9999 ,transcriber's ,notes 9999 ,underscores mark italics2 words enclosed in pluses represent boldface2 ,vowels followed by a colon represent a long vowel 7printed with a macron in the original text74 ,to represent the sentence diagrams in ,,ascii1 the following conventions are used3 - ,the heavy horizontal line 7for the main clause7 is formed with equals signs 774 - ,other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs 7--74 - ,diagonal lines are formed with backslashes 774 - ,words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash1 with no horizontal line under them4 - ,dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods 7447 - ,dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes 7'7 - ,dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes 77 - ,words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this3 ----1 helping '--------- - ,words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like this3 wai ting --------- 9999 ,end ,transcriber's ,notes 9999 ,,higher ,,lessons ,,in ,,english4 ,a ,,work ,,on ,,english ,,grammar ,,and ,,composition1 ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,the ,,language ,,is ,,made ,,tributary ,,to ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,expression4 ,a ,,course ,,of ,,practical ,,lessons ,,carefully ,,graded1 ,,and ,,adapted ,,to ,,every-,,day ,,use ,,in ,,the ,,school-,,room4 ,,by ,,alonzo ,,reed1 ,a4,m41 ,,formerly ,,instructor ,,in ,,english ,,grammar ,,in ,,the ,,polytechnic ,,institute1 ,,brooklyn1 ,,and ,,brainerd ,,kellogg1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,and ,,literature ,,in ,,the ,,polytechnic ,,institute1 ,,brooklyn4 ,revised ,edition1 #ahif4 ,,preface4 ,the plan of ,higher ,lessons will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this work is brought into competition4 ,method of ,one ,class of ,text-books4--,in one class are those that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4 ,these books give large space to grammatical ,etymology1 and demand much memorizing of definitions1 rules1 declensions1 and conjugations1 and much formal word parsing1--work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians1 and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties4 ,this is a revival of the long-endured1 unfruitful1 old-time method4 ,method of ,another ,class of ,text-books4--,in another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in ,composition1 ,spelling1 ,pronunciation1 ,sentence-analysis1 ,technical ,grammar1 and ,general ,information1 without unity or continuity4 ,the pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of knowledge2 but his information will be vague and disconnected1 and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford4 ,a text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear1 logical development of its subject4 ,it must present its science or its art as a natural growth1 otherwise there is no apology for its being4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for the ,proper ,use of ,words4--,it is the plan of this book to trace with easy steps the natural development of the sentence1 to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the details4 ,to begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities1 without which the details are scarcely intelligible4 ,the part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence1 and inflections simply mark the offices and relations of words4 ,unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic whole1 his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value4 ,it is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as ,how many sounds have each of the vowels8 ,five years' interest are due4 ,she is older than me4 ,he probably would not say each have1 interest are1 me am4 ,one thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in ,english4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for the ,laws of ,discourse4--,through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms1 but we discover the laws of discourse in general4 ,in the sentence the student should find the law of unity1 of continuity1 of proportion1 of order4 ,all good writing consists of good sentences properly joined4 ,since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse1 it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence4 ,he should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in their proper relation2 he should know the exact function of every element1 its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole4 ,he should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine1 that1 when there is a disorganization of parts1 he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for the ,sake of ,translation4--,the laws of thought being the same for all nations1 the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages4 ,when a student who has acquired a knowledge of the ,english sentence comes to the translation of a foreign language1 he finds his work greatly simplified4 ,if in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words1 how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue6 ,a study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation1 since the declensions and conjugations in ,english do not conform to those of other languages4 ,teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for ,discipline4--,as a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence4 ,to study thought through its outward form1 the sentence1 and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought1 is to learn to think4 ,it has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power4 ,these results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work4 ,experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge that will endure1 nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis4 ,to compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as complex adverbial element of the second class and compound prepositional adjective phrase1 in order to comprehend a few simple functions1 is grossly unjust2 it is a substitution of form for content1 of words for ideas4 ,subdivisions and ,modifications after the ,sentence4--,teachers familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech1 making eight independent units1 will not1 in the following lessons1 find everything in its accustomed place4 ,but1 when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the sentence1 it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of sequence4 ,when1 through the development of the sentence1 all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered1 the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech4 ,the inflection of words1 being distinct from their classification1 makes a separate division of the work4 ,if the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse1 we should not here depart from long-established precedent4 ,sentences in ,groups--,paragraphs4--,in tracing the growth of the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form1 each element1 as it is introduced1 is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences1 chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression4 ,these compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand4 ,paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals1 with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented1 and to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow4 ,the lessons on these selections are1 however1 made to take a much wider scope4 ,they lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs1 and how paragraphs are related to each other2 they also lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented4 ,the ,use of the ,diagram4--,in written analysis1 the simple map1 or diagram1 found in the following lessons1 will enable the pupil to present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence1 of every phrase in the clause1 and of every word in the phrase--to picture the complete analysis of the sentence1 with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations4 ,it is only by the aid of such a map1 or picture1 that the pupil can1 at a single view1 see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various relations4 ,without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or in succession4 ,but if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams1 they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work4 ,the plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams4 ,the ,objections to the ,diagram4--,the fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations1 and not in the order of speech1 has been spoken of as a fault4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 a merit1 for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order4 ,he thus learns what the literary order really is1 and sees that this may be varied indefinitely1 so long as the logical relations are kept clear4 ,the assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts4 ,it is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written4 ,the diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence1 brings him face to face with every difficulty1 and compels a decision on every point4 ,the ,abuse of the ,diagram4--,analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that1 like other good things1 it is liable to be overdone4 ,there is danger of requiring too much written analysis4 ,when the ordinary constructions have been made clear1 diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences1 or1 if the sentences are long1 only for the more difficult parts of them4 ,in both oral and written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition4 ,when the diagram has served its purpose1 it should be dropped4 ,,authors' ,,note ,,to ,,revised ,,edition4 ,during the years in which ,higher ,lessons has been in existence1 we have ourselves had an instructive experience with it in the classroom4 ,we have considered hundreds of suggestive letters written us by intelligent teachers using the book4 ,we have examined the best works on grammar that have been published recently here and in ,england4 ,and we have done more4 ,we have gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language-- the best writers and speakers of it4 ,that we might ascertain what present linguistic usage is1 we chose fifty authors1 now alive or living till recently1 and have carefully read three hundred pages of each4 ,we have minutely noted and recorded what these men by habitual use declare to be good ,english4 ,among the fifty are such men as ,ruskin1 ,froude1 ,hamerton1 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,macaulay1 ,de ,quincey1 ,thackeray1 ,bagehot1 ,john ,morley1 ,james ,martineau1 ,cardinal ,newman1 ,j4 ,r4 ,green1 and ,lecky in ,england2 and ,hawthorne1 ,curtis1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,d4 ,whitney1 ,george ,p4 ,marsh1 ,prescott1 ,emerson1 ,motley1 ,prof4 ,austin ,phelps1 ,holmes1 ,edward ,everett1 ,irving1 and ,lowell in ,america4 ,when in the pages following we anywhere quote usage1 it is to the authority of such men that we appeal4 ,upon these four sources of help we have drawn in the ,revision of ,higher ,lessons that we now offer to the public4 ,in this revised work we have given additional reasons for the opinions we hold1 and have advanced to some new positions2 have explained more fully what some teachers have thought obscure2 have qualified what we think was put too positively in former editions2 have given the history of constructions where this would deepen interest or aid in composition2 have quoted the verdicts of usage on many locutions condemned by purists2 have tried to work into the pupil's style the felicities of expression found in the lesson sentences2 have taught the pupil earlier in the work1 and more thoroughly1 the structure and the function of paragraphs2 and have led him on from the composition of single sentences of all kinds to the composition of these great groups of sentences4 ,but the distinctive features of ,higher ,lessons that have made the work so useful and so popular stand as they have stood--the ,study of ,words from their ,offices in the ,sentence1 ,analysis for the sake of subsequent ,synthesis1 ,easy ,gradation1 the ,subdivisions and ,modifications of the ,parts of ,speech after the treatment of these in the ,sentence1 etc41 etc4 ,we confess to some surprise that so little of what was thought good in matter and method years ago has been seriously affected by criticism since4 ,the additions made to ,higher ,lessons--additions that bring the work up to the latest requirements--are generally in foot-notes to pages1 and sometimes are incorporated into the body of the ,lessons1 which in number and numbering remain as they were4 ,the books of former editions and those of this revised edition can1 therefore1 be used in the same class without any inconvenience4 ,of the teachers who have given us invaluable assistance in this ,revision1 we wish specially to name ,prof4 ,henry ,m4 ,worrell1 of the ,polytechnic ,institute2 and in this edition of the work1 as in the preceding1 we take pleasure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic1 the distinguished ,prof4 ,francis ,a4 ,march1 of ,lafayette ,college4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #a4 ,a ,,talk ,,on ,,language4 ,let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a grammar or from a book of any kind--a language that we come by naturally1 and use without thinking of it4 ,it is a universal language1 and consequently needs no interpreter4 ,people of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it2 even the brute animals in some measure understand it4 ,this ,natural language is the language of cries1 laughter1 and tones1 the language of the eyes1 the nose1 the mouth1 the whole face2 the language of gestures and postures4 ,the child's cry tells of its wants2 its sob1 of grief2 its scream1 of pain2 its laugh1 of delight4 ,the boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nose in disgust1 leans forward in expectation1 draws back in fear1 makes a fist in anger1 and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which he speaks4 ,but feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate4 ,early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think1 and then we feel the need of a better language4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you have formed an idea of a day2 could you express this by a tone1 a look1 or a gesture8 ,if you wish to tell me the fact that yesterday was cloudy1 or that the days are shorter in winter than in summer1 you find it wholly impossible to do this by means of ,natural language4 ,to communicate1 then1 your thoughts1 or even the mental pictures we have called ideas1 you need a language more nearly perfect4 ,this language is made up of words4 ,these words you learn from your mothers1 and so ,word language is your mother-tongue4 ,you learn them1 also1 from your friends and teachers1 your playmates and companions1 and you learn them by reading2 for words1 as you know1 may be written as well as spoken4 ,this ,word language we may1 from its superiority1 call ,language ,proper4 ,natural language1 as was said1 precedes this ,word language1 but gives way as ,word language comes in and takes its place2 yet ,natural language may be used1 and always should be used1 to assist and strengthen ,word language4 ,in earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words1 by the tone in which we utter them1 by the varying expression of the face1 and by the movements of the different parts of the body4 ,the look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word1 or it may contradict it1 and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception4 ,the happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all good reading and speaking4 ,the teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall the pupil to the tones1 the facial expression1 and the action1 so natural to him in childhood and in animated conversation4 ,,definition4--,language ,proper consists of the spoken and the written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts4 ,,definition4--,english ,grammar is the science which teaches the forms1 uses1 and relations of the words of the ,english language4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #b4 ,a ,,talk ,,on ,,thoughts ,,and ,,sentences4 ,to express a thought we use more than a single word1 and the words arranged to express a thought we call a sentence4 ,but there was a time when1 through lack of words1 we compressed our thought into a single word4 ,the child says to his father1 up1 meaning1 ,take me up into your lap2 or1 book1 meaning1 ,this thing in my hand is a book4 ,these first words always deal with the things that can be learned by the senses2 they express the child's ideas of these things4 ,we have spoken of thoughts and sentences2 let us see now whether we can find out what a thought is1 and what a sentence is4 ,a sentence is a group of words expressing a thought2 it is a body of which a thought is the soul4 ,it is something that can be seen or heard1 while a thought cannot be4 ,let us see whether1 in studying a sentence1 we may not learn what a thought is4 ,in any such sentence as this1 ,spiders spin1 something is said1 or asserted1 about something4 ,here it is said1 or asserted1 of the animals1 spiders1 that they spin4 ,the sentence1 then1 consists of two parts1--the name of that of which something is said1 and that which is said of it4 ,the first of these parts we call the ,subject of the sentence2 the second1 the ,predicate4 ,now1 if the sentence1 composed of two parts1 expresses the thought1 there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed4 ,and there are two3 viz41 something of which we think1 and that which we think of it4 ,in the thought expressed by ,spiders spin1 the animals1 spiders1 are the something of which we think1 and their spinning is what we think of them4 ,in the sentence expressing this thought1 the word spiders names that of which we think1 and the word spin tells what we think of spiders4 ,not every group of words is necessarily a sentence1 because it may not be the expression of a thought4 ,spiders spinning is not a sentence4 ,there is nothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment1 i4e41 that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin4 ,the spinning is not asserted of the spiders4 ,soft feathers1 ,the shining sun are not sentences1 and for similar reasons4 ,feathers are soft1 ,the sun shines are sentences4 ,here the asserting word is supplied1 and something is said of something else4 ,the shines sun is not a sentence2 for1 though it contains the asserting word shines1 the arrangement is such that no assertion is made1 and no thought is expressed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #c4 ,a ,,talk ,,on ,,sounds ,,and ,,letters4 ,we have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we use two kinds of words1 spoken words and written words4 ,we learned the spoken words first4 ,mankind spoke long before they wrote4 ,not until people wished to communicate with those at a distance1 or had thought out something worth handing down to aftertimes1 did they need to write4 ,but speaking was easy4 ,the air1 the lungs1 and the organs of the throat and mouth were at hand4 ,the first cry was a suggestion4 ,sounds and noises were heard on every side1 provoking imitation1 and the need of speech for the purposes of communication was imperative4 ,spoken words are made up of sounds4 ,there are over forty sounds in the ,english language4 ,the different combinations of these give us all the words of our spoken tongue4 ,that you may clearly understand these sounds1 we will tell you something about the human voice4 ,in talking1 the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles1 stretched1 like bands1 across the top of the windpipe1 and causes them to vibrate up and down4 ,this vibration makes sound4 ,take a thread1 put one end between your teeth1 hold the other with thumb and finger1 draw it tight and strike it1 and you will understand how voice is made4 ,the shorter the string1 or the tighter it is drawn1 the faster will it vibrate1 and the higher will be the pitch of the sound4 ,the more violent the blow1 the farther will the string vibrate1 and the louder will be the sound4 ,just so with these vocal bands or cords4 ,the varying force with which the breath strikes them and their different tensions and lengths at different times1 explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice4 ,if the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open1 a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds4 ,but if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate1 tongue1 teeth1 or lips1 one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made4 ,if the breath is driven out without voice1 and is held back by these same parts of the mouth1 the other kind of consonant sounds is formed4 ,the written word is made up of characters1 or letters1 which represent to the eye these sounds that address the ear4 ,you are now prepared to understand us when we say that vowels are the letters that stand for the open sounds of the voice1 and that consonants are the letters that stand for the sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed breath4 ,the alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters4 ,a perfect alphabet would have one letter for each sound1 and only one4 ,our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways3-- #a4 ,some of the letters are superfluous2 c stands for the sound of s or of k1 as in city and can2 q has the sound of k1 as in quit2 and x that of ks1 gz1 or z1 as in expel1 exist1 and ,xenophon4 #b4 ,combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds2 as1 th in thine1 th in thin1 ng in sing1 and sh in shut4 #c4 ,some letters stand each for many sounds4 ,twenty-three letters represent over forty sounds4 ,every vowel does more than single duty2 e stands for two sounds1 as in mete and met2 i for two1 as in pine and pin2 o for three1 as in note1 not1 and move2 u for four1 as in tube1 tub1 full1 and fur2 a for six1 as in fate1 fat1 far1 fall1 fast1 and fare4 ,w is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel sound1 and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i1 as in now1 by1 boy1 newly4 ,w and y are consonants at the beginning of a word or syllable4 ,the various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes4 ,these changes in its cavity produce1 also1 the two sounds that unite in each of the compounds1 ou1 oi1 ew1 and in the alphabetic i and o4 #a4 #b4 ,vocal ,consonants4 ,aspirates4 b444444444444444444p d444444444444444444t g444444444444444444k -------------------h j444444444444444444ch l------------------ m------------------ n------------------ r------------------ th44444444444444444th 7in thine7 7in thin7 v444444444444444444f w------------------ y------------------ z 7in zone7444444s z 7in azure744444sh ,the consonants in column #a represent the sounds made by the obstructed voice2 those in column #b1 except h 7which represents a mere forcible breathing71 represent those made by the obstructed breath4 ,the letters are mostly in pairs4 ,now note that the tongue1 teeth1 lips1 and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both letters in any pair4 ,the difference in the sounds of the letters of any pair is simply this3 there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column #a1 and only whisper in those of column #b4 ,give the sound of any letter in column #a1 as b1 g1 v1 and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,write these letters on the board1 as above1 and drill the pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions4 ,drill them on the vowels also4 ,in closing this talk with you1 we wish to emphasize one point brought before you4 ,here is a pencil1 a real thing2 we carry in memory a picture of the pencil1 which we call an idea2 and there are the two words naming this idea1 the spoken and the written4 ,learn to distinguish clearly these four things4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,in reviewing these three ,lessons1 put particular emphasis on ,lesson #b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #d4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,the ,,diagram4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if the pupils have been through ,graded ,lessons or its equivalent1 some of the following ,lessons may be passed over rapidly4 ,,definition4--,a ,sentence is the expression of a thought in words4 ,direction4--,analyze the following sentences3-- ,model4--,spiders spin4 ,why is this a sentence8 ,ans4--,because it expresses a thought4 ,of what is something thought8 ,ans4--,spiders4 ,which word tells what is thought8 ,ans4--,spin4 ,footnote3 ,the word spiders1 standing in ,roman1 names our idea of the real thing2 spin1 used merely as a word1 is in ,italics4 ,this use of ,italics the teacher and the pupil will please note here and elsewhere4 #a4 ,tides ebb4 #b4 ,liquids flow4 #c4 ,steam expands4 #d4 ,carbon burns4 #e4 ,iron melts4 #f4 ,powder explodes4 #g4 ,leaves tremble4 #h4 ,worms crawl4 #i4 ,hares leap4 ,in each of these sentences there are1 as you have learned1 two parts--the ,subject and the ,predicate4 ,,definition4--,the ,subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought4 ,,definition4--,the ,predicate of a sentence tells what is thought4 ,,definition4--,the ,analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts4 ,direction4--,analyze these sentences3-- ,model4--,beavers build4 ,this is a sentence because it expresses a thought4 ,beavers is the subject because it names that of which something is thought2 build is the predicate because it tells what is thought4 ,footnote3 ,when pupils are familiar with the definitions1 let the form of analysis be varied4 ,the reasons may be made more specific4 ,here and elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition4 #a4 ,squirrels climb4 #b4 ,blood circulates4 #c4 ,muscles tire4 #d4 ,heralds proclaim4 #e4 ,apes chatter4 #f4 ,branches wave4 #g4 ,corn ripens4 #h4 ,birds twitter4 #i4 ,hearts throb4 ,explanation4--,draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts4 ,let the first part represent the subject of a sentence2 the second1 the predicate4 ,if you write a word over the first part1 you will understand that this word is the subject of a sentence4 ,if you write a word over the second part1 you will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence4 ,love conquers ,you see1 by looking at this figure1 that ,love conquers is a sentence2 that love is the subject1 and conquers the predicate4 ,such figures1 made up of straight lines1 we call ,diagrams4 ,,definition4--,a ,diagram is a picture of the offices and the relations of the different parts of a sentence4 ,direction4--,analyze these sentences3-- #a4 ,frogs croak4 #b4 ,hens sit4 #c4 ,sheep bleat4 #d4 ,cows low4 #e4 ,flies buzz4 #f4 ,sap ascends4 #g4 ,study pays4 #h4 ,buds swell4 #i4 ,books aid4 #aj4 ,noise disturbs4 #aa4 ,hope strengthens4 #ab4 ,cocks crow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #e4 ,,composition--,,subject ,,and ,,predicate4 ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,the first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter4 ,,period--,,rule4--,a period must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms1 denies1 or commands4 ,direction4--,construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates3-- ,ask yourselves the questions1 ,what tarnishes8 ,who sailed1 conquered1 etc48 #a4 ----- tarnishes4 #b4 ----- capsize4 #c4 ----- radiates4 #d4 ----- sentence4 #e4 ----- careen4 #f4 ----- sailed4 #g4 ----- descends4 #h4 ----- glisten4 #i4 ----- absorb4 #aj4 ----- corrode4 #aa4 ----- conquered4 #ab4 ----- surrendered4 #ac4 ----- refines4 #ad4 ----- gurgle4 #ae4 ----- murmur4 ,direction4--,construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects3-- ,ask yourselves the question1 ,glycerine does what8 #a4 ,glycerine -----4 #b4 ,yankees -----4 #c4 ,tyrants -----4 #d4 ,pendulums -----4 #e4 ,caesar -----4 #f4 ,labor -----4 #g4 ,chalk -----4 #h4 ,nature -----4 #i4 ,tempests -----4 #aj4 ,seeds -----4 #aa4 ,heat -----4 #ab4 ,philosophers -----4 #ac4 ,bubbles -----4 #ad4 ,darkness -----4 #ae4 ,wax -----4 #af4 ,reptiles -----4 #ag4 ,merchants -----4 #ah4 ,meteors -----4 #ai4 ,conscience -----4 #bj4 ,congress -----4 #ba4 ,life -----4 #bb4 ,vapors -----4 #bc4 ,music -----4 #bd4 ,pitch -----4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,this exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several subjects to each predicate1 and several predicates to each subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #f4 ,,analysis4 ,the predicate sometimes contains more than one word4 ,direction4--,analyze as in ,lesson #d4 #a4 ,moisture is exhaled4 #b4 ,conclusions are drawn4 #c4 ,industry will enrich4 #d4 ,stars have disappeared4 #e4 ,twilight is falling4 #f4 ,leaves are turning4 #g4 ,sirius has appeared4 #h4 ,constantinople had been captured4 #i4 ,electricity has been harnessed4 #aj4 ,tempests have been raging4 #aa4 ,nuisances should be abated4 #ab4 ,jerusalem was destroyed4 #ac4 ,light can be reflected4 #ad4 ,rain must have fallen4 #ae4 ,planets have been discovered4 #af4 ,palaces shall crumble4 #ag4 ,storms may be gathering4 #ah4 ,essex might have been saved4 #ai4 ,caesar could have been crowned1 #bj4 ,inventors may be encouraged4 ,direction4--,point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in ,lessons #ab and #ag4 ,look first for the word that asserts1 and then1 by putting who or what before this predicate1 the subject may easily be found4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences4 ,when this can be done promptly1 the first and most important step in analysis will have been taken4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #g4 ,,composition--,,subject ,,and ,,predicate4 ,direction4--,make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the three columns following3-- ,the helping words in column #b must be prefixed to words in column #c in order to make complete predicates4 ,analyze your sentences4 #a #b #c ,arts is progressing4 ,allen was tested4 ,life are command4 ,theories will prolonged4 ,science would released4 ,truth were falling4 ,shadows may be burned4 ,moscow has been measured4 ,raleigh have been prevail4 ,quantity should have been lost4 ,review ,questions4 ,what is language proper8 ,what is ,english grammar8 ,what is a sentence8 ,what are its two parts8 ,what is the subject of a sentence8 ,the predicate of a sentence8 ,the analysis of a sentence8 ,what is a diagram8 ,what rule has been given for the use of capital letters8 ,for the period8 ,may the predicate contain more than one word8 ,illustrate4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,introduce the class to the ,parts of ,speech before the close of this recitation4 ,see ,introductory ,hints below4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #h4 ,,classes ,,of ,,words4 ,,nouns4 ,introductory ,hints4--,we have now reached the point where we must classify the words of our language4 ,but we are appalled by their number4 ,if we must learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by studying these words one by one1 we shall die ignorant of ,english grammar4 ,but may we not deal with words as we do with plants8 ,if we had to study and name each leaf and stem and flower1 taken singly1 we should never master the botany even of our garden-plants4 ,but ,god has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another2 and1 as he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differences1 we are able to group things that have like qualities4 ,from certain likenesses in form and in structure1 we put certain flowers together and call them roses2 from other likenesses1 we get another class called lilies2 from others still1 violets4 ,just so we classify trees and get the oak1 the elm1 the maple1 etc4 ,the myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes4 ,studying each class1 we learn all we need to know of every object in it4 ,from their likenesses1 though not in form1 we classify words4 ,we group them according to their similarities in use1 or office1 in the sentence4 ,sorting them thus1 we find that they all fall into eight classes1 which we call ,parts of ,speech4 ,we find that many words name things--are the names of things of which we can think and speak4 ,these we place in one class and call them ,nouns 7,latin nomen1 a name1 a noun74 ,,pronouns4 ,without the little words which we shall italicize1 it would be difficult for one stranger to ask another1 ,can you tell me who is the postmaster at ,b8 ,the one would not know what name to use instead of you1 the other would not recognize the name in the place of me1 and both would be puzzled to find a substitute for who4 ,i1 you1 my1 me1 what1 we1 it1 he1 who1 him1 she1 them1 and other words are used in place of nouns1 and are1 therefore1 called ,pronouns 7,lat4 pro1 for1 and nomen1 a noun74 ,by means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object in existence4 ,we could hardly speak or write without them now1 they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition4 ,,definition4--,a ,noun is the name of anything4 ,,definition4--,a ,pronoun is a word used for a noun4 ,the principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say1 or assert1 something in the sentence4 ,direction4---,write1 according to the model1 the names of things that can burn1 grow1 melt1 love1 roar1 or revolve4 ,model4-- ,nouns4 ,wood ,paper ,oil ,houses burn or burns4 ,coal ,leaves ,matches ,clothes ,remark4--,notice that1 when the subject adds s or es to denote more than one1 the predicate does not take s4 ,note how it would sound if both should add s4 ,every subject of a sentence is a noun1 or some word or words used as a noun4 ,but not every noun in a sentence is a subject4 ,direction4--,select and write all the nouns and pronouns1 whether subjects or not1 in the sentences given in ,lesson #ah4 ,in writing them observe the following rules3-- ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,proper1 or individual1 names and words derived from them begin with capital letters4 ,,period and ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,abbreviations generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #i4 ,,capital ,,letters4 ,direction4--,from the following words select and write in one column those names that distinguish individual things from others of the same class1 and in another column those words that are derived from individual names3-- ,observe ,rule #a1 ,lesson #h4 ohio1 state1 chicago1 france1 bostonian1 country1 england1 boston1 milton1 river1 girl1 mary1 hudson1 william1 britain1 miltonic1 city1 englishman1 messiah1 platonic1 american1 deity1 bible1 book1 plato1 christian1 broadway1 america1 jehovah1 british1 easter1 europe1 man1 scriptures1 god4 ,direction4--,write the names of the days of the week and the months of the year1 beginning each with a capital letter2 and write the names of the seasons without capital letters4 ,remember that1 when a class name and a distinguishing word combine to make one individual name1 each word begins with a capital letter2 as1 ,jersey ,city4 ,footnote3 ,dead ,sea is composed of the class name sea1 which applies to all seas1 and the word ,dead1 which distinguishes one sea from all others4 ,but1 when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name1 the class name begins with a small letter2 as1 river ,rhine4 ,examples4--,long ,island1 ,good ,friday1 ,mount ,vernon1 ,suspension ,bridge1 ,new ,york city1 ,harper's ,ferry1 ,cape ,may1 ,bunker ,hill1 ,red ,river1 ,lake ,erie1 ,general ,jackson1 ,white ,mountains1 river ,thames1 ,astor ,house1 steamer ,drew1 ,north ,pole4 ,direction4--,write these words1 using capital letters when needed3-- ohio river1 professor huxley1 president adams1 doctor brown1 clinton county1 westchester county1 colonel burr1 secretary stanton1 lake george1 green mountains1 white sea1 cape cod1 delaware bay1 atlantic ocean1 united states1 rhode island4 ,remember that1 when an individual name is made up of a class name1 the word of1 and a distinguishing word1 the class name and the distinguishing word should each begin with a capital letter2 as1 ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,but1 when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name1 the class name should begin with a small letter2 as1 city of ,london4 ,footnote3 ,the need of some definite instruction to save the young writer from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the following variety of forms now in use3 ,city of ,new ,york1 city of ,new ,york1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,new ,york city1 ,new ,york ,state1 ,new ,york state1 ,fourth ,avenue1 ,fourth avenue1 ,grand ,street1 ,grand street1 ,grand st41 ,atlantic ,ocean1 ,atlantic ocean1 ,mediterranean ,sea1 ,mediterranean sea1 ,kings ,county1 ,kings county1 etc4 ,the usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals2 but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency to favor small letters in such cases4 ,in the superscription of letters1 such words as street1 city1 and county begin with capitals4 ,usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words3 river ,rhine1 ,catskill village1 the ,ohio and ,mississippi rivers4 ,if river and village1 in the preceding examples1 are not essential parts of the individual names1 why should river1 ocean1 and county1 in ,hudson river1 ,pacific ocean1 ,queens county1 be treated differently8 ,we often say the ,hudson1 the ,pacific1 ,queens1 without adding the explanatory class name4 ,the principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage2 but it is in the line of progress1 and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an improved appearance of the page4 ,about a century ago every noun began with a capital letter4 ,the ,american ,cyclopedia takes a position still further in advance1 as illustrated in the following3 ,bed river1 ,black sea1 gulf of ,mexico1 ,rocky mountains4 ,in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica 7,little1 ,brown1 ,co41 #ith ed47 we find ,connecticut river1 ,madison county1 etc41 quite uniformly2 but we find ,gulf of ,mexico1 ,pacific ,ocean1 etc4 ,direction4--,write these words1 using capital letters when needed3-- city of atlanta1 isle of man1 straits of dover1 state of ,vermont1 isthmus of darien1 sea of galilee1 queen of england1 bay of naples1 empire of china4 ,remember that1 when a compound name is made up of two or more distinguishing words1 as1 ,henry ,clay1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 each word begins with a capital letter4 ,direction4--,write these words1 using capital letters when needed3-- great britain1 lower california1 south carolina1 daniel webster1 new england1 oliver wendell holmes1 north america1 new orleans1 james russell lowell1 british america4 ,remember that1 in writing the titles of books1 essays1 poems1 plays1 etc41 and the names of the ,deity1 only the chief words begin with capital letters2 as1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 ,supreme ,being1 ,paradise ,lost1 the ,holy ,one of ,israel4 ,direction4--,write these words1 using capital letters when needed3-- declaration of independence1 clarendon's history of the great rebellion1 webster's reply to hayne1 pilgrim's progress1 johnson's lives of the poets1 son of man1 the most high1 dombey and son1 tent on the beach1 bancroft's history of the united states4 ,direction4--,write these miscellaneous names1 using capital letters when needed3-- erie canal1 governor tilden1 napoleon bonaparte1 cape of good hope1 pope's essay on criticism1 massachusetts bay1 city of boston1 continent of america1 new testament1 goldsmith's she stoops to conquer1 milton's hymn on the nativity1 indian ocean1 cape cod bay1 plymouth rock1 anderson's history of the united states1 mount washington1 english channel1 the holy spirit1 new york central railroad1 old world1 long island sound1 flatbush village4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aj4 ,,abbreviations4 ,direction4--,some words occur frequently1 and for convenience may he abbreviated in writing4 ,observing ,rule #b1 ,lesson #h1 abbreviate these words by writing the first five letters3-- ,thursday and lieutenant4 ,these by writing the first four letters3-- ,connecticut1 captain1 ,colorado1 ,kansas1 ,massachusetts1 ,michigan1 ,minnesota1 ,mississippi1 ,nebraska1 ,oregon1 professor1 president1 ,tennessee1 and ,tuesday4 ,these by writing the first three letters3-- ,alabama1 answer1 ,arkansas1 ,california1 colonel1 ,delaware1 ,england1 esquire1 ,friday1 general1 ,george1 governor1 honorable1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1 major1 ,monday1 ,nevada1 reverend1 ,saturday1 secretary1 ,sunday1 ,texas1 ,wednesday1 ,wisconsin1 and the names of the months except ,may1 ,june1 and ,july4 ,these by writing the first two letters3-- ,company1 county1 credit1 example1 and idem 7the same74 ,these by writing the first letter3-- ,east1 north1 south1 and west4 ,footnote3 ,when these words refer to sections of the country1 they should begin with capitals4 ,these by writing the first and the last letter3-- ,doctor1 debtor1 ,georgia1 junior1 ,kentucky1 ,louisiana1 ,maine1 ,maryland1 ,master1 ,mister1 numero 7number71 ,pennsylvania1 saint1 street1 ,vermont1 and ,virginia4 ,these by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after each letter3-- ,artium baccalaureus 7bachelor of arts71 anno ,domini 7in the year of our ,lord71 artium magister 7master of arts71 ante meridiem 7before noon71 before ,christ1 collect on delivery1 ,district 7of7 ,columbia1 divinitatis doctor 7doctor of divinity71 member 7of7 ,congress1 medicinae doctor 7doctor of medicine71 member 7of7 ,parliament1 ,north ,america1 ,north ,carolina1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,york1 postmaster1 post meridiem 7afternoon71 post-office1 ,rhode ,island1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,united ,states4 ,direction4--,the following abbreviations and those you have made should be committed to memory3-- ,acct4 or acct41 account4 ,bbl4 or bbl41 barrel4 ,chas41 ,charles4 ,fla41 ,florida4 ,,ll4 ,d41 legum doctor 7doctor of laws74,footnote3 ,the doubling of the l to ll and in ,,ll4 ,d41 and of p in pp41 with no period between the letters1 comes from pluralizing the nouns line1 lean1 and page4 ,messrs41 messieurs 7gentlemen74 ,mme41 madame4 ,mo41 ,missouri4 ,mrs41 7pronounced missis7 mistress4 ,mts41 mountains4 ,ph4,d41 philosophiae doctor 7doctor of philosophy74 ,recd41 received4 ,robt41 ,robert4 ,supt41 superintendent4 ,thos41 ,thomas4 bu41 bushel4 do41 ditto 7the same7 doz41 dozen4 e4g41 exempli gratia 7for example7 etc41 et caetera 7and others74 ft41 foot1 feet4 hhd41 hogshead4 hdkf41 handkerchief4 i4e41 id est 7that is74 l41 line4 ll41 lines4 lb41 libra 7pound74 oz41 ounce4 p41 page4 pp41 pages4 qt41 quart4 vs41 versus 7against74 viz41 videlicet 7namely74 yd41 yard4 ,remark4--,in this ,lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as now regulated by the ,u4 ,s4 ,official ,postal ,guide4 ,in the ,guide ,iowa and ,ohio are not abbreviated4 ,they are1 however1 frequently abbreviated thus3 ,iowa1 ,ia4 or ,io42 ,ohio1 #j4 ,the similarity1 when hurriedly written1 of the abbreviations ,cal41 ,col42 ,ia41 ,io42 ,neb41 ,nev42 ,penn41 ,tenn41 etc41 has led to much confusion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aa4 ,,verbs4 ,introductory ,hints4--,we told you in ,lesson #h how1 by noticing the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike1 we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes4 ,we began to classify words according to their use1 or office1 in the sentence2 we found one class of words that name things1 and we called them nouns4 ,but in all the sentences given you1 we have had to use another class of words4 ,these words1 you notice1 tell what the things do1 or assert that they are1 or exist4 ,when we say ,clocks tick1 tick is not the name of anything2 it tells what clocks do3 it asserts action4 ,when we say ,clocks are1 or ,there are clocks1 are is not the name of4 anything1 nor does it tell what clocks do2 it simply asserts existence1 or being4 ,when we say ,clocks hang1 stand1 last1 lie1 or remain1 these words hang1 stand1 last1 etc41 do not name anything1 nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist2 they tell the condition1 or state1 in which clocks are1 or exist2 that is1 they assert state of being4 ,all words that assert action1 being1 or state of being1 we call ,verbs 7,lat4 verbum1 a word74 ,the name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence4 ,give several verbs that assert action4 ,give some that assert being1 and some that assert state of being4 ,,definition4--,a ,verb is a word that asserts action1 being-1 or state of being4 ,there are1 however1 two forms of the verb1 the participle and the infinitive 7see ,lessons #cg and #dj71 that express action1 being1 or state of being1 without asserting it4 ,direction4--,write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs as you can think of3-- ,let some express being and some express state of being4 ,model4--,noun4 burns4 melt4 scorches4 ,fire keep4 7or7 spreads4 ,fires glow4 rages4 heat4 exists4 ,remark4--,notice that the simple form of the verb1 as1 burn1 melt1 scorch1 adds s or es when its subject noun names but one thing4 ,lawyers1 mills1 horses1 books1 education1 birds1 mind4 ,a verb may consist of two1 three1 or even four words2 as1 is learning1 may be learned1 could have been learned4 ,footnote3 ,such groups of words are sometimes called verb-phrases4 ,for definition of phrase1 see ,lesson #ag4 ,direction4--,unite the words in columns #b and #c below1 and append the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column #a so as to make good sentences3-- ,remark4--,notice that is1 was1 and has are used with nouns naming one thing1 and with the pronouns he1 she1 and it2 and that are1 were1 and have are used with nouns naming more than one thing1 and with the pronouns we1 you1 and they4 ,i may be used with am1 was1 and have4 #a #b #c ,words am confused4 ,cotton is exported4 ,sugar are refined4 ,air coined4 ,teas was delivered4 ,speeches were weighed4 ,i1 we1 you has been imported4 ,he1 she1 it1 they have been transferred4 ,as verbs are the only words that assert1 every predicate must be a verb1 or must contain a verb4 ,naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing4 ,direction4--,parse five of the sentences you have written4 ,model4--,poland was dismembered4 ,parsing4--,poland is a noun because ----2 was dismembered is a verb because it asserts action4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ab4 ,,modified ,,subject4 ,,adjectives4 ,introductory ,hints4--,the subject noun and the predicate verb are not always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sentence1 though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal bridge4 ,other words may be built upon them4 ,we learned in ,lesson #h that things resemble one another and differ from one another4 ,they resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities4 ,things are alike whose qualities are the same1 as1 two oranges having the same color1 taste1 and odor4 ,things are unlike1 as an orange and an apple1 whose qualities are different4 ,it is by their qualities1 then1 that we know things and group them4 ,ripe apples are healthful4 ,unripe apples are hurtful4 ,in these two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of things2 but the prefixed words ripe and unripe1 marking opposite qualities in the apples1 separate the apples into two kinds--the ripe ones and the unripe ones4 ,these prefixed words ripe and unripe1 then1 limit the word apples in its scope2 ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone applies to4 ,if we say the1 this1 that apple1 or an1 no apple1 or some1 many1 eight apples1 we do not mark any quality of the fruit2 but the1 this1 or that points out a particular apple1 and limits the word apple to the one pointed out2 and an1 no1 some1 many1 or eight limits the word in respect to the number of apples that it denotes4 ,these and all such words as by marking quality1 by pointing out1 or by specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of the noun1 modify it1 and are called ,modifiers4 ,in the sentence above1 apples is the ,simple ,subject and ripe apples is the ,modified ,subject4 ,words that modify nouns and pronouns are called ,adjectives 7,lat4 ad1 to1 and jacere1 to throw74 ,,definition4--,a ,modifier is a word or a group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning4 ,the ,subject with its ,modifiers is called the ,modified ,subject1 or ,logical ,subject4 ,,definition4--,an ,adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 #a4 ,the cold ,november rain is falling4 rain is falling ,the cold ,november ,explanation4--,the two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand for the subject and the predicate1 and show that these are of the same rank1 and are the principal parts of the sentence4 ,the lighter lines1 placed under and joined to the subject line1 stand for the less important parts1 the modifiers1 and show what is modified4 ,footnote3 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,when several adjectives are joined to one noun1 each adjective does not always modify the unlimited noun4 ,that old wooden house was burned4 ,here wooden modifies house1 old modifies house limited by wooden1 and that modifies house limited by old and wooden4 ,this may be illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their rank1 thus3-- #c #b #a ,adverbs1 and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the same way4 ,if the pupils are able to see these distinctions1 it will be well to have them made in the analysis1 as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement4 ,see ,lessons #ac and #ba4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,while we1 from experience1 are clear in the belief that diagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences1 we wish to say that the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these figures4 ,if some other form1 or no form1 of written analysis is preferred1 our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion4 ,when diagrams are used1 only the teacher can determine how many shall be required in any one ,lesson1 and how soon the pupil may dispense with their aid altogether4 ,oral ,analysis4--7,here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous ,lessons47 ,the1 cold1 and ,november are modifiers of the subject4 ,the cold ,november rain is the modified subject4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,while in these models we wish to avoid repetition1 we should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some of the sentences in every ,lesson4 ,parsing4--,the1 cold1 and ,november are adjectives modifying rain--cold and ,november expressing quality1 and the pointing out4 #b4 ,the great ,spanish ,armada was destroyed4 #c4 ,a free people should be educated4 #d4 ,the old ,liberty ,bell was rung4 #e4 ,the famous ,alexandrian library was burned4 #f4 ,the odious ,stamp ,act was repealed4 #g4 ,every intelligent ,american citizen should vote4 #h4 ,the long ,hoosac ,tunnel is completed4 #i4 ,i alone should suffer4 #aj4 ,all nature rejoices4 #aa4 ,five large1 ripe1 luscious1 mellow apples were picked4 #ab4 ,the melancholy autumn days have come4 #ac4 ,a poor old wounded soldier returned4 #ad4 ,the oppressed ,russian serfs have been freed4 #ae4 ,immense suspension bridges have been built4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ac4 ,,composition--,,adjectives4 ,caution4--,when two or more adjectives are used with a noun1 care must be taken in their arrangement4 ,if they differ in rank1 place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it4 ,if of the same rank1 place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length1 the shortest first4 ,explanation4--,two honest young men were chosen1 ,a tall1 straight1 dignified person entered4 ,young tells the kind of men1 honest tells the kind of young men1 and two tells the number of honest young men2 hence these adjectives are not of the same rank4 ,tall1 straight1 and dignified modify person independently--the person is tall and straight and dignified2 hence these adjectives are of the same rank4 ,notice the comma after tall and straight2 and may be supplied2 in the first sentence and cannot be supplied4 ,see ,lesson #ba4 ,direction4--,arrange the adjectives below1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,a ,newfoundland pet handsome large dog4 #b4 ,level low five the fields4 #c4 ,a wooden rickety large building4 #d4 ,blind white beautiful three mice4 #e4 ,an energetic restless brave people4 #f4 ,an enlightened civilized nation4 ,direction4--,form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these predicates3-- #a4 ------ have been invented4 #b4 ------ were destroyed4 #c4 ------ are cultivated4 #d4 ------ may be abused4 #e4 ------ was mutilated4 #f4 ------ were carved4 #g4 ------ have been discovered4 #h4 ------ have fallen4 #i4 ------ will be respected4 #aj4 ------ have been built4 ,direction4--,construct ten sentences1 each of which shall contain a subject modified by three adjectives--one from each of these columns3-- ,let the adjectives be appropriate4 ,for punctuation1 see ,lesson #ba4 ,the dark sunny ,that bright wearisome ,this dingy commercial ,those short blue ,these soft adventurous ,five brave fleecy ,some tiny parallel ,several important cheerless ,many long golden ,a warm turbid ,direction4--,prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate adjectives3-- ,river1 frost1 grain1 ships1 air1 men4 ,direction4--,couple those adjectives and nouns below that most appropriately go together3-- ,modest1 lovely1 flaunting1 meek1 patient1 faithful1 saucy1 spirited1 violet1 dahlia1 sheep1 pansy1 ox1 dog1 horse1 rose1 gentle1 duck1 sly1 waddling1 cooing1 chattering1 homely1 chirping1 puss1 robin1 dove1 sparrow1 blackbird1 cow1 hen1 cackling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ad4 ,,modified ,,predicate4 ,,adverbs4 ,introductory ,hints4--,you have learned that the subject may be modified2 let us see whether the predicate may be4 ,if we say1 ,the leaves fall1 we express a fact in a general way4 ,but1 if we wish to speak of the time of their falling1 we can add a word and say1 ,the leaves fall early2 of the place of their falling1 ,the leaves fall here2 of the manner1 ,the leaves fall quietly2 of the cause1 ,why do the leaves fall8 ,we may join a word to one of these modifiers and say1 ,the leaves fall very quietly4 ,here very modifies quietly by telling the degree4 ,very quietly is a group of words modifying the predicate4 ,the predicate with its modifiers is called the ,modified ,predicate4 ,such words as very1 here1 and quietly form another part of speech1 and are called ,adverbs 7,lat4 ad1 to1 and verbum1 a word1 or verb74 ,adverbs may modify adjectives2 as1 ,very ripe apples are healthful4 ,adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns--by limiting them4 ,the horse has a proud step ,the horse steps proudly4 ,the ,predicate with its ,modifiers is called the ,modified ,predicate1 or ,logical ,predicate4 ,,definition4--,an ,adverb is a word used to modify a verb1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,footnote3 ,see ,lesson #ib and foot-note4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 #a4 ,the leaves fall very quietly4 leaves fall ,the quietly very ,oral ,analysis4--,very quietly is a modifier of the predicate2 quietly is the principal word of the group2 very modifies quietly2 the leaves is the modified subject2 fall very quietly is the modified predicate4 ,parsing4--,quietly is an adverb modifying fall1 telling the manner2 very is an adverb modifying quietly1 telling the degree4 #b4 ,the old1 historic ,charter ,oak was blown down4 #c4 ,the stern1 rigid ,puritans often worshiped there4 #d4 ,bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere4 #e4 ,the precious morning hours should not be wasted4 #f4 ,the timely suggestion was very kindly received4 #g4 ,we turned rather abruptly4 #h4 ,a highly enjoyable entertainment was provided4 #i4 ,the entertainment was highly enjoyed4 #aj4 ,why will people exaggerate so6 #aa4 ,a somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly4 #ab4 ,we now travel still more rapidly4 #ac4 ,therefore he spoke excitedly4 #ad4 ,you will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed4 #ae4 ,a furious equinoctial gale has just swept by4 #af4 ,the ,hell ,gate reef was slowly drilled away4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ae4 ,,composition--,,adverbs4 ,caution4--,so place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify4 ,have regard to the sound also4 ,direction4--,place the1 italicized words below in different positions1 and note the effect on the sound and the sense3-- #a4 ,i immediately ran out4 #b4 ,only one was left there4 #c4 ,she looked down proudly4 #d4 ,unfortunately1 this assistance came too late4 ,direction4--,construct on each of these subjects three sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates3--- ,for punctuation1 see ,lesson #ba4 ,model4 ---- clouds ----4 #a4 ,dark1 heavy1 threatening clouds are slowly gathering above4 #b4 ,those1 brilliant1 crimson clouds will very soon dissolve4 #c4 ,thin1 fleecy clouds are scudding over4 l4 ---- ocean ----4 #b4 ---- breeze ----4 #c4 ---- shadows ----4 #d4 ---- rock ----4 #e4 ---- leaves ----4 ,direction4--,compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify verbs3-- ,heretofore1 hereafter1 annually1 tenderly1 inaudibly1 legibly1 evasively1 everywhere1 aloof1 forth4 ,direction4--,compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall modify adjectives1 and five shall modify adverbs3-- ,far1 unusually1 quite1 altogether1 slightly1 somewhat1 much1 almost1 too1 rather4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #af4 ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,in all school work1 but especially here1 where the philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed in progressive steps1 success depends largely on the character of the reviews4 ,let reviews be1 so far as possible1 topical4 ,require frequent outlines of the work passed over1 especially of what is taught in the ,introductory ,hints4 ,the language1 except that of ,rules and ,definitions1 should be the pupil's own1 and the illustrative sentences should be original4 ,direction4--,review from ,lesson #h to ,lesson #ae1 inclusive4 ,give the substance of the ,introductory ,hints 7tell1 for example1 what three things such words as tick1 are1 and remain do in the sentence1 what office they have in common1 what such words are called1 and why2 what common office such words as ripe1 the1 and eight have1 in what three ways they perform it1 what such words are called1 and why1 etc474 ,repeat and illustrate definitions and rules2 illustrate what is taught of the capitalization and the abbreviation of names1 and of the position of adjectives and adverbs4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 7,,see ,,pages #aej-aec47 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,after the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis and construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude everything unfamiliar1 he may be led to recognize these same principles in longer related sentences grouped into paragraphs4 ,the study of paragraphs selected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparation for what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of the text-book4 ,these ,exercises are offered only as suggestions4 ,the teacher must1 of course1 determine where and how often this composition should be introduced4 ,we invite special attention to the study of the paragraph4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ag4 ,,prepositional ,,phrases ,,and ,,prepositions4 ,introductory ,hints4--,to express our thoughts with greater exactness we may need to expand a word modifier into several words2 as1 ,a long ride brought us there ,a ride of one hundred miles brought us to ,chicago4 ,these groups of words1 of one hundred miles and to ,chicago--the one substituted for the adjective long1 the other for the adverb there--we call ,phrases4 ,a phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an ,adjective ,phrase4 ,a phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an ,adverb ,phrase4 ,as adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs1 they may modify their equivalent phrases2 as1 ,the train stops only at the station4 ,they sometimes modify only the introductory word of the phrase--this introductory word being adverbial in its nature2 as1 ,he sailed nearly around the globe4 ,that we may learn the office of such words as of1 to1 and at1 used to introduce these phrases1 let us see how the relation of one idea to another may be expressed4 ,wealthy men4 ,these two words express two ideas as related4 ,we have learned to know this relation by the form and position of the words4 ,change these1 and the relation is lost--men wealth4 ,but by using of before wealth the relation is restored---men of wealth4 ,the word of1 then1 shows the relation between the ideas expressed by the words men and wealth4 ,all such relation words are called ,prepositions 7,lat4 prae1 before1 and positus1 placed--their usual position being before the noun with which they form a phrase74 ,a phrase introduced by a preposition is called a ,prepositional ,phrase4 ,this1 however1 is not the only kind of phrase4 ,,definition4--,a ,phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas1 and having a distinct office1 but not expressing a thought4 ,,definition4--,a ,preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier1 and shows the relation1 in sense1 of its principal word to the word modified4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 #a4 ,the pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions in ,lesson #ab1 concerning the use of diagrams4 pitch depends ,the of upon note rapidity -------- ------------ the musical the of vibration --------- ,explanation4--,the diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line standing for the introductory word1 and a horizontal line representing the principal word4 ,under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the modifiers of the principal word4 ,oral ,analysis4---,the and the adjective phrase of the musical note are modifiers of the subject2 the adverb phrase upon the rapidity of vibration is a modifier of the predicate4 ,of introduces the first phrase1 and note is the principal word2 the and musical are modifiers of note2 upon introduces the second phrase1 and rapidity is the principal word2 the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modifiers of rapidity2 of introduces this phrase1 and vibration is the principal word4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions in ,lesson #ab1 concerning oral analysis4 ,parsing4--,of is a preposition showing the relation1 in sense1 of note to pitch2 etc41 etc4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,insist that1 in parsing1 the pupils shall give specific reasons instead of general definitions4 #b4 ,the ,gulf ,stream can be traced along the shores of the ,united ,states by the blueness of the water4 #c4 ,the ,north ,pole has been approached in three principal directions4 #d4 ,in #afjg1 ,hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the ,north ,pole4 ,footnote3 #afjg may be treated as a noun1 and six hundred as one adjective4 #e4 ,the breezy morning died into silent noon4 #f4 ,the ,delta of the ,mississippi was once at ,st4 ,louis4 #g4 ,coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants4 #h4 ,genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom4 in below atmosphere just ,falls only the ,explanation4----,only modifies the whole phrase1 and just modifies the preposition4 #i4 ,the ,suspension ,bridge is stretched across the ,niagara river just below the ,falls4 #aj4 ,in ,mother ,goose the cow jumps clear over the moon4 #aa4 ,the first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth century4 #ab4 ,the first astronomical observatory in ,europe was erected at ,seville by the ,saracens4 #ac4 ,the tails of some comets stretch to the distance of #ajj1jjj1jjj miles4 #ad4 ,the body of the great ,napoleon was carried back from ,st4 ,helena to ,france4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ah4 ,,composition-,,prepositional ,,phrases4 ,,comma-,,rule4--,phrases that are placed out of their usual order ,footnote3 ,for the usual order of words and phrases1 see ,lesson #ea4 and made emphatic1 or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence1 should be set off by the comma4 ,footnote3 ,an expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas2 at the beginning or at the end1 by one comma4 ,remark4--,this rule must be applied with caution4 ,unless it is desired to make the phrase emphatic1 or to break the continuity of the thought1 the growing usage among writers is not to set it off4 ,direction4--,tell why the comma is1 or is not1 used in these sentences3-- #a4 ,between the two mountains lies a fertile valley4 #b4 ,of the scenery along the ,rhine1 many travelers speak with enthusiasm4 #c4 ,he went1 at the urgent request of the stranger1 for the doctor4 #d4 ,he went from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia on ,monday4 #e4 ,in the dead of night1 with a chosen band1 under the cover of a truce1 he approached4 ,direction4--,punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation3-- #a4 ,england in the eleventh century was conquered by the ,normans4 #b4 ,amid the angry yells of the spectators he died4 #c4 ,for the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its natural order4 #d4 ,in the ,pickwick ,papers the conversation of ,sam ,weller is spiced with wit4 #e4 ,new ,york on the contrary abounds in men of wealth4 #f4 ,it has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to the present day4 ,direction4--,see in how many places the phrases in the sentences above may stand without obscuring the thought4 ,caution4--,so place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to what yon intend them to modify4 ,have regard to the sound also4 ,direction4--,correct these errors in position1 and use the comma when needed3-- #a4 ,the honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the president4 #b4 ,that small man is speaking with red whiskers4 #c4 ,a message was read from the ,president in the ,senate4 #d4 ,with his gun toward the woods he started in the morning4 #e4 ,on ,monday evening on temperance by ,mr4 ,gough a lecture at the old brick church was delivered4 ,direction4--,form a sentence out of each of these groups of words3-- 7,look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation47 #a4 ,of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty4 #b4 ,of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen smile4 #c4 ,has been scattered ,bible ,english the of millions by hundreds of the earth over the face4 #d4 ,to the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep roads we after much fatigue came4 #e4 ,at the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth4 ,direction4--,see into how many good1 clear sentences you can convert these by transposing the phrases3-- #a4 ,he went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood4 #b4 ,ticonderoga was taken from the ,british by ,ethan ,allen on the tenth of ,may in #agge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ai4 ,,composition--,,prepositional ,,phrases4 ,direction4--,rewrite these sentences1 changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases3-- ,model4--,the sentence was carefully written4 ,the sentence was written with care4 #a4 ,a brazen image was then set up4 #b4 ,those homeless children were kindly treated4 #c4 ,much has been said about the ,swiss scenery4 #d4 ,an aerial trip to ,europe was rashly planned4 #e4 ,the ,american ,continent was probably discovered by ,cabot4 ,direction4--,change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases2 and then1 attending carefully to the punctuation1 use these phrases in sentences of your own3-- #a4 ,bostonian #b4 why #c4 incautiously #d4 nowhere #e4 there #f4 hence #g4 northerly #h4 national #i4 whence #aj4 here #aa4 ,arabian #ab4 lengthy #ac4 historical #ad4 lucidly #ae4 earthward ,direction4--,compose sentences1 using these phrases as modifiers3-- ,of copper2 in ,pennsylvania2 from the ,west ,indies2 around the world2 between the tropics2 toward the ,pacific2 on the #bb;d of ,february2 during the reign of ,elizabeth2 before the application of steam to machinery2 at the ,centennial ,exposition of #ahgf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bj4 ,,compound ,,subject ,,and ,,compound ,,predicate4 ,,conjunctions ,,and ,,interjections4 ,introductory ,hints4--,edward1 ,mary1 and ,elizabeth reigned in ,england4 ,the three words ,edward1 ,mary1 and ,elizabeth have the same predicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens4 ,edward1 ,mary1 and ,elizabeth are connected by and1 and being understood between ,edward and ,mary4 ,connected subjects having the same predicate form a ,compound ,subject4 ,charles ,i4 was seized1 was tried1 and was beheaded4 ,the three predicates was seized1 was tried1 and was beheaded have the same subject--the three acts being asserted of the same king4 ,connected predicates having the same subject form a ,compound ,predicate4 ,a sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate2 as1 ,mary and ,elizabeth lived and reigned in ,england4 ,the words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compound predicate are called ,conjunctions 7,lat4 con1 or cum1 together1 and jungere1 to join74 ,a conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence1 as two word modifiers--,a dark and rainy night follows2 ,some men sin deliberately and presumptuously4 ,it may connect two phrases2 as1 ,the equinox occurs in ,march and in ,september4 ,it may connect two clauses1 that is1 expressions that1 standing alone1 would be sentences2 as1 ,the leaves of the pine fall in spring1 but the leaves of the maple drop in autumn4 ,interjections 7,lat4 inter1 between1 and jacere1 to throw7 are the eighth and last part of speech4 ,oh6 ah6 pooh6 pshaw6 etc41 express bursts of feeling too sudden and violent for deliberate sentences4 ,hail6 fudge6 indeed6 amen6 etc41 express condensed thought as well as feeling4 ,any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words1 and may lapse into an interjection2 as1 behold6 shame6 what6 ,professor ,sweet calls interjections sentence-words4 ,two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a ,compound ,subject4 ,two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a ,compound ,predicate4 ,,definition4--,a ,conjunction is a word used to connect words1 phrases1 or clauses4 ,,definition4--,an ,interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 #a4 ,ah6 anxious wives1 sisters1 and mothers wait for the news4 ,ah ---- wives ' ' wait sisters 'x ' anxious for 'and_/ ' _/ news mothers ' _/ ----- '_/ the ,explanation4--,the three short horizontal lines represent each a part of the compound subject4 ,they are connected by dotted lines1 which stand for the connecting word4 ,the x shows that a conjunction is understood4 ,the line standing for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject line which represents the entire subject4 ,turn this diagram about1 and the connected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate4 ,oral ,analysis4---,wives1 sisters1 and mothers form the compound subject2 anxious is a modifier of the compound subject2 and connects sisters and mothers4 ,parsing4--,and is a conjunction connecting sisters and mothers2 ah is an interjection1 expressing a sudden burst of feeling4 #b4 ,in a letter we may advise1 exhort1 comfort1 request1 and discuss4 7,for diagram see the last sentence of the ,explanation above47 #c4 ,the mental1 moral1 and muscular powers are improved by use4 powers came ,the ,x and and of 44444444 4444444 parentage muscular ----------- moral from mental land --------- #d4 ,the hero of the ,book of ,job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage4 #e4 ,the optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball1 and there spreads out4 #f4 ,between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body4 #g4 ,all forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found in the body4 #h4 ,by perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the faculties4 #i4 ,ugh6 ,i look forward with dread to to-morrow4 #aj4 ,from the ,mount of ,olives1 the ,dead ,sea1 dark and misty and solemn1 is seen4 #aa4 ,tush6 tush6 't will not again appear4 #ab4 ,a sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in ,china and in other parts of ,asia4 #ac4 ,some men sin deliberately and presumptuously4 #ad4 ,feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century4 #ae4 ,the opinions of the ,new ,york press are quoted in every port and in every capital4 #af4 ,both friend and foe applauded4 friend ------------------- ' ' applauded 'and4444 ,both ' _/ foe ' _/ --------'----------_/ ,explanation4--,the conjunction both is used to strengthen the real connective and4 ,either and neither do the same for or and nor in either--or1 neither--nor4 ,remark4--,a phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a ,complex ,phrase4 ,two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a ,compound ,phrase4 ,direction4--,pick out the simple1 the complex1 and the compound phrases in the sentences above4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ba4 ,,composition---,,connected ,,terms ,,and ,,interjections4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed4 ,remark4--,when words and phrases stand in pairs1 the pairs are separated according to the ,rule1 but the words of each pair are not4 ,when one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma might be referred to both1 or1 when the parts of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified1 these terms or parts are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted4 ,when two terms connected by or have the same meaning1 the second is logically explanatory of the first1 and is set off by the comma1 i4 e41 when it occurs in the body of a sentence1 a comma is placed after the explanatory word1 as well as before the or4 ,direction4--,justify the punctuation of these sentences3-- #a4 ,long1 pious pilgrimages are made to ,mecca4 #b4 ,empires rise1 flourish1 and decay4 #c4 ,cotton is raised in ,egypt1 in ,india1 and in the ,united ,states4 #d4 ,the brain is protected by the skull1 or cranium4 #e4 ,nature and art and science were laid under tribute4 #f4 ,the room was furnished with a table1 and a chair without legs4 #g4 ,the old oaken bucket hangs in the well4 ,explanation4--,no comma here1 for no conjunction is omitted4 ,oaken limits bucket1 old limits bucket modified by oaken1 and the limits bucket modified by old and oaken4 ,see ,lesson #ac4 #h4 ,a ,christian spirit should be shown to ,jew or ,greek1 male or female1 friend or foe4 #i4 ,we climbed up a mountain for a view4 ,explanation4--,no comma4 ,up a mountain tells where we climbed1 and for a view tells why we climbed up a mountain4 #aj4 ,the boy hurries away from home1 and enters upon a career of business or of pleasure4 #aa4 ,the long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm1 and the brothers and sons of the king4 ,direction4--,punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,men and women and children stare cry out and run4 #b4 ,bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by ,milton4 #c4 ,few honest industrious men fail of success in life4 7,where is the conjunction omitted87 #d4 ,ireland or the ,emerald ,isle lies to the west of ,england4 #e4 ,that relates to the names of animals or of things without sex4 #f4 ,the ,hebrew is closely allied to the ,arabic the ,phoenician the ,syriac and the ,chaldee4 #g4 ,we sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet4 #h4 ,the horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance of hay and grain4 #i4 ,spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick succession4 #aj4 ,a few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village4 ,,exclamation ,,point--,,rule4--,all ,exclamatory ,expressions must be followed by the exclamation point4 ,remark4--,sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjection and the words following it form the exclamatory expression2 as1 ,oh6 it hurts4 ,oh1 the beautiful snow6 ,o is used in direct address2 as1 ,o father1 listen to me4 ,oh is used as a cry of pain1 surprise1 delight1 fear1 or appeal4 ,this distinction1 however desirable1 is not strictly observed1 ,o being frequently used in place of ,oh4 ,,capital ,,letters--,,rule4--,the words ,i and ,o should be written in capital letters4 ,direction4--,correct these violations of the two rules given above3-- #a4 o noble judge o excellent young man4 #b4 ,out of the depths have i cried unto thee4 #c4 ,hurrah the field is won4 #d4 ,pshaw how foolish4 #e4 ,oh oh oh i shall be killed4 #f4 o life how uncertain o death how inevitable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bb4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,direction4--,beginning with the #hth sentence of the first group of exercises in ,lesson #ba1 analyze thirteen sentences1 omitting the #dth of the second group4 ,model4--,a ,christian spirit should be shown to ,jew or ,greek1 male or female1 friend or foe4 spirit should be shown _/ ,jew _/'-------- ,a ,christian _/' ' ,greek _/ ' -------- _/ ' to _/ x ' _/ male --_/ '_/'-------- ' ' female x ' -------- ' ' _/ friend _/'--------- ' foe --------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bc4 ,,composition--,,connected ,,terms4 ,direction4--,using the nouns below1 compose sentences with compound subjects2 compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates2 and others in which the adjectives1 the adverbs1 and the phrases shall form compound modifiers3-- ,in some let there be three or more connected terms4 ,observe ,rule1 ,lesson #ba1 for punctuation4 ,let your sentences mean something4 ,,nouns4 ,washington1 beauty1 grace1 ,jefferson1 symmetry1 lightning1 ,lincoln1 electricity1 copper1 silver1 flowers1 gold1 rose1 lily4 ,,verbs4 ,examine1 sing1 pull1 push1 report1 shout1 love1 hate1 like1 scream1 loathe1 approve1 fear1 obey1 refine1 hop1 elevate1 skip1 disapprove4 ,,adjectives4 ,direction4--,see ,caution1 ,lesson #ac4 ,bright1 acute1 patient1 careful1 apt1 forcible1 simple1 homely1 happy1 short1 pithy1 deep1 jolly1 mercurial1 precipitous4 ,,adverbs4 ,direction4--,see ,caution1 ,lesson #ae4 ,neatly1 slowly1 carefully1 sadly1 now1 here1 never1 hereafter4 ,,phrases4 ,on sea2 in the city2 by day2 on land2 by night2 in the country2 by hook2 across the ocean2 by crook2 over the lands2 along the level road2 up the mountains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bd4 ,,review4 ,,capital ,,letters ,,and ,,punctuation4 ,direction4--,give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark of punctuation used below3-- #a4 ,the sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle1 or skin4 #b4 ,the degrees of ,a4,b41 ,a4,m41 ,d4,d41 and ,,ll4,d4 are conferred by the colleges and the universities of the country4 #c4 ,oh1 ,i am so happy6 #d4 ,fathers and mothers1 sons and daughters rejoice at the news4 #e4 ,plants are nourished by the earth1 and the carbon of the air4 #f4 ,a tide of ,american travelers is constantly flooding ,europe4 #g4 ,the tireless1 sleepless sun rises above the horizon1 and climbs slowly and steadily to the zenith4 #h4 ,he retired to private life on half pay1 and on the income of a large estate in the ,south4 ,direction4--,write these expressions1 using capital letters and marks of punctuation where they belong3-- #a4 a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied #b4 maj1 cal1 bu1 p m1 rev1 no1 hon1 ft1 w1 e1 oz1 mr1 n y1 a b1 mon1 bbl1 st #c4 o father o father i cannot breathe here #d4 ha ha that sounds well #e4 the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france #f4 mrs1 vs1 co1 esq1 yd1 pres1 u s1 prof1 o1 do1 dr #g4 hurrah good news good news #h4 the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars #i4 the baltic sea lies between sweden and russia #aj4 the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico #aa4 supt1 capt1 qt1 ph d1 p1 cr1 i e1 doz #ab4 benjamin franklin was born in boston in #agjf and died in #agij ,direction4--,correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation1 and give your reasons3-- #a ,oliver cromwell ruled1 over the english ,people1 #b4 halloo4 ,i must speak to ,you6 #c4 john ,milton1 went abroad in ,early ,life1 and1 stayed1 for some time1 with the ,scholars of ,italy1 #d4 ,most ,fuel consists of ,coal and ,wood from the ,forests #e4 books are read for ,pleasure and the ,instruction and improvement of the ,intellect1 #f4 ,in rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches #g4 hark they are coming6 #h4 ,a1 neat1 simple and manly style is pleasing to ,us4 #i4 alas poor thing alas1 #aj4 i fished on a1 dark1 and cool1 and mossy1 trout stream4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #be4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review4 ,,analysis4 #a4 ,by the streets of ,by-and-by1 one arrives at the house of ,never4--,spanish ,proverb ,footnote3 ,by-and-by has no real streets1 the ,london journals do not actually thunder1 nor were the cheeks of ,william the ,testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes4 ,streets1 house1 colored1 thunder1 and scorched are not1 then1 used here in their first and ordinary meaning1 but in a secondary and figurative sense4 ,these words we call ,metaphors4 ,by what they denote and by what they only suggest they lend clearness1 vividness1 and force to the thought they help to convey1 and add beauty to the expression4 ,for further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech1 see pages #hg1 #acf1 #aee1 #aef1 #afe1 and ,lesson #aej4 #b4 ,the winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navigators4--,gibbon4 #c4 ,the axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and every town or city4--,holmes4 #d4 ,the arrogant ,spartan1 with a ,french-like glorification1 boasted forever of little ,thermopylae4--,de ,quincey4 #e4 ,the purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of pleasure or pain4--,hamilton4 #f4 ,the thunder of the great ,london journals reverberates through every clime4--,marsh4 #g4 ,the cheeks of ,william the ,testy were scorched into a dusky red by two fiery little gray eyes4--,irving4 #h4 ,the study of natural science goes hand in hand with the culture of the imagination4--,tyndall4 ,footnote3 ,hand in hand may be treated as one adverb1 or with may be supplied4 #i4 ,the whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the sea4--,swain4 #aj4 ,the ,arabian ,empire stretched from the ,atlantic to the ,chinese ,wall1 and from the shores of the ,caspian ,sea to those of the ,indian ,ocean4--,draper4 #aa4 ,one half of all known materials consists of oxygen4--,cooke4 #ab4 ,the range of thirty pyramids1 even in the time of ,abraham1 looked down on the plain of ,memphis4--,stanley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bf4 ,,written ,,parsing4 ,direction4--,parse the sentences of ,lesson #be according to this ,model for ,written ,parsing4 ,nouns4 ,pron4 ,verbs4 ,adj4 ,adv4 ,prep4 ,conj4 ,int4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ast streets1 the1the4 ,by1of1 sentence,by-and- one4 arrives4 at1of by1 house1 ,never4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #b;d sentence ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,until the ,subdivisions and ,modifications of parts of speech are reached1 ,oral and ,written ,parsing can be only a classification of the words in the sentence4 ,you must judge how frequently a lesson like this is needed1 and how much parsing should be done orally day by day4 ,in their ,oral ,analysis let the pupils give at first the reasons for every statement1 but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set terms2 and1 when you think it can safely be done1 let them drop it4 ,but ask now and then1 whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing1 for the reason of this1 that1 or the other step taken4 ,here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which any word belongs is determined by the use of the word1 and not from its form4 ,such exercises as the following are suggested3-- ,use right words4 ,act right4 ,right the wrong4 ,you are in the right4 ,pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the different uses of the same word4 ,it is hardly necessary for us to make lists of words that have different uses4 ,any dictionary will furnish abundant examples4 ,it is an excellent practice to point out such words in the regular exercises for analysis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bg4 ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions1 ,lesson #af4 ,direction4--,review from ,lesson #ag to ,lesson #ba1 inclusive4 ,give the substance of the ,introductory ,hints 7tell1 for example1 what such words as long and there may be expanded into1 how these expanded forms may be modified1 how introduced1 what the introductory words are called1 and why1 etc474 ,repeat and illustrate definitions and rules2 illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases1 and of the punctuation of phrases1 connected terms1 and exclamatory expressions4 ,how many parts of speech are there8 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 7,,see ,,pages #aec-aef47 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see notes to the teacher1 pages #cj1 #aej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bh4 ,,nouns ,,as ,,object ,,complements4 ,introductory ,hints4--,in saying ,washington captured1 we do not fully express the act performed by ,washington4 ,if we add a noun and say1 ,washington captured ,cornwallis1 we complete the predicate by naming that which receives the act4 ,whatever fills out1 or completes1 is a ,complement4 ,as ,cornwallis completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon--the object--we call it the ,object ,complement4 ,connected objects completing the same verb form a ,compound ,object ,complement2 as1 ,washington captured ,cornwallis and his army4 ,,definition4--,the ,object ,complement of a ,sentence completes the predicate1 and names that which receives the act4 ,the complement with all its modifiers is called the ,modified ,complement4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,clear thinking makes clear writing4 thinking makes writing clear clear ,oral ,analysis4---,writing is the object complement2 clear writing is the modified complement1 and makes clear writing is the entire predicate4 #b4 ,austerlitz killed ,pitt4 #c4 ,the invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism4 #d4 ,liars should have good memories4 #e4 ,we find the first surnames in the tenth century4 #f4 ,god tempers the wind to the shorn lamb4 #g4 ,benjamin ,franklin invented the lightning-rod4 #h4 ,at the opening of the thirteenth century1 ,oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of ,europe4 took _/--------- ,oxford _/ ' rank and' ' _/ ' held _/ -------_/ revolves _/------------ moon _/ ' and' ' ' keeps side --------------- #i4 ,the moon revolves1 and keeps the same side toward us4 #aj4 ,hunger rings the bell1 and orders up coals in the shape of bread and butter1 beef and bacon1 pies and puddings4 #aa4 ,the history of the ,trojan war rests on the authority of ,homer1 and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity4 #ab4 ,every stalk1 bud1 flower1 and seed displays a figure1 a proportion1 a harmony1 beyond the reach of art4 #ac4 ,the natives of ,ceylon build houses of the trunk1 and thatch roofs with the leaves1 of the cocoa-nut palm4 #ad4 ,richelieu exiled the mother1 oppressed the wife1 degraded the brother1 and banished the confessor1 of the king4 #ae4 ,james and ,john study and recite grammar and arithmetic4 ,james study grammar _/ _/ ' _/ ' _/ ' 'and and' and' ,john ' _/ ' recite _/ ' arithmetic _/ _/ 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #bi4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,adjectives ,,as ,,attribute ,,complements4 ,introductory ,hints4--,the subject presents one idea2 the predicate presents another1 and asserts it of the first4 ,corn is growing presents the idea of the thing1 corn1 and the idea of the act1 growing1 and asserts the act of the thing4 ,corn growing lacks the asserting word1 and ,corn is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted4 ,in logic1 the asserting word is called the copula--it shows that the two ideas are coupled into a thought--and the word expressing the idea asserted is called the predicate4 ,but1 as one word often performs both offices1 e4 g41 ,corn grows1 and1 as it is disputed whether any word can assert without expressing something of the idea asserted1 we pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar1 and call both that which asserts and that which expresses the idea asserted1 by one name--the predicate4 ,footnote3 ,we may call the verb the predicate2 but1 when it is followed by a complement1 it is an incomplete predicate4 ,the maple leaves become4 ,the verb become does not make a complete predicate2 it does not fully express the idea to be asserted4 ,the idea may be completely expressed by adding the adjective red1 denoting the quality we wish to assert of leaves1 or attribute to them--,the maple leaves become red4 ,lizards are reptiles4 ,the noun reptiles1 naming the class of the animals called lizards1 performs a like office for the asserting word are4 ,rolfe's wife was ,pocahontas4 ,pocahontas completes the predicate by presenting a second idea1 which was asserts to be identical with that of the subject4 ,when the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not unite with the asserting word to make a single verb1 we distinguish it as the ,attribute ,complement4 ,footnote3 ,subjective ,complement may1 if preferred1 be used instead of ,attribute ,complement4 ,connected attribute complements of the same verb form a ,compound ,attribute ,complement4 ,most grammarians call the adjective and the noun1 when so used1 the ,predicate ,adjective and the ,predicate ,noun4 ,,definition4--,the ,attribute ,complement of a ,sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,slang is vulgar4 ,slang is vulgar ,explanation4--,the line standing for the attribute complement is1 like the object line1 a continuation of the predicate line2 but notice that the line which separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward the subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it4 ,oral ,analysis4--,vulgar is the attribute complement1 completing the predicate and expressing a quality of slang2 is vulgar is the entire predicate4 #b4 ,the sea is fascinating and treacherous4 #c4 ,the mountains are grand1 tranquil1 and lovable4 #d4 ,the ,saxon words in ,english are simple1 homely1 and substantial4 #e4 ,the ,french and the ,latin words in ,english are elegant1 dignified1 and artificial4 ,footnote3 ,the assertion in this sentence is true only in the main4 #f4 ,the ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul4 #g4 ,the verb is the life of the sentence4 #h4 ,good-breeding is surface-,christianity4 #i4 ,a dainty plant is the ivy green4 ,explanation4--,the subject names that of which the speaker says something4 ,the terms in which he says it1--the predicate1--he1 of course1 assumes that the hearer already understands4 ,settle1 then1 which--plant or ivy--,dickens supposed the reader to know least about1 and which1 therefore1 ,dickens was telling him about2 and you settle which word--plant or ivy--is the subject4 7,is it not the writer's poetical conception of the green ivy that the reader is supposed not to possess87 #aj4 ,the highest outcome of culture is simplicity4 #aa4 ,stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of good-breeding4 #ab4 ,the north wind is full of courage1 and puts the stamina of endurance into a man4 #ac4 ,the west wind is hopeful1 and has promise and adventure in it4 #ad4 ,the east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grumbling1 and curls one up in the chimney-corner4 #ae4 ,the south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions of luxurious ease4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #cj4 ,,attribute ,,complements--,,continued4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,he went out as mate and came back captain4 as --- ' went ' mate _/ ,he _/ ' out and ' ' came captain back ,explanation4--,mate1 like captain1 is an attribute complement4 ,some would say that the conjunction as connects mate to he2 but we think this connection is made through the verb went1 and that as is simply introductory4 ,this is indicated in the diagram4 #b4 ,the sun shines bright and hot at midday4 #c4 ,velvet feels smooth1 and looks rich and glossy4 #d4 ,she grew tall1 queenly1 and beautiful4 #e4 ,plato and ,aristotle are called the two head-springs of all philosophy4 #f4 ,under the ,roman law1 every son was regarded as a slave4 #g4 ,he came a foe and returned a friend4 #h4 ,i am here4 ,i am present4 ,explanation4--,the office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into that of an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished from it4 ,here1 like an adjective1 seems to complete am1 and1 like an adverb to modify it4 ,from their form and usual function1 here1 in this example1 should be called an adverb1 and present an adjective4 #i4 ,this book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude4 #aj4 ,the warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse4 #aa4 ,the apple tastes and smells delicious4 #ab4 ,lord ,darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband4 #ac4 ,in the fable of the ,discontented ,pendulum1 the weights hung speechless4 #ad4 ,the brightness and freedom of the ,new ,learning seemed incarnate in the young and scholarly ,sir ,thomas ,more4 #ae4 ,sir ,philip ,sidney lived and died the darling of the ,court1 and the gentleman and idol of the time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ca4 ,,objective ,,complements4 ,introductory ,hints4--,he made the wall white4 ,here made does not fully express the act performed upon the wall4 ,we do not mean to say1 ,he made the white wall1 but1 ,he made-white 7whitened7 the wall4 ,white helps made to express the act1 and at the same time it denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the act4 ,they made ,victoria queen4 ,here made does not fully express the act performed upon ,victoria4 ,they did not make ,victoria1 but made-queen 7crowned7 ,victoria4 ,queen helps made to express the act1 and at the same time denotes the office to which the act raised ,victoria4 ,a word that1 like the adjective white or the noun queen1 helps to complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object complement1 differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the subject but to the object complement1 and so is called an ,objective ,complement4 ,as the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the act is made to be1 in fact or in thought1 it is sometimes called the factitive complement or the factitive object 7,lat4 facere1 to make74 ,footnote3 ,see ,lesson #cg1 last foot-note4 ,some of the other verbs which are thus completed are call1 think1 choose1 and name4 ,,definition4--,the ,objective ,complement completes the predicate and belongs to the object complement4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,they made ,victoria queen4 ,they made _/ queen ,victoria ,explanation4--,the line that separates made from queen slants toward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object4 ,oral ,analysis4--,queen is an objective complement completing made and belonging to ,victoria2 made ,victoria queen is the complete predicate4 #b4 ,some one has called the eye the window of the soul4 #c4 ,destiny had made ,mr4 ,churchill a schoolmaster4 #d4 ,president ,hayes chose the ,hon4 ,wm4 ,m4 ,evarts ,secretary of ,state4 #e4 ,after a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the ,english nobility1 ,james ,i4 created the worthless ,villiers ,duke of ,buckingham4 #f4 ,we should consider time as a sacred trust4 ,explanation4--,as may be used simply to introduce an objective complement4 #g4 ,ophelia and ,polonius thought ,hamlet really insane4 #h4 ,the ,president and the ,senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign courts4 #i4 ,shylock would have struck ,jessica dead beside him4 #aj4 ,custom renders the feelings blunt and callous4 #aa4 ,socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny4 #ab4 ,madame de ,stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music4 #ac4 ,they named the state ,new ,york from the ,duke of ,york4 #ad4 ,henry the ,great consecrated the ,edict of ,nantes as the very ark of the constitution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #cb4 ,,composition--,,complements4 ,caution4--,be careful to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier4 ,explanation4--,mary arrived safe4 ,we here wish to tell the condition of ,mary on her arrival1 and not the manner of her arriving4 ,my head feels bad 7is in a bad condition1 as perceived by the sense of feeling74 ,the sun shines bright 7is bright1 as perceived by its shining74 ,when the idea of being is prominent in the verb1 as in the examples above1 you see that the adjective1 and not the adverb1 follows4 ,direction4--,justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs3-- #a4 ,the boy is running wild4 #b4 ,the boy is running wildly about4 #c4 ,they all arrived safe and sound4 #d4 ,the day opened bright4 #e4 ,he felt awkward in the presence of ladies4 #f4 ,he felt around awkwardly for his chair4 #g4 ,the sun shines bright4 #h4 ,the sun shines brightly on the tree-tops4 #i4 ,he appeared prompt and willing4 #aj4 ,he appeared promptly and willingly4 ,direction4--,correct these errors and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,my head pains me very bad4 #b4 ,my friend has acted very strange in the matter4 #c4 ,don't speak harsh4 #d4 ,it can be bought very cheaply4 #e4 ,i feel tolerable well4 #f4 ,she looks beautifully4 ,direction4--,join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives expressing the qualities as assumed1 and then make complete sentences by asserting these qualities3-- ,model4 ,hard brittle glass4 transparent ,glass is hard1 brittle1 and transparent4 ,coal1 iron1 ,niagara ,falls1 flowers1 war1 ships4 ,direction4--,compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute complements3-- ,emperor1 mathematician1 ,longfellow1 ,richmond4 ,direction4--,compose sentences1 using these verbs as predicates1 and these pronouns as attribute complements3-- ,is1 was1 might have been2 ,i1 we1 he1 she1 they4 ,remark4--,notice that these forms of the pronouns--,i1 we1 thou1 he1 she1 ye1 they1 and who--are never used as object complements or as principal words in prepositional phrases2 and that me1 us1 thee1 him1 her1 them1 and whom are never used as subjects or as attribute complements of sentences4 ,direction4--,compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall have two complements--the one an object complement1 the other an objective complement3-- ,let some object complements be pronouns1 and let some objective complements be introduced by as4 ,model4--,they call me chief4 ,we regard composition as very important4 ,make1 appoint1 consider1 choose1 call4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #cc4 ,,nouns ,,as ,,adjective ,,modifiers4 ,introductory ,hints4--,solomon's temple was destroyed4 ,solomon's limits temple by telling what or whose temple is spoken of1 and is therefore a modifier of temple4 ,the relation of ,solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and s 7's7 added to the noun ,solomon4 ,when s has been added to the noun to denote more than one1 this relation of possession is expressed by the apostrophe alone 7'72 as1 boys' hats4 ,this same relation of possession may be expressed by the preposition of2 ,solomon's temple the temple of ,solomon4 ,dom ,pedro1 the emperor1 was welcomed by the ,americans4 ,the noun emperor modifies ,dom ,pedro by telling what ,dom ,pedro is meant4 ,both words name the same person4 ,solomon's and emperor1 like adjectives1 modify nouns2 but they are names of things1 and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs2 as1 the wise ,solomon's temple2 ,dom ,pedro1 the ,brazilian emperor4 ,these are conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns4 ,they represent two kinds of ,noun ,modifiers--the ,possessive and the ,explanatory4 ,the ,explanatory ,modifier is often called an ,appositive4 ,it identifies or explains by adding another name of the same thing4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,elizabeth's favorite1 ,raleigh1 was beheaded by ,james ,i4 favorite 7,raleigh7 was beheaded ,elizabeth's by ,james ,i ----------- ,oral ,analysts4--,elizabeth's and ,raleigh are modifiers of the subject2 the first word telling whose favorite is meant1 the second what favorite4 ,elizabeth's favorite1 ,raleigh is the modified subject4 #b4 ,the best features of ,king ,james's translation of the ,bible are derived from ,tyndale's version4 #c4 ,st4 ,paul1 the apostle1 was beheaded in the reign of ,nero4 #d4 ,a fool's bolt is soon shot4 #e4 ,the tadpole1 or polliwog1 becomes a frog4 #f4 ,an idle brain is the devil's workshop4 #g4 ,mahomet1 or ,mohammed1 was born in the year #efi and died in #fcb4 #h4 ,they scaled ,mount ,blanc--a daring feat4 ,they scaled ,mount ,blanc 7 feat 7 a daring ,explanation4--,feat is explanatory of the sentence1 ,they scaled ,mount ,blanc1 and in the diagram it stands1 enclosed in curves1 on a short line placed after the sentence line4 #i4 ,bees communicate to each other the death of the queen1 by a rapid interlacing of the antennae4 ,footnote3 ,for uses of each other and one another1 see ,lesson #abd4 ,explanation4--,each other may be treated as one term1 or each may be made explanatory of bees4 #aj4 ,the lamp of a man's life has three wicks--brain1 blood1 and breath4 ,explanation4--,several words may together be explanatory of one4 #aa4 ,the turtle's back-bone and breast-bone--its shell and coat of armor--are on the outside of its body4 back-bone shell ' _/' are and' 7_/ 'and 7 ' _/ turtle's its ' _/ breast-bone '_/ ,the ' coat _/ _/ _/ #ab4 ,cromwell's rule as ,protector began in the year #afec and ended in #afeh4 ,explanation4--,as1 namely1 to wit1 viz41 i4e41 e4g41 and that is may introduce explanatory modifiers1 but they do not seem to connect them to the words modified4 ,in the diagram they stand like as in ,lesson #cj4 ,protector is explanatory of ,cromwell's4 #ac4 ,in the latter half of the eighteenth century1 three powerful nations1 namely1 ,russia1 ,austria1 and ,prussia1 united for the dismemberment of ,poland4 #ad4 ,john1 the beloved disciple1 lay on his ,master's breast4 #ae4 ,the petals of the daisy1 day's-eye1 close at night and in rainy weather4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #cd4 ,,composition--,,nouns ,,as ,,adjective ,,modifiers4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,an ,explanatory ,modifier1 when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it1 is set off by the comma4 ,footnote3 ,see foot-note1 ,lesson #ah ,explanation4--,the words ,i and ,o should be written in capital letters4 ,the phrase ,i and ,o restricts words1 that is1 limits its application1 and no comma is needed4 ,jacob's favorite sons1 ,joseph and ,benjamin1 were ,rachel's children4 ,the phrase ,joseph and ,benjamin explains sons without restricting1 and therefore should be set off by the comma4 ,in each of these expressions1 ,i myself1 we boys1 ,william the ,conqueror1 the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained1 and no comma is needed4 ,direction4--,give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas in these sentences3-- #a4 ,my brother ,henry and my brother ,george belong to a boat-club4 #b4 ,the author of ,pilgrim's ,progress1 ,john ,bunyan1 was the son of a tinker4 #c4 ,shakespeare1 the great dramatist1 was careless of his literary reputation4 #d4 ,the conqueror of ,mexico1 ,cortez1 was cruel in his treatment of ,montezuma4 #e4 ,pizarro1 the conqueror of ,peru1 was a ,spaniard4 #f4 ,the ,emperors ,napoleon and ,alexander met and became fast friends on a raft at ,tilsit4 ,direction4--,insert commas below1 where they are needed1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,the ,franks a warlike people of ,germany gave their name to ,france4 #b4 ,my son ,joseph has entered college4 #c4 ,you blocks6 ,you stones6 #j you hard hearts6 #d4 ,mecca a city in ,arabia is sacred in the eyes of ,mohammedans4 #e4 ,he himself could not go4 #f4 ,the poet ,spenser lived in the reign of ,elizabeth4 #g4 ,elizabeth ,queen of ,england ruled from #aeeh to #afjc4 ,direction4--,compose sentences containing these expressions as explanatory modifiers3-- ,the most useful metal2 the capital of ,turkey2 the ,imperial ,city2 the great ,english poets2 the hermit2 a distinguished ,american statesman4 ,direction4--,punctuate these expressions1 and employ each of them in a sentence3-- ,see ,remark1 ,lesson #ba4 ,omit or1 and note the effect4 #a4 ,palestine or the ,holy ,land ----4 #b4 ,new ,york or the ,empire ,state ----4 #c4 ,new ,orleans or the ,crescent ,city ----4 #d4 ,the five ,books of ,moses or the ,pentateuch ----4 ,remember that 7's7 and 7'7 are the possessive signs--7'7 being used when s has been added to denote more than one1 and 7's7 in other cases4 ,direction4--,copy the following1 and note the use of the possessive sign3-- ,the lady's fan2 the girl's bonnet2 a dollar's worth2 ,burns's poems2 ,brown ,co4's business2 a day's work2 men's clothing2 children's toys2 those girls' dresses2 ladies' calls2 three years' interest2 five dollars' worth4 ,direction4--,make possessive modifiers of the following words1 and join them to appropriate nouns3-- ,woman1 women2 mouse1 mice2 buffalo1 buffaloes2 fairy1 fairies2 hero1 heroes2 baby1 babies2 calf1 calves4 ,caution4--,do not use 7's7 or 7'7 with the pronouns its1 his1 ours1 yours1 hers1 theirs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ce4 ,,nouns ,,as ,,adverb ,,modifiers4 ,introductory ,hints4--,he gave me a book4 ,here we have what many grammarians call a double object4 ,book1 naming the thing acted upon1 they call the direct object2 and me1 naming the person toward whom the act is directed1 they call the indirect1 or dative1 object4 ,you see that me and book do not1 like ,cornwallis and army1 in ,washington captured ,cornwallis and his army1 form a compound object complement2 they cannot be connected by a conjunction1 for they do not stand in the same relation to the verb gave4 ,the meaning is not1 ,he gave me and the book4 ,we treat these indirect objects1 which generally denote the person to or for whom something is done1 as equivalent to phrase modifiers4 ,if we change the order of the words1 a preposition must be supplied2 as1 ,he gave a book to me4 ,he bought me a book2 ,he bought a book for me4 ,he asked me a question2 ,he asked a question of me4 ,when the indirect object precedes the direct1 no preposition is expressed or understood4 ,teach1 tell1 send1 promise1 permit1 and lend are other examples of verbs that take indirect objects4 ,besides these indirect objects1 nouns denoting measure1 quantity1 weight1 time1 value1 distance1 or direction are often used adverbially1 being equivalent to phrase modifiers4 ,we walked four miles an hour2 ,it weighs one pound2 ,it is worth a dollar a yard2 ,i went home that way2 ,the wall is ten feet six inches high4 ,the idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns denoting measure1 direction1 etc4 ,in your analysis you need not supply one4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,they offered ,caesar the crown three times4 ,they offered crown times the ------- three ,caesar ----------- ,oral ,analysis4--,caesar and times are nouns used adverbially1 being equivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate offered4 #b4 ,we pay the ,president of the ,united ,states #ej1jjj a year4 #c4 ,he sent his daughter home that way4 #d4 ,i gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat1 and ten cents a pound for his sugar4 #e4 ,shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death4 #f4 ,serpents cast their skin once a year4 #g4 ,the famous ,charter ,oak of ,hartford1 ,conn41 fell ,aug4 #ba1 #ahef4 #h4 ,good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre4 #i4 ,on the fatal field of ,zutphen1 ,sept4 #bb1 #aehf1 his attendants brought the wounded ,sir ,philip ,sidney a cup of cold water4 #aj4 ,he magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water4 #aa4 ,the frog lives several weeks as a fish1 and breathes by means of gills4 #ab4 ,queen ,esther asked ,king ,ahasuerus a favor4 #ac4 ,aristotle taught ,alexander the ,great philosophy4 #ad4 ,the pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce4 #ae4 ,puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #cf4 ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions1 ,lesson #af4 ,direction4--,review from ,lesson #bh to ,lesson #ce1 inclusive4 ,give the substance of the ,introductory ,hints 7for example1 show clearly what two things are essential to a complete predicate2 explain what is meant by a complement2 distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements2 show what parts of speech may be employed for each1 and tell what general idea--action1 quality1 class1 or identity--is expressed by each attribute complement or objective complement in your illustrations1 etc474 ,repeat and illustrate definitions and rules2 explain and illustrate fully the distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier2 illustrate what is taught of the forms ,i1 we1 etc41 me1 us1 etc42 explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 7,,see ,,pages #aef-aei47 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions to the teacher1 pages #cj1 #aej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #cg4 ,,verbs ,,as ,,adjectives ,,and ,,as ,,nouns--,,participles4 ,introductory ,hints4--,corn grows2 ,corn growing4 ,here growing differs from grows in lacking the power to assert4 ,growing is a form of the verb that cannot1 like grows1 make a complete predicate because it only assumes or implies that the corn does the act4 ,corn may be called the assumed subject of growing4 ,birds1 singing1 delight us4 ,here singing does duty 7#a7 as an adjective1 describing birds by assuming or implying an act1 and 7#b7 as a verb by expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us4 ,by singing their songs birds delight us4 ,here singing has the nature of a verb and that of a noun4 ,as a verb it has an object complement1 songs2 and as a noun it names the act1 and stands as the principal word in a prepositional phrase4 ,their singing so sweetly delights us4 ,here1 also1 singing has the nature of a verb and that of a noun4 ,as a verb it has an adverb modifier1 sweetly1 and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier4 ,this form of the verb is called the ,participle 7,lat4 pars1 a part1 and capere1 to take7 because it partakes of two natures and performs two offices--those of a verb and an adjective1 or those of a verb and a noun4 7,for definition see ,lesson #aca47 ,singing birds delight us4 ,here singing has lost its verbal nature1 and expresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds1--and consequently is a mere adjective4 ,the singing of the birds delights us4 ,here singing is simply a noun1 naming the act and taking adjective modifiers4 ,there are two kinds of participles2 ,footnote3 ,grammarians are not agreed as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the noun should be called4 ,some would call the simple forms doing1 writing1 and injuring1 in sentences 7#a71 7#f71 and 7#g71 ,lesson #ch1 ,infinitives4 ,they would also call by the same name such compound forms as being accepted1 having been shown1 and having said in these expressions3 for the purpose of being accepted2 is the having been shown over a place2 ,i recollect his having said that4 ,but does it not tax even credulity to believe that a simple ,anglo-,saxon infinitive in -an1 only one form of which followed a preposition1 and that always to1 could have developed into many compound forms1 used in both voices1 following almost any preposition1 and modified by the and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive8 ,no wonder the grammarian ,mason says1 ,an infinitive in -ing1 set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in -an or -en1 is a perfectly unwarranted invention4 ,others call these words modernized forms of the ,anglo-,saxon ,verbal ,nouns in -ung1 -ing4 ,but this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact that those verbal nouns never were compound1 and never were or could be followed by objects4 ,these words1 on the contrary1 are compound1 as we have seen1 and have objects4 ,that they are from nouns in -ung is otherwise1 and almost for the same reasons1 as incredible as that they are from infinitives in -an4 ,others call these words ,gerunds4 ,a gerund in ,latin is a simple form of the verb in the active voice1 never found in the nominative1 and never in the accusative 7objective7 after a verb4 ,a gerund in ,anglo-,saxon is a simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose1 and always preceded by the preposition to4 ,to call these words in question gerunds is to stretch the term gerund immensely beyond its meaning in ,anglo-,saxon1 and make it cover words which sometimes 7#a7 are highly compounded2 sometimes 7#b7 are used in the passive voice2 sometimes 7#c7 follow other prepositions than to2 sometimes 7#d7 do not follow any preposition2 sometimes 7#e7 are objects of verbs2 sometimes 7#f7 are subjects of verbs2 sometimes 7#g7 are modified by the2 sometimes 7#h7 are modified by a noun or pronoun in the possessive2 and generally 7#i7 do not indicate purpose4 ,we submit that the extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations that the ,anglo-,saxon gerund never had1 is not warranted by any precedent except that furnished above in the extension of the term infinitive or of the term verbal noun6 ,still others call some of these words ,infinitives2 some of them ,verbal ,nouns2 and some of them ,gerunds4 ,the forms in question--seeing1 having seen1 being seen1 having been seen1 and having been seeing1 for instance--are now made from the verb in precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when partaking the nature of the adjective4 ,what can they possibly be but the forms that all grammarians call participles extended to new uses8 ,if the uses of the original participles have been extended1 why may we not carry over the name8 ,the name participle is as true to its etymology when applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival use4 ,for convenience of classification we call these disputed forms participles1 as good grammarians long ago called them and still call them1 though some of them may be traced back to the ,saxon verbal noun or to the infinitive1 and though the ,saxon participle was adjectival4 ,the name participle neither confounds terms nor misleads the student4 ,the nounal and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply4 one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective2 the other1 the nature of the verb and that of the noun4 ,participles commonly end in ing1 ed1 or en4 ,the participle1 like other forms of the verb1 may be followed by an object complement or an attribute complement4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,the participle may be used as an adjective modifier4 #a4 ,hearing a step1 ,i turned4 ,i turned hea ring step -------------- a ,explanation4--,the line standing for the participle is broken2 one part slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle1 and the other is horizontal to represent its verbal nature4 ,oral ,analysis4--,the phrase hearing a step is a modifier of the subject2 ,footnote3 ,logically1 or in sense1 hearing a step modifies the predicate also4 ,i turned when or because ,i heard a step4 ,see ,lesson #gi4 the principal word is hearing1 which is completed by the noun step2 step is modified by a4 ,parsing4--,hearing is a form of the verb called participle because the act expressed by it is merely assumed1 and it shares the nature of an adjective and that of a verb4 #b4 ,the fat of the body is fuel laid away for use4 ,explanation4--,the complement is here modified by a participle phrase4 #c4 ,the spinal marrow1 proceeding from the brain1 extends down-ward through the back-bone4 #d4 ,van ,twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak1 hewn in the celebrated forest of the ,hague4 ,explanation4--,the principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by a participle phrase4 #e4 ,lentulus1 returning with victorious legions1 had amused the populace with the sports of the amphitheater4 ,the participle may be used as an attribute complement4 #f4 ,the natives came crowding around4 ,explanation4--,crowding here completes the predicate came1 and belongs to the subject natives4 ,the natives are represented as performing the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding4 ,the assertive force of the predicate came seems to extend over both verbs4 ,footnote3 ,some grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as adverbial4 ,but is crowding any more adverbial here than are pale and trembling in ,the natives came pale and trembling8 #g4 ,the city lies sleeping4 #h4 ,they stood terrified4 #i4 ,the philosopher sat buried in thought4 and and 44444444 star ving sav ------- ing gru ---------- bbing ------------- miser kept _/ #aj4 ,the old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving4 ,the participle may be used as an objective complement4 #aa4 ,he kept me waiting4 ,explanation4--,waiting completes kept and relates to the object complement me4 ,kept-waiting expresses the complete act performed upon me4 ,he kept-waiting me,he detained me4 ,the relation of waiting to me may be seen by changing the form of the verb2 as1 ,i was kept waiting4 ,see ,lesson #ca4 #ab4 ,i found my book growing dull4 ,footnote3 ,it will be seen by this and following examples that we extend the application of the term objective complement beyond its primary1 or factitive1 sense4 ,in ,i struck the man dead1 the condition expressed by dead is the result of the act expressed by struck4 ,in ,i found the man dead1 the condition is not the result of the act1 and so grammarians say that in this second example dead should be treated simply as an appositive adjective modifying man4 ,while dead does not belong to man as expressing the result of the act1 it is made to belong to man through the asserting force of the verb1 and therefore is not a mere modifier of man4 ,dead helps found to express the act4 ,not found1 but found-dead tells what was done to the man4 ,if we put the sentence in the passive form1 ,the man was found dead1 it will be seen that dead is more than a mere modifier2 it belongs to man through the assertive force of was found4 ,if dead is here merely an appositive adjective1 ,i found the man dead must equal ,i found the man1 who was dead 7or1 and he was dead74 ,the two sentences obviously are not equal4 ,i caught him asleep does not mean1 ,i caught him1 and he was asleep4 ,if1 in the construction discussed above1 dead is an objective complement1 quiet1 stirring1 and 7to7 stir in the following sentences are objective complements3-- ,i saw the leaves quiet4 ,i saw the leaves stirring4 ,i saw the leaves stir4 ,the adjective1 the participle1 and the infinitive do not here seem to differ essentially in office4 ,see ,lesson #ca and page #gh4 grow wing dull --------------- ,i found _/ _/ book my ,explanation4--,the diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn above the complement line1 on which it is made to rest by means of a support4 ,all that stands on the complement line is regarded as the complement4 ,notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the object complement4 ,the adjective dull completes growing and belongs to book1 the assumed subject of growing4 #ac4 ,he owned himself defeated4 #ad4 ,no one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs4 #ae4 ,i felt my heart beating faster4 #af4 ,you may imagine me sitting there4 #ag4 ,saul1 seeking his father's asses1 found himself suddenly turned into a king4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ch4 ,,participles--,,continued4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,the participle may be used as principal word in a prepositional phrase4 #a4 ,we receive good by doing good4 ,we receive good by -----1doing good -------------- ,explanation4--,the line representing the participle here is broken2 the first part represents the participle as a noun1 and the other as a verb4 ,oral ,analysis4--,the phrase by doing good is a modifier of the predicate2 by introduces the phrase2 the principal word is doing1 which is completed by the noun good4 ,passing4--,doing is a participle2 like a noun1 it follows the preposition by1 and1 like a verb1 it takes an object complement4 #b4 ,portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain4 #c4 ,the ,coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons4 #d4 ,success generally depends on acting prudently1 steadily1 and vigorously4 #e4 ,you cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered4 7,suffering is here a noun47 ,the participle may be the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement4 #f4 ,your writing that letter so neatly secured the position4 ---1 writing letter '------------------------ ,your neatly that so _/ secured position ' the ,explanation4--,the diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the subject line4 ,all that rests on the subject line is regarded as the subject4 ,oral ,analysis4--,the phrase your writing that letter so neatly is the subject2 the principal word of it is writing1 which is completed by letter2 writing1 as a noun1 is modified by your1 and1 as a verb1 by the adverb phrase so neatly4 #g4 ,we should avoid injuring the feelings of others4 #h4 ,my going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent4 #i4 ,good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment4 ,the participial form may be used as a mere noun or a mere adjective4 #aj4 ,the cackling of geese saved ,rome4 #aa4 ,such was the exciting campaign1 celebrated in many a long-forgotten song4 ,footnote3 ,manig man in ,anglo-,saxon was used like ,german mancher mann1 ,latin multus vir1 and the like1 until the thirteenth century2 when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number4--,prof4 ,f4 ,a4 ,march4 ,explanation4--,many modifies song after song has been limited by a and long-forgotten4 #ab4 ,all silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility4 #ac4 ,he was a squeezing1 grasping1 hardened old sinner4 ,the participle may be used in independent or absolute phrases4 #ad4 ,the bridge at ,ashtabula giving way1 the train fell into the river4 ,explanation4--,the diagram of the absolute phrase1 which consists of a noun used independently with a participle1 stands by itself4 ,see lesson #dd4 #ae4 ,talking of exercise1 you have heard1 of course1 of ,dickens's constitutionals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ci4 ,,composition--,,participles4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,the ,participle used as an adjective modifier1 with the words belonging to it1 is set off ,footnote3 ,an expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas2 at the beginning or at the end1 by one comma4 by the comma unless restrictive4 ,explanation4--,a bird1 lighting near my window1 greeted me with a song4 ,the bird sitting on the wall is a wren4 ,lighting describes without restricting2 sitting restricts--limits the application of bird to a particular bird4 ,direction4--,justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in ,lesson #cg4 ,caution4--,in using a participle1 be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify4 ,direction4--,correct these errors in arrangement1 and punctuate1 giving your reasons3-- #a4 ,a gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements4 #b4 ,the town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick4 #c4 ,suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap4 #d4 ,seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel4 #e4 ,a poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger4 ,direction4--,recast these sentences1 making the reference of the participle clear1 and punctuating correctly3-- ,model4--,climbing to the top of the hill the ,atlantic ocean was seen4 ,incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing4 ,climbing to the top of the hill1 we saw the ,atlantic ocean4 #a4 ,entering the next room was seen a marble statue of ,apollo4 #b4 ,by giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well4 #c4 ,desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock4 ,direction4--,compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier1 as the principal word in a prepositional phrase1 as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement1 as a mere adjective1 as a mere noun1 and in an absolute phrase3-- ,buzzing1 leaping1 waving4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #dj4 ,,verbs ,,as ,,nouns--,,infinitives4 ,introductory ,hints4--,i came to see you4 ,here the verb see1 like the participle1 lacks asserting power--,i to see asserts nothing4 ,see1 following the preposition to1 ,footnote3 ,for the discussion of to with the infinitive1 see ,lesson #acd4 names the act and is completed by you1 and so does duty as a noun and as a verb4 ,in office it is like the second kind of participles1 described in ,lesson #cg1 and from many grammarians has received the same name--some calling both gerunds1 and others calling both infinitives4 ,it differs from this participle in form1 and in following only the preposition to4 ,came to seecame for seeing4 ,this form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object1 complement2 as1 ,to read good books is profitable2 ,i like to read good books4 ,here also the form with to is equivalent to the participle form reading4 ,reading good books is profitable4 ,as this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way1 without limiting it to a subject1 we call it the ,infinitive 7,lat4 infinitus1 without limit74 ,for definition1 see ,lesson #aca4 ,the infinitive1 like the participle1 may have what is called an assumed subject4 ,the assumed subject denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the participle or the infinitive belongs4 ,frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose1 as in the first example given above1 and in such cases to expresses relation1 and performs its full function as a preposition2 but1 when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement1 the to expresses no relation4 ,it serves only to introduce the phrase1 and in no way affects the meaning of the verb4 ,the infinitive1 like other forms of the verb1 may be followed by the different complements4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,the infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective modifier or an adverb modifier4 #a4 ,the hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams4 hot-house is trap ,the a to catch sunbeams -------'---------- ,oral ,analysis4--,to introduces the phrase2 catch is the principal word1 and sunbeams completes it4 ,parsing4--,to is a preposition1 introducing the phrase and showing the relation1 in sense1 of the principal word to trap2 catch is a form of the verb called infinitive2 like a noun1 it follows the preposition to and names the action1 and1 like a verb1 it is completed by sunbeams4 #b4 ,richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character4 #c4 ,many of the attempts to assassinate ,william the ,silent were defeated4 #d4 ,we will strive to please you4 ,explanation4--,the infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the predicate4 #e4 ,ingenious ,art steps forth to fashion and refine the race4 #f4 ,these harmless delusions tend to make us happy4 ,explanation4--,happy completes make and relates to us4 #g4 ,wounds made by words are hard to heal4 ,explanation4--,the infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective hard4 ,to heal to be healed4 #h4 ,the representative ,yankee1 selling his farm1 wanders away to seek new lands1 to clear new cornfields1 to build another shingle palace1 and again to sell off and wander4 #i4 ,these apples are not ripe enough to eat4 ,explanation4--,the infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb enough4 ,to eat to be eaten4 ,the infinitive phrase may be used as subject or complement4 #aj4 ,to be good is to be great4 ,to to be good be great ----------------------- _/ is _/ ,explanation4--,to1 in each of these phrases1 shows no relation--it serves merely to introduce4 ,the complements good and great are adjectives used abstractly1 having no noun to relate to4 #aa4 ,to bear our fate is to conquer it4 #ab4 ,to be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible4 #ac4 ,the noblest vengeance is to forgive4 #ad4 ,he seemed to be innocent4 ,explanation4--,the infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective4 ,to be innocent innocent4 #ae4 ,the blind men's dogs appeared to know him4 #af4 ,we should learn to govern ourselves4 ,explanation4--,the infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement4 #ag4 ,each hill attempts to ape her voice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #da4 ,,infinitives--,,continued4 ,analysis4 ,the infinitive phrase may be used after a preposition as the principal term of another phrase4 #a4 ,my friend is about to leave me4 to leave me -------'---- about _/ ----------------- friend is _/ ,my ,explanation4--,the preposition about introduces the phrase used as attribute complement2 the principal part is the infinitive phrase to leave me4 #b4 ,paul was now about to open his mouth4 #c4 ,no way remains but to go on4 ,explanation4--,but is here a preposition4 ,the infinitive and its assumed subject may form the principal term in a phrase introduced by the preposition for4 #d4 ,for us to know our faults is profitable4 us ------- to know faults ,for ------'-------- _/ our ------- _/ is profitable ,explanation4--,for introduces the subject phrase2 the principal part of the entire phrase is us to know our faults2 the principal word is us1 which is modified by the phrase to know our faults4 #e4 ,god never made his work for man to mend4 ,explanation4---,the principal term of the phrase for man to mend is not man1 but man to mend4 #f4 ,for a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance4 ,the infinitive phrase may be used as an explanatory modifier4 #g4 ,it is easy to find fault4 to find fault -----'------ ,it 7_/ 7 is easy ,explanation4--,the infinitive phrase to find fault explains the subject it4 ,read the sentence without it1 and you will see the real nature of the phrase4 ,this use of it as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language4 ,it allows the real subject to follow the verb1 and thus gives the sentence balance of parts4 #h4 ,it is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it4 #i4 ,it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope4 #aj4 ,it is not all of life to live4 #aa4 ,this task1 to teach the young1 may become delightful4 ,the infinitive phrase may be used as objective complement4 #ab4 ,he made me wait4 ,explanation4--,the infinitive wait 7here used without to7 completes made and relates to me4 ,he made-wait me ,he detained me4 ,see ,introductory ,hints1 ,lesson #ca1 and participles used as objective complements1 ,lesson #cg4 ,compare ,i saw him do it with ,i saw him doing it4 ,compare also ,he made the stick bend--equaling ,he made-bend 7 bent7 the stick--with ,he made the stick straight--equaling ,he made-straight 7 straightened7 the stick4 ,the relation of these objective complements to me1 him1 and stick may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb1 thus3 ,i was made to wait2 ,he was seen to do it1 ,he was seen doing it2 ,the stick was made to bend2 ,the stick was made straight4 #ac4,we found the report to be true4 ,footnote3 ,some prefer to treat the report to be true as an object clause because it is equivalent to the clause that the report is true4 ,but many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction2 as1 ,i desire his promotion2 ,i desire him to be promoted2 ,i desire that he should be promoted4 ,besides1 to teach that him is the subject1 and to be promoted the predicate1 of a clause would certainly be confusing4 to be true -------------- ,we found _/ _/ report #ad4 ,he commanded the bridge to be lowered4 ,footnote3 ,notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence ,he commanded him to lower the bridge4 ,him represents the one to whom the command is given1 and to lower the bridge is the object complement4 ,this last sentence ,he commanded him that he should lower the bridge4 ,compare ,he told me to go with ,he told 7to7 me a story2 also ,he taught me to read with ,he taught 7to7 me reading4 ,in such sentences as 7#ac7 and 7#ad7 it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun and to the predicate verb4 ,if preferred1 in such cases1 the infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase object1 equivalent to a clause4 ,this construction is similar to the ,latin accusative with the infinitive4 #ae4 ,i saw the leaves stir4 ,footnote3 ,see pages #fh and #fi1 foot-note4 ,explanation4--,stir is an infinitive without the to4 #af4 ,being persuaded by ,poppaesa1 ,hero caused his mother1 ,agrippina1 to be assassinated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #db4 ,,infinitives--,,continued4 ,analysis4 ,the infinitive phrase may be used independently4 ,footnote3 ,these infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses4 ,see ,lesson #gi4 ,for the infinitive after as1 than1 etc41 see ,lesson #fc4 ,participles and infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms2 as1 have walked1 shall walk4 ,explanation4--,in the diagram the independent element must stand by itself4 #a4 ,england's debt1 to put it in round numbers1 is #d1jjj1jjj1jjj4 #b4 ,every object has several faces1 so to speak4 #c4 ,to make a long story short1 ,louis ,,xvi4 and ,marie ,antoinette were executed4 ,infinitives and ,participles4 ,,miscellaneous4 #d4 ,it is a good thing to give thanks unto the ,lord4 #e4 ,we require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun4 #f4 ,rip ,van ,winkle could not account for everything's having changed so4 #g4 ,this sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze4 #h4 ,the fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole1 #i4 ,conscience1 her first law broken1 wounded lies4 #aj4 ,to be1 or not to be1--that is the question4 #aa4 ,i supposed him to be a gentleman4 #ab4 ,food1 keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its waste1 is a necessity4 #ac4 ,i will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time4 #ad4 ,she threatened to go beyond the sea1 to throw herself out of the window1 to drown herself4 #ae4 ,busied with public affairs1 the council would sit for hours smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #dc4 ,,composition--,,the ,,infinitive4 ,direction4--,change the infinitives in these sentences into participles1 and the participles into infinitives3-- ,notice that to1 the only preposition used with the infinitive1 is changed to toward1 for1 of1 at1 in1 or on1 when the infinitive is changed to a participle4 #a4 ,i am inclined to believe it4 #b4 ,i am ashamed to be seen there4 #c4 ,she will be grieved to hear it4 #d4 ,they trembled to hear such words4 #e4 ,it will serve for amusing the children4 #f4 ,there is a time to laugh4 #g4 ,i rejoice to hear it4 #h4 ,you are prompt to obey4 #i4 ,they delight to do it4 #aj4 ,i am surprised at seeing you4 #aa4 ,stones are used in ballasting vessels4 ,direction4--,improve these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives1 and the infinitives into participles3-- #a4 ,we began ascending the mountain4 #b4 ,he did not recollect to have paid it4 #c4 ,i commenced to write a letter4 #d4 ,it is inconvenient being poor4 #e4 ,it is not wise complaining4 ,direction4--,vary these sentences as in the model3-- ,model4--,rising early is healthful2 ,to rise early is healthful2 ,it is healthful to rise early2 ,for one to rise early is healthful4 7,notice that the explanatory phrase after it is not set off by the comma47 #a4 ,reading good books is profitable4 #b4 ,equivocating is disgraceful4 #c4 ,slandering is base4 #d4 ,indorsing another's paper is dangerous4 #e4 ,swearing is sinful4 ,direction4--,write nine sentences1 in three of which the infinitive phrase shall be used as an adjective1 in three as an adverb1 and in three as a noun4 ,direction4--,write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an infinitive without the to3-- ,model4--,we saw the sun sink behind the mountain4 ,bid1 dare1 feel1 hear1 let1 make1 need1 and see4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #dd4 ,,words ,,and ,,phrases ,,used ,,independently4 ,introductory ,hints4--,in this ,lesson we wish to notice words and phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence4 ,the fault1 dear ,brutus1 is not in our stars4 ,dear ,brutus serves only to arrest attention1 and is independent by address4 ,poor man6 he never came back again4 ,poor man is independent by exclamation4 ,thy rod and thy staff1 they comfort me4 ,rod and staff simply call attention to the objects before anything is said of them1 and are independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical effect1 but out of place in ordinary speech4 ,his master being absent1 the business was neglected4 ,his master being absent logically modifies the verb was neglected by assigning the cause1 but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood1 and is therefore grammatically independent4 ,this is called the absolute phrase4 ,an absolute phrase consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a modifying participle4 ,his conduct1 generally speaking1 was honorable4 ,speaking is a participle without connection1 and with the adverb generally forms an independent phrase4 ,to confess the truth1 ,i was wrong4 ,the infinitive phrase is independent4 ,the adverbs well1 now1 why1 there are sometimes independent2 as1 ,well1 life is an enigma2 ,now1 that is strange2 ,why1 it is already noon2 ,there are pitch-pine ,yankees and white-pine ,yankees4 ,interjections are without grammatical connection1 as you have learned1 and hence are independent4 ,whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the rest of the sentence2 as1 ,i stake my fame 7and ,i had fame71 my heart1 my hope1 my soul1 upon this cast4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,the loveliest things in life1 ,tom1 are but shadows4 ,explanation4--,tom is independent by address4 ,but is an adjective modifying shadows4 #b4 ,there are one-story intellects1 two-story intellects1 and three-story intellects with skylights4 ,explanation4--,often1 as in this sentence1 there is used idiomatically1 merely to throw the subject after the verb1 the idea of place having faded out of the word4 ,to express place1 another there may follow the predicate2 as1 ,there is gold there4 #c4 ,ah6 then and there was hurrying to and fro4 #d4 ,hope lost1 all is lost4 #e4 ,the smith1 a mighty man is he4 #f4 ,why1 this is not revenge4 #g4 ,well1 this is the forest of ,arden4 #h4 ,now1 there is at ,jerusalem1 by the sheep-market1 a pool4 #i4 ,to speak plainly1 your habits are your worst enemies4 #aj4 ,no accident occurring1 we shall arrive to-morrow4 #aa4 ,the teacher being sick1 there was no school ,friday4 #ab4 ,mr4 ,president1 ,i shall enter on no encomium upon ,massachusetts4 #ac4 ,properly speaking1 there can be no chance in our affairs4 #ad4 ,but the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold4 #ae4 ,she 7oh1 the artfulness of the woman67 managed the matter extremely well4 retreat began later --- day ------- ,a #af4 ,a day later 7,oct4 #ai1 #ahab7 began the fatal retreat of the ,grand ,army1 from ,moscow4 ,see ,lesson #ce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #de4 ,,composition--,,independent ,,words ,,and ,,phrases4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by the comma4 ,remark4--,interjections1 as you have seen1 are usually followed by the exclamation point2 and there1 used merely to introduce1 is never set off by the comma4 ,when the break after pleonastic expressions is slight1 as in 7#e71 ,lesson #dd1 the comma is used2 but1 if it is more abrupt1 as in 7#ad71 the dash is required4 ,if the independent expression can be omitted without affecting the sense1 it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis1 as in 7#ae7 and 7#af74 7,for the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis1 see ,lesson #adh47 ,words and phrases nearly independent are those which1 like however1 of course1 indeed1 in short1 by the bye1 for instance1 and accordingly1 do not modify a word or a phrase alone1 but rather the sentence as a whole2 as1 ,lee did not1 however1 follow ,washington's orders4 ,direction4--,write sentences illustrating the several kinds of independent expressions1 and punctuate according to the ,rule as explained4 ,direction4--,write short sentences in which these words and phrases1 used in a manner nearly independent1 shall occur1 and punctuate them properly3-- ,in short1 indeed1 now and then1 for instance1 accordingly1 moreover1 however1 at least1 in general1 no doubt1 by the bye1 by the way1 then1 too1 of course1 in fine1 namely1 above all1 therefore4 ,direction4--,write short sentences in which these words shall modify same particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma3-- ,indeed1 surely1 too1 then1 now1 further1 why1 again1 still4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 7,,see ,,pages #afj-afb47 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions to the teacher1 pages #cj1aej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #df4 ,,sentences ,,classified ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,meaning4 ,introductory ,hints4--,in the previous ,lessons we have considered the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it4 ,let us now look at it as a whole4 ,the mountains lift up their heads4 ,this sentence is used simply to affirm1 or to declare a fact1 and is called a ,declarative ,sentence4 ,do the mountains lift up their heads8 ,this sentence expresses a question1 and is called an ,interrogative ,sentence4 ,lift up your heads4 ,this sentence expresses a command1 and is called an ,imperative ,sentence4 ,such expressions as ,you must go1 ,you shall go are equivalent to imperative sentences1 though they have not the imperative form4 ,how the mountains lift up their heads6 ,in this sentence the thought is expressed with strong emotion4 ,it is called an ,exclamatory ,sentence4 ,how and what usually introduce such sentences2 but a declarative1 an interrogative1 or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings2 as1 ,it is impossible6 ,how can ,i endure it6 ,talk of hypocrisy after this6 ,,definition4--,a ,declarative ,sentence is one that is used to affirm or to deny4 ,,definition4--,an ,interrogative ,sentence is one that expresses a question4 ,,definition4--,an ,imperative ,sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty4 ,,definition4--,an ,exclamatory ,sentence is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling4 ,footnote3 ,for punctuation1 see page #db4 ,,interrogation ,,point--,,rule4--,every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point4 ,remark4--,when an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence1 it may be direct2 as1 ,he asked1 ,what is the trouble8 or indirect2 as1 ,he asked what the trouble was4 7,see ,lesson #gd47 ,analysis4 ,direction4--,before analyzing these sentences1 classify them1 and justify the terminal marks of punctuation3-- #a4 ,there are no accidents in the providence of ,god4 #b4 ,why does the very murderer1 his victim sleeping before him1 and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow1 strike wide of the mortal part8 #c4 ,suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss4 7,the subject is you understood47 #d4 ,how wonderful is the advent of spring6 #e4 ,oh6 a dainty plant is the ivy green6 #f4 ,six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work4 #g4 ,alexander the ,great died at ,babylon in the thirty-third year of his age4 #h4 ,how sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself6 #i4 ,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain4 #aj4 ,lend me your ears4 #aa4 ,what brilliant rings the planet ,saturn has6 #ab4 ,what power shall blanch the sullied snow of character8 #ac4 ,the laws of nature are the thoughts of ,god4 #ad4 ,how beautiful was the snow1 falling all day long1 all night long1 on the roofs of the living1 on the graves of the dead6 #ae4 ,who1 in the darkest days of our ,revolution1 carried your flag into the very chops of the ,british ,channel1 bearded the lion in his den1 and woke the echoes of old ,albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #dg4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review ,analysis4 #a4 ,poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion4--,wordsworth4 #b4 ,refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate1 ,richelieu would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence4 --,stephen4 #c4 ,the ,queen of ,england is simply a piece of historic heraldry2 a flag1 floating grandly over a ,liberal ministry yesterday1 over a ,tory ministry to-day4--,conway4 #d4 ,the vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming phrase4--,lowell4 #e4 ,two mighty vortices1 ,pericles and ,alexander the ,great1 drew into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of ,greek literature1 ,greek eloquence1 ,greek wisdom1 ,greek art4--,de ,quincey4 #f4 ,reason's whole pleasure1 all the joys of sense1 lie in three words-- health1 peace1 and competence4--,pope4 #g4 ,extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye4--,tyler4 ,footnote3 ,weighty thoughts tersely expressed1 like 7#g71 7#h71 and 7#aj7 in this ,lesson1 are called ,epigrams4 ,what quality do you think they impart to one's style8 #h4 ,the setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun4-- ,longfellow4 #i4 ,things mean1 the ,thistle1 the ,leek1 the ,broom of the ,plantagenets1 become noble by association4--,f4 ,w4 ,robertson4 #aj4 ,prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night4-- ,beecher4 #aa4 ,in that calm ,syrian afternoon1 memory1 a pensive ,ruth1 went gleaning the silent fields of childhood1 and found the scattered grain still golden1 and the morning sunlight fresh and fair4--,curtis4 ,footnote3 ,in ,ruth of this sentence1 we have a type of the metaphor called ,personification--a figure in which things are raised above their proper plane1 taken up toward or to that of persons4 ,things take on dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being4 ,note1 moreover1 that in this instance of the figure we have an ,allusion4 ,all the interest that the ,ruth of the ,bible awakens in us this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #dh4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,by means of steam man realizes the fable of ,aeolus's bag1 and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat4--,emerson4 #b4 ,the ,angel of ,life winds our brains up once for all1 then closes the case1 and gives the key into the hands of the ,angel of ,resurrection4--,holmes4 #c4 ,i called the ,new ,world into existence to redress the balance of the ,old4--,canning4 #d4 ,the prominent nose of the ,new ,englander is evidence of the constant linguistic exercise of that organ4--,warner4 #e4 ,every ,latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it4--,earle4 #f4 ,the ,alps1 piled in cold and still sublimity1 are an image of despotism4--,phillips4 #g4 ,i want my husband to be submissive without looking so4--,gail ,hamilton4 #h4 ,i love to lose myself in other men's minds4--,lamb4 #i4 ,cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent1 soothes and composes the passions1 and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm4--,addison4 #aj4 ,to discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the power of science4 ,explanation4--,beyond the power of science impossible1 and is therefore an attribute complement4 ,the preposition beyond shows the relation1 in sense1 of power to the subject phrase4 #aa4 ,authors must not1 like ,chinese soldiers1 expect to win victories by turning somersets in the air4--,longfellow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #di4 ,,review ,,of ,,punctuation4 ,direction4--,give the reasons1 so far as you have been taught1 for the marks of punctuation used in ,lessons #dd1 #df1 #dg1 and #dh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ej4 ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions1 ,lesson #af4 ,direction4--,review from ,lesson #cg to ,lesson #df1 inclusive4 ,give1 in some such way as we have outlined in preceding ,review ,lessons1 the substance of the ,introductory ,hints2 repeat and illustrate definitions and rules2 illustrate the different uses of the participle and the infinitive1 and illustrate the ,caution regarding the use of the participle2 illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be grammatically independent1 and the punctuation of these independent elements4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ea4 ,,arrangement--,,usual ,,order4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if1 from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming to a prescribed course of study1 it is found desirable to abridge these ,lessons on ,arrangement and ,contraction1 the exercises to be written may be omitted1 and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the different parts1 in both the ,usual and the ,transposed order1 and then to read the examples given1 making the required changes orally4 ,the eight following ,lessons may thus be reduced to two or three4 ,let us recall the ,usual ,order of words and phrases in a simple declarative sentence4 ,the verb follows the subject1 and the object complement follows the verb4 ,example4--,drake circumnavigated the globe4 ,direction4--,observing this order1 write three sentences each with an object complement4 ,an adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun1 and an explanatory modifier follows it4 ,examples4--,man's life is a brief span4 ,moses1 the lawgiver1 came down from the ,mount4 ,direction4--,observing this order1 write four sentences1 two with possessive modifiers and two with explanatory1 each sentence containing an adjective4 ,the attribute complement1 whether noun or adjective1 follows the verb1 the objective complement follows the object complement1 and the indirect object precedes the direct4 ,examples4--,egypt is the valley of the ,nile4 ,eastern life is dreamy4 ,they made ,bonaparte consul4 ,they offered ,caesar a crown4 ,direction4--,observing this order1 write four sentences illustrating the positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these offices4 ,if adjectives are of unequal rank1 the one most closely modifying the noun stands nearest to it2 if of the same rank1 they stand in the order of their length--the shortest first4 ,examples4--,two honest young men enlisted4 ,cassino has a lean and hungry look4 ,a rock1 huge and precipitous1 stood in our path4 ,direction4--,observing this order1 write three sentences illustrating the relative position of adjectives before and after the noun4 ,an adverb precedes the adjective1 the adverb1 or the phrase which it modifies2 precedes or follows 7more frequently follows7 the simple verb or the verb with its complement2 and follows one or more words of the verb if the verb is compound4 ,examples4--,the light far in the distance is so very bright4 ,i soon found him4 ,i hurt him badly4 ,he had often been there4 ,direction4--,observing this order1 write sentences illustrating these several positions of the adverb4 ,phrases follow the words they modify2 if a word has two or more phrases1 those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it4 ,examples4--,facts once established are facts forever4 ,he sailed for ,liverpool on ,monday4 ,direction4--,observing this order1 write sentences illustrating the positions of participle and prepositional phrases4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #eb4 ,,arrangement--,,transposed ,,order4 ,introductory ,hints4--,the usual order of words1 spoken of in the preceding ,lesson1 is not the only order admissible in an ,english sentence2 on the contrary1 great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes allowable4 ,let the relation of the words be kept obvious and1 consequently1 the thought clear1 and in poetry1 in impassioned oratory1 in excited speech of any kind1 one may deviate widely from this order4 ,a writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words2 more of it lies in some words than in others4 ,under the influence of strong feeling1 one may move words out of their accustomed place1 and1 by thus attracting attention to them1 give them additional importance to the reader or hearer4 ,when any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place1 appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end1 we have what we may call the ,transposed ,order4 ,i dare not venture to go down into the cabin--,venture to go down into the cabin ,i dare not4 ,you shall die--,die you shall4 ,their names will forever live on the lips of the people--,their names will1 on the lips of the people1 forever live4 ,when the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb1 or the principal word of it1 before the subject1 we have the extreme example of the transposed order2 as1 ,a yeoman had he4 ,strange is the magic of a turban4 ,the whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a declarative sentence except in poetry2 as1 ,flashed all their sabers bare4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4----,where1 in our directions in these ,lessons on ,arrangement and ,contraction1 we say change1 transpose1 or restore1 the pupils need not write the sentences4 ,they should study them and be able to read them4 ,require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change4 ,direction4--,change these sentences from the usual to the transposed order by moving words or phrases to the front1 and explain the effect3-- #a4 ,he could not avoid it4 #b4 ,they were pretty lads4 #c4 ,the great ,queen died in the year #afjc4 #d4 ,he would not escape4 #e4 ,i must go4 #f4 ,she seemed young and sad4 #g4 ,he cried1 ,my son1 my son6 #h4 ,he ended his tale here4 #i4 ,the moon shone bright4 #aj4 ,a frozen continent lies beyond the sea4 #aa4 ,he was a contentious man4 #ab4 ,it was quoted so4 #ac4 ,monmouth had never been accused of cowardice4 ,direction4--,change these sentences from the transposed order to the usual1 and explain the effect3-- #a4 ,him1 the ,almighty ,power hurled headlong4 #b4 ,volatile he was4 #c4 ,victories1 indeed1 they were4 #d4 ,of noble race the lady came4 #e4 ,slowly and sadly we laid him down4 #f4 ,once again we'll sleep secure4 #g4 ,this double office the participle performs4 #h4 ,that gale ,i well remember4 #i4 ,churlish he often seemed4 #aj4 ,one strong thing ,i find here below4 #aa4 ,overhead ,i heard a murmur4 #ab4 ,to their will we must succumb4 #ac4 ,him they hanged4 #ad4 ,freely ye have received4 ,direction4--,write five sentences1 each with one of the following nouns or adjectives as a complement2 and five1 each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier2 then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front1 and explain the effect3-- ,giant1 character1 happy1 him1 serene1 often1 in the market1 long and deeply1 then1 under foot4 ,direction4--,transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words last1 and note the effect3-- #a4 ,the clouds lowering upon our house are buried in the deep bosom of the ocean4 #b4 ,aeneas did bear from the flames of ,troy upon his shoulder the old ,anchises4 #c4 ,such a heart beats in the breast of my people4 #d4 ,the great fire roared up the deep and wide chimney4 ,direction4--,change these to the usual order3-- #a4 ,no woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won4 #b4 ,let a shroud1 stripped from some privileged corpse1 be1 for its proper price1 displayed4 #c4 ,an old clock1 early one summer's morning1 before the stirring of the family1 suddenly stopped4 #d4 ,treasures of gold and of silver are1 in the deep bosom of the earth1 concealed4 #e4 ,ease and grace in writing are1 of all the acquisitions made in school1 the most difficult and valuable4 ,direction4--,write three sentences1 each with the following noun or adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate1 and then transpose1 placing these words wherever they can properly go3-- ,mountains1 glad1 by and by4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ec4 ,,arrangement--,,transposed ,,order4 ,direction4--,restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the object complement and the verb to their customary places1 and tell what is lost by the change3-- #a4 ,thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth4 #b4 ,exactly so1 replied the pendulum4 #c4 ,me restored he to mine office4 #d4 ,a changed ,france have we4 #e4 ,these evils hath sin wrought4 ,direction4--,transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and the verb1 and tell what is gained by the change3-- #a4 ,the dial-plate exclaimed1 ,lazy wire6 #b4 ,the maiden has such charms4 #c4 ,the ,english character has faults and plenty of them4 #d4 ,i will make one effort more to save you4 #e4 ,the king does possess great power4 #f4 ,you have learned much in this short journey4 ,direction4--,write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object complements1 and then restore them to their usual order3-- ,pause1 cry1 peace1 horse1 words1 gift4 ,direction4--,restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the attribute complement and the verb to their usual places1 and tell what is lost by the change3-- #a4 ,a dainty plant is the ivy green4 #b4 ,feet was ,i to the lame4 #c4 ,a mighty man is he4 #d4 ,as a mark of respect was the present given4 #e4 ,a giant towered he among men4 ,direction4--,transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement and the verb1 and tell what is gained by the change3-- #a4 ,we are merry brides4 #b4 ,washington is styled the ,father of his ,country4 #c4 ,he was a stark mosstrooping ,scot4 #d4 ,the man seemed an incarnate demon4 #e4 ,henry ,,viii4 had become a despot4 ,direction4--,using these nouns as attribute complements1 write three sentences in the usual order1 and then transpose them3-- ,rock1 desert1 fortress4 ,direction4--,restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the adjective complement and the verb to their customary places3-- #a4 ,happy are we to-night1 boys4 #b4 ,good and upright is the ,lord4 #c4 ,hotter grew the air4 #d4 ,pale looks your ,grace4 #e4 ,dark rolled the waves4 #f4 ,louder waxed the applause4 #g4 ,blood-red became the sun4 #h4 ,doubtful seemed the battle4 #i4 ,wise are all his ways4 #aj4 ,wide open stood the doors4 #aa4 ,weary had he grown4 #ab4 ,faithful proved he to the last4 ,direction4--,transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement and the verb3-- #a4 ,my regrets were bitter and unavailing4 #b4 ,the anger of the righteous is weighty4 #c4 ,the air seemed deep and dark4 #d4 ,she had grown tall and queenly4 #e4 ,the peacemakers are blessed4 #f4 ,i came into the world helpless4 #g4 ,the untrodden snow lay bloodless4 #h4 ,the fall of that house was great4 #i4 ,the uproar became intolerable4 #aj4 ,the secretary stood alone4 ,direction4--,write five transposed sentences1 each with one of these adjectives as attribute complement1 and then restore the sentences to the usual order3-- ,tempestuous1 huge1 glorious1 lively1 fierce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ed4 ,,arrangement--,,transposed ,,order4 ,direction4--,restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the adverb and the verb to their customary places1 and note the loss3-- #a4 ,then burst his mighty heart4 #b4 ,here stands the man4 #c4 ,crack6 went the ropes4 #d4 ,down came the masts4 #e4 ,so died the great ,columbus of the skies4 #f4 ,tictac6 tictac6 go the wheels of thought4 #g4 ,away went ,gilpin4 #h4 ,off went his bonnet4 #i4 ,well have ye judged4 #aj4 ,on swept the lines4 #aa4 ,there dozed the donkeys4 #ab4 ,boom6 boom6 went the guns4 #ac4 ,thus waned the afternoon4 #ad4 ,there thunders the cataract age after age4 ,direction4--,transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the verb3-- #a4 ,i will never desert ,mr4 ,micawber4 #b4 ,the great event occurred soon after4 #c4 ,the boy stood there with dizzy brain4 #d4 ,the ,spaniard's shot went whing6 whing6 #e4 ,catiline shall no longer plot her ruin4 #f4 ,a sincere word was never utterly lost4 #g4 ,it stands written so4 #h4 ,venus was yet the morning star4 #i4 ,you must speak thus4 #aj4 ,lady ,impudence goes up to the maid4 #aa4 ,thy proud waves shall be stayed here4 ,direction4--,write ten sentences in the transposed order1 using these adverbs3-- ,still1 here1 now1 so1 seldom1 there1 out1 yet1 thus1 never4 ,direction4--,restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the phrase and the verb to their customary places1 and note the loss3-- #a4 ,behind her rode ,lalla ,rookh4 #b4 ,seven years after the ,restoration appeared ,paradise ,lost4 #c4 ,into the valley of death rode the six hundred4 #d4 ,to such straits is a kaiser driven4 #e4 ,upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life4 #f4 ,between them lay a mountain ridge4 #g4 ,in purple was she robed4 #h4 ,near the surface are found the implements of bronze4 #i4 ,through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys4 #aj4 ,in those days came ,john the ,baptist4 #aa4 ,on the #agth of ,june1 #agge1 was fought the battle of ,bunker ,hill4 #ab4 ,three times were the ,romans driven back4 ,direction4--,transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb3-- #a4 ,the disciples came at the same time4 #b4 ,the dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads4 #c4 ,an ancient and stately hall stood near the village4 #d4 ,his trusty sword lay by his side4 #e4 ,pepin eventually succeeded to ,charles ,martel4 #f4 ,the house stands somewhat back from the street4 #g4 ,our sphere turns on its axis4 #h4 ,the bridle is red with the sign of despair4 #i4 ,i have served in twenty campaigns4 #aj4 ,touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips4 ,direction4--,write ten sentences in the usual order1 using these prepositions to introduce phrases1 and then transpose the sentences1 and compare the two orders3-- ,beyond1 upon1 toward1 of1 by1 into1 between1 in1 at1 to4 ,direction4--,write six sentences in the transposed order1 beginning them with these words3-- ,there 7independent71 nor1 neither4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ee4 ,,arrangement--,,interrogative ,,sentences4 ,if the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it1 the order is usual4 ,examples4--,who came last evening8 ,what star shines brightest8 ,direction4--,write five interrogative sentences1 using the first word below as a subject2 the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject2 the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject3-- ,who1 which1 what4 ,if the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or a modifier of either1 the order is transposed4 ,examples4--,whom did you see8 ,what are personal consequences8 ,which course will you choose8 ,direction4--,write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object complement1 and another with the second word as attribute complement4 ,write four with the third and the fourth as complements1 and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement3-- ,whom1 who1 which1 what4 ,if the interrogative word is an adverb1 the order is transposed4 ,examples4--,why is the forum crowded8 ,where are the flowers1 the fair young flowers8 ,direction4--,write five interrogative sentences1 using these adverbs3-- ,how1 when1 where1 whither1 why4 ,if there is no interrogative word1 the subject stands after the verb when this is simple2 after the first word of it when it is compound4 ,examples4--,have you your lesson8 ,has the gentleman finished8 ,direction4--,write six interrogative sentences1 using these words3-- ,is1 has1 can learn1 might have gone1 could have been found1 must see4 ,direction4--,change the sentences you have written in this ,lesson into declarative sentences4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ef4 ,,arrangement--,,imperative ,,and ,,exclamatory ,,sentences4 ,the subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence2 but1 when it is expressed1 the sentence is in the transposed order4 ,examples4--,praise ye the ,lord4 ,give 7thou7 me three grains of corn4 ,direction4--,using these verbs1 write ten sentences1 in five of which the subject shall be omitted2 and in five1 expressed3-- ,remember1 listen1 lend1 love1 live1 choose1 use1 obey1 strive1 devote4 ,although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory 7,lesson #df71 yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with how or what1 and are usually in the transposed order4 ,examples4--,how quietly the child sleeps6 ,how excellent is thy loving-kindness6 ,what visions have ,i seen6 ,what a life his was6 ,direction4--,write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying 7#a7 an adjective1 7#b7 a verb1 and 7#c7 an adverb--in three sentences let the verb follow1 and in three precede1 the subject4 ,write four sentences with the word what modifying 7#a7 an object complement and 7#b7 an attribute complement--in two sentences let the verb follow1 and in two precede1 the subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #eg4 ,,contraction ,,of ,,sentences4 ,direction4--,contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and prepositions1 and all the conjunctions except the last3-- #a4 ,webster was a great lawyer1 a great statesman1 a great debater1 and a great writer4 #b4 ,by their valor1 by their policy1 and by their matrimonial alliances1 they became powerful4 #c4 ,samuel ,adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious4 #d4 ,flowers are so fragile1 so delicate1 and so ornamental6 #e4 ,they are truly prosperous and truly happy4 #f4 ,the means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and resolutions and defiance4 #g4 ,carthage was the mistress of oceans1 of kingdoms1 and of nations4 ,direction4--,expand these by repeating the adjective1 the adverb1 the preposition1 and the conjunction3-- #a4 ,he was a good son1 father1 brother1 friend4 #b4 ,the tourist traveled in ,spain1 ,greece1 ,egypt1 and ,palestine4 #c4 ,bayard was very brave1 truthful1 and chivalrous4 #d4 ,honor1 revenge1 shame1 and contempt inflamed his heart4 ,direction4--,write six sentences1 each with one of these words used four times2 and then contract them as above1 and note the effect of the repetition and of the omission3-- ,poor1 how1 with1 through1 or1 and4 ,direction4--,expand these sentences by supplying subjects3-- #a4 ,give us this day our daily bread4 #b4 ,why dost stare so8 #c4 ,thank you1 sir4 #d4 ,hear me for my cause4 #e4 ,where hast been these six months8 #f4 ,bless me6 #g4 ,save us4 ,direction4--,expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it3-- #a4 ,nobody there4 #b4 ,death to the tyrant4 #c4 ,all aboard6 #d4 ,all hands to the pumps6 #e4 ,what to me fame8 #f4 ,short1 indeed1 his career4 #g4 ,when ,adam thus to ,eve4 #h4 ,i must after him4 #i4 ,thou shalt back to ,france4 #aj4 ,whose footsteps these8 ,direction4--,expand these by supplying both subject and verb1 and note the loss in vivacity3-- #a4 ,upon them with the lance4 #b4 ,at your service1 sir4 #c4 ,why so unkind8 #d4 ,forward1 the light brigade6 #e4 ,half-past nine4 #f4 ,off with you4 #g4 ,my kingdom for a horse6 #h4 ,hence1 you idle creatures6 #i4 ,coffee for two4 #aj4 ,shine1 sir8 #aa4 ,back to thy punishment1 false fugitive4 #ab4 ,on with the dance4 #ac4 ,strange1 strange6 #ad4 ,once more unto the breach4 #ae4 ,away1 away6 #af4 ,impossible6 ,direction4--,contract these by omitting the subject or the verb3-- #a4 ,art thou gone8 #b4 ,will you take your chance8 #c4 ,his career was ably run4 #d4 ,are you a captain8 #e4 ,may long life be to the republic4 #f4 ,how great is the mystery6 #g4 ,canst thou wonder8 #h4 ,may a prosperous voyage be to you4 #i4 ,are you here8 ,direction4--,contract these by omitting both subject and verb1 and note the gain in force and animation3-- #a4 ,i offer a world for sale4 #b4 ,now1 then1 go you to breakfast4 #c4 ,sit you down1 soothless insulter4 #d4 ,i want a word with you1 wife4 #e4 ,those are my sentiments1 madam4 #f4 ,bring ye lights there4 #g4 ,it is true1 sir4 #h4 ,we will drink a health to ,preciosa4 #i4 ,i offer a penny for your thoughts4 #aj4 ,whither are you going so early8 ,direction4--,construct ten full sentences1 using in each1 one of these adverbs or phrases or nouns1 and then contract the sentences by omitting both subject and verb3-- ,why1 hence1 to arms1 silence1 out1 to your tents1 peaches1 room1 for the guns1 water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #eh4 ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions1 ,lesson #af4 ,direction4--,review from ,lesson #ea to ,lesson #eg1 inclusive4 ,illustrate the different positions--,usual and ,transposed--that the words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take2 illustrate the different positions of the parts of an interrogative1 of an imperative1 and of an exclamatory sentence2 illustrate the different ways of contracting sentences4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 7,,see ,,pages #afb-afe47 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see notes to the teacher1 pages #cj1 #aej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ei4 ,,complex ,,sentence--,,adjective ,,clause4 ,introductory ,hints4--,the sentences given for analysis in the preceding ,lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate4 ,they are called ,simple ,sentences4 ,a discreet youth makes friends4 ,in ,lesson #ag you learned that you could expand the adjective discreet into a phrase1 and say1 ,a youth of discretion makes friends4 ,you are now to learn that you can expand it into an expression that asserts1 and say1 ,a youth that is discreet makes friends4 ,this part of the sentence and the other part1 ,a youth makes friends1 containing each a subject and a predicate1 we call ,clauses4 ,the adjective clause that is discreet1 performing the office of a single word1 we call a ,dependent ,clause2 ,a youth makes friends1 not performing such office1 we call an ,independent ,clause4 ,the whole sentence1 composed of an independent and a dependent clause1 we call a ,complex ,sentence4 ,a dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an ,adjective ,clause4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,they that touch pitch will be defiled4 ,they will be defiled that touch pitch ----------------'------- ,explanation4--,the relative importance of the two clauses is shown by their position1 by their connection1 and by the difference in the shading of the lines4 ,the pronoun that is written on the subject line of the dependent clause4 ,that performs the office of a conjunction also4 ,this office is shown by the dotted line4 ,as modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify1 you learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a modifier of they4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause4 ,they will be defiled is the independent clause1 and that touch pitch is the dependent4 ,that touch pitch is a modifier of they because it limits the meaning of they2 the dependent clause is connected by its subject that to they4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,illustrate the connecting force of who1 which1 and that by substituting for them the words for which they stand1 and noting the loss of connection4 #b4 ,the lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press4 #c4 ,wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits4 ,explanation4--,the adjective clause does not always modify the subject4 #d4 ,photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like genius4 #e4 ,in #afhe ,louis ,,xiv4 signed the ordinance that revoked the ,edict of ,nantes4 #f4 ,the thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which ,samuel ,adams framed4 ,explanation4--,the pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject4 #g4 ,the guilt of the slave-trade1 ,footnote3 ,see ,lesson #fa1 foot-note4 which sprang out of the traffic with ,guinea1 rests with ,john ,hawkins4 #h4 ,i found the place to which you referred4 ,i found place the you referred ---------------- to which ------- #i4 ,the spirit in which we act is the highest matter4 #aj4 ,it was the same book that ,i referred to4 ,explanation4--,the phrase to that modifies referred4 ,that connects the adjective clause4 ,when the pronoun that connects an adjective clause1 the preposition never precedes4 ,the diagram is similar to that of 7#h74 #aa4 ,she that ,i spoke to was blind4 #ab4 ,grouchy did not arrive at the time that ,napoleon most needed him4 ,explanation4--,a preposition is wanting4 ,that in which4 7,can you find a word that would here sound better than that87 #ac4 ,attention is the stuff that memory is made of4 #ad4 ,it is to you that ,i speak4 ,explanation4--,here the preposition1 which usually would stand last in the sentence1 is found before the complement of the independent clause4 ,in analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--,it is you that ,i speak to4 ,that ,i speak to modifies the subject4 #ae4 ,it was from me that he received the information4 7,me must be changed to ,i when from is restored to its usual position47 #af4 ,islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the ocean4 mountains ----------- base is ----------- 44444whose ,explanation4--,the connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of base4 #ag4 ,unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fj4 ,,adjective ,,clauses--,,continued4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time you take to breathe4 ,explanation4--,the connecting pronoun that ,footnote3 ,when whom1 which1 and that would1 if used1 be object complements1 they are often omitted4 ,macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits them4 is omitted4 #b4 ,the smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on4 #c4 ,socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw4 #d4 ,whom the ,lord loveth he chasteneth4 ,explanation4--,the adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of whom4 ,supply him4 #e4 ,he did what was right4 ,he did x what was right ---------------------- ,explanation4--,the adjective clause modifies the omitted word thing1 or some word whose meaning is general or indefinite4 ,footnote3 ,many grammarians prefer to treat what was right as a noun clause 7see ,lesson #ga71 the object of did4 ,they would treat in the same way clauses introduced by whoever1 whatever1 whichever4 ,what was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses4 ,its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative2 it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives1 and before which no antecedent is needed1 or permitted to be expressed4 ,its possessive whose has1 however1 attained the full construction of a relative4--,prof4 ,f4 ,a4 ,march4 #f4 ,what is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show4 #g4 ,the swan achieved what the goose conceived4 #h4 ,what men he had were true4 ,the relative pronoun what here precedes its noun like an adjective4 ,analyze as if arranged thus3 ,the men what 7 that or whom7 he had were true4 #i4 ,whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled4 ,explanation4--,the adjective clause modifies the omitted subject 7man or he7 of the independent clause4 #aj4 ,i told him to bring whichever was the lightest4 #aa4 ,whatever crushes individuality is despotism4 #ab4 ,a depot is a place where stores are deposited4 depot is place ,a a where stores are deposited ---------------------------- ,explanation4--,the line representing where is made up of two parts4 ,the upper part represents where as a conjunction connecting the adjective clause to place1 and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying are deposited4 ,as where performs these two offices1 it may be called a conjunctive adverb4 ,by changing where to the equivalent phrase in which1 and using a diagram similar to 7#h71 ,lesson #ei1 the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen4 #ac4 ,he raised the maid from where she knelt4 7,supply the place before where47 #ad4 ,youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown4 #ae4 ,shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against ,antonio4 #af4 ,mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of the universe are conducted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fa4 ,,composition--,,adjective ,,clause4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,the ,adjective ,clause1 when not restrictive1 is set off by the comma4 ,explanation4--,i picked the apple that was ripe4 ,i picked the apple1 which was ripe4 ,in the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits apple1 telling which one was picked2 in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked1 the sentence being nearly equivalent to1 ,i picked the apple1 and it was ripe4 ,this difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation4,footnote3 ,there are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to and he or and it2 as1 ,i gave the letter to my friend1 who will return it to you4 ,those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound1 making the relative clause independent1 or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause4 ,such classification will often require very careful discrimination2 as1 for instance1 between the preceding sentence and the following3 ,i gave the letter to my friend1 who can be trusted4 ,but we know of no author who1 in every case1 governs his classification of phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations4 ,let us examine the following sentences3-- ,john1 who did not know the law1 is innocent4 ,john is innocent2 he did not know the law4 ,john is innocent because he did not know the law4 ,no grammarian1 we think1 would class each of these three italicized clauses as an adverb clause of cause4 ,do they differ in logical force8 ,the student should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ4 7,see pages #aai1 #aba1 #ach1 #aci1 #adb1 #adc47 ,caution4--,the adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies4 ,direction4--,correct the following errors of position1 and insert the comma when needed3-- #a4 ,the ,knights of the ,round ,table flourished in the reign of ,king ,arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits4 #b4 ,solomon was the son of ,david who built the ,temple4 #c4 ,my brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast4 #d4 ,i have no right to decide who am interested4 ,direction4--,construct five complex sentences1 each containing an adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives3-- ,ambitious1 respectful1 quick-witted1 talkative1 lovable4 ,direction4--,change the following simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses3-- #a4 ,those fighting custom with grammar are foolish4 #b4 ,the ,constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties4 #c4 ,i am thy father's spirit1 doomed for a certain term to walk the night4 #d4 ,some people1 having lived abroad1 undervalue the advantages of their native land4 #e4 ,a wife and children1 threatened with widowhood and orphanage1 have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the ,senate ,chamber4 ,direction4--,change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses3-- #a4 ,i have many things to tell you4 #b4 ,there were none to deliver4 #c4 ,he had an ax to grind4 #d4 ,it was a sight to gladden the heart4 #e4 ,it was a din to fright a monster's ear4 ,direction4--,form complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses3-- ,who1 which1 that1 what1 whoever1 and whatever4 ,when1 where1 and why4 ,direction4--,change that which1 in the following sentences to what1 and what to that which2 whoever to he who1 and whatever to anything or everything which2 where and when to at1 on1 or in which2 wherein to in which2 and whereby to by which3-- #a4 ,that which is seen is temporal4 #b4 ,what ,god hath joined together let not man put asunder4 #c4 ,whoever lives a pious life blesses his race4 #d4 ,whatever we do has an influence4 #e4 ,scholars have grown old and blind1 striving to put their hands on the very spot where brave men died4 #f4 ,the year when ,chaucer was born is uncertain4 #g4 ,the play's the thing wherein ,i'll catch the conscience of the king4 #h4 ,you take my life in taking the means whereby ,i live4 ,direction4--,expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective clauses3-- #a4 ,a man's heart deviseth his way4 #b4 ,reason's whole pleasure1 all the joys of sense1 ,lie in three words--health1 peace1 and competence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fb4 ,direction4--,analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding ,lesson1 and write illustrative sentences as here directed3-- ,give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject2 one modifying a complement2 one modifying the principal word of a phrase2 one modifying some word omitted2 one whose connective is a subject2 one whose connective is a complement2 one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase2 one whose connective is a possessive modifier2 one whose connective is omitted2 one whose connective is an adverb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fc4 ,,complex ,,sentence--,,adverb ,,clause4 ,introductory ,hints4--,he arrived late4 ,you have learned that you can expand the adverb late into a phrase1 and say1 ,he arrived at midnight4 ,you are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of ,time1 and say1 ,he arrived when the clock struck twelve4 ,he stood where ,i am4 ,the clause introduced by where expresses ,place1 and is equivalent to the adverb here or to the phrase in this place4 ,this exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant4 ,the clause introduced by as 444 as modifies profitable1 telling the ,degree of the quality expressed by it4 ,a clause that does the work of an adverb is an ,adverb ,clause4 ,analysis4 ,the adverb clause may express time4 #a4 ,when pleasure calls1 we listen4 we listen ,when pleasure calls ------------------- ,explanation4--,when modifies both listen and calls1 denoting that the two acts take place at the same time4 ,it also connects pleasure calls1 as an adverb modifier1 to listen4 ,the offices of the conjunctive adverb when may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases thus3 ,we listen at the time at which pleasure calls4 ,at the time modifies listen1 at which modifies calls1 and which connects4 ,the line representing when is made up of three parts to picture these three offices4 ,the part representing when as a modifier of calls is1 for convenience1 placed above its principal line instead of below it4 #b4 ,while ,louis ,,xiv4 reigned1 ,europe was at war4 #c4 ,when my father and my mother forsake me1 then ths ,lord will take me up4 ,lord will take me ,the up 44 then ,when father ------------' my ' ' ' forsake me 'and ------------------------- ' _/ ' _/ mother ' _/ ------------'_/ my ,explanation4--,by changing then into at the time1 and when into at which1 the offices of these two words will be clearly seen4 ,for explanation of the line representing when1 see ,lesson #ad and 7#a7 above4 #d4 ,cato1 before he durst give himself the fatal stroke1 spent the night in reading ,plato's ,immortality4 ,footnote3 ,some prefer1 in constructions like this1 to treat before1 ere1 after1 till1 until1 and since as prepositions followed by noun clauses4 #e4 ,many a year is in its grave since ,i crossed this restless wave4 ,footnote3 ,see 7#aa71 ,lesson #ch1 and foot-note4 ,explanation4--,many here modifies year1 or1 rather1 year as modified by a4 #f4 ,blucher arrived on the field of ,waterloo just as ,wellington was meeting the last onslaught of ,napoleon4 ,blucher arrived ------ as just ,wellington was meeting onslaught ---------------------------------------- --- ,explanation4--,just may be treated as a modifier of the dependent clause4 ,a closer analysis1 however would make it a modifier of as4 ,just asjust at the time at which4 ,just here modifies at the time4 ,at the time is represented in the diagram by the first element of the as line4 ,the adverb clause may express place4 #g4 ,where the snow falls1 there is freedom4 #h4 ,pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it4 #i4 ,the wind bloweth where it listeth4 ,the adverb clause may express degree4 #aj4 ,washington was as good as he was great4 ,explanation4--,the adverb clause as he was great modifies the first as1 which is an adverb modifying good4 ,the first as1 modified by the adverb clause1 answers the question1 ,good to what extent or degree8 ,the second as modifies great and performs the office of a conjunction1 and is therefore a conjunctive adverb4 ,transposing1 and expanding as 444 as into two phrases1 we have1 ,washington was good in the degree in which he was great4 ,see diagram of 7#c7 and of 7#bj74 #aa4 ,the wiser he grew1 the humbler he became4 ,footnote3 ,the1 here1 is not the ordinary adjective the4 ,it is the ,anglo-,saxon demonstrative pronoun used in an instrumental sense4 ,it is here an adverb4 ,the first the by how much1 and modifies wiser2 the second the by so much1 and modifies humbler4 ,explanation4--,the words the 444 the are similar in office to as 444 as--,he became humbler in that degree in which he became wiser4 #ab4 ,gold is heavier than iron4 ,gold is heavier than iron x x ---------------------- ,explanation4--,heavier heavy beyond the degree1 and than in which4 ,the sentence ,gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is heavy4 ,is and heavy are omitted4 ,frequently words are omitted after than and as4 ,than modifies heavy 7understood7 and connects the clause expressing degree to heavier1 and is therefore a conjunctive adverb4 #ac4 ,to be right is better than to be president4 ,explanation4--,to be right is better 7good in a greater degree7 than to be president 7would be good74 #ad4 ,it was so cold that the mercury froze4 ,footnote3 ,in this sentence1 also in 7#ae7 and 7#ag71 the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause of ,result or ,consequence4 ,clauses of ,result express different logical relations1 and cannot always be classed under ,degree4 ,explanation4--,the degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced4 ,the adverb so1 modified by the adverb clause that the mercury froze1 answers the question1 ,cold to what degree8 ,the sentence ,it was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze4 ,that1 as you see1 modifies froze and connects the clauses2 it is therefore a conjunctive adverb4 #ae4 ,it was so cold as to freeze the mercury4 ,explanation4--,it was so cold as to freeze the mercury 7would indicate or require74 #af4 ,dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it4 #ag4 ,he called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded4 #ah4 ,to preach is easier than to practice4 #ai4 ,one's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion4 ,footnote3 ,for the use of he instead of the indefinite pronoun one repeated1 see ,lesson #abd4 #bj4 ,the oftener ,i see it1 the better ,i like it4 ,i like it ---- better the 444 ,i see it -------------------- ,the 44444oftener 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fd4 ,,adverb ,,clause-,,continued4 ,introductory ,hints4--,he lived as the fool lives4 ,the adverb clause1 introduced by as1 is a clause of ,manner1 and is equivalent to the adverb foolishly or to the phrase in a foolish manner4 ,the ground is wet because it has rained4 ,the adverb clause1 introduced by because1 assigns the ,real ,cause of the ground's being wet4 ,it has rained1 for the ground is wet4 ,the adverb clause1 introduced by for1 does not assign the cause of the raining1 but the cause of our believing that it has rained2 it gives the ,evidence of what is asserted4 ,footnote3 ,evidence should be carefully distinguished from ,cause4 ,cause produces an effect2 ,evidence produces knowledge of an effect4 ,clauses of ,evidence are sometimes treated as independent4 ,analysis4 ,the adverb clause may express manner4 #a4 ,he died as he lived4 ,explanation4--,he died in the manner in which he lived4 ,for diagram1 see 7#a71 ,lesson #fc4 #b4 ,the upright man speaks as he thinks4 #c4 ,as the upright man thinks so he speaks4 7,for diagram of as 444 so1 see when 444 then 7#c71 ,lesson #fc47 #d4 ,as is the boy so will be the man4 #e4 ,the waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore4 ,the adverb clause may express real cause4 #f4 ,the ground is wet because it has rained4 ground is wet ,the because it has rained ------------------- ,explanation4--,because1 being a mere conjunction1 stands on a line wholly dotted4 #g4 ,slang is always vulgar1 as it is an affected way of talking4 #h4 ,we keep the pores of the skin open1 for through them the blood throws off its impurities4 #i4 ,since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid1 wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms4 #aj4 ,sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing1 as it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits4 #aa4 ,wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour4 ,the adverb clause may express evidence4 #ab4 ,god was angry with the children of ,israel1 for he overthrew them in the wilderness4 #ac4 ,tobacco and the potato are ,american products1 since ,raleigh found them here4 #ad4 ,it rained last night1 because the ground is wet this morning4 #ae4 ,we ,americans must all be cuckoos1 for we build our homes in the nests of other birds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fe4 ,,adverb ,,clause-,,continued4 ,introductory ,hints4--,if it rains1 the ground will be wet4 ,the adverb clause1 introduced by if1 assigns what1 if it occurs1 will be the cause of the ground's being wet1 but1 as here expressed1 is only a ,condition ready to become a cause4 ,he takes exercise that he may get well4 ,the adverb clause1 introduced by that1 assigns the cause or the motive or the ,purpose of his exercising4 ,the ground is dry1 although it has rained4 ,the adverb clause1 introduced by although1 expresses a ,concession4 ,it is conceded that a cause for the ground's not being dry exists2 but1 in spite of this opposing cause1 it is asserted that the ground is dry4 ,all these dependent clauses of real cause1 evidence1 condition1 purpose1 and concession come1 as you see1 under the general head of ,cause1 although only the first kind assigns the cause proper4 ,analysis4 ,the adverb clause may express condition4 #a4 ,if the air is quickly compressed1 enough heat is evolved to produce combustion4 #b4 ,unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse1 always use prose4 7,unless if not47 #c4 ,if ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him1 you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener4 #d4 ,were it not for the warm waters of the ,gulf ,stream1 the harbors and the rivers of ,britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the year4 ,explanation4--,the relative position of the subject and the verb renders the if unnecessary4 ,this omission of if is a common idiom4 #e4 ,should the calls of hunger be neglected1 the fat of the body is thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play4 ,the adverb clause may express purpose4 #f4 ,language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other4 ,explanation4--,that1 introducing a clause of purpose1 is a mere conjunction4 #g4 ,spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at one time4 ,explanation4--,the phrases in order that1 so that that4 #h4 ,the ship-canal across the ,isthmus of ,suez was dug so that ,european vessels need not sail around the ,cape of ,good ,hope to reach the ,orient4 #i4 ,the air draws up vapors from the sea and the land1 and retains them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds1 that it may drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth4 ,the adverb clause may express concession4 #aj4 ,although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body1 about one-sixth of the blood is sent to it4 #aa4 ,though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface1 still we do not feel its weight4 #ab4 ,though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar1 yet will not his foolishness depart from him4 #ac4 ,if the ,war of the ,roses did not utterly destroy ,english freedom1 it arrested its progress for a hundred years4 ,explanation4--,if here even if though4 #ad4 ,though many rivers flow into the ,mediterranean1 they are not sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ff4 ,,composition-,,adverb ,,clauses4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,an ,adverb ,clause is set off by the comma unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies4 ,explanation4--,i met him in ,paris1 when ,i was last abroad4 ,i will not call him villain1 because it would be unparliamentary4 ,paper was invented in ,china1 if the ,chinese tell the truth4 ,in these sentences the adverb clauses are not restrictive1 but are supplementary1 and are added almost as afterthoughts4 ,glass bends easily when it is red-hot4 ,leaves do not turn red because the frost colors them4 ,it will break if you touch it4 ,here the adverb clauses are restrictive2 each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause1 and may almost be said to be the essential part of the sentence4 ,when the adverb clause precedes1 it is set off4 ,direction4---,tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in ,lessons #fc and #fd4 ,direction4---,write1 after these independent clauses1 adverb clauses of time1 place1 degree1 etc4 7for connectives1 see ,lesson #ajj71 and punctuate according to the ,rule3-- #a4 ,the leaves of the water-maple turn red--time4 #b4 ,our eyes cannot bear the light--time4 #c4 ,millions of soldiers sleep--place4 #d4 ,the ,bunker ,hill ,monument stands--place4 #e4 ,every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--degree4 #f4 ,vesuvius threw its lava so far--degree4 #g4 ,the tree is inclined--manner4 #h4 ,the lion springs upon his prey--manner4 #i4 ,many persons died in the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta--cause4 #aj4 ,dew does not form in a cloudy night--cause4 #aa4 ,that thunderbolt fell a mile away--evidence4 #ab4 ,we dream in our sleep--evidence4 #ac4 ,peter the ,great worked in ,holland in disguise--purpose4 #ad4 ,we put salt into butter and upon meat--purpose4 #ae4 ,iron bends and molds easily--condition4 #af4 ,apples would not fall to the ground--condition4 #ag4 ,europe conquered ,napoleon at last--concession4 #ah4 ,punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--concession4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fg4 ,,composition-,,adverb ,,classes4 ,,arrangement4 ,the adverb clause may stand before the independent clause1 between the parts of it1 or after it4 ,direction4---,think1 if you can1 of another adverb clause to follow each independent clause in the preceding ,lesson1 and by means of a caret 77 indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence4 ,note its force in its several positions1 and attend to the punctuation4 ,some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fh4 ,,composition--,,adverb ,,clauses4 ,an adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participle phrase4 ,example4--,when he saw me1 he stopped ,seeing me1 he stopped4 ,direction4--,contract these complex sentences to simple ones3-- #a4 ,coral animals1 when they die1 form vast islands with their bodies4 #b4 ,the water will freeze1 for it has cooled to #cb deg4 #c4 ,truth1 though she may be crushed to earth1 will rise again4 #d4 ,error1 if he is wounded1 writhes with pain1 and dies among his worshipers4 #e4 ,black clothes are too warm in summer1 because they absorb heat4 ,an adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase4 ,example4--,when night came on1 we gave up the chase ,night coming on1 we gave up the chase4 ,direction4--,contract these complex sentences to simple ones3-- #a4 ,when oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels1 heat is produced4 #b4 ,it will rain to-morrow1 for ,probabilities predicts it4 #c4 ,washington retreated from ,long ,island because his army was outnumbered4 #d4 ,if ,chaucer is called the father of our later ,english poetry1 ,wycliffe should be called the father of our later ,english prose4 ,an adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for its principal word 7#a7 a participle1 7#b7 an infinitive1 or 7#c7 a noun4 ,direction4--,contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a participle for its principal word3-- ,model4--,they will call before they leave the city ,they will call before leaving the city4 #a4 ,the ,gulf ,stream reaches ,newfoundland before it crosses the ,atlantic4 #b4 ,if we use household words1 we shall be better understood4 #c4 ,he grew rich because he attended to his business4 #d4 ,though they persecuted the ,christians1 they did not exterminate them4 ,direction4--,contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive phrase3-- ,model4--,she stoops that she may conquer ,she stoops to conquer4 #a4 ,the pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors4 #b4 ,philip ,,ii4 built the ,armada that he might conquer ,england4 #c4 ,he is foolish1 because he leaves school so early in life4 #d4 ,what would ,i not give if ,i could see you happy6 #e4 ,we are pained when we hear ,god's name used irreverently4 ,direction4--,contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a noun for its principal word3-- ,model4--,he fought that he might obtain glory ,he fought for glory4 #a4 ,luther died where he was born4 #b4 ,a fish breathes1 though it has no lungs4 #c4 ,the general marched as he was ordered4 #d4 ,criminals are punished that society may be safe4 #e4 ,if you are free from vices1 you may expect a happy old age4 ,an adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as may easily be supplied4 ,example4--,when you are right1 go ahead ,when right1 go ahead4 ,direction4--,contract these adverb clauses3-- #a4 ,chevalier ,bayard was killed while he was fighting for ,francis ,i4 #b4 ,error must yield1 however strongly it may be defended4 ,explanation4--,however modifies strongly1 and connects a concessive clause4 #c4 ,much wealth is corpulence1 if it is not disease4 #d4 ,no other ,english author has uttered so many pithy sayings as ,shakespeare has uttered4 7,frequently1 clauses introduced by as and than are contracted47 #e4 ,the sun is many times larger than the earth is large4 7,sentences like this never appear in the full form47 #f4 ,this is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era4 ,an adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase4 ,example4--,this man is to be pitied1 because he has no friends ,this man1 who has no friends1 is to be pitied ,this man1 having no friends1 is to be pitied ,this man1 without friends1 is to be pitied4 ,direction4--,change each of the following adverb clauses first to an adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase3-- #a4 ,a man is to be pitied if he does not care for music4 #b4 ,when a man lacks health1 wealth1 and friends1 he lacks three good things4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fi4 ,,analysis4 ,direction4--,tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in ,lesson #fh1 and note the different positions in which these clauses stand4 ,select two sentences containing time clauses2 one1 a place clause2 two1 degree2 one1 manner2 two1 real cause2 two1 evidence2 two1 purpose2 two1 condition2 and two1 concession1 and analyze them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gj4 ,,review4 ,direction4--,compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverb clauses named in ,lessons #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 and explain fully the office of each4 ,for connectives1 see ,lesson #ajj4 ,tell why the adverb clauses in ,lesson #fh are or are not set off by the comma4 ,compose sentences illustrating the different ways of contracting adverb clauses4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 7,,see ,,pages #afe-afh47 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions to the teacher1 pages #cj1 #aej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ga4 ,,the ,,complex ,,sentence-,,noun ,,clause4 ,introductory ,hints4--,in ,lessons #dj and #da you learned that an infinitive phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun4 ,you are now to learn that a clause may do the same4 ,obedience is better than sacrifice ,to obey is better than sacrifice ,that men should obey is better than sacrifice4 ,the dependent clause that men should obey is equivalent to a noun1 and is the ,subject of is4 ,many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning4 ,the dependent clause1 introduced by that1 is equivalent to a noun1 and is the ,object ,complement of believe4 ,the fact that mold1 mildew1 and yeast are plants is wonderful4 ,the clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun1 and is ,explanatory of fact4 ,a peculiarity of ,english is1 that it has so many borrowed words4 ,the clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun1 and is an ,attribute ,complement relating to peculiarity4 ,your future depends very much on who your companions are4 ,the clause who your companions are is equivalent to a noun1 and is the ,principal ,term of a ,phrase introduced by the preposition on4 ,a clause that does the work of a noun is a ,noun ,clause4 ,analysis4 ,the noun clause may be used as subject4 #a4 ,that the earth is round has been proved4 ,that -------- ' earth is ' round --------------------- the _/ has been proved ,explanation4--,the clause that the earth is round is used like a noun as the subject of has been proved4 ,the conjunction that ,footnote3 ,that was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun1 used to point to the fact stated in an independent sentence2 as1 ,it was good2 he saw that4 ,by an inversion of the order this became1 ,he saw that 7namely7 it was good1 and so passed into the form ,he saw that it was good1 where that has been transferred to the accessory clause1 and has become a mere sign of grammatical subordination4--,c4 ,p4 ,mason4 introduces the noun clause4 ,this is a peculiar kind of complex sentence4 ,strictly speaking1 there is here no principal clause1 for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause1 i4e41 a part of a sentence4 ,we may say that it is a complex sentence in which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause4 #b4 ,that the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is singular4 #c4 ,what have ,i done8 is asked by the knave and the thief4 #d4 ,who was the discoverer of ,america is not yet fully determined by historians4 ,explanation4--,the subject clause is here an indirect question4 ,see ,lesson #gd4 #e4 ,when letters were first used is not certainly known4 #f4 ,where is ,abel1 thy brother8 smote the ears of the guilty ,cain4 #g4 ,when to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved by some4 ,explanation4--,when to quit business and enjoy their wealth is an indirect question4 ,when to quit business ,when they are to quit business1 or ,when they ought to quit business4 ,such constructions may be expanded into clauses1 or they may be treated as phrases equivalent to clauses4 ,the noun clause may be used as object complement4 #h4 ,galileo taught that the earth moves4 that ------- ' earth ' moves ------------- the ,galileo taught _/ ,explanation4--,here the clause introduced by that is used like a noun as the object complement of taught4 #i4 ,the ,esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the dishes for his table4 #aj4 ,the world will not anxiously inquire who you are4 #aa4 ,it will ask of you1 ,what can you do8 #ab4 ,the peacock struts about1 saying1 ,what a fine tail ,i have6 #ac4 ,he does not know which to choose4 7,see explanation of 7#g71 above47 #ad4 ,no one can tell how or when or where he will die4 #ae4 ,philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over the current of thought in our dreams4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gb4 ,,noun ,,clause--,,continued4 ,analysis4 ,the noun clause may be used as attribute complement4 #a4 ,a peculiarity of ,english is1 that it has so many borrowed words4 #b4 ,tweed's defiant question was1 ,what are you going to do about it8 #c4 ,the question ever asked and never answered is1 ,where and how am ,i to exist in the ,hereafter8 #d4 ,hamlet's exclamation was1 ,what a piece of work is man6 #e4 ,the myth concerning ,achilles is1 that he was invulnerable in every part except the heel4 ,the noun clause may be used as explanatory modifier4 #f4 ,it has been proved that the earth is round4 that ------- ' earth is ' round -------------------- the ,it 7_/ 7 has been proved ,explanation4--,the grammatical subject it has no meaning till explained by the noun clause4 #g4 ,it is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of blood to the brain4 #h4 ,the fact that mold1 mildew1 and yeast are plants is wonderful4 #i4 ,napoleon turned his ,simplon road aside in order that he might save a tree mentioned by ,caesar4 ,explanation4--,unless in order that is taken as a conjunction connecting an adverb clause of purpose 7see 7#g71 ,lesson #fe71 the clause introduced by that is a noun clause explanatory of order4 ,footnote3 ,a similar explanation may be made of on condition that1 in case that1 introducing adverb clauses expressing condition4 #aj4 ,shakespeare's metaphor1 ,night's candles are burnt out1 is one of the finest in literature4 #aa4 ,the advice that ,st4 ,ambrose gave ,st4 ,augustine in regard to conformity to local custom was in substance this3 ,when in ,rome1 do as the ,romans do4 #ab4 ,this we know1 that our future depends on our present4 ,the noun clause may be used as principal term of a prepositional phrase4 #ac4 ,have birds any sense of why they sing8 birds ,have sense they sing any ----------- of why _/ ------------- ,explanation4--,why they sing is an indirect question1 here used as the principal term of a prepositional phrase4 #ad4 ,there has been some dispute about who wrote ,shakespeare's ,plays4 #ae4 ,we are not certain that an open sea surrounds the ,pole4 ,explanation4--,by supposing of to stand before that1 the noun clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying the adjective certain4 ,by supplying of the fact1 the noun clause will become explanatory4 #af4 ,we are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph4 #ag4 ,the ,sandwich ,islander is confident that the strength and valor of his slain enemy pass into himself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gc4 ,,composition--,,noun ,,clause4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,the ,noun ,clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma4 ,remarks4--,present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the clause used as subject or as object complement1 except where the comma would contribute to clearness4 ,the punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory modifiers4 ,see ,lesson #cd4 ,but the real subject made explanatory of it is seldom set off4 ,see next ,lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses that are questions or quotations4 ,direction4--,give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma with the noun clauses in the preceding ,lesson4 ,by using it as a substitute for the subject clause1 this clause may be placed last4 ,example4--,that the story of ,william ,tell is a myth is now believed ,it is now believed that the story of ,william ,tell is a myth4 ,direction4--,by the aid of the expletive it1 transpose five subject clauses in ,lesson #ga4 ,often the clause used as object complement may be placed first4 ,direction4--,transpose such of the clauses used as object complements1 in the preceding ,lessons1 as admit transposition4 ,punctuate them if they need punctuation4 ,the noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting the independent clause between its parts1 ,example4--,the story of ,william ,tell1 it is now believed1 is a myth4 7,notice that the principal clause1 used parenthetically1 is set off by the comma47 ,direction4--,write the following sentences1 using the independent clauses parenthetically3-- #a4 ,we believe that the first printing-press in ,america was set up in ,mexico in #aecf4 #b4 ,i am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from grammatical studies4 #c4 ,it is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace4 ,direction4--,vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five different kinds of noun clauses3-- ,model4-- #a4 ,that stars are suns is the belief of astronomers4 #b4 ,astronomers believe that stars are suns4 #c4 ,the belief of astronomers is1 that stars are suns4 #d4 ,the belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers4 #e4 ,astronomers are confident that stars are suns4 #a4 ,our conclusion is1 that different forms of government suit different stages of civilization4 ,the noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to a participle1 and the subject to a possessive4 ,example4--,that he was brave cannot be doubted ,his being brave cannot be doubted4 ,direction4--,make the following complex sentences simple by changing the noun clauses to phrases3-- #a4 ,that the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact4 #b4 ,everybody admits that ,cromwell was a great leader4 #c4 ,a man's chief objection to a woman is1 that she has no respect for the newspaper4 #d4 ,the thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty miles a second makes us dizzy4 #e4 ,she was aware that ,i appreciated her situation4 ,the noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate1 when changed to an infinitive phrase1 the objective complement1 and the subject the object complement4 ,direction4--,make the following complex sentences simple by changing the predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements1 and the subjects to object complements3-- ,model4--,king ,ahasuerus commanded that ,haman should be hanged ,king ,ahasuerus commanded ,haman to be hanged4 #a4 ,i believe that he is a foreigner4 #b4 ,the ,governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free4 #c4 ,many people believe that ,webster was the greatest of ,american statesmen4 #d4 ,how wide do you think that the ,atlantic ocean is8 #e4 ,they hold that taxation without representation is unjust4 ,direction4--,expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in ,lesson #da as contain an objective complement and an object complement that together are equivalent to a clause4 ,a noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase4 ,example4--,that he should vote is the duty of every ,american citizen ,to vote is the duty of every ,american citizen4 ,direction4--,contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases3-- #a4 ,that we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty4 #b4 ,every one desires that he may live long and happily4 #c4 ,the effect of looking upon the sun is1 that the eye is blinded4 #d4 ,caesar ,augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed4 #e4 ,we are all anxious that we may make a good impression4 #f4 ,he does not know whom he should send4 #g4 ,he cannot find out how he is to go there4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gd4 ,,composition--,,noun ,,clause--,,continued4 ,,quotation ,,marks--,,rule4--,quotation marks 77 inclose a copied word or passage4 ,remarks4--,single marks 7' '7 inclose a quotation within a quotation4 ,if1 within the quotation having single marks1 still another quotation is made1 the double marks are again used2 as1 ,the incorrectness of the dispatches led ,bismarck to declare1 ',it will soon come to be said1 ,he lies like the telegraph4' ,this introduction of a third quotation should generally be avoided1 especially where the three marks come at the end1 as above4 ,when a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression1 each part of the quotation is inclosed2 as1 ,i would rather be right1 said ,clay1 than be president4 ,in quoting a question1 the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks2 as1 ,he asked1 ,what are you living for8 but1 when a question contains a quotation1 this order is reversed2 as1 ,may we not find sermons in stones8 ,so also with the exclamation point4 ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,the first word of a direct quotation making complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should begin with a capital letter4 ,remarks4--,a direct quotation is one whose exact words1 as well as thought1 are copied2 as1 ,nathan said to ,david1 ,thou art the man4 ,an indirect quotation is one whose thought1 but not whose exact words1 is copied2 as1 ,nathan told ,david that he was the man4 ,the reference here of the pronoun he is somewhat ambiguous4 ,guard against this1 especially in indirect quotations4 ,the direct quotation is set off by the comma1 begins with a capital letter1 and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted4 ,the indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma1 does not necessarily begin with a capital letter1 and is not inclosed within quotation marks4 ,a direct question introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words and their order in an interrogative sentence 7see ,lesson #ee7 are preserved1 and which is followed by an interrogation point2 as1 ,cain asked1 ,am ,i my brother's keeper8 ,an indirect question is one which is referred to as a question1 but not directly asked or quoted as such1 and which is not followed by an interrogation point2 as1 ,cain asked whether he was his brother's keeper4 ,the direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma 7but no comma is used after the interrogation point71 begins with a capital letter1 and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted4 ,an indirect question is not generally set off by a comma1 does not necessarily begin with a capital letter1 and is not inclosed within quotation marks4 ,if the direct quotation1 whether a question or not1 is formally introduced 7see ,lesson #adg71 it is preceded by the colon2 as1 ,nathan's words to ,david were these3 ,thou art the man4 ,he put the question thus3 ,can you do it8 ,direction4--,point out the direct and the indirect quotations and questions in the sentences of ,lesson #ga1 tell why they do or do not begin with capital letters1 and justify the use or the omission of the comma1 the interrogation point1 and the quotation marks4 ,direction4--,rewrite these same sentences1 changing the direct quotations and questions to indirect1 and the indirect to direct4 ,direction4--,write five sentences containing direct quotations1 some of which shall be formally introduced1 and some of which shall be questions occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence4 ,change these to the indirect form1 and look carefully to the punctuation and the capitalization4 ,direction4--,write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the ,remarks under the ,rule for ,quotation ,marks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ge4 ,,analysis4 ,direction4--,analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction in ,lesson #gc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gf4 ,,the ,,compound ,,sentence4 ,introductory ,hints4--,cromwell made one revolution1 and ,monk made another4 ,the two clauses are independent of each other4 ,the second clause1 added by the conjunction and to the first1 continues the line of thought begun by the first4 ,man has his will1 but woman has her way4 ,here the conjunction connects independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other4 ,the ,tudors were despotic1 or history belies them4 ,the independent clauses1 connected by or1 present thoughts between which you may choose1 but either1 accepted1 excludes the other4 ,the ground is wet1 therefore it has rained4 ,here the inferred fact1 the raining1 really stands to the other fact1 the wetness of the ground1 as cause to effect--the raining made the ground wet4 ,it has rained1 hence the ground is wet4 ,here the inferred fact1 the wetness of the ground1 really stands to the other fact1 the raining1 as effect to cause--the ground is made wet by the raining4 ,but this the real1 or logical relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the compound form--an and may be placed before therefore and hence4 ,unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses1 the grammarian regards them both as independent4 ,temperance promotes health1 intemperance destroys it4 ,here the independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence--connected without any conjunction4 ,this kind of connection is common4 ,sentences made up of independent clauses we call ,compound ,sentences4 ,,definition4--,a ,clause is a part of a sentence containing' a subject and its predicate4 ,,definition4--,a ,dependent ,clause is one used as an adjective1 an adverb1 or a noun4 ,,definition4--,an ,independent ,clause is one not dependent on another clause4 ,,sentences ,,classified ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,form4 ,,definition4--,a ,simple ,sentence is a sentence that contains but one subject and one predicate1 either or both of which may be compound4 ,,definition4--,a ,complex ,sentence is a sentence composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses4 ,,definition4--,a ,compound ,sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses4 ,analysis4 ,independent ,clauses in the same line of thought4 #a4 ,light has spread1 and bayonets think4 ,light has spread ' ' ' and 4444444 ' ' bayonets ' think ,explanation4--,the clauses are of equal rank1 and so the lines on which they stand are shaded alike1 and the line connecting them is not slanting4 ,as one entire clause is connected with the other1 the connecting line is drawn between the predicates merely for convenience4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a compound sentence because it is made up of independent clauses4 #b4 ,hamilton smote the rock of the national resources1 and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth4 #c4 ,some are born great1 some achieve greatness1 and some have greatness thrust upon them4 ,independent ,clauses expressing thoughts in contrast4 #d4 ,the man dies1 but his memory lives4 #e4 ,put not your trust in money1 but put your money in trust4 #f4 ,ready writing makes not good writing1 but good writing brings on ready writing4 ,independent ,clauses expressing thoughts in alternation4 #g4 ,be temperate in youth1 or you will have to be abstinent in old age4 #h4 ,places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter1 nor are they extremely warm in summer4 7,here a choice is denied47 #i4 ,either ,hamlet was mad1 or he feigned madness admirably4 7,see 7#af71 ,lesson #bj47 ,independent ,clauses expressing thoughts one of which is an inference from the other4 #aj4 ,people in the streets are carrying umbrellas1 hence it must be raining4 #aa4 ,i have seen1 therefore ,i believe4 ,i have seen ' ' ,i ' believe ' ' therefore ,explanation4--,in such constructions and may be supplied1 or the adverb may be regarded as the connective4 ,the diagram illustrates therefore as connective4 ,independent ,clauses joined in the sentence without a conjunction4 #ab4 ,the camel is the ship of the ocean of sand2 the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow4 #ac4 ,of thy unspoken word thou art master2 thy spoken word is master of thee4 #ad4 ,the ship leaps1 as it were1 from billow to billow4 ,explanation4--,as it were is an independent clause used parenthetically4 ,as simply introduces it4 #ae4 ,religion--who can doubt it8--is the noblest of themes for the exercise of intellect4 #af4 ,what grave 7these are the words of ,wellesley1 speaking of the two ,pitts7 contains such a father and such a son6 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gg4 ,,composition--,,compound ,,sentence4 ,,comma and ,,semicolon--,,rule4--,independent ,clauses1 when short and closely connected1 are separated by the comma2 but1 when the clauses are slightly connected1 or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma1 the semi-colon is used4 ,remark4--,a parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the dash1 or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense4 ,see the last three sentences in the preceding ,lesson4 ,examples4-- #a4 ,we must conquer our passions1 or our passions will conquer us4 #b4 ,the prodigal robs his heirs2 the miser robs himself4 #c4 ,there is a fierce conflict between good and evil2 but good is in the ascendant1 and must triumph at last4 7,the rule above is another example47 ,direction4--,punctuate the following sentences1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,the wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the green hill flies the inconstant sun4 #b4 ,the epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart4 #c4 ,wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought4 #d4 ,the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong4 #e4 ,occidental manhood springs from self-respect ,oriental manhood finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement4 ,footnote3 ,in this sentence we have a figure of speech called ,antithesis1 in which things unlike in some particular are set over against each other4 ,each part shines with its own light and with the light reflected from the other part4 ,antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it4 ,sentences containing it furnish us our best examples of ,balanced ,sentences4 ,you will find other antitheses in this ,lesson and in the preceding4 #f4 ,the more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error4 ,direction4--,assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the preceding ,lesson4 ,direction4--,using the copulative and1 the adversative but1 and the alternative or or nor1 form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences1 and give the reasons for your choice of connectives3-- ,read not that you may find material for argument and conversation4 ,the rain descended4 ,read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others4 ,can the ,ethiopian change his skin8 ,righteousness exalteth a nation4 ,the floods came4 ,great was the fall of it4 ,language is not the dress of thought4 ,can the leopard change his spots8 ,the winds blew and beat upon that house4 ,sin is a reproach to any people4 ,it is not simply its vehicle4 ,it fell4 ,compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to all the clauses1 and compounding the remaining parts4 ,example4--,time waits for no man1 and tide waits for no man ,time and tide wait for no man4 ,direction4--,contract these compound sentences1 attending carefully to the punctuation3-- #a4 ,lafayette fought for ,american independence1 and ,baron ,steuben fought for ,american independence4 #b4 ,the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to benevolence1 and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose the mind for contemplation4 #c4 ,the spirit of the ,almighty is within us1 the spirit of the ,almighty is around us1 and the spirit of the ,almighty is above us4 ,a compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the other4 ,example4--,he is witty1 but he is vulgar ,he is witty but vulgar4 ,direction4--,contract these sentences3-- #a4 ,mirth should be the embroidery of conversation1 but it should not be the web4 #b4 ,it is called so1 but it is improperly called so4 #c4 ,was ,cabot the discoverer of ,america1 or was he not the discoverer of ,america8 #d4 ,william the ,silent has been likened to ,washington1 and he has justly been likened to him4 #e4 ,it was his address that pleased me1 and it was not his dress that pleased me4 ,a compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without materially changing the sense4 ,example4--,take care of the minutes1 and the hours will take care of themselves ,if you take care of the minutes1 the hours will take care of themselves4 7,notice that the imperative form adds force47 ,direction4--,change these compound sentences to complex sentences3-- #a4 ,resist the devil1 and he will flee from you4 #b4 ,govern your passions1 or they will govern you4 #c4 ,i heard that you wished to see me1 and ,i lost no time in coming4 #d4 ,he converses1 and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music4 #e4 ,he was faithful1 and he was rewarded4 ,direction4--,change one of the independent clauses in each of these sentences to a dependent clause1 and then change the dependent clause to a participle phrase3-- ,model4--,the house was built upon a rock1 and therefore it did not fall ,the house did not fall1 because it was built upon a rock ,the house1 being built upon a rock1 did not fall4 #a4 ,he found that he could not escape1 and so he surrendered4 #b4 ,our friends heard of our coming1 and they hastened to meet us4 ,direction4--,using and1 but1 and or as connectives1 compose three compound sentences1 each containing three independent clauses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gh4 ,,complex ,,and ,,compound ,,clauses4 ,introductory ,hints4--,sun and moon and stars obey4 ,peter the ,great went to ,holland1 to ,england1 and to ,france4 ,i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered4 ,here we have co-ordinate words1 co-ordinate phrases1 and co-ordinate clauses1 that is1 words1 phrases1 and clauses of equal rank1 or order4 ,leaves fall so very quietly4 ,they ate of the fruit from the tree in the garden4 ,regulus would have paused if he had been the man that he was before captivity had unstrung his sinews4 ,here just as the word modifier quietly is itself modified by very1 and very by so2 and just as fruit1 the principal word in a modifying phrase1 is modified by another phrase1 and the principal word of that by another3 so man1 in the adverb clause which modifies would have paused1 is itself modified by the adjective clause that he was1 and was by the adverb clause before captivity had unstrung his sinews4 ,these three dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier1 like the three words and the three phrases in the complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier1 are not co-ordinate1 or of equal rank4 ,mary married ,philip2 but ,elizabeth would not marry1 although ,parliament frequently urged it1 and the peace of ,england demanded it4 ,this is a compound sentence1 composed of the simple clause which precedes but and the complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed of an independent clause and two dependent clauses1 one co-ordinate with the other1 and the two connected by and4 ,analysis4 ,the clauses of complex and compound sentences may themselves be complex or compound4 insects ---------- which are admired ' ' x 44444 ' which are decorated ' 'and 44444444 ' which soar ' hour had passed ,the ' ' and 4444444 ' opportunity had escaped the ' ' ' while he tarried ----------------- that ----- ' earth ' is round ' ' that ' and ----- 444444 ' ' it ' revolves ' '' ,he proved _/ ,explanation4--,the first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compound adjective clause in 7#c7 below4 ,each adjective clause is connected to insects by which4 ,and connects the co-ordinate clauses4 ,the second diagram shows that the clause while he tarried modifies both predicates of the independent clauses4 ,while modifies had passed1 had escaped1 and tarried1 as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs and the line over tarried4 ,the office of while as connective is shown by the dotted lines4 ,the third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complex sentence containing a compound noun clause4 #a4 ,sin has a great many tools1 but a lie is a handle which fits them all4 #b4 ,some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be1 ,shall we gather at the river8 #c4 ,some of the insects which are most admired1 which are decorated with the most brilliant colors1 and which soar on the most ethereal wings1 have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth4 #d4 ,still the wonder grew1 that one small head could carry all he knew4 #e4 ,when a man becomes overheated by working1 running1 rowing1 or making furious speeches1 the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour out their fluid1 and the whole body is bathed and cooled4 #f4 ,milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages1 because one tongue was enough for a woman4 ,footnote3 ,in tongue1 as here used1 we have a ,pun--a witty expression in which a word agreeing in sound with another word1 but differing in meaning from it1 is used in place of that other4 #g4 ,glaciers1 flowing down mountain gorges1 obey the law of rivers2 the upper surface flows faster than the lower1 and the center faster than the adjacent sides4 #h4 ,not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of ,new ,england thrift1 which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism4 #i4 ,in ,holland the stork is protected by law1 because it eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dikes4 #aj4 ,it is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that1 though hydrogen is highly inflammable1 and oxygen is a supporter of combustion1 both1 combined1 form an element1 water1 which is destructive to fire4 #aa4 ,in your war of #ahab1 when your arms on shore were covered by disaster1 when ,winchester had been defeated1 when the ,army of the ,northwest had surrendered1 and when the gloom of despondency hung1 like a cloud1 over the land1 who first relit the fires of national glory1 and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory8 ,footnote3 ,the when clauses in 7#aa71 as the which clauses in 7#c71 are formed on the same plan1 have their words in the same order4 ,this principle of ,parallel ,construction1 requiring like ideas to be expressed alike1 holds also in phrases1 as in 7#aj7 and 7#ad71 ,lesson #bh1 and in 7#ad7 and 7#ae71 ,lesson #df1 and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph1 as is explained on page #afh4 ,parallel construction contributes to the clearness1 and consequently to the force1 of expression4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #gi4 ,,expansion4 ,participles may be expanded into different kinds of clauses4 ,direction4--,expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses indicated3-- #a4 ,simon ,peter1 having a sword1 drew it4 7,adjective clause47 #b4 ,desiring to live long1 no one would be old4 7,concession47 #c4 ,they went to the temple1 suing for pardon4 7,purpose47 #d4 ,white garments1 reflecting the rays of the sun1 are cool in summer4 7,cause47 #e4 ,loved by all1 he must have a genial disposition4 7,evidence47 #f4 ,writing carefully1 you will learn to write well4 7,condition47 #g4 ,sitting there1 ,i heard the cry of ,fire6 7,time47 #h4 ,she regrets not having read it4 7,noun clause47 #i4 ,the icebergs floated down1 cooling the air for miles around1 7,independent clause47 ,absolute phrases may be expanded into different kinds of clauses4 ,direction4--,expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated3-- #a4 ,troy being taken by the ,greeks1 ,aeneas came into ,italy4 7,time47 #b4 ,the bridges having been swept away1 we returned4 7,cause47 #c4 ,a cause not preceding1 no effect is produced4 7,condition47 #d4 ,all things else being destroyed1 virtue could sustain itself4 7,concession47 #e4 ,there being no dew this morning1 it must have been cloudy or windy last night4 7,evidence47 #f4 ,the infantry advanced1 the cavalry remaining in the rear4 7,independent clause47 ,infinitive phrases may be expanded into different kinds of clauses4 ,direction4--,expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses indicated3-- #a4 ,they have nothing to wear4 7,adjective clause47 #b4 ,the weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow4 7,degree47 #c4 ,herod will seek the young child to destroy it4 7,purpose47 #d4 ,the adversative sentence faces1 so to speak1 half way about on but4 7,condition47 #e4 ,he is a fool to waste his time so4 7,cause47 #f4 ,i shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival4 7,time47 #g4 ,he does not know where to go4 7,noun clause47 ,direction4--,complete these elliptical expressions3-- #a4 ,and so shall ,regulus1 though dead1 fight as he never fought before4 #b4 ,oh1 that ,i might have one more day6 #c4 ,he is braver than wise4 #d4 ,what if he is poor8 #e4 ,he handles it as if it were glass4 #f4 ,i regard him more as a historian than as a poet4 #g4 ,he is not an ,englishman1 but a ,frenchman4 #h4 ,much as he loved his wealth1 he loved his children better4 #i4 ,i will go whether you go or not4 #aj4 ,it happens with books as with mere acquaintances4 #aa4 ,no examples1 however awful1 sink into the heart4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hj4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,whenever the wandering demon of ,drunkenness finds a ship adrift1 he steps on board1 takes the helm1 and steers straight for the ,maelstrom4--,holmes4 #b4 ,the energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships through the waves comes from the sun4--,cooke4 #c4 ,no scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor1 smooth in field1 fair in garden1 full in orchard4--,ruskin4 #d4 ,what is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth1 which takes a thief by the throat every morning8--,german ,proverb4 #e4 ,the setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level landscape1 and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds1 and they became as blood4--,longfellow4 #f4 ,were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the felicities of this1 it were a martyrdom to live4--,sir ,t4 ,browne4 #g4 ,there is a good deal of oratory in me1 but ,i don't do as well as ,i can1 in any one place1 out of respect to the memory of ,patrick ,henry4--,nasby4 #h4 ,van ,twiller's full-fed cheeks1 which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth1 were curiously mottled and streaked with dusky red1 like a spitzenburg apple4--,irving4 #i4 ,the evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is1 that it is robbing the human race4--,mill4 #aj4 ,there is no getting along with ,johnson2 if his pistol misses fire1 he knocks you down with the butt of it4--,goldsmith4 #aa4 ,we think in words2 and1 when we lack fit words1 we lack fit thoughts4--,white4 #ab4 ,to speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of his subject4--,whately4 #ac4 ,office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it1 and it will disgrace every man who is not4--,holland4 #ad4 ,the men whom men respect1 the women whom women approve1 are the men and women who bless their species4--,parton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ha4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review4 ,analysis4 #a4 ,a ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions another man better qualified for it sins against ,god and against the state4--,koran4 #b4 ,we wondered whether the saltness of the ,dead ,sea was not ,lot's wife in solution4--,curtis4 #c4 ,there is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs4--,phillips4 #d4 ,kind hearts are more than coronets2 and simple faith1 than ,norman blood4--,tennyson4 #e4 ,all those things for which men plow1 build1 or sail obey virtue4--,sallust4 #f4 ,the sea licks your feet1 its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you2 but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that4--,holmes4 #g4 ,of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these3 ,it might have been4--,whittier4 #h4 ,i fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets4 --,napoleon4 #i4 ,he that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden on4--,kant4 #aj4 ,it is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the water or the sand4--,gladstone4 #aa4 ,a breath of ,new ,england's air is better than a sup of ,old ,england's ale4--,higginson4 #ab4 ,we are as near to heaven by sea as by land4--,sir ,h4 ,gilbert4 #ac4 ,no language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty book4--,lowell4 #ad4 ,commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human ills and what is human wrong4--,boyd4 #ae4 ,he prayeth best who loveth best all things both ,footnote3 ,see ,lesson #bj4 great and small2 for the dear ,god1 who loveth us1 he made and loveth all4--,coleridge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hb4 ,,review4 ,show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause4 ,give examples of adjective clauses connected by who1 whose1 which1 what1 that1 whichever1 when1 where1 why1 and show that each connective performs also the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb4 ,give and illustrate fully the ,rule for punctuating the adjective clause1 and the ,caution regarding the position of the adjective clause4 ,show that an adjective clause may be equivalent to an ,infinitive phrase or a participle phrase4 ,show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause4 ,illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses1 and explain the office of each and the fitness of the name4 ,give and explain fully the ,rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses4 ,illustrate the different positions of adverb clauses4 ,illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hc4 ,,review4 ,illustrate five different offices of a noun clause4 ,explain the two different ways of treating clauses introduced by in order that1 etc4 ,explain the office of the expletive it4 ,illustrate the different positions of a noun clause used as object complement4 ,show how the noun clause may be made prominent4 ,illustrate the different ways of contracting noun clauses4 ,give and illustrate fully the ,rule for quotation marks4 ,illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirect quotations1 and the distinction between direct and indirect questions introduced into a sentence4 ,tell all about their capitalization and punctuation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hd4 ,,review4 ,illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an independent clause4 ,illustrate and explain the different ways in which independent clauses connected by and1 but1 or1 and hence are related in sense4 ,show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without a connecting word4 ,define a clause4 ,define the different kinds of clauses4 ,define the different classes of sentences with regard to form4 ,give the ,rule for the punctuation of independent clauses1 and illustrate fully4 ,illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses4 ,illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex word modifiers2 between compound and complex phrases2 between compound and complex clauses4 ,give participle phrases1 absolute phrases1 and infinitive phrases1 and expand them into different kinds of clauses4 ,what three parts of speech may connect clauses8 ,,general ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,this scheme will be found very helpful in a general review4 ,the pupils should be able to reproduce it except the ,lesson numbers4 ,scheme for the ,sentence4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,parts4 ,subject4 ,noun or ,pronoun 7#h74 ,phrase 7#ch1 #dj74 ,clause 7#ga74 ,predicate4 ,verb 7#aa74 ,complements4 ,object4 ,noun or ,pronoun 7#bh74 ,phrase 7#ch1 #dj74 ,clause 7#ga74 ,attribute4 ,adjective 7#bi1 #cj74 ,participle 7#cg74 ,noun or ,pronoun 7#bi1 #cj74 ,phrase 7#cg1 #dj74 ,clause 7#gb74 ,objective4 ,adjective 7#ca74 ,participle 7#cg74 ,noun 7or ,pronoun7 7#ca74 ,phrase 7#cg1 #da74 ,modifiers4 ,adjectives 7#ab74 ,adverbs 7#ad74 ,participles 7#cg74 ,nouns and ,pronouns 7#cc1 #ce74 ,phrases 7#ag1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #da74 ,clauses 7#ei1 #fj1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe74 ,connectives4 ,conjunctions 7#bj1 #fd1 #fe1 #ga1 #gf74 ,pronouns 7#ei1 #fj74 ,adverbs 7#fj1 #fc1 #fd74 ,independent ,parts 7#dd74 ,classes4 ,meaning4 ,declarative1 ,interrogative1 ,imperative1 ,exclamatory 7#df74 ,form4 ,simple1 ,complex1 ,compound 7#gf74 ,additional ,selections4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,we believe that you will find the preceding pages unusually full and rich in illustrative selections2 but1 should additional work be needed for reviews or for maturer classes1 the following selections will afford profitable study4 ,let the pupils discuss the thought and the poetic form1 as well as the logical construction of these passages4 ,we do not advise putting them in diagram4 ,speak clearly1 if you speak at all2 ,carve every word before you let it fall4--,holmes4 ,the robin and the blue-bird1 piping loud1 ,filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee2 ,the sparrows chirped as if they still were proud ,their race in ,holy ,writ should mentioned be2 ,and hungry crows1 assembled in a crowd1 ,clamored their piteous prayer incessantly1 ,knowing who hears the ravens cry1 and said1 ,give us1 ,o ,lord1 this day1 our daily bread6 --,longfellow1 ,better to stem with heart and hand ,the roaring tide of life than lie1 ,unmindful1 on its flowery strand1 ,of ,god's occasions drifting by4 ,better with naked nerve to bear ,the needles of this goading air ,than1 in the lap of sensual ease1 forego ,the godlike power to do1 the godlike aim to know4 --,whittier4 ,then to side with ,truth is noble when we share her wretched crust1 ,ere her cause bring fame and profit1 and 't is prosperous to be just2 ,then it is the brave man chooses1 while the coward stands aside1 ,doubting in his abject spirit1 till his ,lord is crucified4--,lowell4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,these and similar ,exercises are entirely outside of the regular lessons4 ,they are offered to those teachers who may not1 from lack of time or of material1 find it convenient to prepare extra or miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs4 ,the questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer1 but in continuing such exercises the teacher will1 of course1 so frame the questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil4 ,it will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction given before ,lesson #ag1 but1 by an easy and familiar examination of words and groups of words1 to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented more formally and scientifically4 ,,adapted ,,from ,,irving',s ,,sketch ,,book4 #a4 ,from this piazza the wondering ,ichabod entered the hall4 #b4 ,this hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence4 #c4 ,here1 rows of resplendent pewter1 ranged on a long dresser1 dazzled his eyes4 #d4 ,in one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun4 #e4 ,in another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom4 #f4 ,ears of ,indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay festoons along the walls4 #g4 ,these were mingled with the gaud of red peppers4 #h4 ,a door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor4 #i4 ,in this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors4 #aj4 ,andirons1 with their accompanying shovel and tongs1 glistened from their covert of asparagus tops4 ,footnote3 ,asparagus tops were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer4 #aa4 ,mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece4 #ab4 ,strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it4 #ac4 ,a corner-cupboard1 knowingly left open1 displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,find the two chief words in each of the first three sentences4 ,as a part of the sentence what is each of these words called8 ,to what class of words1 or part of speech1 does each belong8 ,notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put after the predicate4 ,change the order of words and read these sentences4 ,read in their regular order the two chief words of each4 ,in the sixth sentence what word says1 or asserts1 something about both ears and strings8 ,in the ninth sentence put what before the predicate shone and find two nouns that answer the question4 ,in the eleventh sentence what two things does decorated tell something about8 ,in the seventh sentence these stands for what two nouns1 or names1 found in the preceding sentence8 ,find the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the thirteenth inclusive4 ,to what class of words does each of these chief parts belong8 ,find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects4 ,find several compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen4 ,the and wondering in the first sentence go with what noun8 ,the group of words from this piazza goes with what word8 ,in the second sentence put what before1 and then after1 formed1 and find the names that answer these questions4 ,what does of the mansion go with8 ,what does of usual residence describe8 ,in the third sentence what word tells where the dazzling occurred8 ,find a group of three words telling what the rows were composed of4 ,what group of words tells the position of the rows8 ,in the fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood8 ,of wool ready to be spun describes what8 ,a and huge are attached to what8 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,we have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils may be led to see the functions of words and phrases4 ,we recommend that this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through others that may easily be made4 ,such exercises1 together with the more formal and searching work of the regular lessons1 will be found of incalculable value to the pupil4 ,they will not only afford the best mental discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing thought4 ,the ,force and the ,beauty of the ,description above4-- ,can you find any reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the interested and wondering ,ichabod8 ,do you think the word wondering well chosen and suggestive8 ,look through this picture carefully and tell what there is that indicates thrift1 industry1 and prosperity4 ,find more common expressions for center of the mansion and place of usual residence4 ,notice in the third sentence the effect of resplendent and dazzled4 ,how is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence8 ,you see that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language4 ,we can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great variety of ways4 ,in the fourth sentence does the expression ready to be spun tell what is actually seen1 or what is only suggested8 ,what is gained by this expression and by just from the loom in the next sentence8 ,do you think an unskillful artist would have used in gay festoons8 ,read the seventh and make it more common but less quaint4 ,do you think the picture gains1 or loses1 by representing the door as ajar instead of wide open8 ,why8 ,can you see any similar effect from introducing their covert in the tenth sentence8 ,what does the expression knowingly left open suggest to you8 ,this selection from ,irving illustrates the ,descriptive style of writing4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,composition ,,work4 ,in the description above we have taken some liberties with the original1 for we have broken it up into single sentences4 ,the parts of this picture as made by ,irving were smoothly and delicately blended together4 ,you may rewrite this description2 and1 where it can be done to advantage1 you may join the sentences neatly together4 ,perhaps some of these sentences may be changed to become parts of other sentences1 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,it will be found profitable for pupils to break up for themselves into short sentences model selections from classic ,english1 and1 after examining the structure and style as suggested above1 to note and1 so far as possible1 explain how these were blended together in the original4 ,a written reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory4 ,this study of the thought1 the structure1 and the style of the great masters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature2 and the effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression will necessarily be to lift him above the insipid1 commonplace matter and language that characterize much of the so-called original composition work4 ,in the study of these selections1 especially in the work of copying1 the rules for punctuation1 and other rules1 formally stated further on1 may easily be anticipated informally4 ,for composition work more nearly original the class might read together or discuss1 descriptions of home scenes2 then1 drawing from imagination or experience1 they might make descriptions of their own4 ,in these descriptions different persons might be introduced1 with their attitudes1 employments1 and acts of hospitality4 ,for exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes1 telling about the preparation1 the start1 the journey1 and the reception4 7,for studies on narrative style1 see pages #aeg-afb47 ,to insure thoroughness1 all such compositions should he short4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,adapted ,,from ,,irving',s ,,sketch ,,book4 #a4 ,every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the farm4 #b4 ,the flail was busily resounding within from morning till night4 #c4 ,swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves4 #d4 ,rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof4 #e4 ,some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather4 #f4 ,some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms4 #g4 ,others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames4 #h4 ,sleek1 unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of their pens4 #i4 ,from these pens sallied forth1 now and then1 troops of sucking pigs1 as if to snuff the air4 #aj4 ,a stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond1 convoying whole fleets of ducks4 #aa4 ,regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard4 #ab4 ,guinea fowls fretted about1 like ill-tempered housewives1 with their peevish1 discontented cry4 #ac4 ,before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock1 clapping his burnished wings1 and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet1 and then generously calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,in the first sentence seemed asserts something about what two things8 ,every goes with what word or words8 ,what word or words does the phrase of the vast barn make more definite in meaning8 ,the two words window and crevice are joined together by what word8 ,the group of words bursting forth with the treasures of the farm describes what8 ,notice that bursting also helps seemed to say something about window and crevice4 ,seemed does not make sense1 but seemed bursting does4 ,what does forth modify8 ,what does with the treasures of the farm modify8 ,in the third sentence what two nouns form the subject of skimmed8 ,what connects these two nouns8 ,in the fourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying8 ,in the fifth turned up as if watching the weather describes what8 ,as if watching the weather goes with what8 ,the expression introduced by as if is a shortened form4 ,putting in some of the words omitted1 we have as if they were watching the weather4 ,they were watching the weather1 if standing by itself1 would make a complete sentence4 ,you see that one sentence may be made a part of another sentence4 ,what does each of the two phrases under their wings and buried in their bosoms describe8 ,what connects these two phrases8 ,in the seventh sentence were is understood before cooing and before bowing4 ,how many predicate verbs do you find1 each asserting something about the pigeons represented by others8 ,why are these verbs not separated by commas8 ,what two nouns form the principal part of the phrase in the eighth sentence8 ,what connects these two nouns8 ,read the ninth sentence and put the subject before the predicate4 ,you may now explain as if to snuff the air1 remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was explained4 ,in the tenth sentence convoying whole fleets of ducks describes what8 ,does convoying assert anything about the squadron8 ,change it into a predicate verb4 ,in the twelfth sentence find one word and two phrases joined to fretted4 ,clapping1 crowing1 tearing1 and calling1 in the thirteenth1 all describe what8 ,notice that all the other words following the subject go with these four4 ,find the three words that answer the questions made by putting what after clapping1 tearing1 calling4 ,what phrase tells the cause of crowing8 ,the phrase to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered tells the purpose of what8 ,which he had discovered limits the meaning of what8 ,the pronoun which here stands for morsel4 ,which he had discovered ,he had discovered morsel4 ,here you will see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence4 ,notice that without which there would be no connection4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,it may be well to let the pupils complete the examination of the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns1 verbs1 pronouns1 adjectives1 and adverbs4 ,it will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate the regular lessons that follow ,lesson #bg4 ,this we do in all such ,exercises4 ,the ,beauty and the ,force of the ,description above4--,why may we say that this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty1 happiness1 and content8 ,which do you prefer1 the first sentence above1 or this substitute for it3 ,the large barn was entirely full of the products of the farm8 ,give every reason that you can find for your preference4 ,we often speak of a barn or storehouse as bursting with plenty1 or of a table as groaning with a load of good things1 when there is really no bursting nor groaning4 ,such expressions are called ,figures of ,speech4 ,examine the second sentence and compare it with the following3 ,the men were busy all day pounding out the grain with flails4 ,do the words busily resounding joined to flail bring into our imagination men1 grain1 pounding1 sound1 and perhaps other things8 ,a good description mentions such things and uses such words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned4 ,in the third sentence would you prefer skimmed to flew8 ,why8 ,compare the eighth sentence with this3 ,large fat hogs were grunting in their pens and reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food4 ,sleek1 unwieldy porkers would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use ordinarily1 but it is in tone with the rest of the description4 ,in the repose and abundance of their pens is much better than the words substituted above4 ,it is shorter and stronger4 ,it uses instead of the verb reposing and the adjective abundant the nouns repose and abundance1 and makes these the principal words in the phrase4 ,repose and abundance are thus made the striking features of the pen4 ,arrange the ninth sentence in as many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer4 ,is a real squadron referred to in the tenth sentence8 and were the geese actually convoying fleets8 ,these are figurative uses of words4 ,what can you say of regiments in the eleventh8 ,in the twelfth ,guinea fowls are compared to housewives4 ,except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike4 ,such comparisons frequently made by as and like are called ,similes4 ,if we leave out like and say1 ,guinea fowls are fretting housewives1 we have a figure of speech called ,metaphor4 ,this figure is used above when flocks are called squadrons and fleets4 ,in the thirteenth sentence notice how well chosen and forceful are the words strutted1 gallant1 burnished1 generously1 ever-hungry1 rich morsel4 ,see whether you can find substitutes for these italicized words4 ,were the wings actually burnished8 ,what can you say of this use of burnished8 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,composition ,,work4 ,the sentences in the description above1 when read together1 have a somewhat broken or jerky effect4 ,you may unite smoothly such as should be joined4 ,the fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 and seventh can all be put into one4 ,there is danger of making your sentences too long4 ,young writers find it difficult to make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,while the pupils' thoughts and style are somewhat toned up by the preceding exercises1 it may he well to let them write similar descriptions drawn from their reading1 their observation1 or their imagination4 ,if the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each1 it will be almost impossible to secure good work4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,from ,,franklin',s ,,autobiography4 #a4 ,i was dirty from my journey1 my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings1 and ,i knew no soul nor where to look for lodging4 #b4 ,i was fatigued with traveling1 rowing1 and want of rest2 ,i was very hungry2 and my whole stock of cash consisted of a ,dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper4 #c4 ,the latter ,i gave the people of the boat for my passage1 who at first refused it on account of my rowing2 but ,i insisted on their taking it4 #a4 ,then ,i walked up the street1 gazing about1 till near the markethouse ,i met a boy with bread4 #b4 ,i had made many a meal on bread1 and1 inquiring where he got it1 ,i went immediately to the baker's he directed me to1 in ,second ,street1 and asked for biscuit1 intending such as we had in ,boston2 but they1 it seems1 were not made in ,philadelphia4 #c4 ,then ,i asked for a three-penny loaf1 and was told they had none such4 #d4 ,so not considering or knowing the difference of money1 or the greater cheapness and the names of his bread1 ,i bade him give me three-penny worth of any sort4 #e4 ,he gave me1 accordingly1 three great puffy rolls4 #f4 ,i was surprised at the quantity1 but took it2 and1 having no room in my pockets1 walked off with a roll under each arm1 and eating the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,break up sentence #a1 paragraph #a1 into three distinct sentences1 and tell what changes this will make in capitals and punctuation4 ,do the same for #b4 ,which read more closely together1 and are more closely connected1 the parts of #b1 or of #a8 ,how is this shown to the eye8 ,analyze the first two sentences you made from #a4 ,find two object complements of knew1 one a noun and the other a group of five words4 ,find in #b a phrase whose principal part is made up of three nouns4 ,what have you learned about the commas used with these nouns8 ,in making separate sentences of #c what words do you change or drop8 ,are these the words that bind the parts of #c together8 ,what noun is used adverbially after gave8 ,supply a preposition and then tell what phrases modify gave4 ,find the object complement of gave4 ,what modifies refused by telling when8 ,what1 by telling why8 ,in #a1 paragraph #b1 who is described as gazing about8 ,what does gazing about modify8 ,read the group of words that tells how far or how long ,franklin walked up the street4 ,notice that this whole group is used like an adverb4 ,find in it a subject1 a predicate1 and an object complement4 ,drop till and see whether the parts of #a make separate sentences4 ,what word1 then1 binds these two sentences into one8 ,read #b and make of it three distinct sentences by omitting the first and and the word but4 ,the second of these three sentences just made contains several sentences which are not so easily separated1 as some are used like single words to make up the main1 or principal1 sentence4 ,in this second part of #b find the leading subject and its two predicates4 ,find a phrase belonging to ,i and representing ,franklin as doing something4 ,put what after inquiring and find the object complement4 ,what phrase belongs to went1 telling where8 ,he directed me to 7whom7 belongs to what8 ,who is represented as intending8 ,intending such as we had in ,boston belongs to what8 ,as we had in ,boston goes with what8 ,notice that it seems is a sentence thrown in loosely between the parts of another sentence4 ,such expressions are said to be parenthetical4 ,notice the punctuation4 ,notice that gazing1 inquiring1 intending1 considering1 knowing1 and having are all modifiers of ,i found in the different sentences of paragraph #b4 ,put ,i before any one of these words1 and you will see that no assertion is made4 ,these words illustrate one form of the verb 7the participle71 and look in #a1 paragraph #a1 illustrates the other form 7the infinitive71 spoken of in ,lesson #aa as not asserting4 ,change each of these participles to a predicate1 or asserting form1 and then read the sentences in which these predicates are found4 ,you will notice that giving these words the asserting form makes them more prominent and forcible--brings them up to a level with the other predicate verbs4 ,participles are very useful in slurring over the less important actions that the more important may have prominence4 ,show that they are so used in ,franklin's narrative4 ,examine the phrase with a roll under each arm1 and eating the other1 and see if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great men sometimes make slips4 ,does other properly mean one of three things8 ,try to improve this expression4 ,the ,grouping of ,sentences into ,paragraphs4--,the sentences above1 as you see1 stand in two groups4 ,those of each group are more closely related to one another than they are to the sentences of the other group4 ,do you see how8 ,in studying this short selection you may find the general topic1 or heading1 to be something like this3 ,my ,first ,experiences in ,philadelphia4 ,now examine the first group of sentences and see whether its topic might not be put thus3 ,my ,condition on ,reaching ,philadelphia4 ,then examine the sentences of the second group and see whether all will not come under this heading3 ,how ,i ,found ,something to ,eat4 ,you see that even a short composition like this has a general topic with topics under it4 ,as sub means under1 we will call these under topics sub-topics4 ,there are two groups of sentences in this selection because there are two distinct sub-topics developed4 ,the sentences of each group stand together because they jointly develop one sub-topic4 ,a group of sentences related and held together by a common thought we call a ,paragraph4 ,how is the paragraph indicated to the eye8 ,what help is it to the reader to have a composition paragraphed8 ,what1 to the writer to know that he must write in paragraphs8 ,the ,style of the ,author4--,this selection is mainly ,narrative4 ,the matter is somewhat tame1 and the expression is commonplace4 ,the words are ordinary1 and they stand in their usual place4 ,figures of speech are not used4 ,yet the piece has a charm4 ,the thoughts are homely2 the expression is in perfect keeping2 the style is clear1 simple1 direct1 and natural4 ,the closing sentence is slightly humorous4 ,benjamin ,franklin trudging along the street1 hugging a great roll of bread under each arm1 and eating a third roll1 must have been a laughable sight4 ,have you ever known boys and girls in writing school compositions1 or reporters in writing for the newspapers1 to use large words for small ideas1 and long1 high-sounding phrases and sentences for plain1 simple thoughts8 ,have you ever seen what could be neatly said in three or four lines padded out to fill a page of composition paper or a column in a newspaper8 ,when ,franklin said4 ,my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings1 he said a homely thing in a homely way2 that is1 he fitted the language to the thought4 ,to fit the expression to the thought on every occasion is the perfection of style4 ,if ,franklin had been a weak1 foolish writer1 his sentence might have taken this form3-- ,not having been previously provided with a satchel or other receptacle for my personal effects1 my pockets1 which were employed as a substitute1 were protruding conspicuously with extra underclothing4 ,compare this sentence with ,franklin's and point out the faults you see in the substitute4 ,can you find anything in the meaning of provided that makes previously unnecessary8 ,do you now understand what ,lowell meant when1 in praise of ,dryden1 he said1 ,his phrase is always a short cut to his sense8 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,what is here taught of the paragraph and of style will probably not be mastered at one reading4 ,it will be found necessary to return to it occasionally1 and to refer pupils to it for aid in their composition work4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,composition ,,work4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,we suggest that the pupils reproduce from memory the extract above1 and that other selections of narrative be found in the ,readers or elsewhere and studied as above4 ,the pupils may be able to note to what extent the narrative follows the order of time and to what extent it is topical4 ,they may also note the amount of description it contains4 ,they should1 so far as possible1 find the topic for each paragraph1 thus making an outline for a composition to be completed from reproduction4 ,it will now require little effort to write simple original narratives of real or imagined experiences4 99 99 99 99 99 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,from ,c4 ,d4 ,,warner',s ,,my ,,summer ,,in ,a ,,garden4 #a4 ,in the driest days1 my fountain became disabled2 the pipe was stopped up4 #b4 ,a couple of plumbers1 with the implements of their craft1 came out to view the situation4 #c4 ,there was a good deal of difference of opinion about where the stoppage was4 #d4 ,i found the plumbers perfectly willing to sit down and talk about it--talk by the hour4 #e4 ,some of their guesses and remarks were exceedingly ingenious2 and their general observations on other subjects were excellent in their way1 and could hardly have been better if they had been made by the job4 #f4 ,the work dragged a little--as it is apt to do by the hour4 #a4 ,the plumbers had occasion to make me several visits4 #b4 ,sometimes they would find1 upon arrival1 that they had forgotten some indispensable tool2 and one would go back to the shop1 a mile and a half1 after it2 and his comrade would await his return with the most exemplary patience1 and sit down and talk--always by the hour4 #c4 ,i do not know but it is a habit to have something wanted at the shop4 #d4 ,they seemed to me very good workmen1 and always willing to stop1 and talk about the job or anything else1 when ,i went near them4 #e4 ,nor had they any of that impetuous hurry that is said to be the bane of our ,american civilization4 #f4 ,to their credit be it said that ,i never observed anything of it in them4 #g4 ,they can afford to wait4 #h4 ,two of them will sometimes wait nearly half a day1 while a comrade goes for a tool4 #i4 ,they are patient and philosophical4 #aj4 ,it is a great pleasure to meet such men4 #aa4 ,one only wishes there was some work he could do for them by the hour4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,how can you make the last part of #a express more directly the cause of becoming disabled8 ,would you use a semicolon to separate the sentences thus joined1 or would you use a comma8 ,give a reason for the comma after days1 ,find in #b an adverb phrase that expresses purpose4 ,use an equivalent adjective in place of a couple of4 ,explain the use of there in #c4 ,what adjective may be used in place of good in a good deal8 ,what long complex phrase modifies deal8 ,put what after the preposition about and find a group of words that takes the place of a noun4 ,find in this group a subject and a predicate4 ,find in #d an objective complement4 ,find a compound infinitive phrase and tell what it modifies4 ,notice that the dash helps to show the break made by repeating talk4 ,when #e is divided into two sentences1 what word is dropped8 ,this1 then1 must be the word that connected the two sentences4 ,notice that the two main parts of #e are separated by a semicolon4 ,this enables the writer to show that the two main divisions of #e are more widely separated in meaning than are the parts of the second division where the comma is used4 ,give the three leading predicate verbs in #e and their complements4 ,if they had been made by the job is joined like an adverb to what verb8 ,what is the predicate of this modifying group8 ,the infinitive phrase in #a1 paragraph #b1 modifies what8 ,is me1 or visits1 the object complement of make8 ,put what after would find in #b and get the object complement4 ,can you make a sentence of this group8 ,what are its principal parts8 ,does the writer make an unexpected turn after talk8 ,how is this shown to the eye8 ,put what after do know in #c and find the object complement4 ,can you make a sentence of this object complement8 ,what phrase can you put in place of the pronoun it without changing the sense8 ,by using the word it1 a better arrangement can be made4 ,what group of words in #e is used like an adjective to modify hurry8 ,change the pronoun that to hurry and make a separate sentence of this group4 ,what word1 then1 must have made an adjective of this sentence and joined it to hurry8 ,what is the object complement of can afford in #g8 ,supply a preposition after will wait in #h1 and then find two groups of words that tell the time of waiting4 ,find a subject and a predicate in the second group4 ,what explains it in #aj8 ,find the object complement of wishes in #aa4 ,what is the subject of was8 ,the office of there8 ,after work supply the pronoun that and tell the office of the group it introduces4 ,what is the object complement of could do8 ,what connects this group to work8 ,the ,grouping of ,sentences into ,paragraphs4--,there are two distinct sets of sentences in this selection--distinct because developing two distinct sub-topics4 ,accordingly1 there are two paragraphs4 ,let us take for the general topic ,the ,visits of the ,plumbers4 ,let us see whether all the sentences of the first paragraph will not come under the sub-topic ,first ,visit1 and those of the second under the sub-topic ,subsequent ,visits4 ,the sentences of each paragraph should be closely related to one another and to the sub-topic4 ,they should stand in their proper order4 ,do the paragraphs above stand such tests8 ,if they do1 they possess the prime quality of ,unity4 ,the ,author's ,style4--,this selection we may call ,narrative1 though there are descriptive touches in it4 ,it is a story of what8 ,is the story clearly told throughout8 ,if not1 where is it obscure8 ,is it made interesting and entertaining8 ,is ,mr4 ,warner here giving us a bit of his own experience8 ,or do you think he is drawing upon his imagination8 ,would you call the style plain1 or does it abound with metaphors1 similes1 or other figures of speech8 ,are the sentences generally long1 or generally short8 ,what are the faults or foibles of these real or fancied plumbers8 ,does the author speak of them in a genial and lenient way8 or is he hostile1 and does he hold up their foibles to scorn and derision8 ,does he make us laugh with1 or does he make us laugh at1 the plumbers8 ,if the former1 the style is humorous2 if the latter1 the style is satirical or sarcastic4 ,would you call ,mr4 ,warner's quality of style ,humor8 or that form of wit known as ,satire8 ,is our author's use of it delicate and refined8 or is it gross and coarse8 ,does it stop short of making its object grotesque1 or not8 ,can you name any writers whose humor or satire is coarse8 ,,suggestions ,,fob ,,composition ,,work4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions1 pages #aei1 #afj4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,from ,,beecher',s ,,lectures ,,to ,,young ,,men4 #a4 ,indolence inclines a man to rely upon others and not upon himself1 to eat their bread and not his own4 #b4 ,his carelessness is somebody's loss2 his neglect is somebody's downfall4 #c4 ,if he borrows1 the article remains borrowed2 if he begs and gets1 it is as the letting out of waters--no one knows where it will stop4 #d4 ,he spoils your work1 disappoints your expectations1 exhausts your patience1 eats up your substance1 abuses your confidence1 and hangs a dead weight upon all your plans2 and the very best thing an honest man can do with a lazy man is to get rid of him4 #a4 ,indolence promises without redeeming the pledge2 a mist of forgetfulness rises up and obscures the memory of vows and oaths4 #b4 ,the negligence of laziness breeds more falsehoods than the cunning of the sharper4 #c4 ,as poverty waits upon the steps of indolence1 so upon such poverty brood equivocations1 subterfuges1 lying denials4 #d4 ,falsehood becomes the instrument of every plan4 #e4 ,negligence of truth1 next occasional falsehood1 then wanton mendacity--these three strides traverse the whole road of lies4 #a4 ,indolence as surely runs to dishonesty as to lying4 #b4 ,indeed1 they are but different parts of the same road1 and not far apart4 #c4 ,in directing the conduct of the ,ephesian converts1 ,paul says1 ,let him that stole steal no more2 but rather let him labor1 working with his hands the thing which is good4 #d4 ,the men who were thieves were those who had ceased to work4 #e4 ,industry was the road back to honesty4 #f4 ,when stores are broken open1 the idle are first suspected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,find in #a two compound infinitive phrases and tell their use4 ,supply the words omitted from the last part of each compound4 ,what shows that the parts of #b are not closely connected8 ,would a conjunction bring them more closely together8 ,if a conjunction is used1 would you change the punctuation8 ,a sentence that unites with another to make one greater sentence we call a clause4 ,read the first part of #b and change somebody's first to a phrase and then to a clause used like an adjective4 ,what distinction can you make between the use of the semicolon and the use of the comma in #c8 ,the clause if he borrows is joined like an adverb to what verb8 ,if he begs and gets8 ,what pronoun more indefinite than your might take its place in #d8 ,what noun8 ,explain the use of the semicolon and the comma in #d4 ,supply that after thing and tell what clause is here used like an adjective4 ,find the office of that by placing it after do4 ,find in #d an infinitive phrase used as attribute complement4 ,change the phrase in #a1 paragraph #b1 to a clause4 ,find in #b the omitted predicate of the clause introduced by than4 ,find a compound subject in #c4 ,are negligence1 falsehood1 and mendacity1 in #e1 used as subjects8 ,explain their use and punctuation4 7,see ,remark1 ,lesson #de47 ,in #c1 paragraph #c1 how are the words borrowed from ,paul marked8 ,change the quotation from ,paul so as to give his thought but not his exact words4 ,are the quotation marks now needed8 ,in #c and #d find clauses introduced by that1 which1 and who1 and used like adjectives4 ,the ,grouping of ,sentences into ,paragraphs4--,you can easily learn the sub-topic1 or thought1 each of these paragraphs develops4 ,see whether you can find it in the first sentence of each4 ,give the three sub-topics4 ,put together the three thoughts established in these paragraphs and tell what they prove4 ,what they prove is that for which ,mr4 ,beecher is contending2 it may be written at the head of the extract as the general topic4 ,what merits of the paragraph1 already treated1 are admirably illustrated in this extract8 ,the ,style of the ,author4--,this selection is neither descriptive nor narrative2 it is ,argumentative4 ,mr4 ,beecher is trying to establish a certain proposition1 and in the three paragraphs is giving three reasons1 or arguments1 to prove its truth4 ,but the argument is not all thought1 is not purely intellectual4 ,it is suffused with feeling1 is impassioned4 ,mr4 ,beecher's heart is in his work4 ,this feeling warms and colors his style1 and stimulates his fancy4 ,as a consequence1 figures of speech abound4 ,notice that in #a1 paragraph #a1 the thought is repeated by means of the infinitive phrases4 ,read the words ,indolence inclines a man with each of the four infinitive phrases that follow4 ,you will see that the thought is repeated4 ,it is first expressed in a general way2 by the aid of the second phrase we see the same thought from the negative side2 the third phrase makes the statement more specific2 the fourth puts the specific statement negatively4 ,the needless repetition of the same thought in different words is one of the worst faults in writing4 ,but ,mr4 ,beecher's repetition is not needless4 ,by every repetition here1 ,mr4 ,beecher makes his thought clearer and stronger4 ,examine the other sentences of this paragraph and see whether they enforce the leading thought by illustration1 example1 or consequence4 ,in what sentence is the style made energetic by the aid of short predicates8 ,how does the alternation of short sentences with long throughout the extract affect you8 ,the alternation of plain with figurative sentences8 ,can you show that the author's style has ,variety8 ,pick out the metaphors in #a1 #b1 #c1 and #e1 paragraph #b2 and in #a and #b1 paragraph #c4 ,pick out the comparisons1 or similes1 in #c1 paragraph #a1 and in #c1 paragraph #b4 ,figures of speech should add clearness and force4 ,if you think these do1 tell how4 ,indolence in #a and #c1 paragraph #b1 and laziness in #b1 introduce us to another figure4 ,something belonging to the men1 a quality1 is made to represent the men themselves4 ,such a figure is called ,metonymy4 ,,suggestions ,,fob ,,composition ,,work4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,exercises in argumentative writing may be continued by making selections from the discussion of easy topics4 ,for original work we suggest debates on current topics4 ,compositions should be short4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,extract ,,from ,,daniel ,,webster4 #a4 ,the assassin enters1 through the window already prepared1 into an unoccupied apartment4 #b4 ,with noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall1 half lighted by the moon2 he winds up the ascent of the stairs and reaches the door of the chamber4 #c4 ,of this he moves the lock1 by soft and continued pressure1 till it turns on its hinges without noise2 and he enters1 and beholds his victim before him4 #a4 ,the face of the innocent sleeper is turned from the murderer1 and the beams of the moon1 resting on the gray locks of his aged temple1 show him where to strike4 #b4 ,the fatal blow is given6 and the victim passes1 without a struggle or a motion1 from the repose of sleep to the repose of death4 #c4 ,it is the assassin's purpose to make sure work2 and he plies the dagger1 though it is obvious that life has been destroyed by the blow of the bludgeon4 #d4 ,he even raises the aged arm that he may not fail in his aim at the heart1 and places it again over the wounds of the poniard4 #e4 ,to finish the picture1 he explores the wrist for the pulse4 #f4 ,he feels for it1 and ascertains that it beats no longer4 #g4 ,it is accomplished4 #h4 ,the deed is done4 #a4 ,he retreats1 retraces his steps to the window1 passes out through it as he came in1 and escapes4 #b4 ,he has done the murder4 ,no eye has seen him1 no ear has heard him4 #c4 ,the secret is his own1 and it is safe4 #a4 ,ah6 gentlemen1 that was a dreadful mistake4 #b4 ,such a secret can be safe nowhere4 #c4 ,the whole creation of ,god has neither nook nor corner where the guilty can bestow it1 and say it is safe4 #d4 ,not to speak of that eye which pierces through all disguises and beholds everything as in the splendor of noon1 such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection even by men4 #e4 ,true it is1 generally speaking1 that ,murder will out4 #f4 ,true it is that ,providence hath so ordained1 and doth so govern things1 that those who break the great law of heaven by shedding man's blood seldom succeed in avoiding discovery4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,do the phrases in #a1 paragraph #a1 stand in their usual order1 or are they transposed8 ,in what different places may they stand8 ,does either phrase need to be transposed for emphasis or for clearness8 ,explain the punctuation4 ,begin #b with the lonely hall1 and notice that the sentence is thrown out of harmony with the other sentences1 and that the assassin is for the moment lost sight of4 ,can you tell why8 ,notice that in the latter part of #b the door is mentioned1 and that #c begins with of this1 referring to the door4 ,can you find any other arrangement by which #c will follow #b so naturally8 ,can you change #c so as to make the reference of it clearer8 ,what is the office of the till clause8 ,does the clause following the semicolon modify anything8 ,would you call such a clause dependent1 or would you call it independent8 ,explain the punctuation of #c4 ,give the effect of changing resting in #a1 paragraph #b1 to the assertive form4 ,find in #a a pronoun used adverbially and a phrase used as object complement4 ,expand the phrase into a clause4 ,give the modifiers of passes in #b4 ,read the first part of #c and put the explanatory phrase in place of it4 ,what is the office of the though clause8 ,find in this a clause doing the work of a noun and tell its office4 ,in #d would his in place of the before aged and before heart be ambiguous8 ,if so1 why8 ,find in this paragraph an infinitive phrase used independently4 ,find the object complement of ascertains in #f4 ,are #g and #h identical in meaning8 ,give the modifiers of passes in paragraph #c4 ,explain the as clause4 ,what does that in #a1 paragraph #d1 stand for8 ,what kind of clause is introduced by where in #c8 ,by which in #d8 ,expand the as clause in #d and tell its office4 ,find in #d and #e an infinitive phrase and a participle phrase used independently4 ,tell the office of the that clauses in #e and #f1 and of the who clause in #f4 ,the ,grouping of ,sentences into ,paragraphs4--,look 7#a7 at the order of the sentences in each paragraph1 and 7#b7 at the order of the paragraphs themselves4 ,neither order could be changed without making the stream of events run up hill1 for each order is the order in which the events happened4 ,look 7#c7 at the unity of each paragraph1 and 7#d7 at the larger unity of the four paragraphs--that of each paragraph determined by the relation of each sentence to the sub-topic of the paragraph1 and that of the four paragraphs determined by their relation to the general topic of the extract4 ,we add that the obvious reference of the repeated he to the same person1 and of that and secret in paragraph #d demonstrates both unities4 ,look 7#e71 and lastly1 at the fact that the sub-topic of each paragraph is found in the first line of each paragraph4 ,could ,webster have done more to make his thought seen and felt8 ,the ,style of the ,author4--,this selection is largely ,narrative4 ,its leading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the case2 but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of ,mr4 ,webster4 ,everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the story1 touched with description1 has all the effect of an argument4 ,one quality of it is its clearness1 its perspicuity4 ,it is noticeable also that very little imagery is used1 that the language is plain language4 ,but it is impossible to read these paragraphs without being most profoundly impressed with their energy1 their force4 ,the style is forcible because 7#a7 the subject-matter is easily grasped2 7#b7 because simple words are used1 words understood even by children2 because 7#c7 these words are specific and individual1 not generic2 because 7#d7 of the grateful variety of sentences2 7#e7 because of the prevalence of short sentences2 because 7#f7 of the repetition of the thought in successive sentences2 because 7#g71 though the murder took place some time before1 ,webster speaks as if it were now taking place in our very sight4 ,find proof of what we have just said--proof of 7#b71 in paragraphs #a and #c2 proof of 7#c71 in sentences #c1 #d1 and #e1 paragraph #b2 proof of 7#d71 throughout2 of 7#e7 and 7#f71 in paragraphs #c and #d2 and of 7#g71 in the first three paragraphs4 ,in paragraph #c1 a remarkable sameness prevails4 ,the sentences here are framed largely on one plan4 ,they are mostly of the same length4 ,the order of the words in them is the same2 often the words are the same2 and1 even when they are not1 those in one clause or sentence seem to suggest those in the next4 ,this sameness is not accidental4 ,the more real the murderer's fancied security is made in this paragraph to appear1 the more startling in the next paragraph will be the revelation of his mistake4 ,hence no novelty in the words or in their arrangement is allowed to distract our attention from the dominant thought4 ,the sentences are made to look and sound alike and to be alike that their effect may be cumulative4 ,the principle of ,parallel ,construction1 the principle that sentences similar in thought should be similar in form1 is here allowed free play4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp at first all that is here taught4 ,they probably will not fully comprehend it till they have returned to it several times4 ,it will1 however1 be impossible for them to study it without profit4 ,the meaning will grow upon them4 ,in studying our questions and suggestions the pupils should have the ,extract before them1 and should try to verify in it all that is taught concerning it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,subdivided ,,lesson #he4 ,,classes ,,of ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4 ,introductory ,hints4--,you have now reached a point where it becomes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into subclasses4 ,you have learned that nouns are the names of things2 as1 girl1 ,sarah4 ,the name girl is held in common by all girls1 and hence does not distinguish one girl from another4 ,the name ,sarah is not thus held in common2 it does distinguish one girl from other girls4 ,any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a ,common ,noun2 and any particular name of an individual1 distinguishing this individual from others of its class1 we call a ,proper ,noun4 ,the proper1 or individual1 names which in ,rule #a1 ,lesson #h1 you were told to begin with capital letters are proper nouns4 ,such a word as wheat1 music1 or architecture does not distinguish one thing from others of its class2 there is but one thing in the class denoted by each1 each thing forms a class by itself2 and so we call these words common nouns4 ,in ,lesson #h you learned that pronouns are not names1 but words used instead of names4 ,any one speaking of himself may use ,i1 my1 etc41 instead of his own name2 speaking to one1 he may use you1 thou1 your1 thy1 etc41 instead of that person's name2 speaking of one1 he may use he1 she1 it1 him1 her1 etc41 instead of that one's name4 ,these little words that by their form denote the speaker1 the one spoken to1 or the one spoken of are called ,personal ,pronouns4 ,by adding self to my1 thy1 your1 him1 her1 and it1 and selves to our1 your1 and them1 we form what are called ,compound ,personal ,pronouns1 used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor2 as1 ,xerxes himself was the last to cross the ,hellespont2 ,the mind cannot see itself4 ,if a noun1 or some word or words used like a noun1 is to be modified by a clause1 the clause is introduced by who1 which1 what1 or that2 as1 ,i know the man that did that4 ,these words1 relating to words in another clause1 and binding the clauses together1 are called ,relative ,pronouns4 ,by adding ever and soever to who1 which1 and what1 we form what are called the ,compound ,relative ,pronouns whoever1 whosoever1 whichever1 whatever1 etc41 used in a general way1 and without any word expressed to which they relate4 ,if the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it1 he uses who1 which1 or what2 as1 ,who did that8 ,these pronouns1 used in asking questions1 are called ,interrogative ,pronouns4 ,instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them out as near or remote2 as1 ,is that a man8 ,what is this8 or by words telling something of their number1 order1 or quantity2 as1 ,none are perfect2 ,the latter will do2 ,much has been done4 ,such words we call ,adjective ,pronouns4 ,,definitions4 ,a ,noun is the name of anything4 ,footnote3 ,most common nouns are derived from roots that denote qualities4 ,the root does not necessarily denote the most essential quality of the thing1 only its most obtrusive quality4 ,the sky1 a shower1 and scum1 for instance1 have this most noticeable feature2 they are a cover1 they hide1 conceal4 ,this the root sku signifies1 and sku is the main element in the words sky1 shower 7,saxon scu3r71 and scum that name these objects1 and in the adjective obscure4 ,a noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes gradually1 by the association of this quality with the rest1 to denote them all4 ,herein proper nouns differ from common4 ,however derived1 as ,smith is from the man's office of smoothing1 or ,white from his color1 the name soon ceases to denote quality1 and becomes really meaningless4 ,a ,common ,noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class4 ,a ,proper ,noun is the particular name of an individual4 ,remark4--,it may be well to note two classes of common nouns--collective and abstract4 ,a ,collective ,noun is the name of a number of things taken together2 as1 army1 flock1 mob1 jury4 ,an ,abstract ,noun is the name of a quality1 an action1 a being1 or a state2 as1 whiteness1 beauty1 wisdom1 7the7 singing1 existence1 7the7 sleep4 ,a ,pronoun is a word used for a noun4 ,footnote3 ,in our definition and general treatment of the pronoun1 we have conformed to the traditional views of grammarians2 but it may be well for the student to note that pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns1 and that their primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns4 #a4 ,pronouns are not the names of things4 ,they do not1 like nouns1 lay hold of qualities and name things by them4 ,they seize upon relations that objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations4 ,i1 you1 and he denote their objects by the relations these objects sustain to the act of speaking2 ,i denotes the speaker2 you1 the one spoken to2 and he or she or it1 the one spoken of4 ,this and that denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker2 some and few and others indicate parts separated from the rest4 ,gestures could express all that many pronouns express4 #b4 ,it follows that pronouns are more general than nouns4 ,any person1 or even an animal or a thing personified1 may use ,i when referring to himself1 you when referring to the one addressed1 and he1 she1 it1 and they when referring to the person or persons1 the thing or things1 spoken of--and all creatures and things1 except the speaker and the one spoken to1 fall into the last list4 ,some pronouns are so general1 and hence so vague1 in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete ignorance of the objects they denote4 ,in1 ,who did it8 ,which of them did you see8 the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom ,who stands1 and the person or thing that ,which denotes4 ,to what does it refer in1 it rains2 ,how is it with you8 #c4 ,some pronouns stand for a phrase1 a clause1 or a sentence1 going before or coming after4 ,to be or not to be--that is the question4 ,it is doubtful whether the ,north ,pole will ever be reached4 ,the sails turned1 the corn was ground1 after which the wind ceased4 ,ought you to go8 ,i cannot answer that4 ,in the first of these sentences1 that stands for a phrase2 in the last1 for a sentence4 ,it and which in the second and third sentences stand for clauses4 #d4 ,which1 retaining its office as connective1 may as an adjective accompany its noun2 as1 ,i craved his forbearance a little longer1 which forbearance he allowed me4 ,a ,personal ,pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker1 the one spoken to1 or the one spoken of4 ,a ,relative ,pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words and connects clauses4 ,an ,interrogative ,pronoun is one with which a question is asked4 ,an ,adjective ,pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun4 ,the simple personal pronouns are3--,i1 thou1 you1 he1 she1 and it4 ,the compound personal pronouns are3--,myself1 thyself1 yourself1 himself1 herself1 and itself4 ,the simple relative pronouns are3--,who1 which1 that1 and what4 ,footnote3 ,as1 in such sentences as this3 ,give such things as you can spare1 may be treated as a relative pronoun4 ,but by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--,give such things as those are which you can spare4 ,but used after a negative is sometimes called a negative relative that not2 as1 ,there is not a man here but would die for such a cause4 ,when the sentence is expanded1 but is found to be a preposition--,there is not a man here but 7 except7 the one who would die1 etc4 ,the compound relative pronouns are3-- ,whoever or whosoever1 whichever or whichsoever1 whatever or whatsoever4 ,the interrogative pronouns are3-- ,who1 which1 and what4 ,some of the more common adjective pronouns are3-- ,all1 another1 any1 both1 each1 either1 enough1 few1 former1 latter1 little1 many1 much1 neither1 none1 one1 other1 same1 several1 such1 that1 these1 this1 those1 whole1 etc4 ,footnote3 ,the adjective pronouns this1 that1 these1 and those are called ,demonstrative pronouns4 ,all1 any1 both1 each1 either1 many1 one1 other1 etc4 are called ,indefinite pronouns because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives4 ,each1 either1 and neither are also called ,distributives4 ,but for the fact that such words as brave1 good1 etc4 in the phrases the brave1 the good1 etc4 describe--which pronouns never do--we might call them adjective pronouns4 ,they may be treated as nouns1 or as adjectives modifying nouns to be supplied4 ,some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns2 as1 the grand1 the sublime1 the beautiful4 ,the word1 phrase1 or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an ,antecedent4 ,direction4--,point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences3-- ,jack was rude to ,tom1 and always knocked off his hat when he met him4 ,to lie is cowardly1 and every boy should know it4 ,daniel and his companions were fed on pulse1 which was to their advantage4 ,to lie is to be a coward1 which one should scorn to be4 ,to sleep soundly1 which is a blessing1 is to repair and renew the body4 ,remark4--,when the interrogatives who1 which1 and what introduce indirect questions1 it is not always easy to distinguish them from relatives whose antecedents are omitted4 ,for example--,i found who called and what he wanted2 ,i saw what was done4 ,the first sentence does not mean1 ,i found the person who called and the thing that he wanted4 ,who called and what he wanted here suggest questions--questions referred to but not directly asked4 ,i saw what was done ,i saw the thing that was done4 ,no question is suggested4 ,it should be remembered that which and what may also be interrogative adjectives2 as1 ,which side won8 ,what news have you8 ,direction4--,analyze these sentences1 and parse all the pronouns3-- #a4 ,who steals my purse steals trash4 #b4 ,i myself know who stole my purse4 #c4 ,they knew whose house was robbed4 #d4 ,he heard what was said4 #e4 ,you have guessed which belongs to me4 #f4 ,whom the gods would destroy they first make mad4 #g4 ,what was said1 and who said it8 #h4 ,it is not known to whom the honor belongs4 #i4 ,she saw one of them1 but she cannot positively tell which4 #aj4 ,whatever is done must be done quickly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hf4 ,,construction ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,in the recitation of all ,lessons containing errors for correction1 the pupils' books should be closed1 and the examples should be read by you4 ,to insure care in preparation1 and close attention in the class1 read some of the examples in their correct form4 ,require specific reasons4 ,caution4--,avoid he1 it1 they1 or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear4 ,repeat the noun instead1 quote the speaker's exact words1 or recast the sentence4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity3-- ,model4--,the lad cannot leave his father2 for1 if he should leave him1 he would die ,the lad cannot leave his father2 for1 if he should leave his father1 his father would die4 ,lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends ,lysias gave his father this promise3 ,i will never abandon your 7or my7 friends4 #a4 ,dr4 ,prideaux says that1 when he took his commentary to the bookseller1 he told him it was a dry subject4 #b4 ,he said to his friend that1 if he did not feel better soon1 he thought he had better go home4 7,this sentence may have four meanings4 ,give them all1 using what you may suppose were the speaker's words47 #c4 ,a tried to see ,b in the crowd1 but could not because he was so short4 #d4 ,charles's duplicity was fully made known to ,cromwell by a letter of his to his wife1 which he intercepted4 #e4 ,the farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox1 and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss4 ,caution4--,do not use pronouns needlessly4 ,direction4--,write1 these sentences1 omitting needless pronouns3-- #a4 ,it isn't true what he said4 #b4 ,the father he died1 the mother she followed1 and the children they were taken sick4 #c4 ,the cat it mewed1 and the dogs they barked1 and the man he shouted4 #d4 ,let every one turn from his or her evil ways4 #e4 ,napoleon1 ,waterloo having been lost1 he gave himself up to the ,english4 ,caution4--,in addressing a person1 do not1 in the same sentence1 use the two styles of the pronoun4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,thou art sad1 have you heard bad news8 #b4 ,you cannot always have thy way4 #c4 ,bestow thou upon us your blessing4 #d4 ,love thyself last1 and others will love you4 ,caution4--,the pronoun them should not be used for the adjective those1 nor the pronoun what for the conjunction that4 ,footnote3 ,what properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect question1 but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction that4 ,but may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause4 ,this use of but requires careful discrimination4 ,for example--,i have no fear that he will do it2 ,i have no fear but that he will do it4 ,the former indicates certainty that he will not do it1 and the latter certainty that he will do it4 ,no one doubts but that he will do it is incorrect1 for it contains three negatives--no1 doubts1 and but4 ,two negatives may be used to affirm1 but not three4 ,the intended meaning is1 ,no one doubts that he will do it1 or ,no one believes but that he will do it1 or ,every one believes that he will do it4 ,but what1 for but that or but1 is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause2 as1 ,he is not so bad but what he might be worse4 ,for this office of but or but that in an adverb clause1 see ,lesson #aji1 fourth ,example of the uses of but4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,hand me them things4 #b4 ,who knows but what we may fail8 #c4 ,i cannot believe but what ,i shall see them men again4 #d4 ,we ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good4 ,caution4--,the relative who should always represent persons2 which1 brute animals and inanimate things2 that1 persons1 animals1 and things2 and what1 things4 ,the antecedent of what should not be expressed4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,those which say so are mistaken4 #b4 ,he has some friends which ,i know4 #c4 ,he told that what he knew4 #d4 ,the dog who was called ,fido went mad4 #e4 ,the lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose4 #f4 ,all what he saw he described4 #g4 ,the horse whom ,alexander rode was named ,bucephalus4 ,direction4--,write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five ,cautions4 ,,lesson #hg4 ,,construction ,,of ,,pronouns--,,continued4 ,caution4--,several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,it was ,joseph that was sold into ,egypt1 who became governor of the land1 and which saved his father and brothers from famine4 #b4 ,he who lives1 that moves1 and who has his being in ,god should not forget him4 #c4 ,this is the horse which started first1 and that reached the stand last4 #d4 ,the man that fell overboard1 and who was drowned was the first mate4 ,caution4--,when the relative clause is not restrictive1 ,footnote3 ,see ,lesson #fa4 who or which1 and not that1 is generally used4 ,example4--,water1 which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen1 covers three-fourths of the earth's surface4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the earth is enveloped by an ocean of air1 that is a compound of oxygen4 and nitrogen4 #b4 ,longfellow1 that is the most popular ,american poet1 has written beautiful prose4 #c4 ,time1 that is a precious gift1 should not be wasted4 #d4 ,man1 that is born of woman1 is of few days and full of trouble4 ,caution4--,the relative that ,footnote3 ,that is almost always restrictive4 ,however desirable it may seem to confine who and which to unrestrictive clauses1 they are not confined to them in actual practice4 ,the wide use of who and which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after this1 these1 those1 and that1 and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds4 ,this may frequently be the reason for employing who and which in restrictive clauses2 but usage authorizes us to affirm 7#a7 that who and which stand in such clauses oftener without1 than with1 this1 these1 those1 or that preceding them1 and 7#b7 that they so stand oftener than that itself does4 ,especially may this be said of which4 should be used instead of who or which 7#a7 when the antecedent names both persons and things2 7#b7 when that would prevent ambiguity2 and 7#c7 when it would sound better than who or which1 e4 g41 after that1 same1 very1 all1 the interrogative who1 the indefinite it1 and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree4 ,example4--,he lived near a pond that was a nuisance4 7,that relates to pond--the pond was a nuisance4 ,which might have1 for its antecedent1 pond1 or the whole clause ,he lived near a pond2 and so its use here would be ambiguous47 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the wisest men who ever lived made mistakes4 #b4 ,the chief material which is used now in building is brick4 #c4 ,who who saw him did not pity him8 #d4 ,he is the very man whom we want4 #e4 ,he is the same who he has ever been4 #f4 ,he sent his boy to a school which did him good4 #g4 ,all who knew him respected him4 #h4 ,it was not ,i who did it4 #i4 ,that man that you just met is my friend4 ,caution4--,the relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent4 #b4 ,her hair hung in ringlets1 which was dark and glossy4 #c4 ,a dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar4 #d4 ,a purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather4 #e4 ,claudius was canonized among the gods1 who scarcely deserved the name of man4 #f4 ,he should not keep a horse that cannot ride4 ,caution4--,when this and that1 these and those1 the one and the other refer to things previously mentioned1 this and these refer to the last mentioned1 and that and those to the first mentioned2 the one refers to the first mentioned1 and the other to the last mentioned4 ,when there is danger of obscurity1 repeat the nouns4 ,examples4--,high and tall are synonyms3 this may be used in speaking of what grows--a tree2 that1 in speaking of what does not grow--a mountain4 ,homer was a genius2 ,virgil1 an artist3 in the one we most admire the man2 in the other1 the work4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,talent speaks learnedly at the bar2 tact1 triumphantly3 this is complimented by the bench2 that gets the fees4 #b4 ,charles ,,xii4 and ,peter the ,great were sovereigns3 the one was loved by his people2 the other was hated4 #c4 ,the selfish and the benevolent are found in every community2 these are shunned1 while those are sought after4 ,direction4--,write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five ,cautions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hh4 ,,construction ,,of ,,pronouns--,,continued4 ,miscellaneous ,errors4 ,direction4--,give the ,cautions which these sentences violate1 and correct the errors3-- #a4 ,he who does all which he can does enough4 #b4 ,john's father died before he was born4 #c4 ,whales are the largest animals which swim4 #d4 ,boys who study hard1 and that study wisely make progress4 #e4 ,there are miners that live below ground1 and who seldom see the light4 #f4 ,he did that what was right4 #g4 ,general ,lee1 that served under ,washington1 had been a ,british officer4 #h4 ,a man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house4 #i4 ,they need no spectacles that are blind4 #aj4 ,they buy no books who are not able to read4 #aa4 ,cotton1 that is a plant1 is woven into cloth4 #ab4 ,do you know that gentleman that is speaking8 #ac4 ,there is no book which1 when we look through it sharply1 we cannot find mistakes in it4 #ad4 ,the reporter which said that was deceived4 #ae4 ,the diamond1 that is pure carbon1 is a brilliant gem4 #af4 ,the brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed4 #ag4 ,reputation and character do not mean the same thing3 the one denotes what we are2 the other1 what we are thought to be4 #ah4 ,kosciusko having come to this country1 he aided us in our ,revolutionary struggle4 #ai4 ,what pleased me much1 and which was spoken of by others1 was the general appearance of the class4 #bj4 ,there are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants4 #ba4 ,witness said that his wife's father came to his house1 and he ordered him out1 but he refused to go4 #bb4 ,shall you be able to sell them boots8 #bc4 ,i don't know but what ,i may4 #bd4 ,beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad3 the one is made from grapes2 the other1 from barley4 #be4 ,there is one marked difference between shiners and trout2 these have scales1 and those have not4 #bf4 ,they know little of men1 who reason thus4 #bg4 ,help thyself1 and ,heaven will help you4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #hi4 ,,classes ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,introductory ,hints4--,you learned in ,lesson #ab that1 in the sentences ,ripe apples are healthful1 ,unripe apples are hurtful1 the adjectives ripe and unripe limit1 or narrow1 the application of apples by describing1 or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit4 ,you learned also that the1 this1 an1 no1 some1 and many limit1 or narrow1 the application of any noun which they modify1 as apple or apples1 by pointing out the particular fruit1 by numbering it1 or by denoting the quantity of it4 ,adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called ,descriptive ,adjectives2 and those which limit by pointing out1 numbering1 or denoting quantity are called ,definitive ,adjectives4 ,adjectives modifying a noun do not limit1 or narrow1 its application 7#a7 when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named2 as1 yellow gold1 the good ,god1 the blue sky2 or 7#b7 when they are attribute complements1 denoting qualities asserted by the verb2 as1 ,the fields were green2 ,the ground was dry and hard4 ,,definitions4 ,an ,adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun4,footnote3 ,pronouns1 like nouns1 are often modified by an appositive adjective1 that is1 an adjective joined loosely without restricting3 thus--,faint and weary1 he struggled on or1 ,he1 faint and weary1 struggled on4 ,adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to nouns4 ,a ,descriptive ,adjective is one that modifies by expressing quality4 ,a ,definitive ,adjective is one that modifies by pointing out1 numbering1 or denoting quantity4,footnote3 ,the definitive adjectives one1 two1 three1 etc42 first1 second1 third1 etc4 are called ,numeral adjectives4 ,one1 two1 three1 etc4 are called ,cardinal numerals2 and first1 second1 third--etc4 are called ,ordinal numerals ,the definitive adjectives an or a and the are commonly called ,articles4 ,an or a is called the ,indefinite ,article1 and the is called the ,definite ,article4 ,a noun may take the place of an adjective4 ,examples4--,london journals1 the ,new ,york press1 silver spoons1 diamond pin1 state papers1 gold bracelet4 ,direction4--,point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives below1 and name such as do not limit3-- ,able statesmen1 much rain1 ten mice1 brass kettle1 small grains1 ,mansard roof1 some feeling1 all men1 hundredth anniversary1 the ,pitt diamond1 the patient ,hannibal1 little thread1 crushing argument1 moving spectacle1 the martyr president1 tin pans1 few people1 less trouble1 this toy1 any book1 brave ,washington1 ,washington market1 three cats1 slender cord1 that libel1 happy children1 the broad ,atlantic1 ,the huge clouds were dark and threatening1 ,eyes are bright1 ,what name was given8 ,which book is wanted8 ,direction4--,point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in ,lessons #hj and #ha1 and tell whether they denote color1 motion1 shape1 position1 size1 moral qualities1 or whether they modify in some other way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ij4 ,,construction ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,caution4--,an and a are different forms of one4 ,an is used before vowel sounds4 ,for the sake of euphony1 an drops n and becomes a before consonant sounds4,footnote3 ,some writers still use an before words beginning with unaccented h2 as1 an historian4 ,examples4--,an inkstand1 a bag1 a historian1 a humble petition1 an hour 7h is silent71 a unit 7unit begins with the consonant sound of y71 such a one 7one begins with the consonant sound of w74 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- ,a heir1 a inheritance1 an hook1 an ewer1 an usurper1 a account1 an uniform1 an hundred1 a umpire1 an hard apple1 an hero4 ,caution4--,an or a is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to any one4 ,the is used to distinguish 7#a7 one thing or several things from others1 and 7#b7 one class of things from other classes4 ,explanation4--,we can say a horse1 meaning any one horse2 but we cannot say1 ,a gold is heavy1 ,this is a poor kind of a gas1 ,william ,pitt received the title of an earl because gold1 gas1 and earl are here meant to denote each the whole of a class1 and a limits its noun to one thing of a class4 ,the horse or the horses must be turned into the lot4 ,here the before horse distinguishes a certain animal1 and the before horses distinguishes certain animals1 from others of the same class2 and the before lot distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in other classes4 ,the horse is a noble animal4 ,here the distinguishes this class of animals from other classes4 ,but we cannot say1 ,the man 7meaning the race7 is mortal1 ,the anger is a short madness1 ,the truth is eternal1 ,the poetry and the painting are fine arts1 because man1 anger1 truth1 poetry1 and painting are used in their widest sense1 and name things that are sufficiently distinguished without the4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution as explained1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,this is another kind of a sentence4 #b4 ,churchill received the title of a duke4 #c4 ,a hill is from the same root as column4 #d4 ,dog is a quadruped4 #e4 ,i expected some such an offer4 #f4 ,the woman is the equal of man4 #g4 ,the sculpture is a fine art4 #h4 ,unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros4 #i4 ,oak is harder than the maple4 ,caution4--,use an1 a1 or the before each of two or more connected adjectives1 when these adjectives modify different nouns1 expressed or understood2 but1 when they modify the same noun1 the article should not be repeated4 ,explanation4--,a cotton and a silk umbrella means two umbrellas--one cotton and the other silk2 the word umbrella is understood after cotton4 ,a cotton and silk umbrella means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk2 cotton and silk modify the same noun--umbrella4 ,the wise and the good means two classes2 the wise and good means one class4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution as explained1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the ,northern and ,southern ,hemisphere4 #b4 ,the ,northern and the ,southern ,hemispheres4 #c4 ,the right and left hand4 #d4 ,a ,pullman and ,wagner sleeping-coach4 #e4 ,the fourth and the fifth verses4 #f4 ,the fourth and fifth verse4 #g4 ,a ,webster's and ,worcester's dictionary4 ,caution4--,use an1 a1 or the before each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,there is a difference between the sin and sinner4 #b4 ,we criticise not the dress but address of the speaker4 #c4 ,a noun and pronoun are alike in office4 #d4 ,distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb4 #e4 ,the lion1 as well as tiger1 belongs to the cat tribe4 #f4 ,neither the ,north ,pole nor ,south ,pole has yet been reached4 #g4 ,the secretary and treasurer were both absent4 7,the secretary and treasurer was absent--referring to one person--is correct47 ,caution4--,a few and a little mean some as opposed to none2 few means not many1 and little means not much4 ,examples4--,he saved a few things and a little money from the wreck4 ,few shall part where many meet4 ,little was said or done about it4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,there are a few pleasant days in ,march1 because it is a stormy month4 #b4 ,he saved a little from the fire1 as it broke out in the night4 #c4 ,few men live to be hundred years old1 but not many4 #d4 ,little can be done1 but not much4 ,direction4--,write correct sentences illustrating every point in these ,cautions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ia4 ,,construction ,,of ,,adjectives--,,continued4 ,caution4--,choose apt adjectives1 but do not use them needlessly2 avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it4 ,remark4--,the following adjectives are obviously needless3 ,good virtues1 verdant green1 painful toothache1 umbrageous shade4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution carefully1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,it was splendid fun4 #b4 ,it was a tremendous dew4 #c4 ,he used less words than the other speaker4 #d4 ,the lad was neither docile nor teachable4 #e4 ,the belief in immortality is common and universal4 #f4 ,it was a gorgeous apple4 #g4 ,the arm-chair was roomy and capacious4 #h4 ,it was a lovely bun1 but ,i paid a frightful price for it4 ,caution4--,so place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify4 ,if those forming a series are of different rank1 place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it4 ,if they are of the same rank1 place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length1 the shortest first4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,a new bottle of wine4 #b4 ,the house was comfortable and large4 #c4 ,a salt barrel of pork4 #d4 ,it was a blue soft beautiful sky4 #e4 ,a fried dish of bacon4 #f4 ,we saw in the distance a precipitous1 barren1 towering mountain4 #g4 ,two gray fiery little eyes4 #h4 ,a docile and mild pupil4 #i4 ,a pupil1 docile and mild4 ,direction4--,write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two ,cautions4 ,miscellaneous ,errors4 ,direction4--,give the ,cautions which these expressions violate1 and correct the errors3-- #a4 ,i can bear the heat of summer1 but not cold of winter4 #b4 ,the ,north and ,south ,pole4 #c4 ,the eldest son of a duke is called a marquis4 #d4 ,he had deceived me1 and so ,i had a little faith in him4 #e4 ,an old and young man4 #f4 ,a prodigious snowball hit my cheek4 #g4 ,the evil is intolerable and not to be borne4 #h4 ,the fat1 two lazy men4 #i4 ,his penmanship is fearful4 #aj4 ,a white and red flag were flying4 #aa4 ,his unusual1 unexpected1 and extraordinary success surprised him4 #ab4 ,he wanted a apple1 an hard apple4 #ac4 ,a dried box of herrings4 #ad4 ,he received a honor4 #ae4 ,such an use6 #af4 ,the day was delightful and warm4 #ag4 ,samuel ,adams's habits were unostentatious1 frugal1 and simple4 #ah4 ,the victory was complete1 though a few of the enemy were killed or captured4 #ai4 ,the truth is mighty and will prevail4 #bj4 ,the scepter1 the miter1 and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for4 #ba4 ,a few can swim across the ,straits of ,dover1 for the width is great and the current strong4 #bb4 ,i have a contemptible opinion of you4 #bc4 ,she has less friends than ,i4 ,,lesson #ib4 ,,classes ,,of ,,verbs ,,and ,,adverbs4 ,introductory ,hints4--,you learned in ,lesson #bh that in saying ,washington captured we do not fully express the act performed4 ,adding ,cornwallis1 we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that passes over from the doer4 ,transitive means passing over1 and so all verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called ,transitive ,verbs4 ,if we say ,cornwallis was captured by ,washington1 the verb is still transitive2 but the object1 ,cornwallis1 which names the receiver1 is here the subject of the sentence1 and not1 as before1 the object complement4 ,you see that the object1 the word that names the receiver of the act1 may be the subject1 or it may be the object complement4 ,all verbs that1 like fall in ,leaves fall1 do not represent the act as passing over to a receiver1 and all that express mere being or state of being are called ,intransitive ,verbs4 ,a verb transitive in one sentence2 as1 ,he writes good ,english1 may be intransitive in another2 as1 ,he writes well--meaning simply ,he is a good writer4 ,a verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or obviously understood4 ,washington captured ,cornwallis4 ,here captured represents the act as having taken place in past time4 ,tense means time1 and hence this verb is in the past tense4 ,cornwallis captured1 the war speedily closed4 ,here captured is1 as you have learned1 a participle2 and1 representing the act as past at the time indicated by closed1 it is a past participle4 ,notice that ed is added to capture 7final e is always dropped when ed is added7 to form its past tense and its past participle4 ,all verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed to the present are called ,regular ,verbs4 ,all verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed to the present2 as1 fall1 fell1 fallen2 go1 went1 gone1 are called ,irregular ,verbs4 ,early1 hereafter1 now1 often1 soon1 presently1 etc41 used to modify any verb--as1 will go in1 ,i will go soon--by expressing time1 are called ,adverbs of ,time4 ,away1 back1 elsewhere1 hence1 out1 within1 etc41 used to modify any verb--as1 will go in1 ,i will go away--by expressing direction or place1 are called ,adverbs of ,place4 ,exceedingly1 hardly1 quite1 sufficiently1 too1 very1 etc41 used to modify a word--as the adjective hot in1 ,the tea is very hot--by expressing degree1 are called ,adverbs of ,degree4 ,plainly1 so1 thus1 well1 not1 ,footnote3 ,it may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns1 pronouns1 verbs1 adjectives1 and conjunctions in oar language1 negation is more frequently expressed in ,english by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other parts of speech4 ,a very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb4 ,that is to say1 it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject4 ,it is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them4 ,the negative particle in our language is simply the consonant n4 ,in ,saxon it existed as a word ne2 but we have lost that word1 and it is now a letter only1 which1 enters into many words1 as into no1 not1 nought1 none1 neither1 nor1 never4--,earle4 ,no and yes 7nay and yea71 when used to answer ,questions1 show how the thought presented is regarded1 and may therefore be classed with adverbs of manner4 ,they are sometimes called independent adverbs4 ,they seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question2 as1 ,did you see him8 ,no ,i did no 7not7 see him2 ,will you go8 ,yes4 ,the force of yes may be illustrated by substituting certainly--,will you go8 ,certainly4 ,certainly ,i will go1 or ,i will certainly go4 ,as no and yes represent or suggest complete answers1 they may be called sentence-words4 etc41 used to modify a word--as1 spoke in1 ,he spoke plainly--by expressing manner1 are called ,adverbs of ,manner4 ,hence1 therefore1 why1 etc41 used in making an inference or in expressing cause--as1 ,it is dark1 hence1 or therefore1 the sun is down2 ,why is it dark8--are called ,adverbs of ,cause4 ,some adverbs fall into more than one class2 as1 so and as4 ,some adverbs1 as you have learned1 connect clauses1 and are therefore called ,conjunctive ,adverbs4 ,,definitions4 ,a ,verb is a word that asserts action1 being1 or state of being4 ,,classes ,,of ,,verbs ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,meaning4 ,a ,transitive ,verb is one that requires an object4 ,footnote3 ,the object of a transitive verb1 that is1 the name of the receiver of the action1 may be the object complement1 or it may be the subject2 as1 ,brutus stabbed ,caesar2 ,caesar was stabbed by ,brutus4 ,see page #ahg4 ,an ,intransitive ,verb is one that does not require an object4 ,,classes ,,of ,,verbs ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,form4 ,a ,regular ,verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present4 ,an ,irregular ,verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present4 ,an ,adverb is a word used to modify a verb1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,footnote3 ,adverbs have several exceptional uses4 ,they may be used independently2 as1 ,now1 there must be an error here4 ,they may modify a phrase or a preposition2 as1 ,he came just in time2 ,it went far beyond the mark4 ,they may modify a clause or a sentence2 as1 ,he let go simply because he was exhausted2 ,certainly you may go4 ,it may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively2 as1 ,how1 when1 and where is this to be done8 and that they may add to the office of the adverb that of the conjunction2 as1 ,i go where ,i am sent4 ,,classes ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,adverbs of ,time are those that generally answer the question1 ,when8 ,adverbs of ,place are those that generally answer the question1 ,where8 ,adverbs of ,degree are those that generally answer the question1 ,to what extent8 ,adverbs of ,manner are those that generally answer the question1 ,in what way8 ,adverbs of ,cause are those that generally answer the question1 ,why8 ,direction4--,point out the transitive and the intransitive1 the regular and the irregular verbs in ,lesson #ad1 and classify the adverbs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ic4 ,,construction ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,caution4--,choose apt adverbs1 but do not use them needlessly or instead of other forms of expression2 avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it4 ,examples4--,i could ill 7not illy7 afford the time4 ,do as 7not like7 ,i do4 ,a diphthong is the union of two vowels 7not where or when two vowels unite7 in the same syllable4 ,this 7not this here or this 'ere7 sentence is correct4 ,he wrote that 7not how that7 he had been sick4 ,the belief in immortality is universally held 7not universally held everywhere74 ,his nose was very 7not terribly or frightfully7 red1 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors4-- #a4 ,i returned back here yesterday4 #b4 ,he had not hardly a minute to spare4 #c4 ,the affair was settled amicably1 peaceably1 and peacefully4 #d4 ,it was awfully amusing4 #e4 ,this 'ere knife is dull4 #f4 ,that 'ere horse has the heaves4 #g4 ,a direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied4 #h4 ,i do not like too much sugar in my tea4 #i4 ,he seldom or ever went home sober4 #aj4 ,the belief in immortality is universally held by all4 #aa4 ,i am dreadfully glad to hear that4 #ab4 ,this is a fearfully long lesson4 #ac4 ,he said how that he would go4 ,caution4--,so place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify4 ,have regard to the sound also4 ,they seldom stand between to and the infinitive4 ,footnote3 ,instances of the cleft1 or split1 infinitive--the infinitive separated from its to by an intervening adverb--are found in ,early ,english and in ,english all the way down1 ,fitzedward ,hall and others have shown this4 ,but there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's standing between to and the infinitive4 ,few writers ever place an adverb there at all2 and these few1 only an occasional adverb1 and that adverb only occasionally4 ,whether the adverb should be placed before the to or after the infinitive is often a nice question1 sometimes to be determined by the ear alone4 ,it should never stand1 however1 where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure4 ,examples4--,i only rowed across the river ,i only 7 alone1 an adjective71 and no one else1 rowed etc41 or ,i only rowed etc41 but did not swim or wade4 ,i rowed only across the river across1 not up or down etc4 ,i rowed across the river only the river only1 not the bay etc4 ,merely to see 7not to merely see7 her was sufficient4 ,not every collegian is a scholar 7not ,every collegian is not a scholar74 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,i have thought of marrying often4 #b4 ,we only eat three meals a day4 #c4 ,he hopes to rapidly recruit4 #d4 ,all is not gold that glitters4 #e4 ,he tries to distinctly speak4 #f4 ,he tries distinctly to speak4 #g4 ,all that glitters is not gold4 #h4 ,his sagacity almost appears miraculous4 ,caution4--,unless you wish to affirm1 do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other4 ,footnote3 ,not infrequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation2 as1 ,he is not unjust2 ,no man can do nothing4 ,examples4--,no one has 7not hasn't7 yet reached the ,north ,pole4 ,no unpleasant circumstance happened 7proper1 because it is intended to affirm74 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,no other reason can never be given4 #b4 ,he doesn't do nothing4 #c4 ,he isn't improving much1 ,i don't think4 #d4 ,there must be something wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother4 #e4 ,he isn't no sneak4 #f4 ,charlie ,ross can't nowhere be found4 ,caution4--,do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs4 ,examples4--,the moon looks calm and peaceful 7not calmly and peacefully1 as the words are intended to describe the moon74 ,the moon looks down calmly and peacefully on the battlefield 7not calm and peaceful1 as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act74 ,i slept soundly 7not good or sound74 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,it was a softly blue sky4 #b4 ,the river runs rapid4 #c4 ,you must read more distinct4 #d4 ,it was an uncommon good harvest4 #e4 ,she is most sixteen4 #f4 ,the discussion waxed warmly4 #g4 ,the prima donna sings sweet4 #h4 ,she is miserable poor4 #i4 ,my head feels badly4 #aj4 ,he spoke up prompt4 #aa4 ,he went most there4 #ab4 ,he behaved very bad4 #ac4 ,this is a mighty cold day4 ,direction4--,write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four ,cautions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #id4 ,,construction ,,of ,,adverbs-,,continued4 ,miscellaneous ,errors4 ,direction4--,give the ,cautions which these sentences violate1 and correct the errors3-- #a4 ,begin it over again4 #b4 ,this can be done easier4 #c4 ,the house is extra warm4 #d4 ,most every one goes there4 #e4 ,i have a pencil that long4 #f4 ,he hasn't his lesson1 ,i don't believe4 #g4 ,a circle can't in no way be squared4 #h4 ,this is a remarkable cold winter4 #i4 ,the one is as equally deserving as the other4 #aj4 ,feathers feel softly4 #aa4 ,it is pretty near finished4 #ab4 ,verbosity is when too many words are used4 #ac4 ,it is a wonderful fine day4 #ad4 ,he is some better just now4 #ae4 ,generally every morning we went to the spring4 #af4 ,i wish to simply state this point4 #ag4 ,he tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man4 #ah4 ,the lesson was prodigiously long4 #ai4 ,the cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings4 #bj4 ,he can do it as good as any one can4 #ba4 ,most everybody talks so4 #bb4 ,he hasn't yet gone1 ,i don't believe4 #bc4 ,he behaved thoughtlessly1 recklessly1 and carelessly4 #bd4 ,that 'ere book is readable4 #be4 ,i will not go but once4 #bf4 ,i can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends4 #bg4 ,they were nearly dressed alike4 #bh4 ,the tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again4 #bi4 ,the fortune was lavishly1 profusely1 and prodigally spent4 #cj4 ,i am real glad to see you4 #ca4 ,we publish all the information1 official and otherwise4 ,,lesson #ie4 ,,prepositions4 ,,definition4--,a ,preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier1 and shows the relation1 in sense1 of its principal word to the word modified4 ,composition4 ,direction4--,we give below a list of the prepositions in common use4 ,make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used4 ,use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish3-- ,aboard1 about1 above1 across1 after1 against1 along1 amid1 amidst1 among1 amongst1 around1 at1 athwart1 before1 behind1 below1 beneath1 beside1 besides1 between1 betwixt1 beyond1 but1 by1 down1 ere1 for1 from1 in1 into1 of1 on1 over1 past1 round1 since1 through1 throughout1 till1 to1 toward1 towards1 under1 underneath1 until1 unto1 up1 upon1 with1 within1 without4 ,remarks4--,bating1 concerning1 during1 excepting1 notwithstanding1 pending1 regarding1 respecting1 saving1 and touching are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use4 ,but in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them1 and they express mere relations4 ,but1 except1 and save1 in such a sentence as1 ,all but or except or save him were lost1 are usually classed with prepositions4 ,the phrases aboard of1 according to1 along with1 as to1 because of 7by cause of71 from among1 from between1 from under1 instead of 7in stead of71 out of1 over against1 and round about may be called compound prepositions4 ,but from in these compounds2 as1 ,he crawled from under the ruins1 really introduces a phrase1 the principal term of which is the phrase that follows from4 ,many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted2 as1 ,he rode past2 ,he stands above4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #if4 ,,construction ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,to the ,teacher4--,most prepositions express relations so diverse1 and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead4 ,a happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors4 ,we do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them4 ,he should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions1 and such only1 should be used with certain words4 ,nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here4 ,that grammarian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up4 ,footnote3 ,take a single illustration4 ,grammarians1 in general1 teach that between and betwixt refer to two1 are used only when two things or sets of things are referred to4 ,ordinarily1 and while clinging to their derivation1 they are so used1 but are they always1 and must they be8 ,there was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion1 an ass1 and a fox4-- ,l',estrange4 ,a ,triple ,alliance between ,england1 ,holland1 and ,sweden4-- ,j4 ,b4 ,green4 ,in the vacant space between ,persia1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 and ,ethiopia4--,gibbon4 ,his flight between the several worlds4--,addison4 ,the identity of form between the nominative1 accusative1 and vocative cases in the neuter4 --,g4 ,p4 ,marsh4 ,the distinction between these three orders has been well expressed by ,prof4 ,max ,mueller4--,w4 ,d4 ,whitney4 ,between such dictionaries as ,worcester's1 ,the ,imperial1 and ,webster's4-- ,b4 ,g4 ,white4 ,betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck4--,bryant4 ,with what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology6 ,what simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence1 for instance3 ,there were forty desks in the room with ample space between them8 ,we observe that between is not restricted to two4--,imperial ,dictionary4 ,in all senses between has been1 from its earliest appearance1 extended to more than two4 ,it is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually--among expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely3 we should not say1 ',the choice lies among the three candidates1' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower4'--,the ,new ,english ,dictionary4 ,we have collected hundreds of instances of between used by good writers with three or more4 ,guard against such expressions as between each page2 a choice between one of several4 ,direction4--,we give below a few words with the prepositions which usually accompany them4 ,form short sentences containing these words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them1 and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different prepositions3-- 7,consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying word47 ,abide at1 by1 with2 accommodate to1 with2 advantage of1 over2 agree to1 with2 angry at1 with2 anxious about1 for2 argue against1 with2 arrive at1 in2 attend on or upon1 to2 careless about1 in1 of2 communicate to1 with2 compare to1 with2 consists in1 of2 defend against1 from2 die by1 for1 of2 different from2 disappointed in1 of2 distinguish by1 from2 familiar to1 with2 impatient for1 of2 indulge in1 with2 influence on1 over1 with2 insensible of1 to2 sat beside2 many besides4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ig4 ,,construction ,,of ,,prepositions--,,continued4 ,direction4--,do with the following words as with those above3-- ,inquire after1 for1 into1 of2 intrude into1 upon2 joined to1 with2 liberal of1 to2 live at1 in1 on2 look after1 for1 on2 need of2 obliged for1 to2 part from1 with2 placed in1 on2 reconcile to1 with2 regard for1 to2 remonstrate against1 with2 sank beneath1 in1 into2 share in1 of1 with2 sit in1 on or upon2 smile at1 on2 solicitous about1 for2 strive for1 with1 against2 taste for1 of2 touch at1 on or upon2 useful for1 in1 to2 weary of1 in1 with2 yearn for1 towards4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ih4 ,,construction ,,of ,,prepositions--,,continued4 ,caution4--,great care must be used in the choice of prepositions4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,this book is different to that4 #b4 ,he stays to home4 #c4 ,they two quarreled among each other4 #d4 ,he is in want for money4 #e4 ,i was followed with a crowd4 #f4 ,he fell from the bridge in the water4 ,footnote3 ,in denotes motion or rest in a condition or place2 into1 change from one condition or place into another4 ,when one is outside of a place1 he may be able to get into it2 but he cannot do anything in it until he has got into it4 #g4 ,he fought into the ,revolution4 ,see previous footnote #h4 ,he bears a close resemblance of his father4 #i4 ,he entered in the plot4 #aj4 ,he lives at ,london4 #aa4 ,he lives in the turn of the road4 #ab4 ,i have need for a vacation4 #ac4 ,the child died with the croup4 #ad4 ,he took a walk1 but was disappointed of it4 #ae4 ,he did not take a walk2 he was disappointed in it4 #af4 ,he was accused with felony4 #ag4 ,school keeps upon ,monday4 #ah4 ,place a mark between each leaf4 #ai4 ,he is angry at his father4 #bj4 ,he placed a letter into my hands4 #ba4 ,she is angry with your conduct4 #bb4 ,what is the matter of him8 #bc4 ,i saw him over to the house4 #bd4 ,these plants differ with each other4 #be4 ,he boards to the hotel4 #bf4 ,i board in the hotel4 #bg4 ,she stays at the ,north4 #bh4 ,i have other reasons beside these4 ,footnote3 ,beside by the side of2 besides in addition to4 #bi4 ,you make no use with your talents4 #cj4 ,he threw himself onto the bed4 #ca4 ,the boys are hard to work4 #cb4 ,he distributed the apples between his four brothers4 #cc4 ,he went in the park4 #cd4 ,you can confide on him4 #ce4 ,he arrived to ,toronto4 #cf4 ,i agree with that plan4 #cg4 ,the evening was spent by reading4 #ch4 ,can you accommodate me in one of those8 #ci4 ,what a change a century has produced upon our country6 #dj4 ,he stays to school late4 #da4 ,the year of the ,restoration plunged ,milton in bitter poverty4 #db4 ,the ,colonies declared themselves independent from ,england4 #dc4 ,i spent my ,saturdays by going in the country1 and enjoying myself by fishing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ii4 ,,construction ,,of ,,prepositions--,,continued4,footnote3 ,a preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence with1 we are told4 ,sentences 7#aj7 and 7#ac71 ,lesson #ei1 7#b71 ,lesson #fj1 and many in succeeding ,lessons violate the rule so carelessly expressed4 ,of this rule1 laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated1 ,prof4 ,austin ,phelps says1 ,a preposition as such is by no means a feeble word2 and he quotes a burst of feeling from ,rufus ,choate which ends thus3 ,never1 so long as there is left of ,plymouth ,rock a piece large enough to make a gunflint of6 ,this1 ,professor ,phelps says1 is purest idiomatic ,english4 ,he adds1 ,the old ,scotch interrogative1 ',what for8' is as pure ,english in written as in colloquial speech4 ,sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common in ,english--,the language itself is inseparable from1 or essentially a part of1 the thoughts4 ,such sentences have been condemned1 but the worst that can be urged against them is1 that they lack smoothness4 ,but smoothness is not always desirable4 ,sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very common--,powerless to affect1 or to be affected by1 the times4 ,,caution4--,do not use prepositions needlessly4 ,,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,i went there at about noon4 #b4 ,in what latitude is ,boston in8 #c4 ,he came in for to have a talk4 #d4 ,i started a week ago from last ,saturday4 #e4 ,he was born ,august #ae1 in #ahcd4 #f4 ,a good place to see a play is at ,wallack's4 #g4 ,he went to home4 #h4 ,i was leading of a horse about4 #i4 ,by what states is ,kentucky bounded by8 #aj4 ,his servants ye are to whom ye obey4 #aa4 ,where are you going to8 #ab4 ,they admitted of the fact4 #ac4 ,raise your book off of the table4 #ad4 ,he took the poker from out of the fire4 #ae4 ,of what is the air composed of8 #af4 ,you can tell by trying of it4 #ag4 ,where have you been to8 #ah4 ,the boy is like to his father4 #ai4 ,they offered to him a chair4 #bj4 ,this is the subject of which ,i intend to write about4 #ba4 ,butter brings twenty cents for a pound4 #bb4 ,give to me a knife4 #bc4 ,i have a brother of five years old4 #bd4 ,to what may ,italy be likened to8 #be4 ,in about ,april the farmer puts in his seed4 #bf4 ,jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards4 #bg4 ,before answering of you1 ,i must think4 #bh4 ,he lives near to the river4 #bi4 ,keep off of the grass4 ,caution4--,do not omit prepositions when they are needed4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,there is no use going there4 #b4 ,he is worthy our help4 #c4 ,i was prevented going4 #d4 ,he was banished the country4 #e4 ,he is unworthy our charity4 #f4 ,what use is this to him8 #g4 ,he was born on the #aeth ,august1 #ahcd4 #h4 ,adam and ,eve were expelled the garden4 #i4 ,it was the size of a pea4 #aj4 ,egypt is the west side of the ,red ,sea4 #aa4 ,his efforts were not for the great1 but the lowly4 #ab4 ,he received dispatches from ,england and ,russia4 ,direction4--,point out the prepositions in ,lessons #hj and #ha1 and name the words between which1 in sense1 they show the relation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajj4 ,,classes ,,of ,,conjunctions ,,and ,,other ,,connectives4 ,introductory ,hints4--,the stars look down upon the roofs of the living and upon the graves of the dead1 but neither the living nor the dead are conscious of their gaze4 ,here and1 but1 neither1 and nor connect words1 phrases1 and clauses of equal rank1 or order1 and so are called ,co-ordinate ,conjunctions4 ,both clauses may be independent1 or both dependent but of equal rank4 ,at the burning of ,moscow1 it seemed as it would seem if the heavens were lighted up that the nations might behold the scene4 ,here as1 if1 and that connect each a lower1 or subordinate1 clause to a clause of higher rank1 and hence are called ,subordinate ,conjunctions4 ,one clause may be independent and the other dependent1 or both dependent but of unequal rank4 ,,definitions4 ,a ,conjunction is a word used to connect words1 phrases1 or clauses4 ,footnote3 ,some of the co-ordinate conjunctions1 as and and but1 connect1 in thought1 sentences separated by the period1 and even connect paragraphs4 ,in analysis and parsing1 we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as introductory4 ,co-ordinate ,conjunctions are such as connect words1 phrases1 or clauses of the same rank4 ,subordinate ,conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank4 ,remark4--,some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper2 some are relative pronouns2 and some are adverbs or adverb phrases1 which1 in addition to their office as modifiers1 may1 in the absence of the conjunction1 take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses4 ,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,we do not advise the memorizing of these lists4 ,the pupils should he able to name the different groups1 and some of the most common connectives of each group4 ,co-ordinate ,connectives4 ,footnote3 ,copulative conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought2 ,adversative conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning2 ,alternative conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial4 ,see ,lesson #gf4 ,copulative4--,and1 both 444 and1 as well as ,footnote3 ,the as well as in1 ,he1 as well as ,i1 went2 and not that in1 ,he is as well as ,i am4 are conjunctions proper4 ,accordingly1 also1 besides1 consequently1 furthermore1 hence1 likewise1 moreover1 now1 so1 then1 and therefore are conjunctive adverbs4 ,adversative4--,but and whereas are conjunctions proper4 ,however1 nevertheless1 notwithstanding1 on the contrary1 on the other hand1 still1 and yet are conjunctive adverbs4 ,alternative4--,neither1 nor1 or1 either 444 or1 and neither 444 nor are conjunctions proper4 ,else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs4 ,subordinate ,connectives4 ,,connectives ,,of ,,adjective ,,clauses4 ,that1 what1 whatever1 which1 whichever1 who1 and whoever are relative pronouns4 ,when1 where1 whereby1 wherein1 and why are conjunctive adverbs4 ,,connectives ,,of ,,adverb ,,clauses4 ,time4--,after1 as1 before1 ere1 since1 till1 until1 when1 whenever1 while1 and whilst are conjunctive adverbs4 ,place4--,whence1 where1 and wherever are conjunctive adverbs4 ,degree4--,as1 than1 that1 and the are conjunctive adverbs1 correlative with adjectives or adverbs4 ,manner4--,as is a conjunctive adverb1 correlative1 often1 with an adjective or an adverb4 ,real ,cause4--,as1 because1 for1 since1 and whereas are conjunctions proper4 ,evidence4--,because1 for1 and since are conjunctions proper4 ,purpose4--,in order that1 lest 7 that not71 that1 and so that are conjunctions proper4 ,condition4--,except1 if1 in case that1 on condition that1 provided1 provided that1 and unless are conjunctions proper4 ,concession4--,although1 if 7 even if71 notwithstanding1 though1 and whether are conjunctions proper4 ,however is a conjunctive adverb4 ,whatever1 whichever1 and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely4 ,,connectives ,,of ,,noun ,,clauses4 ,if1 lest1 that1 and whether ,footnote3 ,etymologically1 whether is restricted to two2 but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more4 ,the repetition of whether1 like the use of it with three or more things1 has been condemned1 but usage allows us to repeat it4 ,whether or no is also allowed4 are conjunctions proper4 ,what1 which1 and who are pronouns introducing questions2 and how1 when1 whence1 where1 and why are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions4 ,direction4--,study the lists above1 and point out all the connectives in ,lessons #hj and #ha1 telling which are relative pronouns1 which are conjunctions proper1 and which are conjunctive adverbs4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if the pupils lack maturity1 or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study1 the six following ,lessons may be omitted4 ,the authors consider these exercises very profitable1 but their omission will occasion no break in the course4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aja4 ,,composition--,,connectives4 ,direction4--,write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate connectives4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajb4 ,,composition--,,connectives--,,continue d4 ,direction4--,write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses1 and by connectives of adverb clauses of time1 place1 degree1 and manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajc4 ,,composition--,,connectives--,,continue d4 ,direction4--,write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause1 evidence1 purpose1 condition1 and concession1 and by connectives of noun clauses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajd4 ,,connectives4 ,analysis4 ,direction4--,tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below1 and what are the usual connectives of such clauses1 and then analyze the sentences3-- ,as may connect a clause expressing manner1 time1 degree1 cause1 or evidence4 #a4 ,mount ,marcy is not so high as ,mount ,washington4 #b4 ,as ,i passed by1 ,i found an altar with this inscription4 #c4 ,it must be raining1 as men are carrying umbrellas4 #d4 ,ice floats1 as water expands in freezing4 #e4 ,half-learned lessons slip from the memory1 as an icicle from the hand4 ,if may connect a clause expressing condition1 time1 or concession1 or it may introduce a noun clause4 #f4 ,if a slave's lungs breathe our air1 that moment he is free4 #g4 ,if wishes were horses1 all beggars might ride4 #h4 ,who knows if one of the ,pleiads is really missing8 ,footnote3 ,many grammarians say that if here is improperly used for whether4 ,but this use of if is common with good authors in early and in modern ,english4 #i4 ,if the flights of ,dryden are higher1 ,pope continues longer on the wing4 ,lest may connect a clause expressing purpose1 or it may introduce a noun clause4 #aj4 ,england fears lest ,russia may endanger ,british rule in ,india4 #aa4 ,watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation4 ,since may connect a clause expressing time1 cause1 or evidence4 #ab4 ,it must be raining1 since men are carrying umbrellas4 #ac4 ,many thousand years have gone by since the ,pyramids were built4 #ad4 ,since the ,puritans could not be convinced1 they were persecuted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aje4 ,,connectives--,,continued4 ,analysis4 ,direction4--,tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below1 and what are the usual connectives of such clauses1 and then analyze the sentences3-- ,that may connect a noun clause1 an adjective clause1 or a clause expressing degree1 cause1 or purpose4 #a4 ,the ,pharisee thanked ,god that he was not like other men4 #b4 ,vesuvius threw its lava so far that ,herculaneum and ,pompeii were buried4 #c4 ,the smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the metal4 #d4 ,socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle4 #e4 ,we never tell our secrets to people that pump for them4 ,when may connect a clause expressing time1 cause1 or condition1 an adjective clause or a noun clause1 or it may connect co-ordinate clauses4 #f4 ,the ,aztecs were astonished when they saw the ,spanish horses4 #g4 ,november is the month when the deer sheds its horns4 #h4 ,when the future is uncertain1 make the most of the present4 #i4 ,when the five great ,european races left ,asia is a question4 #aj4 ,when judges accept bribes1 what may we expect from common people8 #aa4 ,the dial instituted a formal inquiry1 when hands1 wheels1 and weights protested their innocence4 ,where may connect a clause expressing place1 an adjective clause1 or a noun clause4 #ab4 ,no one knows the place where ,moses was buried4 #ac4 ,where ,moses was buried is still a question4 #ad4 ,no one has been where ,moses was buried4 ,while may connect a clause expressing time or concession1 or it may connect co-ordinate clauses4 #ae4 ,napoleon was a genius1 while ,wellington was a man of talents4 #af4 ,while we sleep1 the body is rebuilt4 #ag4 ,while ,charles ,i4 had many excellent traits1 he was a bad king4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajf4 ,,connectives--,,continued4 ,analysis4 ,direction4--,use the appropriate connectives1 and change these compound sentences to complex without changing the meaning1 and then analyze them3-- 7,let one dependent clause be an adjective clause2 let three express cause2 five1 condition2 and two1 concession47 #a4 ,caesar put the proffered crown aside1 but he would fain have had it4 #b4 ,take away honor and imagination and poetry from war1 and it becomes carnage4 #c4 ,his crime has been discovered1 and he must flee4 #d4 ,you must eat1 or you will die4 #e4 ,wisdom is the principal thing1 therefore get wisdom4 #f4 ,let but the commons hear this testament1 and they would go and kiss dead ,caesar's wounds4 #g4 ,men are carrying umbrellas2 it is raining4 #h4 ,have ye brave sons8 look in the next fierce brawl to see them die4 #i4 ,the ,senate knows this1 the ,consul sees it1 and yet the traitor lives4 #aj4 ,take away the grandeur of his cause1 and ,washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots4 #aa4 ,the diamond is a sparkling gem1 and it is pure carbon4 ,direction4--,two of the dependent clauses below express condition1 and three express concession4 ,place an appropriate conjunction before each1 and then analyze the sentences3-- #ab4 ,should we fail1 it can be no worse for us4 #ac4 ,had the ,plantagenets succeeded in ,france1 there would never have been an ,england4 #ad4 ,were he my brother1 ,i could do no more for him4 #ae4 ,were ,i so disposed1 ,i could not gratify the reader4 #af4 ,were ,i ,admiral ,nelson to die this moment1 more frigates would be found written on my heart4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajg4 ,,construction ,,of ,,connectives4 ,caution4--,some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in correlation with other words4 ,and may be accompanied by both2 as1 by as1 by so1 or by such2 but 7but also and but likewise71 by not only2 if1 by then2 nor1 by neither2 or1 by either or by whether2 that1 by so2 the1 by the2 though1 by yet2 when1 by then2 and where1 by there4 ,be careful that the right words stand in correlation1 and stand where they belong4 ,examples4--,give me neither riches nor 7not or7 poverty4 ,i cannot find either my book or 7not nor7 my hat4 ,dogs not only bark 7not not only dogs bark7 but also bite4 ,not only dogs 7not dogs not only7 bark but wolves also4 ,he was neither 7not neither was7 rich nor poor4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,he not only gave me advice but also money4 #b4 ,a theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments4 #c4 ,she not only dressed richly but tastefully4 #d4 ,neither ,massachusetts or ,pennsylvania has the population of ,new ,york4 #e4 ,thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his moral wisdom4 #f4 ,not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed4 #g4 ,there was nothing either strange nor interesting4 ,caution4--,choose apt connectives1 but do not use them needlessly or instead of other parts of speech4 ,examples4--,seldom1 if 7not or7 ever1 should an adverb stand between to and the infinitive4 ,i will try to 7not and7 do better next time4 ,no one can deny that 7not but7 he has money4 ,footnote3 ,see foot-note1 page #agf4 ,a harrow is drawn over the ground1 which 7not and which7 covers the seed4 ,who doubts that 7not but that or but what7 ,napoleon lived ,footnote3 ,see foot-note1 page #agf4 ,the doctor had scarcely left when 7not but7 a patient called4 ,he has no love for his father or 7not nor7 for his mother 7the negative no is felt throughout the sentence1 and need not be repeated by nor74 ,he was not well1 nor 7not or7 was he sick 7not is expended in the first clause2 nor is needed to make the second clause negative74 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the excellence of ,virgil1 and which he possesses beyond other poets1 is tenderness4 #b4 ,try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow4 #c4 ,who can doubt but that there is a ,god8 #d4 ,no one can eat nor drink while he is talking4 #e4 ,he seldom or ever went to church4 #f4 ,no one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season4 #g4 ,i do not know as ,i shall like it4 #h4 ,he said that1 after he had asked the advice of all his friends1 that he was more puzzled than before4 ,caution4--,else1 other1 otherwise1 rather1 and adjectives and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by than4 ,but else1 other1 and more1 implying something additional1 but not different in kind1 may be followed by but or besides4 ,examples4--,a diamond is nothing else than carbon4 ,junius was no other than ,sir ,philip ,francis4 ,the cripple cannot walk otherwise than on crutches4 ,americans would rather travel than stay at home4 ,i rose earlier than ,i intended4 ,he can converse on other topics besides politics4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns4 #b4 ,the moon is something else but green cheese4 #c4 ,cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender4 #d4 ,it was no other but the ,president4 #e4 ,he no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran4 ,caution4--,two or more connected words or phrases referring to another word or phrase should each make good sense with it4 ,examples4--,i have always 7add said7 and still do say that labor is honorable4 ,shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has 7add lived7 or is now alive4 ,the boy is stronger than his sister1 but not so tall 7not ,the boy is stronger1 but not so tall1 as his sister74 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,examples1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,gold is heavier1 but not so useful1 as iron4 #b4 ,gold is not so useful1 but heavier1 than iron4 #c4 ,this is as valuable1 if not more so1 than that4 #d4 ,faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons4 #e4 ,bread is more nutritious1 but not so cheap1 as potatoes4 #f4 ,this dedication may serve for almost any book that has1 is1 or may be published4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ajh4 ,,miscellaneous ,,errors4 ,direction4--,correct these errors1 telling what ,caution each violates3-- #a4 ,carthage and ,rome were rival powers3 this city in ,africa1 and that in ,europe2 the one on the northern coast of the ,mediterranean1 the other on the southern4 #b4 ,the right and left lung were diseased4 #c4 ,the right and the left lungs were diseased4 #d4 ,my friend has sailed for ,europe1 who was here yesterday4 #e4 ,there are some men which are always young4 #f4 ,i cannot think but what ,god is good4 #g4 ,thimbles1 that are worn on the finger1 are used in pushing the needle4 #h4 ,a told ,b that he was his best friend4 #i4 ,them scissors are very dull4 #aj4 ,ethan ,allen1 being a rash man1 he tried to capture ,canada4 #aa4 ,the lady that was thrown from the carriage1 and who was picked up insensible1 died4 #ab4 ,the eye and ear have different offices4 #ac4 ,i only laugh when ,i feel like it4 #ad4 ,this is the same man who called yesterday4 #ae4 ,he was an humble man4 #af4 ,he was thrown forward onto his face4 #ag4 ,a knows more1 but does not talk so well1 as ,b4 #ah4 ,the book cost a dollar1 and which is a great price4 #ai4 ,at what wharf does the boat stop at8 #bj4 ,the music sounded harshly4 #ba4 ,he would neither go himself or send anybody4 #bb4 ,it isn't but a short distance4 #bc4 ,the butter is splendid4 #bd4 ,the boy was graceful and tall4 #be4 ,he hasn't1 ,i don't suppose1 laid by much4 #bf4 ,one would rather have few friends than a few friends4 #bg4 ,he is outrageously proud4 #bh4 ,not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it4 #bi4 ,he has gone way out ,west4 #cj4 ,who doubts but what two and two are four8 #ca4 ,some people never have and never will bathe in salt water4 #cb4 ,the problem was difficult to exactly understand4 #cc4 ,it was the length of your finger4 #cd4 ,he bought a condensed can of milk4 #ce4 ,the fish breathes with other organs besides lungs4 #cf4 ,the death is inevitable4 #cg4 ,she wore a peculiar kind of a dress4 #ch4 ,when shall we meet together8 #ci4 ,he talks like you do4 ,footnote3 ,the use of the verb do as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in the language4 ,in its several forms it stands for the finite forms and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs1 transitive and intransitive1 regular and irregular4 ,it prevents repetition1 and hence is euphonic2 it abbreviates expression1 and therefore is energetic4 #dj4 ,this word has a different source than that4 #da4 ,no sooner did ,i arrive when he called4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aji4 ,,various ,,uses ,,of ,,what1 ,,that1 ,,and ,,but4 ,what may be used as a relative pronoun1 an interrogative pronoun1 a definitive adjective1 an adverb1 and an interjection4 ,examples4--,he did what was right4 ,what did he say8 ,what man is happy with the toothache8 ,what with confinement and what with bad diet1 the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton 7here what partly1 and modifies the phrase following it74 ,what6 you a lion8 ,that may be used as a relative pronoun1 an adjective pronoun1 a definitive adjective1 a conjunction1 and a conjunctive adverb4 ,examples4--,he that does a good deed is instantly ennobled4 ,that is heroism4 ,that man is a hero4 ,we eat that we may live4 ,it was so cold that the mercury froze4 ,but may be used as a conjunction1 an adverb1 an adjective1 and a preposition4 ,examples4--,the ostrich is a bird1 but 7adversative conjunction7 it cannot fly4 ,not a sparrow falls but 7 unless--subordinate conjunction7 ,god wills it4 ,he was all but 7conjunction or preposition7 dead ,he was all dead1 but he was not dead1 or ,he was all 7anything in that line7 except 7the climax7 dead4 ,no man is so wicked but 7conjunctive adverb7 he loves virtue ,no man is wicked to that degree in which he loves not virtue 7so to that degree1 but in which not74 ,we meet but 7adverb only7 to part4 ,life is but 7adjective only7 a dream4 ,all but 7preposition except7 him had fled4 ,the tears of love were hopeless but 7preposition except7 for thee4 ,i cannot but remember ,i cannot do anything but 7preposition except7 remember4 ,there is no fireside but 7preposition7 has one vacant chair 7except the one which has72 or1 regarding but as a negative relative that not1 the sentence ,there is no fireside that has not one vacant chair4 ,direction4--,study the examples given above1 point out the exact use of what1 that1 and but in these sentences1 and then analyze the sentences3-- #a4 ,he did nothing but laugh4 #b4 ,it was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed4 #c4 ,what love equals a mother's8 #d4 ,there is nobody here but me4 #e4 ,the fine arts were all but proscribed4 #f4 ,there's not a breeze but whispers of thy name4 #g4 ,the longest life is but a day4 #h4 ,what if the bee love not these barren boughs8 #i4 ,that life is long which answers life's great end4 #aj4 ,what6 ,i the weaker vessel8 #aa4 ,whom should ,i obey but thee8 #ab ,what by industry and what by economy1 he had amassed a fortune4 #ac4 ,i long ago found that out4 #ad4 ,one should not always eat what he likes4 #ae4 ,there's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity4 #af4 ,it was a look that1 but for its quiet1 would have seemed disdain4 #ag4 ,he came but to return4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aaj4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,lesson #he4--;,define a noun4 ,what is the distinction between a common and a proper noun8 ,why is music a common noun8 ,what is a collective noun8 ,an abstract noun8 ,define a pronoun4 ,what are the classes of pronouns8 ,define them4 ,what is an antecedent8 ,lesson #hf4--;,give and illustrate the ,cautions respecting he1 it1 and they2 the needless use of pronouns2 the two styles of the pronoun2 the use of them for those1 and of what for that2 and the use of who1 which1 that1 and what4 ,lesson #hg4--;,give and illustrate the ,cautions respecting connected relative clauses2 the relative in clauses not restrictive2 the use of that instead of who or which2 the position of the relative clause2 and the use of this and that1 the one and the other4 ,lesson #hi4--;,define an adjective4 ,what two classes are there8 ,define them4 ,what adjectives do not limit8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #ij4--;,give and illustrate the ,cautions respecting the use of the adjectives an1 a1 and the2 and the use of a few and few1 a little and little4 ,lesson #ia4--;,give and illustrate the ,cautious respecting the choice and the position of adjectives4 ,lesson #ic4--;,define a verb4 ,what are transitive verbs8 ,intransitive8 ,illustrate4 ,what distinction is made between the object and the object complement8 ,what are regular verbs8 ,irregular8 ,illustrate4 ,what are the several classes of adverbs8 ,define them4 ,what is a conjunctive adverb8 ,lesson #ic4--;,give and illustrate the ,cautions respecting the choice and the position of adverbs1 the use of double negatives1 and the use of adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aaa4 ,,review ,,questions--,,continued4 ,lesson #ie4--;,define a preposition4 ,name some of the common prepositions4 ,what is said of some prepositions ending in ing8 ,of but1 except1 and save8 ,of certain compound prepositions8 ,when do prepositions become adverbs8 ,lesson #ih4--;,give and illustrate the ,caution as to the choice of prepositions4 ,what1 in general1 is the difference between in and into8 ,lesson #ii4--;,give and illustrate the two ,cautions relating to the use of prepositions4 ,lesson #ajj4--;,define a conjunction4 ,what are the two great classes of conjunctions1 and what is their difference8 ,what other parts of speech besides conjunctions connect8 ,what are adverbs that connect called8 ,into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided8 ,give some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class4 ,what three kinds of clauses are connected by subordinate connectives8 ,the connectives of adverb clauses are subdivided into what classes8 ,give a leading connective of each class4 ,lessons #ajd1 #aje4--;,illustrate two or more offices of each of the connectives as1 if1 lest1 since1 that1 when1 where1 and while4 ,lesson #ajg4--;,give and illustrate the four ,cautions relating to the construction of connectives4 ,lesson #aji4--;,illustrate the offices of what1 that1 and but4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,general ,,review4 ,schemes for the ,conjunction1 ,preposition1 and ,interjection4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,co-,ordinate4 ,,the ,,conjunction4 ,classes4 ,subordinate #ajf-ajg4 ,,the ,,preposition4 ,no ,classes 7#ie1 #ih1 #ii74 ,,the ,,interjection4 ,no ,classes 7#bj1 #ba74 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aab4 ,introductory ,hints4--,you have learned that two words may express a thought1 and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words4 ,you are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply changing its form4 ,the ,english language has lost most of its inflections1 or forms1 so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked by changes in form4 ,these changes in the form1 the meaning1 and the use of the parts of speech we call their ,modifications4 ,footnote3 ,those grammarians that attempt to restrict number1 case1 mode1 etc4--what we here call ,modifications--to form1 find themselves within bounds which they continually overleap4 ,they define number1 for instance1 as a form1 or inflection1 and yet speak of nouns plural in form but singular in sense1 or singular in form but plural in sense2 that is1 if you construe them rigorously1 plural or singular in form but singular or plural form in sense4 ,they tell you that case is a form1 and yet insist that nouns have three cases1 though only two forms2 and speak of the nominative and the objective case of the noun1 although in fact the two cases are always the same in form--the two forms always the same in form6 ,on the other hand1 those that make what we call ,modifications denote only relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms4 ,for instance1 they ask the pupil to pronounce and write the possessive of nouns1 hardly expecting1 we suppose1 that the condition of a noun will be sounded or written2 and they speak of a noun in the singular with a plural application1 in which expression singular must be taken to mean singular form to save it from sheer nonsense4 ,we know no way to steer clear of ,scylla and keep out of ,charybdis but to do what by the common use of the word we are allowed2 viz41 to take ,modifications with such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use1 as well as to form4 ,primarily1 of course1 it meant inflections1 used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words4 ,but we shall use ,modifications to indicate changes in meaning and use when the form in the particular instance is wanting1 nowhere1 however1 recognizing that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form4 ,modifications of ,nouns and ,pronouns4 ,,number4 ,the boy shouts4 ,the boys shout4 ,the form of the subject boy is changed by adding an s to it4 ,the meaning has changed4 ,boy denotes one lad2 boys1 two or more lads4 ,this change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called ,number2 the word boy1 denoting one thing1 is in the ,singular ,number2 and boys1 denoting more than one thing1 is in the ,plural ,number4 ,number expresses only the distinction of one from more than one2 to express more precisely how many1 we use adjectives1 and say two boys1 four boys1 many or several boys4 ,,definitions4 ,modifications of the ,parts of ,speech are changes in their form1 meaning1 and use4 ,number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one4 ,the ,singular ,number denotes one thing4 ,the ,plural ,number denotes more than one thing4 ,,number ,,forms4 ,,rule4--,the plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular4 ,to this rule there are some exceptions4 ,when the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of s1 es is added and forms another syllable4,footnote3 ,in ,anglo-,saxon1 as was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns4 ,in later ,english1 as was changed to es1 which became the regular plural ending2 as1 bird-es1 cloud-es4 ,in modern ,english1 e is dropped1 and s is joined to the singular without increase of syllables4 ,but1 when the singular ends in an s-sound1 the original syllable es is retained1 as two hissing sounds will not unite4 ,remark4--,such words as horse1 niche1 and cage drop the final e when es is added4 ,see ,rule #a1 ,lesson #acg4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns1 and note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of s3-- ,ax or axe1 arch1 adz or adze1 box1 brush1 cage1 chaise1 cross1 ditch1 face1 gas1 glass1 hedge1 horse1 lash1 lens1 niche1 prize1 race1 topaz4 ,the following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es without increase of syllables4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,buffalo1 calico1 cargo1 echo1 embargo1 grotto1 hero1 innuendo1 motto1 mosquito1 mulatto1 negro1 portico 7oes or os71 potato1 tornado1 torpedo1 veto1 volcano4 ,the following nouns in o preceded by a consonant add s only4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,canto1 domino 7os or oes71 duodecimo1 halo1 junto1 lasso1 memento1 octavo1 piano1 proviso1 quarto1 salvo1 solo1 two1 tyro1 zero 7os or oes74 ,nouns in o preceded by a vowel add s4 ,bamboo1 cameo1 cuckoo1 embryo1 folio1 portfolio1 seraglio1 trio4 ,common nouns ,footnote3 ,see ,rule #b1 ,lesson #abg4 ,in old ,english1 such words as lady and fancy were spelled ladie1 fancie4 ,the modern plural simply retains the old spelling and adds s1 in y after a consonant change y into i and add es without increase of syllables4 ,nouns in y after a vowel add s4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,alley1 ally1 attorney1 chimney1 city1 colloquy1 ,footnote3 ,u after q is a consonant daisy1 essay1 fairy1 fancy1 kidney1 lady1 lily1 money1 monkey1 mystery1 soliloquy1 turkey1 valley1 vanity4 ,the following nouns change f or fe into ves4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,beef1 calf1 elf1 half1 knife1 leaf1 life1 loaf1 self1 sheaf1 shelf1 staff1 ,footnote3 ,staff 7a stick or support71 staves or staffs2 staff 7a body of officers71 staffs4 ,the compounds of staff are regular2 as1 flagstaffs4 thief1 wharf1 ,footnote3 ,in ,england1 generally wharfs4 wife1 wolf4 ,the following nouns in f and fe are regular4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,belief1 brief1 chief1 dwarf1 fife1 grief1 gulf1 hoof1 kerchief1 proof1 reef1 roof1 safe1 scarf1 strife1 waif4 7,nouns in ff1 except staff1 are regular2 as1 cuff1 cuffs47 ,the following plurals are still more irregular4 ,direction4--,learn to form the following plurals3-- ,child1 children2 foot1 feet2 goose1 geese2 louse1 lice2 man1 men2 mouse1 mice2 ,mr41 ,messrs42 ox1 oxen2 tooth1 teeth2 woman1 women4 7,for the plurals of pronouns1 see ,lesson #abd47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aac4 ,,number ,,forms--,,continued4 ,some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original plural forms4 ,some of these take the ,english plural also4 ,direction4--,learn to form the following plurals3-- ,analysis1 analyses2 antithesis1 antitheses2 appendix1 appendices or appendixes2 automaton1 automata or automatons2 axis1 axes2 bandit1 banditti or bandits2 basis1 bases2 beau1 beaux or beaus2 cherub1 cherubim or cherubs2 crisis1 crises2 datum1 data2 ellipsis1 ellipses2 erratum1 errata2 focus1 foci3 fungus1 fungi or funguses2 genus1 genera2 hypothesis1 hypotheses2 ignis fatuus1 ignes fatui2 madame1 mesdames2 magus1 magi2 memorandum1 memoranda or memorandums2 monsieur1 messieurs2 nebula1 nebulae2 oasis1 oases2 parenthesis1 parentheses2 phenomenon1 phenomena2 radius1 radii or radiuses2 seraph1 seraphim or seraphs2 stratum1 strata2 synopsis1 synopses2 terminus1 termini2 vertebra1 vertebrae2 vortex1 vortices or vortexes4 ,the following compound nouns1 in which the principal word stands first1 vary the first word2 as1 sons-in-law4 ,direction4--,form the plural of the following words3-- ,aid-de-camp1 attorney-at-law1 billet-doux1 ,footnote3 ,plural1 billets-doux1 pronounced bil'-la3-doo3z commander-in-chief1 court-martial1 cousin-german1 father-in-law1 hanger-on1 man-of-war4 ,the following1 and most compounds1 vary the last word2 as1 pailfuls1 gentlemen4 ,footnote3 ,pails full is not a compound4 ,this expression denotes a number of pails1 each full4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,courtyard1 dormouse1 ,englishman1 fellow-servant1 fisherman1 ,frenchman1 forget-me-not1 goose-quill1 handful1 maid-servant1 man-trap1 mouthful1 pianoforte1 portemonnaie1 spoonful1 stepson1 tete-a-tete1 tooth-brush4 ,the following nouns 7except ,norman7 are not compounds of man--add s to all4 ,brahman1 ,german1 ,mussulman1 ,norman1 ,ottoman1 talisman4 ,the following compounds vary both parts2 as1 man-singer1 men-singers4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,man-child1 man-servant1 woman-servant1 woman-singer4 ,compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the plural by varying either the title or the name2 as1 the ,miss ,clarks or the ,misses ,clark2 but1 when the title ,mrs4 is used1 the name is usually varied2 as1 the ,mrs4 ,clarks4 ,footnote3 ,of the two forms1 the ,miss ,clarks and the ,misses ,clark1 we believe that the former is most used by the best authors4 ,the latter1 except in formal notes or when the title is to be emphasized1 is rather stiff if not pedantic4 ,some authorities say that1 when a numeral precedes the title1 the name should always be varied2 as1 the two ,miss ,clarks4 ,the forms1 the ,misses ,clarks and the two ,mrs4 ,clark1 have little authority4 ,direction4--,form the plural of the following compounds3-- ,miss ,jones1 ,mr4 ,jones1 ,general ,lee1 ,dr4 ,brown1 ,master ,green4 ,a title used with two or more different names is made plural2 as1 ,drs4 ,grimes and ,steele1 ,messrs4 ,clark and ,maynard4 ,direction4--,put each of the following expressions in its proper form3-- ,general ,lee and ,jackson2 ,miss ,mary1 ,julia1 and ,anna ,scott2 ,mr1 ,green1 ,stacy1 ,co4 ,letters1 figures1 and other characters add the apostrophe and s to form the plural2 ,footnote3 ,some good writers form the plural of words named merely as words1 in the same way2 as1 the if's and and's2 but the 7'7 is here unnecessary4 as1 a's1 #b's1 ----'s4 ,direction4--,form the plural of each of the following characters3--,s1 i1 t1 1 x1 ,dagger1 #i1 #a1 #a_/d1 ,yough1 ,cyrillic3 ,e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aad4 ,,number ,,forms--,,continued4 ,some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning4 ,direction4--,learn these plurals and their meanings3-- ,brother1 brothers 7by blood71 brethren 7of the same society74 ,cannon1 cannons 7individuals71 cannon 7in a collective sense74 ,die1 dies 7stamps for coining71 dice 7cubes for gaming74 ,fish1 fishes 7individuals71 fish 7collection74 ,footnote3 ,the names of several sorts of fish1 as1 herring1 shad1 trout1 etc4 are used in the same way4 ,the compounds of fish1 as codfish1 have the same form in both numbers4 ,foot1 feet 7parts of the body71 foot 7foot-soldiers74 ,genius1 geniuses 7men of genius71 genii 7spirits74 ,head1 heads 7parts of the body71 head 7of cattle74 ,horse1 horses 7animals71 horse 7horse-soldiers74 ,index1 indexes 7tables of reference71 indices 7signs in algebra74 ,penny1 pennies 7distinct coins71 pence 7quantity in value74 ,sail1 sails 7pieces of canvas71 sail 7vessels74 ,shot1 shots 7number of times fired71 shot 7number of balls74 ,the following nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers4 ,direction4--,study the following list3-- ,bellows1 corps1 ,footnote3 ,the singular is pronounced ko3r1 the plural ko3rz4 deer1 gross1 grouse1 hose1 means1 odds1 pains 7care71 series1 sheep1 species1 swine1 vermin1 who1 which1 that 7relative71 what1 any1 none4 7,the following have two forms in the plural74 ,apparatus1 apparatus or apparatuses2 heathen1 heathen or heathens4 7,the following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used with numerals2 they add s in other cases2 as1 four score1 by scores47 ,dozen1 score1 yoke1 hundred1 thousand4 ,the following nouns have no plural4 7,these are generally names of materials1 qualities1 or sciences47 ,names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no plural1 but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of it are referred to2 as1 cottons1 coffees1 tins1 coppers4 ,direction4--,study the following list of words3-- ,bread1 coffee1 copper1 flour1 gold1 goodness1 grammar 7science1 not a book71 grass1 hay1 honesty1 iron1 lead1 marble1 meekness1 milk1 molasses1 music1 peace1 physiology1 pride1 tin1 water4 ,the following plural forms are commonly used in the singular4 ,acoustics1 ethics1 mathematics1 politics 7and other names of sciences in ics71 amends1 measles1 news4 ,the following words are always plural4 7,such words are generally names of things double or multiform in their character47 ,direction4--,study the following list3-- ,aborigines1 annals1 ashes1 assets1 clothes1 fireworks1 hysterics1 literati1 mumps1 nippers1 oats1 pincers1 rickets1 scissors1 shears1 snuffers1 suds1 thanks1 tongs1 tidings1 trousers1 victuals1 vitals4 ,the following were originally singular forms1 but they are now treated as plural4 ,alms 7,anglo-,saxon aelmaesse71 eaves 7,a4 ,s4 efese71 riches 7,norman ,french richesse74 ,the following have no singular corresponding in meaning4 ,colors 7flag71 compasses 7dividers71 goods 7property71 grounds 7dregs71 letters 7literature71 manners 7behavior71 matins 7morning service72 morals 7character71 remains 7dead body71 spectacles 7glasses71 stays 7corsets71 vespers 7evening service74 7,the singular form is sometimes an adjective47 ,bitters1 greens1 narrows1 sweets1 valuables1 etc4 ,collective nouns are treated as plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of1 and as singular when the collection as a whole is thought of4 ,examples4--,the committee were unable to agree1 and they asked to be discharged4 ,a committee was appointed1 and its report will soon be made4 7,collective nouns have plural forms2 as1 committees1 armies47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aae4 ,,review ,,in ,,number4 ,direction4--,write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the following list1 and the singular of those that are plural2 give the ,rule or the ,remark that applies to each2 and note those that have no plural1 and those that have no singular3-- ,hope1 age1 bench1 bush1 house1 loss1 tax1 waltz1 potato1 shoe1 colony1 piano1 kangaroo1 pulley1 wharf1 staff1 fife1 loaf1 flagstaff1 handkerchief1 ,mr41 child1 ox1 beaux1 cherubim1 mesdames1 termini1 genus1 genius1 bagnio1 theory1 galley1 muff1 mystery1 colloquy1 son-in-law1 man-of-war1 spoonful1 maid-servant1 ,frenchman1 ,german1 man-servant1 ,dr4 ,smith1 ,messrs4 ,brown and ,smith1 x1 #a_/b1 deer1 series1 bellows1 molasses1 pride1 politics1 news1 sunfish1 clothes1 alms1 goods1 grounds1 greens1 who1 that4 ,direction4--,give five words that have no plural1 five that have no singular1 and five that have the same form in both numbers4 ,direction4--,correct the following plurals1 and give the ,remark that applies to each3-- ,stagees1 foxs1 mosquitos1 calicos1 heros1 soloes1 babys1 trioes1 chimnies1 storys1 elfs1 beefs1 scarves1 oxes1 phenomenons1 axises1 terminuses1 genuses1 mother-in-laws1 aldermans1 ,mussulmen1 teeth-brushes1 mouthsful1 attorney-at-laws1 man-childs1 geese-quills1 #bs1 ms4 swines4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aaf4 ,,number ,,forms ,,in ,,construction4 ,the number of a noun may be determined not only by its form but also by the verb1 the adjective1 and the pronoun used in connection with it4 ,remark4--,these scissors are so dull that ,i cannot use them4 ,the plurality of scissors is here made known in four ways4 ,in the following sentence this1 is1 and it are incorrectly used3 ,this scissors is so dull that ,i cannot use it4 ,direction4--,construct sentences in which the number of each of the following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb1 by the adjective1 and by the pronoun used in connection with it3-- 7,with the singular nouns use the verbs is1 was1 and has been2 the adjectives an1 one1 this1 and that2 the pronouns he1 his1 him1 she1 her1 it1 and its47 7,with the plural nouns use the verbs are1 were1 and have been2 the adjectives these1 those1 and two2 the pronouns they1 their1 and them47 ,bellows1 deer1 fish1 gross1 means1 series1 species1 heathen1 trout1 iron1 irons1 news1 eaves1 riches1 oats1 vermin1 molasses1 ,misses1 brethren1 dice1 head 7of cattle71 pennies1 child1 parent1 family1 crowd1 meeting4 ,direction4--,compose sentences in which the first three of the following adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects1 the fourth as a plural subject1 and the remainder both as singular and as plural subjects3-- ,each1 either1 neither1 both1 former1 none1 all1 any4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aag4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns--,,gender4 ,introductory ,hints4--,the lion was caged4 ,the lioness was caged4 ,in the first sentence something is said about a male lion1 and in the second something is said about a female lion4 ,the modification of the noun to denote the sex of the thing which it names is called ,gender4 ,lion1 denoting a male animal1 is in the ,masculine ,gender2 and lioness1 denoting a female animal1 is in the ,feminine ,gender4 ,names of things that are without sex are said to be in the ,neuter ,gender4 ,such nouns as cousin1 child1 friend1 neighbor are either masculine or feminine4 ,such words are sometimes said to be in the ,common ,gender4 ,sex belongs to the thing2 and gender1 to the noun that names the thing4 ,knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex1 you know the gender of the noun in ,english that names it2 for in our language gender follows the sex4 ,but in such modern languages as the ,french and the ,german1 and in ,latin and ,greek1 the gender of nouns naming things without reference to sex is determined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings of words denoting things with sex4 ,the ,german for table is a masculine noun1 the ,french is feminine1 and the ,english1 of course1 is neuter4 ,footnote3 ,in ,anglo-,saxon1 the mother-tongue of our language1 gender was grammatical1 as in the ,french and the ,german2 but1 since the union of the ,norman-,french with the ,anglo-,saxon to form the ,english1 gender has followed sex4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,definitions4 ,gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex4 ,the ,masculine ,gender denotes the male sex4 ,the ,feminine ,gender denotes the female sex4 ,the ,neuter ,gender denotes want of sex4 ,gender ,forms4 ,no ,english nouns have distinctive neuter forms1 but a lew have different forms to distinguish the masculine from the feminine4 ,the masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways3-- #ast4 ,by a difference in the ending of the words4 #b;d4 ,by different words in the compound names4 #c;d4 ,by using words wholly or radically different4 ,ess is the most common ending for feminine nouns4 ,footnote3 ,the suffix ess came into the ,english language from the ,norman-,french4 ,it displaced the feminine termination of the mother-tongue 7,a4 ,s4 estre1 old ,english ster74 ,the original meaning of ster is preserved in spinster4 ,er 7,a4 ,s4 ere7 was originally a masculine suffix2 but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex2 as1 read-er1 speak-er4 ,direction4--,form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns by adding e s s 3-- ,author1 baron1 count1 deacon1 giant1 god 7see ,rule #c1 ,lesson #abg71 heir1 host1 ,jew1 lion1 patron1 poet1 prince 7see ,rule #a1 ,lesson #abg71 prior1 prophet1 shepherd1 tailor1 tutor4 7,drop the vowel e or o in the ending of the masculine1 and add ess47 ,actor1 ambassador1 arbiter1 benefactor1 conductor1 director1 editor1 enchanter1 hunter1 idolater1 instructor1 preceptor1 tiger1 waiter4 7,drop the masculine er or or1 and add the feminine ess47 ,adventurer1 caterer1 governor1 murderer1 sorcerer4 7,the following are somewhat irregular47 ,direction4--,learn these forms3-- ,abbot1 abbess2 duke1 duchess2 emperor1 empress2 lad1 lass2 marquis1 marchioness2 master1 mistress2 negro1 negress4 ,ess was formerly more common than now4 ,such words as editor and author are now frequently used to denote persons of either sex4 ,direction4--,give five nouns ending in e r or o r that may be applied to either sex4 ,some words1 mostly foreign1 have various endings in the feminine4 ,direction4--,learn the following forms3-- ,administrator1 administratrix2 ,augustus1 ,augusta2 beau1 belle2 ,charles1 ,charlotte2 ,cornelius1 ,cornelia2 czar1 czarina2 don1 donna2 equestrian1 equestrienne2 executor1 executrix2 ,francis1 ,frances2 ,george1 ,georgiana2 ,henry1 ,henrietta2 hero1 heroine2 infante1 infanta2 ,jesse1 ,jessie2 ,joseph1 ,josephine2 ,julius1 ,julia or ,juliet2 landgrave1 landgravine2 ,louis1 ,louisa or ,louise2 ,paul1 ,pauline2 signore or signor1 siguora2 sultan1 sultana2 testator1 testatrix2 widower1 widow4 ,in some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or affixed4 ,direction4--,learn the following forms3-- ,billy-goat1 nanny-goat2 buck-rabbit1 doe-rabbit2 cock-sparrow1 hen-sparrow2 ,englishman1 ,englishwoman2 gentleman1 gentlewoman2 grandfather1 grandmother2 he-bear1 she-bear2 landlord1 landlady2 man-servant1 maid-servant2 merman1 mermaid2 ,mr4 ,jones1 ,mrs4 or ,miss ,jones2 peacock1 peahen4 ,words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish the masculine from the feminine4 7,this is a matter pertaining to the dictionary rather than to grammar47 ,direction4--,learn the following forms3-- ,bachelor1 maid2 buck1 doe2 drake1 duck2 earl1 countess2 friar or monk1 nun2 gander1 goose2 hart1 roe2 lord1 lady2 nephew1 niece2 sir1 madam2 stag1 hind2 steer1 heifer2 wizard1 witch2 youth1 damsel or maiden4 ,the pronoun has three gender forms3--,masculine he1 feminine she1 and neuter it4 ,footnote3 ,it1 although a neuter form1 is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female as1 ,it was ,john2 ,it was ,mary4 ,direction4--,give five examples of each of the three ways of distinguishing the masculine from the feminine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aah4 ,,gender ,,forms ,,in ,,construction4 ,gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance1 but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns he1 she1 and it4 ,when a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes1 it is commonly represented by a masculine pronoun4 ,footnote3 ,when it is necessary to distinguish the sexes1 both the masculine and the feminine pronoun should be used2 as1 ,each person was required to name his or her favorite flower4 ,example4--,every person has his faults4 ,the names of animals are often considered as masculine or feminine without regard to the real sex4 ,examples4--,the grizzly bear is the most savage of his race4 ,the cat steals upon her prey4 ,remark4--,the writer employs he or she according as he fancies the animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics4 ,he is more frequently employed than she4 ,the neuter pronoun it is often used with reference to animals and very young children1 the sex being disregarded4 ,examples4--,when the deer is alarmed1 it gives two or three graceful springs4 ,the little child reached out its hand to catch the sunbeam4 ,remark4--,it is quite generally used instead of he or she1 in referring to an animal1 unless some masculine or feminine quality seems to predominate4 ,inanimate things are often represented as living beings1 that is1 they are personified1 and are referred to by the pronoun he or she4 ,example4--,the oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mold4 ,remark4--,the names of objects distinguished for size1 power1 or sublimity are regarded as masculine2 and the names of those distinguished for grace1 beauty1 gentleness1 or productiveness are considered as feminine4 ,personification adds beauty and animation to style4 ,direction4--,study what is said above1 and then fill each of the blanks in the following sentences with a masculine1 a feminine1 or a neuter pronoun1 and in each case give the reason for your selection3-- #a4 ,no one else is so much alone in the universe as ---- who denies ,god4 #b4 ,a person's manners not unfrequently indicate ---- morals1 #c4 ,everybody should think for ----4 #d4 ,the forest's leaping panther shall yield ---- spotted hide4 #e4 ,the catamount lies in the boughs to watch ---- prey4 #f4 ,the mocking-bird poured from ---- little throat floods of delirious music4 #g4 ,the wild beast from ---- cavern sprang1 the wild bird from ---- grove4 #h4 ,the night-sparrow trills ---- song4 #i4 ,the elephant is distinguished for ---- strength and sagacity4 #aj4 ,the bat is nocturnal in ---- habits4 #aa4 ,the dog is faithful to ---- master4 #ab4 ,the child was unconscious of ---- danger4 #ac4 ,the fox is noted for ---- cunning4 #ad4 ,belgium's capital had gathered then ---- beauty and ---- chivalry4 #ae4 ,despair extends ---- raven wing4 #af4 ,life mocks the idle hate of ---- arch-enemy1 ,death4 #ag4 ,spring comes forth ---- work of gladness to contrive4 #ah4 ,truth is fearless1 yet ---- is meek and modest4 ,direction4--,write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of masculine pronouns3-- ,death1 time1 winter1 war1 sun1 river1 wind4 ,direction4--,write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of feminine pronouns3-- ,ship1 moon1 earth1 spring1 virtue1 nature1 night1 ,england4 ,caution4--,avoid changing the gender of the pronoun when referring to the same antecedent4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries1 as it suffers so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement4 #b4 ,the cat1 when it comes to the light1 contracts and elongates the pupil of her eye4 #c4 ,summer clothes herself in green1 and decks itself with flowers4 #d4 ,war leaves his victim on the field1 and homes desolated by it mourn over her cruelty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aai4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns--,,person ,,and ,,case4 ,introductory ,hints4--,number and gender1 as you have learned1 are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns--number being almost always indicated by form1 or inflection2 gender1 sometimes4 ,there are two modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns but to their different uses and relations4 ,these uses and relations are not generally indicated by form1 or inflection4 ,i1 ,paul1 have written4 ,paul1 thou art beside thyself4 ,he brought ,paul before ,agrippa4 ,in these three sentences the word ,paul has three different uses1 though1 as you see1 its form is not changed4 ,in the first it is used to name the speaker2 in the second1 to name the one spoken to2 in the third1 to name the one spoken of4 ,these different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called ,person4 ,i1 thou1 and he are personal pronouns1 and1 as you see1 distinguish person by their form4 ,i1 denoting the speaker1 is in the ,first ,person2 thou1 denoting the one spoken to1 is in the ,second ,person2 and he1 denoting the one spoken of1 is in the ,third ,person4 ,instead of ,i a writer or speaker may use the plural we2 and through courtesy it came to be customary1 except among the ,friends1 or in the language of prayer and poetry1 to use the plural you instead of thou4 ,the bear killed the man4 ,the man killed the bear4 ,the bear's grease was made into hair oil4 ,in the first sentence the bear is represented as performing an act2 in the second1 as receiving an act2 in the third1 as possessing something4 ,these different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called ,case4 ,a noun used as subject is in the ,nominative ,case2 used as object complement it is in the ,objective ,case2 and used to denote possession it is in the ,possessive ,case4 ,some of the pronouns have a special form for each case2 but of nouns the possessive case is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form4 ,we inflect below a noun from the ,anglo-,saxon1 ,footnote3 ,the ,anglo-,saxon cases are nominative1 genitive1 dative1 accusative1 vocative2 the ,latin are nominative1 genitive1 dative1 accusative1 vocative1 and ablative2 the ,english are nominative1 possessive 7genitive71 and objective4 ,,anglo-,,saxon4 ,hlaford1 lord4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 hlaford1 hlaford-as4 ,gen4 hlaford-es1 hlaford-a4 ,dat4 hlaford-e1 hlaford-um4 ,acc4 hlaford1 hlaford-as4 ,voc4 hlaford1 hlaford-as4 ,,latin4 ,dominus1 lord4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 domin-us1 domin-i4 ,gen4 domin-i1 domin-orum4 ,dat4 domin-o1 domin-is4 ,acc4 domin-um1 domin-os4 ,voc4 domin-e1 domin-i4 ,ab4 domin-o1 domin-is4 ,,english4 ,lord4 ,singular4 ,nom4 lord1 ,pos4 lord-'s1 ,obj4 lord2 ,plural4 ,nom4 lord-s1 ,pos4 lord-s'1 ,obj4 lord-s4 and one from the ,latin1 the parent of the ,norman-,french1 in order that you may see how cases and the inflections to mark them have been dropped in ,english4 ,in ,english1 prepositions have largely taken the place of case forms1 and it is thought that by them our language can express the many relations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than other languages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection4 ,,definitions4 ,person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker1 the one spoken to1 or the one spoken of4 ,the ,first ,person denotes the one speaking4 ,the ,second ,person denotes the one spoken to4 ,the ,third ,person denotes the one spoken of4 ,a noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person2 as1 ,i1 ,john1 saw these things2 ,we ,americans are always in a hurry4 ,footnote3 ,it is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the first person4 ,it may be said that1 in the sentence ,i1 ,john1 saw these things1 ,john speaks of his own name1 the expression meaning1 ,i1 and my name is ,john1 etc4 ,a noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pronoun of the second person1 or when used independently as a term of address2 as1 ,ye crags and peaks2 ,idle time1 ,john1 is ruinous4 ,direction4--,compose sentences in which there shall be two examples of nouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons4 ,person ,forms4 ,personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words that have distinctive person forms4 ,direction4--,from the forms of the pronouns given in ,lesson #abd1 select and write in one list all the first person forms2 in another list1 all the second person forms2 and in another1 all the third person forms4 ,person is regarded in grammar because the verb sometimes varies its form to agree with the person of its subject2 as1 ,i see2 ,thou seest2 ,he sees4 ,,definitions4 ,case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence4 ,the ,nominative ,case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement4 ,the ,possessive ,case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier4 ,the ,objective ,case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as object complement1 or as principal word in a prepositional phrase4 ,a noun or pronoun used independently is said to be in the nominative case4 ,examples4--,i am1 dear madam1 your friend4 ,alas1 poor ,yorick6 ,he being dead1 we shall live4 ,liberty1 it has fled6 7,see ,lesson #dd47 ,a noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained--is put by apposition in the same case4 ,examples4--,the first colonial ,congress1 that of #aggd1 addressed the ,king1 ,george ,,iii4 ,he buys is goods at ,stewart's1 the dry-goods merchant4 ,a noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case4 ,examples4--,they made him speaker4 ,he made it all it is4 ,a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case 7,nom4 or ,obj47 as the word to which it relates as attribute4 ,examples4--,being an artist1 he appreciated it4 ,i proved it to be him4 ,remark4--,when the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive is a possessive1 the attribute complement is said to be in the nominative case2 as1 ,its being he ,footnote3 ,the case of he in these examples is rather doubtful4 ,the nominative and the objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems impossible to determine the usage4 ,it is therefore a matter of no great practical importance4 ,some1 reasoning from the analogy of the ,latin1 would put the attribute complement of the abstract infinitive in the objective1 supposing for and some other word to be understood2 as1 ,for one to be him1 etc4 ,others1 reasoning from the ,german1 to which our language is closely allied1 would put this complement in the nominative4 ,the assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same in sense as the principal subject1 him1 in the sentence ,i wish 7me or myself7 to be him1 is the proper form1 being in the same case as me4 should make no difference4 ,when the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly1 without an assumed subject1 its attribute complement is also said to be in the nominative case2 as1 ,to be he ,footnote3 ,see footnote above4 is to be a scholar2 ,being a scholar is not being an idler4 ,direction4--,study carefully the ,definitions and the ,remark above1 and then compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the nominative case in four ways2 in the objective in five ways2 in the possessive in two ways4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abj4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,direction4--,analyze the following sentences1 and give the case of each noun and pronoun3-- #a4 ,not to know what happened before we were born is to be always a child4 #b4 ,his being a ,roman saved him from being made a prisoner4 #c4 ,i am this day weak1 though anointed king4 ,explanation4--,nouns used adverbially are in the objective case because equivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase4 7,see ,lesson #ce47 #d4 ,what made ,cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on ,god4 #e4 ,amos1 the herdsman of ,tekoa1 was not a prophet's son4 #f4 ,arnold's success as teacher was remarkable4 ,explanation4--,teacher1 introduced by as and used without a possessive sign1 is explanatory of ,arnold's4 #g4 ,worship thy ,creator1 ,god2 and obey his ,son1 the ,master1 ,king1 and ,saviour of men4 #h4 ,bear ye one another's ,footnote3 ,for the use of one another1 see ,lesson #abd4 burdens4 ,explanation4--,the singular one is explanatory of the plural ye1 or one another's may be treated as a compound4 #i4 ,what art thou1 execrable shape1 that darest advance8 #aj4 ,o you hard hearts6 you cruel men of ,rome6 #aa4 ,everybody acknowledges ,shakespeare to be the greatest of dramatists4 #ab4 ,think'st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy1 thou being absent8 #ac4 ,our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but his country4 7,for the case of him see explanation of 7#c7 above47 #ad4 ,i will attend to it myself4 ,explanation4--,myself may be treated as explanatory of ,i4 #ae4 ,this news of papa's puts me all in a flutter4 ,footnote3 ,see second foot-note1 page #bdg4 #af4 ,what means that hand upon that breast of thine8 ,footnote3 ,see second foot-note1 page #bdg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aba4 ,,parsing4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,we do not believe that the chief end of the study of grammar ,is to be able to parse well1 or even to analyze well1 though without question analysis reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence1 and is immeasurably superior to it as intellectual gymnastics4 ,we would not do away with parsing altogether1 but would give it a subordinate place4 ,but we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical quoting1 in parsing1 of ,rules of ,syntax4 ,when a pupil has said that such a noun is in the nominative case1 subject of such a verb1 what is gained by a repetition of the definition in the ,rule3 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case8 ,let the reasons for the disposition of words1 when given at all1 be specific4 ,parsing--a word is giving its classification1 its modifications1 and its syntax1 i4e41 its relation to other words4 ,direction4--,select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found in the first ten sentences of ,lesson #abj4 ,for the agreement of pronouns1 see ,lesson #adb4 ,model for ,written ,parsing4--,elizabeth's favorite1 ,raleigh1 was beheaded by ,james ,i4 ,,classification4 ,,modifications4 ,,syntax4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,per- ,num- ,gen- ,nouns4 ,kind4son4 ber4 der4 ,case4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,elizabeth's ,prop4 #c;d ,sing4 ,fem4 ,pos4 ,mod4 of favorite4 favorite ,com4 #c;d ,sing4 ,mas4 ,nom4 ,sub4 of was beheaded4 ,raleigh ,prop4 #c;d ,sing4 ,mas4 ,nom4 ,expl4 ,mod4 of favorite4 ,james ,i4 ,prop4 #c;d ,sing4 ,mas4 ,obj4 ,prin4 word of ,prep4 phrase4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,for exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns1 see ,lessons #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #dd1 #df1 #ei1 #fj1 #ga1 #gc1 #gh1 #hj1 and #ha4 ,other exercises may be selected from examples previously given for analysis1 and parsing continued as long as you think it profitable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abb4 ,,case ,,forms--,,nouns4 ,nouns have two case forms1 the simple form1 common to the nominative and the objective case1 and the possessive form4 ,,rule4--,the ,possessive ,case of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter s 7's72 in the plural by adding 7'7 only4 ,if the plural does not end in s1 7's7 are both added4 ,footnote3 ,in ,anglo-,saxon1 es was a genitive 7possessive7 ending of the singular2 as1 sta3n1 genitive sta3n-es4 ,in old ,english1 es and is were both used4 ,in modern ,english1 the vowel is generally dropped1 and 7'7 stands in its place4 ,the use of the apostrophe has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural4 ,some have said that our possessive ending is a remnant of the pronoun his4 ,phrases like1 ,mars his sword1 ,the ,prince his ,players1 ,king ,lewis his satisfaction are abundant in ,early1 and in ,middle1 ,english4 ,but it has been proved that the his in such expressions is an error that gained its wide currency largely through the confusion of early ,english orthography4 ,professor ,hadley has clearly shown that the ,saxon termination has never dropped out of the language1 but exists in the ,english possessive ending to-day4 ,examples4--,boy's1 boys'1 men's4 ,remark4--,to avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds1 the s in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted2 as1 conscience' sake1 goodness' sake1 ,achilles' sword1 ,archimedes' screw 7the s in the words following the possessive here having its influence74 ,in prose this omission of the s should seldom occur4 ,the weight of usage inclines to the use of s in such names as ,miss ,rounds's1 ,mrs4 ,hemans's1 ,king ,james's1 witness's1 prince's4 ,without the s there would be no distinction1 in spoken language1 between ,miss ,round's and ,miss ,rounds'1 ,mrs4 ,heman's and ,mrs4 ,hemans'4 ,remark4--,pronounce the 7's7 as a separate syllable 7 es7 when the sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the nominative4 ,remark4--,when the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative1 some place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distinguish it from the possessive singular2 as1 singular1 sheep's2 plural1 sheeps'4 ,direction4--,study the ,rule and the ,remarks given above1 and then write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following nouns3-- ,actor1 elephant1 farmer1 king1 lion1 genius1 horse1 princess1 buffalo1 hero1 mosquito1 negro1 volcano1 junto1 tyro1 cuckoo1 ally1 attorney1 fairy1 lady1 monkey1 calf1 elf1 thief1 wife1 wolf1 chief1 dwarf1 waif1 child1 goose1 mouse1 ox1 woman1 beau1 seraph1 fish1 deer1 sheep1 swine4 ,compound names and groups of words that may be treated as compound names add the possessive sign to the last word2 as1 a man-of-war's rigging1 the queen of ,england's palace1,footnote3 ,in parsing the words queen and ,england separately1 the 7's7 must be regarded as belonging to queen2 but the whole phrase queen of ,england's may be treated as one noun in the possessive case4 ,frederick the ,great's verses4 ,remark4--,the possessive plural of such terms is not used4 ,the preposition of with the objective is often used instead of the possessive case form--,david's ,psalms ,psalms of ,david4 ,remarks4--,to denote the source from which a thing proceeds1 or the idea of belonging to1 of is used more frequently than 7's74 ,the possessive sign 7's7 is confined chiefly to the names of persons1 and of animals and things personified4 ,we do not say the tree's leaves1 but the leaves of the tree4 ,the possessive sign however is often added to names of things which we frequently hear personified1 or which we wish to dignify1 and to names of periods of time1 and to words denoting value2 as1 the earth's surface1 fortune's smile1 eternity's stillness1 a year's interest1 a day's work1 a dollar's worth1 two cents' worth4 ,by the use of of1 such expressions as witness's statement1 mothers-in-law's faults may be avoided4 ,direction4--,study carefully the principles and ,remarks given above1 and then make each of the following terms indicate possession1 using either the possessive sign or the preposition of1 as may seem most appropriate1 and join an appropriate name denoting the thing possessed3-- ,father-in-law1 ,william the ,conqueror1 king of ,great ,britain1 aid-de-camp1 ,henry the ,eighth1 attorney-at-law1 somebody else1,footnote3 ,in such expressions as everybody else's business1 the possessive sign is removed from the noun and attached to the adjective4 7,see ,lesson lai47 ,the possessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name of the thing possessed4 ,jefferson1 enemy1 eagle1 gunpowder1 book1 house1 chair1 torrent1 sun1 ocean1 mountain1 summer1 year1 day1 hour1 princess1 ,socrates4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abc4 ,,construction ,,of ,,possessive ,,forms4 ,as the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a distinctive inflection1 it is only with this case that mistakes can occur in construction4 ,caution4--,when several possessive nouns modify the same word and imply common possession1 the possessive sign is added to the last only4 ,if they modify different words1 expressed or understood1 the sign is added to each4 ,explanation4--,william and ,henry's boat2 ,william's and ,henry's boat4 ,in the first example1 ,william and ,henry are represented as jointly owning a boat2 in the second1 each is represented as owning a separate boat--boat is understood after ,william's4 ,remark4--,when the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed1 the sign may be repeated although joint possession is implied2 as1 ,he was his father's1 mother's1 and sister's favorite2 ,he was the ,king's1 as well as the people's1 favorite4 ,direction4--,correct these errors1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,the ,bank of ,england was established in ,william's and ,mary's reign4 #b4 ,messrs4 ,leggett's1 ,stacy's1 ,green's1 ,co4's business prospers4 #c4 ,this was ,james's1 ,charles's1 and ,robert's estate4 #d4 ,america was discovered during ,ferdinand's and ,isabella's reign4 #e4 ,we were comparing ,caesar and ,napoleon's victories4 #f4 ,this was the sage and the poet's theme4 ,explanation4--,if an article precedes the possessive1 the sign is repeated4 #g4 ,it was the king1 not the people's1 choice4 #h4 ,they are ,thomas1 as well as ,james's1 books4 ,caution4--,when a possessive noun is followed by an explanatory word1 the possessive sign is added to the explanatory word only4 ,but1 if the explanatory word has several modifiers1 or if there are more explanatory words than one1 only the principal word takes the sign4 ,remarks4--,when a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun1 and the name of the thing possessed is omitted1 the possessive sign may be added either to the modifying or to the principal word2 as1 ,we stopped at ,tiffany1 the jeweler's1 or ,we stopped at ,tiffany's1 the jeweler4 ,if the name of the thing possessed is given1 the noun immediately before it takes the sign4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,this is ,tennyson's1 the poet's1 home4 #b4 ,i took tea at ,brown's1 my old friend and schoolmate's4 #c4 ,this belongs to ,victoria's1 queen of ,england's1 dominion4 #d4 ,this province is ,victoria's1 queen of ,england's4 #e4 ,that language is ,homer's1 the greatest poet of antiquity's4 #f4 ,this was ,franklin's motto1 the distinguished philosopher's statesman's4 #g4 ,wolsey's1 the cardinal's1 career ended in disgrace4 ,direction4---,tell which of the sentences above may be improved by using other forms to denote possession4 7,see the following ,caution47 ,caution4--,the relation of possession may be expressed not only by 7's7 and by of but by the use of such phrases as belonging to1 property of1 etc4 ,in constructing sentences be careful to secure smoothness and clearness and variety by taking advantage of these different forms4 ,direction4--,improve the following sentences3-- #a4 ,this is my wife's father's opinion4 ,correction4--,this is the opinion of my wife's father1 or held by my wife's father4 #b4 ,this is my wife's father's farm4 #c4 ,france's and ,england's interest differs widely4 #d4 ,frederick the ,great was the son of the daughter of ,george ,i4 of ,england4 #e4 ,my brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired4 #f4 ,the drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much admired4 ,of is not always equivalent to the 7's71 ,explanation4--,the president's reception means the reception given by the president1 but the reception of the president means the reception given to the president4 ,direction4--,construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the following expressions3-- ,a mother's love1 the love of a mother2 a father's care1 the care of a father2 my friend's picture1 a picture of my friend4 ,caution4--,often ambiguity may be prevented by changing the assumed subject of a participle from a nominative or an objective to a possessive4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the writer being a scholar is not doubted4 ,correction4--,this is ambiguous1 as it may mean either that the writer is not doubted because he is a scholar1 or that the writer's scholarship is not doubted4 ,it should be1 ,the writer's being ,footnote3 ,the participle may be modified not only1 as here1 by a noun in the possessive but by the articles a and the---as said in ,lesson #cg4 ,whether it be the imposing a tax or the issuing a paper currency4--,bagehot4 ,not a making war on them1 not a leaving them out of mind1 but the putting a new construction upon them1 the taking them from under the old conventional point of view4--,matthew ,arnold4 ,poltroonery is the acknowledging an infirmity to be incurable4--,emerson4 ,the giving away a man's money4--,burke4 ,it is not the finding of a thing but the making something out of it1 after it is found1 that is of consequence4--,lowell4 ,as seen in this last quotation1 the participle may be followed by a preposition and so become a pure noun 7,lesson #ch74 a scholar is not doubted1 or ,that the writer is a scholar is not doubted4 #b4 ,i have no doubt of the writer being a scholar4 #c4 ,no one ever heard of that man running for office4 #d4 ,brown being a politician prevented his election4 #e4 ,i do not doubt him being sincere4 #f4 ,grouchy being behind time decided the fate of ,waterloo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abd4 ,,number ,,and ,,case ,,forms4 ,declension4 ,,definition4--,declension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers4 ,direction4--,learn the following declensions3-- ,declension of ,nouns4 ,,lady4 ,,boy4 ,,man4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 lady1 ladies1 boy1 boys1 man1 men1 ,pos4 lady's1 ladies'1 boy's1 boys'1 man's1 men's1 ,obj4 lady2 ladies4 boy2 boys4 man2 men4 ,declension of ,pronouns4 ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,,first ,,person4 ,,second ,,person-- ,,second ,,person-- common form old form4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 ,i1 we199 you1 you1 thou1 ye77 or you ,pos4 my or our or your or your or thy or ye77 or you mine1 ours1 yours1 yours1 thine1 yours1 ,obj4 me2 us4 you2 you4 thee2 you4 ,footnote 993 ,strictly speaking1 we can hardly be the plural of ,i1 says ,professor ,sweet1 for ,i does not admit of plurality4 ,we means ,i and you1 ,i and he1 ,i and she1 or ,i and they1 etc4 ,footnote 3 ,the forms mine1 ours1 yours1 thine1 hers1 and theirs are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted2 as1 ,yours is old1 mine is new ,your book is old1 etc4 ,mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound2 as1 thine enemy1 mine honor4 ,the expression a friend of mine presents a peculiar construction4 ,the explanation generally given is1 that of is partitive1 and that the expression is equivalent to one friend of my friends4 ,it is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thing is possessed such expressions as ,this heart of mine1 ,that temper of yours are good1 idiomatic ,english4 ,this naughty world of ours4--,byron4 ,this moral life of mine4--,sheridan ,knowles4 ,dim are those heads of theirs4---,carlyle4 ,some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these possessives2 as1 ,this temper of yours 7your possessing72 others say that of simply marks identity1 as does of in city of 7viz47 ,new ,york 7see ,lesson #cd74 ,they would make the expression ,this temper1 your temper4 ,the s in ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs is the s of his and its extended by analogy to our1 your1 her1 and their1 forms already possessive4 ,ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs are consequently double possessives4 ,footnote 3 ,ye is used in ,chaucer and in the ,king ,james version of the ,bible exclusively in the nominative1 as was its original ge in the ,saxon4 ,shakespeare uses you in the nominative4 ,you 7the ,saxon accusative eow7 has now taken the place of ye1 and is both nominative and objective4 ,,third ,,person--,mas4 ,,third ,,person--,fem4 ,,third ,,person--,neut4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 he1 they1 she1 they1 it1 they1 ,pos4 his1 their or her or their or its199 their or theirs1 hers1 theirs1 theirs1 ,obj4 him2 them4 her2 them4 it2 them4 ,footnote 993 ,the possessive its is our only personal pronoun form not found in ,saxon4 ,his1 the possessive of the masculine he1 was there the possessive 7genitive7 of the neuter hit also--our it4 ,but it came to be thought improper to employ his to denote inanimate things as well as animate4 ,the literature of the #afth and #agth centuries shows a growing sense of this impropriety1 and abounds with of it1 thereof1 her1 it1 the1 and it own in place of his as the possessive of it4 ,the first appearance of the new coinage its is placed in #aeih4 ,long after its introduction many looked askance at its1 because of the grammatical blunder it contains--the t in its being a nominative neuter ending1 and the s a possessive ending4 ,but no one thinks now of shunning what was then regarded as a grammatical monstrosity4 ,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 and ,nom4 and ,nom4 and ,nom4 and ,nom4 and ,nom4 and ,obj4 ,obj4 ,obj4 ,obj4 ,obj4 ,obj4 myself99 thyself himself2 or ourselves4 or yourselves4 herself2 themselves4 ourself2 yourself2 itself2 ,footnote 993 ,the compound personal pronouns are used 7#a7 for emphasis2 as1 ,i myself saw it3 and 7#b7 as reflexives1 to turn the action of the verb back upon the actor2 as1 ,he found himself deserted by his friends4 ,they are not the only words used in this last relation2 where no obscurity would arise1 we may use the simple personal pronouns instead4 ,and millions in those solitudes 444 have laid them down in their last sleep4--,bryant4 ,my uncle stopped a minute to look about him4--,dickens4 ,the compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects4 ,remark4--,the possessive of these pronouns is wanting4 ,ourself and we are used by rulers1 editors1 and others to hide their individuality1 and give authority to what they say4 ,relative ,pronouns4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,nom4 who1 which1 that1 what1 ,pos4 whose1 whose1 ------1 ------1 ,obj4 whom4 which4 that4 what4 ,remark4--,from the composition of which--hwa3-lic1 or hwaet-lic who-like1 or what-like1 it is evident that whose is not formed from which4 ,it is1 in fact1 the possessive of what transferred to which4 ,much has been said against this whose1 but it is in general use4 ,those who regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid this form of the pronoun4 ,interrogative ,pronouns4 ,the interrogative pronouns who1 which1 and what are declined like the relatives who1 which1 and what4 ,compound ,relative ,pronouns4 ,singular and ,plural4 ,singular and ,plural4 ,nom4 whoever1 whosoever1 ,pos4 whosever1 whosesoever1 ,obj4 whomever4 whomsoever4 ,whichever1 whichsoever1 whatever1 and whatsoever do not change their form4 ,adjective ,pronouns4 ,this and that with their plurals1 these and those1 have no possessive form1 and are alike in the nominative and the objective4 ,one and other are declined like nouns2 and another1 declined like other in the singular1 has no plural4 ,either1 neither1 former1 and latter sometimes take the apostrophe and s 7's7 in the singular4 ,each1 either1 and neither are always singular2 both is always plural2 and all1 any1 farmery latter1 none1 same1 some1 and such are either singular or plural4 ,footnote3 ,on the pages immediately preceding ,lesson #a1 we said that usage1 as determined by the majority of the best writers and speakers of the generation1 is the only authority in language2 and we there explained how we are able to appeal to usage as we all along have done4 ,in treating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it again4 ,in the first twelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions4 ,only the second of these alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by many grammarians2 they utterly condemn the first4 ,on the warrant of usage we say that both expressions are correct4 #a4 ,we may use each other with more than two2 we may use one another in such a case4 ,we may say1 ,several able men were in correspondence with each other1 or with one another4 #b4 ,we may use one another with only two2 we may use each other in such a case4 ,we may say1 ,the two countries agreed to stand by one another1 or by each other4 #c4 ,we may use all1 both1 and whole with a preposition and a noun following2 we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun4 ,we may say1 ,all of the people1 ,both of the trees1 ,the whole of the farm1 or ,all the people1 ,both trees1 ,the whole farm4 #d4 ,we may use the pronouns either and neither1 as we do the conjunctions either and neither1 with more than two2 we may use any one and none in such cases4 ,we may say1 ,here are three candidates2 you may vote for either or for neither of them1 or for any one or for none of them4 #e4 ,we may use he or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one2 we may repeat the one in such a case4 ,we may say1 ,the home one must quit1 yet taking much of its life along with him1 or along with one4 #f4 ,we may use such before an adjective and its noun2 we may use so with the adjective in such a case4 ,we may say1 ,such a strong argument1 ,such admirable talent1 or ,so strong an argument1 ,talent so admirable4 #g4 ,we may use the plural ones2 we may use the noun for which ones stands4 ,we may say1 ,you have red roses1 ,i have white ones1 or white roses4 #h4 ,we may apply the other two to those that remain when one of three things has been taken from the rest2 we may use the two others in such a case4 ,we may say1 ,one of them kept his ground2 the other two ran away1 or the two others ran away4 #i4 ,we may use a before a noun in the singular and or two after it2 we may use one or two before the noun in the plural4 ,we may say1 ,i will go in a day or two1 or in one or two days4 #aj4 ,we may use either in the sense of each2 we may use each instead4 ,we may say1 ,he wrested the land on either side of the ,seine1 or on each side of the ,seine4 #aa4 ,we may insert a noun1 or a noun and other words1 between other and than2 we may place the than immediately after other4 ,we may say1 ,we must look for somee other reasons for it than those suggested1 or for some reasons for it other than those suggested4 #ab4 ,we may use none in the plural2 we may use none in the singular4 ,we may say1 ,none hear thy voice1 or ,none hears thy voice4 ,the paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but no really alternative expressions4 #ac4 ,usage is overwhelmingly in favor of any one else's1 no one else's1 somebody else's1 nobody else's1 instead of any one's else1 etc4 ,there is scarcely any authority for placing the 7's7 upon one or body4 ,written by ,dickens for his own or any one else's children4 ,this form is common and convenient4 ,we are advised to shun it1 but we need not4 #ad4 ,usage is also decidedly in favor of first two1 last three1 etc41 instead of two first1 three last1 etc4 ,descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural1 and are not declined4 ,such expressions as the wretched's only plea and the wicked's den are exceptional4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abe4 ,,case ,,forms--,,pronouns4 ,the pronouns ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 and who are the only words in the language that have each three different case forms4 ,direction4--,study the ,declensions1 and correct these errors3-- ,our's1 your's1 hi's1 her's1 it's1 their's1 yourn1 hisn1 hern1 theirn4 ,construction of ,case ,forms--,pronouns4 ,caution4--,i1 we1 thou1 ye1 he1 she1 they1 and who are nominative forms1 and must not be used in the objective case4 ,me1 us1 thee1 him1 her1 ,footnote3 ,her is also a possessive4 them1 and whom are objective forms1 and must not be used in the nominative case4 ,remark4--,the eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the language4 ,all the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use of the nominative and the objective case apply1 practically1 only to these fifteen words4 ,direction4--,study carefully the ,definitions and principles given under the head of case1 ,lesson #aai1 and then correct these errors1 giving your reasons in every instance3-- #a4 ,it is not me you are in love with4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,latham defends ,it is me1 but condemns ,it is him1 and ,it is her4 ,dean ,alford regards as correct the forms condemned by ,latham1 and asserts that thee and me are correct in1 ,the nations not so blest as thee ,such weak minister as me may the oppressor bruise4 ,professor ,bain justifies ,if ,i were him1 ,it was her1 ,he is better than me1 and even defends the use of who as an objective form by quoting from ,shakespeare1 ,who servest thou under8 and from ,steele1 ,who should ,i meet8 ,they justify such expressions as ,it is me from the analogy of the ,french c'est moi1 and on the ground that they are more frequently heard than the prescribed form4 ,but such analogy would justify ,it are them 7ce sont eux72 and1 if the argument from the speech of the uneducated is to have weight1 we have good authority for ,her ain't a calling we3 us don't belong to she4 ,a course of reading will satisfy one that the best writers and speakers in ,england are not in the habit of using such expressions as ,it is me1 and that these are almost1 if not quite unknown in ,american literature4 ,no one has freed himself from the influence of early associations that are in a careless moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse4 ,a ,violation of every principle of grammar may be defended1 if such inadvertencies are to be erected into authority4 ,to whatever is the prevailing1 the habitual1 usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian should bow without question2 but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest writers1 or to the common usage of the unreflecting and the uncultivated4 #b4 ,she was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me4 ,see previous ,footnote4 #c4 ,who servest thou under8 ,see previous footnote4 #d4 ,it was not them1 it was her4 #e4 ,its being me should make no difference4 #f4 ,him and me are of the same age4 #g4 ,them that study grammar talk no better than me4 #h4 ,i am not so old as her2 she is older than me by ten years4 #i4 ,he was angry1 and me too4 #aj4 ,who will go8 ,me4 #aa4 ,it isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land4 #ab4 ,not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him4 #ac4 ,him being a stranger1 they easily misled him4 #ad4 ,oh1 happy us6 surrounded thus with blessings4 #ae4 ,it was ,joseph1 him whom ,pharaoh promoted4 #af4 ,i referred to my old friend1 he of whom ,i so often speak4 #ag4 ,you have seen ,cassio and she together4 #ah4 ,between you and ,i1 ,i believe that he is losing his mind4 #ai4 ,who should ,i meet the other day but my old friend8 #bj4 ,who did he refer to1 he or ,i8 #ba4 ,who did he choose8 ,did he choose you and ,i8 #bb4 ,he that is idle and mischievous reprove4 #bc4 ,we will refer it to whoever you may choose4 #bd4 ,whosoever the court favors is safe4 #be4 ,they that are diligent ,i will reward4 #bj4 ,scotland and thee did in each other live4 #bg4 ,my hour is come1 but not to render up my soul to such as thee4 #bh4 ,i knew that it was him4 #bi4 ,i knew it to be he4 #cj4 ,who did you suppose it to be8 #ca4 ,whom did you suppose it was8 #cb4 ,i took that tall man to be he4 #cc4 ,i thought that tall man was him4 ,although than is not a preposition1 it is sometimes followed by whom1 as in the familiar passage from ,milton3 ,beelzebub444 than whom1 ,satan except1 none higher sat4 ,than whom is an irregularity justified only on the basis of good usage4 ,whom here may be parsed as an objective case form used idiomatically in place of who4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abf4 ,,construction ,,of ,,case ,,forms4 ,,miscellaneous--,,review4 ,direction4--,correct these errors1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,who was ,joseph's and ,benjamin's mother8 #b4 ,it did not occur during ,washington1 ,jefferson1 or ,adams's administration4 #c4 ,i consulted ,webster1 ,worcester1 and ,walker's dictionary4 #d4 ,this state was south of ,mason's and ,dixon's line4 #e4 ,these are neither ,george nor ,fanny's books4 #f4 ,howard's1 the philanthropist's1 life was a noble one4 #g4 ,it is ,othello's pleasure1 our noble and valiant general's4 #h4 ,he visited his sons-in-law's homes4 ,explanation4--,if the possessive plural of such nouns were used1 this would be correct2 but it is better to avoid these awkward forms4 #i4 ,a valuable horse of my friend ,william's father's was killed4 #aj4 ,for ,herodias's sake1 his brother ,philip's wife4 #aa4 ,for the queen's sake1 his sister's4 #ab4 ,peter's1 ,john's1 and ,andrew's occupation was that of fishermen4 #ac4 ,he spoke of you studying ,latin4 #ad4 ,it being difficult did not deter him4 #ae4 ,what need is there of the man swearing8 #af4 ,i am opposed to the gentleman speaking again4 #ag4 ,he thought it was us4 #ah4 ,we shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn1 you or me4 #ai4 ,i shall not learn my duty from such as thee4 #bj4 ,a lady entered1 whom ,i afterwards found was ,miss ,b4 #ba4 ,a lady entered1 who ,i afterwards found to be ,miss ,b4 #bb4 ,ask somebody's else opinion4 #bc4 ,let him be whom he may4 #bd4 ,i am sure it could not have been them4 #be4 ,i understood it to be they4 #bf4 ,it is not him whom you thought it was4 #bg4 ,let you and ,i try it4 #bh4 ,all enjoyed themselves1 us excepted4 #bi4 ,us boys enjoy the holidays4 #cj4 ,it was ,virgil1 him who wrote the ,aeneid4 #ca4 ,he asked help of men whom he knew could not help him4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,these schemes and questions under the head of ,general ,review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar4 ,the questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for outlines4 ,in some cases a single question may suffice for a whole lesson4 ,scheme for the ,noun4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,noun4 ,uses4 ,subject 7#d1 #h74 ,object ,complement 7#bh74 ,attribute ,complement 7#bi1 #cj74 ,objective ,complement 7#ca74 ,adjective ,modifier 7#cc74 ,adverb ,modifier 7#ce74 ,principal word in ,prep4 ,phrase 7#ag74 ,independent 7#dd74 ,classes4 ,common 7#he74 7,abstract and ,collective47 ,proper 7#he74 ,modifications4 ,number4 ,singular 7#aab-aaf74 ,plural 7#aab-aaf74 ,gender4 ,masculine 7#aag1 #aah74 ,feminine 7#aag1 #aah74 ,neuter 7#aag1 #aah74 ,person4 ,first 7#aai74 ,second 7#aai74 ,third 7#aai74 ,case4 ,nominative 7#aai74 ,possessive 7#aai1 #abb1 #abc74 ,objective 7#aai74 ,questions on the ,noun4 #a4 ,define the noun and its classes4--,lesson #he4 #b4 ,name and define the modifications of the noun4--,lessons #aab1 #aag1 #aai4 #c4 ,name and define the several numbers1 genders1 persons1 and cases4--,lessons #aab1 #aag1 #aai4 #d4 ,give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural4--,lessons #aab1 #aac1 #aad4 #e4 ,give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the genders4--,lesson #aag4 #f4 ,how is the possessive case formed8--,lesson #abb4 #g4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the possessive forms4--,lesson #abh4 ,scheme for the ,pronoun4 ,,pronoun4 ,uses4--,same as those of the ,noun4 ,classes4 ,personal 7#he1 #hf1 #hg74 ,relative 7#he1 #hf1 #hg74 ,interrogative 7#he74 ,adjective 7#he1 #hg74 ,modifications4--,same as those of the ,noun 7#aab1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #abd1 #abe1 #adb74 ,questions on the ,pronoun4 #a4 ,define the pronoun and its classes1 and give the lists4--,lesson #he4 #b4 ,decline the several pronouns4--,lesson #abd4 #c4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the different pronouns4--,lessons #hf1 #hg4 #d4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the number forms1 the gender forms1 and the case forms4--,lessons #aah1 #abe1 #adb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abg4 ,,comparison4 ,introductory ,hints4--,that apple is sweet1 that other is sweeter1 but this one is the sweetest4 ,the adjective sweet1 expressing a quality of the three apples1 is1 as you see1 inflected by adding er and est4 ,adjectives1 then1 have one modification1 and this is marked by form1 or inflection4 ,this modification is called ,comparison1 because it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common to them all1 but possessed by them in different degrees4 ,the form of the adjective which expresses the simple quality1 as sweet1 is of the ,positive ,degree2 that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree1 as sweeter1 less sweet1 is of the ,comparative ,degree2 and that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree1 as sweetest1 least sweet1 is of the ,superlative ,degree4 ,but even the positive implies a comparison2 we should not say1 ,this apple is sweet1 unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordinary apples possess4 ,notice1 too1 that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always expresses the quality relatively4 ,when we say1 ,this apple is sweeter than that1 or1 ,this apple is the sweetest of the three1 we do not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet1 but only that one apple is sweeter than the other1 or the sweetest of those compared4 ,the several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective4 ,we can say very1 exceedingly1 rather1 or somewhat sweet2 far1 still1 or much1 sweeter2 by far or much the sweetest4 ,some adverbs1 as well as adjectives1 are compared4 ,adjectives have one modification2 viz41 ,comparison4 ,footnote3 ,two adjectives1 this and that1 have number forms--this1 these2 that1 those4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon and ,latin1 adjectives have forms to indicate gender1 number1 and case4 ,,definitions4 ,comparison is a modification of the adjective 7or the adverb7 to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared4 ,footnote3 ,different degrees of quantity1 also1 may sometimes be expressed by comparison4 ,the ,positive ,degree expresses the simple quality4 ,the ,comparative ,degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality4 ,the ,superlative ,degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality4 ,,rule4--,adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative1 and est to the positive to form the superlative4 ,,rules ,,for ,,spelling4 ,,rule ,i4--,final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel2 as1 fine1 finer2 love1 loving4 ,exceptions4--,the e is retained 7#a7 after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o2 as1 peaceable1 changeable2 7#b7 after o2 as1 hoeing2 and 7#c7 when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word2 as1 singeing1 dyeing4 ,,rule ,,ii4---,y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix net beginning with i2 as1 witty1 wittier2 dry1 dried4 ,exceptions4---,y does not change before 's1 nor in forming the plural of proper nouns2 as1 lady's1 the ,marys1 the ,henrys4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,in monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable1 a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel2 as1 hot1 hotter2 begin1 beginning4 ,exceptions4--,x1 k1 and v are never doubled1 and gas has gases in the plural4 ,adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most4 ,this method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one4 ,remark4--,more beautiful1 most beautiful1 etc4 can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective4 ,the adverbs more and most have the degree forms1 and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words4 ,the adjective1 however1 is varied in sense the same as when the inflections er and est are added4 ,degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and least,footnote3 ,this use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the ,norman-,french4 ,but note how the adverb is compared1 ,the ,saxon superlative ending st is in most and least2 and the ,saxon comparative ending s1 unchanged to r1 is the last letter in less--changed to r1 as it regularly was1 in coming into ,english1 it is the r in more4 ,when it was forgotten that less is a comparative1 er was added1 and we have the double comparative lesser--in use to-day4 ,after the ,french method of comparing was introduced into ,english1 both methods were often used with the same adjective2 and1 for a time1 double comparatives and double superlatives were common2 as1 worser1 most boldest4 ,in ,king ,lear ,shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times42 as1 valuable1 less valuable1 least valuable4 ,most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared1 as their meaning will not admit of different degrees4 ,direction4--,from this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared1 and compare those that remain3-- ,observe the ,rules for ,spelling given above4 ,wooden1 ,english1 unwelcome1 physical1 one1 that1 common1 handsome1 happy1 able1 polite1 hot1 sweet1 vertical1 two-wheeled1 infinite1 witty1 humble1 any1 thin1 intemperate1 undeviating1 nimble1 holy1 lunar1 superior4 ,of the two forms of comparison1 that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred4 ,direction4--,correct the following3-- ,famousest1 virtuousest1 eloquenter1 comfortabler1 amusingest4 ,some adverbs are compared by adding er and est1 and some by prefixing more and most4 ,direction4--,compare the following3-- ,early1 easily1 fast1 firmly1 foolishly1 late1 long1 often1 soon1 wisely4 ,some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison4 ,direction4--,learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs3-- ,adjectives ,irregularly ,compared4 ,pos4 ,comp4 ,superlative4 7,aft7199 after1 aftmost or aftermost4 ,bad1 ,evil1 worse1 worst4 ,ill ,far1 farther1 fartherest or fathermost ,fore1 former1 foremost or first4 7,forth71 further1 furtherest or furthermost4 ,good1 better1 best4 ,hind1 hinder1 hindmost or hindermost4 7,in71 inner1 inmost or innermost4 ,late1 later or latest or latter last4 ,little1 less or least4 lesser1 ,many or more1 most4 ,much1 ,near1 nearer nearest or next4 ,old1 older or oldest or elder1 eldest4 7,out71 outer or outmost or utter1 outermost2 utmost or uttermost4 ,under1 ----1 undermost4 7,up71 upper1 upmost or uppermost4 ,top1 ----1 topmost4 ,footnote 993 ,the words inclosed in curves are adverbs--the adjectives following having no positive form4 ,footnote 3 ,for the comparative and the superlative of little1 in the sense of small in size1 smaller and smallest are substituted2 as1 little boy1 smaller boy1 smallest boy4 ,adverbs ,irregularly ,compared4 ,pos4 ,comp4 ,superlative4 ,badly1 worse1 worst4 ,ill1 ,far1 farther1 farthest1 ,forth1 further1 furthest4 ,little1 less1 least1 ,much1 more1 most4 ,well1 better1 best4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,we give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives4 ,a similar form may be used for adverbs4 ,exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from ,lessons #ab1 #ad1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #fj1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe4 ,model for ,written ,parsing4--,all the dewy glades are still4 ,,classification4 ,,modification4 ,,syntax ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,adjectives4 ,kind4 ,deg4 of ,comp4 ,all ,def4 ------ ,modifier of glades4 the ------ dewy ,des4 ,pos4 still ,completes are and modifies glades4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abh4 ,,construction ,,of ,,comparatives ,,and ,,superlatives4 ,caution4--,in stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself4 ,footnote3 ,a thing may1 of course1 be compared with itself as existing under different conditions2 as1 ,the star is brighter to-night2 ,the grass is greener to-day4 ,remark4--,the comparative degree refers to two things 7or sets of things7 as distinct from each other1 and implies that one has more of the quality than the other4 ,the comparative degree is generally followed by than4 ,footnote3 ,the comparative is generally used with reference to two things only1 but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together as1 ,he is no better than other men2 ,it contains more than all the others combined4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,remark1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,london is larger than any city in ,europe4 ,correction4--,the second term of comparison1 any city in ,europe1 includes ,london1 and so ,london is represented as being larger than itself4 ,it should be1 ,london is larger than any other city in ,europe1 or1 ,london is the largest city in ,europe4 #b4 ,china has a greater population than any nation on the globe4 #c4 ,i like this book better than any book ,i have seen4 #d4 ,there is no metal so useful as iron4 7,a comparison is here stated1 although no degree form is employed47 #e4 ,all the metals are less useful than iron4 #f4 ,time ought1 above all kinds of property1 to be free from invasion4 ,caution4--,in using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter term of the comparison1 or the term introduced by of1 include the former4 ,remarks4--,the superlative degree refers to one thing 7or set of things7 as belonging to a group or class1 and as having more of the quality than any of the rest4 ,the superlative is generally followed by of4 ,good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things2 as1 ,this is the best of the two4 ,but in such cases usage largely favors the comparative2 as1 ,this is the better of the two4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,remarks1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,solomon was the wisest of all the other ,hebrew kings4 ,correction4--,of 7 belonging to7 represents ,solomon as belonging to a group of kings1 and other excludes him from this group--a contradiction in terms4 ,it should be1 ,solomon was the wisest of ,hebrew kings1 or ,solomon was wiser than any other ,hebrew king4 #b4 ,of all the other books ,i have examined1 this is the most satisfactory4 #c4 ,profane swearing is1 of all other vices1 the most inexcusable4 #d4 ,he was the most active of all his companions4 7,he was not one of his own companions47 #e4 ,this was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort4 #f4 ,john is the oldest of any boy in his class4 ,caution4--,avoid double comparatives and double superlatives1 and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of different degrees4,footnote3 ,many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning1 and are compared by good writers2 as1 ,my chiefest entertainment4--,sheridan4 ,the chiefest prize4--,byron4 ,divinest ,melan- choly4--,milton4 ,extremest hell4--,whittier4 ,most perfect harmony--,longfellow4 ,less perfect imitations4--,macaulay4 ,the extension of these exceptional forms should not be encouraged4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,a more beautifuler location cannot be found4 #b4 ,he took the longest1 but the most pleasantest1 route4 #c4 ,draw that line more perpendicular4 ,correction4--,draw that line perpendicular1 or more nearly perpendicular4 #d4 ,the opinion is becoming more universal4 #e4 ,a worser evil awaits us4 #f4 ,the most principal point was entirely overlooked4 #g4 ,that form of expression is more preferable4 ,caution4--,when an adjective denoting one1 or an adjective denoting more than one1 is joined to a noun1 the adjective and the noun must agree in number4 ,remark4--,a numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singular noun to form a compound adjective2 as1 a ten-foot pole 7not a ten-feet pole71 a three-cent stamp4 ,direction4--,study the ,caution and the ,remark1 and correct these errors3-- #a4 ,these kind of people will never be satisfied4 #b4 ,the room is fifteen foot square2 ,i measured it with a two-feet rule4 #c4 ,the farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar4 #d4 ,these sort of expressions should be avoided4 #e4 ,we were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour4 #f4 ,remove this ashes and put away that tongs4 ,miscellaneous4 #a4 ,he was more active than any other of his companions4 ,correction4--,as he is not one of his companions1 other is unnecessary4 #b4 ,he did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded or followed him4 #c4 ,the younger of the three sisters is the prettier4 7,this is the construction which requires the superlative4 ,see the second ,remark in this ,lesson47 #d4 ,this result1 of all others1 is most to be dreaded4 #e4 ,she was willing to take a more humbler part4 #f4 ,solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings4 #g4 ,i don't like those sort of people4 #h4 ,i have the most entire confidence in him4 #i4 ,this is the more preferable form4 #aj4 ,which are the two more important ranges of mountains in ,north ,america8 #aa4 ,he writes better than any boy in his class4 ,,general ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions to the teacher1 page #bee4 ,scheme for the ,adjective4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,adjective4 ,uses4 ,modifier 7#ab74 ,attribute ,complement 7#bi1 #cj74 ,objective ,complement 7#ca74 ,classes4 ,descriptive 7#hi-ia74 ,definitive 7#hi-ia74 ,modification4--,comparison4 ,pos4 ,deg4 ,comp4 #abg1 #abh4 ,sup4 ,questions on the ,adjective4 #a4 ,define the adjective and its classes4--,lesson #hi4 #b4 ,define comparison and the degrees of comparison4--,lesson #abg4 #c4 ,give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison4--,lesson #abg4 #d4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adjectives4--,lessons #ij1 #ia4 #e4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparative and superlative forms4--,lesson #abh4 ,scheme for the ,adverb4 ,,adverb4 ,classes4 ,time4 ,place4 ,degree4 #ib-id4 ,manner4 ,cause4 ,modification4--,comparison4 ,pos4 ,deg4 ,comp4 #abg1 #abh4 ,sup4 ,questions on the ,adverb4 #a4 ,define the adverb and its classes4--,lesson #ib4 #b4 ,illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison4 --,lesson #abg4 #c4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs4 --,lesson #ic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #abi4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,,voice4 ,introductory ,hints4--,he picked a rose4 ,a rose was picked by him4 ,the same thing is here told in two ways4 ,the first verb1 picked1 shows that the subject names the actor2 the second verb1 was picked1 shows that the subject names the thing acted upon4 ,these different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called ,voice4 ,the first form is in the ,active ,voice2 the second is in the ,passive ,voice4 ,the active voice is used when the agent1 or actor1 is to be made prominent2 the passive1 when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent4 ,the passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown1 or when1 for any reason1 we do not care to name the agent2 as1 ,the ship was wrecked2 ,money is coined4 ,,definitions4 ,voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon4 ,the ,active ,voice shows that the subject names the actor4 ,the ,passive ,voice shows that the subject names the thing acted upon4 ,the passive form is compound1 and may be resolved into an asserting word 7some form of the verb be7 and an attribute complement 7a past participle of a transitive verb74 ,an expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice4 ,examples4--,the coat was sometimes worn by ,joseph 7was worn-- passive voice74 ,the coat was badly worn 7was--incomplete predicate1 worn--adjective complement74 ,remark4--,to test the passive voice note whether the one named by the subject is acted upon1 and whether the verb may be followed by by before the name of the agent without changing the sense4 ,direction4---,tell which of the following completed predicates may be treated as single verbs1 and which should not be so treated3-- #a4 ,the lady is accomplished4 #b4 ,this task was not accomplished in a day4 #c4 ,are you prepared to recite8 #d4 ,dinner was soon prepared4 #e4 ,a shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge4 #f4 ,you are mistaken4 #g4 ,the man was drunk before the wine was drunk4 #h4 ,the house is situated on the bank of the river4 #i4 ,i am obliged to you4 #aj4 ,i am obliged to do this4 #aa4 ,the horse is tired4 #ab4 ,a fool and his money are soon parted4 #ac4 ,the tower is inclined4 #ad4 ,my body is inclined by years4 ,direction4--,name all the transitive verbs in ,lesson #gh1 and give their voice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #acj4 ,,composition--,,voice4 ,the object complement of a verb in the active voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice4 ,example4--,the ,danes invaded ,england ,england was invaded by the ,danes4 ,remark4--,you will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent2 in the second sentence1 the receiver4 ,direction4--,in each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence1 and note the other changes that occur3-- #a4 ,mercury1 the messenger of the gods1 wore a winged cap and winged shoes4 #b4 ,when the ,saxons subdued the ,britons1 they introduced into ,england their own language1 which was a dialect of the ,teutonic1 or ,gothic4 #c4 ,my wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen1 not for a fine1 glossy surface1 but for such qualities as would wear well4 #d4 ,bacchus1 the god of wine1 was worshiped in many parts of ,greece and ,rome4 #e4 ,the minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed--in the prevailing fashion4 #f4 ,harvey1 an ,english physician1 discovered that blood circulates4 #g4 ,the luxury of ,capua1 more powerful than the ,roman legions1 vanquished the victorious ,carthaginians4 #h4 ,his eloquence had struck them dumb4 ,remark4--,notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice4 #i4 ,that tribunal pronounced ,charles a tyrant4 #aj4 ,the town had nicknamed him ,beau ,seymour4 #aa4 ,even silent night proclaims my soul immortal4 #ab4 ,we saw the storm approaching4 7,notice that the objective complement is here a participle47 #ac4 ,he kept his mother waiting4 #ad4 ,we found him lying dead on the field4 #ae4 ,we all believe him to be an honest man4 7,notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase47 #af4 ,some1 sunk to beasts1 find pleasure end in pain4 #ag4 ,everybody acknowledged him to be a genius4 ,the indirect1 or dative1 object is sometimes made the subject of a verb in the passive voice1 while the object complement is retained after the verb4 ,footnote3 ,some grammarians condemn this construction4 ,it is true that it is a violation of the general analogies1 or laws1 of language2 but that it is an idiom of our language1 established by good usage1 is beyond controversy4 ,concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive1 there is difference of opinion4 ,some call it an adverbial modifier1 some call it a retained object1 and some say that it is a noun without grammatical construction4 ,in ,i offered him money1 him represents the one to whom the act was directed1 and money names the thing directly acted upon4 ,in ,he was offered money1 the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is not changed2 money still names the thing directly acted upon4 ,example4--,the porter refused him admittance ,he was refused admittance by the porter4 ,direction4--,change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences1 and note the other changes that occur3-- #ah4 ,they were refused the protection of the law4 #ai4 ,he was offered a pension by the government4 #bj4 ,i was asked that question yesterday4 #ba4 ,he told me to leave the room4 ,explanation4--,here the infinitive phrase is the object complement1 and 7to7 me is used adverbially4 ,to leave the room that ,i should leave the room4 #bb4 ,i taught the child to read4 #bc4 ,i taught the child reading4 #bd4 ,they told me that your name was ,fontibell4 ,direction4--,change the following transitive verbs to the passive form1 using first the regular and then the idiomatic construction3-- ,model4--,he promised me a present ,a present was promised me 7regular7 ,i was promised a present 7idiomatic74 #be4 ,they must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves4 #bf4 ,he offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion4 ,an intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a preposition4 ,example4--,all his friends laughed at him ,he was laughed at 7ridiculed7 by all his friends4 ,remark4---,was laughed at may be treated as one verb4 ,some grammarians1 however1 would call at an adverb4 ,the intransitive verb and preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice4 ,direction4--,change the voice of the following verbs3-- #bg4 ,this artful fellow has imposed upon us all4 #bh4 ,the speaker did not even touch upon this topic4 #bi4 ,he dropped the matter there1 and did not refer to it afterward4 ,remark4--,the following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction4 ,a transitive verb which1 in the active voice1 is followed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase1 takes1 in the passive1 the principal word of the phrase for its subject1 retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning2 as1 ,they took care of it1 ,it was taken care of4 ,direction4--,put the following sentences into several different forms1 and determine which is the best3-- #cj4 ,his original purpose was lost sight of 7forgotten74 ,footnote3 ,some would parse of as an adverb relating to was lost1 and sight as a noun used adverbially to modify was lost2 others would treat sight as an object complement of was lost2 others would call was lost sight of a compound verb2 and others1 believing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position1 analyze the expression as if arranged thus3 ,sight of his original purpose was lost4 #ca4 ,such talents should be made much of4 #cb4 ,he was taken care of by his friends4 #cc4 ,some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aca4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,verb--,,continued4 ,,mode1 ,,tense1 ,,number1 ,,and ,,person4 ,introductory ,hints4--,james walks4 ,here the walking is asserted as an actual fact4 ,james may walk4 ,here the walking is asserted not as an actual1 but as a possible1 fact4 ,if ,james walk out1 he will improve4 ,here the walking is asserted only as thought of1 without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact4 ,james1 walk out4 ,here the walking is not asserted as a fact1 but as a command--,james is ordered to make it a fact4 ,these different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call ,mode4 ,the first verb is in the ,indicative ,mode2 the second in the ,potential ,mode2 the third in the ,subjunctive ,mode2 the fourth in the ,imperative ,mode4 ,for the two forms of the verb called the ,participle and the ,infinitive1 see ,lessons #cg and #dj4 ,i walk4 ,i walked4 ,i shall walk4 ,in these three sentences the manner of asserting the action is the same1 but the time in which the action takes place is different4 ,walk asserts the action as going on in present time1 and1 as ,tense means time1 is in the ,present ,tense4 ,walked asserts the action as past1 and is in the ,past ,tense4 ,shall walk asserts the action as future1 and is in the ,future ,tense4 ,i have walked out to-day4 ,i had walked out when he called4 ,i shall have walked out by to-morrow4 ,have walked asserts the action as completed at the present1 and is in the ,present ,perfect ,tense4 ,had walked asserts the action as completed in the past1 and is in the ,past ,perfect ,tense4 ,shall have walked asserts action to be completed in the future1 and is in the ,future ,perfect ,tense4 ,i walk4 ,thou walkest4 ,he walks4 ,they walk4 ,in the second sentence walk is changed by adding est2 in the third sentence1 by adding s4 ,verbs are said to agree in ,person and ,number with their subjects4 ,but this agreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb4 ,,definitions4 ,mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being4 ,the ,indicative ,mode asserts the action or being as a fact4 ,footnote3 ,in ,are you going8 or ,you are going8 a fact is referred to the hearer for his admission or denial4 ,in ,who did it8 the fact that some person did it is asserted1 and the hearer is requested to name the person4 ,it will be seen that the ,indicative ,mode may be used in asking a question4 ,the ,potential ,mode asserts the power1 liberty1 possibility1 or necessity of acting or being4 ,the ,subjunctive ,mode asserts the action or being as a mere condition1 supposition1 or wish4 ,the ,imperative ,mode asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty4 ,the ,infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way1 without asserting it of anything4 ,the ,participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun1 and expressing the action or being as assumed4 ,the ,present ,participle denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate4 ,the ,past ,participle denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate4 ,the ,past ,perfect ,participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate4 ,tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being4 ,the ,present ,tense expresses action or being as present4 ,the ,past ,tense expresses action or being as past4 ,the ,future ,tense expresses action or being as yet to come4 ,the ,present ,perfect ,tense expresses action or being as completed at the present time4 ,the ,past ,perfect ,tense expresses action or being as completed at some past time4 ,the ,future ,perfect ,tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time4 ,number and ,person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #acb4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,,conjugation4 ,,definitions4 ,conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb4 ,synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses4 ,auxiliary ,verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs4 ,the auxiliaries are do1 did1 have1 had1 shall1 should1 will1 would1 may1 might1 can1 could1 must1 and be 7with all its variations1 see ,lesson #ace74 ,the ,principal ,parts of a verb1 or those from which the other parts are derived1 are the present indicative or the present infinitive1 the past indicative1 and the past participle4 ,list of ,irregular ,verbs4 ,footnote3 ,grammarians have classed verbs on the basis of their form or history as ,strong 7or ,old7 and ,weak 7or ,new74 ,strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present without adding anything2 weak verbs form their past tense by adding ed1 d1 or t4 ,some weak verbs change the vowel of the present2 as1 tell1 told2 teach1 taught4 ,these are weak because they add d or t4 ,some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything2 as1 feed1 fed2 lead1 led2 and some have the present and the past alike2 as1 set1 set2 rid1 rid4 ,they have dropped the past tense ending4 ,the past participle of all strong verbs once ended in en or n1 but in many verbs this ending is now lost4 ,since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding ed1 we call such ,regular1 and all others ,irregular4 ,our irregular verbs include all strong verbs and those that may be called irregular weak verbs4 ,of the ed added to form the past tense of regular verbs1 d is what remains of did2 we did love1 for instance1 being written love-did-we4 ,this derivation of d in ed is questioned4 ,the d of the participle is not from did but is from an old participle suffix4 ,the e in the ea of both these forms is the old connecting vowel4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,it would be well to require the pupils1 in studying and in reciting these lists of irregular verbs1 to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past participle1 e4g4 ,i began yesterday2 ,he has begun to do better4 ,in this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which they already know how to use1 and they will be led to correct what has been faulty in their use of other forms4 ,remarks4--,verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called ,redundant4 ,verbs that are wanting in any of their parts1 as can and may1 are called ,defective4 ,the present participle is not here given as a principal part4 ,it may always be formed from the present tense by adding ing4 ,in adding ing and other terminations1 the ,rules for ,spelling 7see ,lesson #abg7 should be observed4 ,the forms below in ,italics are regular2 and those in smaller type are obsolete1 and need not be committed to memory4 ,present4 ,past4 ,past ,par4 ,abide1 abode1 abode4 ,awake1 awoke1 awaked4 awaked4 ,be or am1 was1 been4 ,bear1 bore1 born1 7bring forth7 bare1 borne4 ,bear1 bore1 borne4 7carry7 bare1 ,beat1 beat1 beaten1 beat4 ,begin1 began1 begun4 ,bend1 bent1 bent1 bended1 bended4 ,bereave1 bereft1 bereft1 bereaved1 bereaved4 ,beseech1 besought1 besought4 ,bet1 bet1 bet1 betted1 betted4 ,bid1 bade1 bid1 bidden1 bid4 ,bind1 bound1 bound4 ,bite1 bit1 bitten1 bit4 ,bleed1 bled1 bled4 ,blend1 blent1 blent1 blended1 blended4 ,bless1 blest1 blest1 blessed1 blessed4 ,blow1 blew1 blown4 ,break1 broke1 broken4 brake1 ,breed1 bred1 bred4 ,bring1 brought1 brought4 ,build1 built1 built4 ,burn burnt1 burnt1 burned1 burned4 ,burst1 burst1 burst4 ,buy1 bought1 bought4 ,can1#a could1 -----4 ,cast1 cast1 cast4 ,catch1 caught1 caught4 ,chide1 chid1 chidden1 chid4 ,choose1 chose1 chosen4 ,cleave1 cleaved1 cleaved4 7adhere7 clave1 ,cleave cleft1 cleft1 7split7 clove1 cloven1 clave1 cleaved4 ,cling1 clung1 clung4 ,clothe1 clad1 clad1 clothed clothed4 7,be7,come1 came1 come4 ,cost1 cost1 cost4 ,creep1 crept1 crept4 ,crow crew1 crowed4 crowed1 ,cut1 cut1 cut4 ,dare1 durst1 dared4 7venture7 dared1 ,deal1 dealt1 dealt4 ,dig1 dug1 dug1 digged1 digged4 ,do1 did1 done4 ,draw1 drew1 drawn4 ,dream1 dreamt1 dreamt1 dreamed1 dreamed4 ,dress drest1 drest1 dressed1 dressed4 ,drink1 drank1 drunk4 ,drive1 drove1 driven4 ,dwell dwelt1 dwelt1 dwelled1 dwelled4 ,eat1 ate1 eaten4 7,be7 ,fall1 fell1 fallen4 ,feed1 fed1 fed4 ,feel1 felt1 felt4 ,fight1 fought1 fought4 ,find1 found1 found4 ,flee1 fled1 fled4 ,fling1 flung1 flung4 ,fly1 flew1 flown4 ,forsake1 forsook1 forsaken4 ,forbear1 forbore1 forborne4 ,freeze1 froze1 frozen4 7,for7,get1 got1 got1 gotten4#b ,gild1 gilt1 gilt1 gilded1 gilded4 ,gird1 girt1 girt1 girded1 girded4 7,for7,give1 gave1 given4 ,go1 went1#c gone4 7,en7,grave graved1 graved1 graven4 ,grind1 ground1 ground4 ,grow1 grew1 grown4 ,hang1 hung1 hung1 hanged1 hanged4#d ,have1 had1 had4 ,hear1 heard heard4 ,heave hove1 hove1#e heaved1 heaved4 ,hew1 hewed1 hewed1 hewn4 ,hide1 hid1 hidden1 hid4 ,hit1 hit1 hit4 7,be7,hold1 held1 held1 holden4 ,hurt1 hurt1 hurt4 ,keep1 kept1 kept4 ,kneel knelt1 knelt1 kneeled1 kneeled4 ,knit knit1 knit1 knitted1 knitted4 ,know1 knew1 known4 ,lade1 laded1 laded1 7load7 laden4 ,lay1 laid1 laid4 ,lead1 led1 led4 ,footnote #a3 ,can1 may1 shall1 will1 must1 and ought were originally past forms4 ,this accounts for their having no change in the third person4 ,footnote #b3 ,gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten4 ,footnote #c3 ,went is the past of wend1 to go4 ,footnote #d3 ,hang1 to execute by hanging1 is regular4 ,footnote #e3 ,hove is used in sea language4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #acc4 ,,list ,,of ,,irregular ,,verbs--,,continued4 ,present4 ,past4 ,past ,par4 ,lean1 leant1 leant1 leaned1 leaned4 ,leap1 leapt1 leapt1 leaped1 leaped4 ,learn1 learnt1 learnt1 learned1 learned4 ,leave1 left1 left4 ,lend1 lent1 lent4 ,let1 let1 let4 ,lie1 lay1 lain4 7recline7 ,light1 lighted1 lighted1 lit1 lit4#a ,lose1 lost1 lost4 ,make1 made1 made4 ,may1 might1 ----4 ,mean1 meant1 meant4 ,meet1 met1 met4 ,mow1 mowed1 mowed1 mown4 ,must1 ----1 ----4 ,ought1 ----1 ----4 ,pay1 paid1 paid4 ,pen1 pent1 pent1 7inclose7 penned1 penned4 ,put1 put1 put4 ,quit1 quit1 quit1 quitted1 quitted4 ----1 quoth1#b ----4 ,rap1 rapt1 rapt1 rapped1 rapped4 ,read1 read1 read4 ,rend1 rent1 rent4 ,rid1 rid1 rid4 ,ride1 rode1 ridden4 ,ring1 rang1 rung1 rung1 7,a7,rise1 rose1 risen4 ,rive1 rived1 riven1 rived4 ,run1 ran1 run4 ,saw1 sawed1 sawed1 sawn4 ,say1 said1 said4 ,see1 saw1 seen4 ,seek1 sought1 sought4 ,seethe1 seethed1 seethed1 sod1 sodden4 ,sell1 sold1 sold4 ,send1 sent1 sent4 7,be7,set1 set1 set4 ,shake1 shook1 shaken4 ,shall1 should1 ------4 ,shape1 shaped1 shaped1 shapen ,shave1 shaved1 shaved1 shaven4 ,shear1 sheared1 sheared1 shore1 shorn4 ,shed1 shed1 shed4 ,shine1 shone1 shone4 ,shoe1 shod1 shod4 ,shoot1 shot1 shot4 ,show1 showed1 shown1 showed4 ,shred1 shred1 shred4 ,shrink1 shrank1 shrunk1 shrunk1 shrunken4 ,shut1 shut1 shut4 ,sing1 sang1 sung4 sung1 ,sink1 sank1 sunk1 sunk1 sunken4 ,sit1 sat1 sat4 ,slay1 slew1 slain4 ,sleep1 slept1 slept4 ,slide1 slid1 slidden1 slid4 ,sling1 slung1 slung4 slang ,slink1 slunk1 slunk4 ,slit1 slit1 slit1 slitted1 slitted4 ,smell1 smelt1 smelt1 smelled1 smelled4 ,smite1 smote1 smitten1 smit4 ,sow1 sowed1 sown1 sowed4 ,speak1 spoke1 spoken4 spake1 ,speed1 sped1 sped4 ,spell1 spelt1 spelt1 spelled1 spelled4 ,spend1 spent1 spent4 ,spill1 spilt1 spilt1 spilled1 spilled4 ,spin1 spun1 spun4 span1 ,spit1 spit1 spit1 spat1 spitten4 ,split1 split1 split4 ,spoil1 spoilt1 spoilt1 spoiled1 spoiled4 ,spread1 spread1 spread4 ,spring1 sprang1 sprung4 sprung1 ,stand1 stood1 stood4 ,stave1 stove1 stove1 staved1 staved4 ,stay1 staid1 staid1 stayed1 stayed4 ,steal1 stole1 stolen4 ,stick1 stuck1 stuck4 ,sting1 stung1 stung4 ,stink1 stunk1 stunk4 stank1 ,strew1 strewed1 strewn1 strewed4 ,stride1 strode1 stridden4 ,strike1 struck1 struck1 stricken4 ,string1 strung1 strung1 ,strive1 strove1 striven4 ,strow1 strowed1 strown1 strowed4 ,swear1 swore1 sworn sware1 ,sweat1 sweat1 sweat1 sweated1 sweated4 ,sweep1 swept1 swept4 ,swell1 swelled1 swelled1 swollen4 ,swim1 swam1 swum4 swum1 ,swing1 swung1 swung4 ,take1 took1 taken1 ,teach1 taught1 taught4 ,tear1 tore1 torn4 tare1 ,tell1 told1 told4 ,think1 thought1 thought4 ,thrive1 throve1 thriven1 thrived1 thrived4 ,throw1 threw1 thrown4 ,thrust1 thrust1 thrust4 ,tread1 trod1 trodden1 trod4 ,wake1 waked1 waked1 woke1 woke4 ,wax1 waxed1 waxed1 waxen4 ,wear1 wore1 worn4 ,weave1 wove1 woven4 ,weep1 wept1 wept4 ,wet1 wet1 wet4 ,will1 would1 ----4 ,win1 won1 won4 ,wind1 wound1 wound4 ,work1 wrought1 wrought1 worked1 worked4 7to7wit1 wot1 wist1 ----4 ,wring1 wrung1 wrung4 ,write1 wrote1 written4 ,footnote #a3 ,lighted ,is preferred to lit4 ,footnote #b3 ,quoth1 now nearly obsolete1 is used only in the first and the third person of the past tense4 ,quoth ,i said ,i4 ,other forms nearly obsolete are sometimes met in literature2 as1 ,methinks ,i scent the morning air2 ,woe worth the day4 ,methinks 7,a4 ,s4 thincan1 to seem1 not thencan1 to think7 seems to me4 ,in the sentence above1 ,i scent the morning air is the subject1 thinks is the predicate1 and me is a dative1 or a pronoun used adverbially4 ,woe worth 7,a4 ,s4 weorthan1 to be or become7 the day ,woe be to the day1 or ,let woe be to the day1 or ,may woe be to the day4 ,,note4--,professor ,lounsbury says1 ,modern ,english has lost not a single one irregular1 or strong1 verb since the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth2 and adds1 ,the present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to the strong verbs it already possesses but 444 even to extend their number whenever possible4 ,and he instances a few which since #afjj have deserted from the regular conjugation to the irregular4 ,but it should be said that new ,english verbs1 from whatever source derived1 form their past tense and participle in ed4 ,so that while the regular verbs are not increasing by desertions from the irregular1 the regular verbs are slowly gaining in number4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #acd4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,verb--,,continued4 ,,conjugation ,footnote3 ,we give the conjugation of the verb in the simplest form consistent with what is now demanded of a text-book4 ,much of this scheme might well be omitted4 ,those who wish to reject the ,potential ,mode1 and who prefer a more elaborate and technical classification of the mode and tense forms1 are referred to pages #cgc1 #cgd4 --,,simplest ,,form4 ,,remark4--,english verbs have few inflections compared with those of other languages4 ,some irregular verbs have seven forms--see1 saw1 seeing1 seen1 sees1 seest1 sawest2 regular verbs have six--walk1 walked1 walking1 walks1 walkest1 walkedst4 ,as a substitute for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs1 and make what are called compound1 or periphrastic1 forms4 ,direction4--,fill out the following forms1 using the principal parts of the verb walk--present walk2 past walked2 past participle walked3-- ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 7,i7 _/,pres4_/1 #a4 7,we7 _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 _/,pres4_/1 7,thou7 _/,pres4_/est1#a1 #c4 7,he7 _/,pres4_/s2#a #c4 7,they7 _/,pres4_/4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 _/,past_/1 #a4 7,we7 _/,past_/1 #b4 7,you7 _/,past_/1 #b4 7,you7 _/,past_/1 7,thou7 _/,past_/st1 #c4 7,he7 _/,past_/2 #c4 7,they7 _/,past_/4 ,,future ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 shall _/,pres4_/1 #a4 7,we7 shall _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 will _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 will _/,pres4_/1 7,thou7 wil-t _/,pres4_/1 #c4 7,he7 will _/,pres4_/2 #c4 7,they7 will _/,pres4_/4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 7,we7 have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 have _/,past ,par4_/1 7,thou7 ha-st _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 7,he7 ha-s _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 7,they7 have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 had _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 7,we7 had _/,past ,par4_/ #b4 7,you7 had _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 had _/,past ,par4_/ 7,thou7 had-st _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 7,he7 had _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 7,they7 had _/,past ,par4_/ ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 shall have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 7,we7 shall have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 will have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 will have _/,past ,par4_/1 7,thou7 wil-t have _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 7,he7444will have4444_/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 7,they7 will have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,footnote #a3 ,in the indicative present1 second1 singular1 old style1 st is sometimes added in stead of est2 and in the third person1 common style1 es is added when s will not unite4 ,in the third person1 old style1 eth is added4 ,,potential ,,mode4#b ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 7,i7 may _/,pres4_/1 #a4 7,we7 may _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 may _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 may _/,pres4_/1 7,thou7 may-st _/,pres4_/1 #c4 7,he7 may _/,pres4_/2 #c4 7,they7 may _/,pres4_/4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 might _/,pres4_/1 #a4 7,we7 might _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 might _/,pres4_/1 #b4 7,you7 might _/,pres4_/1 7,thou7 might-st _/,pres4_/1 #c4 7,he7 might _/,pres4_/2 #c4 7,they7 might _/,pres4_/4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 may have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 7,we7 may have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 may have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 may have _/,past ,par4_/1 7,thou7 may-st have _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 7,he7 may have _/,past ,par4_/4 #c4 7,they7 may have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 might have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 7,we7 might have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 might have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 7,you7 might have _/,past ,par4_/1 7,thou7 might-st have _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 7,he7 might have _/,past ,par4_/4 #c4 7,they7 might have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,singular4 ,footnote #b3 ,those who do not wish to recognize a ,potential ,mode1 but prefer the unsatisfactory task of determining when may1 can1 must1 might1 could1 would1 and should are independent verbs in the indicative1 and when auxiliaries in the subjunctive1 are referred to pages #cgj-cgd4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4#c ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #b4 7,if thou7 _/,pres4_/ #c4 7,if he7 _/,pres4_/ ,footnote #c3 ,the subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language4 ,the only distinctive forms remaining 7except for the verb be7 are the second and the third person singular of the present1 and even these ate giving way to the indicative4 ,such forms as ,if he have loved1 etc4 are exceptional4 ,it is true that other forms1 as1 ,if he had known1 ,had he been1 ,should he fall1 may be used in a true subjunctive sense1 to assert what is a mere conception of the mind1 i4 e41 what is merely thought of1 without regard to its being or becoming a fact2 but in these cases it is not the form of the verb but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that determines the manner of assertion4 ,in parsing1 the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative or potential1 with a subjunctive meaning4 ,the offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging2 a classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult1 and would confuse the learner4 ,,imperative ,,mode4#d ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #b4 _/,pres4_/ 7you or thou72 #b4 _/,pres4_/ 7you or ye74 ,footnote #d3 ,from such forms as ,let us sing1 ,let them talk1 some grammarians make a first and a third person imperative4 ,but us is not the subject of the verb-phrase let-sing1 and let is not of the first person4 ,us is the object complement of let1 and the infinitive sing is the objective complement1 having us for its assumed subject4 ,some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as ,now tread we a measure2 ,perish the thought4 ,but these verbs express strong wish or desire and by some grammarians are called optative subjunctives4 ,perish the thought ,may the thought perish1 or ,i desire that the thought may perish1 or ,let the thought perish4 ,,infinitives4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 7,to7#e _/,pres4_/ 7,to7 have _/,past ,par4_/ ,footnote #e3 ,to1 as indicated by the 771 is not treated as a part of the verb4 ,writers on language are generally agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb1 it performs its proper function as a preposition1 meaning toward1 for1 etc42 as1 ,i am inclined to believe2 ,i came to hear4 ,when the infinitive phrase is used as a noun1 the to expresses no relation2 it seems merely to introduce the phrase4 ,when a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of some other part of speech1 we do not see why it should change its name4 ,in the expressions1 ,for me to do this would be wrong2 ,over the fence is out of danger1 few grammarians would hesitate to call for and over prepositions1 though they have no antecedent term of relation4 ,we cannot see that to is a part of the verb1 for it in no way affects the meaning1 as does an auxiliary1 or as does the to in ,he was spoken to4 ,those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the preposition to 7which1 as they have said1 is not a preposition7 placed before the infinitive1 i4e41 placed before that of which it forms a part --placed before itself4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon1 to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case1 where it had its proper function as a preposition2 as1 nominative etan 7to eat72 dative to etanne2 accusative e3tan4 ,when the dative ending ne was dropped1 making the three forms alike1 the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative1 but without expressing relation4 ,this dative of the infinitive1 with to1 was used mainly to indicate purpose4 ,when1 after the dropping of the ne ending1 the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the infinitive1 it became usual in ,elizabethan literature to place for before the to1 ,and for to deck heaven's battlements4-,greene4 ,what went ye out for to see8-,bible4 ,shut the gates for to preserve the town4--,k4 ,hen4 ,,vi41 ,part ,,iii4 ,,participles ,,present ,,past ,,past ,,perfect4 _/,pres4_/ing4 _/,past ,par4_/ ,having _/,past ,par4_/ ,may1 can1 and must are potential auxiliaries in the present and the present perfect tense2 might1 could1 would1 and should1 in the past and the past perfect4 ,the emphatic form of the present and the past tense indicative is made by prefixing do and did to the present4 ,do is prefixed to the imperative also4 ,,to ,,the ,,teaches4--,require the pupils to fill out these forma with other verbs1 regular and irregular1 using the auxiliaries named above4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ace4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,verb-,,continued4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,be4 ,footnote3 ,the conjugation of be contains three distinct roots--as1 be1 was4 ,am1 art1 is1 are are from as4 ,am as-m 7m is the m in me74 ,art as-t 7t is the th in thou74 ,be was formerly conjugated1 ,i be1 ,thou beest1 ,he beth or bes2 ,we be1 ,ye be1 ,they be4 ,direction4--,learn the following forms1 paying no attention to the line at the right of each verb3-- ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 7,i7 am ----1 #a4 7,we7 are ----1 #b4 7,you7 are ---- or #b4 7,you7 are ----1 7,thou7 art ----1 #c4 7,he7 is ----2 #c4 7,they7 are ----4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 was ----1 #a4 7,we7 were ----1 #b4 7,you7 were ---- or #b4 7,you7 were ----1 7,thou7 wast ----1 #c4 7,he7 was ----2 #c4 7,they7 were ----4 ,,future ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 shall be ----1 #a4 7,we7 shall be ----1 #b4 7,you7 will be ---- or #b4 7,you7 will be ----1 7,thou7 wilt be ----1 #c4 7,he7 will be ----2 #c4 7,they7 will be ----4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 have been ----1 #a4 7,we7 have been ----1 #b4 7,you7 have been ---- or #b4 7,you7 have been ----1 7,thou7 hast been ----1 #c4 7,he7 has been ----2 #c4 7,they7 have been ----4 ,,past ,,perfect #a4 7,i7 had been ----1 #a4 7,we7 had been ----1 #b4 7,you7 had been ---- or #b4 7,you7 had been ----1 7,thou7 hadst been ----1 #c4 7,he7 had been ----2 #c4 7,they7 had been ----4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 shall have been ----1 #a4 7,we7 shall have been ----1 #b4 7,you7 will have been ---- or #b4 7,you7 will have been ----1 7,thou7 wilt have been ----1 #c4 7,he7 will have been ----2 #c4 7,they7 will have been ----4 ,,potential ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 7,i7 may be ----1 #a4 7,we7 may be ----1 #b4 7,you7 may be ---- or #b4 7,you7 may be ----1 7,thou7 mayst be ----1 #c4 7,he7 may be ----2 #c4 7,they7 may be ----4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 might be ----1 #a4 7,we7 might be ----1 #b4 7,you7 might be ---- or #b4 7,you7 might be ----1 7,thou7 mightst be ----1 #c4 7,he7 might be ----2 #c4 7,they7 might be ----4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 7,i7 may have been ----1 #a4 7,we7 may have been ----1 #b4 7,you7 may have been ---- or #b4 7,you7 may have been ----1 7,thou7 mayst have been ----1 #c4 7,he7 may have been ----2 #c4 7,they7 may have been ----4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense1 #a4 7,i7 might have been ----1 #a4 7,we7 might have been ----1 #b4 7,you7 might have been ---- or #b4 7,you7 might have been ----1 7,thou7 mightst have been ----1 #c4 7,he7 might have been ----2 #c4 7,they7 might have been ----4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4 ,,pbesent ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 7,if ,i7 may have been ----1 #a4 7,if we7 may have been ----1 #b4 7,if you7 may have been ---- or #b4 7,if you7 may have been ----1 7,if thou7 mayst have been ----1 #c4 7,if he7 may have been ----2 #c4 7,if they7 may have been ----4 ,,past ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 7,if ,i7 were -----1 #b4 7,if you7 were ----1 or 7,if thou7 wert ----1 #c4 7,if he7 were ----2 ,,imperative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #b4 ,be 7you or thou7 ----2 #b4 ,be 7you or ye7 ----4 ,,infinitives4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 7,to7 be ----4 7,to7 have been ----4 ,,participles4 ,,present4 ,,past4 ,,past ,,perfect4 ,being ----4 ,been4 ,having been ----4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #acf4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,verb--,,continued4 ,,conjugation--,,progressive ,,and ,,passive ,,forms4 ,a verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb be4 ,a transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb be4 ,remark4--,the progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being2 as1 ,the birds are singing4 ,verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as love1 respect1 know--should not be conjugated in the progressive form4 ,we say1 ,i love the child--not ,i am loving the child4 ,remarks4--,the progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning2 as1 ,the house is building4 ,in such cases the word in ing was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition a1 a contraction from on or in2 as1 ,while the ark was a preparing2 ,while the flesh was in seething4 ,in modern language the preposition is dropped1 and the word in ing is treated adjectively4 ,another passive progressive form1 consisting of the verb be completed by the present passive participle1 has recently appeared in our language--,the house is being built1 or was being built4 ,although condemned by many linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable1 it has grown rapidly into good use1 especially in ,england1 ,such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be ambiguous1 i4e41 when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the receiver2 as1 ,the child is whipping2 ,the prisoner is trying4 ,introduced only to prevent ambiguity1 the so-called neologism has pushed its way1 and is found where the old form would not be ambiguous4 ,as now used1 the new form stands to the old in about the ratio of three to one4 ,direction4--,conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be1 in the preceding ,lesson1 with the present participle choosing2 and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen4 ,notice that after the past participle of the verb be no blank is left4 ,the past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of be2 it is never compound4 ,the past participle of a transitive verb is always passive except in such forms as have chosen1 had chosen4 7,see have written1 ,lesson #ach47 ,in the progressive1 the past participle is wanting4 ,all the participles of the verb choose are arranged in order below4 ,present4 ,past4 ,past ,perfect4 ,simplest form4 ,choosing1 chosen1 having chosen4 ,progressive form4 ,being choosing199 ------1 having been choosing4 ,passive form4 ,being chosen1 chosen1 having been chosen4 ,footnote 993 ,this form is not commonly used4 ,direction4--,write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs break1 drive1 read1 lift4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,select other verbs1 and require the pupils to conjugate them in the progressive and in the passive form4 ,require them to give synopses of all the forms4 ,require them in some of their synopses to use it or some noun for the subject in the third person4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #acg4 ,,conjugation--,,continued4 ,,interrogative ,,and ,,negative ,,forms4 ,a verb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary2 as1 ,does he sing8 ,a verb may be conjugated negatively by placing not after the first auxiliary2 as1 ,he does not sing4 ,not is placed before the infinitive and the participles2 as1 not to sing1 not singing4 ,a question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject and not after the first auxiliary2 as1 ,does he not sing8 ,remark4--,formerly1 it was common to use the simple form of the present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus3 ,loves he8 ,i know not4 ,such forms are still common in poetry1 but in prose they are now scarcely used4 ,we say1 ,does he love8 ,i do not know4 ,the verbs be and have are exceptions1 as they do not take the auxiliary do4 ,we say1 ,is it right8 ,have you another8 ,direction4--,write a synopsis in the third person1 singular1 of the verb walk conjugated 7#a7 interrogatively1 7#b7 negatively1 and 7#c7 so as to express a question with negation4 ,remember that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively4 ,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,select other verbs1 and require the pupils to conjugate them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive form4 ,require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ach4 ,,mode ,,and ,,tense ,,forms4 ,,compound ,,forms--,,analysis4 ,the compound1 or periphrastic1 forms of the verb consisting of two words may each be resolved into an asserting word and a participle or an infinitive4 ,if we look at the original meaning of the forms ,i do write1 ,i shall write1 ,i will write1 we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb1 and that write is an infinitive used as object complement4 ,i do write ,i do or perform the action 7to7 write4 ,i shall write ,i owe 7to7 write4 ,i will write ,i determine 7to7 write4 ,may write1 can write1 must write1 might write1 could write1 would write1 and should write may each be resolved into an asserting word and an infinitive4 ,the forms is writing1 was written1 etc4 consist each of an asserting word 7the verb be71 and a participle used as attribute complement4 ,the forms have written and had written are so far removed from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history4 ,they originated from such expressions as ,i have a letter written1 in which have 7 possess7 is a transitive verb taking letter for its object complement1 and written is a passive participle modifying letter4 ,the idea of possession has faded out of have1 and the participle has lost its passive meaning4 ,the use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs--,spring has come1 ,birds have flown1 etc4 being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms1 ,spring is come1 ,birds are flown4 7,is come1 are flown1 etc4 must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice47 ,footnote3 ,a peculiar use of had is found in the expressions had rather go and had better go1 condemned by many grammarians who suppose had to be here used incorrectly for would or should4 ,of these expressions the ,standard ,dictionary1 an authority worthy of our attention1 says3-- ,forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of ,samuel ,johnson1 the critics insisting upon the substitution of would or should1 as the case may demand1 for had2 but had rather and had better are thoroughly established ,english1 idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries4 ',i would rather not go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of choice1 or will1 in the matter2 but in all ordinary cases ',i had rather not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood4 ,if for ',you had better stay at home' we substitute ',you should better stay at home1' an entirely different meaning is expressed1 the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation4 ,in the analysis of ,i had rather go1 had is the predicate verb1 the infinitive go is the object complement1 and the adjective rather completes had and belongs to go1 i4e41 is objective complement4 ,had 7 should hold or regard7 is treated as a past subjunctive4 ,rather is the comparative of the old adjective rathe early1 from which comes the idea of preference4 ,the expression means1 ,i should hold going preferable4 ,the expressions ,you had better stay1 ,i had as lief not be1 are similar in construction to ,i had rather go4 ,i had sooner go is condemned by grammarians because sooner is never an adjective4 ,if sooner is here allowed as an idiom1 it is a modifier of had4 ,the expression equals1 ,i should more willingly have going4 ,compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus3 ,may have been written is composed of the compound auxiliary may have been and the participle written2 may have been is composed of the compound auxiliary may have and the participle been2 and may have is composed of the auxiliary may and the infinitive have4 ,may is the asserting word--the first auxiliary is always the asserting word4 ,direction4--,study what has been said above and analyze the following verbal forms1 distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute complements3-- #a4 ,i may be mistaken4 #b4 ,the farm was sold4 #c4 ,i shall be contented4 #d4 ,has it been decided8 #e4 ,you should have been working4 #f4 ,the danger might have been avoided4 #g4 ,he may have been tired and sleepy4 #h4 ,she is singing4 #i4 ,i shall be satisfied4 #aj4 ,the rule has not been observed4 #aa4 ,stars have disappeared4 #ab4 ,times will surely change4 ,,tense ,,forms--,,meaning4 ,the ,present ,tense is used to express 7#a7 what is actually present1 7#b7 what is true at all times1 7#c7 what frequently or habitually takes place1 7#d7 what is to take place in the future1 and it is used 7#e7 in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking4 ,examples4--,i hear a voice 7action as present74 ,the sun gives light 7true at all times74 ,he writes for the newspapers 7habitual74 ,phillips speaks in ,boston to-morrow night 7future74 ,he mounts the scaffold2 the executioners approach to bind him2 he struggles1 resists1 etc4 7past events pictured to the imagination as present74 ,the clans of ,culloden are scattered in fight2 they rally1 they bleed1 etc4 7future events now seen in vision74 ,the ,past ,tense may express 7#a7 simply past action or being1 7#b7 a past habit or custom1 7#c7 a future event1 and 7#d7 it may refer to present time4 ,examples4--,the birds sang 7simply past action74 ,he wrote for the newspapers 7past habit74 ,if ,i should go1 you would miss me 7future events74 ,if he were here1 he would enjoy this 7refers to present time74 ,the ,future ,tense may express 7#a7 simply future action or being1 7#b7 a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time4 ,examples4--,i shall write soon 7simply future action74 ,he will sit there by the hour 7indefinite in time74 ,the ,present ,perfect ,tense expresses 7#a7 action or being as completed in present time 7i4e41 a period of time--an hour1 a year1 an age--of which the present forms a part71 and 7#b7 action or being to be completed in a future period4 ,examples4--,homer has written poems 7the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present74 ,when ,i have finished this1 you shall have it 7action to be completed in a future period74 ,the ,past ,perfect ,tense expresses 7#a7 action or being as completed at some specified past time1 and 7#b7 in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time4 ,examples4--,i had seen him when ,i met you 7action completed at a specified past time74 ,if ,i had had time1 ,i should have written 7,i had not time--,i did not write47 ,the ,future ,perfect ,tense expresses action to be completed at some specified future time4 ,example4--,i shall have seen him by to-morrow noon4 ,direction4--,study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms1 and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs3-- #a4 ,i go to the city to-morrow4 #b4 ,the village master taught his little school4 #c4 ,plato reasons well4 #d4 ,a triangle has three sides4 #e4 ,to-morrow is the day appointed4 #f4 ,moses has told many important facts4 #g4 ,the ship sails next week4 #h4 ,she sings well4 #i4 ,cicero has written orations4 #aj4 ,he would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe4 #aa4 ,you may hear when the next mail arrives1 #ab4 ,had ,i known this before1 ,i could have saved you much trouble4 #ac4 ,he will occasionally lose his temper4 #ad4 ,at the end of this week ,i shall have been in school four years4 #ae4 ,if ,i were you1 ,i would try that4 #af4 ,he will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it4 #ag4 ,she starts1 she moves1 she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel4 ,model for ,written ,parsing adapted to all ,parts of ,speech4 ,oh6 it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the following two tables have been split to fit within ,project ,gutenberg line-width requirements4 ,the first column of each table has been repeated for easier reference4 ,,classification4 ,,modifications4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,sentence4,class4 ,sub-,c4 ,voice4,mode4,tense4,num4 ,per4 ,gen4 ,case4 ,oh6 ,int4 it ,pro4 ,per4 ,sing4 ad4 ,neut4 ,nom4 has ,vb4 ,ir41 ,tr4 ,act4 ,ind4,pres4 a ,adj4 ,def4 voice ,n4 ,com4 ,obj4 for ,prep4 those ,pro4 ,adj4 ,plu4 ,m4 or ,f4 who ,pro4 ,rel4 ,nom4 on ,prep4 their ,pro4 ,per4 ,pos4 sick ,adj4 ,des4 beds ,n4 ,com4 ,neut4 ,obj4 lie ,vb4 ,ir41,int4 -- ,ind4,pres4 and ,conj4 ,co-or4 waste ,vb4 ,reg41,int4 -- away4 ,adv4 ,place4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,syntax4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,sentence4,deg4 of ,comp4 ,oh6 ,independent4 it ,subject of has4 has ,predicate of it4 a -- ,modifier of voice4 voice ,object comp of has4 for ,shows ,rel4 of has to those4 those ,prin4 word in ,prep4 phrase4 who ,subject of lie and waste4 on ,shows ,rel4 of lie to beds4 their ,possessive ,mod4 of beds4 sick ,pos4 ,modifier of beds4 beds ,prin4 word in ,prep4 phrase4 lie ,predicate of who4 and ,connects lie and waste4 waste ,predicate of who4 away4 -- ,modifier of waste4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,for further exercises in parsing the verb and for exercises in general parsing1 select from the preceding ,lessons on ,analysis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aci ,,parsing4 ,direction4--,select and parse1 according to the ,model below1 the verbs in the sentences of ,lesson #db4 ,for the agreement of verbs1 see ,lesson #adb4 ,model for ,written ,parsing--,verbs4--,the ,yankee1 selling his farm1 wanders away to seek new lands4 ,,classification4 ,,modifications4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,verbs4 ,kind4 ,voice4,mode4,tense4,num4 ,per4 99selling,pr4 ,par41 ,ir41 ,tr4 ,act4 -- -- -- -- wanders ,reg41 ,int4 -- ,ind4 ,pres4 ,sing4 #c;d4 99seek ,inf41 ,ir41 ,tr4 ,act4 -- -- ,,syntax ----------------- ,verbs4 selling ,mod4 of ,yankee4 wanders ,pred4 of ,yankee4 seek ,prin4 word in phrase ,mod4 of wanders4 ,footnote3 ,participles and infinitives have neither person nor number4 7,see ,model for ,written ,parsing on opposite page47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #adj4 ,,construction ,,of ,,mode ,,and ,,tense ,,forms4 ,caution4--,be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning4 ,direction4--,correct the following errors1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,i done it myself4 #b4 ,he throwed it into the river1 for ,i seen him when he done it4 #c4 ,she sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her4 ,explanation4--,lay 7to place7 is transitive1 lie 7to rest7 is intransitive2 set 7to place7 is transitive1 sit 7to rest7 is intransitive4 ,set in some of its meanings is intransitive4 #d4 ,the tide sits in4 #e4 ,go and lay down4 #f4 ,the sun sits in the west4 #g4 ,i remember when the corner stone was lain4 #h4 ,sit the plates on the table4 #i4 ,he sat out for ,london yesterday4 #aj4 ,your dress sets well4 #aa4 ,the bird is setting on its eggs4 #ab4 ,i laid there an hour4 #ac4 ,set down and talk a little while4 #ad4 ,he has laid there an hour4 #ae4 ,i am setting by the river4 #af4 ,he has went and done it without my permission4 #ag4 ,he flew from justice4 #ah4 ,some valuable land was overflown4 #ai4 ,she come just after you left4 #bj4 ,they sung a new tune which they had not sang before4 #ba4 ,the water ,i drunk there was better than any that ,i had drank before4 #bb4 ,the leaves had fell4 #bc4 ,i had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather4 #bd4 ,i found the water froze4 #be4 ,he raised up4 #bf4 ,he run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down4 #bg4 ,i knowed that it was so1 for ,i seen him when he done it4 #bh4 ,i had began to think that you had forsook us4 #bi4 ,i am afraid that ,i cannot learn him to do it4 #cj4 ,i guess that ,i will stop4 #ca4 ,i expect that he has gone to ,boston4 #cb4 ,there ain't any use of trying4 #cc4 ,i have got no mother4 #cd4 ,can ,i speak to you8 #ce4 ,he had ought to see him4 ,explanation4--,as ought is never a participle1 it cannot be used after had to form a compound tense4 ,caution4--,a conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact1 or when the uncertainty lies merely in the speaker's knowledge of the fact4 ,but when the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a contingency1 or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of whose truth or untruth he has no doubt1 the subjunctive is used4 ,the subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions1 in expressing a wish for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all1 and instead of the potential mode in independent clauses4 ,examples4-- #a4 ,if 7 since7 it rains1 why do you go8 #b4 ,if it rains 7now71 ,i cannot go out4 #c4 ,if it rain1 the work will be delayed4 #d4 ,though it rain to-morrow1 we must march4 #e4 ,if there be mountains1 there must be valleys between4 #f4 ,though honey be sweet1 one can't make a meal of it4 #g4 ,if my friend were here1 he would enjoy this4 #h4 ,though immortality were improbable1 we should still believe in it4 #i4 ,one may doubt whether the best men be known4 #aj4 ,i wish the lad were taller4 #aa4 ,oh6 that ,i were a ,samson in strength4 #ab4 ,it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck4 ,explanation4--,in 7#a7 the raining is assumed as a fact4 ,in 7#b7 the speaker is uncertain of the fact4 ,in the conditional clause of 7#c7 and in the concessive clause of 7#d7 the raining is thought of as a mere contingency4 ,the speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of 7#e7 and in the concessive clause of 7#f71 and is certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of 7#g7 and in the concessive clause of 7#h74 ,there is an indirect question in 7#i71 a wish in 7#aj7 for something not at once attainable and in 7#aa7 for something forever unattainable1 and in 7#ab7 the subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential4 ,remarks4--,when there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive mode is required1 use the indicative4 ,the present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete omitted auxiliaries2 as1 ,if it 7should7 rain1 the work will be delayed2 ,till one greater man 7shall7 restore us1 etc4 ,this will often serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive mode4 ,if1 though1 lest1 unless1 etc4 are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode1 but these words are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunctive4 ,direction4--,justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,if this were so1 the difficulty would vanish4 #b4 ,if he was there1 ,i did not see him4 #c4 ,if to-morrow be fine1 ,i will walk with you4 #d4 ,though this seems improbable1 it is true4 #e4 ,if my friend is in town1 he will call this evening4 #f4 ,if he ever comes1 we shall know it4 ,explanation4--,in 7#f7 and 7#g7 the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in future time4 #g4 ,if he comes by noon1 let me know4 #h4 ,the ship leaps1 as it were1 from billow to billow4 #i4 ,take heed that thou speak not to ,jacob4 #aj4 ,if a pendulum is drawn to one side1 it will swing to the other4 ,explanation4--,be is often employed in making scientific statements like the preceding1 and may therefore be allowed1 ,if a pendulum is drawn ,whenever a pendulum is drawn4 #aa4 ,i wish that ,i were a musician4 #ab4 ,were ,i so disposed1 ,i could not gratify you4 #ac4 ,this sword shall end thee unless thou yield4 #ad4 ,govern well thy appetite1 lest sin surprise thee4 #ae4 ,i know not whether it is so or not4 #af4 ,would he were fatter6 #ag4 ,if there were no light1 there would be no colors4 #ah4 ,oh1 that he were a son of mine6 #ai4 ,though it be cloudy to-night1 it will be cold4 #bj4 ,though the whole exceed a part1 we sometimes prefer a part to the whole4 #ba4 ,whether he go or not1 ,i must be there4 #bb4 ,though an angel from heaven command it1 we should not steal4 #bc4 ,if there be an eye1 it was made to see4 #bd4 ,it were well it were done quickly4 ,direction4--,supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or the subjunctive mode1 and give a reason for your choice3-- #a4 ,i wish it ---- in my power to help you4 #b4 ,i tremble lest he ----4 #c4 ,if he ---- guilty1 the evidence does not show it4 #d4 ,he deserves our pity1 unless his tale ---- a false one4 #e4 ,though he ---- there1 ,i did not see him4 #f4 ,if he ---- but discreet1 he will succeed4 #g4 ,if ,i ---- he1 ,i would do differently4 #h4 ,if ye ---- men1 fight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ada4 ,,construction ,,of ,,mode ,,and ,,tense ,,forms--,,continued4 ,caution4--,be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in accordance with their meaning1 and in such a way as to preserve the proper order of time4 ,direction4--,correct the following errors1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,that custom has been formerly quite popular4 #b4 ,neither will they be persuaded1 though one rose from the dead4 #c4 ,he that was dead sat up and began to speak4 #d4 ,a man bought a horse for one hundred dollars2 and1 after keeping it three months1 at an expense of ten dollars a month1 he sells it for two hundred dollars4 ,what per cent does he gain8 #e4 ,i should say that it was an hour's ride4 #f4 ,if ,i had have seen him1 ,i should have known him4 #g4 ,i wish ,i was in ,dixie4 #h4 ,we should be obliged if you will favor us with a song4 #i4 ,i intended to have called4 ,explanation4--,this is incorrect2 it should be1 ,i intended to call4 ,the act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by intended4 ,remark4--,verbs of commanding1 desiring1 expecting1 hoping1 intending1 permitting1 etc4 are followed by verbs denoting present or future time4 ,footnote3 ,the ,standard ,dictionary makes this restriction3 ,the doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of have with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of4 ,attention to this qualification1 which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense-formation and connection1 is especially important and imperative4 ,if one says1 ',i meant to have visited ,paris and to have returned to ,london before my father arrived from ,america1' the past present perfect infinitive 444 is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed4 ',i meant to visit ,paris and to return to ,london before my father arrived from ,america1' may convey suggestively the thought intended1 but does not express it4 ,the present infinitive expresses an action as present or future1 and the present perfect expresses it as completed1 at the time indicated by the principal verb4 ,i am glad to have met you is correct1 because the meeting took place before the time of being glad4 ,i ought to have gone is exceptional4 ,ought has no past tense form1 and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time4 #aj4 ,we hoped to have seen you often4 #aa4 ,i should not have let you eaten it4 #ab4 ,i should have liked to have seen it4 #ac4 ,he would not have dared done that4 #ad4 ,you ought to have helped me to have done it4 #ae4 ,we expected that he would have arrived last night4 #af4 ,the experiment proved that air had weight4 ,remark4--,what is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present tense1 whatever tense precedes4 ,there seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly4 ,when a speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition1 he may use the past tense1 giving it the form of an indirect quotation2 as1 ,he said that iron was the most valuable of metals4 ,the tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of the principal verb2 as1 ,i knew where the place was4 #ag4 ,i had never known before how short life really was4 #ah4 ,we then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility4 ,the ,general maintained that there was not2 ,dr4 ,johnson maintained that there was4 #ai4 ,i have already told you that ,i was a gentleman4 #bj4 ,our fathers held that all men were created equal4 ,caution4--,use will and would to imply that the subject names the one whose will controls the action2 use shall and should to imply that the one named by the subject is under the control of external influence4 ,remark4--,the original meaning of shall 7to owe1 to be obliged7 and will 7to determine7 gives us the real key to their proper use4 ,the only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of will names something incapable of volition2 as1 ,the wind will blow4 ,even this may be a kind of personification4 ,examples4--,i shall go2 ,you will go2 ,he will go4 ,these are the proper forms to express mere futurity1 but even here we can trace the original meaning of shall and will4 ,in the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as something under the control of his own will4 ,in the second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their duty4 ,i will go4 ,here the action is under the control of the speaker's will4 ,he either promises or determines to go4 ,you shall go2 ,he shall go4 ,here the speaker either promises the going or determines to compel these persons to go2 in either case the one who goes is under some external influence4 ,shall ,i go8 ,here the speaker puts himself under the control of some external influence--the will of another4 ,will ,i go8--i4 e41 ,is it my will to go8--is not used except to repeat another's question4 ,it would be absurd for one to ask what his own will is4 ,shall you go8 ,ans4 ,i shall4 ,will you go8 ,ans4 ,i will4 ,shall he go8 ,ans4 ,he shall4 ,will he go8 ,ans4 ,he will4 ,the same auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer4 ,no difficulty shall hinder me4 ,the difficulty that might do the hindering is not to be left to itself1 but is to be kept under the control of the speaker4 ,he says that he shall go2 ,he says that he will go4 ,change the indirect quotations introduced by that to direct quotations1 and the application of the ,caution will be apparent4 ,you will see that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock4 ,this is only an apparent exception to the rule4 ,a superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compulsion1 and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey4 ,they knew that ,i should be there1 and that he would be there4 ,the same principles apply to should and would that apply to shall and will4 ,in this example the events are future as to past time2 making them future as to present time1 we have1 ,they know that ,i shall be there1 and that he will be there4 ,my friend said that he should not set out to-morrow4 ,change the indirect to a direct quotation1 and the force of should will be seen4 ,direction4--,assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the following sentences3-- #a4 ,hear me1 for ,i will speak4 #b4 ,if you will call1 ,i shall be happy to accompany you4 #c4 ,shall you be at liberty to-day8 #d4 ,i shall never see him again4 #e4 ,i will never see him again4 #f4 ,i said that he should be rewarded4 #g4 ,thou shalt surely die4 #h4 ,truth1 crushed to earth1 shall rise again4 #i4 ,though ,i should die1 yet will ,i not deny thee4 #aj4 ,though ,i should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand1 yet would ,i not put forth my hand against the king's son4 ,direction4--,fill each of the following blanks with shall1 will1 should1 or would1 and give the reasons for your choice3-- #a4 ,he knew who ---- betray him4 #b4 ,i ---- be fatigued if ,i had walked so far4 #c4 ,you did better than ,i ---- have done4 #d4 ,if he ---- come by noon1 ---- you be ready8 #e4 ,they do me wrong1 and ,i ---- not endure it4 #f4 ,i ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- do me the favor4 #g4 ,if ,i ---- say so1 ,i ---- be guilty of falsehood4 #h4 ,you ---- be disappointed if you ---- see it4 #i4 ---- he be allowed to go on8 #aj4 ---- you be unhappy1 if ,i do not come8 ,direction4--,correct the following errors1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,where will ,i leave you8 #b4 ,will ,i be in time8 #c4 ,it was requested that no person would leave his seat4 #d4 ,they requested that the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to his party4 #e4 ,when will we get through this tedious controversy8 #f4 ,i think we will have rain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #adb4 ,,construction ,,of ,,number ,,and ,,person ,,forms4 ,,agreement4--,,verbs--,,pronouns4 ,caution4--,a verb must agree with its subject in number and person4 ,remarks4--,practically1 this rule applies to but few forms4 ,are and were are the only plural forms retained by the ,english verb4 ,in the common style1 most verbs have one person form1 made by adding s or es 7has1 in the present perfect tense1 is a contraction of the indicative present--ha7ve7s74 ,the verb be has am 7first person7 and is 7third person74 ,in the solemn style1 the second person singular takes the ending est1 st1 or t1 and1 in the indicative present1 the third person singular adds eth4 7,see ,lessons #acd and #ace47 ,need and dare1 when followed by an infinitive without to1 are generally used instead of needs and dares2 as1 ,he need not do it2 ,he dare not do it4 ,caution4--,a collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of2 but1 when the collection as a whole is thought of1 the verb should be singular4 ,examples4-- l4 ,the multitude were of one mind4 #b4 ,the multitude was too large to number4 #c4 ,a number were inclined to turn back1 #d4 ,the number present was not ascertained4 ,caution4--,when a verb has two or more subjects connected by and1 it must agree with them in the plural4 ,exceptions4--l4 ,when the connected subjects are different names of the same thing1 or when they name several things taken as one whole1 the verb must be singular2 as1 ,my old friend and schoolmate is in town4 ,bread and milk is excellent food4 #b4 ,when the connected subjects are preceded by each1 every1 many a1 or no1 they are taken separately1 and the verb agrees with the nearest2 as1 ,every man1 woman1 and child was lost4 #c4 ,when the subjects are emphatically distinguished1 the verb agrees with the first and is understood with the second2 as1 ,time1 and patience also1 is needed4 7,the same is true of subjects connected by as well as2 as1 ,time1 as well as patience1 is needed47 #d4 ,when one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative1 the verb agrees with the affirmative2 as1 ,books1 and not pleasure1 occupy his time4 #e4 ,when several subjects follow the verb1 each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest2 as1 ,thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory4 ,remark4--,when one of two or more subjects connected by and is of the first person1 the verb is in the first person2 when one of the subjects is of the second person1 and none of the first1 the verb is in the second person4 ,i1 you1 and he we2 you and he you4 ,we say1 ,mary and ,i shall 7not will7 be busy to-morrow4 ,caution4--,when two or more subjects are connected by or or nor1 the verb agrees in person and number with the nearest2 as1 ,neither poverty nor wealth was desired2 ,neither he nor they were satisfied4 ,when the subjects require different forms of the verb1 it is generally better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence4 ,remarks4--,when a singular and a plural subject are used1 the plural subject is generally placed next to the verb4 ,in using pronouns of different persons1 it is generally more polite for the speaker to mention the one addressed first1 and himself last1 except when he confesses a fault4 ,caution4--,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number1 gender1 and person2 as1 ,thou who writest2 ,he who writes2 ,they who write1 etc4 ,the three special ,cautions given above for the agreement of the verb will also aid in determining the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent4 ,remarks4--,the pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the indefinite subject it take1 by attraction1 the person and number of the complement when this complement immediately precedes the adjective clause2 as1 ,it is ,i that am in the wrong2 ,it is thou that liftest me up2 ,it is the dews and showers that make the grass grow4 ,the pronoun you1 even when singular1 requires a plural verb4 ,direction4--,justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns3-- #a4 ,books is a noun4 #b4 ,the good are great4 #c4 ,the committee were unable to agree1 and they asked to be discharged4 #d4 ,the ,house has decided not to allow its members the privilege4 #e4 ,three times four is twelve4 ,footnote3 ,three times four is twelve and ,three times four are twelve are both used1 and both are defended4 ,the question is 7see ,caution for collective nouns71 ,is the number four thought of as a whole1 or are the individual units composing it thought of8 ,the expression ,four taken three times is twelve4 ,times is a noun used adverbially4 #f4 ,five dollars is not too much4 #g4 ,twice as much is too much4 #h4 ,two hours is a long time to wait4 #i4 ,to relieve the wretched was his pride4 #aj4 ,to profess and to possess are two different things4 #aa4 ,talking and eloquence are not the same4 #ab4 ,the tongs are not in their place4 #ac4 ,every one is accountable for his own acts4 #ad4 ,every book and every paper was found in its place4 #ae4 ,not a loud voice1 but strong proofs bring conviction4 #af4 ,this orator and statesman has gone to his rest4 #ag4 ,young's ,night ,thoughts is his most celebrated poetical work4 #ah4 ,flesh and blood hath not revealed it4 #ai4 ,the hue and cry of the country pursues him4 #bj4 ,the second and the third ,epistle of ,john contain each a single chapter4 #ba4 ,man is masculine because it denotes a male4 #bb4 ,therein consists the force and use and nature of language4 #bc4 ,neither wealth nor wisdom is the chief thing4 #bd4 ,either you or ,i am right4 #be4 ,neither you nor he is to blame4 #bf4 ,john1 and his sister also1 is going4 #bg4 ,the lowest mechanic1 as well as the richest citizen1 is here protected in his right4 #bh4 ,there are one or two reasons4 ,footnote3 ,when two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of the noun1 the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed4 #bi4 ,nine o'clock and forty-five minutes is fifteen minutes of ten4 #cj4 ,mexican figures1 or picture-writing1 represent things1 not words4 ,footnote3 ,the verb here agrees with figures1 as picture-writing is logically explanatory of figures4 #ca4 ,many a kind word and many a kind act has been put to his credit4 ,direction4--,correct the following errors1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 ,victuals are always plural4 #b4 ,plutarch's ,parallel ,lives are his great work4 #c4 ,what sounds have each of the vowels8 #d4 ,no1 no1 says ,i4 #e4 ,we agree1 says they4 #f4 ,where was you8 #g4 ,every one of these are good in their place4 #h4 ,neither of them have recited their lesson4 #i4 ,there comes the boys4 #aj4 ,each of these expressions denote action4 #aa4 ,one of you are mistaken4 #ab4 ,there is several reasons for this4 #ac4 ,the assembly was divided in its opinion4 #ad4 ,the public is invited to attend4 #ae4 ,the committee were full when this point was decided4 #af4 ,the nation are prosperous4 #ag4 ,money1 as well as men1 were needed4 #ah4 ,now1 boys1 ,i want every one of you to decide for themselves4 #ai4 ,neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven4 #bj4 ,she fell to laughing like one out of their right mind4 #ba4 ,five years' interest are due4 #bb4 ,three quarters of the men was discharged4 #bc4 ,nine-tenths of every man's happiness depend upon this4 #bd4 ,no time1 no money1 no labor1 were spared4 #be4 ,one or the other have erred in their statement4 #bf4 ,why are dust and ashes proud8 #bg4 ,either the master or his servants is to blame4 #bh4 ,neither the servants nor their master are to blame4 #bi4 ,our welfare and security consists in unity4 #cj4 ,the mind1 and not the body1 sin4 #ca4 ,he don't like it4 #cb4 ,many a heart and home have been desolated by drink4 ,,general ,,review4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,see suggestions to the teacher1 page #bee994 ,scheme for the ,verb4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,verb4 ,uses4 ,to assert action1 being1 or state4--,predicate 7#d1 #aa7 ,to assume action1 being1 or state4 ,participles 7#cg7 ,infinitives 7#dj7 ,classes4 ,form4 ,regular 7#ib74 ,irregular 7#ib1 #acb1 #acc74 7,redundant and ,defective7 ,meaning4 ,transitive 7#ib74 ,intransitive 7#ib74 ,modifications4 ,voice4 ,active 7#abi1 #acj74 ,passive 7#abi1 #acj74 ,mode4 ,indicative 7#aca1 #acd-acg74 ,potential 7#aca1 #acd-acg74 ,subjunctive 7#aca1 #acd-acg1 #adj74 ,imperative 7#aca1 #acd-acg74 ,tense4 ,present4 ,past4 ,future4 #aca1 #acd-ach1 ,present ,perfect4 #adj1 #ada4 ,past ,perfect4 ,future ,perfect4 ,number4 ,singular4 #aca1 #acd1 #ace4 ,plural4 ,person4 ,first4 ,second4 #aca1 #acd1 #ace4 ,third4 ,participles4--,classes4 ,present4 ,past4 #aca1 #acd1 #acf4 ,past ,perfect4 ,infinitives4-- ,present4 ,present ,perfect4 #aca1 #acd1 #ace4 ,questions on the ,verb4 #a4 ,define the verb and its classes4--,lessons #ib1 #acb4 #b4 ,define the modifications of the verb4--,lessons #abi1 #aca4 #c4 ,define the several voices1 modes1 and tenses4--,lessons #abi1 #aca4 #d4 ,define the participle and its classes4--,lesson #aca4 #e4 ,define the infinitive4--,lesson #aca4 #f4 ,give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in all the different forms4--,lessons #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg4 #g4 ,analyze the different mode and tense forms1 and give the functions of the different tenses4--,lesson #ach4 #h4 ,give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the mode and tense forms1 and of the person and number forms4--,lessons #adj1 #ada1 #adb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #adc4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,lesson #aab4--,what are ,modifications8 ,have ,english words many inflections8 ,have they lost any8 ,what is ,number8 ,define the singular and the plural number4 ,how is the plural of nouns regularly formed8 ,in what ways may the plural be formed irregularly8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #aac4--;,give the plural of some nouns adopted from other languages4 ,how do compounds form the plural8 ,illustrate the several ways4 ,how do letters1 figures1 etc4 form the plural8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #aad4--;,give examples of nouns having each two plurals differing in meaning4 ,some which have the same form in both numbers4 ,some which have no plural4 ,some which are always plural4 ,what is said of the number of collective nouns8 ,lesson #aaf4--;,in what four ways may the number of nouns be determined8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #aag4--,what is ,gender8 ,define the different genders4 ,what is the difference between sex and gender8 ,the gender of ,english nouns follows what8 ,have ,english nouns a neuter form8 ,have all ,english nouns a masculine and a feminine form8 ,in what three ways may the masculine of nouns be distinguished from the feminine8 ,illustrate4 ,give the three gender forms of the pronoun4 ,lesson #aah4--;,how is gender in grammar important8 ,when is the pronoun of the masculine gender used8 ,when is the neuter pronoun it used8 ,by the aid of what pronouns are inanimate things personified8 ,in personification1 when is the masculine pronoun used1 and when is the feminine8 ,illustrate4 ,what is the ,caution relating to gender8 ,lesson #aai4--,what is ,person8 ,is the person of nouns marked by form8 ,define the three persons4 ,when is a noun in the first person8 ,in the second person8 ,what classes of words have distinctive person forms8 ,why is person regarded in grammar8 ,what is ,case8 ,define the three cases4 ,what is the case of a noun used independently8 ,of an explanatory modifier8 ,of an objective complement8 ,of a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement8 ,illustrate all these4 ,lesson #aba4--,what is ,parsing8 ,illustrate the parsing of nouns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #add4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,lesson #abb4--;,how many case forms have nouns1 and what are they8 ,how is the possessive of nouns in the singular formed8 ,of nouns in the plural8 ,illustrate4 ,what is the possessive sign8 ,to which word of compound names or of groups of words treated as such is the sign added8 ,illustrate4 ,instead of the possessive form1 what may be used8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #abc4--;,in what case alone can mistakes in the construction of nouns occur8 ,illustrate the ,cautions relating to possessive forms4 ,lesson #abd4--,what is ,declension8 ,decline girl and tooth4 ,decline the several personal pronouns1 the relative and the interrogative4 ,what adjective pronouns are declined wholly or in part8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #abe4--,what words in the language have each three different case forms8 ,what are the nominative1 and what the objective1 forms of the pronouns8 ,lesson #abg4--,what one modification have adjectives8 ,what is ,comparison8 ,define the three degrees4 ,how are adjectives regularly compared8 ,what are the ,rules for ,spelling8 ,illustrate them4 ,how are adjectives of more than one syllable generally compared8 ,how are degrees of diminution expressed8 ,can all adjectives be compared8 ,illustrate4 ,how are some adverbs compared8 ,illustrate the irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs4 ,lesson #abh4--,to how many things does the comparative degree refer8 ,what does it imply8 ,explain the office of the superlative4 ,what word usually follows the comparative1 and what the superlative8 ,give the ,cautions relating to the use of comparatives and superlatives1 and illustrate them fully4 ,lesson #abi4--,what is ,voice8 ,of what class of verbs is it a modification8 ,name and define the two voices4 ,when is the one voice used1 and when the other8 ,into what may the passive form be resolved8 ,illustrate4 ,what may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice8 ,illustrate4 ,lesson #acj4--;,in changing a verb from the active to the passive1 what does the object complement become8 ,how may an intransitive verb sometimes be made transitive8 ,illustrate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #ade4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,lesson #aca4--,what is ,mode8 ,define the four modes4 ,what is ,tense8 ,define the six tenses4 ,define the infinitive4 ,define the participle4 ,define the classes of participles4 ,what are the number and person of a verb8 ,lesson #acb4--,what is ,conjugation8 ,synopsis8 ,what are auxiliary verbs8 ,name them4 ,what are the principal parts of a verb8 ,what are redundant and what are defective verbs8 ,lesson #acd4--;,how many inflectional forms may irregular verbs have8 ,how many have regular verbs8 ,what is said of the subjunctive mode8 ,of to with the infinitive8 ,how is a verb conjugated in the emphatic form8 ,lesson #acf4--;,how is a verb conjugated in the progressive form8 ,how is a transitive verb conjugated in the passive voice8 ,give an example of a verb in the progressive form with a passive meaning4 ,what does the progressive form denote8 ,can all verbs be conjugated in this form8 ,why8 ,give all the participles of the verbs choose1 break1 drive1 read1 lift4 ,lesson #acg4--;,how may a verb be conjugated interrogatively8 ,negatively8 ,illustrate4 ,how may a question with negation be expressed in the indicative and potential modes8 ,lesson #ach4--;,into what may the compound1 or periphrastic1 forms of the verb be resolved8 ,illustrate fully4 ,what is said of the participle in have written1 had written1 etc48 ,give and illustrate the several uses of the six tenses4 ,lesson #adj4--,show how the general ,caution for the use of the verb is frequently violated4 ,when does a conditional or a concessive clause require the verb to be in the indicative8 ,illustrate4 ,when is the subjunctive used8 ,illustrate the many uses of the subjunctive4 ,lesson #ada4--;,give and illustrate the general ,caution relating to mode and tense forms4 ,give and illustrate the ,caution in regard to will and would1 shall and should4 ,lesson #adb4--;,give and illustrate the ,cautions relating to the agreement of verbs and pronouns4 ,illustrate the exceptions and the ,remarks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,additional ,,examples ,,for ,,analysis4 ,suggestions for the ,study of the following ,selections4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,the pupil has now reached a point where he can afford to drop the diagram--its mission for him is fulfilled4 ,for him to continue its use with these ,additional ,examples1 unless it be to outline the relations of clauses or illustrate peculiar constructions1 is needless2 he will merely be repeating that with which he is already familiar4 ,these extracts are not given for full analysis or parsing4 ,this1 also1 the pupil would find profitless1 and for the same reason4 ,one gains nothing in doing what he already does well enough--progress is not made in climbing the wheel of a treadmill4 ,but the pupil may here review what has been taught him of the uses of adjective pronouns1 of the relatives in restrictive and in unrestrictive clauses1 of certain idioms1 of double negatives1 of the split infinitive1 of the subjunctive mode1 of the distinctions in meaning between allied verbs1 as lie and lay1 of certain prepositions1 of punctuation1 etc4 ,he should study the general character of each sentence1 its divisions and subdivisions1 the relations of the independent and the dependent parts1 and their connection1 order1 etc4 ,he should note the periodic structure of some of these sentences--of 7#d7 or 7#ai71 for instance--the meaning of which remains in suspense till near or at the close4 ,he should note in contrast the loose structure of others--for example1 the last sentence in 7#bj7--;a sentence that has several points at any one of which a complete thought has been expressed1 but the part of the sentence following does not1 by itself1 make complete sense4 ,let him try to see which structure is the more natural1 and which is the more forcible1 and why2 and what style gains by a judicious blending of the two4 ,especially should the pupil look at the thought in these prose extracts and at the manner in which it is expressed4 ,this will lead him to take a step or two over into the field of literature4 ,if the attempt is made1 one condition seems imperative--the pupil should thoroughly understand what the author says4 ,we know no better way to secure this than to exact of him a careful reproduction in his own words of the author's thought4 ,this will reveal to him the differences between his work and the original2 and bring into relief the peculiarity of each author's style--the stateliness of ,de ,quincey's1 for instance1 the vividness of ,webster's1 the oratorical character of ,macaulay's1 the ruggedness of ,carlyle's1 the poetical beauty of ,emerson's1 the humor of ,irving's1 and the brilliancy of ,holmes's--the last lines from whom are purposely stilted1 as we learn from the context4 ,the pupil may see how ellipses and transpositions and imagery abound in poetry1 and how1 in the use of these particulars1 poets differ from each other4 ,he may note that poems are not pitched in the same key--that the extracts from ,wordsworth and ,goldsmith and ,cowper1 for example1 deal with common facts and in a homely way1 that the one from ,lowell is in a higher key1 while that from ,shelley is all imagination1 and is crowded with audacious imagery1 all exquisite except in the first line1 where the moon1 converted by metaphor into a maiden1 has that said of her that is inconsistent with her in her new character4 #a4 ,it is thought by some people that all those stars which you see glittering so restlessly on a keen1 frosty night in a high latitude1 and which seem to have been sown broadcast with as much carelessness as grain lies on a threshing-floor1 here showing vast zaarahs of desert blue sky1 there again lying close1 and to some eyes presenting ,the beauteous semblance of a flock at rest1 are1 in fact1 gathered into zones or strata2 that our own wicked little earth1 with the whole of our peculiar solar system1 is a part of such a zone2 and that all this perfect geometry of the heavens1 these radii in the mighty wheel1 would become apparent1 if we1 the spectators1 could but survey it from the true center2 which center may be far too distant for any vision of man1 naked or armed1 to reach4--,de ,quincey #b4 ,on this question of principle1 while actual suffering was yet afar off1 they our fathers raised their flag against a power to which1 for purposes of foreign conquest and subjugation1 ,rome1 in the height of her glory1 is not to be compared--a power which has dotted over the surface of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts2 whose morning drum-beat1 following the sun and keeping company with the hours1 circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of ,england4--,webster4 #c4 ,in some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour1 ,i can even imagine that ,england may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the barbaric nations among whom they first arose2 and that1 while the sands of the ,indus and adamant of ,golconda may yet stiffen the housings of the charger and flash from the turban of the slave1 she1 as a ,christian mother1 may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a ,heathen one1 and be able to lead forth her ,sons1 saying1 ,these are my ,jewels4--,ruskin4 #d4 ,and1 when those who have rivaled her ,athens's greatness shall have shared her fate2 when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed their abode in distant continents2 when the scepter shall have passed away from ,england2 when1 perhaps1 travelers from distant regions shall in vain labor to decipher on some moldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief1 shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple1 and shall see a single naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts1--her influence and her glory will still survive1 fresh in eternal youth1 exempt from mutability and decay1 immortal as the intellectual principle from which they derived their origin1 and over which they exercise their control4--,macaulay4 #e4 ,to him who in the love of ,nature holds ,communion with her visible forms1 she speaks ,a various language2 for his gayer hours ,she has a voice of gladness and a smile ,and eloquence of beauty1 and she glides ,into his darker musings with a mild ,and healing sympathy1 that steals away ,their sharpness ere he is aware4 ,when thoughts ,of the last1 bitter hour come like a blight ,over thy spirit1 and sad images ,of the stern agony and shroud and pall ,and breathless darkness and the narrow house ,make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart1-- ,go forth under the open sky1 and list ,to ,nature's teachings1 while from all around-- ,earth and her waters and the depths of air-- ,comes a still voice4--,bryant4 #f4 ,pleasant it was1 when woods were green1 ,and winds were soft and low1 ,to lie amid some sylvan scene1 ,where1 the long drooping boughs between1 ,shadows dark and sunlight sheen ,alternate come and go2 ,or where the denser grove receives ,no sunlight from above1 ,but the dark foliage interweaves ,in one unbroken roof of leaves1 ,underneath whose sloping eaves ,the shadows hardly move4--,longfellow4 #g4 ,i like the lad who1 when his father thought ,to clip his morning nap by hackneyed praise ,of vagrant worm by early songster caught1 ,cried1 ,served him right6 'tis not at all surprising2 ,the worm was punished1 sir1 for early rising4--,saxe4 #h4 ,there were communities1 scarce known by name ,in these degenerate days1 but once far-famed1 ,where liberty and justice1 hand in hand1 ,ordered the common weal2 where great men grew ,up to their natural eminence1 and none ,saving the wise1 just1 eloquent1 were great2 ,where power was of ,god's gift to whom he gave ,supremacy of merit--the sole means ,and broad highway to power1 that ever then ,was meritoriously administered1 ,whilst all its instruments1 from first to last1 ,the tools of state for service high or low1 ,were chosen for their aptness to those ends ,which virtue meditates4--,henry ,taylor4 #i4 ,stranger1 these gloomy boughs ,had charms for him2 and here he loved to sit1 ,his only visitant a straggling sheep1 ,the stone-chat1 or the glancing sand-piper2 ,and on these barren rocks1 with fern and heath ,and juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er1 ,fixing his downcast eye1 he many an hour ,a morbid pleasure nourished1 tracing here ,an emblem of his own unfruitful life2 ,and1 lifting up his head1 he then would gaze ,on the more distant scene1--how lovely 't is ,thou seest1--and he would gaze till it became ,far lovelier1 and his heart could not sustain ,the beauty1 still more beauteous4--,wordsworth4 #aj4 ,but1 when the next sun brake from underground1 ,then1 those two brethren slowly with bent brows ,accompanying1 the sad chariot-bier ,past like a shadow thro' the field1 that shone ,full-summer1 to that stream whereon the barge1 ,pall'd all its length in blackest samite1 lay4 ,there sat the life-long creature of the house1 ,loyal1 the dumb old servitor1 on deck1 ,winking his eyes1 and twisted all his face4 ,so those two brethren from the chariot took ,and on the black decks laid her in her bed1 ,set in her hand a lily1 o'er her hung ,the silken case with braided blazonings1 ,and kiss'd her quiet brows1 and1 saying to her1 ,sister1 farewell forever1 and again1 ,farewell1 sweet sister1 parted all in tears4--,tennyson #aa4 ,good name in man and woman1 dear my lord1 ,is the immediate jewel of their souls4 ,who steals my purse steals trash2 't is something1 nothing2 ',t was mine1 't is his1 and has been slave to thousands2 ,but he that filches from me my good name ,robs me of that which not enriches him1 ,and makes me poor indeed4--,shakespeare4 #ab4 ,when ,i consider how my light is spent ,ere half my days1 in this dark world and wide1 ,and that one talent1 which is death to hide1 ,lodged with me useless1 though my soul more bent ,to serve therewith my ,maker1 and present ,my true account1 lest he1 returning1 chide1-- ,doth ,god exact day-labor1 light denied8 ,i fondly ask3 but ,patience1 to prevent ,that murmur1 soon replies1 ,god doth not need ,either man's work or his own gifts2 who best ,bear his mild yoke1 they serve him best3 his state ,is kingly2 thousands at his bidding speed1 ,and post o'er land and ocean without rest2 ,they also serve who only stand and wait4 --,milton4--,sonnet on his ,blindness4 #ac4 ,ah6 on ,thanksgiving ,day1 when from ,east and from ,west1 ,from ,north and from ,south come the pilgrim and guest2 ,when the gray-haired ,new-,englander sees round his board ,the old broken links of affection restored2 ,when the care-wearied man seeks his mother once more1 ,and the worn matron smiles where the girl smiled before1-- ,what moistens the lip1 and what brightens the eye8 ,what calls back the past like the rich pumpkin-pie8 --,whittier4 #ad4 ,that orbed maiden with white fire laden1 ,whom mortals call the moon1 ,glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor1 ,by the midnight breezes strewn2 ,and wherever the beat of her unseen feet1 ,which only the angels hear1 ,may have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof1 ,the stars peep behind her and peer2 ,and ,i laugh to see them whirl and flee ,like a swarm of golden bees1 ,when ,i widen the rent in my wind-built tent1 ,till the calm rivers1 lakes1 and seas1 ,like strips of the sky fallen through me on high1 ,are each paved with the moon and these4 --,shelley4--,the ,cloud4 #ae4 ,sweet was the sound1 when oft1 at evening's close1 ,up yonder hill the village murmur rose4 ,there1 as ,i passed with careless steps and slow1 ,the mingling notes came softened from below2 ,the swain responsive as the milk-maid sung1 ,the sober herd that lowed to meet their young1 ,the noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool1 ,the playful children just let loose from school1 ,the watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind1 ,and the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind1-- ,these all in sweet confusion sought the shade1 ,and filled each pause the nightingale had made4 --,goldsmith4 #af4 ,to sit on rocks1 to muse o'er flood and fell1 ,to slowly trace the forest's shady scene1 ,where things that own not man's dominion dwell1 ,and mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been2 ,to climb the trackless mountain all unseen1 ,with the wild flock that never needs a fold2 ,alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean2-- ,this is not solitude2 't is but to hold ,converse with nature's charms1 and view her stores unrolled4 --,byron4 #ag4 ,the drawbridge dropped with a surly clang1 ,and through the dark arch a charger sprang1 ,bearing ,sir ,launfal1 the maiden knight1 ,in his gilded mail1 that flamed so bright ,it seemed the dark castle had gathered all ,those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall ,in his siege of three hundred summers long1 ,and1 binding them all in one blazing sheaf1 ,had cast them forth2 so1 young and strong ,and lightsome as a locust leaf1 ,sir ,launfal flashed forth in his maiden mail ,to seek in all climes for the ,holy ,grail4--,lowell4 #ah4 ,be it a weakness1 it deserves some praise1-- ,we love the play-place of our early days2 ,the scene is touching1 and the heart is stone ,that feels not at the sight1 and feels at none4 ,the wall on which we tried our graving skill1 ,the very name we carved subsisting still2 ,the bench on which we sat while deep employed1 ,tho' mangled1 hacked1 and hewed1 not yet destroyed2 ,the little ones1 unbuttoned1 glowing hot1 ,playing our games1 and on the very spot1 ,as happy as we once1 to kneel and draw ,the chalky ring and knuckle down at taw1 ,to pitch the ball into the grounded hat1 ,or drive it devious with a dexterous pat2-- ,the pleasing spectacle at once excites ,such recollection of our own delights ,that1 viewing it1 we seem almost t' obtain ,our innocent1 sweet1 simple years again4--,cowper4 #ai4 ,considering our present advanced state of culture1 and how the torch of science has now been brandished and borne about1 with more or less effect1 for five thousand years and upwards2 how1 in these times especially1 not only the torch still burns1 and perhaps more fiercely than ever1 but innumerable rush-lights and sulphur-matches1 kindled thereat1 are also glancing in every direction1 so that not the smallest cranny or doghole in nature or art can remain unilluminated1--it might strike the reflective mind with some surprise that hitherto little or nothing of a fundamental character1 whether in the way of philosophy or history1 has been written on the subject of ,clothes4--,carlyle4 #bj4 ,when we see one word of a frail man on the throne of ,france tearing a hundred thousand sons from their homes1 breaking asunder the sacred ties of domestic life1 sentencing myriads of the young to make murder their calling and rapacity their means of support1 and extorting from nations their treasures to extend this ruinous sway1 we are ready to ask ourselves1 ,is not this a dream8 and1 when the sad reality comes home to us1 we blush for a race which can stoop to such an abject lot4 ,at length1 indeed1 we see the tyrant humbled1 stripped of power1 but stripped by those who1 in the main1 are not unwilling to play the despot on a narrower scale1 and to break down the spirit of nations under the same iron sway4--,channing4 #ba4 ,there are days which occur in this climate1 at almost any season of the year1 wherein the world reaches its perfection2 when the air1 the heavenly bodies1 and the earth make a harmony1 as if ,nature would indulge her offspring2 when1 in these bleak upper sides of the planet1 nothing is to desire that we have heard of the happiest latitudes1 and we bask in the shining hours of ,florida and ,cuba2 when everything that has life gives sign of satisfaction1 and the cattle that lie on the ground seem to have great and tranquil thoughts4---,emerson4 #bb4 ,did you never1 in walking in the fields1 come across a large flat stone1 which had lain1 nobody knows how long1 just where you found it1 with the grass forming a little hedge1 as it were1 all round it1 close to its edges2 and have you not1 in obedience to a kind of feeling that told you it had been lying there long enough1 insinuated your stick or your foot or your fingers under its edge1 and turned it over as a housewife turns a cake1 when she says to herself1 ,it's done brown enough by this time8 ,but no sooner is the stone turned and the wholesome light of day let upon this compressed and blinded community of creeping things than all of them which enjoy the luxury of legs--and some of them have a good many--rush round wildly1 butting each other and everything in their way1 and end in a general stampede for underground retreats from the region poisoned by sunshine4 ,next year you will find the grass growing tall and green where the stone lay2 the ground-bird builds her nest where the beetle had his hole2 the dandelion and the buttercup are growing there1 and the broad fans of insect-angels open and shut over their golden disks1 as the rhythmic waves of blissful consciousness pulsate through their glorified being4--,holmes4 #bc4 ,there is a different and sterner path2--,i know not whether there be any now qualified to tread it2 ,i am not sure that even one has ever followed it implicitly1 in view of the certain meagerness of its temporal rewards1 and the haste wherewith any fame acquired in a sphere so thoroughly ephemeral as the ,editor's must be shrouded by the dark waters of oblivion4 ,this path demands an ear ever open to the plaints of the wronged and the suffering1 though they can never repay advocacy1 and those who mainly support newspapers will be annoyed and often exposed by it2 a heart as sensitive to oppression and degradation in the next street as if they were practiced in ,brazil or ,japan2 a pen as ready to expose and reprove the crimes whereby wealth is amassed and luxury enjoyed in our own country at this hour as if they had been committed only by ,turks or pagans in ,asia some centuries ago4--,greeley4 #bd4 ,to sweeten the beverage1 a lump of sugar was laid beside each cup1 and the company alternately nibbled and sipped with great decorum1 until an improvement was introduced by a shrewd and economical old lady1 which was to suspend a large lump directly over the tea-table1 by a string from the ceiling1 so that it could be swung from mouth to mouth--an ingenious expedient1 which is still kept up by some families in ,albany1 but which prevails without exception in ,communipaw1 ,bergen1 ,platbush1 and all our uncontaminated ,dutch villages4--,irving4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,composition4 ,,lesson #adf4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,,for ,,capital ,,letters ,,and ,,punctuation4 ,,capital ,,letters1 ,,terminal ,,marks1 ,,and ,,the ,,comma4 ,capital ,letters4--,the first word of 7#a7 a sentence1 7#b7 a line of poetry1 7#c7 a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence1 and 7#d7 phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter4 ,begin with a capital letter 7#e7 proper names 7including all names of the ,deity71 and words derived from them1 7#f7 names of things vividly personified1 and 7#g7 most abbreviations4 ,write in capital letters 7#h7 the words ,i and #j1 and 7#i7 numbers in the ,roman notation4 ,footnote3 ,small letters are often used in referring to sections1 chapters1 etc4 ,period4--,place a period after 7#a7 a declarative or an imperative sentence1 7#b7 an abbreviation1 7#c7 a number written in the ,roman notation1 and 7#d7 ,arabic figures used to enumerate4 ,interrogation ,point4--,every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point4 ,exclamation ,point4--,all exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point4 ,comma4--,set off by the comma 7#a7 an explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it2 7#b7 a participle used as an adjective modifier1 with the words belonging to it1 unless restrictive2 7#c7 the adjective clause when not restrictive2 7#d7 the adverb clause1 unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies2 7#e7 a phrase out of its usual order or not closely connected with the word it modifies2 7#f7 a word or phrase independent or nearly so2 7#g7 a direct quotation introduced into a sentence1 unless formally introduced2 7#h7 a noun clause used as an attribute complement2 and 7#i7 a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning4 ,separate by the comma 7#aj7 connected words and phrases1 unless all the conjunctions are expressed2 7#aa7 co-ordinate clauses when short and closely connected2 and 7#ab7 the parts of a compound predicate1 and other phrases1 when long or differently modified4 ,use the comma 7#ac7 to denote an omission of words2 7#ad7 after as1 namely1 etc41 introducing illustrations2 and 7#ae7 when it is needed to prevent ambiguity4 ,direction4--,give the ,rule for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences1 except the colon1 the semicolon1 and the quotation marks3-- #a4 ,francis ,,ii41 ,charles ,,ix41 and ,henry ,,iii41 three sons of ,catherine de ,medici and ,henry ,,ii41 sat upon the ,french throne4 #b4 ,the pupil asked1 ,when shall ,i use ,o1 and when shall ,i use oh8 #c4 ,purity of style forbids us to use3 #a4 ,foreign words2 #b4 ,obsolete words2 #c4 ,low words1 or slang4 #d4 ,it is easy1 ,mistress ,dial1 for you1 who have always1 as everybody knows1 set yourself up above me1 to accuse me of laziness4 #e4 ,he rushed into the field1 and1 foremost fighting1 fell4 #f4 ,the ,holy ,land was1 indeed1 among the early conquests of the ,saracens1 ,caliph ,omar having1 in #fcg ,a4 ,d41 taken ,jerusalem4 #g4 ,he who teaches1 often learns himself4 #h4 ,san ,salvador1 ,oct4 #ab1 #adib4 #i4 ,some letters are superfluous2 as1 c and q4 #aj4 ,no sleep till morn1 when ,youth and ,pleasure meet ,to chase the glowing hours with flying feet6 ,direction4--,use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 and lo from the assembled crowd there rose a shout prolonged and loud that to the ocean seemed to say take her o bridegroom old and gray #b4 a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary man elijah the tishbite #c4 ,the result however of the three years' reign or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from holland and without shedding a drop of blood became a d #afhh wm in of england #d4 o has three sounds3 #a4 that in not2 #b4 that in note2 #c4 that in move #e4 lowell asks and what is so rare as a day in ,june #f4 spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid #g4 if i may judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of his music autumn is i should say the poet of the family #h4 new york apr #cj #aghi #i4 some letters stand each for many sounds2 as a and o 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #adg4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules--,,continued4 ,,semicolon ,,and ,,colon4 ,semicolon4--,co-ordinate clauses1 7#a7 when slightly connected1 or 7#b7 when themselves divided by the comma1 must be separated by the semicolon4 ,use the semicolon 7#c7 between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something which precedes or follows2 and 7#d7 before as1 to wit1 namely1 i4 e41 and that is1 when they introduce examples or illustrations4 ,direction4--,justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation 7except the colon7 in these sentences3-- #a4 ,it may cost treasure1 and it may cost blood2 but it will stand1 and it will richly compensate for both4 #b4 ,some words are delightful to the ear2 as1 ,ontario1 golden1 oriole4 #c4 ,the shouts of revelry had died away2 the roar of the lion had ceased2 the last loiterer had retired from the banquet2 and the lights in the palace of the victor were extinguished4 #d4 ,send it to the public halls2 proclaim it there2 let them hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon2 let them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of ,bunker ,hill3 and the very walls will cry out in its support4 ,direction4---,use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf #b4 when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and lightning flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at the storm #c4 the oaks of the mountains fall the mountains themselves decay with years the ocean shrinks and grows again the moon herself is lost in heaven #d4 kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged with gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her by the arms led her to the block and the queen kneeling down said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands o lord i commend my spirit ,colon4--,use the colon 7#a7 between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon1 and 7#b7 before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced4 ,direction4--,justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences3-- #a4 ,you may swell every expense1 and strain every effort1 still more extravagantly2 accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow2 traffic and barter with every little1 pitiful ,german prince that sells and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country3 your efforts are forever vain and impotent4 #b4 ,this is a precept of ,socrates3 ,know thyself4 ,direction4--,use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours will take care of themselves #b4 we may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gatherings in the field and forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment but it is all in vain if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposition ,direction4---,write sentences illustrating the several uses of the semicolon1 the colon1 and the comma4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #adh4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules--,,continued4 ,,the ,,dash1 ,,marks ,,of ,,parenthesis1 ,,apostrophe1 ,,hyphen1 ,,quotation ,,marks1 ,,and ,,brackets4 ,dash4--,use the dash where there is an omission 7#a7 of letters or figures1 and 7#b7 of such words as as1 namely1 or that is1 introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions4 ,use the dash 7#c7 where the sentence breaks off abruptly1 and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension1 or another takes its place2 and 7#d7 before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis4 ,the dash may be used 7#e7 instead of marks of parenthesis1 and may 7#f7 follow other marks1 adding to their force4 ,direction4--,justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences3-- #a4 ,the most noted kings of ,israel were the first three--,saul2 ,david1 and ,solomon4 #b4 ,when ,mrs4 ,b---- heard of her son's disgrace1 she fainted away4 #c4 ,and--,this to me8 he said4 #d4 ,assyria1 ,greece1 ,rome1 ,carthage--what are they8 #e4 ,i do not rise to supplicate you to be merciful toward the nation to which ,i belong1--toward a nation which1 though subject to ,england1 yet is distinct from it4 #f4 ,we know the uses--and sweet they are--of adversity4 #g4 ,his place business is #bbe--bbi ,high street4 ,direction4---,use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 the human species is composed of two distinct races those who borrow and those who lend #b4 this bill this infamous bill the way it has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected all these things dissipate my doubts #c4 the account of a 's shame fills pp #a #ai #d4 lord marmion turned well was his need and dashed the rowels in his steed ,marks of ,parenthesis4--,marks of parenthesis may be used to inclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence4 ,apostrophe4--,use the apostrophe 7#a7 to mark the omission of letters1 7#b7 in the pluralizing of letters1 figures1 and characters1 and 7#c7 to distinguish the possessive from other cases4 ,hyphen4--,use the hyphen 7-7 7#a7 to join the parts of compound words1 and 7#b7 between syllables when a word is divided4 ,quotation ,marks4--,use quotation marks to inclose a copied word or passage4 ,if the quotation contains a quotation1 the latter is inclosed within single marks4 7,see ,lesson #gd47 ,brackets4--,use brackets to inclose what1 in quoting another's words1 you insert by way of explanation or correction4 ,direction4--,justify the marks of punctuation used in these sentences3-- #a4 ,luke says1 ,acts xxi4 #ae1 ,we took up our carriages luggage1 and went up to ,jerusalem4 #b4 ,the last sentence of the composition was1 ,i close in the words of ,patrick ,henry1 ',give me liberty1 or give me death4' #c4 ,red-hot is a compound adjective4 #d4 ,telegraph is divided thus3 tel-e-graph4 #e4 ,the profound learning of ,sir ,william ,jones 7he was master of twenty-eight languages7 was the wonder of his contemporaries4 #f4 ,by means of the apostrophe you know that love in mother's love is a noun1 and that i's isn't a verb4 ,direction4---,use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences1 and give your reasons3-- #a4 next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye life isnt worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings #b4 man the life boat #c4 don't neglect in writing to dot your is cross your ts and make your #gs unlike your #is and don't in speaking omit the hs from such words as which when and why or insert rs in law saw and raw #d4 the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow #e4 ,the speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and inseparable 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #adi4 ,,capital ,,letters ,,and ,,punctuation--,,review4 ,direction4--,give the reason for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences3-- #a4 ,a bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye2 the more light you pour upon it1 the more it contracts4 #b4 ,this is the motto of the ,university of ,oxford3 ,the ,lord is my light4 #c4 ,the only fault ever found with him is1 that he sometimes fights ahead of his orders4 #d4 ,the land flowing with milk and honey 7see ,numbers xiv4 #h7 was a long1 narrow strip1 lying along the eastern edge1 or coast1 of the ,mediterranean1 and consisted of three divisions2 namely1 #a4 ,on the north1 ,galilee2 #b4 ,on the south1 ,judea2 #c1 ,in the middle1 ,samaria4 #e4 ,what a lesson1 ,trench well says1 the word 'diligence' contains6 #f4 ,an honest man1 my neighbor1--there he stands-- ,was struck--struck like a dog1 by one who wore ,the badge of ,ursini4 #g4 ,thou1 too1 sail on1 #j ,ship of ,state2 ,sail on1 #j ,union1 strong and great4 #h4 ,o',connell asks1 ,the clause which does away with trial by jury--what1 in the name of ,h----n1 is it1 if it is not the establishment of a revolutionary tribunal8 #i4 ,there are only three departments of the mind--the intellect1 the feelings1 and the will4 #aj4 ,this--trial6 #aa4 ,american nationality has made the desert to bud and blossom as the rose2 it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts2 it has whitened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring1 new1 and lawful trade2 it has extended to exiles1 flying as clouds1 the asylum of our better liberty4 #ab4 ,as ,i saw him ,weoster1 the day before his great reply to ,col4 ,hayne of ,south ,carolina in the evening1 7if ,i may borrow an illustration from his favorite amusement7 he was as unconcerned and as free of spirit as some here present have seen him while floating in his fishing-boat along a hazy shore1 gently rocking on the tranquil tide1 dropping his line here and there1 with the varying fortune of the sport4 ,the next morning he was like some mighty admiral1 dark and terrible1 casting the long shadow of his frowning tiers far over the sea1 that seemed to sink beneath him2 his broad pendant pennant streaming at the main1 the stars and the stripes at the fore1 the mizzen1 and the peak2 and bearing down like a tempest upon his antagonist1 with all his canvas strained to the wind1 and all his thunders roaring from his broadsides4 #ac4 ,the beatitudes are found in ,matt4 v4 #c--aa4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,if further work in punctuation is needed1 require the pupils to justify the punctuation of the sentences beginning page #cad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aej4 ,,qualities ,,of ,,style4 ,style is the manner in which one expresses himself4 ,styles differ as men differ4 ,but there are some cardinal qualities that all good style must possess4 ,i4 ,perspicuity4--,perspicuity is opposed to obscurity of all kinds2 it means clearness of expression4 ,it demands that the thought in the sentence shall be plainly seen through the words of the sentence4 ,perspicuity is an indispensable quality of style2 if the thought is not understood1 or it is misunderstood1 its expression might better have been left unattempted4 ,perspicuity depends mainly upon these few things3-- #a4 ,one's ,clear ,understanding of ,what ,one ,attempts to ,say4--,you cannot express to others more than you thoroughly know1 or make your thought clearer to them than it is to yourself4 #b4 ,the ,unity of the ,sentence4--,many thoughts1 or thoughts having no natural and close connection with each other1 should not be crowded into one sentence4 #c4 ,the ,use of the ,right ,words4--,use such words as convey your thought--each word expressing exactly your idea1 no more1 no less1 no other4 ,use words in the senses recognized by the best authority4 ,do not omit words when they are needed1 and do not use a superfluity of them4 ,be cautious in the use of he1 she1 it1 and they4 ,use simple words--words which those who are addressed can readily understand4 ,avoid what are called bookish1 inkhorn1 terms2 shun words that have passed out of use1 and those that have no footing in the language--foreign words1 words newly coined1 and slang4 #d4 ,a ,happy ,arrangement4--,the relations of single words to each other1 of phrases to the words they modify1 and of clauses to one another should be obvious at a glance4 ,the sentence should not need rearrangement in order to disclose the meaning4 ,sentences should stand in the paragraph so that the beginning of each shall tally exactly in thought with the sentence that precedes2 and the ending of each1 with the sentence that follows4 ,every paragraph should be a unit in thought1 distinct from other paragraphs1 holding to them the relation that its own sentences hold to one another1 the relation that the several parts of each sentence hold to one another4 ,,ii4 ,energy4--,by energy we mean force1 vigor1 of expression4 ,in ordinary discourse1 it is not often sought1 and in no discourse is it constantly sought4 ,we use energy when we wish to convince the intellect1 arouse the feelings1 and capture the will--lead one to do something4 ,when energetic1 we select words and images for strength and not for beauty2 choose specific1 and not general1 terms2 prefer the concrete to the abstract2 use few words and crowd these with meaning2 place subordinate clauses before the independent2 and put the strongest word in the clause1 the strongest clause in the sentence1 the strongest sentence in the paragraph1 and the strongest paragraph in the discourse1 last4 ,energetic thought seeks variety of expression1 is usually charged with intense feeling1 and requires impassioned delivery4 ,,iii4 ,imagery--,figures of ,speech4--,things stand in many relations to each other4 ,some things are 7#a7 like each other in some particular2 other things are 7#b7 unlike each other in some particular2 and still other things stand to each other 7#c7 in some other noteworthy relation than that of likeness or unlikeness4 ,things long seen and associated by us in any of these relations come at last readily to suggest each other4 ,figures of ,speech are those expressions in which1 departing from our ordinary manner in speaking of things1 we assert or assume any of these notable relations4 ,the first and great service of imagery is to the thought--it makes the thought clearer and stronger4 ,imagery adds beauty to style--a diamond brooch may adorn as well as do duty to the dress4 ,a ,simile1 or ,comparison1 is a figure of speech in which we point out or assert a likeness between things otherwise unlike2 as1 ,the gloom of despondency hung like a cloud over the land4 ,a ,metaphor is a figure of speech in which1 assuming the likeness between two things1 we bring over and apply to one of them the term that denotes the other2 as1 ,a stately squadron of snowy geese were riding in an adjoining pond4 ,a ,personification is a figure of speech in which things are raised to a plane of being above their own--to or toward that of persons4 ,it raises 7#a7 mere things to the plane of animals2 as1 ,the sea licks your feet1 its huge flanks purr pleasantly for you4 ,it raises 7#b7 mere animals to the plane of persons2 as1 ,so talked the spirited1 sly ,snake4 ,it raises 7#c7 mere things to the plane of persons2 as1 ,earth fills her lap with pleasures of her own4 ,an ,antithesis is a figure of speech in which things mutually opposed in some particular are set over against each other2 as1 ,the mountains give their lost children berries and water2 the sea mocks their thirst and lets them die4 ,a ,metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing connected to another by a relation other than likeness or unlikeness is brought over and applied to that other4 ,the most important of these relations are 7#a7 that of the sign to the thing signified2 7#b7 that of cause to effect2 7#c7 that of instrument to the user of it2 7#d7 that of container to the thing contained2 7#e7 that of material to the thing made out of it2 7#f7 that of contiguity2 7#g7 that of the abstract to the concrete2 and 7#h7 that of part to the whole or of whole to the part4 ,this last relation has been thought so important that the metonymy based upon it has received a distinct name--,synecdoche4 ,,iv4 ,variety4--,variety is a quality of style opposed to monotonous uniformity4 ,nothing in discourse pleases us more than light and shade4 ,in discourse properly varied1 the same word does not appear with offensive frequency2 long words alternate with short2 the usual order now and then yields to the transposed2 the verb in the assertive form frequently gives way to the participle and the infinitive1 which assume2 figures of speech sparkle here and there in a setting of plain language2 the full method of statement is followed by the contracted2 impassioned language is succeeded by the unemotional2 long sentences stand side by side with short1 and loose sentences with periods2 declarative sentences are relieved by interrogative and exclamatory1 and simple sentences by compound and complex2 clauses have no rigidly fixed position2 and sentences heavy with meaning and moving slowly are elbow to elbow with the light and tripping4 ,in a word1 no one form or method or matter is continued so long as to weary1 and the reader is kept fresh and interested throughout4 ,variety is restful to the reader or hearer and therefore adds greatly to the clearness and to the force of what is addressed to him4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,question the pupils upon every point taken up in this ,lesson and require them to give illustrations where it is possible for them to do so4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aea4 ,,perspicuity--,,criticism4 ,general ,direction4--,in all your work in ,composition attend carefully to the punctuation4 ,direction4--,point out the faults1 and recast these sentences1 making them clear3-- ,footnote3 ,these four sentences and others in these ,lessons1 given just as we found them1 have been culled from school compositions4 #a4 ,he was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came and let him out1 as soon as he stepped out on the ground1 he saw the dead and dying laying about everywhere4 #b4 ,they used to ring a large bell at six o'clock in the morning for us to get up1 then we had half an hour to dress in1 after which we would go to ,chapel exercises1 then breakfast1 school would commence at nine o'clock and closed at four in the afternoon allowing an hour for dinner from one until two then we would resume our studies until four in the afternoon4 #c4 ,jewelry was worn in the time of ,king ,pharaoh which is many thousand years before ,christ in the time when the ,israelites left they borrowed all the jewels of the ,egyptians which were made of gold and silver4 #d4 ,when it is made of gold they can not of pure gold but has to be mixed with some other metal which is generally copper which turns it a reddish hue in some countries they use silver which gives it a whitish hue but in the ,united ,states and ,england they use both silver and copper but the ,english coins are the finest4 ,direction4--,point out the faults1 and recast these sentences1 making them clear3-- 7,if any one of the sentences has several meanings1 give these47 #a4 ,james's son1 ,charles ,i41 before the breath was out of his body was proclaimed king in his stead4 #b4 ,he told the coachman that he would be the death of him1 if he did not take care what he was about1 and mind what he said4 #c4 ,richelieu said to the king that ,mazarin would carry out his policy4 #d4 ,he was overjoyed to see him1 and he sent for one of his workmen1 and told him to consider himself at his service4 #e4 ,blake answered the ,spanish priest that if he had sent in a complaint1 he would have punished the sailors severely2 but he took it ill that he set the ,spaniards on to punish them4 ,direction4--,so place these subordinate clauses that they will remove the obscurity1 and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged3-- #a4 ,the moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered around1 as it peered above the horizon4 #b4 ,a large number of seats were occupied by pupils that had no backs4 #c4 ,crusoe was surprised at seeing five canoes on the shore in which there were savages4 #d4 ,this tendency will be headed off by approximations which will be made from time to time of the written word to the spoken4 #e4 ,people had to travel on horseback and in wagons1 which was a very slow way1 if they traveled at all4 #f4 ,how can brethren partake of their ,father's blessing that curse each other8 #g4 ,two men will be tried for crimes in this town which are punishable with death1 if a full court should attend4 ,direction4--,each of these sentences may have two meanings1 supply the two ellipses in each sentence1 and remove the ambiguity3-- #a4 ,let us trust no strength less than thine4 #b4 ,study had more attraction for him than his friend4 #c4 ,he did not like the new teacher so well as his playmates4 #d4 ,he aimed at nothing less than the crown4 #e4 ,lovest thou me more than these8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aeb4 ,,perspicuity--,,criticism4 ,direction4--,so place these italicized phrases that they will remove the obscurity1 and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged3-- #a4 ,these designs any man who is a ,briton in any situation ought to disavow4 #b4 ,the chief priests1 mocking1 said among themselves with the scribes1 ,he saved1 etc4 #c4 ,hay is given to horses as well as corn to distend the stomach4 #d4 ,boston has forty first class grammar-schools1 exclusive of ,dorchester4 #e4 ,he rode to town1 and drove twelve cows on horseback4 #f4 ,he could not face an enraged father in spite of his effrontery4 #g4 ,two owls sat upon a tree which grew near an old wall out of a heap of rubbish4 #h4 ,i spent most on the river and in the river of the time ,i stayed there4 #i4 ,he wanted to go to sea1 although it was contrary to the wishes of his parents1 at the age of eighteen4 #aj4 ,i have a wife and six children1 and ,i have never seen one of them4 ,direction4--,so place the italicized words and phrases in each sentence that they will help to convey what you think is the author's thought1 and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged3-- #a4 ,in ,paris1 every lady in full dress rides4 #b4 ,i saw my friend when ,i was in ,boston walking down ,tremont street4 #c4 ,the ,prince of ,wales was forbidden to become king or any other man4 #d4 ,what is his coming or going to you8 #e4 ,we do those things frequently which we repent of afterwards4 #f4 ,i rushed out leaving the wretch with his tale half told1 horror-stricken at his crime4 #g4 ,exclamation points are scattered up and down the page by compositors without any mercy4 #h4 ,i want to make a present to one who is fond of chickens for a ,christmas gift4 ,direction4--,make these sentences clear by using simpler words and phrases3-- #a4 ,a devastating conflagration raged4 #b4 ,he conducted her to the altar of ,hymen4 #c4 ,a donkey has an abnormal elongation of auricular appendages4 #d4 ,are you excavating a subterranean canal8 #e4 ,he had no capillary substance on the summit of his head4 #f4 ,he made a sad faux pas4 #g4 ,a network is anything reticulated or decussated1 with interstices at equal distances between the intersections4 #h4 ,diligence is the sine qua non of success4 #i4 ,she has donned the habiliments of woe4 #aj4 ,the deceased was to-day deposited in his last resting-place4 #aa4 ,the inmates proceeded to the sanctuary4 #ab4 ,i have partaken of my morning repast4 #ac4 ,he took the initiative in inaugurating the ceremony4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aec4 ,,energy--,,criticism4 ,direction4--,expand these brief expressions into sentences full of long words1 and note the loss of energy3-- #a4 ,to your tents1 #j ,israel6 #b4 ,up1 boys1 and at them6 #c4 ,indeed6 #d4 ,bah6 #e4 ,don't give up the ship6 #f4 ,murder will out4 #g4 ,oh6 #h4 ,silence there6 #i4 ,hurrah6 #aj4 ,death or free speech6 #aa4 ,rascal6 #ab4 ,no matter4 #ac4 ,least said1 soonest mended4 #ad4 ,death to the tyrant6 #ae4 ,i'll none of it4 #af4 ,help1 ho6 #ag4 ,shame on you6 #ah4 ,first come1 first served4 ,direction4--,condense each of these italicized expressions into one or two words1 and note the gain3-- #a4 ,he shuffled off this mortal coil yesterday4 #b4 ,the author surpassed all those who were living at the same time with him4 #c4 ,to say that revelation is a thing which there is no need of is to talk wildly4 #d4 ,he departed this life4 #e4 ,some say that ever 'gainst that season comes wherein our ,saviour's birth is celebrated this bird of dawning singeth all night long4 ,direction4--,change these specific words to general terms1 and note the loss in energy3--- #a4 ,don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes4 #b4 ,break down the dikes1 give ,holland back to ocean4 #c4 ,three hundred men held the hosts of ,xerxes at bay4 #d4 ,i sat at her cradle1 ,i followed her hearse4 #e4 ,their daggers have stabbed ,caesar4 #f4 ,when ,i'm mad1 ,i weigh a ton4 #g4 ,burn ,moscow1 starve back the invaders4 #h4 ,there's no use in crying over spilt milk4 #i4 ,in proportion as men delight in battles and bull-fights will they punish by hanging1 burning1 and the rack4 ,direction4--,change these general terms to specific words1 and note the gain in energy3-- #a4 ,anne ,boleyn was executed4 #b4 ,it were better for him that a heavy weight were fastened to him and that he were submerged in the waste of waters4 #c4 ,the capital of the chosen people was destroyed by a ,roman general4 #d4 ,consider the flowers how they increase in size4 #e4 ,caesar was slain by the conspirators4 #f4 ,the cities of the plain were annihilated4 ,direction4--,arrange these words1 phrases1 and clauses in the order of their strength1 placing the strongest last1 and note the gain in energy3-- #a4 ,the nations of the earth repelled1 surrounded1 pursued1 and resisted him4 #b4 ,he was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor even an emperor1 but a prisoner and an exile4 #c4 ,i shall die an ,american2 ,i live an ,american2 ,i was born an ,american4 #d4 ,all that ,i am1 all that ,i hope to be1 and all that ,i have in this life1 ,i am now ready here to stake upon it4 #e4 ,i shall defend it without this ,house1 in all places1 and within this ,house2 at all times1 in time of peace and in time of war4 #f4 ,we must fight if we wish to be free1 if we mean to preserve inviolate our rights1 if we do not mean to abandon the struggle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aed4 ,,figures ,,of ,,speech--,,criticism4 ,direction4--,name the figures of speech1 and then recast a few sentences1 using plain language1 and note the loss of beauty and force3-- #a4 ,lend me your ears4 #b4 ,please address the chair4 #c4 ,the robin knows when your grapes have cooked long enough in the sun4 #d4 ,a day will come when bullets and bombs shall be replaced by ballots4 #e4 ,genius creates2 taste appreciates what is created4 #f4 ,caesar were no lion were not ,romans hinds4 #g4 ,the soul of ,jonathan was knit to that of ,david4 #h4 ,traffic has lain down to rest4 #i4 ,borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry4 #aj4 ,he will bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave4 #aa4 ,have you read ,froude or ,freeman8 #ab4 ,the pen is mightier than the sword4 #ac4 ,if ,i can catch him once upon the hip1 ,i will feed fat the ancient grudge ,i bear him4 #ad4 ,the destinies of mankind were trembling in the balance1 while death fell in showers4 #ae4 ,the threaded steel flies swiftly4 #af4 ,o ,cassius1 you are yoked with a lamb that carries anger as the flint bears fire4 #ag4 ,i called the ,new ,world into existence to redress the balance of the ,old4 #ah4 ,nations shall beat their swords into plowshares1 and their spears into pruning-hooks4 #ai4 ,the ,morn in russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill4 #bj4 ,homer1 like the ,nile1 pours out his riches with a sudden overflow2 ,virgil1 like a river in its banks1 with a constant stream4 #ba4 ,the air bites shrewdly4 #bb4 ,he doth bestride the narrow world like a ,colossus4 #bc4 ,my heart is in the coffin there with ,caesar4 #bd4 ,all hands to the pumps6 #be4 ,the gray-eyed ,morn smiles on the frowning ,night4 #bf4 ,the good is often buried with men's bones4 #bg4 ,beware of the bottle4 #bh4 ,all nations respect our flag4 #bi4 ,the marble speaks4 #cj4 ,i have no spur to prick the sides of my intent4 #ca4 ,i am as constant as the northern star4 #cb4 ,then burst his mighty heart4 #cc4 ,the ice is covered with health and beauty on skates4 #cd4 ,lentulus returned with victorious eagles4 #ce4 ,death hath sucked the honey of thy breath4 #cf4 ,our chains are forged4 #cg4 ,i have bought golden opinions4 #ch4 ,the hearth blazed high4 #ci4 ,his words fell softer than snows on the brine4 #dj4 ,night's candles are burnt out1 and jocund ,day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top4 ,direction4--,in the first four sentences1 use similes2 in the second four1 metaphors2 in the third four1 personifications2 in the last eight1 metonymies3-- #a4 ,he flew with the swiftness of an arrow4 #b4 ,in battle some men are brave1 others are cowardly4 #c4 ,his head is as full of plans as it can hold4 #d4 ,i heard a loud noise4 #e4 ,boston is the place where ,american liberty began4 #f4 ,our dispositions should grow mild as we grow old4 #g4 ,the stars can no longer be seen4 #h4 ,in battle some men are brave1 others are cowardly4 #i4 ,the cock tears up the ground for his family of hens and chickens4 #aj4 ,the waves were still4 #aa4 ,the oak stretches out its strong branches4 #ab4 ,the flowers are the sweet and pretty growths of the earth and sun4 #ac4 ,english vessels plow the seas of the two hemispheres4 #ad4 ,have you read ,lamb's ,essays8 #ae4 ,the water is boiling4 #af4 ,we have prostrated ourselves before the king4 #ag4 ,wretched people shiver in their lair of straw4 #ah4 ,the soldier is giving way to the husbandman4 #ai4 ,swords flashed1 and bullets fell4 #bj4 ,his banner led the spearmen no more4 ,remark4--,if what is begun as a metaphor is not completed as begun1 but is completed by a part of another metaphor or by plain language1 we have what1 is called a mixed metaphor4 ,it requires great care to avoid this very common error4 ,direction4--,correct these errors3-- #a4 ,the devouring fire uprooted the stubble4 #b4 ,the brittle thread of life may be cut asunder4 #c4 ,all the ripe fruit of three-score years was blighted in a day4 #d4 ,unravel the obscurities of this knotty question4 #e4 ,we must apply the axe to the fountain of this evil4 #f4 ,the man stalks into court like a motionless statue1 with the cloak of hypocrisy in his mouth4 #g4 ,the thin mantle of snow dissolved4 #h4 ,i smell a rat1 ,i see him brewing in the air1 but ,i shall yet nip him in the bud4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aee4 ,,variety ,,in ,,expression4 ,remark4--,you learned in ,lessons #eb1 #ec1 #ed that the usual order may give way to the transposed2 in #ee1 #ef1 that one kind of simple sentence may be changed to another2 in #eg1 that simple sentences may be contracted2 in #fa1 that adjectives may be expanded into clauses2 in #fg1 that an adverb clause may stand before1 between the parts of1 and after1 the independent clause2 in #fh1 that an adverb clause may be contracted to a participle1 a participle phrase1 an absolute phrase1 a prepositional phrase1 that it may be contracted by the omission of words1 and may be changed to an adjective clause or phrase2 in #gc1 that a noun clause as subject may stand last1 and as object complement may stand first1 that it may be made prominent1 and may be contracted2 in #gd1 that direct quotations and questions may be changed to indirect1 and indirect to direct2 in #gg1 that compound sentences may be formed out of simple sentences1 may be contracted to simple sentences1 and may be changed to complex sentences2 in #gi1 that participles1 absolute phrases1 and infinitives may be expanded into different kinds of clauses2 and1 in #acj1 that a verb may change its voice4 ,direction4--,illustrate all these changes4 ,direction4--,recast these sentences1 avoiding offensive repetitions of the same word or the same sounds3-- #a4 ,we have to have money to have a horse4 #b4 ,we sailed across a bay and sailed up a creek and sailed back and sailed in all about fourteen miles4 #c4 ,it is then put into stacks1 or it is put into barns either to use it to feed it to the stock or to sell it4 #d4 ,this day we undertake to render an account to the widows and orphans whom our decision will make2 to the wretches that will be roasted at the stake4 #e4 ,the news of the battle of ,bunker ,hill1 fought on the #agth of ,june in the year of our ,lord #agge1 roused the patriotism of the people to a high pitch of enthusiasm4 ,direction4---,using other words wholly or in part1 see in how many ways you can express the thoughts contained in these sentences3-- #a4 ,in the profusion and recklessness of her lies1 ,elizabeth had no peer in ,england4 #b4 ,henry ,,iv4 said that ,james ,i4 was the wisest fool in ,christendom4 #c4 ,cowper's letters are charming because they are simple and natural4 #d4 ,george ,,iv41 though he was pronounced the first gentleman in ,europe1 was1 nevertheless1 a snob4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aef4 ,,the ,,paragraph4 ,the ,paragraph4--,the clauses of complex sentences are so closely united in meaning that frequently they are not to be separated from each other even by the comma4 ,the clauses of compound sentences are less closely united--a comma1 a semicolon1 or a colon is needed to divide them4 ,between sentences there exists a wider separation in meaning1 marked by a period or other terminal point4 ,but even sentences may be connected1 the bond which unites them being their common relation to the thought which jointly they develop4 ,sentences thus related are grouped together and form1 as you have already learned1 what we call a ,paragraph1 marked by beginning the first word a little to the right of the marginal line4 ,direction4--,notice the facts which this paragraph contains1 and the relation to each other of the clauses and the sentences expressing these facts3-- ,after a breeze of some sixty hours from the north and northwest1 the wind died away about four o'clock yesterday afternoon4 ,the calm continued till about nine in the evening4 ,the mercury in the barometer fell1 in the meantime1 at an extraordinary rate2 and the captain predicted that we should encounter a gale from the southeast4 ,the gale came on about eleven o'clock2 not violent at first1 but increasing every moment4 #a4 ,a breeze from the north and northwest4 #b4 ,the wind died away4 #c4 ,a calm4 #d4 ,barometer fell4 #e4 ,the captain predicted a gale4 #f4 ,it came on4 #g4 ,it increased in violence4 ,direction4--,give and number the facts contained in the paragraph below3-- ,i awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and thumping in the night1 occasioned by the dashing of the waves against the ship4 ,hurrying on my clothes1 ,i found such of the passengers as could stand1 at the doors of the hurricane-house1 holding on1 and looking out in the utmost consternation4 ,it was still quite dark4 ,four of the sails were already in ribbons3 the winds whistling through the cordage2 the rain dashing furiously and in torrents2 the noise and spray scarcely less than ,i found them under the great sheet at ,niagara4 ,direction4---,weave the facts below into a paragraph1 supplying all you need to make the narrative smooth3-- ,rip's beard was grizzled4 ,fowling-piece rusty4 ,dress uncouth4 ,women and children at his heels4 ,attracted attention4 ,was eyed from head to foot4 ,was asked on which side he voted4 ,whether he was ,federal or ,democrat4 ,rip was dazed by the question4 ,stared in stupidity4 ,direction4---,weave the facts below into two paragraphs1 supplying what you need1 and tell what each paragraph is about3-- ,in place of the old tree there was a pole4 ,this was tall and naked4 ,a flag was fluttering from it4 ,the flag had on it the stars and stripes4 ,this was strange to ,rip4 ,but ,rip saw something he remembered4 ,the tavern sign4 ,he recognized on it the face of ,king ,george4 ,still the picture was changed4 ,the red coat gone4 ,one of blue and buff in its place4 ,a sword1 and not a scepter1 in the hand4 ,wore a cocked hat4 ,underneath was painted--,general ,washington4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aeg4 ,,the ,,paragraph4 ,direction4---,weave the facts below into three paragraphs1 and write on the margin what each is about3-- ,the ,nile rises in great lakes4 ,runs north4 ,sources two thousand miles from ,alexandria4 ,receives two branches only4 ,runs through an alluvial valley4 ,course through the valley is #a1ejj miles4 ,plows into the ,mediterranean4 ,two principal channels4 ,minor outlets4 ,nile overflows its banks4 ,overflow caused by rains at the sources4 ,the melting of the mountain snows4 ,begins at the end of ,june4 ,rises four inches daily4 ,rises till the close of ,september4 ,subsides4 ,whole valley an inland sea4 ,only villages above the surface4 ,the valley very fertile4 ,the deposit4 ,the fertile strip is from five to one hundred and fifty miles wide4 ,renowned for fruitfulness4 ,egypt long the granary of the world4 ,three crops from ,december to ,june4 ,productions--grain1 cotton1 and indigo4 ,direction4---,weave these facts into four paragraphs1 writing the margin of each the main thought3-- ,the robin is thought by some to be migratory4 ,but he stays with us all winter4 ,cheerful4 ,noisy4 ,poor soloist4 ,a spice of vulgarity in him4 ,dash of prose in his song4 ,appetite extraordinary4 ,eats his own weight in a short time4 ,taste for fruit4 ,eats with a relishing gulp1 like ,dr4 ,johnson's4 ,fond of cherries4 ,earliest mess of peas4 ,mulberries4 ,lion's share of the raspberries4 ,angleworms his delight4 ,a few years ago ,i had a grapevine4 ,a foreigner4 ,shy of bearing4 ,this summer bore a score of bunches4 ,they secreted sugar from the sunbeams4 ,one morning1 went to pick them4 ,the robins beforehand with me4 ,bustled out from the leaves4 ,made shrill1 unhandsome remarks about me4 ,had sacked the vine4 ,remnant of a single bunch4 ,how it looked at the bottom of my basket6 ,a humming-bird's egg in an eagle's nest4 ,laughed4 ,robins joined in the merriment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aeh4 ,,paragraphs ,,and ,,the ,,theme4 ,direction4--,weave these facts into four paragraphs3-- ,note that the several paragraphs form a composition1 or ,theme1 the general subject of which is ,,wouter ,,van ,,twiller 7according to ,diedrich ,knickerbocker74 ,i4 ,who he was4--,van ,twiller was a ,dutchman4 ,born at ,rotterdam4 ,descended from burgomasters4 ,in #afbi appointed governor of ,nieuw ,nederlandts4 ,arrived in ,june at ,new ,amsterdam--,new ,york city4 ,,ii4 ,person4--,was five feet six inches high1 six feet five in circumference4 ,head spherical1 and too large for any neck4 ,nature set it on the back-bone4 ,body capacious4 ,legs short and sturdy4 ,a beer-barrel on skids4 ,face a vast1 unfurrowed expanse4 ,no lines of thought4 ,two small1 gray eyes4 ,cheeks had taken toll of all that had entered his mouth4 ,mottled and streaked with dusky red4 ,,iii4 ,habits4--,regular4 ,four meals daily1 each an hour long4 ,smoked and doubted eight hours4 ,slept twelve4 ,as self-contained as an oyster4 ,rarely spoke save in monosyllables4 ,but never said a foolish thing4 ,never laughed4 ,perplexed by a joke4 ,conceived everything on a grand scale4 ,when a question was asked1 would put on a mysterious look4 ,shake his head4 ,smoke in silence4 ,observe1 at length1 he had doubts4 ,presided at the council1 in state4 ,swayed a ,turkish pipe instead of a scepter4 ,known to sit with eyes closed two hours4 ,internal commotion shown by guttural sounds4 ,noises of contending doubts1 admirers said4 ,,iv4 ,exploits4--,settled a dispute about accounts thus3 sent for the parties2 each produced his account-book2 ,van ,t4 weighed the books2 counted the leaves2 equally heavy2 equally thick2 made each give the other a receipt2 and the constable pay the costs4 ,demanded why ,van ,rensselaer seized ,bear's ,island4 ,battled with doubts regarding the ,yankees4 ,smoked and breathed his last together4 ,direction4---,weave these facts into four paragraphs1 write on the margin the special topic of each1 and over the whole what you think it the general subject of the theme3-- ,the prophets of ,baal accept ,elijah's challenge4 ,they dress a bullock4 ,call on ,baal4 ,are mocked by ,elijah4 ,leap upon the altar4 ,cut themselves4 ,blood4 ,cry till the time of the evening sacrifice4 ,no answer by fire4 ,elijah commands the people to come near4 ,repairs an old altar with twelve stones1 one for each tribe4 ,digs a trench4 ,sacrifices4 ,pours water three times upon it4 ,prays4 ,fire falls1 consumes flesh1 wood1 stones1 dust1 licks up water4 ,people see it4 ,fall on their faces4 ,cry out twice1 ,the ,lord1 he is the ,god4 ,take the prophets to the brook ,kishon1 where they are slain4 ,elijah ascends ,mount ,carrael4 ,bows in prayer4 ,go up now1 look toward the sea4 ,servant reports1 ,there is nothing4 ,go again seven times4 ,behold there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea1 like a man's hand4 ,orders ,ahab to prepare his chariot4 ,girding up his loins1 he runs before ,ahab to ,jezreel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aei4 ,,paragraphs ,,and ,,the ,,theme4 ,direction4--,weave these facts into as many paragraphs as you think there should be1 using the variety of expression insisted on in ,lesson #aej1 and write on the margin of each paragraph the special topic1 and over the whole the general subject of the theme3-- ,fort ,ticonderoga on a peninsula4 ,formed by the outlet of ,lake ,george and by ,lake ,champlain4 ,fronts south2 water on three sides4 ,separated by ,lake ,champlain from ,mount ,independence1 and by the outlet1 from ,mount ,defiance4 ,fort one hundred feet above the water4 ,may #g1 #agge1 two hundred and seventy men meet at ,castleton1 ,vermont4 ,all but forty-six1 ,green ,mountain boys4 ,meet to plan and execute an attack upon ,fort ,t4 ,allen and ,arnold there4 ,each claims the command4 ,question left to the officers4 ,allen chosen4 ,on evening of the #ith1 they reach the lake4 ,difficulty in crossing4 ,send for a scow4 ,seize a boat at anchor4 ,search1 and find small row boats4 ,only eighty-three able to cross4 ,day is dawning when these reach the shore4 ,not prudent to wait4 ,allen orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks4 ,every man responds4 ,nathan ,beman1 a lad1 guides them to the fort4 ,sentinel snaps his gun at ,a4 ,misses fire4 ,sentinel retreats4 ,they follow4 ,rush upon the parade ground4 ,form4 ,loud cheer4 ,a4 climbs the stairs4 ,orders ,la ,place1 it is said1 in the name of the great ,jehovah and the ,continental ,congress1 to surrender4 ,capture forty-eight men4 ,one hundred and twenty cannon4 ,used next winter at the siege of ,boston4 ,several swords and howitzers1 small arms1 and ammunition4 ,direction4--,these facts are thrown together promiscuously4 ,classify them as they seem to you to be related4 ,determine the number of paragraphs and their order1 and then do as directed above3-- ,joseph was ,jacob's favorite4 ,wore fine garments4 ,one day was sent to inquire after the other sons4 ,they were at a distance1 tending the flocks4 ,joseph used to dream4 ,they saw him coming4 ,plotted to kill him4 ,in one dream his brothers' sheaves bowed to his4 ,in another the sun1 moon1 and stars bowed to him4 ,plotted to throw his body into a pit4 ,agreed to report to their father that some beast had devoured ,joseph4 ,joseph foolishly told these to his brothers4 ,hated him because of the dreams and their father's partiality4 ,while the brothers were eating1 ,ishmaelites approached4 ,they sat down to eat4 ,were going down into ,egypt4 ,camels loaded with spices4 ,at the intercession of ,reuben they did not kill ,joseph4 ,threw him alive into a pit4 ,ishmaelites took him down into ,egypt4 ,sold him to ,potiphar4 ,judah advised that he be raised from the pit4 ,jacob recognized the coat4 ,refused comfort4 ,rent his clothes and put on sackcloth4 ,they took his coat4 ,killed a kid and dipped the coat in its blood4 ,brought it to ,jacob4 ,this have we found2 know now whether it be thy son's coat or no4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afj4 ,,paragraphs ,,and ,,the ,,theme4 ,direction4--,classify these promiscuous facts1 determine carefully the number and the order of the paragraphs1 and then do as directed above3-- ,trafalgar a ,spanish promontory4 ,near the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,off ,trafalgar1 fleets of ,spain and ,france1 ,october #ba1 #ahje4 ,nelson in command of the ,english fleet4 ,the combined fleets in close line of battle4 ,collingwood second in command4 ,had more and larger cannon than the ,english4 ,english fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates4 ,thirty-three sail of the line and seven frigates4 ,he signaled those memorable words3 ,england expects every man to do his duty4 ,enemy had four thousand troops4 ,signal received with a shout4 ,they bore down4 ,the best riflemen in the enemy's boats4 ,c4 steered for the center4 ,c4 in the ,royal ,sovereign led the lee line of thirteen ships4 ,a raking fire opened upon the ,victory4 ,n4 in the ,victory led the weather line4 ,c4 engaged the ,santa ,anna4 ,delighted at being the first in the fire4 ,at #a4ae ,n4 shot through the shoulder and back4 ,at #ab the ,victory opened fire4 ,n4's secretary the first to fall4 ,fifty fell before a shot was returned4 ,they have done for me at last1 ,hardy1 said ,n4 ,they bore him below4 ,at #b4be ten of the enemy had struck4 ,the wound was mortal4 ,at #d fifteen had struck4 ,the victory that cost the ,british #a1ehg men won4 ,these were his last words4 ,at #d4cj he expired4 ,how goes the day with us8 he asked ,hardy4 ,i hope none of our ships have struck4 ,n4's death was more than a public calamity4 ,i am a dead man1 ,hardy1 he said4 ,englishmen turned pale at the news4 ,most triumphant death that of a martyr4 ,he shook hands with ,hardy4 ,kiss me1 ,hardy4 ,they mourned as for a dear friend4 ,kissed him on the cheek4 ,most awful death that of the martyr patriot4 ,the loss seemed a personal one4 ,knelt down again and kissed his forehead4 ,his articulation difficult4 ,heard to say1 ,thank ,god1 ,i have done my duty4 ,seemed as if they had not known how deeply they loved him4 ,most splendid death that of the hero in the hour of victory4 ,has left a name which is our pride4 ,an example which is our shield and strength4 ,buried him in ,st4 ,paul's4 ,thus the spirits of the great and the wise live after them4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher--,continue this work as long as it is needed4 ,take any book1 and read to the class items of facts4 ,require them to use the imagination and whatever graces of style are at their command1 in weaving these facts together4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afa4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,the ,,theme4 ,analysis of the ,subject4--,a ,theme is made up of groups of sentences called ,paragraphs4 ,the sentences of each paragraph are related to each other1 because they jointly develop a single point1 or thought4 ,and the paragraphs are related to each other1 because these points which they develop are divisions of the one general subject of the ,theme4 ,after the subject has been chosen1 and before writing upon it1 it must be resolved into the main thoughts which compose it4 ,upon the thoroughness of this analysis and the natural arrangement of the thoughts thus derived1 depends largely the worth of the theme4 ,these points form1 when arranged1 the ,framework of the theme4 ,suppose you had taken ,the ,armada as your subject4 ,perhaps you could say under these heads all you wish3 #a4 ,what the ,armada was4 #b4 ,when and by whom equipped4 #c4 ,its purpose4 #d4 ,its sail over the ,bay of ,biscay and entrance into the ,english ,channel4 #e4 ,the attack upon it by ,admiral ,howard and his great ,captains--,drake and ,hawkins4 #f4 ,its dispersion and partial destruction by the storm4 #g4 ,the return to ,spain of the surviving ships and men4 #h4 ,the consequences to ,england and to ,spain4 ,perhaps the #ast point could include the #b;d and the #c;d4 ,be careful not to split your general subject up into very many parts4 ,see1 too1 that no point is repeated1 that no point foreign to the subject is introduced1 and that all the points together exhaust the subject as nearly as may be4 ,look to the arrangement of the points4 ,there is a natural order2 7#f7 could not precede 7#e72 nor 7#e71 7#d72 nor 7#d71 7#a74 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,question the pupils carefully upon every point taken up in this ,lesson4 ,direction4--,prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects3-- #a4 ,the ,arrest of ,major ,andre4 #b4 ,a ,winter in the ,arctic ,region4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afb4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,subjects4 ,direction4--,prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects3-- #a4 ,battle of ,plattsburg4 #b4 ,a ,day's ,nutting4 #c4 ,what ,does a ,proper ,care for ,one's ,health ,demand8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afc4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,subjects4 ,direction4--,prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects3-- #a4 ,a ,visit to the ,moon4 #b4 ,reasons why one ,should ,not ,smoke1 #c4 ,what ,does a ,proper ,observance of ,sunday ,require of ,one8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afd4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,subjects4 ,direction4--,prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects3-- #a4 ,the ,gulf ,stream4 #b4 ,a ,descent into a ,whirlpool4 #c4 ,what are ,books ,good for8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afe4 ,,how ,,to ,,write ,a ,,theme4 ,i4 ,choose a ,subject4--,choose your subject long before you are to write4 ,avoid a full1 round term like ,patriotism or ,duty2 take a fragment of it2 as1 ,how can a ,boy be ,patriotic8 or ,duties which we ,schoolmates owe ,each ,other4 ,the subject should be on your level1 should be interesting and suggestive to you1 and should instantly start in your mind many trains of thought4 ,,ii4 ,accumulate the ,material4--,begin to think about your subject4 ,turn it over in your mind in leisure moments1 and1 as thoughts flash upon you1 jot them down in your blank-book4 ,if any of these seem broad enough for the main points1 or heads1 indicate this4 ,talk with no one on the subject1 and read nothing on it1 till you have thought yourself empty2 and even then you should note down what the conversation or reading suggests1 rather than what you have heard or read4 ,,iii4 ,construct a ,framework4--,before writing hunt through your material for the main points1 or heads4 ,see to what general truths or thoughts these jottings and those jottings point4 ,perhaps this or that thought1 as it stands1 includes enough to serve as a head4 ,be sure1 at any rate1 that by brooding over your material1 and by further thinking upon the subject1 you get at all the general thoughts into which1 as it seems to you1 the subject should be analyzed4 ,study these points carefully4 ,see that no two overlap each other1 that no one appears twice1 that no one has been raised to the dignity of a head which should stand under some head1 and that no one is irrelevant4 ,study now to find the natural order in which these points should stand4 ,let no point1 to the clear understanding of which some other point is necessary1 precede that other4 ,if developing all the points would make your theme too long1 study to see what points you can omit without abrupt break or essential loss4 ,,iv4 ,write4--,give your whole attention to your work as you write1 and other thoughts will occur to you1 and better ways of putting the thoughts already noted down4 ,in expanding the main points into paragraphs1 be sure that everything falls under its appropriate head4 ,cast out irrelevant matter4 ,do not strain after effect or strive to seem wiser than you are4 ,use familiar words1 and place these1 your phrases1 and your clauses1 where they will make your thought the clearest4 ,as occasion calls1 change from the usual order to the transposed1 and let sentences1 simple1 complex1 and compound1 long and short1 stand shoulder to shoulder in the paragraph4 ,express yourself easily--only now and then putting your thought forcibly and with feeling4 ,let a fresh image here and there relieve the uniformity of plain language4 ,one sentence should follow another without abrupt break2 and1 if continuative of it1 adversative to it1 or an inference from it1 and the hearer needs to be advised of this1 let it swing into position on the hinge of a fitting connective4 ,of course1 your sentences must pass rigid muster in syntax2 and you must look sharply to the spelling1 to the use of capital letters1 and to punctuation4 ,v4 ,attend to the ,mechanical ,execution4--,keep your pages clean1 and let your handwriting be clear4 ,on the left of the page leave a margin of an inch for corrections4 ,do not write on the fourth page2 if you exceed three pages1 use another sheet4 ,when the writing is done1 double the lower half of the sheet over the upper1 and fold through the middle2 then bring the top down to the middle and fold again4 ,bring the right-hand end toward you1 and across the top write your name and the date4 ,this superscription will be at the top of the fourth page1 at the right-hand corner1 and at right angles to the ruled lines4 ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4--,question the pupils closely upon every point in this ,lesson4 ,additional ,subjects for ,themes4 #a4 ,apples and ,nuts4 #b4 ,a ,pleasant ,evening4 #c4 ,my ,walk to ,school4 #d4 ,pluck4 #e4 ,school ,friendships4 #f4 ,when my ,ship ,comes ,in4 #g4 ,ancient and ,modern ,warfare4 #h4 ,the ,view from my ,window4 #i4 ,homes without ,hands4 #aj4 ,i ,can4 #aa4 ,my ,friend ,jack4 #ab4 ,john ,chinaman4 #ac4 ,irish ,characters4 #ad4 ,robin ,hood4 #ae4 ,a ,visit to ,olympus4 #af4 ,monday ,morning4 #ag4 ,my ,native ,town4 #ah4 ,over the ,sea4 #ai4 ,up in a ,balloon4 #bj4 ,queer ,people4 #ba4 ,our ,minister4 #bb4 ,a ,plea for ,puss4 #bc4 ,castles in ,spain4 #bd4 ,young ,america4 #be4 ,black ,diamonds4 #bf4 ,mosquitoes4 #bg4 ,a ,day in the ,woods4 #bh4 ,a ,boy's ,trials4 #bi4 ,the ,yankee4 #cj4 ,robinson ,crusoe4 #ca4 ,street ,arabs4 #cb4 ,legerdemain4 #cc4 ,our ,neighborhood4 #cd4 ,examinations4 #ce4 ,theatre-going4 #cf4 ,donkeys4 #cg4 ,the ,southern ,negro4 #ch4 ,a ,rainy ,saturday4 #ci4 ,the ,early ,bird ,catches the ,worm4 #dj4 ,spring ,sports #da4 ,how ,horatius ,kept the ,bridge4 #db4 ,jack ,frost #dc4 ,my ,first ,sea ,voyage4 #dd4 ,monkeys4 #de4 ,grandmothers4 #df4 ,the ,boy of the ,story ,book4 #dg4 ,famous ,streets4 #dh4 ,pigeons4 #di4 ,jack and ,gill4 #ej4 ,make ,haste ,slowly4 #ea4 ,commerce4 #eb4 ,the ,ship of the ,desert4 #ec4 ,winter ,sports4 #ed4 ,a ,visit to ,neptune4 #ee4 ,whiskers4 #ef4 ,gypsies4 #eg4 ,cities of the ,dead4 #eh4 ,street ,cries4 #ei4 ,the ,world ,owes me ,a ,living4 #fj4 ,politeness4 #fa4 ,cleanliness ,akin to ,godliness4 #fb4 ,fighting ,windmills4 #fc4 ,along the ,docks4 #fd4 ,maple ,sugar4 #fe4 ,umbrellas4 #ff4 ,a ,girl's ,trials4 #fg4 ,a ,spider's ,web4 #fh4 ,the ,story of ,ruth4 #fi4 ,clouds4 #gj4 ,a ,country ,store4 #ga4 ,timepieces4 #gb4 ,bulls and ,bears4 #gc4 ,bore4 #gd4 ,our ,sunday ,school4 #ge4 ,the ,making of ,beer4 #gf4 ,autumn's ,colors4 #gg4 ,the ,watched ,pot ,never ,boils4 #gh4 ,the ,mission of ,birds4 #gi4 ,parasites4 #hj4 ,well-begun is ,half-done4 #ha4 ,the ,tides4 #hb4 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,the ,deserted ,village4 #hc4 ,a ,day on a ,trout ,stream4 #hd4 ,a ,stitch in ,time ,saves ,nine4 #he4 ,of ,what ,use are ,flowers8 #hf4 ,a ,descent in a ,diving ,bell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #aff4 ,,letter-,,writing4 ,letters need special treatment4 ,in writing a letter there are five things to consider--,the ,heading1 ,the ,introduction1 ,the ,body of the ,letter1 ,the ,conclusion1 and ,the ,superscription4 ,,the ,,heading4 ,parts4--,the ,heading consists of the name of the ,place at which the letter is written1 and the ,date4 ,if you write from a city1 give the door-number1 the name of the street1 the name of the city1 and the name of the state4 ,if you are at a ,hotel or a ,school or any other well-known ,institution1 its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street2 as may also the number of your post-office box4 ,if you write from a village or other country place1 give your post-office address1 the name of the county1 and that of the state4 ,the ,date consists of the month1 the day of the month1 and the year4 ,how ,written4--,begin the ,heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note4 ,if the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page1 you may begin the ,heading lower down4 ,begin the first line of the ,heading a little to the left of the middle of the page4 ,if it occupies more than one line1 the second line should begin farther to the right than the first1 and the third farther to the right than the second4 ,the door-number1 the day of month1 and the year are written in figures2 the rest1 in words4 ,bach important word begins with a capital letter1 each item is set off by the comma1 and the whole closes with a period4 ,direction4--,study what has teen said1 and write the following headings according to these models3-- #a4 ,ripton1 ,addison ,co41 ,vt41 ,july #aj1 #ahie4 #b4 #bej ,broadway1 ,n4 ,t41 ,june #f1 #ahij4 #c4 ,saco1 ,me41 ,feb4 #be1 #ahhg4 #d4 ,polytechnic ,institute1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 ,may #c1 #ahhh4 #a4 ann arbor #e ,july #ahbj michigan #b4 champlain co clinton n y jan #ad #ahjj #c4 p o box #bfgh #ahfj oct #ai chicago #d4 philadelphia #fgj #aheh chestnut st #af apr #e4 saint nicholas new york #a hotel nov #ahee ,,the ,,introduction4 ,parts4--,the ,introduction consists of the ,address--the ,name1 the ,title1 and the ,place of ,business or ,residence of the one addressed--and the ,salutation4 ,titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the ,address4 ,prefix ,mr4 to a man's name1 ,messrs4 to the names of several gentlemen2 ,master to the name of a young lad2 ,miss to that of an unmarried lady2 ,mrs4 to that of a married lady2 ,misses to the names of several young ladies2 and ,mesdames to those of several married or elderly ladies4 ,prefix ,dr4 to the name of a physician 7but never ,mr4 ,dr471 or write ,m4,d4 after it4 ,prefix ,rev4 to the name of a clergyman1 or ,rev4 ,mr4 if you do not know his ,christian name2 ,rev4 ,dr4 if he is a ,doctor of ,divinity1 or write ,rev4 before the name and ,d4,d4 after it4 ,prefix ,his ,excellency to the name of the ,president1 ,footnote3 ,the preferred form of addressing the ,president is1 ,to the ,president1 ,executive ,mansion1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 the ,salutation is simply1 ,mr4 ,president4 and to that of a ,governor or of an ,ambassador2 ,hon4 to the name of a ,cabinet ,officer1 a ,member of ,congress1 a ,state ,senator1 a ,law ,judge1 or a ,mayor4 ,if two literary or professional titles are added to a name1 let them stand in the order in which they were conferred--this is the order of a few common ones3 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,guard against an excessive use of titles-- the higher implies the lower4 ,salutations vary with the station of the one addressed1 or the writer's degree of intimacy with him4 ,strangers may be addressed as ,sir1 ,dear ,sir1 ,rev4 ,sir1 ,general1 ,madam1 etc42 acquaintances as ,dear ,sir1 ,dear ,madam1 etc42 friends as ,my dear ,sir1 ,my dear ,madam1 ,my dear ,jones1 etc42 and near relatives and other dear friends as ,my dear ,wife1 ,my dear ,boy1 ,dearest ,ellen1 etc4 ,how ,written4--,the ,address may follow the ,heading1 beginning on the next line1 and standing on the left side of the page2 or it may stand in corresponding position after the ,body of the ,letter and the ,conclusion4 ,if the letter is of an official character or is written to an intimate friend1 the ,address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter2 but in ordinary business letters1 it should be placed at the top and as directed above4 ,never omit it from the letter except when the letter is written in the third person4 ,there should be a narrow margin on the left side of the page1 and the ,address should begin on the marginal line4 ,if the ,address occupies more than one line1 the initial words of these lines should slope to the right4 ,begin the ,salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it when the ,address occupies three lines2 on the marginal line or farther to the right or to the left than the second line of the ,address when this occupies two lines2 a little to the right of the marginal line when the ,address occupies one line2 on the marginal line when the ,address stands below4 ,every important word in the ,address should begin with a capital letter4 ,all the items of it should be set off by the comma2 and1 as it is an abbreviated sentence1 it should close with a period4 ,every important word in the ,salutation should begin with a capital letter1 and the whole should be followed by a comma1 or by a comma and a dash4 ,direction4--,write these introductions according to the models3-- #a4 ,prof4 ,march1 ,easton1 ,pa4 ,my dear ,sir1 #b4 ,messrs4 ,smith ,jones1 #gga ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,gentlemen1 #c4 ,my dear ,mother1 ,when1 etc4 #d4 ,messrs4 ,vallette ,co41 ,middlebury1 ,vt4 ,dear ,sirs1 #a4 mr george platt burlington iowa sir #b4 mass ,cambridge prof ,james r lowell my dear friend #c4 messrs ivison blakeman taylor co gentlemen new york #d4 rev brown dr the arlington ,washington dear friend d c #e4 col ,john smith dear colonel n y auburn 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afg4 ,,letter-,,writing--,,continued4 ,,the ,,body ,,of ,,the ,,letter4 ,the ,beginning4--,begin the ,body of the ,letter at the end of the ,salutation1 and on the same line if the ,introduction is long--in which case the comma after the ,salutation should be followed by a dash1--on the line below if the ,introduction is short4 ,style4--,be perspicuous4 ,paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing4 ,avoid blots1 erasures1 interlineations1 cross lines1 and all other offenses against epistolary propriety4 ,the letter bespeaks the man4 ,letters of friendship should be colloquial1 chatty1 and familiar4 ,whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends1 however trivial it may seem to a stranger4 ,business letters should be brief1 and the sentences short1 concise1 and to the point4 ,repeat nothing1 and omit nothing needful4 ,official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremonious4 ,in formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second2 there is no ,introduction1 no ,conclusion1 no ,signature1 only the name of the ,place and the ,date at the bottom1 on the left side of the page1 thus3-- ,mr4 ,mrs4 ,a4 request the pleasure of ,mr4 ,b4's company at a social gathering1 on ,tuesday evening1 ,nov4 #aeth1 at eight o'clock4 #cb ,fifth ,ave41 ,nov4 #e4 ,mr4 ,b4 accepts ,footnote3 ,or regrets that a previous engagement 7or illness1 or an unfortunate event7 prevents the acceptance of ----2 or regrets that on account of ---- he is unable to accept ----4 with pleasure ,mr4 ,mrs4 ,a4's kind invitation for ,tuesday evening1 ,nov4 #aeth4 ,wednesday morning1 ,nov4 #ith4 ,,the ,,conclusion4 ,parts4--,the ,conclusion consists of the ,complimentary ,close and the ,signature4 ,the forms of the ,complimentary ,close are many1 and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed4 ,in letters of friendship you may use1 ,your sincere1 friend2 ,yours affectionately2 ,your loving son or daughter1 etc4 ,in business letters you may use1 ,yours2 ,yours truly2 ,truly yours2 ,yours respectfully2 ,very respectfully yours1 etc4 ,in official letters you should be more deferential4 ,use1 ,i have the honor to be1 ,sir1 your obedient servant2 ,very respectfully1 your most obedient servant2 etc41 etc4 ,the ,signature consists of your ,christian name and your surname4 ,in addressing a stranger write your ,christian name in full4 ,a lady addressing a stranger should prefix to her signature her title1 ,mrs4 or ,miss 7placing it within marks of parenthesis71 unless in the letter she has indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply4 ,how ,written4--,the ,conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the ,body of the ,letter1 and1 if occupying two or more lines1 should slope to the right like the ,heading and the ,address4 ,begin each line of it with a capital letter1 and punctuate as in other writing1 following the whole with a period4 ,the ,signature should be very plain4 ,direction4--,write two formal notes--one inviting a friend to a social party1 and one declining the invitation4 ,direction4--,write the ,conclusion of a letter of friendship1 of a letter of business1 and of an official letter1 carefully observing all that has been said above4 ,direction4--,write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your mother1 and another to your minister1 talcing care to give properly the ,heading in its two parts1 the ,introduction in its two parts1 and the ,conclusion in its two parts4 ,let the ,address in the letter to your father or your mother stand at the bottom4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #afh4 ,,letter-,,writing--,,continued4 ,,the ,,superscription4 ,parts4--,the ,superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope4 ,it is the same as the ,address1 consisting of the ,name1 the ,title1 and the full ,directions of the one addressed4 ,how ,written4--,the ,superscription should begin just below the middle of the envelope and near the left edge--the envelope lying with its closed side toward you--and should occupy three or four lines4 ,these lines should slope to the right as in the ,heading and the ,address1 the spaces between the lines should be the same1 and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner4 ,on the first line the ,name and the ,title should stand4 ,if the one addressed is in a city1 the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line1 the name of the city on the third1 and the name of the state on the fourth4 ,if he is in the country1 the name of the post-office should be on the second line1 the name of the county on the third1 the name of the state on the fourth4 ,the number of the post office box may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street1 or1 to avoid crowding1 the number of the box or the name of the county may stand at the lower left-hand corner4 ,the titles following the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma1 and every line should end with a comma except the last1 which should be followed by a period4 ,footnote3 ,some omit punctuation after the parts of the ,superscription4 ,the lines should be straight1 and every part of the ,superscription should be legible4 ,place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner4 ,direction4--,write six ,superscriptions to real or imaginary friends or acquaintances in different cities1 carefully observing all that has been said above4 ,direction4--,write two snort letters--one to a friend at the ,astor ,house1 ,new ,york1 and one to a stranger in the country4 ,illustration3 ,envelope with stamp in upper-right corner4 ,addressed to ,master ,h4 ,buckman1 ,andover1 ,mass4 ,cursive ,text3 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y1 ,june #ae1 '#if4 ,my dear ,friend1 ,you tell me that you begin the study of ,english ,literature next term4 ,let me assume the relation of an older brother1 and tender you a word of counsel4 ,study literature1 primarily1 for the thoughts it contains4 ,attend to these thoughts until you understand them and see their connection one with another4 ,accept only such as seem to you just and true1 and accept these at their proper value4 ,notice carefully the words each author uses1 see how he arranges them1 whether he puts his thought clearly1 what imagery he employs1 what allusions he makes1 what acquaintance with men1 with books1 and with nature he shows1 and in what spirit he writes4 ,your study of the author should put you in possession of his thought and his style1 and should introduce you to the man himself4 ,pardon me these words of unsought advice1 and believe me4 ,your true friend1 ,john ,schuyler4 ,master ,h4 ,buckman1 ,andover1 ,mass4 ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,syntax4 ,we here append a ,summary of the so-called ,rules of ,syntax1 with references to the ,lessons which treat of ,construction4 ,i4 ,a noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb1 or used independently1 is in the nominative case4 ,,ii4 ,the attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case 7,nom4 or ,obj47 as the word to which it relates4 ,,iii4 ,a noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case4 ,,iv4 ,a noun or pronoun used as object complement1 as objective complement1 as the principal word in a prepositional phrase1 or used adverbially ,footnote3 ,see ,lesson #ce4 is in the objective case4 ,v4 ,a noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained4 ,for ,cautions1 ,principles1 and ,examples respecting the cases of nouns and pronouns1 see ,lessons #aai1 #abb1 #abc1 #abc4 ,for ,cautions and ,examples to guide in the use of the different pronouns1 see ,lessons #hf1 #hg4 ,,vi4 ,a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person1 number1 and gender4 ,for ,cautions1 ,principles1 and ,examples1 see ,lessons #aah1adb4 ,,vii4 ,a verb agrees with its subject in person and number4 ,for ,cautions1 ,examples1 and ,exceptions1 see ,lesson #adb4 ,,viii4 ,a participle assumes the action or being1 and is used like an adjective or a noun4 ,for ,uses of the ,participle1 see ,lessons #cg1 #ch1 #ci4 ,,ix4 ,an infinitive is generally introduced by to1 and with it forms a phrase used as a noun1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,for ,uses of the ,infinitive1 see ,lessons #dj1 #da1 #db4 ,x4 ,adjectives modify nouns or pronouns4 ,for ,cautions and ,examples respecting the use of adjectives and of comparative and superlative forms1 see ,lessons #ij1 #ia1 #abh4 ,,xi4 ,adverbs modify verbs1 adjectives1 or adverbs4 ,for ,cautions and ,examples1 see ,lesson #ic4 ,,xii4 ,a preposition introduces a phrase modifier1 and shows the relation1 in sense1 of its principal word to the word modified4 ,for ,cautions1 see ,lessons #ih1 #ii4 ,,xiii4 ,conjunctions connect words1 phrases1 or clauses4 ,for ,cautions and ,examples1 see ,lessons #ajj1 #ajg4 ,,xiv4 ,interjections are used independently4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,remarks4--,the scheme of conjugation presented below is from ,english text-books4 ,in some of these books the forms introduced by should are classed1 not as ,future1 but as ,secondary ,past ,tense forms of the ,subjunctive4 ,if we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in the preceding pages1 we still fail to get a classification in which every form corresponds in use to its name4 ,the following examples will illustrate3-- ,he returns to-morrow4 7,present ,future47 ,when ,i have performed this1 ,i will come to you4 7,present ,perfect ,future ,perfect47 ,if any member absents himself1 he shall pay a fine4 7,indicative ,subjunctive47 ,you shall go4 7,indicative ,imperative47 ,after memorizing all the terms and forms belonging to the conjugation here outlined1 the student will find that he has gained little to aid him in the use of language4 ,for instance1 in this synopsis of the ,subjunctive are found nineteen forms4 ,as there are three persons in the singular and three in the plural1 we have one hundred and fourteen subjunctive forms6 ,how confusing all this must be to the student1 who1 in his use of the subjunctive1 needs to distinguish only such as these3 ,if he be1 ,if he were1 ,if he teach6 ,beyond these1 the subjunctive manner of assertion is discovered from the structure of the sentence or the relation of clauses1 not from the conjugation of the verb4 ,those ,english authors and their ,american copyists who eliminate the ,potential ,mode from their scheme of conjugation tell us that the so-called potential auxiliaries are either independent verbs in the indicative or are subjunctive auxiliaries4 ,with the meager instruction given by any one or by all of these authors1 the student will find it exceedingly difficult to determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives4 ,to illustrate3-- #a4 ,may you be happy4 #b4 ,i learn that ,i may be able to teach4 #c4 ,he might have done it if he had liked4 #d4 ,if he should try1 he would succeed4 #e4 ,i would not tell you if ,i could4 #f4 ,i could not do this if ,i were to try4 ,the forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive auxiliaries2 those below are said to be independent verbs in the indicative4 #g4 ,he may be there4 #h4 ,he might ask you to go4 #i4 ,you should not have done that4 #aj4 ,he would not come when called4 #aa4 ,i could do this at one time4 ,we are told that can and must are always independent verbs in the indicative1 and that may1 might1 could1 would1 and should are either subjunctive auxiliaries or independent verbs parsed in the indicative1 separately from the infinitives with which they seem to combine4 ,but in parsing these words as separate verbs the student is left in doubt as to whether they are transitive or intransitive1 and as to the office of the infinitives that follow4 ,shall 7to owe7 and will 7to determine7 are1 in their original meaning1 transitive4 ,may1 can1 and must denote power 7hence potential72 and1 as the infinitive with which they combine names the act on which this power is exercised1 some philologists regard them as originally transitive4 ,among these is our distinguished critic1 ,prof4 ,francis ,a4 ,march4 ,may denotes power from without coming from a removal of all hindrance1--hence permission or possibility4 ,can denotes power from within1--hence ability4 ,must denotes power from without coming from circumstances or the nature of things1--hence necessity or obligation4 ,should1 would1 might1 and could are past forms of shall1 will1 may1 and can4 ,the auxiliaries take different shades of meaning4 ,in some constructions the meaning is fainter or less emphatic than in others4 ,to say just how little of its common or original meaning may1 can1 must1 shall1 or will must have to be an auxiliary1 and how much to be a notional1 or independent1 verb would be extremely venturesome ,for instance1 could in 7#f7 above expresses power or ability to do1 as does could in 7#aa71 yet we are told that the former could is a mere auxiliary1 while the latter is an independent verb4 ,may in 7#a7 denotes a desired removal of all hindrance2 may in 7#g7 denotes a possible removal of hindrance4 ,it is hard to see why the former may is necessarily a mere auxiliary1 and the latter a notional1 or independent1 verb4 ,these are some of the difficulties--not to say inconsistencies--met by the student who is taught that there is no ,potential ,mode4 ,in a scholarly work revised by ,skeat1 ,wrightson1 speaking of ,i may1 can1 shall1 or will love1 says1 ,these auxiliary verbs had at some time such a clear and definite meaning that it would have been tolerably easy to determine the case function discharged by the infinitive2 but these verbs1 after passing through various shades of meaning1 have at last become little more than conventional symbols1 so that it would be worse than useless to attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses of our moods4 ,a ,,conjugation ,,of ,,teach4 ,active ,voice4 ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,present ,indefinite444444444444,he teaches4 ,present ,imperfect4444444444444,he is teaching4 ,present ,perfect444444444444444,he has taught4 ,present ,perfect ,continuous4444,he has been teaching4 ,past ,indefinite444444444444444,he taught4 ,past ,imperfect4444444444444444,he was teaching4 ,past ,perfect444444444444444444,he had taught4 ,past ,perfect ,continuous4444444,he had been teaching4 ,future ,indefinite4444444444444,he will teach4 ,future ,imperfect44444444444444,he will be teaching4 ,future ,perfect4444444444444444,he will have taught4 ,future ,perfect ,continuous44444,he will have been teaching4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4 ,present ,indefinite4444444444447,if7 he teach4 ,present ,imperfect44444444444447,if7 he be teaching4 ,present ,perfect4444444444444447,if7 he have taught4 ,present ,perfect ,continuous44447,if7 he have been teaching4 ,past ,indefinite4444444444444447,if7 he taught4 ,past ,imperfect44444444444444447,if7 he were teaching4 ,past ,perfect4444444444444444447,if7 he had taught4 ,past ,perfect ,continuous44444447,if7 he had been teaching4 ,future ,indefinite44444444444447,if7 he should teach4 ,future ,imperfect444444444444447,if7 he should be teaching4 ,future ,perfect44444444444444447,if7 he should have taught4 ,future ,perfect ,continuous444447,if7 he should have been teaching4 ,,imperative ,,mode4 ,present44444444444444444444444,teach thou4 ,,infinitive ,,mode4 ,present ,indefinite4444444444447,to7 teach4 ,present ,imperfect44444444444447,to7 be teaching4 ,present ,perfect4444444444444447,to7 have taught4 ,present ,perfect ,continuous44447,to7 have been teaching4 ,,participles4 ,imperfect444444444444444444444,teaching 4 ,perfect44444444444444444444444,having taught4 ,perfect ,continuous444444444444,having been teaching4 ,passive ,voice4 ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,present ,indefinite444444444444,he is taught4 ,present ,imperfect4444444444444,he is being taught4 ,present ,perfect444444444444444,he has been taught4 ,past ,indefinite444444444444444,he was taught4 ,past ,imperfect4444444444444444,he was being taught4 ,past ,perfect444444444444444444,he had been taught4 ,future ,indefinite4444444444444,he will be taught4 ,future ,imperfect44444444444444---------------- -------- ,future ,perfect4444444444444444,he will have been taught4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4 ,present ,indefinite4444444444447,if7 he be taught4 ,present ,imperfect4444444444444----------------- ------- ,present ,perfect4444444444444447,if7 he have been taught4 ,past ,indefinite4444444444444447,if7 he were taught4 ,past ,imperfect44444444444444447,if7 he were being taught4 ,past ,perfect4444444444444444447,if7 he had been taught4 ,future ,indefinite44444444444447,if7 he should be taught4 ,future ,imperfect44444444444444---------------- -------- ,future ,perfect44444444444444447,if7 he should have been taught4 ,,imperative ,,mode4 ,present44444444444444444444444,be thou taught4 ,,infinitive ,,mode4 ,present ,indefinite4444444444447,to7 be taught4 ,present ,perfect4444444444444447,to7 have been taught4 ,,participles4 ,imperfect444444444444444444444,being taught4 ,perfect44444444444444444444444,taught4 ,compound ,perfect44444444444444,having been taught4 ,,index4 ,a1 or an1 uses of ,a and the uses of distinguished ,a 7day7 or two1 or one or two 7days7 ,abbreviations common ones how made and written of names of states ,absolute ,phrases definition of diagram of expansion of ,adjective an1 definition of ,adjectives apt ones to be used classes definitive 7numeral7 descriptive comparison adjectives not compared adjectives irregularly compared form preferred in er and est with adverb descriptive1 used as nouns errors in use of having number forms needless ones avoided not always limiting not used for adverbs numeral cardinal ordinal proper order of scheme for general review used as abstract nouns ,adjective ,clauses connectives of definition of adjectives explanatory modifiers independent clauses infinitive phrases participle phrases possessives modifying omitted words position of restrictive and unrestrictive unrestrictive1 punctuation ,adjective ,complement distinguished from adverb modifier ,adjective ,modifiers analysis of nouns as ,adverb an definition of ,adverbs apt ones to be used classes of comparison of errors in use of expressing negation irregular comparison of modifying clauses phrases prepositions sentences not used for adjectives not used needlessly position of scheme for general review sometimes like adjective attributes used independently 7note7 interrogatively 7note7 with connective force 7note7 ,adverb ,clause1 definition of ,adverb ,clauses classes cause1 real concession condition degree 7result7 evidence manner place purpose time contracted by omitting words to absolute phrases to participles and participle phrases to prepositional phrases adjective clauses and phrases 7note7 adverbs independent clauses 7note7 position of punctuation of ,adverbial ,modifiers analysis of nouns as parsing of ,adversative ,connectives1 list ,adversative1 meaning of 7note7 ,a few1 a little1 vs4 few and little ,agreement of parts of a metaphor of pronoun with its antecedent of verb with the subject ,allusion 7note7 ,alphabet definition of perfect one what the ,english imperfect how ,alternative1 meaning of 7note7 ,alternative ,connectives1 list ,ambiguity of pronouns1 how avoided ,analysis examples for1 additional of a sentence of subjects of themes ,antecedent1 a clause1 phrase1 or word 7note7 ,antithesis 7note7 ,any body 7or one7 else's 7note7 ,apostrophe the ,appositives ,argumentative ,style ,arrangement ,articles classes definite indefinite errors in use of repeated when uses of a1 or an1 and the ,as introductory conjunction relative pronoun 7note7 with clauses of degree1 manner1 and time with variety of clauses ,as 444 as1 construction of ,as it were1 construction of ,aspirates ,assumed ,subject1 what ,attribute ,complement definition of diagram of ,auxiliary ,verbs ,be1 conjugation of derivation of 7note7 ,beside and besides distinguished 7note7 ,best of the two ,between with three or more 7note7 ,brackets1 use of ,but adversative conjunction a preposition various uses of with or without that with what incorrect for but that or but ,can ,capital ,letters in abbreviations in beginning sentences in class names in compound names in names of the ,deity in proper names in titles rule for ,i and ,o summary of rules for ,case defined of attribute complement of explanatory modifier of noun or pronoun independent of noun or pronoun used adverbially of objective complement ,cases definitions of in ,anglo-,saxon and in ,latin ,case ,forms errors in use of five pronouns have three nouns have two only eight nominative only seven objective ,cause1 adverbs of ,cause ,clauses1 divisible ,classification necessity of not governed by logical relation ,clauses classes dependent independent complex and compound dependent adjective adverb noun independent 7the thought7 in alternation in contrast in same line inferred ,collective ,nouns form of verb with of what number ,colon ,comma1 rules for ,comparison adjectives without it cautions to guide in definition of degree used with two degrees of1 defined444#beg4 #bfh double1 origin of double1 to be shunned errors in use of forms of irregular when adverb used which form preferred ,complement is what the modified is what ,complements attribute 7subjective7 object objective ,complex ,sentences definition treatment of ,compound ,attribute ,complement ,compound ,object ,complement ,compound ,personal ,pronouns ,compound ,predicate1 defined ,compound ,relative ,pronouns ,compound ,sentence changed to complex contracted defined treatment of ,compound ,subject1 defined ,condition ,clauses without conjunction ,conjugation definition of forms of more elaborate form ,conjunction a1 definition of ,conjunctions classes co-ordinate subordinate co-ordinate adversative alternative ,conjunctions 7cont47 co-ordinate copulative co-ordinate connect sentences and paragraphs scheme for review ,conjunctive ,adverbs are what offices of ,connectives apt ones to be chosen co-ordinate adversative alternative copulative errors in use of in correlation introductory subordinate of adjective clauses of adverb clauses of noun clauses ,consonants1 classes of ,contraction of ,sentences ,co-ordinate ,conjunctions ,copulative1 meaning of ,copula1 what ,correlatives1 errors in use of ,d of the ed of verbs in past tense ,d of the ed of past participles ,dare1 without s form ,dash the ,declarative ,sentence1 defined ,declension defined of interrogative pronouns of nouns of personal pronouns of relative pronouns ,degree1 adverbs of ,descriptive ,style ,diminution1 degrees of ,diagram a1 what may be omitted ,do1 idiomatic use of ,each other construction of with two or more ,ed of past tense and participle ,either and neither1 pronouns and conjunctions1 with two or more ,either may be used for each ,elocution1 object of ,energy defined exercises in secured how ,english ,grammar1 definition of ,epigrams are what ,evidence distinguished from ,cause ,exclamatory ,sentences definition of order of words in ,expansion of absolute phrases of infinitive phrases of participles of sentences ,explanatory ,modifier definition of punctuation of ,figures of ,speech basis of definition illustrations of names of uses of ,first two1 etc4 ,force 7see ,energy7 ,for to ,gender defined distinguished from sex of names of animals of what importance of pronouns1 errors in used in personification ,gender ,forms ,genders1 the three defined ,had better1 rather1 sooner ,hand in hand1 construction of ,have written1 history of ,he or one after the indefinite one ,humor1 in style ,hyphen1 use of ,idea distinguished from object ,if for even if1 although for whether omission of variety of uses ,imagery1 discussion of ,imperative ,sentence definition of order of words in ,in and ,into distinguished ,in case that1 construction of ,independent ,clauses definition of joined without conjunction punctuated ,independent ,expressions1 punctuated ,indirect1 or ,dative1 ,object ,inference1 expressed by an independent clause ,infinitive 7the71 and assumed subject after for definition of double nature of old dative of use of present perfect after past indicative why called infinitive ,infinitive ,phrase after a preposition as adjective as adjective modifier as adverb modifier as attribute complement as explanatory modifier as object complement as objective complement as subject cleft or split does not with the noun form a clause expansion into clauses independent ,in order that1 construction of ,interjections ,interrogation ,point1 use of ,interrogative ,pronouns declension definition list ,interrogative ,sentences definition of order of words in ,intransitive ,verbs1 definition ,introductory ,words ,invitations1 form of ,irregular ,verbs definition of inflections of list of persistence of ,it for a clause idiomatic use of use for animals and children vague ,it is me1 him1 etc4 ,just as1 construction of ,language definition of made up of words natural word ,last two1 etc4 ,lay and lie ,less1 the final s of1 and lesser ,lest equaling that not various uses of with noun clause ,letters1 the alphabet ,letters body of conclusion of heading of illustration of introduction of parts of superscription of ,letter-,writing ,loose ,sentence ,many a1 explanation of ,manner1 adverbs of ,masculine ,gender distinguished ,masculine ,pronoun1 use of ,may ,metaphor definition of exercises in use of ,methinks ,metonymy definition of exercises in use of ,mine1 thine1 of mine1 etc ,mode is what ,modes classes1 imperative indicative potential subjunctive definitions of imperative1 no #b;d and #c;d persons indicative1 uses of potential omitted subjunctive ,modifications1 definition ,modified ,complement ,modifiers1 definition different rank explanatory1 punctuation ,must ,myself1 explanatory ,n1 ,saxon ne1 the negative particle ,narrative ,style ,natural ,language ,need1 without s form ,negation by adverbs ,negatives1 double ,no and yes1 sentence-words ,no body 7or one7 else's ,nominative ,forms1 eight ,noun a1 definition of ,nouns abstract as adjective modifiers as adverb modifiers cases of classes of collective common and proper declension gender of number1 kinds of person of roots of scheme for general review ,noun ,clauses as attribute complement as explanatory modifier as object complement as principal term of prepositional phrase as subject connectives of contraction of definition of position of punctuation of ,noun ,modifier explanatory 7appositive7 explanatory of a sentence possessive ,number definition of kinds of of noun agreeing with adjective of nouns determined of verbs shows what #j and oh distinguished ,object and ,object ,complement distinguished ,object1 indirect ,object1 indirect1 made subject ,object ,complement becoming subject compound definition of retained after verb in passive ,objective ,forms1 seven ,objective ,complement an infinitive phrase a participle becoming an attribute complement definition of extended beyond its factitive sense ,of in place of possessive sign not always indicating possession ,of mine1 etc ,on condition that ,one another syntax of with two or more ,only1 position of syntax of ,order 7words and phrases7 transposed usual ,other1 misuse of ,ought ,paragraph 7the7 composition of definition of topics and subtopics of unity of ,paragraphing1 exercises in ,parallel ,construction ,parenthesis1 marks of ,parenthetical ,classes1 punctuation ,parsing definition of first step in models for written ,participles adjectival as adjective modifiers as attribute complements as mere adjectives as mere nouns as objective complements as prepositions as principal word in a phrase definition of expansion of forms of in independent phrases misuse of modified by a and the modified by a possessive nounal1 called gerunds1 infinitives1 verbal nouns place of punctuation of used in slurring ,passive ,voice1 idiomatic constructions ,period1 use of ,periodic ,sentence ,person forms of a noun or pronoun of a verb why regarded in the grammar ,personification1 the figure ,persons1 the three defined ,perspicuity definition of exercises in ,phrases absolute adjective and adverb as prepositions complex and compound definition of infinitive interchange with clauses interchange with words participial position of prepositional punctuation of used independently verb ,place1 adverbs of ,plural ,number ,plural ending1 origin foreign forms of formed irregularly formed regularly form same as singular forms treated as singular no form for of compound words of letters1 figures1 etc4 of proper names some originally singular some words always two forms with different meaning without singular of like meaning ,possessive ,ending added to explanatory word ambiguity avoided by attached to the adjective confined to what error respecting errors in use of of for of compound names origin of when omitted when pronounced es ,predicate adjective defined a verb or contains one compound definition of modified noun defined of two or more words ,preposition a1 defined ,prepositions becoming adverbs ending a sentence ending in ing errors in use of list of two before a noun where sometimes found with verb before a noun ,pronoun a1 defined ,pronouns agreement ,nom4 and ,obj4 forms classes adjective interrogative personal relative declension of denote relations errors in use of need of number scheme for review vagueness of ,pronouns 7,adjective7 a 7day7 or two all1 both1 and whole before of any body 7or one7 else's1 etc4 declension of definition of demonstrative distributive each other1 with two or more either1 neither1 with two or more either for each first two1 last three1 etc41 he1 etc4 after indefinite one indefinite none in both numbers ones1 plural other and than1 words between other two1 when one of three is taken partial list of such or so with adjectives ,pronouns 7,interrogative7 declension definition list ,pronouns 7,personal7 avoided when compound consistent use of declension definition its1 history of misuse of them for those my and mine1 etc4 order of ours1 yours1 etc41 double possessives ,pronouns 7,personal7 7cont47 use of compound used needlessly we hardly plural of ,i we instead of ,i ye has given way to you ,pronouns 7,relative7 agreement of compound declension definition discriminated in use omitted when same with same antecedent that in restrictive clauses that instead of who and which what misused for that who and which restrictive and unrestrictive with omitted antecedents ,pun1 a ,punctuation ,marks exercises in summary of rules for ,qualities of ,style ,question1 direct and indirect ,quotation ,marks1 use of ,quotations capitalization of definition of direct indirect punctuation of ,quoth ,regular ,verbs definition increasing inflections of ,relative ,clauses1 position ,result1 clauses of ,review ,questions ,review of ,sentence1 scheme for ,satire ,semicolon1 rules for ,sentence 7the7 balanced contracted defined expanded loose period ,sentences 7classed7 form complex compound simple meaning declarative exclamatory imperative interrogative ,set and sit ,shall and will ,should and would ,simile1 definition and exercises in ,simple ,sentences definition of treatment of ,since1 various uses of ,singular ,number ,so 444 as1 construction of ,some body 7or one7 else's ,sounds and ,letters ,speech figures of mechanism of ,spelling1 rules for ,style argumentative definition of descriptive illustrations narrative qualities of ,subject assumed1 what assumed1 changed to prevent ambiguity compound defined determined how ,subject 7cont471 modified1 or logical ,subjunctive ,mode definition of disappearing uses of ,subordinate ,conjunctions ,subordinate ,connectives ,synecdoche ,synopsis is what ,syntax1 rules for ,tense defined future1 how used future perfect1 how used past1 how used past perfect1 how used present1 how used present perfect1 how used ,tenses defined emphatic form of errors in use of conjunctive adverb ,than errors in use of followed by adjective replaced by but1 etc4 use after comparatives with me after it ,than whom ,that and this1 adjectives1 plurals ,that and this 7,adj4 ,pro47 declension reference ,that 7,conj47 with cause clause with noun clause with purpose clause ,that1 ,conj4 ,adv41 degree clause ,that 7,rel4 ,pr47 distinguished from who and which for who and which generally restrictive preposition follows ,the1 uses of ,the 444 the construction of explanation of ,themes framework of how to write them subjects for ,the one1 the other ,this ,thought1 how expressed ,three times four is twelve ,to with infinitive construction of expressing relation extension of no part of not expressed position of without relation ,transitive ,verbs definition of conjugated passively ,unity of paragraphs ,unless 7 if not7 ,usage ,variety how secured illustrations of want of ,verb a1 defined ,verb ,be an auxiliary conjugation of derivation of ,verb-,phrases ,verbs 7classes7 form irregular regular meaning intransitive transitive ,verbs a modern passive progressive form analysis of compound tense forms as nouns auxiliary changing their voice conjugated in progressive form conjugated interrogatively conjugated negatively conjugation of ,verbs 7cont47 defective forms not asserting improper forms used indicative and potential with subjunctive meaning inflections of intransitive definition of made transitive irregular definition of list of persistence of principal parts of mode1 defined model for written parsing number forms number of defined passive form compound periphrastic forms resolved1 person forms person of potential auxiliaries principal parts redundant regular definition of increasing scheme for gen4 review ,strong 7or ,old71 ,weak 7or ,new7 subjunctive form fading tense the e and the d of past tense1 the e and the d of past participle transitive1 definition of conjugated passively voice ,verbs 7agreement of7 attracted errors in with and in what with collective noun with subjects connected by and with subjects connected by or or nor with subjects emphatically distinguished with subjects naming same thing with subjects one affirmative and one negative with subjects following with subjects preceded by each1 every1 etc4 with subjects varying in person ,vocal ,consonants ,voice1 the voices defined ,voices changed ,vowels ,what equal to that or whom in origin misuse for that various uses of without antecedent ,when conjunctive adverb connecting various clauses in adjective clauses interrogative adverb ,where conjunctive adverb connecting various clauses in adjective clauses interrogative adverb ,whether repeated with more than two ,whether or no ,which an adjective an interrogative pronoun a relative pronoun clause as antecedent composition of declension ,which and ,who in restrictive clauses in unrestrictive clauses that used for ,while1 connecting various clauses ,will and would ,words great number of in ,eng4 spoken words what transposed order of use of determining the class of usual order of written words what ,words and ,phrases 7cont47 connected1 each making good sense with context independent independent nearly in pairs1 punctuation interchangeable made prominent modifying sentences ,worth1 a verb ,ye ,yes and ,no ,you1 verb form with