,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,plants ,,and ,,their ,,children ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,william ,,starr ,,dana ,,author ,,of 8,,how ,,to ,,know ,,the ,,wild ,,flowers0 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,alice ,,josephine ,,smith ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,new ,,york ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,cincinnati ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,copyright1 #ahif1 ,,by ,,american ,,book ,,company4 ,,dana',s ,,plants4 ,w4 ,p4 #b ,illustration3 ,flowers ,,preface ,a child's reading book1 it seems to me1 should secure for the child three things1--practice in the art of reading1 amusement1 and instruction4 ,whether my little book is fitted to attain this threefold object1 others must decide2 but in laying it before the public1 let me urge careful attention to a few suggestions4 ,illustration3 ,flower #a4 ,as the book is arranged so as to begin with the opening of the school year and to follow it to its close1 the interest of pupils will be increased by reading the different chapters during the seasons to which they refer4 #b4 ,the teacher should exercise judgment as to the omission of any chapter or group of chapters which may seem beyond the comprehension of the class4 ,with a little care1 such an omission may nearly always be made without injury to the usefulness of the rest of the book4 #c4 ,specimens of the objects described1 when these can be found in the locality1 should always be on exhibition in the schoolroom4 ,whenever possible1 the children themselves should collect and handle these specimens4 ,if for any reason this collection by the children cannot be accomplished1 the teacher should not fail to anticipate the readings1 and to provide the objects mentioned4 ,by the observance of these simple and practicable suggestions1 it is believed that1 while the children are being trained in the art of reading1 their powers of observation and of reasoning will be developed1 and that they will be inspired with a lifelong interest in nature4 ,the child's mind is peculiarly alive to the charm of nature when she is studied in detail1 and through her it can be trained to observe accurately and to reason logically4 ,through the neglect of nature study1 the wits of the country child lose just the sharpening they most need1 to say nothing of a stimulus and delight which can ill be spared by one whose mental life is apt to be monotonous4 ,the wits of the city child may secure in other ways the sharpening so essential to success in life2 yet the training afforded by a logical study of plants1 and the pleasure which such a study1 rightly directed1 is sure to yield1 are as invaluable to him as to his country cousin4 ,experience having proved to my keenest satisfaction that almost invariably children can be interested in stories of plants and their children1 to the children of the land ,i offer this little book1 in the earnest hope that its pages may lead at least some few of them to find in life a new joy and a deeper meaning4 ,the aid derived from many sources in the preparation of 8,plants and their ,children0 is heartily acknowledged2 but more especially ,i wish to extend my thanks to ,messrs4 ,holt ,co4 for their courtesy in allowing the reproduction of several cuts from their valuable and interesting publication1 8,the ,natural ,history of ,plants10 translated from the ,german of ,kerner von ,marilaun4 ,illustration3 ,flower ,,contents ,,part ,i4--,,fruits ,,and ,,seeds ,,page ,in the ,orchard #i ,the ,story of the ,bee #af ,the ,apple's ,treasures #ai ,what a ,plant lives for #ba ,the ,world without ,plants #bd ,how the ,apple shields its ,young #bg ,some ,cousins of the ,apple #ca ,uneatable ,fruits #cd ,more ,cousins of the ,apple #cf ,still more ,cousins #ci ,in the ,woods #da ,why ,seeds travel #ej ,some ,little ,tramps #eb ,seed ,sailboats #ef ,winged ,seeds #fa ,shooting ,seeds #fc ,the ,chestnut and ,other ,seeds #fg ,some ,strange ,stories #fi ,,part ,,ii4--,,young ,,plants ,how the ,baby ,plant lives #ge ,a ,schoolroom ,garden #gi ,a ,schoolroom ,garden 7,concluded7 #he ,seeds as ,food #hi ,an ,impatient ,plant ,baby #ia ,a ,humpbacked ,plant ,baby #id ,,part ,,iii4--,,roots ,,and ,,stems ,root ,hairs #ii ,roots and ,underground ,stems #ajb ,above-ground ,roots #ajf ,what ,few ,children know #aab ,plants that cannot stand alone #aad ,some ,habits of ,stems #aag ,stems and ,seed ,leaves #aai 8,well done1 ,little ,stem0 #abb ,,part ,,iv4--,,buds ,buds in ,winter #abe ,a ,happy ,surprise #abg ,some ,astonishing ,buds #abi ,,part ,v4--,,leaves ,how to look at a ,leaf #ace ,the most ,wonderful ,thing in the ,world #ach ,how a ,plant is built #adb ,how a ,plant's ,food is cooked #adc ,a ,steep ,climb #adg ,how a ,plant perspires #adh ,how a ,plant stores its ,food #adi ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam #aea ,plant or ,animal8 #aed ,how we are helped by ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam #aef ,how a ,plant breathes #aeh ,the ,diligent ,tree #afj ,leaves and ,roots #afb ,leaf ,veins #afe ,leaf ,shapes #afg ,hairy ,leaves #agj ,woolly and 8,dusty0 ,leaves #agb ,prickles and ,poison #agd ,some ,cruel ,traps #agf ,more ,cruel ,traps #aha ,the ,fall of the ,leaf #ahd ,,part ,,vi4--,,flowers ,the ,building ,plan of the ,cherry ,blossom #ahg ,lilies #aia ,about ,stamens #aic ,flower ,dust1 or ,pollen #aif ,about ,pistils #aig ,the ,first ,arrival #bjb ,pussy ,willows #bje ,alders and ,birches #bjg ,the ,great ,trees #bji ,the ,unseen ,visitor #baa ,plant ,packages #bad ,underground ,storehouses #baf ,different ,building ,plans #bag ,a ,celebrated ,family #bbb ,clever ,customs #bbe ,flowers that turn ,night into ,day #bbh ,horrid ,habits #bcj ,the ,story of the ,strawberry #bcb ,a ,cousin of the ,strawberry #bce ,another ,cousin #bch ,pea ,blossoms and ,peas #bdj ,the ,clover's ,trick #bdc ,more ,tricks #bdd ,an ,old ,friend #bdg ,the ,largest ,plant ,family in the ,world #bdh ,robin's ,plantain1 ,golden-rod1 and ,aster #bea ,the ,last of the ,flowers #bed ,,part ,,vii4--,,learning ,,to ,,see ,a ,bad ,habit #beg ,a ,country ,road #bfa ,a ,holiday ,lesson #bfd ,,plants ,,and ,,their ,,children ,,part ,i--,,fruits ,,and ,,seeds ,illustration3 ,fruit ,,in ,,the ,,orchard ,is there a nicer place in which to play than an old apple orchard8 ,once under those favorite trees whose branches sweep the ground1 you are quite shut off from the great1 troublesome1 outside world4 ,and how happy and safe you feel in that green world of your own6--a world just made for children1 a world of grass and leaves and birds and flowers1 where lessons and grown-up people alike have no part4 ,in the lightly swinging branches you find prancing horses1 and on many a mad ride they carry you4 ,the larger ones are steep paths leading up mountain sides4 ,great chasms yawn beneath you4 ,here only the daring1 the cool-headed1 may hope to be successful and reach the highest points without danger to their bones4 ,out here the girls bring their dolls1 and play house4 ,nothing can make a more interesting or a more surprising house than an apple tree1 its rooms are so many and of such curious shapes4 ,then1 too1 the seats in these rooms are far more comfortable than the chairs used by ordinary people in everyday houses4 ,the doings of the ,robin family are overlooked by its windows4 ,one is amazed to see how many fat worms ,mother ,robin manages to pop down the yawning baby throats1 and wonders how baby robins ever live to grow up4 ,from these windows you watch the first flying lesson2 and you laugh to see the little cowards cling to the branch close by1 paying little heed to their parents' noisy indignation4 ,all the same1 you wish that you too might suddenly grow a pair of wings1 and join the little class1 and learn to do the one thing that seems even more delightful than tree climbing4 ,that you children long to be out of the schoolroom this minute1 out in the orchard so full of possibilities1 ,i do not wonder a bit4 ,but as the big people have decided that from now on for some months you must spend much of your time with lesson books1 ,i have a plan to propose4 ,what do you say to trying to bring something of the outdoor places that we love into the schoolroom1 which we do not love as much as we should if lessons were always taught in the right way8 ,now let us pretend--and even grown-up people1 who can do difficult sums1 and answer questions in history and geography better than children1 cannot 8pretend0 one half so well--now let us pretend that we are about to spend the morning in the orchard4 ,here we go1 out of the schoolroom into the air and sunshine1 along the road1 up the hill1 till we reach the stone wall beyond which lies our orchard4 ,ah6 it is good to get into the cool of the dear1 friendly trees4 ,and just now1 more than ever1 they seem friendly to you boys and girls2 for they are heavy with apples1--beautiful red and golden apples1 that tempt you to clamber up into the green sea of leaves above4 ,now let us 8pretend0 that you have had your fill1 and are ready to gather quietly about me on the long grass4 ,but first1 please1 one of you bring me an apple4 ,let it be well-grown and rounded1 with a rosy1 sun-burned cheek2 for1 as we are to spend some little time with this apple1 the more perfect it is in shape1 the richer in color1 the sounder all the way through1 the better4 ,it is good to be as much as possible with things that are beautiful and wholesome and hearty1 even though they are only apples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,here we have 7,fig4 #a7 a fine specimen4 ,what do you know1 any of you1 about this apple8 ,perhaps this seems a strange question4 ,but when we see something that is fine and beautiful1 is it strange that we wish to know its history8 ,if ,i see a man or a woman who seems to me all that a man or woman should be2 if he or she is fine-looking and fine-acting1 straight and strong1 and beautiful and kind1 and brave and generous1--,i ask1 8,who is he8 ,where does she come from8 ,what have they done80 ,of course1 a fine apple is not so interesting as a fine man or woman1 or as a fine boy or girl4 ,still there is much of interest to learn even about an apple4 ,none of you seems anxious to tell the apple's story1 so ,i shall have to start you with some questions4 ,do you remember playing in this same orchard last spring8 ,yes1 you have not forgotten those ,saturdays in ,may4 ,the trees were all pink and white with apple blossoms4 ,the air was sweet with fragrance1 and full of the voices of birds1 and of bees that were bustling about from flower to flower4 ,no1 indeed6 you have not forgotten those happy mornings4 ,what is more1 you never will4 ,they are among the things that will stay by you1 and be a rest and help to you all your lives4 ,i wish there were no child living that might not carry with him always the memory of ,may days in an apple orchard4 ,how has it come about1 do you suppose1 that these trees which in ,may were covered with flowers are now heavy with apples8 ,can any of you children answer this riddle8 ,how have these great apples managed to take the place of the delicate apple blossoms8 ,there are some children who keep their eyes open1 and really see what is going on about them1 instead of acting as if they were quite blind2 and perhaps some such child will say1 8,oh1 yes6 ,i know how it happened4 ,i have seen it all10 and will be able to tell the whole story at once4 ,i should like very much to meet that boy or girl1 and ,i should like to take a country walk with him or her2 for there are so few children1 or grown people either1 who use both their eyes to see with1 and the brain which lies back of their eyes to think and question with1 that it is a rare treat to meet and to go about with one of them4 ,but ,i should be almost as much pleased to meet the child who says1 8,well1 ,i know that first the blossoms come4 ,early in ,may they make the orchard so nice to play in4 ,but in a few days they begin to fall4 ,their little white leaves come dropping down like snowflakes2 and soon after1 if you climb out along the branches and look close1 where there was a blossom before1 you find now a little green thing something like a knob 7,fig4 #b74 ,this tiny knob keeps growing bigger and bigger1 and then you see that it is a baby apple4 ,as the weeks go by1 the little apple grows into a big one2 and at last the green begins to fade away1 and the red and yellow to come4 ,one day you find the great grown apple all ripe1 and ready to eat4 ,but ,i never could see just what made it come like that1 such a big1 heavy apple from such a little flower1 and ,i always wondered about it40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,now1 if we wonder about the things we see1 we are on the right road4 ,the child who first 8sees0 what is happening around him1 and then 8wonders0 and asks questions1 is sure to be good company to other people and to himself4 7,and as one spends more time with himself than with any one else1 he is lucky if he finds himself a pleasant companion47 ,such a child has not lost the use of his eyes1 as so many of us seem to have done4 ,and when the little brain is full of questions1 it bids fair to become a big brain1 which may answer some day the questions the world is asking4 ,before ,i tell you just how the big apple managed to take the place of the pretty1 delicate flower1 let us take a good look at this flower4 ,but in ,september apple flowers are not to be had for the asking4 ,not one is to be found on all these trees4 ,so just now we must use the picture instead4 ,and when ,may comes1 your teacher will bring you a branch bearing the beautiful blossoms2 or1 better still1 perhaps she will take you out into the orchard itself1 and you can go over this chapter again with the lovely living flowers before you4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,now1 as you look at this picture of the apple flower 7,fig4 #c71 you see a circle made up of five pretty leaves4 ,sometimes these are white2 again they are pink4 ,and in the center what do you see8 ,why1 there you see a quantity of odd-looking little things whose names you do not know4 ,they look somewhat like small1 rather crooked pins2 for on the tips of most of them are objects which remind you of the head of a pin4 ,if you were looking at a real flower1 you would see that these pin heads were little boxes filled with a yellow dust which comes off upon one's fingers2 and so for the present we will call them 8dust boxes40 ,but besides these pins--later we shall learn their real names--besides these pins with dust boxes1 we find some others which are without any such boxes4 ,the shape of these reminds us a little of the pegs or pins we use in the game of tenpins4 ,if we looked at them very closely1 we should see that there were five of them1 but that these five were joined below into one piece4 ,now suppose we take the apple blossom and pull off all its pretty white flower leaves1 and all the pins with dust boxes1 what will be left8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,this picture 7,fig4 #d7 shows you just what is left4 ,you see what looks like a little cup or vase4 ,the upper part of this is cut into five pieces1 which are rolled back4 ,in the picture one of these pieces is almost out of sight4 ,in the real blossom these pieces look like little green leaves4 ,and set into this cup is the lower1 united part of those pins which have no dust boxes on top4 ,i fancy that you are better acquainted with the apple blossom than ever before1 never mind how many mornings you may have spent in the sweet-smelling1 pink and white orchard4 ,you know just what goes to make up each separate flower1 for all the many hundreds of blossoms are made on the one plan4 ,and only now are you ready to hear what happened to make the apple take the place of the blossom4 ,illustration3 ,flowers ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bee ,this is what happened4 ,and it is a true story4 ,one morning last ,may a bee set out among the flowers on a honey hunt4 ,perhaps it would be more true to say that the bee set out to hunt for the sweet stuff of which honey is made2 for while this sweet stuff is still in the flower cup it is not honey1 any more than the wheat growing in the field is bread4 ,the wheat becomes bread later1 after it has been cut and gathered and threshed and ground1 and brought into the kitchen and there changed into bread2 and the sweet stuff becomes honey only after the bees have carried it home and worked it4 ,as the bee left home this particular morning1 it made up its mind that it would devote itself to the apple blossoms2 for did you know that when a bee goes flower visiting1 usually it gives all its attention to one kind of flower till it has finished that special round of visits8 ,so off the bee flew2 and in a few moments it saw hundreds of little pink and white handkerchiefs waving at it from the apple orchard4 ,what do you suppose these were1 these gay little handkerchiefs8 ,they were the flower leaves of the apple blossoms4 ,i call them handkerchiefs1 because1 just as boys and girls sometimes wave their handkerchiefs when they wish to signal other boys and girls1 so the apple tree uses its gay flower leaves to attract the attention of the bee1 and persuade it to visit the flowers4 ,of course1 really1 they are not handkerchiefs at all4 ,they would hardly be large enough for any but fairy noses1 would they8 ,when the bee saw so many bright handkerchiefs waving it welcome1 along it hurried2 for it knew this was a signal that material for honey making was at hand4 ,another minute1 and it had settled upon a freshly opened flower1 and was eagerly stealing the precious sweet4 ,you children know1 that1 when you are given permission to go to the closet for a piece of candy or cake1 you are not apt to set about it very gently4 ,you are in too much of a hurry for that4 ,often you come very near knocking everything over1 in your haste to get hold of what you want4 ,and bees are quite as greedy as any boy or girl could be4 ,so our friend dived right into the pretty flower1 brushing rudely against the little dust boxes4 ,these1 being full to overflowing with golden dust1 spilled their contents1 and powdered the bee quite yellow4 ,having made sure that nothing more was to be found just there1 off flew the dusty bee to the next blossom4 ,into this it pushed its way1 and in so doing struck those pins which have no dust boxes2 and upon their broad1 flat tips fell some of the yellow dust grains with which its body was powdered4 ,now there began to happen a strange thing4 ,but before ,i tell you more1 ,i must stop one moment to remind you that these pins without dust boxes are joined below into one piece1 and that this piece is set deep into the green cup which holds the rest of the flower 7see ,fig4 #d72 and ,i must tell you1 that1 if you should cut open this cup1 you would find a number of little round objects looking like tiny green eggs4 ,the strange thing that began to happen was this3-- ,soon after the yellow dust from the bee fell upon the flat tips of the pins without dust boxes1 the little green objects deep within the green cup became full of life1 and began to get larger4 ,and not only this3 the green cup also seemed to feel this new life2 for it too grew bigger and bigger1 and juicier and juicier1 until it became the fine juicy apple we have before us this morning4 ,so now you understand a little of what happened to make the great apple take the place of the delicate blossom4 ,,the ,,apple',s ,,treasures ,if we lift our apple by its stem1 it hangs in the same position as when growing on the tree 7,fig4 #e74 ,but the blossom whose place in the world is taken by this apple held its little head proudly in the air4 ,so let us put the apple in the same position1 and see what is left of the flower from which it has come 7,fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,we see the apple stem1 which last ,may was the flower stem4 ,this has grown thick and strong enough to hold the apple fast to the tree till it ripens and is ready to drop4 ,the upper part of the stem you cannot see1 because the apple has swelled downwards all about it1 or upwards we should say1 if it were still on the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,on the top of the apple1 in a little hollow1 we see some crumpled things which look like tiny withered leaves4 ,you remember that when the bee left the yellow dust in the apple blossom1 the green cup began to grow big and juicy1 and to turn into the apple4 ,and these little crumpled things are all that is left of the five green leaves into which the upper part of the cup was divided4 ,these little leaves have been out in all kinds of weather for many weeks1 so no wonder they look rather mussy and forlorn4 ,it is hard to realize that from the center of this now crumpled bunch grew the pretty apple blossom4 ,now where are those tiny round things that were packed away inside the green cup8 ,well1 as that cup is now this apple1 the chances are that they are still hidden safely away within it4 ,so let us take a knife and cut the apple open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g ,what do you find in its very heart8 ,if you cut it through crosswise1 you find five brown seeds packed as neatly as jewels in their case 7,fig4 #g72 and if you cut it through lengthwise1 you discover only two or three seeds 7,fig4 #h74 ,probably ,i need not say to you that these seeds were once the little round things hidden within the green cup4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h ,some day ,i will tell you a great deal more about the wonderful golden dust which turns flowers into apples as easily as ,cinderella's fairy godmother turned rats into ponies1 and pumpkins into coaches4 ,but all this will come later4 ,just now ,i want to talk about something else4 ,illustration3 ,grass ,,what ,a ,,plant ,,lives ,,for ,when you go for a walk in the country1 what do you see all about you8 8,cows and horses1 and chickens and birds1 and trees and flowers10 answers some child4 ,yes1 all of these things you see4 ,but of the trees and plants you see even more than of the horses and cows and birds4 ,on every side are plants of one kind or another4 ,the fields are full of grass plants4 ,the woods are full of tree plants4 ,along the roadside are plants of many varieties4 ,now1 what are all these plants trying to do8 8,to grow10 comes the answer4 ,to grow big and strong enough to hold their own in the world4 ,that is just what they are trying to do4 ,then1 too1 they are trying to flower4 8,but they don't all have flowers10 objects one voice4 ,you are right4 ,they do not all have flowers2 but you would be surprised to know how many of them do4 ,in fact1 all of them except the ferns and mosses1 and a few others1 some of which you would hardly recognize as plants1--all of them1 with these exceptions1 flower at some time in their lives4 ,all the trees have flowers1 and all the grasses 7,figs4 #i1 #aj72 and all those plants which get so dusty along the roadside1 and which you call 8weeds10--each one of these has its own flower4 ,this may be so small and dull-looking that you have never noticed it2 and unless you look sharply1 perhaps you never will4 ,but all the same1 it is a flower4 ,but there is one especial thing which is really the object of the plant's life4 ,now1 who can tell me this3 what is this object of a plant's life8 ,do you know just what ,i mean by this question8 ,i doubt it2 but ,i will try to make it clear to you4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,if ,i see a boy stop his play1 get his hat1 and start down the street1 ,i know that he has what we call 8an object in view40 ,there is some reason for what he is doing4 ,and if ,i say to him1 8,what is the object of your walk80 ,i mean1 8,for what are you going down the street80 ,and if he answers1 8,i am going to get a pound of tea for my mother10 ,i know that a pound of tea is the object of his walk4 ,so when ,i ask what is the object of a plant's life1 ,i mean why does a plant send out roots in search of food1 and a stem to carry this food upward1 and leaves to drink in air and sunshine8 ,what is the object of all this8 ,a great many people seem to think that the object of all plants with pretty flowers must be to give pleasure4 ,but these people quite forget that hundreds and thousands of flowers live and die far away in the lonely forest1 where no human eye ever sees them2 that they so lived and died hundreds and thousands of years before there were any men and women1 and boys and girls1 upon the earth4 ,and so1 if they stopped long enough quietly to think about it1 they would see for themselves that plants must have some other object in life than to give people pleasure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,but now let us go back to the tree from which we took this apple1 and see if we can find out its special object4 8,why1 apples60 some of you exclaim4 8,surely the object of an apple tree is to bear apples40 ,that is it exactly4 ,an apple tree lives to bear apples4 ,and now why is an apple such an important thing8 ,why is it worth so much time and trouble8 ,what is its use8 8,it is good to eat10 chime all the children in chorus4 ,yes1 so it is2 but then1 you must remember that once upon a time1 apple trees1 like all other plants and trees1 grew in lonely places where there were no boys and girls to eat their fruit4 ,so we must find some other answer4 ,think for a moment1 and then tell me what you find inside every apple4 8,apple seeds10 one of you replies4 ,and what is the use of these apple seeds8 8,why1 they make new apple trees60 ,if this be so1 if every apple holds some little seeds from which new apple trees may grow1 does it not look as though an apple were useful and important because it yields seeds8 ,and what is true of the apple tree is true of other plants and trees4 ,the plant lives to bear fruit4 ,the fruit is that part of the plant which holds its seeds2 and it is of importance for just this reason1 that it holds the seeds from which come new plants4 ,,the ,,world ,,without ,,plants ,we have just learned that the fruit is important because it holds the plant's seeds2 and we know that seeds are important because from them come the new plants for another year4 ,let us stop here one moment1 and try to think what would happen if plants should stop having seeds1 if there should be no new plants4 ,we all1 and especially those of us who are children1 carry about with us a little picture gallery of our very own4 ,in this gallery are pictures of things which our real eyes have never seen1 yet which we ourselves see quite as plainly as the objects which our eyes rest upon in the outside world4 ,some of these pictures are very beautiful4 ,they show us things so wonderful and delightful and interesting1 that at times we forget all about the real1 outside things4 ,indeed1 these pictures often seem to us more real than anything else in the world4 ,and once in a great while we admire them so earnestly that we are able to make them come true2 that is1 we turn our backs upon them1 and work so hard to bring them about1 that at last what was only a picture becomes a reality4 ,perhaps some of you children can step into this little gallery of your own1 and see a picture of the great world as it would be if there should be no new plants4 ,this picture would show the world some hundreds of years from now2 for1 although some plants live only a short time1 others 7and usually these are trees7 live hundreds of years4 ,but in the picture even the last tree has died away4 ,upon the earth there is not one green1 growing thing4 ,the sun beats down upon the bare1 brown deserts4 ,it seems to scorch and blister the rocky mountain sides4 ,there are no cool shadows where one can lie on a summer afternoon2 no dark1 ferny nooks1 such as children love1 down by the stream4 ,but1 after all1 that does not matter much1 for there are no children to search out such hidden1 secret spots4 8,no children6 ,why1 what has happened to them80 ,well1 if plants should stop having children 7for the little young plants that come up each year are just the children of the big1 grown-up plants71 all other life--the life of all grown people1 and of all children1 and of all animals--would also come to an end4 ,did you ever stop to think of this1--that your very life depended upon these plants and trees8 ,you know that they are pretty to look at1 and pleasant to play about2 but ,i doubt if you ever realized before1 that to them you owe your life4 ,now let us see how this can be4 ,what did you have this morning for breakfast8 ,bread and milk8 ,well1 of what is the bread made8 ,flour8 ,yes1 and the flour is made from the seeds of the wheat4 ,if the wheat stopped having seeds1 you would stop having bread made from wheat seeds4 ,that is plain enough4 ,then the milk1--where does that come from8 8,that comes from the cows1 and cows are not plants10 you say4 ,true1 cows are not plants1 but what would happen to the cows if there were no plants8 ,do not cows live in the green meadows1 where all day long they munch the grass plants8 ,and would there be any green meadows and all-day banquets1 in years to come1 if the grass did not first flower1 and then seed8 ,so then1 no grass1 no cows1 and you would be without milk as well as without bread for breakfast4 ,and so it is with all the rest of our food4 ,we live on either plants or animals4 ,if there were no plants1 there would be no animals1 for animals cannot live without plants4 ,it is something like the house that ,jack built1 isn't it8 8,we are the children that drink the milk1 that comes from the cows1 that eat the grass1 that grows from the seeds in the meadow40 8,if there were no seeds1 there would be no grass to feed the cows that give us our milk for breakfast40 ,and so it is everywhere4 ,plants give us a kind of food that we must have1 and that only they can give4 ,they could get on well enough without animals4 ,indeed1 for a long time they did so1 many hundreds of years ago4 ,but animals cannot live without plants4 ,i think you will now remember why seeds are of such great importance4 ,,how ,,the ,,apple ,,shields ,,its ,,young ,some time ago you noticed that apple seeds were packed away within the apple as neatly as though they were precious jewels in their case4 ,when we see something done up very carefully1 surrounded with cotton wool1 laid in a beautiful box1 and wrapped about with soft paper1 we feel sure that the object of all this care is of value4 ,even the outside of such a package tells us that something precious lies within4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa ,but what precious jewels could be laid away more carefully than these apple seeds8 ,and what jewel case could boast a more beautiful outside than this red-cheeked apple 7,fig4 #aa78 ,pass it around4 ,note its lovely color1 its delicate markings1 its satin-like skin4 ,for myself1 ,i feel sure that ,i never have seen a jewel case one half so beautiful4 ,then cut it open and see how carefully the soft yet firm apple flesh is packed about the little seeds1 keeping them safe from harm 7,fig4 #ab74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,but perhaps you think that anything so good to eat is not of much use as a protection4 ,it takes you boys and girls about half a minute to swallow such a jewel case as this4 ,but here comes the interesting part of the story4 ,when you learn how well able this apple is to defend from harm its precious seeds1 ,i think you will look upon it with new respect1 and will own that it is not only a beautiful jewel case1 but a safe one4 ,all seeds need care and wrapping-up till they are ripe2 for if they fall to the ground before they are well grown1 they will not be able to start new plants4 ,you know that you can tell whether an apple is ripe by looking at its seeds1 for the fruit and its seeds ripen together4 ,when the apple seeds are dark brown1 then the apple is ready to be eaten4 ,but if1 in order to find out whether an apple was ripe1 you were obliged always to examine its seeds1 you might destroy many apples and waste many young seeds before you found what you wished2 so1 in order to protect its young1 the apple must tell you when it is ready to be eaten in some other way than by its seeds4 ,how does it do this8 ,why1 it puts off its green coat1 and instead wears one of red or yellow2 and from being hard to the touch1 it becomes soft and yielding when you press it with your fingers4 ,if not picked1 then it falls upon the ground in order to show you that it is waiting for you2 and when you bite into it1 you find it juicy1 and pleasant to the taste4 ,while eating such an apple as this1 you can be sure that when you come to the inner part1 which holds its seeds1 you will find these brown1 and ripe1 and quite ready to be set free from the case which has held them so carefully all summer4 ,but how does the apple still further protect its young till they are ready to go out into the world8 ,well1 stop and think what happened one day last summer when you stole into the orchard and ate a quantity of green apples1 the little seeds of which were far too white and young to be sent off by themselves4 ,in the first place1 as soon as you began to climb the tree1 had you chosen to stop and listen1 you could almost have heard the green skins of those apples calling out to you1 8,don't eat us1 we're not ripe yet60 ,and when you felt them with your fingers1 they were hard to the touch2 and this hardness said to you1 8,don't eat us1 we're not ripe yet60 ,but all the same1 you ate them2 and the sour taste which puckered up your mouth said to you1 8,stop eating us1 we're not ripe yet60 ,but you did not pay any attention to their warnings2 and1 though they spared no pains1 those apples were not able to save their baby seeds from being wasted by your greediness4 ,but there was still one thing they could do to prevent your eating many more green apples1 and wasting more half-ripe seeds4 ,they could punish you so severely for having disobeyed their warnings1 that you would not be likely very soon to do the same thing again4 ,and this is just what they did4 ,when feeling so ill and unhappy that summer night from all the unripe fruit you had been eating1 perhaps you hardly realized that those apples were crying out to you1-- 8,you would not listen to us1 and so we are punishing you by making you ill and uncomfortable4 ,when you saw how green we were1 we were begging you not to eat us till our young seeds were ripe4 ,when you felt how hard we were1 we were trying to make you understand that we were not ready for you yet4 ,and1 now that you have eaten us in spite of all that we did to save ourselves and our seeds1 we are going to make you just as unhappy as we know how4 ,perhaps next time you will pay some heed to our warnings1 and will leave us alone till we are ready to let our young ones go out into the world40 ,so after this when ,i show you an apple1 and ask you what you know about it1 ,i fancy you will have quite a story to tell1--a story that begins with one ,may day in the orchard1 when a bee went flower visiting1 and ends with the little brown seeds which you let fall upon the ground1 when you had finished eating the rosy cheeks and juicy pulp of the apple seed case4 ,and the apple's story is also the story of many other fruits4 ,illustration3 ,flower ,,some ,,cousins ,,of ,,the ,,apple ,the pear 7,fig4 #ac7 is a near cousin of the apple4 ,but perhaps you did not know that plants and trees had cousins4 ,as you learn more and more about them1 you will begin to feel that in many ways plants are very much like people4 ,both the pear and the apple belong to the ,rose family4 ,they are cousins to all the garden roses1 as well as to the lovely wild rose that you meet so often in summer along the roadside4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,we know some families where the girls and boys look so much alike that we could guess they were brothers and sisters1 even if we did not know that they all lived in the one house and had the one family name4 ,if we look carefully at the plants we meet1 at their leaves and flowers and fruits1 and even at their stems and roots1 often we may guess rightly which ones belong to the same family4 ,if we place side by side an apple blossom and a pear blossom1 we see that they are very like each other4 ,both have the green outside cup which above is cut into five little green leaves4 ,both have five white or pinkish flower leaves4 ,both have a good many pins with dust boxes1 and from two to five of those pins without dust boxes4 ,if we place side by side a pear and an apple1 we see in both cases that it is the green cup1 grown big and juicy and ripe1 which forms the delicious fruit4 ,if we cut these two fruits open lengthwise1 we can see just how the pins without dust boxes are set into the green cup2 and we can see that the lower1 united part of these pins makes a little box which holds the seeds4 ,in the picture 7,fig4 #ad7 the shading shows you where this seedbox ends1 and the green cup1 or what once was the green cup1 begins4 ,this is rather hard to understand1 ,i know2 but your teacher can make it clear to you with a real pear4 ,so it ought to surprise you no longer to learn that the apple and the pear are cousins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,now1 ,i want you to look at the picture at the head of this chapter4 ,this is the wild rose1 the flower from which the great ,rose family takes its name4 ,this rose is a much larger flower than either the apple or the pear blossom4 ,its flower leaves are deep pink4 ,these bright flower leaves make gay handkerchiefs for signaling when the rose plant wishes to attract the attention of the bees4 ,but there are five of them1 just as there are in the apple and the pear blossom2 and there are the pins with dust boxes1--so many of them1 in the rose1 that it would take some time to count them all4 ,and in the center are the pins which have seedboxes below2 for these pins in the rose are quite separate one from another1 and each one has its own little seedbox4 ,so1 though different in some ways1 in others the flower of the rose is very much like those of the apple and the pear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae ,in this picture 7,fig4 #ae7 you see its fruit4 ,this is called the 8rose hip40 ,when ripe1 it turns bright red4 ,in late summer you see the rosebushes covered with these pretty hips4 ,at times this fruit does not look altogether unlike a tiny apple or pear2 but if we cut it open lengthwise1 we see that its inside arrangements are quite different4 ,the lower parts of the pins without dust boxes do not grow into one piece with the green cup 7now the red cup71 as in the apple and the pear4 ,instead1 this cup 7,fig4 #af7 is hollow4 ,to its inner sides are fastened the little seedboxes1 as you will see if you look carefully at the picture4 ,this hollow case with its separate seedboxes shows you that the rose plant is not so closely related to the pear and the apple trees as these trees are to each other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af ,,uneatable ,,fruits ,perhaps one day you bit into the fruit of the rose1 and found it sour and unpleasant to the taste4 ,you may have forgotten that not long ago you learned a new meaning for the word 8fruit40 ,possibly you still fancy that a fruit must be something good to eat4 ,so many people have this idea1 that once more ,i wish to make clear to you that the fruit is the seed-holding part of the plant4 ,illustration3 ,leaves ,whether this part is good to eat or not1 makes no difference as to its being a fruit4 ,the apple is a fruit1 you remember1 not because it is good to eat1 but because it holds the seeds of the apple tree4 ,and for this same reason the pear is a fruit4 ,it is the case in which is laid the seedbox of the pear tree4 ,this case1 when ripe1 happens to be juicy and delicious2 but it would be quite as much a fruit if it were dry and hard1 and without taste4 ,and so the rose hip is a fruit1 because it is the case which holds the little seedboxes of the rose flower4 ,what is the fruit of the milkweed8 ,all country children know the milkweed plant1 with its big bright leaves1 and bunches of pink or red or purple flowers 7,fig4 #ag74 ,and you know the puffy pods that later split open1 letting out a mass of brown1 silky-tailed seeds4 ,there6 ,i have given the answer to my own question2 for if the plant's fruit is the seed-holding part1 then the milkweed's fruit must be this pod stuffed full of beautiful1 fairy-like seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag ,then you know the burdock 7,fig4 #ah7 which grows along the country road4 ,but perhaps you do not know that the fruit of this is the prickly burr which hooks itself to your clothes on your way to school4 ,this burr 7,fig4 #ai7 is the case which holds the little seeds of the burdock1 and so it must be its fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj ,the fruit of the dandelion is the silvery puffball 7,fig4 #bj7 or 8clock10 by blowing at which you try to tell the time of day4 ,if you pull off one of the feathery objects which go to make up the puffball1 at its lower end you see a little dandelion seedbox 7,fig4 #ba74 ,and these fall days1 along the roadsides and in the woods1 everywhere you see fruits which you will hardly know as such unless you keep in mind the true meaning of the word4 ,many of these ,i am sure you would not care to eat4 ,the burr from the burdock would not make a pleasant mouthful4 ,neither would you like to breakfast on a milkweed pod4 ,and a quantity of dandelion puffballs would hardly add to the enjoyment of your supper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba ,if you should tell your mother you had brought her some fruit1 and should show her a basket of burrs and pods1 she would think you were only joking1 and perhaps a little foolish2 and ,i dare say she would be greatly surprised to find you were using the word quite rightly4 ,,more ,,cousins ,,of ,,the ,,apple ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb ,the apple has three cousins1 all of whom are very much alike4 ,these cousins are the cherry1 the plum1 and the peach 7,figs4 #bb1 #bc1 #bd74 ,all three belong to the ,rose family4 ,have you ever noticed the great family likeness between these three fruits8 ,look at them in the pictures4 ,to be sure1 they are of different sizes1 but they are almost alike in shape4 ,and if you should cut them open lengthwise1 right through the stony center1 all three would look much like the next picture1 which is taken from a peach 7,fig4 #be74 ,all these fruits have the soft outer part which you find so pleasant to the taste4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd ,within this1 in all of them1 is a hard object1 which we call the stone or pit2 and inside this stone or pit1 in each case1 lies the seed4 ,these next pictures show you two views of the flower of the cherry 7,figs4 #bf1 #bg74 ,here you see a likeness to other members of the ,rose family1 to the blossoms of the apple and the pear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be ,you see that the green cup is cut into five little leaves 7in the picture these are turned back and downward74 ,you see also the five white flower leaves1 and ever so many of the pins with dust boxes4 ,but you find only one of those pins without dust boxes2 and this1 as you now know1 has a seedbox below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg ,well1 that is all right4 ,the cherry blossom has but one of these pins1 and the flowers of the peach and of the plum have only one4 ,figure #bh shows you a cherry blossom cut open4 ,here you see plainly the single pin with a seedbox4 ,this seedbox with its case is what grows into the cherry4 ,the white flower leaves1 and the pins with dust boxes1 fall away4 ,in the cherry flower the green cup also disappears1 instead of making the best part of the fruit1 as it does with the apple and the pear4 ,and the upper part of the seedbox pin withers off2 but the seedbox below grows juicy and ripe and red1 at least its outer case does4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh ,by the end of ,june you take out the long ladder and place it against the cherry tree4 ,seating yourself on one of its upper rungs1 you swallow the outside of the shining little ball we call the cherry1 letting the stony seedbox inside drop down upon the ground1 where all ripe seeds belong4 ,the story of the plum and of the peach is almost the same as the story of the cherry4 ,if you understand how the single seedbox of the cherry blossom turns into the cherry fruit1 then you understand how the same thing happens with the single seedboxes of the plum and the peach blossom4 ,you know that in the flowers of the pear and the apple there were several of these pins without dust boxes2 and although these were joined below into a single seedbox1 this had separate compartments for the many seeds4 ,but the single seedboxes of the cherry1 the plum1 and the peach1 have but one hollow4 ,usually in this hollow we find only one seed4 ,so you see that these three fruits make a little group by themselves because of their great likeness to one another4 ,,still ,,more ,,cousins ,cherries and plums we find growing wild in the woods and fields4 ,while in many ways the wild trees are unlike those we grow in our orchards1 yet1 if you look closely at their flowers and fruits1 you will find they answer generally to the descriptions you have been reading4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi ,early in ,may1 when the orchard is still gray and dreary1 suddenly we notice that the upper branches of the cherry tree look as though a light snow had fallen4 ,it seems as if the lovely blossoms had burst forth in an hour4 ,one's heart gives a joyful jump4 ,summer is really coming4 ,the flowers of ,may promise the fruit of ,june4 ,but when we find the blossoms of the wild cherry1 it is several weeks later4 ,some of the little wood flowers have already come and gone4 ,the trees are thick with leaves before we discover the fragrance of its slender1 drooping clusters2 for1 though in other ways these blossoms are almost exactly like those of the cultivated cherry1 they are much smaller1 and grow differently on the branches4 ,this same difference in size and manner of growing you will find between the wild and the cultivated fruits4 ,you country children know well the little chokecherries 7,fig4 #bi7 that are so pretty and so plentiful along the lanes4 ,these hang in bunches that remind you somewhat of the clusters of the currant4 ,they are much smaller than the market cherry2 yet if you cut one through1 you will see that in make-up it is almost exactly like its big sister4 ,those of you who live near the sea find wild beach plums 7,fig4 #cj7 growing thickly along the sand hills4 ,these are hardly larger than good-sized grapes2 yet if you cut them open1 you see that they are really plums4 ,in our woods and fields we do not find any wild peaches4 ,the peach was brought to us from far-away ,persia4 ,only in the garden and orchard do we meet its beautiful pink blossoms4 ,to see these growing naturally we must go to their ,persian home4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj ,so1 while we remember that the cherry1 the plum1 and the peach belong to one little group because of their likeness to one another1 let us not forget that the peach is one of the foreign members of the ,rose family4 ,,in ,,the ,,woods ,what do you say this morning to going to the woods rather than to either garden or orchard8 ,not that ,i am ready to take back anything ,i said at the beginning of this book about the delights of the orchard as a playground4 ,for actual play ,i know of no better place4 ,an apple tree is as good a horse as it is a house1 as good a ship as it is a mountain4 ,other trees may be taller1 finer to look at1 more exciting to climb2 but they do not know how to fit themselves to the need of the moment as does an apple tree4 ,but for anything besides play1 the woods1 the real woods1 are even better than the orchard4 ,the truth is1 in the woods you have such a good time just living1 that you hardly need to play2 at least you do if you are made in the right way4 ,so now we are off for the woods4 ,we have only to cross a field and climb a fence1 and we are in the lane which leads where we wish to go4 ,through the trees comes a golden light4 ,this is made partly by the sunshine1 but mostly by the leaves turned yellow4 ,these yellow leaves mean that summer is over4 ,it is in summer1 when we are having our vacation1 that the leaves work hardest2 for leaves have work to do1 as we shall learn later4 ,but now they are taking a rest1 and wearing their holiday colors4 ,twisting in and out over the rails of the fence are clusters of berries which are very beautiful when you look at them closely4 ,each berry is an orange-colored case which opens so as to show a scarlet seedbox within 7,fig4 #ca74 ,a little earlier in the year you could not see this bright-colored seedbox4 ,it is only a short time since the outer case opened and displayed its contents4 ,these are the berries of the bittersweet4 ,last ,june you would hardly have noticed its little greenish flowers1 and would have been surprised to learn that they could change into such gay fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca ,do you see a shrub close by covered with berries8 ,these berries are dark blue4 ,they grow on bright-red stalks4 ,if we wait here long enough1 it is likely that we shall see the birds alight upon some upper twig and make their dinner on the dogwood berries2 for this is one of the ,dogwood family1--the red-stalked dogwood1 we call it 7,fig4 #cb74 ,when its berries turn a very dark blue1 then the birds know they are ready to be eaten1 just as we know the same thing by the rosy cheeks of the apple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb ,you can be pretty sure that any fruit so gayly colored as to make us look at it twice1 is trying to persuade some one--some boy or girl1 or bird1 or perhaps even some bear--to come and eat it4 ,you have not forgotten1 ,i hope1 why these fruits are so anxious to be eaten8 ,you remember that when their seeds become ripe1 and ready to make new plants1 then they put on bright colors that say for them1 8,come and eat us1 for our little seeds want to get out of their prison60 ,once upon a time these seeds did not find their cozy seed cases a prison4 ,so once upon a time the baby robins were content to stay safe in their nest4 ,and once upon a time all the playground you needed was a little corner behind your mother's chair4 ,but seeds1 like birds and babies1 outgrow their surroundings1 and need more room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc ,here is a tall shrub with bright-colored leaves1 and clusters of dark red fruit that grow high above our heads 7,fig4 #cc74 ,it looks something like certain materials used in fancywork4 ,this shrub is called the sumac2 and if you pick and pull apart one of its fruit clusters1 you find that it is made up of a quantity of seeds that are covered with little red hairs4 ,there is nothing soft and juicy about the fruit of the sumac4 ,whether it is ever used as food by the birds1 ,i do not know4 ,i wish some child would make it his business to find out about this4 ,some of you are sure to live near a clump of sumacs4 ,by watching them closely for a few weeks1 you ought to discover if any birds feed upon their fruit4 ,if you do make any such discovery1 ,i hope you will write a letter telling me of it2 and then1 if another edition of this book is published1 ,i shall be able to tell other children more about the fruit of the sumac than ,i can tell you to-day4 ,there are many interesting things about plants yet to be found out2 and you children will find it far pleasanter to make your own discoveries1 using your own bright eyes1 than to read about the discoveries of other people4 ,every field1 each bit of woods1 the road we know so well leading from home to the schoolhouse1 and even the city squares and parks1 are full of interesting things that as yet we have never seen1 even though we may have been over the ground a hundred times before4 ,now let us leave the lane1 and strike into the woods in search of new fruits4 ,this morning we will look especially for those fruits which by their bright colors and pleasant looks seem to be calling out to whomsoever it may concern1 8,come and eat us60 ,close at hand is one of our prettiest plants4 ,its leaves look as though they were trying to be in the height of the fall fashion1 and to outdo even the trees in brightness of color4 ,these leaves are set in circles about the slim stem4 ,from the top of this grow some purple berries 7,fig4 #cd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd ,this plant is the ,indian cucumber root4 ,if one of you boys will dig it up with your knife1 you will find that its root is shaped a little like a cucumber4 ,though ,i have never made the experiment myself1 ,i am told that it tastes something like the cucumber4 ,it is possible1 that1 as its name suggests1 it was used as food by the ,indians4 ,to hunt up the beginnings of plant names is often amusing4 ,so many of these are ,indian1 that in our rambles through the woods we are constantly reminded of the days when the red man was finding his chief support in their plants and animals4 ,in ,june we find the flower of the ,indian cucumber root4 ,this is a little yellowish blossom1 one of the ,lily family4 ,small though it is1 for one who knows something of botany it is easy to recognize it as a lily4 ,indeed1 the look of the plant suggests the wood and meadow lilies4 ,this is partly because of the way in which the leaves grow about its stem1 much as they do in these other lilies4 ,now look at the beautiful carpet which is spread beneath your feet4 ,here you will wish to step very lightly2 for otherwise you might crush some of those bright red berries which are set thickly among the little white-veined leaves4 ,these are called 8partridge berries10--a name given them because they are eaten by partridges4 ,but the bare winter woods offer few tempting morsels for bird meals2 and it seems likely that the nuthatch and snowbird1 the chickadee and winter wren1 hail with delight these bright berries1 and share with the partridges the welcome feast4 ,please look closely at one of the berries in ,fig4 #ce1 and tell me whether you see anything unusual4 8,there are two little holes on top40 ,yes1 that is just what ,i hoped you would notice4 ,i do not know of any other berries in which you could find these two little holes2 and as ,i do not believe it would be possible for you to guess what made these holes1 ,i will tell you about them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce ,the flowers of the partridge vine always grow in twos4 ,the seedboxes of these two flowers are joined in one4 ,so when the flowers fade away1 only the one seedbox is left4 ,when this ripens1 it becomes the partridge berry2 and the two little holes show where the two flowers were fastened to the seedbox4 ,try not to forget this1 and early next ,july be sure to go to the woods and look for the little sister flowers4 ,perhaps their delicious fragrance will help you in your hunt for their hiding place4 ,then see for yourselves how the two blossoms have but one seedbox between them 7,fig4 #ce74 ,now1 we must take care not to wet our feet1 for the ground is getting damp4 ,we are coming to that lovely spot where the brook winds beneath the hemlocks after making its leap down the rocks4 ,what is that flaming red spot against the gray rock yonder8 ,as we draw nearer1 we see that a quantity of scarlet berries are closely packed upon a thick stalk 7,fig4 #cf74 ,do you know the name of the plant which owns this flaming fruit8 ,if you were in these woods last ,may1 at every turn you met one of those quaint little fellows we call 8,jack-in-the-pulpit40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf ,jack himself1 you remember1 was hidden almost out of sight by his 8pulpit40 ,this pulpit was made of a leaf striped green or purple1 or both2 and this leaf curled about and above ,jack 7,fig4 #cg74 ,after a time the pretty leaf pulpit faded away1 and ,jack was left standing all alone4 ,the lower part of ,jack is covered with tiny flowers4 ,after these had been properly dusted by the little flies 7for flies1 not bees1 visit ,jack71 just as the apple blossom began to change into the apple1 so these tiny flowers began to turn into bright berries4 ,while this was happening1 ,jack's upper part began to wither away2 and at last all of it that was left was the queer little tail which you see at the top of the bunch of berries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg ,it is said that the ,indians boiled these berries1 and then thought them very good to eat4 ,if we were lost in the woods1 and obliged to live upon the plants about us1 ,i dare say we should eat1 and perhaps enjoy eating1 many things which now seem quite impossible2 but until this happens ,i advise you not to experiment with strange leaves and roots and berries4 ,every little while one reads of the death of some child as the result of eating a poisonous plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch ,the next picture 7,fig4 #ch7 shows you the fruit of ,solomon's seal4 ,these dark-blue berries hang from beneath the leafy stem1 just as the little flowers hung their yellow heads last ,may4 ,next come the speckled red berries of the false ,solomon's seal 7,fig4 #ci71 a big cousin of the smaller plant4 ,as you see1 this bears its fruit quite differently1 all in a cluster at the upper part of the stem4 ,these two plants seem to be great chums1 constantly growing side by side4 ,we have been so busy and so happy that the morning has flown1 and now we must be finding our way home to dinner2 for1 unlike the birds1 we are not satisfied to dine on berries alone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci ,at almost every step we long to stop and look at some new plant in fruit2 for1 now that we have learned how to look for them1 berries of different sorts seem thick on every side4 ,low at our feet are the red ones of the wintergreen 7,fig4 #dj74 ,on taller plants grow the odd white ones1 with blackish spots1 of the white baneberry 7,fig4 #da71 or the red ones of the red baneberry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da ,still higher glisten the dark1 glass-like clusters of the spikenard4 ,along the lane are glowing barberries 7,fig4 #db7 and thorns bright with their 8haws0 7for the fruit of the thorn is called a 8haw074 ,these look something like little apples4 ,here1 too1 is the black alder1 studded with its red1 waxy beads4 ,but we must hurry on1 not stopping by the way4 ,and you can be sure that those birds we hear chirruping above us are glad enough to be left to finish their dinner in peace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db ,illustration3 ,berries ,,why ,,seeds ,,travel ,at last ,i think we all understand that by the red of the apple1 the purple of the plum1 and the different colors worn by the berries we find in the woods1 these plants are inviting us1 and the birds also1 to eat their fruit1 and so release from prison their little seeds4 ,but what would happen1 do you suppose1 if no one should accept this invitation8 ,what would become of their seeds if these pears and apples and berries were not eaten by boys and girls and birds8 ,most of this question you can answer for yourselves4 ,if you leave the apple on the tree1 after a time it falls off upon the ground2 and unless picked up1 there it lies till it decays4 ,in the orchard every fall you see apples decaying on the ground4 ,in a little while the fleshy part disappears1 and the little seeds are thus let out of prison without help4 ,but many plants are not satisfied to leave their seeds so near home4 ,why is this1 do you suppose8 ,well1 this is quite a long story4 ,all plants of the same kind need just the same sort of food4 ,if too many apple trees grow together1 they soon use up all the apple-tree food in the neighborhood4 ,so if a seed is to grow into a strong1 hearty1 well-fed plant1 it ought to begin life in some place not already full of plants in search of just the food that it needs for itself4 ,if a plant or tree makes its fruit so good to eat that some boy or girl or bird is likely to pick it1 the chances are that it will be carried at least a short distance before its seeds are dropped upon the ground4 ,once in a while a plant is rewarded for its pains by having its young carried thousands of miles4 ,think how far from its home the peach has traveled4 ,as ,i told you before1 it comes to us from ,persia4 ,now1 if the ,persian peach tree had not made its fruit very juicy and delicious1 it is not likely that any one would have taken the trouble to bring its seeds way over here to us4 ,but this peach being what it is1 one of the most delicious of fruits1 the tree was rewarded for its pains by having its children taken where they were petted1 and made much of1 and had things all their own way2 for no other peach trees were on hand to do their best to crowd them out4 ,then think of the little partridge berry4 ,the fleshy part of this the birds eat and digest4 ,but the little seeds pass unharmed from the bird's stomach to the earth1 sometimes many miles from the woods where they were born4 ,what is true of the peach and of the partridge berry is true of many other fruits4 ,without the help of man or bird or beast1 these little seeds could at last get out of their seed cases2 but without such help1 often they could not get the start in life they need4 ,so it would seem as if a fruit's bright color and delicious flavor were saying to us not only1 8,come and eat us and set our seeds free10 but also1 8and carry us far away1 so that we may have a fair chance in the world40 ,,some ,,little ,,tramps ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc ,when ,i came home from that walk in the woods the other day1 it took me some time to rid my clothes of many odd-looking little things1 such as you see in the picture above 7,fig4 #dc74 ,this round burr 7,fig4 #dd7 was one of the worst of my hangers-on4 ,you know it quite well4 ,it is the fruit of the burdock4 ,can some child tell me why ,i call this prickly burr a fruit8 ,now let us look carefully at this seed case or fruit of the burdock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd ,instead of being smooth to the touch1 like some other fruits we know1 such as the apple and the pear1 it is covered with stiff hooks4 ,by these hooks it fastened itself so firmly to my clothes1 that it was difficult to pull it off without making a tear4 ,why does the burdock put its seeds into such a prickly case8 ,please stop reading for a moment and try to answer this question4 ,cudgel well your brains for the use of such a prickly seed case as that of the burdock plant4 ,now ,i am hoping that one of you children will be able to think out some such answer as this3-- 8,of course1 the burdock plant doesn't want its seeds to fall on the piece of ground that has been used up already by other burdocks1 any more than the partridge vine wishes to drop its seeds in the same little hollow where other partridge vines have eaten all the good food4 ,as this burdock plant cannot make its seed case so bright and pretty1 and good to eat1 that the birds will carry it off1 it must manage in some other way to send its seeds on their travels4 ,and this is what it does3 it covers the seed case with little hooks4 ,when the seeds inside are quite ripe1 this case breaks off very easily4 ,so when the children come hunting berries1 it hooks itself to their clothes1 or else it catches in the hair of their dogs1 or takes hold of the wool of grazing sheep1 and gets carried quite a way before it is picked or rubbed off4 ,when that happens1 it is far enough from its old home to set up for itself40 ,i should indeed be pleased if one of you children could give me some such answer as that4 ,so you see this prickly seed case does just as much for its little charges as the juicy apple and velvety peach do for theirs4 ,and the same thing is true of all those other hooked1 or barbed1 or prickly little objects that ,i picked off my clothes the other day1 and that cling to you when you take a walk in the fall woods4 ,they are all fruits4 ,they are the ripe seed cases of the different plants4 ,but they are dull-looking1 and often quite vexing1 instead of being pleasant to the sight and taste and touch4 ,this makes no difference1 however1 in their having things pretty much their own way4 ,we do not in the least want to carry abroad these little torments1 scattering far and wide their seeds1 so that another year there will be more burrs and barbs and bristles than ever1 to tear our clothes and worry our dogs2 but they force us to do them this service1 whether we will or no1 and never stop to say 8,by your leave40 ,at every turn they are waiting for us4 ,where we climb the fence1 and cross the fields1 and break through the woods1 we can almost fancy that we hear them whispering together1 8,here they come6 ,now is our chance60 ,they remind us of those lazy tramps that lie along the railway1 getting on the trucks of passing trains1 and stealing rides across the country4 ,these ugly hooked fruits have one great advantage over the pretty ones that are good to eat4 ,they do not have to wait our pleasure4 ,but when we are most busy and hurried1 without a moment to loiter in the apple orchard or among the berry bushes1 then1 quite as well as1 if not better than1 during our leisure moments1 they lay hold upon us with their tiny claws1 and cling closely till we set to work to get rid of them4 ,when we pick them off and fling them to the ground1 we are doing just what they most wish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de ,in this picture 7,fig4 #de7 you see the seed case of the tick trefoil4 ,this plant belongs to the ,pea family2 and its fruit is really a pod1 something like that of the garden pea4 ,but when this pod of the tick trefoil is ripe1 it splits into five little pieces4 ,each piece is a separate seed case4 ,this is covered with hooked hairs1 by means of which it fastens itself to our clothing and to the hair of animals1 just as the burr of the burdock did4 ,these little seed cases go by the name of 8ticks40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df ,here is the fruit of the stick-tight 7,fig4 #df74 ,you see its two teeth that are so well fitted to weave themselves into either cloth or hair4 ,fig4 #dg shows you a strange and terrible fruit of this same class4 ,it grows on an ,african plant1 and may fasten itself so firmly into the hair of animals1 that the attempt to get it out is almost hopeless4 ,sometimes an unfortunate lion will kill himself in his efforts to wrench this tormenting seed case from his skin4 ,in his struggles he gets it into his mouth1 and so dies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg ,i am glad to say we have nothing so terrifying as this among our hooked fruits4 ,even if at times you are tempted to lose your patience with such impertinent little tramps as they are1 ,i think you can hardly help admiring the clever way in which they manage to get a free ride4 ,,seed ,,sailboats ,on your way to school these fall days1 often you notice certain white1 silky things floating lazily through the air4 ,sometimes you catch one of these little objects1 and blow it away again with a message to a friend4 ,or perhaps you wish upon it4 ,at least1 this is what ,i did as a child4 ,life in those days was full of these mysterious 8wishes40 ,a white horse1 a hay cart1 the first star1 a wandering thistle down1--each promised the possible granting of one's most secret wish4 ,illustration3 ,seeds ,that the thistle down comes from the thistle plant1 you know4 ,but not all the silky things that look like fairy sailboats are thistle down1 for many plants beside the thistle let loose these tiny air ships4 ,have you ever wondered where they come from1 what they are doing8 ,or do they seem to you so lazy1 so drifting1 so aimless1 that you doubt if they are going anywhere in particular1 or have really anything to do8 ,but by this time you have learned that plants have better reasons for their actions than you had dreamed before you began to pay them some attention4 ,you have discovered that they dress their flowers in gay colors so that the bees may be tempted to visit them and powder them with golden dust4 ,you have learned that they make their fruits juicy and delicious so that boys and girls and birds may be persuaded to carry off their seeds2 and the better you know them1 the more certain you feel that they manage their affairs with much common sense1 that they are not likely to take time and trouble for nothing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh ,so let us look closely at some of these air ships1 and try to guess their errand4 ,i hope that some time ago you were told to get together as many different kinds as you could find1 and to bring them here this morning4 ,in this picture you see some of the air ships of the milkweed 7,fig4 #di74 ,the lower part of ,fig4 #dh is a seedbox of the milkweed4 ,to this are fastened the silky threads which make the sail that carries the seed through the air with the least wind1 just as the canvas sail carries the boat across the water4 ,can you think of some other plants that send abroad seed sailboats8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di ,perhaps some of you remember the beautiful pink or purple flowers which grew last summer in tall spikes along the road and up the mountain side4 ,these were borne upon a plant called sometimes fireweed and again willow herb 7,fig4 #ej74 ,the first name was given to it because it grows freely in places that have been laid waste by fire4 ,the latter one it owes to its leaves1 which look somewhat like those of the willow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej ,by the end of ,august most of these beautiful blossoms had disappeared1 leaving in their place the fruit4 ,this fruit of the fireweed or willow herb is a long pod such as you see in the picture 7,fig4 #ea74 ,this pod is packed full of seeds1 to each one of which is fastened a silky sail4 ,finally all these pods split open1 letting out their little air ships 7,fig4 #eb71 and giving a beautiful1 feathery look to the great patches in which they are found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed ,another plant which launches air ships is the clematis4 ,in ,august its pretty white blossoms clamber over the stone wall1 and twist about the bushes and trees1 making the lanes very lovely4 ,in the fall this climber is almost as pretty as in summer1 for its fruit clusters 7,fig4 #ec7 are made of such long-tailed seeds as you see in ,fig4 #ed4 ,when these open1 and float away with the first light wind1 you can see how well their little sails are fitted to catch the breeze4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef ,in ,october and ,november nearly every roadside is lined with clusters such as you see in the next picture1 except that the picture cannot give their soft1 velvety look4 ,these are the fruit clusters of the golden-rod 7,fig4 #ee71 made up of quantities of silky-tailed seeds such as you see above 7,fig4 #ef74 ,and this is the fruit cluster of the aster 7,fig4 #eg74 ,each little puffball is composed of many aster seeds 7,fig4 #eh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh ,the pasture thistle is almost as beautiful in fruit as in flower4 ,it swells up into a great silvery cushion1 which finally vanishes in a cloud of floating thistle down4 ,and here is the fruit cluster of the dandelion 7,fig4 #ei71 and also a single seed sailboat 7,fig4 #fj74 ,hundreds of other plants attach these little sails to their seeds4 ,you can hardly walk a step in the fall along the country roads without meeting these masses of feathery fruit made up of just such seeds4 ,so now we come back to our questions1 8,where are they going8 ,what are they doing80 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj ,and as you have learned why the apple tree and the partridge vine pack their seeds in pretty cases1 and why the burdock and the stick-tight cover theirs with hooks and bristles1 you ought to answer these questions very easily4 ,you found that those plants wished to send their little seeds abroad1 so that they might get a better foothold in some piece of earth that was not used already by plants hungry for the very food that they most needed4 ,this is just what the thistle and milkweed and dandelion and aster want for their seeds2 and this is why they fasten them to little sails1 and send them far away on a voyage of discovery4 ,,winged ,,seeds ,many of the trees also send their seeds on air voyages1 in the hope of finding some piece of land that will give them a chance to grow into new1 strong trees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa ,the seeds of the willow 7,fig4 #fb7 have silky white sails such as we have found already in the plants of the milkweed and willow herb2 and the cottonwood tree is so called because its tufted seeds remind one of the famous cotton seeds from which we get our cotton thread 7,fig4 #fc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb ,there are other trees which use wings instead of sails when they send their seeds flying through the air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc ,here you have the winged fruits of the maple 7,fig4 #fd74 ,in summer you see these winged fruits hanging in clusters from the trees2 and later in the year they are thickly scattered along the village street and in the city squares4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd ,you can understand how easily the maple seeds inside these cases would be carried upon the breeze by their wings4 ,each seed of the elm tree is winged nearly all the way round4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #fe7 shows you a cluster of these as they look upon the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff ,here is a bunch of the long-winged seeds of the ash 7,fig4 #ff74 ,next comes a fruit cluster from the hop hornbeam 7,fig4 #fg71 and above is a single fruit 7,fig4 #fh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg ,the seeds of the pine tree are hidden away in the pine cone 7,fig4 #fi7 you know so well1 and those of the hemlock in the hemlock cone 7,fig4 #fa74 ,when they are quite ripe1 they break away from these cones4 ,in so doing1 each one carries with it a little piece of the cone1 which acts as a wing to the seed 7,fig4 #gj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj ,nearly all of these seeds you can find for yourselves when you wander about the country4 ,indeed1 if you have eyes that are good for anything1 many of them you cannot help seeing4 ,it is all very well to read about these plants and trees1 and to look at pictures of their flowers and fruits1 and to have your teacher bring into the schoolroom specimens for examination4 ,if this is all the city children can do 7although even in the city one can do more than this71 why1 surely it is far better than nothing4 ,but best of all is it to go right into the woods and fields where these strange1 interesting creatures are living1 and to see for yourselves their manners and customs4 ,illustration3 ,berries ,,shooting ,,seeds ,down by the brook and along the sides of the mountain grows a tall shrub which is called the witch-hazel4 ,i hope some of you know it by sight4 ,i am sure that many of you know its name on account of the extract which is applied so often to bruises and burns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga ,this picture 7,fig4 #ga7 shows you a witch-hazel branch bearing both flowers and fruit2 for1 unlike any other plant ,i know1 the flower of the witch-hazel appears late in the fall1 when its little nuts are almost ripe4 ,these nuts come from the flowers of the previous year4 ,it is always to me a fresh surprise and delight to come upon these golden blossoms when wandering through the fall woods4 ,often the shrub has lost all its leaves before these appear4 ,you almost feel as if the yellow flowers had made a mistake1 and had come out six months ahead of time1 fancying it to be ,april instead of ,october4 ,in each little cluster grow several blossoms1 with flower leaves so long and narrow that they look like waving yellow ribbons4 ,but to-day we wish chiefly to notice the fruit or nut of the witch-hazel4 ,now1 the question is1 how does the witch-hazel manage to send the seeds which lie inside this nut out into the world8 ,i think you will be surprised to learn just how it does this4 ,if you have a nut before you1 you see for yourselves that this fruit is not bright-colored and juicy-looking1 or apparently good to eat1 and thus likely to tempt either boy or bird to carry it off2 you see that it is not covered with hooks that can lay hold of your clothing1 and so steal a ride2 and you see that it has no silky sails to float it through the air1 nor any wings to carry it upon the wind4 ,and so the witch-hazel1 knowing that neither boy nor girl1 nor bird nor beast nor wind1 will come to the rescue of its little ones1 is obliged to take matters into its own hands2 and this is what it does4 ,it forces open the ripe nut with such violence1 that its little black seeds are sent rattling off into the air1 and do not fall to the ground till they have traveled some distance from home4 ,really they are shot out into the world 7,fig4 #gb74 ,if you wish to make sure that this is actually so1 gather some of these nuts1 and take them home with you4 ,it will not be long before they begin to pop open1 and shoot out their little seeds4 ,did you ever hear of ,thoreau8 ,he was a man who left his friends and family to live by himself in the woods he so dearly loved4 ,here he grew to know each bird and beast1 each flower and tree1 almost as if they were his brothers and sisters4 ,one day he took home with him some of these nuts1 and later he wrote about them in his journal1-- 8,heard in the night a snapping sound1 and the fall of some small body on the floor from time to time4 ,in the morning ,i found it was produced by the witch-hazel nuts on my desk springing open and casting their seeds quite across my chamber40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb ,now1 ,i do not want any of you children to go off by yourselves to live in the woods2 but ,i should like to think that you could learn to love these woods and their inmates with something of the love that ,thoreau felt4 ,and if you watch their ways with half the care that he did1 some such love is sure to come4 ,although the witch-hazel's rough way of dealing with its young is not very common among the plants1 we find much the same thing done by the wild geranium1 or crane's bill1 and by the touch-me-not4 ,the wild geranium is the pretty purplish1 or at times pink flower which blossoms along the roads and in the woods in ,may and early ,june4 ,its seedbox has five divisions4 ,in fruit this seedbox tapers above into a long beak1 which gives the plant its name of 8crane's bill40 ,when the fruit is quite ripe1 it splits away from the central part of this beak in five separate pieces1 which spring upward so suddenly that the seeds are jerked out of the five cells1 and flung upon the earth at a distance of several feet4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #gc7 shows you how this is done4 ,but a little search through the summer woods will bring you to the plant itself2 and if you are patient1 perhaps you will see how the wild geranium gets rid of its children4 ,but though this habit may at first seem to you somewhat unmotherly1 if you stop to think about it you will see that really the parent plant is doing its best for its little ones4 ,if they should fall directly upon the ground beneath1 their chances in life would be few4 ,about plants1 as about people1 you must not make up your minds too quickly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd ,another plant that all of you country children ought to know1 is the touch-me-not1 or jewelweed4 ,sometimes this is called 8lady's eardrop10 because its pretty1 red-gold1 jewel-like flowers remind us of the drops that once upon a time ladies wore in their ears4 ,these flowers we find in summer in wet1 woody places4 ,in the fall the fruit appears4 ,this fruit is a little pod 7,fig4 #gd7 which holds several seeds4 ,when this pod is ripe1 it bursts open and coils up with an elastic spring which sends these seeds also far from home 7,fig4 #ge74 ,this performance of the touch-me-not you can easily see2 for its name 8touch-me-not0 comes from the fact that if you touch too roughly one of its well-grown pods1 this will spring open and jerk out its seeds in the way ,i have just described4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf ,in ,europe grows a curious plant called the 8squirting cucumber0 7,fig4 #gf74 ,its fruit is a small cucumber1 which becomes much inflated with water4 ,when this is detached from its stalk1 its contents are 8squirted0 out as if from a fountain1 and the seeds are thus thrown to a distance of many feet4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,the ,,chestnut ,,and ,,other ,,seeds ,at the head of this chapter you see the fruit of the chestnut tree 7,fig4 #gg74 ,what fine ,october days this picture brings to mind1--clear1 cold mornings when we arm ourselves with baskets and a club1 and go chestnuting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg ,usually the boys climb the tree1 and shake the branches till the open burrs rattle out their contents4 ,but sometimes a teasing cluster refuses to set loose its treasure4 ,then the club comes into play4 ,if it strikes the great burrs1 and raps out their fat chestnuts1 a shout of joy follows4 ,what a delight it is to hunt in the long grass for the glossy brown beauties just after a sudden shower from above6 ,no one speaks4 ,all are bent low in breathless search4 ,i know of nothing much more perfect in its way than an open chestnut burr1 still holding its two or three fine nuts4 ,its green1 prickly outer covering makes a fine contrast to the velvety brown lining2 and within this beautiful case the plump1 shining nuts are laid with the daintiest care4 ,perhaps the chestnut burr is even safer as a seed case than the apple4 ,while its seeds 7the chestnuts7 are young and unripe1 it does not stop to plead1 8,pray2 don't destroy my baby nuts60 but it seems to call out sternly1 8,hands off60 and promptly punishes the boy or girl who disobeys this rough command4 ,but when the chestnut seeds are quite ripe1 then it opens as wide as it knows how2 and very tempting it looks as it unfolds its contents4 ,a chestnut tree in ,october looks like one great invitation4 ,the acorn 7,fig4 #gh71 the seed of the oak tree1 is pretty enough as a plaything1 but less pleasing than the chestnut4 ,only the squirrel seems to find it fair eating4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh ,the trees which hide their seeds in nutshells contrive in different ways to send them abroad4 ,many of these nuts are hoarded as winter food by the squirrels4 ,often in a moment of fright these little creatures drop them by the way4 ,again1 they forget just where they deposited their hoard1 or for some other reason they leave it untouched4 ,thus many nuts are scattered1 and live to change into trees4 ,others may fall into the water1 and float to distant shores4 ,the cocoanut1 for example1 has been carried in this way for hundreds of miles4 ,its outer covering protects the seed from being soaked or hurt by water2 and when at last it is washed upon some distant shore1 it sends up a tall cocoanut tree4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,some ,,strange ,,stories ,when ,i began to tell you children about the different ways in which plants send their young out into the world1 ,i had no idea that ,i should take so much time1 and cover so many pages with the subject4 ,and now ,i realize that ,i have not told you one half1 or one quarter1 of all there is to tell4 ,you have learned that seeds are scattered abroad by animals that eat the bright cases in which they are packed1 and by animals into whose hair or clothing they manage to fasten themselves4 ,you know that sometimes seeds are blown through the air by means of silky sails to which they are fastened1 or else by their little wings4 ,you discovered that certain plants actually pushed their young from their cozy homes in no gentle fashion1 much as a mother bird shoves her timid little ones from the edge of the nest4 ,and in the last chapter you read that occasionally seeds were floated by water to distant shores4 ,now1 these are the chief ways in which plants contrive to dispose of their seeds2 but they are not the only ways4 ,before leaving the subject altogether1 ,i will mention a few plants which use other contrivances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi ,this picture 7,fig4 #gi7 shows you the fruit of the poppy4 ,many of you know it well4 ,in the fall you find in the garden these pretty seedboxes4 ,they answer famously as pepper pots1 if one chances to be playing house in the orchard4 ,just below the top of the poppy seedbox the picture shows you a circle of little openings2 and inside the seedbox are many poppy seeds 7,fig4 #hj74 ,but how can seeds get out of these openings1 do you suppose8 ,if they were lower down1 it would be an easy matter for the seeds to drop out1 right on the ground4 ,but perhaps it is well that this cannot happen4 ,did such a quantity of seeds fall upon one small bit of earth1 they would have a poor chance for life4 ,well1 then1 you ask1 must they wait patiently in the seedbox till some child comes along and pulls it off for a pepper pot8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj ,no1 they are not obliged to wait always for you children4 ,this is fortunate for the poppy plants that are so unlucky as to live in lonely gardens where no children ever play4 ,then what does happen8 ,if you will go out into the garden the next windy fall day1 you will see for yourselves4 ,you will see the tall poppy plants swaying to and fro with every gust of wind2 and you will see how the seedboxes are tossed from side to side1 and that every now and then a very violent toss sends the little seeds tumbling head over heels out of the little openings just as effectively as if the wind too were playing house and using them as pepper pots4 ,when the seeds are let loose in this way1 the tall poppy plants are swayed so far to one side1 and the wind is blowing so hard1 that they land upon the ground much farther from home than would have been the case had they fallen through openings cut in the lower part of the seedbox4 ,in the ,east grows a strange plant called the 8rose of ,jericho40 ,its fruit is a pod4 ,when this plant is nearly ready to get rid of its seeds1 what do you think it does8 ,it lets go its hold upon the earth1 curls itself up into a little ball1 and is driven here and there by the wind4 ,when it finds a nice damp place1 it stops and uncurls itself2 and the little pods split open1 and drop their seeds on the earth4 ,some plants bear fruit that look very much like insects4 ,it is believed that sometimes these are taken for such1 and snapped up by birds1 and thus succeed in getting away from home4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha ,this picture 7,fig4 #ha7 shows you a pod which1 as it lies upon the ground1 looks like a centiped4 ,here you have a seed which is shaped and marked like a beetle 7,fig4 #hb74 ,the next picture 7,fig4 #hc7 shows you a seed from the castor-oil plant4 ,you can see that it might easily be mistaken for some insect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb ,think how disappointed the bird must be1 after having greedily snapped up and carried off one of these little objects1 to discover that for all his pains he has secured nothing but a dry1 tough pod or seed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc ,but if the mother plant really does any thinking at all1 cannot you fancy how she chuckles with delight over the trick she has played1 and the clever way in which she has started her young on its travels8 ,there is still another way in which birds help to scatter seeds4 ,they alight in wet places1 covering their little feet with mud4 ,now1 a clot of mud may contain many different seeds2 and for days this clot may stick to the bird's foot1 and thus cause the seeds it holds to be carried for hundreds of miles4 ,have you ever heard of ,darwin8 ,he was a great man who spent most of his life in studying plants and animals4 ,how many years do you suppose he was interested in the study of those long1 brown worms which you find in quantities in the lawn and after heavy rains along the sidewalk8 ,at intervals for forty-four years he studied these little creatures which you girls think ugly and uninteresting enough1 although the boys know they make fine fish bait4 ,well1 ,darwin once raised eighty-two plants from seeds contained in a clot of earth which was clinging to the leg of a partridge4 ,so you can see that when a bird gets his feet wet1 he may really be doing the world a service4 ,and it is not likely that he takes cold himself4 ,now1 ,i want you children to see how many different ways you can recall in which plants scatter abroad their little seeds2 and later ,i want you to go out into the garden1 or into the woods1 and see if you cannot discover many of the seeds about which you have been reading4 ,but better still it would be if you could find others of which ,i have told you nothing4 ,i should like you to make a list of the different plants which you find in fruit1 putting after each name a slight description of the way in which it gets rid of its seeds4 ,this will not be a stupid task at all if you set your mind to it4 ,it will give your walks a new pleasure1 and it will bring to your school work something of the freshness and joy which belong to the woods4 ,,part ,,ii--,,young ,,plants ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,how ,,the ,,baby ,,plant ,,lives ,when these little seeds at last find a good resting place1 what do you think happens to them8 ,they grow into new plants1 of course4 ,but how does this come about8 ,how does a seed turn into a plant8 ,i could hardly expect you to guess this1 any more than ,i could have expected you to guess how the apple flower changes into the apple fruit4 ,i will tell you a little about it2 and then ,i hope your teacher will show you real seeds and real plants1 and prove to you that what ,i have said is really so4 ,of course1 you believe already that ,i try to tell you the exact truth about all these things4 ,but people far wiser than ,i have been mistaken in what they thought was true2 and so it will be well for you to make sure1 with your own eyes1 that ,i am right in what ,i say4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd ,if you should cut in two the seed of that beautiful flower the garden peony1 and should look at it very closely through a good magnifying glass1 you would find a tiny object such as you see in the half seed shown in this picture 7,fig4 #hd74 ,both your eyes and your glass need to be very good to show you that this little object is a baby peony plant4 ,fig4 #he gives the little plant as it would look if taken out of the seed4 ,every ripe seed holds a baby plant2 and to become a grown-up plant1 it needs just what boy and girl babies need1--food and drink and air4 ,but shut up so tight in its seed shell1 how can it get these8 ,well1 in this peony seed its food is close at hand4 ,it is packed away inside the seed1 all about the little plant4 ,in the picture 7,fig4 #hd71 everything except the little white spot1 which shows the plant1 is baby food1--food that is all prepared to be eaten by a delicate little plant1 and that is suited to its needs just as milk is suited to the needs of your little sister or brother4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he ,the little leaves of the baby plant take in the food that is needed to make it grow fat and strong4 ,now1 how does the baby plant get water to drink8 ,i have asked your teacher to soak over night some peas that have been dried for planting1 and to bring to school to-day a handful of these1 and also a handful which have not been soaked4 ,she will pass these about1 and you can see how different the soaked ones are from the others4 ,those that have not been in the water look dried and wrinkled and old1 almost dead in fact2 while those which have been soaked are nearly twice as large4 ,they look fat1 and fresh1 and full of life4 ,now1 what has happened to them8 ,why1 all night long they have been sucking in water through tiny openings in the seed shell2 and this water has so refreshed them1 and so filled the wrinkled coats and swelled them out1 that they look almost ready to burst4 ,so you see1 do you not1 how the water manages to get inside the seed so as to give the baby plant a drink8 ,usually it is rather late in the year when seeds fall to the earth4 ,during the winter the baby plant does not do any drinking2 for then the ground is frozen hard1 and the water cannot reach it4 ,but when the warm spring days come1 the ice melts1 and the ground is full of moisture4 ,then the seed swells with all the water it sucks in1 and the baby plant drinks1 drinks1 drinks1 all day long4 ,you scarcely need ask how it keeps warm1 this little plant4 ,it is packed away so snugly in the seed shell1 and the seed shell is so covered by the earth1 and the earth much of the time is so tucked away beneath a blanket of snow1 that usually there is no trouble at all about keeping warm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf ,but how1 then1 does it get air8 ,well1 of course1 the air it gets would not keep alive a human baby4 ,but a plant baby needs only a little air2 and usually enough to keep it in good condition makes its way down through the snow and earth to the tiny openings in the seed shell4 ,to be sure1 if the earth above is kept light and loose1 the plant grows more quickly1 for then the air reaches it with greater ease4 ,so now you see how the little plant inside the peony seed gets the food and drink and air it needs for its growth4 ,in the picture above 7,fig4 #hf7 you get a side view of the baby plant of the morning-glory1 its unripe seed being cut in two4 ,as you look at it here1 its queer shape reminds you of an eel4 ,but if instead of cutting through the seed1 you roll it carefully between your fingers1 and manage to slip off its coat1 and if then you take a pin and carefully pick away the whitish1 jelly-like stuff which has been stored as baby food1 you will find a tiny green object which through a magnifying glass looks like the next picture 7,fig4 #hg74 ,the narrow piece pointing downward is the stem from which grows the root4 ,above this are two leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg ,this baby plant is a very fascinating thing to look at4 ,i never seem to tire of picking apart a young seed for the sake of examining through a glass these delicate bright-green leaves4 ,it seems so wonderful that the vine which twines far above our heads1 covered with glorious flowers1 should come from this green speck4 ,as this morning-glory is a vine which lives at many of your doorsteps1 ,i hope you will not fail to collect its seeds1 and look at their baby plants4 ,when these are very young1 still surrounded by a quantity of baby food1 you will not be able to make them out unless you carry them to your teacher and borrow her glass2 but when the seed is ripe1 and the little plant has eaten away most of the surrounding food1 it grows so big that you can see it quite plainly with your own eyes4 ,a ,,schoolroom ,,garden ,i want you children to do a little gardening in the schoolroom4 ,you will enjoy this1 ,i am sure4 ,when ,i was a child1 ,i took great delight in the experiments that ,i am going to suggest to you2 and now that ,i am grown up1 ,i find they please me even more than they did years ago4 ,during the past week ,i have been doing this sort of gardening2 and ,i have become so interested in the plant babies which ,i have helped into the world1 that ,i have not been at all ready to stop playing with them1 even for the sake of sitting down to tell you about them4 ,to start my garden1 ,i had first to get some seeds4 ,so ,i put on my hat and went down to the little shop in the village1 half of which is given up to tailor work1 while the other half is devoted to flower raising4 ,the gray-bearded florist tailor who runs this queer little place was greatly interested when he heard that ,i wanted the seeds so that ,i might tell you children something of their strange ways4 8,seeds air mighty interestin' things10 he said4 8,be you young or be you old1 there's nothin' sets you thinkin' like a seed40 ,perhaps the florist tailor had been fortunate in his friends2 for ,i have known both grown-up people and children who year after year could see the wonder of seed and baby plant1 of flower and fruit1 without once stopping to say1 8,what brings about these changes80 ,to 8set thinking0 some people would take an earthquake or an avalanche2 but when this sort of thing is needed to start their brains working1 the 8thinking0 is not likely to be good for much4 ,but ,i hope that some of you will find plenty to think about in the seeds which your teacher is going to show you2 and ,i hope that these thoughts may be the beginning of an interest and curiosity that will last as long as you live4 ,the seeds which ,i got that morning were those of the bean1 squash1 pea1 and corn2 and your teacher has been good enough to get for you these same seeds1 and she will show you how to do with them just what ,i have been doing this past week4 ,first1 ,i filled a pot with finely sifted earth1 and planted the different seeds2 then ,i filled a glass with water1 floated some cotton wool upon its surface1 and in this wool laid some beans2 and then my garden planting was done4 ,during the following days ,i kept the earth in the pot slightly moist4 ,the cotton wool in the glass of water did this for itself4 ,and how carefully ,i watched my two little gardens6 ,for three days the pot of earth kept its secret4 ,nothing happened there1 so far as ,i could see4 ,but the beans that were laid upon the cotton wool grew fat and big by the second day1 just like those that your teacher soaked over night2 and by the third day their seed coats had ripped open a little way1 just as your coat would rip open if it were tightly buttoned up and suddenly you grew very fat2 and out of the rip in the seed coat peeped a tiny white thing1 looking like the bill of a chick that is pecking its way out of the eggshell which has become too small to hold it4 ,very quickly this little white tip grew longer4 ,it curved over and bent downward1 piercing its way through the cotton wool into the water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh ,about this time the pot garden began to show signs of a disturbance4 ,here and there ,i saw what looked like the top of a thick green hoop 7,fig4 #hh74 ,what had happened1 do you think8 ,why1 first this bean had sucked in from the damp earth so much water that it had grown too fat and big for the seed coat2 and it had torn this open1 just like the other bean1 pushing out its little white tip2 and this tip had bent down into the earth and taken a good hold there1 lengthening into a real root1 and sending out little root hairs that fastened it down still more firmly4 ,but it was not satisfied to do all its growing below4 ,its upper part now straightened itself out1 and started right up into the air4 ,from a hoop it turned into a stem which lifted the bean clear above the earth 7,fig4 #hi74 ,this bean was no longer the round object we usually call by that name2 for its two halves had opened and spread outward1 and from between these two halves grew a pair of young leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi ,as these leaves grew larger1 the two half-beans began to shrink1 growing smaller and more withered all the time 7,fig4 #ij74 ,why was this1 do you suppose8 ,to make clear the reason of this1 to show just why the two halves of the bean grew smaller as the rest of the young bean plant grew larger1 ,i must go back a way4 ,turn to the picture of the peony seed 7,fig4 #hd74 ,there you can see how the baby plant is packed away in the midst of a quantity of baby food4 ,and in the picture of the morning-glory seed 7,fig4 #hf7 you see the same thing4 ,you remember that day by day the baby plant ate more and more of this food1 and kept growing stronger and bigger1 and that all this time the store of food kept growing smaller and smaller4 ,now1 if you cut open the bean1 you do not see a tiny plant set in the midst of a store of food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij ,why is this8 ,this is because the baby bean plant keeps its food in its own leaves4 ,the seed coat of the bean is filled by these leaves1 for each half of the bean is really a seed leaf4 ,in these two thick leaves is stored all the food that is necessary to the life of the baby plant2 and because of all this food which they hold1 the bean plant is able to get a better start in life than many other young plants4 ,if you soak and strip off its seed coat1 and pull apart the two thick leaves1 you will find a tiny pair of new leaves already started 7,fig4 #ia72 but you will see nothing of the sort in the seed of the morning-glory1 for the reason that this is not so well stored with baby food as to be able to do more than get its seed leaves well under way4 ,the pea1 like the bean1 is so full of food1 that it also is able to take care of a second pair of leaves4 ,but now to go back to the young bean plant in the schoolroom garden4 ,we were wondering why the two halves of the bean1 which are really the first pair of leaves1 kept growing thinner and smaller as the second pair grew larger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia ,perhaps you guess now the reason for this4 ,these first leaves1 called the seed leaves1 feed all the rest of the young bean plant4 ,of course1 as they keep on doing this1 they must themselves shrink away2 but they do not cease with their work till the plant is able to take care of itself4 ,by this time1 however1 the seed leaves have nothing left to live upon4 ,they die of starvation1 and soon fade and disappear4 ,so now you understand just what has happened to the leaves that once were so fat and large4 ,and ,i hope you will remember the difference between the seed of the morning-glory and that of the bean1--how the morning-glory packs the baby food inside the seed1 of course1 but outside the baby plant2 while the bean packs it inside the two seed leaves1 which are so thick that there is no room for anything else within the seed coat4 ,but really1 to understand all that ,i have been telling you1 you must see it for yourselves2 you must hold in your hands the dried bean2 you must examine it1 and make sure that its seed shell is filled entirely by the baby plant2 you must see it grow plump and big from the water which it has been drinking2 you must watch with sharp eyes for that first little rip in the seed coat1 and for the putting-out of the tiny tip1 which grows later into stem and root2 you must notice how the bent stem straightens out1 and lifts the thick seed leaves up into the air2 and you must observe how that other pair of leaves1 which grows from between the seed leaves1 becomes larger and larger as the seed leaves grow smaller and thinner1 and how1 when the little plant is able to hold its own in the world1 the seed leaves die away4 ,and if day by day you follow this young life1 with the real wish to discover its secret1 you will begin to understand what the wise old florist tailor meant when he said1-- 8,be you young or be you old1 there's nothin' sets you thinkin' like a seed40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib ,a ,,schoolroom ,,garden 7,concluded7 ,the picture at the top of this page 7,fig4 #ib7 shows you how the young squash plant comes into the world2 for you remember that in my pot garden ,i planted some squash seeds4 ,and ,i hope that in your schoolroom garden you will watch this plant as it makes its first appearance4 ,the baby food of the squash vine1 like that of the bean1 is stored away inside the seed leaves1 which on this account are so large that they quite fill the seed shell4 ,they are not so thick as those of the bean1 but thick enough to hold all the nourishment that is needed to keep the young plant alive and hearty until it is big enough to shift for itself4 ,very soon after this seed is laid in warm1 moist earth1 its little plant begins to grow too large for the seed shell1 and the white stem is pushed out through the hole you notice at one end of the seed4 ,this stem forces its way into the earth below1 and puts out a root1 and root fingers4 ,and now its upper part begins to lengthen out and to straighten itself4 ,in doing this1 it pulls the two seed leaves right out of the seed coat4 ,if it fails at once to get rid of the seed coat1 it lifts this up into the air1 on top of its leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic ,often the young maple tree comes into the world in this way1 carrying its seed coat on top of its seed leaves4 ,the maple is another plant that packs its baby food within the seed leaves instead of round about them4 ,perhaps your teacher has saved for you some maple keys 7,fig4 #ic71 as the fruit of the maple tree is called4 ,if you split open a maple key1 you will find hidden within one of its halves 7,fig4 #id7 the beautiful baby tree4 ,this is folded away so neatly that one is tempted to split open one key after another1 for the pleasure of unpacking other delicate baby maples 7,fig4 #ie74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id ,but now let us find out what has happened to the peas which ,i planted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie ,peas seem to us so much like beans1 that perhaps you think the young pea baby comes into the world in the same way as the bean plant2 but surely we have nothing here that looks at all like the bean plant4 ,we see some stems having small1 thin1 green leaves4 ,where are the fat seed leaves1 filled with the baby food that keeps the plant alive8 ,they are not in sight1 certainly1 so we must start a hunt for them4 ,if you will carefully remove the earth from about this little pea plant1 you will soon find that the pea seed from which it is growing lies buried in the earth 7,fig4 #if74 ,this pea seed1 like that of the bean1 is made up chiefly of what really are two seed leaves1 although in the case of the pea it may seem only as a matter of politeness that we give them the name of 8leaves20 for in the pea these seed leaves lie buried in the earth1 and split open just enough to allow the little pea plant to grow up into the air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if ,but like the seed leaves of the bean1 they are fat and full of food1 and care for the young plant just as devotedly as did those of the bean4 ,when this young plant needs them no more1 like those of the bean1 they die of starvation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig ,within the acorn1 the seed leaves of the great oak tree grow together4 ,these lie quietly in the acorn shell while sending out supplies of food to the root and stem and leaves of the young oak 7,fig4 #ig74 ,walnut and chestnut leaves act much in the same manner4 ,but these first leaves of the walnut do not grow together1 as you know4 ,each one is packed away separately in half of the walnut shell4 ,the corn has but one seed leaf1 which makes it unlike all the other plants about which we have been reading2 but it resembles the pea1 the acorn1 the walnut1 and the chestnut in this1--that the one seed leaf lies buried in the earth1 as do their two seed leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih ,the baby corn plant is very small4 ,it does not fill the whole seed shell1 but gets its nourishment from the food by which it is surrounded4 ,this picture shows you a seed or grain of corn cut in two 7,fig4 #ih74 ,of course1 this is much larger than life4 ,in the center you see the tiny plant4 ,all about is the baby food4 ,the next picture 7,fig4 #ii7 shows you the young corn plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii ,i want you to remember that this is the only plant we have seen with but one seed leaf4 ,this one seed leaf never comes out of the seed shell4 ,there are other plants of the same kind4 ,all the grass plants have but one seed leaf1 and the blue flag that grows in wet meadows1 and all the lilies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja ,only a few plants have more than two of these seed leaves4 ,the pine trees are among these few4 ,this picture 7,fig4 #ajj7 shows you a baby pine tree1 still cradled in its seed1 surrounded by baby food2 and the next one 7,fig4 #aja7 shows you the pine just starting out in the world1 with its six seed leaves4 ,when you study the botany that is written for older people1 you will find that plants are set apart in separate groups1 according to the number of their seed leaves4 ,strange though it may seem to you1 plants with but one seed leaf have certain habits that you will not find in a plant with two seed leaves2 and a plant with two seed leaves1 long after these have passed away1 will show by root and stem that it had more than one seed leaf4 ,in your schoolroom garden ,i should like you to grow side by side1 first a plant with but one seed leaf1 next a plant with two seed leaves1 and lastly a plant with more than two4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,seeds ,,as ,,food ,i want you to think for yourselves why it is fortunate for us human beings that many plants store away in their seeds so much baby food4 8,because without this the little plants would die1 and we should have no new plants to make the world beautiful to live in10 some child replies4 ,that answer is a good one2 but it is not just the answer that ,i wish4 ,can you think of any other way in which we all benefit by the large supply of baby food that is packed away in certain seeds8 ,if the right answer to this question does not occur to you1 try to remember which of those seeds we have been reading about have been supplied with a specially large amount of this food4 ,you remember that the bean holds so much baby food in its seed leaves1 that these are very fat4 ,so do the pea1 the walnut1 and the chestnut4 ,the seed of corn1 also1 is well filled with baby food1 only in the corn seed it is packed around the outside of the seed leaves1 instead of the inside4 ,but the squash1 although it puts in its seed leaves enough food to keep its young plant well and hearty1 does not lay by any great quantity of this material4 ,neither does the maple tree1 which also stores the seed leaves with food1 but does not fill them nearly so full as do the bean and the pea4 ,and the morning-glory1 which packs its precious white jelly 7this is what the little morning-glory plant likes to eat7 all about its young1 lays up only just enough of this to last until the baby plant breaks out of its seed shell4 ,now1 what difference do we find between these seeds8--between the seeds of squash1 morning-glory1 and maple1 which have only a small supply of baby food1 and those other ones1 such as bean and pea and corn and walnut and chestnut1 which are packed full of nourishment8 8,why1 these last ones are good to eat60 you exclaim4 8,they are part of the food we live upon1 while the squash seeds1 the morning-glory seeds1 and the maple seeds are not good to eat40 ,yes1 that is the answer which ,i wished4 ,the baby food in these seeds makes 8grown-up0 food for us4 ,we get strength and nourishment from the same material which the mother plant has prepared for her young4 ,now try to name the different seeds which help to make up our food4 ,already we have mentioned several kinds4 ,besides these1 there is the oat seed 7from which comes oatmeal71 the wheat seed 7from which comes flour for our bread71 the coffee seed1 the buckwheat seed1 the peanut seed1 the almond seed1 and many others1 some of which will come to your mind from time to time4 ,i wish you would make for your teacher a list of all those that you can recall2 or1 better still1 ,i should like you to collect as many as you possibly can1 and bring them to your next class4 ,if you cannot find the seeds just as they grow upon the plant1 you may be able to get them prepared for use4 ,a pinch of flour1 for instance1 would answer for wheat seeds1 of oatmeal for oat seeds4 ,i have in mind a number of seeds that you can easily secure1 of which ,i have not spoken2 and it will be interesting at our next meeting to see which child in this class is able to make the best exhibition of seed food4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,an ,,impatient ,,plant ,,baby ,plant babies are not alike as to the time they take in finding their way out of the ripe seed shell into the world4 ,certain seeds need only two or three days in which to bring forth their young4 ,perhaps we ourselves have seen the white tip of the bean rip open its shell the second or third day after being laid upon the moist cotton wool4 ,but if we had not given this bean plant a good chance to grow1 it would have kept alive and hearty inside its shell for a long time4 ,this is not the case with all plants4 ,certain seeds need to be planted soon after they are ripe4 ,if they are not1 their baby plants die4 ,but usually seeds take such good care of their young1 that they will live for a long time1 even if shut up in a dark closet or a table drawer1 instead of being comfortably laid away in the warm1 moist earth4 ,wonderful stories are told of seeds that have sprouted after having lain buried in some ,egyptian tomb for thousands of years2 but the people best fitted to judge of the truth of such stories do not believe them4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that some seeds keep their baby plants alive for many years4 ,early in the summer the seeds of the red maple fall to the ground2 and soon after this the young plants find their way up into the world above4 ,later in the year the sugar maple sheds its seeds4 ,these lie sleeping in the earth through the winter4 ,when the warm spring days come1 the baby plants awake1 and stretch themselves1 and join the hundreds of other1 just-awakened baby plants that are flocking into the world above4 ,so you see that seeds of the same family have different habits in this matter4 ,there is one curious tree that lives in swamps along the seashore of hot countries4 ,it is called the mangrove4 ,the baby plants of this tree are so anxious to get out into the world1 that they do not wait until the seeds in which they are hidden are set free from the mangrove fruit4 ,it is as if the little plants inside the apple seed could not wait until the apple flesh should be eaten or should decay1 but insisted on struggling first out of the seed into the apple1 and then through the apple into the light and air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb ,this picture 7,fig4 #ajb7 shows you the mangrove fruit4 ,it looks more like a pear than an apple4 ,in the middle of this lies hidden one seed4 ,as time goes on1 this grows bigger and bigger1 trying to make room for the impatient little plant within2 but it does not grow fast enough to please this ambitious young one1 which finally overcomes the difficulty by piercing the seed shell with its stem4 ,this stem bores its way right down through the mangrove fruit1 and breaks into the outer air4 ,it keeps on growing in this way for many weeks1 till at last it is a foot long 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,try to fancy how odd a mangrove tree must look at this time1 covered with mangroves1 from each one projecting this long odd-looking beak1 which one could hardly guess to be the stem of the baby plant within the fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc ,we read that these long-beaked fruits bob about with every breath of wind in a fashion that gives the tree a still stranger look than on a day when the air is not stirring4 ,picture a pear tree from every pear of which the long stem of a baby pear tree protrudes4 ,would you not be eager to find one of these pears and cut it open1 and see what sort of a baby plant it must be that could send out such a great stem8 ,but perhaps the strangest part of the story is yet to come4 ,at last all of these great beaks fall away from the fruit2 and from the broken top of each grows a little bud1 such as you see in the picture 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,when this heavy beak falls upon the muddy ground below1 its pointed end strikes first1 and so bores into the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd ,even if it happens to fall into the water1 it does this with so much force that it will pierce its way to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches1 and yet remain standing erect when it strikes bottom1 where it sends out a root4 ,when it has secured a good hold1 the little bud unfolds into four leaves4 ,above these grow larger1 shining leaves2 and soon the ground beneath an old mangrove tree is covered with these daring little adventurers4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,a ,,humpbacked ,,plant ,,baby ,now let us pause for a moment1 and try to recall a little of what we have learned since school opened4 ,we learned that the fruit of a plant is the part which holds its seed1 and that there are many different kinds of fruits2 that the burr of the burdock1 the pod of the milkweed1 the puff of the dandelion1 are fruits1 as well as the apple and the pear1 the acorn and the walnut4 ,we learned that the chief importance of these fruits lies in the fact just mentioned1 that they hold the seeds of the plants4 ,then we learned something about the many different kinds of seeds1 and of how these seeds managed to become separated from the parent plant1 and to get a start in life4 ,next we read of the baby plant which lies hidden within every perfect seed4 ,we learned how this is kept safe and warm1 and supplied with food1 and how at last it finds its way out of the seed shell into the world4 ,if you have been using this book in the right way1 not only have you read about these things1 but you have seen them with your own eyes4 ,some of the fruits you have tasted1 and others you have handled4 ,you have examined the silky sails of the seeds which float through the air1 and the hooks and claws of those little tramps that manage to steal free rides4 ,and some seeds you have planted4 ,these you have watched day by day1 and you have seen that the baby plants burst their seed shells much as a chick bursts its eggshell4 ,now what ,i want you to do is this3 ,i want you to study carefully the different parts of these little creatures that are living out their strange1 beautiful lives under your very eyes4 ,i want you to watch them from day to day2 to learn how they eat and drink and work and grow1 until you feel that you know them really well4 ,first let us look at this bean plant which is breaking its way through the earth4 ,just what do you see8 ,you see what looks like a thick1 green hoop 7,fig4 #aje71 do you not8 ,what is it1 this odd-looking hoop8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje ,perhaps some of you still think that it is the root1 for ,i remember that ,i too once supposed the root was the part of the plant which first left the bean4 ,but really this green hoop is made by the bent stem4 ,we know that this is the stem because from its lower end grows the root1 while from its upper part grow the leaves1 flowers1 and fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf ,certainly it is curious1 the way in which this bean plant comes into the world4 ,why does it not grow straight up and down1 do you suppose8--up with its stem and leaves1 and down with its root8 ,but we must not forget that whenever some habit on the part of a plant has filled us with surprise1 sooner or later we have discovered that the plant's reason for it was a good one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg ,what reason can the bean plant have for coming into the world crooked8 ,before reading further1 try to think this out for yourselves4 ,try each one of you to form an idea of what the bean plant gains by pushing through the earth with this hooped stem4 ,i hope some of you may guess correctly4 ,but even if you have not been successful in naming the cause of the bean plant's humped back1 at least you have been working your brains2 and every time you do this1 you help to keep them in good order4 ,if you let your brain lie idle1 and allow your teacher or your book to do for you not only all the asking of questions1 but also all the thinking-out of answers1 it will get as dull and rusty and good for nothing as a machine that is laid by for a long time gets dull and rusty and good for nothing4 ,i should be sorry to think that any of you children were carrying about in your heads any such rusty1 good-for-nothing brains4 ,so if you wish to keep them bright and clean1 and in good working order1 you must try to do your own thinking4 ,and now1 hoping you have tried to guess for yourselves the reason of this crooked back1 ,i will explain it to you4 ,but first handle carefully the tip of one of the upper leaves on the larger bean plant4 ,you see how delicate this is4 ,then feel how firm and hard and tough is the green hoop of the plant which is just breaking through the earth4 ,now suppose the bean plant had grown straight up into the air1 would not its uppermost part have been the delicate leaf tips8 ,can you not see that these would have been too frail to work their way uninjured through the earth8 ,but by crooking its stout stem the plant opened quite easily a path for itself and for its leaves1 and no harm was done anywhere 7,figs4 #ajf1 #ajg74 ,was not this a clever thought8 ,but really every step in the life of the plant is full of interest1 if we watch it with sharp eyes and a brain in good order4 ,,part ,,iii--,,roots ,,and ,,stems ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,root ,,hairs ,carefully pull up one of your bean plants and look at its root 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,you see that the root grows downward from the lower part of the stem4 ,this bean root looks not unlike a bunch of dirty threads1 some quite thick1 others very thin4 ,if you look at these thread-like roots in a good light1 perhaps you may be able to see growing from them a quantity of tiny hairs4 ,now1 what is the use of such a root as this8 ,surely some of you are able to guess at the object of this root1 and ,i will help the others to the answer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh ,give a firm though gentle tug to one of the larger plants1--one of those that are growing in the pot of earth4 ,does it come out easily in your fingers8 ,not at all4 ,unless you have been really rough1 and used quite a good deal of strength1 the little plant has kept its hold4 ,what holds it down1 do you suppose8 ,ah6 ,now you know what ,i am trying to get at4 ,its root is what holds it in place2 and this holding of the plant in place is one of its uses4 ,its thread-like branches are so many fingers that are laying hold of the earth4 ,each little thread makes it just so much the more difficult to uproot the plant4 ,i think you know already that another use of the root is to obtain nourishment for the plant4 ,these thread-like roots1 you notice1 creep out on every side in their search for food and drink4 ,the water they are able to suck in easily by means of tiny mouths1 which we cannot see4 ,but the plant needs a certain amount of earth food1 which in its solid state could not slip down these root throats any more easily than a young baby could swallow a lump of sugar4 ,now1 how is the plant to get this food1 which it needs if it is to grow big and hearty8 ,suppose the doctor should tell your mother that a lump of sugar was necessary to the health of your tiny baby brother1 what would she do about it8 ,would she put the great lump into the baby's mouth8 ,you laugh at the very idea4 ,such a performance might choke the baby to death1 you know quite well4 ,perhaps you think she would break the lump into small pieces1 and try to make the baby swallow these2 but even these small pieces might prove very dangerous to the little throat that had never held a solid morsel4 8,she would melt the sugar in water1 then the baby could swallow it10 one of you exclaims4 ,that is exactly what she would do4 ,she would melt1 or dissolve as we say1 this sugar in water4 ,then there would be no difficulty in its slipping down the little throat2 for you know when anything is thoroughly melted or dissolved1 it breaks up into such tiny pieces that the eye cannot see them4 ,when you melt a lump of sugar in a glass of water1 the sugar is all there as much as it ever was1 although its little grains no longer cling together in one big lump4 ,and so when the plant needs some food that the little root hairs are not able to swallow1 it does just what the mother does4 ,it melts or dissolves the solid food so that this is able to slip quite easily down the root throats4 ,but how does it manage this8 ,no wonder you ask4 ,a root cannot fill a glass with water1 as your mother did4 ,even if it could1 much of this solid food which is needed by the plant would not melt in water1 or in anything but certain acids2 for you know that not everything will dissolve1 like sugar1 in water4 ,if ,i place a copper cent in a glass of water1 it will remain a copper cent1 will it not8 ,but if ,i go into a drug shop and buy a certain acid1 and place in this the copper cent1 it will dissolve almost immediately2 that is1 it will break up into so many tiny pieces that you will no longer see anything that looks at all like a cent4 ,and as much of this earth food1 like the copper cent1 can only be dissolved in certain acids1 how is the plant to obtain them8 ,certainly it is not able to go to the drug shop for the purpose1 any more than it was able to fill a glass with water4 ,fortunately it does not need to do either of these things4 ,if you will look closely at the root of a plant that has been raised in water1 you will see that it is rough with a quantity of tiny hairs4 ,these little hairs hold the acid which can dissolve the solid earth food4 ,when they touch this food1 they send out some of the acid1 and in this it is soon dissolved4 ,then the little mouths suck it in1 and it is carried up through the root into the rest of the plant4 ,would you have guessed that plants were able to prepare their food in any such wonderful way as this8 ,it surprised me very much1 ,i remember1 to learn that a root could give out acids1 and so dissolve the earth food it needed4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,roots ,,and ,,underground ,,stems ,in the last chapter you learned that the root of the bean plant has two uses4 ,it holds the plant in place1 and it provides it with food and drink4 ,such a root as this of the bean plant--one that is made up of what looks like a bunch of threads--is called a 8fibrous0 root4 ,the next picture shows you the root of a beet plant 7,fig4 #aji74 ,such a thick1 fat root as this of the beet is called a 8fleshy0 root4 ,the carrot1 turnip1 radish1 and sweet potato1 all have fleshy roots4 ,this beet root1 like that of the bean1 is useful both in holding the plant in place and in providing it with food and drink4 ,but the fleshy root of the beet does something else1--something that is not attempted by the fibrous root of the bean4 ,here we must stop for a moment and look into the life of the beet plant4 ,during its first year1 the beet puts out leaves2 it neither flowers nor fruits1 but it eats and drinks a great deal4 ,and as it does not use up any of this food in flowering or fruiting1 it is able to lay by much of it in its root1 which grows large and heavy in consequence4 ,when the next spring comes on1 the beet plant is not obliged1 like so many of its brothers and sisters1 to set out to earn its living4 ,this is provided already4 ,and so it bursts into flower without delay1 its food lying close at hand in its great root4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji ,so you see that a fleshy root1 like that of the beet1 does three things3-- #a4 ,it holds the plant in place4 #b4 ,it provides it with food and drink4 #c4 ,it acts as a storehouse4 ,these plants that lay by food for another year are useful as food for man4 ,their well-stocked roots are taken out of the ground and eaten by us before the plant has had the chance to use up its food in fulfilling its object in life1 that of fruiting4 ,of course1 when it is not allowed to live long enough to flower and fruit1 it brings forth no young plants4 ,so a habit which at first was of use to the plant becomes the cause of its destruction4 ,perhaps you think that the white potato 7,fig4 #aaj7 is a plant with a fleshy root4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj ,if so1 you will be surprised to learn that this potato is not a root at all1 but a stem4 ,you think it looks quite unlike any other stem that you have ever seen4 ,probably you do not know that many stems grow underneath the ground1 instead of straight up in the air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab ,if you find something in the earth that you take to be a root1 you can feel pretty sure that it really is a stem1 if it bears anything like either buds or leaves4 ,a true root bears only root branches and root hairs4 ,but in this white potato we find what we call 8eyes40 ,these eyes are buds from which new potato plants will grow4 ,close to these are little scales which really are leaves4 ,so we know that the potato is a stem1 not a root4 ,but this you could not have found out for yourselves1 even with the sharpest of eyes4 ,fig4 #aaa shows you the thick1 fat1 underground stem of the cyclamen4 ,from its lower part grow the true roots4 ,next you have that of the crocus 7,fig4 #aab71 while here to the right is that of the wood lily 7,fig4 #aac74 ,this is covered with underground leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac ,all these stems are usually called roots4 ,in the botanies such an underground stem as that of the ,jack-in-the-pulpit 7,fig4 #aad7 is named a 8corm10 while one like that of the crocus is called a 8bulb0 7,fig4 #aab74 ,all have a somewhat rounded shape4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae ,during our walks in the woods last fall1 often we found the ,solomon's seal1 and stopped to admire its curved stem1 hung with blue berries4 ,i hope one of you boys whipped out your pocketknife and dug into the earth till you found its underground stem 7,fig4 #aae74 ,this was laid lengthwise1 its roots growing from its lower side4 ,from its upper side1 close to one end1 sprang the growing plant4 ,but what causes those round1 curious-looking scars8 ,these scars are what give the plant its name of 8,solomon's seal40 ,they are supposed to look like the mark left by a seal upon wax4 ,they show where the underground stem has budded in past years1 sending up plants which in turn withered away4 ,each plant has left a scar which shows one year in the life of the underground stem4 ,next spring when you find in the woods the little yellow bells of the ,solomon's seal1 ,i think you will have the curiosity to dig down and find out the age of some of these plants4 ,another plant with an underground stem is the beautiful bloodroot4 ,as its name tells you1 this so-called root contains a juice that looks something like blood4 ,such underground stems as those of the ,solomon's seal and bloodroot are called 8rootstocks40 ,rootstocks1 corms1 and bulbs are all storehouses of plant food1 and make possible an early flowering the following spring4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,above-,,ground ,,roots ,but before we finished talking about roots we were led away by underground stems4 ,this does not matter much1 however1 for these underground stems are still called roots by many people4 ,just as stems sometimes grow under ground1 roots sometimes grow above ground4 ,many of you know the ,english ivy4 ,this is one of the few plants which city children know quite as well as1 if not better than1 country children2 for in our cities it nearly covers the walls of the churches4 ,in ,england it grows so luxuriantly that some of the old buildings are hidden beneath masses of its dark leaves4 ,this ivy plant springs from a root in the earth2 but as it makes its way upward1 it clings to the stone wall by means of the many air roots which it puts forth 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,our own poison ivy is another plant with air roots used for climbing purposes4 ,often these roots make its stem look as though it were covered with a heavy growth of coarse hair4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf ,there are some plants which take root in the branches of trees4 ,many members of the ,orchid family perch themselves aloft in this fashion4 ,but the roots which provide these plants with the greater part of their nourishment are those which hang loosely in the air4 ,one of these orchids you see in the picture 7,fig4 #aag74 ,it is found in warm countries4 ,the orchids of our part of the world grow in the ground in everyday fashion1 and look much like other plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag ,these hanging roots which you see in the picture are covered with a sponge-like material1 by means of which they suck in from the air water and gases4 ,in summer1 while hunting berries or wild flowers by the stream that runs through the pasture1 you have noticed that certain plants seemed to be caught in a tangle of golden threads4 ,if you stopped to look at this tangle1 you found little clusters of white flowers scattered along the thread-like stems 7,fig4 #aah72 then1 to your surprise1 you discovered that nowhere was this odd-looking stem fastened to the ground4 ,it began and ended high above the earth1 among the plants which crowded along the brook's edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah ,perhaps you broke off one of these plants about which the golden threads were twining4 ,if so1 you found that these threads were fastened firmly to the plant by means of little roots which grew into its stem1 just as ordinary roots grow into the earth4 ,this strange plant is called the 8dodder40 ,when it was still a baby plant1 it lay within its seed upon the ground1 just like other baby plants2 and when it burst its seed shell1 like other plants it sent its roots down into the earth4 ,but unlike any other plant ,i know of1 it did not send up into the air any seed leaves4 ,the dodder never bears a leaf4 ,it sent upward a slender golden stem4 ,soon the stem began to sweep slowly through the air in circles1 as if searching for something4 ,its movements were like those of a blind man who is feeling with his hands for support4 ,and this is just what the plant was doing3 it was feeling for support4 ,and it kept up its slow motion till it found the plant which was fitted to give it what it needed4 ,having made this discovery1 it put out a little root4 ,this root it sent into the juicy stem of its new-found support4 ,and thereafter1 from its private store1 the unfortunate plant which had been chosen as the dodder's victim was obliged to give food and drink to its greedy visitor4 ,and now what does this dodder do1 do you suppose8 ,perhaps you think that at least it has the grace to do a little something for a living1 and that it makes its earth root supply it with part of its food4 ,nothing of the sort4 ,once it finds itself firmly rooted in the stem of its victim1 it begins to grow vigorously4 ,with every few inches of its growth it sends new roots deep into this stem4 ,and when it feels quite at home1 and perfectly sure of its board1 it begins to wither away below1 where it is joined to its earth root4 ,soon it breaks off entirely from this1 and draws every bit of its nourishment from the plant or plants in which it is rooted4 ,now stop a moment and think of the almost wicked intelligence this plant has seemed to show1--how it keeps its hold of the earth till its stem has found the plant which will be compelled to feed it1 and how it gives up all pretense of self-support1 once it has captured its prey4 ,you have heard of men and women who do this sort of thing1--who shirk all trouble1 and try to live on the work of others2 and ,i fear you know some boys and girls who are not altogether unlike the dodder1--boys and girls who never take any pains if they can possibly help it1 who try to have all of the fun and none of the work2 but did you ever suppose you would come across a plant that would conduct itself in such a fashion8 ,of course1 when the dodder happens to fasten itself upon some wild plant1 little harm is done4 ,but unfortunately it is very partial to plants that are useful to men1 and then we must look upon it as an enemy4 ,linen is made from the flax plant1 and this flax plant is one of the favorite victims of the dodder4 ,sometimes it will attack and starve to death whole fields of flax4 ,but do not let us forget that we happen to be talking about the dodder because it is one of the plants which put out roots above ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai ,there is one plant which many of you have seen1 that never1 at any time of its life1 is rooted in the earth1 but which feeds always upon the branches of the trees in which it lives4 ,this plant 7,fig4 #aai7 is one of which perhaps you hear and see a good deal at ,christmas time4 ,it is an old ,english custom1 at this season1 to hang somewhere about the house a mistletoe bough 7for the mistletoe is the plant ,i mean7 with the understanding that one is free to steal a kiss from any maiden caught beneath it4 ,and as mistletoe boughs are sold on our street corners and in our shops at ,christmas1 there has been no difficulty in bringing one to school to-day4 ,the greenish mistletoe berries are eaten by birds4 ,often their seeds are dropped by these birds upon the branches of trees4 ,there they hold fast by means of the sticky material with which they are covered4 ,soon they send out roots which pierce the bark1 and1 like the roots of the dodder1 suck up the juices of the tree1 and supply the plant with nourishment4 ,then there are water roots as well as earth roots4 ,some of these water roots are put forth by plants which are nowhere attached to the earth4 ,these are plants which you would not be likely to know about4 ,one of them1 the duckweed1 is very common in ponds2 but it is so tiny that when you have seen a quantity of these duckweeds1 perhaps you have never supposed them to be true plants1 but rather a green scum floating on the top of the water4 ,but the duckweed is truly a plant4 ,it has both flower and fruit1 although without a distinct stem and leaves2 and it sends down into the water its long1 hanging roots1 which yet do not reach the ground4 ,there are other plants which have at the same time underground roots and water roots4 ,rooted in the earth on the borders of a stream sometimes you see a willow tree which has put out above-ground roots4 ,these hang over the bank and float in the water1 apparently with great enjoyment2 for roots not only seem to seek the water1 but to like it1 and to flourish in it4 ,if you break off at the ground one of your bean plants1 and place the slip in a glass of water1 you will see for yourselves how readily it sends out new roots4 ,i have read of a village tree the roots of which had made their way into a water pipe4 ,here they grew so abundantly that soon the pipe was entirely choked4 ,this rapid1 luxuriant growth was supposed to have been caused by the water within the pipe4 ,so you see there are underground roots and above-ground roots and water roots4 ,usually1 as you know1 the underground roots get their food from the earth2 but sometimes1 as with the ,indian pipe1 they feed on dead plants1 and sometimes1 as with the yellow false foxglove1 on other living roots4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,what ,,few ,,children ,,know ,to-day we must take another look at the plants in the schoolroom garden4 ,by this time some of them have grown quite tall4 ,others are just appearing above the earth4 ,here is a young morning-glory 7,fig4 #abj74 ,we see that its stem1 like that of the bean1 was the first thing to come out of the seed4 ,this stem has turned downward into the earth4 ,from its lower end grows the root1 which buries itself deeper and deeper4 ,an older plant shows us that the upper part of the stem straightens itself out and grows upward1 bearing with it a pair of leaves 7,fig4 #aba74 ,from between these starts a tiny bud1 that soon unfolds into a fresh leaf1 which is carried upward by a new piece of stem4 ,on the tip of this new piece of stem grows another bud1 which also enlarges into a leaf1 and in the same way as before is borne upward 7,fig4 #abb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj ,in this fashion the plant keeps growing bigger and bigger4 ,soon branches start from the sides of the stem1 and later flowers and fruits4 ,so we see that it is the stem which bears all the other parts of the plant4 ,most people think that the plant springs from the root2 but you children know better4 ,with your own eyes1 here in the schoolroom1 you have seen that instead of the stem growing from the root1 the root grows from the stem4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba ,that more people have not found this out1 is because they do not use their eyes rightly4 ,every spring hundreds and thousands of baby plants make their way out of the seed shell into the world1 just as you saw the baby bean plant do1 sending out first its little stem1 which pointed downward into the earth and started a root4 ,and every spring there are hundreds of thousands of men and women1 and boys and girls1 who go through the woods and fields1 and across the parks and along the streets1 as though they were blind1 taking no notice of the wonders all about them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb ,illustration3 ,vine ,,plants ,,that ,,cannot ,,stand ,,alone ,already we have learned that some stems grow under ground1 and that by most people these are called roots4 ,and among those which grow above the ground we see many different kinds4 ,the stem of ,indian corn grows straight up in the air1 and needs no help in standing erect4 ,fig4 #abc shows you the morning-glory plant1 the stem of which is unable to hold itself upright without assistance4 ,a great many plants seem to need this same sort of help2 and it is very interesting to watch their behavior4 ,the stem of the young morning-glory sweeps slowly through the air in circles1 in search of some support4 ,you remember that the curious dodder acted in this same way1 and that its movements reminded us of the manner in which a blind man feels about him4 ,when the morning-glory finds just the support it needs1 it lays hold of it1 and twists about it1 and then climbs upward with great satisfaction4 ,i want you to watch this curious performance4 ,it is sure to amuse you4 ,the plant seems to know so well what it is about1 and it acts so sensibly when it finds what it wants4 ,but if it happens to meet a glass tube1 or something too smooth to give it the help it needs1 it slips off it1 and seems almost as discouraged as a boy would be who fails in his attempt to climb a slippery tree or telegraph pole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc ,the bean is another plant whose stem is not strong enough to hold it erect without help4 ,but1 unlike the morning-glory1 the stem of the bean does not twist about the first stick it finds4 ,instead it sends out many shorter stems which do this work of reaching after and twining about some support4 ,in this same way the pea is able to hold up its head in the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd ,other plants are supported by their leafstalks4 ,these twist about whatever sticks or branches they can find1 and so prevent the plant from falling4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #abd7 shows you how the garden nightshade climbs by its leafstalk4 ,the beautiful clematis clambers all over the roadside thicket in the same way4 ,the ,english ivy and the poison ivy1 as we have learned already1 climb by the help of roots which their stems send out into the trunks of trees and the crevices of buildings4 ,the stems of the ,virginia creeper and of the ,japanese ivy give birth to smaller stems1 such as you see in the picture below4 ,when the tips of these reach the wall1 or the tree trunk up which the plant is trying to climb1 they broaden out into little flat1 round plates1 which1 like tiny claws1 cling to the surface 7,fig4 #abe74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe ,i hope your teacher will tell you where you can find one of these two plants1 for in the country the creeper is plentiful1 and the ,japanese ivy is planted freely in our cities2 and ,i hope you will go and see how firmly these little flattened stems cling to the wall or to the tree trunk4 ,try gently to pull off one of these determined little stems1 and ,i think you will admire it for its firm grip4 ,there are other than climbing plants whose stems are not strong enough to stand up straight without help4 ,think of the beautiful water lily4 ,if you have ever spent a morning in a boat 7as ,i hope you have1 for it is a delightful way to spend a morning7 hunting water lilies1 you will remember that these flowers float on top of the water2 and when you reach over to pick them1 you find the tall flower stems standing quite erect in the water4 ,but what happened when you broke them off1 and held them in your hand8 ,why1 these long stems proved to have no strength at all4 ,they flopped over quite as helplessly as the morning-glory vine would do if you unwound it from the wires up which it was climbing2 and you saw that they had only been able to stand up straight because of the help the water had given them4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,some ,,habits ,,of ,,stems ,beside the stems which stand erect without help 7like that of the corn71 and those which climb by means of some support 7like those of the morning-glory and bean71 and those which are held up by the water 7like that of the water lily71 there are stems which slant upward 7like that of the red clover71 stems which lie upon the ground 7like that of the snowberry71 and stems which creep 7that is1 which run along the ground71 and which strike root1 and so give rise to new plants 7like those of the white clover and strawberry74 ,with the new plants you meet1 try always to notice to which of these different classes their stems belong2 for later1 when you wish to use the botany and to learn the names of the plants1 this habit of noticing things will help you greatly4 ,then1 too1 with every new plant1 you should find out whether its stem is round or square1 and whether it is smooth or hairy1 or if it is at all thorny4 ,the thorns and hairs which some plants scatter over their stems protect them from animals and insects1 which might otherwise do them an injury4 ,by the thorns little snails are prevented from climbing up the stems and eating away the green leaves above2 and the cows and horses are pretty sure to leave the thorny plants well alone4 ,it is easy to understand why we find thistle plants growing thickly in the pasture1 which is nearly bare of everything else4 ,long ago these thistles clothed themselves in an armor of prickles1 and ever since they have been successful in waging war against the cattle4 ,sometimes a tree will cover its lower part only with thorns4 ,why is this1 do you suppose8 ,this is because only the lower branches are within reach of the cattle4 ,only these have any need of a suit of thorns4 ,the wild pear1 which grows in ,europe1 is such a tree as this4 ,a stem that is covered with hairs1 and also one that is sticky in spots1 serves to protect its flowers from an attack by ants1 or by other insects that might do them harm2 for these flowers1 you remember1 hold the golden dust which works such wonders when carried to another flower4 ,and you recall1 that1 when bees go to plants for the sweet stuff from which honey is made1 they carry this flower dust from blossom to blossom4 ,but if the sweet stuff is given up to greedy insects1 then this good work is not done2 for the bees get disgusted1 and stop visiting the plants which do not take more pains to please them4 ,and so oftentimes the plant covers its stem with hairs or with sticky drops1 so that the meddlesome little thieves cannot get up to the blossom at all4 ,so if you pick a flower which leaves your fingers sticky1 you must remember that the plant is only doing its duty in trying to please the bees4 ,although ,i have seen these plants do so many queer things that ,i am learning not to be surprised at their clever ways1 ,i must own that ,i was a little astonished to see how anxious one of them was to save itself unnecessary trouble4 ,there is a plant called the 8amphibious knotweed40 ,this is a rather difficult name1 ,i know4 ,this word 8amphibious0 is applied to something that can live both in water and on land2 and this plant grows sometimes in the pond or river1 and sometimes on the shore4 ,when on land1 its stem is covered with the hairs which serve to keep meddlesome insects from climbing up to its pretty balls of pink flowers4 ,in the water there is no danger of any such attack from insects2 and so when it happens to grow in the pond or river1 this knowing little plant does not trouble itself to clothe with hairs its stem1 but leaves this quite smooth4 ,next summer ,i hope you will hunt up the amphibious knotweed1 and will compare the smooth water stem with the hairy one that grows on land4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,stems ,,and ,,seed ,,leaves ,the smaller plants usually have green stems4 ,the larger ones have brown1 woody stems1 such as you see in bushes and trees2 for the trunk of the biggest tree in the world is nothing but a great stem4 ,the delicate green stems die down to the ground during the cold winter4 ,sometimes the whole plant dies1 the root below as well as the stem above ground4 ,but often the root 7or what we usually call the root7 lives1 and sends up a fresh stem the next year4 ,but the woody stems live through the winter1 and put out fresh leaves and branches the next spring4 ,without a magnifying glass1 it is difficult to see of just what the green stems of the small plants are made up2 and these you can pass by for the present4 ,but if your teacher will cut across the stem of a large rose1 you can see here an outer covering1 the green skin2 within this1 a ring of woody material2 and in the center of the stem1 a soft white stuff called 8pith40 ,when we were reading about seed leaves1 ,i told you that by the stem and leaves of a plant you could tell whether it brought into the world more than one seed leaf4 ,now1 when a stem like that of the rose is divided into three well-defined parts1--the skin1 or bark1 outside2 next the woody part2 and the soft white pith in the middle1--then you can be pretty sure that the plant had more than one seed leaf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf ,this picture 7,fig4 #abf7 shows you a section of a cornstalk4 ,here you do not see the three parts that were so plain in the rose stem1 for the woody part is not gathered together in a ring3 it is scattered through the soft part1 so that you cannot distinguish the one from the other4 ,running lengthwise you see the scattered bundles of woody threads1 the cut ends of which give the dotted look on top4 ,now1 such a stem as this of the corn shows you that the plant was born with only one seed leaf4 ,try to remember the difference between these two stems4 ,this next picture 7,fig4 #abg7 shows a part of the trunk or stem of the fir tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg ,the dark outside circle is the bark4 ,the rings within this are the wood4 ,each year one of these woody rings is added to the tree1 the last ring of all lying next to the bark2 so1 if you count these1 you can find out how many years the tree has lived4 ,in the center we see the soft stuff called pith4 ,what do these three divisions show8 ,the trunk of the palm in the next picture 7,fig4 #abh7 is like the stem of the corn4 ,the wood is not gathered in rings1 but is scattered through the soft part in thread-like bundles1 so that we cannot tell just the age of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh ,and what else do you know about the palm8 ,why1 you know that it came into the world with but one seed leaf4 ,if it had had more than one1 its stems would have had woody rings such as we see in the fir4 ,in the schoolroom you cannot see palms and firs2 but you can find a log in a wood pile which will show you just such woody rings as prove that the fir tree had more than one seed leaf4 ,and you can look at a stalk brought from the cornfield that will show you how the trunk of the palm tells us that this tree began life with only one seed leaf4 ,illustration3 ,decoration 8,,well ,,done1 ,,little ,,stem0 ,it is wonderful how much there is to learn about everything4 ,we began this book with an apple1 and ,i had no more idea than you that that apple was going to keep us busy for days4 ,and then the apple reminded us of its cousins1 the pear and plum and peach and cherry and rose4 ,and if we had not stopped short1 we should have been introduced to so many more cousins that we should have had neither room nor time for anything else4 ,from fruits we went to seeds4 ,at first it seemed almost as though we ought to finish up the seeds in two or three readings2 but this did not prove to be the case4 ,the mere naming of the different ways in which seeds went traveling1 covered so many pages that it was all we could do to find time to tell how a few of the baby plants were cared for1 and how they made their way out of the seed shell into the world4 ,but when we came to roots1 we felt there would be no temptation to loiter by the way1 for roots seemed rather dismal things to talk about4 ,yet it took some little time to show the different uses of a root1 and to talk about air roots and water roots1 as well as earth roots4 ,it was not altogether easy to make clear just how the little root hairs keep acids on hand in which to melt the solid earth food which their throats are too delicate to swallow4 ,and it was quite a long story when we came to the dodder1 which roots in the stems of living plants1 and steals all its food from them2 and to those orchids whose long roots swing from tree branches and draw their nourishment from the air4 ,about stems1 however1 even ,i felt a little discouraged2 for though it is from the stem that all other parts of a plant grow1 yet it is not looked upon generally as an interesting object when studied by itself2 and ,i dare say you children still feel that stems are less amusing than fruits1 or seeds1 or roots4 ,still we can hardly help admiring the way in which a stem1 when it lies underground1 like that of the lily or the ,jack-in-the-pulpit1 makes its food so carefully all through the summer1 and waits so patiently through the long winter in order to help its plant to burst into flower1 and to ripen into fruit as soon as possible1 and without more labor and food hunting when the spring comes4 ,when a stem1 like that of the morning-glory1 sweeps slowly and carefully through the air in search of something to lay hold of in its efforts to climb upward1 and when1 on finding this support1 it makes such good use of it1 we feel inclined to say1 8,well done1 little stem40 ,and when a stem on land knows how to keep off meddlers1 yet has the wisdom not to take unnecessary trouble when afloat1 like that of the amphibious knotweed1 then we feel that a plant gives its stem1 as well as its other parts1 a large supply of common sense4 ,there is a great deal more that might be said on this subject4 ,what a plant lives on1 what it eats and drinks and breathes1 is very interesting to learn about4 ,and of course the food taken in by the roots must be carried upward through the stem4 ,but to write simply about this is difficult4 ,as much as ,i think most of you can understand1 ,i will tell you when we take up leaves4 ,,part ,,iv--,,buds ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,buds ,,in ,,winter ,when school opened in ,september1 all the trees were covered with leaves2 and some of these trees were bent with their burden of pears and apples and peaches1 while others were hung with prickly chestnut burrs or with acorns or walnuts4 ,but now all is changed4 ,the woods look gray and bare2 for nearly all the leaves have fallen save those of the oak1 which are still holding fast to the branches4 ,these oak leaves are brown and stiff and leathery4 ,they crackle and rustle when the wind blows through them4 ,in the city squares you see the same change1--bare branches in place of green leaves4 ,at this season it is hardly worth while1 perhaps you think1 to go to the woods or to the park2 for there is nothing to be seen1--no leaves1 no flowers1 almost no fruits4 ,better wait till spring for any such expedition4 ,here you are wrong4 ,provided you know what to look at1 and how to look at it1 there is no month of the year when the woods and parks are not full of interest4 ,and so at this season1 when the trees are bare of leaves1 better than at any other1 certain things can be studied4 ,i have asked your teacher to bring to school to-day branches from the different trees which are looking so cold and lonely4 ,it is nearly always possible to find the horse-chestnut1 the maple1 or the cherry2 and we will talk especially about these branches4 ,on your way to school1 perhaps you pass every day a horse-chestnut tree2 but its branches are so far above your heads that you may never have noticed that in winter the leafless twigs bear just such buds as you see in the picture 7,fig4 #abi71 and on the branch which is before you4 ,the largest bud grows on top4 ,this is where the beautiful flower cluster that comes out in ,may lies hidden4 ,the smaller buds that grow lower down the stem hold only leaves4 ,you see that these buds grow in pairs1 one bud opposite another1 and always above a sort of scar on the twig4 ,this scar was made last fall by the breaking-off of a leaf4 ,perhaps you fancy that these buds have only just made their appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi ,if you have any such idea as that1 you are quite wrong4 ,last summer1 when the leaves were large and fresh1 the little buds1 that were not to unfold for nearly a year1 began to form1 growing somewhat larger as the weeks went by1 and folding themselves tightly in the brown1 leathery wrappings that were to keep them safe from the cold of winter4 ,i should like you to pull off these wrappings1 and see how well the horse-chestnut tree defends from cold its baby leaves4 ,first you find about seven of these outside wrappings4 ,the very outer ones are thick and brown1 and covered with the sticky stuff that makes them proof against rain4 ,the next ones are brown and thick where their tips are exposed to the air1 while the inner ones are green and delicate4 ,but altogether they make a warm1 snug covering for young leaves and flowers4 ,as for the baby leaves themselves1 they are all done up in a furry stuff that keeps them from catching cold1 even if a gust of wind or a few drops of rain should manage to make a way through the waterproof and almost air-tight wrappings4 ,so you see that the leaves and branches and young flowers of a plant or tree are looked after just as carefully as is the seed within the seed case1 or the baby plant in its seed shell4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,a ,,happy ,,surprise ,here you see a branch from the red maple 7,fig4 #acj74 ,on the flowering shoots three buds grow side by side4 ,the middle1 smaller one holds the leaves4 ,these leaves do not appear until the two outer1 larger buds have burst into flower clusters2 for the flowers of the red maple appear before its leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj ,i want you to bring to school as many different kinds of branches as you can find1 and ,i hope you will examine them all very carefully4 ,notice the position of their buds1 and whether these grow close together or are scattered far apart1 and whether one bud grows just opposite another2 and look for the marks left by the leaves which broke off last fall4 ,when the buds are large enough1 you will find it interesting to pull them apart 7but you must do this with great care7 and see how beautifully wrapped are the baby leaves and flowers4 ,i chose the branch of the horse-chestnut for special examination1 because its large buds show their contents plainly4 ,when a bud grows on the tip of a stem1 its work is to carry on that stem2 but when it grows just above a leaf scar1 you can be sure that it is a young branch4 ,such a branch may bear either leaves or flowers1 or both4 ,but buds do not all grow up at the same time1 or necessarily at all4 ,the strongest ones are the first to open4 ,the others may keep quiet for some time1 not unfolding1 perhaps1 unless some of the earlier ones are killed4 ,in this case1 the waiting buds try to fill the gap1 and carry on the good work of clothing the tree with leaves and flowers4 ,sometimes they wait over till another year1 and occasionally a bud never opens at all4 ,you all enjoyed planting seeds1 and watching them grow under your very eyes4 ,now ,i am going to propose to you a scheme which has given me quite as much pleasure as my pot gardens4 ,when the buds on the winter branches have swelled the least little bit1 after a few warm days in ,february perhaps1 go to the woods and cut several branches in places where no one will miss them1 and take them home and put them in warm water1 in a warm1 bright corner1 and see what happens4 ,it will be a real joy to you1 watching these little buds get bigger and bigger1 till the outer wrappings are forced apart1 and either thrown well aside1 or pushed off altogether2 and you will be filled with delight when the delicate baby leaves begin to stretch themselves1 or1 better still1 when the pure1 beautiful flowers burst from the brown1 dead-looking twigs4 ,get branches of cherry1 apple1 peach1 and pear2 and bring in the pussy willow1 the maple1 the ,forsythia1 the spicebush1 and1 if you can find it1 the mountain laurel2 and if you do not pass many moments of almost breathless pleasure watching the wonders these budding branches are so eager to reveal1 you are not the children ,i take you to be4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,some ,,astonishing ,,buds ,there are some plants which do not put any winter wraps on their delicate buds2 and1 strangely enough1 these buds do not seem to suffer for lack of clothing4 ,in a warm country this would not surprise us4 ,if we were going to spend the winter in the ,west ,indies1 we should not carry our furs with us1 for we should not meet any weather cold enough to make them necessary2 and so perhaps in the ,west ,indies the buds have no more need of winter clothing than we ourselves4 ,but if we were to spend the ,christmas holidays somewhere in our ,northern mountains1 if we were going for skating and coasting to the ,catskills or the ,adirondacks1 we should not fail to take with us our warmest clothes4 ,and yet1 if we walked in the ,adirondack woods1 we should meet over and over again a shrub bearing naked buds1 their folded1 delicate leaves quite exposed to the bitter cold4 ,this shrub is the hobblebush1 the pretty flowers of which you see on p4 #bdf4 ,i do not understand any better than you why this hobblebush does not tuck away its baby leaves beneath a warm covering4 ,neither do ,i understand how these naked leaves can live through the long1 cold winter4 ,i should like very much to satisfy myself as to the reason for this1 for they do live and flourish2 and ,i wish that such of you children as know the home of the hobblebush 7and it is common in many places7 would watch this shrub through the winter1 and see if you can discover how it can afford to take less care of its buds than other plants4 ,there is one tree which seems to shield its buds more carefully in summer than in winter4 ,this tree is the buttonwood4 ,it grows not only in the country1 but in many of our city streets and squares4 ,you know it by the way in which its bark peels in long strips from its trunk and branches1 and by the button-like balls which hang from the leafless twigs all winter4 ,if you examine one of these twigs1 now that they are bare of leaves1 you see the buds quite plainly2 but if it is summer time1 when the leaves are clinging to the branch1 you see no buds1 and suppose that they are not yet formed4 ,but here you are wrong4 8,how can that be80 you ask4 ,you looked carefully1 and nowhere was there any sign of a bud4 ,but you did not look everywhere1 after all4 ,if very carefully you had pulled off one of the leaves1 you would have found the young bud tucked safely away beneath the hollow end of the leafstalk4 ,this leafstalk fitted over it more neatly than a candle snuffer over a candle 7,fig4 #aca74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca ,try this for yourselves next summer4 ,i think you will be pleased with this pretty arrangement4 ,we learned that the potato1 even though it is buried in the earth and does not look like it1 is really one of the thickened stems of the potato plant4 ,the 8eyes0 of the potato look as little like buds as the potato itself looks like a stem4 ,yet these 8eyes0 are true buds2 for1 if we leave our potatoes in the dark cellar till spring1 the 8eyes0 will send out slender shoots in the same way that the buds on the branches of trees send out young shoots4 ,as ,i told you before1 the usual place for a bud is just between the stem and the leafstalk1 or the scar left by the leafstalk2 but if a stem is cut or wounded1 oftentimes it sends out buds in other than the usual places4 ,this habit accounts for the growth of young shoots from stumps of trees1 and from parts of the plant which ordinarily do not give birth to buds4 ,some buds never open while fastened to the stem of the parent plant2 but after a time they fall to the ground1 strike root1 and send up a fresh young plant4 ,the tiger lily1 the plant that grows so often in old gardens1 bears such buds as these4 ,we call them 8bulblets0 when they act in this strange fashion4 ,perhaps even more surprising than this is the fact that leaves sometimes produce buds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb ,in certain warmer countries grows a plant called the ,bryophyllum4 ,if you look carefully at the thick1 fleshy leaves of this plant1 along its notched edges you will see certain little dark spots2 and if you cut off one of these leaves and pin it on your window curtain1 what do you suppose will happen8 ,well1 right under your eyes will happen one of the strangest things ,i have ever seen4 ,from the row of dark spots along the leaf's edge1 springs a row of tiny1 perfect plants 7,fig4 #acb74 ,and when these tiny plants are fairly started1 if you lay the leaf on moist earth1 they will send their roots into the ground1 break away from the fading leaf1 and form a whole colony of new plants4 ,now1 those dark spots along the leaf's edge were tiny buds2 and the thick leaf was so full of rich food1 that when it was broken off from the parent plant1 and all of this food was forced into the buds1 these were strong enough to send out roots and leaves1 and to set up in life for themselves4 ,it will not be difficult for your teacher to secure some of these leaves of the ,bryophyllum1 and to show you in the schoolroom this strange performance4 ,all children enjoy wonderful tricks1 and ,i know of nothing much prettier or more astonishing than this trick of the ,bryophyllum4 ,,part ,v--,,leaves ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,how ,,to ,,look ,,at ,a ,,leaf ,to-day we begin to learn what we can about the leaves of plants4 ,i hope that enough fresh green leaves have been brought to school to allow every child here to have one on the desk before him1 so that he may see1 as far as is possible1 just what is being talked about4 ,this picture 7,fig4 #acc7 shows you the leaf of the quince4 ,now1 suppose you held in your hand a leaf fresh from the quince tree1 and were asked to describe it to a blind person1 how would you tell about it8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc ,you would begin1 ,i fancy1 by saying1 8,this leaf is green10 for the color of an object is one of the things we notice first4 ,next perhaps you would describe its shape4 8,this quince leaf is rounded1 yet it is too long to be called a round leaf40 ,so you would use the word 8oblong40 ,like most leaves1 then1 it is green2 and like some other leaves1 it is oblong4 ,now look at this picture 7,fig4 #acd7 of the maple leaf4 ,this1 you see1 is not oblong1 but three-pointed4 ,what other differences do you notice between these two leaves8 ,you do not seem quite sure as to whether there are any other differences4 ,but do you not notice that the edge of the maple leaf is cut into little teeth1 like the edge of a saw1 while the edge of the quince leaf is smooth8 ,and let me tell you here1 that when ,i speak of a leaf1 ,i speak not only of the enlarged flat surface we call the 8leaf blade10 but also of the 8leafstalk40 ,a leaf usually consists of a leafstalk and a leaf blade1 though some leaves are set so close to the stem that they have no room for any stalks of their own4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd 8,oh6 then10 you answer1 8the leafstalk of the maple is much longer than that of the quince1 and there are little bits of leaves at the foot of the quince leafstalk which the maple is without40 ,you have done very well1 and have noticed just those things which you should4 ,the shape of the leaf blade1 whether the edge of this is toothed1 the length of the leafstalk1 and whether this has any little leaves at its foot where it joins the stem1 are things always worth noticing4 ,now take your leaves and hold them up against the light1 or else look at the picture of the quince leaf1 and study carefully the make-up of the blade4 ,you see that this is divided lengthwise by a heavy rib which juts out on the lower side4 ,from this 8midrib10 as it is called1 run a great many smaller lines4 ,these are called 8veins40 ,and from these branch off still smaller veins that bear the name of 8veinlets40 ,and somewhat as the paper is stretched over the sticks of a kite1 so from the leaf's midrib to its edge1 and from vein to vein1 is drawn the delicate green material which makes up the greater part of the leaf4 ,what ,i wish you to learn this morning is1 how to look at a leaf4 ,before using our brains rightly1 we must know how to use our eyes4 ,if we see a thing as it really is1 the chances are that our thoughts about it will be fairly correct4 ,but it is surprising how often our eyes see wrong4 ,if you doubt this1 ask four or five of your playmates to describe the same thing1--some street accident1 or a quarrel in the playground1 which all have seen1 or something of the sort1--and then ,i think you will understand what ,i mean by saying that few people see correctly4 ,,the ,,most ,,wonderful ,,thing ,,in ,,the ,,world ,it would be quite a simple matter to interest you children in plants and their lives1 if always it were possible to talk only about the things which you can see with your own unaided eyes4 ,i think a bright child sees better than many a grown person1 and ,i think that it is easier to interest him in what he sees4 ,and then plants in themselves are so interesting and surprising1 that one must be stupid indeed if he or she finds it impossible to take pleasure in watching their ways4 ,but about these plants there are many things which you cannot see without the help of a microscope1 and these things it is difficult to describe in simple words4 ,yet it is necessary to learn about them if you wish really to feel at home in this beautiful world of plants4 ,after all1 whatever is worth having is worth taking some trouble for2 and nothing worth having can be had without trouble4 ,so ,i hope when you children come to parts of this book that seem at first a little dull1 you will say to yourselves1 8,well1 if we wish really to know plants1 to be able to tell their names1 to understand their habits1 we must try to be a little patient when we come to the things that are difficult40 ,for even in your games you boys have to use some patience2 and you are quite willing to run the risk of being hurt for the sake of a little fun4 ,and you girls will take no end of trouble if you happen to be sewing for your dolls1 or playing at cooking over the kitchen stove1 or doing something to which you give the name 8play0 instead of 8work40 ,i only ask for just as much patience in your study of plants2 and ,i think ,i can safely promise you that plants will prove delightful playthings long after you have put aside the games which please you now4 ,so we must begin to talk about some of the things which you are not likely to see now with your own eyes1 but which1 when possible1 ,i will show you by means of pictures1 and which1 when you are older1 some of you may see with the help of a microscope4 ,every living thing is made up of one or more little objects called 8cells40 ,usually a cell may be likened to a tiny bag which holds a bit of that material which is the most wonderful thing in the whole world1 for this is the material which has life4 ,occasionally a cell is nothing but a naked bit of this wonderful substance1 for it is not always held in a tiny bag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace ,this picture 7,fig4 #ace7 shows you a naked plant cell1 much magnified1 that swims about in the water by means of the two long hairs which grow from one end of the speck of life-giving material4 ,the next picture 7,fig4 #acf7 shows you a seed cut across1 and so magnified that you can see plainly its many cells4 ,in the middle portion of the seed the cells are six-sided1 and laid against one another in an orderly and beautiful fashion1 while the outer ones are mostly round4 ,all animals1 we ourselves1 all plants1 began life as a single cell4 ,sometimes a cell will spend its life alone4 ,when the time comes for it to add to the life of the world1 it divides into two or more 8daughter cells10 as they are called4 ,these break away from one another1 and in like manner divide again4 ,but usually the single cell which marks the beginning of a new life adds to itself other cells2 that is1 the different cells do not break away from one another1 but all cling together1 and so build up the perfect plant or animal4 ,by just such additions the greatest tree in the forest grew from a single tiny cell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf ,by just such additions you children have grown to be what you are1 and in the same way you will continue to grow4 ,every living thing must eat and breathe1 and so all living cells must have food and air4 ,these they take in through their delicate cell walls4 ,the power to do this comes from the bit of living substance which lies within these walls4 ,this strange1 wonderful material within the little cell is what is alive in every man and woman1 in every boy and girl1 in every living thing1 whether plant or animal4 ,we know this much about it1 and not the wisest man that ever lived knows much more4 ,for though the wise men know just what things go to make up this material1 and though they themselves can put together these same things1 they can no more make life1 or understand the making of it1 than can you or ,i4 ,but when we get a good hold of the idea that this material is contained in all living things1 then we begin to feel this2 we begin to feel that men and women1 boys and girls1 big animals and little insects1 trees and flowers1 wayside weeds and grasses1 the ferns and rushes of the forest1 the gray lichens of the cliffs and fences1 the seaweeds that sway in the green rock pools1 and living things so tiny that our eyes must fail to see them1--that all these are bound into one by the tie of that strange and wonderful thing called life2 that they are all different expressions of one mysterious1 magnificent idea4 ,while writing that last sentence1 ,i almost forgot that ,i was writing for boys and girls1 or indeed for any one but myself2 and ,i am afraid that perhaps you have very little idea of what ,i am talking about4 ,but ,i will not cross it out4 ,why not1 do you suppose8 ,because ,i feel almost sure that here and there among you is a girl or boy who will get just a little glimmering idea of what ,i mean2 and perhaps as the years go by1 that glimmer will change into a light so bright and clear as to become a help in dark places4 ,but the thought that ,i hope each one of you will carry home is this1--that because this strange something found in your body is also found in every other living thing1 you may learn to feel that you are in a way a sister or brother1 not only to all other boys and girls1 but to all the animals and to every plant about you4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,how ,a ,,plant ,,is ,,built ,now we know that the plant1 like yourself1 began life as a single cell2 and we know that the perfect plant was built up by the power which this cell had of giving birth to other cells with like power4 ,suppose that a brick were laid upon the earth as the foundation of a wall2 and suppose that this brick were able to change into two bricks4 ,suppose that the new brick were able to form another brick in the same manner1 and that this power should pass from brick to brick2 and suppose that all these bricks were able to arrange themselves one upon another in an orderly fashion1 so that they could not easily be moved from their places4 ,now1 if you can see this brick wall growing up1 you can see something of how the cells of a plant grow up and arrange themselves4 ,but though it is fairly easy to see how the plant cells form one from another1 that does not explain how they come to make a plant1 with its many different parts1 with its root and stem1 its branches1 leaves1 and flowers4 ,one thing can divide and make two things of the same sort2 but it is not easy to see how it can make things that are quite different from itself4 ,now1 if this difficulty as to the building-up of plants and animals has come into your minds1 you are only puzzled by what has puzzled hundreds of people before you2 and all these hundreds of people have found the puzzle quite as impossible to solve as the king's horses and the king's men found it impossible to put ,humpty ,dumpty together again4 ,a good many questions that we cannot answer come into our minds2 but if we look honestly for the answers and do not find them1 then we can be pretty sure that for the present it is safe to leave them unanswered4 ,as cell is added to cell in the building-up of plant life1 some wonderful power forces each new cell to do the special work which is most needed by the growing plant4 ,sometimes this new cell is needed to help do the work of a root1 and so it begins to do this work1 and becomes part of the root2 or else it is needed to do stem work1 and goes to make up the stem1 or leaf work1 and is turned over into the leaf4 ,a healthy cell is born with the power to do whatever is most needed4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,how ,a ,,plant',s ,,food ,,is ,,cooked ,some time ago we learned that the little root hairs1 by means of their acid1 are able to make a sort of broth from the earthy materials which they could not swallow in a solid state4 ,but before this broth is really quite fit for plant food1 it needs even more preparation4 ,why do we eat and drink1 do you suppose8 8,because we are hungry40 ,that is the direct reason1 of course4 ,but we are made hungry so that we shall be forced to eat2 for when we eat1 we take into our bodies the material that is needed to build them up1--to feed the cells which make the flesh and bone and muscle4 ,and this is just why the plant eats and drinks4 ,it needs constantly fresh nourishment for its little cells1 so that these can live1 and grow strong enough to make the new cells which go to form1 not bone and flesh and muscle1 as with you children1 but fresh roots and stem and leaves and flowers and fruits4 ,if these little cells were not fed1 they would die1 and the plant would cease to live also4 ,and now what do you think happens to the broth that has been taken in from the earth by the root hairs8 ,as we have said1 this broth needs a little more preparation before it is quite fit for plant food4 ,what it really wants is some cooking4 ,perhaps you can guess that the great fire before which all plant food is cooked is the sun4 ,but how are the hot rays of the sun to pierce the earth1 and reach the broth which is buried in the plant's root8 ,of course1 if it remains in the root1 the earth broth will not get the needed cooking4 ,it must be carried to some more get-at-able position4 ,now1 what part of a plant is usually best fitted to receive the sun's rays8 ,its leaves1 to be sure4 ,the thin1 flat leaf blades are spread out on all sides1 so that they fairly bathe themselves in sunshine4 ,so if the broth is to be cooked in the sun1 up to the leaves it must be carried4 ,and how is this managed8 ,water does not run uphill1 as you know4 ,yet this watery broth must mount the stem before it can enter the leaves4 ,water does not run uphill ordinarily1 it is true2 yet1 if you dip a towel in a basin of water1 the water rises along the threads1 and the towel is wet far above the level of the basin4 ,and if you dip the lower end of a lump of sugar in a cup of coffee1 the coffee rises in the lump1 and stains it brown4 ,and the oil in the lamp mounts high into the wick4 ,perhaps when you are older you will be able somewhat to understand the reason of this rise of liquid in the towel1 in the lump of sugar1 in the lamp wick4 ,the same reason accounts partly for the rise of the broth in the stem4 ,but it is thought that the force which sends the oil up the wick would not send the water far up the stem4 ,and you know that some stems are very tall indeed4 ,the distance1 for example1 to be traveled by water or broth which is sucked in by the roots of an oak tree1 and which must reach the top-most leaves of the oak1 is very great4 ,yet the earth broth seems to have no difficulty in making this long1 steep climb4 ,now1 even wise men have to do some guessing about this matter1 and ,i fear you will find it a little hard to understand4 ,but it is believed that the roots drink in the earth broth so eagerly and so quickly1 that before they know it they are full to overflowing4 ,it is easier1 however1 to enter a root than it is to leave it by the same door2 and the result is1 that the broth is forced upward into the stem by the pressure of more water or broth behind4 ,of course1 if the stem and branches and leaves above are already full of liquid1 unless they have some way of disposing of the supply on hand1 they cannot take in any more2 and the roots below would then be forced to stop drinking1 for when a thing is already quite full to overflowing1 it cannot be made to hold more4 ,but leaves have a habit of getting rid of what they do not need4 ,when the watery broth is cooked in the sun1 the heat of the sun's rays causes the water to pass off through the little leaf mouths4 ,thus the broth is made fit for plant food1 and at the same time room is provided for fresh supplies from the root4 ,if you should examine the lower side of a leaf through a microscope1 you would find hundreds and thousands of tiny mouths1 looking like the little mouths in this picture 7,fig4 #acg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg ,some of the water from the earth broth is constantly passing through these mouths out of the plant1 into the air4 ,a ,,steep ,,climb ,it is all very well1 you may think1 to say that the pressure from the root sends the water up through the stem2 but when we cut across such a stem as a tree trunk1 one finds it full of wood1 with a little tightly packed soft stuff in the center1 and not hollow like a water pipe1 as one would suppose from all that has been said about the way the water rises in the stem4 ,no1 a stem is not a hollow pipe1 or even a bunch of hollow pipes1 it is true2 and it does seem something of a question1 how the water can force its way through all this wood2 and even if one hears how it is done1 it is not an easy thing to make clear either to grown people or to children4 ,but ,i will see what ,i can do2 and ,i know that you really love these plants and trees1 and will try to be a little patient with them and with me4 ,the water1 or liquid1 when it mounts a stem or tree trunk1 takes a path that leads through the new-made cells4 ,each young cell wall is made of such delicate material that it allows the water1 or broth1 to filter through it1 just as it would pass through a piece of thin cloth4 ,and so it makes its way from cell to cell1 along the stem1 more slowly than if it were passing through a hollow tube1 but almost as surely4 ,it is true1 the earth broth does not reach the leaves above without having given up something to the little cells along the road4 ,these seem to lay hold of what they specially need for their support1 while the rest is allowed to pass on4 ,i want your teacher to prove to you by a little experiment that water makes its way up a stem4 ,if she will place in colored water the stem of a large white tulip1 cutting off its lower end under the liquid1 those parts whose little cells are in closest connection with the stem will soon begin to change color1 taking the red or blue of the water2 for a freshly cut stem has the same power as the root to suck in water eagerly and quickly4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,how ,a ,,plant ,,perspires ,we cannot see the water as it passes from the tiny leaf mouths into the air4 ,neither can we see the water that is being constantly carried from the surface of our bodies into the air4 ,but if we breathe against a window pane1 the scattered water in our breath is collected by the cold of the glass in a little cloud2 and if we place the warm palms of our hands against this window pane1 in the same way the cold collects the water that is passing from the little mouths in our skin1 and shows it to us as a cloud on the glass4 ,heat scatters water so that we cannot see it1 any more than we can see the lump of sugar when its little grains are scattered in hot water2 but cold gathers together the water drops so that we are able to see them4 ,this is why you can 8see your breath10 as you say1 on a cold day4 ,the cold outside air gathers together the water which was scattered by the heat of your body4 ,if you place against the window pane the under side of the leaves of a growing plant1 the water passing from the tiny leaf mouths collects on the glass in just such a damp cloud as is made by the moist palms of your warm hands4 ,when water passes from your hands1 you say that you are perspiring2 and when water passes away from the plant1 we can say that the plant perspires4 ,some plants perspire more freely than others4 ,a sunflower plant has been known to give off more than three tumblers of water a day by this act of perspiration4 ,there is a tree1 called the ,eucalyptus1 whose leaves perspire so freely that it is planted in swampy places in order to drain away the water4 ,of course1 the more quickly the leaves throw off water1 the faster the fresh supply pushes up the stem4 ,if the leaves do their work more quickly than the roots make good the loss1 then the plant wilts4 ,when a leaf is broken from a plant1 it soon fades4 ,its water supply being cut off1 it has no way of making good the loss through the leaf mouths4 ,just as the air in a balloon keeps its walls firm1 so the water in the leaf cells keeps the cell walls firm4 ,as a balloon collapses if you prick it with a pin1 and let out the air1 so the cell walls collapse when the cells lose their water2 and when the cell walls of a leaf collapse1 the leaf itself collapses4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,how ,a ,,plant ,,stores ,,its ,,food ,we see that the water is drawn away from the earth broth into the air by the heat of the sun1 just as water is drawn from the broth we place on the stove by the heat of the fire2 and that when this has happened1 the plant's food is cooked1 and is in condition to be eaten4 ,but this broth does not lose all its water4 ,there is still enough left to carry it back through the leaf into the branches and stem1 and even down into the root once more4 ,in fact1 the prepared food is now sent to just those parts of the plant which most need it4 ,perhaps it is laid up beneath the bark1 to help make new buds which will burst into leaf and flower another year4 ,or perhaps it goes down to help the roots put out new branches and fresh root hairs4 ,or possibly it is stowed away in such an underground stem as that of the lily1 or the crocus bulb1 and is saved for next year's food4 ,once in a while some of this prepared food is stored in the leaf itself4 ,when a leaf is thick and juicy 78fleshy10 the books call it71 we can guess that it is full of plant food4 ,do you recall the ,bryophyllum1--the plant we talked about a few days ago8 ,its wonderful leaves1 you remember1 gave birth to a whole colony of new plants4 ,you may be sure that these leaves had refused to give up all the food sent to them for cooking in the sun4 ,you can guess this from their thick1 fleshy look1 and you can be sure of this when you see the baby plants spring from their edges2 for without plenty of nourishment stored away1 these leaves could never manage to support such a quantity of young ones4 ,,leaf ,,green ,,and ,,sunbeam ,but the earth broth which the roots supply is not the only article of importance in the plant's bill of fare4 ,the air about us holds one thing that every plant needs as food4 ,this air is a mixture of several things4 ,just as the tea we drink is a mixture of tea and water1 and milk and sugar1 so the air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen1 and water and carbonic-acid gas4 ,oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic-acid gas1--each one of these three things that help to make the air is what we call a gas1 and one of these gases is made of two things4 ,carbonic-acid gas is made of oxygen and carbon4 ,now1 carbon is the food which is needed by every plant4 ,but the carbon in the air is held tightly in the grasp of the oxygen1 with which it makes the gas called carbonic-acid gas4 ,to get possession of this carbon1 the plant must contrive to break up the gas1 and then to seize and keep by force the carbon4 ,this seems like a rather difficult performance1 does it not8 ,for when a gas is made of two different things1 you can be pretty sure that these keep a firm hold on each other1 and that it is not altogether easy to tear them apart4 ,now1 how does the plant meet this difficulty8 ,you cannot guess by yourselves how this is done1 so ,i must tell you the whole story4 ,certain cells in the plant are trained from birth for this special work1--the work of getting possession of the carbon needed for plant food4 ,these little cells take in the carbonic-acid gas from the air2 then they break it up1 tearing the carbon from the close embrace of the oxygen1 pushing the oxygen back into the air it came from1 and turning the carbon over to the plant to be stored away till needed as food4 ,only certain cells can do this special piece of work4 ,only the cells which hold the green substance that colors the leaf can tear apart carbonic-acid gas4 ,every little cell which holds a bit of this leaf green devotes itself to separating the carbon from the oxygen4 ,why this special power lies in a tiny speck of leaf green we do not know4 ,we only know that a cell without such an occupant is quite unable to break up carbonic-acid gas4 ,but even the bit of leaf green in a tiny cell needs some help in its task4 ,what aid does it call in1 do you suppose1 when it works to wrench apart the gas8 ,in this work the partner of the bit of leaf green is nothing more or less than a sunbeam4 ,without the aid of a sunbeam1 the imprisoned leaf green is as helpless to steal the carbon as you or ,i would be4 ,it sounds a good deal like a fairy story1 does it not1--this story of ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam8 ,charcoal is made of carbon4 ,about one half of every plant is carbon4 ,the coal we burn in our fireplaces is the carbon left upon the earth by plants that lived and died thousands of years ago4 ,it is the carbon that ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam together stole from the air1 and turned over into the plant4 ,if one looks at a piece of coal with the eyes which one keeps for the little picture gallery all children carry in their heads1 one sees more than just a shining1 black lump4 ,one sees a plant that grew upon the earth thousands of years ago1 with its bright green leaves dancing in the sunlight2 for without those green leaves and that sunlight1 there could be no coal for burning to-day4 ,and when we light our coal fire1 what we really do is to set free the sunbeams that worked their way so long ago into the plant cells4 ,it is more like a fairy story than ever4 ,sunbeam is the noble knight who fought his way into the cell where ,leaf ,green lay imprisoned1 doomed to perform a task which was beyond her power4 ,but with the aid of the noble ,sunbeam1 she did this piece of work1 and then both fell asleep1 and slept for a thousand years4 ,awakening at last1 together they made their joyful escape in the flame that leaps from out the black coal4 ,in truth1 a sunbeam and a flame are not so unlike as to make this story as improbable as many others that we read4 ,and because ,i have told it to you in the shape of a fairy story1 you must not think it is not true4 ,it is indeed true4 ,everywhere in the sunshiny woods and fields of summer1 the story of ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam is being lived4 ,but when the day is cloudy or the sun sets1 then there is no ,sunbeam to help the ,princess1 and then no carbon is stolen from the air4 ,,plant ,,or ,,animal8 ,did you ever stop to ask yourself1 8,what is the difference between a plant and an animal80 because this is the place where that question should be answered4 8,why1 an animal is altogether different from a plant10 you answer1 perhaps a little scornfully4 8,i have no trouble in telling which is which40 ,it is very natural that you should feel this way4 ,a cow or a horse1 for example1 is not at all like a tree2 and when you think of animals1 you think of the ones you know best1 and likewise of plants4 ,but wise men have discovered plants that look and act so much like animals1 and animals that look and act so much like plants1 that at one time they say1 8,now1 these are animals1 surely10 and a little later exclaim1 8,no1 after all1 these are plants20 and they take a long time to make up their minds as to whether certain objects are plants or animals4 ,and already even you children have discovered that the plants you know best belong to families1 and have children1 and care for them in a very motherly fashion2 that they drink earth food with their roots1 and eat carbon food with their leaves2 and soon you will find that they do many other things which once upon a time you would have thought it a great joke to be told a plant could do4 ,you remember my telling you of one little plant cell that could swim2 and there are some animals1 you know1 that are rooted to one spot as we usually think only a plant is rooted4 ,what1 then1 is the difference between a plant and an animal8 ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam between them put life into what had no life before2 and the living plant matter1 which they help to make1 is that which animals cannot make themselves1 yet which they cannot live without1 for this living matter is absolutely necessary to them as food4 ,and the one real difference between a plant and an animal is this1--a plant can make out of certain dead substances the living matter that all animals must have for food2 an animal cannot do this4 ,,how ,,we ,,are ,,helped ,,by ,,leaf ,,green ,,and ,,sunbeam ,the cell in which ,leaf ,green lives has no little mouths such as we saw in the picture some time ago4 ,its walls are so delicate that the carbonic-acid gas passes through them quite easily1--as easily as the gas escaping from an unlighted jet in the schoolroom could pass to your nose even if you wore a veil1 or as easily as water would pass through a piece of muslin4 ,but between ,leaf ,green's cell and the outer air are other cells1--those which make up the outer covering or skin of the leaf4 ,these are arranged so as to form the openings or mouths about which we have read4 ,by means of these mouths the gas makes its way through the leaf's thick skin4 ,the plant needs as food the carbon in this gas1 and so keeps fast hold of it2 but the oxygen is not needed for this purpose1 and so it is pushed back into the air4 ,now1 we learned in the last chapter of one very great service rendered to animals by plants4 ,we learned that plants took carbon from the air1 and turned this into food for animals4 ,but there is still another way in which plants serve animals4 ,and once more it is the work of ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam that is of such importance to us2 for when they take hold of the carbon1 making it into living food for man and beast1 they take from the air the gas that is poisonous1 and send back into the air the gas which gives life and health4 ,this poisonous gas which they lay hold of1 you remember1 is carbonic-acid gas2 and carbonic-acid gas is what we animals send out of our bodies with every breath1 for it is the part of the air which poisons us4 ,when the schoolroom is so close that our heads ache1 it is because so many children have been breathing out this gas1 and we are forced to take it back into our bodies again4 ,but when this gas is stolen by the plant1 and robbed of its carbon1 it is no longer carbonic-acid gas4 ,nothing of it is left but the oxygen which is pushed out through the cell walls2 and this oxygen is as good to breathe as the other gas 7carbon and oxygen mixed7 is bad4 ,so the plant finds good what we find poisonous4 ,it takes in and keeps that which hurts us 7the carbon71 and sends out that which helps us 7the oxygen74 ,so you see that our lives depend on the lives of plants in two ways3-- #a4 ,the plants give us the food we need for life4 #b4 ,the plants take from the air the gas that poisons us1 and give to the air the gas which we need for life and health4 ,and in both cases it is ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam who are making life possible for us4 ,remember the great services of these two fairies when next you pass a green tree which is bathing itself in sunshine4 ,,how ,a ,,plant ,,breathes ,perhaps you have heard people say that it is not good to sleep in a room with plants4 ,they say this1 because they have heard that at night the plant does not give out oxygen1 but that it does give out the poisonous carbonic-acid gas4 ,now1 you children know that part of this statement is true4 ,you know that the plant cannot give out oxygen at night1 because at that time there is no ,sunbeam about to help ,leaf ,green tear apart carbonic-acid gas and send the oxygen back into the air4 ,but how about the other part of the statement8 ,is it true that at night plants give out the poisonous carbonic-acid gas8 ,both day and night1 plants give out carbonic-acid gas2 for though plants1 save in the sunlight1 cannot eat by means of their little green cells1 they can breathe through the tiny mouths 7,fig4 #acg7 on the under side of the leaf by night as well as by day4 ,and when either a plant or an animal breathes1 it takes the life-giving oxygen from out the air mixture1 and keeps it for its own use4 ,but poisonous carbonic-acid gas is sent back into the air4 ,now1 the question is1 whether a plant does most good or most harm to the air by taking in and sending out the different gases4 ,of course1 it does good when it lets the oxygen out through its cell walls1 and stores away the carbon within itself2 and it may seem to do harm when through its leaf mouths it breathes in oxygen and breathes out carbonic-acid gas4 ,there is only one key to unlock the matter1 and that is this1--to find out whether the plant does most towards poisoning or towards purifying the air4 ,and that has been found out already4 ,wise men say that ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam do much more good to the air than the little breathing mouths do harm4 ,the two good fairies take away a great deal of poison1 and send back a great deal of the helpful oxygen2 while the tiny mouths neither rob the air of much oxygen nor give it much poison4 ,indeed1 the harm they do is so small compared with the great good accomplished by ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam1 that even at night you need not worry at the thought that you have plants in your room4 ,perhaps you wonder that a plant does these two things that are so exactly opposite to each other4 ,but a plant must breathe as well as eat2 for when it breathes1 it takes in the precious oxygen which is just as necessary to its life as to ours4 ,in summer1 by the dusty roadside1 you see plants almost white with dust1 looking quite ill and lifeless4 ,and they are both ill and lifeless2 for their little leaf throats are so choked that they cannot breathe in the oxygen they need1 and in consequence they are being slowly suffocated4 ,,the ,,diligent ,,tree ,now we have learned three things about plants1 and especially about leaves4 ,we have learned-- #a4 ,that they perspire4 #b4 ,that they eat and drink4 #c4 ,that they breathe4 ,they perspire when the water passes through the leaf mouths into the air4 ,they eat when ,leaf ,green and ,sunbeam together manage to take the carbon out of the carbonic-acid gas which has made its entrance through the leaf mouth and the cell wall4 ,they drink when the roots suck in water and earth broth4 ,they breathe when the leaf mouths take from the air the oxygen1 and give back to it carbonic-acid gas4 ,the veins and veinlets1 of which you see so many running through a leaf1 act in something the same way as the water pipes of a city2 for through these veins the watery food1 the earth broth1 is carried to the different cells4 ,when one knows all that we know even now about a plant1 one looks at a tree covered with leaves with a good deal of admiration4 ,just think of what is being done inside that quiet-looking tree6 ,think of the millions of cells that go to make it up1 each cell having its own work to do6 ,think of the immense amount of business being carried on within the trunk1 inside the branches1 and especially in each green leaf6 ,and when you have the chance1 notice how hard each leaf tries to get just as much sun and air as it possibly can4 ,in the first place1 the thin1 flat leaf blades are so spread out that every part is exposed to the light and air4 ,then notice how the leaves are placed in reference to one another4 ,almost every single one is fastened to the tree so as to get its fair share of sunshine4 ,when you think of the many thousands of leaves borne by one tree1 it astonishes you to see how seldom one leaf gets in another's light4 ,and the shapes of leaves are always suited to their arrangement on the tree4 ,if you should take the leaves of a chestnut tree and replace them by the leaves of a maple1 you would find the maple leaves all getting in each other's way1 or else you would see that they were taking up a great deal more room than necessary4 ,but when a leaf is studied on its own tree1 one sees that its shape is the very best that could be imagined for its position4 ,and in the smaller plants we notice this same thing4 ,and when you remember that ,leaf ,green cannot feed the plant unless ,sunbeam comes to her assistance1 you realize how necessary it is that each leaf be within the reach of ,sunbeam's visits4 ,,leaves ,,and ,,roots ,you will be surprised to learn that the way in which a plant's leaves grow tells us something of the way in which its roots grow4 ,many of you have been overtaken far from home in a rainstorm1 and have sought shelter under a spreading tree4 ,the ground directly beneath the tree has kept almost dry even after some hours of rain1 but the earth just under the tips of the spreading branches got very wet3 for the great tree acted like a large umbrella2 and when the raindrops fell upon the smooth leaves1 which sloped outward and downward1 they rolled from leaf to leaf till they reached the very lowest1 outermost leaves of all4 ,from these they fell to the ground1 just as the drops that gather upon your umbrella run outward and downward to the umbrella's edge1 and then off upon the ground4 ,so you can see that the circle of earth which marks the spread of the branches above must be specially wet1 as it received a great part of the rain which fell upon the whole tree4 ,and whenever you see a tree which sheds the rain water in such a circle1 you can be pretty sure that1 if you should dig into the earth a ditch which followed this circle1 you would soon reach the tips of the new root branches of the tree4 ,you know that the root does the drinking for the plant2 and only the newest parts of the root1 the fresh root tips1 are really good for work of this sort4 ,you remember that the earth food is carried up the stem to the leaves in a watery broth2 and that if the water supply should give out1 the new plant cells would not get the broth which helps them to grow1 and to put out other cells1 and so to build up the plant4 ,now1 as only the new root branches1 near their tips1 are able to drink1 if the water should leak through the earth in equal quantities everywhere1 much of it would be wasted2 but when this water is collected in certain spots within reach of the new root branches1 there is good reason to believe that these will be able to satisfy their thirst4 ,by the shedding of the rain from the tips of the spreading branches above1 the water is collected in a ring1 and so sinks into the earth2 and the root branches below spread out in just the same direction as the tree branches above1 till they find what they need1 and drink their fill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach ,so by the way in which a tree sheds the rain1 you can tell just where its root branches reach out underground4 ,in smaller plants you see much the same thing4 ,fig4 #ach shows a plant called the ,caladium4 ,you can see that the raindrops must roll outward down these leaves1 and fall upon the earth just above the tips of the root branches4 ,fig4 #aci shows you the rhubarb plant4 ,this has quite a different sort of root4 ,now1 if the rhubarb leaves were like those of the ,caladium1 unless the rhubarb root-branches changed their direction1 these root-branches would grow very thirsty indeed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci ,but as it is1 the water pours down these leaves toward the center of the plant1 and reaches the ground almost directly over the straight1 fleshy root1 with its downward-growing branches2 and we see that these root-branches are watered by the leaves above just as carefully as are those of the ,caladium4 ,by knowing one thing about a plant1 often you can guess that another thing is so4 ,you understand now that when the leaves of a plant shed rain water after the fashion of the ,caladium1 the chances are that its root-branches spread out as far as the drip of the water2 and that the root of the rhubarb points almost straight downward1 is told you by the drip of water from the rhubarb leaves4 ,,leaf ,,veins ,some time ago you learned that from the stem of a plant you could guess the number of seed leaves which it brought into the world1 and that in the same way from the seed leaves you could guess what kind of a stem it would build up4 ,from the way in which a leaf is veined you can guess both of these things4 ,you can guess what sort of a stem belongs to the plant1 and with how many seed leaves it began life4 ,when the little veins run in and out1 forming a sort of network1 we say that the leaf is 8net-veined40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb ,these leaves of the quince 7,fig4 #adj71 the maple 7,fig4 #ada71 and the basswood 7,fig4 #adb7 are all net-veined4 ,net-veined leaves are borne by plants which brought into the world more than one seed leaf2 and with the net-veined leaf we can expect to find that stem which comes with more than one seed leaf1--a stem where the skin or bark1 the woody rings1 and the soft central pith1 are clearly separated one from another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add ,but a leaf such as that in ,fig4 #adc or that in ,fig4 #add1 where the veins do not branch off in a network1 but run in unbroken lines side by side1--such leaves as these tell you that they are borne by plants which started life with only one seed leaf1 and which have such a stem as the cornstalk1 where you see no woody rings or central pith4 ,these leaves are called 8parallel-veined40 ,i fear that you find all this a little difficult to understand and to remember2 but if you read it patiently1 when you study the botany for older children1 ,i think it will come back to you and make your lessons easier4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,leaf ,,shapes ,as ,i told you before1 we should notice always the shape of a leaf4 ,illustration3 ,leaves ,it is much easier to describe some new plant we have met on our walks if we remember the shape of its leaves4 ,next summer ,i hope you will make a collection of leaves1 pressing and keeping them4 ,i think you will be amazed at their great variety in shape4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf ,some you find long and narrow1 others almost round4 ,some are arrow-shaped1 others star-shaped1 others needle-shaped 7,fig4 #ade74 ,some are three-pointed like the maple leaf 7,fig4 #adf72 others deeply-parted1 like the oak leaf 7,fig4 #adg74 ,sometimes a large leaf is cut up into several little leaves4 ,these little leaves are called 8leaflets40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh ,the clover leaf 7,fig4 #adh7 has three leaflets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi ,the locust leaf 7,fig4 #adi7 is cut into a great many leaflets4 ,the edge of one leaf 7,fig4 #aej7 is smooth1 while that of another is cut into little teeth 7,fig4 #aea7 like the teeth of a saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea ,i should like to know how many of you children1 without looking even at a picture save such as you carry in that little gallery in your head1 could describe correctly the shapes of some of our common leaves4 ,i should like to ask you to draw on the blackboard the rough outlines of any leaves that you remember4 ,if you think you could not do this1 will you not try1 when next you see a leaf1 to carry off in your mind such a picture of it as to enable you to outline it on the blackboard when you go back to the school room8 ,really it does not take any more time to see a thing correctly than to see it incorrectly4 ,it takes a little more sense1 that is all4 ,it takes some sense to give even one minute of honest thought to the thing you are looking at4 ,you know some children who never seem to have all their thoughts in one place at a time1 and who in consequence never see anything really well4 ,it is better to stop doing a thing altogether than to do it in a foolish sort of way2 and it is foolish to start to do even the smallest thing1 and yet not do it4 ,the child who looks at even a leaf in a way to make it possible for him to draw the outline of that leaf five minutes later1 is likely to be the child who goes in for both work and play with all his heart1 and who comes out as far ahead on the playground as he does in the schoolroom4 ,now1 after that lecture1 which some of you need badly enough 7and which ,i will tell you1 as a great secret1 ,i need not a little myself71 ,i want to point out a few more of the things that are worth noticing in a leaf4 ,but perhaps it is better to save them for another chapter4 ,,hairy ,,leaves ,notice always whether a leaf is smooth or hairy4 ,do you remember the mullein that sends up its tall spires over the hill pasture8 ,the grayish leaves of this mullein are so hairy that they feel almost like wool4 ,what is the use of all this hair8 ,it is not likely that a plant would wrap itself in this hairy coat except for some good reason4 ,it is believed that this coating of the mullein prevents animals from eating the leaves1 and so destroying the plant4 ,in the mouth1 these hairs slip from the leaf blade1 and cause a most unpleasant sensation4 ,but usually the hairs on a leaf are helpful because they prevent too much perspiration or giving-off of water4 ,the more freely the hot sun beats upon a leaf1 the more quickly the water is drawn away from it4 ,you can see just how this is by hanging a wet towel in front of the fire4 ,in a very short time the heat from the burning coals draws the water from the towel4 ,but put a screen between the fire and the towel1 and the water passes off more slowly4 ,now1 the hairs on that side of the leaf which faces the sun act as a screen from its fierce heat4 ,we have learned how important it is that the leaf should not part with its water more quickly than the roots can make up the loss4 ,we know that when a leaf does this1 it wilts just as a leaf wilts when it is picked and cut off from its water supply1 on account of the collapse of the walls of the many little cells which are emptied of water4 ,so you can understand that plants which grow in dry1 sunny places1 where there is little drinking water for the roots1 and where the sun beats constantly on the leaves1 must take every care that there is no waste of water4 ,and if you keep your eyes open1 you will discover that many of the plants which grow in such places screen themselves from the full heat of the sun by a coat of hairs4 ,the plant called 8life everlasting0 is one which grows in dry1 open1 sunny places4 ,it clothes its leaves with silky hairs1 and so prevents them from throwing off too quickly the small amount of water its roots are able to provide4 ,without this silky coat1 the sun would suck its leaves quite dry of water4 ,sometimes a leaf has only a few of the little leaf mouths through which most of the water passes4 ,as these mouths are wide open only in the sunlight1 and as often the rest of the leaf is covered with a thick skin which prevents the water from slipping away 7as a little of it nearly always does7 through the cell walls1 such a leaf will hold its water supply and keep fresh for a long time4 ,such leaves as these we find on what we call 8evergreen0 plants4 ,the pines and hemlocks which light up the woods all winter have these thick-skinned1 few-mouthed leaves1 which throw off so little water that even when the ground is frozen hard1 and gives no drinking water to the roots1 they are able to keep fresh by the careful way in which each one hoards its own little supply4 ,,woolly ,,and 8,,dusty0 ,,leaves ,curiously enough1 some plants put on a hairy coat for just the opposite reason from the one which makes life everlasting clothe itself in that fashion4 ,life everlasting fears lest its leaves throw off their water1 or perspire too quickly4 ,down by the stream that runs through the meadow grow great clusters of the pink-flowered steeple bush4 ,if you look at the lower sides of the leaves of the steeple bush1 you see that they are very woolly4 ,as this wool is not between the sun and the leaf blade1 it cannot be meant to protect the leaves from the heat of the sun2 and indeed in this wet meadow1 close to the river1 never mind how quickly the leaves throw off their water1 the roots can have no difficulty in finding close by more than enough to make good the loss4 ,no1 the fact is that these leaves need to throw off water very freely indeed to make room for the ever-fresh supply that is pushing up the stem1 and their woolly covering is intended to help them do this very thing4 ,its object is to aid perspiration4 ,in swampy places the moisture rises every night from the wet ground1 and settles on the plants about4 ,the little mouths on the under surfaces of the leaves of the steeple bush would soon be clogged with the moisture rising from below1 if they were not protected in some way2 and if they became so clogged1 they could not throw off the water with which the whole plant is charged4 ,thus1 by having this thick coat of hair1 the water that otherwise would cling to the outer surface of the leaf blade is kept at a distance from the little mouths1 and these are not interrupted in the performance of a duty so necessary to the health of the plant4 ,this same habit of coating its lower leaf surfaces with hair1 you notice in the speckled or swamp alder1 a shrub which grows also in wet places1 and therefore runs the same risk of having its leaf mouths clogged with water4 ,so when you see only the upper surface of a leaf covered with hair1 you can guess that the object of the plant is to prevent too much perspiration2 but when you see only its lower side clothed in this same way1 you can guess that the plant fears too little perspiration4 ,sometimes you find a plant with leaves which have a coating of what looks almost like dust on one or both of their surfaces4 ,this dust we call 8bloom40 ,we see it in apples and grapes1 as well as on leaves4 ,it is made up of a waxy material which is put forth by the plant just as it puts forth hair4 ,this bloom the plant uses also as a help to free perspiration4 ,by thus clothing its leaves it shields the little mouths from water clogging2 and so you can be sure that the little mouths have not been filled with water1 and thus prevented from doing their work4 ,the cabbage leaf has mouths on both of its surfaces1 and so both sides are covered with this protecting bloom4 ,if you dip a cabbage leaf in water and then shake it1 the drops roll off and leave it quite dry4 ,,prickles ,,and ,,poison ,leaves need to protect themselves from other enemies than too great heat and too much water4 ,we found that the prickly armor of the thistle enabled it to live in pastures where the cattle had killed most of the other plants4 ,many animals like to eat green leaves1 so we are not surprised to find that plants invent different ways of protecting themselves4 ,one look at the leaf of the thistle is enough to persuade us that it would not be very good eating4 ,illustration3 ,prickers ,the red-berried holly1 with which we decorate our churches and houses at ,christmas time1 is another plant with prickly leaves4 ,some plants cover their leaves with bristles1 which the cattle dread almost as much as the stout prickles4 ,as we read before1 the mullein defends its leaves by a fuzzy coat of hair4 ,such an armor as this is less warlike than that of the thistle1 but quite as effective4 ,other plants fill their leaves with juices which are either poisonous or unpleasant4 ,it seems as if animals guessed the presence of these unfriendly juices by the plant's smell1 for they will munch the different growing things all about such a plant as this1 and leave the harmful leaves severely alone4 ,the nettles cover their leaves with stinging hairs4 ,these stiff hairs break off when handled1 burying themselves in the flesh1 and sending out a burning acid that punishes severely the meddler1 man or beast1 as it may happen to be4 ,by this time ,i think you realize that leaves are well worth noticing4 ,and when you have looked at a leaf so fully as to be able to carry in your mind its outline1 ,i hope you will then discover whether it wears a coat of hair1 or a dusty bloom1 or a prickly armor1 or a thick1 evergreen skin1 and that you will decide what enemies it is trying to escape4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,some ,,cruel ,,traps ,have you ever seen a leaf like the one in this picture 7,fig4 #aeb78 ,it is shaped something like a pitcher2 and the plant on which it grows has been named the 8pitcher plant40 ,the pitcher plant lives in low1 wet place1 such as the shaded swamp1 or the marsh down by the lake4 ,on account of its curious leaves it is brought to the cities1 and is sold on the street corners or at the florists'4 ,in ,june comes the great flower of the pitcher plant4 ,sometimes this is a dull red2 again it is a delicate pink or perhaps a light green2 and it has faint1 pleasant fragrance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb ,next ,june ,i hope that some of you children will find these beautiful flowers and these curious leaves4 ,why should a leaf be shaped like a pitcher1 do you suppose8 ,these leaves are not only pitcher-like in shape1 but also in their way of holding water2 for if you succeed in discovering a settlement of pitcher plants1 you will find that nearly every pitcher is partly filled with rain water4 ,usually this water is far from clear4 ,it appears to hold the remains of drowned insects2 and sometimes the odor arising from a collection of these pitcher plants is not exactly pleasant4 ,perhaps you wonder how it happens that dead insects are found in every one of these pitchers2 and possibly you will be surprised to learn that apparently these curious leaves are built for the express purpose of capturing insects4 ,it is easy to understand that these odd leaves are not so well fitted as more simple ones to cook the plant's food in the sun1 or to take carbon from the air2 but if they are unfitted to provide and prepare ordinary food1 possibly they are designed to secure food that is extraordinary4 ,it seems likely that the pitcher plant is not content to live1 like other plants1 upon the simple food that is taken in from the earth and from the air4 ,we are led to believe that it wishes something more substantial2 that it needs a meat diet2 and that to secure this1 it teaches its leaves to capture flies and insects in order that it may suck in their juices4 ,these leaves are veined in a curious and striking fashion4 ,the bright-colored veins may convince the insects of the presence of the sweet nectar in which they delight4 ,at all events1 in some way they are tempted to enter the hollow leaf2 and1 once they have crawled or tumbled down its slippery inner surface1 they find it impossible to crawl back again1 owing to the stiff hairs1 pointing downward1 which line the upper part of the pitcher4 ,even if they have wings1 it is difficult for them to fly upward in so straight a line as would be necessary to effect their escape4 ,when tired out in their efforts to get out of this cruel trap1 they fall into the water at the bottom of the pitcher1 and are drowned4 ,their bodies decay and dissolve2 and it is thought that this solution is taken in by the leaf1 and turned over to the plant as food4 ,it is just the old1 sad story of the spider and the fly1 you see1 only now it is the pitcher and the fly4 ,but be sure to examine one of these pitchers if you possibly can1 and then you will understand better how the whole thing is managed4 ,the leaf in this picture 7,fig4 #aec71 for it is a leaf1 you cannot find in our ,north ,american swamps4 ,it grows on a plant called ,nepenthes1 a plant which lives in hot countries far from the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec ,the leaf in the picture is full grown1 and all ready for its work of trapping animals4 ,before it was old enough to do this1 the lid which is now lifted was laid nicely across the opening to the pocket1 and so prevented any unseasonable visits4 ,sometimes these pockets are so large as to be able to hold and to hide from sight a pigeon4 ,they are gayly colored1 and the rim around their border is covered with a sugary1 tempting juice4 ,so you can guess that the animals in search of nectar are not slow in accepting the invitation offered by color and sweets1 and that some of these are imprudent enough to venture across the sticky edge4 ,in this event they are pretty sure to lose their footing on the slippery inner surface of the pocket1 and to fall into the watery liquid with which it is filled4 ,even if they do not slip immediately1 their efforts to crawl back over the rim are defeated by a row of teeth such as you see in the picture4 ,the liquid at the bottom of the leaf is not rain water1 as in the pitcher plant4 ,it is given out by the leaf itself2 and it contains an acid which dissolves the animals' bodies1 so that their more nourishing parts can easily be taken in by certain little cells which line the lower part of the pocket1 and which have been brought up to this work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed ,the next picture 7,fig4 #aed7 shows you a water plant4 ,it is called the 8bladderwort10 because of the little bags or bladders which you see growing from the branches under water4 ,the little bladders are traps set for water animals1 which swim into them in their wish1 perhaps1 to escape some enemy4 ,but they are quite unable to swim out again2 for the door into the bladder is transparent1 and looks like an open entrance with a nice hiding place beyond4 ,it opens easily from the outside1 but is so arranged that it will not open from within4 ,so when the poor little animal hurriedly swims into what seems to it a cozy resting spot1 and draws a long breath of relief at getting safe inside1 it is hopelessly caught1 and must slowly starve to death1 for there is no chance of escape4 ,it may live for nearly a week in this prison2 but at last it dies4 ,its body decays1 and is taken in as food by the cells set apart for that purpose4 ,strangely enough1 though we ourselves do not hesitate to kill animals for food1 and sometimes1 ,i am sorry to say1 for nothing but amusement1 we give a little shiver of disgust when we find these plants doing the same thing4 ,some lines that came out in one of the magazines a few years ago express this feeling3-- 8,what's this ,i hear ,about the new ,carnivora8 ,can little plants ,eat bugs and ants ,and gnats and flies8 ,a sort of retrograding6 ,surely the fare ,of flowers is air1 ,or sunshine sweet4 ,they shouldn't eat ,or do aught so degrading40 ,,more ,,cruel ,,traps ,the plants about which we read in the last chapter do not take any active part in capturing insects4 ,they set their traps1 and then keep quiet4 ,but there are plants which lay hold of their poor victims1 and crush the life out of them in a way that seems almost uncanny4 ,this leaf 7,fig4 #aee7 belongs to a plant which lives in ,north ,carolina4 ,it is called ,venus's flytrap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee ,you see that the upper1 rounded part of the leaf is divided by a rib into two halves4 ,from the edges of these rounded halves run out a number of long1 sharp teeth2 and three stout bristles stand out from the central part of each half4 ,when an insect alights upon this horrible leaf1 the two halves come suddenly together1 and the teeth which fringe their edges are locked into one another like the fingers of clasped hands4 ,the poor body that is caught in this cruel trap is crushed to pieces4 ,certain cells in the leaf then send out an acid in which it is dissolved1 and other cells swallow the solution4 ,after this performance the leaf remains closed for from one to three weeks4 ,when finally it reopens1 the insect's body has disappeared1 and the trap is set and ready for another victim4 ,the next picture 7,fig4 #aef7 shows you a little plant which is very common in our swamps1--so common that some of you ought to find it without difficulty next summer1 and try upon it some experiments of your own4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef ,it is called the 8sundew40 ,this name has been given to it because in the sunshine its leaves look as though wet with dew4 ,but the pretty drops which sparkle like dew do not seem so innocent when you know their object4 ,you feel that they are no more pleasing than is the bit of cheese in the mouse trap4 ,when you see this plant growing in the swamp among the cranberry vines and the pink orchids1 you admire its little white flowers1 and its round red-haired leaves1 and think it a pretty1 harmless thing4 ,but bend down and pluck it up1 root and all1 out of the wet1 black earth4 ,carry it home with you1 and1 if you have a magnifying glass1 examine one of its leaves4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #aeg7 shows you a leaf much larger than it is in life4 ,the red hairs look like pins stuck in a cushion1 and the head of each pin glistens with the drop that looks like dew4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg ,but the ants and flies do not take these drops for dew4 ,they believe them to be the sweet nectar for which they long1 and they climb or light upon the leaves in this belief4 ,and then what happens8 ,the next two pictures will show you 7,figs4 #aeh1 #aei74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei ,the red hairs close slowly but surely over the insect whose legs are already caught and held fast by the sticky drops it mistook for nectar1 and they hold it imprisoned till it dies and its juices are sucked in by the leaf4 ,i should like you to satisfy yourselves that these leaves act in the way ,i have described4 ,but a bit of fresh meat will excite the red hairs to do their work quite as well as an insect1 and ,i hope in your experiments you will be merciful as well as inquiring4 ,so you see that the little sundew is quite as cruel in its way as the other insect-eating plants4 ,but its gentle looks seem to have deceived the poet ,swinburne1 who wonders how and what these little plants feel1 whether like ourselves they love life and air and sunshine4 8,a little marsh-plant1 yellow-green ,and tipped at lip with tender red1 ,tread close1 and either way you tread1 ,some faint1 black water jets between ,lest you should bruise its curious head4 8,you call it sundew2 how it grows1 ,if with its color it have breath1 ,if life taste sweet to it1 if death ,pain its soft petal1 no man knows1 ,man has no sight or sense that saith40 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,leaf ,you know that in autumn nearly all the leaves fall from the trees4 ,to be sure1 a few trees 7such as the pines and hemlocks7 and some plants 7such as the laurel and wintergreen and partridge vine7 do hold fast their leaves all winter2 but these are so few as compared with the many plants which lose their leaves1 that they hardly count4 ,perhaps you never stopped to wonder why most plants get rid of their leaves before winter comes on2 but you feel pretty sure now that there is some good reason for a habit that is adopted by nearly all the plants that live in this part of the country4 ,when we were talking about the way in which leaves defend themselves from different dangers1 we found that evergreen leaves1 the leaves which hold fast to the tree and keep fresh all winter1 manage to keep their water safe inside their cells by wearing a very thick skin1 and by not having too many little leaf mouths4 ,for when a leaf has a thin skin and a great many mouths1 its water leaks away very quickly4 ,and if many such leaves should remain upon a plant into the winter1 might it not happen that they would let off all its water at a time when its roots could not find any more in the frozen ground8 ,and thus might not the leaves kill the plant by draining it quite dry8 ,so you can see why it is well for most plants to shed their leaves before winter comes on and the root's drinking water is turned into ice4 ,but when a plant is about to shed its leaves1 it takes care not to waste the precious food which they hold4 ,this food it draws back into its stem and roots1 laying it away in safe places beneath the buds which are to burst another year4 ,it is this action on the part of the plant which changes the color of the leaves every fall4 ,that material which makes them green is broken up1 and part of it is taken away4 ,that which is left is usually yellow or brown or reddish1 and gives the leaves the beautiful colors we see in our ,october woods4 ,so whenever you see the woods changing color1 losing their fresh green and turning red and yellow1 you can be sure that the trees have begun to prepare for winter4 ,you know that they are stowing away their food in warmer1 safer places than can be supplied by the delicate leaves4 ,and when all the food has been drawn out of the leaves1 and packed away in the right spots1 then the plant finishes a piece of work it began some time before4 ,this piece of work is the building-up of a row of little cells just where the leafstalk joins the stem or branch4 ,when this row is complete1 it acts almost like a knife1 loosening the stalk from the stem4 ,then the leaf's life work is over2 and with the first breeze1 the empty shell1 which is all that is left1 breaks away from the parent plant1 and drifts earthward4 ,,part ,,vi--,,flowers ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,the ,,building ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,cherry ,,blossom ,one day your teacher brought to school a branch broken from the cherry tree4 ,this she placed in water1 standing the tumbler on the sunny window sill2 and now its buds have burst into a glory of white blossoms4 ,to-day ,i want you to study the flower of the cherry2 for if you know all about this flower1 which is put together in a rather simple way1 one that is easy to study1 it will not be so difficult for you to understand other1 less simple flowers4 ,you may wonder why ,i do not wait till the cherry tree outside is in blossom2 but if we waited till ,may1 other flowers1 which are not built on quite so simple a plan1 would have come and gone1 and you would not have been able to understand them so well as if you had first studied the simple make-up of the cherry blossom4 ,last fall we learned a little about this flower1 but we had only its picture to help us in our work3 so ,i think it well to begin all over again4 ,in looking at the cherry blossom 7,fig4 #afj71 we should first notice the green cup which holds the rest of the flower4 ,this cup is divided into five green leaves4 ,during the babyhood of the flower1 when it was quite too young to face the cold1 windy world1 these green leaves were folded together so as to shut away from all harm its more delicate parts4 ,above this green cup we see a circle made up of five white leaves4 ,these pretty leaves are spread outward as if they were quite proud of themselves1 and eager to attract attention4 ,and that is just what they are trying to do2 for the cherry blossom is not wise enough to know that here in the schoolroom there are no bee visitors to bring it yellow dust1 and to help it grow into a cherry4 ,these leaves are the little handkerchiefs which the cherry tree1 just like the apple tree we read about long ago1 uses in signaling the bees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj ,within the circle of white leaves you see a quantity of what we named 8pins with dust boxes40 ,you remember that these dust boxes hold the powdery material which is as wonderful as ,cinderella's fairy godmother in its power to do strange and surprising things4 ,and in the very center of the flower you find a single 8pin10 as we called it1 with a flat top which is not a dust box4 ,but you remember that at the foot of this pin is another sort of box1 a seedbox 7,fig4 #afa74 ,and you have not forgotten that it is on the flat top of this pin that the bee brushes the yellow dust which gives new life to the seed below1 and turns the little case of the seedbox into the juicy cherry4 ,so now what do we find in the cherry blossom8 ,we find #a4 ,a green cup cut above into separate leaves4 #b4 ,a circle of white leaves4 #c4 ,some pins with dust boxes4 #d4 ,one pin with a seedbox4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa ,here you have the plan on which the cherry blossom is built 7for flowers1 like houses1 are built on different plans71 and the building plan of the cherry blossom is one of the simplest of all4 ,so it is well1 before studying more difficult flowers1 to feel quite at home with this one4 ,and you must try to remember first what work each part of the flower is expected to perform2 for you see that the leaves of the green cup1 the pretty white leaves1 the pins with dust boxes1 and the pin with a seedbox1 have each and all their special task1--a task which they alone are able to accomplish4 ,now1 in talking about a flower it is troublesome to use a great many words where one would answer every purpose1 so ,i will tell you what these different parts of the flower have been named2 and by taking a little trouble to remember these names1 we can save a good deal of time4 ,the green cup is called the 8calyx40 8,calyx0 is a ,greek word meaning 8cup40 ,the circle of leaves which grow above the green cup or calyx is called the 8corolla40 8,corolla0 comes from a word which means 8crown40 ,the pins with dust boxes are called 8stamens40 8,stamen0 comes from a word meaning 8to stand40 ,the pin with a seedbox is called the 8pistil40 8,pistil0 is another form of the word 8pestle40 ,a pestle is an instrument used in the drug shops for pounding and mixing medicines4 ,you might ask to look at one the next time you are sent to the drug shop1 and then you can see for yourselves if it really looks like its namesake1 the pin with a seedbox4 ,perhaps at first you may find it a little difficult to bear in mind these four words with their meanings2 but soon they will become quite easy1 and will save you much trouble4 ,green cup1--calyx4 ,circle of flower leaves1--corolla4 ,pins with dust boxes1--stamens4 ,pin with seedbox1--pistil4 ,if you remember the names of these four parts of the flower1 how the different parts look1 and what they do1 you will have made a good start in the study of flowers4 ,,lilies ,i think most of you know by sight at least one of the three following flowers4 ,i have asked for pictures of three different kinds of lilies1 so that the city and country children alike may recognize an old friend2 for every spring the white ,easter lily 7,fig4 #afb7 stands outside the flower shops1 and decorates the churches1 and travels through the streets in the peddler's cart2 while in summer time the country is bright with the wood and meadow lilies 7,figs4 #afc1 #afd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc ,and ,i hope that even now one of the living blossoms is before you1 for ,i want you to see for yourselves what plan these lilies use in flower building4 ,the building plan of the cherry1 you remember1 began with a green cup or calyx4 ,do you find in the lily any green cup8 ,no1 there is nothing of the sort in the lilies4 ,you see only a circle of flower leaves4 ,in the last chapter you learned to call such a circle the corolla4 ,but the wise men say that without a calyx there cannot be a real corolla4 ,so in the lily we will speak of the 8flower leaves0 instead of the corolla4 ,next we find six of the pins with dust boxes1 or the stamens4 ,and then we come to the pin with a seedbox below1 or the pistil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd ,so the building plan of the lily has only three divisions3-- #a4 ,flower leaves4 #b4 ,stamens4 #c4 ,pistil4 ,if you look at the lower side of the outer row of flower leaves1 you will see that they are streaked with green2 and that when the flower is still in bud1 only the green1 thick parts of these leaves are exposed to the wind and cold1 while the more delicate parts of the blossom are hidden almost as snugly as though they were covered by the leaves of a green cup or calyx4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe ,these lilies are pleasant flowers to study4 ,their different parts are so large and simple that you have no doubt as to what they are meant for4 ,the bees could hardly overlook their great1 showy handkerchiefs2 and the heaping dust boxes must powder the visiting bees so freely with golden or brownish dust1 that plenty of this is sure to be carried to the pistil of a neighboring blossom2 and the flat tip of this pistil is so large and so sticky1 that1 once the dust is brushed upon it1 it is sure to stay there until its wonderful work is accomplished4 ,the gay tulip 7,fig4 #afe7 is a cousin to the lily4 ,it is built on almost the same plan4 ,there is no green cup in the tulip2 but every tulip has #a4 ,flower leaves4 #b4 ,stamens4 #c4 ,pistil4 ,the tip of the tulip's pistil is divided into three parts4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,about ,,stamens ,let us take a good look at the stamens of the ,easter lily4 ,there are six of these4 ,each dust box is fastened to the tip of a tall stalk4 ,fig4 #aff shows you a single stamen from the ,easter lily4 ,it is drawn somewhat larger than life4 ,its box has opened1 and is letting out some grains of dust4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff ,there are many different kinds of stamens4 ,i will show you some pictures that will give you an idea of their great variety4 ,here is one taken from the flower of the shin leaf 7,fig4 #afg74 ,the dust makes its escape through two little openings at the very top of the box4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg ,that shown in ,fig4 #afh is from the barberry4 ,the sides of the box open like a door which is hinged on top4 ,this arrangement lets out a quantity of dust4 ,here is a collection of stamens of different sorts4 ,fig4 #afi has two boxes at the top of its stalk1 and so has ,fig4 #aga4 ,fig4 #agb has a crosspiece1 with a good-sized box at one end1 and only the little beginnings of a box at the other4 ,fig4 #agj has a similar crosspiece1 with a box at one end only4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi ,you see that flower faces show quite as much variety as do the faces of the people you know4 ,you must not expect to find stamens all alike1 any more than you would expect all the boys and girls you know to have noses of the same shape1 or hair of the same color4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb ,this picture 7,fig4 #agc7 shows you all the stamens of the pea blossom4 ,do you notice that quite a number of these 7nine1 in fact7 grow together close about the pistil1 while the tenth one stands alone8 ,that is a strange custom always observed by the stamens of the pea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd ,next we see all the stamens from one of the tiny flowers of the golden-rod 7,fig4 #agd74 ,these are very much larger than life4 ,there are five of them1 fastened together in a sort of tube4 ,split open this tube and flatten it out4 ,now they look like five little sisters1 arm in arm 7,fig4 #age74 ,and here1 again joined in a tube1 we see the stamens of the mallow 7,fig4 #agf74 ,from the hollow of this tube stand out the tops of the mallow's pistils4 ,some flowers have so many stamens that you would find it almost impossible to count them4 ,this little blossom 7,fig4 #agg71 the enchanter's nightshade 7drawn much larger than life71 has only two4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg ,i hope that you children1 from now on1 will be unwilling to pass by a flower without looking to see whether its stamens are few or many2 and ,i hope you will try to carry away in your minds a clear idea of the size and shape of their dust boxes4 ,illustration3 ,pollen ,,flower ,,dust1 ,,or ,,pollen ,when a child smells a flower1 he is apt to put his nose right into the middle of the blossom1 and to take it out with a dab of yellow dust upon its tip4 ,when he brushes off this dust1 of course he does not stop to think that each tiny grain holds a speck of the wonderful material we read about some time ago1 the material without which there can be no life4 ,and probably he does not know that the dust grains from the lily are quite unlike those which he rubs upon his nose when he smells a daisy2 that different kinds of flowers yield different kinds of flower dust4 ,if you should look through a microscope at a grain of flower dust from the lily1 you would see an object resembling ,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb ,fig4 #agi shows a grain from the pretty blue flower of the chicory4 ,fig4 #ahj is a dust grain from the flower of the pine tree4 ,fig4 #aha is from the laurel1 and the odd-looking ,fig4 #ahb is from a dust box of the evening primrose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc ,the next picture 7,fig4 #ahc7 shows you a group of dust grains from flowers of different kinds1 one looking like a porcupine1 another like a sea shell1 another like some strange water animal1 and all1 ,i fancy1 quite unlike any idea you may have had as to the appearance of a grain of flower dust4 ,when you are older1 ,i hope it may be your good luck to see through a microscope some of the odd shapes and curious markings of different kinds of flower dust1 or 8pollen10 as this flower dust is called in the books4 ,and now that you know something of the appearance of flower dust1 perhaps you wish to learn a little more of the way in which it helps the flower to turn into the fruit4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,about ,,pistils ,but first you must know a little something about the pistil1 if ,i am really to make clear to you how the flower dust helps the flower to change into fruit4 ,this picture 7,fig4 #ahd7 shows you the pistil of the lily4 ,at the foot of this pistil1 you remember1 is the box which holds the lily's seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd ,the top of the lily's pistil is quite large and somewhat flat4 ,it is almost as sticky as if it had received a dab of glue4 ,this flat top dwindles below into a stalk1 which grows larger again at its lower end4 ,now take a sharp knife and cut open lengthwise this pistil4 ,the lower1 thicker part1 seen through a magnifying glass1 looks like ,fig4 #ahe4 ,you see a great many baby seeds fastened to a central wall4 ,each one of these seeds holds a speck of the wonderful material without which there is no life4 ,but this speck of life has not the power to make the seed grow into a plant4 ,to do this1 the seed must have some outside help2 and this help can come only from a grain of flower dust4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe ,perhaps you wonder how a dust grain brushed on the pistil's flat top can ever reach the baby seeds hidden away in the seedbox4 ,i could not tell you to-day how this is done were it not for those wise and patient men and women who have spent days and weeks and months1 and even years1 in watching and studying the ways of plants4 ,but first let me ask you a question4 ,what happens when a healthy seed falls on moist ground8 ,why1 it seems to take in the moisture1 and to thrive upon it4 ,it swells up1 and at last it bursts open1 and it sends a root down into the earth4 ,now1 something not altogether unlike this happens when a lily dust grain falls upon the moist tip of a lily pistil4 ,the dust grain sucks in the moisture4 ,it grows bigger and bigger4 ,the outer skin becomes too small for the swelling contents4 ,at last it bursts open1 letting out a little tube4 ,this little tube works its way down through the stalk of the pistil1 almost as a root pushes down into the earth1 and at last it reaches one of the seeds in the seedbox below4 ,and into this tiny seed the little tube pushes its way4 ,the tube has carried with it that speck of wonderful living material which every dust grain holds4 ,and when this living speck has been added to that which the seed already holds1 a great change begins to come about4 ,this new touch of life1 added to that already present1 gives the lily seed the power to grow into a lily plant4 ,the other dust grains that were brushed upon the flat top of the lily's pistil act in just the same way4 ,apparently without difficulty the different tubes find their way to the different seeds1 till at last each one has received the fresh touch of life without which it cannot grow into a lily plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf ,i cannot show a lily dust grain in the act of sending out its life-bearing tube2 but above is a dust grain 7,fig4 #ahf7 from the thorn apple4 ,you see that it has burst open1 and that a tube is pushing its way out4 ,this picture 7,fig4 #ahg7 is that of a pistil seedbox cut open1 showing you a tube that is working its way from the dust grain above to a tiny seed in the seedbox below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg ,as ,i told you in the last chapter1 the name 8pollen0 has been given to this wonder-working flower dust4 ,a grain of flower dust is a grain of pollen4 ,in many flowers you will find a pistil much like the one that you see in the lily4 ,but there are as many different kinds of pistils as there are different kinds of stamens4 ,this pistil 7,fig4 #ahh7 is from the grass of ,parnassus1 that pretty white flower which you find in the wet meadows in ,august and ,september4 ,it has no real stalk1 you see1 like that of the lily2 but it is quite thick all the way from top to bottom4 ,in ,fig4 #ahi it is cut across1 showing the seeds inside4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib ,many pistils that are joined in one piece below1 where the seeds are held1 separate above into two or more parts4 ,fig4 #aij shows the seed holder of a saxifrage1 divided into two pieces above2 ,fig4 #aia gives that of the ,saint ,john's-wort1 separating into three parts2 that of the sundew 7,fig4 #aib7 separates into six parts4 ,fig4 #aic is a section of the pea flower4 ,this is cut lengthwise so as to show you the seeds which line the inner surface of the pistil4 ,here you have the baby pea pod4 ,all these flowers have only one real pistil1--one pistil which may persuade you1 by the way in which it separates above1 into thinking that there are more than one4 ,so you must be on your guard in this respect1 and remember that flowers have a way of playing tricks with all but the most wide-awake of boys and girls4 ,look long and carefully before you declare that a flower has only one pistil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic ,here we see half of a buttercup 7,fig4 #aid74 ,the buttercup has a great many entirely separate pistils4 ,look sharply at the picture1 and you will see them crowded upon the little thimble-shaped object in the middle of the blossom4 ,do not confuse them with the stamens1 for the buttercup has also a great many stamens4 ,when buttercup time comes round1 ,i want every one of you to look at these many pistils and stamens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie ,the next picture 7,fig4 #aie7 shows you a strawberry4 ,in the strawberry blossom the pistils are so small1 and so crowded1 and so hidden by the many stamens1 that it is not easy to see them2 and so ,i show you the full-grown berry1 with little pistils scattered all over its surface4 ,each of those tiny objects which stand out on the strawberry is a separate pistil4 ,whenever you look at a flower1 ,i want you to remember that its bright flower leaves will soon fade and fall1 and that its stamens will lose their pollen and wither away1 but that the pistil or pistils will remain1 turning at last into the ripened fruit1--the fruit which is the end1 the aim1 the object1 of the plant's life4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,the ,,first ,,arrival ,illustration3 ,flowers ,i should like to ask each of you children to tell me what flower you believe to be first to come in the spring4 ,some of you have never stopped to think about this4 ,but there are sure to be a few among you who will name one special flower as the earliest of the year4 ,perhaps even in ,march you may have ventured into the woods to look for the lovely1 fragrant1 waxlike blossoms of the trailing arbutus4 ,you know the sheltered hollow where the snow first melts2 and there the delicate pink flowers make you glad with their beauty1 and with the thought of the good time coming4 ,to some of us this first hunt for the arbutus is one of the great events of the year4 ,it means the beginning of long1 delicious hours in the fresh air1 with birds and trees and butterflies and wild flowers as our chosen companions4 ,but not all of you will agree that this trailing arbutus is the first spring flower4 ,many think the violet can lay claim to this honor4 ,the yellow violet especially may be found in the woods before the trees have put forth their leaves4 ,and some say that the little blue liverwort 7sometimes this is pink or white7 is the earliest of all2 and others vote for the spring beauty1 or for the yellow adder's tongue1 or for the ,dutchman's breeches1 or for the anemone4 ,and still others say that the marsh marigold1 the shining flower that in ,april gilds the wet meadows1 leads the procession4 ,but you are wrong1 every one of you4 ,the earliest blossom of the year makes its appearance long before any of these flowers you have mentioned4 ,the first plant to blossom knows better than to proclaim the change of season by anything so fragile as a violet1 an anemone1 a spring beauty4 ,it sends out its rather coarse little flowers under the protection of a tough waterproof hood1 which shields them from the rude winds and nipping cold4 ,this plant bears the ugly name of skunk cabbage 7,fig4 #aif74 ,its broken stem and leaves give out an odor which at once persuades you that its title is deserved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif ,in the swamps the skunk cabbages send up by the dozen the curious purple hoods which curl about the thick clusters of little flowers4 ,when you come across a colony of these queer-looking objects1 no wonder it never occurs to you that the first flower of spring is at hand4 ,the great shiny hoods look more like snails than like flowers2 and indeed usually the flowers are not in sight at all1 so well are they shielded by these hood-like leaves4 ,but each little hidden flower has four flower leaves1 four stamens1 and one pistil4 ,when they have been dusted with pollen by fly visitors1 and are preparing to turn into fruit1 the purple hoods wither away4 ,then the plant sends up clusters of large bright green leaves4 ,in ,june you see these great leaves everywhere in the wet woods4 ,so if you wish to be on hand to welcome the very first flower of the year1 you must begin to keep your eyes open by the end of ,february4 ,you must visit the swamps each day1 and look for the purple hoods inside which are snugly hidden the little blossoms of the skunk cabbage4 ,and ,i advise you now to take a sheet of paper and make a list of the plants as you find them in flower4 ,put down the date of each blossom as it appears1 and the place where you find it4 ,if you begin to do this as children1 and keep it up when you are older1 you will take real delight in the habit4 ,each year it will interest you more and more to turn back to the old lists and discover whether the flowers are on time1 or whether they are late or early in making their first appearance4 ,i hope your teacher will start you at once with such a list2 for the sooner you begin1 the more complete will be your pleasure in this delightful season4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,pussy ,,willows ,soon after the skunk cabbage has sent up its purple hoods comes the pussy-willow season4 ,but it is not every child who has the luck to be in the country at this time4 ,illustration3 ,pussy ,willows ,there is a clean1 sweet smell in the air4 ,down in the boggy meadow1 just before nightfall1 the little frogs sing so loud that you wonder if they are trying to make you believe the birds have come back4 ,the brook is getting a bright green border4 ,the buds on the trees are so big that you feel sure in a few hours they must burst open4 ,and you know that each new day may bring with it some happy surprise1--a bird1 a leaf1 or a flower that you have not seen for many a long month4 ,so when you find the willow branches set thick with silken pussies1 you know that a happy time has begun1 at least for you country children4 ,and even the city children learn to love these soft pussies when they are placed in tall vases on the teacher's desk4 ,if you look carefully at the different branches1 you see that they bear different kinds of pussies2 and your teacher will tell you1 or perhaps you will discover yourselves1 that these different branches were broken from different trees4 ,do you know what each 8pussy10 or tassel1 is made up of8 ,each tassel is made up of many tiny flowers4 ,but willow flowers are built on quite a different plan from cherry flowers4 ,if you pick apart one of these tassels1 and examine a single blossom1 you will find it hard to believe that it is a flower at all4 ,on one branch the tassels are all golden yellow4 ,the flowers that make up these yellow tassels have neither flower leaves nor pistils4 ,each blossom has two stamens which are fastened to a little fringed leaf1 and nothing more4 ,such a flower1 much magnified1 is given in the picture 7,fig4 #aig74 ,the golden color comes from the yellow pollen which has been shaken from the dust boxes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig ,the other branch is covered with silvery green tassels4 ,each flower in these tassels is made up of a single pistil1 which is also fastened to a little fringed leaf 7,fig4 #aih74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih ,so you see the building plan used by one kind of pussy-willow flowers is nothing but two stamens2 while the plan used by the other kind is still simpler1 it is nothing but one pistil4 ,the golden dust is carried by the bees from the willows which bear dust boxes to those other willows whose flowers have only seedboxes4 ,when they have given to the bees their pollen1 the yellow tassels fade away2 but the silvery green tassels1 on account of their seedboxes1 grow large and ripe1 turning into the fruit shown in ,fig4 #fb1 p4 #fa2 and this fruit is one of the kind which scatters its seeds abroad by fastening them to silky sails4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,alders ,,and ,,birches ,there is another shrub or low tree growing along the brook's edge which flowers almost as early as the willows4 ,this is the alder4 ,perhaps you noticed last fall that these alders were hung with a quantity of little green tassels4 ,these tassels did not fall off with the leaves in ,november4 ,through the long winter they clung to the shrub4 ,sometimes they wore little coats of ice which made them look like the glass ornaments on a ,christmas tree4 ,when the warm weather came1 they put off their ice coats1 and grew larger and longer1 and at last let out a quantity of stamens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii ,but on the same alder tree that bears these tassels with flowers made up of stamens or dust boxes 7,fig4 #aii1 a71 you find also the tassels flowers made up of pistils 7,fig4 #aii1 b74 ,if you make a search1 you will find the little upright clusters composed of these flowers with pistils4 ,late in the year1 when these clusters have turned into fruit1 they look like this picture 7,fig4 #bjj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj ,the pretty birches are cousins to the alders1 and keep house in much the same way1 bearing the tassels with stamens 7,fig4 #bja1 a7 and the little clusters made up of flowers with pistils 7,fig4 #bja1 b7 on the same tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja ,the tassels on some of the birches are very beautiful4 ,when full grown1 they are golden yellow1 and so long and soft and graceful that one feels like stroking them and playing with them as he would with a kitten4 ,i hope every country child who reads this book and does not already know the willows1 the alders1 and the birches1 will make their acquaintance this spring1 and will examine their two kinds of flowers4 ,and ,i hope that branches from the different trees will be brought into the city schoolroom1 so that all can see these flowers1 which are among the very earliest of the year4 ,illustration3 ,branch and leaves ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,the ,,great ,,trees ,most people seem surprised to learn that all kinds of trees have flowers4 ,in ,march and ,april they go to the woods in search of the trailing arbutus1 the violet1 the anemone2 and when they have picked a quantity of these1 they come home and say1 8,these are the only flowers we saw to-day40 ,but if they had looked overhead1 up into the trees1 they would have seen many more2 for each tree has its own flower1 and most of the trees blossom very early in the year1 before they put out their leaves4 ,there is a good reason for this1 which ,i will tell you by and by4 ,one of the early trees to flower is the swamp maple4 ,in ,march or ,april its bright red blossoms tinge the wet woods with warm color4 ,sometimes the snow lies thick on the ground at this season1 and the little red flower clusters fall1 and look wonderfully pretty against the smooth white sheet which is drawn beneath the trees4 ,at the same season1 in our city parks and streets1 sharp eyes will discover the yellowish blossoms of the silver maple4 ,both of these trees flower before they leaf4 ,the building plan used by maple flowers is rather confusing4 ,in one flower you will find both calyx and corolla1 but not in another4 ,one blossom will have both stamens and pistils1 another will have no pistils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc ,fig4 #bjb shows you a blossom from the sugar maple4 ,it has stamens1 but no pistils4 ,next you see what was once a flower containing both stamens and pistils 7,fig4 #bjc74 ,the withered stamens can still be seen2 and the pistil is turning into the well-known maple key4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje ,the great elms also put out their flowers before their leaves4 ,here you see a flower cluster from the white elm 7,fig4 #bjd74 ,fig4 #bje shows you one of these little flowers enlarged2 and in ,fig4 #bjf you have the blossom cut open so as to display its pistil1 which grows into the winged fruit you saw on p4 #fb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf ,in some of our city streets grows the poplar4 ,its flowers are crowded into long green tassels4 ,many of these fall to the pavement below1 and lie there1 looking like great caterpillars4 ,these tassels are those which bear the flowers with stamens4 ,now1 if we were in the woods1 we should be pretty sure to find near by another poplar whose tassels do not fall so quickly4 ,this is because these are made up of flowers with pistils4 ,they cling to the tree not only till they have been powdered with pollen from the neighboring poplar1 but till their tiny seeds have had time to ripen and are ready to start out on their life journey4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,the ,,unseen ,,visitor ,i promised to tell you why so many of the trees flower before they leaf4 ,many of these tree blossoms are neither bright enough to attract the attention of the bees and butterflies1 nor so fragrant as to tempt the passing insects to visit them2 for when the flower handkerchiefs are not large and bright enough to signal the bees1 the blossom often gives notice of its presence by a strong perfume4 ,how1 then1 is the pollen from one flower to reach the pistil of another8 ,and especially how can this be arranged when the flowers with pollen may live quite a way off--on another tree1 in fact--from the flowers with pistils8 8,perhaps the birds carry it10 suggests some child4 ,but if these little flowers are not beautiful enough1 or sweet-smelling enough1 to please the bees and butterflies1 it is hardly probable that the birds will pay them any attention4 ,so let us go out into the woods with our eyes and our ears wide open1 and see if we can discover some flower visitor that does not ask for fine clothes and sweet smells4 ,through the bushes comes the lisp of the song sparrow4 ,from overhead falls the note of the bluebird4 ,the bees are buzzing about the golden willow tassels4 ,on the top of an old tree trunk a butterfly is drowsing in the sun's rays4 ,but already we know that neither bird1 nor bee1 nor butterfly will go out of its way to help our pale1 scentless little tree blossoms4 ,a squirrel darts from under cover1 and runs along the stone wall4 ,among the dead leaves at our feet a little striped snake lies in a sluggish coil4 ,but squirrel and snake would be alike useless as flower visitors4 ,we are almost tempted to give up trying to guess the answer to the riddle4 ,somewhat discouraged1 we stop to rest on an old log overgrown with delicate mosses4 ,a soft1 sighing sound creeps through the pines at the foot of yonder hill4 ,over the little hollow sweeps a gust of wind4 ,a faint cloud1 as of dust1 fills the air4 ,one of the children begins to sneeze4 ,where can the dust come from8 ,the roads are still deep with mud4 ,and1 besides1 ordinary dust does not make us sneeze as though it were pepper4 ,ah1 my friend1 you are getting warm1 very warm indeed2 for this dust is no dried earth from the highroad4 ,no1 it is made up instead of golden grains from the dust boxes that are swaying in the wind on yonder trees4 ,and as the trees just now are bare of leaves1 the journey of the pollen through the air is an easy matter4 ,it is carried along by the wind1 settling here1 there1 and everywhere1 sometimes in our throats and noses in such a fashion as to make us sneeze1 but also on the tops of many little pistils whose seeds cannot ripen without its gift of new life4 ,and so1 although we have not seen the visitor who befriends these little flowers that are neither beautiful nor fragrant1 we have heard his voice as it came whispering through the pines2 and we know that this whisper is the gentle voice of the wind4 ,now you understand that it is well for those trees whose flowers depend upon the wind for their pollen1 to blossom before their leaves are out1 and thus likely to interfere with the pollen in reaching its destination4 ,,plant ,,packages ,on your walks through the woods these spring days ,i want you to notice the neat and beautiful way in which plants do their packing2 for the woods now are full of plant packages1--little bundles of leaves and flowers1 done up with the greatest care4 ,some of these have just appeared above the ground4 ,others have burst from the branches of the trees and shrubs4 ,of course1 a plant does not like to send its young1 delicate leaves and flowers into the cold world without wrapping them up1 any more than your mother would like to send your baby brother out for the first time without a great deal of just such bundling-up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg ,and so well wrapped are many of these plant babies1 that it is not an easy matter to guess just what they are1 what kinds of leaves and flowers will appear when the wrappings have been thrown aside4 ,sometimes the package looks like the sharp-pointed object in the picture at the head of this chapter 7,fig4 #bjg74 ,soon the leaves push their way out of their papery envelope1 and before long our friend ,jack-in-the-pulpit himself appears4 ,sometimes it is such a woolly roll as you see in the next picture 7,fig4 #bjh74 ,this roll soon uncurls into a pretty fern 7,fig4 #bji74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji ,the beech tree folds its leaves like fans 7,fig4 #baj74 ,the preceding picture 7,fig4 #baa7 shows you how carefully and cleverly the hobblebush packs its young leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj ,during their babyhood many leaves wear a hairy coat as a protection from both cold and heat2 but when their green skin becomes thicker1 they throw this off4 ,most of these plant packages are very interesting and beautiful1 and well worth your attention4 ,i wish that during these weeks of early spring the country schools would hold exhibitions of these babes in the woods1 asking each child to bring what he considers a good specimen of a plant package4 ,,underground ,,storehouses ,long ago we learned that certain plants stow away the food which they are not fitted to use at the time in those thick underground stems which most people call roots4 ,this food they hold over till the next year4 ,it is often a surprise1 these spring days1 to see how suddenly a little plant will burst into blossom4 ,one does not understand how it has had time to get up such a display4 ,had it been obliged to depend for food upon new supplies taken in by its roots and leaves1 the flower would have put off its first appearance for many a day4 ,so when a plant surprises you with any such sudden and early blossoms1 you can be pretty sure that its food supply has been on hand all winter4 ,both in the garden and in the woods you can see for yourselves that this is so4 ,in the garden perhaps the earliest flower to appear is the lovely little snowdrop4 ,the snowdrop's food is stored away in the 8bulb10 as we call its thick1 underground stem1 which lies buried in the earth4 ,the other early garden flowers1 such as the hyacinth1 crocus1 daffodil1 and tulip1 are able to burst into beautiful blossoms only because of the care and labor with which they laid by underground provisions last year4 ,and in the woods at this season you find the yellow adder's tongue1 spring beauty1 anemone1 wake-robin1 ,jack-in-the-pulpit1 wild ginger1 and ,solomon's seal4 ,each of these plants has stores of food hidden in its underground stem4 ,this may take the shape of a bulb1 or a tuber1 or a rootstock2 but in any case it shows you at once that it is a little storehouse of food4 ,a collection of the different kinds of underground stems which serve as storehouses for the early-flowering plants would be quite as interesting to work over as a collection of plant packages4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,different ,,building ,,plans ,this morning let us take a stroll in the woods with the idea of noticing the different building plans used by the early flowers4 ,first we will go to the spot where we know the trailing arbutus is still in blossom4 ,pick a spray1 and tell me the plan of its flower4 8,there is a small green cup1 or calyx1 cut into five little points10 you say2 8and there is a corolla made up of five flower leaves40 ,but stop here one moment4 ,is this corolla really made up of five separate flower leaves8 ,are not the flower leaves joined in a tube below8 ,if this be so1 you must say that this corolla is five-lobed1 or five-pointed1 not that it has five flower leaves4 8,and there are ten pins with dust boxes1 or stamens40 ,yes1 that is quite right4 8,and there is one of those pins with a seedbox below1 one pistil1 that is1 but the top of this pistil is divided into five parts40 ,well1 then1 the building plan of the trailing arbutus runs as follows3-- #a4 ,calyx4 #b4 ,corolla4 #c4 ,stamens4 #d4 ,pistil4 ,so far1 it seems the same plan as that used by the cherry tree1 yet in certain ways this plan really differs from that of the cherry blossom4 ,the calyx of the cherry is not cut into separate leaves1 as is that of the arbutus2 and its corolla leaves are quite separate1 while those of the arbutus are joined in a tube4 ,the cherry blossom has more stamens than the arbutus4 ,each flower has but one pistil4 ,but the pistil of the arbutus1 unlike that of the cherry1 is five-lobed4 ,so1 although the general plan used by these two flowers is the same1 it differs in important details4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab ,above you see the flower of the marsh marigold 7,fig4 #bab74 ,its building plan is as follows3-- #a4 ,flower leaves4 #b4 ,stamens4 #c4 ,pistils4 ,this1 you remember1 is something like the building plan of the easter lily4 ,the lily has a circle of flower leaves in place of calyx and corolla4 ,so has the marsh marigold4 ,but the lily has six flower leaves1 one more than the marsh marigold1 and only six stamens1 while the marsh marigold has so many stamens that it would tire one to count them4 ,and the lily has but one pistil 7this is tall and slender71 while the marsh marigold has many short1 thick ones1 which you do not see in the picture4 ,so these two flowers use the same building plan in a general way only4 ,they are quite unlike in important details4 ,the pretty little liverwort and the delicate anemone use the same building plan as the marsh marigold4 ,this is not strange1 as all three flowers belong to the same family4 ,the yellow adder's tongue is another lily4 ,it is built on the usual lily plan3-- #a4 ,six flower leaves4 #b4 ,six stamens4 #c4 ,one pistil4 ,the wild ginger 7,fig4 #bac7 uses the lily plan1 inasmuch as it has no separate calyx and corolla2 but otherwise it is quite different4 ,it has no separate flower leaves1 but one three-pointed flower cup4 ,it has stamens1 and one pistil which branches at its tip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac ,the next picture 7,fig4 #bad7 shows you the seedbox1 cut open1 of the wild ginger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad ,to find this flower1 your eyes must be brighter than usual4 ,it grows close to the ground1 and is usually hidden from sight by the pair of round1 woolly leaves shooting up from the underground stem1 which tastes like ginger4 ,this thick underground stem is the storehouse whose stock of food makes it possible for the plant to flower and leaf so early in the year4 ,fig4 #bae shows you the pretty wake-robin4 ,this is a lily4 ,but it is unlike the lilies we already know1 in that its calyx and corolla are quite distinct1 each having three separate leaves4 ,it has six stamens1 and one pistil with three branches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae ,the general building plan of the violet 7,fig4 #baf7 is the old one of calyx1 corolla1 stamens1 pistil4 ,but the leaves of this calyx 7,fig4 #bag7 are put together in a curious1 irregular fashion2 and the different leaves of the corolla are not of the same shape and size as in the cherry blossom4 ,then the five stamens of the violet are usually joined about the stalk of the pistil in a way that is quite confusing1 unless you know enough to pick them apart with a pin1 when they look like this picture you see above1 to the right 7,fig4 #bah74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah ,the garden pansy 7,figs4 #bai1 #bbj7 is cousin to the violet4 ,you notice at once that it uses just the same building plan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb ,the wild geranium 7,figs4 #bba1 #bbb7 is put together almost as simply as the cherry blossom4 ,a more beautiful flower than the columbine it would be difficult to find 7,fig4 #bbc74 ,its graceful hanging head and brilliant coloring make it a delight to the passer-by4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc ,it has not the fragrance of some other flowers1 but for this there is a good reason4 ,the columbine is so brightly colored that the nectar-hunting bee can see it from a great distance4 ,it is only when a blossom is so small and faintly colored as to be unlikely to attract the eye1 that it needs to make its presence known in some other way than by wearing gay clothes4 ,by giving out fragrance it notifies the bee that material for honey making is on hand4 ,so you see that a pale little flower with a strong fragrance is just as able to attract the bee's attention as is a big flower with its bright flower handkerchiefs4 ,a big flower with bright flower handkerchiefs does not need to attract the bee by its perfume4 ,perhaps you will be somewhat surprised to learn that this columbine uses the old plan1 calyx1 corolla1 stamens1 pistil4 ,in the columbine the calyx as well as the corolla is brightly and beautifully colored1 and only the botanist can tell which is which4 ,in this way many flowers confuse one who is only beginning their study4 ,so you must try to be patient when you come across a flower whose coloring and shape make it impossible for you to say what is calyx and what is corolla4 ,you should turn both over into the one division of flower leaves1 and when older you may be able to master the difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd ,the pretty fringed polygala 7,fig4 #bbd7 is one of these confusing flower4 ,you find it in the ,may woods4 ,its discovery is such a delight1 that one is not apt to make himself unhappy because he cannot make out all its parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe ,the jewelweed 7,fig4 #bbe71 the plant which blossoms down by the brook in ,august1 is another of these puzzling blossoms4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,a ,,celebrated ,,family ,do you know this pretty flower 7,fig4 #bbf78 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf ,it is the yellow lady's slipper4 ,it lives deep in the woods of ,may1 perhaps part way up the mountain side4 ,it has several sisters4 ,one of these is the pink lady's slipper1 which blossoms just a little later4 ,another is the white lady's slipper4 ,this comes late in ,june1 and is one of the loveliest of our wild flowers4 ,these three sisters belong to a celebrated family1 that of the ,orchids4 ,the ,orchid family is noted for the beauty of its flowers1 and for the pains which these take to attract the attention of the bees4 ,the building plan used by the orchids is too difficult for you to learn yet awhile4 ,perhaps the orchids take more trouble than any other flowers to have their pistils well dusted with pollen4 ,a good landing place for the bee is provided2 signs are hung out to point the way to the hidden nectar2 and if directions are followed1 the pistil is sure to receive the wished-for pollen4 ,this picture 7,fig4 #bbg7 shows you an orchid which you see in the windows of flower shops during the winter4 ,it comes to us from far ,south1 not growing out of doors in our climate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg ,its building plan would almost serve for a wayside tavern4 ,you can see that the pocket would answer as a front doorstep1 making a convenient landing place for bee or butterfly4 ,the dark spots on the upper flower leaf point downward to the refreshment room4 ,even more curious than this one are other orchids which grow in far-away places4 ,in their efforts to please1 they wear the most striking colors1 and take on a variety of fantastic shapes4 ,one of them dresses itself much like a bee4 ,in this way perhaps it secures a visit from the real bee4 ,another is called the baby orchid1 because in the center of each flower is an object which really looks like a fairy baby4 ,there are some ten or twelve orchids which are common in our ,northern woods4 ,i hope you children will keep on the lookout for them all summer4 ,just now you could not tell whether or not a flower was an orchid4 ,but if you come across a plant whose flowers look as though they were built to serve as wayside taverns for the bees1 why1 carry them to your teacher1 and ask her to find out for you whether they belong to the ,orchid family4 ,but it is only fair to tell you that some of our orchids bear flowers so small and insignificant that you would hardly guess them to be members of so distinguished a family4 ,illustration3 ,garden foxglove ,,clever ,,customs ,on this page you see a picture of the garden foxglove4 ,the garden foxglove is an ,english wild flower4 ,it is so striking and beautiful that it was brought across the sea to decorate our gardens4 ,we can guess that the spots within each bell are the signposts leading to the refreshment room4 ,the yellow false foxglove 7,fig4 #bbh71 which grows wild in our woods in midsummer1 is a less brilliant flower than its ,english cousin1 and is without the spots that serve as signposts4 ,our wood and meadow lilies 7,figs4 #bbi1 #bcj7 are well fitted to secure bee visitors4 ,their colors are brilliant enough to catch the eye of the most unobserving of bees in its voyage across the meadow1 and their spots vivid enough to lead it at once to the refreshment room4 ,try for yourselves to follow these markings with your tongue1 and you will win the bee's reward1 a sweet drop of nectar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh ,whenever you see a flower with such vivid markings as these1 it will be worth your while to play the bee1 and start a honey hunt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi ,sometimes the sweet drop lies at the base of the flower leaves1 as in the lilies2 sometimes in a pocket1 as in many of the orchids2 sometimes it is in the bottom of a long spur such as you see in the columbine1 violet1 and nasturtium 7,fig4 #bca74 ,fig4 #bcb shows you the beautiful flowers of the mountain laurel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj ,these flowers play a clever trick on their bee visitors4 ,they wish to make perfectly sure that their pollen will be carried from one blossom to another1 and so they set a little trap4 ,in a freshly opened blossom each stamen is bent over1 as you see they are bent over in the picture 7,fig4 #bcc74 ,their dust boxes are caught in little pockets of the flower cup4 ,when a bee lights on a flower 7,fig4 #bcd71 the jar causes the dust boxes to spring from the pockets with so much violence that the pollen is shaken over the body of the visiting bee1 which is sure to leave some of it on the pistil of the next flower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca ,some flowers take special care to prevent their pistils from being dusted with pollen from the dust boxes of the same blossom4 ,the fireweed bears such blossoms as these4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc ,in ,fig4 #bce you see that the stamens of the fireweed are large and ripe1 and ready to shed their pollen2 but the pistil is bent sideways1 pushing its closed tip quite out of the corolla1 and out of reach of any pollen from a neighboring stamen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf ,fig4 #bcf shows you another blossom from this same plant4 ,the stamens have shed their pollen1 and are quite dry and withered2 but its pistil has straightened itself1 and spreads out its four tips so as to receive the pollen from another flower4 ,it is believed that those seeds which are touched with life by pollen from another flower are more likely to change into healthy1 hardy plants than those which are quickened by the pollen of their own flower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg ,such of you as live near the sea know the lovely sea pinks 7,fig4 #bcg71 which make a rosy carpet across the salt meadows early in ,august4 ,the stamens and pistils of this sea pink act in the same way4 ,illustration3,flower ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,flowers ,,that ,,turn ,,night ,,into ,,day ,already we have read that certain flowers attract insects rather by their fragrance than by their brilliancy of coloring4 ,it is interesting to learn that some blossoms open usually only during the night4 ,of course1 if these flowers hope to receive visitors1 and get their share of pollen1 they must devise some means of making known their presence to those insects which are awake and at work in the darkness4 ,you can understand that at night the brightest colors would be useless4 ,a red flower is less easily seen in the darkness than a white or a yellow one2 so night-opening flowers nearly always wear a white or yellow dress4 ,and not only this3 to make sure that they will not be overlooked1 and so miss the chance of ripening their seeds1 they send out a strong fragrance as soon as the night falls4 ,through the deepest gloom this message of invitation reaches the wandering moth4 ,do you know the evening primrose 7,fig4 #bch78 ,there ought to be no need of asking you this1 for it is one of our commonest wayside plants4 ,but perhaps you have hardly noticed it1 because ordinarily only at night is its flower wide awake4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch ,when the sun has set1 this pale yellow blossom unfolds1 and gives out a strong1 sweet fragrance1 which means that it is 8at home0 to visitors4 ,after one short summer night it dies4 ,but during its little life the chances are that its invitation has been accepted by the pretty pink moth which oftentimes you find asleep in the faded flower cup4 ,the moth visitor has brought its hostess the pollen from another blossom1 and has powdered the pistil's four spreading tips1 so that the little primrose seeds below get the needed touch of life1 and the short life of the flower has not been in vain4 ,if you keep on the lookout1 you are likely to come across one of these yellow flowers with the sleepy pink moth inside its cup4 ,i have caught this little fellow napping so often1 that ,i have wondered if the nectar of the evening primrose might not have the effect of a sleeping potion4 ,but after all1 ,i suppose that pretty pink moths1 like boys and girls1 are likely to be dull and sleepy in the daytime if they have been up too late the night before4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,horrid ,,habits ,did you ever know that some plants manage to attract insects in ways that are quite disgusting to us human beings8 ,while spending a morning in the woods1 some of you may have noticed an odor so unpleasant that you were driven to find another resting place4 ,perhaps you thought that this unpleasant smell was caused by the decaying body of some dead animal2 but had you known the truth1 you would have laid the blame where it rightly belonged4 ,and where was that1 do you think8 ,why1 to that beautiful climbing plant close by1 with large1 thick leaves1 and clusters of pale1 greenish flowers1 that were twisting all about the bushes4 ,this plant it was that caused all the disturbance4 ,it is called the 8carrion vine0 on account of the carrionlike odor of its flowers4 ,its pollen is carried from one little blossom to another by tiny flies1 drawn to the spot by a smell like that of decaying flesh4 ,these flies would pass carelessly over the sweet-smelling carpet of the partridge vine1 they would scorn the invitation of the evening primrose2 but the odor which drives us hurriedly from our cozy corner induces them to gather together in hundreds4 ,whether they come1 actually expecting to find decaying flesh1 ,i cannot say4 ,in some countries grows a plant which not only smells like decaying flesh1 but which adds to the deception by its red1 beefy look1 thus doubly attracting the flies which like this sort of food4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,strawberry ,in the wood which edges the meadow is a hollow where it is almost sure to be cool and shady4 ,let us find our way there this morning1 and see how we can amuse ourselves4 ,illustration3 ,strawberry plant ,at first we want only to enjoy the wind which is coming through the trees1 or to lie back on the grass and spy out the bird which is singing overhead1 or else to laugh at the red squirrel which is scolding away at a great rate above us4 ,suddenly our eyes fall on a cluster of ripe1 shining wild strawberries4 ,bird and squirrel are forgotten1 for no fruit of all the year is prettier to look at than the wild strawberry2 and1 what is more important1 no other fruit has such a delicious flavor of the woods and fields4 ,soon we have eaten all the berries within reach4 ,the creeping vines lead us out into the meadow1 where we push aside the long grasses and pick one ripe mouthful after another4 ,at last we are satisfied to go back to our shady nook4 ,the little white blossoms that a few weeks ago were so plentiful have nearly all disappeared4 ,who among you can tell me how these juicy berries have managed to take the place of the blossoms8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda ,why1 ever so many of you can tell me much of the story1 at any rate4 ,it is very nearly that of the apple and cherry and plum and pear4 ,the nectar-hunting bee carried the pollen of its many stamens from one strawberry blossom to another1 leaving some of it on the flat tips of its numerous pistils4 ,down the pistils' stalks went the tiny life bearing tubes which pushed their way into the little seeds below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc ,so far1 the story of the strawberry is not new to us2 but just here it begins to differ from the stories of the apple and pear1 of the plum and peach and cherry4 ,the flowers of all these trees had but one seedbox4 ,but each of the many little strawberry pistils has a separate seedbox2 and when the little seeds within get their touch of new life1 the flat1 cushionlike object 7,fig4 #bda7 which bears these many pistils begins to act in a most surprising manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd ,this flat flower cushion swells upward and outward 7,fig4 #bdb71 growing big and juicy and sweet1 bearing its pistils 7,fig4 #bdc7 with it4 ,and so in the strawberry blossom it is the flat cushion hidden out of sight which grows into the delicious fruit4 ,illustration3 ,strawberry blossom ,illustration3 ,blackberry plant ,a ,,cousin ,,of ,,the ,,strawberry ,the strawberry is a member of the great ,rose family4 ,among its many cousins we find the blackberry and the raspberry4 ,the blackberry blossom 7,fig4 #bde7 also has five white leaves1 and a center made up of pistils and stamens4 ,when its white flower leaves fall1 and its empty dust boxes wither1 we see the blackberry begin to take the place of the blossom1 just as we saw the strawberry take the place of the strawberry blossom 7,fig4 #bdf74 ,but now we are about to discover the way in which the blackberry differs from the strawberry4 ,cannot some boy or girl tell me in what way they are different8 8,one is black1 and the other is red40 ,but that is not the answer ,i want4 ,perhaps it is hardly likely that any child could guess what ,i have in mind4 ,still a little exercise in guessing is as good for your brains as gymnastics are good for your bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde ,now ,i will tell you what this difference is2 and ,i want you to try and understand it clearly1 so that you will be able to explain it to others1 for ,i doubt if the grown-up people could give any better answers than you4 ,i think your fathers and mothers will be both surprised and pleased when you show them some summer day how truly different are these two berries4 ,you remember that in the strawberry we saw plainly that it was the flat flower cushion which swelled into the ripe strawberry1--the cushion which was quite hidden by the many pistils2 and though these pistils were scattered thickly all over the ripe1 red fruit1 these little pistils with their seedboxes were too small and dry to add flavor or richness to the berry4 ,but if we watch the growth of this blackberry1 we see that things are different4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf ,we see that the pistils of this fruit do not remain small and dry1 as with the strawberry4 ,no1 indeed6 their little seedboxes grow bigger and juicier every day1 and they turn from green to red and from red to black4 ,they do not remain hard to the touch1 but become so soft that a slight pressure will bruise them and stain your fingers purple4 ,and we enjoy eating the full-grown blackberry 7,fig4 #bdi7 because a quantity of these juicy seedboxes are so packed upon the juicy flower cushion that together they make a delicious mouthful 7,figs4 #bdg1 #bdh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi ,the flower cushion of the blackberry is long and narrow1 not broad and flat like that of the strawberry4 ,so do not forget that in the strawberry we enjoy eating the ripened flower cushion1 while in the blackberry the juicy seedboxes give to the fruit more of its size and flavor than does the flower cushion4 ,illustration3 ,blackberries on the vine ,,another ,,cousin ,here we see a branch from the raspberry bush 7,fig4 #bej74 ,how is the raspberry unlike both strawberry and blackberry8 ,let us place side by side these three berries 7,figs4 #bea1 #beb1 #bec74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bea ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec ,once more we observe that the strawberry is the flat flower cushion grown big and juicy4 ,again we see that the seedboxes of the blackberry packed upon the swollen flower cushion make up much of the fruit4 ,but in the raspberry we find that the red1 ripe seedboxes alone make the berry which is so good to eat4 ,when we pick this raspberry1 we find that the flower cushion remains upon the plant1 instead of coming off in our fingers and helping to make a luscious morsel1 as with the other two fruits 7,figs4 #bed1 #bee74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee ,i hope you will remember how these three berries differ one from another4 ,why the blossoms of these three plants grow into berries in three different ways1 we do not know2 but our time has been well spent if we remember that they do change in these three ways4 ,the more we see and question and learn1 the more pleasure we shall find in our own lives1 and the better able we shall be to make life pleasant for others4 ,illustration3 ,blossom and berry ,illustration3 ,peas ,,pea ,,blossoms ,,and ,,peas ,the ,pea family is a large one1 and it is worth our while to find out what plan it uses in flower building4 ,let us look at a pea blossom and see of what parts it is made up4 8,there is the green cup1 or calyx10 you say4 ,yes1 that is plain enough4 ,it is cut up into five little leaves4 8,and there is a circle of flower leaves1 which makes the corolla40 ,let us pull apart both calyx and corolla1 and place the separate leaves as in the picture 7,fig4 #bef74 ,the five smaller leaves1 the ones marked ca1 are the green of the calyx4 ,the five larger ones1 marked co1 belong to the corolla4 ,these1 you notice1 are not all alike4 ,the upper one is much the largest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef ,the two side ones are alike4 ,in the real flower the two lower ones are joined so as to form a little pocket4 ,and what else do you find8 ,now1 if you do not pull apart the pea blossom1 you find nothing else4 ,but you know that the seed-holding fruit is the object of the flower's life1 and that so this flower is pretty sure to have somewhere either a pistil with its seedbox1 or stamens with their dust boxes1 or both2 for without the seeds of the seedbox1 and the pollen of the dust boxes1 no fruit can result4 ,so1 knowing that the pea blossom cannot give birth to a pea pod without stamens and pistil1 let us have a search for these4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg ,as ,i told you1 the two lower leaves of the corolla are joined so as to form a sort of pocket 7,fig4 #beg74 ,now1 surely1 a pocket is meant to hold something4 ,so take a pin and slit open this pocket4 ,as the two sides spring apart1 out flies some golden pollen1 and we see that the little pocket is far from empty4 ,it holds ten stamens and one pistil4 ,if you look at these carefully 7,fig4 #bef71 you see that one stamen stands alone1 while the other nine have grown together1 forming a tube which is slit down one side4 ,this tube clings to the lower part of the pistil4 ,now1 if you pull this tube away1 what do you see8 ,you see a little1 green1 oblong object1 do you not 7,fig4 #beh78 ,and what is it8 ,do you not recognize it8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh ,why1 it is a baby pea pod4 ,within it lie the tiny green seeds 7,fig4 #bei7 which are only waiting for the fresh touch of life from a pollen grain to grow bigger and bigger till they become the full-grown seeds of the pea plant1--the peas that we find so good to eat when they are cooked for dinner4 ,so1 after all1 the building plan of the pea blossom is nothing but the old-fashioned one which reads #a4 ,calyx4 #b4 ,corolla4 #c4 ,stamens4 #d4 ,pistil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei ,had ,i not told you to do so1 ,i wonder if you would have been bright enough to pull apart the little pocket and discover the stamens and pistil4 ,what do you think about this8 ,,the ,,clover',s ,,trick ,illustration3 ,clover ,here you see the bees buzzing about the pretty pink clover heads1--the sweet-smelling clover that grows so thickly in the fields of early summer4 ,can you tell me what plan the clover uses in flower building8 ,you will not find this easy to do4 ,indeed1 it is hardly possible1 for the clover plays you a trick which you will not be able to discover without help4 ,you believe1 do you not1 that you are looking at a single flower when you look at a clover head8 ,well1 you are doing nothing of the sort4 ,you are looking at a great many little clover flowers which are so closely packed that they make the pink1 sweet-scented ball which we have been taught to call the clover blossom4 ,it is incorrect to speak of so many flowers as one2 and whenever we say1 8,this is a clover blossom10 really we ought to say1 8,these are clover blossoms40 ,we might just as well take a lock of hair--a lock made up of ever so many hairs--and say1 8,this is a hair40 ,now1 you all know it would not be correct to do this1 and no more is it correct to call a bunch of clover blossoms 8a blossom40 ,but as most people do not understand this1 undoubtedly the mistake will continue to be made4 ,fig4 #bfj shows you one little flower taken out of the ball-like clover head4 ,can you think of any good reason why so many of these little flowers should be crowded together in a head8 ,what would happen if each little blossom grew quite alone8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj ,why1 it would look so small that the bee could hardly see it4 ,and sweetly though the whole clover head smells1 the fragrance of a single flower would be so slight that it would hardly serve as an invitation to step in for refreshments4 ,so it would seem that the clover plant does wisely in making one good-sized bunch out of many tiny flowers1 for in this way the bees are persuaded to carry their pollen from one blossom to another4 ,the moral of the clover story is this3 ,be very careful before you insist that you hold in your hand or see in the picture only one flower4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,more ,,tricks ,can you think of any other flowers that deceive us as the clover does8 ,early in ,may we see in the woods a tree that is very beautiful4 ,it is covered with what seem to be white blossoms4 ,this tree is the flowering dogwood1 and it tricks us somewhat in the same way as does the clover2 for in this picture 7,fig4 #bfa7 you see what nearly every one believes to be a single flower of the dogwood4 ,and if some time ago you had been asked to give the building plan of the dogwood flower1 you would have been pretty sure to say that the four large white leaves formed its corolla4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa ,here you would have been quite mistaken2 for instead of one large flower1 the picture shows you a number of tiny blossoms1 so closely packed1 and so surrounded by the four white leaves1 that they look like only one blossom4 ,try to get a branch from the dogwood tree 7only be sure to break it off where it will not be missed71 and pull apart what looks so much like one large flower4 ,first pull off the four white leaves4 ,then you will have left a bunch of tiny greenish blossoms4 ,look at one of these through a magnifying glass4 ,if eyes and glass are both good1 you will see a very small calyx1 a corolla made up of four little flower leaves1 four mites of stamens1 and a tiny pistil1--a perfect little flower where you never would have guessed it4 ,but all by themselves they would never be noticed3 so a number of them club together1 surrounding themselves with the showy leaves which light up our spring woods4 ,in ,fig4 #bfb you see the flower cluster of the hobblebush4 ,the hobblebush has still another way of attracting attention to its blossoms4 ,it surrounds a cluster of those flowers which have stamens and pistils1 and so are ready to do their proper work in the world1 with a few large blossoms which have neither stamens nor pistils1 but which are made up chiefly of a showy white corolla4 ,these striking blossoms serve to call attention to their smaller but more useful sisters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb ,sometimes a whole plant family will play this trick of putting a quantity of flowers in one bunch or cluster4 ,the wild carrot 7,fig4 #bfc7 is one of our commonest wayside weeds1 a torment to the farmer1 but a beautiful plant nevertheless4 ,each one of its lace-like flower clusters is made up of many flowers1--flowers which are too small to live alone1 and so have decided to keep house together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc ,you will notice that here1 as with the hobblebush1 the outer flowers are large and more showy than the inner ones4 ,they seem to feel that with them rests the reputation of the family2 that they must make the most of themselves1 and do all in their power to attract the bees and butterflies4 ,the wild carrot belongs to the ,parsley family4 ,all the members of this family collect a great many little flowers into one fairly large cluster4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,an ,,old ,,friend ,there is one plant 7,fig4 #bfd7 which you city children ought to know almost as well as the country children4 ,in the back yards and in the little squares of grass which front the street1 it sends up its shining stars2 and as for the parks1 they look as if some generous fairy had scattered gold coins all over their green lawns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd ,now1 what is this flower which is not too shy to bring its brightness and beauty into the very heart of the crowded city8 ,it is the dandelion1 of course4 ,you all know1 or ought to know1 this plucky little plant1 which holds up its smiling face wherever it gets a chance4 ,and now1 ,i am sure1 you will be surprised to learn that this dandelion1 which you have known and played with all your lives1 is among those mischievous flowers which are laughing at you in their sleeves1 and that regularly it has played you its 8,april fool20 for1 like the dogwood and the clover1 this so-called dandelion is not a single flower4 ,no1 what you call a dandelion is a bunch made up of a great many tiny blossoms4 ,if you pull to pieces a dandelion head1 you will find a quantity of little yellow straps4 ,each little strap is a perfect flower4 ,now1 if you had been asked for the building plan of the dandelion1 you would have looked for the calyx1 and you would have thought you had found it in the green cup which holds the yellow straps4 ,and when you were looking for the corolla1 perhaps you would have said1 8,well1 all these yellow things must be the flower leaves of the corolla40 ,but when you began your hunt for stamens and pistils1 you would have been badly puzzled2 and no wonder1 for these are hidden away inside the yellow straps1 the tiny flowers of the dandelion4 ,so remember that when you cannot find the stamens and pistils within what you take to be the single flower1 you will do well to stop and ask yourself1 8,can this be one of the plants which plays tricks1 and puts a lot of little flowers together in such a way as to make us think that they are one big flower80 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,the ,,largest ,,plant ,,family ,,in ,,the ,,world ,the dandelion belongs to the largest plant family in the world4 ,all the members of this family have the dandelion trick of bunching together a quantity of little flowers4 ,from this habit the family takes its name4 ,it is called the 8,composite0 family1 because with it1 that which looks like one flower is composed of many flowers4 ,to this great family belong some of the flowers which you know best2 and if you are not to be fooled again and again1 you must learn to tell by its blossoms whether a plant is a member of the ,composite family4 ,this will not be difficult if you will be patient1 and pull to pieces a few of the flower heads which ,i am going to describe1 and examine carefully the building plan used by the separate flowers4 ,fig4 #bfe shows you the field daisy4 ,this pretty flower is an old friend2 and many of you know that its beauty is no comfort to the farmer1 who finds it a sign of poor soil and a nuisance1 and does his best to get rid of it4 ,as you know1 the central part of the daisy is bright yellow1 and the narrow leaves which stand out in a circle around its yellow center are pure white4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe ,now1 if ,i had asked you some time ago for the building plan of the daisy1 ,i think you would have told me that the arrangement of little green leaves underneath the flower head made up the calyx1 and naturally you would have believed the white leaves above to have formed the corolla2 and the chances are that the yellow center would have seemed to be a quantity of stamens4 ,as for the seed holders1 you might have said1 8,oh1 well6 ,i suppose they are hidden away somewhere among all these stamens40 ,it would not have been at all strange or stupid if you had answered my question in this way4 ,i know of no plant which dresses up its flowers more cleverly1 and cheats the public more successfully1 than this innocent-looking daisy2 for not only does it deceive boys and girls1 but many of the grown-up people who love flowers1 and who think they know something about them1 never guess how they have been fooled the daisy4 ,indeed1 some of them will hardly believe you when you tell them that when they pick what they call a daisy1 they pick not one1 but a great many flowers2 and they are still more surprised when they learn that not only the yellow center of the daisy is composed of a quantity of little tube-shaped blossoms1 but that what they take to be a circle of narrow white flower leaves is really a circle of flowers1 each white strap being a separate blossom4 ,i dare not try to tell you how many separate blossoms you would find if you picked to pieces a daisy and counted all its flowers1--all the yellow ones in the center1 and all the white outside ones1--but you would find a surprisingly large number4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg ,the picture above 7,fig4 #bff7 shows you a daisy cut in two1 and next you have one of the white outer flowers 7,fig4 #bfg74 ,this flower1 as we must call it1 has a pistil1 but no stamens4 ,the pollen is brought by flies from the yellow central flowers to this pistil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh ,here 7,fig4 #bfh7 you see a picture of one of those yellow flowers which have both stamens and pistil inside its tube4 ,if you children once make yourselves well acquainted with the make-up of the daisy1 seeing with your own bright eyes 7not believing it just because ,i tell you it is so7 that there are many little flowers where most people think they see only one big one1 you will never forget it as long as you live2 and you will know something that many of the big people about you do not know4 ,some day while walking across the fields ,i think you will enjoy surprising them by pulling to pieces a daisy1 and explaining to them this favorite flower trick4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,robin',s ,,plantain1 ,,golden-,,rod1 ,,and ,,aster ,along the roadsides1 in the month of ,may1 grows a flower which you children call a blue daisy4 ,this has the yellow center of the field daisy2 but the narrow outer flowers which surround the yellow center are not white1 they are blue4 ,the real name of this flower is 8robin's plantain40 ,it is not a daisy1 though it belongs to the same big family4 ,here1 too1 the yellow center is made up of many little tube-shaped flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi ,later in the year the fields are white and purple with beautiful asters 7,fig4 #bfi74 ,it is easy to see that these asters are own cousins to robin's plantain4 ,their flower heads are put together in the same way1 and many of the asters wear the same blue or purple dress 7,fig4 #bfi74 ,when once you have become acquainted with the secret of dandelion and daisy and aster and robin's plantain1 you will find it quite easy to discover their little separate flowers4 ,all these plants have large1 plain flower heads that you cannot mistake4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj ,but with some members of this great ,composite family you are going to have more trouble1 unless you take your time and keep your wits about you4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga ,just when the asters begin to border the roadsides in the month of ,august1 the golden-rod 7,fig4 #bgj7 hangs out its bright yellow flowers4 ,this golden-rod is one of the plants which you may find a little troublesome2 for its little flowers are so tiny1 that even when a number of them are fastened together in a bunch1 the whole bunch looks like a very small blossom 7,fig4 #bga74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb ,in each of these little bunches or heads 7for when a number of flowers are packed together in this way1 we call the whole bunch a 8head07 there are a few of the strap flowers 7,fig4 #bgb7 on the outside1 and a few tube flowers 7,fig4 #bgc7 in the center2 but the outer strap flowers are so small that you can hardly believe they are really flowers1 and the tube flowers look hardly larger than ordinary stamens4 ,to see them at all clearly1 you must use a good magnifying glass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc ,and you must search very patiently for the tiny bunch 7,fig4 #bga7 which is the head of the golden-rod4 ,next you must pick to pieces this little head1 separating the outer from the inner flowers4 ,in hunting for a single head in this great yellow flower cluster1 you must look for the little cup-like arrangement1 the tiny greenish or yellowish leaves2 for each head is held in one of these small cups4 ,although the golden-rod is one of the most difficult of all the flowers to understand1 once you have seen for yourselves how each little head is held in its tiny cup1 you will find it easy enough to pick out its single flowers1 and then you will have mastered the secret of the golden-rod4 ,illustration3 ,flowers ,,the ,,last ,,of ,,the ,,flowers ,we found1 you remember1 that the dandelion head was made up entirely of strap flowers2 and we saw that the daisy and aster and golden-rod were made up partly of strap flowers1 and partly of tube flowers4 ,and here you have a great thistle head 7,fig4 #bgd74 ,if you should pull it to pieces1 you would find only tube flowers4 ,the ,composite family always makes up its head in one of these three ways1 using either nothing but strap flowers1 or nothing but tube flowers1 or else using tube flowers for the center of the head1 and strap flowers for the outside4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd ,now1 ,i hope you will remember these three ways in which this important family puts together its little flowers4 ,when you go into the garden where a big sunflower 7,fig4 #bge7 is trying to peep into your neighbor's yard1 ,i hope your eyes will be sharp enough to see that this sunflower is a cousin to the field daisy1 and that1 although its brown center is much larger than the daisy's golden eyes1 it is made up of tube flowers 7,fig4 #bgf7 shaped much like the tube flowers of the daisy4 ,and you will notice1 ,i am sure1 that the yellow circle about this brown center is made up of strap flowers 7,fig4 #bgg7 just like the circle about the daisy center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge ,and what is that which falls like a golden shower from the great brown center of the sunflower8 ,ah1 you know well that that is the precious pollen which powders thickly the visiting bees and butterflies1 and goes to make new sunflower plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf ,the picture at the head of this chapter shows the wild sister of the garden sunflower4 ,when you come across the bright blue flower of the chicory1 you will be reminded1 ,i hope1 of your dear old friend the dandelion2 for the chicory head1 like that of the dandelion1 is made up entirely of strap flowers4 ,but when you pick a spray of everlasting1 whose white and yellow clusters you find on the rocky hillsides1 you will have to use your eyes with great care if you are to discover that here1 as in the great purple thistle head1 are nothing but tube flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg ,,part ,,vii--,,learning ,,to ,,see ,illustration3 ,flowers ,a ,,bad ,,habit ,in fact1 if you are to see any of the things that are really worth seeing1 you must study the art of using your eyes4 ,you must learn to see4 ,this world is full of things that are beautiful and interesting1 things that do not cost money1 that can be had for the seeing4 ,school is nearly over now1 and during the weeks that lie before you there will be many hours which you children can call your own4 ,i wonder what you will do with these holiday hours8 ,of course1 you will play a great deal2 at least1 ,i hope you will1 for we need play almost as much as we need work4 ,but one does not play every minute1 even in the holidays4 ,i hope that all of you will spend a part of your holidays in trying to be a little useful to your mothers4 ,but even then there will be some time left for other things1--things that are not work1 and that are not exactly play1 yet that are a little of each1 and so perhaps better than either play or work alone4 ,among these 8other things0 ,i hope 8learning to see0 will find its place4 ,i wish that every child who reads this book would make a resolution that during these coming holiday weeks he will 8learn to see40 ,there are many different ways of doing this4 ,the children in the city can learn this great lesson as well as those who live in the country4 ,there is much to be seen in the city besides people and houses1 and horses and wagons4 ,there are the clouds of the sky by day1 and its stars by night4 ,there are the trees in the squares1 the birds and flowers in the parks1 and much besides4 ,the children who live by the sea do not have the great forest trees that grow among the mountains2 but for this loss they can comfort themselves by the beautiful rose mallows 7see the picture at the head of this chapter7 that grow in the marsh1 by the sea pinks along the creek1 by the pretty shells and seaweeds on the beach4 ,but perhaps you think ,i am quite wrong in taking it for granted that you need to 8learn to see40 ,what gives me the idea that you ought to learn any such lesson8 ,well1 nine times out of ten1 if ,i hand a flower to a child and ask him to look at it and then to tell me about it1 he will stare at it1 oh1 very hard indeed1 for some moments1 and then he will have nothing to say4 ,now1 this cannot be the fault of the flower2 for we have seen that the flower is made up of so many different things that to tell about them all takes some time4 ,it must be the fault of the child2 or at least the fault of his eyes and brain1 both of which are needed for really seeing1 and which probably he does not know how to use4 ,it must be that he has never 8learned to see40 ,perhaps he has used his eyes well enough1 and has really seen a great many things in the flower2 but his brain may not be able to put them together in the right way1 and to find the words that are needed4 ,if this is the only trouble1 a little practice will make it all right4 ,he will find that his brain works better after each trial1 just as a new pair of scissors works better after it has been used several times4 ,but often the eyes do not seem to do their share of the work2 and if they do not1 there is no chance for the brain to come to their help4 ,that is a sad state of affairs1 because1 if when we are young we let our eyes form bad habits1 such as not seeing the things they ought to see1 we are likely to be half blind all the rest of our lives4 ,it would be a terrible thing1 would it not1 to be told that you were about to become blind1 that soon you would be unable to see the things about you8 ,now1 while ,i trust that none of you will ever become altogether blind1 ,i tell you honestly1 ,i greatly fear that some of you are in danger of becoming partly so1--of becoming blind to many of the things about you that would please you greatly if you only saw them4 ,and ,i know that this sort of blindness must take from your lives much happiness4 ,but still you may wonder how ,i know this about children whom ,i have never seen4 ,how can ,i know whether the boys and girls who read this are in any danger of losing their power to see8 ,well1 the only way ,i know about you boys and girls1 whom ,i have never seen1 is by watching very carefully the ones ,i do see4 ,you children who live in ,new ,york1 say1 have never seen the children who live in ,california2 yet you feel sure that they have eyes and ears just as you have1 do you not8 ,and you are pretty confident that most of them like to play far better than they like to work2 that sometimes they are good-natured1 and that again they are quarrelsome2 and that in many ways they are like the boys and girls who live near you4 ,in just the same way ,i am able to guess that you children whom ,i do not know are more or less like the ones ,i do know4 ,now1 among these children only a few1 as ,i have said before1 seem to have the full use of their eyes4 ,this troubles me1 because the evil is one that grows greater as the children grow older4 ,perhaps you know that if you stop using any part of your body1 that part soon begins to lose its power of doing the things it was meant to do4 ,if you should not use your legs for a long time1 they would grow so weak that they could hardly carry you4 ,it would be much as if you had no legs1 or at least as if you had legs that could not do the work they were meant to do4 ,if you stopped using your hands1 you would find your fingers growing stiffer and stiffer1 so that at last they could not take a good hold of things4 ,and if your eyes are not used for seeing clearly the things before them1 they will grow less and less able to see clearly4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,a ,,country ,,road ,i have taken a walk along a country road which was bright with flowers of many kinds1 where lovely-colored butterflies and buzzing bees were hard at work hunting for sweet stuff1 where birds were singing in the trees as they watched their nests1 where a rabbit would dart from the bushes close by1 and a squirrel would scold at me from overhead1--where1 in short1 there was so much to look at and delight in1 that ,i could hardly make up my mind to keep on to my journey's end1 instead of stopping to see if ,i knew the names of all the flowers1 to admire the queer1 bright-colored little patterns on the wing of the butterfly which was resting on a neighboring blossom1 and to find out what sort of eggs were in the nest that ,i knew must be near at hand1 for the mother bird let out her secret by her frightened clucking4 ,well1 ,i have taken just such a walk2 and on going into the house ,i have felt as if ,i were obliged to put aside a book of enchanting fairy stories1 or rather as if ,i were turning my back on fairyland itself1 with all its wonderful sights and sounds and adventures4 ,and then what has happened8 ,why1 some child 7it has not always been a child7 has come in1 and ,i have said1 8,was not that a fine walk8 ,what did you see along that lovely road80 ,now1 if he was a boy 7for ,i want to be quite fair71 he probably had seen the rabbit and given it chase2 and it is more than likely that he had stopped long enough to chuck a stone at the squirrel2 and if the mother bird had not finished with her foolish chatter1 ,i fear he gave her some evil moments by hunting for her nest1 with no good intentions4 ,but if1 fortunately for them1 he had met none of these creatures1 he probably looked at me in surprise1 and answered by look1 if not by words1 8,no1 ,i thought it a long1 stupid walk4 ,i did not see a thing40 ,and if it was a girl1 ,i fear the answer1 silent or spoken1 was much the same4 ,now1 ,i say that boy or girl must have been partly blind to have missed seeing those wonderful flowers1 and butterflies1 and bees1 and birds1 and many other interesting things which ,i have not time here to tell about4 ,certainly they were not using their eyes properly2 and the longer they go about in such a way1 more worthy of a bat than of a well-made child1 the more useless and bat-like will their eyes become4 ,it is really more natural for a child to use his eyes constantly than it is for an older person4 ,the grown-up man or woman is likely to have so many things to think about1 that eyes and brain do not always work together1 and so the surroundings are not noticed4 ,for every boy knows that if his head is full of the ball game he is going to play1 he runs along without eyes or thoughts for other things4 ,and every girl knows that if she is on her way to some friend to whom she has a secret to tell1 she is in such haste to reach her journey's end1 and is so busy thinking what her friend will have to say about it all1 that of course there is no time to pay attention to anything else4 ,her eyes may be in good working order1 yet they are not of much use unless her brain is ready to help them2 and that little brain just now is too busy with its secret4 ,no1 by the people who are half blind ,i mean only those who much of the time use neither eyes nor brain1 who can neither tell you what they have seen nor what they have been thinking about4 ,sometimes it seems as if such people were not only half blind1 it seems as if they were only half alive4 ,a ,,holiday ,,lesson ,but ,i am in hopes that some of the children who read this book will say1 8,i do not think it fair to call children half blind and only half alive4 ,i know ,i am not half blind4 ,i saw all those things that ,mrs4 ,dana saw along that country road1 and0 7perhaps some of them may add7 8a good deal more too4 ,i know all the different flowers by sight1 and the sunny hollows where the first ones come4 ,i know where ever so many of the birds build their nests1 and how their different eggs are marked and colored4 ,often ,i go down to the little pool in the woods where they come for their bath4 ,i know how the caterpillars wrap themselves in leaves and come out beautiful butterflies4 ,i have peeped into the hollow of the tree where the red squirrel is bringing up its family2 and ,i have seen how the pretty green katydid scrapes his wings along his sides1 and makes the sound1 #8,katy did1 ,katy didn't1' and oh1 so many more things that ,i have not time to tell them all40 ,ah6 that is just it4 ,the child that knows how to use his eyes can see so much1 so many wonderful things6 ,that is why ,i am so anxious that he or she should not miss through carelessness the revelations that come to the child alone4 ,it seems as though the woods and fields were more ready to tell their stories1 to whisper their secrets1 to children than to grown people4 ,if people learn to use their eyes and ears only after they are grown1 ,i hardly think that they will ever read quite the same stories1 ever listen to quite such wonderful secrets1 as if they had begun to look and to listen when they were little children4 ,if fairy godmothers came now1 as the stories tell us they did once upon a time1 to the christenings of our little ones1 offering whatever gifts the parents should choose1 it seems to me one of the wisest selections would be the power to see4 ,and so when ,i ask you children1 now that you are putting by your lesson books for many weeks1 to learn one lesson this holiday time1--to learn to see1--,i am asking you to do something that will make your lives far happier than they could be were this lesson left unlearned4 ,illustration3 ,flowers ,,index 7,for the convenience of teachers and other older readers1 technical terms avoided in the body of the book are given in the index47 ,a ,above-ground roots1 #ajf-aaa4 ,acorn1 seed of oak1 #fh4 seed leaves of1 #hg4 a fruit1 #ie4 ,adder's tongue1 yellow1 #bjc1 #baf1 #bai4 ,air1 composition of1 #aea4 ,air roots1 #ajg4 ,alder1 black1 #di4 ,alder1 speckled1 #agc4 ,alder1 swamp1 #agc4 ,alder tassels1 #bjg-bji4 ,almond seed1 a food1 #ia4 ,amphibious knotweed1 #aai1 #abc4 ,anemone1 #bjc1 #bji1 #baf1 #bai4 ,animals and plants1 difference between1 #aed1 #aee4 ,anthers1 see 8dust boxes40 ,apple1 study of1 #aa-ai4 seed of1 #bj1 #bd1 #bg1 #bi1 #ic4 signs of ripeness of1 #bh1 #bi4 ,apple blossom1 parts of1 #ad1 #ae1 #cb4 buds of1 #abi4 ,ash1 seed of1 #fb4 ,aster puffball1 #ei4 ,asters1 #bea1 #beb1 #bed4 ,b ,baneberry1 red1 #di4 ,baneberry1 white1 #di4 ,barberry1 #di4 stamens of1 #aic4 ,bark1 defined1 #abj1 #aba4 ,basswood1 leaves of1 #afe4 ,bean1 planting of seed of1 #hj4 seed leaves of1 #ha4 development of seed1 #ha-hc1 #if-ih4 root of1 #ii4 stem of1 #aae1 #aag4 ,bee1 a pollen carrier1 #ag1 #ah1 #ahi1 #bjg1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bcc4 ,beech tree1 #bae4 ,beet1 root of1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,birch tassels1 #bjh1 #bji4 ,birds1 as seed transporters1 #gb1 #gc4 ,bittersweet berries1 #db4 ,black alder1 #di4 ,blackberry1 development of1 #bce-bcg4 ,bladderwort1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,bloodroot1 #ajf4 ,bloom1 #agc4 ,blue daisy1 #bea4 ,blue flag1 classified1 #hh4 ,bristles1 #age4 ,bryophyllum1 #acb1 #acc1 #aej4 ,buckwheat seed1 a food1 #ia4 ,buds1 #abe-acc4 protection of1 #abf1 #abg1 #aca4 position of1 #abh1 #acb4 unprotected1 #acj4 on leaves1 #acb1 #acc4 ,bulb1 described1 #aje1 #ajf4 an underground stem1 #baf1 #bag4 ,bulblets1 defined1 #acb4 ,burdock burr1 #ce1 #cf1 #eb1 #ec1 #ie4 ,burrs1 description of1 #eb4 use of1 to plant1 #ec4 as seed cases1 #fg1 #fh4 ,buttercup1 pistils and stamens of1 #bja ,buttonwood buds1 #acj1 #aca4 ,c ,cabbage leaves1 #agc4 ,cabbage1 skunk1 #bjd4 ,caladium1 #afc1 #afd4 ,calyx 7cup71 described1 #ae4 position of1 #ah4 function of1 #ahh4 defined1 #ahi4 ,carrion vine1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,carrot root1 #ajb4 ,carrot1 wild1 #bdf1 #bdg4 ,castor-oil plant1 seed of1 #gb4 ,cells1 #aci-adc4 description of1 #aci4 passage of moisture through1 #adg1 #adh4 water supply of1 #adi4 functions of1 #aeb4 loosening leafstalk1 #ahe4 ,cherry blossom1 parts of1 #cg1 #ch1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bah4 development into cherry1 #cg1 #ch1 #ahi4 ,cherry tree1 branch of1 #abf4 buds of1 #abi4 ,cherry1 wild1 #ci4 ,chestnut1 burrs of1 #fg1 #fh4 seed leaves of1 #hg1 #hh4 leaves of1 #afa4 ,chicory flower1 pollen of1 #aig4 ,chlorophyll 7leaf green71 described1 #acg4 function of1 #aea-afa4 ,chokecherries1 #ci1 #dj4 ,clematis1 seed appendages of1 #eh4 fruit clusters of1 #ei4 stem of1 #aae4 8,clock10 dandelion's fruit1 #ce4 ,clover1 red and white1 #aag4 leaf of1 #afh4 a flower head1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdg4 ,coal1 origin of1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,cocoanut1 #fi4 ,coffee seed1 a food1 #ia4 ,color change in leaf1 #ahe4 ,coloring of fruit1 function of1 #db1 #dc1 #ej4 ,columbine1 plan of1 #bba4 spur of1 #bbf4 ,composite family1 #bdh1 #beb1 #bed4 ,corm1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,corn1 seed of1 #hj1 #hh4 seed leaves of1 #hh4 stem of1 #aad1 #aag4 stalk of1 #abj1 #aba4 ,corolla1 position of1 #ae4 of apple blossom1 #ai4 function of1 #ahh4 defined1 #aij4 ,cottonwood seed1 #fa4 ,cotyledons1 see 8seed leaves40 ,crane's bill1 #fe1 #ff4 ,crocus1 bulb or underground stem of1 #aje1 #aej4 an early flower1 #baf4 ,cup1 green1 see 8calyx40 ,cyclamen1 underground stem of1 #aje4 ,d ,daffodil1 #baf4 ,daisy1 pollen of1 #aif4 plan of1 #bdi-bea4 blue1 #bea4 flower head of1 #beb4 strap and tube flowers of1 #bed1 #bee4 ,dandelion1 puffball of1 #ce1 #cf1 #ie4 fruit cluster of1 #fj4 plan of1 #bdg1 #bdh4 flower head of1 #beb4 strap flowers of1 #bed1 #bee4 ,dicotyledonous plants 7plants with two seed leaves71 #he-hg4 ,dodder1 #ajh-aaj1 #aad1 #abc4 ,dogwood1 berries of1 #db4 ,dogwood blossom1 plan of1 #bde4 ,duckweed1 #aaa4 ,dust boxes 7anthers71 position of1 #ad1 #bbg4 contents of1 #ag4 function of1 #ahh4 varieties of1 #aic-aie4 ,dutchman's breeches1 #bjc4 ,e ,easter lily1 building plan of1 #aia4 stamens of1 #aic4 description of1 #bah1 #bai4 ,elm1 seed of1 #fb4 ,enchanter's nightshade1 stamen of1 #aie4 ,english ivy1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aaf4 ,eucalyptus1 perspiration of1 #adi4 ,evening primrose1 a night-blooming flower1 #bbi1 #bcj4 pollen of1 #aig4 ,evergreen leaves1 #ahd4 ,evergreen plants1 #aga4 ,everlasting1 #bee4 ,eyes of potato1 #ajd1 #aca4 ,f ,false ,solomon's seal1 #dh4 ,ferns1 #bae4 ,fertilization1 see 8pollen40 ,fibrous roots1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,fir tree1 trunk of1 #aba4 ,fireweed1 pod of1 #eh4 stamens and pistil of1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,flax plant1 #aaj4 ,fleshy root1 #ajb-ajd4 ,flower cluster1 #bde1 #bdf4 ,flower dust1 see 8pollen40 ,flower head1 #bdd1 #bdg-bee4 ,flower leaves1 #aib4 ,flowering plants1 #bb4 ,flowers1 #ahg-bee4 with many pistils1 #bja1 #bjb4 with stamens only1 #bjf-baa4 with pistils only1 #bjg-baa1 #bej4 of trees1 #bji-baa4 night-opening1 #bbh-bcj4 design of odor of1 #bca4 ,food of plants1 #adc-adh1 #aej4 ,forsythia1 buds of1 #abi4 ,foxglove1 garden1 #bbe4 ,foxglove1 yellow false1 #aab1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,fruit1 the plant's object1 #bd4 the seed holder1 #cc-cf4 defined1 #cd1 #id4 wild and cultivated1 #ci1 #dj4 varieties of1 #eb-ee1 #ie4 function of1 #ie4 formed from pistil1 #bjb4 ,fruits and seeds1 #i-gc4 ,g ,garden foxglove1 #bbe4 ,geranium1 wild1 #fe1 #ff1 #bbj4 ,golden-rod1 fruit clusters of1 #ei4 stamens of1 #aid1 #aie4 plan of1 #beb1 #bec4 description of1 #bed4 ,grass of ,parnassus1 pistil of1 #bjj4 ,grass plants1 classified1 #hh4 ,h ,hairy leaves1 design of1 #agj-age4 ,hanging roots1 #ajg4 ,haws1 #di4 ,hemlock cone1 #fb4 ,hemlock tree1 #aga1 #ahd4 ,hobblebush1 leaves of1 #bae4 buds of1 #acj4 flower cluster of1 #bde1 #bdf4 ,holly leaves1 #agd1 #age4 ,hop hornbeam fruit1 #fb4 ,horse chestnut1 buds of1 #abf1 #abh4 ,hyacinth1 #baf4 ,i ,indian corn1 see 8corn40 ,indian cucumber root1 #dd1 #de4 ,indian pipe1 #aab4 ,ivy1 ,english1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aaf4 ,ivy1 ,japanese1 #aaf4 ,ivy1 poison1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aaf4 ,j ,jack-in-the-pulpit1 flower and berry of1 #dg4 underground stem of1 #aje1 #abc4 leaf of1 #bad4 an early spring flower1 #baf4 ,japanese ivy1 #aaf4 ,jewelweed1 blossom of1 #bbb4 pod of1 #fe1 #ff4 ,l ,lady's eardrop1 #ff4 ,lady's slipper1 #bbb4 ,laurel flower1 pollen of1 #aig4 ,leaf blade1 described1 #acf1 #acg4 position of1 #afa4 ,leaf green 7chlorophyll7 described1 #acg4 function of1 #aea-afa4 ,leaf mouths1 function of1 #adf1 #aei1 #afj1 #aga-agc4 perspiration of1 #adh1 #adi4 ,leaflets1 defined1 #afh4 ,leafstalk1 use of1 #aae4 a bud protector1 #aca4 defined1 #acf4 ,leaves1 #ace-ahe4 protection of1 #abf1 #abg4 buds on1 #acb1 #acc4 parts of1 #ace-acg4 edges of1 #ace1 #acf1 #afh4 functions of1 #ade4 perspiration of1 #adf1 #adi1 #aej1 #agj-agc4 as storehouses1 #aej4 position of1 #afj1 #afa4 shapes of1 #afa1 #afg1 #afh4 effect on roots1 #afb4 net-veined1 #afe1 #aff4 parallel-veined1 #aff4 covering on1 #agj-age4 hairy1 #agj-agb1 #age4 woolly1 #agb4 as traps1 #agf-ahc4 fall of1 #ahd1 #ahe4 color change of1 #ahe4 ,life everlasting1 #aga1 #agb4 ,life substance of plants 7protoplasm71 #adj1 #ada4 ,lily1 classified1 #hh4 underground stem of1 #abc1 #aej4 flower leaves of1 #aia4 plan of1 #aia1 #aib4 pollen of1 #aif4 pistil of1 #aig1 #aih4 development of1 #aii4 coloring of1 #bbf4 ,lily1 ,easter1 plan of1 #aia1 #bah1 #bai4 ,lily family1 #de1 #bai4 ,liverwort1 #bjc1 #bai4 ,locust leaf1 #afh4 ,m ,mallow1 stamens of1 #aie4 ,mangrove1 fruit and stem of1 #ib-id4 ,maple1 keys of1 #hf1 #baj4 winged seed of1 #fa1 #hf4 seed leaves of1 #ij4 branch of1 #abf4 buds of1 #abi4 leaf of1 #acf1 #afe1 #afg4 flower of1 #baj4 ,maple1 red1 #ib1 #abg4 ,maple1 silver1 #baj4 ,maple1 sugar1 #ib1 #baj4 ,maple1 swamp1 #baj4 ,marsh marigold1 a spring flower1 #bjc4 plan of1 #bah4 pistils of1 #bai4 ,midrib of leaf1 #acg4 ,milkweed1 pod of1 #ce1 #ie4 seedbox of1 #eg4 seeds of1 #fa4 ,mistletoe1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,monocotyledonous plants 7plants with one seed leaf71 #hh4 ,morning-glory1 seed leaves of1 #gh4 seed of1 #hc1 #ij4 development of1 #aab1 #aac4 stem of1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag1 #abc4 ,mountain laurel1 buds of1 #abi4 arrangement of stamens of1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,mullein leaves1 #agj1 #age4 ,n ,nasturtium spur1 #bbf4 ,nepenthes leaf1 #agh1 #agi4 ,nettles1 #age4 ,net-veined leaves1 #afe1 #aff4 ,nightshade1 enchanter's1 #aie4 ,nightshade1 garden1 #aae4 ,nourishment of plant1 #aej4 ,o ,oak1 seed of1 #fh4 root of1 #ade4 leaf of1 #afg4 ,oat seed1 a food1 #ia4 ,orchid family1 #ajg1 #bbc1 #bbd4 ,orchids1 #abc1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbf4 ,ovary1 see 8seedbox40 ,p ,palm tree1 trunk of1 #aba4 ,pansy1 plan of1 #bbj4 ,parallel-veined leaves1 #aff4 ,parasitic plants1 #ajh-aaa4 ,parsley family1 #bdg4 ,partridge berries1 #de1 #df1 #ea4 ,partridge vine1 #df1 #ahd1 #bca4 ,pea1 seed of1 #hj1 #hg1 #ij1 #bdb4 seed leaves of1 #hg4 stem of1 #aae4 pod of1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,pea blossom1 stamens of1 #aid1 #bda1 #bdb4 pistil of1 #bjj1 #bda1 #bdb4 analysis of1 #bdj-bdb4 ,pea family1 #ed1 #bdj4 ,peach1 compared with apple1 #cf4 blossom of1 #ch4 ,persian origin of1 #dj4 buds of1 #abi4 ,pear1 compared with apple1 #ca4 blossom of1 #cb4 buds of1 #abi4 ,pear1 wild1 #aah4 ,peony seeds1 #ge1 #gf4 ,perspiration of plants1 #adh1 #adi1 #afj4 ,petals 7handkerchiefs71 used as signals1 #ag1 #ah1 #ahh1 #aib1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bbf4 functions of1 #ahh4 ,pine1 cone of1 #fb4 classified1 #hh1 #hi4 leaves of1 #aga1 #ahd4 flower of1 #aig4 ,pins with dust boxes1 see 8stamens40 ,pins without dust boxes1 see 8pistils40 ,pistils 7pins without dust boxes71 described1 #ae1 #ah1 #aig-bjb4 function of1 #ahh1 #aih1 #aii4 defined1 #aij4 varieties of1 #bjj4 flowers with many1 #bja1 #bjb4 fruit formed from1 #bjb4 position of1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bdh4 of strawberry1 #bcc1 #bcd4 of berries1 #bcf4 ,pit or stone1 #cg4 ,pitcher plant1 #agf-agh4 ,pith1 defined1 #abj1 #aba4 ,plants1 flowering1 #bb4 object of life of1 #bb1 #bc4 use of1 to world1 #bf1 #bg4 service of1 to animals1 #bf1 #bg1 #aef1 #aeg4 young1 #ge-ih4 nourishment of1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #aej1 #aef-afj4 with two seed leaves 7dicotyledons71 #he-hg4 with one seed leaf 7monocotyledons71 #hh4 with many seed leaves 7polycotyledons71 #hh1 #hi4 parasitic1 #ajh-aaa4 development of1 #aab1 #aac4 absorption of water by1 #adg4 perspiration of1 #adh1 #adi1 #afj4 as air purifiers1 #aea-aec1 #aeh1 #aei4 breathing of1 #aeh-afj4 storing of food in1 #ahe1 #baf1 #bag4 protection of1 #bad1 #bae4 ,plants and animals1 difference between1 #aed1 #aee4 ,plum1 compared with apple1 #cf4 blossom of1 #ch4 ,plum1 wild beach1 #dj4 ,pods1 #ce1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh1 #fe-fg1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,poison ivy1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aaf4 ,pollen 7flower dust71 described1 #ad1 #aif-aii4 carriers of1 #ag1 #ah1 #ahi1 #bjg1 #bac1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbf-bcj1 #bcc4 effect on pistil1 #ah1 #bj4 fertilizing power of1 #ah1 #bj1 #aif-aii4 transportation of1 #ah1 #bjg1 #baa1 #bac1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbi-bca1 #bcc1 #bej4 function of1 #ahh1 #aih1 #aii4 varieties of1 #aif1 #aig4 defined1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,polycotyledonous plants 7plants with many seed leaves71 #hh1 #hi4 ,polygala1 #bbb4 ,poplar tassels1 #baa4 ,poppy seed1 dispersal of1 #gj1 #ga4 ,potato1 a stem1 #ajd1 #aca4 eyes of1 #aca1 #agd4 ,potato1 sweet1 #ajb4 ,prickles1 #agd1 #age4 ,primrose1 evening1 #aig1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,protoplasm 7life substance71 #adj1 #ada4 ,puffballs1 #ce1 #cf1 #ei1 #ie4 ,pussy willow1 #abi4 tassels of1 #bje-bjg4 ,q ,quince leaf1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #afe4 ,r ,radish root1 #ajb4 ,raspberry1 development of1 #bcg-bci4 ,red baneberry1 #di4 ,red clover1 stem of1 #aag4 ,red maple1 seed of1 #ib4 leaves of1 #abg4 buds of1 #abg4 ,rhubarb plant1 #afd4 ,robin's plantain1 #bea1 #beb4 ,root branches1 #afb-afd4 ,roots1 origin of1 #ha1 #aac4 hairs of1 #ha1 #ii-ajb1 #ajd1 #abc1 #adc4 function of1 #ii-ajc4 fibrous1 #ajb1 #ajc4 fleshy1 #ajb-ajd4 as food1 #ajc1 #ajd4 above-ground1 #ajf-aaa4 varieties of1 #ajf-aab4 hanging1 #ajg4 underground1 #aaa4 water1 #aaa1 #aab4 absorbing capacity of1 #adf4 spreading of1 #afb1 #afc4 position of1 #afc1 #afd4 ,roots and stems1 #ii-abb4 ,rootstocks1 function of1 #ajf1 #bag4 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