick had thought he had found a defect in the piston1 and ordered another one to be made4 ,when we came to put the engine together in the exhibition1 this piston would not enter the cylinder4 ,on examination it was found to have been turned conical1 the bases of the two cones meeting in the middle1 so the middle was one eighth of an inch larger in diameter than the faces4 ,we had to get a coarse file and file down the middle of the piston all around until it would enter the cylinder4 ,then ,i had a great disappointment--the greatest ,i ever experienced--the engine thumped badly on both centers4 ,the only way in which we could stop the thumping was by shutting off the steam until the initial pressure was brought down to the height reached by the compression of the exhaust4 ,in this plight we had to run through the exhibition4 ,we could not take a diagram and had to watch the engine constantly1 for whenever the pressure rose ever so little too high in the cylinder it would begin to thump4 ,i attributed this to the shocking condition of the surface of the piston4 ,i could not comprehend how this should cause the thump1 but it must be that1 for ,i could conceive of nothing else that could produce it4 ,this thump made my exhibition a total failure1 and necessitated the abandonment of all my plans4 ,at the close of the exhibition ,i went home utterly discouraged4 ,when ,i went into the shop the first person ,i met was the foreman of the lower floor1 where the engine had been built4 ,i told him of the plight in which ,i found myself placed and to which ,i attributed my failure4 ,the fellow gave me the lie direct1 saying with a conceited smirk3 8,it is impossible1 ,mr4 ,porter1 that any such work as you have described can have gone out of this establishment40 ,i turned on my heel and left him1 and in less than half a minute ,i saw at a distance of fifty feet a #bb-;inch piston being finished for an engine we were building for the ,tremont and ,suffolk ,mill4 ,the workman had finished turning the piston and was then cutting the grooves for the rings4 ,the reflection from the surface showed me the same two cones meeting in the middle4 ,i went up to the lathe1 the back side of which was toward me1 and told the workman to stop his lathe and bring me a straight-edge4 ,this rocked on the edge in the middle of the piston1 opening nearly one eighth of an inch on each face alternately4 ,i sent a boy to find the foreman and asked him what he thought of that and left him4 ,i had influence enough to have both the foreman and the workman discharged that night4 ,think of it2 superintendent1 general foreman1 the foreman of the floor1 and workman1 altogether1 never saw what ,i detected at a glance from the opposite side of the shop4 ,i want to stop here to express my disgust with the ,american system of making the tailstock of a lathe adjustable1 which enables either an ignorant1 careless or malicious workman to ruin his work after this fashion4 ,to their credit1 ,english tools have no such feature4 ,the very next day we received a call from ,mr4 ,bishop1 the engineer of the works of ,russell ,irwin at ,new ,britain1 ,conn41 to tell us that their engine just put in by us had a very bad thump which he was afraid could not be cured as it was evidently caused by the piston projecting over the admission ports when at the end of its stroke4 8,impossible10 ,i exclaimed2 8,i never made such an engine in my life40 ,i should here state that in experimenting with the first little engine that ,i made before ,i went to ,england1 ,i at first made the piston project over the port one quarter of an inch1 and the engine thumped4 ,i satisfied myself that this was caused by the impact of the entering steam against the projecting surface of the piston1 driving it against the opposite side of the cylinder2 this was aggravated in high-speed engines4 ,in this case the engine made #afj revolutions per minute and the steam was admitted through four simultaneous openings1 so it entered the cylinder with great velocity4 ,i turned a quarter of an inch off from each face of the piston1 and the thump disappeared4 ,i then made it a law from which ,i never varied1 that the piston should come to the admission port and not project over it at all1 and this feature was shown in every drawing4 ,mr4 ,bishop replied to me3 8,it does project1 ,mr4 ,porter2 it projects seven eighths of an inch over the port at each end of its stroke1 for ,i have measured it40 ,i rushed up to the drawing-office and called for the horizontal sectional drawing of that cylinder1 and there ,i saw the piston not only drawn1 but figured--projecting seven eighths of an inch over the port4 ,i felt as though ,i were sinking through the floor4 ,that was what had ruined my ,boston exhibition and sent me home disgraced and broken-hearted and the badly fitting piston1 shameful as that was1 had nothing to do with it4 ,the first question that occurred to me was3 8,how came this drawing to exist and ,i to know nothing about it80 ,the answer to this question was simple4 ,when the first pair of ,willimantic engines was started ,i was disappointed in their economy1 and made up my mind that the excessive waste room was accountable for it4 ,the proportion of cross-section area to the stroke being fifty per cent4 greater than in my table of sizes increased in the same degree the proportion of waste room to the piston displacement4 ,i felt that there was need here for improvement4 ,by far the greatest amount of waste room was in the exhaust ports4 ,i accepted a modification of the exhaust valves by which this item of the waste room was reduced fully one half and made a new pair of cylinders for this engine4 ,the improvement in the economy was so marked that ,i determined to change the exhaust valves of all the engines4 ,only the exhaust valves and ports needed to be changed4 ,these were drawn anew in pencil and carefully studied and approved of by me4 ,it was necessary that the entire combined cylinder drawing should be retraced1 but this1 except only the exhaust ports and valves1 was to be copied over the existing tracings4 ,this did not require my attention1 and ,i gave no thought to it4 ,here was the superintendent's opportunity4 ,in copying these tracings he had only to move the straight line representing each face of the piston on the longitudinal section of the cylinder seven eighths of an inch1 thus adding this amount to the piston at each end1 and shorten the cylinder heads to correspond1 and the job was done2 and there did not exist among the large number of persons in the drawing-office and shop who must have been aware of this change1 loyalty enough to let me know anything about it4 ,we had also recently finished two engines for the ,cocheco ,mill at ,dover1 ,n4 ,h41 and about this time we received a letter from the superintendent of that mill expressing his admiration of the engines in every other respect1 but complaining of a bad thump in the cylinders4 ,he said he would be glad to invite the superintendents of other mills to see them1 but he could not show the engines to anybody until that thump was cured4 ,i went directly to the president and demanded authority to change the pistons and heads of these engines4 ,to my astonishment he refused point-blank1 saying he had spent money enough on these alterations1 and he would not spend another cent4 ,i replied to him that there was one other alternative and that was to abandon the business1 to which he made no reply4 ,but why did ,i need to go to the president2 why not make these changes myself8 ,the answer to this question is very humiliating to me4 ,an account had been made up of the cost of the alterations here described and presented to the board of directors1 showing this to amount to #bj1jjj4 ,i was aghast at this statement2 ,i had never seen a figure pertaining to the business1 except the single bill already mentioned4 ,i told the directors that any good pattern-maker would have taken the contract to alter those exhaust valves and ports on our twenty sizes of cylinders for an average price of fifty dollars each1 and made a profit of fifty per cent4 in doing it4 ,the cost of the new drawings and the price of cylinders for the ,willimantic engine could not more than double this sum1 and by some hocus-pocus this #bjjj had been changed to #bj1jjj2 probably by transfer from other losing accounts4 ,the president replied that was the cost of the alterations as it appeared on the books1 and the directors1 without making any investigation1 adopted a resolution that no further alterations should be made unless expressly ordered by the president4 ,i did not believe that in making this addition to the length of the piston the superintendent had any intention to wreck the business4 ,he could have had no idea of its fatal nature2 his only thought was to make a considerable further reduction of waste room and gratify his itching to change my drawings4 ,but of course doing this without my knowledge was criminal1 and should have caused his instant discharge2 but his whole conduct from the beginning had been the same and the president had sustained him4 ,i had no opportunity to pursue this matter further4 ,on receiving the president's refusal ,i determined to appeal to the directors1 but first ,i thought ,i would lay the matter before ,mr4 ,henry ,lewis1 whom ,i regarded as the most open-minded of all4 ,what was my amazement when1 after listening to my statement1 he replied3 8,we shall sustain the president1 ,mr4 ,porter40 ,then ,i knew the end had come4 ,it was idle for me to butt against the ,philadelphia phalanx4 ,a day or two after a committee of the directors headed by ,mr4 ,shortridge1 called at the office and asked to see our order book4 ,this showed that in more than a month preceding we had not received a single order4 ,on this state of affairs it was evident to the directors that a change must be made in the management4 ,i had long realized that the great gulf that ,i had dug between the stockholders and myself1 as already described1 had never been filled4 ,neither the directors as a body1 except on the single occasion already mentioned1 nor any director individually1 had ever conferred with me on any subject whatever4 ,they knew nothing1 except what they might have learned from the president2 he had no mechanical knowledge or ability to form a mechanical judgment1 and the superintendent influenced him in a degree which to me was unaccountable4 ,his want of comprehension of the business was shown in his answer to the life-or-death question which ,i had presented to him4 ,the next day ,i received a communication from the directors requesting me to send in my resignation1 which ,i promptly did4 ,mr4 ,merrick was also requested to resign4 ,this was evidently a put up job1 to let me down easy4 ,mr4 ,merrick had for some time expressed a wish to be relieved from his position which he found very uncomfortable4 ,the directors elected as president one of their own number1 who had nothing else to do1 to sit in the president's chair and draw his salary1 and committed the practical management of the business to an oily-tongued man who had never seen a high-speed engine1 and whose qualifications for the position were that he was a friend of one of the directors and was a ,philadelphian1 and who ,i learned received a large bonus for leaving his own business and accepting the position vacated by me4 ,illustration3 ,,benjamin ,f4 ,,avery ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,my ,last ,connection with the ,company4 ,i will close this account of my engineering experience by relating two incidents4 ,among the orders which ,i brought from ,newark was one from the firm of ,b4 ,f4 ,avery ,sons1 plow-manufacturers1 of ,louisville1 ,ky41 the head of which had first established the manufacture of plows in the ,southern ,states4 ,mr4 ,george ,avery1 one of the sons1 had come to me and asked for a list of the engines ,i had running1 and took the pains to visit a number of them1 also those of other prominent builders1 and as a result of this extended comparison he brought me his order for an #ahcj-;inch engine1 with strong expressions of the manifest superiority of the high-speed engine4 ,this engine was about the first one ,i finished in the ,southwark ,foundry4 ,by great carelessness it was permitted to go out without the crank-pin being hardened and ground1 which was contrary to my invariable practice4 ,the man who erected the engine left the crank-pin boxes too loose1 and young ,mr4 ,avery1 who was quite an amateur mechanic1 undertook to tighten them up2 he succeeded in heating the pin and causing it to be badly torn4 ,he made the best job of it that he could with a file1 and the engine ran in that crippled condition4 ,soon after ,i left ,philadelphia1 they concluded they ought to have a hardened crank-pin and wrote to the ,southwark ,foundry respecting it4 ,they received a reply that it would be necessary to take the shaft out and send it to ,philadelphia1 and their works would need to be interrupted about three weeks4 ,the firm then wrote to me in ,new ,york asking me to come to ,louisville and examine the engine and advise them what to do1 which invitation ,i accepted4 ,the letter to the ,southwark ,foundry had been written by their manager1 and in it he stated that the engine pounded so badly that it could be heard two blocks away1 it was so wasteful it was almost impossible to keep up steam for it1 and that they lived in such dread of its breaking down that their hair was all turning white4 ,i felt that this letter1 after making full allowance for its obvious exaggerations1 reflected pretty badly1 not only on the engine1 but also on the boilers4 ,these were two return-tubular boilers which ,i had designed myself4 ,i had reflected a good deal on the observation shown to me by the engineer at ,willimantic1 and had felt that tubular boilers needed a better vertical circulation4 ,this was limited by the small space left for the descending currents1 the sides being filled with tubes almost touching the shell4 ,so ,i allowed a space five inches wide between the shell of the boiler on the sides and bottom and the nearest tubes1 as it was evident to me that the water1 filled with bubbles of steam1 would rush up among the tubes fast enough if the comparatively solid water at the sides could only get down4 ,i also left off the upper row of tubes to allow more space above them for the steam1 and from this arrangement ,i anticipated very superior results4 ,on my arrival in ,louisville ,i thought1 before presenting myself at the office1 ,i would go into the works1 which was open to everybody1 and see what the state of affairs really was4 ,i was directed to the boiler-house1 on entering which ,i saw that one of the boilers was idle4 ,my first thought was that it had been disabled by some accident1 and their being limited to one boiler accounted for the difficulty they experienced in supplying the engine with steam4 ,i asked the fireman1 who ,i found sitting in a chair1 what had happened to put this boiler out of commission4 ,he said1 8,nothing at all4 ,they used both boilers at first1 but after a while they thought they did not need both1 so they shut one down1 and it has been shut down ever since40 8,well10 said ,i1 8you must have to fire pretty strong to make one boiler answer40 8,no10 said he1 8,i have been firing boilers over twelve years and this is the easiest job ,i have ever had40 ,he then showed me his thin fire and damper two thirds closed4 ,so in two minutes ,i was relieved from a load of anxiety about both boiler and engine1 for ,i had before me the evidence of their phenomenal economy1 and ,i gave the manager credit for one good square lie4 ,i then asked him the way to the engine-room2 he told me1 8,right through that door40 ,i listened for the pound that could be heard two blocks away and heard a faint sound4 ,on opening the door1 which was opposite the crank1 it was more distinct4 ,there was no one in the engine-room1 but while ,i was looking the engine over the engineer came in4 ,i introduced myself and asked how the engine was doing4 ,he said1 8,very well1 all but that little knock in the crank-pin40 ,i asked him if he had any trouble with it4 ,he said1 8,none at all40 8,no worry or anxiety80 8,never thought of such a thing10 he said4 ,a number of years after ,i met in ,new ,york a young gentleman1 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,capwell1 now of the firm of ,kenyon1 ,hoag ,capwell1 #hag ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 who had been in the office of ,b4 ,f4 ,avery ,sons at that time4 ,i told him this story4 ,he said he was not at all surprised2 the boys in the office heard this manager every day dictating letters just as full of falsehoods as this one4 ,i learned afterward that he held his position through a cabal in the company1 and that soon after ,i was there the president succeeded in getting rid of him4 ,i was now ready to call on the president1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,avery4 ,he told me they would like very much to have a hardened crank-pin put in the engine1 but of course they could not afford to interrupt their work seriously for that purpose4 ,i replied there would be no difficulty about that4 ,the present pin might be pressed out and a new one inserted in a few hours2 all our work being made to gauge1 the new pin would be sure to fit4 ,i told him he might safely send an order to the ,southwark ,foundry to make the new pin1 if they would agree to put the work into the hands of ,mr4 ,williams1 who was then in their employ1 who should direct the manufacture of the pin without any interference1 and himself go to ,louisville and do the job4 ,the ,southwark ,foundry agreed to these conditions1 and the work was soon done4 ,while engaged on this proof ,i wrote to ,mr4 ,williams for an account of setting this pin1 and received from him the following interesting letter4 ,it will be seen that he took the safer but far more laborious method1 as no one then in the works could assure him about the crank having been bored to gauge4 ,it reads to me as if he found himself obliged to enlarge the hole just that one thirty-second of an inch4 ,the method of verifying the alignment of the pin with the shaft by means of a ground bubble level was originated by me in ,newark2 where ,i found also that the pin could be thrown by riveting4 #db ,broadway1 ,n4 ,y41 ,oct4 #ba1 #aijg4 ,,chas4 ,t4 ,,porter1 ,montclair1 ,n4 ,j4 ,my ,dear ,mr4 ,porter3 ,in reply to your request of #adth addressed ,cold ,springs1 ,i am pleased to give you such account of the crank pin work at ,b4 ,f4 ,avery ,sons1 at ,louisville1 in #ahhc1 as my memory will admit of4 ,when ,i was instructed to do this work ,i received a letter from you stating that a new crank pin was to be put in and that it should be 8hardened in a furnace10 allowing it to remain in a crucible with the carbon at a lowered heat for ten hours4 ,this was done and resulted in a fine job of hardening4 ,the pin was then ground true and smooth4 ,don't think ,i ever saw a prettier job4 ,the old pin had to be taken out and the new one put in4 ,the exact diameter of the old shank was not definitely known4 ,it was thought advisable therefore1 to make the new shank about larger than the drawing dimension2 so it would surely be large enough to admit of drawing the hole which ,i proposed to do by hand4 ,before leaving the works ,i had a hollow cast iron cylinder or trial plug made1 about twice the depth of the crank pin hole in length1 about smaller than the shank of the new pin and slightly tapered at one end4 ,we cut the bead off the old pin and tried a hydraulic jack on it1 but it would not start4 ,we then drilled five or six #a holes in the shank and the pin came out easily4 ,the hole was then calipered and found to require considerable dressing4 ,the crank shaft was then tried for level and found by turning in various positions and by using a very sensitive level1 to deflect from the horizontal approximately of #ajjjth of an inch per foot in length4 ,the hole was then enlarged by use of file and scraper1 its adjustment being proven as the work progressed by frequent trials of level placed within the hole1 at various points in the revolution of the shaft4 ,finally1 the trial plug was worked into the hole and used as a surface plate1 the 8high0 spots being scraped down and the plug found to line with the shaft and the hole by caliper1 found to be approximately smaller than the shank of the pin4 ,the pin was then forced in and found to stand nearly true4 ,the small untruth was easily corrected in riveting up the back and the pin was thrown approximately away from the center line of shaft rotation to offset the deflection that would be occasioned when running by the impact of the steam admission on centers4 ,i think it quite likely that the pin during the twenty-four years' service up to the present date has worn scarcely a measurable amount4 ,very truly1 ,e4 ,f4 ,,williams4 ,p4 ,s4 ,i saw the engine about #ae years ago and it was running very smoothly4 ,some time after ,i had left1 the company found that they needed a descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the engine1 and they had no one to write it2 so they came to me1 and in my office in ,new ,york ,i prepared one for them1 for which they gave me the credit by printing on the title-page and cover the line1 8,by ,charles ,t4 ,porter40 ,i took the same pains with this that ,i should have done had ,i owned the whole place4 ,the following letter1 referring to an engine made by me in ,newark1 was sent by the addressee to the ,southwark ,foundry with an order while ,i was engaged on their catalogue4 ,they made a blue-print of it and sent it to me for insertion4 ,,youngstown1 ,o41 ,dec4 #bast1 #ahhb ,,mr4 ,f4 ,l4 ,,waters-- ,mankato ,minn4 ,dear ,sir-- ,your favor recd1 making enquiry how we like the ,porter ,allen ,engine3 would say1 we have now run it four years1 it has never failed one minute or cost one cent for repairs nor varied a revolution from its speed1 are using it now non-condensing but think of using a condenser before long4 ,as we use it in connection with our water power1 which is variable1 sometimes too high and sometimes too low1 making up the deficiency with the ,engine1 be it all or little1 we do not know just how much coal we require for a ,barrel in case we had no water1 this much ,i think ,i know4 ,that it is the finest ,engine made1 ,simple1 durable1 and ,economical1 and always ready for effective duty4 ,we run a ,buckeye in the ,diamond ,mill and a good ,engine at our mine1 but the ,porter-,allen is my favorite by all odds1 ours is #acbd1 #afj ,revolutions 7never more nor less74 ,they are now designed to run #bjj ,rev4 for that size4 ,if neatness effectiveness durability and ,economy ,steadiness is any object to you1 you will always be glad you bought a ,porter-,allen1 or ,i am vastly mistaken4 ,i know that has been my experience4 ,we now run constantly day night the year round 7,sundays excepted74 ,respectfully ,yours ,,homer ,,baldwin ,with the preparation of this catalogue my part in the development and introduction of the high-speed engine seems to have ended4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,the ,fall and ,rise of the ,southwark ,foundry and ,machine ,company4 ,popular ,appreciation of the ,high-speed ,engine4 ,the reader may be amused by some examples which came to my knowledge of the achievements of the new management4 ,the expensive new vice president was of course a mere figurehead1 as he knew nothing of the engine or the business or my system of work1 so ,mr4 ,merrick's superintendent had a free hand4 ,he adhered to his long pistons1 and obtained silent running by an enormous compression of the exhaust steam1 commencing soon after the middle of the return stroke and rising to initial4 ,this involved a corresponding premature release of the steam during the expansion4 ,between the two1 about one-third of the power of the engine was sacrificed1 and they were in continual trouble from the failure of the engines to give their guaranteed power4 ,i had always advocated giving our attention as much as possible to large engines1 where all the profit lay4 ,my views had so much weight that1 unknown to me1 ,mr4 ,merrick and his superintendent were1 before ,i left1 planning a smaller engine1 to be called the 8,southwark ,engine10 intended to drive isolated incandescent lighting plants4 ,as soon as ,i had been gotten rid of the manufacture of this engine proceeded actively4 ,it was largely exhibited and advertised1 much to the neglect of anything else4 ,this was pursued persistently until over twenty thousand dollars had been sunk in it1 when it was abandoned4 ,they had an order from the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,company for an engine to drive a rolling mill which they were about to establish at ,sparrow's ,point on the ,chesapeake ,bay below ,baltimore1 for the manufacture of steel rails from ,cuban ores1 which were found to be especially adapted to the ,bessemer process1 and where the then new method of rolling was to be employed1 the method by which rails are rolled direct from the ingot without reheating1 which is now in universal use4 ,this engine was to be much larger than any previously made1 and so requiring new drawings4 ,in making the cylinder drawings the draftsman omitted the internal ribs1 which are necessary to connect and stiffen the walls of the square steam chest4 ,the consequence of this almost incredible oversight soon appeared4 ,the engine had been running but a few days when the steam chest blew up4 ,the ,porter-,allen valve-gear required in its joints eleven hardened steel bushings1 which had to be finished inside and out4 ,these we had always made from cast steel bars4 ,this process was extremely wasteful of both material and time4 ,shortly before ,i left ,i had ascertained experimentally that ,i could import from ,england solid drawn steel tubing of any size and thickness1 sufficiently high in carbon to harden perfectly well4 ,the new management undertook to carry out my plans4 ,for this purpose a list was prepared of all sizes that would be required1 with the finished dimensions external and internal4 ,from this another list was prepared1 giving the additional material required for finishing4 ,a large lot of the tubing was ordered4 ,when it arrived they discovered they had sent the wrong list1 the tubes were too thin to be finished and were useless for any purpose4 ,they had an opportunity to estimate for a pair of very large blowing engines4 ,they got out their estimate for one engine1 forgot to multiply the amount by two1 and were astonished the morning after they had sent in their tender to receive the acceptance of it by telegraph4 ,illustration3 ,,james ,c4 ,,brooks ,performances of this kind were expensive4 ,when their capital was all gone1 they borrowed five hundred thousand dollars on their bonds1 secured by a blanket mortgage4 ,this did not last a great while4 ,only five or six years after ,i left the affairs of the company reached a crisis4 ,they had no money to carry on the business1 and no business worth mentioning to carry on1 and they owed a floating debt of one hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars4 ,in this emergency the directors invited ,mr4 ,james ,c4 ,brooks to take the presidency of the company4 ,mr4 ,brooks was then a member of the firm of ,william ,sellers and ,company4 ,he was already well acquainted with the high character of the engine4 ,he found the works well equipped with tools1 nothing wanting but brains4 ,he felt encouraged to make this proposition to the directors1 that if they would raise two hundred and fifty thousand dollars by an issue of preferred stock1 to pay off the floating debt and give him seventy-five thousand dollars to start with1 he would take hold and see what he could do4 ,this proposition was accepted and ,mr4 ,brooks took hold2 and by a rare combination of engineering skill and business ability and force of character1 having no one to interfere with him1 he soon set the business on its feet1 and started it on a career of magnificent development1 which under his management1 has continued for nearly twenty years to the present time4 ,of all this1 however ,i was ignorant4 ,i was so situated as not to have any knowledge of the company4 ,i only observed that their advertisements had long ago disappeared from the engineering journals4 ,in the fall of #aije1 being in ,philadelphia on a social visit1 in the course of conversation ,i asked my host 8,is the ,southwark ,foundry still running80 ,with a look of amazement he exclaimed1 8,running6 ,i should say it was running and is doing a tremendous business40 8,is ,mr4 ,brooks still at the head of it0 ,i asked4 8,yes10 he replied1 8you will find him at his old post1 and no doubt he will be glad to see you40 ,the next day ,i called1 and was most cordially received by ,mr4 ,brooks4 ,he said he discontinued advertising a number of years ago1 8because the business was not of a nature to be benefited by advertising1 it rested entirely upon its reputation40 8,our correspondence10 he added1 8is enormous1 employing six typewriters40 ,he took me to the erecting floor of the shop4 ,i was filled with amazement and delight at the sight which met my eyes4 ,this floor1 which had been greatly enlarged1 was crowded with large engines in process of completion1 most of them larger and some a great deal larger1 than the largest ,i had built4 ,i confess to a feeling bordering on ecstasy1 heightened of course by the suddenness of the relevation1 when ,i realized the commanding height to which the ,porter-,allen ,engine had been raised by this remarkable man4 ,mr4 ,brooks offered to take me through the shops2 this however ,i declined1 not being willing to trespass further on his time4 ,he showed me the old shop engine which ,i had not seen for twenty-three years4 ,everything looked familiar except its speed4 ,he said to me1 8we have never done anything to this engine1 except to increase its speed from #bcj revolutions to #cjj revolutions per minute1 to supply the additional power required by the growth of the business40 ,respecting their system1 he mentioned only one feature1 which he evidently regarded as of special importance1 and which he seemed to suppose would be new to me4 ,it was this3 8,we make a separate drawing of every piece40 ,under date of ,oct4 #ca1 #aijg1 ,mr4 ,brooks writes me1 8the business now employs ten typewriters1 and the engine which was started in #ahha1 and which has run at #cjj revolutions per minute for the last seven years1 has now been compelled by their increased requirements to give place to a compound condensing engine of more than twice its power40 99 99 99 99 99 ,three or four years ago ,i was spending a few days at the ,mohonk ,lake ,mountain ,house1 ,mr4 ,albert ,k4 ,smiley's famous summer resort1 and one day strolled into the power house1 where were three dynamos1 each driven by a ,ball ,wood engine1 the latter making1 ,i think1 something over #bjj revolutions per minute4 ,i fell into conversation with the engineer1 rather an old man and quite communicative4 ,he told me he had been in ,mr4 ,smiley's employ for seventeen years1 and was voluble in his praises2 said he was a wonderful man1 repeating 8wonderful0 with emphasis1 but he added 8he don't know nothin about machinery1 nothin1 no more'n you do40 ,my attention was attracted by the dynamos1 which were new to me and the framing of which ,i thought presented a remarkably well studied design4 ,i mentioned this to the old man1 who replied impatiently3 8,o1 that aint nothin1 the engine is the wonder1 that's the wonder2 why1 when ,i was a young man we did not suppose an engine could be run more'n about fifty or sixty turns a minute1 nobody never thought o' such a thing2 now we can run 'em any speed we like1 no poundin1 no shakin1 no heatin1 it's just wonderful40 ,i did not respond or show any interest1 and the old man did not waste any more enthusiasm on me4 ,did not say a word when ,i left directly after1 but ,i fancied him saying to himself3 8,another o' them stuck ups1 that don't know nothin'40 ,transcriber's ,notes ,the text of this document follows that of the source2 inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been retained1 except as mentioned below4 ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text1 and on their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,the scales as provided in the indicator diagrams are1 of course1 not necessarily correct4 ,page #ic3 444 ,h laid on its side1 thus 3 the symbol is used to represent the shape of the rotated letter ,h1 not an ,i or an ,i-beam4 ,page #acg1 bill for ,american belt3 there are some errors in the calculations1 these have not been corrected4 ,page #adg1 paragraph starting ,the day after the opening 4443 the single and double quote marks do not match4 ,page #aee1 444 exposition of the action of the reciprocating parts was given ,mr4 ,edwin ,reynolds 4443 should possibly read 444 exposition of the action of the reciprocating parts was given by ,mr4 ,edwin ,reynolds 4444 ,page #bjb1 444 half the distance to the mid-stroke or to ,e1 ,fig4 #cb1 4443 presumably this refers to the figure on page #bja2 there is no figure #cb in the book4 ,page #bag1 ,if ,i went1 that ,i would be the end of the business3 the second ,i should probably be deleted4 ,page #bic3 ,presumably the references in the text to ,figure #a and ,figure #b are to the top and bottom illustration respectively2 the source document does not provide figure numbers4 ,page #cbh-ccj3 ,the use of quote marks in these letters differs from that in other correspondence2 this has not been standardised4 ,changes made ,illustrations and tables were moved out of text paragraphs4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,dimensions mn and m n have been standardised to mn1 multiplications xy and x y to x y2 cross-head and crosshead were standardised to cross-head4 ,page xii3 illustration numbers have been added2 ,diagrams from ,english ,locomotive 444 has been changed to ,diagrams from ,english ,locomotives 444 as in the illustration caption4 ,page #dj3 a closing single quote mark was inserted after 444 do not require any governor1 ,page #gi3 pice de resistance changed to pice de rsistance4 ,page #ia1 illustration caption3 ,english ,locomtlvoes changed to ,english ,locomotives4 ,page #age3 444 told me had had supplied all the money 444 changed to 444 told me he had supplied all the money 4444 ,page #bhg3 444 this they had been keen kept in ignorance of 444 changed to 444 this they had been kept in ignorance of 4444 ,page #bid3 b and c in the text changed to b and c as in the illustration4 ,page #cjc3 444 to very the speed 444 changed to 444 to vary the speed 4444 ,page #cca3 444 before ,i left planning a smaller engine 444 changed to 444 before ,i left1 planning a smaller engine 4444 ,page #ccc3 closing quote mark inserted after 444 employing six typewriters4