,transcrib]'s ,notes ,text pr9t$ 9 italics & bold face 9 ! s\rce docum5t h be5 transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores & equal signs respectively4 ,small capitals h be5 replac$ ) ,,all ,,capitals4 ,?is book on woodwork+ conta9s notes & work+ draw+s = ! cont5t 9 ,correlat$ c\rses 9 woodwork & me*anical draw+ by ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ,illu/ration3 ,,=e/ ,,int]ior4 ,,sequoia ,,national ,,p>k1 ,,cali=nia4 ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,woodwork+ ,a ,,textbook ,,= ,,s*ools ,,by ,,ira ,,samuel ,,griffi?1 ,a4 ,b4 ,,illu/rations ,,by ,,edw9 ,,victor ,,lawr5ce ,illu/ration ,,! ,,manual ,,arts ,,press ,,peoria1 ,,ill9ois ,copyright ,ira ,samuel ,griffi? #aijh ,,preface4 ,an exp]i5ce1 some:at ext5d$1 9 tea*+ academic bran*es ( le>n+ z well z woodwork+1 has conv9c$ ! au?or t ! mo/ effective tea*+ ( woodwork+ c be accompli%$ only :5 its cont5t is made a subject ( z dilig5t /udy z is t ( ! o!r & old] bran*es4 ,su* a /udy necessitates ! possession1 by ! /ud5t1 ( a text-book4 ,! selection ( a suitable text is made difficult because ( ! fact t tool processes are usually treat$ 9 connection ei!r ) models or ex]cises4 ,x is h>dly to be expect$ t any "o set ( models or ( ex]cises1 ?o !y may be ( v great value1 w fill ! ne$s ( v>y+ local s*ool conditions4 ,! production ( a text-book :i* %all deal ) tool processes 9 a g5]al way )\t ref]5ce to any p>ticul> set ( models or ex]cises is ! au?or's aim4 ,x is believ$ t su* a text w prove suitable :]ev] ! ess5tials ( woodwork+ %all be taught1 :e!r 9 gramm>1 high s*ool or college1 & :atev] ! sy/em ( in/ruction4 ,a few words z to ! mann] ( us+ ! text seem advisable4 ,x is n expect$ t ! book w be /udi$ *apt] by *apt]1 consecutively1 z are ! elem5t>y texts 9 ma!matics or sci5ce4 ,r1 x is to be /udi$ topically4 ,to illu/rate3 ,a class is to make a model1 project1 ex]cise1 or :atev] we may *oose to call x1 :i* w require a k ( c]ta9 tools & ! mann] ( us+ !m4 ,at a p]iod previ\s to _! int5d$ use ! numb]s ( ! sections ( ! text relat+ to ^! tools & _! uses1 or ! page numb]s1 %\ld be giv5 ! /ud5t4 ,previ\s to ! p]iod 9 :i* ^! tools are to be us$ he %\ld be requir$ to /udy ! sections s m>k$4 ,! recitation ^u ! assign$ text %\ld take place at ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod foll[+ t ( ! assignm5t1 & may be conduct$ 9 a mann] q simil> to t ( academic bran*es4 ,?is %\ld prep>e ! way & make intelligible ! 8demon/ration0 :i* may be giv5 9 connection ) ! recitation or at its close4 ,if z ?oro a k ( ! matt] /udi$ is insi/$ ^u 9 ! recitation z is insi/$ ^u 9 ! academic classroom1 !re ne$ be b little excuse = ignorance on ! "p ( ! pupil :5 he beg9s 8 "w or at any subsequ5t "t4 ,ackn[l$gem5t is due ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,=e/ry1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 = ! use ( mat]ial conta9$ 9 ! *apt] on ,woods & = ! pr9ts f :i* _m ( ! half-tones relat+ to =e/ry1 7 produc$4 ,,introduction4 ,,c>e ,,( ,,tools ,,& ,,b5*4 ,x is important t a beg9n] %\ld become impress$ ) ! importance ( keep+ 8 tools 9 ! be/ condition4 ,good results c be obta9$ only :5 tools are kept %>p & clean1 & us$ only = ! purposes = :i* !y are made4 ,tools prop]ly %>p5$ & prop]ly us$ p]mit "o to "w easily z well z accurately4 ,:5 x becomes necess>y = ! work] to use undue /r5g? because ( ! dullness ( 8 tools1 8tr\bles0 beg9 to accumulate & ! 8pleasure ( do+0 is soon *ang$ to despair4 ,ord]l9ess & c>efulness1 ) k & pati5ce are sure to br+ good results2 j z a lack ( !m w br+ failure4 ,! b5* top mu/ n be m>k$ ) p5cil or scrat*$ unnecess>ily4 ,*isel bo>ds are to protect ! top f any accid5tal cuts & %\ld always be us$ = t purpose4 ,b5* tops t are scrap$ & %ellac$ or oil$ e o!r ye> ought to rema9 9 z good condition z :5 new except = ! few accid5tal m>ks too deep to remove1 :i* ! ?\ghtless boy may h inflict$4 ,good work]s take pride 9 keep+ _! b5*es 9 good ord]4 ,tools t are n 9 imm$iate use %\ld be plac$ 9 _! racks t !y may n be injur$ or cause injury to ! work]4 ,at ! close ( ! p]iod ! bright p>ts ( tools t h come 9 contact ) p]spir+ h&s %\ld be wip$ (f ) oily wa/e kept = t purpose4 ,all tools %\ld !n be put away 9 _! prop] places & ! top ( ! b5* bru%$ clean4 ,! beg9n] %\ld also und]/& t1 important z are ! results he may be able to produce 9 wood1 m s]i\s results are be+ produc$ 9 himself 9 ! habits he is =m+4 ,c>efulness1 neatness1 accuracy1 ability to economize 9 "t & mat]ial1 ability to 8?9k0 & 8to d0 because ( ! ?9k+1 hone/y1 ord]l9ess--^! are "s ( ! m important results t are (t5times ov]look$4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,introduction4 ,c>e ( tools & b5* #c ,,"p ,i4 ,,tools ,,& ,,elem5t>y ,,processes4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,lay+-out ,tools2 ,_! ,uses #i #a4 ,! rule2 #b4 ,! try-squ>e2 #c4 ,! fram+ squ>e2 #d4 ,! bevel2 #e4 ,! m>k+ gage2 #f4 ,! p5cil gage2 #g4 ,splitt+ gage2 #h4 ,! mortise gage2 #i4 ,! ,divid]s2 #aj4 ,p5cil & knife4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,saws #bj #aa4 ,saws2 #ab4 ,! crosscut saw2 #ac4 ,! rip-saw2 #ad4 ,! back-saw2 #ae4 ,! turn+ saw2 #af4 ,! compass saw2 #ag4 ,saw fil+4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,planes #bh #ah4 ,planes2 #ai4 ,sett+ ! blade2 #bj4 ,adju/m5t ( ! iron2 #ba4 ,! jack-plane2 #bb4 ,! smoo?-plane2 #bc4 ,! jo9t]2 #bd4 ,! block-plane2 #be4 ,! wood5 plane2 #bf4 ,plan+ fir/ surface true2 #bg4 ,face side1 face edge2 #bh4 ,plan+ fir/ edge squ>e ) face side2 #bi4 ,f9i%+ ! second edge2 #cj4 ,f9i%+ ! second side2 #ca4 ,plan+ ! fir/ end squ>e2 #cb4 ,f9i%+ ! second end2 #cc4 ,end plan+ ) ! %oot+ bo>d2 #cd4 ,rules = plan+ to dim5sions2 #ce4 ,plan+ a *amf]4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,bor+ ,tools #df #cf4 ,brace or bit/ock2 #cg4 ,c5t] bit2 #ch4 ,! aug] bit2 #ci4 ,! drill bit2 ,! gimlet bit2 #dj4 ,c\nt]s9k bit2 #da4 ,! screwdriv] bit2 #db4 ,! brad-awl2 #dc4 ,positions :ile bor+2 #dd4 ,?ru bor+2 #de4 ,bor+ to dep?4 ,,*apt] ,v4--,*isels & ,*isel+ #ec #df4 ,*isels2 #dg4 ,horizontal p>+ across ! gra92 #dh4 ,v]tical p>+2 #di4 ,oblique & curv$ l9e p>+2 #ej4 ,p>+ *amf]s2 #ea4 ,! firm] g\ge2 #eb4 ,gr9d+ bevel$ edge tools2 #ec4 ,:ett+ bevel$ edge tools2 #ed4 ,oil/ones2 #ee4 ,%>p5+ ! *isel2 #ef4 ,%>p5+ plane-irons2 #eg4 ,to tell :e!r a tool is %>p or n4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,=m ,"w2 ,model+ #fe #eh4 ,mak+ a cyl9d]2 #ei4 ,! spoke%ave2 #fj4 ,mak+ curv$ edges2 #fa4 ,model+4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4--#a4 ,lay+ ,out ,duplicate ,p>ts2 #b4 ,scrap+ & ,s&pap]+2 #c4 ,fa/5+ ,p>ts #gj #fb4 ,lay+ out duplicate p>ts2 #fc4 ,scrap+2 #fd4 ,s&pap]+2 #fe4 ,hamm]s2 #ff4 ,nails2 #fg4 ,nail+2 #fh4 ,nailset2 #fi4 ,)draw+ nails2 #gj4 ,! screwdriv]2 #ga4 ,screws2 #gb4 ,fa/5+ ) screws2 #gc4 ,glue2 #gd4 ,clamps2 #ge4 ,glu+4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,simple ,,jo9]y4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,type ,=ms #hd #gf4 ,jo9]y2 #gg4 ,g5]al directions = jo9]y2 #gh4 ,dado2 #gi4 ,directions = dado2 #hj4 ,cross-lap jo9t2 #ha4 ,directions = cross-lap jo9t1 fir/ me?od2 #hb4 ,directions = cross-lap jo9t1 second me?od2 #hc4 ,glue jo9t2 #hd4 ,directions = glue jo9t2 #he4 ,d[el+2 #hf4 ,directions = d[el+2 #hg4 ,key$ t5on-&-mortise2 #hh4 ,directions = key2 #hi4 ,directions = t5on2 #ij4 ,directions = mortise2 #ia4 ,directions = mortise 9 ! t5on2 #ib4 ,bl9d mortise-&-t5on2 #ic4 ,directions = t5on2 #id4 ,directions = lay+ out mortise2 #ie4 ,directions = cutt+ mortise1 fir/ me?od2 #if4 ,directions = cutt+ mortise1 second me?od2 #ig4 ,mit] jo9t2 #ih4 ,directions = mit] jo9t2 #ii4 ,dovetail jo9t2 #ajj4 ,directions = dovetail jo9t4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,elem5t>y ,cab9et ,"w #aje #aja4 ,comb9ation plane2 #ajb4 ,draw] con/ruction2 #ajc4 ,directions = rabbet$ corn]2 #ajd4 ,directions = dovetail corn]2 #aje4 ,directions = draw]2 #ajf4 ,panel+2 #ajg4 ,cutt+ grooves2 #ajh4 ,haun*$ mortise-&-t5on2 #aji4 ,rabbet+2 #aaj4 ,fitt+ a door2 #aaa4 ,h++ a door2 #aab4 ,locks4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,wood ,,& ,,wood ,,f9i%+4 ,,*apt] ,x4--,wood #aaf #aac4 ,/ructure2 #aad4 ,gr[?2 #aae4 ,respiration & transpiration2 #aaf4 ,moi/ure2 #aag4 ,%r9kage2 #aah4 ,weight2 #aai4 ,o!r prop]ties2 #abj4 ,gra94 ,,*apt] ,,xi4--,lumb]+ & ,mill+ #abf #aba4 ,lumb]+2 #abb4 ,mill+2 #abc4 ,qu>t] saw+2 #abd4 ,wa/e2 #abe4 ,lumb] transportation2 #abf4 ,season+2 #abg4 ,lumb] t]ms & measurem5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4--,common ,woods #ach #abh4 ,classification4 ,conif]\s woods2 #abi4 ,c$>2 #acj4 ,cypress2 #aca4 ,p9e2 #acb4 ,spruce4 ,broad-leav$ woods2 #acc4 ,a%2 #acd4 ,basswood2 #ace4 ,bir*2 #acf4 ,butt]nut2 #acg4 ,*]ry2 #ach4 ,*e/nut2 #aci4 ,elm2 #adj4 ,gum2 #ada4 ,hickory2 #adb4 ,maple2 #adc4 ,oak2 #add4 ,sycamore2 #ade4 ,tulip wood2 #adf4 ,walnut4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4--,wood ,f9i%+ #aej #adg4 ,wood f9i%es2 #adh4 ,bru%es2 #adi4 ,g5]al directions = us+ bru%2 #aej4 ,fill]s2 #aea4 ,fill+ ) pa/e fill]2 #aeb4 ,/a9s2 #aec4 ,wax+2 #aed4 ,v>ni%es2 #aee4 ,%ellac2 #aef4 ,%ellac f9i%es2 #aeg4 ,oil or copal v>ni%es2 #aeh4 ,fl[+ copal v>ni%2 #aei4 ,typical f9i%es = co>se-gra9$ woods2 #afj4 ,pat*+2 #afa4 ,pa9t+4 ,,app5dix ,i4--,additional ,jo9ts #afd ,,app5dix ,,ii4--,wood ,f9i%+ ,recipes #aga #a4 ,wax2 #b4 ,wat] /a9s2 #c4 ,oil /a9s2 #d4 ,_s /a9s4 ,,app5dix ,,iii4--,work+ ,draw+s #agc #a4 ,in/rum5ts2 #b4 ,conv5tions2 #c4 ,projection & relation ( views2 #d4 ,lett]s & figures2 #e4 ,con/ructions2 #f4 ,ord] ( proc$ure4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,tools ,,& ,,elem5t>y ,,processes4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,lay+-,,out ,,tools--,,_! ,,uses4 #a4 ,! ,rule4--,! foot rule is us$ z a unit ( measurem5t 9 woodwork4 ,! rule ord9>ily us$ is call$ a two-foot rule because ( its l5g?4 ,su* rules are h+$ s z to fold once or twice & are usually made ( boxwood or maple4 ,! divisions along ! out] edges1 ! edges opposite ! c5t] h+e1 are in*es1 halves1 f\r?s1 eigh?s1 & on "o side sixte5?s also4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,! rule %\ld n be laid flat on ! surface to be measur$ b %\ld be /ood on edge s t ! knife po9t c be made to t\* ! divisions on ! rule & ! wood at ! same "t4 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,:5ev] !re are sev]al measurem5ts to be made along a /raight l9e1 ! rule %\ld n be rais$ until all are made1 = ) ea* plac+ ( ! rule errors are likely to occur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,! rule is us$ to f9d ! middle ( an edge or surface by plac+ x across ! piece s t ! di/ances f ! edges ( ! piece to correspond+ in*1 or fractional m>ks %all be ! same1 ,fig4 #c1 ! middle ( ! piece be+ at a po9t midway betwe5 ! m>ks select$4 #b4 ,! ,try-squ>e4--,! try-squ>e may be made entirely ( iron or /eel or x may h a head ( wood call$ ! beam & a blade ( /eel4 ,! blade is graduat$ into in*es & fractions ( an in*4 ,z all try-squ>es are liable to be injur$ by r\gh usage1 c>e %\ld be tak5 n to let !m drop on ! b5* or floor1 nor %\ld !y ev] be us$ = pry+ or p\nd+4 ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,! try-squ>e is us$ = ?ree purposes3 ,fir/1 to act z a guide = ! p5cil or knife po9t 9 lay+ out l9es across ! gra9 at "r angles to an edge or surface2 second1 to te/ an edge or end to see :e!r x is squ>e to an adjo9+ surface or edge2 ?ird1 to te/ a piece ( "w to see :e!r x is ( ! same wid? or ?ickness ?ru\t its entire l5g?4 ,fig4 #e %[s ! v>i\s positions assum$ 9 l9+ across a piece4 ,! beam %\ld be held firmly aga9/ ei!r ! face side or ! face edge4 ,! face side ( a piece is ! broad surface :i* is fir/ made true4 ,! face edge is ! fir/ edge :i* is made squ>e to ! face side & /raight4 ,^! two surfaces are usually m>k$ 9 "s way s t !y may be di/+ui%$ f ! o!r surfaces4 ,_! use is fully expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,if ! beam projects beyond ! end ( ! wood1 x %\ld be rev]s$4 ,! knife %\ld be incl9$ =w>d & away f ! blade ( ! try-squ>e slightly4 ,a light1 firm l9e %\ld be made ! fir/ "t across ! piece4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,9 te/+ edges or ends = squ>5ess1 ! beam %\ld be held1 z 9 l9+1 firmly ei!r aga9/ ! face side or ! face edge4 ,fig4 #f4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to te/ ! extreme ends ( ! piece4 ,also te/ at a suffici5t numb] ( po9ts to %[ fully ! condition ( ! edge4 ,slid+ ! try-squ>e along ! edge is n objectionable if ! blade be held lightly on ! surface4 ,"u no circum/ances %\ld ! try-squ>e be us$ to scrape ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,9 te/+ a piece to see :e!r x is ( ! same wid? or ?ickness ?ru\t its entire l5g?1 place ! blade across ! surface to be te/$1 hold+ ! beam lightly aga9/ ! face side or face edge1 slide ! try-squ>e along ! piece ) ! eye fix$ ^u ! graduations at ! out] edge4 ,fig4 #g4 #c4 ,! ,fram+ ,squ>e4--,l>ge squ>es ( "o piece ( /eel1 call$ fram+ squ>es1 are us$ by c>p5t]s = l>ge & r\gh "w4 ,! long arm is call$ ! blade & ! %ort "o ! tongue4 ,fig4 #h4 ,9 addition to ! divisions into in*es & fractions ( an in*1 !re is on ! blade a bo>d measure table & on ! tongue a brace or raft] measure table4 ,?is squ>e w be f\nd conv5i5t :5 8cutt+ up0 /ock1 also = te/+ corn]s ( l>ge pieces ( furniture & = sett+ ! bevel to v>i\s angles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 #d4 ,! ,bevel4--,! bevel diff]s f ! try-squ>e 9 hav+ a movable blade4 ,fig4 #i4 ,?is blade may be set at any desir$ angle f #j to #ahj degrees4 ,! mann] ( us+ ! bevel is simil> to t ( ! try-squ>e4 ,:5 adju/+1 ! blade %\ld be j loose en\gh to move ^u ! application ( slight pressure4 ,!re are v>i\s ways ( sett+ ! bevel to ! requir$ angle4 ,%\ld ! triangle us$ 9 me*anical draw+ be available1 angles ( #cj degrees1 #de degrees & #fj degrees are easily obta9$ by adju/+ ! bevel to ! sides ( ! requir$ angle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,to set ! bevel to #de degrees by means ( ! fram+ squ>e1 hold ! beam aga9/ "o ( ! arms1 ,fig4 #aj1 & move ! blade s t x %all pass ?r\gh correspond+ po9ts on bo? blade & tongue4 ,fig4 #aa illu/rates a me?od 9 :i* no o!r tools are ne$$4 ,a l9e is squ>$ across a bo>d hav+ a /raight edge4 ,equal di/ances are measur$ f ! po9t at :i* ! l9e cuts ! edge1 ! blade !n be+ made to pass ?r\gh ^! po9ts :ile ! beam is held tightly aga9/ ! edge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,= angles ( #cj degrees & #fj degrees1 squ>e a knife l9e at "r angles to an edge4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,measure f ! edge1 along ?is l9e1 or f ?is l9e along ! edge any giv5 di/ance4 ,take twice ?is di/ance ^u ! blade ( ! bevel & adju/ s t a "r triangle is =m$ 9 :i* ! l5g? ( ! longe/ side %all be twice t ( ! %orte/4 #e4 ,! ,m>k+ ,gage4--,! gage is us$ = lay+ out l9es along ! gra9 ( ! wood4 ,x consi/s ( a beam1 ,fig4 #ac1 head1 ?umb screw1 & m>k+ po9t or spur4 ,! spur %\ld be %>p5$ to a knife po9t ) a file s t x may make a f9e smoo? l9e4 ,x %\ld project f> en\gh bel[ ! beam s t ! beam may be roll$ =w>d 9 su* a way z to br+ ! spur into ! bo>d at a slight angle1 :5 prop]ly m>k+4 ,x %\ld ext5d n less ?an an eigh? ( an in* & 9 mo/ cases ?ree-sixte5?s ( an in*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,! graduations on ! beam are seldom reliable4 ,x is saf] to set ! gage ) ! rule by measur+ ! di/ance f ! spur to ! gage block4 ,?is is done by hold+ ! gage bottom side up 9 ! left h&4 ,) ! "r place ! end ( ! rule aga9/ ! head4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,aft] ! screw has be5 tight5$1 apply ! rule aga9 to make sure ( ! correctness ( ! sett+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,to gage ! l9e1 take ! tool 9 ! "r h&1 ?ree f+]s grasp+ ! beam1 fir/ encircl+ ! head = n>r[ "w1 & ! ?umb back1 or ne>ly back1 ( ! spur4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,! head %\ld be kept aga9/ "o or ! o!r ( ! face sides4 ,beg9 at ! end ( ! piece :i* is t[>ds y1 hold ! block firmly aga9/ ! piece1 roll ! beam =w>d until ! spur b>ely t\*es ! surface & make a v light l9e4 ,fig4 #ae illu/rates ! mann] ( rais+ ! spur f ! wood by rais+ ! wri/ dur+ ! backw>d /roke4 ,x w be f\nd conv5i5t to hold ! piece aga9/ ! b5* /op4 ,?is /eadies ! piece & p]mits ! work] to see h[ deep ! spur is cutt+ & :e!r ! head is aga9/ ! face prop]ly4 ,avoid deep l9es4 ,!y are inaccurate ev5 if /raight & always cause tr\ble 9 ! mak+ unless ! gra9 ( ! wood is p]fectly /raight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 #f4 ,! ,p5cil ,gage4--,!re are occasions :5 a p5cil-gage m>ks ) suffici5t accuracy & is m suitable because its po9t does n cut ! wood1 su* z 9 gag+ = a bevel4 ,a hole bor$ ?ru ! beam ne> "o end1 j l>ge en\gh to receive a p5cil snugly1 w suffice4 ,fig4 #af4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,fig4 #ag illu/rates a me?od frequ5tly us$ by c>p5t]s4 ,! f+]s act z a gage head4 #g4 ,slitt+ ,gage4--,a slitt+ gage is "o 9 :i* ! spur is %>p & /rong1 & w cut ?ru s(t lumb] z ?ick z "o-qu>t] ( an in*4 ,! bo>ds are cut f ea* side & consid]able pressure is requir$4 ,sometimes a h&le l t ( ! plane is fa/5$ to ! beam ne> ! knife or spur4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,slitt+ ,gage ,mortise ,gage ,panel ,gage ,= wide bo>ds ,,fig4 #ah4 #h4 ,! ,mortise ,gauge4--,fig4 #ah also %[s a mortise gage us$ 9 advanc$ "w4 ,x has two spurs1 "o ( !m adju/$ by means ( ! screw at ! end ( ! beam at any desir$ di/ance f ! /ation>y "o1 s t ! two sides ( a mortise or t5on c be m>k$ at once4 #i4 ,! ,divid]s4--,divid]s1 ,fig4 #ai1 are us$ 7#a7 9 describ+ circles1 7#b7 9 divid+ a giv5 space into a giv5 numb] ( p>ts1 & 7#c7 9 m>k+ "o memb] :i* is to be fitt$ to ano!r irregul> memb]4 ,fig4 #bj %[s ! mann] ( sett+ ! divid]s4 ,! ?umb-screw %\ld be releas$ s t ! legs may be mov$ )\t mu* ef=t4 ,:5 ! approximate sett+ has be5 secur$1 use ! ?umb-nut = adju/+ to m accurate measurem5t4 ,9 describ+ circles1 ! divid]s %\ld be held z 9 ,fig4 #ba & swung to ! "r or left z is conv5i5t4 ,!y %\ld be lean$ =w>d slightly & an ef=t made to secure a %>p1 light l9e4 ,= mo/ "w ! two legs may be %>p5$ to po9ts4 ,sometimes "o is %>p5$ l a knife po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 #aj4 ,p5cil & ,knife4--,p5cil l9es may be us$ 9 gett+ out /ock f r\gh mat]ial & 9 lay+ out "w on r\gh surfaces :]e a knife l9e w\ld n be visible4 ,p5cil l9es %\ld be c>efully made1 h[ev]4 ,! p5cil may be us$ also 9 m>k+ bevels1 curves & 9 o!r places :]e ! knife or gage m>k w\ld be injuri\s4 ,o!rwise1 ! knife & gage %\ld be us$4 ,p5cil l9es are easie/ remov$ f wood by means ( ! eras]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,9 lay+ out r\gh /ock1 if ! fir/ edge is suffici5tly /raight1 x is usual to ?umb-gage = wid?4 ,?is is done by hold+ ! p5cil at ! end ( ! rule & us+ ! ?umb ( ! left h& z ! gage head1 draw+ ! :ole t[>ds y ) ! rule act+ z gage-beam4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,a /raight-edge1 a bo>d ) a /raight edge1 is (t5 us$ 9 m>k+ out4 ,m>k (f ! l5g? ( ! piece ( wood requir$4 ,m>k (f ! bread? at ! end ( ! bo>d1 also m>k x ne> :at is to be ! o!r end ( ! piece4 ,place ! /raight-edge on ^! two m>ks & draw ! l9e4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,! try-squ>e %\ld be us$ to m>k across ! gra94 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,saws4 #aa4 ,saws4--,saws :i* are us$ 9 cutt+ across ! gra9 are call$ crosscut2 ^? :i* are us$ 9 cutt+ p>allel to ! gra9 are call$ ripsaws4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,^u ! blade ( a saw1 ne> ! h&le1 w be f\nd a numb]4 ,?is repres5ts ! numb] ( po9ts to ! in*4 ,po9ts %\ld n be confus$ ) tee?1 = !re is always "o m po9t p] in* ?an !re are tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,to prev5t ! sides ( a cut or k]f f b9d+ ! saw1 ! tee? are b5t alt]nately f side to side1 t ! op5+ may be wid] ?an ! blade is ?ick4 ,! saw tee? are !n said to h 8set40 ,to d good "w1 a saw %\ld h no m set ?an is necess>y to all[ a free movem5t4 ,fig4 #be4 ,damp1 spongy lumb] w require consid]able set1 :ile well season$ lumb] necessitates b little4 ,illu/ration3 ,end view--7,exagg]at$7 ,edge view ,side view ,,fig4 #be4 ,! rake1 or pit* ( ! tee? ( a saw is ! degree ( slant :i* ! cutt+ edges possess ) ref]5ce to an imag9>y l9e pass+ ?ru ! po9ts ( ! tee?4 ,fig4 #be4 ,! am\nt ( pit* giv5 w dep5d ^u ! use to :i* ! saw is to be put1 :e!r = ripp+ or cross cutt+1 & some:at ^u ! h>dness or s(tness ( ! wood to be cut4 ,fig4 #bf %[s ! saw 9 prop] position4 ,x %\ld be held 9 ! "r h& ) ! left h& grasp+ ! bo>d1 ! ?umb ( ! left h& act+ z a guide 9 ! beg9n+4 ,! ?umb %\ld be held firmly on ! bo>d & ! blade ( ! saw %\ld be press$ lightly aga9/ x4 ,! cutt+ edge ( ! saw %\ld be held at an angle ( ab\t =ty-five degrees to ! bo>d & %\ld be />t$ on a backw>d /roke4 ,! fir/ few /rokes %\ld be %ort ones1 increas+ gradually 9 l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,if ! tool is %>p1 b little pressure w ev] be requir$ &1 9 />t+1 ! tool mu/ be held up s t its weight %all come ^u ! wood gradually4 ,saws c be guid$ bett] if ! index f+] ( ! "r h& is all[$ to ext5d along ! side ( ! h&le4 ,te/ occasionally1 sight+ d[n ! saw blade to see t ! sides ( ! saw are at "r angles to ! surface ( ! bo>d4 ,a try-squ>e may be us$ by ! beg9n]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bf4 ,if ! saw does n foll[ ! direction ( ! l9e1 ! blade %\ld be slightly twi/$1 z ! saw+ proce$s1 9 ! direction x ought to take4 ,?is mu/ be c>efully done s z n to cause ! blade to b9d & k9k4 ,9 saw+ a bo>d :i* has be5 fa/5$ 9 ! vise1 ! mo/ conv5i5t position is obta9$ by saw+ at "r angles to ! surface4 ,unless ! saw has consid]able set1 difficulty w be exp]i5c$ 9 *ang+ ! direction ( ! cutt+ %\ld ?is be necess>y4 ,?is may be ov]come by l[]+ ! h&le s t ! cutt+ edge %all make ! same angle ) ! bo>d z :5 ! bo>d re/s on tre/les4 ,:5 mak+ a long cut1 %\ld ! k]f b9d1 a w$ge may be ins]t$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bf4 ,all saws w "w easi] & w be f\nd less likely to ru/ if _! sides are rubb$ occasionally ) an oily rag or a piece ( tall[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 #ab4 ,! ,crosscut ,saw4--,fig4 #be %[s ! tee? ( a crosscut saw4 ,?is saw is fil$ s t ! cutt+ edges are on ! sides ( ! tee?4 ,e too? is %>p5$ to a po9t1 "o on ! "r side1 ! next on ! left1 giv+ two p>allel l9es ( %>p po9ts ) a ,v-%ap$ groove betwe54 ,! pit* giv5 ! tee? ( a crosscut saw w v>y ) ! h>dness or s(tness ( ! wood :i* is to be cut4 ,= all-ar\nd use ! am\nt ( slant is ab\t "o-?ird ( ! :ole too?4 ,fig4 #bg4 #ac4 ,! ,rip-saw4--,! tee? ( ! rip-saw are *isel %ap$1 ,fig4 #bh1 & are made by fil+ /raight across ! blade4 ,! front or cutt+ edges are fil$ s t !y are squ>e1 or at "r angles to an imag9>y l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! po9ts ( ! tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 #ad4 ,! ,back-saw4--,! back-saw1 or t5on-saw z x is (t5 call$1 has a ?9 blade /r5g!n$ by a heavy /eel back piece4 ,x is us$ ^u "w requir+ delicate1 accurate cutt+1 ,fig4 #bi4 ,fig4 #cj %[s ! %ape ( ! tee?1 :i* diff] slightly f ^? ( ! cross-cut4 ,^! tee? are suitable = bo? cross-cutt+ & f9e ripp+4 ,b little set is giv5 ! tee? ( ! back-saw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,9 us+ ?is saw1 ,fig4 #ca1 hold ! "w firmly aga9/ ! /op ( ! b5*hook ) ! left h&1 guid+ ! saw ) ! =ef+] or ?umb plac$ aga9/ ! blade j above ! tee?4 ,beg9 on ! backw>d /roke1 hold+ ! h&le end ( ! saw highe/4 ,beg9 at ! f>!/ corn]1 us+ %ort1 easy /rokes4 ,gradually l[] ! h&le to a horizontal position1 mean:ile increas+ ! numb] ( tee? us$1 b cont9u+ ! sl[1 regul> /rokes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,9 accurate cutt+1 ,fig4 #cb1 :]e no p>+ or block-plan+ is to be done1 ! saw tee? %\ld cut j by ! l9e1 ) ! k]f 9 ! wa/e1 b ) no wood betwe5 ! l9e & ! k]f4 ,to all[ = p>+ or block-plan+1 saw ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in* 9 ! wa/e4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,:5 ripp+1 place ! piece 9 ! vise & beg9 saw+ z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #cd4 ,place ! saw s t j ! :ole ( its ?ickness is 9 :at is to become wa/e wood4 ,beg9 saw+ z 0 done 9 crosscutt+4 ,gradually l[] ! h&le1 :ile saw+1 until mo/ is be+ cut f ! side ne>e/ y4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,rev]se ! wood sev]al times1 work+ d[n "o side !n ! o!r until ! cross l9es are rea*$4 ,fig4 #cf illu/rates ! result ( good & bad saw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,good ,saw+ ,bad ,saw+ ,,fig4 #cf4 #ae4 ,! ,turn+-saw4--,! turn+ or b[-saw is us$ = cutt+ along curv$ l9es4 ,fig4 #cg illu/rates ! mann] ( hold+ ?is saw4 ,! sides ( ! blade mu/ be held at "r angles to ! surface ( ! wood4 ,ei!r or bo? h&les may be turn$1 ?us turn+ ! blade ) ref]5ce to ! frame4 ,avoid turn+ ! blade1 h[ev]1 z mu* z possible & see t ! blade is n twi/$ by turn+ "o h&le m ?an ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,?is saw may be us$ = cutt+ enclos$ curves by bor+ a hole1 releas+ "o end ( ! blade & ins]t+ x ?ru ?is hole !n replac+ x 9 ! saw frame4 ,z ! cut ( ! turn+ saw is n v smoo?1 x is advisable to leave ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in* betwe5 ! k]f & ! l9e1 to be remov$ lat] ) ! spoke%ave4 #af4 ,! ,compass ,saw4--,! compass saw1 ,fig4 #ch1 is bett] suit$ = inside curve saw+4 ,its use requires a /eady h&1 else ! ?9 blade w buckle & break4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 #ag4 ,saw ,fil+4--,le>n+ to %>p5 a saw is a difficult ?+--s difficult t x is n consid]$ )9 ! prov9ce ( a book on elem5t>y woodwork+ to treat ( x4 ,"o :o uses saws1 ought1 h[ev]1 to "k ! /eps :i* are tak5 to put a saw 9 ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,! tee? are fir/ set4 ,fig4 #ci %[s a common =m ( saw-set 9 position4 ,beg9n+ at "o end ( ! saw1 e o!r too? is b5t outw>d by means ( ?is in/rum5t4 ,! saw is !n rev]s$ & ! rema9+ tee? are simil>ly treat$4 ,z ^! saw-sets are adju/able1 ! tee? may be b5t mu* or little z ! "w to be done dem&s4 ,second1 ! tee? are jo9t$4 ,a flat file is run l5g?wise ov] !m ! full l5g? ( ! saw s t none ( ! tee? may project m ?an o!rs4 ,fig4 #dj %[s a flat file 9 position = jo9t+4 ,?is block keeps ! surface ( ! file at "r angles to ! blade ( ! saw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,?ird1 ! saws are fil$1 a ?ree-corn]$ file be+ us$ = ?is purpose4 ,! k9d ( saw det]m9es ! angle or angles at :i* ! file is held ) ref]5ce to ! saw blade4 ,fig4 #da illu/rates ! position :5 fil+ ! crosscut & ,fig4 #db ! rip-saw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,f\r?1 ! tee? are side jo9t$ by lay+ ! saw flat ^u ! b5* & rubb+ an oil-/one ov] ea* side lightly1 once4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,?is is to ev5 ! sides ( ! tee? t ! k]f may be smoo?ly cut4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,planes4 #ah4 ,planes4--,a /&>d plane ( ! pres5t "t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! bottom ( ?is plane is ( iron4 ,fig4 #de %[s a plane ) ! same adju/m5ts 9 :i* ! bottom is ( wood4 ,planes are made 9 diff]5t sizes4 ,z c]ta9 l5g?s are m suitable = c]ta9 k9ds ( "w !y h be5 giv5 di/+ui%+ names su* z jack-plane1 smoo?-plane1 =e-plane1 jo9t]4 ,fig4 #dd %[s ! jack-plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,! two irons ( ! plane1 ! plane-iron or plane-bit1 & ! cap-iron are fa/5$ toge!r by means ( a /\t screw4 ,fig4 #df4 ,?is cap-iron s]ves a d\ble purpose4 ,fir/3 ,x /iff5s ! plane iron2 second1 x s]ves to b5d & break ! %av+ & !reby prev5t a splitt+ action 9 front ( ! cutt+ edge4 ,?is action w\ld surely occur 7 ! gra9 9 ! lea/ unfavorable & ! cap-iron n us$4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 #a ,plane-,iron4 #b ,cap-,iron4 #c ,plane-,iron ,screw4 #d ,cap4 #e ,cap-,screw4 #f ,frog4 #g 8,y0 ,adju/m5t4 #h ,adju/+ ,nut4 #i ,lat]al ,adju/m5t4 #aj ,frog ,screw4 #aa ,h&le4 #ab ,knob4 #ac ,h&le 8,bolt ,nut04 #ad ,knob 8,bolt ,nut04 #ae ,h&le ,screw4 #af ,bottom4 ,,fig4 #df4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 #ai4 ,sett+ ! ,blade4--,! cap-iron %\ld ext5d to )9 "o-sixte5? ( an in* ( ! cutt+ edge ( ! plane-iron 9 ! smoo?-plane & ?ree ?irty-seconds 9 ! jack-plane4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,! screw :i* holds ! plane-iron & cap-iron toge!r mu/ be fa/5$ ) a screwdriv]--_m c>p5t]s use ! plane-iron = ?is purpose--tightly z possible1 o!rwise a few /rokes ( ! plane & ! plane-iron w h be5 =c$ up s t ! cutt+ edge w n t\* ! wood4 ,! reason = ?is action w be und]/ood :5 x is se5 t ! lev] ( ! brass adju/+ nut does n act directly on ! cap-iron b only on ! plane-iron z x is c>ri$ along by be+ fa/5$ ) ?is screw to ! cap-iron4 ,! cap-iron & plane-iron are fa/5$ 9 ! ?roat ( ! plane by a cap on "o end ( :i* is a little lev] or cam4 ,%\ld ?is cam fail to hold ! irons firmly1 ! screw :i* holds ! cap to ! frog %\ld be turn$ ) ! screwdriv]4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ?is screw1 once set1 seldom ne$s adju/+4 ,beg9n]s frequ5tly1 9 ignorance1 place ! plane-iron & cap-iron toge!r s t ! side ( ! plane-iron hav+ ! bevel is next ! cap-iron4 ,?is results 9 a loose act+ cam & !y %\ld look to see t ! irons are prop]ly set be=e *ang+ ! screw4 ,%\ld x be impossible to =ce ! cam into place )\t great pressure1 fir/ look to see :e!r ! blade re/s flat ^u ! frog be=e releas+ ! screw4 ,frequ5tly ! little lev] :i* %\ld ent] ! small op5+ 9 ! cap-iron w be f\nd to h ent]$ ! op5+ 9 ! plane-iron only4 #bj4 ,adju/m5t ( ! ,iron4--,!re are two adju/m5ts = ! blade ( ! mod]n plane4 ,! fir/ consi/s 9 turn+ ! ?umb-screw or adju/+ nut1 ,fig4 #df1 t ! plane iron may cut a ?ick] or a ?9n] %av+4 ,! direction 9 :i* x %\ld be turn$ to give ! desir$ result mu/ be le>n$ by exp]im5t1 = 9 "s planes x is ! rev]se ( :at x is 9 o!rs4 ,a little obs]vation ( ! action ( ! screw ^u ! lev] :i* connects x to ! plane iron w %[ t !re is (t5 q a little lo/ motion s t x becomes necess>y to turn ! screw a little be=e ! iron is rais$ or l[]$ any4 ,"o soon le>ns by ! s5se ( feel+ :5 ! lo/ motion has be5 tak5 up4 ,! second adju/m5t is by means ( ! lev]1 #i1 ,fig4 #df4 ,mov+ ?is lev] to ! "r or ! left s]ves to /raight5 ! plane-iron1 s t ! cutt+ edge %all ext5d ev5ly ?r\gh ! m\? & n take a %av+ ?ick] at "o side ( ! iron ?an at ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,9 adju/+ a plane-iron1 turn ! plane upside d[n ) ! toe t[>ds y1 hold x t[>d ! light & sight along ! bottom1 ,fig4 #di4 ,if ! plane-iron projects1 obs]ve :e!r x projects ev5ly or n4 ,usually "o side w be f\nd to project m ?an ! o!r4 ,move ! adju/+ lev] until x %all project uni=mly4 ,! cutt+ edge %\ld project ab\t ! ?ickness ( a piece ( draw+ pap] = av]age "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 #ba4 ,! ,jack-,plane4--,! jack-plane is ab\t ?irte5 in*es long4 ,:]e a full equipm5t ( planes is at h&1 ! plane-iron ( ! jack-plane is gr\nd slightly r\nd+ z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ej ,a4 ,! purpose ( ?is plane is to remove r\gh or l>ge quantities ( wood & ?is %ape ( blade is be/ suit$ = t purpose4 ,( c\rse ! surface ( ! wood is left 9 holl[s & ridges1 & x is necess>y to use ano!r plane ) a plane-iron gr\nd /raight & set %all[] 9 ord] to smoo? ! surface4 ,9 manual-tra9+ s*ools :]e ! jack-plane is made to s]ve ! purpose ( smoo?-plane also1 ! plane-iron is %>p5$ /raight across & ! corn]s slightly r\nd$1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ej4 #bb4 ,! ,smoo?-,plane4--,! smoo?-plane is %ort] ?an ! jack-plane4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,x is us$1 z its "n implies1 = smoo?+ surfaces4 ,z ! /raight5+ is suppos$ to h be5 previ\sly done1 ! %ort] l5g? is no disadvantage4 ,= f9e "w ! cap-iron ( ?is plane may be set z close z "o ?irty-second ( an in* to ! cutt+ edge ( ! plane-iron4 ,! plane-iron %\ld be set correspond+ly %all[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 #bc4 ,! ,jo9t]4--,?is plane is us$ = /raight5+ long & unev5 /ock4 ,x is mo/ commonly us$ = prep>+ ! p>ts = glue jo9ts4 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,its advantage lies 9 its l5g?1 (t5 two feet or m1 :i* prev5ts ! blade f cutt+ 9 ! holl[ places until all ( ! high places h be5 level$4 ,a %ort plane w\ld simply foll[ ! irregul>ities1 smoo?+ b n /raight5+4 ,! plane-iron ( ! jo9t] %\ld be gr\nd /raight across4 ,=e-planes are %ort jo9t]s1 next 9 size to ! jack-planes1 & are us$ = su* "w z /raight5+ ! edges ( doors1 w9d[s1 etc41 :5 fitt+ !m4 #bd4 ,! ,block-,plane4--,! block-plane is ab\t six in*es long4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,x is made especially = cutt+ across ! end ( ! wood4 ,9 addition to ! adju/+ nut1 :i* is 9 a diff]5t position b s]ves ! same purpose z 9 ! jack-plane1 & ! lat]al adju/+ lev]1 !re is a lev] = adju/+ ! size ( ! op5+ at ! m\? ( ?is plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,! block-plane diff]s f ! planes j describ$ 9 t x has no cap-iron1 none be+ ne$$ 9 end-plan+4 ,! plane iron is put 9 place ) ! bevel side up in/ead ( d[n z 9 ! o!r planes4 ,! block-plane is n a necessity :]e a vise c be us$ = hold+ ! piece to be plan$4 ,a smoo?-plane or jack-plane may1 if ! plane-iron be set v %all[1 d ! "w j z well4 ,! block-plane is us$ mo/ly by c>p5t]s 9 fitt+ toge!r pieces :i* _c be tak5 to ! vise4 ,"h ! smallness ( ! plane & ! fact t b "o h& is ne$$ to op]ate x are ( v great advantage4 #be4 ,! ,wood5 ,plane4--,! old-fa%ion$ wood5 planes are /ill pref]r$ by "s woodwork]s4 ,! iron bodi$ planes h displac$ !m because ( ! ease ) :i* !y c be adju/$ r ?an because !y produce any bett] results4 ,wood5 planes are subject to w>page & z ! bottoms become unev5 ?ru we>1 x is necess>y to /raight5 & level !m occasionally4 ,! plane-iron & cap-iron ( ! wood5 plane are fa/5$ 9 ! ?roat ( ! plane by means ( a wood5 w$ge4 ,?is w$ge is driv5 9 place ) ! hamm]4 ,fig4 #ed %[s ! mann] ( hold+ ! plane :ile sett+ ! irons & w$ge4 ,if ! plane-iron does n project en\gh1 ! iron is lightly tapp$ z indicat$4 ,if too mu* projects1 ! /ock is tapp$ z 9 ,fig4 #ee4 ,?is figure also illu/rates ! mann] ( remov+ ! w$ge1 two or ?ree bl[s be+ suffici5t to release x s t x c be )drawn ) ! h&4 ,9 sett+ ! plane-iron1 %\ld ei!r corn] project m ?an ! o!r1 tap ! side ( ! iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,fig4 #ef %[s ! mann] ( hold+ ! smoo? plane 9 releas+ ! w$ge1 z well z :5 ! cutt+ edge projects too mu*4 #bf4 ,plan+ ,fir/ ,surface ,true4--,a true surface is "o :i* is /raight z to its l5g? & wid? & :i* has its surface at ! f\r corn]s 9 ! same plane4 ,select = ?is fir/ surface1 :i* we %all call ! face side1 ! bett] ( ! two broad surfaces4 ,knots1 sap1 w9d1 %akes1 etc41 %\ld !re be any1 mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt :5 pass+ judgm5t4 ,(t5 ! two sides are s ne>ly alike t !re is little reason = *oice4 ,:]e sev]al p>ts are to be fitt$ toge!r1 ! faces are turn$ 92 9 ?is case1 ! be/ surfaces %\ld n be select$ = faces4 ,*apt] ,,vii1 section #ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,be=e beg9n+ to plane hold ! piece t[>d ! light1 close "o eye & sight z 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,if ! surface is n w>p$ or 9 w9d1 ! back arris ab w appe> directly beh9d ! front arris cd4 ,also sight ! arrises = /raightness1 ,fig4 #eh1 be+ c>eful to hold s z to get ! full b5efit ( ! light4 ,aga91 te/ f arris to arris1 ,fig4 #ei4 ,! try-squ>e may be us$ ei!r side up1 b ! beam mu/ n be held aga9/ ei!r edge4 ,x is n = squ>5ess b = /raightness t ?is te/ is made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,notice ! direction ( ! gra9 & place ! piece s z n to plane aga9/ x4 ,9 ,fig4 #fj plane f ,a t[>d ,b or ! surface w be r\gh5$ in/ead ( smoo!d4 ,:5 ! /ock is r\gh1 ! direction ( ! gra9 _c be told readily4 ,a few /rokes ( ! plane w give ! desir$ in=mation4 ,z mo/ /ock is to be plan$ to size1 x is well to te/ ) ! rule be=e beg9n+ to plane1 s z to "k j h[ mu* m>g9 has be5 all[$4 ,if y f9d y _c true ?is fir/ surface )\t gett+ ! piece )9 "o-sixte5? ( an in* ( ! ?ickness requir$1 ask y\r in/ructor to %[ y :]e ! tr\ble lies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,^! te/s ought to give ! work] a pretty fair idea ( :at & h[ mu* he d>e plane1 s t :5 he beg9s he may "w intellig5tly4 ,z few %av+s z possible1 & ^? ?9 ones1 ) ! prop] result atta9$1 %[ =e?\ght & c>e4 ,n[h]e c good1 common s5se be us$ to bett] advantage ?an 9 le>n+ to plane4 ,:5 planes are n 9 use !y %\ld be laid on _! sides1 or o!rwise plac$ s t ! cutt+ edge %all n t\* any?+4 ,= r\gh+ (f & /raight5+ broad surfaces1 ! jack-plane %\ld be us$1 & ?is foll[$ by ! smoo?-plane4 ,:5 us+ ! plane1 /& ) ! "r side to ! b5*2 avoid a /oop+ position4 ,fig4 #fa4 ,! plane %\ld re/ flat ^u ! wood f />t to f9i%4 ,press heavily ^u ! knob 9 />t+ & ^u ! h&le 9 f9i%+ ! /roke4 ,unless c>e is tak5 to hold ! plane level 9 />t+ & /opp+1 ! result w be z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #fb ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,take z long a %av+ z ! nature ( ! "w w p]mit4 ,9 plan+ long bo>ds or :]e x is desir$ to l[] "o p>ticul> place only1 x becomes necess>y to /op ! /roke be=e ! end ( ! bo>d is rea*$4 ,t no m>k %all %[ at ! place :]e ! plane-iron is lift$1 x is necess>y to fea!r ! %av+4 ,?is is done by hold+ ! toe ( ! plane ^u ! bo>d & rais+ ! heel z ! /roke proce$s1 beg9n+ j be=e ! /opp+ po9t is rea*$4 ,if ! cut is to comm5ce o!r ?an at ! end ( ! piece1 l[] ! heel aft] hav+ />t$ ! =w>d /roke ) ! toe ^u ! bo>d4 ,x is cu/om>y to raise ! heel ( ! plane slightly on ! backw>d /roke t ! edge may n be dull$4 ,:5 ! surface has be5 plan$ s t x fulfills ! te/s by sight+ describ$ above1 an additional te/ may be giv5 x4 ,%\ld ! bo>d be ( any consid]able wid?--?ree or m in*es--! foll[+ te/ w prove suffici5t3 ,place a /raight-edge l5g?wise1 !n crosswise ! surface plan$ & along ea* ( its two diagonals4 ,if no light c be se5 betwe5 ! piece & ! /raight-edge 9 any ( ^! f\r te/s1 ! surface may be consid]$ level or true4 ,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,a second te/1 "o :i* w answ] = n>r[ z well z broad surfaces1 diff]s f ! above only 9 ! mann] ( det]m9+ :e!r ! surface is 9 w9d or n4 ,two /icks1 call$ w9d+ /icks1 are prep>$ by plan+ _! two opposite edges /raight & p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,^! /icks are plac$ across ! surface to be te/$1 close to ! ends1 & a sight tak5 ov] _! top edges4 ,if ! surface is 9 w9d ! edges _c be made to sight s t "o edge w appe> directly back ( ! o!r1 ,fig4 #fd2 "o end ( ! back /ick w appe> high1 at ! same "t ! o!r "o w appe> l[ ) ref]5ce to ! edge ( ! =e /ick4 ,! back corn] is high only z comp>$ ) ! =e corn]4 ,! w9d may be tak5 out ( ! surface j z well by plan+ ! =e corn] :i* is diagonally opposite4 ,usually1 equal am\nts %\ld be plan$ f ! surface at ea* ( ^! corn]s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! bo>d is ?ick] at "o corn] ?an ! o!r1 x is be/ to take ! :ole am\nt at ! ?ick] corn]4 #bg4 ,face ,side1 ,face ,edge4--,! fir/ surface & ! fir/ edge plan$ s]ve a special purpose & are giv5 special names4 ,! fir/ surface is call$ ! face side1 & ! fir/ edge1 ! face edge2 bo? may be ref]r$ to z ! faces4 ,^! faces are sometimes kn[n by o!r names su* z work+ face & jo9t edge1 m>k$ face & m>k$ edge1 etc41 b _! mean+ is ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,t ^! faces may be kn[n1 !y are m>k$ ) p5cil ) :at are call$ face m>ks4 ,!re are v>i\s ways ( mak+ face m>ks4 ,unless o!rwise in/ruct$1 ! m>ks may be made z 9 ,fig4 #fe2 = ! face side1 a light slant+ l9e ab\t "o in* long ext5d+ to ! edge :i* is to become ! face edge2 = ! face edge1 two light l9es across ! edge4 ,! m>ks on bo? face side & face edge %\ld be plac$ ab\t ! middle ( ! piece & close toge!r4 ,^! two surfaces are ! only ones m>k$4 ,f "o or ! o!r ( ^!1 measurem5ts & te/s are made4 ,9 squ>+ up /ock1 = illu/ration 7:i* means to r$uce a piece ( r\gh lumb] to def9ite l5g?1 wid? & ?ickness s t x %all h smoo?1 flat sides at "r angles to ea* o!r7 ! gage block is held aga9/ "o or ! o!r ( ^! faces only1 & ! beam ( ! try-squ>e :5 te/+ = squ>5ess is plac$ aga9/ "o or ! o!r ( ^! faces only4 #bh4 ,plan+ ,fir/ ,edge ,squ>e ) ,face ,side4--,make a prelim9>y te/ ) ! eye be=e beg9n+ to plane4 ,sight ! arrises ( ! edge to see :]e x ne$s /raight5+4 ,exam9e ! end to see :i* arris is high4 ,also look to see :i* way ! gra9 runs4 ,avoid imp]fections 9 ! wood z f> z possible 9 *oos+ ?is edge4 ,x is ! "p ( wisdom to exam9e ! plane-iron to see t ! surface plan+ has n caus$ ! cutt+ edge to project unev5ly4 ,a plane1 set out ( true1 is likely to cause h\rs ( extra "w2 x defeats e ef=t t may be made to hold ! plane prop]ly4 ,/rive to get %av+s ! full l5g? ( ! piece1 especially on ! la/ few /rokes4 ,! smoo?-plane is little if ev] us$ = edge plan+ on acc\nt ( its %ort l5g?4 ,9 us+ ! jack-plane 9 :i* ! edge is slightly r\nd$1 ?us mak+ a %av+ ?ick] 9 ! middle ?an at ! edges1 avoid tilt+ ! plane to make x cut on "o side r ?an ! o!r4 ,move ! :ole plane ov] to ! high side s t ! middle ( ! cutt+ edge %all be directly ov] ! high place4 ,keep ! sides ( ! plane p>allel ) ! edge s z to get ! full b5efit ( ! l5g? ( ! plane4 ,! two te/s :i* ?is fir/ edge mu/ fulfill are3 ,fir/1 t x %all be /raight2 second1 t x %all be squ>e ) ! face side4 ,fig4 #f1 ,*apt] ,i1 %[s ! me?od ( te/+ = squ>5ess4 ,z 9 plan+ ! face side1 try to accompli% ! desir$ result ) z few %av+s z possible4 ,! caution ab\t plan+ ! fir/ surface1 :]e a def9ite size is to be atta9$1 applies equally to plan+ ! fir/ edge4 ,:5 ! edge has be5 prop]ly tru$1 put on ! face m>ks suitable = ! face edge4 #bi4 ,f9i%+ ! ,second ,edge4--,a l9e gag$ f ! face edge indicates ! prop] /opp+ place 9 plan+ ! second edge4 ,?is l9e1 if lightly made1 %\ld be half plan$ (f4 ,z ! l9e is p>allel ) ! face edge1 no /raight edge te/ is necess>y4 ,! try-squ>e te/ = squ>5ess1 ! beam be+ held aga9/ ! face side1 mu/ be frequ5tly appli$ :5 approa*+ ! gage l9e4 ,:]e ! am\nt ( wa/e /ock to be plan$ is ab\t an eigh? ( an in*1 ! plane-iron may be set a little deep] ?an av]age4 ,:5 ne> ! l9e1 h[ev]1 x mu/ be set q %all[4 ,if ! wa/e /ock measures m ?an ?ree sixte5?s ( an in*1 ! rip-saw %\ld be us$1 saw+ p>allel to ! gage l9e & ab\t "o-eigh? ( an in* away f x4 #cj4 ,f9i%+ ! ,second ,side4--,l9es gag$ f ! face side on ! two edges %[ ! am\nt to be plan$4 ,! te/ = ?is side is made by plac+ ! /raight-edge across ! piece f arris to arris z ! plan+ proce$s1 to see t ! middle %all be nei!r high nor l[ :5 ! gage l9es h be5 rea*$4 ,no o!r te/ is necess>y2 a little ?\ght w %[ ! reason4 ,nev] attempt to "w )\t l9es4 ,if by mi/ake y plane out y\r l9e1 take ! piece to y\r in/ructor at once1 unless y h be5 o!rwise direct$1 t he may tell y :at to d4 #ca4 ,plan+ ! ,fir/ ,end ,squ>e4--,see t ! cutt+ edge is v %>p & t ! plane-iron is set p]fectly true & v %all[4 ,exam9e "o ( ! ends ( ! piece by plac+ ! beam ( ! try-squ>e aga9/ ! face side !n aga9/ face edge to locate ! high places4 ,fig4 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,9 free end plan+1 ! cutt+ edge mu/ n be all[$ to rea* ! f>!r corn] or ! corn] w be brok5 (f4 ,plane only "p way across ! end1 /opp+ ! cutt+ edge half an in* or m f ! f> edge4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,aft] a few /rokes 9 ?is direction1 rev]se ! position & plane 9 ! opposite direction1 /opp+ ! cutt+ edge half an in* or m ( ! fir/ edge4 ,keep te/+ ! end z ! plan+ proce$s t y may "k :at y are do+4 ,remove no m mat]ial ?an is necess>y to squ>e ! end1 & lay on ! rule occasionally t y may n endang] ! correct l5g? 9 y\r ef=ts to squ>e ?is end4 #cb4 ,f9i%+ ! ,second ,end4--,knife l9es squ>$ entirely ar\nd ! piece1 at a giv5 di/ance f ! end fir/ squ>$1 limit ! am\nt ( ! plan+ t c be done on ?is end4 ,if ! wa/e /ock is ov] "o-eigh? ( an in* ! saw %\ld be us$ to remove all b a ?irty-second ( an in* be=e beg9n+ to plane4 ,wat* ! l9es4 ,if y are unc]ta9 z to _! accuracy1 te/ ?is end z y did ! fir/ "o4 #cc4 ,end ,plan+ ) ! ,%oot+ ,bo>d4--,fig4 #fg illu/rates a way 9 :i* ! ends ( n>r[ pieces may be easily squ>$4 ,! plane is press$ to ! %oot+ bo>d ) ! "r h&4 ,! left h& holds ! piece aga9/ ! /op & to ! plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,! face edge ( ! piece %\ld be held aga9/ ! /op2 ! wood mu/ n be all[$ to project beyond ! /op4 ,if x does1 ! corn]s1 be+ unsupport$1 w be brok5 away z 9 free plan+ :5 ! cutt+ edge is accid5tally %ov$ entirely across ! piece4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,! b5* hook makes an admirable %oot+ bo>d4 ,fig4 #fh4 #cd4 ,rules = ,plan+ to ,dim5sions4 #a4 ,true & smoo? a broad surface2 put on a face m>k4 ,?is becomes ! face side4 #b4 ,jo9t 7/raight5 & squ>e7 "o edge f ! face side2 put on a face m>k4 ,?is becomes ! face edge4 #c4 ,gage to requir$ wid? f ! face edge1 & jo9t to ! gage l9e4 #d4 ,gage to requir$ ?ickness on bo? edges f ! face side2 plane to ! gage l9es4 #e4 ,squ>e "o end f ! face side & face edge4 #f4 ,lay (f ) knife & squ>e ! requir$ l5g? f ! squ>$ end2 saw to ! knife l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 #ce4 ,plan+ a ,*amf]4--,fig4 #fi illu/rates a good way to lay out a *amf]4 ,a not* 9 ! back end ( ! gage-/ick holds ! p5cil 9 position4 ,hold+ p5cil 9 ?is way draw l9es on face & edge indicat+ wid? ( ! *amf]4 ,fig4 #gj illu/rates ! mann] ( block plan+ a *amf]1 ! piece be+ held on ! b5*hook4 ,:]e ! piece c be plac$ 9 ! vise1 ,fig4 #ga illu/rates ! me?od ( plan+ a *amf] ) "o ( ! l>g] planes4 ,fir/1 plane ! *amf]s :i* are p>allel to ! gra92 !n ! ends4 ,if ! plane-iron is %>p & set %all[1 x c be run entirely across )\t dang] ( splitt+ ! corn]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,hold ! plane p>allel to ! edge 9 plan+ ) ! gra94 ,sw+ x to an angle ( ab\t =ty-five degrees 9 end *amf]+1 b move x p>allel ) ! edge1 & n ) ! l5g? ( ! plane4 ,! eye w detect inaccuracies 9 plan+4 ,if fur!r te/ is desir$1 ,fig4 #gb illu/rates "o4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,bor+ ,,tools--,,bor+4 #cf4 ,brace or ,bit/ock4--,fig4 #gc illu/rates a common =m ( brace4 ,?is tool is us$ = hold+ ! v>i\s k9ds ( bits :i* are us$ 9 bor+1 ream+1 etc4 ,! rat*et brace consi/s ( ess5tially ! same p>ts b 9 addition has an atta*m5t :i* p]mits ( ! crank's act+ 9 "o direction or ! o!r only4 ,x is a necessity :]e ! crank _c make an entire revolution1 & is v conv5i5t = bor+ 9 h>d wood1 or = turn+ l>ge screws4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,to ins]t a bit1 hold ! brace firmly ) ! left h&1 revolve ! crank until ! jaws are op5$ f> en\gh to all[ ! bit tang to pass entirely )9 s t ! ends ( ! jaws %all grip ! r\nd "p--! %ank ( ! bit4 ,/ill firmly hold+ ! brace1 revolve ! crank 9 ! opposite direction until ! bit is firmly held4 ,fig4 #gd4 #cg4 ,c5t] ,bit4--,! old fa%ion$ c5t] bit1 ,fig4 #ge1 is /ill us$ by c>p5t]s = c]ta9 k9ds ( "w4 ,x has1 = ! mo/ "p1 giv5 way to ! m mod]n aug] bit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 #ch4 ,! ,aug] ,bit4--,! aug] bit1 ,fig4 #gf1 is us$ = all ord9>y bor+ 9 wood4 ,! action ( an aug] bit is readily und]/ood by ref]r+ to ,fig4 #gf4 ,! spur draws ! bit into ! wood4 ,! two nibs cut ! fib]s1 aft] :i* ! lips remove ! wa/e1 lat] to be pass$ along ! twi/ to ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,aug] bits are usually suppli$ 9 sets ( ?irte51 9 sizes v>y+ f "o-f\r? ( an in* to "o in*1 by sixte5?s4 ,! size ( hole t an aug] bit w bore c be told by look+ at ! numb] on ! tang or %ank4 ,if a s+le numb]1 x is ! num]ator ( a fraction ^: d5om9ator is sixte51 ! fraction ref]r+ to ! diamet] ( ! hole :i* ! bit w bore4 ,ex]cise c>e 9 lay+ d[n a bit2 x is easily dull$4 ,d n use a good aug] bit :]e !re is any dang] ( its /rik+ nails or o!r metal4 ,aug] bits are easily %>p5$1 a small file be+ us$1 b !y are m easily spoil$ by improp] fil+1 & no /ud5t %\ld attempt to %>p5 "o )\t hav+ p]sonal direction f 8 in/ructor4 #ci4 ,! ,drill ,bit2 ,! ,gimlet ,bit4--,! drill bit1 ,fig4 #gg1 is q h>d & may be us$ = bor+ 9 metal z well z wood4 ,x is easily brok5 & especial c>e mu/ be tak5 to hold ! brace firmly4 ,d n try to *ange ! direction ( ! bor+ by incl9+ ! brace aft] ! bit has />t$ into ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,9 bor+ h>d wood or metal1 make a 8seat0 = ! po9t ) an awl or1 9 metal ) a c5t] pun*4 ,o!rwise x is difficult to />t ! bit 9 ! exact place4 ,! gimlet bit1 ,fig4 #gh1 is us$ ma9ly = bor+ holes = screws4 #dj4 ,c\nt]s9k ,bit4--,fig4 #gi is an illu/ration ( a rosehead c\nt]s9k4 ,?is tool is us$ = enl>g+ screw holes made ) ! gimlet s t ! heads ( ! screws may s9k into ! wood ev5 ) or bel[ ! surface4 #da4 ,! ,screw-driv] ,bit4--,! screwdriv] bit1 ,fig4 #hj1 is n a bor+ tool1 b z x is us$ 9 connection ) ! brace x is ins]t$ "h4 ,x w be f\nd conv5i5t :]e l>ge screws are to be ins]t$4 ,:]e a l>ge numb] ( screws are to be ins]t$ x w p]mit ( v rapid "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,9 us+ ! screwdriv] bit1 especially 9 driv+ screws into h>d wood1 ! bit w t5d to jump out ( ! groove 9 ! head ( ! screw4 ,to avoid its jump+ entirely out & m>r+ ! wood1 take b half a revolution at a "t1 !n move ! brace backw>d slightly be=e proce$+ aga94 ,?is all[s ! bit :i* has p>tly work$ its way out ( ! groove to drop back aga94 ,! mann] 9 :i* a screwdriv] bit is %>p5$ has mu* to d ) its work+ prop]ly4 ,x %\ld be %>p5$ l ! screwdriv]4 #db4 ,! ,brad-awl4--,! brad-awl is us$ = bor+ v small holes4 ,unlike mo/ bor+ tools x does n remove ! mat]ial f ! op5+ x makes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,! cutt+ edge ( ! brad awl %\ld be plac$ across ! gra9 9 />t+1 & ! tool turn$ half way ar\nd & back aga91 repeat+ until ! prop] dep? has be5 bor$4 ,x is )drawn ) simil> turn+s4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,pat5t spiral screwdriv]s & automatic drills h come into q common use 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,!y are us$ ma9ly ^u light "w2 _! advantage be+ ! rapidity ) :i* !y d _! "w4 #dc4 ,positions :ile ,bor+4--,fig4 #hb illu/rates ! position to be tak5 9 horizontal bor+4 ,! head ( ! brace is held /eady by brac+ ! body aga9/ ! h& :i* holds x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,to tell :e!r a bit is bor+ a hole 9 ! direction :i* is want$1 x is necess>y to sight ! bit & brace f two directions at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,9 horizontal bor+1 ! fir/ sight %\ld be made :ile 9 ! position %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,! second position = sight+ w\ld be obta9$ by incl9+ ! upp] "p ( ! body until ! eye is on a level ) ! bit4 ,9 v]tical bor+1 ,fig4 #hc1 ! sight+ ( ! bit w\ld be done across ! piece1 !n along x4 ,*ang+ f "o position to ! o!r c be done easily & )\t int]f]+ ) ! bor+ & %\ld be done q (t51 until ! bit has ent]$ well )9 ! wood4 ,fig4 #hd illu/rates a position :i* is frequ5tly tak5 :5 bor+ 9 h>d wood1 or :5 us+ ! screwdriv] bit on l>ge screws4 ,! *91 re/+ ^u ! left h&1 /eadies ! tool 9 ! fir/ case1 & c be made to give additional pressure 9 ! second4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 #dd4 ,?ru ,bor+4--,to avoid splitt+ ! wood ar\nd ! edge ( ! hole :5 x is desir$ to make a hole entirely ?ru a piece1 bore f ! face side until ! po9t ( ! spur c be felt on ! back4 ,!n rev]se ! position ( ! bo>d &1 ins]t+ ! po9t ( ! spur 9 ! hole j made1 f9i% ! bor+ f ! back side4 ,! bit mu/ be held p]p5dicul> to ! surface :ile bor+ f ! second side1 z well z ! fir/1 or "s ( ! edge ( ! hole w be brok5 f ! fir/ side z ! bit is =c$ ?ru4 #de4 ,bor+ to ,dep?4--,:5 x is desir$ to bore to a giv5 dep?1 turn ! crank ( ! brace until ! lips ( ! aug] are j ready to cut ! surface4 ,) ! rule1 measure ! di/ance f ! surface ( ! piece to ! grip ( ! brace4 ,fig4 #he4 ,! brace may !n be turn$ until ?is di/ance is dim9i%$ by ! am\nt :i* repres5ts ! desir$ dep? ( ! hole4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,:]e _m holes ( ! same dep? are to be bor$ mu* "t w be sav$ by cutt+ a block ! l5g? ( ! expos$ "p ( ! bit :5 ! hole is to ! requir$ dep?4 ,?is c be plac$ beside ! bit s t ! grip w /rike x4 ,fig4 #hf4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,*isels ,,& ,,*isel+4 #df4 ,*isels4--,*isels are usually divid$ into two classes1 ! fram+ *isel1 :i* is heavy & /rong1 & ! firm] *isel1 :i* is light]4 ,! fram+ *isel1 ,fig4 #hg1 is us$ on heavy "w su* z ! frames ( build+s4 ,its h&le is usually fitt$ into a socket & ! top is tipp$ ) lea!r or b&$ ) iron to prev5t its splitt+ :5 p\nd$ ) ! mallet4 ,! firm] *isel1 ,fig4 #hh1 is us$ = light] "w )\t ! mallet1 su* z p>+1 & its h&le is usually fitt$ ^u a tang4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,! size ( a *isel is indicat$ by ! wid? ( ! cutt+ edge & v>ies f "o-eigh? ( an in* to two in*es4 ,to d good "w a *isel mu/ be kept v %>p1 & special c>e mu/ be tak5 9 h&l+ x4 ,bo? h&s %\ld1 at all times1 be kept back ( ! cutt+ edge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,! action ( a *isel driv5 into ! wood ) a mallet is some:at simil> to t ( a w$ge4 ,?is mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt :5 cutt+ dadoes1 mortises1 etc41 :]e x is desir$ to cut away ! wa/e exactly to a giv5 l9e4 ,if ! *isel 7 bevel$ on two sides ! action w\ld be ! same z t ( a w$ge2 t is1 ! wood w\ld be pu%$ to ei!r side equally4 ,s9ce ! bevel is on "o side only1 beg9n]s are prone to ?9k t ! w$g+ takes place on "o side only1 ! bevel side4 ,mo/ ( ! w$g+ does take place on ! wood at ! bevel side1 b !re is en\gh pressure aga9/ ! bevel to =ce ! flat side ( ! *isel ov] ! l9e slightly onto ! "p :i* x is n desir$ to cut4 ,to ov]come ?is action1 *isel a l9e p>allel to ! giv5 l9e1 ab\t "o ?irty-second ( an in* away f x1 on ! wa/e4 ,:5 ! op5+ has be5 cut to dep?1 ! *isel may be set exactly 9 ! giv5 l9e & driv5 to dep?4 ,! n>r[ m>g9 ( wa/e wood breaks (f2 ! pressure aga9/ ! bevel is !re=e almo/ no?+4 ,fig4 #hi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 #dg4 ,horizontal ,p>+ ,across ! ,gra94--,9 horizontal *isel+ ! "w %\ld be fa/5$ s z to leave bo? h&s free to guide ! *isel4 ,fig4 #ij %[s ! mann] ( hold+ ! *isel4 ,! left h& re/s aga9/ ! piece ( wood & ! *isel is kept f cutt+ too f> by ! pressure ( ! ?umb & f+]s ( ?is h&4 ,) ! bevel side ( ! blade up1 move ! h&le f "r to left c>efully :ile pu%+ x =w>ds2 p>e (f pieces ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in* ?ick half way across f edge to edge4 ,fig4 #ia4 ,:5 )9 a ?irty-second ( an in* f ! gage l9e hold ! *isel s t its cutt+ edge %all move obliquely across ! gra9 & p>e j to ! gage l9e4 ,! direction ( ! gra9 w det]m9e :i* corn] ( ! *isel is to cut ahead4 ,9 />t+ ! la/ cut place ! *isel squ>ely 9 ! gage l9e4 ,! piece %\ld be rev]s$ & ! cut f9i%$ by cutt+ 9 a simil> mann] f ! second side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,fig4 #ib illu/rates a second me?od ( horizontal p>+4 ,x diff]s f ! fir/ 9 t ! *isel is turn$ :ile 9 ! horizontal position s t "o ( ! edges is free ( ! wood4 ,by cutt+ fir/ ) "o edge free1 !n ! o!r1 ! surface may be l[]$ until only a l[ ridge ext5ds across ! piece f edge to edge4 ,?is ridge may !n be remov$ by cutt+ to ! gage l9e 9 ! usual mann]4 ,if ! *isel is prop]ly %>p5$ ! surface may be left z smoo? & z level z if plan$4 #dh4 ,v]tical ,p>+4--,9 v]tical p>+ hold ! *isel z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ic4 ,! left h& re/+ ^u ! wood1 holds ! wood 9 place1 :ile ! index f+] & ?umb ( ! left h& assi/ 9 plac+ & guid+ ! *isel4 ,only a small portion ( ! cutt+ edge c be us$ 9 v]tical p>+2 ! am\nt w dep5d ^u ! h>dness ( ! wood & ! /r5g? ( ! /ud5t4 ,ord9>ily1 n m ?an "o-qu>t] ( an in* ( ! *isel wid? c be us$ = v s(t woods & n m ?an "o-eigh? = h>d woods4 ,t "p ( ! blade :i* is n us$ = cutt+ purposes is us$ z a guide to insure ea* cut's be+ 9 ! same plane z ! la/4 ,! *isel %\ld be incl9$ t[>d ! work]1 ! unus$ "p ( ! blade press$ firmly aga9/ ! "p ( ! surface already cut4 ,to make ! cut1 apply ! ne$$ pressure1 at ! same "t mov+ ! h&le =w>d until ! *isel %all h a v]tical position z %[n by ! dott$ l9es 9 ,fig4 #id4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to keep ! broad surface ( ! *isel at "r angles to ! surface ( ! "w at all times4 ,! work] %\ld s /& t he may look along ! l9e z he cuts x4 ,o!rwise he is 9 no position = sight+ ! *isel plumb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4 #di4 ,oblique & ,curv$ ,l9e ,p>+4--,:e!r cutt+ ) ! gra9 or across ! gra91 c>e mu/ be tak5 9 oblique & curv$ l9e p>+ to cut f ! /raight gra9 t[>d ! end gra94 ,fig4 #ie4 ,illu/ration3 ,a1 ,b--,"r4 ,c1 ,d--,wrong4 ,,fig4 #ie4 #ej4 ,p>+ ,*amf]s4--,fig4 #if illu/rates two ways ( hold+ ! *isel 9 cutt+ *amf]s4 ,9 "o1 ! bevel side ( ! *isel is d[n & ! cutt+ edge held at "r angles to ! gra94 ,9 ! o!r1 ! flat side ( ! *isel is d[n & ! cutt+ edge is work$ obliquely to ! gra94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,frequ5tly1 x is desir$ to *amf] or bevel ! end ( a piece ( wood ) ! *isel4 ,to d ?is hold ! cutt+ edge obliquely to ! gra91 ! flat side ( ! *isel d[n4 ,fig4 #ig4 ,! use ( ! fram+ *isel is describ$ 9 connection ) ! mak+ ( ! mortise4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 #ea4 ,! ,firm] ,g\ge4--,fig4 #ih4 ,! g\ge is curv$ 9 section & may h its bevel on ei!r side4 ,x is us$ = cutt+ grooves & holl[+ out surfaces4 ,! size ( ! g\ge is det]m9$ by measur+ ! /raight di/ance betwe5 ! corn]s ( ! cutt+ edge4 ,:5 r\gh+ out :]e r ?ick %av+s may be tak51 ! g\ge %\ld be held z 9 ,fig4 #ii1 ! blade be+ held firmly 9 ! left h&4 ,:5 tak+ (f ?9 %av+s & 9 f9i%+1 ! tool %\ld be held z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,9 us+ ! g\ge avoid %ort /rokes4 ,try to take z long & z ev5 %av+s z ! nature ( ! "w & ! wood w all[4 ,! ?9n] ! %av+1 ! easi] x w be to cut smoo?ly4 ,a circul> movem5t imp>t$ to ! cutt+ edge w enable ! tool to cut m easily ! end gra9 ( wood1 z is necess>y 9 cutt+ ! ends ( grooves 9 p5-trays1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 #eb4 ,gr9d+ ,bevel$ ,edge ,tools4--,:5 edg$ tools become r\nd$ ov] by repeat$ :ett+s or :5 !y are nick$ too deeply = ! oil/one to remove ! nicks1 ! gr9d/one is ne$$ to cut ! metal to ! prop] angle4 ,fig4 #aja %[s ! mann] ( hold+ ! *isel ^u ! /one4 ,! tool mu/ be held firmly & at ! same angle4 ,?is angle w dep5d ^u ! temp] ( ! tool & ! k9d ( wood to be cut1 :e!r h>d or s(t1 s(t wood all[+ ! use ( a %>p] angle4 ,on plane-irons ! l5g? ( bevel or gr9d %\ld be ?ree-sixte5?s or "o-f\r? ( an in*2 on ! *isels1 ?ree-eigh?s or "o-half an in*4 ,! tool %\ld n be kept 9 ! middle ( ! /one b %\ld be mov$ f "r to left & vice v]sa across x z ! gr9d+ proce$s1 t ! surface ( ! /one may be worn z ev5ly z possible4 ,illu/ration3 #bj to #be ,,fig4 #aja4 ,! pressure ( ! left h& %\ld be s appli$ t ! /one %all cut /raight across ! blade4 ,exam9e ! tool (t51 be+ c>eful to replace x ea* "t z ne>ly z possible at ! same angle4 ,fig4 #ajb %[s ! flat bevel :i* is to be obta9$1 also ! r\nd$ effect caus$ by frequ5t *ang+ ( ! angle at :i* ! tool is held4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,gr9d/ones are usually turn$ t[>ds ! tool because 9 do+ s !y w cut fa/]4 ,wat] is caus$ to fl[ on ! /one = two reasons3 ,to keep ! edge ( ! tool f be+ burn$ or s(t5$ by ! heat :i* friction w\ld g5]ate1 & to wa% (f ! p>ticles ( /eel & /one1 ?us keep+ ! cutt+ surface clean t x may cut ! m freely4 #ec4 ,:ett+ ,bevel$ ,edge ,tools4--,! gr9d/one does n %>p5 tools2 t is ! "w ( ! oil/one4 ,no tool1 aft] x has be5 gr\nd1 is ready = use until x has be5 :ett$4 #ed4 ,oil/ones4--,oil/ones 9 common use are ( two k9ds2 ^? :i* are ( v f9e gra9$ natural /one & ^? :i* are manufactur$ by press+ a p[d]$1 metal cutt+ sub/ance into rectangul> =ms4 ,9 select+ an oil/one x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! f9] ! gra91 ! ke5] ! edge x w produce b ! long] "t x takes to produce x4 ,manufactur$ /ones are frequ5tly made 8two 9 "o10 t is1 co>se & m$ium or m$ium & f9e are put toge!r 9 su* a way t "o side gives a rapid cutt+ & ! o!r a sl[] b smoo!r cutt+ surface4 ,! advantage ( su* a /one is easily und]/ood4 ,oil is us$ on /ones to cleanse ! pores ( ! /one ( ! little p>ticles ( /eel cut f ! tool4 ,7 x n = ! oil's mix+ ) & remov+ ^! p>ticles1 ! surface ( ! /one w\ld soon become smoo? & friction s r$uc$ t ! cutt+ p[] w\ld be greatly int]f]$ )4 ,:ile b a "p ( ! /one ne$ be us$ at "o plac+ ( ! tool1 ef=t %\ld be made to utilize z mu* ( ! surface z possible t ! surface may be kept level z long z possible4 ,/ones t h worn unev5 may h _! surfaces level$ by rubb+ !m on a piece ( s&pap] or em]y pap] plac$ on a flat surface4 #ee4 ,%>p5+ ! ,*isel4--,hold ! tool z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,suppose ! gr9d+ produc$ a bevel ( ab\t tw5ty-five degrees1 9 :ett+1 ef=t %\ld be made to hold ! blade s z to produce an angle slightly great] ?an ?is4 ,! am\nt %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajg a & b is exagg]at$4 ,! aim at all times %\ld be to keep ?is second angle z ne> l ! fir/ z is possible & /ill get a /raight bevel to ! cutt+ edge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,to get ! tool into prop] position1 lay x flat on ! /one ) ! bevel$ edge re/+ 9 ! oil :i* has previ\sly be5 plac$ on ! /one4 ,! oil %\ld be drawn to ! place :]e ! :ett+ is to be done1 ! back edge ( ! bevel be+ us$ to pu% & draw x to place4 ,gradually raise ! h&le ( ! tool until ! oil is expell$ f "u ! cutt+ edge2 x is !n 9 position4 ,use j en\gh oil to keep ! surface well moi/5$ :]e ! :ett+ is be+ done4 ,rub ! *isel back & =?1 keep+ x at ! same angle all ! "t4 ,a rock+ motion & frequ5t *ange ( angle w result 9 a r\nd$ end in/ead ( a /raight bevel4 ,"s workm5 pref] to give ! blade a circul> in/ead ( ! =w>d & backw>d movem5t4 ,to remove ! fea!r or wire edge :i* frequ5tly results f ov]-:ett+ or f gr9d+1 proce$ z foll[s3 ,hold ! tool ) ! flat side d[n1 j a little above ! /one1 ) ! h&le j a v little high] ?an ! cutt+ edge4 ,9 "o /roke pu% ! cutt+ edge =w>d & d[n on ! /one1 at ! same "t l[]+ ! re> end to a level ) ! cutt+ edge4 ,! effect ( ?is movem5t is to turn ! wire edge "u & cut x (f4 ,if ! fir/ attempt does n remove x1 :et ! bevel j en\gh to turn ! edge back on ! flat side & try aga94 ,! pres5ce ( a fea!r edge is detect$ by rubb+ ! f+]s along ! flat side ov] ! cutt+ edge4 ,if a /ill ke5] edge is desir$ x may be obta9$ by ! use ( a /rop1 a piece ( lea!r fa/5$ to a flat surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,hold ! tool z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajd & draw x t[>d y sev]al times4 ,!n hold x ) ! flat side d[n & draw x back once or twice4 ,! angles ( ! bevels ( a g\ge are simil> to ^? ( a *isel4 ,9 %>p5+1 hold ! tool at "r angles to ! edge ( ! /one1 in/ead ( p>allel z ) ! *isel4 ,move x l5g?wise ( ! /one1 at ! same "t rotat+ ! h&le s z to give ! blade a circul> motion z f ,a to ,b1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,! fea!r edge :i* is =m$ on ! inside is remov$ by a few /rokes ( a /one call$ a slip4 ,hold ! slip firmly aga9/ ! face s z n to =m a bevel4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,slips are ( v>i\s sizes2 "o t fits ! curvature ( ! g\ge %\ld be select$4 #ef4 ,%>p5+ ,plane-,irons4--,plane-irons are %>p5$ /raight across l ! *isel1 ) ! exception ( ! jack plane1 z previ\sly not$4 ,_! corn]s1 h[ev]1 are v slightly r\nd$ (f to prev5t _! leav+ m>ks on ! wood4 ,:]e "o plane is made to s]ve ! purpose ( smoo?1 jack & =e-plane1 x %\ld be gr\nd /raight across4 ,9 :ett+1 increase ! pressure on ! edges alt]nately s z to turn up a heavi] fea!r edge !re ?an 9 ! middle1 ?us r\nd+ ! :ole end v slightly4 ,?is fea!r edge may be remov$ 9 ! usual mann]4 #eg4 ,to ,tell ,:e!r a ,tool is ,%>p or ,n4--,exam9e ! cutt+ edge1 hold+ ! tool t[>d ! light4 ,if ! tool is dull1 ! cutt+ edge w appe> z a :ite l9e1 ! broad] ! l9e ! blunt] ! edge4 ,fig4 #ajg ,a4 ,if ! tool is %>p1 no :ite l9e c be se54 ,fig4 #ajg ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,a bett] way--! me?od a me*anic w\ld use--is to te/ ! edge by draw+ ! ?umb along x lightly4 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,if ! tool is %>p "o c feel ! edge 8tak+ hold40 ,if dull1 ! ?umb w slide along ! edge z x w\ld along ! back ( a knife blade4 ,good judgm5t is necess>y 9 ?is te/ or a cut on ! ?umb may be ! result4 ,no pressure is requir$1 j a t\* along ! edge at v>i\s po9ts4 ,:at actually takes place is ?is3 ,! cutt+ edge1 if %>p1 cuts ! out] lay]1 ! call\s "p ( ! ball ( ! ?umb1 j a little4 ,! s5se ( feel+ is s ke5 t ! result+ friction1 slight z x is1 is transf]r$ to ! bra9 ( ! work] long be=e any injury ne$ be done ! ?umb4 ,if ! tool is dull1 no cut1 h5ce no friction c result4 ,d n use ! f+]1 z x is n call\s$ z is ! ?umb4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,=m ,,"w1 ,,model+4 #eh4 ,mak+ a ,cyl9d]4--,! cyl9d] is evolv$ f ! squ>e prism by increas+ ! numb] ( sides until a prism is =m$ ) s _m sides t its surface c be easily trans=m$ into a cyl9d] by means ( s&pap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 7#a7 ,beg9 by mak+ a squ>e prism :i* %all h ! same dim5sions = its wid? & ?ickness z is desir$ = ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d]4 7#b7 ,*ange ?is squ>e prism to a regul> octagonal or eight-sid$ prism by plan+ (f ! f\r arrises4 ,! gage l9es :i* indicate ! am\nt to be tak5 (f ( ea* arris are made by hold+ ! gage block aga9/ ea* ( ! surfaces & gag+ f ea* arris ea* way1 two l9es on ea* surface4 ,^! l9es mu/ be made lightly4 ,! di/ance at :i* to set ! spur ( ! gage f ! head is equal to "o-half ! diagonal ( ! squ>e end ( ! prism4 ,fig4 #aji4 ,s9ce ! ends are less likely to be accurate ?an any o!r "p1 x is advisable to get ?is di/ance z foll[s3 ,lay (f two l9es on ! work+ face a di/ance ap>t equal to ! wid? ( ! prism4 ,^! l9es ) ! two arrises =m a squ>e ! diagonal ( :i* c be measur$ & "o-half ( x comput$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,c>p5t]s 9 work+ on l>ge timb]s lay ! /eel-squ>e diagonally across s t !re are tw5ty-f\r divisions f arris to arris4 ,!y !n m>k (f ! timb] at sev5 & sev5te5 in*es4 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,^! numb]s1 :ile n ma!matically correct1 are ne> en\gh = practical purposes4 ,9 plan+ ! arrises (f1 ! piece may be held 9 ! vise or plac$ aga9/ ! b5*-/op4 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 n to plane ov] ! l9es1 = n only is ! "o side enl>g$1 b ! adjac5t side is less5$1 ?us exagg]at+ ! error4 7#c7 ,judg+ ) ! eye ! am\nt to take (f1 plane ! eight arrises until !re are sixte5 equal sides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,aga9 plane ! arrises1 mak+ ! piece ?irty-two sid$4 ,on a small piece ?is w be suffici5t2 if ! piece is l>ge1 ! process may be cont9u$ until ! piece is practically a cyl9d]4 7#d7 ,to f9i% a small cyl9d] wrap a piece ( s&pap] ar\nd x1 rub l5g?wise until ! surface ( ! wood is smoo? & ! piece feels l a cyl9d] :5 revolv$ 9 ! h&4 #ei4 ,! ,spoke%ave4--,fig4 #aab4 ,! spoke%ave is us$ pr9cipally to smoo? curv$ surfaces4 ,x may be drawn t[>d or pu%$ away f ! work]1 :i*ev] is m conv5i5t4 ,by means ( screws1 ! blade may be adju/$ to take light or heavy %av+s4 ,! spoke%ave is practically a %ort plane ) h&les at ! sides1 & 9 us+ x ! aim %\ld be1 z ) ! plane1 to secure silky %av+s ( z great l5g? z ! nature ( ! "w w all[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 #fj4 ,mak+ ,curv$ ,edges4--,to make curv$ edges on a bo>d1 f+]-gage on ea* side l9es :i* %all indicate ! am\nt ( curvature4 ,fig4 #aac4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,if ! curve is to be a gradual "o rea*+ f "o ( ^! l9es ov] ! middle ( ! edge to ! o!r two l9es %\ld also be f+]-gag$ on ! edge4 ,f+]-gage f ea* side us+ a di/ance equal to "o-f\r? ! :ole ?ickness ( ! piece4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,) ! spoke%ave1 ,fig4 #aad1 c>efully cut (f ! two arrises to ! p5cil l9es s z to =m two bevels4 ,?is gives ?ree surfaces to ! edge ( ! bo>d4 ,e/imat+ ! am\nt ) ! eye1 cut (f ! two arrises =m$ by ^! ?ree surfaces until five equal surfaces are =m$ 9 _! place4 ,?is process may be repeat$ until ! surface ( ! edge is practically a curv$ surface4 ,) a piece ( s&pap] held z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aae1 rub until ! surface is smoo? & ev5ly curv$4 #fa4 ,model+4--,?is t]m is us$ to apply to ! me?od ( mak+ objects ( su* irregul> =m t ! judgm5t ( ! work] mu/ be dep5d$ ^u to give ! correct result )\t ! aid ( gage & knife m>ks4 ,! =m+ ( a canoe paddle or a hamm] h&le are good illu/rations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,g5]ally a little =e?\ght w %[ a way 9 :i* ! piece ( "w may be p>tly laid out ) knife1 squ>e & rule4 ,to illu/rate1 take ! hamm] h&le1 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,! /eps w\ld be z foll[s3 ,fir/1 plane a face side & a face edge1 & squ>e ! two ends s t ! piece %all h ! l5g? desir$ = ! f9i%$ h&le4 ,second1 draw a c5t] l9e on ! face side1 p>allel to ! face edge & lay (f on ei!r side ( ?is ! two /raight l9es :i* %all indicate ! am\nt ( tap]2 also sket* 9 ! l9es ( curvature4 ,plane ! two edges to ! tap]+ l9es & squ>e ) ! face side4 ,!n cut to ! curv$ l9es1 keep+ ?is surface also squ>e ) ! face side4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 lay (f on ! face edge a c5t] l9e p>allel to ! face side1 m>k ! tap] & l9es ( curvature1 & "w ^! surfaces z 9 ! second /ep4 ,?ird1 ! piece may be laid (f /ill fur!r by draw+ on ! l>g] end ! =m ( ! ellipse :i* t end is to assume4 ,) spoke%ave1 judg+ ! curves ( ! middle ) ! eye1 "w out ! desir$ =m4 ,! /eel scrap] is to be us$ = f9i%+ aft] ! piece has be5 made z smoo? z is possible ) ! spoke%ave4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 #a4 ,,lay+ ,,out ,,duplicate ,,p>ts4 #b4 ,,scrap+ ,,& ,,s&pap]+4 #c4 ,,fa/5+ ,,p>ts4 #fb4 ,lay+ out ,duplicate ,p>ts4--,frequ5tly a piece ( "w w require ! mak+ ( two or m l p>ts4 ,to lay out ^! p>ts1 t is1 to m>k out ! location ( int5d$ ga9s1 mortises1 %\ld]s ( t5ons1 etc41 s t all %all be alike1 ! foll[+ me?od is us$3 7#a7 ,on ! face edge ( "o ( ! pieces measure (f ) ! rule & m>k ) knife ! po9ts at :i* ! l9es = ! jo9ts are to be squ>$ across4 ,if knife m>ks w\ld %[ on ! f9i%$ surface z scrat*es1 use a %>p p5cil in/ead4 7#b7 ,lay ! pieces on ! b5* top ) ! face edges up2 ev5 ! ends ) ! try-squ>e4 ,fig4 #aag4 ,squ>e l9es across ! edges ( all ( !m at ! po9ts previ\sly m>k$ on "o ( !m4 ,! pieces may !n be sep>at$ & l9es correspond+ to ! l9es j made on ! face edges1 be c>ri$ across ! face sides ( ea* piece sep>ately1 ! try-squ>e beam be+ held aga9/ ! face edge 9 s do+1 ( c\rse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,9 all duplicate "w ! aim ( ! work] %\ld be to make z mu* use z possible ( ! tool he has 9 h& be=e lay+ x d[n & tak+ ano!r4 ,to illu/rate1 if !re %\ld be a numb] ( l p>ts ea* requir+ two diff]5t sett+s ( ! gage1 he %\ld m>k all ( ! p>ts at ! fir/ sett+1 !n all at ! second sett+ r ?an to *ange ! gage = ea* piece s t ea* piece might be completely m>k$ be=e ano!r is begun4 #fc4 ,scrap+4--,9 smoo?+ h>d wood surfaces1 a scrap] w be f\nd helpful4 ,if ! gra9 %\ld happ5 to be cross$ or curl$1 a scrap] w become a necessity4 ,! plane-iron may be made ev] s %>p & ! cap-iron set ev] s close to ! cutt+ edge1 /ill ! surface ( "s woods w te>4 ,s&pap] mu/ n be dep5d$ ^u to smoo? a torn surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,cab9et scrap]s = plane & convex surface "w are rectangul> pieces ( saw /eel4 ,fig4 #aah %[s a swan-neck scrap] suitable = smoo?+ concave surfaces4 ,beg9n]s frequ5tly mi/ake surfaces :i* h be5 plan$ at a mill = smoo? surfaces4 ,!y are n2 &1 unless ! 8hills & holl[s0 :i* ext5d across ! surface ( e mill-plan$ piece ( lumb] are remov$ be=e ! f9i% ( /a9 or fill] is appli$1 ! result w be v unsatisfactory4 ,^! 8hills & holl[s0 are pres5t ev5 9 ! smoo!/ ( mill-plane surfaces4 ,! reason is easily und]/ood4 ,:5 a bo>d is mill-plan$1 x is run ?r\gh a ma*9e :i* has a flat b$ ov] :i* ! bo>d is mov$ & above :i* revolve two knives4 ,fig4 #aai4 ,unless ! gra9 ( wood is v badly cross$ or curl$1 x w be f\nd v mu* easi]1 & "t w be sav$ if ! mill m>ks are remov$ ) a smoo?-plane be=e ! scrap] is appli$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a--,deliv]y ,roll]4 ,b--,cutt] ,head4 ,c--,fe$ ,roll]4 ,d--,roll]4 ,e--,roll]4 ,f--,bo>d4 ,g--,"w ,table4 ,h--,knives4 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,scrap]s may be pu%$ or pull$4 ,fig4 #abj4 ,:5 prop]ly %>p5$ ?9 silky %av+s w be cut (f4 ,! cutt+ edge ( a scrap] is a bur :i* is =m$ at an arris & turn$ at v ne>ly a "r angle to ! surface ( ! scrap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,:5 a scrap] becomes dull 7#a7 ea* edge is drawfil$1 ,fig4 #aba1 s z to make x squ>e & /raight1 ) ! corn]s slightly r\nd$4 ,sometimes ! edges are r\nd$ slightly f end to end to prev5t digg+4 ,frequ5tly ! scrap] has its edges & surfaces gr\nd squ>e on an oil/one aft] ! drawfil+ t ! arrises may be =m$ into smoo!r burs4 7#b7 ,aft] fil+1 ! scrap] is laid flat on ! b5* & ! arrises =c$ ov] z 9 ,fig4 #abb4 ,! tool us$ is call$ a burni%]2 any smoo? piece ( /eel w\ld d4 7#c7 ,next1 turn ^! arrises back ov] ! side ( ! scrap]4 ,fig4 #abc4 ,great pressure is n necess>y to =m ! burs prop]ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 #fd4 ,s&pap]+4--,to "k :5 to use & :5 n to use s&pap] is z mu* ! sign ( a good workman z to "k h[ to use ! tools4 ,s&pap] %\ld nev] be us$ until all tool "w has be5 done z well1 & c>ri$ z f> z is possible4 ,s&pap] is1 z its "n implies1 s& pap]4 ,9 s&+ a surface1 ?is f9e s& becomes imb$d$ 9 ! wood & %\ld an edg$ tool be us$ !reon x w be dull$4 ,slov5ly "w %\ld nev] be done 9 expectation ( us+ s&pap] to fix x up4 ,?is practice is di%one/4 ,s&pap] %\ld n be expect$ to d ! "w ( edg$ tools or disappo9tm5t w foll[4 ,! s&pap] %eet1 = use1 is usually divid$ into f\r p>ts1 "o ( ^! p>ts be+ ( good size = l>ge "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,= flat surfaces ^! pieces are plac$ on a s&pap] block4 ,?is block is b a piece ( wood squ>$ up to a l5g? equal to t ( ! piece ( pap] & to su* a wid? t ! edges ( ! pap] w ext5d f> en\gh up ! edges ( ! block to all[ ! f+]s to grasp !m firmly4 ,fig4 #abd4 ,d n wa/e ! pap] by wrapp+ x ar\nd 9 su* a way z to ?r[ "p ( x on top ( ! block4 ,! block %\ld be held flat ^u ! surface :5 s&+ ne> an arris1 o!rwise ! arris w be r\nd$4 ,! arrises %\ld be kept %>p unless on a table leg1 arm ( a *air or some?+ simil>1 9 :i* ! %>p arrises w\ld be likely to injure ! h& or become spl9t]$ ?r\gh usage4 ,9 su* cases ! s&pap] may be run along ! arrises once or twice1 j en\gh to remove ! %>pness4 ,sometimes ! plane is set %all[ & drawn ov] ! arris aft] ! surfaces h be5 squ>$1 to remove ! %>pness4 ,on curv$ surfaces1 ! s&pap] is held free 9 ! h&1 no block be+ us$4 ,fig4 #aae illu/rates ! mann] ( s&+ ! convex curve ( ! coat hang]4 ,! s&pap] %\ld be rubb$ along ! gra9 & ! rubb+ %\ld proce$ only long en\gh to smoo? ! piece & to br+ out ! gra9 cle>ly4 ,on ! back ( a piece ( s&pap] w be f\nd a numb]4 ,?is numb] indicates ! relative co>s5ess ( ! s& spr9kl$ ^u ! glue cov]$ pap]4 #jj1 #j1 #a1 #a & #b are ! numb]s commonly us$2 #jj be+ f9e/ & #b relatively co>se4 ,on table tops & surfaces :i* are n v smoo? to beg9 )1 ! co>se s&pap] is fir/ us$1 ?is is foll[$ by ! next 9 co>s5ess & s on until ! f9e/ is us$4 ,nev] attempt to s&pap] surfaces or p>ts :i* are to be put toge!r lat] on to =m jo9ts1 ! edge tools alone mu/ be dep5d$ ^u to secure prop] smoo?+4 #fe4 ,hamm]s4--,fig4 #abe %[s ! two k9ds ( hamm]s mo/ commonly us$ by work]s 9 wood4 ,! pla9 fac$ hamm] has a flat face & is some:at easi] to le>n to use ?an ! bell-fac$ hamm]1 :i* has a slightly r\nd$ face4 ,! advantage ( ! bell-fac$ hamm] lies 9 "o's ability to bett] set a nail slightly bel[ ! surface )\t ! assi/ance ( ! nailset4 ,?is is a v great advantage on outside or on r\gh c>p5t] "w4 ,?is sett+ ( ! nail ) ! hamm] leaves a slight depression1 h[ev]1 9 ! wood1 & is !re=e n suit$ = inside f9i%+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,! h&le ( ! hamm] is purposely made q long & %\ld be grasp$ q ne> ! end4 #ff4 ,nails4--,nails orig9ally 7 =g$ by h& & 7 !re=e v exp5sive4 ,lat] /rips 7 cut f %eets ( metal & heads 7 hamm]$ ^u ^! by means ( ! blacksmi?'s hamm]1 ! vise be+ us$ to hold ! /rips mean:ile4 ,^! 7 call$ cut nails4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury a ma*9e 0 inv5t$ :i* cut ! nails f ! %eet metal & head$ !m4 ,/eel wire nails h ab\t supplant$ ! cut nails = mo/ purposes4 ,!y are made by a ma*9e :i* cuts ! wire f a l>ge reel1 po9ts & heads ! pieces ?us cut (f4 ,wire nails1 l cut nails1 are r\ghly class$ by woodwork]s z common1 f9i%+ & cas+ nails4 ,?9 nails ) small heads are call$ brads4 ,wire nails are b\ght & sold by weight1 ! size ( wire accord+ to ! /&>d wire gage & ! l5g? 9 in*es be+ tak5 into consid]ation 9 specify+ ! size & fix+ ! price p] p\nd4 ,9 =m] practice1 ! size ( nails 0 specifi$ accord+ to ! numb] ( p\nds t "o ?\s& ( any v>iety w\ld weigh4 ,?us ! t]m sixp5ny & eightp5ny ref]r$ to v>ieties :i* w\ld weigh six & eight p\nds p] ?\s&1 respectively1 p5ny be+ a corruption ( p\nd4 ,9 pres5t practice1 c]ta9 sizes are /ill r\ghly specifi$ z ?ree1 f\r1 six1 eight1 t51 tw5ty & ?irty p5ny4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,common wire nails are ?ick & h l>ge flat heads4 ,!y are us$ 9 r\gh "w :]e /r5g? is desir$4 ,fig4 #abf ,a4 ,f9i%+ nails1 ,fig4 #abf ,b1 are us$ = f9e "w su* z inside woodwork1 cab9et "w1 etc4 ,cas+ nails1 ,fig4 #abf ,c1 are some:at ?ick] & /rong] ?an f9i%+ nails2 !y h small heads4 #fg4 ,nail+4--,especial c>e is necess>y 9 />t+ cut nails4 ,fig4 #abg %[s two views ( a cut nail4 ,f ^! x w be se5 t ! sides ( ! nail =m a w$ge 9 "o ( ! views :ile 9 ! o!r !y are p>allel4 ,! nail %\ld be s />t$ t ! w$g+ action %all take place along1 n across ! gra94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,9 nail+ ?r\gh "o piece into ! edge ( ano!r1 assume a position s t y c look along ! piece into ! edge ( :i* y are nail+4 ,fig4 #abh4 ,if ! nail is to be driv5 plumb1 x mu/ be sight$ f two directions sev]al times 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! nail+4 ,hav+ driv5 ! po9ts ( ! nails slightly bel[ ! surface ( ! fir/ piece1 adju/ ! two pieces prop]ly1 =ce ! po9ts into ! second piece1 &1 hold+ ! p>ts firmly ) ! left h&1 drive ! nails into place4 #fh4 ,nailset4--,except 9 r\gh "w1 ! nail %\ld n be driv5 entirely 9 ) ! hamm] or ! wood w be m>r$4 ,a nailset held z 9 ,fig4 #abi %\ld be us$ to set ! head ( ! nail slightly bel[ ! surface ( ! wood--ab\t "o ?irty-second ( an in*4 ,a f+] plac$ aga9/ ! side ( ! nailset & all[$ to re/ on ! piece ( wood aids greatly 9 guid+ ! set1 :i* o!rwise might jump (f ! nail head :5 ! bl[ is /ruck & ind5t ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 #fi4 ,)draw+ ,nails4--,%\ld x be necess>y to )draw a nail1 place a block ( wood "u ! head ( ! hamm]1 ,fig4 #acj1 to prev5t m>r+ ! surface ( ! wood4 ,if ! nail is a long "o1 ! size ( ! block us$ %\ld be increas$ z ! nail comes out1 t ! nail may n be b5t4 #gj4 ,! ,screwdriv]4--,pat5t rat*et & spiral screwdriv]s h come into q common use among work]s 9 wood4 ,! old /yle1 ,fig4 #aca1 h[ev]1 is mu* bett] suit$ to elem5t>y "w ?an any ( ^! special =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 #ga4 ,screws4--,screws1 l nails1 are made entirely by ma*9]y4 ,!y are pack$ 9 pa/ebo>d boxes & sold by ! gross4 ,! size ( a screw is designat$ by ! l5g? 9 in*es & ! size ( ! wire f :i* x is made2 ?us1 #a in* ,no4 #aj flat-head bright screw4 ,! gage ( wire = nails & ! gage ( wire = screws %\ld n be confus$4 ,fig4 #acb is a full-siz$ illu/ration ( ! gage us$ = det]m9+ ! size ( wire = nails4 ,! numb]s apply to ! op5+s at ! edge1 n to ! circul> p>ts4 ,! not* at ,no4 #a w j slip ov] ,no4 #a wire4 ,fig4 #ace is a full-siz$ illu/ration ( a wire gage = screws4 ,! gage is slipp$ ov] ! screw j bel[ ! head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,fla!ad screws are us$ = ord9>y "w4 ,r\ndhead screws are us$ because !y are m ornam5tal4 ,fig4 #acc4 ,ei!r k9d may be made ( /eel or brass4 ,/eel screws are (t5 blu$ by treat+ !m ) heat or an acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 #gb4 ,fa/5+ ) ,screws4--,:]e two pieces ( h>d wood are to be fa/5$ ) screws1 a hole j l>ge en\gh to take 9 ! %ank ( ! screw mu/ be bor$ 9 ! upp] "p4 ,9 ! l[] "p1 a hole %\ld be bor$ j l>ge en\gh to take 9 ! core ( ! screw snugly4 ,fig4 #acd4 ,= fla!ad screws1 ! hole %\ld be c\nt]sunk s t ! head may be flu% or sunk slightly bel[ ! surface ( ! wood4 ,9 s(t woods1 ! bor+ ( a hole 9 ! l[] piece may be omitt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 #gc4 ,glue4--,nails are b seldom us$ 9 cab9et "w to fa/5 p>ts toge!r2 glue be+ us$ in/ead4 ,glue is manufactur$ f ! refuse p>ts ( animals4 ,/ripp+s ( hide1 bone1 horn1 ho(s1 etc41 are boil$ to a jelly2 *emicals are add$ to give x ! light color4 ,x is usually plac$ on ! m>ket 9 ! =m ( dry *ips4 ,glue pots are made d\ble1 ! glue be+ plac$ 9 "o "p & ?is plac$ 9 a l>g] "o :i* conta9s wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,! glue is heat$ by ! hot wat] & /eam ( ! out] kettle4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,to prep>e glue1 dissolve ! dry *ips 9 wat]4 ,x is well to soak !m ov] night unless q ?94 ,if ! glue *ips are ?9 !y may be b>ely cov]$ ) wat] & ! pot set 9 ! out] kettle ( boil+ wat]4 ,"s k9ds ( glue require less wat]4 ,! glue %\ld be /irr$ occasionally4 ,x %\ld be us$ :ile hot & %\ld be made ?9 en\gh to fl[ easily :5 appli$ ) a bru%4 ,if ! wood is cold x w *ill ! glue4 ,be/ results are obta9$ by w>m+ ! wood 9 an ov54 ,prep>$ liquid glues1 to be appli$ )\t heat+1 are common4 ,z ^! glues ?ick5 ) age1 due to evaporation1 !y mu/ be ?9n$ occasionally4 ,9 cold wea!r !y *ill & mu/ be w>m$ 9 hot wat] to br+ !m to a prop] consi/5cy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 #gd4 ,clamps4--,clamps are us$ 9 ! mak+ ( a glue jo9t to expel ! glue f ! surfaces ( contact1 =c+ x up into ! pores ( ! wood or1 if too mu* has be5 appli$1 out on ! sides ( ! jo9t4 ,= hold+ small p>ts1 ! wood5 h&-screw is us$1 ,fig4 #acg4 ,to adju/ ?is clamp1 hold ! h&le ( ! %\ld] sp9dle firmly 9 ! left h& & ! h&le ( ! end sp9dle 9 ! "r h&2 revolve !m ab\t an axis midway betwe5 & p>allel to ! sp9dles until ! approximate op5+ ( ! jaw is obta9$1 ,fig4 #ach4 ,place ! clamp on ! p>ts & screw ! %\ld] sp9dle up tight1 adju/+ ! end sp9dle :5 necess>y s t :5 x is tight5$ ! jaws ( ! clamp %all be p>allel1 ,fig4 #aci4 ,9 tak+ (f ?is clamp1 ! end sp9dle is ! "o :i* mu/ be releas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,fig4 #adj illu/rates ?ree k9ds ( b> clamps su* z are us$ = clamp+ wide frames & bo>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,fig4 #ada illu/rates a simple =m ( clamp :i* c be made by ! /ud5t himself4 ,two w$ges to ea* clamp1 driv5 9 ) ! hamm]1 supply ! necess>y pressure4 ,:5ev] f9i%$ surfaces are to be clamp$1 blocks ( wood mu/ be plac$ betwe5 !m & ! clamp jaws to prev5t _! be+ m>r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 #ge4 ,glu+4--,:]e ! end gra9 is to =m "p ( a glue jo9t1 x is necess>y to apply a glue size fir/4 ,?is is done by fill+ ! op5 gra9 ( ! end ) a prelim9>y coat+ ( ?91 hot glue4 ,rubb$ glue jo9ts require no clamps4 ,! edges are jo9t$ p]fectly /raight1 glue is appli$ to ea* & !y are !n rubb$ toge!r ) z great pressure z is possible to expel ! glue4 ,:5 ?is is prop]ly done ! pieces w hold toge!r & may be set away to dry4 ,fig4 #adb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,simple ,,jo9]y4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,type ,,=ms4 #gf4 ,jo9]y4--,?is t]m 9 its broad] mean+ ref]s to ! art ( fram+ ! f9i%+ "w ( a h\se1 su* z doors & w9d[s2 & to ! con/ruction ( p]man5t fitt+s1 su* z mantels1 cupbo>ds1 l95 presses1 etc4 ,jo9]y z us$ h]e9 ref]s m]ely to ! putt+ toge!r ( two or m p>ts1 call$ ! memb]s4 #gg4 ,g5]al ,directions = ,jo9]y3--,take into consid]ation ! direction ( ! gra9 9 plann+ ! relative positions ( ! memb]s4 ,make due all[ance :]e %r9kage is likely to be consid]able4 ,z f> z possible1 plan to h ! memb]s jo9 face to face4 ,face sides are m likely to be true ?an are ! o!r two surfaces & !re=e ! jo9ts are m likely to fit prop]ly4 ,make all measurem5ts f a common />t+ po9t1 z f> z practicable4 ,rememb] to keep ! head ( ! gage1 & ! beam ( ! trysqu>e aga9/ "o or ! o!r ( ! faces1 unless !re %\ld be special reasons = do+ o!rwise4 ,9 practice x is sometimes advisable to locate ! sides ( a jo9t by sup]position r ?an by measurem5t4 ,lay+ out by sup]position consi/s 9 plac+ "o memb] ^u ano!r & m>k+ ^u ! second memb] ! wid?1 ?ickness or l5g? ( ! fir/4 ,fig4 #adc4 ,usually1 x is f\nd possible to locate & squ>e ) knife & trysqu>e a l9e to repres5t "o ( ! sides ( ! jo9t4 ,! fir/ memb] is !n held s t "o ( its arrises re/s ^u ?is l9e1 & a po9t is made ) knife at ! o!r arris4 ,! sup]impos$ piece is !n remov$ & a l9e made ) knife & try-squ>e--n ?ru ! m>k ( ! knife po9t b inside1 j t\*+ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,:]e sev]al memb]s or p>ts are to be laid out1 cut & fitt$1 x is ( ! utmo/ importance t ! "w be done sy/ematically4 ,sy/em & p[] to visualize--t is1 to see ?+s 9 _! prop] relation to "o ano!r 9 ! f9i%$ piece--make x possible = m5 to lay out & cut ! memb]s to ! mo/ intricate frames ( build+s be=e a s+le "p has be5 put toge!r4 ,lay out duplicate p>ts & duplicate jo9ts z sugge/$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii1 ,section #fb4 ,:]e sev]al jo9ts ( a simil> size & k9d are to be fitt$1 m>k ! diff]5t p>ts to ea* jo9t ) ! same numb] or lett] z soon z fitt$ t no o!r memb] may be fitt$ to ei!r ( ^!4 ,fig4 #add4 ,on small pieces1 su* z ! /ool1 x is possible to aid 9 visualiz+ by sett+ up ! po/s 9 ! positions !y are to occupy relative to "o ano!r1 m>k+ r\ghly1 z ) a p5cil$ circle1 ! approximate location ( ! mortises1 aug] holes1 etc4 ,! memb]s may !n be laid on ! b5* & accurately m>k$ )\t dang] ( misplac+ ! op5+s4 ,:ile ! knife is us$ almo/ exclusively 9 lay+ out jo9ts1 !re are a few in/ances 9 :i* a p5cil1 if well %>p5$ & us$ ) slight pressure is pref]able4 ,to illu/rate1 suppose x is desir$ to locate ! ends ( ! mortises 9 ! po/s4 ,fig4 #add4 ,to knife entirely across ! surfaces ( ! f\r pieces & ar\nd ! sides ( ea* z w\ld be necess>y to locate ! ends ( ! mortises1 w\ld injure ! surfaces4 ,in/ead1 p5cil ^! l9es & gage betwe5 ! p5cil l9es4 ,^? p>ts ( ! p5cil l9es enclos$ by ! gage l9es--! ends ( ! mortises--may !n be knif$1 if desir$1 to assi/ 9 plac+ ! *isel = ! f9al cut4 ,9 saw+ jo9ts 9 h>d wood1 ! saw %\ld be made to cut accurately to ! l9e1 ,*apt] ,,ii1 ,section #ad4 ,:5 work+ s(t wood1 beg9n]s are (t5 p]mitt$ to leave a small m>g9--ab\t "o ?irty-second ( an in*--betwe5 ! knife & ! saw k]f4 ,?is m>g9 is aft]w>ds p>$ away ) ! *isel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 #gh4 ,dado4--,a dado1 ,fig4 #ade1 is made by cutt+ a rectangul> groove entirely across "o memb] into :i* ! end ( ano!r memb] fits4 ,dadoes are cut across ! gra9 ( ! wood2 :5 simil> op5+s are cut p>allel to ! gra91 !y are call$ simply1 grooves4 ,dadoes are us$ 9 ! mak+ ( %elv+1 w9d[ & door frames1 etc4 #gi4 ,directions = ,dado4--7#a7 ,locate by means ( ! rule "o side ( ! dado & m>k its position ) ! po9t ( ! knife4 7#b7 ,at ?is po9t1 squ>e a %>p l9e across ! piece ) knife & trysqu>e4 7#c7 ,by sup]position1 locate & m>k ! second side4 7#d7 ,squ>e ^! l9es across ! edges ( ! piece a di/ance equal to ! approximate dep? ( ! dado4 7#e7 ,set ! gage = ! requir$ dep? & gage betwe5 ! knife l9es on ! two edges4 7#f7 ,saw j f> en\gh inside ! knife l9es t ! sides ( ! dado may be f9i%$ to ! l9es ) ! *isel4 ,*apt] ,,ii1 ,section #ad4 ,saw d[n j to ! gage l9es1 wat*+ bo? edges t ! k]fs be n made too deep4 7#g7 ,*isel out ! wa/e until ! bottom ( ! dado is smoo? & true4 ,*apt] ,v1 ,section #dg4 ,te/ ! bottom z %[n 9 ,fig4 #adf4 ,two brads are driv5 into a block hav+ a /raight edge until !y project a di/ance equal to ! propos$ dep? ( ! dado4 7#h7 ,p>e ! sides ( ! dado to ! knife l9es4 ,*apt] ,v1 ,section #dh4 ,^! sides might be f9i%$ 9 ano!r way1 by sett+ a wide *isel 9 ! knife l9e & tapp+ x g5tly ) a mallet4 ,if c>e is tak5 ! successive sett+s ( ! *isel ne$ n %[4 ,:]e ! dado is to be cut on a piece n>r[ en\gh t ! saw may be made to foll[ ! l9e accurately1 x is consid]$ bett] practice to saw accurately to ! l9e4 ,*apt] ,,ii1 ,section #ad4 #hj4 ,cross-,lap ,jo9t4--,usually1 /ock = ! two memb]s ( ! cross-lap jo9t c be be/ plan$ to wid? & ?ickness 9 "o piece4 ,place two sets ( face m>ks on ! piece1 s t !re %all be "o set ( m>ks on ea* memb] aft] !y are sep>at$4 ,two me?ods ( mak+ ?is jo9t are giv54 ,! fir/ is saf] = beg9n]s2 ! second1 because ! memb]s _c be tri$ until ! jo9ts are complet$1 is an excell5t te/ ( "o's ability4 ,fig4 #adg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 #ha4 ,directions = ,cross-,lap ,jo9t4--,fir/ ,me?od3 7#a7 ,squ>e ! two ends1 measure f ea* ( ^! ! desir$ l5g? ( ea* memb]1 squ>e knife l9es ar\nd1 saw ap>t1 f9i%+ ! ends squ>e to ! l9es4 7#b7 ,measure f "o end ( ea* memb] ! requir$ di/ance to ! ne>] edge ( ! jo9t4 ,s9ce ! correspond+ faces ( ! two memb]s mu/ be on ! same side ( ! piece :5 ! p>ts are put toge!r1 x w be necess>y to lay (f ! groove ( "o memb] on ! face & ( ! o!r memb] on ! side opposite ! face4 ,if ! jo9ts are to be 9 ! middle ( ea* memb] b "o measurem5t ne$ be made4 ,*apt] ,,vii1 ,section #fb4 7#c7 ,squ>e %>p knife l9es across at ^! po9ts4 7#d7 ,by sup]position1 locate & knife ! second edge ( ea* jo9t4 7#e7 ,if ! jo9ts are to be 9 ! middle ( ea* memb]1 be=e proce$+ fur!r1 te/ to see t ! l9es h be5 laid out prop]ly4 ,if ! memb]s are plac$ side by side & ! ends ev5$ z 9 lay+ out 9 7#b7 above1 ! l9es w ( necessity correspond4 ,turn "o ( ! memb]s end = end & ev5 ! two ends2 ! l9es ought /ill to correspond4 ,if !y d n1 po9ts m>k$ midway betwe5 ! correspond+ l9es w give ! correct position = ! new l9es1 ,fig4 #adh4 7#f7 ,ext5d ! knife l9es j made across ! two adjo9+ surfaces ( ea* memb]4 7#g7 ,set ! gage = ! requir$ dep? & gage betwe5 ! knife l9es on ^! surfaces4 ,?o ! groove on "o memb] is laid out on ! side opposite ! face1 d n make ! mi/ake ( hold+ ! head ( ! gage aga9/ o!r ?an ! face4 7#h7 ,saw accurately1 ,*apt] ,,ii1 ,section #ad1 to ! knife l9es & to a dep? indicat$ by ! gage l9es4 7#i7 ,*isel out ! wa/e /ock4 ,*apt] ,v1 ,section #dg4 7#aj7 ,te/ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #adi4 ,a well made cross-lap jo9t is "o 9 :i* ! memb]s c be put toge!r ) ! pressure ( ! h&s & :i* w n fall ap>t ( _! own weight4 ,fig4 #aej %[s ! results ( 8=c+ a fit40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 #hb4 ,directions = ,cross-,lap ,jo9t4--,second ,me?od4 ,! two memb]s are to be plan$ to wid? & ?ickness 9 "o piece b are n to be sep>at$ until ! grooves h be5 laid out & cut4 ,! grooves mu/ be laid out by measurem5t only1 s9ce sup]position is impossible4 ,! positions ( ! grooves relative to ! faces are1 z 9 ! fir/ me?od1 "o on ! face & "o on ! side opposite4 ,! gag+ = bo? is done f ! faces4 #hc4 ,glue ,jo9t4--,frequ5tly x becomes necess>y to glue toge!r a numb] ( bo>ds to make "o wide en\gh to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! "w 9 h&4 ,a table top is a good illu/ration4 ,a prop]ly glu$ butt jo9t ought to be /rong] ?an ! natural wood4 ,:5 ! wood is ( suffici5t ?ickness1 ! jo9t may be re9=c$ by means ( d[els4 ,! jo9t] %\ld be us$ = plan+ ! edges4 ,x is extremely difficult to prep>e edges = glue jo9ts ) ! %ort] planes4 ,! jack plane %\ld be us$ to r\gh (f ! edges & prep>e !m = ! jo9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 #hd4 ,directions = ,glue ,jo9t4--7#a7 ,if ! bo>ds are 9 ! r\gh1 plane "o surface ( ea* true & out ( w9d4 7#b7 ,p5cil ! face m>ks ^u ^! surfaces & indicate 9 "s way ! direction ( ! surface gra9 z well4 ,lat]1 x w be necess>y to plane bo? pieces at once 9 surfac+ ov] ! jo9ts1 & unless ! p>ts are fitt$ ) prop] reg>d to ! gra91 x w be impossible to plane "o )\t r\gh+ up ! o!r4 ,!n too1 ! faces %\ld be s select$ t ! w>page ( "o %all c\nt]act ! w>page ( ! o!r4 ,fig4 #aea %[s ! mann] ( plac+ ! pieces4 ,obs]ve ! r+s ( gr[?4 ,*apt] #ab4 7#c7 ,jo9t "o edge ( ea* piece /raight & squ>e4 ,! f9al plane /rokes mu/ be tak5 ! full l5g? ( ! bo>d & ! plane-iron mu/ be set v %all[4 ,s9ce ! %r9kage is m at ! ends ?an 9 ! middle1 sometimes ! middles ( long bo>ds are plan$ j a %av+ or two l[] ?an ! ends4 7#d7 ,place "o ( ! bo>ds 9 ! vise1 jo9t$ edge up1 & place ! o!r bo>d 9 position on x4 ,f\r te/s are commonly us$3 ,fir/1 plac+ ! eye on a level ) ! jo9t & look+ t[>d ! light1 ,fig4 #aeb2 second1 tapp+ ! "u bo>d lightly to see if ! top bo>d 8rocks02 ?ird1 slid+ ! top bo>d l5g?wise sl[ly to 8feel0 = suction2 f\r?1 hold+ a /raight$ge z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aec to see t ! faces lie 9 ! same plane4 7#e7 ,glue ! edges1 ,fig4 #aed4 ,"w rapidly b c>efully4 7#f7 ,place ! p>ts 9 ! clamps & set away to dry2 t5 h\rs is usually long en\gh4 ,keep ! faces z ev5 z possible 9 apply+ ! clamps4 7#g7 ,:5 ! glue has h>d5$ ! clamps may be remov$1 ! surplus glue scrap$ (f & ! p>ts treat$ z "o piece 9 squ>+ x up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 #he4 ,d[el+4--,d[els are small wood5 p9s us$ 9 jo9+ p>ts toge!r4 ,d[els c be b\ght ready made 9 a v>iety ( sizes4 ,if desir$ %ort d[els may be made z foll[s3 7#a7 ,select /raight-gra9$ /rong wood--bee*1 bir* or oak2 wa/e wood c usually be f\nd t w d4 7#b7 ,split1 n saw1 ^! pieces r\ghly to squ>e prisms4 ,! blocks f :i* !y are to be split %\ld n be ov] eight or t5 in*es long to "w well4 7#c7 ,plane (f ! irregul>ities1 r\ghly r\nd+ ! pieces to size4 7#d7 ,po9t ! ends slightly & drive ! pieces ?ru a d[el plate4 ,fig4 #aee4 ,! pegs %\ld be driv5 ?ru ! l>g] hole fir/4 ,! holes ( ! d[el plate are l>g] 9 diamet] on "o side ( ! plate ?an on ! o!r to give cle>ance to ! peg z x is driv5 ?ru4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,! cutt+ edge ( ! hole is at ! small] diamet]2 place t side ( ! plate up4 ,nev] use a hamm] z x w\ld split ! top ( ! peg & w\ld ru9 ! cutt+ edge ( ! d[el plate %\ld x /rike x4 ,use a mallet1 & :5 ! peg is ne>ly ?ru f9i% by /rik+ a second peg plac$ ^u ! head ( ! fir/4 #hf4 ,directions = ,d[el+4--7#a7 ,place ! bo>ds to be d[el$ side by side 9 ! vise1 ! face sides out1 & ev5 ! jo9t$ edges4 7#b7 ,squ>e l9es across ! two edges ) knife & trysqu>e at po9ts :]e x is desir$ to locate d[els4 7#c7 ,set ! gage = ab\t half ! ?ickness ( ! f9i%$ bo>d & gage f ! face side across ! knife l9es4 7#d7 ,at ! result+ crosses bore holes ( ! same diamet] z t ( ! d[el4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,^! holes %\ld be bor$ to a uni=m dep?4 ,c\nt ! turns ( ! brace4 ,"o in* is a good dep? = ord9>y "w4 7#e7 ,c\nt]s9k ! holes slightly1 j en\gh to remove ! %>p arrises4 ,?is removes any bur & all[s a little space into :i* ! surplus glue may run4 7#f7 ,cut ! %>p arrises (f ! d[el1 j en\gh to all[ x to be />t$ into ! hole4 7#g7 ,) a /ick slightly small] ?an ! hole1 place glue ^u ! sides ( ! hole1 & drive ! d[el 94 ,a small ,v-%ap$ groove previ\sly cut along ! side ( ! d[el w all[ ! surplus glue to escape & ?us prev5t any dang] ( splitt+ ! bo>d4 7#h7 ,clean (f ! surplus glue1 unless ! memb]s c be plac$ toge!r be=e x has _h "t to set4 7#i7 ,saw (f ! d[els to a l5g? slightly less ?an ! dep? ( ! holes 9 ! second piece4 7#aj7 ,trim (f ! %>p arrises4 ,fig4 #aef4 7#aa7 ,glue ! holes & ! edge ( ! second bo>d4 7#ab7 ,put ! two memb]s 9 ! clamps & set away until ! glue has _h "t to h>d54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 #hg4 ,key$ ,t5on-&-,mortise4--,fig4 #aeg %[s ! t5on1 ! mortise 9 ! second memb] into :i* ! t5on fits1 ! mortise 9 ! t5on & its key or w$ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 #hh4 ,directions = ,key3--,keys are made 9 q a v>iety ( %apes4 ,"s ( ! simple =ms are %[n 9 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,:]e two or m keys ( ! same size are to be made1 x is cu/om>y to plane all 9 "o piece4 7#a7 ,plane a face side1 a face edge1 gage & plane to ?ickness4 ,if !re is m ?an "o key1 saw ea* to l5g?4 7#b7 ,%ape ! rema9+ edge z desir$4 ,! l9es ,,ab & ,,cd1 ,fig4 #aeh1 indicate ! po9ts at :i* measurem5ts are to be made to det]m9e ! l5g? ( mortise 9 ! t5on :i* is to receive ! key4 ,^! l9es %\ld be laid (f at a di/ance ap>t equal to ! ?ickness ( ! t5on4 #hi4 ,directions = ,t5on4--7#a7 ,measure f ! end ( ! piece ! l5g? ( ! t5on1 & m>k ) a knife po9t4 ,:]e t5ons are to be cut on bo? ends ( a piece1 measurem5t is frequ5tly made f ! middle ( ! piece ea* way to locate ! %\ld]s4 ,%\ld !re be any v>iation 9 ! l5g? ( ! piece f :at x %\ld be1 ?is diff]5ce w !n be equally divid$ at ! ends4 ,?is is done :5 x is m important to h ! di/ance betwe5 ! %\ld]s ( a def9ite l5g? ?an t ! t5ons be ( correct l5g?4 7#b7 ,squ>e knife l9es entirely ar\nd ! piece at ! knife po9t m>k4 7#c7 ,set ! gage equal to ! di/ance requir$ f ! face edge to ! ne>e/ edge ( ! t5on & m>k on bo? sides1 z f> z ! %\ld] m>ks1 & on ! end4 7#d7 ,repeat1 sett+ ! gage f ! face edge to ! f>!r edge ( ! t5on4 ,if ! two memb]s are ( ! same wid? & ! t5on & mortise are to be equally di/ant f ! face edge1 bo? t5on & mortise %\ld be gag$ ) ! same sett+s4 ,frequ5tly1 ! gage sett+s are obta9$ f ! rule indirectly4 ,! rule is laid across ! piece & ! wid? or ?ickness ( mortise or t5on m>k$ ) ! po9t ( a knife blade1 ,fig4 #aei4 ,! spur ( ! gage is !n set 9 "o ( ^! po9ts1 ! block be+ pu%$ firmly aga9/ ! face2 ! ?umb-screw is !n fa/5$1 ,fig4 #afj4 ,! second sett+ is obta9$ 9 a simil> mann] f ! same edge or side4 ,all ! pieces are m>k$ = ! fir/ wid? be=e resett+4 7#e7 ,aft] hav+ laid out ! mortise 9 ! t5on1 rip to ! gage l9es & cross-cut to ! %\ld] l9es1 p>+ if necess>y4 7#f7 ,slightly bevel ! ends ( ! t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 #ij4 ,directions = ,mortise4--7#a7 ,f "o end ( ! piece measure & m>k ) ! knife po9t ! respective di/ances to ! two edges ( ! mortise4 7#b7 ,squ>e l9es across ! face edge & ! two broad surfaces at ^! po9ts4 7#c7 ,set ! gage equal to ! requir$ di/ance f ! face edge to ! ne>] edge ( ! mortise & m>k betwe5 ! l9es4 7#d7 ,set ! gage equal to ! requir$ di/ance f ! face edge to ! f>!r edge ( ! mortise & m>k betwe5 ! l9es4 ,make bo? gage l9es on face side & side opposite z well4 7#e7 ,cut ! mortises4 ,fir/1 bore a s]ies ( holes ?ru ! mortise1 us+ a bit some:at small] ?an ! wid? ( ! mortise4 ,bore ^! holes s t !y connect "o ) ano!r4 7#f7 ,place ! piece on a *isel+ bo>d &1 tak+ ?9 cuts ab\t half way ?ru1 "w f ! middle ( ! mortise out to )9 "o ?irty-second ( an in* ( ! knife & gage l9es4 7#g7 ,rev]se & *isel f ! o!r side1 f9i%+ x2 !n *isel ! fir/ side out to ! l9es4 ,te/ ! sides ( ! mortise ) a /raight edge--! blade ( ! *isel makes a good "o--to see t !y are cut /raight4 ,fig4 #afa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 #ia4 ,directions = ,mortise 9 ! ,t5on4--7#a7 ,lay out ! sides ( ! mortise = ! key be=e ! sides & %\ld]s ( ! t5ons are cut4 ,f ! %\ld] l9e ( ! t5on1 measure t[>d ! end a di/ance slightly less--ab\t "o ?irty-second ( an in*--?an ! ?ickness ( ! memb] ?ru :i* ! t5on is to pass4 ,?is is to insure ! key's w$g+ aga9/ ! second memb]4 7#b7 ,squ>e ?is l9e across ! face edge & on to ! side opposite ! face side4 7#c7 ,on ! top surface measure f ! l9e j squ>$ ar\nd ! piece a di/ance equal to ! wid? ! key is to h at ?is po9t :5 9 place4 ,fig4 #aeh1 ,a ,b4 7#d7 ,squ>e a p5cil l9e across ! surface at ?is po9t4 7#e7 ,9 a simil> mann]1 measure & locate a l9e on ! opposite side1 ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #aeh4 7#f7 ,set ! gage & m>k ! side ( ! mortise ne>] ! face edge on face side & side opposite4 7#g7 ,reset1 & f ! face edge gage ! f>!r side ( ! mortise1 m>k+ bo? sides4 7#h7 ,?is mortise may be bor$ & *isel$ l ! "o prec$+4 ,z "o side ( ! mortise is to be cut slop+1 a little m c>e w be ne$$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 #ib4 ,bl9d ,mortise-&-,t5on4--,probably no jo9t has a great] v>iety ( applications ?an ! bl9d mortise-&-t5on1 ,fig4 #afb4 ,x is ( equal importance to c>p5try1 jo9]y & cab9et-mak+4 ,! t5on %[n has f\r %\ld]s2 x is (t5 made ) b ?ree or two4 #ic4 ,directions = ,t5on4--7#a7 ,measure f ! end ( ! piece ! l5g? ( t5on1 7see also directions = t5on1 ,section #hi7 & m>k ) ! po9t ( a knife4 7#b7 ,squ>e knife l9es entirely ar\nd ! f\r sides at ?is po9t to locate ! %\ld]s4 7#c7 ,lay ! rule across ! face edge ne> ! end ( ! piece & m>k po9ts ) ! end ( ! knife to indicate ! ?ickness ( ! t5on1 ,fig4 #aei4 7#d7 ,) ! head ( ! gage aga9/ ! face side1 set ! spur ( ! gage 9 "o ( ^! m>ks1 !n fa/5 ! set screw1 ,fig4 #afj4 ,gage on ! end & ! two edges z f> back z ! knife l9es4 ,:5 !re are sev]al t5ons rememb] to m>k all ( !m be=e resett+4 7#e7 ,set ! gage 9 ! o!r m>k1 ! head ( ! gage be+ plac$ aga9/ ! face side2 !n gage z be=e4 7#f7 ,9 a simil> mann]1 place ! rule across ! face side1 m>k po9ts ) ! knife = ! wid? ( t5on1 set ! gage to ^! po9ts1 & gage on ! face & side opposite z f> z ! %\ld] l9es & across ! end4 ,! head ( ! gage mu/ be held aga9/ ! face edge = bo? sett+s4 7#g7 ,rip to all ( ! gage l9es fir/1 !n crosscut to ! %\ld] l9es1 us+ back-saw4 7#h7 ,! end ( ! t5on may be slightly bevel$ t x may be />t$ into ! mortise )\t te>+ (f ! arrises ( ! op5+4 #id4 ,directions = ,lay+ out ,mortise4--7#a7 ,f "o end ( ! piece measure ! requir$ di/ance to ! ne>] & ! f>!r ends ( ! mortise4 ,m>k po9ts ) ! knife4 7#b7 ,squ>e l9es across at ^! po9ts4 7#c7 ,lay ! rule across ! face into :i* ! mortise is to be cut & m>k po9ts ) ! knife = ! sides ( ! mortise4 7#d7 ,set ! gage z 0 done = ! t5on1 ! spur be+ plac$ 9 ! knife po9t m>k & ! head ( ! gage be+ pu%$ up aga9/ ! face4 ,gage betwe5 ! cross l9es4 7#e7 ,reset f ! same face = ! o!r side ( ! mortise1 & !n gage4 ,if a mortise or t5on is to be plac$ 9 ! middle ( a piece1 f9d ! middle ( ! piece1 ,fig4 #c1 ,*apt] ,i1 ,section #a1 & ) ! knife1 place po9ts to ea* side ( ! c5t] m>k at a di/ance equal to "o half ! ?ickness or wid? ( ! t5on or mortise4 ,:5 sev]al mortises or t5ons ( ! same size are to be laid out & are to be equally di/ant f a face1 ! gage ne$s to be set b twice = all--once to m>k ! ne>] edges & once = ! f>!r edges ( ! t5on or mortise4 ,%\ld !re be sev]al l memb]s ) l jo9ts1 ! gage sett+s obta9$ f ! fir/ piece w suffice = all4 ,! importance ( work+ f face sides or face edges only1 _c be ov]e/imat$4 ,to "w f ei!r ( ! o!r two sides ( a piece w\ld make ! jo9ts subject to any v>iation 9 ! wid?s or ?icknesses ( ! pieces4 ,to gage f ! faces only1 insures mortises & t5ons ( exact size no matt] h[ mu* ! pieces may v>y 9 wid?s or ?icknesses4 #ie4 ,directions = ,cutt+ ,mortise4--,two me?ods ( cutt+ mortises are 9 common use1 7a7 bor+ & *isel+1 & 7b7 *isel+ alone4 ,fir/ me?od3 7#a7 ,fa/5 ! piece 9 ! vise 9 a horizontal position4 7#b7 ,bore a s]ies ( connect+ holes to ! requir$ dep?1 ,*apt] ,,iv1 ,section #de1 ) a bit slightly small] ?an ! wid? ( ! mortise4 7#c7 ,! sides ( ! mortise are next p>$ to ! gage & knife l9es1 beg9n+ at ! aug] holes & work+ ) ?9 slices t[>d ! l9es4 ,?is me?od requires c>e & pati5ce 9 ord] to get ! sides ( ! mortise cut squ>e to ! surface4 ,x is especially well adapt$ to l>ge mortises f :i* mu* wood is to be remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 #if4 ,directions = ,cutt+ ,mortise4--,second ,me?od3 7#a7 ,clamp ! piece :i* is to be mortis$ firmly to ! b5* top1 us+ a h& clamp4 ,fig4 #afc %[s a little device call$ a mortise grip4 ,tight5 ! vise screw & tap ! grip ) ! mallet until x holds ! piece solidly4 7#b7 ,select a *isel ( a wid? equal to t desir$ = ! mortise4 ,/& well back ( ! mortise at "o end or ! o!r s z to be able to sight ! *isel plumb ) ref]5ce to ! sides ( ! mortise4 7#c7 ,beg9 ! cutt+ 9 ! c5t] ( ! mortise4 ,make ! fir/ cut ) ! bevel ( ! *isel t[>d y2 rev]se ! bevel & cut out ! w$ge-%ap$ piece1 w1 ,fig4 #afd4 7#d7 ,cont9ue cutt+ 9 ?is mann] until ! prop] dep? has be5 atta9$1 mak+ ! op5+ no l>g] at ! surface ?an is necess>y4 7#e7 ,set ! *isel 9 a v]tical position1 bevel t[>ds y1 beg9 at ! c5t] &1 tak+ ?9 slices1 cut t[>d ! f>!r end4 ,drive ! *isel ! full dep? ( ! mortise ea* "t1 !n pull ! h&le t[>ds y to break ! *ip f ! sides ( ! mortise4 ,cut to )9 "o-eigh? ( an in* ( ! end ( ! mortise4 7#f7 ,rev]se ! piece1 or y\r position1 & cut 9 a simil> mann] to )9 "o-eigh? ( an in* ( ! second end4 7#g7 ,) ! bevel side ( ! *isel next ! end ( ! mortise pry out ! *ips once or twice z ! cutt+ proce$s4 7#h7 ,*isel ! ends to ! knife l9es1 c>efully sight+ ! *isel = ! two directions4 ,fig4 #afe sugge/s ! ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 #ig4 ,mit] ,jo9t4--,! mit] jo9t is subject to v>i\s modifications4 ,9 ! pla9 mit]1 ,fig4 #aff1 ! ends or edges abut4 ,!y are usually fa/5$ ) glue or nails or bo?4 ,! mo/ common =m ( ! pla9 mit] is t 9 :i* ! slope is at an angle ( =ty-five degrees to ! edge or side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 #ih4 ,directions = ,mit] ,jo9t4--7#a7 ,lay (f ! slopes 7see ,*apt] ,i1 ,section #d74 7#b7 ,cut & fit ! p>ts4 ,to fit & fa/5 f\r mit] jo9ts1 su* z are f\nd 9 a picture frame1 is no easy task4 ,special mit] boxes are made = ?is purpose :i* make su* "w comp>atively easy4 7#c7 ,fig4 #afg %[s ! mann] ( apply+ ! h& clamps to a simple mit] jo9t4 ,:5 a jo9t is to be nail$1 drive ! nail ?ru "o piece until its po9t projects slightly4 ,place ! second piece 9 ! vise to hold x firmly4 ,hold ! fir/ piece s t its end projects some:at ov] & beyond t ( ! second2 ! nail+ w t5d to br+ x to its prop] position1 ,fig4 #afh4 ,if a nail is driv5 ?ru f ! o!r direction1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to s place x t x w n /rike ! fir/1 or a split jo9 w result4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 #ii4 ,dovetail ,jo9t4--,dovetail$ jo9ts are s nam$ f ! %ape ( ! pieces :i* make ! jo9t4 ,fig4 #afi %[s a ?ru multiple dovetail commonly us$ 9 fa/5+ ! corn]s ( tool boxes4 ,9 h& made dovetails1 ! t5ons are v n>r[ & ! mortises wide1 :ile 9 ma*9e made dovetails1 t5ons & mortises are ( equal wid?4 ,me*anics lay out ! t5ons )\t measurem5t1 dep5d+ ^u ! eye unaid$ to give ! prop] size & %ape4 ,sometimes dovetails are laid out to exact %ape & size1 ! t5ons be+ m>k$ on bo? sides & ends4 ,! mortises are m>k$ ) trysqu>e & bevel aft] "o side ( ea* has be5 m>k$ by sup]impos+ ! t5ons4 ,9 "s k9ds ( dovetail+1 su* z ! half-bl9d dovetail1 ! mortises are made fir/ & ! t5ons m>k$ out f !m by sup]position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 #ajj4 ,directions = ,dovetail ,jo9t4--7#a7 ,squ>e l9es ar\nd ea* end to locate ! inn] ends ( ! mortises & t5ons4 ,^! l9es w be at a di/ance f ! ends equal to ! respective ?icknesses ( ! pieces4 7#b7 ,det]m9e ! numb] ( t5ons want$ & squ>e c5t] l9es across ! end ( ! memb] :i* is to h ! t5ons4 ,place ^! c5t] l9es s t ! int]v5+ spaces %all be equal4 7#c7 ,measure along an arris & m>k on ei!r side ( ^! c5t] l9es "o-half ( ! desir$ wid? ( ! t5on4 ,9 f9e h& made dovetails1 ! usual wid? = ! n>r[ edge ( t5on is sc>cely m ?an "o-sixte5? ( an in*--! wid? ( a n>r[ saw k]f4 7#d7 ,set ! bevel = ! am\nt ( fl>e desir$4 ,fig4 #agj %[s measurem5ts :i* may be us$ 9 sett+ ! bevel4 ,a fl>e /ick may be made ( ?9 wood & us$ in/ead ( a bevel if desir$1 ,fig4 #agj4 7#e7 ,m>k ! fl>es on ei!r side ( ! c5t] l9es4 ,place ! bevel s t ! wide side ( ! t5on %all be =m$ on ! face side ( ! piece4 7#f7 ,c>ry ^! l9es back on ea* side ( ! piece z f> z ! l9es previ\sly drawn across ^! sides4 7#g7 ,) a f9e t5on saw rip accurately to ! l9es4 ,cut ! k]fs out ( ! mortises1 n out ( ! t5ons4 7#h7 ,*isel out ! mortises =m$ betwe5 ! t5ons & trim up any irregul>ities 9 ! t5ons4 7#i7 ,set ! t5ons on end on ! face side ( ! second memb]1 ) ! face side j t\*+ ! cross l9e plac$ on ! second memb]1 ,fig4 #aga1 & m>k along ! sides ( ! t5ons4 7#aj7 ,squ>e l9es across ! end to correspond ) ! l9es j drawn4 7#aa7 ,saw accurately to ! l9es1 cutt+ ! k]fs out ( ! mortises1 n ! tails4 ,*isel out ! mortises = ! t5ons1 ,fig4 #agb4 7#ab7 ,fit ! p>ts toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,elem5t>y ,,cab9et ,,"w4 #aja4 ,comb9ation ,plane4--,! mo/ elem5t>y ( cab9et "w necessitates consid]able groove cutt+1 rabbet+1 etc4 ,rabbets & grooves c be =m$ by means ( ! *isel1 ! sides fir/ be+ gag$4 ,a bett] way1 by f>1 is to plane !m4 ,9 e>li] practice1 jo9]s 7 oblig$ to h a great v>iety ( special planes--"o = ea* k9d ( "w1 & frequ5tly diff]5t planes = diff]5t sizes ( ! same k9d ( "w4 ,!re 7 rabbet+1 dado1 pl[1 fillet/]1 bead+1 mat*+ planes1 etc41 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,fig4 #agc illu/rates a mod]n comb9ation plane :i*1 by an ex*ange ( cutt]s1 c be made to d ! "w ( a 7#a7 bead]1 c5t] bead]1 7#b7 rabbet & fillet/]1 7#c7 dado1 7#d7 pl[1 7#e7 mat*+ plane1 & 7#f7 slitt+ plane1 diff]5t siz$ cutt]s = ea* k9d ( "w p]mitt+ ( a great v>iety ( uses4 ,by means ( a guide or f5ce1 ! plane c be set to cut to a requir$ di/ance f ! edge ( ! bo>d4 ,a /op or dep? gage c be set s z to keep ! plane f cutt+ any deep] ?an is desir$4 ,:5 cutt+ across ! gra91 z 9 cutt+ dadoes1 adju/able cutt+ spurs prec$e & score or cut ! fib]s ( ! wood on ei!r side ( ! cutt]4 #ajb4 ,draw] ,con/ruction4--,! front ( a draw] is usually made ( ?ick] /ock ?an ! o!r p>ts4 ,fig4 #agd4 ,= example1 if ! front 7 to be made ( ?ree-qu>t] in* /ock ! sides1 back & bottom w\ld probably be made ( ?ree-eigh?s in* mat]ial4 ,draw] fronts are always made ( ! same mat]ial z ! re/ ( ! cab9et or desk :ile ! sides1 back & bottom are usually made ( "s s(t wood su* z yell[ popl>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,fig4 #age ,a illu/rates a v common me?od ( fa/5+ ! draw] sides to ! front4 ,?is =m is us$ ma9ly ^u *eap or r\gh con/ruction4 ,x is commonly kn[n z a rabbet$ jo9t4 ,! half-bl9d dovetail1 ,fig4 #age ,b1 is a bett] fa/5+1 by f>1 & is us$ almo/ exclusively on f9e draw] con/ruction4 #ajc4 ,directions = ,rabbet$ ,corn]4--,! rabbet$ jo9t1 ,fig4 #age ,a1 sometimes call$ a rebate or l$ge jo9t is made z foll[s3 7#a7 ,l9e across ! face side ( ! draw] front at a di/ance f ! end equal to ! ?ickness ( ! draw] sides2 also1 across ! edges to ! approximate dep? ( rabbet4 7#b7 ,set ! gage & gage on ends & edges z f> z ! l9es j plac$1 = ! dep? ( rabbet4 7#c7 ,cut ! sides ( rabbet1 p>+ across ! gra9 z 9 cutt+ ! dado4 ,fa/5 by nail+ ?ru ! draw] sides into ! front1 n ?ru ! front into ! sides4 #ajd4 ,directions = ,dovetail ,corn]4--,! front ( ! draw] %\ld be laid out & cut fir/4 7#a7 ,gage on ! end ! di/ance ! draw] side is to lap ov] ! front4 7#b7 ,)\t *ang+ ! sett+ ( ! gage1 hold ! head ( ! gage aga9/ ! end ( ! draw] side & gage on bo? broad surfaces4 ,ord9>ily1 "o %\ld n gage across ! gra9 ( ! wood nor %\ld ! head ( ! gage be held aga9/ o!r ?an a face4 ,a little ?\ght w %[ :y exception has be5 made 9 ?is case4 7#c7 ,squ>e a l9e across ! face side--! inside surface--( ! draw] front at a di/ance f ! end equal to ! ?ickness ( ! draw] side4 ,?is l9e gives ! dep? ( mortise = ! tails4 7#d7 ,! groove = ! draw] bottom hav+ be5 cut1 or its position m>k$ on ! end ( ! front1 lay out on ! end ! half t5ons at bo? edges s t ! groove %all come :olly )9 a tail mortise4 ,! am\nt ( fl>e at :i* to set ! bevel is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 ,section #ajj4 7#e7 ,det]m9e ! numb] ( t5ons want$ & divide ! space betwe5 ! fl>es j drawn into ! requir$ numb] ( equal p>ts & draw c5t] l9es = ! t5ons1 ,fig4 #agf4 7#f7 ,) ! bevel lay (f to ei!r side ( ^! c5t] l9es ! sides ( ! t5ons4 7#g7 ,c>ry ^! l9es d[n ! face side to meet ! l9e previ\sly drawn to indicate mortise dep?4 7#h7 ,saw exactly to ! knife l9es1 cutt+1 ,fig4 #agg1 ! k]fs out ( ! mortises1 n ! t5ons4 7#i7 ,*isel out ! mortises4 ,fig4 #agh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,! correspond+ mortises & tails may n[ be laid out on ! draw] side & work$4 7#aj7 ,by sup]position1 ,fig4 #agi1 m>k out ! %ape ( ! mortises to be cut 9 ! sides4 7#aa7 ,saw & *isel ^! mortises4 ,fig4 #agb4 #aje4 ,directions = ,draw]4--7#a7 ,squ>e ! diff]5t memb]s to size4 7#b7 ,groove ! front & sides ( ! draw] to receive ! draw] bottom4 ,^! grooves %\ld be made some:at n>r[] ?an ! bottom is ?ick to insure a good fit4 ,! "u side ( ! bottom1 lat]1 may be gag$ & bevel$ on ! two ends & ! front edge1 ,fig4 #ahj4 7#c7 ,lay out & cut 9 ! draw] sides ! dadoes into :i* ! ends ( ! back are to be fitt$1 ,fig4 #aha4 7#d7 ,lay out & cut ! jo9ts on ! front ( ! draw]4 7#e7 ,get ! bottom ready2 t is1 plane ! bevels on ! "u side z sugge/$ 9 #b1 above4 7#f7 ,assemble ! memb]s dry to see t all fit prop]ly4 7#g7 ,take ap>t2 glue ! jo9ts by :i* ! sides are fa/5$ to ! front & ! jo9ts by :i* ! back is fa/5$ to ! sides4 ,glue ! bottom to ! front ( ! draw] b n to ! sides or back4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,sometimes on l>ge or r\gh "w nails are us$ in/ead ( glue to fa/5 ! memb]s toge!r4 ,9 ?is case ! front1 sides & back are put toge!r1 ! back be+ kept j above ! grooves 9 ! sides4 ,! bottom is !n slipp$ 9 place "u ! back4 ,x is fa/5$ to ! front ( ! draw] only4 ,especial c>e %\ld be tak5 9 squ>+ ! bottom = ! squ>5ess ( ! draw] is dep5d5t ^u ?is4 #ajf4 ,panel+4--,(t5 x is desir$ to fill 9 a r wide space ) wood4 ,to (fset ! effects ( %r9kage1 w9d+ & w>page1 a panel r ?an a s+le solid piece is us$4 ,by increas+ ! numb] ( panels a space ( any size may be fill$4 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 #ajg4 ,cutt+ ,grooves4--,grooves = panels are be/ cut by means ( ! panel pl[ or comb9ation plane4 ,x is n necess>y to gage = ! sides ( ! groove2 ! adju/m5ts ( ! plane are su* z to give ! prop] dep? & location1 :5 once set1 & a cutt] ( ! wid? equal to t ( ! desir$ groove ins]t$4 ,! f5ce ( ! plane mu/ be held aga9/ "o or ! o!r ( ! faces4 ,fig4 #agc4 #ajh4 ,haun*$ ,mortise-&-,t5on4--,a groove mu/ be pl[$ ! full l5g? ( a piece to "w x to advantage4 ,:]e a mortise-&-t5on jo9t is to be made 9 :i* ! groov$ surface is to become a "p1 ! t5on mu/ be s cut z to all[ its fill+ ! groove4 ,! mortise %\ld be cut be=e ! groove is pl[$4 ,! t5on1 aft] be+ work$ ! full wid?1 is gag$ f ! face edge to a wid? equal to ! l5g? ( ! mortise & work$ to t size4 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,especial c>e mu/ be tak5 9 glu+ up ! frame t no glue %all get into ! grooves or on ! edges ( ! panel4 #aji4 ,rabbet+4--,fig4 #ahd %[s a corn] ( a frame rabbet$ to receive a glass4 ,rabbets are be/ work$ ) ei!r a rabbet plane or ! comb9ation plane4 ,9 rabbet+ across ! gra9 ! spur mu/ be set p>allel ) ! edges ( ! cutt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,s9ce ! p>ts ( ! frame are rabbet$ ! full l5g? = conv5i5ce1 a special jo9t is necess>y at ! corn]s4 ,! mortises are cut be=e ! rabbets are work$4 ,! t5ons are laid out s t ! %\ld] on "o side %all ext5d z f> beyond ! %\ld] on ! opposite side z ! rabbet is deep4 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,:]e rabbet+ mu/ be work$ ) a *isel alone1 ,fig4 #ahf illu/rates ! mann] ( loos5+ up ! wood prep>atory to remov+ x1 :5 ! rabbet ext5ds along ! gra9 ( ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,to place glass panels 9 rabbets1 fir/ place a slight cu%ion ( putty 9 ! rabbet t ! glass may re/ aga9/ x4 ,a light cu%ion betwe5 ! glass & ! fillet w s]ve to keep ! glass f break+ & w keep x f rattl+4 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 #aaj4 ,fitt+ a ,door4--,a door is a frame ) a panel or a comb9ation ( panels4 ,! names ( ! p>ts ( a door & _! relative positions are indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 7#a7 ,m>k ) a trysqu>e & saw (f ! lugs1 ! p>ts ( ! /iles :i* project beyond ! rails4 7#b7 ,plane an edge ( ! door until x fits a side ( ! frame aga9/ :i* x is to be hung4 ,if ! frame is /raight1 ?is edge may be plan$ /raight4 ,x is n wise to take = grant$ ! squ>5ess or /raightness ( a frame4 ,a te/ or s]ies ( te/s may fir/ be made ) squ>e & /raight-edge4 ,a me*anic1 h[ev]1 usually planes an edge until x fits ! frame1 te/+ by hold+ ! door aga9/ ! frame z ne> to its position z its size w all[4 7#c7 ,plane ! bottom or top edge ( ! door until x fits ! frame prop]ly :5 ! fir/ plan$ edge is 9 position4 7#d7 ,measure ! wid? ( ! frame at its top & bottom1 ,fig4 #ahi1 & transf] ^! dim5sions to ! top & bottom ( ! door1 connect+ !m ) a /raight edge4 ,:5 approa*+ ! l9e1 9 plan+1 place ! door aga9/ ! frame (t5 en\gh to see :]e ! all[ances mu/ be made = irregul>ities 9 ! frame4 7#e7 ,! l5g? ( ! frame may next be measur$ on ea* side & ^! dim5sions transf]r$ to ! door4 ,connect !m ) a /raight edge & plane & fit z 0 direct$ 9 ! ?ird /ep4 ,a door to "w well mu/ n be fitt$ p]fectly tight2 x mu/ h a little 8play10 ! am\nt dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! door4 ,! edge ( ! door :i* is to sw+ free is usually plan$ slightly l[] at ! back arris ?an at ! front4 ,an exam9ation ( ! movem5t ( an ord9>y h\se door w %[ ! reason = ?is4 #aaa4 ,h++ a ,door4--,! h+es mo/ commonly us$ 9 cab9et mak+ & c>p5try are ! k9d kn[n z butts4 ,:]e ! door /&s 9 a v]tical position1 h+es 9 :i* ! two p>ts are jo9$ by a loose p9 are g5]ally us$4 ,by remov+ ! p9s ! door may be remov$ )\t tak+ ! screws out ( ! h+e4 ,su* h+es are m easily appli$ ?an ^? ) ! fix$ p94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 7#a7 ,place ! door 9 position2 keep x tight aga9/ ! top & ! h+e side ( ! frame4 7#b7 ,measure f top & bottom ( ! door to locate ! position = ! top ( ! high] h+e & ! bottom ( ! l[] h+e4 ,usually1 ! l[] h+e is plac$ some:at f>!r f ! bottom ?an ! high] h+e is f ! top4 7#c7 ,) ! knife or *isel m>k on bo? door & frame at ! po9ts j locat$1 ,fig4 #aij4 7#d7 ,take out ! door1 place ! h+e z 9 ,fig4 #aia1 & m>k along ! ends1 ) a knife4 ,9 a simil> mann] m>k ! frame4 ,make c]ta9 t ! op5+s on door & on frame are laid (f s z to correspond be=e proce$+ fur!r4 7#f7 ,set ! gage = ! dep? ! h+e is to be sunk & gage bo? door & frame4 7#g7 ,set ano!r gage = wid? ( op5+s & gage bo? door & frame1 keep+ ! head ( ! gage aga9/ ! front ( ! door4 7#h7 ,*isel out ^! ga9s on door & frame4 7#i7 ,if loose-p9 butts are us$1 sep>ate ! p>ts & fa/5 !m 9 place4 ,use a brad awl to make op5+s = ! screws4 ,to insure ! h+es' pull+ tight aga9/ ! side ( ! ga9 make ! holes j a little ne>] ! back side ( ! screw hole ( ! h+e4 ,put ! door 9 place & ins]t ! p9s4 ,x is a good me*anic :o c make a door hang prop]ly ! fir/ "t x is put up4 ,x is bett]1 !re=e1 to ins]t b "o or two screws 9 ea* "p ( a h+e until ! door has be5 tri$4 7#aj7 ,if ! door hangs away f ! frame on ! h+e side1 take x (f2 take (f h+e on door or frame1 or bo? if ! crack is l>ge2 *isel ! ga9 deep] at its front4 ,by *isel+ at ! front only & fea!r+ ! cut t[>ds ! back1 ! ga9 ne$s to be cut b ab\t "o-half z deep z if ! :ole h+e 7 sunk4 ,if ! door %\ld fail to %ut because ! h+e edge /rikes ! frame too soon1 ! screws ( ! (f5d+ h+e mu/ be loos5$ & a piece ( heavy pap] or c>dbo>d ins]t$ along ! entire edge ( ! ga94 ,fa/5 ! screws & cut (f ! surplus pap] ) a knife4 ,if pla9 butt h+es are us$ ! op]ations are simil> to ^? j describ$ except t ! :ole h+e mu/ be fa/5$ to ! door & ! door held 9 place :ile fa/5+ ! h+es to ! frame4 #aab4 ,locks4--,locks :i* are fa/5$ ^u ! surface ( a door are call$ rim locks4 ,^? :i* are set into mortises cut 9 ! edge ( ! door are call$ mortise locks4 ,locks are plac$ some:at above ! middle ( ! door = conv5i5ce z well z appe>ance4 ,?ree /yles ( cab9et locks su* z are us$ on draw]s & small boxes are %[n 9 ,fig4 #aib4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,! mann] ( apply+ a cab9et lock w be sugge/$ by ! lock itself4 ,on surface locks1 7#a7 ! lock is held aga9/ ! inside ( ! door or draw] & ! position ( ! keyhole is m>k$4 7#b7 ,?is hole is bor$4 7#c7 ,! lock is screw$ 9 place1 & 7#d7 ! escut*eon fa/5$ to ! out] or front surface4 ,if a face plate is us$1 ! door is clos$1 ! position m>k$1 aft] :i* ! door is op5$ & ! plate is set4 ,! face plate is mortis$ into ! frame s t its out] surface %all be slightly l[] ?an t ( ! wood4 ,) a lock su* z ! box lock1 ,fig4 #aib1 suffici5t wood mu/ be remov$ f ! mortise s t ! bolt may act prop]ly be=e ! plate is screw$ fa/4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,wood ,,& ,,wood ,,f9i%+4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,wood4 #aac4 ,/ructure4--,= conv5i5ce1 tree /ructure is usually /udi$ 7#a7 9 transv]se or cross section1 7#b7 radially1 7#c7 tang5tially4 ,illu/ration3 ,v4--,vessels or pores4 ,t4,s4--,tang5tial ,section4 ,c4,s4--,transv]se ,r4,s4--,radial ,,fig4 #aic4 ,a transv]se section is obta9$ by cutt+ a log at "r angles to its l5g?2 a radial section by cutt+ x along ! radius2 a tang5tial section by mak+ a cut at "r angles to a radius4 ,fig4 #aic4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,if we %\ld cut transv]sely a "y tree1 a spr\t1 or bran* ( an oak or simil> tree1 we %\ld f9d x compos$ ( ?ree lay]s ( tissue 7#a7 pi? or m$ulla1 7#b7 wood1 7#c7 b>k1 ,fig4 #aid4 ,^! tissues1 if magnifi$1 w\ld be f\nd compos$ ( little clos$ tubes or cells4 ,fig4 #aie4 ,exam9e ! end ( a log cut f a tree su* z ! oak2 we %all f9d t ! c5t]1 :i* 9 ! "y tree 0 s(t1 has become h>d & dry1 & t ^u x are m>k$ a s]ies ( conc5tric r+s--r+s hav+ a common c5t]4 ,^! r+s are kn[n z annual r+s because "o is add$ ea* ye>4 ,usually1 ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! r+s f ! c5t] outw>d w be f\nd to h a diff]5t color f ! rema9+ ones4 ,^! inn] r+s =m :at is call$ he>twood4 ,! wood ( ! rema9+ r+s w be f\nd s(t] & to conta9 a l>g] proportion ( sap4 ,?is "p is call$ sapwood4 ,"y trees are compos$ ma9ly ( sapwood4 ,z ! tree gr[s old] m ( x is *ang$ to he>twood1 ! he>twood becom+ great] 9 proportion to ! sapwood ) age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,^u exam9+ ^! r+s ea* w be f\nd to be made up ( two lay]s2 "o a light1 s(t1 op51 rapid gr[? =m$ 9 ! spr+1 ! o!r1 a d>k1 h>d1 close1 sl[ gr[? =m$ 9 ! summ]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,frequ5tly1 ! c5t] ( ! annual r+s is n 9 ! c5t] ( ! log4 ,fig4 #aif4 ,?is is due to ! action ( ! sun 9 attract+ m n\ri%m5t to "o side ?an to ! o!r4 ,surr\nd+ ! sapwood is ! b>k4 ,! inn] "p ( ! b>k is call$ ba/ & is ( a /r+y or fibr\s nature4 ,b>k is l>gely dead matt] =m$ f ba/1 ,fig4 #aie4 ,its function is to protect ! liv+ tissues4 ,betwe5 ! ba/ & ! la/ r+ ( ! woody tissue is a ?9 lay] call$ ! cambium4 ,?is lay] is ! liv+ & gr[+ "p ( ! tree4 ,its cells multiply by division & =m new wood cells on ! inside & new ba/ cells on ! outside4 ,he>twood is dead s f> z any *ange 9 its cells is conc]n$4 ,its purpose is m]ely to /iff5 & support ! weight ( ! tree4 ,sapwood1 on ! o!r h&1 has _m active cells :i* assi/ 9 ! life processes ( ! tree1 ?o only 9 ! out] lay] ( cells1 ! cambium1 does ! actual gr[+ or increas+ process take place4 ,aga9 exam9+ ! end ( ! log1 we %all f9d bright l9es radiat+ f ! c5t]4 ,!y are compos$ ( ! same sub/ance z ! pi? or m$ulla & are call$ pi? or m$ull>y rays4 ,^! rays are pres5t 9 all trees :i* gr[ by add+ r+ ^u r+ b 9 "s !y are h>dly visible4 ,! purpose ( ^! horizontal cells is to b9d ! v]tical cells toge!r & to assi/ 9 di/ribut+ & /or+ up plant food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,fig4 #aig %[s a log cut longitud9ally or l5g?wise4 ,! l9es we call gra91 x w be se51 are ! edges ( ! annual r+s1 ! light /reaks be+ an edge view ( ! spr+ lay] & ! d>k /reaks an edge view ( ! summ] or autumn wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,knots are =m$ by ! mass+ or knott+ ( ! fib]s ( ! tree ?r\gh ! gr[? ( a bran*4 ,fig4 #aih %[s ! mann] 9 :i* ! fib]s are turn$4 ,?is pack+ ( ! fib]s is :at causes a knot to be s mu* h>d] ?an ! re/ ( ! wood4 #aad4 ,gr[?4--,sap is ! life blood ( ! tree4 ,9 ! w9t] :5 mo/ ( ! trees are b>e ( leaves !re is b v little circulation ( ! sap4 ,! com+ ( spr+ ) its increase ( heat & light1 causes ! tree to beg9 to take on new life2 t is1 ! sap beg9s to circulate4 ,?is movem5t ( sap causes ! roots to absorb f ! soil c]ta9 elem5ts su* z hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog5 & c>bon1 also m9]al salts 9 solution4 ,! liquid ?us absorb$ works its way upw>d1 ma9ly by way ( ! sapwood & m$ull>y cells4 ,^u rea*+ ! cambium lay]1 ! n\ri%m5t :i* x provides causes ! cells to exp&1 divide & g5]ate new cells4 ,x also causes ! buds to take ! =m ( leaves4 ,:5 ! sap rea*es ! leaves a *emical *ange takes place4 ,?is *ange takes place only 9 ! pres5ce ( heat & light1 & is caus$ by ! action ( a sub/ance call$ *lorophyll4 ,! importance ( ! "w p]=m$ by *lorophyll _c be ov]e/imat$4 ,ne>ly all plant life dep5ds ^u x to *ange m9]al sub/ance into food4 ,animals f9d food 9 plant life because ( ?is *ange4 ,assimilation is ! process ( tak+ up & break+ up1 by ! leaves1 ( c>bonic acid gas ) :i* ! cells conta9+ *lorophyll come 9 contact4 ,c>bon1 "o ( ! elem5ts1 is reta9$1 b oxyg51 ! o!r elem5t1 is return$ to ! air4 ,c>bon is comb9$ ) ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 ( ! wat]1 :i* came up f ! roots1 to =m new *emical comp\nds4 ,nitrog5 & e>?y p>ts1 :i* came ) ! wat]1 are also pres5t4 ,*lorophyll gives to leaves & "y b>k _! gre5 color4 ,! roots ( ! trees are con/antly dr9k+ plant food 9 ! daytime ( spr+ & e>ly summ]4 ,f midsumm] until ! end ( summ] ! am\nt ( moi/ure tak5 9 is v small s t ! fl[ ( sap almo/ ceases4 ,! leaves1 h[ev]1 are full ( sap :i*1 n be+ fur!r ?9n$ by ! upw>d fl[1 becomes ?ick5$ ?ru ! addition ( c>bonic acid gas & ! loss ( oxyg54 ,t[>d ! end ( summ] ?is ?ick5$ sap s9ks to ! "u side ( ! leaf & gradually fl[s out ( ! leaf & d[n ?ru ! ba/ ( ! bran* & trunk1 :]e ano!r process ( dige/ion takes place4 ,"o "p ( ?is desc5d+ sap :i* has be5 p>tly dige/$ 9 ! leaves & p>tly 9 ! liv+ tissues ( root1 trunk & bran*1 spreads ov] ! wood =m$ 9 ! spr+ & =ms ! summ] wood4 ,! second "p is *ang$ to b>k4 ,:at is n us$ at once is /or$ until ne$$4 ,! leaves ^u los+ _! sap *ange color1 )] & drop (f4 ,by ! end ( autumn ! d[nw>d fl[ ( *ang$ sap f ! leaves is complet$ & ! tree has prep>$ itself = ! com+ w9t]4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! =ego+ *anges are made gradually4 ,aft] ! fir/ movem5t ( ! sap 9 ! e>ly spr+ has n\ri%$ ! buds into leaves ( a size suffici5t to p]=m "w1 !re beg9s a d[nw>d movem5t ( food mat]ials--slight at fir/1 to be sure1 b ev] increas+ 9 volume until ! leaves are do+ full duty4 ,we may say1 !re=e1 t ! upw>d movem5t ( ! sap ?ru ! sapwood & ! d[nw>d fl[ ( food mat]ials ?ru ! ba/ takes place at ! same "t1 _! *anges be+ ( relative volumes r ?an ( "t4 #aae4 ,respiration & ,transpiration4--,plants1 l animals1 brea!2 l animals !y brea! 9 oxyg5 & brea! out c>bonic acid gas4 ,respiration :i* is b ano!r "n = brea?+1 goes on day & night1 b is f> less active ?an assimilation1 :i* takes place only dur+ ! day4 ,consequ5tly m c>bonic acid gas is tak5 9 ?an is giv5 out except at night :51 to a slight ext5t1 ! rev]se takes place1 small quantities ( c>bonic acid gas be+ giv5 (f & oxyg5 tak5 94 ,v small op5+s 9 ! b>k call$ l5ticles1 furni% brea?+ places4 ,oxyg5 is also tak5 9 ?ru ! leaves4 ,transpiration is ! evaporation ( wat] f all p>ts ( ! tree above gr\nd1 pr9cipally f ! leaves4 ,! am\nt ( wat] absorb$ by ! roots is greatly 9 excess ( :at is ne$$4 ,t fre% supplies ( e>?y matt] may rea* ! leaves1 ! excess ( wat] mu/ be got rid (4 ,9 trees ) v ?ick b>k1 transpiration takes place ?ru ! l5ticles 9 ! bottom ( ! deep cracks4 #aaf4 ,moi/ure4--,wat] is pres5t 9 all wood4 ,x may be f\nd 7#a7 9 ! cavities ( ! lifeless cells1 fib]s & vessels2 7#b7 9 ! cell walls2 & 7#c7 9 ! liv+ cells ( :i* x =ms ov] n9ety p] c5t4 ,sapwood conta9s m wat] ?an he>twood4 ,wat]-fill$ wood lacks ! /r5g? ( wood f :i* ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure has be5 expell$ by evaporation4 #aag4 ,%r9kage4--,wat] 9 ! cell walls--x makes no diff]5ce :e!r ! cells are fill$ or empty--causes _! enl>gem5t & consequ5tly an increase 9 ! volume ( ! block or plank4 ,! removal ( ?is wat] by evaporation causes ! walls to %r9k2 ! plank becomes small] & light]4 ,?ick wall$ cells %r9k m ?an ?9 ones & summ] wood m ?an spr+ wood4 ,cell walls d n %r9k l5g?wise & s9ce ! l5g? ( a cell is (t5 a hundr$ or m times z great z its diamet] ! small %r9kage 9 ! ?ickness ( ! cell walls at ,a & ,b1 9 ,fig4 #aii1 is n suffici5t to make any noticeable *ange 9 ! l5g? ( ! timb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,s9ce ! cells ( ! pi? or m$ull>y rays ext5d at "r angles to ! ma9 body1 ,fig4 #bjj1 _! small] %r9kage along ! radius ( ! log opposes ! %r9kage ( ! longitud9al fib]s4 ,?is is "o reason :y a log %r9ks m circumf]5tially1 t is along ! r+s1 ?an x does radially or along ! radii4 ,a second cause lies 9 ! fact t greatly %r9k+ b&s ( summ] wood are int]rupt$1 along ! radii1 by z _m b&s ( sl[] %r9k+ spr+ wood1 :ile !y are cont9u\s along ! r+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,?is t5d5cy ( ! log to %r9k tang5tially or along ! radii leads to p]man5t *ecks4 ,fig4 #bja ,a4 ,x causes logs saw$ into bo>ds to take =ms z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bja ,b4 ,w>p+ is caus$ by unev5 %r9kage4 ,sapwood1 z a rule1 %r9ks m ?an he>twood ( ! same weight4 ,! wood ( p9e1 spruce1 cypress1 etc41 %r9ks less ?an ! wood ( trees su* z ! oak4 #aah4 ,weight4--,wood sub/ance is #a4f times z heavy z wat]2 x matt]s n :e!r x be wood ( oak1 p9e or popl>4 ,wood plac$ 9 wat] floats because ( ! air enclos$ 9 its cells2 :5 ! cells become fill$ ) wat] x s9ks4 ,! weight ( any giv5 piece ( wood is det]m9$ 7#a7 by ! wood sub/ance--?is is always ! same2 7#b7 by ! am\nt ( wat] enclos$ 9 its cells--?is v>ies4 ,"s k9ds ( woods are heavi] ?an o!rs simil>ly season$ because !y conta9 m wood sub/ance 9 a giv5 volume4 ,weight ( wood is an important quality4 ,to a l>ge ext5t1 /r5g? is measur$ by weight2 a heavy piece ( oak w be /rong] ?an a light "o ( ! same species4 ,lightness1 /r5g? & /iffness are prop]ties :i* recomm5d wood = diff]5t uses4 #aai4 ,o!r ,prop]ties4--,/r5g?1 ela/icity1 h>dness1 t\ghness & cleavability z appli$ to timb]1 h _! usual mean+4 #abj4 ,gra94--,wood fib]s g5]ally ext5d p>allel to ! axis ( ! trunk or bran* :i* !y =m4 ,9 ?is case ! wood is said to be /raight gra9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,frequ5tly1 ! fib]s gr[ ar\nd ! tree z 9 ,fig4 #bjb1 or sev]al lay]s may gr[ obliquely 9 "o direction & ! next s]ies gr[ obliquely 9 ! opposite direction1 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,bo>ds cut f su* trees w be cross gra9$ or twi/$4 ,! surface ( ! wood "u ! b>k is seldom smoo?4 ,usually ^! holl[s are fill$ ev5 by ! addition ( "o or two new r+s ( gr[?4 ,h[ev]1 9 "s woods z maple1 ! unev5nesses are ma9ta9$1 ! high places be+ add$ to z are ! l[4 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,a bo>d cut tang5tially f ! tree 9 :i* ! depressions are small & num]\s w h 8birds' eyes04 ,dormant buds frequ5tly cause small cone-%ap$ elevations1 :i* ?o cov]$ ) successive lay]s ( new wood1 reta9 _! %ape4 ,cross sections ( ^! cones w appe> on ! saw$ bo>d z irregul> circles ) a d>k speck 9 ! c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,,fell+ ,,r$ ,,spruce ,,) ,,! ,,saw4 ,,adirondack ,,m\nta9s1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,lumb]+ ,,& ,,mill+4 #aba4 ,lumb]+4--,lumb]+ is ( two k9ds3 cons]vative & ord9>y4 ,! fir/ seeks to s treat ! =e/ t successive crops may be produc$2 ! second takes no acc\nt ( ! future4 ,x cuts only ! bett] p>ts ( ! trees1 (t5 de/roy+ "y & promis+ trees 9 s do+4 ,lumb]+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 usually c>ri$ on at q a di/ance f habitation4 ,a camp is1 !re=e1 prep>$ at a spot conv5i5t = ! logg+ op]ators4 ,"h ! m5 eat & sleep4 ,a lumb]man selects ! trees :i* are to be cut & m>ks !m ) a hat*et to prev5t mi/akes4 ,^! trees are fell$ ei!r ) ! ax or saw1 sometimes bo?4 ,fig4 #bje4 ,:5 ! trees are d[n1 ! l[] bran*es & top are trimm$ (f ) axes1 aft] :i* ! trunks are saw$ into logs ( conv5i5t l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,,haul+ ,,spruce ,,logs ,,to ,,! ,,skidway4 ,,adirondack ,,m\nta9s1 ,,new ,,york4 ,^! logs are dragg$ away & collect$ 9 piles4 ,?is is call$ skidd+1 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,skidd+ is usually done ) horses or ox54 ,f ^! piles ! logs are load$ ^u sl$s1 ,fig4 #bjg1 & haul$ to ! place f :i* !y are load$ on c>s1 roll$ into a /ream or o!rwise transf]r$ to ! sawmill4 ,fig4 #bjh illu/rates a me?od us$ 9 ! s\? :i* comb9es skidd+ & haul+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,,load ,,( ,,:ite ,,p9e ,,logs1 ,,hubb>d ,,co41 ,,m9nesota4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,,haul+ ,,logs ,,by ,,mule ,,team ,,ne> ,,ocilla1 ,,georgia4 ,logs are transport$ to ! sawmill 9 v>i\s ways3 ,!y may be load$ on c>s1 & haul$ to ! millpond1 ,figs4 #bji & #baj4 ,!y may be float$ d[n "s /ream4 ,:]e a /ream is n deep !y are (t5 collect$ 9 ! b$ j bel[ a specially prep>$ dam call$ a spla%-dam4 ,:5 ! dam is op5$ ! sudd5 flood c>ries !m along4 ,logs are (t5 made into rafts :]e ! /ream is l>ge & deep or !y may be float$ s+ly4 ,m5 call$ log or riv] driv]s accompany ^! logs4 ,x is _! duty to break up any jams :i* ! logs may =m4 ,riv]-driv+ is dang]\s "w & requires great d>+ on ! "p ( ! m54 ,!y mu/ le>n to balance !mselves on float+1 roll+ logs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,,load$ ,,tra9 ,,( ,,longleaf ,,p9e1 ,,b>ham1 ,,l\isiana4 ,:5 a log jam is brok5 ! logs g out ) a great ru% & ! driv] mu/ make 8 escape z be/ he c4 #abb4 ,mill+4--,if ! sawmill is locat$ ^u ! banks ( a runn+ /ream ! logs are enclos$ by a log boom until !y are want$ = saw+4 ,fig4 #baa4 ,log booms are made by *a9+ logs toge!r & /ret*+ !m across ! riv]2 !y are to ! enclos$ logs :at f5ces are to cattle4 ,soak+ logs 9 wat] helps to clean ! wood4 ,! m9]al matt] :i* is soluble is wa%$ out4 ,fig4 #bab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,,unload+ ,,logs ,,f ,,tra91 ,,p9ogr&e1 ,,cali=nia4 ,?ree k9ds ( saws are 9 common use 9 cutt+ logs into lumb]3 circul>1 b& & gang4 ,circul> saws cut fa/] ?an b&-saws b are r wa/eful because !y cut su* a wide k]f4 ,a l>ge circul> saw frequ5tly cuts a k]f "o-qu>t] ( an in* wide4 ,gang saws cut out sev]al bo>ds at ! same "t4 ,b&-saws1 because ( _! economy1 are displac+ ! o!rs4 ,! common =ms into :i* logs are saw$ are timb]s1 planks & bo>ds4 ,timb]s ref] to ! l>g] pieces su* z are us$ = fram+2 planks are wide pieces ov] "o & "o-half in*es ?ick2 & bo>ds are wide pieces less ?an "o & "o-half in*es ?ick4 ,at ! mill ! log is drawn f ! wat]1 up a slide1 ,fig4 #bac1 by an endless *a94 ,9 ! mill x is inspect$ = /ones & spikes & !n measur$4 ,next x is automatically pu%$ out ( ! slip ^u a slop+ plat=m call$ ! log deck :]e x is held by a /op until x is want$ at ! saw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,,! ,,gl5s ,,falls ,,boom1 ,,hudson ,,riv]1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,,log ,,pond ,,ne> ,,ocilla1 ,,georgia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,,d\ble ,,cut ,,saw ,,mill1 ,,p9ogr&e1 ,,cali=nia4 ,:5 ! c>riage is empty ! /op is )drawn & at ! same "t revolves s z to ?r[ ! log ^u ! c>riage4 ,iron hooks call$ dogs are !n fa/5$ 9 ! log 9 su* a way t x _c turn4 ,fig4 #bad4 ,! c>riage & log move t[>d ! saw & a slab is cut (f ! log4 ,a rev]s+ lev] takes ! c>riage back2 aga9 ! log is mov$ to ! saw4 ,?is is repeat$ until a few bo>ds are cut (f4 ,! m mod]n b& saws h tee? on ea* edge ( ! blade s t ! log is cut z ! c>riage moves backw>d z well z :5 x moves =w>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,,log ,,slide ,,at ,a ,,mill ,,9 ,,s\!rn ,,georgia4 ,! dogs are releas$ & ! log is giv5 a half turn on ! c>riage by means ( a /eam 8cant]40 ,! side f :i* ! slab & bo>ds 7 saw$ is plac$ aga9/ ! knees--! /&>ds or uprights ( ! c>riage--& ! log aga9 dogg$4 ,! opposite slab & a few m bo>ds are saw$ (f aft] :i* ! log is giv5 a qu>t] turn & all b a few bo>ds tak5 (f4 ,a half turn ( ! log & ! f9al saw+s are made4 ,a s]ies ( 8live0 rolls--rolls :i* revolve 9 "o direction--c>ry (f ! bo>ds4 ,! r\gh edg$ bo>ds1 :i* con/itute ab\t "o-?ird ( ! :ole numb]1 are held by /ops & f9i%$ on saws call$ edg]s4 ,! bo>ds are n[ pass$ on to a trimm] or jump saw & cut to /&>d l5g?s4 ,timb]s are trimm$ to l5g? by a butt+ saw4 ,slabs are saw$ to a l5g? ( f\r feet "o in* on a sla%]4 ,^! slabs are saw$ into la?s1 pickets1 or blocks ! l5g? ( a %+le1 call$ %+le bolts4 ,f ^! bolts %+les are saw$4 #abc4 ,qu>t] ,saw+4--,fig4 #bae %[s a common way ( saw+ 8qu>t] saw$0 lumb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,! faces ( mo/ ( ! bo>ds are cut ne>ly p>allel to ! m$ull>y rays1 ^! rays come to ! surface at small angles & make ! beautiful spott+ (t5 se5 9 oak & sycamore4 ,qu>t]-saw$ bo>ds d n w>p or twi/ z mu* z ! pla9 saw$ because ! annual r+s are p]p5dicul> to ! face4 #abd4 ,wa/e4--,atta*$ to e sawmill w be f\nd t[]-l /ructures f ! tops ( :i* smoke issues1 ,fig4 #baf4 ,^! are call$ burn]s & into !m are ?r[n ?\s&s ( tons ( wa/e wood4 ,wa/e wood is us$ z fuel = ! eng9es & = _m o!r purposes b !re /ill rema9s mu* t is burn$ z ! *eape/ way to get rid ( x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,a ,,mod]n ,,sawmill1 ,,%[+ ,,refuse ,,burn]4 #abe4 ,lumb] ,transportation4--,saw$ lumb] is transport$ to ! y>ds 9 v>i\s ways4 ,x is load$ & c>ri$ by boats1 by c>s1 & 9 "s places is float$ to its de/9ation 9 n>r[ wood5 tr\ghs call$ flumes4 ,on ! ,pacific coa/ mills are frequ5tly built out ov] ! wat] on piles s t ! lumb] is load$ directly f ! saws4 ,frequ5tly lumb] is =m$ into rafts & t[$ to its de/9ation 9 a mann] simil> to t ( ! log rafts ( ! ,pacific4 #abf4 ,season+4--,!re are two me?ods ( dry+ wood1 9 common use3 air dry+ & kiln-dry+4 ,:5 lumb] rea*es its de/9ation x is sort$ & grad$ accord+ to lumb]m5's /&>ds1 aft] :i*1 x is load$ ^u trucks & haul$ to ! /orage y>ds4 ,"h1 x is s plac$ t air c get at ! f\r sides ( ea* piece & evaporate ! wat] held by ! 8gre50 lumb]4 ,?is is call$ air season+4 ,! "t necess>y to season a piece ( lumb] s t x may be us$ = high-grade "w dep5ds ^u ! k9d ( wood1 its %ape & size1 ! condition ( ! atmosph]e1 etc4 ,two1 ?ree1 & ev5 f\r ye>s are (t5 requir$2 ! long] ! bett]1 provid$ x is kept dry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,,kiln ,,dry+ ,,tupelo1 ,,ionia1 ,,mi*igan4 ,x w nev] become p]fectly dry because ( ! moi/ure 9 ! air itself4 ,because ( ! sl[ness ( ?is me?od ( season+1 millm5 resort to artificial means4 ,! lumb]1 z x is ne$$1 is %ut up 9 a room heat$ by /eam4 ,fig4 #bag %[s ! me?od ( 8/ick+0 lumb] 9 prep>+ x = ! kiln4 ,high temp]ature1 no matt] h[ mu* moi/ure may be conta9$ 9 ! air1 w evaporate wat] f wood4 ,gre51 or fre% sap-wood may be p>tially season$ by boil+ x 9 hot wat] or by /eam+ x4 ,p9e1 spruce1 cypress1 c$>1 etc41 may be plac$ 9 ! kiln z soon z saw$1 f\r days = "o in* ?ick bo>ds be+ suffici5t to dry !m4 ,h>d woods1 su* z oak1 maple1 bir*1 etc41 are usually all[$ to 8air season0 = a p]iod ( f ?ree to six mon?s be=e be+ plac$ 9 ! kiln4 ,six to t5 days additional kiln-dry+ is all[$ !m4 ,! usual temp]ature = kilns is f #aeh to #ahj degrees ,fahr4 ,h>dwoods lose moi/ure s sl[ly t to place !m 9 ! kiln directly f ! saw w\ld cause !m to %r9k v unev5ly & h5ce make !m subject to s]i\s 8*ecks04 ,lumb] is frequ5tly /eam$ to prev5t its *eck+ & 8case h>d5+0 :ile be+ kiln dri$4 #abg4 ,lumb] ,t]ms & ,measurem5ts4--8,cle>0 lumb] is lumb] :i* is free f knots & sapwood4 8,dress$0 lumb] or 8surfac$0 or 8siz$0 lumb] is lumb] :i* has pass$ ?ru ! plan]4 ,! unit ( measure is ! bo>d-foot :i* is "o in* ?ick & twelve in*es squ>e4 ,bo>ds less ?an "o in* ?ick are sold by ! squ>e foot1 face measure4 ,%+les & la? are sold by ! bundle4 ,mold+s are sold by 8runn+0 or l9eal measure4 ,prices are usually bas$ ^u ! ?\s& feet2 ?us1 #bjj feet1 #a/1 cle>1 ,s#b,s1 7siz$ or surfac$ on two sides7 at #dg p] ,m4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,common ,,woods4 #abh4 ,classification4--,accord+ to botanical classification1 woods belong to ! ,fl[]+ ,plants 7,phan]ogamia74 ,classifi$ fur!r we h3 7#a7 ,nak$ se$s 7gymnosp]ms7 #a4 ,palm f]ns1 etc4 7cycadace7 #b4 ,jo9t firs 7gnetace7 #c4 ,p9es1 firs1 etc4 7conif]s7 7#b7 ,fruits 7angiosp]ms7 #a4 ,"o-se$-leaf 7monocotyl$ons7 7,bamboos1 palms1 grasses1 etc47 #b4 ,two-se$-leaf 7dicotyl$ons7 a4 ,h]bs4 b4 ,broad-leaf$ trees4 7oak1 a%1 elm1 etc47 ,conif]s & broad-leav$ trees are alike 9 t !y add a new lay] ( wood ea* ye> :i* cov]s ! old wood ( root1 trunk & bran*4 ,!y are kn[n z exog5s--outw>d gr[]s4 ,9 woods su* z ! palms1 bamboos1 & yuccas1 gr[? is made f )94 ,! new wood /r&s m+le ) ! old & cause ! cross sections to appe> dott$1 ,fig4 #bah4 ,trees ( ?is class--endog5s--aft] "s ye>s ( gr[? =m h>d] wood ne> ! surface ) y\ng] & s(t] gr[? t[>d ! c5t]--q ! rev]se ( ! exog5s4 ,!re are no annual r+s4 ,gr[? takes place ma9ly at ! top4 ,o!r classifications1 su* z decidu\s1 8h>d woods10 8ev]gre5s10 8s(t woods10 are 9 common use b are n v accurate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,decidu\s trees are ! broad-leav$ trees & are s call$ because !y lose _! leaves 9 ! fall4 ,broad-leav$ trees are also call$ h>d woods4 ,conif]s are call$ ev]gre5s because _! ne$le-%ap$ leaves rema9 gre5 on ! tree ! ye> ar\nd4 ,!y are also kn[n z s(t woods4 ,mo/ ( our timb] is furni%$ by 7#a7 ! ne$le-leav$ conif]s & 7#b7 ! broad-leav$ trees4 ,,conif]\s ,,woods4#a #a ,! descriptive matt] 9 small type is quot$1 by p]mission1 f a report ( ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 #abi4 ,c$>4--,fig4 #bai4 ,light1 s(t1 /iff1 n /rong1 ( f9e texture2 sap & he>twood di/9ct1 ! =m] light]1 ! latt] a dull grayi% br[n1 or r$4 ,! wood seasons rapidly1 %r9ks & *ecks b little1 & is v durable4 ,us$ l s(t p9e1 b ow+ to its great durability pref]r$ = %+les1 etc4 ,small sizes us$ = po/s1 ties1 etc4 7,s9ce almo/ all k9ds ( wood are us$ = fuel & *>coal1 & 9 ! con/ruction ( f5ces1 b>ns1 etc41 ! enum]ation ( ^! uses has be5 omitt$ 9 ?is li/47 ,c$>s usually occur scatt]$1 b !y =m1 9 c]ta9 localities1 =e/s ( consid]able ext5t4 #acj4 ,cypress4--,fig4 #bbj4 ,cypress wood 9 appe>ance1 quality1 & uses is simil> to :ite c$>4 8,black cypress0 & 8:ite cypress0 are heavy & light =ms ( ! same species4 ,! cypress is a l>ge decidu\s tree occupy+ mu* ( ! swamp & ov]fl[ l& along ! coa/ & riv]s ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 #aca4 ,p9e4--,fig4 #bba4 ,v v>iable1 v light & s(t 9 8s(t0 p9e1 su* z :ite p9e2 ( m$ium weight to heavy & q h>d 9 8h>d0 p9e1 ( :i* longleaf or ,georgia p9e is ! extreme =m4 ,usually x is /iff1 q /rong1 ( ev5 texture & m or less res9\s4 ,! sapwood is yell[i% :ite2 ! he>twood1 orange br[n4 ,p9e %r9ks mod]ately1 seasons rapidly & )\t mu* injury2 x works easily2 is nev] too h>d to nail 7unlike oak or hickory72 x is mo/ly q durable1 & if well season$ is n subject to ! attacks ( bor+ insects4 ,! heavi] ! wood1 ! d>k]1 /rong] & h>d] x is1 & ! m x %r9ks & *ecks4 ,p9e is us$ m ext5sively ?an any o!r k9d ( wood4 ,x is ! pr9cipal wood 9 common c>p5try1 z well z 9 all heavy con/ruction1 bridges1 tre/les1 etc4 ,x is us$ also 9 almo/ e o!r wood indu/ry1 = sp>s1 ma/s1 planks1 & timb]s 9 %ip build+1 9 c> & wagon con/ruction1 9 coop]age1 = crates & boxes1 9 furniture "w1 = toys & patt]ns1 railway ties1 wat] pipes1 excelsior1 etc4 ,p9es are usually l>ge trees ) few bran*es1 ! /raight1 cyl9drical1 useful /em =m+ by f> ! greate/ "p ( ! tree4 #acb4 ,spruce4--,fig4 #bbb4 ,resembles s(t p9e1 is light1 v s(t1 /iff1 mod]ately /rong1 less res9\s ?an p9e2 has no di/9ct he>twood1 & is ( :iti% color4 ,us$ l s(t p9e1 b also employ$ z resonance wood & pref]r$ = pap] pulp4 ,spruces1 l p9es1 =m ext5sive =e/s2 !y are m frugal1 ?rive on ?9n] soils1 & be> m %ade1 b usually require a m humid climate4 8,black0 & 8:ite0 spruce z appli$ by lumb]m51 usually ref] to n>r[ & wide r+$ =ms ( black spruce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,,broad-,,leav$ ,,woods4 #acc4 ,a%4--,fig4 #bbc4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 /iff1 q t\gh1 n durable 9 contact ) soil1 /raight gra9$1 r\gh on ! split surface & co>se 9 texture4 ,! wood %r9ks mod]ately1 seasons ) little injury1 /&s well & takes a good poli%4 ,9 c>p5try a% is us$ = f9i%+ lumb]1 /airways1 panels1 etc42 x is us$ 9 %ipbuild+1 9 ! con/ruction ( c>s1 wagons1 c>riages1 etc41 9 ! manufacture ( f>m implem5ts1 ma*9]y1 & especially ( furniture ( all k9ds1 & also = h>ness "w2 = b>rels1 baskets1 o>s1 tool h&les1 hoops1 clo!sp9s1 & toys4 ,! trees ( ! sev]al species ( a% are rapid gr[]s1 ( small to m$ium height ) /\t trunks2 !y =m no =e/s1 b occur scatt]$ 9 almo/ all broad-leav$ =e/s4 #acd4 ,basswood4--,fig4 #bbd4 7,lime tree1 ,am]ican l9d51 l91 bee tree73 ,wood light1 s(t1 /iff b n /rong1 ( f9e texture1 & :ite to light br[n color4 ,! wood %r9ks consid]ably 9 dry+1 works & /&s well2 x is us$ 9 c>p5try1 9 ! manufacture ( furniture & wood5w>e1 bo? turn$ & c>v$1 9 coop]age1 = toys1 also = panel+ ( c> & c>riage bodies4 ,m$ium to l>ge siz$ trees1 common 9 all ,nor!rn broad-leav$ =e/s2 f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 #ace4 ,bir*4--,fig4 #bbe4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 ( f9e texture2 sapwood :iti%1 he>twood 9 %ades ( br[n ) r$ & yell[2 v h&some1 ) sat9y lu/]1 equal+ *]ry4 ,! wood %r9ks consid]ably 9 dry+1 works & /&s well & takes a good poli%1 b is n durable if expos$4 ,bir* is us$ = f9i%+ lumb] 9 build+1 9 ! manufacture ( furniture1 9 woodturn]y = spools1 boxes1 wood5 %oes1 etc41 = %oe la/s & pegs1 = wagon hubs1 ox yokes1 etc41 also 9 wood c>v+4 ,! bir*es are m$ium siz$ trees1 =m ext5sive =e/s nor?w>d & occur scatt]$ 9 all broad-leav$ =e/s ( ! ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 #acf4 ,butt]nut4--,fig4 #bbf4 7,:ite ,walnut47 ,wood v simil> to black walnut1 b light1 q s(t1 n /rong & ( light br[n color4 ,us$ *iefly = f9i%+ lumb]1 cab9et "w & coop]age4 ,m$ium siz$ tree1 l>ge/ & mo/ common 9 ! ,ohio bas92 ,ma9e to ,m9nesota & s\?w>d to ,georgia & ,alabama4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 #acg4 ,*]ry4--,fig4 #bbg4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 ( f9e texture3 sapwood yell[i% :ite1 he>twood r$di% to br[n4 ,! wood %r9ks consid]ably 9 dry+1 works & /&s well1 takes a good poli%1 & is mu* e/eem$ = its beauty4 ,*]ry is us$ *iefly z a decorative f9i%+ lumb] = build+s1 c>s & boats1 also = furniture & = turn]y4 ,x is becom+ too co/ly = _m purposes = :i* x is naturally suit$4 ,! lumb]-furni%+ *]ry ( ?is c\ntry1 ! wild black *]ry1 is a small to m$ium siz$ tree1 scatt]$ ?r\gh _m ( ! broad-leav$ woods ( ! we/]n slope ( ! ,alleghanies1 b f\nd f ,mi*igan to ,florida & we/ to ,texas4 #ach4 ,*e/nut4--,fig4 #bbh4 ,wood light1 mod]ately s(t1 /iff1 n /rong1 ( co>se texture2 ! sapwood light1 ! he>twood d>k] br[n4 ,x %r9ks & *ecks consid]ably 9 dry+1 works easily1 /&s well1 & is v durable4 ,us$ 9 cab9et "w1 coop]age1 = railway ties1 telegraph poles1 & locally 9 heavy con/ruction4 ,m$ium siz$ tree v common 9 ! ,alleghanies1 occurs f ,ma9e to ,mi*igan & s\?w>d to ,alabama4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 #aci4 ,elm4--,fig4 #bbi4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 v t\gh2 mod]ately durable 9 contact ) ! soil2 commonly cross-gra9$1 difficult to split & %ape1 w>ps & *ecks consid]ably 9 dry+1 b /&s well if prop]ly h&l$4 ,! broad sapwood :iti%1 he>t br[n1 bo? %ades ( gray & r$2 on split surface r\gh1 texture co>se to f9e1 capable ( high poli%4 ,elm is us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( c>s1 wagons1 etc41 9 boat & %ip build+1 = agricultural implem5ts & ma*9]y2 9 r\gh coop]age1 saddl]y1 & h>ness "w1 b p>ticul>ly 9 ! manufacture ( all k9ds ( furniture1 :]e ! beautiful figures1 especially ( ! tang5tial or ba/>d section1 are j beg9n+ to be duly appreciat$4 ,! elms are m$ium to l>ge siz$ trees1 ( fairly rapid gr[?1 ) /\t trunk1 =m no =e/s ( pure gr[?1 b are f\nd scatt]$ 9 all ! broad-leav$ woods ( our c\ntry4 #adj4 ,gum4--,?is g5]al t]m ref]s to two k9ds ( wood usually di/+ui%$ z sweet or r$ gum1 & s\r1 black1 or tupelo gum1 ! =m] be+ a relative ( ! wit*-hazel1 ! latt] belong+ to ! dogwood family4 ,sweet ,gum4 ,fig4 #bcj4 7r$ gum1 liquidamb>72 ,wood r heavy1 r s(t1 q /iff & /rong1 t\gh1 commonly cross-gra9$1 ( f9e texture2 ! broad sapwood :iti%1 ! he>twood r$di% br[n2 ! wood w>ps & %r9ks consid]ably1 b does n *eck badly1 /&s well :5 fully season$1 & takes good poli%4 ,sweet gum is us$ 9 c>p5try1 9 ! manufacture ( furniture1 = cut v5e]1 = wood5 plates1 plaques1 baskets1 etc41 also = wagon hubs1 hat blocks1 etc4 ,a l>ge siz$ tree1 v abundant1 (t5 ! pr9cipal tree 9 ! swampy p>ts ( ! bottoms ( ! ,l[] ,mississippi ,valley2 occurs f ,new ,york to ,texas & f ,indiana to ,florida4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 #ada4 ,hickory4--,fig4 #bca4 ,wood v heavy1 h>d & /rong1 prov]bially t\gh1 ( r co>se texture1 smoo? & ( /raight gra94 ,! broad sapwood :ite1 ! he>t r$di% nut br[n4 ,x dries sl[ly1 %r9ks & *ecks consid]ably1 is n durable 9 ! gr\nd1 or if expos$1 &1 especially ! sapwood1 is always subject to ! inroads ( bor+ insects4 ,hickory excels z c>riage & wagon /ock1 b is also ext5sively us$ 9 ! manufacture ( implem5ts & ma*9]y1 = tool h&les1 timb] p9s1 = h>ness "w & coop]age4 ,! hickories are tall trees ) sl5d] /ems1 nev] =m =e/s1 occasionally small groves1 b usually occur scatt]$ among o!r broad-leav$ trees 9 suitable localities4 ,hickory excels z c>riage & wagon /ock1 b is also ext5sively us$ 9 ! manufacture ( implem5ts & ma*9]y1 = tool h&les1 timb] p9s1 = h>ness "w & coop]age4 ,! hickories are tall trees ) sl5d] /ems1 nev] =m =e/s1 occasionally small groves1 b usually occur scatt]$ among o!r broad-leav$ trees 9 suitable localities4 #adb4 ,maple4--,fig4 #bcb4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 /iff1 & t\gh1 ( f9e texture1 frequ5tly wavy gra9$1 ?us giv+ rise to 8curly0 & bli/]0 figures2 n durable 9 ! gr\nd or o!rwise expos$4 ,maple is creamy :ite1 ) %ades ( light br[n 9 ! he>t2 %r9ks mod]ately1 seasons1 works & /&s well1 we>s smoo?ly & takes f9e poli%4 ,! wood is us$ = ceil+1 floor+1 panel+1 /airway & o!r f9i%+ lumb] 9 h\se1 %ip & c> con/ruction2 x is us$ = ! keels ( boats & %ips1 9 ! manufacture ( implem5ts & ma*9]y1 b especially = furniture1 :]e entire *amb] sets ( maple rival ^? ( oak4 ,maple is also us$ = %oe la/s & o!r =m blocks1 = %oe pegs1 = piano actions1 s*ool app>atus1 = wood type 9 %[ bill pr9t+1 tool h&les1 wood c>v+1 turn]y & scroll "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,! maples are m$ium siz$ trees1 ( fairly rapid gr[?2 sometimes =m =e/s & frequ5tly con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! arboresc5t gr[?4 #adc4 ,oak4--,fig4 #bcc4 ,wood v v>iable1 usually v heavy & h>d1 v /rong & t\gh1 por\s1 & ( co>se texture2 ! sapwood :iti%1 ! he>t 8oak0 br[n to r$di% br[n4 ,x %r9ks & *ecks badly1 giv+ tr\ble 9 season+1 b /&s well1 is durable & little subject to attacks ( insects4 ,oak is us$ = _m purposes2 9 %ipbuild+1 = heavy con/ruction1 9 common c>p5try1 9 furniture1 c> & wagon "w1 coop]age1 turn]y1 & ev5 9 wood c>v+2 also 9 ! manufacture ( all k9ds ( f>m implem5ts1 wood5 mill ma*9]y1 = piles & :>ves1 railway ties1 etc4 ,! oaks are m$ium to l>ge siz$ trees1 =m+ ! pr$om9ant "p ( a l>ge portion ( our broad-leav$ =e/s1 s t ^! are g5]ally 8oak =e/s0 ?\gh !y always conta9 a consid]able proportion ( o!r k9ds ( trees4 ,?ree well m>k$ k9ds1 :ite1 r$1 & live oak are di/+ui%$ & kept sep>ate 9 ! m>ket4 ,( ! two pr9cipal k9ds1 :ite oak is ! /rong]1 t\gh]1 less por\s1 & m durable4 ,r$ oak is usually ( co>s] texture1 m por\s1 (t5 brittle1 less durable1 & ev5 m tr\blesome 9 season+ ?an :ite oak4 ,9 c>p5try & furniture "w1 r$ oak br+s ab\t ! same price at pres5t z :ite oak4 ,! r$ oaks ev]y:]e accompany ! :ite oaks1 & l ! latt]1 are usually repres5t$ by sev]al species 9 any giv5 locality4 ,live oak1 once l>gely employ$ 9 %ipbuild+1 possesses all ! good qualities 7except t ( size7 ( ! :ite oak1 ev5 to a great] degree4 ,x is "o ( ! heavie/1 h>de/ & mo/ durable build+ timb]s ( ?is c\ntry2 9 /ructure x resembles ! r$ oak b is mu* less por\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 #add4 ,sycamore4--,fig4 #bcd 7button wood1 button-ball tree1 wat] bee*73 ,wood mod]ately heavy1 q h>d1 /iff1 /rong1 t\gh1 usually crossgra9$1 ( co>se texture1 & :ite to light br[n color2 ! wood is h>d to split & "w1 %r9ks mod]ately1 w>ps & *ecks consid]ably b /&s well4 ,x is us$ ext5sively = draw]s1 backs1 bottoms1 etc41 9 cab9etwork1 = tobacco boxes1 9 coop]age1 & also = f9i%+ lumb]1 :]e x has too long be5 und]rat$4 ,a l>ge tree1 ( rapid gr[?1 common & l>ge/ 9 ! ,ohio & ,mississippi valleys1 at home 9 ne>ly all p>ts ( ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 #ade4 ,tulip ,wood4--,fig4 #bce4 ,tulip tree4 7yell[ popl>1 :ite wood73 ,wood q v>iable 9 weight1 usually light1 s(t1 /iff b n /rong1 ( f9e texture1 & yell[i% color2 ! wood %r9ks consid]ably1 b seasons )\t mu* injury2 works & /&s rem>kably well4 ,us$ = sid+1 = panel+1 & f9i%+ lumb] 9 h\se1 c> & %ipbuild+1 = sidebo>ds & panels ( wagons & c>riages2 also 9 ! manufacture ( furniture1 implem5ts & ma*9]y1 = pump logs1 & almo/ e k9d ( common wood5w>e1 boxes1 %elv+1 draw]s1 etc4 ,an ideal wood = ! c>v] & toy man4 ,a l>ge tree1 does n =m =e/s1 b is q common1 especially 9 ! ,ohio bas92 occurs f ,new ,engl& to ,miss\ri & s\?w>d to ,florida4 #adf4 ,walnut4--,fig4 #bcf4 ,black ,walnut4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 ( co>se texture2 ! n>r[ sapwood :iti%1 ! he>twood *ocolate br[n4 ,! wood %r9ks mod]ately 9 dry+1 works & /&s well1 takes a good poli%1 is q h&some1 & has be5 = a long "t ! favorite cab9et wood 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,walnut =m]ly us$1 ev5 = f5c+1 has become too co/ly = ord9>y uses1 & is to-day employ$ l>gely z a v5e]1 = inside f9i% & cab9et "w1 also = turn]y1 = gun/ocks1 etc4 ,black walnut is a l>ge tree1 ) /\t trunk1 ( rapid gr[?1 & 0 =m]ly q abundant ?r\gh\t ! ,alleghany region1 occurr+ f ,new ,engl& to ,texas1 & f ,mi*igan to ,florida4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,wood ,,f9i%+4 #adg4 ,wood ,f9i%es4--,f9i%es are appli$ to wood surfaces 7#a7 t ! wood may be pres]v$1 7#b7 t ! appe>ance may be enhanc$4 ,f9i%+ mat]ials may be class$ "u "o or ! o!r ( ! foll[+3 ,fill]1 /a91 wax1 v>ni%1 oil1 pa9t4 ,^! mat]ials may be us$ s+ly ^u a piece ( wood or !y may be comb9$ 9 v>i\s ways to produce results desir$4 #adh4 ,bru%es4--,good bru%es are made ( bri/les ( ! wild bo> ( ,russia & ,*9a4 ,^! bri/les are set 9 cem5t & are firmly b\nd by be+ wrapp$ ) wire 9 r\nd bru%es or enclos$ 9 metal 9 flat bru%es4 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,a l>ge bru%1 call$ a du/]1 is us$ = remov+ du/ or loose dirt f ! wood1 ,fig4 #bch4 ,small bru%es1 us$ = trac+1 usually h *isel$ edges1 ,fig4 #bci4 ,bri/le bru%es are exp5sive & %\ld be well c>$ =4 ,bru%es t h be5 us$ 9 %ellac & are n soon to be us$ aga9 %\ld be clean$ by r9s+ !m ?or\ghly 9 a cup ( alcohol4 ,?is alcohol may be us$ lat] = ?9n+ %ellac4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,v>ni% & pa9t bru%es %\ld be clean$ 9 turp5t9e4 ,if !y are to be laid away = "s "t1 a /rong soap suds1 or la!r made f "s ( ! soap p[d]s1 %\ld be well work$ into ! bru%1 aft] ! prelim9>y cleans+4 ,x %\ld !n be c>efully press$ into prop] %ape & laid away flat on a %elf4 ,:5 ! bru% is to be us$ aga91 x %\ld fir/ be wa%$ out1 to get rid ( all ! soap4 ,bru%es t are us$ f day to day %\ld be kept susp5d$1 :5 n 9 use1 z 9 ,fig4 #bdj1 s t _! bri/les %all be kept moi/1 )\t _! t\*+ ! bottom ( ! bucket or c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,s9ce alcohol evaporates rapidly1 %ellac cans ) cone tops %\ld be us$ or1 bett]1 a c 9 :i* ! bru% h&le may ext5d ?r\gh ! top4 ,fig4 #bda %[s a c :i* is made d\ble4 ,v>ni% is kept 9 ! inn] portion & wat] 9 ! out] r+4 ,! cov] fits ov] ! inn] c & into ! wat] space1 ?us seal+ ! v>ni% air-tight b remov+ all dang] ( ! cov]'s /ick+ to ! sides ( ! c4 ,! bru% is susp5d$ f ! 8clean+ wire0 s t its bri/les re/ 9 ! liquid4 ,if delicate woods are to be v>ni%$1 /one or glass j>s w\ld bett] be us$ to hold ! liquid1 = metal discolors x slightly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 #adi4 ,g5]al ,directions = ,us+ ,bru%4--7#a7 ,hold ! bru% z 9 ,fig4 #bdb4 7#b7 ,dip ! end ( ! bru% 9 ! liquid to ab\t "o-?ird ! l5g? ( ! bri/les4 7#c7 ,wipe (f ! surplus liquid on ! edge ( ! c1 wip+ bo? sides ( ! bru% no m ?an is necess>y to keep ! liquid f dripp+4 ,a wire /ret*$ across ! c z 9 ,fig4 #bdc provides a bett] wip+ place = ! dripp+ bru%4 ,9 wip+ ! bru% on ! edge ( ! c1 "s ( liquid is likely to 8run0 d[n ! outside4 7#d7 ,us+ ! end ( ! bru%1 apply ! liquid ne> "o end ( ! surface to be cov]$4 7#e7 8,bru%0 9 ! direction ( ! gra94 7#f7 ,"w t[>ds & out ov] ! end ( ! bo>d1 level+ ! liquid to a smoo? film ( uni=m ?9ness4 ,! /rokes %\ld be 8fea!r$10 t is1 ! bru% %\ld be l[]$ gradually at ! beg9n+ ( ! sweep & rais$ gradually at ! close1 o!rwise1 ugly 8laps0 w result4 ,! reason = work+ out ov] ! ends r ?an f !m w appe> ) a little ?\ght4 7#g7 ,n[ "w t[>d ! second end4 ,! arr[s1 ,fig4 #bdd1 %[ ! g5]al directions ( ! f9al or fea!r+ /rokes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,edges are usually cov]$ fir/ & adjo9+ surfaces aft]w>d4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t surplus liquid runs ov] a f9i%$ surface1 especially :5 work+ ne> ! arrises4 ,?is surplus c be 8pick$ up0 by wip+ ! bru% ^u ! wire ( ! bucket until ! bri/les are q free ( liquid1 & giv+ ! "p affect$ a fea!r+ sweep4 ,if ! object has an int]nal corn]1 "w f t out ov] ! neighbor+ surfaces4 ,panels & sunk places %\ld be cov]$ fir/4 ,aft]w>d1 ! rais$ places1 su* z /iles1 rails1 etc41 may be att5d$ to4 ,:]ev] possible ! "w %\ld be laid flat s t ! liquid may be fl[$ on horizontally4 ,?is is ( especial advantage 9 v>ni%+4 ,v]tical "w %\ld always be begun at ! top & c>ri$ d[nw>d4 ,trac+ consi/s 9 work+ a liquid up to a giv5 l9e b n ov] x1 su* z pa9t+ ! sa% ( a w9d[4 ,trac+ requires a /eady h& & "s practice4 ,a small bru% is g5]ally us$ & ! /roke is made z ne>ly cont9u\s z ! fl[ ( ! liquid w all[4 ,fig4 #bde4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 #aej4 ,fill]s4--,fill]s are ( two k9ds1 pa/e & liquid4 ,!y are us$ to fill up ! wood pores & ?us give a smoo?1 level1 non-absorb5t surface1 ^u :i* o!r cov]+s may be plac$4 ,pa/e fill]s are = use ^u co>se gra9$ woods su* z oak & *e/nut1 :ile liquid fill]s are = close gra9$ woods su* z ,georgia p9e4 ,fill]s are n a necessity1 especially ! liquid1 b ! sav+ affect$ by _! use is consid]able4 ,n only are !y *eap] ?an v>ni% b "o or two coats ( fill] w take ! place & p]mit a sav+ ( two or ?ree coats ( ! m exp5sive mat]ial4 ,liquid fill] %\ld be appli$ ev5ly ) a bru% & all[$ to dry tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 aft] :i* x may be s&$ smoo? ) ,no4 #jj pap]4 ,x is us$ ma9ly ^u l>ge "w su* z por* ceil+s & int]ior f9i%1 l ,georgia p9e4 ,on f9e cab9et "w1 "o or two coats ( ?9 :ite %ellac is us$ z a fill] ^u close gra9$ wood4 ,%ellac =ms a surface :i* aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 c be s&pap]$ s z to make a v smoo? surface4 ,v>ni% appli$ to ! b>e wood has a t5d5cy to d>k5 & discolor x4 ,fill+ ) %ellac pres]ves ! natural color4 ,pa/e fill] is sold by ! p\nd 9 cans ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! be/ fill]s are made ( gr\nd rock cry/al mix$ ) raw l9se$ oil1 japan & turp5t9e4 ,= pres]v+ ! natural color ( ! wood1 fill] is left :ite2 = ,flemi%1 x is color$ br[n2 = antique & wea!r$ f9i%es1 x is d>k4 ,fill]s c be pur*as$ ready color$4 #aea4 ,fill+ ) ,pa/e ,fill]4--7#a7 ,?9 ! fill] ) turp5t9e until x makes a ?9 pa/e4 7#b7 ,) a /iff-bri/l$ bru%1 =ce ! fill] into ! pores ( ! wood & leave ! surface cov]$ ) a ?9 coat+4 7#c7 ,all[ ?is to /& until ! fill] has 8flatt$10 t is1 until ! 8gloss0 has disappe>$ & ! fill] becomes dull & *alki%4 ,! "t requir$ = ?is to take place v>ies4 ,tw5ty m9utes is n unusual4 7#d7 ,rub ! fill] (f j z soon z x has flatt$--d n let x /& long]1 = ! long] x /&s ! h>d] x is to remove4 ,rub across ! gra9 z mu* z is possible1 us+ a wad ( excelsior4 ,f9i% f9e "w by go+ ov] x a second "t ) a clo?1 rubb+ ) ! gra9 z well z across1 t ! 8high lights0 may be cle> ( fill]4 ,on f9e "w use a felt pad to rub ! fill] into ! pores1 & rub (f ) a clo? only4 ,tw5ty-f\r h\rs %\ld be all[$ ! fill] to h>d54 ,"o fill+ is suffici5t = ord9>y "w2 on f9e "w ! above process is sometimes repeat$ aft] ! fir/ fill+ has h>d5$4 ,! /rik+ contra/s 9 ! gra9 ( wood su* z oak & *e/nut1 obta9$ by ! use ( color$ fill]s1 are due to ! d>k fill]'s rema9+ 9 ! op5 gra9 b be+ wip$ (f ( ! close gra9--! 8high lights40 ,on qu>t]-saw$ oak1 ea* flake is sometimes s&$ ) f9e pap]1 ,no4 #jj1 to remove ! /a9 t ! contra/ may be %>p]4 ,excelsior & rags us$ 9 clean+ (f fill] mu/ n be all[$ to lie ar\nd b mu/ be burn$ = !y are subject to spontane\s combu/ion & are dang]\s4 #aeb4 ,/a9s4--,/a9s are us$ to d>k5 ! high lights ( wood prep>atory to ! application ( a relatively d>k] fill]4 ,by v>y+ ! int5sity ( ! /a9 diff]5t results may be obta9$ ) ! same color ( fill]4 ,/a9s are also us$ )\t fill]s4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( /a9s3 7#a7 wat]1 7#b7 oil1 7#c7 _s4 ,ea* k9d has its advantages & its disadvantages4 ,wood /a9s are *eap1 p5etrate ! wood deeply1 & are transp>5t4 ,!y cause ! gra9 ( ! wood to 8r\gh up10 h[ev]1 & = ?is reason are us$ ma9ly ^u h>d woods :i* require d>k5+ be=e ! application ( a fill]4 ,! wood is s&$ be=e ! fill] is appli$4 ,:]e wat] /a9 is n to be foll[$ by fill]1 x is cu/om>y to ?or\ghly moi/5 ! surface to be cov]$ ) wat] alone4 ,aft] ?is has dri$1 ! surface is s&$ ) f9e pap] & ! /a9 appli$4 ,! /a9 does n raise ! gra9 z x o!rwise w\ld4 ,wat] /a9s may be appli$ ) a bru% or a sponge4 ,!y are sometimes heat$ t !y may ent] ! wood m deeply4 ,any color+ matt] t c be dissolv$ 9 wat] w make a wood dye or /a94 ,oil /a9s1 l wat] /a9s1 are (t5 us$ to /a9 wood be=e fill+4 ,!y are m g5]ally us$ :]e no fill+ is desir$4 ,!y are easi] to apply ev5ly ?an wat] or _s /a9s4 ,!y d n raise ! gra9 ( ! wood l ! o!r /a9s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y d n p5etrate & !re=e _c color h>d woods d>k4 ,nei!r d !y give ! cle> effects4 ,mo/ oil /a9s are appli$ ) a bru%1 aft] :i* ! surface ( ! wood is imm$iately wip$ clean ) a clo?4 ,_s /a9s are b little us$ :]e surfaces ( any size are to be cov]$4 ,!y are exp5sive1 fade easily1 & are h>d to apply ev5ly4 ,!y are appli$ ) a bru% & dry v quickly4 ,a /a9 :i* p5etrates deeply & is cle> is obta9$ by plac+ ! wood 9 a clos$ receptacle 9 :i* is plac$ a di% ( conc5trat$ ammonia4 ,! fumes ( ?is liquid cause a *emical *ange to take place1 giv+ to ! wood a ri* nut-br[n color4 #aec4 ,wax+4--,an old f9i% t has rec5tly become popul> is t ( wax+4 ,x takes ! place ( ! v>ni%1 by :i* x 0 supplant$ ye>s ago4 ,wax f9i% is easily appli$ & is *eap] ?an v>ni%4 ,x w n /& wett+4 ,h[ev]1 x is easily repair$4 ,our ance/ors us$ to make wax poli% by 8cutt+0 beeswax ) turp5t9e4 ,rapid dry+ & h>d5+ waxes c be pur*as$ n[-a-days4 ,!y require a smoo? surface & a v ?9 application = a successful result4 ,too mu* wax ^u a r\gh surface w produce v ugly1 :ite1 *alk-l spott+s z ! wax dries4 ,^! are especially noticeable ^u d>k f9i%es4 ,waxes color$ black ov]come ?is b are n ne$$ if ! ord9>y wax is prop]ly appli$4 ,9 f9i%+ ) wax ! foll[+ directions may be foll[$3 7#a7 ,/a9 ! wood1 if a v d>k f9i% is desir$4 7#b7 ,if ! wood is co>se-gra9$1 put on two coats ( pa/e fill] & rub x (f c>efully1 t a smoo? surface may be prep>$4 ,all[ ! /a9 twelve h\rs 9 :i* to dry1 also ea* coat ( ! fill]4 7#c7 ,) a s(t clo? apply z ?9 a coat+ ( wax z c be & yet cov] ! wood4 ,wax is 9 pa/e =m4 7#d7 ,all[ ?is to /& five or t5 m9utes1 !n rub briskly ) a s(t dry clo? to poli%4 7#e7 ,aft] ?is coat has /ood = tw5ty-f\r h\rs ano!r may be appli$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,a ?9 coat ( %ellac bru%$ ev5ly ^u ! h>d5$ fill] 8br+s out0 ! gra9 & makes an excell5t base = wax z well z v>ni%4 ,x %\ld /& tw5ty-f\r h\rs & !n be s&$ smoo? ) ,no4 #jj s&pap] be=e ! wax is appli$4 ,!re are o!r pat5t prep>ations :i* give ! same s(t effects z wax & are z easily appli$--9 fact1 "s ( !m are b wax 9 liquid =m4 #aed4 ,v>ni%es4--,v>ni%es are us$ :]e a h>d transp>5t coat+ is desir$4 ,!re are two k9ds1 7#a7 %ellac or _s v>ni%1 7#b7 copal or oil v>ni%4 ,v>ni%es v>y greatly 9 quality & !re=e 9 price4 ,if made ( specially select$ pale gum = use on light or :ite woods ! price w be high] ?an = t ( ord9>y color ?o ! quality may be no high]4 ,rubb+ v>ni%es are s made t !y may take a 8rubb$ f9i%40 ,v>ni%+ %\ld be done 9 a room 9 :i* ! temp]ature c be kept f #gj to #hj degrees ,fahr41 & :i* is comp>atively free f du/4 ,! surface to be cov]$ mu/ be clean1 dry & fill$ ev5 & smoo?4 #aee4 ,%ellac4--,%ellac or _s v>ni% is a solution ( lac & alcohol4 ,lac is soluble 9 bo? gra9 & wood alcohol b gra9 alcohol is pref]able4 ,b$s ( crude lac are f\nd 9 p>ts ( ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica :]e ! lac has be5 left by ! decay ( leaves & twigs :i* x at "o "t encru/$4 ,crude lac is deposit$ ^u leaves & twigs ( c]ta9 ( ! lac-be>+ trees by c\ntless numb]s ( insects :i* draw out ! sap4 ,/ick-lac is crude lac :i* has be5 purifi$ some:at ( ! bodies & eggs ( ! insects & roll$ into /ick =ms4 ,:5 cru%$ & wa%$ x is kn[n z se$-lac4 ,:5 fully purifi$1 :i* is done by melt+ & /ra9+1 x is spread out & is kn[n z %ellac4 ,:ite %ellac is obta9$ by blea*+4 ,orange %ellac is unblea*$4 ,pure :ite %ellac is us$ :]e ! m yell[ %ellac w\ld discolor4 ,orange %ellac is /rong] ?an :ite & w la/ long] b is h>d] to apply because x sets m rapidly4 ,%ellac v>ni% sets quickly1 dries h>d b s(t5s "u moi/ure4 ,unlike oil v>ni%1 x does n 8level up0 & mu/1 !re=e1 be bru%$ on quickly1 us+ long1 ev5 /rokes4 ,no spots mu/ be omitt$ = !y _c be 8t\*$ up40 #aef4 ,%ellac ,f9i%es4--,! use ( "o or m coats ( %ellac prep>atory to a v>ni% f9i% has be5 not$4 ,a v simple f9i%1 & "o t is easily appli$1 is obta9$ by cov]+ /a9$ wood ) a v ?9 coat ( %ellac4 ,to obta9 ! f9i% kn[n z egg-%ell gloss1 7#a7 ,coat ! smoo? wood ) f ?ree to six applications ( ?9 %ellac4 ,all[ ea* coat tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 :i* to h>d54 7#b7 ,rub to a smoo? surface ea* h>d5$ coat us+ curl$ hair or f9e /eel wool or f9e oil$ s&pap]4 #aeg4 ,oil or ,copal ,v>ni%es4--,oil v>ni% is compos$ ( copal gum1 boil$ oil & turp5t9e4 ,copal gums are obta9$ f ,africa ma9ly1 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( :i* !y are f\nd z fossil res9s1 ! rema9s ( =e/s :i* once cov]$ ! gr\nd4 ,press$ flaxse$ furni% crude l9se$ oil :ile ! long leaf p9e ( ! ,s\?1 furni%es ! turp5t9e pit*4 ,! oil is prep>$ = use by boil+ x 9 huge kettles ) diff]5t mat]ials :i* cause x to *ange *emically4 ,x is !n put away to settle & age1 t is to cle> & purify itself4 ,x takes f "o to six mon?s = ! oil to rea* a prop] degree ( cle>ness & purity4 ,turp5t9e is obta9$ f its pit* by di/illation4 ,! copal gums are melt$ & boil$ ?oroly ) ! oil4 ,turp5t9e is add$ aft] ! mixture ( gum & oil has cool$ suffici5tly4 ,! :ole is !n /ra9$ sev]al times1 plac$ 9 tanks to age or rip54 ,f "o mon? to a ye>1 or ev5 m1 is requir$4 ,! quality ( v>ni% dep5ds ^u ! qualities ( ! gums1 ! proportion ( oil & turp5t9e & ! c>e :i* is ex]cis$ 9 ! boil+ process4 #aeh4 ,fl[+ ,copal ,v>ni%4--7#a7 ,lay on ! v>ni% quickly 9 a good heavy coat4 ,use a good v>ni% bru% & dip ! bri/les deeply into ! liquid1 wip+ !m (f j en\gh to prev5t dripp+4 7#b7 ,wipe ! bri/les q free ( v>ni%2 g ov] ! surface & pick up z mu* ( ! surplus liquid z ! bru% w hold4 ,replace ! v>ni% 9 ! c by wip+ ! bri/les on ! wire ( ! c4 ,repeat until ! entire surface has be5 left ) b a ?9 smoo? coat+4 ,two1 ?ree1 f\r or m coats are appli$ 9 ?is mann]1 =ty-eight h\rs be+ all[$ betwe5 ea* = dry+4 ,dry v>ni% comes (f 9 s&+ z a :ite p[d]2 if n dry x w come (f on ! s&pap] z little black spots4 #aei4 ,typical ,f9i%es = ,co>se-,gra9$ ,woods4--,egg-,%ell gloss3 7#a7 ,"o coat ( wat] /a91 ,engli%1 gold51 etc41 accord+ to ! result desir$4 7#b7 ,all[ "t to dry1 !n s&pap] lightly ) f9e s&pap]4 ,?is is to smoo? ! gra9 & to br+ up ! highlights by remov+ /a9 f "s ( ! wood4 ,use ,no4 #jj s&pap] & hold x on ! f+] tips4 7#c7 ,apply a second coat ( ! /a9 dilut$ ab\t "o-half ) wat]4 ,?is w ?r[ ! gra9 into /ill high] relief & ?us produce a /ill great] contra/4 ,apply ?is coat ( /a9 v sp>+ly1 us+ a rag4 ,%\ld ?is /a9 raise ! gra91 aga9 rub lightly ) f9e worn s&pap]1 j en\gh to smoo?4 7#d7 ,:5 ?is has dri$1 put on a light coat ( ?9 %ellac4 ,%ellac prec$es fill+ t x may prev5t ! high lights--! solid p>ts ( wood--f be+ discolor$ by ! /a9 9 ! fill]1 & ?us caus+ a muddy effect4 ,! %ellac be+ ?9 does n int]f]e ) ! fill]'s ent]+ ! pores ( ! op5 gra94 7#e7 ,s& lightly ) f9e s&pap]4 7#f7 ,fill ) pa/e fill] color$ to mat* ! /a94 7#g7 ,cov] ?is ) a coat ( orange %ellac4 ,?is coat ( %ellac might be omitt$ b ano!r coat ( v>ni% mu/ be add$4 7#h7 ,s&pap] lightly4 7#i7 ,apply two or ?ree coats ( v>ni%4 7#aj7 ,rub ! fir/ coats ) hair clo? or curl$ hair & ! la/ ) pulv]iz$ pumice /one & crude oil or raw l9se$ oil4 ,dull f9i%3 ,a dead surface is obta9$ by rubb+ ! v>ni% aft] x has become bone dry1 ) p[d]$ pumice /one & wat]1 us+ a piece ( rubb+ felt4 ,rub until ! surface is smoo? & ev5 be+ c>eful n to cut ?ru by rubb+ too long at any "o spot4 ,! edges are mo/ likely to be endang]$4 ,use a wet sponge & *amois sk9 to clean (f ! pumice4 ,poli%$ f9i%3 ,! la/ coat %\ld be rubb$ fir/ ) pulv]iz$ pumice /one & wat]1 & !n ) rott5 /one & wat]4 ,= a piano f9i% rub fur!r ) a mixture ( oil & a little pulv]iz$ rott5 /one1 us+ a s(t felt or flannel4 ,a rot>y motion is g5]ally us$ & ! mixture is (t5 rubb$ ) ! b>e h&4 ,gloss f9i%3 ,= a gloss f9i%1 ! la/ coat is n rubb$ at all4 #afj4 ,pat*+4--,x frequ5tly happ5s 9 rubb+ ) pumice t ! v>ni% is cut ?ru s t ! b>e wood %[s4 ,to pat* su* a spot proce$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,s&pap] ! b>e place lightly ) v f9e pap]1 ,no4 #jj1 to smoo? ! gra9 ( ! wood rais$ by ! pumice wat]4 7#b7 ,if ! wood has be5 /a9$ or fill$1 color ! spot to mat* ! re/ ( ! f9i%4 ,apply a little ) a clo? & wipe (f clean4 7#c7 ,:5 ?is has dri$1 apply a ?9 coat ( v>ni% to ! b>e wood1 c>efully4 ,draw x out beyond ! b>e wood a little1 8fea!r+0 x s t !re %all n be a ridge4 7#d7 ,all[ ?is to dry h>d & apply a second coat1 fea!r+ x beyond ! surface cov]$ by ! fir/ coat4 7#e7 ,repeat until ! requir$ ?ickness has be5 obta9$2 !n 7#f7 rub ) pumice & wat]4 ,rub lightly1 us+ a little pumice & mu* wat]4 ,! slightly rais$ r+s made by ! lapp+ ( "o coat ^u ano!r w ne$ special att5tion4 ,x is be/ n to s&pap] betwe5 coats1 because ( ! dang] ( scrat*+ ! rubb$ f9i% adjo9+ ! pat*4 #afa4 ,pa9t+4--,! purpose ( pa9ts is to pres]ve ! wood by cov]+ x ) an opaque mat]ial4 ,pa9ts are usually compos$ ( :ite lead or z9c oxide & color+ mat]ials mix$ or ?9n$ ) raw or boil$ l9se$ oil4 ,turp5t9e is also us$ = ?9n+ & z a dry+ ag5t4 ,pa9t mu/ be well bru%$ out s t a ?9 film may result4 ,9 pa9t+1 7#a7 ,cov] ! knots ) %ellac1 or ! oil ( ! pa9t w be absorb$ ?ru two or ?ree coats & a discoloration result4 7#b7 ,put on a prime coat4 ,?is coat %\ld be mix$ z ?9 z x c be & /ill n 8run0 :5 appli$ to v]tical surfaces4 7#c7 ,fill ! nail holes ) putty4 ,s& lightly if a smoo? f9i% is desir$4 7#d7 ,apply two or ?ree coats ( pa9t ?9 en\gh to fl[ freely b ?ick en\gh to cov] well & n 8run40 ,! second coat is giv5 a little m ?an ! usual am\nt ( turp5t9e t a 8flat effect0 may prep>e ! way = ! f9al gloss coat4 ,if ! la/ coat is to be dull1 turp5t9e is us$ 9 x z well z ! second4 ,oil causes gloss1 turp5t9e causes a dull or flat effect4 ,,app5dix ,i4 ,,additional ,,jo9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,butt ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,hopp] ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,toe ,nail ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,glu$ & ,block$ ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,d[el$ ,butt ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,draw ,bolt ,jo9t4 ,,plate #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,end-,lap ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,middle-,lap ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,lapp$ ,dove-tail ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,l$ge or ,rabbet4 ,illu/ration3 ,ga9$ ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,?r\gh ,mortise ,t5on4 ,,plate #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,/ub ,mortise ,t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,p9n$ ,mortise ,t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,d\ble ,mortise & ,t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,slip ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,w$g$ ,mortise ,t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fox ,tail ,t5on4 ,,plate #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,dove-tail ,mortise ,t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,tusk ,t5on4 ,illu/ration3 ,/ret*] ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,/ret*] ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,l$ge & ,mit] ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,spl9e ,mit]4 ,,plate #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,dovetail ,dado4 ,illu/ration3 ,lapp$ ,/rapp$ ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fi%$ ,jo9t--,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fi%$ ,jo9t--,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,splice ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,sc>f ,jo9t4 ,,plate #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,splic$ ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,sc>f ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,bevel-,%\ld] ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ru/ ,jo9t--,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ru/ ,jo9t--,b4 ,,plate #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,spl9e ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,mat*$ ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,rabbet$ ,filli/]$ ,jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,bead$ ,jo9t4 ,,plate #g4 ,,app5dix ,,ii4 ,,wood ,,f9i%+ ,,recipes4 #a4 ,wax4--,cut up beeswax & add to x ab\t "o-?ird ( its volume ( turp5t9e4 ,heat to ! boil+ po9t 9 a d\ble boil]4 ,or1 melt a quantity ( beeswax & to ?is add an equal quantity ( turp5t9e4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! turp5t9e %all n cat* fire4 #b4 ,wat] ,/a9s4--,any color+ matt] t is soluble 9 wat] w make a /a94 ,mahogany3 ,?ree qu>ts ( boil+ wat]1 "o ounce ( ,bism>ck-br[n anil9e4 ,br[n3 ,extract ( logwood1 ! size ( a walnut1 dissolv$ by boil+ 9 f\r ounces ( wat]4 ,apply hot & repeat until ! desir$ color is obta9$4 ,black3 ,fir/ /a9 ! wood br[n ) ! logwood solution4 ,coat ?is ) a /a9 prep>$ z foll[s3 ,soak a teaspoonful ( ca/ iron fil+s 9 f\r ounces ( acetic acid or v9eg>4 ,all[ x to /& = a week1 /irr+ x occasionally4 ,walnut3 ,make a /rong solution ( p[d]$ bi*romate ( pota% & hot wat]4 ,ov] ?is /a91 apply a coat ( ! logwood /a94 #c4 ,oil ,/a9s4--,coa* colors gr\nd 9 ,japan :5 ?9n$ ) turp5t9e make good /a94 ,mix 9 ! proportion ( "o-half gallon ( turp5t9e to "o p\nd ( color & add a little boil$ oil4 ,colors commonly us$ are drop black1 ,v&yke br[n1 m$ium *rome yell[1 burnt & raw umb] & burnt & raw si5na4 ,gre53 ,drop-black1 two p>ts1 m$ium *rome yell[1 "o "p1 a little r$ to kill ! brightness4 ,walnut3 ,asphaltum ) a little ,v5etian r$4 ,gold5 oak3 ,asphaltum & turp5t9e ?9n$ l wat]1 to be foll[$ ) fill] d>k5$ ) burnt umb] & black4 ,antique oak3 ,raw si5na prop]ly ?9n$1 ) a little burnt umb] & black add$4 #d4 ,_s ,/a9s4 ,black3 ,alcohol & anil9e black4 ,mahogany3 ,alcohol & ,bism>k br[n4 ,anil9e /a9s cut ) alcohol1 & mix$ ) :ite %ellac & banana oil or amyl alcohol 9 equal p>ts make good /a9s = small pieces ( "w4 ,,app5dix ,,iii4 ,,work+ ,,draw+s4 ,a work+ draw+ ( an object consi/s ( "o or m views ( t object s drawn t !y make kn[n ! size1 %ape1 k9d ( mat]ial1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,a work+ draw+ diff]s f a p]spective4 ,! =m] repres5ts an object z x really is1 ! second1 repres5ts ! object z x appe>s4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 #a4 ,in/rum5ts4--,special in/rum5ts are requir$ = ! mak+ ( a me*anical draw+4 ,fig4 #b %[s a draw+-bo>d ) pap] fa/5$ to x1 also a ,t-squ>e & ! two triangles4 ,a compass is ne$$ = draw+ circles & arcs ( circles4 ,! ,t-squ>e is us$ = draw+ horizontal l9es4 ,! head mu/ be held firmly aga9/ ! edge ( ! bo>d & ! l9es drawn f left to "r4 ,v]tical & oblique l9es are drawn f ! ,t-squ>e upw>d1 ! triangles be+ held aga9/ ! edge ( ! ,t-squ>e :i*1 at ! same "t1 is held aga9/ ! edge ( ! bo>d4 #b4 ,conv5tions4--,s9ce x w\ld be impossible to make full-siz$ draw+s ( "s objects--a h\se = in/ance--x is cu/om>y to use a scale & by means ( x make a small] draw+1 :i* %all h all ( its p>ts prop]ly proportion$4 ,= example1 if a draw+ has pr9t$ ^u x 8 in* #a in*10 x means = e in* ( ! object ! draw+ is b "o-half an in*4 ,! scale is to be us$ = measur+ only4 ,!re is q a v>iety ( scales4 ,:atev] scale is us$1 ! numb]s plac$ ^u ! draw+ mu/ repres5t ! size ( ! object & n ( ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,9 ,fig4 #c is %[n a me*anical draw+ ( a common wood spool4 ,x w be se5 t !re are diff]5t k9ds ( l9es4 ,ea* has its mean+1 z foll[s3 ,illu/ration3 #a4 ,light l9e--,= p5cil+ & cross-hat*+4 #b4 ,full l9e--,= visible outl9es ( objects & limits ( p>ts4 #c4 ,heavy l9e--,= bord] l9es4 #d4 ,dot l9e--,= invisible outl9es ( objects & limits ( invisible p>ts4 ,same wid? z #b4 #e4 ,da% l9e--,= projection l9es4 ,same wid? z #a4 #f4 ,long da% l9e--,= dim5sion l9es4 ,same wid? z #a4 #g4 ,dot-&-da% l9e--,= c5t] l9es & section l9es4 ,same wid? z #a4 ,:5 !re is n room = ! figures t repres5t dim5sions1 ! arr[ heads may be turn$ 9 ! direction ( ! measurem5t & plac$ outside4 ,! figure1 too1 may be plac$ outside if necess>y4 ,no?+ b ! lett]s1 ! figures & ! b>bs--n ! %afts--( ! arr[ are drawn free-h&4 ,sometimes1 x is desirable to h "o dim5sion %ort] ?an ! scale select$ w\ld all[2 ?is is done by means ( a brok5 view3 ,fig4 #d4 ,! figur$ dim5sion prev5ts confusion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,9 ,fig4 #e1 is %[n a sectional draw+4 ,sectional draw+s repres5t an object z x w\ld appe> if cut1 ) ! "p ne>] ! work] remov$4 ,sections are indicat$ by 8cross hat*+10 ! l9es be+ equally spac$ & drawn at an angle ( #de degrees4 ,screws & nails are repres5t$ z 9 ,fig4 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 #c4 ,projection & ,relation ( ,views4--,! names & ! relative positions ( ?ree views are %[n 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,f ^! x w be se5 7#a7 t ! diff]5t views are arrang$ ) ref]5ce to ! front view1 s t ! "p ( a side view :i* is ne>e/ ! front view repres5ts a "p ( ! front ( ! object1 7#b7 t ! correspond+ horizontal measurem5ts ( top & front views are alike1 7#c7 t ! correspond+ v]tical measurem5ts ( front & side views are alike1 7#d7 t ! correspond+ v]tical measurem5ts ( ! top view & horizontal measurem5ts ( a side view are alike4 #d4 ,lett]s & ,figures4--,lett]s are usually made freeh&1 light rul$ l9es at ! top & bottom act+ z guides4 ,a simple /yle ( lett] & figure is %[n 9 ,fig4 #h4 ,!y are plac$ 9 spaces t ! proportion ( ! p>ts may ! m readily be se54 ,!y may be n>r[$ or wid5$ by *ang+ ! wid? ( ! spaces1 & %ort5$ or l5g!n$ by *ang+ ! height ( ! spac]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 #e4 ,con/ructions4--,! hexagon1 or six-sid$ figure2 ! octagon1 or eight-sid$ figure2 & ! ellipse are s v frequ5tly us$ 9 simple woodwork1 t _! con/ruction is giv5 "h4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,directions = hexagon1 ,fig4 #i3 ,describe a circle ( a size equal to ! requir$ di/ance ( hexagon f corn] to corn]4 ,draw ! diamet] ,a-,b4 ,) ! po9t ,a z a c5t]1 us+ ! radius ( ! circle1 cut ! circle at #a & #b4 ,) ,b z a c5t]1 & ! same radius1 cut ! circle at #c & #d4 ,connect ,a-#a1 ,a-#b1 #b-c1 etc4 ,connect+ e o!r po9t1 z ,a-#c1 #b-;,b1 etc41 makes a six-po9t$ />4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,directions = octagon1 ,fig4 #aj3 ,draw a squ>e ) a wid? equal to ! desir$ wid? ( ! octagon f side to side4 ,draw ! diagonals4 ,) ! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ,d z c5t]s & a radius equal to "o-half ! diagonal1 cut ! sides ( ! squ>e at #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,connect ^! po9ts z %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,directions = ellipse1 ,fig4 #aa3 ,an ellipse is a curve su* t ! sum ( ! di/ances f any po9t on x to two fix$ po9ts call$ ! focii %all always be ! same4 ,an easy way to con/ruct su* a curve is to place two ?umb tacks at ! focii1 atta* ! ends ( a /r+ to !m4 ,) a p5cil mov+ freely 9 ! /r+ b hold+ x taut draw ! curve4 ,by mov+ ! tacks f>!r ap>t or clos] toge!r & by l5g!n+ or %ort5+ ! /r+1 ! size & %ape ( ! curve may be *ang$ z desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 #f4 ,ord] ( ,proc$ure4--,beg9n]s %\ld /rive to "k & to acquire good practice 9 draw+4 ,be=e beg9n+ see t ! p5cil is prop]ly %>p5$4 7#a7 ,det]m9e ! size & spac+s ( ! views s t ! p>ts ( ! draw+s may be prop]ly plac$4 7#b7 ,) light full l9es block out ! diff]5t views4 ,block+-out l9es are made ( indef9ite l5g? & ! prop] di/ances m>k$ (f on !m aft] !y are drawn4 ,hold+ ! rule or scale ^u ! draw+ v]tically1 m>k (f ! v]tical spaces4 ,draw light l9es ?ru ^! po9ts4 ,^u "o ( ^! horizontal l9es lay (f ! horizontal spaces4 ,draw light v]tical l9es ?ru ^! po9ts4 ,fig4 #ab4 7#c7 ,put on ! dim5sions4 7#d7 ,put on ! lett]+4 7#e7 ,! draw+ is ready = ink+4 ,9 block+-out1 all l9es are made full1 light4 ,9 ink+1 ! diff]5t k9ds mu/ be repres5t$ prop]ly4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,if x is n to be ink$ g ov] ! l9es t repres5t edges ) ! p5cil a second "t s t ! outl9es ( ! object w 8/& out40 ,books on ! ,manual ,arts ,beg9n+ ,woodwork4 ,at ,home & 9 ,s*ool4 ,by ,,cl9ton ,,%eldon ,,van ,,deus52 illu/rat$ by ,edw9 ,victor ,lawr5ce4 ,a full & cle> description 9 detail ( ! fundam5tal processes ( elem5t>y b5*work 9 wood4 ,?is description is giv5 ?r\gh directions = mak+ a few simple1 useful articles suitable ei!r = s*ool or home problems4 ,ev5 )\t a tea*] a bright boy1 by foll[+ ?is book fai?fully1 may acquire consid]able skill4 ,x is a safe guide = f>m]s' boys z well z = city boys1 & is especially well suit$ = use 9 rural & village s*ools 9 :i* ! tea*] has _h b little exp]i5ce 9 ! use ( woodwork+ tools4 ,! book is illu/rat$ by m ?an "o hundr$ figures1 includ+ t5 plates ( work+ draw+s4 ,ea* ( ^! figures is an orig9al draw+ made expressly = ?is book4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,problems 9 ,woodwork+4 ,by ,m4 ,w4 ,,murray4 ,a conv5i5t collection ( good problems ready to place 9 ! h&s ( ! pupils4 ,x consi/s ( =ty plates b\nd 9 heavy pap] cov]s ) brass fa/5]s4 ,ea* plate is a work+ draw+1 or problem 9 b5* "w t has be5 successfully work$ out by boys 9 "o ( ! grades f sev5 to n9e inclusive4 ,_m ( ! problems c be work$ out 9 v>i\s ways accord+ to ! individual ability1 int]e/ & ta/e ( ! pupil4 ,price1 #ge c5ts4 ,bo>d cov]s1 #bj c5ts extra4 ,problems 9 ,furniture ,mak+4 ,by ,,fr$ ,d4 ,,craw%aw4 ,?is book consi/s ( #cb plates ( work+ draw+s suitable = use 9 gramm> & high s*ools & #bd pages ( text1 includ+ *apt]s on design1 con/ruction & f9i%es1 & notes on ! problems4 ,price1 9 heavy pap] cov]s1 #a4jj4 ,bo>d cov]s1 #bj c5ts extra4 ,problems 9 ,me*anical ,draw+4 ,by ,,*>les ,a4 ,,b5nett4 ,) draw+s made by ,fr$ ,d4 ,craw%aw4 ,?is book consi/s ( #hj plates & a few explanatory notes1 & is b\nd 9 heavy pap] cov]s ) brass fa/5]s4 ,its purpose is to furni% tea*]s ( classes beg9n+ me*anical draw+ ) a l>ge numb] ( simple1 practical problems4 ,^! h be5 select$ ) ref]5ce to ! =mation ( good habits 9 te*nique1 ! int]e/ ( ! pupils1 & ! subjects usually includ$ 9 a gramm> & fir/-ye> high s*ool c\rse4 ,! book cov]s simple projection--/raight l9es & circles1 problems involv+ tang5ts1 planes ( projection1 revolution ( solids1 developm5ts1 int]sections1 isometric projection1 lett]+ & work+ draw+s4 ,ea* problem giv5 is unsolv$ & !re=e 9 prop] =m to h& to ! pupil = solution4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,bo>d cov]s1 #bj c5ts extra4 ,classroom ,practice 9 ,design4 ,by ,,james ,,p>ton ,,haney4 ,a concise1 up-to-date1 ri*ly illu/rat$ booklet on ! tea*+ ( appli$ design4 ,v sugge/ive4 ,price1 #ej c5ts4 ,! ,wa% ,me?od ( ,h&l+ ,wat] ,col\r4 ,by ,,frank ,,=re/ ,,fr$]ick4 8,?is little book is a helpful guide & af=ds a /imulus to ! use ( wat]-color z practic$ by ! e>li] pa9t]s1 ^: beautiful "w is unexcell$40 ,price1 #ej c5ts4 ,manual ,tra9+ ,magaz9e4 ,an illu/rat$1 bi-mon?ly publication devot$ to ! int]e/s ( ! ,manual ,arts 9 ,education4 ,subscription price1 #a4ej a ye>2 s+le copies1 #ce c5ts4 ,9 =eign c\ntries1 includ+ ,canada1 #a4ge a ye>2 s+le copies1 #dj c5ts4 ,illu/ration ,! ,manual ,arts ,press ,peoria1 ,ill9ois ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5t hyph5ation & spell+ h be5 reta9$ except z m5tion$ "u ,*anges made bel[4 ,page #ce1 444 be+ c>eful to hold s z to get ! full b5efit 4443 "p ( ! s5t5ce appe>s to be miss+4 ,pages #acb-acc3 ,figs4 #bad & #bac appe> 9 rev]se ord] 9 ! s\rce docum5t4 ,page #adf1 p>agraph />t+ ,hickory excels z c>riage & wagon /ock 4443 ! repeat$ p>agraph is also repeat$ 9 ! s\rce docum5t2 444 giv+ rise to 8curly0 & bli/]0 figures 4443 %\ld be ei!r 8curly & bli/]0 or 8curly0 & 8bli/]04 ,page #aef1 ,wood /a9s are *eap 4443 possibly an error = ,wat] /a9s are *eap 4444 ,*anges made ,sev]al obvi\s m9or typographical errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,"s punctuation inconsi/5cies 9 illu/ration captions & ref]5ces h be5 /&>dis$4 ,captions ) ,figs4 #ie1 #aai1 #aic3 da%es h be5 add$ to "s ( ! entries = consi/5cy4 ,page #i3 head+ ,,"p ,i4 ,,tools ,,& ,,elem5t>y ,,processes4 has be5 ins]t$ cf4 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts4 ,page #dc3 ,a ,true & smoo? 444 has be5 replac$ ) #a4 ,true & smoo? 4444 ,page #ih3 444 ,*apt] ,i1 ,sec-#a 444 has be5 *ang$ to 444 ,*apt] ,i1 ,section #a 4444 ,page #aaf3 ,,"p ,,?ree has be5 *ang$ to ,,"p ,,iii = consi/5cy4 ,page #ach3 dicotyl$on has be5 *ang$ to dicotyl$ons4 ,page #aga3 bicromate has be5 *ang$ to bi*romate4