,,psyche',s ,,task ,a ,,discourse ,,concerning ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,superstition ,,on ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,institutions ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,,to ,,which ,,is ,,added ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology ,,an ,,inaugural ,,lecture ,,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 ,,fellow ,,of ,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge ,,professor ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,liverpool ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street1 ,,london #aiac ,,epigraphs ,good and evil we know in the field of this world grow up together almost inseparably2 and the knowledge of good is so involved and interwoven with the knowledge of evil and in so many cunning resemblances hardly to be discerned1 that those confused seeds1 which were imposed on ,psyche as an incessant labour to cull out and sort asunder1 were not more intermixt4 ,milton1 ,areopagitica4 ,il ne faut pas croire cependant qu'un mauvais principe vicie radicalement une institution1 ni mme qu'il y fasse tout le mal qu'il porte dans son sein4 ,rien ne fausse plus l'histoire que la logique3 quand l'esprit humain s'est arrt sur une ide1 il en tire toutes les consquences possibles1 lui fait produire tout ce qu'en effet elle pourrait produire1 et puis se la reprsente dans l'histoire avec tout ce cortge4 ,il n'en arrive point ainsi2 les vnements ne sont pas aussi prompts dans leur dductions que l'esprit humain4 ,il y a dans toutes choses un mlange de bien et de mal si profond1 si invincible que1 quelque part que vous pntriez1 quand vous descendrez dans les derniers lments de la socit ou de l'me1 vous y trouverez ces deux ordres de faits coexistant1 se dveloppant l'un ct de l'autre et se combattant1 mais sans s'exterminer4 ,la nature humaine ne va jamais jusqu'aux dernires limites1 ni du mal ni du bien2 elle passe sans cesse de l'un l'autre1 se redressant au moment o elle semble le plus prs de la chute1 faiblissant au moment o elle semble marcher le plus droit4 ,guizot1 ,histoire de la civilisation dans l',europe1 ,cinquime ,leon4 ,,dedication ,,to ,,all ,,who ,,are ,,engaged ,,in ,,psyche',s ,,task ,,of ,,sorting ,,out ,,the ,,seeds ,,of ,,good ,,from ,,the ,,seeds ,,of ,,evil ,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,discourse ,,preface vii ,the substance of the following discourse was lately read at an evening meeting of the ,royal ,institution in ,london1 and most of it was afterwards delivered in the form of lectures to my class at ,liverpool4 ,it is now published in the hope that it may call attention to a neglected side of superstition and stimulate enquiry into the early history of those great institutions which still form the framework of modern society4 ,if it should turn out that these institutions have sometimes been built on rotten foundations1 it would be rash to conclude that they must all come down4 ,man is a very curious animal1 and the more we know of his habits the more curious does he appear4 ,he may be the most rational of the beasts1 but certainly he is the most absurd4 ,even the saturnine wit of ,swift1 unaided by a knowledge of savages1 fell far short of the reality in his attempt to set human folly in a strong light4 ,yet the odd thing is that in spite1 or perhaps by virtue1 of his absurdities man moves steadily upwards2 the more we learn of his past history the more groundless does the old theory of his degeneracy prove to be4 ,from false premises he often arrives at sound conclusions3 from a chimerical theory he deduces a salutary practice4 ,this discourse will have served a useful purpose if it illustrates a few viii of the ways in which folly mysteriously deviates into wisdom1 and good comes out of evil4 ,it is a mere sketch of a vast subject4 ,whether ,i shall ever fill in these bald outlines with finer strokes and deeper shadows must be left to the future to determine4 ,the materials for such a picture exist in abundance2 and if the colours are dark1 they are yet illuminated1 as ,i have tried in this essay to point out1 by a ray of consolation and hope4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,cambridge1 ,february #aiji4 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,in this edition ,psyche's ,task has been enlarged by fresh illustrative examples and by the discussion of a curious point of savage etiquette1 but the substance and the form of the discourse remain unchanged4 ,i have added ,the ,scope of ,social ,anthropology1 an inaugural lecture intended to mark out roughly the boundaries of the general study of which ,psyche's ,task aims at setting forth some particular results4 ,there is therefore a certain appropriateness in presenting the two discourses together to the reader4 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,cambridge1 #fth ,june #aiac4 ,,contents ix ,preface ,,psyche',s ,,task ,i4 ,introduction ,the dark and the bright side of ,superstition3 a plea for the accused3 four propositions to be proved by the defence #c-e ,,ii4 ,government ,superstition has been a prop of ,government by inculcating a deep veneration for governors3 evidence of this veneration collected from ,melanesia1 ,polynesia1 ,africa1 the ,malay region1 and ,america3 evidence of similar veneration among ,aryan peoples from ,india to ,scotland #f-ai ,,iii4 ,private ,property ,superstition has been a prop of ,private ,property by inculcating a deep fear of its violation3 evidence of this fear collected from ,polynesia1 ,melanesia1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america #bj-dc ,,iv4 ,marriage ,superstition has been a prop of ,marriage by inculcating a deep fear of disregarding the traditionary rules of sexual morality3 evidence of this fear collected from ,south-,eastern ,asia1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,africa1 the ,hebrews1 the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and the ,irish3 extreme severity with which breaches of the sexual code have been punished in ,india1 ,babylon1 x ,palestine1 ,africa1 the ,east ,indies1 ,australia1 ,america1 and ,europe3 the avoidance of the wife's mother and of a man's own mother1 sisters1 daughters1 and female cousins1 based on the fear of incest3 the origin of the fear of incest unknown3 belief that adultery and fornication inflict physical injury not only on the culprits but on their innocent relations3 evidence of the belief collected from ,africa1 ,america1 ,sumatra1 and ,new ,britain #dd-aaj ,v4 ,respect for ,human ,life ,superstition has been a prop for the ,security of ,human ,life by inculcating a deep fear of the ghosts of the murdered dead3 evidence of the fear collected from ancient ,greece1 modern ,africa1 ,america1 ,india1 ,new ,guinea1 ,celebes1 the ,bismarck ,archipelago1 and ,fiji3 deep fear of ghosts in general3 evidence collected from ,america1 ,africa1 ,india1 ,burma1 the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,australia1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,china3 influence of the fear in restraining men from murder #aaa-aec ,,vi4 ,conclusion ,summing up for the defence3 by serving as a prop for government1 private property1 marriage1 and human life1 ,superstition has rendered a great service to humanity3 ,superstition at the bar3 sentence of death #aed-aef ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology ,anthropology1 or the ,science of ,man1 a new study3 ,social ,anthropology restricted to the rudimentary phases of human society3 not concerned with the practical application of its results3 all forms of human society either savage or evolved out of savagery3 hence ,social ,anthropology deals primarily with savagery and secondarily with those survivals of savagery in civilization which are commonly known as folklore3 importance of the study of savagery for an understanding of the evolution of the human mind3 existing savages primitive only in a relative sense by comparison with civilized peoples3 in reality the savages of the present day probably stand at a high level of culture compared with their remote predecessors3 for example1 the present systems of marriage and consanguinity among savages appear to have been preceded by a period1 not necessarily primitive1 of sexual communism3 survivals of savagery in civilization due to the natural and ineradicable inequality of men3 mankind xi ultimately led by an intellectual aristocracy3 superstition the creed of the laggards in the march of intellect3 the wide prevalence of superstition under the surface of society a standing menace to civilization3 the lowest forms of superstition the most tenacious of life3 function of the ,comparative ,method in reconstructing the early history of human thought and institutions3 its legitimacy based on the ascertained similarity of the human mind in all races3 the need of studying savages only of late years understood3 urgent importance of the study in consequence of the rapid disappearance of savagery3 the duty of our generation to preserve a record of it for posterity3 the duty of the ,universities and of the ,state #aeg-agf ,,index #agg-ahf ,,endnotes ,,psyche',s ,,task #c ,i4 ,,introduction ,sidenote3 ,the dark side of superstition4 ,we are apt to think of superstition as an unmitigated evil1 false in itself and pernicious in its consequences4 ,that it has done much harm in the world1 cannot be denied4 ,it has sacrificed countless lives1 wasted untold treasures1 embroiled nations1 severed friends1 parted husbands and wives1 parents and children1 putting swords1 and worse than swords between them3 it has filled gaols and madhouses with its innocent or deluded victims3 it has broken many hearts1 embittered the whole of many a life1 and not content with persecuting the living it has pursued the dead into the grave and beyond it1 gloating over the horrors which its foul imagination has conjured up to appal and torture the survivors4 ,it has done all this and more4 ,sidenote3 ,the brighter side of superstition4 ,yet the case of superstition1 like that of ,mr4 ,pickwick after the revelations of poor ,mr4 ,winkle in the witness-box1 can perhaps afford to be placed in a rather better light2 and without posing as the ,devil's ,advocate or appearing before you in a blue flame and sulphureous fumes1 ,i do profess to make out what the charitable might call a plausible plea for a very dubious client4 ,for ,i propose to prove1 or at least make probable1 by examples that among certain races and at certain stages of evolution some social institutions which we all1 or most of us1 believe to be beneficial have partially rested on a basis of superstition4 ,the institutions to which ,i refer are purely secular or civil4 ,of religious or ecclesiastical institutions ,i shall say nothing4 ,it might perhaps be possible to shew that even religion has not wholly escaped the taint or #d dispensed with the support of superstition2 but ,i prefer for to-night to confine myself to those civil institutions which people commonly imagine to be bottomed on nothing but hard common sense and the nature of things4 ,while the institutions with which ,i shall deal have all survived into civilized society and can no doubt be defended by solid and weighty arguments1 it is practically certain that among savages1 and even among peoples who have risen above the level of savagery1 these very same institutions have derived much of their strength from beliefs which nowadays we should condemn unreservedly as superstitious and absurd4 ,the institutions in regard to which ,i shall attempt to prove this are four1 namely1 government1 private property1 marriage1 and the respect for human life4 ,sidenote3 ,four propositions to be proved4 ,and what ,i have to say may be summed up in four propositions as follows3-- ,i4 ,among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for government1 especially monarchical government1 and has thereby contributed to the establishment and maintenance of civil order4 ,,ii4 ,among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for private property and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment4 ,,iii4 ,among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for marriage and has thereby contributed to a stricter observance of the rules of sexual morality both among the married and the unmarried4 ,,iv4 ,among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for human life and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment4 ,sidenote3 ,preliminary remarks4 ,before proceeding to deal with these four propositions separately1 ,i wish to make two remarks1 which ,i beg you will bear in mind4 ,first1 in what ,i have to say ,i shall confine myself to certain races of men and to certain ages of history1 because neither my time nor my knowledge permits me to speak of all races of men and all ages of history4 ,how far the limited conclusions which ,i shall draw for some races and for some ages are applicable to others must be left to future enquiries to determine4 ,that is my first remark4 ,my second is this4 ,if it can be proved that in certain races and at certain times the institutions #e in question have been based partly on superstition1 it by no means follows that even among these races they have never been based on anything else4 ,on the contrary1 as all the institutions which ,i shall consider have proved themselves stable and permanent1 there is a strong presumption that they rest mainly on something much more solid than superstition4 ,no institution founded wholly on superstition1 that is on falsehood1 can be permanent4 ,if it does not answer to some real human need1 if its foundations are not laid broad and deep in the nature of things1 it must perish1 and the sooner the better4 ,that is my second remark4 ,,ii4 ,,government #f ,sidenote3 ,superstition as a prop of government4 ,with these two cautions ,i address myself to my first proposition1 which is1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for government1 especially monarchical government1 and has thereby contributed to the establishment and maintenance of civil order4 ,sidenote3 ,superstitious respect for chiefs in ,melanesia4 ,among many peoples the task of government has been greatly facilitated by a superstition that the governors belong to a superior order of beings and possess certain supernatural or magical powers to which the governed can make no claim and can offer no resistance4 ,thus ,dr4 ,codrington tells us that among the ,melanesians 8the power of chiefs has hitherto rested upon the belief in their supernatural power derived from the spirits or ghosts with which they had intercourse4 ,as this belief has failed1 in the ,banks' ,islands for example some time ago1 the position of a chief has tended to become obscure2 and as this belief is now being generally undermined a new kind of chief must needs arise1 unless a time of anarchy is to begin40#f4a ,according to a native ,melanesian account1 the authority of chiefs rests entirely on the belief that they hold communication with mighty ghosts and possess that supernatural power or mana1 as it is called1 whereby they are able to bring the influence of the ghosts to bear on human life4 ,if a chief imposed a fine1 it was paid because the people firmly believed that he could inflict calamity and sickness upon such as resisted him4 ,as soon as any considerable number of his #g subjects began to disbelieve in his influence with the ghosts1 his power to levy fines was shaken4#g4a ,it is thus that in ,melanesia religious scepticism tends to undermine the foundations of civil society4 ,sidenote3 ,superstitious respect for chiefs in ,fiji4 ,similarly ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson tells us that 8the key to the ,melanesian system of government is ,ancestor-worship4 ,just as every act in a ,fijian's life was controlled by his fear of ,unseen ,powers1 so was his conception of human authority based upon religion40 ,the dead chief was supposed still to watch jealously over his people and to punish them with dearth1 storms1 and floods1 if they failed to bring their offerings to his tomb and to propitiate his spirit4 ,and the person of his descendant1 the living chief1 was sacred2 it was hedged in by a magic circle of taboo and might not even be touched without incurring the wrath of the ,unseen4 8,the first blow at the power of the chiefs was struck unconsciously by the missionaries4 ,neither they nor the chiefs themselves realized how closely the government of the ,fijians was bound up with their religion4 ,no sooner had a missionary gained a foothold in a chief village than the tabu was doomed1 and on the tabu depended half the people's reverence for rank4 ,the tabu died hard1 as such institutions should do4 ,the first-fruits were still presented to the chief1 but they were no longer carried from him to the temple1 since their excuse--as an offering to persuade the ancestors to grant abundant increase--had passed away4 ,no longer supported by the priests1 the ,sacred ,chief fell upon evil days02 for in ,fiji1 as in other places1 the priest and the chief1 when they were not one and the same person1 had played into each other's hands1 both knowing that neither could stand firm without the aid of the other4#g4b ,sidenote3 ,superstitious respect for chiefs in ,polynesia generally and in ,new ,zealand particularly4 ,in ,polynesia the state of things was similar4 ,there1 too1 the power of chiefs depended largely on a belief in their supernatural powers1 in their relation to ancestral spirits1 and in the magical virtue of taboo1 which pervaded their persons and interposed between them and common folk an invisible but formidable barrier1 to pass which was death4 ,in ,new ,zealand the ,maori chiefs were deemed to be living #h atuas or gods4 ,thus the ,rev4 ,richard ,taylor1 who was for more than thirty years a missionary in ,new ,zealand1 tells us that in speaking a ,maori chief 8assumed a tone not natural to him1 as a kind of court language2 he kept himself distinct from his inferiors1 eating separately2 his person was sacred1 he had the power of holding converse with the gods1 in fact laid claim to being one himself1 making the tapu a powerful adjunct to obtain control over his people and their goods4 ,every means were used to acquire this dignity2 a large person was thought to be of the highest importance2 to acquire this extra size1 the child of a chief was generally provided with many nurses1 each contributing to his support by robbing their own offspring of their natural sustenance2 thus1 whilst they were half-starved1 miserable-looking little creatures1 the chief's child was the contrary1 and early became remarkable by its good appearance4 ,nor was this feeling confined to the body2 the chief was an atua1 but there were powerful and powerless gods2 each naturally sought to make himself one of the former2 the plan therefore adopted1 was to incorporate the spirits of others with their own2 thus1 when a warrior slew a chief1 he immediately gouged out his eyes and swallowed them1 the atua tonga1 or divinity1 being supposed to reside in that organ2 thus he not only killed the body1 but also possessed himself of the soul of his enemy1 and consequently the more chiefs he slew1 the greater did his divinity become4''' ,another great sign of a chief was oratory--a good orator was compared to the korimako1 the sweetest singing bird in ,new ,zealand2 to enable the young chief to become one1 he was fed upon that bird1 so that he might the better acquire its qualities1 and the successful orator was termed a korimako40#h4a ,again1 another writer informs us that the opinions of ,maori chiefs 8were held in more estimation than those of others1 simply because they were believed to give utterance to the thoughts of deified men4 ,no dazzling pageantry hedged them round1 but their persons were sacred4''' ,many of them believed themselves inspired2 #i thus ,te ,heu ,heu1 the great ,taupo chief and priest1 shortly before he was swallowed up by a landslip1 said to a ,european missionary3 #8,think not that ,i am a man1 that my origin is of the earth4 ,i come from the heavens2 my ancestors are all there2 they are gods1 and ,i shall return to them4'0#i4a ,so sacred was the person of a ,maori chief that it was not lawful to touch him1 even to save his life4 ,a chief has been seen at the point of suffocation and in great agony with a fish bone sticking in his throat1 and yet not one of his people1 who were lamenting around him1 dared to touch or even approach him1 for it would have been as much as their own life was worth to do so4 ,a missionary1 who was passing1 came to the rescue and saved the chief's life by extracting the bone4 ,as soon as the rescued man recovered the power of speech1 which he did not do for half an hour1 the first use he made of it was to demand that the surgical instruments with which the bone had been extracted should be given to him as compensation for the injury done him by drawing his sacred blood and touching his sacred head4#i4b ,sidenote3 ,superstitious fear of contact with ,maori chiefs4 ,not only the person of a ,maori chief but everything that had come into contact with it was sacred and would kill1 so the ,maoris thought1 any sacrilegious person who dared to meddle with it4 ,cases have been known of ,maoris dying of sheer fright on learning that they had unwittingly eaten the remains of a chief's dinner or handled something that belonged to him4 ,for example1 a woman1 having partaken of some fine peaches from a basket1 was told that they had come from a tabooed place4 ,immediately the basket dropped from her hands and she cried out in agony that the atua or godhead of the chief1 whose divinity had been thus profaned1 would kill her4 ,that happened in the afternoon1 and next day by twelve o'clock she was dead4#i4c ,similarly a chief's tinder-box has proved fatal to several men2 for having found it and lighted their pipes with it #aj they actually expired of terror on learning to whom it belonged4#aj4a ,hence a considerate chief would throw away where it could not be found any garment or mat for which he had no further use1 lest one of his subjects should find it and be struck dead by the shock of its inherent divinity4 ,for the same reason he would never blow a fire with his mouth2 for his sacred breath would communicate its sanctity to the fire1 and the fire would pass it on to the meat that might be cooked on it1 and the meat would carry it into the stomach of the eater1 and he would die4#aj4b ,thus the divinity which hedged a ,maori chief was a devouring flame which shrivelled up and consumed whatever it touched4 ,no wonder that such men were implicitly obeyed4 ,sidenote3 ,superstitious respect for chiefs and kings in ,tonga and ,tahiti4 ,in the rest of ,polynesia the state of things was similar4 ,for example1 the natives of ,tonga in like manner believed that if any one fed himself with his own hands after touching the sacred person of a superior chief1 he would swell up and die2 the sanctity of the chief1 like a virulent poison1 infected the hands of his inferior1 and1 being communicated through them to the food1 proved fatal to the eater1 unless he disinfected himself by touching the chief's feet in a particular way4#aj4c ,when a king of ,tahiti entered on office he was girded with a sacred girdle of red feathers1 which not only raised him to the highest earthly station1 but identified him with the gods4#aj4d ,henceforth 8every thing in the least degree connected with the king or queen--the cloth they wore1 the houses in which they dwelt1 the canoes in which they voyaged1 the men by whom they were borne when they journeyed by land1 became sacred--and even the sounds in the language1 composing their names1 could no longer be appropriated to ordinary significations4 ,hence1 the original names of most of the objects with which they were familiar1 have from time to time undergone considerable alterations4 ,the ground on which they even accidentally trod1 became sacred2 and the dwelling under which they might enter1 must for ever after be vacated #aa by its proprietors1 and could be appropriated only to the use of these sacred personages4 ,no individual was allowed to touch the body of the king or queen2 and every one who should stand over them1 or pass the hand over their heads1 would be liable to pay for the sacrilegious act with the forfeiture of his life4 ,it was on account of this supposed sacredness of person that they could never enter any dwellings1 excepting those that were specially dedicated to their use1 and prohibited to all others2 nor might they tread on the ground in any part of the island but their own hereditary districts40#aa4a ,sidenote3 ,superstitious fear of contact with kings in ,africa and the ,malay region4 ,in like manner the ,cazembes1 in the interior of ,angola1 regarded their king as so holy that no one could touch him without being killed by the magical power which emanated from his sacred person2 however1 any one who had accidentally or necessarily come into personal contact with his ,majesty could escape death by touching the king's hands in a special manner4#aa4b ,similar beliefs are current in the ,malay region1 where the theory of the king as the ,divine ,man is said to be held perhaps as strongly as in any other part of the world4 8,not only is the king's person considered sacred1 but the sanctity of his body is believed to communicate itself to his regalia1 and to slay those who break the royal taboos4 ,thus it is firmly believed that any one who seriously offends the royal person1 who touches 7even for a moment7 or who imitates 7even with the king's permission7 the chief objects of the regalia1 or who wrongfully makes use of any of the insignia or privileges of royalty1 will be kna daulat1 i4e4 struck dead1 by a quasi-electric discharge of that ,divine ,power which the ,malays suppose to reside in the king's person1 and which is called daulat or ,royal ,sanctity40#aa4c ,sidenote3 ,marvellous powers attributed to rajahs by ,malays and ,dyaks4 ,further1 the ,malays firmly believe that the king possesses a personal influence over the works of nature1 such as the growth of the crops and the bearing of fruit-trees4#aa4d ,some of the ,hill ,dyaks of ,sarawak #ab used to bring their seed-rice to ,rajah ,brooke to be fertilized by him2 and once when the rice-crops of a tribe were thin1 the chief remarked that it could not be otherwise1 since they had not been visited by the ,rajah4#ab4a ,sidenote3 ,superstitious veneration for the rajah of ,loowoo4 ,among the ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes 8the power of the rajah of ,loowoo rested for the most part on superstition and on tradition4 ,the ancestors had served the rajah in their day1 and should the descendants fail to do so they would have to fear the wrath of the ancestors4 ,often ,toradjas said to us1 #8,the rajah of ,loowoo is our god4' ,they saw in him the complete embodiment of the old institutions4 ,it used to be said that he had white blood1 and the mysterious power that went forth from him was thought to be so great that a common ,toradja could not see him without suffering from a swollen belly and dying40#ab4b ,sidenote3 ,magical powers attributed to kings in ,africa4 ,similarly in ,africa kings are commonly supposed to be endowed with a magical power of making the rain to fall and the crops to grow3 drought and famine are set down to the weakness or ill-will of the king1 and accordingly he is punished1 deposed1 or put to death4#ab4c ,to take two or three instances out of many1 a writer of the eighteenth century speaks as follows of the kingdom of ,loango in ,west ,africa3 ,sidenote3 ,the king of ,loango4 8,the government with these people is purely despotic4 ,they say their lives and goods belong to the king2 that he may dispose of and deprive them of them when he pleases1 without form of process1 and without their having anything to complain of4 ,in his presence they pay marks of respect which resemble adoration4 ,the individuals of the lower classes are persuaded that his power is not confined to the earth1 and that he has credit enough to make rain fall from heaven3 hence they fail not1 when a continuance of drought makes them fearful about the harvest1 to represent to him that if he does not take care to water the lands of his kingdom1 they will die of hunger1 and will find it impossible to make him the usual presents4 ,the king1 to satisfy the people1 without however compromising himself with heaven1 #ac devolves the affair on one of his ministers1 to whom he gives orders to cause to fall without delay upon the plains as much rain as is wanted to fertilize them4 ,when the minister sees a cloud which he presumes must shed rain1 he shews himself in public1 as if to exercise the orders of his prince4 ,the women and children troop around him1 crying with all their might1 ,give us rain1 give us rain3 and he promises them some40#ac4a ,the king of ,loango1 says another old writer1 8is honoured among them as though he were a ,god3 and is called ,sambee and ,pango1 which mean ,god4 ,they believe he can let them have rain when he likes2 and once a year1 in ,december1 which is the time they want rain1 the people come to beg of him to grant it to them1 on this occasion they make him presents1 and none come empty-handed40 ,on a day appointed1 when the chiefs with their troops had assembled in warlike array1 the drums used to beat and the horns to sound1 and the king shot arrows into the air1 which was believed to bring down the rain4#ac4b ,on the other side of ,africa a similar state of things is reported by the old ,portuguese historian ,dos ,santos4 ,sidenote3 ,the king of ,sofala4 ,he says3 8,the king of all these lands of the interior and of the river of ,sofala is a woolly-haired ,kaffir1 a heathen who adores nothing whatever1 and has no knowledge of ,god2 on the contrary1 he esteems himself the god of all his lands1 and is so looked upon and reverenced by his subjects40 8,when they suffer necessity or scarcity they have recourse to the king1 firmly believing that he can give them all that they desire or have need of1 and can obtain anything from his dead predecessors1 with whom they believe that he holds converse4 ,for this reason they ask the king to give them rain when it is required1 and other favourable weather for their harvest1 and in coming to ask for any of these things they bring him valuable presents1 which the king accepts1 bidding them return to their homes and he will be careful to grant their petitions4 ,they are such barbarians that though they see how often the king #ad does not give them what they ask for1 they are not undeceived1 but make him still greater offerings1 and many days are spent in these comings and goings1 until the weather turns to rain1 and the ,kaffirs are satisfied1 believing that the king did not grant their request until he had been well bribed and importuned1 as he himself affirms1 in order to maintain them in their error40#ad4a ,nevertheless 8it was formerly the custom of the kings of this land to commit suicide by taking poison when any disaster or natural physical defect fell upon them1 such as impotence1 infectious disease1 the loss of their front teeth by which they were disfigured1 or any other deformity or affliction4 ,to put an end to such defects they killed themselves1 saying that the king should be free from any blemish40 ,however1 in the time of ,dos ,santos the king of ,sofala1 in defiance of all precedent1 persisted in living and reigning after he had lost a front tooth2 and he even went so far as to tax his royal predecessors with folly for having made away with themselves for such trifles as a decayed tooth or a little grey hair1 declaring his firm resolution to live as long as he possibly could for the benefit of his loyal subjects4#ad4b ,sidenote3 ,the chief medicine-man of the ,nandi4 ,at the present day the principal medicine-man of the ,nandi1 a tribe in ,british ,east ,africa1 is also supreme chief of the whole people4 ,he is a diviner1 and foretells the future3 he makes women and cattle fruitful2 and in time of drought he obtains rain either directly or through the intervention of the rainmakers4 ,the ,nandi believe implicitly in these marvellous powers of their chief4 ,his person is usually regarded as absolutely sacred4 ,nobody may approach him with weapons in his hand or speak in his presence unless he is first addressed2 and it is deemed most important that nobody should touch the chief's head1 otherwise his powers of divination and so forth would depart from him4#ad4c ,this widespread ,african conception of the divinity of kings culminated long ago in ancient ,egypt1 where the kings were treated as gods both in life and in death1 temples being dedicated to their worship #ae and priests appointed to conduct it4#ae4a ,and when the harvests failed1 the ancient ,egyptians1 like the modern negroes1 laid the blame of the failure on the reigning monarch4#ae4b ,sidenote3 ,superstitious veneration of the ,peruvians for the ,yncas4 ,a halo of superstitious veneration also surrounded the ,yncas or governing class in ancient ,peru4 ,thus the old historian ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 himself the son of an ,ynca princess1 tells us that 8it does not appear that any ,ynca of the blood royal has ever been punished1 at least publicly1 and the ,indians deny that such a thing has ever taken place4 ,they say that the ,ynca never committed any fault that required correction2 because the teaching of their parents1 and the common opinion that they were children of the ,sun1 born to teach and to do good to the rest of mankind1 kept them under such control1 that they were rather an example than a scandal to the commonwealth4 ,the ,indians also said that the ,yncas were free from the temptations which usually lead to crime1 such as passion for women1 envy and covetousness1 or the thirst for vengeance2 because if they desired beautiful women1 it was lawful for them to have as many as they liked2 and any pretty girl they might take a fancy to1 not only was never denied to them1 but was given up by her father with expressions of extreme thankfulness that an ,ynca should have condescended to take her as his servant4 ,the same thing might be said of their property2 for1 as they never could feel the want of anything1 they had no reason to covet the goods of others2 while as governors they had command over all the property of the ,sun and of the ,ynca2 and those who were in charge1 were bound to give them all that they required1 as children of the ,sun1 and brethren of the ,ynca4 ,they likewise had no temptation to kill or wound any one either for revenge1 or in passion2 for no one ever offended them4 ,on the contrary1 they received adoration only second to that offered to the royal person2 and if any one1 how high soever his rank1 had enraged any ,ynca1 it would have been looked upon as sacrilege1 and very severely punished4 ,but it may be affirmed that an ,indian #af was never punished for offending against the person1 honour1 or property of any ,ynca1 because no such offence was ever committed1 as they held the ,yncas to be like gods40#af4a ,sidenote3 ,superstitious veneration for kings in ancient ,india4 ,nor have such superstitions been confined to savages and other peoples of alien race in remote parts of the world4 ,they seem to have been shared by the ancestors of all the ,aryan peoples from ,india to ,ireland4 ,thus in the ancient ,indian law-book called the ,laws of ,manu1 we read3 8,because a king has been formed of particles of those lords of the gods1 he therefore surpasses all created beings in lustre2 and1 like the sun1 he burns eyes and hearts2 nor can anybody on earth even gaze on him4 ,through his 7supernatural7 power he is ,fire and ,wind1 he ,sun and ,moon1 he the ,lord of justice 7,yama71 he ,kubera1 he ,varuna1 he great ,indra4 ,even an infant king must not be despised 7from an idea7 that he is a 7mere7 mortal2 for he is a great deity in human form40#af4b ,and in the same law-book the effects of a good king's reign are thus described3 8,in that 7country7 where the king avoids taking the property of 7mortal7 sinners1 men are born in 7due7 time 7and are7 long-lived4 ,and the crops of the husbandmen spring up1 each as it was sown1 and the children die not1 and no misshaped 7offspring7 is born40#af4c ,sidenote3 ,superstitious veneration for kings in ancient ,europe4 ,similarly in ,homeric ,greece1 kings and chiefs were described as sacred or divine2 their houses1 too1 were divine1 and their chariots sacred2#af4d and it was thought that the reign of a good king caused the black earth to bring forth wheat and barley1 the trees to be loaded with fruit1 the flocks to multiply1 and the sea to yield fish4#af4e ,when the crops failed1 the ,burgundians used to blame their kings and depose them4#af4f ,similarly the ,swedes always ascribed the abundance or scantiness of the harvest to the goodness or badness of their kings1 and in time of dearth they have been known #ag to sacrifice them to the gods for the sake of procuring good crops4#ag4a ,in ancient ,ireland it was also believed that when kings observed the customs of their ancestors the seasons were mild1 the crops plentiful1 the cattle fruitful1 the waters abounded with fish1 and the fruit-trees had to be propped up on account of the weight of their produce4 ,a canon ascribed to ,st4 ,patrick enumerates among the blessings that attend the reign of a just king 8fine weather1 calm seas1 crops abundant1 and trees laden with fruit40#ag4b ,sidenote3 ,survivals of the superstition in ,scotland4 ,superstitions of the kind which were thus current among the ,celts of ,ireland centuries ago appear to have survived among the ,celts of ,scotland down to ,dr4 ,johnson's time2 for when he travelled in ,skye it was still held that the return of the chief of the ,macleods to ,dunvegan1 after any considerable absence1 produced a plentiful catch of herring2#ag4c and at a still later time1 when the potato crop failed1 the clan ,macleod desired that a certain fairy banner in the possession of their chief might be unfurled1#ag4d apparently in the belief that the magical banner had only to be displayed to produce a fine crop of potatoes4 ,sidenote3 ,touching for the ,king's ,evil4 ,perhaps the last relic of such superstitions which lingered about our ,english kings was the notion that they could heal scrofula by their touch4 ,the disease was accordingly known as the ,king's ,evil2#ag4e and on the analogy of the ,polynesian superstitions which ,i have cited1 we may perhaps conjecture that the skin disease of scrofula was originally supposed to be caused as well as cured by the king's touch4 ,certain it is that in ,tonga some forms of scrofula1 as well as indurations of the liver1 to which the natives were very subject1 were thought to be caused by touching a chief and #ah to be healed1 on homopathic principles1 in the very same fashion4#ah4a ,similarly in ,loango palsy is called the king's disease1 because the negroes imagine it to be heaven's own punishment for treason meditated against the king4#ah4b ,the belief in the king's power to heal by touch is known to have been held both in ,france and ,england from the eleventh century onward4 ,the first ,french king to touch the sick appears to have been ,robert the ,pious1 the first ,english king ,edward the ,confessor4#ah4c ,in ,england the belief that the king could heal scrofula by his touch survived into the eighteenth century4 ,dr4 ,johnson was touched in his childhood for scrofula by ,queen ,anne4#ah4d ,it is curious that so typical a representative of robust common sense as ,dr4 ,johnson should in his childhood and old age have thus been brought into contact with these ancient superstitions about royalty both in ,england and ,scotland4 ,in ,france the superstition lingered a good deal longer1 for whereas ,queen ,anne was the last reigning monarch in ,england to touch for scrofula1 both ,louis ,,xv4 and ,louis ,,xvi4 at their coronation touched thousands of patients1 and as late as #ahbd ,charles ,x4 at his coronation went through the same solemn farce4 ,it is said that the sceptical wits of ,louis ,,xvi4's time investigated all the cases of the persons on whom the king had laid hands at his coronation1 with the result that out of two thousand four hundred who were touched only five were made whole4#ah4e ,sidenote3 ,conclusion4 ,the foregoing evidence1 summary as it is1 may suffice to prove that many peoples have regarded their rulers1 whether chiefs or kings1 with superstitious awe as beings of a higher order and endowed with mightier powers than common folk4 ,imbued with such a profound veneration for their governors and with such an exaggerated conception of their power1 they cannot but have yielded them a prompter and more implicit obedience than if they had #ai known them to be men of common mould just like themselves4 ,if that is so1 ,i may claim to have proved my first proposition1 which is1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for government1 especially monarchical government1 and has thereby contributed to the establishment and maintenance of civil order4 ,,iii4 ,,private ,,property #bj ,sidenote3 ,superstition as a prop of private property4 ,i pass now to my second proposition1 which is1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for private property1 and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment4 ,sidenote3 ,taboo in ,polynesia4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 does this appear more plainly than in ,polynesia1 where the system of taboo reached its highest development2 for the effect of tabooing a thing was1 in the opinion of the natives1 to endow it with a supernatural or magical energy which rendered it practically unapproachable by any but the owner4 ,thus taboo became a powerful instrument for strengthening the ties1 perhaps our socialist friends would say riveting the chains1 of private property4 ,indeed1 some good authorities who were personally acquainted with the working of taboo in ,polynesia1 have held that the system was originally devised for no other purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,taboo among the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand4 ,for example1 an ,irishman who lived as a ,maori with the ,maoris for years1 and knew them intimately1 writes as follows3 8,the original object of the ordinary tapu seems to have been the preservation of property4 ,of this nature in a great degree was the ordinary personal tapu4 ,this form of the tapu was permanent1 and consisted in a certain sacred character which attached to the person of a chief and never left him4 ,it was his birthright1 a part in fact of himself1 of which he could not be divested1 and which was well understood and recognized at all times as a matter of course4 ,the fighting men and petty chiefs1 and every one indeed who could by any means claim the title of rangatira--which in the sense ,i now use it means gentleman--were all in #ba some degree more or less possessed of this mysterious quality4 ,it extended or was communicated to all their moveable property1 especially to their clothes1 weapons1 ornaments1 and tools1 and to everything in fact which they touched4 ,this prevented their chattels from being stolen or mislaid1 or spoiled by children1 or used or handled in any way by others4 ,and as in the old times1 as ,i have before stated1 every kind of property of this kind was precious in consequence of the great labour and time necessarily1 for want of iron tools1 expended in the manufacture1 this form of the tapu was of great real service4 ,an infringement of it subjected the offender to various dreadful imaginary punishments1 of which deadly sickness was one40 ,the culprit was also liable to what may be called a civil action1 which consisted in being robbed and beaten2 but the writer whom ,i have just quoted tells us that the worst part of the punishment for breaking taboo was the imaginary part1 since even when the offence had been committed unwittingly the offender has been known to die of fright on learning what he had done4#ba4a ,similarly1 another writer1 speaking of the ,maoris1 observes that 8violators of the tapu were punished by the gods and also by men4 ,the former sent sickness and death2 the latter inflicted death1 loss of property1 and expulsion from society4 ,it was a dread of the gods1 more than of men1 which upheld the tapu4 ,human eyes might be deceived1 but the eyes of the gods could never be deceived40#ba4b 8,the chiefs1 as might be expected1 are fully aware of the advantages of the tapu1 finding that it confers on them1 to a certain extent1 the power of making laws1 and the superstition on which the tapu is founded will ensure the observance of them4 ,were they to transgress the tapu1 they believe that the attua 7,god7 would kill them1 and so universal is this belief that it is1 or rather was1 a very rare occurrence to find any one daring enough to commit the #bb sacrilege4 ,to have preserved this influence so completely among a people naturally so shrewd and intelligent1 great care must1 no doubt1 have been taken not to apply it unless in the usual and recognised manner4 ,to have done otherwise would have led to its being frequently transgressed2 and consequently to the loss of its influence4 ,before the natives came into contact with the ,europeans the tapu seems to have acted with the most complete success2 as the belief was general1 that any disregard of it would infallibly subject the offender to the anger of the attua1 and death would be the consequence4 ,independently1 however1 of the support which the tapu derives from the superstitious fears of these people1 it has1 like most other laws1 an appeal to physical force in case of necessity4 ,a delinquent1 if discovered1 would be stripped of everything he possessed2 and if a slave1 would in all probability be put to death--many instances of which have actually occurred4 ,so powerful is this superstitious feeling1 that slaves will not venture to eat of the same food as their master2 or even to cook at the same fire2 believing that the attua would kill them if they did so4 ,everything about1 or belonging to1 a chief is accounted sacred by the slaves4 ,fond as they are of tobacco1 it would be perfectly secure though left exposed on the roof of a chief's house2 no one would venture to touch it4 ,to try them1 a friend of mine gave a fig of tobacco to a slave2 who1 after having used it1 was informed that it had been on the roof of the chief's house4 ,the poor fellow1 in the greatest consternation1 went immediately to the chief telling him what had happened1 and beseeching him to take off the tapu from the tobacco to prevent the evil consequences40#bb4a ,sidenote3 ,taboo as a preserver of property4 ,hence it has been truly said that 8this form of tapu was a great preserver of property4 ,the most valuable articles might1 in ordinary circumstances1 be left to its protection1 in the absence of the owners1 for any length of time40#bb4b ,if any one wished to preserve his crop1 his house1 his garments1 or anything else1 he had only to taboo the property1 and it was safe4 ,to shew that the thing was tabooed1 he put a mark #bc to it4 ,thus1 if he wished to use a particular tree in the forest to make a canoe1 he tied a wisp of grass to the trunk2 if he desired to appropriate a patch of bulrush in a swamp1 he stuck up a pole in it with a bunch of grass at the top2 if he left his house with all its valuables1 to take care of itself1 he secured the door with a bit of flax1 and the place straightway became inviolable1 nobody would meddle with it4#bc4a ,hence although the restrictions imposed by taboo were often vexatious and absurd1 and the whole system has sometimes been denounced by ,europeans as a degrading superstition1 yet observers who looked a little deeper have rightly perceived that its enactments1 enforced mainly by imaginary but still powerful sanctions1 were often beneficial4 8,the ,new ,zealanders10 says one writer1 8could not have been governed without some code of laws analogous to the tapu4 ,warriors submitted to the supposed decrees of the gods who would have spurned with contempt the orders of men1 and it was better the people should be ruled by superstition than by brute force40#bc4b ,again1 an experienced missionary1 who knew the ,maoris well1 writes that 8the tapu in many instances was beneficial2 considering the state of society1 absence of law1 and fierce character of the people1 it formed no bad substitute for a dictatorial form of government1 and made the nearest approach to an organized state of society40#bc4c ,sidenote3 ,taboo in the ,marquesas ,islands4 ,in other parts of ,polynesia the system of taboo with its attendant advantages and disadvantages1 its uses and abuses1 was practically the same1 and everywhere1 as in ,new ,zealand1 it tightened for good or evil the ties of private property4 ,this indeed was perhaps the most obvious effect of the institution4 ,in the ,marquesas ,islands1 it is said1 taboo was invested with a divine character as the expression of the will of the gods revealed to the priests2 as such it set bounds to injurious excesses1 prevented depredations1 and united the people4 ,especially it converted the tabooed or privileged classes into landed proprietors2 the land belonged to them alone and to their heirs2 common #bd folk lived by industry and by fishing4 ,taboo was the bulwark of the landowners2 it was that alone which elevated them by a sort of divine right into a position of affluence and luxury above the vulgar2 it was that alone which ensured their safety and protected them from the encroachments of their poor and envious neighbours4 8,without doubt10 say the writers from whom ,i borrow these observations1 8the first mission of taboo was to establish property1 the base of all society40#bd4a ,sidenote3 ,superstitious fear as a preserver of property in ,samoa4 ,in ,samoa also superstition played a great part in fostering a respect for private property4 ,that it did so1 we have the testimony of a missionary1 ,dr4 ,george ,turner1 who lived for many years among the ,samoans and has given us a very valuable account of their customs4 ,he says3 8,i hasten to notice the second thing which ,i have already remarked was an auxiliary towards the maintenance of peace and order in ,samoa1 viz4 superstitious fear4 ,if the chief and heads of families1 in their court of inquiry into any case of stealing1 or other concealed matter1 had a difficulty in finding out the culprit1 they would make all involved swear that they were innocent4 ,in swearing before the chiefs the suspected parties laid a handful of grass on the stone1 or whatever it was1 which was supposed to be the representative of the village god1 and laying their hand on it1 would say1 #8,in the presence of our chiefs now assembled1 ,i lay my hand on the stone4 ,if ,i stole the thing may ,i speedily die4' ,this was a common mode of swearing4 ,the meaning of the grass was a silent additional imprecation that his family might all die1 and that grass might grow over their habitation4 ,if all swore1 and the culprit was still undiscovered1 the chiefs then wound up the affair by committing the case to the village god1 and solemnly invoking him to mark out for speedy destruction the guilty #be mischief-maker4 ,but1 instead of appealing to the chiefs1 and calling for an oath1 many were contented with their own individual schemes and imprecations to frighten thieves and prevent stealing4 ,when a man went to his plantation and saw that some cocoa-nuts1 or a bunch of bananas1 had been stolen1 he would stand and shout at the top of his voice two or three times1 #8,may fire blast the eyes of the person who has stolen my bananas6 ,may fire burn down his eyes and the eyes of his god too6' ,this rang throughout the adjacent plantations1 and made the thief tremble4 ,they dreaded such uttered imprecations4''' ,but there was another and more extensive class of curses1 which were also feared1 and formed a powerful check on stealing1 especially from plantations and fruit trees1 viz4 the silent hieroglyphic taboo1 or tapui 7tapooe71 as they call it4 ,of this there was a great variety40#be4a ,sidenote3 ,samoan taboos4 ,among the ,samoan taboos which were employed for the protection of property were the following3--#a4 ,the sea-pike taboo4 ,to prevent his bread-fruits from being stolen a man would plait some coco-nut leaflets in the form of a sea-pike and hang one or more such effigies from the trees which he wished to protect4 ,any ordinary thief would be afraid to touch a tree thus guarded1 for he believed that if he stole the fruit a sea-pike would mortally wound him the next time he went to sea4 #b4 ,the white-shark taboo4 ,a man would plait a coco-nut leaf in the shape of a shark and hang it on a tree4 ,this was equivalent to an imprecation that the thief might be devoured by a shark the next time he went to fish4 #c4 ,the cross-stick taboo4 ,this was a stick hung horizontally on the tree4 ,it expressed a wish that whoever stole fruit from the tree might be afflicted with a sore running right across his body till he died4 #d4 ,the ulcer taboo4 ,this was made by burying some pieces of clam-shell in the ground and setting up at the spot several reeds tied together at the top in a bunch like the head of a man4 ,by this the owner signified his wish that the thief might be laid low with ulcerous sores all over his body4 ,if the thief happened thereafter to be troubled with swellings or sores1 he confessed his fault and sent a present to the #bf owner of the land1 who in return sent to the culprit a herb both as a medicine and as a pledge of forgiveness4 #e4 ,the thunder taboo4 ,a man would plait coco-nut leaflets in the form of a small square mat and suspend it from a tree1 adding some white streamers of native cloth4 ,a thief believed that for trespassing on such a tree he or his children might be struck by lightning1 or perhaps that lightning might strike and blast his own trees4 8,from these few illustrations10 says ,dr4 ,turner in conclusion1 8it will be observed that ,samoa formed no exception to the remarkably widespread system of superstitious taboo2 and the extent to which it preserved honesty and order among a heathen people will be readily imagined40#bf4a ,sidenote3 ,taboo in ,tonga4 ,in ,tonga a man guilty of theft or of any other crime was said to have broken the taboo1 and as such persons were supposed to be particularly liable to be bitten by sharks1 all on whom suspicion fell were compelled to go into water frequented by sharks2 if they were bitten or devoured1 they were guilty2 if they escaped1 they were innocent4#bf4b ,sidenote3 ,taboo in ,melanesia4 ,in ,melanesia also a system of taboo 7tambu1 tapu7 exists2 it is described as 8a prohibition with a curse expressed or implied10 and derives its sanction from a belief that the chief or other person who imposes a taboo has the support of a powerful ghost or spirit 7tindalo74 ,if a common man took it upon himself to taboo anything1 people would watch to see whether a transgressor of the taboo fell sick2 if he did1 it was a proof that the man who imposed the taboo was backed by a powerful ghost1 and his reputation would rise accordingly4 ,each ghost affected a particular sort of leaf1 which was his taboo mark4#bf4c ,in ,new ,britain plantations1 coco-nut trees1 and other possessions are protected against thieves by marks of taboo attached to them1 and it is thought that whoever violates the taboo will be visited by sickness or other misfortune4 ,the nature of the sickness or misfortune varies with that of the mark or magical object which embodies the mystic virtue of the taboo4 ,one plant used for this purpose will cause the #bg thief's head to ache2 another will make his thighs swell2 another will break his legs2 and so forth4 ,even the murmuring of a spell over a fence is believed to ensure that whoever steals sticks from the fence will have a swollen head4#bg4a ,in ,fiji the institution of taboo was the secret of power and the strength of despotic rule4 ,it was wondrously diffused1 affecting things great and small4 ,here it might be seen tending a brood of chickens and there directing the energies of a kingdom4 ,the custom was much in favour with the chiefs1 who adjusted it so that it sat lightly on them and heavily on others4 ,by it they gained influence1 supplied their wants1 and commanded at will their inferiors4 ,in imposing a taboo a chief need only be checked by a regard for ancient precedent4 ,inferior persons endeavoured by the help of the system to put their yam-beds and plantain-plots within a sacred pale4#bg4b ,sidenote3 ,taboo in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,a system of taboo based on superstition prevails all over the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago1 where the common term for taboo is pamali1 pomali1 or pemali1 though in some places other words1 such as poso1 potu1 or boboso are in use to express the same idea4#bg4c ,in this great region also the superstition associated with taboo is a powerful instrument to enforce the rights of private property4 ,thus1 in the island of ,timor 8a prevalent custom is the pomali1 exactly equivalent to the #8taboo' of the ,pacific islanders1 and equally respected4 ,it is used on the commonest occasions1 and a few palm leaves stuck outside a garden as a sign of the pomali will preserve its produce from thieves as effectually as the threatening notice of man-traps1 spring guns1 or a savage dog1 would do with us40#bg4d ,in ,amboyna the word for taboo is pamali4 ,a man who wishes to protect his fruit-trees or other possessions against theft may do it in various ways4 ,for example1 he may make a white cross on a pot #bh and hang the pot on the fruit-tree2 then the thief who steals fruit from that tree will be a leper4 ,or he may place the effigy of a mouse under the tree2 then the thief will have marks on his nose and ears as if a mouse had gnawed them4 ,or he may plait dry sago leaves into two round discs and tie them to the tree2 then the thief's body will swell up and burst4#bh4a ,in ,ceram the methods of protecting property from thieves are similar4 ,for example1 a man places a pig's jaw in the branches of his fruit-tree2 after that any person who dares to steal the fruit from the tree will be rent in pieces by a wild boar4 ,the image of a crocodile with a thread of red cotton tied round its neck will be equally efficacious2 the thief will be devoured by a crocodile4 ,a wooden effigy of a snake will make the culprit to be stung by a serpent4 ,a figure of a cat with a red band round its neck will cause all who approach the tree with evil intentions to suffer from excruciating pains in their stomachs1 as if a cat were clawing their insides4#bh4b ,an image of a swallow will cause the thief to suffer as if a swallow were pecking his eyes out3 a piece of thorny wood and a red spongy stone will inflict piercing pangs on him and make his whole body to be red and pitted with minute holes3 a burnt-out brand will cause his house to burst into flames1 without any apparent reason2 and so on4#bh4c ,similarly in the ,ceram ,laut ,islands a man protects his coco-nut trees or sago palms by placing charmed objects at the foot of them4 ,for example1 he puts the effigy of a fish under his coco-nut tree and says1 8,grandfather fish1 cause the person who steals my coco-nuts to be sick and vomit40 ,the culprit accordingly is seized with pains in his stomach and can only be relieved of them by the owner of the coco-nuts1 who spits betel-nut juice on the ailing part and blows into the sufferer's ear1 saying1 8,grandfather fish1 return to the sea4 ,you have there room enough and great rocks of coral where you can #bi swim about40 ,or again he may make a miniature coffin and place it on the ground under the tree2 then the thief will suffer from shortness of breath and a feeling of suffocation1 as if he were actually shut up in a coffin4 ,and many other devices there are whereby in these islands the owner of fruit-trees protects the fruit from the depredations of his unscrupulous neighbours4 ,in every case he deposits at the foot of the tree or fastens to the trunk a charmed object1 which he regards as endowed with supernatural powers1 and he invokes its aid to guard his possessions4#bi4a ,sidenote3 ,charms for the protection of fruit-trees in ,central ,celebes4 ,the ,bare'e-speaking ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes protect their fruit-trees1 especially their sirih plants and their coco-nut palms against thieves by amulets or charms of various sorts which they attach to the trees4 ,the charms consist of the leaves of certain plants or parts of an animal tied up in leaves4 ,before the owner fastens one of these amulets to the tree1 he says1 8,o charm 7ooroo71 if any man will take of these fruits1 make him sick40 ,and the people in general believe that sickness will overtake the thief who disregards the taboo and steals the fruit4 ,the kind of sickness or other mishap which will visit the sinner varies with the nature of the charm4 ,the qualities of the object which is fastened to the tree are supposed to enter into the culprit's body and to affect him accordingly4 ,for example1 if the charm consists of a particular sharp-edged grass1 then the thief will feel sharp pains in his body2 if it is part of a white ant heap1 he will be afflicted with leprosy2 if it is a certain weed of which the fruit drops off easily1 his teeth will fall out2 if it is a plant whose leaves cause itching1 his body will itch all over2 if it is the dracaena terminalis1 he will be killed in war2 and so on4 ,there is a great variety of these amulets for the protection of fruit-trees2 every man has his own in which he puts his trust4 ,yet while the ,toradjas believe that sickness or other misfortune follows automatically the breach of such taboos1 nevertheless they allege that they know how to evade the force and vigilance of the charm and to eat of the forbidden fruit with impunity4 ,one of the expedients adopted for that purpose is as follows4 ,you take a handful of earth and throw it at the tree2 then with #cj your chopping-knife you chip a splinter from the trunk1 and addressing the protective charm you say1 8,make the earth sick first1 and then the chopping-knife1 and then me40 ,after that you have practically nothing to fear from the amulet1 and you can steal the fruit and eat it at your ease4 ,but that is not all4 ,some artful thieves are able not merely to counteract the charm and render it powerless against themselves2 they can even reverse its action and direct it against the owner of the tree himself4 ,indeed1 so well-recognized is this power that many a prudent ,toradja refuses to protect his trees with amulets at all1 lest in doing so he should be simply putting in the hands of his enemies a weapon to be used by them for his own destruction4 ,one of the ways in which a cunning robber will thus defeat the ends of justice is this4 ,he goes boldly up to the fruit-tree which he intends to rob1 removes the charm from it1 and hangs it up somewhere else4 ,then he lays a plank on the ground with one end of it touching the trunk of the fruit-tree2 on this plank he walks up to the tree and calmly appropriates the fruit4 ,the charm1 of course1 in the meantime is helpless1 since it is not on the tree4 ,when he has stripped the fruit1 the rascal restores the charm to its proper place and removes the plank4 ,again1 the guardian charm is helpless2 it cannot pursue the thief1 since he has carried away the plank1 leaving no possible exit from the tree4 ,thus the faithful guardian is1 as it were1 imprisoned in the castle which he has been set to guard2 he frets and fumes at his confinement1 and in his blind rage will fall foul of the owner of the tree himself when next he comes to inspect his property4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the simplest and easiest mode of hoisting a fruit-farmer with his petard4 ,there are1 however1 other ways of doing it4 ,one of them is to get up into the tree and hang by your feet from a branch with your head down1 and1 while thus suspended in the air1 to chew the root of a stinging nettle4 ,this causes the owner of the tree either to be eaten up by a crocodile or to perish in war4 ,a very popular charm among the ,mountain ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes is to take the head or paw of an iguana and hang it on the fruit-tree which is to be protected4 ,the head bites the thief's head1 and the paw grabs him by the #ca leg1 so that he feels excruciating pains in these portions of his frame4 ,but if you hang up the whole carcase1 the thief is a dead man4#ca4a ,sidenote3 ,taboo 7fady7 in ,madagascar4 ,in ,madagascar there is an elaborate system of taboo known as fady4#ca4b ,it has been carefully studied in a learned monograph by ,professor ,a4 van ,gennep1#ca4c who argues that originally all property was based on religion1 and that marks of property were marks of taboo4#ca4d ,however1 so far as the evidence permits us to judge1 it does not appear that the system has been used by the ,malagasy for the protection of property to the same extent as by the ,polynesians1 the ,melanesians1 and the ,indonesians4 ,but we hear of ,malagasy charms placed in the fields to afflict with leprosy and other maladies any persons who should dare to steal from them4#ca4e ,and we are told that some examples of fady or taboo 8seem to imply a curious basis for the moral code in regard to the rights of property among the last generation of ,malagasy4 ,it does not appear to have been fady to steal in general1 but certain articles were specified1 to steal which there were various penalties attached4 ,thus1 to steal an egg caused the thief to become leprous2 to steal landy 7native silk7 caused blindness or some other infirmity4 ,and to steal iron was also visited by some bodily affliction40#ca4f ,in order to recover stolen property the ,malagasy had recourse to a deity called ,ramanandroany4 ,the owner would take a remnant of the thing that had been purloined1 and going with it to the idol would say1 8,as to whoever stole our property1 ,o ,ramanandroany1 kill him by day1 destroy him by night1 and strangle him2 let there be none amongst men like him2 let him not be able to increase in riches1 not even a farthing1 but let him pick up his livelihood as a hen pecks rice-grains2 let his eyes be blinded1 and his knees swollen1 #cb ,o ,ramanandroany40 ,it was supposed that these curses fell on the thief4#cb4a ,sidenote3 ,property protected by superstitious fears elsewhere4 ,similar modes of enforcing the rights of private property by the aid of superstitious fears have been adopted in many other parts of the world4 ,the subject has been copiously illustrated by ,dr4 ,edward ,westermarck in his very learned work on the origin and development of the moral ideas4#cb4b ,here ,i will cite only a few cases out of many4 ,the ,kouis of ,laos1 on the borders of ,siam1 protect their plantations against thieves in a very simple way4 ,they place a 8shaking tubercule0 7prateal anchot7 on the land which is to be guarded2 and if any thief should thereafter dare to lay hands on the crop1 he is immediately seized by a shaking fit like that of a drenched dog and cannot budge from the spot4 ,they say that a fisherman at ,sangkeah employed this charm with the best results4 ,he used always to find his bow-net empty till one day he had the happy thought of protecting it by a 8shaking tubercule40 ,it acted like magic4 ,the thief went down as usual into the river and brought up the net full of fish4 ,but hardly had he stepped on the bank when he began to shiver and shake1 with the dripping net and its writhing silvery contents glued to his breast4 ,two days afterwards1 the proprietor1 making his rounds1 discovered the thief on the same spot1 shivering and chattering away as hard as #cc ever1 but of course the fish in the net were dead and rotten4#cc4a ,among the ,kawars1 a primitive hill tribe of the ,central ,provinces in ,india1 8the sword1 the gun1 the axe1 the spear have each a special deity1 and in fact in the ,bangawan1 the tract where the wilder ,kawars dwell1 it is believed that every article of household furniture is the residence of a spirit1 and that if any one steals or injures it without the owner's leave the spirit will bring some misfortune on him in revenge4 ,theft is said to be unknown among them1 partly on this account and partly perhaps because no one has much property worth stealing40#cc4b ,in ,ceylon1 when a person wishes to protect his fruit-trees from thieves1 he hangs up certain grotesque figures round the orchard and dedicates it to the devils4 ,after that no native will dare to touch the fruit2 even the owner himself will not venture to use it till the charm has been removed by a priest1 who naturally receives some of the fruit for his trouble4#cc4c ,the ,indians of ,cumana in ,south ,america surrounded their plantations with a single cotton thread1 and this was safeguard enough2 for it was believed that any trespasser would soon die4 ,the ,juris of ,brazil adopt the same simple means of stopping gaps in their fences4#cc4d ,sidenote3 ,property in ,annam protected by ghosts and curses4 ,the ,annamites in the interior of ,tonquin believe that the ghosts of young girls who have been buried in a corner of the dwelling act as a vigilant police2 if thieves have made their way into the house and are preparing to depart with their booty1 they hear the voice of a ghost enumerating the things on which they have laid hands1 and in a panic they drop them and take to flight4#cc4e ,but if in spite of all an ,annamite should chance to be robbed1 he can easily recover the stolen property as follows4 ,with a clod of earth taken from the kitchen floor1 a pinch of vermilion1 the white of an egg1 and a little alcohol he makes a ball1 which stands for the head of the thief4 ,this he puts in the fire on #cd the hearth1 and having lit some incense sticks he pronounces the following incantation3 8,on such a day of such a month of such a year ,so-and-so was robbed of various things4 ,the name of the thief is unknown4 ,i pray the guardian-spirit of the kitchen to hold the rascal's head in the fire that it may burn40 ,after that1 if the thief does not restore the stolen property1 he will be a dead man within a month4#cd4a ,sidenote3 ,thieves cursed in ,nias4 ,similarly in ,nias1 an island to the west of ,sumatra1 when a thief cannot be found he is cursed1 and to give weight to the curse a dog is burned alive4 ,while the animal is expiring in torments1 the man who has been robbed expresses his wish that the thief may likewise die in agony2 and they say that thieves who have been often cursed do die screaming4#cd4b ,sidenote3 ,thieves cursed among the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo4 ,curses are also employed for the same purpose with excellent effect by the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo4 ,on this point a missionary bears the following testimony4 8,with an experience of nearly twenty years in ,borneo1 during which ,i came into contact with thousands of the people1 ,i have known of only two instances of theft among the ,dyaks4 ,one was a theft of rice4 ,the woman who lost the rice most solemnly and publicly cursed the thief1 whoever it might be4 ,the next night the rice was secretly left at her door4 ,the other was a theft of money4 ,in this case1 too1 the thief was cursed4 ,the greater part of the money was afterwards found returned to the box from which it had been abstracted4 ,both these incidents show the great dread the ,dyak has of a curse4 ,even an undeserved curse is considered a terrible thing1 and1 according to ,dyak law1 to curse a person for no reason at all is a fineable offence4 8,a ,dyak curse is a terrible thing to listen to4 ,i have only once heard a ,dyak curse1 and ,i am sure ,i do not want to do so again4 ,i was travelling in the ,saribas district1 and at that time many of the ,dyaks there had gone in for coffee-planting2 indeed1 several of them had started coffee plantations on a small scale4 ,a woman told me that some one had over and over again stolen the ripe coffee-berries from her plantation4 ,not only were the ripe berries stolen1 but the thief had carelessly picked many of the young berries and #ce thrown them on the ground1 and many of the branches of the plants had been broken off4 ,in the evening1 when ,i was seated in the public part of the house with many ,dyak men and women round me1 we happened to talk about coffee-planting4 ,the woman was present1 and told us of her experiences1 and how her coffee had been stolen by some thief1 who1 she thought1 must be one of the inmates of the house4 ,then she solemnly cursed the thief4 ,she began in a calm voice1 but worked herself up into a frenzy4 ,we all listened horror-struck1 and no one interrupted her4 ,she began by saying what had happened1 and how these thefts had gone on for some time4 ,she had said nothing before1 hoping that the thief would mend his ways2 but the matter had gone on long enough1 and she was going to curse the thief1 as nothing1 she felt sure1 would make him give up his evil ways4 ,she called on all the spirits of the waters and the hills and the air to listen to her words and to aid her4 ,she began quietly1 but became more excited as she went on4 ,she said something of this kind3 ,sidenote3 ,curses on a man thief4 8#8,if the thief be a man1 may he be unfortunate in all he undertakes6 ,may he suffer from a disease that does not kill him1 but makes him helpless--always in pain--and a burden to others4 ,may his wife be unfaithful to him1 and his children become as lazy and dishonest as he is himself4 ,if he go out on the war-path1 may he be killed1 and his head smoked over the enemy's fire4 ,if he be boating1 may his boat be swamped and may he be drowned4 ,if he be out fishing1 may an alligator kill him suddenly1 and may his relatives never find his body4 ,if he be cutting down a tree in the jungle1 may the tree fall on him and crush him to death4 ,may the gods curse his farm so that he may have no crops1 and have nothing to eat1 and when he begs for food1 may he be refused1 and die of starvation4 ,sidenote3 ,curses on a woman thief4 8#8,if the thief be a woman1 may she be childless1 or if she happen to be with child let her be disappointed1 and let her child be still-born1 or1 better still1 let her die in childbirth4 ,may her husband be untrue to her1 and despise her and ill-treat her4 ,may her children all desert her if she live to grow old4 ,may she suffer from such diseases as are peculiar to women1 and may her eyesight grow dim as the years go #cf on1 and may there be no one to help her or lead her about when she is blind4' 8,i have only given the substance of what she said2 but ,i shall never forget the silence and the awed faces of those who heard her4 ,i left the house early next morning1 so ,i do not know what was the result of her curse--whether the thief confessed or not40#cf4a ,sidenote3 ,thieves cursed in ancient ,greece4 ,the ancient ,greeks seem to have made a very liberal use of curses as a cheap and effective mode of protecting property1 which dispenses the injured party from resorting to the tedious1 expensive1 and too often fruitless formalities of the law4 ,these curses they inscribed on tablets of lead and other materials and deposited either in the place which was to be protected from depredation or in the temple of the god to whose tender mercies the criminal was committed4 ,for example1 in a sacred precinct dedicated to ,demeter1 ,persephone1 ,pluto and other deities of a stern and inflexible temper at ,cnidus1 a number of leaden tablets were found inscribed with curses which consigned the malefactors of various sorts to the vengeance of the two ,infernal ,goddesses1 ,demeter and her daughter4 8,may he or she never find ,persephone propitious60 is the constantly repeated burden of these prayers2 and in some of them the sinner is not only excommunicated in this world but condemned to eternal torments in the world hereafter4 ,often the persons who launched these curses were ladies4 ,one irate dame consigns to perdition the thief who had stolen her bracelet or the defaulter who had failed to send back her underclothes4#cf4b ,another curse1 engraved on a marble slab found at ,smyrna1 purports that if any man should steal one of the sacred vessels of a certain goddess or injure her sacred fish1 he may die a painful death1 devoured by the fishes4#cf4c ,sometimes1 apparently1 these ,greek imprecations #cg were as effective in reclaiming sinners as ,dyak curses are to this day4 ,thus we read of a curious dedication to a lunar deity of ,asia ,minor1 by name ,men ,aziottenos1 which declares how one ,artemidorus1 having been reviled by a couple of rude fellows1 cursed them in a votive tablet1 and how one of the culprits1 having been punished by the god1 made a propitiatory offering and mended his wicked ways4#cg4a ,sidenote3 ,landmarks protected by gods and curses4 ,to prevent people from encroaching on their neighbours' land by removing the boundary stones1 the ,greeks committed landmarks to the special protection of the great god ,zeus2#cg4b and ,plato dwells with unction on the double punishment1 divine and human1 to which the sinner exposed himself who dared to tamper with these sacred stones4#cg4c ,the ,romans went even further1 for they created a god for the sole purpose of looking after landmarks1 and he must have had his hands very full if he executed all the curses which were levelled not only at every man who shifted his neighbour's boundary stone1 but even at the oxen which he employed to plough up his neighbour's land4#cg4d ,the ,hebrew code of ,deuteronomy pronounced a solemn curse on such as removed their neighbour's landmarks2#cg4e and ,babylonian kings exhausted their imagination in pouring out a flood of imprecations against the abandoned wretch who thus set at naught the rights of property in land4#cg4f ,king ,nebuchadnezzar in particular1 before he was turned out to grass1 appears to have distinguished himself by the richness and variety of his execrations1 if we may judge by a specimen of them which has survived4 ,a brief extract from this masterpiece may serve to illustrate the king's style of minatory eloquence4 ,referring to the bold bad man1 8be it shepherd or governor1 or agent or regent1 levy master or magistrate10 whosoever he might be1 who 8for all days to #ch come1 for the future of human habitations10 should dare to tamper with the land which his ,majesty had just marked out1 8,ninib1 lord of boundaries and boundary-stones1 tear out his boundary stone4 ,gula1 great lady1 put lingering illness into his body1 that dark and light red blood he may pour out like water4 ,ishtar1 lady of countries1 whose fury is a flood1 reveal difficulties to him1 that he escape not from misfortune4 ,nusku1 mighty lord1 powerful burner1 the god1 my creator1 be his evil demon and may he burn his root4 ,whoever removes this stone1 in the dust hides it1 burns it with fire1 casts it into water1 shuts it up in an enclosure1 causes a fool1 a deaf man1 an idiot to take it1 places it in an invisible place1 may the great gods1 who upon this stone are mentioned by their names1 curse him with an evil curse1 tear out his foundation and destroy his seed40#ch4a ,sidenote3 ,superstition as an ally of the rights of private property in ,africa4 ,in ,africa also superstition is a powerful ally of the rights of private property4 ,thus the ,balonda place beehives on high trees in the forest and protect them against thieves by tying a charm or 8piece of medicine0 round the tree-trunks4 ,this proves a sufficient protection4 8,the natives10 says ,livingstone1 8seldom rob each other1 for all believe that certain medicines can inflict disease and death2 and though they consider that these are only known to a few1 they act on the principle that it is best to let them all alone4 ,the gloom of these forests strengthens the superstitious feelings of the people4 ,in other quarters1 where they are not subjected to this influence1 ,i have heard the chiefs issue proclamations to the effect1 that real witchcraft medicines had been placed at certain gardens from which produce had been stolen2 the thieves having risked the power of the ordinary charms previously placed there40#ch4b ,sidenote3 ,the ,wanika of ,east ,africa4 ,the ,wanika of ,east ,africa 8believe in the power and efficacy of charms and amulets1 and they wear them in great variety2 legs1 arms1 neck1 waist1 hair1 and every part of the body are laden with them1 either for the cure or prevention of disease2 for the expulsion or repulsion of evil spirits2 and to keep at bay snakes1 wild animals1 and every other evil4 #ci ,they hang painted calabashes from the baobab at their hut doors to keep away thieves2 shells1 dolls1 eggs scratched over with ,arabic characters by the ,wana ,chuoni 7sons of the book7 of the coast1 are placed about their plantations and in their fruit-trees1 and they believe that death would overtake a thief who should disregard them4 ,a charm bound to the leg of a fowl is ample protection for the village4 ,there is no doubt that1 superstitious as the people are1 they dread running great risks for the sake of small gains1 and so these charms answer their purpose40#ci4a ,sidenote3 ,the ,boloki of the ,congo4 ,among the ,boloki of the ,upper ,congo1 when a woman finds that the cassava roots1 which she keeps soaking in a water-hole1 are being stolen1 she takes a piece of gum copal1 and fixing it in the cleft of a split stick she puts it on the side of the hole1 while at the same time she calls down a curse on the thief4 ,if the thief is a man1 he will henceforth have no luck in fishing2 if she is a woman1 she will have no more success in farming4#ci4b ,the ,ekoi of ,southern ,nigeria protect their farms against thieves by bundles of palm leaves to which they give the name of okpata4 ,should any one steal from a farm thus protected1 he will fall sick and will not recover unless he gives a certain dance1 to which the name of okpata is also applied4#ci4c ,sidenote3 ,guardian spirits 7damzogs7 of property in ,darfur4 ,in the mountains of ,marrah1 a district of ,darfur1 houses1 goods1 and cattle are protected against thieves by certain fierce and dangerous guardian-spirits called damzogs1 which can be bought like watch dogs4 ,under the guardianship of such a spiritual protector the sheep and cows are left free to wander at will2 for if any one were rash enough to attempt to steal or kill one of the beasts1 his hand with the knife in it would remain sticking fast to the animal's throat till the owner came and caught the rascal4 ,an ,arab merchant1 travelling in ,darfur1 received from a friend the following account of the way to procure one of these useful guardians4 8,at the time when ,i first began to trade1 my friend1 ,i often heard that damzogs could be bought and sold1 and that to procure one ,i must apply to the owner of a damzog1 and #dj discuss the price with him4 ,when the bargain is concluded1 it is necessary to give a large gourd of milk to the seller1 who takes it to his house1 where are his damzogs4 ,on entering he salutes them1 and goes and hangs up his vase to a hook1 saying1--#8,one of my friends--such a one--very rich1 is in fear of robbers1 and asks me to supply him with a guardian4 ,will one of you go and live in his house8 ,there is plenty of milk there1 for it is a house of blessing1 and the proof thereof is1 that ,i bring you this kara of milk4' ,the damzogs at first refuse to comply with the invitation4 #8,no1 no1' say they1 #8not one of us will go4' ,the master of the hut conjures them to comply with his desires1 saying1 #8,oh6 let the one that is willing descend into the kara4' ,he then retires a little1 and presently one of the damzogs is heard to flop into the milk1 upon which he hastens and claps upon the vase a cover made of date-leaves4 ,thus stopped up he unhooks the kara1 and hands it over to the buyer1 who takes it away and hangs it on the wall of his hut1 and confides it to the care of a slave or of a wife1 who every morning comes and takes it1 emptying out the milk1 washing it and replenishing it1 and hanging it up again4 ,from that time forward the house is safe from theft or loss40 ,the merchant's informant1 the ,shereef ,ahmed ,bedawee1 had himself purchased one of these guardian spirits1 who proved most vigilant and efficient in the discharge of his duties2 indeed his zeal was excessive1 for he not only killed several slaves who tried to rob his master1 but did summary execution on the ,shereef's own son1 when the undutiful young man essayed to pilfer from his father's shop4 ,this was too much for the ,shereef2 he invited a party of friends to assist him in expelling the inflexible guardian4 ,they came armed with guns and a supply of ammunition1 and by raking the shop with repeated volleys of musketry they at last succeeded in putting the spirit to flight4#dj4a ,sidenote3 ,the curses of smiths and potters4 ,amongst the ,nandi of ,british ,east ,africa nobody dares to steal anything from a smith2 for if he did1 the smith would heat his furnace1 and as he blew the bellows to make #da the flames roar he would curse the thief so that he would die4 ,and in like manner among these people1 with whom the potters are women1 nobody dares to filch anything from a potter2 for next time she heated her wares the potter would curse him1 saying1 8,burst like a pot1 and may thy house become red10 and the thief so cursed would die4#da4a ,sidenote3 ,charms to protect property in ,west ,africa4 ,in ,loango1 when a man is about to absent himself from home for a considerable time he protects his hut by placing a charm or fetish before it1 consisting perhaps of a branch with some bits of broken pots or trash of that sort2 and we are told that even the most determined robber would not dare to cross a threshold defended by these mysterious signs4#da4b ,on the coast of ,guinea fetishes are sometimes inaugurated for the purpose of detecting and punishing certain kinds of theft2 and not only the culprit himself1 but any person who knows of his crime and fails to give information is liable to be punished by the fetish4 ,when such a fetish is instituted1 the whole community is warned of it1 so that he who transgresses thereafter does so at his peril4 ,for example1 a fetish was set up to prevent sheep-stealing and the people received warning in the usual way4 ,shortly afterwards a slave1 who had not heard of the law1 stole a sheep and offered to divide it with a friend4 ,the friend had often before shared with him in similar enterprises1 but the fear of the fetish was now too strong for him2 he informed on the thief1 who was brought to justice and died soon after of a lingering and painful disease4 ,nobody in the country ever doubted but that the fetish had killed him4#da4c ,among the ,ewe-speaking tribes of the ,slave ,coast in ,west ,africa houses and household property are guarded by amulets 7v-sesao71 which derive their virtue from being consecrated or belonging to the gods4 ,the crops1 also1 in solitary glades of the forest are left under the protection of such amulets1 generally fastened to long sticks in some conspicuous position2 and so guarded they are quite safe from pillage4 ,by the side of the paths1 too1 may be seen food and palm-wine #db lying exposed for sale with nothing but a charm to protect them2 a few cowries placed on each article indicate its price4 ,yet no native would dare to take the food or the wine without depositing its price2 for he dreads the unknown evil which the god who owns the charm would bring upon him for thieving4#db4a ,in ,sierra ,leone charms1 called greegrees1 are often placed in plantations to deter people from stealing1 and it is said that 8a few old rags placed upon an orange tree will generally1 though not always1 secure the fruit as effectually as if guarded by the dragons of the ,hesperides4 ,when any person falls sick1 if1 at the distance of several months1 he recollects having stolen fruit1 etc41 or having taken it softly as they term it1 he immediately supposes wangka has caught him1 and to get cured he must go or send to the person whose property he had taken1 and make to him whatever recompense he demands40#db4b ,sidenote3 ,charms to protect property in the ,west ,indies4 ,superstitions of the same sort have been transported by the negroes to the ,west ,indies1 where the name for magic is obi and the magician is called the obeah man4 ,there also1 we are told1 the stoutest-hearted negroes 8tremble at the very sight of the ragged bundle1 the bottle or the egg-shells1 which are stuck in the thatch or hung over the door of a hut1 or upon the branch of a plantain tree1 to deter marauders4''' ,when a negro is robbed of a fowl or a hog1 he applies directly to the ,obeah-man or woman2 it is then made known among his fellow blacks1 that obi is set for the thief2 and as soon as the latter hears the dreadful news1 his terrified imagination begins to work1 no resource is left but in the superior skill of some more eminent ,obeah-man of the neighbourhood1 who may counteract the magical operations of the other2 but if no one can be found of higher rank and ability2 or if1 after gaining such an ally1 he should still fancy himself affected1 he presently falls into a decline1 under the incessant horror of impending calamities4 ,the slightest painful sensation in the head1 the bowels1 or #dc any other part1 any casual loss or hurt1 confirms his apprehensions1 and he believes himself the devoted victim of an invisible and irresistible agency4 ,sleep1 appetite and cheerfulness forsake him2 his strength decays1 his disturbed imagination is haunted without respite1 his features wear the settled gloom of despondency3 dirt1 or any other unwholesome substance1 becomes his only food1 he contracts a morbid habit of body1 and gradually sinks into the grave40#dc4a ,superstition has killed him4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion4 ,similar evidence might doubtless be multiplied1 but the foregoing cases suffice to shew that among many peoples and in many parts of the world superstitious fear has operated as a powerful motive to deter men from stealing4 ,if that is so1 then my second proposition may be regarded as proved1 namely1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for private property and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment4 ,,iv4 ,,marriage #dd ,sidenote3 ,superstition as a prop of sexual morality4 ,i pass now to my third proposition1 which is1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for marriage1 and has thereby contributed to a stricter observance of the rules of sexual morality both among the married and the unmarried4 ,that this is true will appear1 ,i think1 from the following instances4 ,sidenote3 ,adultery or fornication supposed by the ,karens to blight the crops4 ,among the ,karens of ,burma 8adultery1 or fornication1 is supposed to have a powerful influence to injure the crops4 ,hence1 if there have been bad crops in a village for a year or two1 and the rains fail1 the cause is attributed to secret sins of this character1 and they say the ,god of heaven and earth is angry with them on this account2 and all the villagers unite in making an offering to appease him40 ,sidenote3 ,pig's blood used to expiate the crime4 ,and when a case of adultery or fornication has come to light1 8the elders decide that the transgressors must buy a hog1 and kill it4 ,then the woman takes one foot of the hog1 and the man takes another1 and they scrape out furrows in the ground with each foot1 which they fill with the blood of the hog4 ,they next scratch the ground with their hands and pray3 #8,god of heaven and earth1 ,god of the mountains and hills1 ,i have destroyed the productiveness of the country4 ,do not be angry with me1 do not hate me2 but have mercy on me1 and compassionate me4 ,now ,i repair the mountains1 now ,i heal the hills1 and the streams and the lands4 ,may there be no failure of crops1 may there be no unsuccessful labours1 or unfortunate efforts in my country4 ,let them be dissipated to the foot of the horizon4 ,make thy paddy fruitful1 thy rice abundant4 ,make the vegetables to flourish4 #de ,if we cultivate but little1 still grant that we may obtain a little4' ,after each has prayed thus1 they return to the house and say they have repaired the earth40#de4a ,thus1 according to the ,karens adultery and fornication are not simply moral offences which concern no one but the culprits and their families3 they physically affect the course of nature by blighting the earth and destroying its fertility2 hence they are public crimes which threaten the very existence of the whole community by cutting off its food supplies at the root4 ,but the physical injury which these offences do to the soil can be physically repaired by saturating it with pig's blood4 ,sidenote3 ,disastrous effects ascribed to sexual crime in ,assam1 ,bengal1 and ,annam4 ,some of the tribes of ,assam similarly trace a connexion between the crops and the behaviour of the human sexes2 for they believe that so long as the crops remain ungarnered1 the slightest incontinence would ruin all4#de4b ,again1 the inhabitants of the hills near ,rajamahal in ,bengal imagine that adultery1 undetected and unexpiated1 causes the inhabitants of the village to be visited by a plague or destroyed by tigers or other ravenous beasts4 ,to prevent these evils an adulteress generally makes a clean breast4 ,her paramour has then to furnish a hog1 and he and she are sprinkled with its blood1 which is supposed to wash away their sin and avert the divine wrath4 ,when a village suffers from plague or the ravages of wild beasts1 the people religiously believe that the calamity is a punishment for secret immorality1 and they resort to a curious form of divination to discover the culprits1 in order that the crime may be duly expiated4#de4c ,the ,khasis of ,assam are divided into a number of clans which are exogamous1 that is to say1 no man may marry a woman of his own clan4 ,should a man be found to cohabit with a woman of his own clan1 it is treated as incest and is believed to cause great disasters2 the people will be struck by lightning or killed by tigers1 the women will die in child-bed1 and #df so forth4 ,the guilty couple are taken by their clansmen to a priest and obliged to sacrifice a pig and a goat2 after that they are made outcasts1 for their offence is inexpiable4#df4a ,the ,orang ,glai1 a savage tribe in the mountains of ,annam1 similarly suppose that illicit love is punished by tigers1 which devour the sinners4 ,if a girl is found with child1 her family offers a feast of pigs1 fowls1 and wine to appease the offended spirits4#df4b ,sidenote3 ,similar views held by the ,battas of ,sumatra4 ,the ,battas of ,sumatra in like manner think that if an unmarried woman is with child1 she must be given in marriage at once1 even to a man of lower rank2 for otherwise the people will be infested with tigers1 and the crops in the fields will not be abundant4 ,they also believe that the adultery of married women causes a plague of tigers1 crocodiles1 or other wild beasts4 ,the crime of incest1 in their opinion1 would blast the whole harvest1 if the wrong were not speedily repaired4 ,epidemics and other calamities that affect the whole people are almost always traced by them to incest1 by which is to be understood any marriage that conflicts with their customs4#df4c ,the natives of ,nias1 an island to the west of ,sumatra1 imagine that heavy rains are caused by the tears of a god weeping at the commission of adultery or fornication4 ,the punishment for these crimes is death4 ,the two delinquents1 man and woman1 are buried in a narrow grave with only their heads projecting above ground2 then their throats are stabbed with a spear or cut with a knife1 and the grave is filled up4 ,sometimes1 it is said1 they are buried alive4 ,however1 the judges are not always incorruptible and the injured family not always inaccessible to the allurement of gain2 and pecuniary compensation is sometimes accepted as a sufficient salve for wounded honour4 ,but if the wronged man is a chief1 the culprits must surely die4 ,as a consequence1 perhaps1 of this severity1 the crimes #dg of adultery and fornication are said to be far less frequent in ,nias than in ,europe4#dg4a ,sidenote3 ,similar views among the tribes of ,borneo4 ,similar views prevail among many tribes in ,borneo4 ,thus in regard to the ,sea ,dyaks we are told by ,archdeacon ,perham that 8immorality among the unmarried is supposed to bring a plague of rain upon the earth1 as a punishment inflicted by ,petara4 ,sidenote3 ,excessive rains thought by the ,dyaks to be caused by sexual offences4 ,it must be atoned for with sacrifice and fine4 ,in a function which is sometimes held to procure fine weather1 the excessive rain is represented as the result of the immorality of two young people4 ,petara is invoked1 the offenders are banished from their home1 and the bad weather is said to cease4 ,every district traversed by an adulterer is believed to be accursed of the gods until the proper sacrifice has been offered40#dg4b ,when rain pours down day after day and the crops are rotting in the fields1 these ,dyaks come to the conclusion that some people have been secretly indulging in lusts of the flesh2 so the elders lay their heads together and adjudicate on all cases of incest and bigamy1 and purify ,sidenote3 ,blood of pigs shed to expiate incest and unchastity4 the earth with the blood of pigs1 which appears to these savages1 as sheep's blood appeared to the ancient ,hebrews1 to possess the valuable property of atoning for moral guilt4 ,not long ago the offenders1 whose lewdness had thus brought the whole country into danger1 would have been punished with death or at least slavery4 ,a ,dyak may not marry his first cousin unless he first performs a special ceremony called bergaput to avert evil consequences from the land4 ,the couple repair to the water-side1 fill a small pitcher with their personal ornaments1 and sink it in the river2 or instead of a jar they fling a chopper and a plate into the water4 ,a pig #dh is then sacrificed on the bank1 and its carcase1 drained of blood1 is thrown in after the jar4 ,next the pair are pushed into the water by their friends and ordered to bathe together4 ,lastly1 a joint of bamboo is filled with pig's blood1 and the couple perambulate the country and the villages round about1 sprinkling the blood on the ground4 ,after that they are free to marry4 ,this is done1 we are told1 for the sake of the whole country1 in order that the rice may not be blasted by the marriage of cousins4#dh4a ,again1 we are informed that the ,sibuyaus1 a ,dyak tribe of ,sarawak1 are very careful of the honour of their daughters1 because they imagine that if an unmarried girl is found to be with child it is offensive to the higher powers1 who1 instead of always chastising the culprits1 punish the tribe by visiting its members with misfortunes4 ,hence when such a crime is detected they fine the lovers and sacrifice a pig to appease the angry powers and to avert the sickness or other calamities that might follow4 ,further1 they inflict fines on the families of the couple for any severe accident or death by drowning that may have happened at any time within a month before the religious atonement was made2 for they regard the families of the culprits as responsible for these mishaps4 ,the fines imposed for serious or fatal accidents are heavy2 for simple wounds they are lighter4 ,with the fear of these fines before their eyes parents keep a watchful eye on the conduct of their daughters4 ,among the ,dyaks of the ,batang ,lupar river the chastity of the unmarried girls is not so strictly guarded2 but in respectable families1 when a daughter proves frail1 they sacrifice a pig and sprinkle its blood on the doors to wash away the sin4#dh4b ,the ,hill ,dyaks of ,borneo abhor incest and do not allow the marriage even of cousins4 ,in #ahdf the ,baddat ,dyaks complained to ,mr4 ,hugh ,low that one of their chiefs had disturbed the peace and prosperity of the village by marrying his own granddaughter4 ,since that disastrous event1 they said1 no bright day had blessed their territory2 rain and darkness alone prevailed1 and unless the plague-spot were #di removed1 the tribe would soon be ruined4 ,the old sinner was degraded from office1 but apparently allowed to retain his wife2 and the domestic brawls between this ill-assorted couple gave much pain to the virtuous villagers4#di4a ,sidenote3 ,incest punished with death by the pagan tribes of ,borneo4 ,among the pagan tribes of ,borneo in general1 but of ,sarawak in particular1 8almost all offences are punished by fines only4 ,of the few offences which are felt to require a heavier punishment1 the one most seriously regarded is incest4 ,for this offence1 which is held to bring grave peril to the whole house1 especially the danger of starvation through failure of the padi crop1 two punishments have been customary4 ,if the guilt of the culprits is perfectly clear1 they are taken to some open spot on the river-bank at some distance from the house4 ,there they are thrown together upon the ground and a sharpened bamboo stake is driven through their bodies1 so that they remain pinned to the earth4 ,the bamboo1 taking root and growing luxuriantly on this spot1 remains as a warning to all who pass by2 and1 needless to say1 the spot is looked on with horror and shunned by all men4 ,the other method of punishment is to shut up the offenders in a strong wicker cage and to throw them into the river4 ,this method is resorted to as a substitute for the former one1 owing to the difficulty of getting any one to play the part of executioner and to drive in the stake1 for this involves the shedding of the blood of the community4 ,the kind of incest most commonly committed is the connection of a man with an adopted daughter1 and 7possibly on account of this frequency7 this is the kind which is most strongly reprobated4''' ,the punishment of the incestuous couple does not suffice to ward off the danger brought by them upon the community4 ,the household must be purified with the blood of pigs and fowls2 the animals used are the property of the offenders or of their family2 and in this way a fine is imposed4 ,when any calamity threatens or falls upon a house1 especially a great rising of the river which threatens to sweep away the house or the tombs of the household1 the ,kayans are led to suspect that incestuous intercourse in their own or in neighbouring houses has taken place2 and they look round for evidences of it1 and sometimes detect a case which otherwise would #ej have remained hidden4 ,it seems probable that there is some intimate relation between this belief and the second of the two modes of punishment described above2 but we have no direct evidence of such connection4 ,all the other peoples also1 except the ,punans1 punish incest with death4 ,among the ,sea ,dyaks the most common form of incest is that between a youth and his aunt1 and this is regarded at least as seriously as any other form40#ej4a ,sidenote3 ,evil and confusion supposed by the ,dyaks to be wrought by fornication4 ,nor is it the heinous crime of incest alone which in the opinion of the ,sea ,dyaks endangers the whole community4 ,the same effect is supposed to follow whenever an unmarried woman is found with child and cannot or will not name her seducer4 8,the greatest disgrace10 we are told1 8is attached to a woman found in a state of pregnancy1 without being able to name her husband2 and cases of self-poisoning1 to avoid the shame1 are not of unusual occurrence4 ,if one be found in this state1 a fine must be paid of pigs and other things4 ,few even of the chiefs will come forward without incurring considerable responsibility4 ,a pig is killed1 which nominally becomes the father1 for want1 it is supposed1 of another and better one4 ,then the surrounding neighbours have to be furnished with a share of the fine to banish the ,jabu1 which exists after such an event4 ,if the fine be not forthcoming1 the woman dare not move out of her room1 for fear of being molested1 as she is supposed to have brought evil 7kudi7 and confusion upon the inhabitants and their belongings40#ej4b ,sidenote3 ,similar beliefs and customs among the tribes of ,dutch ,borneo4 ,the foregoing accounts refer especially to the tribes of ,borneo under ,british rule2 but similar ideas and customs prevail among the kindred tribes of ,dutch ,borneo4 ,thus the ,kayans or ,bahaus in the interior of the island believe that adultery is punished by the spirits1 who visit the whole tribe with failure of the crops and other misfortunes4 ,hence in order to avert these evil consequences from the innocent members of the tribe1 the two culprits1 with all their possessions1 are first placed on a gravel bank in the middle of the river1 in order to isolate or1 in electrical #ea language1 to insulate them and so prevent the moral or rather physical infection from spreading4 ,then pigs and fowls are killed1 and with the blood priestesses smear the property of the guilty pair in order to disinfect it4 ,finally1 the two are placed on a raft1 with sixteen eggs1 and allowed to drift down stream4 ,they may save themselves by plunging into the water and swimming ashore2 but this is perhaps a mitigation of an older sentence of death by drowning1 for young people still shower long grass stalks1 representing spears1 at the shamefaced and dripping couple4#ea4a ,certain it is1 that some ,dyak tribes used to punish incest by fastening the man and woman in separate baskets laden with stones and drowning them in the river4 ,by incest they understood the cohabitation of parents with children1 of brothers with sisters1 and of uncles and aunts with nieces and nephews4 ,a ,dutch resident had much difficulty in saving the life of an uncle and niece who had married each other2 finally he procured their banishment to a distant part of ,borneo4#ea4b ,the ,blu-u ,kayans1 another tribe in the interior of ,borneo1 believe that an intrigue between an unmarried pair is punished by the spirits with failure of the harvest1 of the fishing1 and of the hunt4 ,hence the delinquents have to appease the wrath of the spirits by sacrificing a pig and a certain quantity of rice4#ea4c ,in ,pasir1 a district of ,eastern ,borneo1 incest is thought to bring dearth1 epidemics1 and all sorts of evils on the land4#ea4d ,in the island of ,ceram a man convicted of unchastity has to smear every house in the village with the blood of a pig and a fowl3 this is supposed to wipe out his guilt and ward off misfortunes from the village4#ea4e ,sidenote3 ,failure of the crops and other disasters thought to be caused by incest in ,celebes4 ,when the harvest fails in ,southern ,celebes1 the ,macassars and ,bugineese regard it as a sure sign that incest has been committed and that the spirits are angry4 ,in the years #ahgg and #ahgh it happened that the west monsoon did not #eb blow and that the rice crop in consequence came to nothing2 moreover many buffaloes died of a murrain4 ,at the same time there was in the gaol at ,takalar a prisoner1 who had been formerly accused of incest4 ,some of the people of his district begged the ,dutch governor to give the criminal up to them1 for according to the general opinion the plagues would never cease till the guilty man had received the punishment he deserved4 ,all the governor's powers of persuasion were needed to induce the petitioners to return quietly to their villages2 and when the prisoner1 having served his time1 was released shortly afterwards1 he was1 at his own request1 given an opportunity of sailing away to another land1 as he no longer felt safe in his own country4#eb4a ,sidenote3 ,disastrous effects supposed to follow from shedding the blood of incestuous couples on the ground4 ,even when the incestuous couple has been brought to justice1 their blood may not be shed2 for the people think that1 were the ground to be polluted by the blood of such criminals1 the rivers would dry up and the supply of fish would run short1 the harvest and the produce of the gardens would miscarry1 edible fruits would fail1 sickness would be rife among cattle and horses1 civil strife would break out1 and the country would suffer from other widespread calamities4 ,hence the punishment of the guilty is such as to avoid the spilling of their blood3 usually they are tied up in a sack and thrown into the sea to drown4 ,yet they get on their journey to eternity the necessary provisions1 consisting of a bag of rice1 salt1 dried fish1 coco-nuts1 and other things1 among which three quids of betel are not forgotten4#eb4b ,we can now perhaps understand why the ,romans used to sew up a parricide in a sack with a dog1 a cock1 a viper1 and an ape for company1 and fling him into the sea4 ,they probably feared to defile the soil of ,italy by spilling upon it the blood of such a miscreant4#eb4c ,amongst the ,tomori of ,central ,celebes #ec a person guilty of incest is throttled2 no drop of his blood may fall on the ground1 for if it did1 the rice would never grow again4 ,the union of uncle with niece is regarded by these people as incest1 but it can be expiated by an offering4 ,a garment of the man and one of the woman are laid on a copper vessel2 the blood of a sacrificed animal1 either a goat or a fowl1 is allowed to drip on the garments1 and then the vessel with its contents is set floating down the river4#ec4a ,among the ,tololaki1 another tribe of ,central ,celebes1 persons who have defiled themselves with incest are shut up in a basket and drowned4 ,no drop of their blood may be spilt on the ground1 for that would hinder the earth from ever bearing fruit again4#ec4b ,among the ,bare'e-speaking ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes in general the penalty for incest1 that is for the sexual intercourse of parents with children or of brothers with sisters1 is death4 ,but whereas the death-sentence for adultery is executed with a spear or a sword1 the death-sentence for incest is usually executed among the inland tribes by clubbing or throttling2 for were the blood of the culprits to drip on the ground1 the earth would be rendered barren4 ,the people on the coast put the guilty pair in a basket1 weight it with stones1 and fling it into the sea4 ,this prescribed manner of putting the incestuous to death1 we are informed1 makes the execution very grievous4 ,however1 the writers who furnish us with these particulars and who have lived among the people on terms of intimacy for many years1 add that 8incest seldom occurs1 or rather the cases that come to light are very few40#ec4c ,in some districts of ,central ,celebes1 the marriage of cousins1 provided they are children of two sisters1 is forbidden under pain of death2 the people think that such an alliance would anger the spirits1 and that the rice and maize harvests would fail4 ,strictly speaking1 two such cousins who have committed the #ed offence should be tied together1 weighted with stones1 and thrown into water to drown4 ,in practice1 however1 the culprits are spared and their sin expiated by shedding the blood of a buffalo or a goat4 ,the blood is mixed with water and sprinkled on the rice-fields or poured on the maize-fields1 no doubt in order to appease the angry spirits and restore its fertility to the tilled land4 ,the natives of these districts believe that were a brother and sister to commit incest1 the ground on which the tribe dwells would be swallowed up4 ,if such a crime takes place1 the guilty pair are tied together1 their feet weighted with stones1 and thrown into the sea4#ed4a ,sidenote3 ,excessive rains1 earthquakes1 and volcanic eruptions supposed to be produced by incest in ,halmahera4 ,when it rains in torrents1 the ,galelareese of ,halmahera1 another large ,east ,indian island1 say that brother and sister1 or father and daughter1 or in short some near kinsfolk are having illicit relations with each other1 and that every human being must be informed of it1 for then only will the rain cease to descend4 ,the superstition has repeatedly caused blood relations to be accused1 rightly or wrongly1 of incest4 ,further1 the people think that alarming natural phenomena1 such as a violent earthquake or the eruption of a volcano1 are caused by crimes of the same sort4 ,persons charged with such offences are brought to ,ternate2 it is said that formerly they were often drowned on the way or1 on being haled thither1 were condemned to be thrown into the volcano4#ed4b ,in the ,banggai ,archipelago1 to the east of ,celebes1 earthquakes are explained as punishments inflicted by evil spirits for indulgence in illicit love4#ed4c ,sidenote3 ,breaches of sexual morality thought to blight the fruits of the earth and otherwise disturb the course of nature in ,africa4 ,in some parts of ,africa1 also1 it is believed that breaches of sexual morality disturb the course of nature1 particularly by blighting the fruits of the earth2 and probably such views #ee are much more widely diffused in that continent than the scanty and fragmentary evidence at our disposal might lead us to suppose4 ,thus1 the negroes of ,loango1 in ,west ,africa1 imagine that the commerce of a man with an immature girl is punished by ,god with drought and consequent famine until the transgressors expiate their transgression by dancing naked before the king and an assembly of the people1 who throw hot gravel and bits of glass at the pair as they run the gauntlet4 ,the rains in that country should fall in ,september1 but in #ahih there was a long drought1 and when the month of ,december had nearly passed1 the sun-scorched stocks of the fruitless ,indian corn shook their rustling leaves in the wind1 the beans lay shrivelled and black on the ruddy soil1 and the shoots of the sweet potato had flowered and withered long ago4 ,the people cried out against their rulers for neglecting their duty to the primeval powers of the earth2 the priests of the sacred groves had recourse to divination and discovered that ,god was angry with the land on account of the immorality of certain persons unknown1 who were not observing the traditions and laws of their ,god and country4 ,the feeble old king had fled1 but the slave who acted as regent in his room sent word to the chiefs that there were people in their towns who were the cause of ,god's wrath4 ,so every chief called his subjects together and caused enquiries to be made1 and then it was discovered that three girls had broken the customs of their country2 for they were with child before they had passed through what is called the paint-house1 that is1 before they had been painted red and secluded for a season in token that they had attained to the age of puberty4 ,the people were incensed and endeavoured to punish or even kill the three girls2 and the ,english writer who has recorded the case has thought it worth while to add that on the very morning when the culprits were brought before the magistrate rain fell4#ee4a ,amongst the ,bavili of ,loango1 who are divided into totemic clans1 no man is allowed to marry a woman of his mother's clan2 and ,god is #ef believed to punish a breach of this marriage law by withholding the rains in their due season4#ef4a ,similar notions of the blighting influence of sexual crime appear to be entertained by the ,nandi of ,british ,east ,africa2 for we are told that when a warrior has got a girl with child1 she 8is punished by being put in ,coventry1 none of her girl friends being allowed to speak to or look at her until after the child is born and buried4 ,sidenote3 ,sexual purity required of those who handle corn or enter a granary4 ,she is also regarded with contempt for the rest of her life and may never look inside a granary for fear of spoiling the corn40#ef4b ,among the ,basutos in like manner 8while the corn is exposed to view1 all defiled persons are carefully kept from it4 ,if the aid of a man in this state is necessary for carrying home the harvest1 he remains at some distance while the sacks are filled1 and only approaches to place them upon the draught oxen4 ,he withdraws as soon as the load is deposited at the dwelling1 and under no pretext can he assist in pouring the corn into the basket in which it is preserved40#ef4c ,the nature of the defilement which thus disqualifies a man from handling the corn is not mentioned1 but we may conjecture that unchastity would fall under this general head4 ,for amongst the ,basutos after a child is born a fresh fire has to be kindled in the dwelling by the friction of wood1 and this must be done by a young man of chaste habits2 it is believed that an untimely death awaits him who should dare to discharge this holy office after having lost his innocence4#ef4d ,in ,morocco whoever enters a granary must first remove his slippers and must be sexually clean4 ,were an unclean person to enter1 the people believe not only that the grain would lose its blessed influence 7baraka71 but that he himself would fall ill4 ,a ,berber told ,dr4 ,westermarck #eg that he had suffered from painful boils through entering a granary in a state of uncleanness4#eg4a ,the same rule applies in ,morocco to a vegetable garden4 ,only the sexually clean may enter it1 otherwise both the vegetables and the person entering would be the worse for it4#eg4b ,sidenote3 ,incest supposed by the ,dinkas to be punished with sterility4 ,the ,dinkas of the ,upper ,nile believe that incest angers the ancestral spirits 7jok71 who punish the girl by making her barren4 ,even should she marry1 she will have no children until she has confessed her sin1 and atonement has been made for it4 ,her lover must provide a bullock for sacrifice4 ,his father kills the animal1 and the girl's father takes some of the contents of the large intestine and smears it on his daughter's abdomen and on that of her guilty partner4 ,thus the taint of sin is removed1 and the woman is rendered capable of bearing children4#eg4c ,the ,maloulekes and ,hlengoues1 two tribes of ,southern ,africa to the north of the ,thonga1 think that if a young man gets a girl1 who is not his wife1 with child1 people will die in the village4 ,hence1 when the girl's pregnancy is discovered1 the lover has to provide a girl by way of fine4#eg4d ,sidenote3 ,incest enjoined in certain cases as a mode of ensuring good luck4 ,it is very remarkable1 however1 that among tribes which strongly disapprove of incestuous relations in general1 the act of incest is nevertheless positively enjoined in certain circumstances as a mode of ensuring good luck4 ,thus in the ,thonga tribe of ,south-,eastern ,africa1 round about ,delagoa ,bay1 there is a class of men who devote themselves to the business of hunting hippopotamuses on the rivers4 ,in the pursuit of their trade they observe a number of curious superstitions which have been handed down among them for generations from father to son4 ,for example1 they inoculate themselves with a certain drug which is supposed to endow them with such a power over the hippopotamuses that when the hunter wounds one of them the animal cannot go far away and the man can track and #eh despatch it4 ,during the day the hunter fishes in the river1 keeping his eye all the time on the unwieldy monsters disporting themselves in the water or lumbering through the thickets on the banks4 ,sidenote3 ,incest of ,thonga hippopotamus hunter with his daughter4 8,when he sees that the propitious season has come and when he is ready to undertake a hunting expedition of one month1 he first calls his own daughter to his hut and has sexual relations with her4 ,this incestuous act1 which is strongly taboo in ordinary life1 has made of him a #8murderer'3 he has killed something at home2 he has acquired the courage for doing great deeds on the river4 ,henceforth he will have no sexual relations with his wives during the whole campaign4 ,on the same night1 immediately after the act1 he starts with his sons2 they close the drift where the beasts leave the river by putting a canoe across the track40 ,meantime the hippopotamuses are browsing in the forest or trampling down the crops of the fields in their clumsy fashion4 ,as they come trooping back to the river they are stopped by the canoe in the path1 and while they are examining the strange obstacle1 the hunters1 lying in ambush1 dart their spears into the thick hides of the beasts4 ,the handles of the spears are loosely attached to the blades1 but connected with them by a long string1 so that when the wounded monster1 crashing irresistibly in his rage through the thicket1 plunges into the river and sinks out of sight in the water1 the handle of the spear becomes detached from the blade and floats like a buoy on the surface1 shewing the direction taken by the beast4 ,as soon as the hunter has thrown his spear he runs home to tell his wife4 ,she must at once shut herself up in the hut and remain perfectly quiet1 without eating or drinking or crushing her mealies2 for were she to do any of these things1 the wounded hippopotamus would shew fight and might kill her husband1 whereas if she keeps quiet1 the animal will be quiet too4 ,all the hunters in the village are then called up1 and embarking in a canoe1 paddle away after their prey1 whose retreat is marked by the bobbing of the spear-handle on the surface of the water and the occasional emergence of a great flat snout to breathe4 ,when the beast has been despatched1 and the carcase landed on the bank1 it is turned on its back and the hunter creeps between its legs #ei from behind and along its belly and chest as far as the mouth4 ,then he goes away4 ,by this ceremony the man is supposed to take upon himself the defilement1 possibly the nature1 of the animal1 so that in future when he meets hippopotamuses the animals will not perceive him to be a man but will mistake him for an hippopotamus2 and thus he will be able to slaughter the deluded creatures with impunity4#ei4a ,sidenote3 ,suggested explanation of the ,thonga practice4 ,so far as we can guess at the meaning of these curious rites1 their general intention seems to be to identify the hunter and his family with the game which he hunts in order to give him full power over the animals4 ,this intention is manifested in the behaviour of the hunter's wife while the hippopotamus is wounded2 she so far identifies herself with the animal that whatever she does he is supposed to do4 ,if she goes about her work briskly and refreshes herself with food and drink1 the hippopotamus also will be brisk and refreshed1 and will give warm work to his pursuers2 whereas if she keeps perfectly still1 the animal will make no resistance but follow the hunters like a sheep to the slaughter4 ,perhaps the same train of thought partially explains the incest which the hunter has to commit with his own daughter before he sets out for the chase4 ,can it be that by this violence done to his offspring he is supposed to acquire power over the beast8 ,it may be so1 yet it is difficult to see why the violence should take this particular form1 and why1 on the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic1 a pretence of wounding and killing the girl with a spear would not have served his turn better4 ,sidenote3 ,incest prescribed among the ,antambahoaka of ,madagascar4 ,another tribe of savages who imagine that in certain circumstances incest is the road to fortune are the ,antambahoaka of ,south-,eastern ,madagascar4 ,before setting out for the chase or the fishing or war or other enterprise1 every ,antambahoaka arranges to have sexual relations with his sister or with his nearest female relation2 he thinks in this way to ensure the success of his expedition4#ei4b ,what the #fj exact train of thought may be which prompts these exceptional and deliberate aberrations from the usual rules of morality1 it is difficult to understand2 ,i mention the facts because they apparently contradict the ordinary savage view of conduct1 and so far help us to perceive how little as yet we really know about the inmost workings of the savage mind4 ,sidenote3 ,similar beliefs as to the disastrous effect of sexual crimes among the civilized peoples of antiquity4 ,leaving out of account these remarkable and as yet not fully explained exceptions to the rule1#fj4a we may say generally that among many savage races breaches of the marriage laws are believed to draw down on the community public calamities of the most serious character1 and that in particular they are thought to blast the fruits of the earth through excessive rain or excessive drought4 ,traces of similar beliefs may perhaps be detected among the civilized races of antiquity4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hebrews4 ,thus among the ,hebrews we read how ,job1 passionately protesting his innocence before ,god1 declares that he is no adulterer2 8,for that10 says he1 8were an heinous crime2 yea it were an iniquity to be punished by the judges3 for it is a fire that consumeth unto ,destruction1 and would root out all mine increase40#fj4b ,in this passage the ,hebrew word translated 8increase0 commonly means 8the produce of the earth02#fj4c and if we give the word its usual sense here1 then ,job affirms adultery to be destructive of the fruits of the ground1 which is precisely what many savages still believe4 ,this interpretation of his words is strongly confirmed by two narratives in ,genesis1 where we read how ,sarah1 ,abraham's #fa wife1 was taken by a king into his harem1 and how thereafter ,god visited the king and his household with great plagues1 especially by closing up the wombs of the king's wife and his maid-servants so that they bare no children4 ,it was not till the king had discovered and confessed his sin1 and ,abraham had prayed ,god to forgive him1 that the king's women again became fruitful4#fa4a ,these narratives seem to imply that adultery1 even when it is committed in ignorance1 is a cause of plague and especially of sterility among women4 ,again1 in ,leviticus1 after a long list of sexual crimes1 we read3#fa4b 8,defile not ye yourselves in any of these things3 for in all these the nations are defiled which ,i cast out from before you3 and the land is defiled3 therefore ,i do visit the iniquity thereof upon it1 and the land vomiteth out her inhabitants40 ,this passage seems to imply that the land itself was somehow physically affected by sexual transgressions in such a way that it could no longer support the inhabitants4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,greeks4 ,apparently the ancient ,greeks entertained a similar view of the wasting effect of incest2 for according to ,sophocles the land of ,thebes suffered from blight1 pestilence1 and the sterility both of women and cattle under the reign of ,oedipus1 who had unwittingly slain his father and married his mother2 the country was emptied of its inhabitants1 and the ,delphic oracle declared that the only way to restore prosperity to it was to banish the sinner4#fa4c ,no doubt the poet and his hearers set down these public calamities in part to the guilt of parricide which rested on ,oedipus2 but probably they also laid much of the evil at the door of the incest which he had committed with his mother4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,romans4 ,in the reign of the emperor ,claudius a ,roman noble was accused of incest with his sister4 ,he committed suicide1 his sister was banished1 and the emperor ordered that certain ancient ceremonies derived from the laws of ,king ,servius ,tullius should be performed1 and that expiation should be made by the pontiffs at the sacred grove of ,diana4#fa4d ,as ,diana appears to have been a goddess of fertility in general and of the #fb fruitfulness of women in particular1#fb4a the expiation for incest offered at her sanctuary may perhaps be accepted as evidence that the ,romans1 like other peoples1 attributed to sexual immorality a tendency to blast the fruits both of the earth and of the womb4 ,sidenote3 ,blighting effect attributed to incest by the ancient ,irish4 ,according to an ancient ,irish legend ,munster was afflicted in the third century of our era with a failure of the crops and other misfortunes4 ,when the nobles enquired into the matter1 they learned that these calamities were the result of an incest which the king had committed with his sister4 ,in order to put an end to the evil they demanded of the king his two sons1 the fruit of this unholy union1 that they might consume them with fire and cast their ashes into the running stream4#fb4b ,again1 ,irish legend relates that ,cairbre ,musc 8had two sons by his sister4 ,her name was ,duben1 and theirs were ,corc and ,cormac respectively4 ,the children were twins1 and the story of their birth is no less strange than that of ,dylan and ,llew1 for one of them was found to have nipped off his brother's ears before his birth4 ,the crime of their parents caused the crops to fail1 which1 according to the idea prevalent in ancient ,ireland1 was its natural result1 and ,cairbre was obliged to confess his guilt to the nobles of his realm1 who1 when the children were born1 ordered them to be burnt1 that the incest might not remain in the land4 #8,give me1' said ,cairbre's druid1 #8that ,corc#fb4c there1 that ,i may place him outside ,erinn1 so that the incest may not be within it4' ,corc was given to the druid1 and the latter1 with his wife1 whose name was ,bi1 took him to an island4 ,they had a white cow with red ears1 and an ablution was performed by them every morning on ,corc1 placed on the cow's back2 so in a year's time to the day the cow sprang away from them into the sea1 and she became a rock in it2 to wit1 the heathenism of the boy had entered into her4 ,b ,bi1 or ,bi's ,cow1 is the name of the rock1 and ,inis ,bi1 or ,bi's ,isle1 that of the island4 ,the boy was #fc afterwards brought back into ,erinn4 ,such is the story how ,corc was purged of the virulence of his original sin1 and the scene is one of the three islets called the ,bull1 the ,cow and the ,calf1 not far from ,dursey ,island1 in the gulf called ,kenmare ,river40#fc4a ,sidenote3 ,thus sexual irregularities are often supposed to endanger the whole community4 ,thus it appears that in the opinion of many peoples sexual irregularities1 whether of the married or the unmarried1 are not merely moral offences which affect only the few persons immediately concerned2 they are believed to involve the whole people in danger and disaster either directly by a sort of magical influence or indirectly by rousing the wrath of gods to whom these acts are offensive4 ,nay they are often supposed to strike a blow at the very existence of the community by blighting the fruits of the earth and thereby cutting off the food supply4 ,wherever these superstitions prevail1 it is obvious that public opinion and public justice will treat sexual offences with far greater severity than is meted out to them by peoples who1 like most civilized nations1 regard such misdemeanours as matters of private rather than of public concern1 as sins rather than crimes1 which may perhaps affect the eternal welfare of the individual sinner in a life hereafter1 but which do not in any way imperil the temporal welfare of the innocent community as a whole4 ,sidenote3 ,hence the extreme rigour with which sexual crimes have been punished by many races4 ,and conversely1 wherever we find that incest1 adultery1 and fornication are treated by the community with extreme rigour1 we may reasonably infer that the original motive for such treatment was superstition2 in other words1 that wherever a tribe or nation1 not content with leaving these transgressions to be avenged by the injured parties1 has itself punished them with exceptional severity1 the reason for doing so has probably been a belief that the effect of all such delinquencies is to disturb the course of nature and thereby to endanger the whole people1 who accordingly must protect themselves by effectually disarming and1 if necessary1 exterminating the delinquents4 ,sidenote3 ,ancient codes4 ,this may explain1 for example1 why the ,indian ,laws of ,manu decreed that an adulteress should be devoured by dogs in a public place1 and that an adulterer should be roasted to death on a red-hot iron #fd bed2#fd4a why the ,babylonian code of ,hammurabi sentenced an adulterous couple to be strangled and cast into the river2 and why the same code punished incest with a mother by burning both the culprits4#fd4b ,on the same supposition we can understand the severity of the punishments meted out to certain sexual offences by the ,mosaic law4 ,thus1 for example1 under it an adulteress and her paramour were sentenced to death3#fd4c a woman who at marriage was found not to be a maid was stoned3#fd4d the unchaste daughter of a priest was burned with fire2#fd4e and if a man married a woman and her daughter1 he and they were in like manner doomed to the flames4#fd4f ,sidenote3 ,rigorous penalties inflicted in ,africa4 ,many ,african tribes repress sexual crimes by rigorous penalties1 or did so until their moral standard was modified by contact with ,europeans4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,baganda1 their punishments for breaches of sexual morality4 ,among the ,baganda of ,central ,africa1 8though death was usually the punishment inflicted for adultery1 an offender's life would sometimes be spared1 and he be fined two women1 if he were able to pay them2 the culprit was1 however1 maimed2 he lost a limb1 or had an eye gouged out1 and showed by his maimed condition that he had been guilty of a crime4 ,a slave taken in adultery with one of his master's wives was invariably put to death4 ,women were compelled by torture to name their seducers2 if the accused man denied the charge1 the woman was asked to describe some personal peculiarity of his1 or some mark on his body which could be identified2 then if the man was found to have the peculiarity1 he was either fined or put to death4 ,in order to arrive at the truth1 a man who denied a charge made against him was sometimes stretched out with his arms and feet tied to stakes driven firmly into the ground1 a piece of barkcloth was then fastened about his private parts1 and set smouldering4 ,as soon as the fire reached his body1 the pain became too great #fe to bear1 and the man would own himself guilty in order to be released from torture4 ,he would then be either killed or fined4 ,an adulterer was called a murderer 7musi71 because he was looked upon as a man who deliberately set about to compass the death of the woman's husband2 either directly1 for he would go armed to visit the woman1 and if he was disturbed1 he would not hesitate to strike2 or indirectly1 by offending the fetiches4 ,men knew that1 if they were caught in the act of adultery1 the penalty would be death1 unless they were related to the person wronged1 in which case the latter might be willing to accept a fine1 and might content himself with mutilating the culprit4 ,the worst consequence to the injured husband was the anger of his fetiches and gods1 whose custodian was his wife4 ,by her action the wife had involved her husband in their displeasure2 he was thus left exposed to the malice of any enemy1 and his danger was increased in the time of war1 because the gods had withdrawn their protection from him40#fe4a ,thus among the ,baganda adultery was regarded not simply as a civil offence but as a sin1 which brought down the anger of the gods1 not as we might expect1 on the adulterer1 but on the injured husband4 ,further1 the ,baganda were divided into a number of totemic clans1 and members of any one clan were strictly prohibited from marrying or having sexual relations with each other4 8,sexual intercourse with a member of the same clan 7kive71 or with a woman of the mother's clan1 was punished by the death of both parties1 because they were considered to have brought the god's displeasure on the whole clan40#fe4b ,sidenote3 ,fornication1 adultery1 and incest severely punished by other ,african tribes4 ,among the ,basoga1 who border on the ,baganda to the east1 when a man got a virgin with child1 the guilty couple used to be dragged off to the ,river ,ntakwe2 there stones were tied to their ankles and legs1 and1 along with a sacrificial sheep1 they were thrown into the water and drowned4 ,however1 this rigorous penalty was abolished and a fine substituted before the country came under ,british rule4#fe4c ,among the ,kavirondo1 who border on the ,basoga to the #ff east1 8until quite recently adultery on the part of a wife was punished with death1 and death equally was meted out to young men and girls who were found guilty of fornication4 ,it was thought a shameful thing if a girl was not found to be a virgin on her wedding day40#ff4a ,among the ,nandi1 who border on the ,kavirondo to the north-east1 8incest1 intercourse with a step-mother1 step-daughter1 cousin or other near relation1 is punished by what is known as injoket4 ,a crowd of people assemble outside the house of the culprit1 who is dragged out1 and the punishment is inflicted by the women1 all of whom1 both young and old1 strip for the occasion4 ,the man is flogged1 his houses and crops destroyed1 and some of his stock confiscated40#ff4b ,among the ,barea1 a tribe on the borders of ,abyssinia1 when a single woman1 whether maid or widow1 is found with child1 she is strangled by her father or brother1 and the same punishment is inflicted on her seducer2 the child of their unlawful union is stabbed4 ,this custom is rigorously carried out1 except when the seducer is a noble and his paramour a vassal2 in that case both are spared1 but the infant is killed4#ff4c ,among the ,beni ,amer1 another tribe of the same region1 an unmarried girl found pregnant is put to death by her own brother1 whatever her rank1 and the seducer is killed by his own brother2 the child also is slain4 ,but the law is not so severe on a widow or divorced wife who is detected in a slip2 her seducer has only to pay a fine2 but the child is buried alive4 ,the ,beni ,amer will not suffer a bastard to live4#ff4d ,among the ,anyanja of ,british ,central ,africa adultery was punished by drowning and shooting4 ,if one of the culprits was a chief's wife1 she was tied to her paramour1 and the pair were then thrown into a river to drown or left in the open space of the village to die of hunger and exposure4 ,a man who had committed a rape was bound1 weighted with stones1 and cast into the lake4#ff4e ,among the ,awemba of ,northern ,rhodesia1 #fg when a husband detected his wife in the act of adultery1 he killed both her and her partner in guilt4 ,for such execution he might not be indicted for murder or manslaughter4 ,he would merely return the blood-stained spear to the woman's father1 who by his words in the marriage ceremony1 8,you shall spear the man who lusts after your wife10 was estopped from taking vengeance for the death of his daughter4 ,if the husband spared the erring couple and the wife was again taken in adultery1 the villagers themselves decreed the punishment4 ,the unfaithful wife and her lover were dragged outside the village and impaled on sharp stakes amid the taunts and jeers of the bystanders1 who only desisted from their mockery when death had stilled the writhing agony of the sufferers4#fg4a 8,the ,hottentots10 says an old writer1 8allow not marriages between first or second cousins4 ,they have a traditionary law1 which ordains1 that both man and woman1 so near to each other in blood1 who shall be convicted of joining together either in marriage or fornication1 shall be cudgel'd to death4 ,this law1 they say1 has prevail'd through all the generations of 'em2 and that they execute it at once1 upon a conviction1 without any regard to wealth1 power or affinity40#fg4b ,sidenote3 ,incest and adultery severely punished in the ,east ,indies4 ,we have seen that in the ,east ,indies sexual crimes1 particularly incest1 adultery1 and fornication1 are often viewed with grave displeasure because they are believed to draw down the wrath of the higher powers on the whole community4 ,hence it is natural that such offences should be treated as high treason and the offenders punished with death4 ,a common punishment is drowning4 ,for example1 when incest between a parent and a child or between a brother and a sister has been detected among the ,kubus1 a primitive aboriginal tribe of ,sumatra1 the culprits are enclosed in a large fish-trap1 made of rattan or bamboo1 and sunk in a deep pool of the river4 ,however1 they are not pinioned2 nay1 they are even furnished with a tin knife1 and #fh if they can cut their way out of the trap1 rise through the bubbling water to the surface1 and swim ashore1 they are allowed to live4#fh4a ,in the island of ,bali incest and adultery are punished by drowning2 the criminals are sewed up in a sack half-filled with stones and rice and cast into the sea4 ,a like doom is incurred by a woman who marries a man of a lower caste2 but sometimes she dies a more dreadful death1 being burnt alive4 ,sidenote3 ,modes of execution adopted which avoid the shedding of blood4 ,both modes of execution may be adopted in order to avoid shedding the blood of the sinners2 for in ,bali1 the ordinary way of despatching a criminal is to stab him to the heart with a creese 7kris7 or crooked ,malay sword4#fh4b ,in the island of ,celebes1 as we saw1 the blood of persons who have been guilty of certain sexual crimes is believed to blast the ground on which it falls2#fh4c so that it is natural in their case to resort to a bloodless mode of execution such as drowning or burning4 ,in ,mamoedjoe1 a district on the west coast of ,celebes1 the incest of a father with his daughter or of a brother with his sister is punished by binding the culprits hand and foot1 weighting them with stones1 and flinging them into the sea4#fh4d ,among the ,bugineese of ,southern ,celebes persons of princely rank who have committed this crime are placed on a raft of bamboos and set floating away out to sea4#fh4e ,sidenote3 ,persons guilty of incest buried alive4 ,in ,semendo1 a district of ,sumatra1 the punishment for incest and murder used to be to bury the criminals alive4 ,before they were led to their doom1 it was customary for the villagers to feast them1 every family killing a fowl for the purpose4 ,then the whole population escorted the culprits to their grave outside the village and saw the earth shovelled in upon them4 ,in the year #ahfd1 at the village of ,tandjong ,imam1 this doom was executed on a man and his deceased wife's sister1 with whom he had been detected in an intrigue4 8,great was my emotion and indignation10 said the humane ,dutch governor1 #fi 8when ,i stood by the grave of these poor wretches along with the unworthy chiefs who had sat on the bench of justice during the enforced absence of ,pangeran ,anom and pronounced this sentence4 ,i told them in plain language that judges who pronounced such a sentence of death on grounds so trivial 7the request of the family concerned7 deserved themselves to undergo the same punishment40 ,the ,dutch ,government has since issued stringent orders that no one henceforth is to be buried alive1 and has threatened with death any person who shall dare to disregard its orders4#fi4a ,the same punishment for incest is1 or used to be1 inflicted by the ,pasemhers1 another tribe of ,sumatra1 but more merciful than the people of ,semendo they gave the culprits at least a chance for their life4 ,the guilty pair were bound back to back and buried in a deep hole1 but from the mouth of each a hollow bamboo communicated with the upper air2 and if when the grave was opened after seven days the wretches were found to have survived a prolonged agony far worse than death1 they were granted their life4#fi4b ,nor was even this dreadful fate the worst that could befall the sinner who broke the rules of sexual morality in ,sumatra4 ,sidenote3 ,adulterers killed and eaten4 ,the ,battas or ,bataks of ,central ,sumatra condemned an adulterer to be killed and eaten2 strictly speaking he should be speared to death first and eaten afterwards1 but as the injured husband and his friends were commonly the judges and executioners1 it sometimes happened that1 passion proving too strong for a strict adherence to the letter of the law1 they cut the flesh from his living body1 ate it1 and drank his blood1 before it occurred to them to terminate his sufferings by a spear-thrust4 ,however1 an adulterer occasionally escaped with his life on the payment of a fine1 always provided that his accomplice was not the wife of a chief2 for in that case there was no help for it but he must be killed and eaten4#fi4c ,even trivial misdemeanours or acts which we should #gj deem perfectly innocent may draw condign punishment on the thoughtless1 the imprudent1 the light-hearted in the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,sidenote3 ,extreme severity of the code of sexual morality in ,lombok4 ,thus we read that in the island of ,lombok 8the men are exceedingly jealous and very strict with their wives4 ,a married woman may not accept a cigar or a sirih leaf from a stranger under pain of death4 ,i was informed that some years ago one of the ,english traders had a ,balinese woman of good family living with him--the connexion being considered quite honourable by the natives4 ,during some festival this girl offended against the law by accepting a flower or some such trifle from another man4 ,this was reported to the ,rajah 7to some of whose wives the girl was related71 and he immediately sent to the ,englishman's house ordering him to give the woman up as she must be #8krissed4' ,in vain he begged and prayed1 and offered to pay any fine the ,rajah might impose1 and finally refused to give her up unless he was forced to do so4 ,this the ,rajah did not wish to resort to1 as he no doubt thought he was acting as much for the ,englishman's honour as for his own2 so he appeared to let the matter drop4 ,but some time afterwards he sent one of his followers to the house1 who beckoned the girl to the door1 and then saying1 #8,the ,rajah sends you this1' stabbed her to the heart4 ,more serious infidelity is punished still more cruelly1 the woman and her paramour being tied back to back and thrown into the sea1 where some large crocodiles are always on the watch to devour the bodies4 ,one such execution took place while ,i was at ,ampanam1 but ,i took a long walk into the country to be out of the way till it was all over40#gj4a ,sidenote3 ,the severity of the code based at bottom on superstition4 ,as the ,malay peoples of the ,indian ,archipelago1 from whom the foregoing examples are drawn1 have reached a fair level of culture1 it might perhaps be thought that the extreme severity with which they visit offences against their code of sexual morality springs from an excessive refinement of feeling rather than from a crude superstition2 and no doubt it may well happen that extreme sensitiveness on the point of honour1 of which the ,malays are susceptible1 contributes in many cases to sharpen the sword of justice #ga and add fresh force to the stroke4 ,yet under this delicacy of sentiment there appears to lie a deep foundation of superstition1 as we may see by the extraordinary and disastrous influence which in the opinion of these people sexual crime exerts1 not so much on the criminals themselves1 as on the whole realm of nature1 drawing down deluges of rain from the clouds till the crops rot in the fields1 shaking the solid earth beneath men's feet1 and blowing up into flames the slumbering fires of the volcano1 till the sky is darkened at noon by a black canopy of falling ashes and illumined at night by the sullen glow of the molten lava shot forth from the subterranean furnace4#ga4a ,sidenote3 ,a similar severity in sexual matters observed among the ,australian aborigines1 the lowest of existing savages4 ,and however much an over-refinement of feeling may be invoked to explain the more than ,puritanical severity of the ,malay moral code in sexual matters1 no such explanation can be applied to the like emotion of horror which similar offences excite among the savage aborigines of ,australia1 the lowest and the least refined probably of all the races of men about whom we possess accurate information4 ,these rude savages also treated with rigorous severity all breaches of that widely ramified network of prohibitions in which throughout the ,australian continent1 before it fell under ,english rule1 the two sexes lived immeshed4 ,the whole community of a tribe or nation was commonly subdivided into a number of minute bodies1 which we are accustomed to call classes or clans according to the principle on which they were variously constituted4 ,no man might marry a woman of his own class or clan1 and in most tribes his freedom of choice was still further limited by complex rules of marriage and descent which excluded him from seeking a wife in many more subdivisions of the tribe1 and sometimes compelled him to look for her only in one out of them all4 ,and the ordinary penalty for any violation of these rules was death4 ,the offender was lucky who escaped with his life and a body more or less riddled with spear wounds4 ,sidenote3 ,severe punishments inflicted for sexual offences among the aborigines of ,victoria4 ,thus one who knew the aborigines of ,victoria well in the old days1 before they were first contaminated and then destroyed by contact with ,european civilization1 tells us that 8no marriage or betrothal is permitted without the approval #gb of the chiefs of each party1 who first ascertain that no #8flesh' relationship exists1 and even then their permission must be rewarded by presents4 ,so strictly are the laws of marriage carried out1 that1 should any signs of affection and courtship be observed between those of #8one flesh1' the brothers1 or male relatives of the woman beat her severely2 the man is brought before the chief1 and accused of an intention to fall into the same flesh1 and is severely reprimanded by the tribe4 ,if he persists1 and runs away with the object of his affections1 they beat and #8cut his head all over'2 and if the woman was a consenting party she is half killed4 ,if she dies in consequence of her punishment1 her death is avenged by the man's receiving an additional beating from her relatives4 ,no other vengeance is taken1 as her punishment is legal4 ,a child born under such conditions is taken from the parents1 and handed over to the care of its grandmother1 who is compelled to rear it1 as no one else will adopt it4 ,it says much for the morality of the aborigines and their laws that illegitimacy is rare1 and is looked upon with such abhorrence that the mother is always severely beaten by her relatives1 and sometimes put to death and burned4 ,her child is occasionally killed and burned with her4 ,the father of the child is also punished with the greatest severity1 and occasionally killed4 ,should he survive the chastisement inflicted upon him1 he is always shunned by the woman's relatives1 and any efforts to conciliate them with gifts are spurned1 and his presents are put in the fire and burned4 ,since the advent of the ,europeans among them1 the aborigines have occasionally disregarded their admirable marriage laws1 and to this disregard they attribute the greater weakness and unhealthiness of their children40#gb4a ,sidenote3 ,severe punishments inflicted for sexual offences in the ,wakelbura tribe of ,queensland4 ,again1 in the ,wakelbura tribe of eastern ,queensland the law was extremely strict as to unlawful connexions or elopements between persons too nearly related to each other4 ,such persons might be1 for example1 those whom we call cousins both on the father's and the mother's side1 as well as those who belonged to a forbidden class4 ,if such a man #gc carried off a woman who had been betrothed to another1 he would be pursued not only by the male relations of the woman and of her betrothed husband1 but also by the men of his own tribal subdivision1 whom he had outraged by his breach of the marriage law2 and wherever they overtook him1 he would have to fight them all4 ,his own brothers would challenge him to fight by throwing boomerangs or other weapons at him2 and if he did not accept the challenge1 they would turn on the woman and cripple or kill her with their weapons1 unless she could escape into the bush4 ,nay1 the woman's own mother would cut and perhaps slay her with her own hands4 ,sooner or later the ravisher had to engage in single combat with the man he had injured4 ,both were fully armed with shield1 spear1 boomerang and knife4 ,when they had exhausted their missiles1 they closed on each other with their knives1 a dense ring of blacks generally forming round the combatants to see fair play4 ,in such a fight the man who had broken the tribal law always came off worst2 for even if he got the better of his adversary1 the other men and even his own brothers would attack him and probably gash him with their knives4 ,fatal stabs were sometimes given in these fights1 but more usually1 it would seem1 the onlookers interfered and wrested the weapons from the two combatants before they proceeded to extremities4 ,in any case the woman who had eloped was terribly mauled with knives1 and if she survived the ordeal was restored to the man whom she had deserted4#gc4a ,sidenote3 ,severe punishment inflicted for sexual offences among the aborigines of other parts of ,australia4 ,among the tribes in the central parts of ,north-,west ,queensland1 if a man eloped with a single woman whom he might lawfully marry1 but who for any reason was forbidden to him by the tribal council1 he had on returning to camp with his wife to run the gauntlet of the outraged community1 who hacked his buttocks and shoulders with knives1 beat his head and limbs with sticks and boomerangs1 and pricked the fleshy parts of his thighs with spears1 taking care1 however1 not to inflict fatal injuries1 lest they should incur blood revenge4 ,but if the woman with whom the man had eloped #gd was of a class into which he might not marry1 both the culprits were put to death1 the relations on both sides tacitly consenting to the execution4#gd4a ,in the ,yuin tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 if a man eloped with a woman of his own tribal subdivision1 all the men would pursue him2 and if he refused to give the woman up1 the sorcerer of the place would probably say to his men1 8,this man has done very wrong1 you must kill him02 whereupon somebody would thrust a spear into him1 his relatives not interfering lest the same fate should befall them4#gd4b ,the same punishment was inflicted for the same offence by the ,wotjobaluk tribe of ,north-,western ,victoria2 but their western neighbours1 the ,mukjarawaint tribe1 not content with killing the guilty man1 cut off the flesh off his thighs and upper arms1 roasted and ate it1 his own brother partaking of the cannibal meal4 ,as for the rest of the body1 they chopped it up small and left it lying on a log4 ,the same custom is said to have been observed by the ,jupagalk tribe4#gd4c ,among many tribes of ,western ,australia1 as well as of other parts of that continent1 persons who bear the same class-name may not marry4 ,any such marriage is regarded as incest and rigorously punished4 ,for example1 8the union of ,boorong and ,boorong is to the natives the union of brother and sister1 although there may be no real blood relationship between the pair1 and a union of that kind is looked upon with horror1 and the perpetrators very severely punished and separated1 and if the crime is repeated they are both killed40#gd4d ,on the other side of the continent the ,kamilaroi of ,new ,south ,wales similarly inflicted condign punishment on both the culprits who persisted in marrying each other contrary to the tribal law2 the male relations of the man killed him1 and the female relations of the woman killed her4 ,sidenote3 ,penalty of death inflicted for the crime of speaking to a mother-in-law4 ,the ,kamilaroi of the ,gwydir ,river went further2 they #ge killed any man who so much as spoke to or held any communication with his mother-in-law1#ge4a for one of the most stringent laws of savage etiquette is that which prohibits any direct social intercourse between a man and his wife's mother4 ,the law has been variously explained1#ge4b but a large body of evidence points to the conclusion that this custom of mutual avoidance is simply a precaution to prevent improper relations between the two4 ,hence a brief consideration of it is appropriate in this place2 for to all appearance the custom1 though it may be wholesome and beneficial in practice1 has originated purely in superstition4 ,but before giving my reasons for thinking so it may be well1 for the sake of those who are unfamiliar with savage etiquette1 to illustrate the practice itself by a few examples4#ge4c ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding a mother-in-law and other relations by marriage among the ,boloki of the ,congo4 ,speaking of the ,boloki1 a ,bantu tribe of the ,upper ,congo1 an experienced missionary1 the ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 writes as follows3 8,perhaps this will be the best place in which to make a few remarks on the mother-in-law4 ,she and her son-in-law may never look on each other's face4 ,i have often heard a man say1 #8,so-and-so1 your mother-in-law is coming1' and the person addressed would run into my house and hide himself until his wife's mother had gone by4 ,they can sit at a little distance from each other1 with their backs to one another1 and talk over affairs when necessary4 ,bokilo means mother-in-law1 daughter-in-law1 brother-in-law1 father-in-law1 sister of mother-in-law1 brother of father-in-law1 wife of wife's brother1 and in fact any relation-in-law4 ,bokilo1 the noun1 is derived from kila to forbid1 prohibit1 taboo1 and indicates that all bearing the relationship of #gf bokilo can have no intimate relationship with one another1 for it is regarded as incestuous2 and it is according to native ideas just as wrong for a daughter-in-law to speak or look at her husband's father1 as for the son-in-law to speak or look at his wife's mother4 ,some have told me that this was to guard against all possibility of cohabitation1 #8,for a person you never look at you never desire4' ,others have said1 #8,well1 don't you see1 my wife came from her womb4' ,i am strongly inclined to the opinion that the former is the real reason40#gf4a ,from this statement it appears that a man and his wife's mother are not the only persons who are bound to avoid each other in society2 the same rule of social avoidance is incumbent on a man and his son's wife1 and on many other persons of opposite sex who are connected with each other by marriage2 and in regard to all such persons it is held that any intimate relationship between them would be incestuous4 ,hence we see1 what is important to bear in mind1 that the rule of social avoidance incumbent on a man and his wife's mother is by no means solitary of its kind1 and cannot be considered apart from a large number of similar rules of avoidance observed between other persons4 ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding relations by marriage among the ,batamba of ,busoga4 ,the same large extension of the rule appears in the customs of the ,batamba1 a ,bantu tribe of ,busoga1 a country on the north side of the ,lake ,victoria ,nyanza4 ,a ,catholic missionary1 who has laboured among the ,batamba for nine years1 describes their practice in this matter as follows3-- 8,there is a very strange custom which may be considered here4 ,if a son marries or if a daughter does the same1 then if they are grown up1 from the day the son or daughter marries1 the mother1 father of both parties1 the brothers and sisters of both parties are not allowed to sleep under the same roof4 ,if a man marries1 then he builds a house for himself1 and should his parents live with him1 or his brothers and sisters1 then they must have a separate house near by4 ,they are not forbidden to go in and visit him or her1 but are not allowed to sleep there4 ,the reason is this4 ,they say that otherwise sickness is caused1 and this #gg is called endivade ya buko1 the sickness of relationship1 literally taken4 ,the sickness is called bujugumiro1 trembling1 from the verb kujugumira1 to shiver or tremble4 ,this cannot be got out of their heads1 and no amount of talking or arguing will convince them of the opposite4 ,i have attended many cases of this disease and ,i have not known one to recover4 8,again1 the father and mother of the bride and bridegroom1 the aunts and uncles of bride and bridegroom may no more shake hands or touch in any way the bride and bridegroom1 or else the same disease1 bujugumiro1 will follow4 ,of course much less will they commit themselves between each other for the fear of the same reason4 ,and it is never heard of that a brother and sister1 aunt and nephew1 niece and uncle have ever committed themselves seriously4 ,they are so afraid of the disease they say will follow1 that1 as a man here over seventy years of age tells me1 he has never in his whole life heard of such a misbehaviour4 ,the people say1 #8,jekiyinzika it is impossible for such a thing to happen4' ,and no doubt one is struck with the care they take4 ,the disease following does not come as a punishment from the gods1 but they say1 #8,endwada ejja yokka1 the illness comes by itself4'0#gg4a ,sidenote3 ,avoidance of blood relations as well as of connexions by marriage4 ,from the foregoing account it appears that among the ,batamba the rules of social avoidance are observed between blood-relations of opposite sexes1 such as brothers and sisters1 uncles and nieces1 aunts and nephews1 as well as between connexions by marriage4 ,this is a further extension of the rule of social avoidance which it is important to bear in mind4 ,we shall recur to it presently4 ,for our present purpose it deserves also to be noticed that breaches of the custom are believed to be punished by a disease of trembling or shivering1 which1 though it probably springs purely from the imagination of the culprits1 nevertheless appears to be always fatal4 ,further1 we learn that the mere apprehension of this disease acts as a most efficient check upon improper relations between persons who are connected with each other by blood or marriage4 ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding mother-in-law and own daughter among the ,akamba of ,british ,east ,africa4 ,among the ,akamba1 a ,bantu tribe of ,british ,east ,africa1 #gh 8if a man meets his mother-in-law in the road they both hide their faces and pass by in the bush on opposite sides of the path4 ,if a man did not observe this custom and at any time wanted to marry another wife1 it would prove a serious stigma1 and parents would have nothing to do with him4 ,moreover1 if a wife heard that her husband had stopped and spoken to her mother in the road1 she would leave him4 ,if a man has business he wishes to discuss with his mother-in-law1 he goes to her hut at night1 and she will talk to him from behind the partition in the hut4''' ,if a girl of the age of puberty meets her father in the road1 she hides as he passes1 nor can she ever go and sit near him in the village until the day comes when he tells her that it has been arranged for her to marry a certain man4 ,after marriage she does not avoid her father in any way40#gh4a ,thus among the ,akamba a man must avoid his own marriageable1 but unmarried1 daughter exactly as he avoids his wife's mother2 but the custom of avoidance ceases when his daughter marries4 ,this extension of the rule to a man's own daughter1 and its limitation to the time during which the girl is nubile but single1 are most significant1 and point plainly to a fear of improper relations between father and daughter4 ,to that point we shall return shortly4 ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding parents-in-law among various tribes of ,central and ,east ,africa4 ,among the ,bakerewe1 a ,bantu people inhabiting a large and fertile island in ,lake ,victoria ,nyanza1 8the wife1 whether the first 7omukuru7 or the last 7omwenga71 must always belong to a family other than that of the husband1 for marriages are not contracted between relations4 ,never in any case will the new household establish itself in the immediate neighbourhood of the wife's parents4 ,the reason is that the son-in-law 7omukwerima7 and his mother-in-law 7mazara71 according to their customs1 may not see each other nor look upon each other2 hence in order not to run the risk of breaking a rule to which everybody attaches grave importance1 they go as far away as possible40#gh4b ,among some tribes of ,eastern ,africa which formerly acknowledged the suzerainty of the sultan of ,zanzibar1 before a young couple had children #gi they might meet neither their father-in-law nor their mother-in-law4 ,to avoid them they must make a long roundabout4 ,but if they could not do that1 they must throw themselves on the ground and hide their faces till the father-in-law or mother-in-law had passed by4#gi4a ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding parents-in-law among the tribes of ,british ,central ,africa and ,northern ,rhodesia4 ,among the ,anyanja1 a ,bantu people of ,british ,central ,africa1 8a man used never to speak to his mother-in-law till after the birth of his first son4 ,neither a man nor his wife will eat in company of their mother or father-in-law until after birth of a child4 ,if a man sees his mother-in-law eat1 he has insulted her and is expected to pay damages4 ,if a man meets his mother-in-law coming along the road and does not recognise her1 she will fall down on the ground as a sign1 when he will run away4 ,in the same way a father-in-law will signal to his daughter-in-law2 the whole idea being that they are unworthy to be noticed till they have proved that they can beget children40#gi4b ,however1 if a wife should prove barren for three years1 the rules of avoidance between the young couple and their parents-in-law cease to be observed4#gi4c ,hence the custom of avoidance among these people is associated in some way with the wife's fertility4 ,so among the ,awemba1 a ,bantu tribe of ,northern ,rhodesia1 8if a young man sees his mother-in-law coming along the path1 he must retreat into the bush and make way for her1 or if she suddenly comes upon him he must keep his eyes fixed on the ground1 and only after a child is born may they converse together40#gi4d ,among the ,angoni1 another ,bantu tribe of ,british ,central ,africa1 it would be a gross breach of etiquette if a man were to enter his son-in-law's house2 he may come within ten paces of the door1 but no nearer4 ,a woman may not even approach her son-in-law's house1 and she is never allowed to speak to him4 ,should they meet accidentally on a path1 the son-in-law gives way and makes a circuit to avoid encountering his mother-in-law face to face4#gi4e ,here then we #hj see that a man avoids his son-in-law as well as his mother-in-law1 though not so strictly4 ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding mother-in-law and wife of wife's brother among the ,thonga of ,delagoa ,bay4 ,among the ,thonga1 a ,bantu tribe about ,delagoa ,bay1 when a man meets his mother-in-law or her sister on the road1 he steps out of the road into the forest on the right hand side and sits down4 ,she does the same4 ,then they salute each other in the usual way by clapping their hands4 ,after that they may talk to each other4 ,when a man is in a hut1 his mother-in-law dare not enter it1 but must sit down outside without seeing him4 ,so seated she may salute him1 8,good morning1 son of ,so-and-so40 ,but she would not dare to pronounce his name4 ,however1 when a man has been married many years1 his mother-in-law has less fear of him1 and will even enter the hut where he is and speak to him4 ,but among the ,thonga the woman whom a man is bound by custom to avoid most rigidly is not his wife's mother1 but the wife of his wife's brother4 ,if the two meet on a path1 they carefully avoid each other2 he will step out of the way and she will hurry on1 while her companions1 if she has any1 will stop and chat with him4 ,she will not enter the same boat with him1 if she can help it1 to cross a river4 ,she will not eat out of the same dish4 ,if he speaks to her1 it is with constraint and embarrassment4 ,he will not enter her hut1 but will crouch at the door and address her in a voice trembling with emotion4 ,should there be no one else to bring him food1 she will do it reluctantly1 watching his hut and putting the food inside the door when he is absent4 ,it is not that they dislike each other1 but that they feel a mutual1 a mysterious fear4#hj4a ,however1 among the ,thonga1 the rules of avoidance between connexions by marriage decrease in severity as time passes4 ,the strained relations between a man and his wife's mother in particular become easier4 ,he begins to call her 8,mother0 and she calls him 8,son40 ,this change even goes so far that in some cases the man may go and dwell in the village of his wife's parents1 especially if he has children and the children are grown up4#hj4b ,again1 among the ,ovambo1 a ,bantu #ha people of ,german ,south-,west ,africa1 a man may not look at his future mother-in-law while he talks with her1 but is bound to keep his eyes steadily fixed on the ground4 ,in some cases the avoidance is even more stringent2 if the two meet unexpectedly1 they separate at once4 ,but after the marriage has been celebrated1 the social intercourse between mother-in-law and son-in-law becomes easier on both sides4#ha4a ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding the mother-in-law among other than the ,bantu tribes of ,africa4 ,thus far our examples of ceremonial avoidance between mother-in-law and son-in-law have been drawn from ,bantu tribes4 ,but in ,africa the custom1 though apparently most prevalent and most strongly marked among peoples of the great ,bantu stock1 is not confined to them4 ,among the ,masai of ,british ,east ,africa1 8mothers-in-law and their sons-in-law must avoid one another as much as possible2 and if a son-in-law enters his mother-in-law's hut she must retire into the inner compartment and sit on the bed1 whilst he remains in the outer compartment2 they may then talk4 ,own brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law must also avoid one another1 though this rule does not apply to half-brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law40#ha4b ,so1 too1 among the ,bogos1 a tribe on the outskirts of ,abyssinia1 a man never sees the face of his mother-in-law and never pronounces her name2 the two take care not to meet4#ha4c ,among the ,donaglas a husband after marriage 8lives in his wife's house for a year1 without being allowed to see his mother-in-law1 with whom he enters into relations only on the birth of his first son40#ha4d ,in ,darfur1 when a youth has been betrothed to a girl1 however intimate he may have been with her parents before1 he ceases to see them until the ceremony has taken place1 and even avoids them in the street4 ,they1 on their part1 hide their faces1 if they happen to meet him unexpectedly4#ha4e #hb ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding relations by marriage in ,sumatra and ,new ,guinea4 ,to pass now from ,africa to other parts of the world1 among the ,looboos1 a primitive tribe in the tropical forests of ,sumatra1 custom forbids a woman to be in her father-in-law's company and a man to be in his mother-in-law's society4 ,for example1 if a man meets his daughter-in-law1 he should cross over to the other side of the road to let her pass as far as possible from him2 but if the way is too narrow1 he takes care in time to get out of it4 ,but no such reserve is prescribed between a father-in-law and his son-in-law1 or between a mother-in-law and her daughter-in-law4#hb4a ,among the ,bukaua1 a ,melanesian tribe of ,german ,new ,guinea1 the rules of avoidance between persons connected by marriage are very stringent2 they may not touch each other or mention each other's names4 ,but contrary to the usual practice the avoidance seems to be quite as strict between persons of the same sex as between males and females4 ,at least the writer who reports the custom illustrates it chiefly by the etiquette which is observed between a man and his daughter's husband4 ,when a man eats in presence of his son-in-law1 he veils his face2 but if nevertheless his son-in-law should see his open mouth1 the father-in-law is so ashamed that he runs away into the wood4 ,if he gives his son-in-law anything1 such as betel or tobacco1 he will never put it in his hand1 but pours it on a leaf1 and the son-in-law fetches it away4 ,if father-in-law and son-in-law both take part in a wild boar hunt1 the son-in-law will abstain from seizing or binding the boar1 lest he should chance to touch his father-in-law4 ,if1 however1 through any accident their hands or backs should come into contact1 the father-in-law is extremely horrified1 and a dog must be at once killed1 which he gives to his son-in-law for the purpose of wiping out the stain on his honour4 ,if the two should ever fall out about anything1 the son-in-law will leave the village and his wife1 and will stay away in some other place till his father-in-law1 for his daughter's sake1 calls him back4 ,a man in like manner will never touch his sister-in-law4#hb4b #hc ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding relations by marriage among the ,indian tribes of ,america4 ,among the low savages of the ,californian peninsula a man was not allowed for some time to look into the face of his mother-in-law or of his wife's other near relations2 when these women were present he had to step aside or hide himself4#hc4a ,among the ,indians of the ,isla del ,malhado in ,florida a father-in-law and mother-in-law might not enter the house of their son-in-law1 and he on his side might not appear before his father-in-law and his relations4 ,if they met by accident they had to go apart to the distance of a bowshot1 holding their heads down and their eyes turned to the earth4 ,but a woman was free to converse with the father and mother of her husband4#hc4b ,among the ,indians of ,yucatan1 if a betrothed man saw his future father-in-law or mother-in-law at a distance1 he turned away as quickly as possible1 believing that a meeting with them would prevent him from begetting children4#hc4c ,among the ,arawaks of ,british ,guiana a man may never see the face of his wife's mother4 ,if she is in the house with him1 they must be separated by a screen or partition-wall2 if she travels with him in a canoe1 she steps in first1 in order that she may turn her back to him4#hc4d ,among the ,caribs 8the women never quit their father's house1 and in that they have an advantage over their husbands in as much as they may talk to all sorts of people1 whereas the husband dare not converse with his wife's relations1 unless he is dispensed from this observance either by their tender age or by their intoxication4 ,they shun meeting them and make great circuits for that purpose4 ,if they are surprised in a place where they cannot help meeting1 the person addressed turns his face another way so as not to be obliged to see the person1 whose voice he is compelled to hear40#hc4e #hd ,among the ,araucanian ,indians of ,chili a man's mother-in-law refuses to speak to or even to look at him during the marriage festivity1 and 8the point of honour is1 in some instances1 carried so far1 that for years after the marriage the mother never addresses her son-in-law face to face2 though with her back turned1 or with the interposition of a fence or a partition1 she will converse with him freely40#hd4a ,sidenote3 ,the custom of avoiding relations by marriage cannot be separated from the similar custom of avoiding relations by blood2 both are probably precautions to prevent improper relations between the sexes4 ,it would be easy to multiply examples of similar customs of avoidance between persons closely connected by marriage1 but the foregoing may serve as specimens4 ,now in order to determine the meaning of such customs it is very important to observe that similar customs of avoidance are practised in some tribes not merely between persons connected with each other by marriage1 but also between the nearest blood relations of different sexes1 namely1 between parents and children and between brothers and sisters2#hd4b and the customs are so alike that it seems difficult or impossible to separate them and to offer one explanation of the avoidance of connexions by marriage and another different explanation of the avoidance of blood relations4 ,yet this is what is done by some who attempt to explain the customs of avoidance2 or rather they confine their attention wholly to connexions by marriage1 or even to mothers-in-law alone1 while they completely ignore blood relations1 although in point of fact it is the avoidance of blood relations which seems to furnish the key to the problem of such avoidances in general4 ,the true explanation of all such customs of avoidance appears to be1 as ,i have already indicated1 that they are precautions designed to remove the temptation to sexual intercourse between persons whose marriage union is for any reason repugnant to the moral sense of the community4 ,this explanation1 while it has been rejected by theorists at home1 #he has been adopted by some of the best observers of savage life1 whose opinion is entitled to carry the greatest weight4#he4a ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of mother and son1 of father and daughter1 and of brother and sister among the ,battas4 ,that a fear of improper intimacy even between the nearest blood relations is not baseless among races of a lower culture seems proved by the testimony of a ,dutch missionary in regard to the ,battas or ,bataks of ,sumatra1 a people who have attained to a fairly high degree of barbaric civilization4 ,the ,battas 8observe certain rules of avoidance in regard to near relations by blood or marriage2 and we are informed that such avoidance springs not from the strictness but from the looseness of their moral practice4 ,a ,batta1 it is said1 assumes that a solitary meeting of a man with a woman leads to an improper intimacy between them4 ,but at the same time he believes that incest or the sexual intercourse of near relations excites the anger of the gods and entails calamities of all sorts4 ,hence near relations are obliged to avoid each other lest they should succumb to temptation4 ,a ,batta1 for example1 would think it shocking were a brother to escort his sister to an evening party4 ,even in the presence of others a ,batta brother and sister feel embarrassed4 ,if one of them comes into the house1 the other will go away4 ,further1 a man may never be alone in the house with his daughter1 nor a mother with her son4 ,a man may never speak to his mother-in-law nor a woman to her father-in-law4 ,the ,dutch missionary who reports these customs adds that he is sorry to say that from what he knows of the ,battas he believes the maintenance of most of these rules to be very necessary4 ,for the same reason1 he tells us1 as soon as ,batta lads have reached the age of puberty they are no longer allowed to sleep in the family house but are sent away to pass the night in a separate building 7djambon72 and similarly as soon as a man loses his wife by death he is excluded from the house40#he4b #hf ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of mother and son and of brother and sister among the ,melanesians4 ,in like manner among the ,melanesians of the ,banks' ,islands and the ,new ,hebrides a man must not only avoid his mother-in-law2 from the time when he reaches or approaches puberty and has begun to wear clothes instead of running about naked1 he must avoid his mother and sisters1 and he may no longer live in the same house with them2 he takes up his quarters in the clubhouse of the unmarried males1 where he now regularly eats and sleeps4 ,he may go to his father's house to ask for food1 but if his sister is within he must go away before he eats2 if she is not there1 he may sit down near the door and eat4 ,if by chance brother and sister meet in the path1 she runs away or hides4 ,if a boy1 walking on the sands1 perceives footprints which he knows to be those of his sister1 he will not follow them1 nor will she follow his4 ,this mutual avoidance lasts through life4 ,not only must he avoid the persons of his sisters1 but he may not pronounce their names or even use a common word which happens to form part of any one of their names4 ,in like manner his sisters eschew the use of his name and of all words which form part of it4 ,strict1 too1 is a boy's reserve towards his mother from the time when he begins to wear clothes1 and the reserve increases as he grows to manhood4 ,it is greater on her side than on his4 ,he may go to the house and ask for food and his mother may bring it out for him1 but she will not give it to him2 she puts it down for him to take4 ,if she calls to him to come1 she speaks to him in the plural1 in a more distant manner2 8,come ye10 she says1 not 8,come thou40 ,if they talk together she sits at a little distance and turns away1 for she is shy of her grown-up son4 8,the meaning of all this10 as ,dr4 ,codrington observes1 8is obvious40#hf4a ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of a man and his mother-in-law among the ,melanesians4 ,when a ,melanesian man of the ,banks' ,islands marries1 he is bound in like manner to avoid his mother-in-law4 8,the rules of avoidance are very strict and minute4 ,as regards the avoidance of the person1 a man will not come near his wife's mother2 the avoidance is mutual2 if the two chance to meet in a path1 the woman will step out of it and stand with her back turned till he has gone by1 or perhaps if it be more #hg convenient he will move out of the way4 ,at ,vanua ,lava1 in ,port ,patteson1 a man would not follow his mother-in-law along the beach1 nor she him1 until the tide had washed out the footsteps of the first traveller from the sand4 ,at the same time a man and his mother-in-law will talk at a distance40#hg4a ,sidenote3 ,it is significant that mutual avoidance between blood relations of opposite sexes begins at or near puberty4 ,it seems obvious that these ,melanesian customs of avoidance are the same1 and must be explained in the same way whether the woman whom a man shuns is his wife's mother or his own mother or his sister4 ,now it is highly significant that just as among the ,akamba of ,east ,africa the mutual avoidance of father and daughter only begins when the girl has reached puberty1 so among the ,melanesians the mutual avoidance of a boy on the one side and of his mother and sisters on the other only begins when the boy has reached or approached puberty4 ,thus in both peoples the avoidance between the nearest blood relations only commences at the dangerous age when sexual connexion on both sides begins to be possible4 ,it seems difficult1 therefore1 to evade the conclusion that the mutual avoidance is adopted for no other reason than to diminish as far as possible the chances of sexual unions which public opinion condemns as incestuous4 ,but if that is the reason why a young ,melanesian boy1 on the verge of puberty1 avoids his own mother and sisters1 it is natural and almost necessary to infer that it is the same reason which leads him1 as a full-grown and married man1 to eschew the company of his wife's mother4 ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of mother and son1 of father and daughter1 and of brother and sister in the ,caroline ,islands4 ,similar customs of avoidance between mothers and sons1 between fathers and daughters1 and between brothers and sisters are observed by the natives of the ,caroline ,islands1 and the writer who records them assigns the fear of incest as the motive for their observance4 8,the prohibition of marriage10 he says1 8and of sexual intercourse between kinsfolk of the same tribe is regarded by the ,central ,caroline natives as a divine ordinance2 its breach is therefore1 in their opinion1 punished by the higher powers with sickness or death4 ,the law influences in a characteristic way the whole social life of the islanders1 for efforts #hh are made to keep members of families of different sexes apart from each other even in their youth4 ,unmarried men and boys1 from the time when they begin to speak1 may therefore not remain by night in the huts1 but must sleep in the fel1 the assembly-house4 ,in the evening their meal 7kot7 is brought thither to them by their mothers or sisters4 ,only when a son is sick may his mother receive him in the hut and tend him there4 ,on the other hand entrance to the assembly-house 7fel7 is forbidden to women and girls except on the occasion of the pwarik festival2 whereas female members of other tribes are free to visit it1 although1 so far as ,i could observe1 they seldom make use of the permission4 ,unmarried girls sleep in the huts with their parents4 8,these restrictions1 which custom and tradition have instituted within the family1 find expression also in the behaviour of the members of families toward each other4 ,the following persons1 namely1 have to be treated with respect--the daughters by their father1 the sons by their mother1 the brothers by their sisters4 ,in presence of such relations1 as in the presence of a chief1 you may not stand1 but must sit down2 if you are obliged on narrow paths to pass by one of them you must first obtain permission and then do it in a stooping or creeping posture4 ,you allow them everywhere to go in front2 you also avoid to drink out of the vessel which they have just used2 you do not touch them1 but keep always at a certain distance from them2 the head especially is deemed sacred40#hh4a ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of male and female cousins in some tribes4 ,in all these cases the custom of mutual avoidance is observed by persons of opposite sex who1 though physically capable of sexual union1 are forbidden by tradition and public opinion to have any such commerce with each other4 ,thus far the blood relations whom a man is forbidden to marry and compelled to avoid1 are his own mother1 his own daughter1 and his own sisters4 ,but to this list some people add a man's female cousins or at least certain of them2 for many races draw a sharp line of distinction between cousins according #hi as they are children of two brothers or of two sisters or of a brother and a sister1 and while they permit or even prefer marriage with certain cousins1 they absolutely forbid marriage with certain others4 ,now1 it is highly significant that some tribes which forbid a man to marry certain of his cousins also compel him to adopt towards them the same attitude of social reserve which in the same or other tribes a man is obliged to observe towards his wife's mother1 his own mother1 and his own sisters1 all of whom in like manner he is forbidden to marry4 ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of male and female cousins in ,new ,ireland4 ,thus among the tribes in the central part of ,new ,ireland 7,new ,mecklenburg7 a male and a female cousin1 the children of a brother and a sister respectively1 are most strictly forbidden by custom to marry each other2 indeed this prohibition is described as the most stringent of all2 the usual saying in regard to such relations is1 8,the cousin is holy0 7i tbu ra kkup74 ,now1 in these tribes a man is not merely forbidden to marry his female cousin1 the daughter of his father's sister or of his mother's brother2 he must also avoid her socially1 just as in other tribes a man must avoid his wife's mother1 his own mother1 his own daughter1 and his own sisters4 ,the cousins may not approach each other1 they may not shake hands or even touch each other1 they may not give each other presents1 they may not mention each other's names2 but they are allowed to speak to each other at a distance of some paces4 ,these rules of avoidance1 these social barriers erected between cousins1 the children of a brother and a sister respectively1 are interpreted most naturally and simply as precautions intended to obviate the danger of a criminal intercourse between persons whose sexual union would be regarded by public opinion with deep displeasure4 ,indeed the ,catholic missionary1 to whom we are indebted for the information1 assumes this interpretation of the rules as if it were too obvious to call for serious discussion4 ,he says that all the customs of avoidance 8are observed as outward symbols of this prohibition of marriage02 and he adds that 8were the outward sign of the prohibition of marriage1 to which the natives cleave with genuine obstinacy1 abolished or even weakened1 there would be an immediate danger of the natives contracting such #ij marriages40#ij4a ,it seems difficult for a rational man to draw any other inference4 ,if any confirmation were needed1 it would be furnished by the fact that among these tribes of ,new ,ireland brothers and sisters are obliged to observe precisely the same rules of mutual avoidance1 and that incest between brother and sister is a crime which is punished with hanging2 they may not come near each other1 they may not shake hands1 they may not touch each other1 they may not give each other presents2 but they are allowed to speak to each other at a distance of some paces4 ,and the penalty for incest with a daughter is also death by hanging4#ij4b ,sidenote3 ,mutual avoidance of certain male and female cousins among the ,baganda2 marriage or sexual intercourse forbidden between these cousins under pain of death4 ,amongst the ,baganda of ,central ,africa in like manner a man was forbidden under pain of death to marry or have sexual intercourse with his cousin1 the daughter either of his father's sister or of his mother's brother2 and such cousins might not approach each other1 nor hand each other anything1 nor enter the same house1 nor eat out of the same dish4 ,were cousins to break these rules of social avoidance1 in other words1 if they were to approach each other or hand each other anything1 it was believed that they would fall ill1 that their hands would tremble1 and that they would be unfit for any work4#ij4c ,here1 again1 the prohibition of social intercourse was in all probability merely a precaution against sexual intercourse1 for which the penalty was death4 ,and the same may be said of the similar custom of avoidance which among these same ,baganda a man had to observe towards his wife's mother4 8,no man might see his mother-in-law1 or speak face to face with her2 she covered her face1 if she passed her son-in-law1 and he gave her the path and made a detour1 if he saw her coming4 ,if she was in the house1 he might not enter1 but he was allowed to speak to her from a distance4 ,this was said to be because he had seen her daughter's nakedness4 ,if a son-in-law accidentally #ia saw his mother-in-law's breasts1 he sent her a barkcloth in compensation1 to cover herself1 lest some illness1 such as tremor1 should come upon him4 ,the punishment for incest was death2 no member of a clan would shield a person guilty thereof2 the offender was disowned by the clan1 tried by the chief of the district1 and put to death40#ia4a ,sidenote3 ,marriage between certain cousins forbidden among some ,south ,african tribes but allowed among others4 ,the prohibition of marriage with certain cousins appears to be widespread among ,african peoples of the ,bantu stock4 ,thus in regard to the ,bantus of ,south ,africa we read that 8every man of a coast tribe regarded himself as the protector of those females whom we would call his cousins1 second cousins1 third cousins1 and so forth1 on the father's side1 while some had a similar feeling towards the same relatives on the mother's side as well1 and classified them all as sisters4 ,immorality with one of them would have been considered incestuous1 something horrible1 something unutterably disgraceful4 ,of old it was punished by the death of the male1 and even now a heavy fine is inflicted upon him1 while the guilt of the female must be atoned by a sacrifice performed with due ceremony by the tribal priest1 or it is believed a curse will rest upon her and her issue4''' ,in contrast to this prohibition the native of the interior almost as a rule married the daughter of his father's brother1 in order1 as he said1 to keep property from being lost to his family4 ,this custom more than anything else created a disgust and contempt for them by the people of the coast1 who term such intermarriages the union of dogs1 and attribute to them the insanity and idiocy which in recent times has become prevalent among the inland tribes40#ia4b #ib ,sidenote3 ,marriage between cousins allowed in some ,african tribes on condition that an expiatory sacrifice is offered4 ,among the ,thonga1 a ,bantu tribe about ,delagoa ,bay1 marriages between cousins are as a rule prohibited1 and it is believed that such unions are unfruitful4 ,however1 custom permits cousins to marry each other on condition that they perform an expiatory ceremony which is supposed to avert the curse of barrenness from the wife4 ,a goat is sacrificed1 and the couple are anointed with the green liquid extracted from the half-digested grass in the animal's stomach4 ,then a hole is cut in the goat's skin and through this hole the heads of the cousins are inserted4 ,the goat's liver is then handed to them1 quite raw1 through the hole in the skin1 and they must tear it out with their teeth without using a knife4 ,having torn it out1 they eat it4 ,the word for liver 7shibindji7 also means 8patience10 8determination40 ,so they say to the couple1 8,you have acted with strong determination4 ,eat the liver now6 ,eat it in the full light of the day1 not in the dark6 ,it will be an offering to the gods40 ,then the family priest prays1 saying3 8,you1 our gods1 ,so-and-so1 look6 ,we have done it in the daylight4 ,it has not been done by stealth4 ,bless them1 give them children60 ,when he has done praying1 the assistants take all the half-digested grass from the goat's stomach and place it on the wife's head1 saying1 8,go and bear children60#ib4a ,among the ,wagogo of ,german ,east ,africa marriage is forbidden between cousins who are the children of two brothers or of two sisters1 but is permitted between cousins who are the children of a brother and sister respectively4 ,however1 in this case it is usual for the wife's father to kill a sheep and put on a leather armlet1 made presumably from the sheep's skin2 otherwise it is supposed that the marriage would be unfruitful4#ib4b ,thus the ,wagogo1 like the ,thonga1 imagine that the marriage of cousins is doomed to infertility unless an expiatory sacrifice is offered and a peculiar use made of the victim's skin4 ,again1 the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa forbid the marriage of cousins and second cousins1 the children and grandchildren of brothers and sisters4 ,if such persons #ic married1 they would commit a grave sin1 and all their children would surely die2 for the curse or ceremonial pollution 7thahu7 incurred by such a crime cannot be purged away4 ,nevertheless it sometimes happens that a man unwittingly marries a first or second cousin2 for instance1 if a part of the family moves away to another district1 it may come about that a man makes the acquaintance of a girl and marries her before he discovers the relationship4 ,in such a case1 where the sin has been committed unknowingly1 the curse can be averted by the performance of an expiatory rite4 ,the elders take a sheep and place it on the woman's shoulders2 there it is killed and the intestines taken out4 ,then the elders solemnly sever the intestines with a sharp splinter of wood taken from a bush of a certain sort 7mukeo71 8and they announce that they are cutting the clan kutinyarurira1 by which they mean that they are severing the bond of relationship which exists between the pair4 ,a medicine man then comes and purifies the couple40#ic4a ,in all these cases we may assume with a fair degree of probability that the old prohibition of marriage between cousins is breaking down1 and that the expiatory sacrifice offered when such a marriage does take place is merely a salve to the uneasy conscience of those who commit or connive at a breach of the ancient taboo4 ,sidenote3 ,the mutual avoidance of male and female cousins is probably a precaution against a criminal intimacy between them4 ,thus the prohibition of marriage between cousins1 and the rules of ceremonial avoidance observed in some tribes between persons who stand in that relationship to each other1 appear both to spring from a belief1 right or wrong1 in the injurious effects of such unions and from a desire to avoid them4 ,the mutual avoidance of the cousins is merely a precaution to prevent a closer and more criminal intimacy between them4 ,if that is so1 it furnishes a confirmation of the view that all the customs of ceremonial avoidance between blood relations or connexions by marriage of opposite sexes are based simply on a fear of incest4 ,sidenote3 ,the mutual avoidance between a man and his wife's relations seems to be partly grounded on a fear of rendering the wife infertile4 ,the theory is perhaps confirmed by the observation that in some tribes the avoidance between a man and his #id wife's mother lasts only until he has had a child by his wife2#id4a while in others1 though avoidance continues longer1 it gradually wears away with time as the man and woman advance in years1#id4b and in others1 again1 it is observed only between a man and his future mother-in-law1 and comes to an end with his marriage4#id4c ,these customs suggest that in the minds of the people who practise them there is a close connexion between the avoidance of the wife's relations and the dread of an infertile marriage4 ,the ,indians of ,yucatan1 as we saw1 believe that if a betrothed man were to meet his future mother-in-law or father-in-law1 he would thereby lose the power of begetting children4 ,such a fear seems to be only an extension by false analogy of that belief in the disastrous consequences of illicit sexual relations which we dealt with in an earlier part of this chapter1#id4d and of which we shall have more to say presently4#id4e ,from thinking1 rightly or wrongly1 that sexual intercourse between certain persons is fraught with serious dangers1 the savage jumped to the conclusion that social intercourse between them may be also perilous by virtue of a sort of physical infection acting through simple contact or even at a distance2 or if1 in many cases1 he did not go so far as to suppose that for a man merely to see or touch his mother-in-law sufficed to blast the fertility of his wife's womb1 yet he may have thought1 with much better reason1 that intimate social converse between him and her might easily lead to something worse1 and that to guard against such a possibility it was best to raise a strong barrier of etiquette between them4 ,it is not1 of course1 to be supposed that these rules of avoidance were the result of deliberate legislation2 rather they were the spontaneous and gradual growth of feelings and thoughts of which the savages themselves perhaps had no clear consciousness4 ,in what precedes ,i have merely attempted to sum up in language intelligible to civilized man the outcome of a long course of moral and social evolution4 ,these considerations perhaps obviate to some extent the only serious difficulty which lies in the way of the theory #ie here advocated4 ,sidenote3 ,the mutual avoidance between persons of the same sex was probably an extension by false analogy of the mutual avoidance between persons of different sexes4 ,if the custom of avoidance was adopted in order to guard against the danger of incest1 how comes it that the custom is often observed towards persons of the same sex1 for example1 by a man towards his father-in-law as well as towards his mother-in-law8 ,the difficulty is undoubtedly serious3 the only way of meeting it that ,i can suggest is the one ,i have already indicated4 ,we may suppose that the deeply rooted beliefs of the savage in the fatal effects of marriage between certain classes of persons1 whether relations by blood or connexions by marriage1 gradually spread in his mind so as to embrace the relations between men and men as well as between men and women2 till he had worked himself into the conviction that to see or touch his father-in-law1 for example1 was nearly or quite as dangerous as to touch or have improper relations with his mother-in-law4 ,it is no doubt easy for us to detect the flaw in this process of reasoning2 but we should beware of casting stones at the illogical savage1 for it is possible or even probable that many of our own cherished convictions are no better founded4 ,sidenote3 ,the custom of mutual avoidance between near relations has probably had the effect of checking the practice of inbreeding4 ,viewed from this standpoint the customs of ceremonial avoidance among savages assume a serious aspect very different from the appearance of arbitrariness and absurdity which they are apt to present to the civilized observer who does not look below the surface of savage society4 ,so far as these customs have helped1 as they probably have done1 to suppress the tendency to inbreeding1 that is1 to the marriage of near relations1 we must conclude that their effect has been salutary1 if1 as many eminent biologists hold1 long-continued inbreeding is injurious to the stock1 whether animal or vegetable1 by rendering it in the end infertile4#ie4a ,however1 men of science are as yet by no means agreed as to the results of consanguineous marriages1 and a living authority on the subject has recently closed a review of the evidence as follows3 8,when we take into account such evidence as there is from animals and plants1 and such studies as those of ,huth1#ie4b and #if the instances and counter-instances of communities with a high degree of consanguinity1 we are led to the conclusion that the prejudices and laws of many peoples against the marriage of near kin rest on a basis not so much biological as social40#if4a ,whatever may be the ultimate verdict of science on this disputed question1 it will not affect the result of the present enquiry1 which merely affirms the deep and far-reaching influence which in the long course of human history superstition has exercised on morality4 ,whether the influence has on the whole been for good or evil does not concern us4 ,it suffices for our purpose to shew that superstition has been a crutch to morality1 whether to support it in the fair way of virtue or to precipitate it into the miry pit of vice4 ,to return to the point from which we wandered into this digression1 we must leave in suspense the question whether the ,australian savages were wise or foolish who forbade a man under pain of death to speak to his mother-in-law4 ,sidenote3 ,other examples of the severe punishment of sexual crime4 ,i will conclude this part of my subject with a few more instances of the extreme severity with which certain races have visited what they deemed improper connexions between the sexes4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,indians of ,brazil4 ,among the ,indians who inhabited the coast of ,brazil near ,rio de ,janeiro about the middle of the sixteenth century1 a married woman who gave birth to an illegitimate child was either killed or abandoned to the caprice of the young men who could not afford to keep a wife4 ,her child was buried alive2 for they said that were he to grow up he would only serve to perpetuate his mother's disgrace2 he would not be allowed to go to war with the rest for fear of the misfortunes and disasters he might draw down upon them1 and no one would eat any food1 whether venison1 fish1 or what not1 which the miserable outcast had touched4#if4b ,sidenote3 ,the natives of ,ruanda4 ,in ,ruanda1 a district of ,central ,africa1 down to recent years any unmarried woman who was got with child used to be put to death with her baby1 whether born or unborn4 ,a spot at the mouth of the ,akanyaru river was the place of execution1 #ig where the guilty women and their innocent offspring were hurled into the water4 ,as usual1 this ,puritanical strictness of morality has been relaxed under ,european influence2 illegitimate children are still killed1 but their mothers escape with the fine of a cow4#ig4a ,sidenote3 ,the ,saxons4 ,among the ,saxons down to the days of ,st4 ,boniface the adulteress or the maiden who had dishonoured her father's house was compelled to hang herself1 was burned1 and her paramour hung over the blazing pile2 or she was scourged or cut to pieces with knives by all the women of the village till she was dead4#ig4b ,sidenote3 ,the ,southern ,slavs4 ,among the ,slav peoples of the ,balkan peninsula women convicted of immoral conduct used to be stoned to death4 ,about the year #aggj a young betrothed couple were thus executed near ,cattaro in ,dalmatia1 because the girl was found to be with child4 ,the youth offered to marry her1 and the priest begged that the sentence of death might be commuted to perpetual banishment2 but the people declared that they would not have a bastard born among them2 and the two fathers of the luckless couple threw the first stones at them4 ,when ,miss ,m4 ,edith ,durham related this case to some ,montenegrin peasantry1 they all said that in the old days stoning was the proper punishment for unchaste women2 the male paramours were shot by the relations of the girls whom they had seduced4 ,when 8that modern ,messalina10 ,queen ,draga of ,servia1 was murdered1 a decent peasant woman remarked that 8she ought to be under the cursed stone heap0 7pod prokletu gomilu74 ,the country-folk of ,montenegro1 who heard the news of the murder from ,miss ,durham1 8looked on it as a cleansing--a casting out of abominations--and genuinely believed that ,europe would commend the deed1 and that the removal of this sinful woman would bring prosperity to the land40#ig4c ,even down to the second half of the #ih nineteenth century in cases of seduction among the ,southern ,slavs the people proposed to stone both the culprits to death4#ih4a ,this happened1 for example1 in ,herzegovina in the year #ahei1 when a young man named ,milutin seduced or 7to be more exact7 was seduced by three unmarried girls and got them all with child4 ,the people sat in judgment upon the sinners1 and1 though an elder proposed to stone them all1 the court passed a milder sentence4 ,the young man was to marry one of the girls1 to rear the infants of the other two as his legitimate children1 and next time there was a fight with the ,turks he was to prove his manhood by rushing unarmed upon the enemy and wresting their weapons from them1 alive or dead4 ,the sentence was fulfilled to the letter1 though many years passed before the culprit could carry out the last part of it4 ,however1 his time came in #ahge1 when ,herzegovina revolted against the ,turks4 ,then ,milutin ran unarmed upon a regiment of the enemy and found among the ,turkish bayonets a hero's death4#ih4b ,even now the ,old ,catholics among the ,south ,slavs believe that a village in which a seducer is not compelled to marry his victim will be punished with hail and excessive rain4 ,for this article of faith1 however1 they are ridiculed by their enlightened ,catholic neighbours1 who hold the far more probable view that thunder and lightning are caused by the village priest to revenge himself for unreasonable delays in the payment of his salary4 ,a heavy hail-storm has been known to prove almost fatal to the local incumbent1 who was beaten within an inch of his life by his enraged parishioners4#ih4c ,sidenote3 ,inference from the severe punishments inflicted for sexual offences4 ,it is difficult to believe that in these and similar cases the community would inflict such severe punishment for sexual offences if it did not believe that its own safety1 and not merely the interest of a few individuals1 was imperilled thereby4 #ii ,sidenote3 ,why should illicit relations between the sexes be thought to disturb the balance of nature8 ,if now we ask why illicit relations between the sexes should be supposed to disturb the balance of nature and particularly to blast the fruits of the earth1 a partial answer may be conjecturally suggested4 ,it is not enough to say that such relations are displeasing to the gods1 who punish indiscriminately the whole community for the sins of a few4 ,for we must always bear in mind that the gods are creations of man's fancy2 he fashions them in human likeness1 and endows them with tastes and opinions which are merely vast cloudy projections of his own4 ,to affirm1 therefore1 that something is a sin because the gods will it so1 is only to push the enquiry one stage farther back and to raise the further question1 ,why are the gods supposed to dislike and punish these particular acts8 ,sidenote3 ,the reason why the gods of savages are supposed to punish sexual crimes so severely may perhaps be found in a mistaken belief that irregularities of the human sexes prevent the reproduction of edible animals and plants and thereby strike a fatal blow at the food supply4 ,in the case with which we are here concerned1 the reason why so many savage gods prohibit adultery1 fornication1 and incest under pain of their severe displeasure may perhaps be found in the analogy which many savage men trace between the reproduction of the human species and the reproduction of animals and plants4 ,the analogy is not purely fanciful1 on the contrary it is real and vital2 but primitive peoples have given it a false extension in a vain attempt to apply it practically to increasing the food supply4 ,they have imagined1 in fact1 that by performing or abstaining from certain sexual acts they thereby directly promoted the reproduction of animals and the multiplication of plants4#ii4a ,all such acts and abstinences1 it is obvious1 are purely superstitious and wholly fail to effect the desired #ajj result4 ,they are not religious but magical2 that is1 they compass their end1 not by an appeal to the gods1 but by manipulating natural forces in accordance with certain false ideas of physical causation4 ,in the present case the principle on which savages seek to propagate animals and plants is that of magical sympathy or imitation3 they fancy that they assist the reproductive process in nature by mimicking or performing it among themselves4 ,now in the evolution of society such efforts to control the course of nature directly by means of magical rites appear to have preceded the efforts to control it indirectly by appealing to the vanity and cupidity1 the good-nature and pity of the gods2 in short1 magic seems to be older than religion4#ajj4a ,in most races1 it is true1 the epoch of unadulterated magic1 of magic untinged by religion1 belongs to such a remote past that its existence1 like that of our ape-like ancestors1 can be a matter of inference only2 almost everywhere in history and the world we find magic and religion side by side1 at one time allies1 at another enemies1 now playing into each other's hands1 now cursing1 objurgating1 and vainly attempting to exterminate one another4 ,on the whole the lower intelligences cling closely1 though secretly1 to magic1 while the higher intelligences have discerned the vanity of its pretensions and turned to religion instead4 ,the result has been that beliefs and rites which were purely magical in origin often contract in course of time a religious character2 they are modified in accordance with the advance of thought1 they are translated into terms of gods and spirits1 whether good and beneficent1 or evil and malignant4 ,we may surmise1 though we cannot prove1 that a change of this sort has come over the minds of many races with regard to sexual morality4 ,at some former time1 perhaps1 straining a real analogy too far1 they believed that those relations of the human sexes which for any reason they regarded as right and natural had a tendency to promote sympathetically the propagation of animals and plants and thereby to ensure a supply of food for the community2 while on the contrary they may have imagined that those relations of the human sexes which for any reason #aja they deemed wrong and unnatural had a tendency to thwart and impede the propagation of animals and plants and thereby to diminish the common supply of food4 ,sidenote3 ,such a belief would account both for the horror with which many savages regard such crimes1 and for the severity with which they punish them4 ,such a belief1 it is obvious1 would furnish a sufficient motive for the strict prohibition of what were deemed improper relations between men and women2 and it would explain the deep horror and detestation with which sexual irregularities are viewed by many1 though certainly not by all1 savage tribes4 ,for if improper relations between the human sexes prevent animals and plants from multiplying1 they strike a fatal blow at the existence of the tribe by cutting off its supply of food at the roots4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that wherever such superstitions have prevailed the whole community1 believing its very existence to be put in jeopardy by sexual immorality1 should turn savagely on the culprits1 and beat1 burn1 drown or otherwise exterminate them in order to rid itself of so dangerous a pollution4 ,and when with the advance of knowledge men began to perceive the mistake they had made in imagining that the commerce of the human sexes could affect the propagation of animals and plants1 they would still through long habit be so inured to the idea of the wickedness of certain sexual relations that they could not dismiss it from their minds1 even when they discerned the fallacious nature of the reasoning by which they had arrived at it4 ,the old practice would therefore stand1 though the old theory had fallen3 the old rules of sexual morality would continue to be observed1 but if they were to retain the respect of the community1 it was necessary to place them on a new theoretical basis4 ,that basis1 in accordance with the general advance of thought1 was supplied by religion4 ,sexual relations which had once been condemned as wrong and unnatural because they were supposed to thwart the natural multiplication of animals and plants and thereby to diminish the food supply1 would now be condemned because it was imagined that they were displeasing to gods or spirits1 those stalking-horses which savage man rigs out in the cast-off clothes of his still more savage ancestors4 ,the moral practice would therefore remain the same1 though its theoretical basis had been shifted from magic to religion4 ,in this or some such way as this #ajb we may conjecture that the ,karens1 ,dyaks1 and other savages reached those curious conceptions of sexual immorality and its consequences which we have been considering4 ,but from the nature of the case the development of moral theory which ,i have sketched is purely hypothetical and hardly admits of verification4 ,sidenote3 ,but the reason why savages came to regard certain sexual relations as irregular and immoral remains obscure4 ,however1 even if we assume for a moment that the savages in question reached their present view of sexual immorality in the way ,i have surmised1 there still remains the question1 ,how did they originally come to regard certain relations of the sexes as immoral8 ,for clearly the notion that such immorality interferes with the course of nature must have been secondary and derivative3 people must on independent grounds have concluded that certain relations between men and women were wrong and injurious before they extended the conclusion by false analogy to nature4 ,the question brings us face to face with the deepest and darkest problem in the history of society1 the problem of the origin of the laws which still regulate marriage and the relations of the sexes among civilized nations2 for broadly speaking the fundamental laws which we recognize in these matters are recognized also by savages1 with this difference1 that among many savages the sexual prohibitions are far more numerous1 the horror excited by breaches of them far deeper1 and the punishment inflicted on the offenders far sterner than with us4 ,the problem has often been attacked1 but never solved4 ,perhaps it is destined1 like so many riddles of that ,sphinx which we call nature1 to remain for ever insoluble4 ,at all events this is not the place to broach so intricate and profound a discussion4 ,i return to my immediate subject4 ,sidenote3 ,sexual immorality is thought by many savages to injure the delinquents themselves1 their offspring1 and their innocent spouses4 ,in the opinion of many savages the effect of sexual immorality is not merely to disturb1 directly or indirectly1 the course of nature by blighting the crops1 causing the earth to quake1 volcanoes to vomit fire1 and so forth3 the delinquents themselves1 their offspring1 or their innocent spouses are supposed to suffer in their own persons for the sin that has been committed4 ,thus among the ,baganda of ,central ,africa 8adultery was also regarded as a danger to children2 it was thought that women who were guilty of it #ajc during pregnancy caused the child to die1 either prior to birth1 or at the time of birth4 ,sometimes the guilty woman would herself die in childbed2 or1 if she was safely delivered1 she would have a tendency to devour her child1 and would have to be guarded lest she should kill it40#ajc4a 8,when there was a case of retarded delivery1 the relatives attributed it to adultery2 they made the woman confess the name of the man with whom she had had intercourse1 and if she died1 her husband was fined by the members of her clan1 for they said3 #8,we did not give our daughter to you for the purpose of adultery1 and you should have guarded her4' ,in most cases1 however1 the medicine-men were able to save the woman's life1 and upon recovery she was upbraided1 and the man whom she accused was heavily fined40#ajc4b ,the ,baganda thought that the infidelity of the father as well as of the mother endangered the life of the child4 ,for 8it was also supposed that a man who had sexual intercourse with any woman not his wife1 during the time that any one of his wives was nursing a child1 would cause the child to fall ill1 and that unless he confessed his guilt and obtained from the medicine-man the necessary remedies to cancel the evil results1 the child would die40#ajc4c ,the common childish ailment which was thought to be caused by the adultery of the father or mother was called amakiro1 and its symptoms were well recognized3 they consisted of nausea and general debility1 and the only cure for them was a frank confession by the guilty parent and the performance of a magical ceremony by the medicine-man4#ajc4d ,sidenote3 ,disastrous effects of adultery on adulteress and her child4 ,similar views as to the disastrous effects of adultery on mother and child seem to be widespread among ,bantu tribes4 ,thus among the ,awemba of ,northern ,rhodesia1 when both mother and child die in childbirth1 great horror is expressed by all1 who assert that the woman must assuredly have committed adultery with many men to suffer such a fate4 ,they exhort her even with her last breath to name the #ajd adulterer2 and whoever is mentioned by her is called the 8murderer0 7musoka7 and has afterwards to pay a heavy fine to the injured husband4 ,similarly if the child is born dead and the mother survives1 the ,awemba take it for granted that the woman has been unfaithful to her husband1 and they ask her to name the murderer of her child1 that is1 the man whose guilty love has been the death of the babe4#ajd4a ,in like manner the ,thonga1 a ,bantu tribe of ,south ,africa1 about ,delagoa ,bay1 are of opinion that if a woman's travail pangs are unduly prolonged or she fails to bring her offspring to the birth1 she must certainly have committed adultery1 and they insist upon her making a clean breast as the only means of ensuring her delivery2 should she suppress the name even of one of several lovers with whom she may have gone astray1 the child cannot be born4 ,so convinced are the women of the sufferings which adultery1 if unacknowledged1 entails on the guilty mother in childbed1 that a woman who knows her child to be illegitimate will privately confess her sin to the midwife before she is actually brought to bed1 in the hope thereby of alleviating and shortening her travail pangs4#ajd4b ,sidenote3 ,sympathetic relation between an adulterer and the injured husband4 ,further1 the ,thonga believe that adultery establishes a physical relationship of mutual sympathy between the adulterer and the injured husband such that the life of the one is in a manner bound up with the life of the other2 indeed this relationship is thought to arise between any two men who have had sexual connexion with the same woman4 ,as a native put it to a missionary1 8,they have met together in one life through the blood of that woman2 they have drunk from the same pool40 ,to express it otherwise1 they have formed a blood covenant with each other through the woman as intermediary4 8,this establishes between them a most curious mutual dependence3 should one of them be ill1 the other must not visit him2 the patient might die4 ,if he runs a thorn into his foot1 the other must not help him to extract it4 ,it is taboo4 ,the wound would not heal4 ,if he dies1 his rival must not assist at his mourning or he would die #aje himself40 ,hence if a man has committed adultery1 as sometimes happens1 with one of his father's younger wives1 and the father dies1 his undutiful son may not take the part which would otherwise fall to him in the funeral rites2 indeed should he attempt to attend the burial1 his relations would drive him away in pity1 lest by this mark of respect and perhaps of remorse he should forfeit his life4#aje4a ,sidenote3 ,injurious effects of adultery on the innocent husband1 wife1 or child4 ,in like manner the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa believe that if a son has adulterous intercourse with one of his father's wives1 the innocent father1 not the guilty young scapegrace1 contracts a dangerous pollution 7thahu71 the effect of which is to make him ill and emaciated or to break out into sores or boils1 and even in all probability to die1 if the danger is not averted by the timely intervention of a medicine-man4#aje4b ,the ,anyanja of ,british ,central ,africa believe that if a man commits adultery while his wife is with child1 she will die2 hence on the death of his wife the widower is often roundly accused of having killed her by his infidelity4#aje4c ,without going so far as this1 the ,masai of ,german ,east ,africa hold that if a father were to touch his infant on the day after he had been guilty of adultery1 the child would fall sick4#aje4d ,according to the ,akamba of ,british ,east ,africa1 if a woman after giving birth to a child is false to her husband before her first menstruation1 the child will surely die4#aje4e ,sidenote3 ,injurious effects of incest on the offspring4 ,the ,akamba are also of opinion that if a woman is guilty of incest with her brother she will be unable to bring to the birth the seed which she has conceived by him4 ,in that case the man must purge his sin by bringing a big goat to the elders1 and the woman is ceremonially smeared with the contents of the #ajf animal's stomach4#ajf4a ,among the ,washamba of ,german ,east ,africa it happened that a married woman lost three children1 one after the other1 by death4 ,a diviner being called in to ascertain the cause of this calamity1 attributed it to incest of which she had been accidentally guilty with her father4#ajf4b ,sidenote3 ,wife's infidelity at home thought to endanger the absent husband in the chase or the war4 ,again1 it appears to be a common notion with savages that the infidelity of a wife prevents her husband from killing game1 and even exposes him to imminent risk of being himself killed or wounded by wild beasts4 ,this belief is entertained by the ,wagogo and other peoples of ,east ,africa1 by the ,moxos ,indians of ,bolivia1 and by ,aleutian hunters of sea-otters4 ,in such cases any mishap that befalls the husband during the chase is set down by him to the score of his wife's misconduct at home2 he returns in wrath and visits his ill-luck on the often innocent object of his suspicions even1 it may be1 to the shedding of her blood4#ajf4c ,while the ,huichol ,indians of ,mexico are away seeking for a species of cactus which they regard as sacred1 their women at home are bound to be strictly chaste2 otherwise they believe that they would be visited with illness and would endanger the success of the men's expedition4#ajf4d ,an old writer on ,madagascar tells us that though ,malagasy women are voluptuous they will not allow themselves to be drawn into an intrigue while their husbands are absent at the wars1 for they believe that infidelity at such a time would cause the absent spouse to be wounded or slain4#ajf4e ,the ,baganda of ,central ,africa held similar views as to the fatal effect which a wife's adultery at home might have on her absent husband at the wars2 they thought that the gods resented her misconduct and withdrew their favour and protection from her warrior spouse1 thus punishing the innocent instead of the guilty4 ,indeed1 it was believed that #ajg if a woman were even to touch a man's clothing while her husband was away with the army1 it would bring misfortune on her husband's weapon1 and might even cost him his life4 ,the gods of the ,baganda were most particular about women strictly observing the taboos during their husbands' absence and having nothing to do with other men all that time4 ,on his return from the war a man tested his wife's fidelity by drinking water from a gourd which she handed to him before he entered his house4 ,if she had been unfaithful to him during his absence1 the water was supposed to make him ill2 hence should it chance that he fell sick after drinking the draught1 his wife was at once clapped into the stocks and tried for adultery2 and if she confessed her guilt and named her paramour1 the offender was heavily fined or even put to death4#ajg4a ,similarly among the ,bangala or the ,boloki of the ,upper ,congo1 8when men went to fight distant towns their wives were expected not to commit adultery with such men as were left in the town1 or their husbands would receive spear wounds from the enemy4 ,the sisters of the fighters would take every precaution to guard against the adultery of their brothers' wives while they were on the expedition40#ajg4b ,so among the ,haida ,indians of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 while the men were away at the wars1 their wives 8all slept in one house to keep watch over each other2 for1 if a woman were unfaithful to her husband while he was with a war-party1 he would probably be killed40#ajg4c ,if only ,king ,david had held this belief he might have contented himself with a single instead of a double crime1 and need not have sent his ,machiavellian order to put the injured husband in the forefront of the battle4#ajg4d ,sidenote3 ,injurious effect of wife's infidelity on her husband4 ,the ,zulus imagine that an unfaithful wife who touches her husband's furniture without first eating certain herbs causes him to be seized with a fit of coughing of which he soon dies4 ,moreover1 among the ,zulus 8a man who has #ajh had criminal intercourse with a sick person's wife is prohibited from visiting the sick-chamber2 and1 if the sick person is a woman1 any female who has committed adultery with her husband must not visit her4 ,they say that1 if these visits ever take place1 the patient is immediately oppressed with a cold perspiration and dies4 ,this prohibition was thought to find out the infidelities of the women and to make them fear discovery40#ajh4a ,sidenote3 ,african chiefs thought to be injuriously affected by the incontinence of their subjects4 ,for a similar reason1 apparently1 during the sickness of a ,caffre chief his tribe was bound to observe strict continence under pain of death4#ajh4b ,the notion seems to have been that any act of incontinence would through some sort of magical sympathy prove fatal to the sick chief4 ,the ,ovakumbi1 a tribe in the south of ,angola1 think that the carnal intercourse of young people under the age of puberty would cause the king to die within the year1 if it were not severely punished4 ,the punishment for such a treasonable offence used to be death4#ajh4c ,similarly1 in the kingdom of ,congo1 when the sacred pontiff1 called the ,chitom1 was going his rounds throughout the country1 all his subjects had to live strictly chaste1 and any person found guilty of incontinence at such times was put to death without mercy4 ,they thought that universal chastity was essential to the preservation of the life of the pontiff1 whom they revered as the head of their religion and their common father4 ,accordingly when he was abroad he took care to warn his faithful subjects by a public crier1 that no man might plead ignorance as an excuse for a breach of the law4#ajh4d ,sidenote3 ,injurious effects of adultery on the adulteress4 ,speaking of the same region of ,west ,africa1 an old writer tells us that 8conjugal chastity is singularly respected among these people2 adultery is placed in the list of the greatest crimes4 ,by an opinion generally received1 the women are persuaded that if they were to render themselves guilty of infidelity1 the greatest misfortunes would overwhelm #aji them1 unless they averted them by an avowal made to their husbands1 and in obtaining their pardon for the injury they might have done40#aji4a ,sidenote3 ,dangerous pollution supposed to be incurred by unchastity4 ,the ,looboos of ,sumatra think that an unmarried young woman who has been got with child falls thereby into a dangerous state called loo1 which is such that she spreads misfortune wherever she goes4 ,hence when she enters a house1 the people try to drive her out by force4#aji4b ,amongst the ,sulka of ,new ,britain unmarried people who have been guilty of unchastity are believed to contract thereby a fatal pollution 7sle7 of which they will die1 if they do not confess their fault and undergo a public ceremony of purification4 ,such persons are avoided3 no one will take anything at their hands3 parents point them out to their children and warn them not to go near them4 ,the infection which they are supposed to spread is apparently physical rather than moral in its nature2 for special care is taken to keep the paraphernalia of the dance out of their way1 the mere presence of persons so polluted being thought to tarnish the paint on the instruments4 ,men who have contracted this dangerous taint rid themselves of it by drinking sea-water mixed with shredded coco-nut and ginger1 after which they are thrown into the sea4 ,emerging from the water they put off the dripping clothes which they wore during their state of defilement and cast them away4 ,this purification is believed to save their lives1 which otherwise must have been destroyed by their unchastity4#aji4c ,among the ,buduma of ,lake ,chad1 in ,central ,africa1 at the present day 8a child born out of wedlock is looked on as a disgrace1 and must be drowned4 ,if this is not done1 great misfortunes #aaj will happen to the tribe4 ,all the men will fall sick1 and the women1 cows and goats will become barren40#aaj4a ,sidenote3 ,conclusion4 ,these examples may suffice to shew that among many races sexual immorality1 whether in the form of adultery1 fornication1 or incest1 is believed of itself to entail1 naturally and inevitably1 without the intervention of society1 most serious consequences not only on the culprits themselves1 but also on the community1 often indeed to menace the very existence of the whole people by destroying the food supply4 ,i need hardly remind you that all these beliefs are entirely baseless2 no such consequences flow from such acts2 in short1 the beliefs in question are a pure superstition4 ,yet we cannot doubt that wherever this superstition has existed it must have served as a powerful motive to deter men from adultery1 fornication1 and incest4 ,if that is so1 then ,i think ,i have proved my third proposition1 which is1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for marriage1 and has thereby contributed to the stricter observance of the rules of sexual morality both among the married and the unmarried4 ,v4 ,,respect ,,for ,,human ,,life #aaa ,sidenote3 ,superstition as a prop to the security of human life4 ,i pass now to my fourth and last proposition1 which is1 that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for human life and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment4 ,sidenote3 ,the fear of ghosts4 ,the particular superstition which has had this salutary effect is the fear of ghosts1 especially the ghosts of the murdered4 ,the fear of ghosts is widespread1 perhaps universal1 among savages2 it is hardly extinct among ourselves4 ,if it were extinct1 some learned societies might put up their shutters4 ,dead or alive1 the fear of ghosts has certainly not been an unmixed blessing4 ,indeed it might with some show of reason be maintained that no belief has done so much to retard the economic and thereby the social progress of mankind as the belief in the immortality of the soul2 for this belief has led race after race1 generation after generation1 to sacrifice the real wants of the living to the imaginary wants of the dead4 ,the waste and destruction of life and property which this faith has entailed are enormous and incalculable4 ,sidenote3 ,disastrous consequences entailed by the fear of the dead4 ,without entering into details ,i will illustrate by a single example the disastrous economic1 political1 and moral consequences which flow from that systematic destruction of property which the fear of the dead has imposed on many races4 ,speaking of the ,patagonians1 the well-informed and intelligent traveller d',orbigny observes3 8,they have no laws1 no punishments inflicted on the guilty4 ,each lives as he pleases1 and the greatest thief is the most highly esteemed1 because he is the most dexterous4 ,a motive #aab which will always prevent them from abandoning the practice of theft1 and at the same time will always present an obstacle to their ever forming fixed settlements1 is the religious prejudice which1 on the death of one of their number1 obliges them to destroy his property4 ,a ,patagonian1 who has amassed during the whole of his life an estate by thieving from the whites or exchanging the products of the chase with neighbouring tribes1 has done nothing for his heirs2 all his savings are destroyed with him1 and his children are obliged to rebuild their fortunes afresh1--a custom which1 ,i may observe in passing1 is found also among the ,tamanaques of the ,orinoco1 who ravage the field of the deceased and cut down the trees which he has planted2#aab4a and among the ,yuracares1 who abandon and shut up the house of the dead1 regarding it as a profanation to gather a single fruit from the trees of his field4 ,it is easy to see that with such customs they can nourish no real ambition since their needs are limited to themselves2 it is one of the causes of their natural indolence and is a motive which1 so long as it exists1 will always impede the progress of their civilization4 ,why should they trouble themselves about the future when they have nothing to hope from it8 ,the present is all in all in their eyes1 and their only interest is individual2 the son will take no care of his father's herd1 since it will never come into his possession2 he busies himself only with his own affairs and soon turns his thoughts to looking after himself and getting a livelihood4 ,this custom has certainly something to commend it from the moral point of view in so far as it destroys all the motives for that covetousness in heirs which is too often to be seen in our cities4 ,the desire or the hope of a speedy death of their parents cannot exist1 since the parents leave absolutely nothing to their children2 but on the other hand1 if the ,patagonians had preserved hereditary properties1 they would without doubt have been to-day in possession of numerous herds1 and would necessarily have been more formidable to the whites1 since their power in that case would have been more than doubled1 whereas their present habits will infallibly leave them in a stationary state1 from which nothing but a radical change #aac will be able to deliver them40#aac4a ,thus poverty1 indolence1 improvidence1 political weakness1 and all the hardships of a nomadic life are the miserable inheritance which the fear of the dead entails on these wretched ,indians4 ,heavy indeed is the toll which superstition exacts from all who pass within her gloomy portal4 ,sidenote3 ,fear of the ghosts of the slain a check on murder4 ,but ,i am not here concerned with the disastrous and deplorable consequences1 the unspeakable follies and crimes and miseries1 which have flowed in practice from the theory of a future life4 ,my business at present is with the more cheerful side of the subject1 with the wholesome1 though groundless1 terror which ghosts1 apparitions1 and spectres strike into the breasts of hardened ruffians and desperadoes4 ,so far as such persons reflect at all and regulate their passions by the dictates of prudence1 it seems plain that a fear of ghostly retribution1 of the angry spirit of their victim1 must act as a salutary restraint on their disorderly impulses2 it must reinforce the dread of purely secular punishment and furnish the choleric and malicious with a fresh motive for pausing before they imbrue their hands in blood4 ,this is so obvious1 and the fear of ghosts is so notorious1 that both might perhaps be taken for granted1 especially at this late hour of the evening4 ,but for the sake of completeness ,i will mention a few illustrative facts1 taking them almost at random from distant races in order to indicate the wide diffusion of this particular superstition4 ,i shall try to shew that while all ghosts are feared1 the ghosts of slain men are especially dreaded by their slayers4 ,sidenote3 ,ancient ,greek belief as to the anger of a ghost at his slayer4 ,the ancient ,greeks believed that the soul of any man who had just been killed was angry with his slayer and troubled him2 hence even an involuntary homicide had to #aad depart from his country for a year until the wrath of the dead man had cooled down2 nor might the slayer return until sacrifice had been offered and ceremonies of purification performed4 ,if his victim chanced to be a foreigner1 the homicide had to shun the country of the dead man as well as his own4#aad4a ,the legend of the matricide ,orestes1 how he roamed from place to place pursued and maddened by the ghost of his murdered mother1 reflects faithfully the ancient ,greek conception of the fate which overtakes the murderer at the hands of the ghost4#aad4b ,sidenote3 ,among the ,greeks a manslayer was dreaded and shunned because he was thought to be haunted by the angry and dangerous ghost of his victim4 ,but it is important to observe that not only does the hag-ridden homicide go in terror of his victim's ghost2 he is himself an object of fear and aversion to the whole community on account of the angry and dangerous spirit which dogs his steps4 ,it was probably more in self-defence than out of consideration for the manslayer that ,attic law compelled him to quit the country4 ,this comes out clearly from the provisions of the law4 ,for in the first place1 on going into banishment the homicide had to follow a prescribed road3#aad4c obviously it would have been hazardous to let him stray about the country with a wrathful ghost at his heels4 ,in the second place1 if another charge was brought against a banished homicide1 he was allowed to return to ,attica to plead in his defence1 but he might not set foot on land2 he had to speak from a ship1 and even the ship might not cast anchor or put out a gangway4 ,the judges avoided all contact with the culprit1 for they judged the case sitting or standing on the shore4#aad4d ,plainly the intention of this rule was literally to insulate the slayer1 lest by touching ,attic earth even indirectly through the anchor or the gangway he should blast it by a sort of electric shock1 as we might say2 though doubtless the ,greeks would have said that the blight was wrought by contact with the ghost1 by a sort of effluence of death4 ,for the same reason if such a man1 sailing the #aae sea1 happened to be wrecked on the coast of the country where his crime had been committed1 he was allowed to camp on the shore till a ship came to take him off1 but he was expected to keep his feet in sea-water all the time1#aae4a evidently to neutralise the ghostly infection and prevent it from spreading to the soil4 ,for the same reason1 when the turbulent people of ,cynaetha in ,arcadia had perpetrated a peculiarly atrocious massacre and had sent envoys to ,sparta1 all the ,arcadian states through which the envoys took their way ordered them out of the country2 and after their departure the ,mantineans purified themselves and their belongings by sacrificing victims and carrying them round the city and the whole of their land4#aae4b ,so when the ,athenians had heard of a massacre at ,argos1 they caused purificatory offerings to be carried round the public assembly4#aae4c ,sidenote3 ,the legend of ,orestes reflects the ,greek horror of a manslayer4 ,no doubt the root of all such observances was a fear of the dangerous ghost which haunts the murderer and against which the whole community as well as the homicide himself must be on its guard4 ,the ,greek practice in these respects is clearly mirrored in the legend of ,orestes2 for it is said that the people of ,troezen would not receive him in their houses until he had been purified of his guilt1#aae4d that is1 until he had been rid of his mother's ghost4 ,the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa think that if a man who has killed another comes and sleeps at a village and eats with a family in their hut1 the persons with whom he has eaten contract a dangerous pollution which might prove fatal to them were it not removed in time by a medicine-man4 ,the very skin on which the homicide slept has absorbed the taint and might infect any one else who slept on it4 ,so a medicine-man is sent for to purify the hut and its occupants4#aae4e ,sidenote3 ,manslayers purged of the stain of human blood by being smeared with the blood of pigs4 ,the #aaf ,greek mode of purifying a homicide was to kill a sucking pig and wash the hands of the guilty man in its blood3 until this ceremony had been performed the manslayer was not allowed to speak4#aaf4a ,among the hill-tribes near ,rajamahal in ,bengal1 if two men quarrel and blood be shed1 the one who cut the other is fined a hog or a fowl1 8the blood of which is sprinkled over the wounded person1 to purify him1 and to prevent his being possessed by a devil40#aaf4b ,in this case the blood-sprinkling is avowedly intended to prevent the man from being haunted by a spirit2 only it is not the aggressor but his victim who is supposed to be in danger and therefore to stand in need of purification4 ,we have seen that among these and other savage tribes pig's blood is sprinkled on persons and things as a mode of purifying them from the pollution of sexual crimes4#aaf4c ,among the ,cameroon negroes in ,west ,africa accidental homicide can be expiated by the blood of an animal4 ,the relations of the slayer and of the slain assemble4 ,an animal is killed1 and every person present is smeared with its blood on his face and breast4 ,they think that the guilt of manslaughter is thus atoned for1 and that no punishment will overtake the homicide4#aaf4d ,in ,car ,nicobar a man possessed by devils is cleansed of them by being rubbed all over with pig's blood and beaten with leaves4 ,the devils are supposed to be thus swept off like flies from the man's body to the leaves1 which are then folded up and tied tightly with a special kind of string4 ,a professional exorciser administers the beating1 and at every stroke with the leaves he falls down with his face on the floor and calls out in a squeaky #aag voice1 8,here is a devil40 ,this ceremony is performed by night2 and before daybreak all the packets of leaves containing the devils are thrown into the sea4#aag4a ,the ,greeks similarly used laurel leaves as well as pig's blood in purificatory ceremonies4#aag4b ,in all such cases we may assume that the purification was originally conceived as physical rather than as moral1 as a sort of detergent which washed1 swept1 or scraped the ghostly or demoniacal pollution from the person of the ghost-haunted or demon-possessed man4 ,the motive for employing blood in these rites of cleansing is not clear4 ,perhaps the purgative virtue ascribed to it may have been based on the notion that the offended spirit accepts the blood as a substitute for the blood of the man or woman4#aag4c ,however1 it is doubtful whether this explanation could cover all the cases in which blood is sprinkled as a mode of purification4 ,certainly it is odd1 as the sage ,heraclitus long ago remarked1 that blood-stains should be thought to be removed by blood-stains1 as if a man who had been bespattered with mud should think to cleanse himself by bespattering himself with more mud4#aag4d ,but the ways of man are wonderful and sometimes past finding out4 ,sidenote3 ,the matricide ,orestes is said to have recovered his wits by biting off one of his own fingers4 ,there was a curious story that after ,orestes had gone mad through murdering his mother he recovered his wits by biting off one of his own fingers2 the ,furies of his murdered mother1 which had appeared black to him before1 appeared white as soon as he had mutilated himself in this way3 it was as if the taste of his own blood sufficed to avert or disarm the wrathful ghost4#aag4e ,a hint of the way in which the blood may have been supposed to produce this result is furnished by the practice of some savages4 ,sidenote3 ,manslayers commonly taste their victims' blood in order not to be haunted by their ghosts4 ,the ,indians of ,guiana believe that an avenger of blood who has slain his man must go mad unless he tastes the blood of his victim2 the notion apparently is that the ghost drives him crazy1 #aah just as the ghost of ,clytemnestra did to ,orestes1 who was also1 be it remembered1 an avenger of blood4 ,in order to avert this consequence the ,indian manslayer resorts on the third night to the grave of his victim1 pierces the corpse with a sharp-pointed stick1 and withdrawing it sucks the blood of the murdered man4 ,after that he goes home with an easy mind1 satisfied that he has done his duty and that he has nothing more to fear from the ghost4#aah4a ,a similar custom was observed by the ,maoris in battle4 ,when a warrior had slain his foe in combat1 he tasted his blood1 believing that this preserved him from the avenging spirit 7atua7 of his victim2 for they imagined that 8the moment a slayer had tasted the blood of the slain1 the dead man became a part of his being and placed him under the protection of the atua or guardian-spirit of the deceased40#aah4b ,thus in the opinion of these savages1 by swallowing a portion of their victim they made him a part of themselves and thereby converted him from an enemy into an ally2 they established1 in the strictest sense of the words1 a blood-covenant with him4 ,the ,aricara ,indians also drank the blood of their slain foes and proclaimed the deed by the mark of a red hand on their faces4#aah4c ,the motive for this practice may have been1 as with the ,maoris1 a desire to appropriate and so disarm the ghost of an enemy4 ,in antiquity some of the ,scythians used to drink the blood of the first foes they killed2 and they also tasted the blood of the friends with whom they made a covenant1 for 8they take that to be the surest pledge of good faith40#aah4d ,sidenote3 ,homicides supposed to go mad unless they taste the blood of their victim4 ,the motive of the two customs was probably the same4 8,to the present day1 when a person of another tribe has been slain by a ,nandi1 the blood must be carefully washed off the spear or sword into a cup made of grass1 and drunk by the slayer4 ,if this is not done it is thought that the man will become frenzied40#aah4e ,so #aai among some tribes of the ,lower ,niger 8it is customary and necessary for the executioner to lick the blood that is on the blade02 moreover 8the custom of licking the blood off the blade of a sword by which a man has been killed in war is common to all these tribes1 and the explanation given me by the ,ibo1 which is generally accepted1 is1 that if this was not done1 the act of killing would so affect the strikers as to cause them to run amok among their own people2 because the sight and smell of blood render them absolutely senseless as well as regardless of all consequences4 ,and this licking the blood is the only sure remedy1 and the only way in which they can recover themselves40#aai4a ,so1 too1 among the ,shans of ,burma 8it was the curious custom of executioners to taste the blood of their victims1 as they believed if this were not done illness and death would follow in a short time4 ,in remote times ,shan soldiers always bit the bodies of men killed by them in battle40#aai4b ,strange as it may seem1 this truly savage superstition exists apparently in ,italy to this day4 ,there is a widespread opinion in ,calabria that if a murderer is to escape he must suck his victim's blood from the reeking blade of the dagger with which he did the deed4#aai4c ,we can now perhaps understand why the matricide ,orestes was thought to have recovered his wandering wits as soon as he had bitten off one of his fingers4 ,by tasting his own blood1 which was also that of his victim1 since she was his mother1 he might be supposed to form a blood-covenant with the ghost and so to convert it from a foe into a friend4 ,sidenote3 ,various precautions taken by manslayers against the ghosts of their victims4 ,the ,kabyles of ,north ,africa think that if a murderer leaps seven times over his victim's grave within three or seven days of the murder1 he will be quite safe4 ,hence the fresh grave of a murdered man is carefully guarded4#aai4d ,the ,lushai #abj of ,north-,eastern ,india believe that if a man kills an enemy the ghost of his victim will haunt him and he will go mad1 unless he performs a certain ceremony which will make him master of the dead man's soul in the other world4 ,the ceremony includes the sacrifice of an animal1 whether a pig1 a goat1 or a mithan4#abj4a ,among the ,awemba of ,northern ,rhodesia1 8according to a superstition common among ,central ,african tribes1 unless the slayers were purified from blood-guiltiness they would become mad4 ,on the night of return no warrior might sleep in his own hut1 but lay in the open nsaka in the village4 ,the next day1 after bathing in the stream and being anointed with lustral medicine by the doctor1 he could return to his own hearth1 and resume intercourse with his wife40#abj4b ,in all such cases the madness of the slayer is probably attributed to the ghost of the slain1 which has taken possession of him4 ,sidenote3 ,the custom of secluding and purifying homicides is intended to protect them against the angry spirits of the slain1 which are thought to madden their slayers4 ,that the ,greek practice of secluding and purifying a homicide was essentially an exorcism1 in other words1 that its aim was to ban the dangerous ghost of his victim1 is rendered practically certain by the similar rites of seclusion and purification which among many savage tribes have to be observed by victorious warriors with the avowed intention of securing them against the spirits of the men whom they have slain in battle4 ,these rites ,i have illustrated elsewhere1#abj4c but a few cases may be quoted here by way of example4 ,thus among the ,basutos 8ablution is especially performed on return from battle4 ,it is absolutely necessary that the warriors should rid themselves1 as soon as possible1 of the blood they have shed1 or the shades of their victims would pursue them incessantly1 and disturb their slumbers4 ,they go in a procession1 and in full armour1 to the nearest stream4 ,at the moment they enter the water a diviner1 placed higher up1 throws some purifying substances into the current40#abj4d ,according to another account of the ,basuto custom1 8warriors #aba who have killed an enemy are purified4 ,the chief has to wash them1 sacrificing an ox in the presence of the whole army4 ,they are also anointed with the gall of the animal1 which prevents the ghost of the enemy from pursuing them any farther40#aba4a ,among the ,thonga1 a ,bantu tribe of ,south ,africa1 about ,delagoa ,bay1 8to have killed an enemy on the battle-field entails an immense glory for the slayers2 but that glory is fraught with great danger4 ,they have killed4''' ,so they are exposed to the mysterious and deadly influence of the nuru and must consequently undergo a medical treatment4 ,what is the nuru8 ,nuru1 the spirit of the slain which tries to take its revenge on the slayer4 ,it haunts him and may drive him into insanity3 his eyes swell1 protrude and become inflamed4 ,he will lose his head1 be attacked by giddiness 7ndzululwan7 and the thirst for blood may lead him to fall upon members of his own family and to stab them with his assagay4 ,to prevent such misfortunes1 a special medication is required3 the slayers must lurulula tiyimp ta bu1 take away the nuru of their sanguinary expedition4''' ,in what consists this treatment8 ,the slayers must remain for some days at the capital4 ,they are taboo4 ,they put on old clothes1 eat with special spoons1 because their hands are #8hot1' and off special plates 7mireko7 and broken pots4 ,they are forbidden to drink water4 ,their food must be cold4 ,the chief kills oxen for them2 but if the meat were hot it would make them swell internally #8because they are hot themselves1 they are defiled 7ba na nsila74' ,if they eat hot food1 the defilement would enter into them4 #8,they are black 7ntima74 ,this black must be removed4' ,during all this time sexual relations are absolutely forbidden to them4 ,they must not go home1 to their wives4 ,in former times the ,ba-,ronga used to tattoo them with special marks from one eyebrow to the other4 ,dreadful medicines were inoculated in the incisions1 and there remained pimples #8which gave them the appearance of a buffalo when it frowns4' ,after some days a medicine-man comes to purify them1 #8to remove their black4' ,there seem to be various means of doing it1 according to ,mankhelu4 ,seeds of all kinds are put into a #abb broken pot and roasted1 together with drugs and psanyi#abb4a of a goat4 ,the slayers inhale the smoke which emanates from the pot4 ,they put their hands into the mixture and rub their limbs with it1 especially the joints4''' ,insanity threatening those who shed blood might begin early4 ,so1 already on the battle-field1 just after their deed1 warriors are given a preventive dose of the medicine by those who have killed on previous occasions4''' ,the period of seclusion having been concluded by the final purification1 all the implements used by the slayers during these days1 and their old garments1 are tied together and hung by a string to a tree1 at some distance from the capital1 where they are left to rot40#abb4b ,sidenote3 ,with some savages temporary insanity seems to be really caused by the sight or even thought of blood4 ,the accounts of the madness which is apt to befall slayers seem too numerous and too consistent to be dismissed as pure fictions of the savage imagination4 ,however we may reject the native explanation of such fits of frenzy1 the reports point to a real berserker fury or unbridled thirst for blood which comes over savages when they are excited by combat1 and which may prove dangerous to friends as well as to foes4 ,the question is one on which students of mental disease might perhaps throw light4 ,meantime it deserves to be noticed that even the people who have staid at home and have taken no share in the bloody work are liable to fall into a state of frenzy when they hear the war-whoops which proclaim the approach of the victorious warriors with their ghastly trophies4 ,thus we are told that among the ,bare'e-speaking ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes1 when these notes of triumph were heard in the distance the whole population of the village would turn out to meet and welcome the returning braves4 ,at the mere sound some of those who had remained at home1 especially women1 would be seized with a frenzy1 and rushing forth would bite the severed heads of the slain foes1 and they were not to be brought to their senses till they had drunk palm wine or water out of the skulls4 ,if the warriors returned empty-handed1 these #abc furies would fall upon them and bite their arms4 ,there was a regular expression for this state of temporary insanity excited by the sight or even the thought of human blood2 it was called merata lamoanja or merata raoa1 8the spirit is come over them10 by which was probably meant that the madness was caused by the ghosts of the slaughtered foes4 ,when any of the warriors themselves suffered from this paroxysm of frenzy1 they were healed by eating a piece of the brains or licking the blood of the slain4#abc4a ,sidenote3 ,means taken by manslayers in ,africa to rid themselves of the ghosts of their victims4 ,among the ,bantu tribes of ,kavirondo1 in ,british ,east ,africa1 when a man has killed an enemy in warfare he shaves his head on his return home1 and his friends rub a medicine1 which generally consists of cow's dung1 over his body to prevent the spirit of the slain man from troubling him4#abc4b ,here cow's dung serves these negroes as a detergent of the ghost1 just as pig's blood served the ancient ,greeks4 ,among the ,wawanga1 about ,mount ,elgon in ,british ,east ,africa1 8a man returning from a raid1 on which he has killed one of the enemy1 may not enter his hut until he has taken cow-dung and rubbed it on the cheeks of the women and children of the village and purified himself by the sacrifice of a goat1 a strip of skin from the forehead of which he wears round the right wrist during the four following nights40#abc4c ,with the ,ja-,luo of ,kavirondo the custom is somewhat different4 ,three days after his return from the fight the warrior shaves his head4 ,but before he may enter his village he has to hang a live fowl1 head uppermost1 round his neck2 then the bird is decapitated and its head left hanging round his neck4 ,soon after his return a feast is made for the slain man1 in order that his ghost may not haunt his slayer4#abc4d ,in some of these cases the slayer shaves his head1 precisely as the matricide ,orestes is said to have shorn his hair when he came to his senses4#abc4e ,from this ,greek tradition we may infer with some probability that the hair of ,greek homicides1 #abd like that of these ,african warriors1 was regularly cropped as one way of ridding them of the ghostly infection4 ,among the ,ba-,yaka1 a ,bantu people of the ,congo ,free ,state1 8a man who has been killed in battle is supposed to send his soul to avenge his death on the person of the man who killed him2 the latter1 however1 can escape the vengeance of the dead by wearing the red tail-feathers of the parrot in his hair1 and painting his forehead red40#abd4a ,perhaps1 as ,i have suggested elsewhere1 this costume is intended to disguise the slayer from his victim's ghost4#abd4b ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by the ,natchez ,indians4 ,among the ,natchez ,indians of ,north ,america young braves who had taken their first scalps were obliged to observe certain rules of abstinence for six months4 ,they might not sleep with their wives nor eat flesh2 their only food was fish and hasty-pudding4 ,if they broke these rules they believed that the soul of the man they had killed would work their death by magic4#abd4c ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of the slain dreaded by the ,kai of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,the ,kai of ,german ,new ,guinea stand in great fear of the ghosts of the men whom they have slain in war4 ,on their way back from the field of battle or the scene of massacre they hurry in order to be safe at home or in the shelter of a friendly village before nightfall2 for all night long the spirits of the dead are believed to dog the footsteps of their slayers1 in the hope of coming up with them and recovering the lost portions of their souls which adhere with the clots of their blood to the spears and clubs that dealt them the death-blow4 ,only so can these poor restless ghosts find rest and peace4 ,hence the slayers are careful not to bring back the blood-stained weapons with them into the village2 for that would be the first place where the ghosts would look for them4 ,they hide them1 therefore1 in the forest at a safe distance from the village1 where the ghosts can never find them2 and when the spirits are weary of the fruitless search1 they go away back to their dead bodies lying1 it may be1 among the blackened ruins of their #abe desolated home4 ,then the victors come forth1 and taking up the weapons from their hiding-places1 wash them clean of blood and bring them back to the village4#abe4a ,but 8as more or less of the soul-stuff of their slain foes always sticks to the victors1 none of their people may touch them after their return to the village4 ,they are strictly shunned by their friends for several days4 ,people go shyly out of their way4 ,if any one in the village gets a pain in his stomach1 it is assumed that he has sat down on the place of one of the warriors4 ,if somebody complains of toothache1 he must have eaten a fruit which had been touched by one of the combatants4 ,all the leavings of the men's food must be most carefully put out of the way1 lest a pig should get at them1 for that would be the death of the animal4 ,therefore the remains of their meals are burnt or buried4 ,the warriors themselves cannot suffer much from the soul-stuff of the foes1 because they treat themselves with the disinfecting sap of a creeper4 ,but even so they are not secure against all the dangers that threaten them from this quarter40#abe4b ,sidenote3 ,customs observed by manslayers in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,among the tribes at the mouth of the ,wanigela ,river1 in ,british ,new ,guinea1 8a man who has taken life is considered to be impure until he has undergone certain ceremonies3 as soon as possible after the deed he cleanses himself and his weapon4 ,this satisfactorily accomplished1 he repairs to his village and seats himself on the logs of sacrificial staging4 ,no one approaches him or takes any notice whatever of him4 ,a house is prepared for him which is put in charge of two or three small boys as servants4 ,he may eat only toasted bananas1 and only the centre portion of them--the ends being thrown away4 ,on the third day of his seclusion a small feast is prepared by his friends1 who also fashion some new perineal bands for him4 ,this is called ivi poro4 ,the next day the man dons all his best ornaments and badges for taking life1 and sallies forth fully armed and parades the village4 ,the next day a hunt is organised1 and a kangaroo selected from the game captured4 ,it is cut open and the spleen and liver rubbed over the back of the man4 ,he then walks solemnly down to the #abf nearest water1 and standing straddle-legs in it washes himself4 ,all young untried warriors swim between his legs4 ,this is supposed to impart his courage and strength to them4 ,the following day1 at early dawn1 he dashes out of his house1 fully armed1 and calls aloud the name of his victim4 ,having satisfied himself that he has thoroughly scared the ghost of the dead man1 he returns to his house4 ,the beating of flooring boards and the lighting of fires is also a certain method of scaring the ghost4 ,a day later his purification is finished4 ,he can then enter his wife's house40#abf4a ,in this last case the true nature of such so-called purifications is clearly manifest3 they are in fact rites of exorcism observed for the purpose of banning a dangerous spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,customs observed by murderers among the ,omaha ,indians4 ,amongst the ,omaha ,indians of ,north ,america a murderer whose life was spared by the kinsmen of his victim had to observe certain stringent rules for a period which varied from two to four years4 ,he must walk barefoot1 and he might eat no warm food1 nor raise his voice1 nor look around4 ,he had to pull his robe around him and to keep it tied at the neck1 even in warm weather2 he might not let it hang loose or fly open4 ,he might not move his hands about1 but had to keep them close to his body4 ,he might not comb his hair1 nor might it be blown about by the wind4 ,no one would eat with him1 and only one of his kindred was allowed to remain with him in his tent4 ,when the tribe went hunting1 he was obliged to pitch his tent about a quarter of a mile from the rest of the people1 8lest the ghost of his victim should raise a high wind which might cause damage40#abf4b ,the reason here alleged for banishing the murderer from the camp of the hunters gives the clue to all the other restrictions laid on him3 he was haunted by the ghost and therefore dangerous2 hence people kept aloof from him1 just as they are said to have done from the ghost-ridden ,orestes4 ,among the ,chinook ,indians of ,oregon and ,washington1 8when a person has been killed1 an old man who has a #abg guardian spirit is asked to work over the murderer4 ,sidenote3 ,ceremonies observed by homicides among the ,chinook ,indians4 ,the old man takes coal and mixes it with grease4 ,he puts it on to the face of the murderer4 ,he gives him a head ring of cedar bark4 ,cedar bark is also tied around his ankles and knees and around his wrists4 ,for five days he does not drink water4 ,he does not sleep1 and does not lie down4 ,he always stands4 ,at night he walks about and whistles on bone whistles4 ,he always says #8 4' ,for five days he does not wash his face4 ,then on the next morning the old man washes his face4 ,he takes off that coal4 ,he removes the black paint from his face4 ,he puts red paint on his face4 ,a little coal is mixed with the red paint4 ,the old man puts this again on to his face4 ,sometimes this is done by an old man1 sometimes by an old woman4 ,the cedar bark which was tied to his legs and arms is taken off and buckskin straps are tied around his arms and his legs4 ,now1 after five days he is given water4 ,he is given a bucket1 out of which he drinks4 ,now food is roasted for him1 until it is burned4 ,when it is burned black it is given to him4 ,he eats standing4 ,he takes five mouthsful1 and no more4 ,after thirty days he is painted with new red paint4 ,good red paint is taken4 ,now he carries his head ring and his bucket to a spruce tree and hangs it on top of the tree4 ,then the tree will dry up4 ,people never eat in company of a murderer4 ,he never eats sitting1 but always standing4 ,when he sits down to rest he kneels on one leg4 ,the murderer never looks at a child and must not see people while they are eating40#abg4a ,all these measures are probably intended to rid the murderer of the clinging ghost of his victim1 and to keep him in quarantine till the riddance has been effected4 ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of slain kinsfolk1 fellow-townsmen1 and fellow-clansfolk especially dreaded4 ,while the spirit of a murdered man is thus feared by everybody1 it is natural that it should be specially dreaded by those against whom for any reason he may be conceived to bear a grudge4 ,for example1 among the ,yabim of ,german ,new ,guinea1 when the relations of a murdered man have accepted a bloodwit instead of avenging his death1 they must allow the family of the victim to mark them with chalk on the brow4 ,were this #abh not done1 the ghost of their dead kinsman might come and trouble them for not doing their duty by him2 he might drive away their pigs or loosen their teeth4#abh4a ,the ghosts of murdered kinsfolk and neighbours are naturally more formidable than those of foreigners and strangers2 for their wrath is hotter and they have more opportunities of wreaking their anger on the hard-hearted friends who either did them to death with their own hands or left their blood unavenged4 ,indeed some people only fear the wraiths of such persons1 and regard with indifference all other ghosts1 let them mow and gibber as much as they like4 ,thus among the ,boloki of the ,upper ,congo 8a homicide is not afraid of the spirit of the man he has killed when the slain man belongs to any of the neighbouring towns1 as disembodied spirits travel in a very limited area only2 but when he kills a man belonging to his own town he is filled with fear lest the spirit shall do him some harm4 ,there are no special rites that he can observe to free himself from these fears1 but he mourns for the slain man as though he were a member of his own family4 ,he neglects his personal appearance1 shaves his head1 fasts for a certain period1 and laments with much weeping40#abh4b ,again1 a ,kikuyu man does not incur ceremonial pollution 7thahu7 by the slaughter of a man of another tribe1 nor even of his own tribe1 provided his victim belongs to another clan2 but if the slain man is a member of the same clan as his slayer1 the case is grave indeed4 ,however1 it is possible by means of a ceremony to bind over the ghost to keep the peace4 ,for this purpose the murderer and the oldest surviving brother of his victim are seated facing each other on two trunks of banana trees2 here they are solemnly fed by two elders with vegetable food of all kinds1 which has been provided for the purpose by their mothers and sprinkled with the contents of the stomach of a sacrificed sheep4 ,next day the elders proceed to the sacred #abi fig-tree 7mugumo71 which plays a great part in the religious rites of the ,akikuyu4 ,there they sacrifice a pig and deposit some of the fat1 the intestines1 and the more important bones at the foot of the tree1 while they themselves feast on the more palatable parts of the animal4 ,they think that the ghost of the murdered man will visit the tree that very night in the outward shape of a wild cat and consume the meat1 and that this offering will prevent him from returning to the village and troubling the inhabitants4#abi4a ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of the slain dreaded by the ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes4 ,the ,bare'e-speaking ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes are greatly concerned about the souls of men who have been slain in battle4 ,they appear to think that men who have been killed in war instead of dying by disease have not exhausted their vital energy and that therefore their departed spirits are more powerful than the common ruck of ghosts2 and as on account of the unnatural manner of their death they cannot be admitted into the land of souls they continue to prowl about the earth1 furious with the foes who have cut them off untimely in the prime of manhood1 and demanding of their friends that they shall wage war on the enemy and send forth an expedition every year to kill some of them4 ,if the survivors pay no heed to this demand of the bloodthirsty ghosts1 they themselves are exposed to the vengeance of these angry spirits1 who pay out their undutiful friends and relatives by visiting them with sickness and death4 ,hence with the ,toradjas war is a sacred duty in which every member of the community is bound to bear a part2 even women and children1 who cannot wage real war1 must wage mimic warfare at home by hacking with bamboo swords at an old skull of the enemy1 while with their shrill voices they utter the war-whoop4#abi4b ,thus among these people1 as among many more tribes of savages1 a belief in the immortality of #acj the soul has been one of the most fruitful causes of bloodshed by keeping up a perpetual state of war between neighbouring communities1 who dare not make peace with each other for fear of mortally offending the spirits of the dead4#acj4a ,sidenote3 ,ghosts of all who have died violent deaths are dangerous4 ,how the ,karens propitiate such ghosts4 ,but1 whether friends or foes1 the ghosts of all who have died a violent death are in a sense a public danger2 for their temper is naturally soured and they are apt to fall foul of the first person they meet without nicely discriminating between the innocent and the guilty4 ,the ,karens of ,burma1 for example1 think that the spirits of all such persons go neither to the upper regions of bliss nor to the nether world of woe1 but linger on earth and wander about invisible4 ,they make men sick to death by stealing their souls4 ,accordingly these vampire-like beings are exceedingly dreaded by the people1 who seek to appease their anger and repel their cruel assaults by propitiatory offerings and the most earnest prayers and supplications4#acj4b ,they put red1 yellow1 and white rice in a basket and leave it in the forest1 saying3 8,ghosts of such as died by falling from a tree1 ghosts of such as died of hunger or thirst1 ghosts of such as died by the tiger's tooth or the serpent's fang1 ghosts of the murdered dead1 ghosts of such as died of small-pox or cholera1 ghosts of dead lepers1 ,o ill-treat us not1 seize not upon our persons1 do us no harm4 ,o stay here in this wood4 ,we will bring hither red rice1 yellow rice1 and white rice for your subsistence40#acj4c ,sidenote3 ,the angry ghosts of the slain are sometimes forcibly driven away with noise and clamour4 ,however1 it is not always by fair words and propitiatory offerings that the community attempts to rid itself of these invisible but dangerous intruders4 ,people sometimes resort to more forcible measures4 8,once10 says a traveller among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 8on approaching in the night a village of ,ottawas1 ,i found all the inhabitants in confusion3 they were all busily engaged in raising noises of the loudest and most inharmonious kind4 ,upon inquiry1 ,i found that a battle had been lately fought between the ,ottawas and the ,kickapoos1 and that the object of all this noise was to prevent the ghosts of the departed combatants #aca from entering the village40#aca4a ,again1 after the ,north ,american ,indians had burned and tortured a prisoner to death1 they used to run through the village1 beating the walls1 the furniture1 and the roofs of the huts with sticks and yelling at the pitch of their voices to drive away the angry ghost of the victim1 lest he should seek to avenge the injuries done to his scorched and mutilated body4#aca4b ,similarly among the ,papuans of ,doreh in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 when a murder has been committed in the village1 the inhabitants assemble for several evenings successively and shriek and shout to frighten away the ghost1 in case he should attempt to come back4#aca4c ,the ,yabim1 a tribe in ,german ,new ,guinea1 believe that 8the dead can both help and harm1 but the fear of their harmful influence is predominant4 ,especially the people are of opinion that the ghost of a slain man haunts his murderer and brings misfortune on him4 ,hence it is necessary to drive away the ghost with shrieks and the beating of drums4 ,the model of a canoe laden with taro and tobacco is got ready to facilitate his departure40#aca4d ,so when the ,bukaua of ,german ,new ,guinea have won a victory over their foes and have returned home1 they kindle a fire in the middle of the village and hurl blazing brands in the direction of the battle-field1 while at the same time they make an ear-splitting din1 to keep at bay the angry spirits of the slain4#aca4e ,when the cannibal ,melanesians of the ,bismarck ,archipelago have eaten a human body1 they shout1 blow horns1 shake spears1 and beat the bushes for the purpose of driving away the ghost of the man or woman whose flesh has just furnished the banquet4#aca4f ,the ,fijians used to bury the sick and aged alive1 #acb and having done so they always made a great uproar with bamboos1 shell-trumpets1 and so forth in order to scare away the spirits of the buried people and prevent them from returning to their homes2 and by way of removing any temptation to hover about their former abodes they dismantled the houses of the dead and hung them with everything that in their eyes seemed most repulsive4#acb4a ,among the ,angoni1 a ,zulu tribe settled to the north of the ,zambesi1 warriors who have slain foes on an expedition smear their bodies and faces with ashes1 and hang garments of their victims on their persons4 ,this costume they wear for three days after their return1 and rising at break of day they run through the village uttering frightful yells to banish the ghosts of the slain1 which otherwise might bring sickness and misfortune on the people4#acb4b ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken against the ghosts of executed criminals and other dangerous persons4 ,in ,travancore the spirits of men who have died a violent death by drowning1 hanging1 or other means are supposed to become demons1 wandering about to inflict injury in various ways upon mankind4 ,especially the ghosts of murderers who have been hanged are believed to haunt the place of execution and its neighbourhood4 ,to prevent this it used to be customary to cut off the criminal's heels with a sword or to hamstring him as he was turned off4#acb4c ,the intention of thus mutilating the body was no doubt to prevent the ghost from walking4 ,how could he walk if he were hamstrung or had no heels8 ,with precisely the same intention it has been customary with some peoples to maim in various ways the dead bodies not only of executed criminals but of other persons2 for all ghosts are more or less dreaded4 ,when any bad man died1 the ,esquimaux of ,bering ,strait used in the old days to cut the sinews of his arms and legs 8in order to prevent the shade from returning to the body and causing it to walk at night as a ghoul40#acb4d ,the ,omaha #acc ,indians said that when a man was killed by lightning he should be buried face downwards1 and that the soles of his feet should be slit2 for if this were not done1 his ghost would walk4#acc4a ,the ,herero of ,south ,africa think that the ghosts of bad people appear and are just as mischievous as in life2 for they rob1 steal1 and seduce women and girls1 sometimes getting them with child4 ,to prevent the dead from playing these pranks the ,herero used to cut through the backbone of the corpse1 tie it up in a bunch1 and sew it into an ox-hide4#acc4b ,a simple way of disabling a dangerous ghost is to dig up his body and decapitate it4 ,this is done by ,west ,african negroes and also by the ,armenians2 to make assurance doubly sure the ,armenians not only cut off the head but smash it or stick a needle into it or into the dead man's heart4#acc4c ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken in ,india against the ghosts of women who die in pregnancy1 childbed1 or soon after it4 ,the ,hindoos of the ,punjaub believe that if a mother dies within thirteen days of her delivery1 she will return in the guise of a malignant spirit to torment her husband and family4 ,to prevent this some people drive nails through her head and eyes1 while others also knock nails on either side of the door of the house4#acc4d ,a gentler way of attaining the same end is to put a nail or a piece of iron in the clothes of the poor dead mother1#acc4e or to knock nails into the earth round the places where she died1 and where her dead body was washed and cremated4 ,some people put pepper in the eyes of the corpse to prevent the ghost from seeing her way back to the house4#acc4f ,in ,bilaspore1 if a mother dies leaving very young children1 they tie her hands and feet before burial to prevent her from getting up by #acd night and going to see her orphaned little ones4#acd4a ,the ,oraons of ,bengal are firmly convinced that any woman who dies in pregnancy or childbirth becomes an evil and dangerous spirit 7bhut71 who1 if steps are not taken to keep her off1 will come back and tickle to death those whom she loved best in life4 8,to prevent her1 therefore1 from coming back1 they carry her body as far away as they can1 but no woman will accompany her to her last resting-place lest similar misfortune should happen to her4 ,arrived at the burial-place1 they break the feet above the ankle1 twist them round1 bringing the heels in front1 and then drive long thorns into them4 ,they bury her very deep with her face downwards1 and with her they bury the bones of a donkey1 and pronounce the anathema1 #8,if you come home may you turn into a donkey'2 the roots of a palm-tree are also buried with her2 and they say1 #8,may you come home only when the leaves of the palm-tree wither1' and when they retire they spread mustard seeds all along the road saying1 #8,when you try to come home pick up all these4' ,they then feel pretty safe at home from her nocturnal visits1 but woe to the man who passes at night near the place where she has been buried4 ,she will pounce upon him1 twist his neck1 and leave him senseless on the ground1 until brought to by the incantations of a sorcerer40#acd4b ,among the ,lushais of ,assam1 when a woman died in childbed1 the relatives offer a sacrifice to her departed soul1 8but the rest of that village treat the day as a holiday and put a small green branch on the wall of each house on the outside near the doorpost to keep out the spirit of the dead woman40#acd4c ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken in ,burma against the ghosts of women who die in pregnancy or childbed4 ,among the ,shans of ,burma1 when a woman dies with an unborn child1 it is believed that her spirit turns into a malignant ghost1 8who may return to haunt her husband's home and torment him1 unless precautions are taken to keep her away4 ,to begin with1 her unborn child is removed by an operation2 then mother and child are wrapped in separate mats and buried without coffins4 ,if this be not done1 the same #ace misfortune may occur again to the woman1 in her future life1 and the widower will suffer from the attacks of the ghost4 ,when the bodies are being removed from the house1 part of the mat wall in the side of the house is taken down1 and the dead woman and her baby are lowered to the ground through the aperture4 ,the hole through which the bodies have passed is immediately filled with new mats1 so that the ghost may not know how to return40#ace4a ,the ,kachins of ,burma are so afraid of the ghosts of women dying in childbed that no sooner has such a death taken place than the husband1 the children1 and almost all the people in the house take to flight lest the ghost should bite them4 ,they bandage the eyes of the dead woman with her own hair to prevent her from seeing anything2 they wrap the corpse in a mat and carry it out of the house not by the ordinary door1 but by an opening made for the purpose either in the wall or in the floor of the room where she breathed her last4 ,then they convey the body to a deep ravine where foot of man seldom penetrates1 and there1 having heaped her clothes1 her jewellery1 and all her belongings over her1 they set fire to the pile and reduce the whole to ashes4 8,thus they destroy all the property of the unfortunate woman in order that her soul may not think of coming to fetch it afterwards and to bite the people in the attempt40 ,when this has been done1 the officiating priest scatters some burnt grain of a climbing plant 7shmien71 inserts in the earth the pestle which the dead woman used to husk the rice1 and winds up the exorcism by cursing and railing at her ghost1 saying3 8,wait to come back to us till this grain sprouts and this pestle blossoms1 till the fern bears fruit1 and the cocks lay eggs40 ,the house in which the woman died is generally pulled down1 and the timber may only be used as firewood or to build small hovels in the fields4 ,till a new house can be built for them1 the widower and the orphans receive the hospitality of their nearest relatives1 a father or a brother2 their other friends would not dare to receive them from fear of the ghost4 #acf ,occasionally the dead mother's jewels are spared from the fire and given away to some poor old crones1 who do not trouble their heads about ghosts4 ,if the medicine-man who attended the woman in life and officiated at the funeral is old1 he may consent to accept the jewels as the fee for his services2 but in that case no sooner has he got home than he puts the jewels in the henhouse4 ,if the hens remain quiet1 it is a good omen and he can keep the trinkets with an easy mind2 but if the fowl flutter and cackle1 it is a sign that the ghost is sticking to the jewels1 and in a fright he restores them to the family4 ,the old man or old woman into whose hands the trinkets of the dead woman thus sometimes fall cannot dispose of them to other members of the tribe2 for nobody who knows where the things come from would be so rash as to buy them4 ,however1 they may find purchasers among the ,shans or the ,chinese1 who do not fear ,kachin ghosts4#acf4a ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken in the ,indian ,archipelago against the ghosts of women who die in childbed4 ,the ghosts of women who die in childbed are much dreaded in the ,indian ,archipelago2 it is supposed that they appear in the form of birds with long claws and are exceedingly dangerous to their husbands and also to pregnant women4 ,a common way of guarding against them is to put an egg under each armpit of the corpse1 to press the arms close against the body1 and to stick needles in the palms of the hands4 ,the people believe that the ghost of the dead woman will be unable to fly and attack people2 for she will not spread out her arms for fear of letting the eggs fall1 and she will not clutch anybody for fear of driving the needles deeper into her palms4 ,sometimes by way of additional precaution another egg is placed under her chin1 thorns are thrust into the joints of her fingers and toes1 her mouth is stopped with ashes1 and her hands1 feet1 and hair are nailed to the coffin4#acf4b ,sidenote3 ,attempts to lame and otherwise disable ghosts4 ,some ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo sow the ground #acg near cemeteries with bits of sticks to imitate caltrops1 in order that the feet of any ghosts who walk over them may be lamed4#acg4a ,the ,besisi of the ,malay ,peninsula bury their dead in the ground and let fall knives on the grave to prevent the ghost from getting up out of it4#acg4b ,the ,tunguses of ,turukhansk on the contrary put their dead up in trees1 and then lop off all the branches to prevent the ghost from scrambling down and giving them chase4#acg4c ,the ,herbert ,river natives in ,queensland used to cut holes in the stomach1 shoulders1 and lungs of their dead and fill the holes with stones1 in order that1 weighed down with this ballast1 the ghost might not stray far afield2 to limit his range still further they commonly broke his legs4#acg4d ,other ,australian blacks put hot coals in the ears of their departed brother2 this keeps the ghost in the body for a time1 and allows the relations to get a good start away from him4 ,also they bark the trees in a circle round the spot1 so that when the ghost does get out and makes after them1 he wanders round and round in a circle1 always returning to the place from which he started4#acg4e ,the ancient ,hindoos put fetters on the feet of their dead that they might not return to the land of the living4#acg4f ,the ,tinneh ,indians of ,alaska grease the hands of a corpse1 so that when his ghost grabs at people's souls to carry them #ach off with him they slip through his greasy fingers and escape4#ach4a ,sidenote3 ,the way home barricaded against ghosts4 ,some peoples bar the road from the grave to prevent the ghost from following them4 ,the ,tunguses make the barrier of snow or trees4#ach4b ,amongst the ,mangars1 one of the fighting tribes of ,nepal1 8when the mourners return home1 one of their party goes ahead and makes a barricade of thorn bushes across the road midway between the grave and the house of the deceased4 ,on the top of the thorns he puts a big stone on which he takes his stand1 holding a pot of burning incense in his left hand and some woollen thread in his right4 ,one by one the mourners step on the stone and pass through the smoke of the incense to the other side of the thorny barrier4 ,as they pass1 each takes a piece of thread from the man who holds the incense and ties it round his neck4 ,the object of this curious ceremony is to prevent the spirit of the dead man from coming home with the mourners and establishing itself in its old haunts4 ,conceived of as a miniature man1 it is believed to be unable to make its way on foot through the thorns1 while the smell of the incense1 to which all spirits are highly sensitive1 prevents it from surmounting this obstacle on the shoulders of one of the mourners40#ach4c ,the ,chins of ,burma burn their dead and collect the bones in an earthen pot4 ,afterwards1 at a convenient season1 the pot containing the bones is carried away to the ancestral burial-place1 which is generally situated in the depth of the jungle4 8,when the people convey the pot of bones to the cemetery1 they take with them some cotton-yarn1 and whenever they come to any stream or other water1 they stretch a thread across1 whereby the spirit of the deceased1 who accompanies them1 may get across it too4 ,when they have duly deposited the bones and food for the spirit in the cemetery they return home1 #aci after bidding the spirit to remain there1 and not to follow them back to the village4 ,at the same time they block the way by which they return by putting a bamboo across the path40#aci4a ,thus the mourners make the way to the grave as easy as possible for the ghost1 but obstruct the way by which he might return from it4 ,sidenote3 ,devices of the ,north ,american ,indians to keep ghosts at bay4 ,the ,algonquin ,indians1 not content with beating the walls of their huts to drive away the ghost1 stretched nets round them in order to catch the spirit in the meshes1 if he attempted to enter the house4 ,others made stinks to keep him off4#aci4b ,the ,ojebways also resorted to a number of devices for warding off the spirits of the dead4 ,these have been described as follows by a writer who was himself an ,ojebway3 8,if the deceased was a husband1 it is often the custom for the widow1 after the burial is over1 to spring or leap over the grave1 and then run zigzag behind the trees1 as if she were fleeing from some one4 ,this is called running away from the spirit of her husband1 that it may not haunt her4 ,in the evening of the day on which the burial has taken place1 when it begins to grow dark1 the men fire off their guns through the hole left at the top of the wigwam4 ,as soon as this firing ceases1 the old women commence knocking and making such a rattling at the door as would frighten away any spirit that would dare to hover near4 ,the next ceremony is1 to cut into narrow strips1 like ribbon1 thin birch bark4 ,these they fold into shapes1 and hang round inside the wigwam1 so that the least puff of wind will move them4 ,with such scarecrows as these1 what spirit would venture to disturb their slumbers8 ,lest this should not prove effectual1 they will also frequently take a deer's tail1 and after burning or singeing off all the hair1 will rub the necks or faces of the children before they lie down to sleep1 thinking that the offensive smell will be another preventive to the spirit's entrance4 ,i well remember when ,i used to be daubed over with this disagreeable fumigation1 and had great faith in it all4 ,thinking that the soul lingers about the body a long time before it #adj takes its final departure1 they use these means to hasten it away40#adj4a ,sidenote3 ,spirits of the dead greatly feared by the ,lengua ,indians of the ,gran ,chaco4 ,the ,lengua ,indians of the ,gran ,chaco in ,south ,america live in great fear of the spirits of their dead4 ,they imagine that any one of these disembodied spirits can become incarnate again and take a new lease of life on earth1 if only it can contrive to get possession of a living man's body during the temporary absence of his soul4 ,for like many other savages they imagine that the soul absents itself from the body during sleep to wander far away in the land of dreams4 ,so when night falls1 the ghosts of the dead come crowding to the villages and lurk about1 hoping to find vacant bodies into which they can enter4 ,such are to the thinking of the ,lengua ,indian the perils and dangers of the night4 ,when he awakes in the morning from a dream in which he seemed to be hunting or fishing far away1 he concludes that his soul cannot yet have returned from such a far journey1 and that the spirit within him must therefore be some ghost or demon1 who has taken possession of his corporeal tenement in the absence of its proper owner4 ,and if these ,indians dread the spirits of the departed at all times1 they dread them doubly at the moment when they have just shuffled off the mortal coil4 ,no sooner has a person died than the whole village is deserted4 ,even if the death takes place shortly before sunset the place must at all costs be immediately abandoned1 lest with the shades of night the ghost should return and do a mischief to the villagers4 ,not only is the village deserted1 but every hut is burned down and the property of the dead man destroyed4 ,for these ,indians believe that1 however good and kind a man may have been in his lifetime1 his ghost is always a source of danger to the peace and prosperity of the living4 ,the night after his death his disembodied spirit comes back to the village1 and chilled by the cool night air looks about for a fire at which to warm himself4 ,he rakes in the ashes to find at least a hot coal which he may blow up into a flame4 ,but if they are all cold and dead1 he flings a handful of them in the air #ada and departs in dudgeon4 ,any ,indian who treads on such ashes will have ill-luck1 if not death1 following at his heels4 ,to prevent such mishaps the villagers take the greatest pains to collect and bury all the ash-heaps before they abandon the village4 ,what the fate of a hamlet would be in which the returning ghost found the inhabitants still among their houses1 no ,indian dares to imagine4 ,hence it happens that many a village which was full of life at noon is a smoking desert at sunset4 ,and as the ,lenguas ascribe all sickness to the machinations of evil spirits and sorcerers1 they mutilate the persons of their dying or dead in order to counteract and punish the authors of the disease4 ,for this purpose they cut off the portion of the body in which the evil spirit is supposed to have ensconced himself4 ,a common operation performed on the dying or dead man is this4 ,a gash is made with a knife in his side1 the edges of the wound are drawn apart with the fingers1 and in the wound are deposited a dog's bone1 a stone1 and the claw of an armadillo4 ,it is believed that at the departure of the soul from the body the stone will rise up to the ,milky ,way and will stay there till the author of the death has been discovered4 ,then the stone will come shooting down in the shape of a meteor and kill1 or at least stun1 the guilty party4 ,that is why these ,indians stand in terror of falling stars4 ,the claw of the armadillo serves to grub up the earth and1 in conjunction with the meteor1 to ensure the destruction of the evil spirit or the sorcerer4 ,what the virtue of the dog's bone is supposed to be has not yet been ascertained by the missionaries4#ada4a ,sidenote3 ,a scapegoat for ghosts4 ,the ,bhotias1 who inhabit the ,himalayan district of ,british ,india1 perform an elaborate ceremony for transferring the spirit of a deceased person to an animal1 which is finally beaten by all the villagers and driven away1 that it may not come back4 ,having thus expelled the ghost the #adb people return joyfully to the village with songs and dances4 ,in some places the animal which thus serves as a scapegoat is a yak1 the forehead1 back1 and tail of which must be white4 ,but elsewhere1 under the influence of ,hindooism1 sheep and goats have been substituted for yaks4#adb4a ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by widows in ,africa against their husbands' ghosts4 ,widows and widowers are especially obnoxious to the ghosts of their deceased spouses1 and accordingly they have to take special precautions against them4 ,for example1 among the ,ewe negroes of ,agome1 in ,german ,togoland1 a widow is bound to remain for six weeks in the hut where her husband lies buried4 ,she is naked1 her hair is shaved off1 and she is armed with a stick with which to repel the too pressing familiarities of her husband's ghost2 for were she to submit to them1 she would die on the spot4 ,at night she sleeps with the stick under her1 lest the wily ghost should attempt to steal it from her in the hours of slumber4 ,before she eats or drinks she always puts some coals on the food or in the beverage1 to prevent her dead husband from eating or drinking with her2 for if he did so1 she would die4 ,if any one calls to her1 she may not answer1 for her dead husband would hear her1 and she would die4 ,she may not eat beans or flesh or fish1 nor drink palm-wine or rum1 but she is allowed to smoke tobacco4 ,at night a fire is kept up in the hut1 and the widow throws powdered peppermint leaves and red pepper on the flames to make a stink1 which helps to keep the ghost from the house4#adb4b ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by widows and widowers in ,british ,columbia against the ghosts of their spouses4 ,among many tribes of ,british ,columbia the conduct of a widow and a widower for a long time after the death of their spouse is regulated by a code of minute and burdensome restrictions1 all of which appear to be based on the notion that these persons1 being haunted by the ghost1 are not only themselves in peril1 but are also a source of danger to others4 ,thus among the ,shushwap ,indians of ,british ,columbia widows and widowers fence their beds with thorn bushes to keep off the ghost of the deceased2 indeed they #adc lie on such bushes1 in order that the ghost may be under little temptation to share their bed of thorns4 ,they must build a sweat-house on a creek1 sweat there all night1 and bathe regularly in the creek1 after which they must rub their bodies with spruce branches4 ,these branches may be used only once for this purpose2 afterwards they are stuck in the ground all round about the hut1 probably to fence off the ghost4 ,the mourners must also use cups and cooking vessels of their own1 and they may not touch their own heads or bodies4 ,hunters may not go near them1 and any person on whom their shadow were to fall would at once be ill4#adc4a ,again1 among the ,tsetsaut ,indians1 when a man dies his brother is bound to marry the widow1 but he may not do so before the lapse of a certain time1 because it is believed that the dead man's ghost haunts his widow and would do a mischief to his living rival4 ,during the time of her mourning the widow eats out of a stone dish1 carries a pebble in her mouth1 and a crab-apple stick up the back of her jacket4 ,she sits upright day and night4 ,any person who crosses the hut in front of her is a dead man4 ,the restrictions laid on a widower are similar4#adc4b ,among the ,lkungen or ,songish ,indians1 in ,vancouver ,island1 widow and widower1 after the death of husband or wife1 are forbidden to cut their hair1 as otherwise it is believed that they would gain too great power over the souls and welfare of others4 ,they must remain alone at their fire for a long time and are forbidden to mingle with other people4 ,when they eat1 nobody may see them4 ,they must keep their faces covered for ten days4 ,for two days after the burial they fast and are not allowed to speak4 ,after that they may speak a little1 but before addressing any one they must go into the woods and clean themselves in ponds and with cedar-branches4 ,if they wish to harm an enemy they call out his name when they first break their fast1 and they bite very hard in eating4 ,that is believed to kill their enemy1 probably 7though this is not said7 by directing the #add attention of the ghost to him4 ,they may not go near the water nor eat fresh salmon1 or the fish might be driven away4 ,they may not eat warm food1 else their teeth would fall out4#add4a ,among the ,bella ,coola ,indians the bed of a mourner is protected against the ghost of the deceased by thorn-bushes stuck into the ground at each corner4 ,he rises early in the morning and goes out into the woods1 where he makes a square with thorn-bushes1 and inside of this square1 where he is probably supposed to be safe from the intrusion of the ghost1 he cleanses himself by rubbing his body with cedar-branches4 ,he also swims in ponds1 and after swimming he cleaves four small trees and creeps through the clefts1 following the course of the sun4 ,this he does on four subsequent mornings1 cleaving new trees every day4 ,we may surmise that the intention of creeping through the cleft trees is to give the slip to the ghost4 ,the mourner also cuts his hair short1 and the cut hair is burnt4 ,if he did not observe these regulations1 it is believed that he would dream of the deceased1 which to the savage mind is another way of saying that he would be visited by his ghost4 ,amongst these ,indians the rules of mourning for a widower or widow are especially strict4 ,for four days he or she must fast and may not speak a word1 else the dead wife or husband would come and lay a cold hand on the mouth of the offender1 who would die4 ,they may not go near water and are forbidden to catch or eat salmon for a whole year4 ,during that time also they may not eat fresh herring or candle-fish 7olachen74 ,their shadows are deemed unlucky and may not fall on any person4#add4b ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by widows and widowers among the ,thompson ,indians4 ,among the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia widows or widowers1 on the death of their husbands or wives1 went out at once and passed through a patch of rose-bushes four times4 ,the intention of this ceremony is not reported1 but we may conjecture that it was supposed to deter the ghost from following for fear of scratching himself or herself on the thorns4 ,for four days after the death widows and #ade widowers had to wander about at evening or break of day wiping their eyes with fir-twigs1 which they hung up in the branches of trees1 praying to the ,dawn4 ,they also rubbed their eyes with a small stone taken from under running water1 then threw it away1 while they prayed that they might not become blind4 ,the first four days they might not touch their food1 but ate with sharp-pointed sticks1 and spat out the first four mouthfuls of each meal1 and the first four of water1 into the fire4 ,for a year they had to sleep on a bed made of fir-branches1 on which rose-bush sticks were also spread at the foot1 head1 and middle4 ,many also wore a few small twigs of rose-bush on their persons4 ,the use of the rose-bush was no doubt to keep off the ghost through fear of the prickles4 ,they were forbidden to eat fresh fish and flesh of any kind for a year4 ,a widower might not fish at another man's fishing-place or with another man's net4 ,if he did1 it would make the station and the net useless for the season4 ,if a widower transplanted a trout into another lake1 before releasing it he blew on the head of the fish1 and after chewing deer-fat1 he spat some of the grease out on its head1 so as to remove the baneful effect of his touch4 ,then he let it go1 bidding the fish farewell1 and asking it to propagate its kind4 ,any grass or branches upon which a widow or widower sat or lay down withered up4 ,if a widow were to break sticks or branches1 her own hands or arms would break4 ,she might not cook food nor fetch water for her children1 nor let them lie down on her bed1 nor should she lie or sit where they slept4 ,some widows wore a breech-cloth made of dry bunch-grass for several days1 lest the ghost of her dead husband should have connexion with her4 ,a widower might not fish or hunt1 because it was unlucky both for him and for other hunters4 ,he did not allow his shadow to pass in front of another widower or of any person who was supposed to be gifted with more knowledge or magic than ordinary4#ade4a ,among the ,lillooet ,indians of ,british ,columbia the rules enjoined on widows and widowers were somewhat similar4 ,but a widower had to observe a #adf singular custom in eating4 ,he ate his food with the right hand passed underneath his right leg1 the knee of which was raised4#adf4a ,the motive for conveying food to his mouth in this roundabout fashion is not mentioned3 we may conjecture that it was to baffle the hungry ghost1 who might be supposed to watch every mouthful swallowed by the mourner1 but who could hardly suspect that food passed under the knee was intended to reach the mouth4 ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by widows and widowers among the ,kwakiutl ,indians4 ,among the ,kwakiutl ,indians of ,british ,columbia we are told 8the regulations referring to the mourning period are very severe4 ,in case of the death of husband or wife1 the survivor has to observe the following rules3 for four days after the death the survivor must sit motionless1 the knees drawn up toward the chin4 ,on the third day all the inhabitants of the village1 including children1 must take a bath4 ,on the fourth day some water is heated in a wooden kettle1 and the widow or widower drips it upon his head4 ,when he becomes tired of sitting motionless1 and must move1 he thinks of his enemy1 stretches his legs slowly four times1 and draws them up again4 ,then his enemy must die4 ,during the following sixteen days he must remain on the same spot1 but he may stretch out his legs4 ,he is not allowed1 however1 to move his hands4 ,nobody must speak to him1 and whosoever disobeys this command will be punished by the death of one of his relatives4 ,every fourth day he takes a bath4 ,he is fed twice a day by an old woman at the time of low water1 with salmon caught in the preceding year1 and given to him in the dishes and spoons of the deceased4 ,while sitting so his mind is wandering to and fro4 ,he sees his house and his friends as though far1 far away4 ,if in his visions he sees a man near by1 the latter is sure to die at no distant day2 if he sees him very far away1 he will continue to live long4 ,after the sixteen days have passed1 he may lie down1 but not stretch out4 ,he takes a bath every eighth day4 ,at the end of the first month he takes off his clothing1 and dresses the stump of a tree with it4 ,after another month has passed he may sit in a corner #adg of the house1 but for four months he must not mingle with others4 ,he must not use the house door1 but a separate door is cut for his use4 ,before he leaves the house for the first time he must three times approach the door and return1 then he may leave the house4 ,after ten months his hair is cut short1 and after a year the mourning is at an end40#adg4a ,though the reasons for the elaborate restrictions thus imposed on widows and widowers by the ,indians of ,british ,columbia are not always stated1 we may safely infer that one and all they are dictated by fear of the ghost1 who1 haunting the surviving spouse1 surrounds him or her with a dangerous atmosphere1 a contagion of death1 which necessitates his seclusion both from the people themselves and from the principal sources of their food supply1 especially from the fisheries1 lest the infected person should poison them by his malignant presence4 ,sidenote3 ,social ostracism of widowers in ,new ,guinea dictated by fear of the ghosts of their dead wives4 ,we can1 therefore1 understand the extraordinary treatment of a widower by the ,papuans of ,issoudun in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,his miseries begin with the moment of his wife's death4 ,he is immediately stripped of all his ornaments1 abused and beaten by his wife's relations1 his house is pillaged1 his gardens devastated1 there is no one to cook for him4 ,he sleeps on his wife's grave till the end of his mourning4 ,he may never marry again4 ,by the death of his wife he loses all his rights4 ,it is civil death for him4 ,old or young1 chief or plebeian1 he is no longer anybody1 he does not count4 ,he may not hunt or fish with the others2 his presence would bring misfortune2 the spirit of his dead wife would frighten the fish or the game4 ,he is no longer heard in the discussions4 ,he has no voice in the council of elders4 ,he may not take part in a dance2 he may not own a garden4 ,if one of his children marries1 he has no right to interfere in anything or receive any present4 ,if he were dead1 he could not be ignored more completely4 ,he has become a nocturnal animal4 ,he is forbidden to shew himself in public1 to traverse the village1 to walk in the roads and paths4 ,like a boar1 he must go in the grass or #adh the bushes4 ,if he hears or sees any one1 especially a woman1 coming from afar1 he must hide himself behind a tree or a thicket4 ,if he wishes to go hunting or fishing by himself1 he must go at night4 ,if he has to consult any one1 even the missionary1 he does it in great secrecy and by night4 ,he seems to have lost his voice1 and only speaks in a whisper4 ,he is painted black from head to foot4 ,the hair of his head is shaved1 except two tufts which flutter on his temples4 ,he wears a skull-cap which covers his head completely to the ears2 it ends in a point at the back of his neck4 ,round his waist he wears one1 two1 or three sashes of plaited grass2 his arms and legs from the knees to the ankles are covered with armlets and leglets of the same sort2 and round his neck he wears a similar ornament4 ,his diet is strictly regulated1 but he does not observe it more than he can help1 eating in secret whatever is given him or he can lay his hands on4 8,his tomahawk accompanies him everywhere and always4 ,he needs it to defend himself against the wild boars and also against the spirit of his dead wife1 who might take a fancy to come and play him some mischievous prank2 for the souls of the dead come back often and their visit is far from being desired1 inasmuch as all the spirits without exception are bad and have no pleasure but in harming the living4 ,happily people can keep them at bay by a stick1 fire1 an arrow1 or a tomahawk4 ,the condition of a widower1 far from exciting pity or compassion1 only serves to render him the object of horror and fear4 ,almost all widowers1 in fact1 have the reputation of being more or less sorcerers1 and their mode of life is not fitted to give the lie to public opinion4 ,they are forced to become idlers and thieves1 since they are forbidden to work3 no work1 no gardens2 no gardens1 no food3 steal then they must1 and that is a trade which cannot be plied without some audacity and knavery at a pinch40#adh4a ,sidenote3 ,the widespread fear of ghosts among mankind has probably had the effect of making men less ready to take each other's lives4 ,it would be easy1 but superfluous1 to multiply evidence of the terror which a belief in ghosts has spread among mankind1 and of the consequences1 sometimes tragical1 sometimes #adi ludicrous1 which that belief has brought in its train4#adi4a ,the preceding instances may suffice for my purpose1 which is merely to indicate the probability that this widespread superstition has served a useful purpose by enhancing the sacredness of human life4 ,for it is reasonable to suppose that men are more loth to spill the blood of their fellows when they believe that by so doing they expose themselves to the vengeance of an angry and powerful spirit whom it is difficult either to evade or to deceive4 ,fortunately in this matter we are not left wholly to conjecture4 ,sidenote3 ,in ,china the faith in the power of ghosts is universal4 ,in the vast empire of ,china1 as we are assured by the best living authority on ,chinese religion1 the fear of ghosts has actually produced this salutary result4 ,amongst the ,chinese the faith in the existence of the dead1 in their power to reward kindness and avenge injury1 is universal and inveterate2 it has been handed down from an immemorial past1 and it is nourished in the experience1 or rather in the mind1 of everybody by hundreds of ghost stories1 all of which are accepted as authentic4 ,nobody doubts that ghosts may interfere at any moment for good or evil in the business of life1 in the regulation of human destiny4 ,to the ,chinese their dead are not what our dead are to most of us1 a dim sad memory1 a shadowy congregation somewhere far away1 to whom we may go in time1 but who cannot come to us or exercise any influence on the land of the living4 ,on the contrary1 in the opinion of the ,chinese the dead not only exist but keep up a most lively intercourse1 an active interchange of good and evil1 with the survivors4 ,there is1 indeed1 even in ,china1 a line of demarcation between men and spirits1 between the living and the dead1 but it is said to be very faint1 almost imperceptible4 ,this perpetual commerce between the two worlds1 the material and the spiritual1 is a source both of bane and of blessing3 the spirits of the departed rule human destiny with a rod of iron or of gold4 ,from them man has everything to hope1 but also much to fear4 ,hence as a natural consequence it is to the ghosts1 to the souls of the dead1 that the ,chinaman #aej pays his devotions2 it is around their dear or dreadful figures as a centre that his religion revolves4 ,to ensure their goodwill and help1 to avert their wrath and fierce attacks1 that is the first and the last object of his religious ceremonies4#aej4a ,sidenote3 ,in ,china respect for human life is enforced by fear of ghosts4 ,this faith of the ,chinese in the existence and power of the dead1 we are informed1 8indubitably exercises a mighty and salutary influence upon morals4 ,it enforces respect for human life and a charitable treatment of the infirm1 the aged and the sick1 especially if they stand on the brink of the grave4 ,benevolence and humanity1 thus based on fears and selfishness1 may have little ethical value in our eye2 but for all that1 their existence in a country where culture has not yet taught man to cultivate good for the sake of good alone1 may be greeted as a blessing4 ,those virtues are even extended to animals1 for1 in fact1 these too have souls which may work vengeance or bring reward4 ,but the firm belief in ghosts and their retributive justice has still other effects4 ,it deters from grievous and provoking injustice1 because the wronged party1 thoroughly sure of the avenging power of his own spirit when disembodied1 will not always shrink from converting himself into a wrathful ghost by committing suicide10 in order to wreak in death that vengeance on his oppressor which he could not exact in life4 ,cases of suicide committed with this intention are said to be far from rare in ,china4#aej4b 8,this simple complex of tenets10 says ,professor de ,groot1 8lays disrespect for human lives under great restraint4 ,sidenote3 ,in particular1 the fear of ghosts acts as a check on the practice of infanticide4 ,most salutarily also they work upon female infanticide1 a monstrous custom practised extensively among the poor in ,amoy and the surrounding farming districts1 as in many other parts of the ,empire4 ,the fear that the souls of the murdered little ones may bring misfortune1 induces many a father or mother to lay the girls they are unwilling to bring up1 in the street for adoption into some family or into a foundling-hospital40 ,humane and well-to-do people take advantage of these superstitious fears to inculcate a merciful treatment of female infants2 for they print and circulate gratuitously tracts which set forth many gruesome #aea examples of punishments inflicted upon unnatural fathers and mothers by the ghosts of their murdered daughters4 ,these highly-coloured narratives1 though they bear all the marks of a florid fancy1 are said to answer their benevolent purpose perfectly2 for they sink deep into the credulous minds to which they are addressed3 they touch the seared conscience and the callous heart which no appeal to mere natural affection could move to pity4#aea4a ,sidenote3 ,the fear of ghosts operates in a twofold way to enforce respect for human life3 it furnishes the individual with a motive for abstaining from murder1 and it furnishes the community with a motive for punishing the murderer4 ,but while the fear of the ghost has thus operated directly to enhance the sanctity of human life by deterring the cruel1 the passionate1 and the malignant from the shedding of blood1 it has operated also indirectly to bring about the same salutary result4 ,for not only does the hag-ridden murderer himself dread his victim's ghost1 but the whole community1 as we have seen1 dreads it also and believes itself endangered by the murderer's presence1 since the wrathful spirit which pursues him may turn on other people and rend them4 ,hence society has a strong motive for secluding1 banishing1 or exterminating the culprit in order to free itself from what it believes to be an imminent danger1 a perilous pollution1 a contagion of death4#aea4b ,to put it in another way1 the community has an interest in punishing homicide4 ,not that the treatment of homicides by the tribe or state was originally conceived as a punishment inflicted on them3 rather it was viewed as a measure of self-defence1 a moral quarantine1 a process of spiritual purification and disinfection1 an exorcism4 ,it was a mode of cleansing the people generally and sometimes the homicide himself from the ghostly infection1 which to the primitive mind appears to be something material and tangible1 something that can be literally washed or scoured away by water1 pig's blood1 sheep's blood1 or other detergents4 ,but when this purification took the form of laying the manslayer under restraint1 banishing him from the country1 or putting him to death in order to appease his victim's ghost1 it was for all practical purposes indistinguishable from punishment1 and the fear of it would #aeb act as a deterrent just as surely as if it had been designed to be a punishment and nothing else4 ,when a man is about to be hanged1 it is little consolation to him to be told that hanging is not a punishment but a purification4 ,but the one conception slides easily and almost imperceptibly into the other2 so that what was at first a religious rite1 a solemn consecration or sacrifice1 comes in course of time to be a purely civil function1 the penalty which society exacts from those who have injured it3 the sacrifice becomes an execution1 the priest steps back and the hangman comes forward4 ,thus criminal justice was probably based in large measure on a crude form of superstition long before the subtle brains of jurists and philosophers deduced it logically1 according to their various predilections1 from a rigid theory of righteous retribution1 a far-sighted policy of making the law a terror to evil-doers1 or a benevolent desire to reform the criminal's character and save his soul in another world by hanging or burning his body in this one4 ,if these deductions only profess to justify theoretically the practice of punishment1 they may be well or ill founded2 but if they claim to explain it historically1 they are certainly false4 ,you cannot thus reconstruct the past by importing into one age the ideas of another1 by interpreting the earliest in terms of the latest products of mental evolution4 ,you may make revolutions in that way1 but you cannot write history4 ,sidenote3 ,when the fear of ghosts has diminished1 the fear of the law remains to protect the lives of peaceful citizens4 ,if these views are correct1 the dread of the ghost has operated in a twofold way to protect human life4 ,on the one hand it has made every individual for his own sake more reluctant to slay his fellow1 and on the other hand it has roused the whole community to punish the slayer4 ,it has placed every man's life within a double ring-fence of morality and law4 ,the hot-headed and the cold-hearted have been furnished with a double motive for abstaining from the last fatal step3 they have had to fear the spirit of their victim on the one side and the lash of the law on the other3 they are in a strait between the devil and the deep sea1 between the ghost and the gallows4 ,and when with the progress of thought the shadow of the ghost passes away1 the grim shadow of the gallows remains to protect society without the aid of superstitious terrors4 ,it is thus that custom often #aec outlives the motive which originated it4 ,if only an institution is good in practice1 it will stand firm after its old theoretical basis has been shattered3 a new and more solid1 because a truer1 foundation will be discovered for it to rest upon4 ,more and more1 as time goes on1 morality shifts its ground from the sands of superstition to the rock of reason1 from the imaginary to the real1 from the supernatural to the natural4 ,in the present case the ,state has not ceased to protect the lives of its peaceful citizens because the faith in ghosts is shaken4 ,it has found a better reason than old wives' fables for guarding with the flaming sword of ,justice the approach to the ,tree of ,life4 ,,vi4 ,,conclusion #aed ,sidenote3 ,summary of results4 ,to sum up this brief review of the influence which superstition has exercised on the growth of institutions1 ,i think ,i have shewn1 or at least made probable3-- ,i4 ,that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for government1 especially monarchical government1 and has thereby contributed to the establishment and maintenance of civil order3 ,,ii4 ,that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for private property and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment3 ,,iii4 ,that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for marriage and has thereby contributed to a stricter observance of the rules of sexual morality both among the married and the unmarried3 ,,iv4 ,that among certain races and at certain times superstition has strengthened the respect for human life and has thereby contributed to the security of its enjoyment4 ,sidenote3 ,by strengthening the respect for government1 private property1 marriage1 and human life superstition has rendered a great service to humanity4 ,but government1 private property1 marriage1 and respect for human life are the pillars on which rests the whole fabric of civil society4 ,shake them and you shake society to its foundations4 ,therefore if government1 private property1 marriage1 and respect for human life are all good and essential to the very existence of civil society1 then it follows that by strengthening every one of them superstition has rendered a great service to humanity4 ,it has supplied multitudes with a motive1 a wrong motive it is true1 for #aee right action2 and surely it is better1 far better for the world that men should do right from wrong motives than that they should do wrong with the best intentions4 ,what concerns society is conduct1 not opinion3 if only our actions are just and good1 it matters not a straw to others whether our opinions be mistaken4 ,the danger of false opinion1 and it is a most serious one1 is that it commonly leads to wrong action2 hence it is unquestionably a great evil and every effort should be made to correct it4 ,but of the two evils wrong action is in itself infinitely worse than false opinion2 and all systems of religion or philosophy which lay more stress on right opinion than on right action1 which exalt orthodoxy above virtue1 are so far immoral and prejudicial to the best interests of mankind3 they invert the true relative importance1 the real ethical value1 of thought and action1 for it is by what we do1 not by what we think1 that we are useful or useless1 beneficent or maleficent to our fellows4 ,as a body of false opinions1 therefore1 superstition is indeed a most dangerous guide in practice1 and the evils which it has wrought are incalculable4 ,but vast as are these evils1 they ought not to blind us to the benefit which superstition has conferred on society by furnishing the ignorant1 the weak1 and the foolish with a motive1 bad though it be1 for good conduct4 ,it is a reed1 a broken reed1 which has yet supported the steps of many a poor erring brother1 who but for it might have stumbled and fallen4 ,it is a light1 a dim and wavering light1 which1 if it has lured many a mariner on the breakers1 has yet guided some wanderers on life's troubled sea into a haven of rest and peace4 ,once the harbour lights are passed and the ship is in port1 it matters little whether the pilot steered by a ,jack-o'-lantern or by the stars4 ,sidenote3 ,superstition at the bar4 ,sentence of death4 ,that1 ladies and gentlemen1 is my plea for ,superstition4 ,perhaps it might be urged in mitigation of the sentence which will be passed on the hoary-headed offender when he stands at the judgment bar4 ,yet the sentence1 do not doubt it1 is death4 ,but it will not be executed in our time4 ,there will be a long1 long reprieve4 ,it is as his advocate1 not as his executioner1 that ,i have appeared before you #aef to-night4 ,at ,athens cases of murder were tried before the ,areopagus by night1#aef4a and it is by night that ,i have spoken in defence of this power of darkness4 ,but it grows late1 and with my sinister client ,i must vanish before the cocks crow and the morning breaks grey in the east4 ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology #aeg #aeh ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,social ,,anthropology #aei ,a lecture delivered before the ,university of ,liverpool1 ,may #adth1 #aijh4 ,sidenote3 ,social ,anthropology4 ,the subject of the chair which ,i have the honour to hold is ,social ,anthropology4 ,as the subject is still comparatively new and its limits are still somewhat vague1 ,i shall devote my inaugural lecture to defining its scope and marking out roughly1 if not the boundaries of the whole study1 at least the boundaries of that part of it which ,i propose to take for my province4 ,sidenote3 ,anthropology a study of recent date4 ,strange as it may seem1 in the large and thriving family of the sciences1 ,anthropology1 or the ,science of ,man1 is the latest born4 ,so young indeed is the study that three of its distinguished founders in ,england1 ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,lord ,avebury1 and ,mr4 ,francis ,galton1 are happily still with us4 ,it is true that particular departments of man's complex nature have long been the theme of special studies4 ,anatomy has investigated his body1 psychology has explored his mind1 theology and metaphysics have sought to plumb the depths of the great mysteries by which he is encompassed on every hand4 ,but it has been reserved for the present generation1 or rather for the generation which is passing away1 to attempt the comprehensive study of man as a whole1 to enquire not merely into the physical and mental structure of the individual1 but to compare the various races of men1 to trace their affinities1 and by means of a wide collection of facts to follow as far as may be the evolution of human thought and institutions from the earliest times4 ,the aim of this1 as of every other science1 is to #afj discover the general laws to which the particular facts may be supposed to conform4 ,i say1 may be supposed to conform1 because research in all departments has rendered it antecedently probable that everywhere law and order will be found to prevail if we search for them diligently1 and that accordingly the affairs of man1 however complex and incalculable they may seem to be1 are no exception to the uniformity of nature4 ,anthropology1 therefore1 in the widest sense of the word1 aims at discovering the general laws which have regulated human history in the past1 and which1 if nature is really uniform1 may be expected to regulate it in the future4 ,sidenote3 ,the scope of ,social ,anthropology more limited than that of ,sociology2 it includes only the rudimentary phases of human society4 ,hence the science of man coincides to a certain extent with what has long been known as the philosophy of history as well as with the study to which of late years the name of ,sociology has been given4 ,indeed it might with some reason be held that ,social ,anthropology1 or the study of man in society1 is only another expression for ,sociology4 ,yet ,i think that the two sciences may be conveniently distinguished1 and that while the name of ,sociology should be reserved for the study of human society in the most comprehensive sense of the words1 the name of ,social ,anthropology may with advantage be restricted to one particular department of that immense field of knowledge4 ,at least ,i wish to make it perfectly clear at the outset that ,i for one do not pretend to treat of the whole of human society1 past1 present1 and future4 ,whether any single man's compass of mind and range of learning suffice for such a vast undertaking1 ,i will not venture to say1 but ,i do say without hesitation or ambiguity that mine certainly do not4 ,i can only speak of what ,i have studied1 and my studies have been mostly confined to a small1 a very small part of man's social history4 ,that part is the origin1 or rather the rudimentary phases1 the infancy and childhood1 of human society1 and to that part accordingly ,i propose to limit the scope of ,social ,anthropology1 or at all events my treatment of it4 ,my successors in the chair will be free to extend their purview beyond the narrow boundaries which the limitation of my knowledge imposes on me4 ,they may survey the latest developments as well as the earliest beginnings of custom #afa and law1 of science and art1 of morality and religion1 and from that survey they may deduce the principles which should guide mankind in the future1 so that those who come after us may avoid the snares and pitfalls into which we and our fathers have slipped4 ,for the best fruit of knowledge is wisdom1 and it may reasonably be hoped that a deeper and wider acquaintance with the past history of mankind will in time enable our statesmen to mould the destiny of the race in fairer forms than we of this generation shall live to see4 8,ah ,love6 could you and ,i with ,him conspire ,to grasp this sorry ,scheme of ,things entire1 ,would we not shatter it to bits--and then ,re-mould it nearer to the ,heart's desire60 ,sidenote3 ,at least the present lecturer limits himself to these phases4 ,but if you wish to shatter the social fabric1 you must not expect your professor of ,social ,anthropology to aid and abet you4 ,he is no seer to discern1 no prophet to foretell a coming heaven on earth1 no mountebank with a sovran remedy for every ill1 no ,red ,cross ,knight to head a crusade against misery and want1 against disease and death1 against all the horrid spectres that war on poor humanity4 ,it is for others with higher notes and nobler natures than his to sound the charge and lead it in this ,holy ,war4 ,he is only a student1 a student of the past1 who may perhaps tell you a little1 a very little1 of what has been1 but who cannot1 dare not tell you what ought to be4 ,yet even the little that he can contribute to the elucidation of the past may have its utility as well as its interest when it finally takes its place in that great temple of science to which it is the ambition of every student to add a stone4 ,for we cherish a belief that if we truly love and seek knowledge for its own sake1 without any ulterior aim1 every addition we may make to it1 however insignificant and useless it may appear1 will yet at last be found to work together with the whole accumulated store for the general good of mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,social ,anthropology embraces the study1 first1 of savagery1 and1 second1 of folklore1 that is1 of the traces of savagery in civilization4 ,thus the sphere of ,social ,anthropology as ,i understand it1 or at least as ,i propose to treat it1 is limited to the crude beginnings1 the rudimentary development of human society3 it does not include the maturer phases of that complex growth1 still less does it embrace the practical problems #afb with which our modern statesmen and lawgivers are called upon to deal4 ,the study might accordingly be described as the embryology of human thought and institutions1 or1 to be more precise1 as that enquiry which seeks to ascertain1 first1 the beliefs and customs of savages1 and1 second1 the relics of these beliefs and customs which have survived like fossils among peoples of higher culture4 ,sidenote3 ,all civilization evolved from savagery4 ,in this description of the sphere of ,social ,anthropology it is implied that the ancestors of the civilized nations were once savages1 and that they have transmitted1 or may have transmitted1 to their more cultured descendants ideas and institutions which1 however incongruous with their later surroundings1 were perfectly in keeping with the modes of thought and action of the ruder society in which they originated4 ,in short1 the definition assumes that civilization has always and everywhere been evolved out of savagery4 ,the mass of evidence on which this assumption rests is in my opinion so great as to render the induction incontrovertible4 ,at least1 if any one disputes it ,i do not think it worth while to argue with him4 ,there are still1 ,i believe1 in civilized society people who hold that the earth is flat and that the sun goes round it2 but no sensible man will waste time in the vain attempt to convince such persons of their error1 even though these flatteners of the earth and circulators of the sun appeal with perfect justice to the evidence of their senses in support of their hallucination1 which is more than the opponents of man's primitive savagery are able to do4 ,sidenote3 ,hence a study of savagery essential to an understanding of the evolution of humanity4 ,thus the study of savage life is a very important part of ,social ,anthropology4 ,for by comparison with civilized man the savage represents an arrested or rather retarded stage of social development1 and an examination of his customs and beliefs accordingly supplies the same sort of evidence of the evolution of the human mind that an examination of the embryo supplies of the evolution of the human body4 ,to put it otherwise1 a savage is to a civilized man as a child is to an adult2 and just as the gradual growth of intelligence in a child corresponds to1 and in a sense recapitulates1 the gradual growth of intelligence in the species1 so a study of savage society at various stages of evolution enables us to follow approximately1 though of #afc course not exactly1 the road by which the ancestors of the higher races must have travelled in their progress upward through barbarism to civilization4 ,in short1 savagery is the primitive condition of mankind1 and if we would understand what primitive man was we must know what the savage now is4 ,sidenote3 ,savages of the present day are primitive only in a relative sense1 namely by comparison with civilized peoples2 their customs and beliefs are in fact the product of a long course of evolution as to which we can know little or nothing4 ,but here it is necessary to guard against a common misapprehension4 ,the savages of to-day are primitive only in a relative1 not in an absolute sense4 ,they are primitive by comparison with us2 but they are not primitive by comparison with truly primval man1 that is1 with man as he was when he first emerged from the purely bestial stage of existence4 ,indeed1 compared with man in his absolutely pristine state even the lowest savage of to-day is doubtless a highly developed and cultured being1 since all evidence and all probability are in favour of the view that every existing race of men1 the rudest as well as the most civilized1 has reached its present level of culture1 whether it be high or low1 only after a slow and painful progress upwards1 which must have extended over many thousands1 perhaps millions1 of years4 ,therefore when we speak of any known savages as primitive1 which the usage of the ,english language permits us to do1 it should always be remembered that we apply the term primitive to them in a relative1 not in an absolute sense4 ,what we mean is that their culture is rudimentary compared with that of the civilized nations1 but not by any means that it is identical with that of primval man4 ,it is necessary to emphasize this relative use of the term primitive in its application to all known savages without exception1 because the ambiguity arising from the double meaning of the word has been the source of much confusion and misunderstanding4 ,careless or unscrupulous writers have made great play with it for purposes of controversy1 using the word now in the one sense and now in the other as it suited their argument at the moment1 without perceiving1 or at all events without indicating1 the equivocation4 ,in order to avoid these verbal fallacies it is only necessary to bear steadily in mind that while ,social ,anthropology has much to say of primitive man in the relative sense1 it has nothing whatever to say about primitive man in the absolute sense1 #afd and that for the very simple reason that it knows nothing whatever about him1 and1 so far as we can see at present1 is never likely to know anything4 ,to construct a history of human society by starting from absolutely primordial man and working down through thousands or millions of years to the institutions of existing savages might possibly have merits as a flight of imagination1 but it could have none as a work of science4 ,to do this would be exactly to reverse the proper mode of scientific procedure4 ,it would be to work a priori from the unknown to the known instead of a posteriori from the known to the unknown4 ,for we do know a good deal about the social state of the savages of to-day and yesterday1 but we know nothing whatever1 ,i repeat1 about absolutely primitive human society4 ,hence a sober enquirer who seeks to elucidate the social evolution of mankind in ages before the dawn of history must start1 not from an unknown and purely hypothetical primval man1 but from the lowest savages whom we know or possess adequate records of2 and from their customs1 beliefs1 and traditions as a solid basis of fact he may work back a little way hypothetically through the obscurity of the past2 that is1 he may form a reasonable theory of the way in which these actual customs1 beliefs1 and traditions have grown up and developed in a period more or less remote1 but probably not very remote1 from the one in which they have been observed and recorded4 ,but if1 as ,i assume1 he is a sober enquirer1 he will never expect to carry back this reconstruction of human history very far1 still less will he dream of linking it up with the very beginning1 because he is aware that we possess no evidence which would enable us to bridge even hypothetically the gulf of thousands or millions of years which divides the savage of to-day from primval man4 ,sidenote3 ,for example1 the marriage customs and systems of relationship prevalent among many savage tribes appear to have been evolved from a preceding1 but not necessarily primitive1 state of sexual promiscuity4 ,it may be well to illustrate my meaning by an example4 ,the matrimonial customs and modes of tracing relationships which prevail among some savage races1 and even among peoples at a higher stage of culture1 furnish very strong grounds for believing that the systems of marriage and consanguinity which are now in vogue among civilized peoples must have been immediately preceded at a more or less distant time by very different modes of counting kin and regulating marriage2 #afe in fact1 that monogamy and the forbidden degrees of kinship have replaced an older system of much wider and looser sexual relations4 ,but to say this is not to affirm that such looser and wider relations were characteristic of the absolutely primitive condition of mankind2 it is only to say that actually existing customs and traditions clearly indicate the extensive prevalence of such relations at some former time in the history of our race4 ,how remote that time was1 we cannot tell2 but1 estimated by the whole vast period of man's existence on earth1 it seems probable that the era of sexual communism to which the evidence points was comparatively recent2 in other words1 that for the civilized races the interval which divides that era from our own is to be reckoned by thousands rather than by hundreds of thousands of years1 while for the lowest of existing savages1 for example1 the aborigines of ,australia1 it is possible or probable that the interval may not be greater than a few centuries4 ,be that as it may1 even if on the strength of the evidence ,i have referred to we could demonstrate the former prevalence of a system of sexual communism among all the races of mankind1 this would only carry us back a single step in the long history of our species2 it would not justify us in concluding that such a system had been practised by truly primval man1 still less that it had prevailed among mankind from the beginning down to the comparatively recent period at which its existence may be inferred from the evidence at our disposal4 ,about the social condition of primval man1 ,i repeat1 we know absolutely nothing1 and it is vain to speculate4 ,our first parents may have been as strict monogamists as ,whiston or ,dr4 ,primrose1 or they may have been just the reverse4 ,we have no information on the subject1 and are never likely to get any4 ,in the countless ages which have elapsed since man and woman first roamed the happy garden hand in hand or jabbered like apes among the leafy boughs of the virgin forest1 their relations to each other may have undergone innumerable changes4 ,for human affairs1 like the courses of the heaven1 seem to run in cycles3 the social pendulum swings to and fro from one extremity of the scale to the other3 in the political sphere it has swung from democracy to despotism1 and back again from despotism to democracy2 #aff and so in the domestic sphere it may have oscillated many a time between libertinism and monogamy4 ,sidenote3 ,the second department of ,social ,anthropology is folklore1 or the study of savage survivals in civilization4 ,if ,i am right in my definition of ,social ,anthropology1 its province may be roughly divided into two departments1 one of which embraces the customs and beliefs of savages1 while the other includes such relics of these customs and beliefs as have survived in the thought and institutions of more cultured peoples4 ,the one department may be called the study of savagery1 the other the study of folklore4 ,i have said something of savagery3 ,i now turn to folklore1 that is1 to the survivals of more primitive ideas and practices among peoples who in other respects have risen to a higher plane of culture4 ,that such survivals may be discovered in every civilized nation will hardly now be disputed by anybody4 ,when we read1 for example1 of an ,irishwoman roasted to death by her husband on a suspicion that she was not his wife but a fairy changeling1#aff4a or again1 of an ,englishwoman dying of lockjaw because she had anointed the nail that wounded her instead of the wound1#aff4b we may be sure that the beliefs to which these poor creatures fell victims were not learned by them in school or at church1 but had been transmitted from truly savage ancestors through many generations of outwardly though not really civilized descendants4 ,beliefs and practices of this sort are therefore rightly called superstitions1 which means literally survivals4 ,it is with superstitions in the strict sense of the word that the second department of ,social ,anthropology is concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,such survivals are due to the essential inequality of men1 many of whom remain at heart savages under a civilized exterior4 ,if we ask how it happens that superstitions linger among a people who in general have reached a higher level of culture1 the answer is to be found in the natural1 universal1 and ineradicable inequality of men4 ,not only are different races differently endowed in respect of intelligence1 courage1 industry1 and so forth1 but within the same nation men of the same generation differ enormously in inborn capacity and worth4 ,no abstract doctrine is more false and mischievous #afg than that of the natural equality of men4 ,it is true that the legislator must treat men as if they were equal1 because laws of necessity are general and cannot be made so as to fit the infinite variety of individual cases4 ,but we must not imagine that because men are equal before the law they are therefore intrinsically equal to each other4 ,the experience of common life sufficiently contradicts such a vain imagination4 ,at school and at the universities1 at work and at play1 in peace and in war1 the mental and moral inequalities of human beings stand out too conspicuously to be ignored or disputed4 ,on the whole the men of keenest intelligence and strongest characters lead the rest and shape the moulds into which1 outwardly at least1 society is cast4 ,sidenote3 ,mankind dominated by an enlightened minority4 ,as such men are necessarily few by comparison with the multitude whom they lead1 it follows that the community is really dominated by the will of an enlightened minority#afg4a even in countries where the ruling power is nominally vested in the hands of the numerical majority4 ,in fact1 disguise it as we may1 the government of mankind is always and everywhere essentially aristocratic4 ,no juggling with political machinery can evade this law of nature4 ,however it may seem to lead1 the dull-witted majority in the end follows a keener-witted minority4 ,that is its salvation and the secret of progress4 ,the higher human intelligence sways the lower1 just as the intelligence of man gives him the mastery over the brutes4 ,i do not mean that the ultimate direction of society rests with its nominal governors1 with its kings1 its statesmen1 its legislators4 ,sidenote3 ,the uncrowned kings4 ,the true rulers of men are the thinkers who advance knowledge2 for just as it is through his superior knowledge1 not through his superior strength1 that man bears rule over the rest of the animal creation1 so among men themselves it is knowledge which in the long run directs and controls the forces of society4 ,thus the discoverers of new truths are the real though uncrowned and unsceptred kings of mankind2 monarchs1 statesmen1 and law-givers are but their ministers1 who sooner or later do their bidding by carrying out the ideas of these master #afh minds4 ,the more we study the inward workings of society and the progress of civilization1 the more clearly shall we perceive how both are governed by the influence of thoughts which1 springing up at first we know not how or whence in a few superior minds1 gradually spread till they have leavened the whole inert lump of a community or of mankind4 ,the origin of such mental variations1 with all their far-reaching train of social consequences1 is just as obscure as is the origin of those physical variations on which1 if biologists are right1 depends the evolution of species1 and with it the possibility of progress4 ,perhaps the same unknown cause which determines the one set of variations gives rise to the other also4 ,we cannot tell4 ,all we can say is that on the whole in the conflict of competing forces1 whether physical or mental1 the strongest at last prevails1 the fittest survives4 ,in the mental sphere the struggle for existence is not less fierce and internecine than in the physical1 but in the end the better ideas1 which we call the truth1 carry the day4 ,the clamorous opposition with which at their first appearance they are regularly greeted1 whenever they conflict with old prejudices1 may retard but cannot prevent their final victory4 ,sidenote3 ,the tombs of the prophets4 ,it is the practice of the mob first to stone and then to erect useless memorials to their greatest benefactors4 ,all who set themselves to replace ancient error and superstition by truth and reason must lay their account with brickbats in their life and a marble monument after death4 ,sidenote3 ,superstition the creed of the laggards in the march of intellect4 ,i have been led into making these remarks by the wish to explain why it is that superstitions of all sorts1 political1 moral1 and religious1 survive among peoples who have the opportunity of knowing better4 ,the reason is that the better ideas1 which are constantly forming in the upper stratum1 have not yet filtered through from the highest to the lowest minds4 ,such a filtration is generally slow1 and by the time that the new notions have penetrated to the bottom1 if indeed they ever get there1 they are often already obsolete and superseded by others at the top4 ,hence it is that if we could open the heads and read the thoughts of two men of the same generation and country but at opposite ends of the intellectual scale1 we should probably find their minds as #afi different as if the two belonged to different species4 ,mankind1 as it has been well said1 advances in chelons2 that is1 the columns march not abreast of each other but in a straggling line1 all lagging in various degrees behind the leader4 ,the image well describes the difference not only between peoples1 but between individuals of the same people and the same generation4 ,just as one nation is continually outstripping some of its contemporaries1 so within the same nation some men are constantly outpacing their fellows1 and the foremost in the race are those who have thrown off the load of superstition which still burdens the backs and clogs the footsteps of the laggards4 ,to drop metaphor1 superstitions survive because1 while they shock the views of enlightened members of the community1 they are still in harmony with the thoughts and feelings of others who1 though they are drilled by their betters into an appearance of civilization1 remain barbarians or savages at heart4 ,that is why1 for example1 the barbarous punishments for high treason and witchcraft and the enormities of slavery were tolerated and defended in this country down to modern times4 ,sidenote3 ,superstitions either public or private4 ,such survivals may be divided into two sorts1 according as they are public or private2 in other words1 according as they are embodied in the law of the land or are practised with or without the connivance of the law in holes and corners4 ,sidenote3 ,examples of public superstitions4 ,the examples ,i have just cited belong to the former of these two classes4 ,witches were publicly burned and traitors were publicly disembowelled in ,england not so long ago1 and slavery survived as a legal institution still later4 ,the true nature of such public superstitions is apt1 through their very publicity1 to escape detection1 because until they are finally swept away by the rising tide of progress1 there are always plenty of people to defend them as institutions essential to the public welfare and sanctioned by the laws of ,god and man4 ,sidenote3 ,the wide prevalence of private superstitions constitutes a standing menace to civilization4 ,it is otherwise with those private superstitions to which the name of folklore is usually confined4 ,in civilized society most educated people are not even aware of the extent to which these relics of savage ignorance survive at their doors4 ,the discovery of their wide prevalence was indeed only made last century1 chiefly through the researches of the brothers #agj ,grimm in ,germany4 ,since their day systematic enquiries carried on among the less educated classes1 and especially among the peasantry1 of ,europe have revealed the astonishing1 nay1 alarming truth that a mass1 if not the majority1 of people in every civilized country is still living in a state of intellectual savagery1 that1 in fact1 the smooth surface of cultured society is sapped and mined by superstition4 ,only those whose studies have led them to investigate the subject are aware of the depth to which the ground beneath our feet is thus1 as it were1 honeycombed by unseen forces4 ,we appear to be standing on a volcano which may at any moment break out in smoke and fire to spread ruin and devastation among the gardens and palaces of ancient culture wrought so laboriously by the hands of many generations4 ,after looking on the ruined ,greek temples of ,paestum and contrasting them with the squalor and savagery of the ,italian peasantry1 ,renan said1 8,i trembled for civilization1 seeing it so limited1 built on so weak a foundation1 resting on so few individuals even in the country where it is dominant40#agj4a ,sidenote3 ,it is the earliest and crudest superstitions that survive longest1 because they answer to the calibre of the lowest minds4 ,hence while the surface of society is constantly changing1 its depths1 like those of the ocean1 remain almost motionless4 ,if we examine the superstitious beliefs which are tacitly but firmly held by many of our fellow-countrymen1 we shall find1 perhaps to our surprise1 that it is precisely the oldest and crudest superstitions which are most tenacious of life1 while views which1 though also erroneous1 are more modern and refined1 soon fade from the popular memory4 ,for example1 the high gods of ,egypt and ,babylon1 of ,greece and ,rome1 have for ages been totally forgotten by the people and survive only in the books of the learned2 yet the peasants1 who never even heard of ,isis and ,osiris1 of ,apollo and ,artemis1 of ,jupiter and ,juno1 retain to this day a firm belief in witches and fairies1 in ghosts and hobgoblins1 those lesser creatures of the mythical fancy in which their fathers believed long before the great deities of the ancient world were ever thought of1 and in which1 to all appearance1 their descendants will continue to believe long after the great deities of the present day shall have gone the way of all their predecessors4 ,the reason why the higher forms of superstition or religion 7for the religion of one generation is #aga apt to become the superstition of the next7 are less permanent than the lower is simply that the higher beliefs1 being a creation of superior intelligence1 have little hold on the minds of the vulgar1 who nominally profess them for a time in conformity with the will of their betters1 but readily shed and forget them as soon as these beliefs have gone out of fashion with the educated classes4 ,but while they dismiss without a pang or an effort articles of faith which were only superficially imprinted on their minds by the weight of cultured opinion1 the ignorant and foolish multitude cling with a sullen determination to far grosser beliefs which really answer to the coarser texture of their undeveloped intellect4 ,thus while the avowed creed of the enlightened minority is constantly changing under the influence of reflection and enquiry1 the real1 though unavowed1 creed of the mass of mankind appears to be almost stationary1 and the reason why it alters so little is that in the majority of men1 whether they are savages or outwardly civilized beings1 intellectual progress is so slow as to be hardly perceptible4 ,the surface of society1 like that of the sea1 is in perpetual motion2 its depths1 like those of the ocean1 remain almost unmoved4 ,sidenote3 ,the early history of mankind1 reconstructed from the joint testimony of savagery and folklore1 is full of gaps1 which can only be imperfectly bridged by the ,comparative ,method4 ,thus from an examination1 first1 of savagery and1 second1 of its survivals in civilization1 the study of ,social ,anthropology attempts to trace the early history of human thought and institutions4 ,the history can never be complete1 unless science should discover some mode of reading the faded record of the past of which we in this generation can hardly dream4 ,we know indeed that every event1 however insignificant1 implies a change1 however slight1 in the material constitution of the universe1 so that the whole history of the world is1 in a sense1 engraved upon its face1 though our eyes are too dim to read the scroll4 ,it may be that in the future some wondrous reagent1 some magic chemical1 may yet be found to bring out the whole of nature's secret handwriting for a greater than ,daniel to interpret to his fellows4 ,that will hardly be in our time4 ,with the resources at present at our command we must be content with a very brief1 imperfect1 and in large measure conjectural account of man's mental and social development in prehistoric ages4 #agb ,as ,i have already pointed out1 the evidence1 fragmentary and dubious as it is1 only runs back a very little way into the measureless past of human life on earth2 we soon lose the thread1 the faintly glimmering thread1 in the thick darkness of the absolutely unknown4 ,even in the comparatively short space of time1 a few thousand years at most1 which falls more or less within our ken1 there are many deep and wide chasms which can only be bridged by hypotheses1 if the story of evolution is to run continuously4 ,sidenote3 ,the legitimacy of the ,comparative ,method in social anthropology rests on the similarity of the human mind in all races4 ,such bridges are built in anthropology as in biology by the ,comparative ,method1 which enables us to borrow the links of one chain of evidence to supply the gaps in another4 ,for us who deal1 not with the various forms of animal life1 but with the various products of human intelligence1 the legitimacy of the ,comparative ,method rests on the well-ascertained similarity of the working of the human mind in all races of men4 ,i have laid stress on the great inequalities which exist not only between the various races1 but between men of the same race and generation2 but it should be clearly understood and remembered that these divergencies are quantitative rather than qualitative1 they consist in differences of degree rather than of kind4 ,the savage is not a different sort of being from his civilized brother3 he has the same capacities1 mental and moral1 but they are less fully developed3 his evolution has been arrested1 or rather retarded1 at a lower level4 ,and as savage races are not all on the same plane1 but have stopped or tarried at different points of the upward path1 we can to a certain extent1 by comparing them with each other1 construct a scale of social progression and mark out roughly some of the stages on the long road that leads from savagery to civilization4 ,in the kingdom of mind such a scale of mental evolution answers to the scale of morphological evolution in the animal kingdom4 ,sidenote3 ,it is only of late years that the importance of savagery as a document of human history has been understood4 ,from what ,i have said ,i hope you have formed some idea of the extreme importance which the study of savage life possesses for a proper understanding of the early history of mankind4 ,the savage is a human document1 a record of man's efforts to raise himself above the level of the beast4 ,it is only of late years that the full value of the document #agc has been appreciated2 indeed1 many people are probably still of ,dr4 ,johnson's opinion1 who1 pointing to the three large volumes of ,voyages to the ,south ,seas which had just come out1 said3 8,who will read them through8 ,a man had better work his way before the mast than read them through2 they will be eaten by rats and mice before they are read through4 ,there can be little entertainment in such books2 one set of savages is like another40#agc4a ,but the world has learned a good deal since ,dr4 ,johnson's day2 and the records of savage life1 which the sage of ,bolt ,court consigned without scruple to the rats and mice1 have now their place among the most precious archives of humanity4 ,their fate has been like that of the ,sibylline ,books4 ,they were neglected and despised when they might have been obtained complete2 and now wise men would give more than a king's ransom for their miserably mutilated and imperfect remains4 ,it is true that before our time civilized men often viewed savages with interest and described them intelligently1 and some of their descriptions are still of great scientific value4 ,sidenote3 ,great impulse given to the study of savagery by the discovery of ,america and of the ,pacific4 ,for example1 the discovery of ,america naturally excited in the minds of the ,european peoples an eager curiosity as to the inhabitants of the new world1 which had burst upon their gaze1 as if at the waving of a wizard's wand the curtain of the western sky had suddenly rolled up and disclosed scenes of glamour and enchantment4 ,accordingly some of the ,spaniards who explored and conquered these realms of wonder have bequeathed to us accounts of the manners and customs of the ,indians1 which for accuracy and fulness of detail probably surpass any former records of an alien race4 ,such1 for instance1 is the great work of the ,franciscan friar ,sahagun on the natives of ,mexico1 and such the work of ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 himself half an ,inca1 on the ,incas of ,peru4 ,again1 the exploration of the ,pacific in the eighteenth century1 with its revelation of fairy-like islands scattered in profusion over a sea of eternal summer1 drew the eyes and stirred the imagination of ,europe2 and to the curiosity thus raised in many minds1 though not in ,dr4 ,johnson's1 we owe some precious descriptions of the islanders1 who1 in those days of sailing ships1 appeared to dwell so remote from us #agd that the poet ,cowper fancied their seas might never again be ploughed by ,english keels4#agd4a ,sidenote3 ,the passing of the savage4 ,these and many other old accounts of savages must always retain their interest and value for the study of ,social ,anthropology1 all the more because they set before us the natives in their natural unsophisticated state1 before their primitive manners and customs had been altered or destroyed by ,european influence4 ,yet in the light of subsequent research these early records are often seen to be very defective1 because the authors1 unaware of the scientific importance of facts which to the ordinary observer might appear trifling or disgusting1 have either passed over many things of the highest interest in total silence or dismissed them with a brief and tantalizing allusion4 ,it is accordingly necessary to supplement the reports of former writers by a minute and painstaking investigation of the living savages in order to fill up1 if possible1 the many yawning gaps in our knowledge4 ,unfortunately this cannot always be done1 since many savages have either been totally exterminated or so changed by contact with ,europeans that it is no longer possible to obtain trustworthy information as to their old habits and traditions4 ,but whenever the ancient customs and beliefs of a primitive race have passed away unrecorded1 a document of human history has perished beyond recall4 ,unhappily this destruction of the archives1 as we may call it1 is going on apace4 ,in some places1 for example1 in ,tasmania1 the savage is already extinct2 in others1 as in ,australia1 he is dying4 ,in others again1 for instance in ,central and ,southern ,africa1 where the numbers and inborn vigour of the race shew little or no sign of succumbing in the struggle for existence1 the influence of traders1 officials1 and missionaries is so rapidly disintegrating and effacing the native customs1 that with the passing of the older generation even the memory of them will soon in many places be gone4 ,it is therefore a matter of the most urgent scientific importance to secure without delay full and accurate reports of these perishing or changing peoples1 to take permanent copies1 so #age to say1 of these precious monuments before they are destroyed4 ,it is not yet too late4 ,much may still be learned1 for example1 in ,west ,australia1 in ,new ,guinea1 in ,melanesia1 in ,central ,africa1 among the hill tribes of ,india and the forest ,indians of the ,amazons4 ,there is still time to send expeditions to these regions1 to subsidize men on the spot1 who are conversant with the languages and enjoy the confidence of the natives2 for there are such men who possess or can obtain the very knowledge we require1 yet who1 unaware or careless of its inestimable value for science1 make no effort to preserve the treasure for posterity1 and1 if we do not speedily come to the rescue1 will suffer it to perish with them4 ,in the whole range of human knowledge at the present moment there is no more pressing need than that of recording this priceless evidence of man's early history before it is too late4 ,for soon1 very soon1 the opportunities which we still enjoy will be gone for ever4 ,in another quarter of a century probably there will be little or nothing of the old savage life left to record4 ,the savage1 such as we may still see him1 will then be as extinct as the dodo4 ,the sands are fast running out3 the hour will soon strike3 the record will be closed3 the book will be sealed4 ,sidenote3 ,the duty of our generation to posterity4 ,and how shall we of this generation look when we stand at the bar of posterity arraigned on a charge of high treason to our race1 we who neglected to study our perishing fellow-men1 but who sent out costly expeditions to observe the stars and to explore the barren ice-bound regions of the poles1 as if the polar ice would melt and the stars would cease to shine when we are gone8 ,let us awake from our slumber1 let us light our lamps1 let us gird up our loins4 ,the ,universities exist for the advancement of knowledge4 ,it is their duty to add this new province to the ancient departments of learning which they cultivate so diligently4 ,cambridge1 to its honour1 has led the way in equipping and despatching anthropological expeditions2 it is for ,oxford1 it is for ,liverpool1 it is for every ,university in the land to join in the work4 ,sidenote3 ,the duty of the ,state4 ,more than that1 it is the public duty of every civilized state actively to co-operate4 ,in this respect the ,united ,states of ,america1 by instituting a bureau for the study of the aborigines within its dominions1 has set an example #agf which every enlightened nation that rules over lower races ought to imitate4 ,sidenote3 ,the duty of ,england4 ,on none does that duty1 that responsibility1 lie more clearly and more heavily than on our own1 for to none in the whole course of human history has the sceptre been given over so many and so diverse races of men4 ,we have made ourselves our brother's keepers4 ,woe to us if we neglect our duty to our brother6 ,it is not enough for us to rule in justice the peoples we have subjugated by the sword4 ,we owe it to them1 we owe it to ourselves1 we owe it to posterity1 who will require it at our hands1 that we should describe them as they were before we found them1 before they ever saw the ,english flag and heard1 for good or evil1 the ,english tongue4 ,the voice of ,england speaks to her subject peoples in other accents than in the thunder of her guns4 ,peace has its triumphs as well as war3 there are nobler trophies than captured flags and cannons4 ,sidenote3 ,monumentum aere perennius4 ,there are monuments1 airy monuments1 monuments of words1 which seem so fleeting and evanescent1 that will yet last when your cannons have crumbled and your flags have mouldered into dust4 ,when the ,roman poet wished to present an image of perpetuity1 he said that he would be remembered so long as the ,roman ,empire endured1 so long as the white-robed procession of the ,vestals and ,pontiffs should ascend the ,capitol to pray in the temple of ,jupiter4 ,that solemn procession has long ceased to climb the slope of the ,capitol1 the ,roman ,empire itself has long passed away1 like the empire of ,alexander1 like the empire of ,charlemagne1 like the empire of ,spain1 yet still amid the wreck of kingdoms the poet's monument stands firm1 for still his verses are read and remembered4 ,i appeal to the ,universities1 ,i appeal to the ,government of this country to unite in building a monument1 a beneficent monument1 of the ,british ,empire1 a monument 8,quod non imber edax1 non ,aquilo impotens ,possit diruere1 aut innumerabilis ,annorum series1 et fuga temporum40 ,the ,end ,,index #agg ,aborigines of ,australia1 the severity with which they punish sexual offences1 #ga sqq4 ,abraham and ,sarah1 #fj sq4 ,abyssinia1 #ff1 #ha ,action and opinion1 their relative values for society1 #aee ,adulterer and injured husband1 physical relationship supposed to exist between1 #ajd sq4 ---- called a murderer1 #fe1 #ajd ,adultery1 expiation for1 #dd sq42 disastrous effects supposed to flow from1 #dd sqq41 #fj sq42 punishment of1 #df1 #ej sq41 #fc sqq42 supposed to be dangerous to the culprits1 their spouses1 and their offspring1 #ajb sqq4 ,see also ,infidelity4 ,africa1 superstitious veneration for kings in1 #ab sqq42 superstition as a support of property in1 #ch sqq42 disastrous effects supposed to flow from sexual immorality in1 #ed sqq42 ,british ,central1 #ff1 #gi1 #aje2 ,british ,east1 #gg1 #ha1 #ib1 #aje1 #aae1 #abc2 ,german ,east1 #ib1 #aje1 #ajf2 ,north1 #aai ,akamba1 the1 of ,british ,east ,africa1 #gg sq41 #aje ,akikuyu1 the1 of ,british ,east ,africa1 #ib1 #aje1 #aae1 #abh ,aleutian hunters1 #ajf ,algonquin ,indians1 their modes of keeping off ghosts1 #aci ,amboyna1 taboo in1 #bg sq4 ,america1 ,indians of ,north1 #acj sq42 the discovery of1 #agc ,amulets for the protection of fruit-trees1 #bi sqq4 ,analogy between the reproduction of men1 animals1 and plants1 #ii sqq4 ,ancestor-worship1 #g ,anger of gods or spirits at sexual offences1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #ej1 #ea1 #ed1 #ee sq41 #eg1 #fa1 #fc1 #ajg ,angola1 #ajh2 ,cazembes of1 #aa ,angoni1 the1 of ,british ,central ,africa1 #gi1 #acb ,annam1 savages of1 #df ,annamites1 the1 #cc ,anne1 ,queen1 #ah ,anointing the nail instead of the wound1 #aff ,antambahoaka1 the1 of ,madagascar1 #ei ,anthropology1 social1 the scope of1 #aeg sqq4 ,anyanja1 the1 of ,british ,central ,africa1 #ff1 #gi1 #aje ,arab merchant in ,darfur1 #ci ,araucanians of ,chili1 #hd ,arawaks of ,british ,guiana1 #hc ,areopagus1 trials for murder before the1 #aef ,argos1 massacre at1 #aae ,aricara ,indians1 #aah ,armenians1 their mutilation of the dead1 #acc ,assam1 tribes of1 #de ,attic law as to homicides1 #aad ,atua1 guardian spirit1 #aah ,atua tonga1 divinity1 #h ,aunt1 incest with1 #ej1 #ea ,australia1 aborigines of1 the severity with which they punish sexual offences1 #ga sqq4 ----1 ,western1 #gd ,australian aborigines1 their precautions against ghosts1 #acg ,avebury1 ,lord1 #aei ,avoidance1 ceremonial1 of relations by marriage1 #ge sqq42 a precaution against incest1 #ge1 #hd sqq41 #ic2 of wife's mother1 #ge sqq41 #hf sq41 #ij sq42 between father-in-law and daughter-in-law1 #gf2 between various relations1 #gf sq42 between father and daughter1 #gh1 #he1 #hg2 between father-in-law and son-in-law1 #gi sq42 of wife of wife's brother1 #hj2 of brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law1 #ha2 of future parents-in-law1 #ha1 #hc2 between woman and her father-in-law1 #hb2 between a man and his father-in-law1 #hb1 #hc2 of blood relations1 #hd sqq42 between brother and sister1 #he1 #agh #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij2 between mother and son1 #he1 #hf1 #hg ,awemba1 the1 of ,northern ,rhodesia1 #ff1 #gi1 #ajc sq41 #abj ,babylonian code of ,hammurabi1 #fd ---- kings1 their curses1 #cg sq4 ,baddat ,dyaks of ,borneo1 #dh ,baganda1 punishment of sexual offences among the1 #fd sq42 rules of ceremonial avoidance among the1 #ij sq42 their ideas as to adultery1 #ajb sq42 their ideas as to effect of wife's infidelity on absent husband1 #ajf sq4 ,bakerewe1 a ,bantu people1 #gh ,bali1 punishment of incest and adultery in1 #fh ,balkan peninsula1 the ,slavs of the1 #ig ,balonda1 the1 #ch ,bangala1 the1 of the ,upper ,congo1 #ajg ,banggai ,archipelago1 #ed ,banishment of homicides1 #aac sqq4 ,banks' ,islands1 #f1 #hf ,banner1 a fairy1 #ag ,bantu tribes1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #ajc1 #abc ,bantus1 the1 of ,south ,africa1 their customs as to the marriage of cousins1 #ia ,barea1 the1 tribe on the borders of ,abyssinia1 #ff ,barring the road from the grave against the ghost1 #ach sq4 ,basis of morality shifted from supernatural to natural1 #aec ,basoga1 the1 of ,central ,africa1 #fe ,bastards put to death1 #if1 #ig ,basutos1 the1 #ef2 purification for homicide among the1 #abj sq4 ,batamba1 the1 of ,busoga1 #gf ,batang ,lupar river in ,borneo1 #dh ,battas1 or ,bataks1 of ,sumatra1 their ideas as to sexual immorality1 #df2 their punishment of adultery1 #fi2 their rules of ceremonial avoidance1 #he ,bavili1 the1 of ,loango1 #ee ,ba-,yaka1 the1 of the ,congo ,free ,state1 #abd ,beech1 ,m4 ,w4 ,h41 #abi n4 #a ,belief in immortality a fruitful source of war1 #abi sq42 waste of life and property entailed by the1 #aaa sq4 ,bella ,coola ,indians1 mourning customs of the1 #add ,beni ,amer1 tribe on the borders of ,abyssinia1 #ff ,bering ,strait1 #acb ,besisi1 the1 of the ,malay ,peninsula1 #acg ,bhotias1 the1 of the ,himalayas1 #ada ,bilaspore in ,india1 #acc ,bismarck ,archipelago1 #aca ,black and white ,furies1 #aag ,blood of pigs used in expiatory ceremonies1 #dd sqq42 of incestuous persons not to be shed on the ground1 #eb1 #ec1 #fh2 of pigs used in ceremonies of purification1 #aaf sq42 of the slain drunk by the slayers1 #aah sq4 ,blood covenant1 #aah1 #aai ---- relations1 ceremonial avoidance of1 #hd sqq4 ,blu-u ,kayans1 the1 of ,borneo1 #ea ,boas1 ,franz1 quoted1 #abf sq41 #adf sq4 ,bogos1 tribe on borders of ,abyssinia1 #ha ,bolivia1 #ajf ,boloki1 the1 of the ,congo1 #ci1 #ge1 #ajg1 #abh ,borneo1 the ,sea ,dyaks of1 #cd1 #dg sq41 #ea1 #acf2 pagan tribes of1 #di sq42 tribes of ,dutch1 #ej sq4 ,brazil1 ,indians of1 #if ,british ,columbia1 mourning customs among the tribes of1 #adb sqq4 ,brooke1 ,charles1 quoted1 #ej ,brooke1 ,rajah1 #ab ,brother and sister1 ceremonial avoidance between1 #gg1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij2 incest of1 #ea1 #ed1 #ei1 #fj n4 #a1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh ,brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law1 mutual avoidance of1 #ha ,buduma1 the1 of ,lake ,chad1 #aji ,bugineese1 the1 of ,celebes1 #ea ,bukaua1 tribe of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #hb1 #aca ,bureau of ,ethnology in the ,u4,s4 ,america1 #age ,burgundians1 the1 #af ,burma1 #aai1 #acj1 #acd1 #ace1 #ach2 the ,karens of1 #dd sq4 ,burning as punishment of sexual crime1 #fc1 #fd1 #fh ,buru1 an ,east ,indian island1 #aji n4 #c ,burying alive as punishment1 #df1 #fh1 #fi ,busoga1 #gf ,cairbre ,musc1 ,irish legend of1 #fb ,calabria1 superstition as to murderers in1 #aai ,californian ,indians1 #hc ,cambridge in relation to anthropology1 #age ,cameroon negroes1 #aaf ,car ,nicobar1 rite of purification in1 #aaf sq4 ,caribs1 the1 #hc ,caroline ,islands1 rules of ceremonial avoidance in the1 #hg sq4 ,cazembes of ,angola1 #aa ,celebes1 #fh ---- ,central1 #ab1 #bi1 #cj1 #eb1 #ec1 #abb ---- ,southern1 #ea ,celts of ,ireland and ,scotland1 #ag ,central ,provinces of ,india1 #cc #agi ,ceram1 island of1 #ea2 taboo in1 #bh ---- ,laut ,islands1 taboo in1 #bh sq4 ,ceylon1 modes of protecting property in1 #cc ,chad1 ,lake1 #aji ,charms to protect property1 #be sqq41 #ch sq41 #da sqq42 for the protection of fruit-trees1 #bi sqq4 ,chastity required of those who handle corn or enter a granary1 #ef sq4 ,chiefs1 supernatural powers attributed to1 #f sqq4 ,children supposed to suffer for the adultery of their father or mother1 #ajb sqq4 ,chili1 #hd ,chinese1 their faith in ghosts1 #adi sqq4 ,chinook ,indians1 their purification of homicides1 #abf sq4 ,chins of ,burma1 their burial customs1 #ach sq4 ,chitom1 the sacred pontiff of ,congo1 #ajh ,circumcision1 orgies at1 in ,fiji1 #fj n4 #a ,civilization evolved from savagery1 #afb2 endangered by superstition1 #agj ,clan1 marriage within the1 forbidden1 #de1 #fe1 #ga2 marriage within mother's clan forbidden1 #ee ,claudius1 the emperor1 #fa ,clytemnestra1 ghost of1 #aah ,codrington1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h41 #f1 #he n4 #a1 #hf ,communism1 era of sexual1 #afd sq4 ,comparative ,method in anthropology1 legitimacy of the1 #agb ,condon1 ,father ,m4 ,a41 quoted1 #gf sq4 ,confession of sin1 #de1 #eg1 #fa1 #fb1 #fd sq41 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aji ,congo1 the1 #ci1 #ge1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #abd ,consanguineous marriages1 question as to the results of1 #ie sq4 ,continence required at certain times1 #ajf sq41 #ajh ,corc and ,cormac1 ,irish legend of1 #fb sq4 ,corn1 chastity required of persons who handle1 #ef sq4 ,corpses mutilated in order to disable the ghosts1 #acb sq41 #acd1 #acf1 #acg ,cousins1 marriage of1 #hh sq41 #ia2 expiation for1 #dg sq41 #ib sq42 forbidden1 #dg1 #dh1 #ec1 #fg1 #gb1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib2 punished1 #fg2 supposed to be unfruitful1 #ib ----1 mutual avoidance between male and female1 #hh sqq4 ,cow's dung as a detergent of ghosts1 #abc ,cowper1 the poet1 #agd ,crawford1 ,raymond1 #ag n4 #e ,criminals1 precautions against the ghosts of executed1 #acb ,crops1 chiefs and kings thought to have power over the1 #aa sq41 #ae1 #af sq42 supposed to be blighted by sexual immorality1 #dd sq41 #df1 #dh1 #di1 #ej sqq4 ,cross-stick taboo1 #be ,cumana in ,south ,america1 #cc ,curses as modes of protecting property1 #bd sq41 #bh1 #bi1 #ca sq41 #cd sqq41 #dj sq4 ,cycles in human affairs1 #afe sq4 ,cynaetha in ,arcadia1 #aae ,damzogs1 guardian-spirits of property1 #ci sq4 ,darfur1 #ci1 #ha ,daughter1 incest with1 #di1 #ea1 #ed1 #eh1 #fg1 #fh2 and father1 mutual avoidance of1 #gh ,david1 his sin1 #ajg ,dawson1 ,james1 quoted1 #ga sq4 ,dead1 the fear of the1 #aaa sq42 carried out of house by a special opening1 #ace ,de ,groot1 ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,m41 quoted1 #aej sq4 ,delagoa ,bay1 #eg1 #hj1 #ib1 #ajd1 #aba ,delphic oracle1 #fa ,demeter and ,persephone1 #cf ,destruction of the property of the dead1 #aaa sq41 #ace ,deuteronomy1 #cg ,development of moral theory1 hypothetical1 #ajb 8,devil going on his wife10 #ed n4 #b ,devils1 exorcism of1 #aaf sq4 ,diana1 sacred grove of1 #fa ,dinkas1 the1 of the ,upper ,nile1 #eg ,divinity of ,maori chiefs1 #g sqq42 of kings1 #aj sqq4 ,donaglas1 the1 #ha d',orbigny1 ,a41 quoted1 #aaa sqq4 ,doreh in ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 #aca ,dos ,santos1 ,j41 ,portuguese historian1 #ac1 #ad ,drinking water as test of wife's fidelity1 #ajg ,drowning as a punishment for sexual offences1 #di1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh ,dunvegan1 #ag ,durham1 ,miss ,m4 ,edith1 #ig ,dyaks of ,borneo1 #dg sq41 #ea1 #acg2 curses among the1 #cd sqq4 ---- of ,sarawak1 #aa ,early history of mankind1 the imperfection of the record1 #aga sq4 ,earthquakes thought to be caused by sexual immorality1 #ed ,east ,indies1 sexual offences severely punished in1 #fg sqq4 ,edward the ,confessor1 #ah ,egypt1 divinity of kings in ancient1 #ad sq4 ,ekoi1 the1 of ,southern ,nigeria1 #ci ,epidemics supposed to be caused by incest1 #df1 #ea ,eruptions of volcanoes supposed to be caused by incest1 #ed #ahj ,esquimaux of ,bering ,strait1 #acb ,evolution1 a scale of mental1 #agb ,ewe negroes of ,togoland1 #adb ---- speaking tribes of the ,slave ,coast1 #da ,executioners taste the blood of their victims1 #aai ,exorcism of devils1 #aaf sq4 ,expiation for sexual immorality1 #dd sqq41 #eg1 #fa1 #fb sq42 for marriage of cousins1 #ib sq42 for incest1 #aje sq42 for homicide1 #abh sq4 ,extinction of the savage1 #agd sq4 ,fady1 or taboo1 in ,madagascar1 #ca sq4 ,fairy banner1 #ag ---- changeling1 #aff ,father1 incest with1 #ajf ---- and daughter1 mutual avoidance of1 #gh1 #he1 #hg ,father-in-law avoided ceremonially by his daughter-in-law1 #hb2 avoided ceremonially by his son-in-law1 #hb1 #hc ,fear of ghosts1 #aaa sqq42 salutary effect of1 #aaa1 #aac1 #adi sqq42 of women who die in pregnancy or childbed1 #acc sqq4 ,fertility of women and cattle1 supposed power of chiefs and kings over the1 #ad1 #af2 of land supposed to be impaired by sexual offences1 #dd sqq4 ----1 ,diana a goddess of1 #fa sq4 ,fetishes in ,guinea1 #da ,fetters put on the dead1 #acg ,fidelity1 test of conjugal1 #ajg ,fig-tree1 sacred1 among the ,akikuyu1 #abh sq4 ,fiji1 authority of chiefs in1 #g2 taboo in1 #bg2 orgies at circumcision in1 #fj n4 #a ,fijians1 their custom of driving away ghosts1 #aca sq4 ,finger1 sacrifice of1 #aag ,first-fruits offered to chiefs1 #g ,fish sacred1 #cf ,floods supposed to be caused by incest1 #di ,folklore1 a department of ,social ,anthropology1 #aff1 #afi ,food-supply supposed to be affected by improper relations between the sexes1 #ajj sq4 ,fornication1 expiation for1 #dd sq42 disastrous effects supposed to flow from1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #if2 punishment of1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #ff1 #if sqq4 ,frenzy caused by sight or thought of blood1 #abb sq4 ,fruit-trees1 charms for the protection of1 #bi sqq4 ,furies of ,clytemnestra1 #aag ,galelareese1 the1 of ,halmahera1 #ed ,galton1 ,sir ,francis1 #aei ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 quoted1 #ae sq42 on the ,incas1 #agc ,gardens1 superstition as to1 #eg ,gennep1 ,a4 van1 #ca ,ghostly power ascribed to chiefs1 #f sq4 ,ghosts as protectors of property1 #bf2 the fear of1 #aaa sqq42 salutary effect of belief in1 #aaa1 #aac1 #adi sqq42 of all who have died violent deaths accounted dangerous1 #acj2 of bad people1 precautions against the1 #acb sq42 disabled by the mutilation of their corpses1 #acb sq41 #acd1 #acf1 #acg2 blinded1 #acc ---- and goblins outlast the high gods1 #agj sq4 ---- of slain especially dreaded by their slayers1 #aac sqq42 thought to drive their slayers mad1 #aag sqq42 precautions taken by slayers against the1 #aag sqq41 #abc sqq42 scared or driven away1 #abf1 #acj sqq42 especially dreaded by their kinsfolk and neighbours1 #abg sqq4 ---- of women dying in pregnancy or childbed especially feared1 #acc sqq4 ,girdle of red feathers1 badge of royalty1 #aj ,girschner1 ,max1 quoted1 #hg sq4 ,goat1 expiatory sacrifice of1 #ib ,gods or spirits angry at sexual offences1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #ej1 #ea1 #ed1 #ee sq41 #eg1 #fa1 #fc1 #ajg2 the creations of man's fancy1 #ii2 the stalking-horses of savages1 #aja2 the high1 ephemeral compared to ghosts and goblins1 #agj sq4 ,government1 superstition as a prop of1 #f sqq42 of mankind essentially aristocratic1 #afg ,governors1 supernatural powers attributed to1 #f ,granaries1 superstitions concerning1 #ef sq4 ,gran ,chaco1 ,indians of the1 #adj ,granddaughter1 incest with1 #dh ,grave1 the road from the1 barred against the ghost1 #ach sq4 ,greasing the hands of the dead1 #acg sq4 ,greece1 superstitious veneration for kings in ,homeric1 #af ,greegrees1 charms1 #db ,greek purification of homicides1 #aaf1 #abj1 #abc sq4 ,greeks1 the ancient1 their use of curses1 #cf sq42 their ideas as to incest1 #fa2 their customs as to homicide1 #aac sq4 ,grimm1 the brothers1 #afi sq4 ,guiana1 ,british1 #hc2 ,indians of1 their notion as to homicides1 #aag sq4 ,guinea1 fetishes in1 #da ,gula1 ,babylonian goddess1 #ch ,haida ,indians of ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 #ajg #aha ,hair of homicides shaved1 #abc sq41 #abh ,halmahera1 ,east ,indian island1 #ed ,hammurabi1 code of1 #fd ,hanging as punishment for incest1 #ij ,hebrews1 their ideas as to adultery1 #fj sq4 ,heraclitus on purification for homicide1 #aag ,herbert ,river in ,queensland1 #acg ,herero1 the1 of ,south ,africa1 #acc ,herzegovina1 #ih ,hindoos of the ,punjaub1 #acc2 ancient1 burial custom of the1 #acg ,hippopotamus hunters1 superstitions of1 #eg sqq4 ,history regulated by general laws1 #afj2 of mankind1 imperfection of the early records1 #aga sq4 ,hlengoues1 the1 of ,south-,east ,africa1 #eg ,hobley1 ,c4 ,w41 #aje n4 #b2 quoted1 #aae n4 #e ,homicide1 purification for1 #aad1 #aae sqq41 #abj sqq41 #abc sqq42 expiation for1 #abh sq4 ,homicides fear the ghosts of their victims1 #aac sqq42 secluded1 #aad sq41 #abj1 #aba sq41 #abd1 #abe sqq42 taste the blood of their victims1 #aah sq4 ,horror of sexual irregularities among savages1 suggested reason for1 #aja ,hose1 ,ch41 and ,mc,dougall1 ,w41 quoted1 #di sq4 ,hottentots forbid marriage of cousins1 #fg ,howitt1 ,a4 ,w41 #ge n4 #a1 #he n4 #a ,huichol ,indians of ,mexico1 #ajf ,human history regulated by general laws1 #afj ---- life1 superstition as a prop to the security of1 #aaa sqq4 ,huth1 ,a4 ,h41 #ie ,hypotheses1 their place in science1 #agb ,ibo1 the1 of ,nigeria1 #aai ,iguana used in magic1 #cj sq4 ,illegitimate children put to death1 #if sq4 ,immorality1 sexual1 disastrous effects believed to flow from1 #dd sqq41 #fc2 supposed to disturb the course of nature1 #ii sqq42 original ground of the conception unknown1 #ajb2 supposed to be injurious to the culprits themselves and their relations1 #ajb sqq42 superstition as to1 #aaj ,immortality1 waste of life and property entailed by the belief in1 #aaa sq42 belief in1 a fruitful source of war1 #abi sq4 ,impalement as punishment of adultery1 #fg ,inbreeding1 question of the effects of1 #ie sq4 ,incas of ,peru1 #agc ,incest1 disastrous effects supposed to flow from1 #de sqq41 #fa2 with granddaughter1 #dh2 with adopted daughter1 #di2 punishment of1 #di sq41 #ea1 #eb sqq41 #ij1 #ia2 with aunt1 #ej1 #ea2 with a mother1 #ea1 #fa1 #fg2 with a niece1 #ea1 #ec2 with a daughter1 #ea1 #ed1 #eh1 #fg1 #fh2 with a sister1 #ea1 #ed1 #ei1 #fj n4 #a1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh1 #aje2 enjoined in certain circumstances1 #eg sqq42 expiation for1 #aje sq42 with father1 #ajf ,india1 superstitious veneration for kings in ancient1 #af ,indian ,archipelago1 precautions against ghosts of women dying in childbed in the1 #acf ,indians of ,north ,america1 their custom of driving away the ghosts of the slain1 #acj sq4 ,infanticide in ,china checked by fear of ghosts1 #aej sq4 ,infection1 physical1 supposed to be spread by unchaste persons1 #aji ,infertile marriage1 dread of1 #id ,infertility thought to be caused by sexual immorality1 #eg1 #fj sq42 of women and cattle supposed to be caused by fornication1 #aji sq4 ,infidelity of husband supposed to be dangerous to his offspring1 #ajc2 of wife supposed to endanger her husband1 #ajf sqq4 ,see also ,adultery ,inoculation1 magical1 of hunters1 #eg sq42 of homicides1 #aba ,insanity1 temporary1 caused by blood1 #abb sq4 ,institutions1 early history of1 imperfections in the records1 #aga sq4 ,ireland1 superstitions as to kings in ancient1 #ag ,irish legend as to incest of brother and sister1 #fb ,ishtar1 the goddess1 #ch ,isla del ,malhado in ,florida1 #hc ,issoudun in ,british ,new ,guinea1 #adg ,ja-,luo1 the1 of ,kavirondo1 #abc ,job on adultery1 #fj ,johnson1 ,dr4 ,s41 #ag1 #ah2 on ,voyages to the ,south ,seas1 #agc ,jok1 ancestral spirits1 #eg ,joustra1 ,m41 #he n4 #a ,jupagalk tribe of ,australia1 #gd ,juris1 the1 of ,brazil1 #cc ,kabyles1 the1 of ,north ,africa1 #aai ,kachins of ,burma1 their fear of the ghosts of women dying in childbed1 #ace sq4 ,kai1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 their fear of the ghosts of the slain1 #abd sq4 ,kamilaroi tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 #gd #ahb ,karens of ,burma1 their ideas as to sexual immorality1 #dd sq42 their dread of ghosts1 #acj ,kavirondo1 the1 of ,british ,east ,africa1 #fe1 #abc ,kawars1 the1 #cc ,kayans1 the1 of ,borneo1 #di1 #ej1 #ea ,khasis1 the1 of ,assam1 #de ,kickapoo ,indians1 #acj ,kikuyu4 ,see ,akikuyu ,king's ,evil1 touching for1 #ag sq4 ,kings1 superstitious veneration for1 #aj sqq4 ---- of ,tahiti1 their sacredness #aj sq4 ,kouis1 the1 of ,laos1 #cb ,kubus1 the1 of ,sumatra1 #fg ,kwakiutl ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 mourning customs of the1 #adf sq4 ,landmarks protected by gods and curses1 #cg sq4 ,laos1 #cb ,laurel leaves used in purificatory rites1 #aag ,laws regulating marriage1 their origin unknown1 #ajb2 which regulate human history1 #afj ,leaden tablets1 #cf ,leaping over grave of murdered man1 #aai ,leaves used in exorcism1 #aaf sq4 ,lengua ,indians1 their fear of ghosts1 #adj sq4 ,leviticus1 #fa ,licence1 periods of1 #fj n4 #a ,lightning a punishment of incest1 #de ,lillooet ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 mourning customs of the1 #ade sq4 ,livingstone1 ,david1 quoted1 #ch ,lkungen or ,songish ,indians of ,vancouver ,island1 mourning customs of the1 #adc ,loango1 the king of1 #ab1 #ac2 ideas as to sexual immorality in1 #ed sq4 ,lombok1 sexual offences severely punished in1 #gj ,looboos1 a people of ,sumatra1 #hb1 #aji ,loo1 pollution incurred by unchastity1 #aji ,loowoo1 in ,celebes1 #ab ,louis ,,xv41 #ah ,louis ,,xvi41 #ah ,low1 ,hugh1 #dh ,lushai1 the1 of ,north-,eastern ,india1 #aai sq4 ,macassars1 the1 of ,celebes1 #ea ,mc,dougall1 ,w41 and ,hose1 ,ch41 quoted1 #di sq4 ,macleods1 chief of the1 #ag ,madagascar1 #ei1 #ajf2 taboo in1 #ca sq4 ,madness supposed to be caused by homicide1 #aag sqq4 ,magic older than religion1 #ajj ,magical rites tend to become religious1 #ajj ,maiming as a punishment of adultery1 #fd ,malagasy charms1 #ca ,malay ,archipelago1 taboo in the1 #bg sq4 ---- ,peninsula1 #acg ---- peoples1 the severity with which they punish sexual offences1 #gj sq4 ---- region1 divinity of kings in the1 #aa sqq4 ,maloulekes1 the1 of ,south-,eastern ,africa1 #eg ,mamoedjoe1 district of ,celebes1 #fh ,man1 the science of1 #aei sq42 primval1 unknown1 #afc sq4 ,mana1 supernatural power1 #f ,mangars1 a tribe of ,nepal1 #ach ,mankind dominated by an enlightened minority1 #afg sq4 ,manslayer4 ,see ,homicide ,mantineans1 their purification1 #aae ,manu1 laws of1 #af1 #fc ,maori chiefs1 authority of1 #g sqq42 esteemed gods1 #g sq4 ,maoris1 taboo among the1 #bj sqq4 ,marks of taboo to protect property1 #be sqq41 #ch sq41 #da sqq4 ,marquesas ,islands1 taboo in the1 #bc sq4 ,marrah1 in ,darfur1 #ci ,marriage1 superstition in relation to1 #dd sqq4 ---- of cousins1 different customs as to the1 #hh sq41 #ia2 forbidden1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 supposed to be unfruitful1 #ib2 expiation for the1 #ib sq4 ---- laws1 their origin unknown1 #ajb ,marriages1 consanguineous1 question as to the results of1 #ie sq4 ,masai1 the1 of ,british ,east ,africa1 #ha2 of ,german ,east ,africa1 #aje ,medicine-man1 respect for1 #ad ,melanesia1 taboo as a preserver of property in1 #bf sq4 ,melanesians1 authority of chiefs among the1 #f sq42 rules of ceremonial avoidance amongst the1 #hf sq42 of the ,bismarck ,archipelago1 #aca ,men ,aziottenos1 #cg ,men naturally unequal1 #aff sq4 ,mental evolution1 a scale of1 #agb ,meteors1 superstition as to1 #ada ,milky ,way1 #ada ,mimic warfare1 #abi ,mimicry in magic1 #ajj ,minority1 mankind dominated by an enlightened1 #afg sq4 ,montenegrin peasantry1 their strict views of sexual immorality1 #ig ,moral theory1 hypothetical development of1 #ajb #ahc ,morality1 sexual1 enforced by superstition1 #dd sqq42 change in the theoretical basis of1 #aja sq42 basis of1 shifted from supernatural to natural1 #aec ,morocco1 superstitions concerning granaries in1 #ef sq4 ,mosaic law1 punishments for sexual offences under the1 #fd ,mother1 incest with a1 #ea1 #fa2 and son1 ceremonial avoidance between1 #he1 #hf1 #hg ,mother-in-law1 ceremonial avoidance of1 #ge sqq41 #hf sq41 #ij sq4 ,mount ,elgon1 #abc ,mourning customs of widows and widowers1 #adb sqq4 ,moxos ,indians of ,bolivia1 #ajf ,mukjarawaint tribe of ,victoria1 #gd ,murderer1 rules observed by pardoned1 #abf ,murderers1 their precautions against the ghosts of their victims1 #aag sqq4 ,mutilation of corpses in order to disable the ghosts1 #acb sq41 #acd1 #acf1 #acg2 of the dying or dead1 #ada ,nails used to prevent ghosts from walking1 #acc ,names of kings sacred1 #aj ,nandi1 the1 of ,british ,east ,africa1 #ad1 #ef1 #ff1 #aah2 curses among the1 #dj sq4 ,natchez ,indians of ,north ,america1 #abd ,natural inequality of men1 #aff sq4 ,nature1 why illicit relations between the sexes are thought to disturb the balance of1 #ii sqq4 ---- the ,sphinx1 #ajb ,nebuchadnezzar1 the king1 quoted1 #cg sq4 ,nepal1 #ach ,nets to catch ghosts1 #aci ,new ,britain1 #aji2 taboo in1 #bf sq4 ---- ,guinea1 ,british1 #abe1 #adg2 ,dutch1 #aca2 ,german1 #hb1 #abd1 #abg1 #aca ---- ,hebrides1 #hf ---- ,ireland1 #hi1 #ij ---- ,mecklenburg1 #hi ---- ,south ,wales1 #gd ---- ,zealand1 authority of chiefs in1 #g sqq4 ,nias1 the island of1 #df sq42 curses in1 #cd ,niece1 incest with1 #ea1 #ec ,niger1 tribes of the ,lower1 #aai ,nile1 the ,upper1 #eg ,ninib1 ,babylonian god1 #ch ,nuru1 the spirit of the slain1 #aba ,nusku1 ,babylonian god1 #ch ,oaths and imprecations as preservers of property1 #bd sqq4 ,see also ,curses ,obeah man1 magician1 #db ,obi1 magic1 #db ,oedipus1 the incest of1 #fa ,ojbways1 their modes of keeping off ghosts1 #aci sq4 ,omaha ,indians1 #acb sq42 their customs as to pardoned murderers1 #abf ,opinion and action1 their relative values for society1 #aee ,orang ,glai1 the1 savages of ,annam1 #df ,oraons of ,bengal1 their fear of the ghosts of women dying in childbed or pregnancy1 #acd ,oregon1 ,chinook ,indians of1 #abf ,orestes1 the matricide1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #abf ,orinoco1 the1 #aab ,ottawa ,indians1 #aca ,ovakumbi1 a tribe of ,angola1 #ajh ,ovambo1 a ,bantu people of ,south-,west ,africa1 #hj sq4 ,pacific1 first exploration of the1 #agc ,paestum1 the temples at1 #agj ,paint-house1 the1 #ee ,pamali1 taboo1 #bg ,papuans of ,new ,guinea1 #aca2 of ,issoudun1 #adg ,parents-in-law1 ceremonial avoidance by man of his future1 #ha1 #hc ,parricide1 ,roman punishment of1 #eb2 guilt of1 #fa ,pasemhers1 a tribe of ,sumatra1 #fi ,pasir1 a district of ,borneo1 #ea ,patagonians1 their fear of the dead1 #aaa sqq4 ,peasantry of ,europe1 their intellectual savagery1 #agj ,pemali1 taboo1 #bg ,pepper put in eyes of corpse to blind ghost1 #acc ,perham1 ,j41 #dg ,persephone1 #cf ,peru1 the ,yncas of1 #ae sq41 #agc ,petara1 ,dyak name for deity1 #dg ,pig's blood used in ceremonies of purification1 #aaf sq4 ,pigs used in expiatory ceremonies1 #dd sqq4 ,physical causation1 false notions of1 #ajj ---- infection supposed to be spread by unchaste persons1 #aji ---- relationship supposed to exist between adulterer and injured husband1 #ajd sq4 ,plato on sanctity of landmarks1 #cg ,pollution1 ceremonial1 #ic1 #aje2 incurred by homicide1 #aae sqq41 #abh ----1 dangerous1 supposed to be incurred by unchastity1 #aji ,polynesia1 authority of chiefs in1 #g sqq42 taboo in1 #bj sqq4 ,pomali1 taboo1 #bg ,pontianak1 ghost of woman who died in childbed1 #acg n4 #ahd ,precautions taken by homicides against the ghosts of their victims1 #aag sqq41 #abc sqq42 against the ghosts of bad people1 #acb sq42 against ghosts of women dying in pregnancy or childbed1 #acc sqq42 taken by widows and widowers against the ghosts of their spouses1 #adb sqq4 ,prehistoric ages1 imperfections in the records of1 #aga sq4 ,primval man unknown1 #afc sq4 ,primitive1 relative sense in which the word is applied to existing savages1 #afc sq4 ,private property1 superstition as a prop of1 #bj sqq4 ,propagation of animals and plants supposed to be affected by the relations of the human sexes1 #ii sqq4 ,property1 superstition as a support of private1 #bj sqq42 of the dead destroyed1 #aaa sq41 #ace ,psanyi1 #abb ,punans1 the1 of ,borneo1 #ej ,punishments1 severe1 for sexual offences1 #fc sqq41 #if sqq4 ,punjaub1 the1 #acc ,purification for unchastity by means of blood1 #dd sqq42 for unchastity by means of water1 #aji2 for homicide1 #aad1 #aae sqq41 #abj sqq41 #abc sqq42 and capital punishment1 #aea sq4 ,queen ,anne1 #ah ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 #ajg ,queen ,draga of ,servia1 #ig ,queensland1 native tribes of1 #gb sqq42 their mutilation of the dead1 #acg ,rain1 kings expected to give1 #ac sq42 failure or excess of1 supposed to be caused by sexual immorality1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef ,rajah ,brooke1 #ab ,rajamahal in ,bengal1 #de ,ramanandroany1 a ,malagasy deity1 #ca ,rape1 punishment of1 #ff ,red paint put on homicides1 #aah1 #abd1 #abg ,regalia1 sanctity of1 #aa ,relations by marriage1 ceremonial avoidance of1 #ge sqq4 ,religion supplies the new theoretical basis of sexual morality1 #aja2 of one generation the superstition of the next1 #agj sq4 ---- and magic1 their relations1 #ajj ,renan1 ,ernest1 on the menace to civilization1 #agj ,reproduction of men1 animals1 and plants1 analogy between the1 #ii sq4 ,rhodesia1 ,northern1 #ff1 #gi1 #ajc1 #abj ,rhys1 ,sir ,john1 quoted1 #ed n4 #b1 #fb sq4 ,rio de ,janeiro1 #if ,risley1 ,sir ,herbert ,h41 quoted1 #ach ,road from the grave barred against the ghost1 #ach sq4 ,robert the ,pious1 #ah ,roman custom as to incest1 #fa sq4 ---- punishment of parricide1 #eb ,roscoe1 ,rev4 ,j41 quoted1 #fd sq41 #ij sq41 #ajb sq4 ,ruanda1 a district of ,central ,africa1 #if ,sacred chiefs1 #g sqq4 ---- fig-tree among the ,akikuyu1 #abh sq4 ---- fish1 #cf ,sacredness of chiefs in ,polynesia1 #g sqq4 ,sahagun on the natives of ,mexico1 #agc ,st4 ,patrick1 canon of1 #ag ,samoa1 superstition as a preserver of property in1 #bd sqq4 ,samoan taboos1 #be sq4 ,sarah and ,abraham1 #fj sq4 ,sarawak1 ,hill ,dyaks of1 #aa sq41 #dh ,savage1 the1 a human document1 #agb sq42 the passing of the1 #agd sq4 ,savage horror of sexual irregularities1 suggested reason for1 #aja ,savagery1 civilization evolved out of1 #afb2 importance of the study of1 #afb sq41 #agb sqq42 intellectual1 of ,european peasantry1 #agj ,savages of to-day primitive only in a relative sense1 #afc sq4 ,saxons1 their punishment of sexual offences1 #ig ,scapegoat for ghosts1 #ada sq4 ,scarecrows for ghosts1 #aci ,scepticism1 religious1 undermines foundations of society1 #g ,science of man1 #aei sq4 ----1 the temple of1 #afa ,scrofula1 touching for1 #ag sq4 ,scythians drank the blood of friends and foes1 #aah ,sea-pike taboo1 #be ,seclusion of homicides1 #aad sq41 #abj1 #aba sq41 #abd1 #abe sqq4 ,semendo1 a district of ,sumatra1 #fh ,servius ,tullius1 ,king1 #fa ,sexual communism1 era of1 #afd sq4 ---- immorality supposed to be injurious to the culprits themselves and to their relations1 #ajb sqq42 superstitions as to1 #aaj ---- morality enforced by superstition1 #dd sqq42 change in the theoretical basis of1 #aja ---- offences punished severely1 #fc sqq41 #if sqq42 reason why savages punish these offences severely1 #ii sqq4 8,shaking tubercule10 #cb ,shans1 the1 of ,burma1 #aai1 #acd #ahe ,sheep1 expiatory sacrifice of1 #ib1 #ic ,shushwap ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 mourning customs of the1 #adb sq4 ,siam1 #cb ,sibuyaus1 the1 of ,sarawak1 #dh ,sibylline ,books1 #agc ,sickness caused by evil spirits or sorcerers1 #ada 8,sickness of relationship10 #gf sq4 ,sierra ,leone1 #db ,similarity of the human mind in all races1 #agb ,sister1 incest with a1 #ea1 #ed1 #ei1 #fj n4 #a1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh1 #aje ,sisters and brothers1 mutual avoidance of1 #gg ,slave ,coast1 the1 #da ,slavery in ,england1 #afi ,slavs1 punishment of sexual offences among the ,southern1 #ig sq4 ,slayers fear the ghosts of their victims1 #aac sqq4 ,sle1 pollution incurred by unchastity1 #aji ,smyrna1 #cf ,social anthropology1 the scope of1 #aeg sqq4 ,society1 concerned with conduct1 not opinion1 #aee2 ultimately controlled by knowledge1 #afg2 sapped by superstition1 #agj2 its surface in perpetual motion1 #aga ,sociology1 #afj ,sofala1 the king of1 #ac1 #ad ,son-in-law1 ceremonial avoidance of1 #gi sq4 ,sophocles on ,oedipus1 #fa ,sphinx1 riddles of the1 #ajb ,state1 duty of the1 in regard to anthropology1 #age sq4 ,stinks to keep off ghosts1 #aci ,stoning as a punishment of sexual offences1 #fd1 #ig sq4 ,sulka1 the1 of ,new ,britain1 #aji ,sumatra1 #df1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #hb1 #aji ,sun1 ,yncas descended from the1 #ae ,supernatural powers attributed to chiefs1 #f sqq4 ,superstition1 baneful effects of1 #c2 a plea for1 #c sq41 #aed sq42 as a prop of government1 #f sqq42 as a prop of private property1 #bj sqq42 as a prop of marriage1 #dd sqq42 as a prop to the security of human life1 #aaa sqq42 heavy toll paid to1 #aac2 services which superstition has rendered to humanity1 #aed sq42 at the bar1 #aee sq42 the creed of the laggards in the march of intellect1 #afh sq42 a danger to society1 #agj2 the religion of a past generation1 #agj sq4 ,superstitions either public or private1 #afi2 the crudest1 survive longest1 #agj sq4 ,superstitious fear of contact with ,maori chiefs1 #i sq4 ,surface of society in perpetual motion1 #aga ,survivals of savagery in civilization1 #aff ,swedes1 the ancient1 #af ,taboo as a support of chiefs1 #g sqq42 as a prop of private property1 #bj sqq42 7tambu7 in ,melanesia1 #bf sq4 ,tabooed1 homicides1 #aba ,tahiti1 sacredness of kings of1 #aj sq4 ,tamanaques1 the1 of the ,orinoco1 #aab ,tambu 7taboo7 in ,melanesia1 #bf sq4 ,tapu 7taboo7 among the ,maoris1 #bj sqq4 ,tattooing of homicides1 #aba ,taylor1 ,rev4 ,richard1 #h ,ternate1 #ed ,thahu1 ceremonial pollution1 #ic1 #aje1 #aae1 #abh ,theal1 ,g4 ,mc,call1 quoted1 #ia ,theoretical basis of sexual morality1 #aja ,thieves cursed1 #cd sqq4 ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 mourning customs of the1 #add sq4 ,thomson1 ,basil1 quoted1 #g ,thomson1 ,j4 ,arthur1 quoted1 #ie sq4 ,thonga tribe of ,south-,east ,africa1 #eg1 #hj1 #ib1 #ajd2 their purification of homicides1 #aba sq4 ,thorn bushes to keep off ghosts1 #adb sq41 #add1 #ade ,thunder taboo1 #bf ,tigers1 plague of1 a punishment for sexual offences1 #de1 #df ,timor1 taboo in1 #bg ,togoland1 #adb ,tololaki1 the1 of ,central ,celebes1 #ec ,tomori1 the1 of ,central ,celebes1 #eb ,tonga1 sacredness of chiefs in1 #aj2 taboo in1 #bf ,tonquin1 #cc ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes1 #ab1 #bi1 #cj1 #abb2 their fear of the ghosts of the slain1 #abi ,torture to extract confession1 #fd sq4 ,touched1 chiefs and kings not to be1 #i1 #aa ,touching for scrofula1 #ag sq4 ,traitors disembowelled in ,england1 #afi ,travail pangs supposed to be aggravated by adultery1 #ajd ,travancore1 #acb ,trembling thought to be caused by contact with certain relations1 #gg1 #ij ,troezen1 purification of ,orestes at1 #aae ,tsetsaut ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 mourning customs of the1 #adc ,tubercule1 the shaking1 #cb ,tunguses1 their burial customs1 #acg1 #ach ,turner1 ,dr4 ,george1 quoted1 #bd sq41 #bf #ahf ,tylor1 ,sir ,e4 ,b41 #aei ,ulcer taboo1 #be sq4 ,unchastity1 supposed physical infection of1 #aji ,united ,states of ,america1 their ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #age ,universities1 the function of the1 #age ,unmarried persons1 disastrous effects supposed to flow from sexual intercourse between1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #if ,vancouver ,island1 #adc ,victoria1 aborigines of1 #ga sq4 ---- ,nyanza1 ,lake1 #gh ,voyages to the ,south ,seas1 #agc ,wagogo1 the1 of ,german ,east ,africa1 #ib1 #ajf ,wakelbura tribe of ,queensland1 #gb ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 quoted1 #bg1 #gj ,wanigela ,river1 #abe ,wanika1 the1 of ,east ,africa1 #ch ,war1 a sacred duty1 #abi2 wives expected to be faithful during their husbands' absence at the1 #ajf sq4 ,warfare1 mimic1 conducted by women and children at home1 #abi ,washamba1 the1 of ,german ,east ,africa1 #ajf ,water ordeal1 #ajg ,wawanga1 the1 of ,british ,east ,africa1 #abc ,weeks1 ,rev4 ,john ,h41 #he n4 #a2 quoted1 #ge sq41 #abh ,welsh saying as to rain1 #ed n4 #b ,west ,indies1 charms to protect property in the1 #db sq4 ,westermarck1 ,dr4 ,edward1 #cb1 #ef ,white-shark taboo1 #be ,widows and widowers1 precautions taken by them against the ghosts of their spouses1 #adb sqq4 ,wife of wife's brother1 ceremonial avoidance of1 #hj ,wife's mother1 ceremonial avoidance of1 #ge sqq41 #hf sq41 #ij sq4 ,witches burned in ,england1 #afi ,women dying in pregnancy or childbed1 fear of their ghosts1 #acc sqq4 ,wotjobaluk tribe of ,victoria1 #gd ,yabim1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 #abg1 #aca ,yncas of ,peru1 superstitious veneration for the1 #ae sq4 ,yucatan1 ,indians of1 #hc ,yuin tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 #gd ,zanzibar1 #gh ,zeus as guardian of landmarks1 #cg ,zulus1 their ideas as to injurious effects of adultery1 #ajg sq4 ,,endnotes ,chapter ,i ,notes #f4a ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,d4,d41 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4 #df4 ,chapter ,,ii ,notes #g4a ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #eb4 #g4b ,basil ,thomson1 ,the ,fijians1 a ,study of the ,decay of ,custom 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #eg-ei1 #fd1 #aeh4 #h4a ,rev4 ,richard ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #ceb sq42 as to the atuas or gods1 see ib4 pp4 #acd sqq4 #i4a ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,m4,d41 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahei71 i4 #ie sq4 #i4b ,rev4 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahce71 pp4 #ajd sq41 note4 #i4c ,w4 ,brown1 ,new ,zealand and its ,aborigines 7,london1 #ahde71 p4 #gf4 ,compare ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #if sq4 #aj4a ,rev4 ,r4 ,taylor1 op4 cit4 p4 #afd4 #aj4b ,rev4 ,r4 ,taylor1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afd1 #afe4 #aj4c ,w4 ,mariner1 ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 i4 #ada sq4 note1 #dcd1 note1 ii4 #hb sq41 #bbb sq4 #aj4d ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahcb-ahcf71 iii4 #ajh4 #aa4a ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #aja sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 #agii71 pp4 #cbi sq4 #aa4b ,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde 7,berlin71 vi4 7#ahef7 pp4 #cih sq42 ,f4 ,t4 ,valdez1 ,six ,years of a ,traveller's ,life in ,western ,africa 7,london1 #ahfa71 ii4 #bea sq4 #aa4c ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #bc sq4 #aa4d ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 op4 cit4 p4 #cf4 #ab4a ,hugh ,low1 ,sarawak 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4 #bei sq4 #ab4b ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 i4 7,batavia1 #aiab7 pp4 #acj sq4 #ab4c ,for evidence see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cdb sqq41 #cib sqq4 #ac4a ,proyart's 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo1 and other ,kingdoms in ,africa10 in ,john ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels 7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 xvi4 #egg4 ,compare ,o4 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique 7,amsterdam1 #afhf71 pp4 #cce sq4 #ac4b 8,the ,strange ,adventures of ,andrew ,battel10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #ccj4 #ad4a ,j4 ,dos ,santos1 8,eastern ,ethiopia10 chapters v4 and ix41 in ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal's ,records of ,south-,eastern ,africa1 vii4 7#aija7 pp4 #aij sq41 #aii4 #ad4b ,j4 ,dos ,santos1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aid sq4 #ad4c ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi1 their ,language and ,folk-lore 7,oxford1 #aiji71 pp4 #di sq4 #ae4a ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion 7,london1 #ahhb71 pp4 #ajc sq4 ,for fuller details see ,a4 ,moret1 ,du caractre religieux de la royaut pharaonique 7,paris1 #aijb72 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #dah sq4 #ae4b ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxviii4 #e4 #ad4 #af4a ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,first ,part of the ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 translated by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham 7,london1 #ahfi-ahga71 i4 #aed sq4 #af4b ,the ,laws of ,manu1 vii4 #e-h1 translated by ,g4 ,bhler 7,oxford1 #ahhf71 p4 #bag 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxv474 #af4c ,the ,laws of ,manu1 ix4 #bdf sq41 translated by ,g4 ,bhler1 p4 #che4 #af4d ,homer1 ,odyssey1 ii4 #dji1 iv4 #dc1 #fia1 vii4 #afg1 viii4 #b1 xviii4 #dje2 ,iliad1 ii4 #cce1 xvii4 #dfd1 etc4 #af4e ,homer1 ,odyssey1 xix4 #aji-aad4 #af4f ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxviii4 #e4 #ad4 #ag4a ,snorro ,sturleson1 ,the ,heimskringla1 or ,chronicle of the ,kings of ,norway1 translated by ,s4 ,laing 7,london1 #ahdd71 saga i4 chapters #ah and #dg1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bcj1 #bef4 #ag4b ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 i4 #ef sq42 ,j4 ,o',donovan1 ,the ,book of ,rights 7,dublin1 #ahdg71 p4 #h1 note4 #ag4c ,s4 ,johnson1 ,journey to the ,western ,islands1 pp4 #fe sq4 7,the ,works of ,samuel ,johnson1 ,,ll4,d41 ,london1 #ahbe1 vol4 vi474 #ag4d ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1 ,superstitions of the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijj71 p4 #e4 #ag4e ,w4 ,g4 ,black1 ,folk-,medicine 7,london1 #ahhc71 pp4 #adj sqq4 ,see further ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cfh sqq42 and especially ,raymond ,crawfurd1 ,the ,king's ,evil 7,oxford1 #aiaa71 which contains a full history of the superstition from the eleventh century onwards1 authenticated by documentary evidence4 #ah4a ,w4 ,mariner1 ,an ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 i4 #dcd1 note4 #ah4b ,proyart's 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo1 and other ,kingdoms in ,africa10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #egc4 #ah4c ,raymond ,crawfurd1 ,the ,king's ,evil1 pp4 #aa sqq41 #ah sqq4 #ah4d ,j4 ,boswell1 ,life of ,samuel ,johnson1 ,ninth ,edition 7,london1 #ahbb71 i4 #ah sq4 #ah4e ,raymond ,crawfurd1 ,the ,king's ,evil1 pp4 #add sqq41 #aei sqq4 ,chapter ,,iii ,notes #ba4a ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #id-ig1 compare id4 p4 #hc4 #ba4b ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahei71 i4 #ajc4 ,compare ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahdc71 ii4 #aje3 8,the breaking of the tapu1 if the crime does not become known1 is1 they believe1 punished by the atua1 who inflicts disease upon the criminal2 if discovered1 it is punished by him whom it regards1 and often becomes the cause of war40 #bb4a ,w4 ,brown1 ,new ,zealand and its ,aborigines 7,london1 #ahde74 pp4 #ab sq4 #bb4b ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #ig4 #bc4a ,rev4 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #afg1 #aga4 #bc4b ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahei71 i4 #aje4 #bc4c ,rev4 ,r4 ,taylor1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agb sq4 #bd4a ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises ou ,nouk-hiva 7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #beh-bfj4 ,for details of the taboo system in the ,marquesas ,islands1 see ,g4 ,h4 von ,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt 7,francfort1 #ahab71 i4 #aad-aai2 ,le ,p4 ,matthias ,g 99 99 99 ,lettres sur les ,isles ,marquises 7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #dg sqq4 ,this last writer1 who was a missionary to the ,marquesas1 observes that while taboo was both a political and a religious institution1 he preferred to class it under the head of religion because it rested on the authority of the gods and formed the highest sanction of the whole religious system4 #be4a ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #ahc-ahd4 #bf4a ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ahe-ahh4 #bf4b ,w4 ,mariner1 ,an ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 ii4 #bba4 #bf4c ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,d4,d41 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #bae sq4 #bg4a ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,im ,bismarck-,archipel 7,leipsic1 #ahhg71 p4 #add2 id41 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,sdsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 pp4 #aic sq4 #bg4b ,thomas ,williams1 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfj71 i4 #bcd4 #bg4c ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,handleiding voor de vergelijkende ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch ,indi 7,leyden1 #ahic71 pp4 #eif-fjc2 ,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hovell1 ,ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de ,oeliasers 7,dordrecht1 #ahge71 pp4 #adh-aeb4 #bg4d ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,sixth ,edition 7,london1 #ahgg71 p4 #aif4 #bh4a ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 pp4 #fa sq4 #bh4b ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aad sq4 #bh4c ,van ,schmidt1 8,aanteekeningen nopens de zeden1 gewoonten en gebruiken1 benevens de vooroordeelen en bijgeloovigheden der bevolking van de eilanden ,saparoea1 ,haroekoe1 ,noessa ,laut1 en van een gedeelte van de zuidkust van ,ceram1 in vroegeren en lateren tijd10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indie1 v4 ,tweede deel 7,batavia1 #ahdc71 pp4 #dii-ejb4 #bi4a ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afg sq4 #ca4a ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 i4 7,batavia1 #aiab7 pp4 #cii-dja4 #ca4b ,h4 ,f4 ,standing1 8,malagasy fady10 ,the ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1 vol4 ii4 7,antananarivo1 #ahif7 pp4 #beb-bfe 7,reprint of the second ,four ,numbers74 #ca4c ,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totmisme ,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd74 #ca4d ,a4 van ,gennep1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahc sqq4 #ca4e ,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totmisme ,madagascar1 p4 #ahd4 ,the writer has devoted a chapter 7xi4 pp4 #ahc-aic7 to taboos of property4 #ca4f ,h4 ,f4 ,standing1 8,malagasy fady10 ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1 vol4 ii4 7,antananarivo1 #ahif7 p4 #bef4 #cb4a ,w4 ,ellis1 ,history of ,madagascar 7,london1 preface dated #ahch71 i4 #dad4 #cb4b ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas1 ii4 7,london1 #aijh7 pp4 #ei-fi4 ,in an article on taboo published many years ago 7,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth ,edition1 xxiii4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #ae sqq47 ,i briefly pointed out the part which the system of taboo has played in the evolution of law and morality4 ,i may be allowed to quote a passage from the article3 8,the original character of the taboo must be looked for not in its civil but in its religious element4 ,it was not the creation of a legislator1 but the gradual outgrowth of animistic beliefs1 to which the ambition and avarice of chiefs and priests afterwards gave an artificial extension4 ,but in serving the cause of avarice and ambition it subserved the progress of civilization1 by fostering conceptions of the rights of property and the sanctity of the marriage tie1--conceptions which in time grew strong enough to stand by themselves and to fling away the crutch of superstition which in earlier days had been their sole support4 ,for we shall scarcely err in believing that even in advanced societies the moral sentiments1 in so far as they are merely sentiments and are not based on an induction from experience1 derive much of their force from an original system of taboo4 ,thus on the taboo were grafted the golden fruits of law and morality1 while the parent stem dwindled slowly into the sour crabs and empty husks of popular superstition on which the swine of modern society are still content to feed40 #cc4a 4 ,aymonier1 ,notes sur le ,laos 7,saigon1 #ahhe71 p4 #bcc4 #cc4b ,central ,provinces1 ,ethnographic ,survey1 vii41 ,draft ,articles on ,forest ,tribes1 ,third ,series 7,allahabad1 #aiaa71 p4 #de4 #cc4c ,r4 ,percival1 ,account of the ,island of ,ceylon 7,london1 #ahjc71 p4 #aih4 #cc4d ,c4 ,f4 ,ph4 v4 ,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie ,amerikas1 zumal ,brasiliens 7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 p4 #hf4 #cc4e ,p4 ,giran1 ,magie et ,religion ,annamites 7,paris1 #aiab71 p4 #ahf4 #cd4a ,p4 ,giran1 op4 cit41 pp4 #aij sq4 #cd4b ,h4 ,sundermann1 ,die ,insel ,nias und die ,mission daselbst 7,barmen1 #aije71 p4 #cd4 #cf4a ,edwin ,h4 ,gomes1 ,seventeen ,years among the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #fd-ff4 #cf4b 7,sir7 ,charles ,thomas ,newton1 ,essays on ,art and ,archaeology 7,london1 #ahhj71 pp4 #aic sq4 #cf4c ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum#b 7,leipsic1 #ahih-aija71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bhd sq41 ,no4 #ehd2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques 7,brussels1 #aijj71 p4 #fbd1 ,no4 #gbh4 ,the goddess was probably the ,syrian ,atargatis or ,derceto1 to whom fish were sacred 7,xenophon1 ,anabasis1 i4 #d4 #i74 ,for more examples of these ancient ,greek curses1 see ,ch4 ,michel1 op4 cit41 pp4 #hgg-hhj1 ,nos4 #acah-acbi4 ,compare ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 ,greek ,votive ,offerings 7,cambridge1 #aijb71 pp4 #ccg sqq4 #cg4a 7,sir7 ,c4 ,t4 ,newton1 ,essays on ,art and ,archaeology1 p4 #aie4 #cg4b ,demosthenes1 ,de ,halonneso1 #dj4 #cg4c ,plato1 ,laws1 viii4 #i1 pp4 #hdb sq4 #cg4d ,festus1 s4v4 8,termino10 p4 #cfh1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller 7,leipsic1 #ahci72 ,varro1 ,de lingua latina1 v4 #gd2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquitates ,romanae1 ii4 #gd4 ,as to ,terminus1 the ,roman god of boundaries1 and his annual festival the ,terminalia1 see ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie#c 7,berlin1 #ahha-ahhc71 i4 #bed sqq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer#b 7,munich1 #aiab71 pp4 #acf sq4 #cg4e ,deuteronomy1 xxviii4 #ag4 #cg4f ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 ,babylonian and ,assyrian ,laws1 ,contracts and ,letters 7,edinburgh1 #aijd71 p4 #aia4 #ch4a ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament 7,oxford1 preface dated #aiaa71 pp4 #cij-cib4 #ch4b ,david ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa 7,london1 #aheg71 p4 #bhe4 #ci4a ,charles ,new1 ,life1 ,wanderings1 and ,labours in ,eastern ,africa 7,london1 #ahgc71 p4 #ajf4 #ci4b ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 ,among ,congo ,cannibals 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #caj sq4 #ci4c ,p4 ,amaury ,talbot1 ,in the ,shadow of the ,bush 7,london1 #aiab71 p4 #bif4 #dj4a ,travels of an ,arab ,merchant ,mohammed ,ibn-,omar ,el ,tounsy in ,soudan1 abridged from the ,french by ,bayle ,st4 ,john 7,london1 #ahed71 pp4 #fi-gc4 #da4a ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi1 their ,language and ,folk-lore 7,oxford1 #aiji71 pp4 #cf1 #cg4 #da4b ,proyart's 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo1 and other ,kingdoms in ,africa10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels 7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 xvi4 #eie4 #da4c ,rev4 ,j4 ,leighton ,wilson1 ,western ,africa 7,london1 #ahef71 pp4 #bge sq4 #db4a ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #ia sq4 ,compare id41 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahid71 p4 #aah4 #db4b ,thomas ,winterbottom1 ,an ,account of the ,native ,africans in the ,neighbourhood of ,sierra ,leone 7,london1 #ahjc71 pp4 #bfa sq4 #dc4a ,bryan ,edwards1 ,history1 ,civil and ,commercial1 of the ,british ,west ,indies1 ,fifth ,edition 7,london1 #ahai71 ii4 #ajg-aaa4 ,chapter ,,iv ,notes #de4a ,rev4 ,f4 ,mason1 ,d4,d41 8,on ,dwellings1 ,works of ,art1 ,laws1 etc41 of the ,karens10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,new ,series1 xxxvii4 7#ahfh7 part ii4 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #adg sq4 ,compare ,a4 ,r4 ,mc,mahon1 ,the ,karens of the ,golden ,chersonese 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 #ccd sq4 #de4b ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 8,the ,genna amongst the ,tribes of ,assam10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4 7#aijf7 p4 #id4 #de4c ,lieutenant ,thomas ,shaw1 8,on the ,inhabitants of the ,hills near ,rajamahall10 ,asiatic ,researches1 ,fourth ,edition1 iv4 7#ahjg7 pp4 #fj-fb4 #df4a ,major ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #id1 #abc4 #df4b 4 ,aymonier1 8,notes sur l',annam10 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 x4 ,no4 #bd 7,saigon1 #ahhe71 pp4 #cjh sq4 #df4c ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane en ,bilastroomgebied op het eiland ,sumatra10 ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 dl4 iii41 afdeeling1 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #c 7,amsterdam1 #ahhf71 pp4 #ead sq42 ,m4 ,joustra1 8,het leven1 de zeden en gewoonten der ,bataks10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xlvi4 7#aijb7 p4 #daa4 #dg4a ,h4 ,sundermann1 ,die ,insel ,nias und die ,mission daselbst 7,barmen1 #aije71 pp4 #cd sq41 #cg1 #hd4 ,compare ,a4 ,fehr1 ,der ,niasser im ,leben und ,sterben 7,barmen1 #aija71 pp4 #cd-cf2 ,th4 ,c4 ,rappard1 8,het eiland ,nias en zijne bewoners10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxii4 7#aiji7 pp4 #eid1 #eif4 ,the death penalty for these offences has been abolished by the ,dutch ,government1 so far as it can make its arm felt in the island4 #dg4b ,rev4 ,j4 ,perham1 8,petara1 or ,sea ,dyak ,gods10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #h1 ,december #ahha1 p4 #aej2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo 7,london1 #ahif71 i4 #ahj4 ,petara is the general ,dyak name for deity4 ,the common idea is that there are many petaras1 indeed that every man has his own4 ,the word is said to be derived from ,sanscrit and to be etymologically identical with ,avatar1 the ,dyaks regularly substituting p or b for v4 ,see ,rev4 ,j4 ,perham1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acc sqq42 ,h4 ,ling ,roth's ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #afh sqq4 #dh4a ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 8,low's ,natives of ,borneo10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxi4 7#ahib7 pp4 #aac sq41 #acc2 compare id41 ibid4 xxii4 7#ahic7 p4 #bd4 #dh4b ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahfc71 i4 #fc sq4 #di4a ,hugh ,low1 ,sarawak 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4 #cjj sq4 #ej4a ,charles ,hose and ,william ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiab71 ii4 #aif-aii4 #ej4b ,charles ,brooke1 ,ten ,years in ,sarawak 7,london1 #ahff71 i4 #fi sq4 #ea4a ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijd-aijg71 i4 #cfg4 #ea4b ,m4 ,t4 ,h4 ,perelaer1 ,ethnographische ,beschrijving der ,dajaks 7,zalt-,bommel1 #ahgj71 pp4 #ei sq4 #ea4c ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 ii4 #ii2 id41 ,in ,centraal ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 ii4 #bgh4 #ea4d ,a4 ,h4 ,f4 ,j4 ,nusselein1 8,beschrijving van het landschap ,pasir10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lviii4 7#aije7 p4 #ech4 #ea4e ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 7,berlin1 #ahhd7 p4 #add4 #eb4a ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 #aiab71 ii4 #cce 78,huwelijken tusschen bloedverwanten10 p4 #bf74 #eb4b ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 8,over de d's of gewoonten der ,makassaren en ,boegineezen10 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen der ,koninklijke ,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 ,derde ,reeks1 ii4 7,amsterdam1 #ahhe7 p4 #ahb4 #eb4c ,digest1 xlviii4 #i4i1 8,poena parricidii more majorum haec instituta est1 ut parricida virgis sanguineis verberatus deinde culleo insuatur cum cane1 gallo gallinaceo et vipera et simia3 deinde in mare profundum culleus jactatur40 ,compare ,valerius ,maximus1 i4 #a4 #ac2 ,professor ,j4 ,e4 ,b4 ,mayor's note on ,juvenal1 viii4 #bad4 ,if the view suggested above is correct1 the scourging of the criminal to the effusion of blood 7virgis sanguineis verberatus7 must have been a later addition to the original penalty1 unless indeed some provision were made for catching the blood before it fell on the ground4 #ec4a ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,eenige aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 #bce4 #ec4b ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,van ,posso naar ,mori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 #afb4 #ec4c ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 i4 7,batavia1 #aiab7 p4 #ahg4 #ed4a ,hissink1 8,nota van toelichting1 betreffende de zelbesturende landschappen ,paloe1 ,dolo1 ,sigi1 en ,beromaroe10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 liv4 7#aiab71 p4 #aae4 #ed4b ,m4 ,j4 van ,baarda1 8,fabelen1 ,verhalen en ,overleveringen der ,galelareezen10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlv4 7#ahie7 p4 #ead4 ,in a letter to me of #adth ,march #aiji ,sir ,john ,rhs compares a ,welsh expression1 8,rain through sunshine1 the devil going on his wife40 ,he adds3 8,i do not think ,i ever heard it except when it was actually raining during sunshine4 ,i can now see that instead of ar i wraig the original must have been ar i fam #8on his mother4' ,in fact ,i am not at all sure but that ,i have heard it so40 #ed4c ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clerq1 ,bijdragen tot de kennis der ,residentie ,ternate 7,leyden1 #ahij71 p4 #acb4 #ee4a ,o4 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique 7,amsterdam1 #afhf71 p4 #cbf2 ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 ,at the ,back of the ,black ,man's ,mind 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #ec1 #fg-ga4 #ef4a ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 op4 cit4 p4 #eb4 #ef4b ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi1 their ,language and ,folk-lore 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #gf4 #ef4c ,rev4 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #beb4 #ef4d ,rev4 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #bfg4 ,the writer tells us 7pp4 #bee sq47 that 8death with all that immediately precedes or follows it1 is in the eyes of these people the greatest of all defilements4 ,thus the sick1 persons who have touched or buried a corpse1 or who have dug the grave1 individuals who inadvertently walk over or sit upon a grave1 the near relatives of a person deceased1 murderers1 warriors who have killed their enemies in battle1 are all considered impure40 ,no doubt all such persons would also be prohibited from handling the corn4 #eg4a ,edward ,westermarck1 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs connected with ,agriculture1 ,certain ,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and the ,weather in ,morocco 7,helsingfors1 #aiac71 p4 #df4 #eg4b ,e4 ,westermarck1 op4 cit4 p4 #ed2 compare pp4 #ag1 #bc1 #dg4 #eg4c ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 s4v4 8,dinka10 in ,dr4 ,j4 ,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 iv4 7,edinburgh1 #aiaa7 p4 #gji4 #eg4d ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 8,les conceptions physiologiques des ,bantou ,sud-,africains et leurs tabous10 ,revue d' ,ethnographie et de ,sociologie1 i4 7#aiaj7 p4 #adf note #b4 #ei4a ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchatel1 #aiab-aiac71 ii4 #fj-fb4 #ei4b ,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totmisme ,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #cdb sq41 quoting the evidence of ,m4 ,gabriel ,ferrand4 ,similar testimony was given to me verbally by ,m4 ,ferrand at ,paris1 #aith ,april1 #aiaj4 ,compare ,gabriel ,ferrand1 ,les ,musulmans ,madagascar et aux ,iles ,comores1 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahic71 pp4 #bj sq4 #fj4a ,in ,fiji the rite of circumcision used to be followed by sexual orgies in which brothers and sisters appear to have been intentionally coupled4 ,see ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 8,the ,nanga1 or ,sacred ,stone ,enclosure of ,wainimala1 ,fiji10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #bg-cj1 with the note of ,sir ,edward ,b4 ,tylor on pp4 #bh sq42 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #ade-adh4 ,such periods of general licence accorded to the whole community are perhaps best explained as temporary revivals of an old custom of sexual communism4 ,but this explanation seems scarcely applicable to cases like those cited in the text1 where the licence is not granted to the whole people but enjoined on a few individuals only in special circumstances4 ,as to other apparent cases of reversion to primitive sexual communism1 see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #caa sqq4 #fj4b ,job xxxi4 #aa sq4 7,revised ,version74 #fj4c 4 ,see ,hebrew and ,english ,lexicon1 by ,f4 ,brown1 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 and ,ch4 ,a4 ,briggs 7,oxford1 #aijf71 p4 #ajj4 #fa4a ,genesis xii4 #aj-bj1 xx4 #a-ah4 #fa4b ,leviticus xviii4 #bd sq4 #fa4c ,sophocles1 ,oedipus ,tyrannus1 #bb sqq41 #ie sqq4 #fa4d ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xii4 #d and #h4 #fb4a ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ab1 #ad sqq4 #fb4b ,g4 ,keating1 ,history of ,ireland1 translated by ,j4 ,o',mahony 7,new ,york1 #aheg71 pp4 #ccg sq42 ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 #eab sq4 #fb4c 8,corc means croppy or cropped3 in this instance the name refers to the bearer's ears1 and the verb used as to the action of his brother maiming him is ro-chorc40 #fc4a 7,sir7 ,john ,rhs1 ,celtic ,heathendom 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 pp4 #cjh sq41 referring to the ,book of the ,dun1 #ed;a4 #fd4a ,laws of ,manu1 viii4 #cga sq41 translated by ,g4 ,bhler1 pp4 #cah sq4 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxv474 ,compare ,gautama1 xxiii4 #ad sq41 translated by ,g4 ,bhler1 p4 #bhe 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 ii474 #fd4b ,code of ,hammurabi1 #abi1 #aeg1 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 ,babylonian and ,assyrian ,laws1 ,contracts and ,letters 7,edinburgh1 #aijd71 pp4 #ed1 #ef2 ,robert ,w4 ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament 7,oxford1 preface dated #aiaa71 pp4 #dbg1 #dcd4 #fd4c ,deuteronomy xxii4 #bb4 #fd4d ,deuteronomy xxii4 #bj sq4 #fd4e ,leviticus xxi4 #i4 #fd4f ,leviticus xx4 #ad4 #fe4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bfa sq4 #fe4b ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfb4 ,as to the totemic clans1 see id4 pp4 #acc sqq4 ,one clan 7the ,lung-fish clan7 was excepted from the rule4 #fe4c ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijd71 ii4 #gai4 #ff4a ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 op4 cit4 ii4 #gdf sq4 #ff4b ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #gf4 #ff4c ,werner ,munzinger1 ,ostafrikanische ,studien 7,schaffhausen1 #ahfd71 p4 #bdc4 #ff4d ,w4 ,munzinger1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbb4 ,however1 the child of an unmarried slave woman is brought up2 the father pays for its nurture4 #ff4e ,h4 ,s4 ,stannus1 8,notes on some ,tribes of ,british ,central ,africa10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #bij4 #fg4a ,cullen ,gouldsbury and ,hubert ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern ,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #eg4 #fg4b ,peter ,kolben1 ,the ,present ,state of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #agch71 i4 #aeg4 ,for more examples of the death penalty inflicted for breaches of sexual morality in ,africa1 see ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 ,afrikanische ,jurisprudenz 7,olbenburg and ,leipsic1 #ahhg71 ii4 #fi sqq4 #fh4a ,g4 ,j4 van ,dongen1 8,de ,koeboes10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxiii4 7#aiaj7 p4 #bic4 #fh4b ,r4 van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland ,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indi1 ,nieuwe ,serie1 viii4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #cgj sq42 ,julius ,jacobs1 ,eenigen ,tijd onder de ,balirs 7,batavia1 #ahhc71 p4 #abf4 #fh4c ,see above1 pp4 #eb sq4 #fh4d ,hoorweg1 8,nota bevattende eenige gegevens betreffende het landschap ,mamoedjoe10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 lxiii4 7#aiaa7 p4 #ie4 #fh4e ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 #aiab71 ii4 #dha4 #fi4a ,j4 ,s4 ,g4 ,gramberg1 8,schets der ,kesam1 ,semendo1 ,makakauw en ,blalauw10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xv4 7#ahff7 pp4 #def-deh4 ,compare ,g4 ,g4 ,batten1 ,glimpses of the ,eastern ,archipelago 7,singapore1 #ahid71 pp4 #aje sq4 #fi4b ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,verspreide ,geschriften1 ii4 #dha sq4 #fi4c ,franz ,junghuhn1 ,die ,battalnder auf ,sumatra 7,berlin1 #ahdg71 ii4 #adg1 #aef sq4 #gj4a ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,sixth ,edition 7,london1 #ahgg71 pp4 #agc sq4 #ga4a ,see above1 pp4 #df-ed4 #gb4a ,james ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines 7,melbourne1 ,sydney1 and ,adelaide1 #ahha71 p4 #bh4 #gc4a ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bbb-bbd4 #gd4a ,walter ,e4 ,roth1 ,ethnological ,studies among the ,north-,west-,central ,queensland ,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig71 p4 #aha4 #gd4b ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #bfd1 #bff4 #gd4c ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #bdf sq4 #gd4d ,mrs4 ,daisy ,m4 ,bates1 8,the ,marriage ,laws and some ,customs of the ,west ,australian ,aborigines10 ,victorian ,geographical ,journal1 xxiii4-xxiv4 7#aije-aijf7 p4 #db4 ,the statement in the text was made by a settler who had lived in the ,tableland district1 inland from ,roeburne1 for twenty years4 #ge4a ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #bjh4 ,similarly among tribes on the ,hunter ,river 8a man is not permitted to speak to his wife's mother1 but can do so through a third party4 ,in former days it was death to speak to her1 but now a man doing so is only severely reprimanded and has to leave the camp for a certain time0 7,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfg74 #ge4b ,see for example 7,sir7 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 8,on a method of investigating the ,development of ,institutions10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xviii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #bdf-bdh2 ,salomon ,reinach1 8,le ,gendre et la ,belle-,mre10 ,l',anthropologie1 xxii4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #fdi-ffb2 id41 ,cultes1 ,mythes et ,religions1 iv4 7,paris1 #aiab7 pp4 #acj-adg4 #ge4c ,in ,totemism and ,exogamy 7,index1 s4vv4 8,avoidance0 and 8,mother-in-law07 will be found a collection of examples4 ,in what follows ,i abstain for the most part from citing instances which have been adduced by me before4 #gf4a ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 ,among ,congo ,cannibals 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #acc sq4 ,compare id41 8,anthropological ,notes on the ,bangala of the ,upper ,congo10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #cfg sq4 #gg4a ,father ,m4 ,a4 ,condon1 8,contribution to the ,ethnography of the ,basoga-,batamba1 ,uganda ,protectorate10 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #cgg sq4 #gh4a ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,ethnology of ,a-,kamba and other ,east ,african ,tribes 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ajc1 #ajd4 #gh4b ,father ,eugene ,hurel1 8,religion et vie domestique des ,bakerewe10 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiaa7 p4 #bhg4 #gi4a ,father ,picarda1 8,autour du ,mandera1 ,notes sur l',ouzigoua1 l',oukwr et l',oudo 7,zanquebar710 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 xviii4 7#ahhf7 p4 #bhf4 #gi4b ,h4 ,s4 ,stannus1 8,notes on ,some ,tribes of ,british ,central ,africa10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cjg4 #gi4c ,h4 ,s4 ,stannus1 op4 cit4 p4 #cji4 #gi4d ,cullen ,gouldsbury and ,hubert ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern ,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #bei4 #gi4e 8,the ,angoni-,zulus10 ,british ,central ,africa ,gazette1 ,no4 #hf1 ,april #cjth1 #ahih1 p4 #b4 #hj4a ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,les ,ba-,ronga 7,neuchtel1 #ahih71 pp4 #gi sq42 id41 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchatel1 #aiab-aiac71 i4 #bcj-bcb4 #hj4b ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 i4 #bci4 #ha4a ,hermann ,tnjes1 ,ovamboland1 ,land1 ,leute1 ,mission 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 p4 #acc4 #ha4b ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 8,a ,note on the ,masai ,system of ,relationship and other ,matters connected therewith10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #dha4 #ha4c ,werner ,munzinger1 ,sitten und ,recht der ,bogos 7,winterthur1 #ahei71 p4 #fc4 #ha4d ,g4 ,casati1 ,ten ,years in ,equatoria 7,london and ,new ,york1 #ahia71 i4 #fi4 #ha4e ,travels of an ,arab ,merchant ,mohammed ,ibn ,omar ,el-,tounsy in ,soudan1 abridged from the ,french by ,bayle ,st4 ,john 7,london1 #ahed71 pp4 #ig sq4 #hb4a ,j4 ,kreemer1 8,de ,loeboes in ,mandailing10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxvi4 7#aiab7 p4 #cbd4 #hb4b ,stefan ,lehner1 8,bukaua10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #dbf sq4 #hc4a ,j4 ,baegert1 8,an ,account of the ,aboriginal ,inhabitants of the ,californian ,peninsula10 ,annual ,report of the ,board of ,regents of the ,smithsonian ,institution for the year #ahfc1 p4 #cfh4 ,this and the following ,american cases have already been cited by me in ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iv4 #cad sq4 #hc4b ,alvar ,nuez ,cabea de ,vaca1 ,relation et ,naufrages 7,paris1 #ahcg71 pp4 #aji sq4 7in ,ternaux-,compans' ,voyages1 ,relations1 et ,mmoires originaux pour servir l',histoire de la ,dcouverte de l',amrique74 ,the original of this work was published in ,spanish at ,valladolid in #aeee4 #hc4c ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations civilises du ,mexique et de l',amrique-,centrale 7,paris1 #aheg-ahei71 ii4 #eb sq4 #hc4d ,g4 ,klemm1 ,allgemeine ,culturgeschichte der ,menschheit 7,leipsic1 #ahdc-aheb71 ii4 #gg4 #hc4e ,j4 ,b4 du ,tertre1 ,histoire generale des ,isles de ,s4 ,christophe1 de la ,guadeloupe1 de la ,martinique et autres dans l',amerique 7,paris1 #afed71 p4 #dai4 ,a similar1 but rather briefer1 account of the custom is given by ,de la ,borde1 who may have borrowed from ,du ,tertre4 ,see ,de la ,borde1 8,relation de l'origine1 murs1 coustumes1 rligion1 guerres et voyages des ,caraibes1 sauvages des ,isles ,antilles de l',amerique10 p4 #ef 7in ,recueil de divers ,voyages faits en ,afrique et en l',amerique qui n'ont pas est encore publiez1 ,paris1 #afhd74 #hd4a ,edmond ,reuel ,smith1 ,the ,araucanians 7,london1 #ahee71 p4 #bag4 #hd4b ,we have met with a custom of avoidance between father and daughter among the ,akamba 7above1 p4 #gh74 ,for more examples see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ,index1 s4v4 8,avoidance10 vol4 iv4 p4 #cbf4 #he4a ,among those who incline more or less definitely to accept this view are the late ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt 78,notes on some ,australian ,class ,systems10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xii4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #ejb sq471 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington 7see below1 p4 #hf71 ,m4 ,joustra 7see below1 p4 #he71 and the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks 7see above1 p4 #gf74 ,three of these writers are experienced missionaries who are only concerned to record the facts1 and have no theories to maintain4 #he4b ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #ahh sq4 ,the authority for these statements is ,m4 ,joustra1 8,het leven1 de zeden en gewoonten der ,bataks10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xlvi4 7#aijb7 pp4 #cia sq4 #hf4a ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,d4,d41 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4 #bcb4 #hg4a ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #dc4 #hh4a ,max ,girschner1 8,die ,karolineninsel ,nmluk und ihre ,bewohner10 ,baessler-,archiv1 ii4 7#aiab7 p4 #afd4 #ij4a ,p4 ,g4 ,peckel1 8,die ,verwandtschaftsnamen des mittleren ,neumecklenburg10 ,anthropos1 iii4 7#aijh7 pp4 #dfg1 #dgj sq4 #ij4b ,p4 ,g4 ,peckel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfc1 #dfg4 #ij4c ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #abh sq41 #aca2 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijd71 ii4 #fie4 ,the latter writer says generally3 8,cousins cannot enter the same house1 and must not eat out of the same dish4 ,a man cannot marry his cousin40 ,but from ,mr4 ,roscoe's researches it appears that a man has only to avoid certain cousins1 called kizibwewe1 that is1 the daughters either of his father's sisters or of his mother's brothers4 #ia4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 p4 #abi4 ,among the women with whom man was forbidden to have sexual relations under pain of death were 7besides his cousins mentioned above7 his father's sister1 his daughter1 and his wife's sister's daughter4 ,see ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aca1 #acb4 ,the reason alleged for avoiding a mother-in-law1 namely1 because a man has seen her daughter's nakedness 7compare above1 p4 #gf7 is probably a later misinterpretation of the custom4 #ia4b ,g4 ,mc,call ,theal1 ,records of ,south-,eastern ,africa1 vii4 7#aija7 pp4 #dca1 #dcb4 ,the writer adds3 8,among the tribes within the ,cape ,colony at the present time the differences are as follows3-- 8,xosas1 ,tembus1 and ,pondos3 marry no relative by blood1 however distant1 on either father's or mother's side4 8,hlubis and others commonly called ,fingos3 may marry the daughter of mother's brother and other relatives on that side1 but not on father's side4 8,basuto1 ,batlaro1 ,batlapin1 and ,barolong3 very frequently marry cousins on father's side1 and know of no restrictions beyond actual sisters40 #ib4a ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchatel1 #aiab-aiac71 i4 #bdc-bde4 ,as to the rules concerning the marriage of cousins in this tribe1 see id4 i4 #bda sq4 #ib4b ,heinrich ,claus1 ,die ,wagogo 7,leipsic and ,berlin1 #aiaa71 p4 #eh4 #ic4a ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 8,kikuyu ,customs and ,beliefs10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #dch4 #id4a ,see above1 pp4 #gh sq41 #ha4 #id4b ,see above1 pp4 #hj1 #ha1 #hd4 #id4c ,see above1 p4 #ha4 #id4d ,see above1 pp4 #dd sqq4 #id4e ,see below1 pp4 #ajb sqq4 #ie4a ,on the question of the effect of inbreeding see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iv4 #afj sqq4 #ie4b ,a4 ,h4 ,huth1 ,the ,marriage of ,near ,kin considered with respect to the ,laws of ,nations1 the ,results of ,experience1 and the ,teachings of ,biology1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahhg74 #if4a ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 article 8,consanguinity10 in ,dr4 ,james ,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 iv4 7,edinburgh1 #aiaa7 p4 #cj4 #if4b ,andr ,thevet1 ,la ,cosmographie ,universelle 7,paris1 #aege71 ii4 #icc #ifg4 #ig4a ,father ,p4 ,schumacher1 8,das ,eherecht in ,ruanda10 ,anthropos1 vii4 7#aiab7 p4 #d4 #ig4b ,h4 ,h4 ,milman1 ,history of ,latin ,christianity1 ,new ,impression 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 #ed4 #ig4c ,these particulars as to the ,slavonic peoples of the ,balkan peninsula ,i take from a letter with which ,miss ,m4 ,edith ,durham1 one of our best authorities on these races1 was so good as to favour me4 ,her letter is dated #aaf;a ,king ,henry's ,road1 ,london1 ,n4,w41 ,october #afth1 #aiji4 ,the stoning of the betrothed couple near ,cattaro is recorded1 so ,miss ,durham tells me1 in a ,servian book1 ,narodne ,pripovjetke i ,presude1 by ,vuk ,vrcevi4 ,for many more examples of the death penalty and other severe punishments inflicted for sexual offences1 see ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of ,moral ,ideas 7,london1 #aijf-aijh71 ii4 #cff sqq41 #dbe sqq4 #ih4a ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven 7,vienna1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bji1 #baf1 #bag4 ,compare ,f4 ,demeli1 ,le ,droit ,coutumier des ,slaves ,mridionaux 7,paris1 #ahgf71 p4 #gf4 #ih4b ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjh-bab1 citing as his authority ,vuk ,vrevi1 ,niz srpskih pripovijedaka1 pp4 #abi-acg4 #ih4c ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #bjd4 #ii4a ,for examples of the attempt to multiply edible plants in this fashion1 see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ig sqq4 ,the reported examples of similar attempts to assist the multiplication of animals seem to be rarer4 ,for some instances see ,george ,catlin1 ,o-,kee-,pa1 a ,religious ,ceremony and other ,customs of the ,mandans 7,london1 #ahfg71 ,folium ,reservatum1 pp4 i4-iii4 7multiplication of buffaloes72 ,history of the ,expedition under the ,command of ,captains ,lewis and ,clark to the ,sources of the ,missouri 7,london1 #aije71 i4 #bji sq4 7multiplication or attraction of buffaloes72 ,maximilian ,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise in das innere ,nord-,america 7,coblentz1 #ahci-ahda71 ii4 #aha1 #bfc-bfg 7multiplication or attraction of buffaloes72 ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 7#aijd7 p4 #bga 7multiplication of turtles72 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #ec2 id41 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #add 7multiplication of edible green locusts72 ,s4 ,gason1 in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxiv4 7#ahie7 p4 #agd 7multiplication of edible rats72 id41 8,the ,dieyerie ,tribe10 in ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia 7,adelaide1 #ahgi71 p4 #bhj 7multiplication of dogs and snakes74 #ajj4a ,i have given my reasons for thinking so elsewhere 7,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bbj sqq474 #ajc4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #bfb4 #ajc4b ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 p4 #ee4 ,compare id41 8,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #ci4 #ajc4c ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda1 p4 #bfb4 #ajc4d ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gb1 #ajb4 #ajd4a ,cullen ,gouldsbury and ,hubert ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern ,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #eg1 #agh4 #ajd4b ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 8,les ,conceptions ,physiologiques des ,bantou ,sud-,africains et leurs ,tabous10 ,revue d',ethnographie et de ,sociologie1 i4 7#aiaj7 p4 #aej2 id41 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchatel1 #aiab-aiac71 i4 #ch sq4 #aje4a ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 8,les ,conceptions ,physiologiques des ,bantous ,sud-,africains et leurs ,tabous10 ,revue d',ethnographie et de ,sociologie1 i4 7#aiaj7 p4 #aej2 id41 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 i4 #aid sq4 #aje4b ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 8,kikuyu ,customs and ,beliefs10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #dcc4 ,a similar state of ceremonial pollution 7thahu7 is supposed by the ,akikuyu to arise on many other occasions1 which are enumerated by ,mr4 ,hobley 7op4 cit4 pp4 #dbh-ddj74 ,see further below1 p4 #aae1 note #e4 #aje4c ,h4 ,s4 ,stannus1 8,notes on some ,tribes of ,british ,central ,africa10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cje4 ,compare ,r4 ,c4 ,f4 ,maugham1 ,zambezia 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #cbf4 #aje4d ,max ,weiss1 ,die ,vlkerstmme im ,norden ,deutsch-,ostafrikas 7,berlin1 #aiaj71 p4 #che4 #aje4e ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,ethnology of ,a-,kamba and other ,east ,african ,tribes 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 p4 #fa4 #ajf4a ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajc4 #ajf4b ,a4 ,karasek1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,waschambaa10 ,baessler-,archiv1 i4 7#aiaa7 p4 #ahf4 #ajf4c ,p4 ,reichard1 ,deutsch ,ostafrika 7,leipsic1 #ahib71 p4 #dbg2 ,h4 ,cole1 8,notes on the ,wagogo of ,german ,east ,africa10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #cah sq42 ,a4 ,d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique mridionale1 iii4 ,part i4 7,paris and ,strasburg1 #ahdd7 p4 #bbf2 ,ivan ,petroff1 ,report on the ,population1 ,industries1 and ,resources of ,alaska1 p4 #aee4 #ajf4d ,c4 ,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 #abh sq4 #ajf4e ,de ,flacourt1 ,histoire de la ,grande ,isle ,madagascar 7,paris1 #afeh71 pp4 #ig sq4 ,compare ,john ,struys1 ,voiages and ,travels 7,london1 #afhd71 p4 #bb2 ,abb ,rochon1 ,voyage to ,madagascar and the ,east ,indies1 translated from the ,french 7,london1 #agib71 pp4 #df sq4 #ajg4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ceb1 #cfb1 #cfc1 sq4 #ajg4b ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 8,anthropological ,notes on the ,bangala of the ,upper ,congo ,river10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #dac2 id41 ,among ,congo ,cannibals 7,london1 #aiac71 p4 #bbd4 #ajg4c ,j4 ,r4 ,swanton1 8,contributions to the ,ethnology of the ,haida10 p4 #ef 7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 vol4 v4 ,part i41 ,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aije74 #ajg4d #b ,samuel xi4 #ajh4a 8,mr4 ,farewell's ,account of ,chaka1 the ,king of ,natal10 ,appendix to ,w4 ,f4 ,w4 ,owen's ,narrative of ,voyages to explore the ,shores of ,africa1 ,arabia1 and ,madagascar 7,london1 #ahcc71 ii4 #cie4 #ajh4b ,l4 ,alberti1 ,de ,kaffers 7,amsterdam1 #ahaj71 p4 #aga4 #ajh4c ,c4 ,wunenberger1 8,la ,mission et le ,royaume de ,humb1 sur les bords du ,cunne10 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 xx4 7#ahhh71 p4 #bfb4 #ajh4d ,j4 ,b4 ,labat1 ,relation historique de l'thiopie occidentale 7,paris1 #agcb71 i4 #bei sq4 #aji4a ,proyart1 8,history of ,loango1 ,kakongo1 and other ,kingdoms in ,africa10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels 7,london1 #ahjh-ahad71 xvi4 #efi4 #aji4b ,j4 ,kreemer1 8,de ,loeboes in ,mandailing10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxvi4 7#aiab7 p4 #cbc4 #aji4c ,p4 ,rascher1 ,m4,s4,c41 8,die ,sulka1 ein ,beitrag zur ,ethnographie ,neu-,pommern10 ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 p4 #baa2 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,sdsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 pp4 #agi sq4 ,in the ,east ,indian island of ,buru a man's death is sometimes supposed to be due to the adultery of his wife2 but apparently the notion is that the death is brought about rather by the evil magic of the adulterer than by the act of adultery itself4 ,see ,j4 ,h4 ,w4 van der ,miesen1 8,een en ander over ,boeroe1 inzonderheit wat betreft het distrikt ,waisama1 gelegen aan de ,z4,o4 ,kust10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xlvi4 7#aijb7 pp4 #dea-ded4 #aaj4a ,p4 ,a4 ,talbot1 8,the ,buduma of ,lake ,chad10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xli4 7#aiaa7 p4 #bdg4 ,chapter ,v ,notes #aab4a ,humboldt1 ,voyage aux ,rgions ,equinoxiales1 viii4 #bgc4 #aac4a ,alcide d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique ,mridionale1 ii4 7,paris and ,strasburg1 #ahci-ahdc7 pp4 #ii sq4 ,as to the thieving propensities of the ,patagonians1 the author tells us that 8they do not steal among themselves1 it is true2 but their parents1 from their tender infancy1 teach them to consider theft from the enemy as the base of their education1 as an accomplishment indispensable for every one who would succeed in life1 as a thing ordained by the ,evil ,spirit1 so much so that when they are reproached for a theft1 they always say that ,achekenat-,kanet commanded them so to do0 7op4 cit4 p4 #ajd74 ,achekenat-,kanet is the supernatural being who1 under various names1 is revered or dreaded by all the ,indian tribes of ,patagonia4 ,sometimes he appears as a good and sometimes as a bad spirit4 ,see ,a4 d',orbigny1 op4 cit4 ii4 #hg4 #aad4a ,plato1 ,laws1 ix4 #h1 pp4 #hfe d-#hff a2 ,demosthenes1 xxiii4 pp4 #fdc sq42 ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 #aad4b ,aeschylus1 ,chophor4 #ajba sqq41 ,eumenides1 #he sqq42 ,euripides1 ,iphig4 in ,taur4 #idj sqq42 ,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h1 viii4 #cd4 #a-d4 #aad4c ,demosthenes1 xxiii4 pp4 #fdc sq4 #aad4d ,demosthenes1 xxiii4 pp4 #fde sq42 ,aristotle1 ,constitution of ,athens1 #eg2 ,pausanias1 i4 #bh4 #aa2 ,pollux1 viii4 #abj2 ,helladius1 quoted by ,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #ece a1 lines #bh sqq4 ed4 ,i4 ,bekker 7,berlin1 #ahbd74 #aae4a ,plato1 ,laws1 ix4 #h1 p4 #hff ,c ,d4 #aae4b ,polybius1 iv4 #ag-ba4 #aae4c ,plutarch1 ,praecept4 ger4 reipub4 xvii4 #i4 #aae4d ,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h4 #aae4e ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 8,kikuyu ,customs and ,beliefs10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #dca4 ,the nature of the ceremonial pollution 7thahu7 thus incurred is explained by ,mr4 ,hobley 7op4 cit4 p4 #dbh7 as follows3 8,thahu1 sometimes called ngahu1 is the word used for a condition into which a person is believed to fall if he or she accidentally becomes the victim of certain circumstances or intentionally performs certain acts which carry with them a kind of ill luck or curse4 ,a person who is thahu becomes emaciated and ill or breaks out into eruptions or boils1 and if the thahu is not removed will probably die4 ,in many cases this undoubtedly happens by the process of auto-suggestion1 as it never occurs to the ,kikuyu mind to be sceptical on a matter of this kind4 ,it is said that the thahu condition is caused by the ngoma or spirits of departed ancestors1 but the process does not seem to have been analysed any further40 ,see also above1 pp4 #ic1 #aje4 #aaf4a ,aeschylus1 ,eumenides1 #bhj sqq41 #ddh sqq42 id41 quoted by ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,iliad1 xix4 #bed1 p4 #aahc1 1 1 2 ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argonaut4 iv4 #gjc-gag1 with the notes of the scholiast4 ,purifications of this sort are represented in ,greek art4 ,see my note on ,pausanias ii4 #ca4 #h 7vol4 iii4 pp4 #bgf sqq474 #aaf4b ,lieutenant ,thomas ,shaw1 8,the ,inhabitants of the ,hills near ,rajamahall10 ,asiatic ,researches1 ,fourth ,edition1 iv4 7,london1 #ahjg7 p4 #gh1 compare p4 #gg4 #aaf4c ,see above1 pp4 #dd sqq4 #aaf4d ,missionary ,autenrieth1 8,zur ,religion der ,kamerun-,neger10 ,mitteilungen der geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #ic sq4 #aag4a ,v4 ,solomon1 8,extracts from ,diaries kept in ,car ,nicobar10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #bbg4 #aag4b ,see my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h 7vol4 iii4 pp4 #bgf sqq474 #aag4c ,this was the view of ,c4 ,meiners 7,geschichte der ,religionen1 ,hanover1 #ahjf-ahjg1 ii4 #acg sq471 and of ,e4 ,rohde 7,psyche#c1 ,tbingen and ,leipsic1 #aijc1 ii4 #gg sq474 #aag4d 1 ,heraclitus1 in ,h4 ,diels's ,die ,fragmente der ,vorsokratiker1 ,zweite ,auflage1 i4 7,berlin1 #aijf7 p4 #fb4 #aag4e ,pausanias1 viii4 #cd4 #c4 #aah4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,bernau1 ,missionary ,labours in ,british ,guiana 7,london1 #ahdg71 pp4 #eg sq42 ,r4 ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch-,guiana 7,leipsic1 #ahdg-ahdh71 ii4 #dig4 #aah4b ,j4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du monde et la recherche de la ,prouse 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 iii4 #cje4 #aah4c ,john ,bradbury1 ,travels in the ,interior of ,america 7,liverpool1 #ahag71 p4 #afj4 #aah4d ,pomponius ,mela1 ,chorogr4 ii4 #ab1 p4 #ce1 ed4 ,g4 ,parthey 7,berlin1 #ahfg74 #aah4e ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #bg4 #aai4a ,major ,a4 ,g4 ,leonard1 ,the ,lower ,niger and its ,tribes 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #ahj1 #aha sq4 #aai4b ,mrs4 ,leslie ,milne1 ,shans at ,home 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #aib4 ,among the ,shans 8in a case of capital punishment more than one executioner assisted1 and each tried to avoid giving the fatal blow1 so that the sin of killing the culprit should fall upon several1 each bearing a part4 ,the unfortunate man was killed by reason of repeated sword cuts1 no one of which was sufficient to kill him1 and died rather from loss of blood than from one fatal blow0 7,mrs4 ,leslie ,milne1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aia sq474 ,perhaps each executioner feared to be haunted by his victim's ghost if he actually despatched him4 #aai4c ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la ,tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della ,calabria ,citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 p4 #ach4 #aai4d ,j4 ,liorel1 ,kabylie du ,jurjura 7,paris1 ,n4,d471 p4 #dda4 #abj4a ,lieut4-,colonel ,j4 ,shakespear1 8,the ,kuki-,lushai clans10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4 7#aiji7 p4 #chj2 id41 ,the ,lushei ,kuki ,clans 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #gh sq4 #abj4b ,j4 ,h4 ,west ,sheane1 8,wemba ,warpaths10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #da 7,october1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ca sq4 #abj4c ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #afe sqq4 #abj4d ,rev4 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #beh4 #aba4a ,father ,porte1 8,les ,rminiscences d'un missionnaire du ,basutoland10 ,les ,missions catholiques1 xxviii4 7#ahif7 p4 #cga4 #abb4a ,psanyi is half-digested grass found in the stomachs of sacrificed goats 7,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 ii4 #efi74 #abb4b ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchtel1 #aiab-aiac71 i4 #dec-dee4 ,i have omitted some of the ,thonga words which ,mr4 ,junod inserts in the text4 #abc4a ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 i4 7,batavia1 #aiab7 p4 #bci4 #abc4b ,sir ,h4 ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #gdc sq42 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,eastern ,uganda 7,london1 #aijb71 p4 #bj4 #abc4c ,extract from a type-written account of the tribes of ,mount ,elgon1 by the ,hon4 ,kenneth ,r4 ,dundas1 which the author kindly sent to me4 #abc4d ,sir ,h4 ,johnston1 op4 cit4 ii4 #gid2 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 op4 cit4 p4 #ca4 #abc4e ,pausanias1 viii4 #cd4 #c2 compare ,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #c1 p4 #ece4 #abd4a ,e4 ,torday and ,t4 ,a4 ,joyce1 8,notes on the ,ethnography of the ,ba-,yaka10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4 7#aijf7 pp4 #ej sq4 #abd4b ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 8,folk-lore in the ,old ,testament10 in ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor 7,oxford1 #aijg71 p4 #ajh4 #abd4c 8,relation des ,natchez10 ,recueil de ,voyages au ,nord1 ix4 #bd 7,amsterdam1 #agcg72 ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 ,nouvelle dition1 vii4 7,paris1 #agha7 p4 #bf2 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france 7,paris1 #agdd71 vi4 #ahf sq4 #abe4a ,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus dem ,leben der ,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #adg sq4 #abe4b ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 p4 #acb4 #abf4a ,r4 ,e4 ,guise1 8,on the ,tribes inhabiting the mouth of the ,wanigela ,river1 ,new ,guinea10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxviii4 7#ahii7 pp4 #bac sq4 #abf4b ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1 8,omaha ,sociology10 ,third ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd71 p4 #cfi4 #abg4a ,franz ,boas1 ,chinook ,texts 7,washington1 #ahid71 p4 #beh4 #abh4a ,k4 ,vetter1 8ber papuanische ,rechtsverhltnisse1 wie solche namentlich bei den ,jabim beobachtet wurden10 ,nachrichten ber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land und den ,bismarck-,archipel1 #ahig1 p4 #ii2 ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papuas 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 p4 #bed4 #abh4b ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 ,among ,congo ,cannibals 7,london1 #aiac71 p4 #bfh2 compare id41 8,anthropological ,notes on the ,bangala of the ,upper ,congo ,river10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cgc4 #abi4a ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 8,kikuyu ,customs and ,beliefs10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,intitute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #dch sq4 ,as to the sanctity of the fig-tree 7mugumu7 among the ,akikuyu1 see ,mervyn ,w4 ,h4 ,beech1 8,the sacred fig-tree of the ,a-kikuyu of ,east ,africa10 ,man1 xiii4 7#aiac7 pp4 #d-f4 ,mr4 ,beech traces the reverence for the tree to the white milky sap which exudes from it when an incision is made in the bark4 ,this appears to have suggested to the savages the idea that the tree is a great source of fertility to men and women1 to cattle1 sheep1 and goats4 #abi4b ,n4 ,adriani en ,alb4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,de ,bare'e-sprekende ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 i4 7,batavia1 #aiab7 pp4 #bhe1 #bij sq4 ,in recent years the wars between the tribes have been suppressed by the ,dutch ,government4 #acj4a ,compare ,the ,belief in ,immortality and the ,worship of the ,dead1 i4 7,london1 #aiac7 pp4 #acf sq41 #bgh sq41 #dfh sq4 #acj4b ,rev4 ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 8,on the ,karens10 ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 iv4 ,no4 #b 7,new ,york1 #ahed71 pp4 #cab sq4 #acj4c ,bringaud1 8,les ,karins de la ,birmanie10 ,les ,missions catholiques1 xx4 7#ahhh7 p4 #bjh4 #aca4a ,w4 ,h4 ,keating1 ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,sources of ,st4 ,peter's ,river 7,london1 #ahbe71 i4 #aji1 quoting ,mr4 ,barron4 #aca4b ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france 7,paris1 #agdd71 vi4 #gg1 #abb sq42 ,j4 ,f4 ,lafitau1 ,murs des sauvages amriquains 7,paris1 #agbd71 ii4 #bgi4 #aca4c ,h4 von ,rosenberg1 ,der malayische ,archipel 7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 p4 #dfa4 ,compare ,j4 ,l4 van ,hasselt1 8,die ,papuastmme an der ,geelvinkbai 7,neuguinea710 ,mitteilungen der geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 ix4 7#ahia7 p4 #aja4 #aca4d ,k4 ,vetter1 8ber papuanische ,rechtsverhltnisse10 in ,nachrichten ber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land und den ,bismarck-,archipel 7#ahig71 p4 #id2 ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papuas 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 p4 #bff4 #aca4e ,stefan ,lehner1 8,bukaua10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 iii4 #ddd4 #aca4f ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #adb1 #ade4 #acb4a ,john ,jackson1 in ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine's ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #dgg4 #acb4b ,c4 ,wiese1 8,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,zulu im ,norden des ,zambesi10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxxii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #aig sq4 #acb4c ,rev4 ,samuel ,mateer1 ,the ,land of ,charity1 a ,descriptive ,account of ,travancore and its ,people 7,london1 #ahga71 pp4 #bjc sq4 #acb4d ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson1 8,the ,eskimo about ,bering ,strait10 ,eighteenth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1 #ahii7 p4 #dbc4 #acc4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1 8,a ,study of ,siouan ,cults10 ,eleventh ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahid71 p4 #dbj4 #acc4b ,dr4 ,p4 ,h4 ,brincker1 8,character1 ,sitten1 und ,gebruche speciell der ,bantu ,deutsch-,sdwestafrikas10 ,mitteilungen des ,seminars fr orientalischen ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 dritte ,abteilung 7#aijj71 pp4 #hi sq4 #acc4c ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,nassau1 ,fetichism in ,west ,africa 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #bbj2 ,m4 ,abeghian1 ,der armenische ,volksglaube 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 p4 #aa4 #acc4d ,h4 ,a4 ,rose1 8,hindu ,birth ,observances in the ,punjab10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvii4 7#aijg7 pp4 #bbe sq4 #acc4e ,g4 ,f4 ,d' ,penha1 8,superstitions and ,customs in ,salsette10 ,the ,indian ,antiquary1 xxviii4 7#ahii7 p4 #aae4 #acc4f ,census of ,india1 #aiaa1 vol4 xiv4 ,punjab1 ,part ,i4 7,lahore1 #aiab7 p4 #cjc4 ,as to these perturbed and perturbing spirits in ,india1 see further ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #bfi-bgd4 ,they are called churel4 #acd4a ,e4 ,m4 ,gordon1 ,indian ,folk ,tales 7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #dg4 #acd4b ,rev4 ,p4 ,dehon1 ,s4,j41 8,religion and ,customs of the ,uraons10 ,memoirs of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 vol4 i4 ,no4 #i 7,calcutta1 #aijf71 pp4 #aci sq4 #acd4c ,lieut4-,colonel ,h4 ,w4 ,g4 ,cole1 8,the ,lushais10 in ,census of ,india1 #aiaa1 vol4 iii4 ,assam1 ,part ,i4 7,shillong1 #aiab7 p4 #adj4 #ace4a ,mrs4 ,leslie ,milne1 ,shans at ,home 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #if4 ,the custom of carrying the dead out of the house by a special opening1 which is then blocked up to prevent the return of the ghost1 has been observed by many peoples in many parts of the world4 ,for examples see ,the ,belief in ,immortality and the ,worship of the ,dead1 i4 #deb sqq4 #acf4a ,ch4 ,gilhodes1 8,naissance et ,enfance chez les ,katchins 7,birmanie710 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #hgb sq4 #acf4b ,van ,schmidt1 8,aanteekeningen nopens de zeden1 etc41 der bevolking van de eilanden ,saparoea1 etc410 ,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indie1 v4 ,tweede ,deel 7,batavia1 #ahdc71 pp4 #ebh sqq42 ,g4 ,heijmering1 8,zeden en gewoonten op het eiland ,timor10 ,tijdschrift voor ,neerlands ,indi1 vii4 ,negende ,aflevering 7,batavia1 #ahde71 pp4 #bgh sq41 note2 ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,bijdragen tot de ,ethnologie van ,zuid-,celebes 7,the ,hague1 #ahge71 p4 #ig2 ,w4 ,e4 ,maxwell1 8,folk-lore of the ,malays10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #g 7,june #ahha71 p4 #bh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj71 p4 #cbe2 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #ha2 ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,j4 van ,dinter1 8,eenige geographische en ethnographische aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland ,siaoe10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xli4 7#ahii7 p4 #cha2 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7,rotterdam1 #aijj7 p4 #bah2 id41 ,het ,animisme in den ,indischen ,archipel 7,the ,hague1 #aijf71 p4 #beb2 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,handleiding voor de vergelijkende ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi 7,leyden1 #ahic71 p4 #eei2 ,j4 ,h4 ,meerwaldt1 8,gebruiken der ,bataks in het maatschappelijk leven10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelineggnootschap1 xlix4 7#aije7 p4 #aac4 ,the common name for these dreaded ghosts is pontianak4 ,for a full account of them see ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,het ,animisme in den ,indischen ,archipel1 pp4 #bde sqq4 #acg4a ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #ad 7,singapore1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bia sq4 #acg4b ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat and ,c4 ,o4 ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf71 ii4 #aji4 #acg4c ,t4 de ,pauly1 ,description ethnographique des peuples de la ,russie 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfb71 ,peuples ouralo-altaques1 p4 #ga4 #acg4d ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #dgd4 #acg4e ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgc4 #acg4f ,h4 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben 7,berlin1 #ahgi71 p4 #djb4 #ach4a ,rev4 ,father ,julius ,jett1 8,on the ,superstitions of the ,ten'a ,indians10 ,anthropos1 vi4 7#aiaa7 p4 #gjg4 #ach4b ,t4 de ,pauly1 ,description ethnographique des peuples de la ,russie 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfb71 ,peuples ouralo-altaques1 p4 #ga4 #ach4c 7,sir7 ,h4 ,h4 ,risley1 ,the ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 ,ethnographic ,glossary1 ii4 7,calcutta1 #ahia7 pp4 #ge sq4 ,compare ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the ,himalayan ,districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd7 p4 #hcb2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #eg4 #aci4a ,rev4 ,g4 ,whitehead1 8,notes on the ,chins of ,burma10 ,indian ,antiquary1 xxxvi4 7#aijg7 pp4 #bad sq4 #aci4b ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afci1 p4 #dd 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1 #aheh74 #adj4a ,rev4 ,peter ,jones1 ,history of the ,ojebway ,indians 7,london1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #ii sq4 #ada4a 8,sitten und ,gebruche der ,lengua-,indianer1 nach ,missionsberichten von ,g4 ,kurze10 ,mitteilungen der geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xxiii4 7#aije7 pp4 #ag sq41 #ai sq41 #ba sq4 ,the ,cross ,river natives of ,southern ,nigeria1 like the ,lengua ,indians1 cut off the diseased members of a corpse1 in the belief that if they did not do so the person would suffer from the same disease at his next reincarnation4 ,see ,charles ,partridge1 ,cross ,river ,natives 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #bch sq4 #adb4a ,charles ,a4 ,sherring1 ,western ,tibet and the ,british ,borderland 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #abg-acb4 #adb4b ,lieutenant ,herold1 8,bericht betreffend religise ,anschauungen und ,gebruche der deutschen ,ewe-,neger10 ,mitteilungen von ,forschungsreisenden und ,gelehrten aus den deutschen ,schutzgebieten1 v4 ,heft #d 7,berlin1 #ahib71 p4 #aee2 ,h4 ,klose1 ,togo unter deutscher ,flagge 7,berlin1 #ahii71 p4 #bgd4 #adc4a ,franz ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #ib 7,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,leeds1 #ahij1 separate reprint74 #adc4b ,franz ,boas1 in ,tenth ,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #de 7,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,ipswich1 #ahie1 separate reprint74 #add4a ,franz ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 pp4 #bc sq4 7,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,leeds1 #ahij1 separate reprint74 #add4b ,franz ,boas1 in ,seventh ,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #ac 7,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,cardiff1 #ahia1 separate reprint74 #ade4a ,james ,teit1 8,the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia10 pp4 #ccb sq4 7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,april1 #aijj74 #adf4a ,james ,teit1 8,the ,lillooet ,indians0 7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijf71 p4 #bga 7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74 #adg4a ,franz ,boas1 in ,fifth ,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 pp4 #dc sq4 7,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 #ahhi1 separate reprint74 #adh4a ,father ,guis 7de la ,congrgation du ,sacr-,cur d',issoudun1 ,missionnaire en ,nouvelle-,guine71 8,les ,canaques1 mort-deuil10 ,les ,missions catholiques1 xxxiv4 7,lyons1 #aijb7 pp4 #bjh sq4 #adi4a ,elsewhere ,i have illustrated the fear of the dead as it is displayed in funeral customs 78,on certain ,burial ,customs as illustrative of the ,primitive ,theory of the ,soul10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xv4 7#ahhf7 pp4 #fd sqq474 #aej4a ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china1 iv4 7,leyden1 #aija7 pp4 #dcf sqq41 especially pp4 #dej1 #dfd4 #aej4b ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china1 iv4 #dej sq4 #aea4a ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china1 iv4 #deg-dfj4 #aea4b ,the ,greek orator ,antiphon observes that the presence of a homicide pollutes the whole city and brings the curse of barrenness on the land 7,antiphon1 ed4 ,f4 ,blass1 ,leipsic1 #ahga1 pp4 #ac1 #ae1 #cj74 ,see further ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,evolution of ,religion 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #aci sqq4 ,chapter ,,vi ,notes #aef4a ,lucian1 ,hermotimus1 #fd1 1 1 1 3 id41 ,de domo1 #ah1 4 ,the ,scope of ,social ,anthropology ,notes #aff4a ,this happened at ,ballyvadlea1 in the county of ,tipperary1 in ,march #ahie4 ,for details of the evidence given at the trial of the murderers1 see 8,the #8,witch-burning' at ,clonmel10 ,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7 pp4 #cgc-chd4 #aff4b ,this happened at ,norwich in ,june #aijb4 ,see ,the ,people's ,weekly ,journal for ,norfolk1 ,july #ai1 #aijb1 p4 #h4 #afg4a ,i say 8an enlightened minority10 because in any large community there are always many minorities1 and some of them are very far from enlightened4 ,it is possible to be below as well as above the average level of our fellows4 #agj4a ,e4 ,renan et ,m4 ,berthelot1 ,correspondance 7,paris1 #ahih71 pp4 #ge sq4 #agc4a ,j4 ,boswell1 ,life of ,samuel ,johnson#i 7,london1 #ahbb71 iv4 #cae4 #agd4a 8,in boundless oceans1 never to be passed ,by navigators uninform'd as they1 ,or plough'd perhaps by ,british bark again40 ,the ,task1 book i4 #fbi sqq4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,page numbers are given in curly brackets4 ,plain text version only3 endnote markers and sidenotes are given in square brackets1 with the latter prefixed with 8,sidenote304 ,minor spelling inconsistencies 7e4g4 blood-covenant_/blood covenant1 childbed_/child-bed1 etc47 are preserved4 ,alterations to the text3 ,convert footnotes to endnotes1 relabel note markers 7append the original note number to the page number71 and add a corresponding entry to the ,,toc4 ,chapter ,,iv ,change 8,the ,blu- u ,kayans1 another tribe in the interior of ,borneo0 to ,blu-u4 7#8,give me1' said ,cairbre's druid1 that ,corc there'''7 add left single quotation mark before that4 ,chapter ,v 7,in ,china respect for human life in enforced by fear of ghosts47 to is4 ,endnotes ,fix a few missing periods4 7p4 #df1 note #c7 8,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aaardrijkskundig0 to ,aardrijkskundig4 ,end of text