,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics and bold face in the source document have been transcribed between underscores and equal signs respectively4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,this book on woodworking contains notes and working drawings for the content in ,correlated courses in woodwork and mechanical drawing by ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,illustration3 ,,forest ,,interior4 ,,sequoia ,,national ,,park1 ,,california4 ,,essentials ,,of ,,woodworking ,a ,,textbook ,,for ,,schools ,,by ,,ira ,,samuel ,,griffith1 ,a4 ,b4 ,,illustrations ,,by ,,edwin ,,victor ,,lawrence ,illustration ,,the ,,manual ,,arts ,,press ,,peoria1 ,,illinois ,copyright ,ira ,samuel ,griffith #aijh ,,preface4 ,an experience1 somewhat extended1 in teaching academic branches of learning as well as woodworking1 has convinced the author that the most effective teaching of woodworking can be accomplished only when its content is made a subject of as diligent study as is that of the other and older branches4 ,such a study necessitates the possession1 by the student1 of a text-book4 ,the selection of a suitable text is made difficult because of the fact that tool processes are usually treated in connection either with models or exercises4 ,it is hardly to be expected that any one set of models or of exercises1 tho they may be of very great value1 will fill the needs of varying local school conditions4 ,the production of a text-book which shall deal with tool processes in a general way without reference to any particular set of models or exercises is the author's aim4 ,it is believed that such a text will prove suitable wherever the essentials of woodworking shall be taught1 whether in grammar1 high school or college1 and whatever the system of instruction4 ,a few words as to the manner of using the text seem advisable4 ,it is not expected that the book will be studied chapter by chapter1 consecutively1 as are the elementary texts in mathematics or science4 ,rather1 it is to be studied topically4 ,to illustrate3 ,a class is to make a model1 project1 exercise1 or whatever we may choose to call it1 which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the manner of using them4 ,at a period previous to their intended use the numbers of the sections of the text relating to these tools and their uses1 or the page numbers1 should be given the student4 ,previous to the period in which these tools are to be used he should be required to study the sections so marked4 ,the recitation upon the assigned text should take place at the beginning of the period following that of the assignment1 and may be conducted in a manner quite similar to that of academic branches4 ,this should prepare the way and make intelligible the 8demonstration0 which may be given in connection with the recitation or at its close4 ,if as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is insisted upon in the recitation as is insisted upon in the academic classroom1 there need be but little excuse for ignorance on the part of the pupil when he begins his work or at any subsequent time4 ,acknowledgement is due the ,department of ,forestry1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 for the use of material contained in the chapter on ,woods and for the prints from which many of the half-tones relating to forestry1 were produced4 ,,introduction4 ,,care ,,of ,,tools ,,and ,,bench4 ,it is important that a beginner should become impressed with the importance of keeping his tools in the best condition4 ,good results can be obtained only when tools are kept sharp and clean1 and used only for the purposes for which they are made4 ,tools properly sharpened and properly used permit one to work easily as well as accurately4 ,when it becomes necessary for the worker to use undue strength because of the dullness of his tools1 8troubles0 begin to accumulate and the 8pleasure of doing0 is soon changed to despair4 ,orderliness and carefulness1 with knowledge and patience are sure to bring good results2 just as a lack of them will bring failure4 ,the bench top must not be marked with pencil or scratched unnecessarily4 ,chisel boards are to protect the top from any accidental cuts and should always be used for that purpose4 ,bench tops that are scraped and shellaced or oiled every other year ought to remain in as good condition as when new except for the few accidental marks too deep to remove1 which the thoughtless boy may have inflicted4 ,good workers take pride in keeping their benches in good order4 ,tools that are not in immediate use should be placed in their racks that they may not be injured or cause injury to the worker4 ,at the close of the period the bright parts of tools that have come in contact with perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept for that purpose4 ,all tools should then be put away in their proper places and the top of the bench brushed clean4 ,the beginner should also understand that1 important as are the results he may be able to produce in wood1 more serious results are being produced in himself in the habits he is forming4 ,carefulness1 neatness1 accuracy1 ability to economize in time and material1 ability to 8think0 and 8to do0 because of the thinking1 honesty1 orderliness--these are some of the more important results that are oftentimes overlooked4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction4 ,care of tools and bench #c ,,part ,i4 ,,tools ,,and ,,elementary ,,processes4 ,,chapter ,i4--,laying-out ,tools2 ,their ,uses #i #a4 ,the rule2 #b4 ,the try-square2 #c4 ,the framing square2 #d4 ,the bevel2 #e4 ,the marking gage2 #f4 ,the pencil gage2 #g4 ,splitting gage2 #h4 ,the mortise gage2 #i4 ,the ,dividers2 #aj4 ,pencil and knife4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,saws #bj #aa4 ,saws2 #ab4 ,the crosscut saw2 #ac4 ,the rip-saw2 #ad4 ,the back-saw2 #ae4 ,the turning saw2 #af4 ,the compass saw2 #ag4 ,saw filing4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,planes #bh #ah4 ,planes2 #ai4 ,setting the blade2 #bj4 ,adjustment of the iron2 #ba4 ,the jack-plane2 #bb4 ,the smooth-plane2 #bc4 ,the jointer2 #bd4 ,the block-plane2 #be4 ,the wooden plane2 #bf4 ,planing first surface true2 #bg4 ,face side1 face edge2 #bh4 ,planing first edge square with face side2 #bi4 ,finishing the second edge2 #cj4 ,finishing the second side2 #ca4 ,planing the first end square2 #cb4 ,finishing the second end2 #cc4 ,end planing with the shooting board2 #cd4 ,rules for planing to dimensions2 #ce4 ,planing a chamfer4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,boring ,tools #df #cf4 ,brace or bitstock2 #cg4 ,center bit2 #ch4 ,the auger bit2 #ci4 ,the drill bit2 ,the gimlet bit2 #dj4 ,countersink bit2 #da4 ,the screwdriver bit2 #db4 ,the brad-awl2 #dc4 ,positions while boring2 #dd4 ,thru boring2 #de4 ,boring to depth4 ,,chapter ,v4--,chisels and ,chiseling #ec #df4 ,chisels2 #dg4 ,horizontal paring across the grain2 #dh4 ,vertical paring2 #di4 ,oblique and curved line paring2 #ej4 ,paring chamfers2 #ea4 ,the firmer gouge2 #eb4 ,grinding beveled edge tools2 #ec4 ,whetting beveled edge tools2 #ed4 ,oilstones2 #ee4 ,sharpening the chisel2 #ef4 ,sharpening plane-irons2 #eg4 ,to tell whether a tool is sharp or not4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,form ,work2 ,modeling #fe #eh4 ,making a cylinder2 #ei4 ,the spokeshave2 #fj4 ,making curved edges2 #fa4 ,modeling4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--#a4 ,laying ,out ,duplicate ,parts2 #b4 ,scraping and ,sandpapering2 #c4 ,fastening ,parts #gj #fb4 ,laying out duplicate parts2 #fc4 ,scraping2 #fd4 ,sandpapering2 #fe4 ,hammers2 #ff4 ,nails2 #fg4 ,nailing2 #fh4 ,nailset2 #fi4 ,withdrawing nails2 #gj4 ,the screwdriver2 #ga4 ,screws2 #gb4 ,fastening with screws2 #gc4 ,glue2 #gd4 ,clamps2 #ge4 ,gluing4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,simple ,,joinery4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,type ,forms #hd #gf4 ,joinery2 #gg4 ,general directions for joinery2 #gh4 ,dado2 #gi4 ,directions for dado2 #hj4 ,cross-lap joint2 #ha4 ,directions for cross-lap joint1 first method2 #hb4 ,directions for cross-lap joint1 second method2 #hc4 ,glue joint2 #hd4 ,directions for glue joint2 #he4 ,doweling2 #hf4 ,directions for doweling2 #hg4 ,keyed tenon-and-mortise2 #hh4 ,directions for key2 #hi4 ,directions for tenon2 #ij4 ,directions for mortise2 #ia4 ,directions for mortise in the tenon2 #ib4 ,blind mortise-and-tenon2 #ic4 ,directions for tenon2 #id4 ,directions for laying out mortise2 #ie4 ,directions for cutting mortise1 first method2 #if4 ,directions for cutting mortise1 second method2 #ig4 ,miter joint2 #ih4 ,directions for miter joint2 #ii4 ,dovetail joint2 #ajj4 ,directions for dovetail joint4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,elementary ,cabinet ,work #aje #aja4 ,combination plane2 #ajb4 ,drawer construction2 #ajc4 ,directions for rabbeted corner2 #ajd4 ,directions for dovetail corner2 #aje4 ,directions for drawer2 #ajf4 ,paneling2 #ajg4 ,cutting grooves2 #ajh4 ,haunched mortise-and-tenon2 #aji4 ,rabbeting2 #aaj4 ,fitting a door2 #aaa4 ,hinging a door2 #aab4 ,locks4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,wood ,,and ,,wood ,,finishing4 ,,chapter ,x4--,wood #aaf #aac4 ,structure2 #aad4 ,growth2 #aae4 ,respiration and transpiration2 #aaf4 ,moisture2 #aag4 ,shrinkage2 #aah4 ,weight2 #aai4 ,other properties2 #abj4 ,grain4 ,,chapter ,,xi4--,lumbering and ,milling #abf #aba4 ,lumbering2 #abb4 ,milling2 #abc4 ,quarter sawing2 #abd4 ,waste2 #abe4 ,lumber transportation2 #abf4 ,seasoning2 #abg4 ,lumber terms and measurements4 ,,chapter ,,xii4--,common ,woods #ach #abh4 ,classification4 ,coniferous woods2 #abi4 ,cedar2 #acj4 ,cypress2 #aca4 ,pine2 #acb4 ,spruce4 ,broad-leaved woods2 #acc4 ,ash2 #acd4 ,basswood2 #ace4 ,birch2 #acf4 ,butternut2 #acg4 ,cherry2 #ach4 ,chestnut2 #aci4 ,elm2 #adj4 ,gum2 #ada4 ,hickory2 #adb4 ,maple2 #adc4 ,oak2 #add4 ,sycamore2 #ade4 ,tulip wood2 #adf4 ,walnut4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,wood ,finishing #aej #adg4 ,wood finishes2 #adh4 ,brushes2 #adi4 ,general directions for using brush2 #aej4 ,fillers2 #aea4 ,filling with paste filler2 #aeb4 ,stains2 #aec4 ,waxing2 #aed4 ,varnishes2 #aee4 ,shellac2 #aef4 ,shellac finishes2 #aeg4 ,oil or copal varnishes2 #aeh4 ,flowing copal varnish2 #aei4 ,typical finishes for coarse-grained woods2 #afj4 ,patching2 #afa4 ,painting4 ,,appendix ,i4--,additional ,joints #afd ,,appendix ,,ii4--,wood ,finishing ,recipes #aga #a4 ,wax2 #b4 ,water stains2 #c4 ,oil stains2 #d4 ,spirit stains4 ,,appendix ,,iii4--,working ,drawings #agc #a4 ,instruments2 #b4 ,conventions2 #c4 ,projection and relation of views2 #d4 ,letters and figures2 #e4 ,constructions2 #f4 ,order of procedure4 ,,part ,i4 ,,tools ,,and ,,elementary ,,processes4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,laying-,,out ,,tools--,,their ,,uses4 #a4 ,the ,rule4--,the foot rule is used as a unit of measurement in woodwork4 ,the rule ordinarily used is called a two-foot rule because of its length4 ,such rules are hinged so as to fold once or twice and are usually made of boxwood or maple4 ,the divisions along the outer edges1 the edges opposite the center hinge1 are inches1 halves1 fourths1 eighths1 and on one side sixteenths also4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the rule should not be laid flat on the surface to be measured but should be stood on edge so that the knife point can be made to touch the divisions on the rule and the wood at the same time4 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,whenever there are several measurements to be made along a straight line1 the rule should not be raised until all are made1 for with each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the rule is used to find the middle of an edge or surface by placing it across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece to corresponding inch1 or fractional marks shall be the same1 ,fig4 #c1 the middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks selected4 #b4 ,the ,try-square4--,the try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel or it may have a head of wood called the beam and a blade of steel4 ,the blade is graduated into inches and fractions of an inch4 ,as all try-squares are liable to be injured by rough usage1 care should be taken not to let them drop on the bench or floor1 nor should they ever be used for prying or pounding4 ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the try-square is used for three purposes3 ,first1 to act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right angles to an edge or surface2 second1 to test an edge or end to see whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge2 third1 to test a piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length4 ,fig4 #e shows the various positions assumed in lining across a piece4 ,the beam should be held firmly against either the face side or the face edge4 ,the face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made true4 ,the face edge is the first edge which is made square to the face side and straight4 ,these two surfaces are usually marked in some way so that they may be distinguished from the other surfaces4 ,their use is fully explained in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,if the beam projects beyond the end of the wood1 it should be reversed4 ,the knife should be inclined forward and away from the blade of the try-square slightly4 ,a light1 firm line should be made the first time across the piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,in testing edges or ends for squareness1 the beam should be held1 as in lining1 firmly either against the face side or the face edge4 ,fig4 #f4 ,care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece4 ,also test at a sufficient number of points to show fully the condition of the edge4 ,sliding the try-square along the edge is not objectionable if the blade be held lightly on the surface4 ,under no circumstances should the try-square be used to scrape the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,in testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length1 place the blade across the surface to be tested1 holding the beam lightly against the face side or face edge1 slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the graduations at the outer edge4 ,fig4 #g4 #c4 ,the ,framing ,square4--,large squares of one piece of steel1 called framing squares1 are used by carpenters for large and rough work4 ,the long arm is called the blade and the short one the tongue4 ,fig4 #h4 ,in addition to the divisions into inches and fractions of an inch1 there is on the blade a board measure table and on the tongue a brace or rafter measure table4 ,this square will be found convenient when 8cutting up0 stock1 also for testing corners of large pieces of furniture and for setting the bevel to various angles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 #d4 ,the ,bevel4--,the bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable blade4 ,fig4 #i4 ,this blade may be set at any desired angle from #j to #ahj degrees4 ,the manner of using the bevel is similar to that of the try-square4 ,when adjusting1 the blade should be just loose enough to move upon the application of slight pressure4 ,there are various ways of setting the bevel to the required angle4 ,should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available1 angles of #cj degrees1 #de degrees and #fj degrees are easily obtained by adjusting the bevel to the sides of the required angle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,to set the bevel to #de degrees by means of the framing square1 hold the beam against one of the arms1 ,fig4 #aj1 and move the blade so that it shall pass through corresponding points on both blade and tongue4 ,fig4 #aa illustrates a method in which no other tools are needed4 ,a line is squared across a board having a straight edge4 ,equal distances are measured from the point at which the line cuts the edge1 the blade then being made to pass through these points while the beam is held tightly against the edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,for angles of #cj degrees and #fj degrees1 square a knife line at right angles to an edge4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,measure from the edge1 along this line1 or from this line along the edge any given distance4 ,take twice this distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be twice that of the shortest4 #e4 ,the ,marking ,gage4--,the gage is used for laying out lines along the grain of the wood4 ,it consists of a beam1 ,fig4 #ac1 head1 thumb screw1 and marking point or spur4 ,the spur should be sharpened to a knife point with a file so that it may make a fine smooth line4 ,it should project far enough below the beam so that the beam may be rolled forward in such a way as to bring the spur into the board at a slight angle1 when properly marking4 ,it should extend not less than an eighth of an inch and in most cases three-sixteenths of an inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the graduations on the beam are seldom reliable4 ,it is safer to set the gage with the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the gage block4 ,this is done by holding the gage bottom side up in the left hand4 ,with the right place the end of the rule against the head4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,after the screw has been tightened1 apply the rule again to make sure of the correctness of the setting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,to gage the line1 take the tool in the right hand1 three fingers grasping the beam1 first encircling the head for narrow work1 and the thumb back1 or nearly back1 of the spur4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,the head should be kept against one or the other of the face sides4 ,begin at the end of the piece which is towards you1 hold the block firmly against the piece1 roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the surface and make a very light line4 ,fig4 #ae illustrates the manner of raising the spur from the wood by raising the wrist during the backward stroke4 ,it will be found convenient to hold the piece against the bench stop4 ,this steadies the piece and permits the worker to see how deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against the face properly4 ,avoid deep lines4 ,they are inaccurate even if straight and always cause trouble in the making unless the grain of the wood is perfectly straight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 #f4 ,the ,pencil ,gage4--,there are occasions when a pencil-gage marks with sufficient accuracy and is more suitable because its point does not cut the wood1 such as in gaging for a bevel4 ,a hole bored thru the beam near one end1 just large enough to receive a pencil snugly1 will suffice4 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,fig4 #ag illustrates a method frequently used by carpenters4 ,the fingers act as a gage head4 #g4 ,slitting ,gage4--,a slitting gage is one in which the spur is sharp and strong1 and will cut thru soft lumber as thick as one-quarter of an inch4 ,the boards are cut from each side and considerable pressure is required4 ,sometimes a handle like that of the plane is fastened to the beam near the knife or spur4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,slitting ,gage ,mortise ,gage ,panel ,gage ,for wide boards ,,fig4 #ah4 #h4 ,the ,mortise ,gauge4--,fig4 #ah also shows a mortise gage used in advanced work4 ,it has two spurs1 one of them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the beam at any desired distance from the stationary one1 so that the two sides of a mortise or tenon can be marked at once4 #i4 ,the ,dividers4--,dividers1 ,fig4 #ai1 are used 7#a7 in describing circles1 7#b7 in dividing a given space into a given number of parts1 and 7#c7 in marking one member which is to be fitted to another irregular member4 ,fig4 #bj shows the manner of setting the dividers4 ,the thumb-screw should be released so that the legs may be moved without much effort4 ,when the approximate setting has been secured1 use the thumb-nut for adjusting to more accurate measurement4 ,in describing circles1 the dividers should be held as in ,fig4 #ba and swung to the right or left as is convenient4 ,they should be leaned forward slightly and an effort made to secure a sharp1 light line4 ,for most work the two legs may be sharpened to points4 ,sometimes one is sharpened like a knife point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 #aj4 ,pencil and ,knife4--,pencil lines may be used in getting out stock from rough material and in laying out work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not be visible4 ,pencil lines should be carefully made1 however4 ,the pencil may be used also in marking bevels1 curves and in other places where the knife or gage mark would be injurious4 ,otherwise1 the knife and gage should be used4 ,pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by means of the eraser4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,in laying out rough stock1 if the first edge is sufficiently straight1 it is usual to thumb-gage for width4 ,this is done by holding the pencil at the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage head1 drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-beam4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,a straight-edge1 a board with a straight edge1 is often used in marking out4 ,mark off the length of the piece of wood required4 ,mark off the breadth at the end of the board1 also mark it near what is to be the other end of the piece4 ,place the straight-edge on these two marks and draw the line4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the try-square should be used to mark across the grain4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,saws4 #aa4 ,saws4--,saws which are used in cutting across the grain are called crosscut2 those which are used in cutting parallel to the grain are called ripsaws4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,upon the blade of a saw1 near the handle1 will be found a number4 ,this represents the number of points to the inch4 ,points should not be confused with teeth1 for there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,to prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the saw1 the teeth are bent alternately from side to side1 that the opening may be wider than the blade is thick4 ,the saw teeth are then said to have 8set40 ,to do good work1 a saw should have no more set than is necessary to allow a free movement4 ,fig4 #be4 ,damp1 spongy lumber will require considerable set1 while well seasoned lumber necessitates but little4 ,illustration3 ,end view--7,exaggerated7 ,edge view ,side view ,,fig4 #be4 ,the rake1 or pitch of the teeth of a saw is the degree of slant which the cutting edges possess with reference to an imaginary line passing thru the points of the teeth4 ,fig4 #be4 ,the amount of pitch given will depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put1 whether for ripping or cross cutting1 and somewhat upon the hardness or softness of the wood to be cut4 ,fig4 #bf shows the saw in proper position4 ,it should be held in the right hand with the left hand grasping the board1 the thumb of the left hand acting as a guide in the beginning4 ,the thumb should be held firmly on the board and the blade of the saw should be pressed lightly against it4 ,the cutting edge of the saw should be held at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the board and should be started on a backward stroke4 ,the first few strokes should be short ones1 increasing gradually in length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,if the tool is sharp1 but little pressure will ever be required and1 in starting1 the tool must be held up so that its weight shall come upon the wood gradually4 ,saws can be guided better if the index finger of the right hand is allowed to extend along the side of the handle4 ,test occasionally1 sighting down the saw blade to see that the sides of the saw are at right angles to the surface of the board4 ,a try-square may be used by the beginner1 as shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,if the saw does not follow the direction of the line1 the blade should be slightly twisted1 as the sawing proceeds1 in the direction it ought to take4 ,this must be carefully done so as not to cause the blade to bind and kink4 ,in sawing a board which has been fastened in the vise1 the most convenient position is obtained by sawing at right angles to the surface4 ,unless the saw has considerable set1 difficulty will be experienced in changing the direction of the cutting should this be necessary4 ,this may be overcome by lowering the handle so that the cutting edge shall make the same angle with the board as when the board rests on trestles4 ,when making a long cut1 should the kerf bind1 a wedge may be inserted as shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,all saws will work easier and will be found less likely to rust if their sides are rubbed occasionally with an oily rag or a piece of tallow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 #ab4 ,the ,crosscut ,saw4--,fig4 #be shows the teeth of a crosscut saw4 ,this saw is filed so that the cutting edges are on the sides of the teeth4 ,every tooth is sharpened to a point1 one on the right side1 the next on the left1 giving two parallel lines of sharp points with a ,v-shaped groove between4 ,the pitch given the teeth of a crosscut saw will vary with the hardness or softness of the wood which is to be cut4 ,for all-around use the amount of slant is about one-third of the whole tooth4 ,fig4 #bg4 #ac4 ,the ,rip-saw4--,the teeth of the rip-saw are chisel shaped1 ,fig4 #bh1 and are made by filing straight across the blade4 ,the front or cutting edges are filed so that they are square1 or at right angles to an imaginary line passing through the points of the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 #ad4 ,the ,back-saw4--,the back-saw1 or tenon-saw as it is often called1 has a thin blade strengthened by a heavy steel back piece4 ,it is used upon work requiring delicate1 accurate cutting1 ,fig4 #bi4 ,fig4 #cj shows the shape of the teeth1 which differ slightly from those of the cross-cut4 ,these teeth are suitable for both cross-cutting and fine ripping4 ,but little set is given the teeth of the back-saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,in using this saw1 ,fig4 #ca1 hold the work firmly against the stop of the benchhook with the left hand1 guiding the saw with the forefinger or thumb placed against the blade just above the teeth4 ,begin on the backward stroke1 holding the handle end of the saw highest4 ,begin at the farthest corner1 using short1 easy strokes4 ,gradually lower the handle to a horizontal position1 meanwhile increasing the number of teeth used1 but continuing the slow1 regular strokes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,in accurate cutting1 ,fig4 #cb1 where no paring or block-planing is to be done1 the saw teeth should cut just by the line1 with the kerf in the waste1 but with no wood between the line and the kerf4 ,to allow for paring or block-planing1 saw about one-sixteenth of an inch in the waste4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,when ripping1 place the piece in the vise and begin sawing as indicated in ,fig4 #cd4 ,place the saw so that just the whole of its thickness is in what is to become waste wood4 ,begin sawing as was done in crosscutting4 ,gradually lower the handle1 while sawing1 until most is being cut from the side nearest you4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,reverse the wood several times1 working down one side then the other until the cross lines are reached4 ,fig4 #cf illustrates the result of good and bad sawing4 ,illustration3 ,good ,sawing ,bad ,sawing ,,fig4 #cf4 #ae4 ,the ,turning-saw4--,the turning or bow-saw is used for cutting along curved lines4 ,fig4 #cg illustrates the manner of holding this saw4 ,the sides of the blade must be held at right angles to the surface of the wood4 ,either or both handles may be turned1 thus turning the blade with reference to the frame4 ,avoid turning the blade1 however1 as much as possible and see that the blade is not twisted by turning one handle more than the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,this saw may be used for cutting enclosed curves by boring a hole1 releasing one end of the blade and inserting it thru this hole then replacing it in the saw frame4 ,as the cut of the turning saw is not very smooth1 it is advisable to leave about one-sixteenth of an inch between the kerf and the line1 to be removed later with the spokeshave4 #af4 ,the ,compass ,saw4--,the compass saw1 ,fig4 #ch1 is better suited for inside curve sawing4 ,its use requires a steady hand1 else the thin blade will buckle and break4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 #ag4 ,saw ,filing4--,learning to sharpen a saw is a difficult thing--so difficult that it is not considered within the province of a book on elementary woodworking to treat of it4 ,one who uses saws1 ought1 however1 to know the steps which are taken to put a saw in order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,the teeth are first set4 ,fig4 #ci shows a common form of saw-set in position4 ,beginning at one end of the saw1 every other tooth is bent outward by means of this instrument4 ,the saw is then reversed and the remaining teeth are similarly treated4 ,as these saw-sets are adjustable1 the teeth may be bent much or little as the work to be done demands4 ,second1 the teeth are jointed4 ,a flat file is run lengthwise over them the full length of the saw so that none of the teeth may project more than others4 ,fig4 #dj shows a flat file in position for jointing4 ,this block keeps the surface of the file at right angles to the blade of the saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,third1 the saws are filed1 a three-cornered file being used for this purpose4 ,the kind of saw determines the angle or angles at which the file is held with reference to the saw blade4 ,fig4 #da illustrates the position when filing the crosscut and ,fig4 #db the rip-saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,fourth1 the teeth are side jointed by laying the saw flat upon the bench and rubbing an oil-stone over each side lightly1 once4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,this is to even the sides of the teeth that the kerf may be smoothly cut4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,planes4 #ah4 ,planes4--,a standard plane of the present time is shown in ,fig4 #dd4 ,the bottom of this plane is of iron4 ,fig4 #de shows a plane with the same adjustments in which the bottom is of wood4 ,planes are made in different sizes4 ,as certain lengths are more suitable for certain kinds of work they have been given distinguishing names such as jack-plane1 smooth-plane1 fore-plane1 jointer4 ,fig4 #dd shows the jack-plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,the two irons of the plane1 the plane-iron or plane-bit1 and the cap-iron are fastened together by means of a stout screw4 ,fig4 #df4 ,this cap-iron serves a double purpose4 ,first3 ,it stiffens the plane iron2 second1 it serves to bend and break the shaving and thereby prevent a splitting action in front of the cutting edge4 ,this action would surely occur were the grain in the least unfavorable and the cap-iron not used4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 #a ,plane-,iron4 #b ,cap-,iron4 #c ,plane-,iron ,screw4 #d ,cap4 #e ,cap-,screw4 #f ,frog4 #g 8,y0 ,adjustment4 #h ,adjusting ,nut4 #i ,lateral ,adjustment4 #aj ,frog ,screw4 #aa ,handle4 #ab ,knob4 #ac ,handle 8,bolt ,nut04 #ad ,knob 8,bolt ,nut04 #ae ,handle ,screw4 #af ,bottom4 ,,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 #ai4 ,setting the ,blade4--,the cap-iron should extend to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the cutting edge of the plane-iron in the smooth-plane and three thirty-seconds in the jack-plane4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the screw which holds the plane-iron and cap-iron together must be fastened with a screwdriver--many carpenters use the plane-iron for this purpose--tightly as possible1 otherwise a few strokes of the plane and the plane-iron will have been forced up so that the cutting edge will not touch the wood4 ,the reason for this action will be understood when it is seen that the lever of the brass adjusting nut does not act directly on the cap-iron but only on the plane-iron as it is carried along by being fastened with this screw to the cap-iron4 ,the cap-iron and plane-iron are fastened in the throat of the plane by a cap on one end of which is a little lever or cam4 ,should this cam fail to hold the irons firmly1 the screw which holds the cap to the frog should be turned with the screwdriver4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that this screw1 once set1 seldom needs adjusting4 ,beginners frequently1 in ignorance1 place the plane-iron and cap-iron together so that the side of the plane-iron having the bevel is next the cap-iron4 ,this results in a loose acting cam and they should look to see that the irons are properly set before changing the screw4 ,should it be impossible to force the cam into place without great pressure1 first look to see whether the blade rests flat upon the frog before releasing the screw4 ,frequently the little lever which should enter the small opening in the cap-iron will be found to have entered the opening in the plane-iron only4 #bj4 ,adjustment of the ,iron4--,there are two adjustments for the blade of the modern plane4 ,the first consists in turning the thumb-screw or adjusting nut1 ,fig4 #df1 that the plane iron may cut a thicker or a thinner shaving4 ,the direction in which it should be turned to give the desired result must be learned by experiment1 for in some planes it is the reverse of what it is in others4 ,a little observation of the action of the screw upon the lever which connects it to the plane iron will show that there is often quite a little lost motion so that it becomes necessary to turn the screw a little before the iron is raised or lowered any4 ,one soon learns by the sense of feeling when the lost motion has been taken up4 ,the second adjustment is by means of the lever1 #i1 ,fig4 #df4 ,moving this lever to the right or the left serves to straighten the plane-iron1 so that the cutting edge shall extend evenly through the mouth and not take a shaving thicker at one side of the iron than at the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,in adjusting a plane-iron1 turn the plane upside down with the toe towards you1 hold it toward the light and sight along the bottom1 ,fig4 #di4 ,if the plane-iron projects1 observe whether it projects evenly or not4 ,usually one side will be found to project more than the other4 ,move the adjusting lever until it shall project uniformly4 ,the cutting edge should project about the thickness of a piece of drawing paper for average work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 #ba4 ,the ,jack-,plane4--,the jack-plane is about thirteen inches long4 ,where a full equipment of planes is at hand1 the plane-iron of the jack-plane is ground slightly rounding as is shown in ,fig4 #ej ,a4 ,the purpose of this plane is to remove rough or large quantities of wood and this shape of blade is best suited for that purpose4 ,of course the surface of the wood is left in hollows and ridges1 and it is necessary to use another plane with a plane-iron ground straight and set shallower in order to smooth the surface4 ,in manual-training schools where the jack-plane is made to serve the purpose of smooth-plane also1 the plane-iron is sharpened straight across and the corners slightly rounded1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ej4 #bb4 ,the ,smooth-,plane4--,the smooth-plane is shorter than the jack-plane4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,it is used1 as its name implies1 for smoothing surfaces4 ,as the straightening is supposed to have been previously done1 the shorter length is no disadvantage4 ,for fine work the cap-iron of this plane may be set as close as one thirty-second of an inch to the cutting edge of the plane-iron4 ,the plane-iron should be set correspondingly shallow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 #bc4 ,the ,jointer4--,this plane is used for straightening long and uneven stock4 ,it is most commonly used for preparing the parts for glue joints4 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,its advantage lies in its length1 often two feet or more1 which prevents the blade from cutting in the hollow places until all of the high places have been leveled4 ,a short plane would simply follow the irregularities1 smoothing but not straightening4 ,the plane-iron of the jointer should be ground straight across4 ,fore-planes are short jointers1 next in size to the jack-planes1 and are used for such work as straightening the edges of doors1 windows1 etc41 when fitting them4 #bd4 ,the ,block-,plane4--,the block-plane is about six inches long4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,it is made especially for cutting across the end of the wood4 ,in addition to the adjusting nut1 which is in a different position but serves the same purpose as in the jack-plane1 and the lateral adjusting lever1 there is a lever for adjusting the size of the opening at the mouth of this plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,the block-plane differs from the planes just described in that it has no cap-iron1 none being needed in end-planing4 ,the plane iron is put in place with the bevel side up instead of down as in the other planes4 ,the block-plane is not a necessity where a vise can be used for holding the piece to be planed4 ,a smooth-plane or jack-plane may1 if the plane-iron be set very shallow1 do the work just as well4 ,the block-plane is used mostly by carpenters in fitting together pieces which cannot be taken to the vise4 ,here the smallness of the plane and the fact that but one hand is needed to operate it are of very great advantage4 #be4 ,the ,wooden ,plane4--,the old-fashioned wooden planes are still preferred by some woodworkers4 ,the iron bodied planes have displaced them because of the ease with which they can be adjusted rather than because they produce any better results4 ,wooden planes are subject to warpage and as the bottoms become uneven thru wear1 it is necessary to straighten and level them occasionally4 ,the plane-iron and cap-iron of the wooden plane are fastened in the throat of the plane by means of a wooden wedge4 ,this wedge is driven in place with the hammer4 ,fig4 #ed shows the manner of holding the plane while setting the irons and wedge4 ,if the plane-iron does not project enough1 the iron is lightly tapped as indicated4 ,if too much projects1 the stock is tapped as in ,fig4 #ee4 ,this figure also illustrates the manner of removing the wedge1 two or three blows being sufficient to release it so that it can be withdrawn with the hand4 ,in setting the plane-iron1 should either corner project more than the other1 tap the side of the iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,fig4 #ef shows the manner of holding the smooth plane in releasing the wedge1 as well as when the cutting edge projects too much4 #bf4 ,planing ,first ,surface ,true4--,a true surface is one which is straight as to its length and width and which has its surface at the four corners in the same plane4 ,select for this first surface1 which we shall call the face side1 the better of the two broad surfaces4 ,knots1 sap1 wind1 shakes1 etc41 should there be any1 must be taken into account when passing judgment4 ,often the two sides are so nearly alike that there is little reason for choice4 ,where several parts are to be fitted together1 the faces are turned in2 in this case1 the best surfaces should not be selected for faces4 ,chapter ,,vii1 section #ge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,before beginning to plane hold the piece toward the light1 close one eye and sight as in ,fig4 #eg4 ,if the surface is not warped or in wind1 the back arris ab will appear directly behind the front arris cd4 ,also sight the arrises for straightness1 ,fig4 #eh1 being careful to hold so as to get the full benefit of the light4 ,again1 test from arris to arris1 ,fig4 #ei4 ,the try-square may be used either side up1 but the beam must not be held against either edge4 ,it is not for squareness but for straightness that this test is made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,notice the direction of the grain and place the piece so as not to plane against it4 ,in ,fig4 #fj plane from ,a toward ,b or the surface will be roughened instead of smoothed4 ,when the stock is rough1 the direction of the grain cannot be told readily4 ,a few strokes of the plane will give the desired information4 ,as most stock is to be planed to size1 it is well to test with the rule before beginning to plane1 so as to know just how much margin has been allowed4 ,if you find you cannot true this first surface without getting the piece within one-sixteenth of an inch of the thickness required1 ask your instructor to show you where the trouble lies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,these tests ought to give the worker a pretty fair idea of what and how much he dare plane1 so that when he begins he may work intelligently4 ,as few shavings as possible1 and those thin ones1 with the proper result attained1 show forethought and care4 ,nowhere can good1 common sense be used to better advantage than in learning to plane4 ,when planes are not in use they should be laid on their sides1 or otherwise placed so that the cutting edge shall not touch anything4 ,for roughing off and straightening broad surfaces1 the jack-plane should be used1 and this followed by the smooth-plane4 ,when using the plane1 stand with the right side to the bench2 avoid a stooping position4 ,fig4 #fa4 ,the plane should rest flat upon the wood from start to finish4 ,press heavily upon the knob in starting and upon the handle in finishing the stroke4 ,unless care is taken to hold the plane level in starting and stopping1 the result will be as indicated in ,fig4 #fb ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,take as long a shaving as the nature of the work will permit4 ,in planing long boards or where it is desired to lower one particular place only1 it becomes necessary to stop the stroke before the end of the board is reached4 ,that no mark shall show at the place where the plane-iron is lifted1 it is necessary to feather the shaving4 ,this is done by holding the toe of the plane upon the board and raising the heel as the stroke proceeds1 beginning just before the stopping point is reached4 ,if the cut is to commence other than at the end of the piece1 lower the heel after having started the forward stroke with the toe upon the board4 ,it is customary to raise the heel of the plane slightly on the backward stroke that the edge may not be dulled4 ,when the surface has been planed so that it fulfills the tests by sighting described above1 an additional test may be given it4 ,should the board be of any considerable width--three or more inches--the following test will prove sufficient3 ,place a straight-edge lengthwise1 then crosswise the surface planed and along each of its two diagonals4 ,if no light can be seen between the piece and the straight-edge in any of these four tests1 the surface may be considered level or true4 ,fig4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,a second test1 one which will answer for narrow as well as broad surfaces1 differs from the above only in the manner of determining whether the surface is in wind or not4 ,two sticks1 called winding sticks1 are prepared by planing their two opposite edges straight and parallel to each other4 ,these sticks are placed across the surface to be tested1 close to the ends1 and a sight taken over their top edges4 ,if the surface is in wind the edges cannot be made to sight so that one edge will appear directly back of the other1 ,fig4 #fd2 one end of the back stick will appear high1 at the same time the other one will appear low with reference to the edge of the fore stick4 ,the back corner is high only as compared with the fore corner4 ,the wind may be taken out of the surface just as well by planing the fore corner which is diagonally opposite4 ,usually1 equal amounts should be planed from the surface at each of these corners4 ,if1 however1 the board is thicker at one corner than the other1 it is best to take the whole amount at the thicker corner4 #bg4 ,face ,side1 ,face ,edge4--,the first surface and the first edge planed serve a special purpose and are given special names4 ,the first surface is called the face side1 and the first edge1 the face edge2 both may be referred to as the faces4 ,these faces are sometimes known by other names such as working face and joint edge1 marked face and marked edge1 etc41 but their meaning is the same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,that these faces may be known1 they are marked with pencil with what are called face marks4 ,there are various ways of making face marks4 ,unless otherwise instructed1 the marks may be made as in ,fig4 #fe2 for the face side1 a light slanting line about one inch long extending to the edge which is to become the face edge2 for the face edge1 two light lines across the edge4 ,the marks on both face side and face edge should be placed about the middle of the piece and close together4 ,these two surfaces are the only ones marked4 ,from one or the other of these1 measurements and tests are made4 ,in squaring up stock1 for illustration 7which means to reduce a piece of rough lumber to definite length1 width and thickness so that it shall have smooth1 flat sides at right angles to each other7 the gage block is held against one or the other of these faces only1 and the beam of the try-square when testing for squareness is placed against one or the other of these faces only4 #bh4 ,planing ,first ,edge ,square with ,face ,side4--,make a preliminary test with the eye before beginning to plane4 ,sight the arrises of the edge to see where it needs straightening4 ,examine the end to see which arris is high4 ,also look to see which way the grain runs4 ,avoid imperfections in the wood as far as possible in choosing this edge4 ,it is the part of wisdom to examine the plane-iron to see that the surface planing has not caused the cutting edge to project unevenly4 ,a plane1 set out of true1 is likely to cause hours of extra work2 it defeats every effort that may be made to hold the plane properly4 ,strive to get shavings the full length of the piece1 especially on the last few strokes4 ,the smooth-plane is little if ever used for edge planing on account of its short length4 ,in using the jack-plane in which the edge is slightly rounded1 thus making a shaving thicker in the middle than at the edges1 avoid tilting the plane to make it cut on one side rather than the other4 ,move the whole plane over to the high side so that the middle of the cutting edge shall be directly over the high place4 ,keep the sides of the plane parallel with the edge so as to get the full benefit of the length of the plane4 ,the two tests which this first edge must fulfill are3 ,first1 that it shall be straight2 second1 that it shall be square with the face side4 ,fig4 #f1 ,chapter ,i1 shows the method of testing for squareness4 ,as in planing the face side1 try to accomplish the desired result with as few shavings as possible4 ,the caution about planing the first surface1 where a definite size is to be attained1 applies equally to planing the first edge4 ,when the edge has been properly trued1 put on the face marks suitable for the face edge4 #bi4 ,finishing the ,second ,edge4--,a line gaged from the face edge indicates the proper stopping place in planing the second edge4 ,this line1 if lightly made1 should be half planed off4 ,as the line is parallel with the face edge1 no straight edge test is necessary4 ,the try-square test for squareness1 the beam being held against the face side1 must be frequently applied when approaching the gage line4 ,where the amount of waste stock to be planed is about an eighth of an inch1 the plane-iron may be set a little deeper than average4 ,when near the line1 however1 it must be set quite shallow4 ,if the waste stock measures more than three sixteenths of an inch1 the rip-saw should be used1 sawing parallel to the gage line and about one-eighth of an inch away from it4 #cj4 ,finishing the ,second ,side4--,lines gaged from the face side on the two edges show the amount to be planed4 ,the test for this side is made by placing the straight-edge across the piece from arris to arris as the planing proceeds1 to see that the middle shall be neither high nor low when the gage lines have been reached4 ,no other test is necessary2 a little thought will show the reason4 ,never attempt to work without lines4 ,if by mistake you plane out your line1 take the piece to your instructor at once1 unless you have been otherwise directed1 that he may tell you what to do4 #ca4 ,planing the ,first ,end ,square4--,see that the cutting edge is very sharp and that the plane-iron is set perfectly true and very shallow4 ,examine one of the ends of the piece by placing the beam of the try-square against the face side then against face edge to locate the high places4 ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,in free end planing1 the cutting edge must not be allowed to reach the farther corner or the corner will be broken off4 ,plane only part way across the end1 stopping the cutting edge half an inch or more from the far edge4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,after a few strokes in this direction1 reverse the position and plane in the opposite direction1 stopping the cutting edge half an inch or more of the first edge4 ,keep testing the end as the planing proceeds that you may know what you are doing4 ,remove no more material than is necessary to square the end1 and lay on the rule occasionally that you may not endanger the correct length in your efforts to square this end4 #cb4 ,finishing the ,second ,end4--,knife lines squared entirely around the piece1 at a given distance from the end first squared1 limit the amount of the planing that can be done on this end4 ,if the waste stock is over one-eighth of an inch the saw should be used to remove all but a thirty-second of an inch before beginning to plane4 ,watch the lines4 ,if you are uncertain as to their accuracy1 test this end as you did the first one4 #cc4 ,end ,planing with the ,shooting ,board4--,fig4 #fg illustrates a way in which the ends of narrow pieces may be easily squared4 ,the plane is pressed to the shooting board with the right hand4 ,the left hand holds the piece against the stop and to the plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,the face edge of the piece should be held against the stop2 the wood must not be allowed to project beyond the stop4 ,if it does1 the corners1 being unsupported1 will be broken away as in free planing when the cutting edge is accidentally shoved entirely across the piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,the bench hook makes an admirable shooting board4 ,fig4 #fh4 #cd4 ,rules for ,planing to ,dimensions4 #a4 ,true and smooth a broad surface2 put on a face mark4 ,this becomes the face side4 #b4 ,joint 7straighten and square7 one edge from the face side2 put on a face mark4 ,this becomes the face edge4 #c4 ,gage to required width from the face edge1 and joint to the gage line4 #d4 ,gage to required thickness on both edges from the face side2 plane to the gage lines4 #e4 ,square one end from the face side and face edge4 #f4 ,lay off with knife and square the required length from the squared end2 saw to the knife line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 #ce4 ,planing a ,chamfer4--,fig4 #fi illustrates a good way to lay out a chamfer4 ,a notch in the back end of the gage-stick holds the pencil in position4 ,holding pencil in this way draw lines on face and edge indicating width of the chamfer4 ,fig4 #gj illustrates the manner of block planing a chamfer1 the piece being held on the benchhook4 ,where the piece can be placed in the vise1 ,fig4 #ga illustrates the method of planing a chamfer with one of the larger planes4 ,first1 plane the chamfers which are parallel to the grain2 then the ends4 ,if the plane-iron is sharp and set shallow1 it can be run entirely across without danger of splitting the corners4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,hold the plane parallel to the edge in planing with the grain4 ,swing it to an angle of about forty-five degrees in end chamfering1 but move it parallel with the edge1 and not with the length of the plane4 ,the eye will detect inaccuracies in planing4 ,if further test is desired1 ,fig4 #gb illustrates one4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,boring ,,tools--,,boring4 #cf4 ,brace or ,bitstock4--,fig4 #gc illustrates a common form of brace4 ,this tool is used for holding the various kinds of bits which are used in boring1 reaming1 etc4 ,the ratchet brace consists of essentially the same parts but in addition has an attachment which permits of the crank's acting in one direction or the other only4 ,it is a necessity where the crank cannot make an entire revolution1 and is very convenient for boring in hard wood1 or for turning large screws4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,to insert a bit1 hold the brace firmly with the left hand1 revolve the crank until the jaws are opened far enough to allow the bit tang to pass entirely within so that the ends of the jaws shall grip the round part--the shank of the bit4 ,still firmly holding the brace1 revolve the crank in the opposite direction until the bit is firmly held4 ,fig4 #gd4 #cg4 ,center ,bit4--,the old fashioned center bit1 ,fig4 #ge1 is still used by carpenters for certain kinds of work4 ,it has1 for the most part1 given way to the more modern auger bit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 #ch4 ,the ,auger ,bit4--,the auger bit1 ,fig4 #gf1 is used for all ordinary boring in wood4 ,the action of an auger bit is readily understood by referring to ,fig4 #gf4 ,the spur draws the bit into the wood4 ,the two nibs cut the fibers1 after which the lips remove the waste1 later to be passed along the twist to the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,auger bits are usually supplied in sets of thirteen1 in sizes varying from one-fourth of an inch to one inch1 by sixteenths4 ,the size of hole that an auger bit will bore can be told by looking at the number on the tang or shank4 ,if a single number1 it is the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is sixteen1 the fraction referring to the diameter of the hole which the bit will bore4 ,exercise care in laying down a bit2 it is easily dulled4 ,do not use a good auger bit where there is any danger of its striking nails or other metal4 ,auger bits are easily sharpened1 a small file being used1 but they are more easily spoiled by improper filing1 and no student should attempt to sharpen one without having personal direction from his instructor4 #ci4 ,the ,drill ,bit2 ,the ,gimlet ,bit4--,the drill bit1 ,fig4 #gg1 is quite hard and may be used for boring in metal as well as wood4 ,it is easily broken and especial care must be taken to hold the brace firmly4 ,do not try to change the direction of the boring by inclining the brace after the bit has started into the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,in boring hard wood or metal1 make a 8seat0 for the point with an awl or1 in metal with a center punch4 ,otherwise it is difficult to start the bit in the exact place4 ,the gimlet bit1 ,fig4 #gh1 is used mainly for boring holes for screws4 #dj4 ,countersink ,bit4--,fig4 #gi is an illustration of a rosehead countersink4 ,this tool is used for enlarging screw holes made with the gimlet so that the heads of the screws may sink into the wood even with or below the surface4 #da4 ,the ,screw-driver ,bit4--,the screwdriver bit1 ,fig4 #hj1 is not a boring tool1 but as it is used in connection with the brace it is inserted here4 ,it will be found convenient where large screws are to be inserted4 ,where a large number of screws are to be inserted it will permit of very rapid work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,in using the screwdriver bit1 especially in driving screws into hard wood1 the bit will tend to jump out of the groove in the head of the screw4 ,to avoid its jumping entirely out and marring the wood1 take but half a revolution at a time1 then move the brace backward slightly before proceeding again4 ,this allows the bit which has partly worked its way out of the groove to drop back again4 ,the manner in which a screwdriver bit is sharpened has much to do with its working properly4 ,it should be sharpened like the screwdriver4 #db4 ,the ,brad-awl4--,the brad-awl is used for boring very small holes4 ,unlike most boring tools it does not remove the material from the opening it makes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,the cutting edge of the brad awl should be placed across the grain in starting1 and the tool turned half way around and back again1 repeating until the proper depth has been bored4 ,it is withdrawn with similar turnings4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,patent spiral screwdrivers and automatic drills have come into quite common use in recent years4 ,they are used mainly upon light work2 their advantage being the rapidity with which they do their work4 #dc4 ,positions while ,boring4--,fig4 #hb illustrates the position to be taken in horizontal boring4 ,the head of the brace is held steady by bracing the body against the hand which holds it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,to tell whether a bit is boring a hole in the direction which is wanted1 it is necessary to sight the bit and brace from two directions at right angles to each other4 ,in horizontal boring1 the first sight should be made while in the position shown in the illustration4 ,the second position for sighting would be obtained by inclining the upper part of the body until the eye is on a level with the bit4 ,in vertical boring1 ,fig4 #hc1 the sighting of the bit would be done across the piece1 then along it4 ,changing from one position to the other can be done easily and without interfering with the boring and should be done quite often1 until the bit has entered well within the wood4 ,fig4 #hd illustrates a position which is frequently taken when boring in hard wood1 or when using the screwdriver bit on large screws4 ,the chin1 resting upon the left hand1 steadies the tool in the first case1 and can be made to give additional pressure in the second4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 #dd4 ,thru ,boring4--,to avoid splitting the wood around the edge of the hole when it is desired to make a hole entirely thru a piece1 bore from the face side until the point of the spur can be felt on the back4 ,then reverse the position of the board and1 inserting the point of the spur in the hole just made1 finish the boring from the back side4 ,the bit must be held perpendicular to the surface while boring from the second side1 as well as the first1 or some of the edge of the hole will be broken from the first side as the bit is forced thru4 #de4 ,boring to ,depth4--,when it is desired to bore to a given depth1 turn the crank of the brace until the lips of the auger are just ready to cut the surface4 ,with the rule1 measure the distance from the surface of the piece to the grip of the brace4 ,fig4 #he4 ,the brace may then be turned until this distance is diminished by the amount which represents the desired depth of the hole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,where many holes of the same depth are to be bored much time will be saved by cutting a block the length of the exposed part of the bit when the hole is to the required depth4 ,this can be placed beside the bit so that the grip will strike it4 ,fig4 #hf4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,chisels ,,and ,,chiseling4 #df4 ,chisels4--,chisels are usually divided into two classes1 the framing chisel1 which is heavy and strong1 and the firmer chisel1 which is lighter4 ,the framing chisel1 ,fig4 #hg1 is used on heavy work such as the frames of buildings4 ,its handle is usually fitted into a socket and the top is tipped with leather or banded with iron to prevent its splitting when pounded with the mallet4 ,the firmer chisel1 ,fig4 #hh1 is used for lighter work without the mallet1 such as paring1 and its handle is usually fitted upon a tang4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,the size of a chisel is indicated by the width of the cutting edge and varies from one-eighth of an inch to two inches4 ,to do good work a chisel must be kept very sharp1 and special care must be taken in handling it4 ,both hands should1 at all times1 be kept back of the cutting edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,the action of a chisel driven into the wood with a mallet is somewhat similar to that of a wedge4 ,this must be taken into account when cutting dadoes1 mortises1 etc41 where it is desired to cut away the waste exactly to a given line4 ,if the chisel were beveled on two sides the action would be the same as that of a wedge2 that is1 the wood would be pushed to either side equally4 ,since the bevel is on one side only1 beginners are prone to think that the wedging takes place on one side only1 the bevel side4 ,most of the wedging does take place on the wood at the bevel side1 but there is enough pressure against the bevel to force the flat side of the chisel over the line slightly onto the part which it is not desired to cut4 ,to overcome this action1 chisel a line parallel to the given line1 about one thirty-second of an inch away from it1 on the waste4 ,when the opening has been cut to depth1 the chisel may be set exactly in the given line and driven to depth4 ,the narrow margin of waste wood breaks off2 the pressure against the bevel is therefore almost nothing4 ,fig4 #hi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 #dg4 ,horizontal ,paring ,across the ,grain4--,in horizontal chiseling the work should be fastened so as to leave both hands free to guide the chisel4 ,fig4 #ij shows the manner of holding the chisel4 ,the left hand rests against the piece of wood and the chisel is kept from cutting too far by the pressure of the thumb and fingers of this hand4 ,with the bevel side of the blade up1 move the handle from right to left carefully while pushing it forwards2 pare off pieces about one-sixteenth of an inch thick half way across from edge to edge4 ,fig4 #ia4 ,when within a thirty-second of an inch from the gage line hold the chisel so that its cutting edge shall move obliquely across the grain and pare just to the gage line4 ,the direction of the grain will determine which corner of the chisel is to cut ahead4 ,in starting the last cut place the chisel squarely in the gage line4 ,the piece should be reversed and the cut finished by cutting in a similar manner from the second side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,fig4 #ib illustrates a second method of horizontal paring4 ,it differs from the first in that the chisel is turned while in the horizontal position so that one of the edges is free of the wood4 ,by cutting first with one edge free1 then the other1 the surface may be lowered until only a low ridge extends across the piece from edge to edge4 ,this ridge may then be removed by cutting to the gage line in the usual manner4 ,if the chisel is properly sharpened the surface may be left as smooth and as level as if planed4 #dh4 ,vertical ,paring4--,in vertical paring hold the chisel as shown in ,fig4 #ic4 ,the left hand resting upon the wood1 holds the wood in place1 while the index finger and thumb of the left hand assist in placing and guiding the chisel4 ,only a small portion of the cutting edge can be used in vertical paring2 the amount will depend upon the hardness of the wood and the strength of the student4 ,ordinarily1 not more than one-quarter of an inch of the chisel width can be used for very soft woods and not more than one-eighth for hard woods4 ,that part of the blade which is not used for cutting purposes is used as a guide to insure each cut's being in the same plane as the last4 ,the chisel should be inclined toward the worker1 the unused part of the blade pressed firmly against the part of the surface already cut4 ,to make the cut1 apply the needed pressure1 at the same time moving the handle forward until the chisel shall have a vertical position as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #id4 ,care must be taken to keep the broad surface of the chisel at right angles to the surface of the work at all times4 ,the worker should so stand that he may look along the line as he cuts it4 ,otherwise he is in no position for sighting the chisel plumb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 #di4 ,oblique and ,curved ,line ,paring4--,whether cutting with the grain or across the grain1 care must be taken in oblique and curved line paring to cut from the straight grain toward the end grain4 ,fig4 #ie4 ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b--,right4 ,c1 ,d--,wrong4 ,,fig4 #ie4 #ej4 ,paring ,chamfers4--,fig4 #if illustrates two ways of holding the chisel in cutting chamfers4 ,in one1 the bevel side of the chisel is down and the cutting edge held at right angles to the grain4 ,in the other1 the flat side of the chisel is down and the cutting edge is worked obliquely to the grain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,frequently1 it is desired to chamfer or bevel the end of a piece of wood with the chisel4 ,to do this hold the cutting edge obliquely to the grain1 the flat side of the chisel down4 ,fig4 #ig4 ,the use of the framing chisel is described in connection with the making of the mortise4 ,part ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 #ea4 ,the ,firmer ,gouge4--,fig4 #ih4 ,the gouge is curved in section and may have its bevel on either side4 ,it is used for cutting grooves and hollowing out surfaces4 ,the size of the gouge is determined by measuring the straight distance between the corners of the cutting edge4 ,when roughing out where rather thick shavings may be taken1 the gouge should be held as in ,fig4 #ii1 the blade being held firmly in the left hand4 ,when taking off thin shavings and in finishing1 the tool should be held as shown in ,fig4 #ajj4 ,in using the gouge avoid short strokes4 ,try to take as long and as even shavings as the nature of the work and the wood will allow4 ,the thinner the shaving1 the easier it will be to cut smoothly4 ,a circular movement imparted to the cutting edge will enable the tool to cut more easily the end grain of wood1 as is necessary in cutting the ends of grooves in pen-trays1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 #eb4 ,grinding ,beveled ,edge ,tools4--,when edged tools become rounded over by repeated whettings or when they are nicked too deeply for the oilstone to remove the nicks1 the grindstone is needed to cut the metal to the proper angle4 ,fig4 #aja shows the manner of holding the chisel upon the stone4 ,the tool must be held firmly and at the same angle4 ,this angle will depend upon the temper of the tool and the kind of wood to be cut1 whether hard or soft1 soft wood allowing the use of a sharper angle4 ,on plane-irons the length of bevel or grind should be three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch2 on the chisels1 three-eighths or one-half an inch4 ,the tool should not be kept in the middle of the stone but should be moved from right to left and vice versa across it as the grinding proceeds1 that the surface of the stone may be worn as evenly as possible4 ,illustration3 #bj to #be ,,fig4 #aja4 ,the pressure of the left hand should be so applied that the stone shall cut straight across the blade4 ,examine the tool often1 being careful to replace it each time as nearly as possible at the same angle4 ,fig4 #ajb shows the flat bevel which is to be obtained1 also the rounded effect caused by frequent changing of the angle at which the tool is held4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,grindstones are usually turned towards the tool because in doing so they will cut faster4 ,water is caused to flow on the stone for two reasons3 ,to keep the edge of the tool from being burned or softened by the heat which friction would generate1 and to wash off the particles of steel and stone1 thus keeping the cutting surface clean that it may cut the more freely4 #ec4 ,whetting ,beveled ,edge ,tools4--,the grindstone does not sharpen tools2 that is the work of the oilstone4 ,no tool1 after it has been ground1 is ready for use until it has been whetted4 #ed4 ,oilstones4--,oilstones in common use are of two kinds2 those which are of very fine grained natural stone and those which are manufactured by pressing a powdered1 metal cutting substance into rectangular forms4 ,in selecting an oilstone it should be remembered that the finer the grain1 the keener the edge it will produce but the longer time it takes to produce it4 ,manufactured stones are frequently made 8two in one10 that is1 coarse and medium or medium and fine are put together in such a way that one side gives a rapid cutting and the other a slower but smoother cutting surface4 ,the advantage of such a stone is easily understood4 ,oil is used on stones to cleanse the pores of the stone of the little particles of steel cut from the tool4 ,were it not for the oil's mixing with and removing these particles1 the surface of the stone would soon become smooth and friction so reduced that the cutting power would be greatly interfered with4 ,while but a part of the stone need be used at one placing of the tool1 effort should be made to utilize as much of the surface as possible that the surface may be kept level as long as possible4 ,stones that have worn uneven may have their surfaces leveled by rubbing them on a piece of sandpaper or emery paper placed on a flat surface4 #ee4 ,sharpening the ,chisel4--,hold the tool as shown in ,fig4 #ajc4 ,suppose the grinding produced a bevel of about twenty-five degrees1 in whetting1 effort should be made to hold the blade so as to produce an angle slightly greater than this4 ,the amount shown in ,fig4 #ajg a and b is exaggerated4 ,the aim at all times should be to keep this second angle as near like the first as is possible and still get a straight bevel to the cutting edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,to get the tool into proper position1 lay it flat on the stone with the beveled edge resting in the oil which has previously been placed on the stone4 ,the oil should be drawn to the place where the whetting is to be done1 the back edge of the bevel being used to push and draw it to place4 ,gradually raise the handle of the tool until the oil is expelled from under the cutting edge2 it is then in position4 ,use just enough oil to keep the surface well moistened where the whetting is being done4 ,rub the chisel back and forth1 keeping it at the same angle all the time4 ,a rocking motion and frequent change of angle will result in a rounded end instead of a straight bevel4 ,some workmen prefer to give the blade a circular instead of the forward and backward movement4 ,to remove the feather or wire edge which frequently results from over-whetting or from grinding1 proceed as follows3 ,hold the tool with the flat side down1 just a little above the stone1 with the handle just a very little higher than the cutting edge4 ,in one stroke push the cutting edge forward and down on the stone1 at the same time lowering the rear end to a level with the cutting edge4 ,the effect of this movement is to turn the wire edge under and cut it off4 ,if the first attempt does not remove it1 whet the bevel just enough to turn the edge back on the flat side and try again4 ,the presence of a feather edge is detected by rubbing the fingers along the flat side over the cutting edge4 ,if a still keener edge is desired it may be obtained by the use of a strop1 a piece of leather fastened to a flat surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,hold the tool as shown in ,fig4 #ajd and draw it toward you several times4 ,then hold it with the flat side down and draw it back once or twice4 ,the angles of the bevels of a gouge are similar to those of a chisel4 ,in sharpening1 hold the tool at right angles to the edge of the stone1 instead of parallel as with the chisel4 ,move it lengthwise of the stone1 at the same time rotating the handle so as to give the blade a circular motion as from ,a to ,b1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,the feather edge which is formed on the inside is removed by a few strokes of a stone called a slip4 ,hold the slip firmly against the face so as not to form a bevel4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,slips are of various sizes2 one that fits the curvature of the gouge should be selected4 #ef4 ,sharpening ,plane-,irons4--,plane-irons are sharpened straight across like the chisel1 with the exception of the jack plane1 as previously noted4 ,their corners1 however1 are very slightly rounded off to prevent their leaving marks on the wood4 ,where one plane is made to serve the purpose of smooth1 jack and fore-plane1 it should be ground straight across4 ,in whetting1 increase the pressure on the edges alternately so as to turn up a heavier feather edge there than in the middle1 thus rounding the whole end very slightly4 ,this feather edge may be removed in the usual manner4 #eg4 ,to ,tell ,whether a ,tool is ,sharp or ,not4--,examine the cutting edge1 holding the tool toward the light4 ,if the tool is dull1 the cutting edge will appear as a white line1 the broader the line the blunter the edge4 ,fig4 #ajg ,a4 ,if the tool is sharp1 no white line can be seen4 ,fig4 #ajg ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,a better way--the method a mechanic would use--is to test the edge by drawing the thumb along it lightly4 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,if the tool is sharp one can feel the edge 8taking hold40 ,if dull1 the thumb will slide along the edge as it would along the back of a knife blade4 ,good judgment is necessary in this test or a cut on the thumb may be the result4 ,no pressure is required1 just a touch along the edge at various points4 ,what actually takes place is this3 ,the cutting edge1 if sharp1 cuts the outer layer1 the callous part of the ball of the thumb1 just a little4 ,the sense of feeling is so keen that the resulting friction1 slight as it is1 is transferred to the brain of the worker long before any injury need be done the thumb4 ,if the tool is dull1 no cut1 hence no friction can result4 ,do not use the finger1 as it is not calloused as is the thumb4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,form ,,work1 ,,modeling4 #eh4 ,making a ,cylinder4--,the cylinder is evolved from the square prism by increasing the number of sides until a prism is formed with so many sides that its surface can be easily transformed into a cylinder by means of sandpaper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 7#a7 ,begin by making a square prism which shall have the same dimensions for its width and thickness as is desired for the diameter of the cylinder4 7#b7 ,change this square prism to a regular octagonal or eight-sided prism by planing off the four arrises4 ,the gage lines which indicate the amount to be taken off of each arris are made by holding the gage block against each of the surfaces and gaging from each arris each way1 two lines on each surface4 ,these lines must be made lightly4 ,the distance at which to set the spur of the gage from the head is equal to one-half the diagonal of the square end of the prism4 ,fig4 #aji4 ,since the ends are less likely to be accurate than any other part1 it is advisable to get this distance as follows3 ,lay off two lines on the working face a distance apart equal to the width of the prism4 ,these lines with the two arrises form a square the diagonal of which can be measured and one-half of it computed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,carpenters in working on large timbers lay the steel-square diagonally across so that there are twenty-four divisions from arris to arris4 ,they then mark off the timber at seven and seventeen inches4 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,these numbers1 while not mathematically correct1 are near enough for practical purposes4 ,in planing the arrises off1 the piece may be held in the vise or placed against the bench-stop4 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,care must be taken not to plane over the lines1 for not only is the one side enlarged1 but the adjacent side is lessened1 thus exaggerating the error4 7#c7 ,judging with the eye the amount to take off1 plane the eight arrises until there are sixteen equal sides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,again plane the arrises1 making the piece thirty-two sided4 ,on a small piece this will be sufficient2 if the piece is large1 the process may be continued until the piece is practically a cylinder4 7#d7 ,to finish a small cylinder wrap a piece of sandpaper around it1 rub lengthwise until the surface of the wood is smooth and the piece feels like a cylinder when revolved in the hand4 #ei4 ,the ,spokeshave4--,fig4 #aab4 ,the spokeshave is used principally to smooth curved surfaces4 ,it may be drawn toward or pushed away from the worker1 whichever is more convenient4 ,by means of screws1 the blade may be adjusted to take light or heavy shavings4 ,the spokeshave is practically a short plane with handles at the sides1 and in using it the aim should be1 as with the plane1 to secure silky shavings of as great length as the nature of the work will allow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 #fj4 ,making ,curved ,edges4--,to make curved edges on a board1 finger-gage on each side lines which shall indicate the amount of curvature4 ,fig4 #aac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,if the curve is to be a gradual one reaching from one of these lines over the middle of the edge to the other two lines should also be finger-gaged on the edge4 ,finger-gage from each side using a distance equal to one-fourth the whole thickness of the piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,with the spokeshave1 ,fig4 #aad1 carefully cut off the two arrises to the pencil lines so as to form two bevels4 ,this gives three surfaces to the edge of the board4 ,estimating the amount with the eye1 cut off the two arrises formed by these three surfaces until five equal surfaces are formed in their place4 ,this process may be repeated until the surface of the edge is practically a curved surface4 ,with a piece of sandpaper held as shown in ,fig4 #aae1 rub until the surface is smooth and evenly curved4 #fa4 ,modeling4--,this term is used to apply to the method of making objects of such irregular form that the judgment of the worker must be depended upon to give the correct result without the aid of gage and knife marks4 ,the forming of a canoe paddle or a hammer handle are good illustrations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,generally a little forethought will show a way in which the piece of work may be partly laid out with knife1 square and rule4 ,to illustrate1 take the hammer handle1 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,the steps would be as follows3 ,first1 plane a face side and a face edge1 and square the two ends so that the piece shall have the length desired for the finished handle4 ,second1 draw a center line on the face side1 parallel to the face edge and lay off on either side of this the two straight lines which shall indicate the amount of taper2 also sketch in the lines of curvature4 ,plane the two edges to the tapering lines and square with the face side4 ,then cut to the curved lines1 keeping this surface also square with the face side4 ,in a similar manner1 lay off on the face edge a center line parallel to the face side1 mark the taper and lines of curvature1 and work these surfaces as in the second step4 ,third1 the piece may be laid off still further by drawing on the larger end the form of the ellipse which that end is to assume4 ,with spokeshave1 judging the curves of the middle with the eye1 work out the desired form4 ,the steel scraper is to be used for finishing after the piece has been made as smooth as is possible with the spokeshave4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 #a4 ,,laying ,,out ,,duplicate ,,parts4 #b4 ,,scraping ,,and ,,sandpapering4 #c4 ,,fastening ,,parts4 #fb4 ,laying out ,duplicate ,parts4--,frequently a piece of work will require the making of two or more like parts4 ,to lay out these parts1 that is1 to mark out the location of intended gains1 mortises1 shoulders of tenons1 etc41 so that all shall be alike1 the following method is used3 7#a7 ,on the face edge of one of the pieces measure off with the rule and mark with knife the points at which the lines for the joints are to be squared across4 ,if knife marks would show on the finished surface as scratches1 use a sharp pencil instead4 7#b7 ,lay the pieces on the bench top with the face edges up2 even the ends with the try-square4 ,fig4 #aag4 ,square lines across the edges of all of them at the points previously marked on one of them4 ,the pieces may then be separated and lines corresponding to the lines just made on the face edges1 be carried across the face sides of each piece separately1 the try-square beam being held against the face edge in so doing1 of course4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,in all duplicate work the aim of the worker should be to make as much use as possible of the tool he has in hand before laying it down and taking another4 ,to illustrate1 if there should be a number of like parts each requiring two different settings of the gage1 he should mark all of the parts at the first setting1 then all at the second setting rather than to change the gage for each piece so that each piece might be completely marked before another is begun4 #fc4 ,scraping4--,in smoothing hard wood surfaces1 a scraper will be found helpful4 ,if the grain should happen to be crossed or curled1 a scraper will become a necessity4 ,the plane-iron may be made ever so sharp and the cap-iron set ever so close to the cutting edge1 still the surface of some woods will tear4 ,sandpaper must not be depended upon to smooth a torn surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,cabinet scrapers for plane and convex surface work are rectangular pieces of saw steel4 ,fig4 #aah shows a swan-neck scraper suitable for smoothing concave surfaces4 ,beginners frequently mistake surfaces which have been planed at a mill for smooth surfaces4 ,they are not2 and1 unless the 8hills and hollows0 which extend across the surface of every mill-planed piece of lumber are removed before the finish of stain or filler is applied1 the result will be very unsatisfactory4 ,these 8hills and hollows0 are present even in the smoothest of mill-plane surfaces4 ,the reason is easily understood4 ,when a board is mill-planed1 it is run through a machine which has a flat bed over which the board is moved and above which revolve two knives4 ,fig4 #aai4 ,unless the grain of wood is very badly crossed or curled1 it will be found very much easier1 and time will be saved if the mill marks are removed with a smooth-plane before the scraper is applied4 ,illustration3 ,a--,delivery ,roller4 ,b--,cutter ,head4 ,c--,feed ,roller4 ,d--,roller4 ,e--,roller4 ,f--,board4 ,g--,work ,table4 ,h--,knives4 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,scrapers may be pushed or pulled4 ,fig4 #abj4 ,when properly sharpened thin silky shavings will be cut off4 ,the cutting edge of a scraper is a bur which is formed at an arris and turned at very nearly a right angle to the surface of the scraper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,when a scraper becomes dull 7#a7 each edge is drawfiled1 ,fig4 #aba1 so as to make it square and straight1 with the corners slightly rounded4 ,sometimes the edges are rounded slightly from end to end to prevent digging4 ,frequently the scraper has its edges and surfaces ground square on an oilstone after the drawfiling that the arrises may be formed into smoother burs4 7#b7 ,after filing1 the scraper is laid flat on the bench and the arrises forced over as in ,fig4 #abb4 ,the tool used is called a burnisher2 any smooth piece of steel would do4 7#c7 ,next1 turn these arrises back over the side of the scraper4 ,fig4 #abc4 ,great pressure is not necessary to form the burs properly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 #fd4 ,sandpapering4--,to know when to use and when not to use sandpaper is as much the sign of a good workman as to know how to use the tools4 ,sandpaper should never be used until all tool work has been done as well1 and carried as far as is possible4 ,sandpaper is1 as its name implies1 sand paper4 ,in sanding a surface1 this fine sand becomes imbedded in the wood and should an edged tool be used thereon it will be dulled4 ,slovenly work should never be done in expectation of using sandpaper to fix it up4 ,this practice is dishonest4 ,sandpaper should not be expected to do the work of edged tools or disappointment will follow4 ,the sandpaper sheet1 for use1 is usually divided into four parts1 one of these parts being of good size for large work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,for flat surfaces these pieces are placed on a sandpaper block4 ,this block is but a piece of wood squared up to a length equal to that of the piece of paper and to such a width that the edges of the paper will extend far enough up the edges of the block to allow the fingers to grasp them firmly4 ,fig4 #abd4 ,do not waste the paper by wrapping it around in such a way as to throw part of it on top of the block4 ,the block should be held flat upon the surface when sanding near an arris1 otherwise the arris will be rounded4 ,the arrises should be kept sharp unless on a table leg1 arm of a chair or something similar1 in which the sharp arrises would be likely to injure the hand or become splintered through usage4 ,in such cases the sandpaper may be run along the arrises once or twice1 just enough to remove the sharpness4 ,sometimes the plane is set shallow and drawn over the arris after the surfaces have been squared1 to remove the sharpness4 ,on curved surfaces1 the sandpaper is held free in the hand1 no block being used4 ,fig4 #aae illustrates the manner of sanding the convex curve of the coat hanger4 ,the sandpaper should be rubbed along the grain and the rubbing should proceed only long enough to smooth the piece and to bring out the grain clearly4 ,on the back of a piece of sandpaper will be found a number4 ,this number indicates the relative coarseness of the sand sprinkled upon the glue covered paper4 #jj1 #j1 #a1 #a and #b are the numbers commonly used2 #jj being finest and #b relatively coarse4 ,on table tops and surfaces which are not very smooth to begin with1 the coarse sandpaper is first used1 this is followed by the next in coarseness and so on until the finest is used4 ,never attempt to sandpaper surfaces or parts which are to be put together later on to form joints1 the edge tools alone must be depended upon to secure proper smoothing4 #fe4 ,hammers4--,fig4 #abe shows the two kinds of hammers most commonly used by workers in wood4 ,the plain faced hammer has a flat face and is somewhat easier to learn to use than the bell-faced hammer1 which has a slightly rounded face4 ,the advantage of the bell-faced hammer lies in one's ability to better set a nail slightly below the surface without the assistance of the nailset4 ,this is a very great advantage on outside or on rough carpenter work4 ,this setting of the nail with the hammer leaves a slight depression1 however1 in the wood1 and is therefore not suited for inside finishing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,the handle of the hammer is purposely made quite long and should be grasped quite near the end4 #ff4 ,nails4--,nails originally were forged by hand and were therefore very expensive4 ,later strips were cut from sheets of metal and heads were hammered upon these by means of the blacksmith's hammer1 the vise being used to hold the strips meanwhile4 ,these were called cut nails4 ,early in the nineteenth century a machine was invented which cut the nails from the sheet metal and headed them4 ,steel wire nails have about supplanted the cut nails for most purposes4 ,they are made by a machine which cuts the wire from a large reel1 points and heads the pieces thus cut off4 ,wire nails1 like cut nails1 are roughly classed by woodworkers as common1 finishing and casing nails4 ,thin nails with small heads are called brads4 ,wire nails are bought and sold by weight1 the size of wire according to the standard wire gage and the length in inches being taken into consideration in specifying the size and fixing the price per pound4 ,in former practice1 the size of nails was specified according to the number of pounds that one thousand of any variety would weigh4 ,thus the term sixpenny and eightpenny referred to varieties which would weigh six and eight pounds per thousand1 respectively1 penny being a corruption of pound4 ,in present practice1 certain sizes are still roughly specified as three1 four1 six1 eight1 ten1 twenty and thirty penny4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,common wire nails are thick and have large flat heads4 ,they are used in rough work where strength is desired4 ,fig4 #abf ,a4 ,finishing nails1 ,fig4 #abf ,b1 are used for fine work such as inside woodwork1 cabinet work1 etc4 ,casing nails1 ,fig4 #abf ,c1 are somewhat thicker and stronger than finishing nails2 they have small heads4 #fg4 ,nailing4--,especial care is necessary in starting cut nails4 ,fig4 #abg shows two views of a cut nail4 ,from these it will be seen that the sides of the nail form a wedge in one of the views while in the other they are parallel4 ,the nail should be so started that the wedging action shall take place along1 not across the grain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,in nailing through one piece into the edge of another1 assume a position so that you can look along the piece into the edge of which you are nailing4 ,fig4 #abh4 ,if the nail is to be driven plumb1 it must be sighted from two directions several times in the beginning of the nailing4 ,having driven the points of the nails slightly below the surface of the first piece1 adjust the two pieces properly1 force the points into the second piece1 and1 holding the parts firmly with the left hand1 drive the nails into place4 #fh4 ,nailset4--,except in rough work1 the nail should not be driven entirely in with the hammer or the wood will be marred4 ,a nailset held as in ,fig4 #abi should be used to set the head of the nail slightly below the surface of the wood--about one thirty-second of an inch4 ,a finger placed against the side of the nailset and allowed to rest on the piece of wood aids greatly in guiding the set1 which otherwise might jump off the nail head when the blow is struck and indent the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 #fi4 ,withdrawing ,nails4--,should it be necessary to withdraw a nail1 place a block of wood under the head of the hammer1 ,fig4 #acj1 to prevent marring the surface of the wood4 ,if the nail is a long one1 the size of the block used should be increased as the nail comes out1 that the nail may not be bent4 #gj4 ,the ,screwdriver4--,patent ratchet and spiral screwdrivers have come into quite common use among workers in wood4 ,the old style1 ,fig4 #aca1 however1 is much better suited to elementary work than any of these special forms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 #ga4 ,screws4--,screws1 like nails1 are made entirely by machinery4 ,they are packed in pasteboard boxes and sold by the gross4 ,the size of a screw is designated by the length in inches and the size of the wire from which it is made2 thus1 #a inch ,no4 #aj flat-head bright screw4 ,the gage of wire for nails and the gage of wire for screws should not be confused4 ,fig4 #acb is a full-sized illustration of the gage used for determining the size of wire for nails4 ,the numbers apply to the openings at the edge1 not to the circular parts4 ,the notch at ,no4 #a will just slip over ,no4 #a wire4 ,fig4 #ace is a full-sized illustration of a wire gage for screws4 ,the gage is slipped over the screw just below the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,flathead screws are used for ordinary work4 ,roundhead screws are used because they are more ornamental4 ,fig4 #acc4 ,either kind may be made of steel or brass4 ,steel screws are often blued by treating them with heat or an acid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 #gb4 ,fastening with ,screws4--,where two pieces of hard wood are to be fastened with screws1 a hole just large enough to take in the shank of the screw must be bored in the upper part4 ,in the lower part1 a hole should be bored just large enough to take in the core of the screw snugly4 ,fig4 #acd4 ,for flathead screws1 the hole should be countersunk so that the head may be flush or sunk slightly below the surface of the wood4 ,in soft woods1 the boring of a hole in the lower piece may be omitted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 #gc4 ,glue4--,nails are but seldom used in cabinet work to fasten parts together2 glue being used instead4 ,glue is manufactured from the refuse parts of animals4 ,strippings of hide1 bone1 horn1 hoofs1 etc41 are boiled to a jelly2 chemicals are added to give it the light color4 ,it is usually placed on the market in the form of dry chips4 ,glue pots are made double1 the glue being placed in one part and this placed in a larger one which contains water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,the glue is heated by the hot water and steam of the outer kettle4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,to prepare glue1 dissolve the dry chips in water4 ,it is well to soak them over night unless quite thin4 ,if the glue chips are thin they may be barely covered with water and the pot set in the outer kettle of boiling water4 ,some kinds of glue require less water4 ,the glue should be stirred occasionally4 ,it should be used while hot and should be made thin enough to flow easily when applied with a brush4 ,if the wood is cold it will chill the glue4 ,best results are obtained by warming the wood in an oven4 ,prepared liquid glues1 to be applied without heating1 are common4 ,as these glues thicken with age1 due to evaporation1 they must be thinned occasionally4 ,in cold weather they chill and must be warmed in hot water to bring them to a proper consistency4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 #gd4 ,clamps4--,clamps are used in the making of a glue joint to expel the glue from the surfaces of contact1 forcing it up into the pores of the wood or1 if too much has been applied1 out on the sides of the joint4 ,for holding small parts1 the wooden hand-screw is used1 ,fig4 #acg4 ,to adjust this clamp1 hold the handle of the shoulder spindle firmly in the left hand and the handle of the end spindle in the right hand2 revolve them about an axis midway between and parallel to the spindles until the approximate opening of the jaw is obtained1 ,fig4 #ach4 ,place the clamp on the parts and screw the shoulder spindle up tight1 adjusting the end spindle when necessary so that when it is tightened the jaws of the clamp shall be parallel1 ,fig4 #aci4 ,in taking off this clamp1 the end spindle is the one which must be released4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,fig4 #adj illustrates three kinds of bar clamps such as are used for clamping wide frames and boards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,fig4 #ada illustrates a simple form of clamp which can be made by the student himself4 ,two wedges to each clamp1 driven in with the hammer1 supply the necessary pressure4 ,whenever finished surfaces are to be clamped1 blocks of wood must be placed between them and the clamp jaws to prevent their being marred4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 #ge4 ,gluing4--,where the end grain is to form part of a glue joint1 it is necessary to apply a glue size first4 ,this is done by filling the open grain of the end with a preliminary coating of thin1 hot glue4 ,rubbed glue joints require no clamps4 ,the edges are jointed perfectly straight1 glue is applied to each and they are then rubbed together with as great pressure as is possible to expel the glue4 ,when this is properly done the pieces will hold together and may be set away to dry4 ,fig4 #adb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,simple ,,joinery4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,type ,,forms4 #gf4 ,joinery4--,this term in its broader meaning refers to the art of framing the finishing work of a house1 such as doors and windows2 and to the construction of permanent fittings1 such as mantels1 cupboards1 linen presses1 etc4 ,joinery as used herein refers merely to the putting together of two or more parts1 called the members4 #gg4 ,general ,directions for ,joinery3--,take into consideration the direction of the grain in planning the relative positions of the members4 ,make due allowance where shrinkage is likely to be considerable4 ,as far as possible1 plan to have the members join face to face4 ,face sides are more likely to be true than are the other two surfaces and therefore the joints are more likely to fit properly4 ,make all measurements from a common starting point1 as far as practicable4 ,remember to keep the head of the gage1 and the beam of the trysquare against one or the other of the faces1 unless there should be special reasons for doing otherwise4 ,in practice it is sometimes advisable to locate the sides of a joint by superposition rather than by measurement4 ,laying out by superposition consists in placing one member upon another and marking upon the second member the width1 thickness or length of the first4 ,fig4 #adc4 ,usually1 it is found possible to locate and square with knife and trysquare a line to represent one of the sides of the joint4 ,the first member is then held so that one of its arrises rests upon this line1 and a point is made with knife at the other arris4 ,the superimposed piece is then removed and a line made with knife and try-square--not thru the mark of the knife point but inside1 just touching it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,where several members or parts are to be laid out1 cut and fitted1 it is of the utmost importance that the work be done systematically4 ,system and power to visualize--that is1 to see things in their proper relation to one another in the finished piece--make it possible for men to lay out and cut the members to the most intricate frames of buildings before a single part has been put together4 ,lay out duplicate parts and duplicate joints as suggested in ,chapter ,,vii1 ,section #fb4 ,where several joints of a similar size and kind are to be fitted1 mark the different parts to each joint with the same number or letter as soon as fitted that no other member may be fitted to either of these4 ,fig4 #add4 ,on small pieces1 such as the stool1 it is possible to aid in visualizing by setting up the posts in the positions they are to occupy relative to one another1 marking roughly1 as with a penciled circle1 the approximate location of the mortises1 auger holes1 etc4 ,the members may then be laid on the bench and accurately marked without danger of misplacing the openings4 ,while the knife is used almost exclusively in laying out joints1 there are a few instances in which a pencil1 if well sharpened and used with slight pressure is preferable4 ,to illustrate1 suppose it is desired to locate the ends of the mortises in the posts4 ,fig4 #add4 ,to knife entirely across the surfaces of the four pieces and around the sides of each as would be necessary to locate the ends of the mortises1 would injure the surfaces4 ,instead1 pencil these lines and gage between the pencil lines4 ,those parts of the pencil lines enclosed by the gage lines--the ends of the mortises--may then be knifed1 if desired1 to assist in placing the chisel for the final cut4 ,in sawing joints in hard wood1 the saw should be made to cut accurately to the line1 ,chapter ,,ii1 ,section #ad4 ,when working soft wood1 beginners are often permitted to leave a small margin--about one thirty-second of an inch--between the knife and the saw kerf4 ,this margin is afterwards pared away with the chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 #gh4 ,dado4--,a dado1 ,fig4 #ade1 is made by cutting a rectangular groove entirely across one member into which the end of another member fits4 ,dadoes are cut across the grain of the wood2 when similar openings are cut parallel to the grain1 they are called simply1 grooves4 ,dadoes are used in the making of shelving1 window and door frames1 etc4 #gi4 ,directions for ,dado4--7#a7 ,locate by means of the rule one side of the dado and mark its position with the point of the knife4 7#b7 ,at this point1 square a sharp line across the piece with knife and trysquare4 7#c7 ,by superposition1 locate and mark the second side4 7#d7 ,square these lines across the edges of the piece a distance equal to the approximate depth of the dado4 7#e7 ,set the gage for the required depth and gage between the knife lines on the two edges4 7#f7 ,saw just far enough inside the knife lines that the sides of the dado may be finished to the lines with the chisel4 ,chapter ,,ii1 ,section #ad4 ,saw down just to the gage lines1 watching both edges that the kerfs be not made too deep4 7#g7 ,chisel out the waste until the bottom of the dado is smooth and true4 ,chapter ,v1 ,section #dg4 ,test the bottom as shown in ,fig4 #adf4 ,two brads are driven into a block having a straight edge until they project a distance equal to the proposed depth of the dado4 7#h7 ,pare the sides of the dado to the knife lines4 ,chapter ,v1 ,section #dh4 ,these sides might be finished in another way1 by setting a wide chisel in the knife line and tapping it gently with a mallet4 ,if care is taken the successive settings of the chisel need not show4 ,where the dado is to be cut on a piece narrow enough that the saw may be made to follow the line accurately1 it is considered better practice to saw accurately to the line4 ,chapter ,,ii1 ,section #ad4 #hj4 ,cross-,lap ,joint4--,usually1 stock for the two members of the cross-lap joint can be best planed to width and thickness in one piece4 ,place two sets of face marks on the piece1 so that there shall be one set of marks on each member after they are separated4 ,two methods of making this joint are given4 ,the first is safer for beginners2 the second1 because the members cannot be tried until the joints are completed1 is an excellent test of one's ability4 ,fig4 #adg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 #ha4 ,directions for ,cross-,lap ,joint4--,first ,method3 7#a7 ,square the two ends1 measure from each of these the desired length of each member1 square knife lines around1 saw apart1 finishing the ends square to the lines4 7#b7 ,measure from one end of each member the required distance to the nearer edge of the joint4 ,since the corresponding faces of the two members must be on the same side of the piece when the parts are put together1 it will be necessary to lay off the groove of one member on the face and of the other member on the side opposite the face4 ,if the joints are to be in the middle of each member but one measurement need be made4 ,chapter ,,vii1 ,section #fb4 7#c7 ,square sharp knife lines across at these points4 7#d7 ,by superposition1 locate and knife the second edge of each joint4 7#e7 ,if the joints are to be in the middle of each member1 before proceeding further1 test to see that the lines have been laid out properly4 ,if the members are placed side by side and the ends evened as in laying out in 7#b7 above1 the lines will of necessity correspond4 ,turn one of the members end for end and even the two ends2 the lines ought still to correspond4 ,if they do not1 points marked midway between the corresponding lines will give the correct position for the new lines1 ,fig4 #adh4 7#f7 ,extend the knife lines just made across the two adjoining surfaces of each member4 7#g7 ,set the gage for the required depth and gage between the knife lines on these surfaces4 ,tho the groove on one member is laid out on the side opposite the face1 do not make the mistake of holding the head of the gage against other than the face4 7#h7 ,saw accurately1 ,chapter ,,ii1 ,section #ad1 to the knife lines and to a depth indicated by the gage lines4 7#i7 ,chisel out the waste stock4 ,chapter ,v1 ,section #dg4 7#aj7 ,test as shown in ,fig4 #adi4 ,a well made cross-lap joint is one in which the members can be put together with the pressure of the hands and which will not fall apart of their own weight4 ,fig4 #aej shows the results of 8forcing a fit40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 #hb4 ,directions for ,cross-,lap ,joint4--,second ,method4 ,the two members are to be planed to width and thickness in one piece but are not to be separated until the grooves have been laid out and cut4 ,the grooves must be laid out by measurement only1 since superposition is impossible4 ,the positions of the grooves relative to the faces are1 as in the first method1 one on the face and one on the side opposite4 ,the gaging for both is done from the faces4 #hc4 ,glue ,joint4--,frequently it becomes necessary to glue together a number of boards to make one wide enough to meet the requirements of the work in hand4 ,a table top is a good illustration4 ,a properly glued butt joint ought to be stronger than the natural wood4 ,when the wood is of sufficient thickness1 the joint may be reinforced by means of dowels4 ,the jointer should be used for planing the edges4 ,it is extremely difficult to prepare edges for glue joints with the shorter planes4 ,the jack plane should be used to rough off the edges and prepare them for the jointer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 #hd4 ,directions for ,glue ,joint4--7#a7 ,if the boards are in the rough1 plane one surface of each true and out of wind4 7#b7 ,pencil the face marks upon these surfaces and indicate in some way the direction of the surface grain as well4 ,later1 it will be necessary to plane both pieces at once in surfacing over the joints1 and unless the parts are fitted with proper regard to the grain1 it will be impossible to plane one without roughing up the other4 ,then too1 the faces should be so selected that the warpage of one shall counteract the warpage of the other4 ,fig4 #aea shows the manner of placing the pieces4 ,observe the rings of growth4 ,chapter #ab4 7#c7 ,joint one edge of each piece straight and square4 ,the final plane strokes must be taken the full length of the board and the plane-iron must be set very shallow4 ,since the shrinkage is more at the ends than in the middle1 sometimes the middles of long boards are planed just a shaving or two lower than the ends4 7#d7 ,place one of the boards in the vise1 jointed edge up1 and place the other board in position on it4 ,four tests are commonly used3 ,first1 placing the eye on a level with the joint and looking toward the light1 ,fig4 #aeb2 second1 tapping the under board lightly to see if the top board 8rocks02 third1 sliding the top board lengthwise slowly to 8feel0 for suction2 fourth1 holding a straightedge as shown in ,fig4 #aec to see that the faces lie in the same plane4 7#e7 ,glue the edges1 ,fig4 #aed4 ,work rapidly but carefully4 7#f7 ,place the parts in the clamps and set away to dry2 ten hours is usually long enough4 ,keep the faces as even as possible in applying the clamps4 7#g7 ,when the glue has hardened the clamps may be removed1 the surplus glue scraped off and the parts treated as one piece in squaring it up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 #he4 ,doweling4--,dowels are small wooden pins used in joining parts together4 ,dowels can be bought ready made in a variety of sizes4 ,if desired short dowels may be made as follows3 7#a7 ,select straight-grained strong wood--beech1 birch or oak2 waste wood can usually be found that will do4 7#b7 ,split1 not saw1 these pieces roughly to square prisms4 ,the blocks from which they are to be split should not be over eight or ten inches long to work well4 7#c7 ,plane off the irregularities1 roughly rounding the pieces to size4 7#d7 ,point the ends slightly and drive the pieces thru a dowel plate4 ,fig4 #aee4 ,the pegs should be driven thru the larger hole first4 ,the holes of the dowel plate are larger in diameter on one side of the plate than on the other to give clearance to the peg as it is driven thru4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,the cutting edge of the hole is at the smaller diameter2 place that side of the plate up4 ,never use a hammer as it would split the top of the peg and would ruin the cutting edge of the dowel plate should it strike it4 ,use a mallet1 and when the peg is nearly thru finish by striking a second peg placed upon the head of the first4 #hf4 ,directions for ,doweling4--7#a7 ,place the boards to be doweled side by side in the vise1 the face sides out1 and even the jointed edges4 7#b7 ,square lines across the two edges with knife and trysquare at points where it is desired to locate dowels4 7#c7 ,set the gage for about half the thickness of the finished board and gage from the face side across the knife lines4 7#d7 ,at the resulting crosses bore holes of the same diameter as that of the dowel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,these holes should be bored to a uniform depth4 ,count the turns of the brace4 ,one inch is a good depth for ordinary work4 7#e7 ,countersink the holes slightly1 just enough to remove the sharp arrises4 ,this removes any bur and allows a little space into which the surplus glue may run4 7#f7 ,cut the sharp arrises off the dowel1 just enough to allow it to be started into the hole4 7#g7 ,with a stick slightly smaller than the hole1 place glue upon the sides of the hole1 and drive the dowel in4 ,a small ,v-shaped groove previously cut along the side of the dowel will allow the surplus glue to escape and thus prevent any danger of splitting the board4 7#h7 ,clean off the surplus glue1 unless the members can be placed together before it has had time to set4 7#i7 ,saw off the dowels to a length slightly less than the depth of the holes in the second piece4 7#aj7 ,trim off the sharp arrises4 ,fig4 #aef4 7#aa7 ,glue the holes and the edge of the second board4 7#ab7 ,put the two members in the clamps and set away until the glue has had time to harden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 #hg4 ,keyed ,tenon-and-,mortise4--,fig4 #aeg shows the tenon1 the mortise in the second member into which the tenon fits1 the mortise in the tenon and its key or wedge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 #hh4 ,directions for ,key3--,keys are made in quite a variety of shapes4 ,some of the simple forms are shown in ,fig4 #aeh4 ,where two or more keys of the same size are to be made1 it is customary to plane all in one piece4 7#a7 ,plane a face side1 a face edge1 gage and plane to thickness4 ,if there is more than one key1 saw each to length4 7#b7 ,shape the remaining edge as desired4 ,the lines ,,ab and ,,cd1 ,fig4 #aeh1 indicate the points at which measurements are to be made to determine the length of mortise in the tenon which is to receive the key4 ,these lines should be laid off at a distance apart equal to the thickness of the tenon4 #hi4 ,directions for ,tenon4--7#a7 ,measure from the end of the piece the length of the tenon1 and mark with a knife point4 ,where tenons are to be cut on both ends of a piece1 measurement is frequently made from the middle of the piece each way to locate the shoulders4 ,should there be any variation in the length of the piece from what it should be1 this difference will then be equally divided at the ends4 ,this is done when it is more important to have the distance between the shoulders of a definite length than that the tenons be of correct length4 7#b7 ,square knife lines entirely around the piece at the knife point mark4 7#c7 ,set the gage equal to the distance required from the face edge to the nearest edge of the tenon and mark on both sides1 as far as the shoulder marks1 and on the end4 7#d7 ,repeat1 setting the gage from the face edge to the farther edge of the tenon4 ,if the two members are of the same width and the tenon and mortise are to be equally distant from the face edge1 both tenon and mortise should be gaged with the same settings4 ,frequently1 the gage settings are obtained from the rule indirectly4 ,the rule is laid across the piece and the width or thickness of mortise or tenon marked with the point of a knife blade1 ,fig4 #aei4 ,the spur of the gage is then set in one of these points1 the block being pushed firmly against the face2 the thumb-screw is then fastened1 ,fig4 #afj4 ,the second setting is obtained in a similar manner from the same edge or side4 ,all the pieces are marked for the first width before resetting4 7#e7 ,after having laid out the mortise in the tenon1 rip to the gage lines and cross-cut to the shoulder lines1 paring if necessary4 7#f7 ,slightly bevel the ends of the tenon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 #ij4 ,directions for ,mortise4--7#a7 ,from one end of the piece measure and mark with the knife point the respective distances to the two edges of the mortise4 7#b7 ,square lines across the face edge and the two broad surfaces at these points4 7#c7 ,set the gage equal to the required distance from the face edge to the nearer edge of the mortise and mark between the lines4 7#d7 ,set the gage equal to the required distance from the face edge to the farther edge of the mortise and mark between the lines4 ,make both gage lines on face side and side opposite as well4 7#e7 ,cut the mortises4 ,first1 bore a series of holes thru the mortise1 using a bit somewhat smaller than the width of the mortise4 ,bore these holes so that they connect one with another4 7#f7 ,place the piece on a chiseling board and1 taking thin cuts about half way thru1 work from the middle of the mortise out to within one thirty-second of an inch of the knife and gage lines4 7#g7 ,reverse and chisel from the other side1 finishing it2 then chisel the first side out to the lines4 ,test the sides of the mortise with a straight edge--the blade of the chisel makes a good one--to see that they are cut straight4 ,fig4 #afa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 #ia4 ,directions for ,mortise in the ,tenon4--7#a7 ,lay out the sides of the mortise for the key before the sides and shoulders of the tenons are cut4 ,from the shoulder line of the tenon1 measure toward the end a distance slightly less--about one thirty-second of an inch--than the thickness of the member thru which the tenon is to pass4 ,this is to insure the key's wedging against the second member4 7#b7 ,square this line across the face edge and on to the side opposite the face side4 7#c7 ,on the top surface measure from the line just squared around the piece a distance equal to the width the key is to have at this point when in place4 ,fig4 #aeh1 ,a ,b4 7#d7 ,square a pencil line across the surface at this point4 7#e7 ,in a similar manner1 measure and locate a line on the opposite side1 ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #aeh4 7#f7 ,set the gage and mark the side of the mortise nearer the face edge on face side and side opposite4 7#g7 ,reset1 and from the face edge gage the farther side of the mortise1 marking both sides4 7#h7 ,this mortise may be bored and chiseled like the one preceding4 ,as one side of the mortise is to be cut sloping1 a little more care will be needed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 #ib4 ,blind ,mortise-and-,tenon4--,probably no joint has a greater variety of applications than the blind mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #afb4 ,it is of equal importance to carpentry1 joinery and cabinet-making4 ,the tenon shown has four shoulders2 it is often made with but three or two4 #ic4 ,directions for ,tenon4--7#a7 ,measure from the end of the piece the length of tenon1 7see also directions for tenon1 ,section #hi7 and mark with the point of a knife4 7#b7 ,square knife lines entirely around the four sides at this point to locate the shoulders4 7#c7 ,lay the rule across the face edge near the end of the piece and mark points with the end of the knife to indicate the thickness of the tenon1 ,fig4 #aei4 7#d7 ,with the head of the gage against the face side1 set the spur of the gage in one of these marks1 then fasten the set screw1 ,fig4 #afj4 ,gage on the end and the two edges as far back as the knife lines4 ,when there are several tenons remember to mark all of them before resetting4 7#e7 ,set the gage in the other mark1 the head of the gage being placed against the face side2 then gage as before4 7#f7 ,in a similar manner1 place the rule across the face side1 mark points with the knife for the width of tenon1 set the gage to these points1 and gage on the face and side opposite as far as the shoulder lines and across the end4 ,the head of the gage must be held against the face edge for both settings4 7#g7 ,rip to all of the gage lines first1 then crosscut to the shoulder lines1 using back-saw4 7#h7 ,the end of the tenon may be slightly beveled that it may be started into the mortise without tearing off the arrises of the opening4 #id4 ,directions for ,laying out ,mortise4--7#a7 ,from one end of the piece measure the required distance to the nearer and the farther ends of the mortise4 ,mark points with the knife4 7#b7 ,square lines across at these points4 7#c7 ,lay the rule across the face into which the mortise is to be cut and mark points with the knife for the sides of the mortise4 7#d7 ,set the gage as was done for the tenon1 the spur being placed in the knife point mark and the head of the gage being pushed up against the face4 ,gage between the cross lines4 7#e7 ,reset from the same face for the other side of the mortise1 and then gage4 ,if a mortise or tenon is to be placed in the middle of a piece1 find the middle of the piece1 ,fig4 #c1 ,chapter ,i1 ,section #a1 and with the knife1 place points to each side of the center mark at a distance equal to one half the thickness or width of the tenon or mortise4 ,when several mortises or tenons of the same size are to be laid out and are to be equally distant from a face1 the gage needs to be set but twice for all--once to mark the nearer edges and once for the farther edges of the tenon or mortise4 ,should there be several like members with like joints1 the gage settings obtained from the first piece will suffice for all4 ,the importance of working from face sides or face edges only1 cannot be overestimated4 ,to work from either of the other two sides of a piece would make the joints subject to any variation in the widths or thicknesses of the pieces4 ,to gage from the faces only1 insures mortises and tenons of exact size no matter how much the pieces may vary in widths or thicknesses4 #ie4 ,directions for ,cutting ,mortise4--,two methods of cutting mortises are in common use1 7a7 boring and chiseling1 and 7b7 chiseling alone4 ,first method3 7#a7 ,fasten the piece in the vise in a horizontal position4 7#b7 ,bore a series of connecting holes to the required depth1 ,chapter ,,iv1 ,section #de1 with a bit slightly smaller than the width of the mortise4 7#c7 ,the sides of the mortise are next pared to the gage and knife lines1 beginning at the auger holes and working with thin slices toward the lines4 ,this method requires care and patience in order to get the sides of the mortise cut square to the surface4 ,it is especially well adapted to large mortises from which much wood is to be removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 #if4 ,directions for ,cutting ,mortise4--,second ,method3 7#a7 ,clamp the piece which is to be mortised firmly to the bench top1 using a hand clamp4 ,fig4 #afc shows a little device called a mortise grip4 ,tighten the vise screw and tap the grip with the mallet until it holds the piece solidly4 7#b7 ,select a chisel of a width equal to that desired for the mortise4 ,stand well back of the mortise at one end or the other so as to be able to sight the chisel plumb with reference to the sides of the mortise4 7#c7 ,begin the cutting in the center of the mortise4 ,make the first cut with the bevel of the chisel toward you2 reverse the bevel and cut out the wedge-shaped piece1 w1 ,fig4 #afd4 7#d7 ,continue cutting in this manner until the proper depth has been attained1 making the opening no larger at the surface than is necessary4 7#e7 ,set the chisel in a vertical position1 bevel towards you1 begin at the center and1 taking thin slices1 cut toward the farther end4 ,drive the chisel the full depth of the mortise each time1 then pull the handle towards you to break the chip from the sides of the mortise4 ,cut to within one-eighth of an inch of the end of the mortise4 7#f7 ,reverse the piece1 or your position1 and cut in a similar manner to within one-eighth of an inch of the second end4 7#g7 ,with the bevel side of the chisel next the end of the mortise pry out the chips once or twice as the cutting proceeds4 7#h7 ,chisel the ends to the knife lines1 carefully sighting the chisel for the two directions4 ,fig4 #afe suggests the order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 #ig4 ,miter ,joint4--,the miter joint is subject to various modifications4 ,in the plain miter1 ,fig4 #aff1 the ends or edges abut4 ,they are usually fastened with glue or nails or both4 ,the most common form of the plain miter is that in which the slope is at an angle of forty-five degrees to the edge or side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 #ih4 ,directions for ,miter ,joint4--7#a7 ,lay off the slopes 7see ,chapter ,i1 ,section #d74 7#b7 ,cut and fit the parts4 ,to fit and fasten four miter joints1 such as are found in a picture frame1 is no easy task4 ,special miter boxes are made for this purpose which make such work comparatively easy4 7#c7 ,fig4 #afg shows the manner of applying the hand clamps to a simple miter joint4 ,when a joint is to be nailed1 drive the nail thru one piece until its point projects slightly4 ,place the second piece in the vise to hold it firmly4 ,hold the first piece so that its end projects somewhat over and beyond that of the second2 the nailing will tend to bring it to its proper position1 ,fig4 #afh4 ,if a nail is driven thru from the other direction1 care must be taken to so place it that it will not strike the first1 or a split join will result4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 #ii4 ,dovetail ,joint4--,dovetailed joints are so named from the shape of the pieces which make the joint4 ,fig4 #afi shows a thru multiple dovetail commonly used in fastening the corners of tool boxes4 ,in hand made dovetails1 the tenons are very narrow and the mortises wide1 while in machine made dovetails1 tenons and mortises are of equal width4 ,mechanics lay out the tenons without measurement1 depending upon the eye unaided to give the proper size and shape4 ,sometimes dovetails are laid out to exact shape and size1 the tenons being marked on both sides and ends4 ,the mortises are marked with trysquare and bevel after one side of each has been marked by superimposing the tenons4 ,in some kinds of dovetailing1 such as the half-blind dovetail1 the mortises are made first and the tenons marked out from them by superposition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 #ajj4 ,directions for ,dovetail ,joint4--7#a7 ,square lines around each end to locate the inner ends of the mortises and tenons4 ,these lines will be at a distance from the ends equal to the respective thicknesses of the pieces4 7#b7 ,determine the number of tenons wanted and square center lines across the end of the member which is to have the tenons4 ,place these center lines so that the intervening spaces shall be equal4 7#c7 ,measure along an arris and mark on either side of these center lines one-half of the desired width of the tenon4 ,in fine hand made dovetails1 the usual width for the narrow edge of tenon is scarcely more than one-sixteenth of an inch--the width of a narrow saw kerf4 7#d7 ,set the bevel for the amount of flare desired4 ,fig4 #agj shows measurements which may be used in setting the bevel4 ,a flare stick may be made of thin wood and used instead of a bevel if desired1 ,fig4 #agj4 7#e7 ,mark the flares on either side of the center lines4 ,place the bevel so that the wide side of the tenon shall be formed on the face side of the piece4 7#f7 ,carry these lines back on each side of the piece as far as the lines previously drawn across these sides4 7#g7 ,with a fine tenon saw rip accurately to the lines4 ,cut the kerfs out of the mortises1 not out of the tenons4 7#h7 ,chisel out the mortises formed between the tenons and trim up any irregularities in the tenons4 7#i7 ,set the tenons on end on the face side of the second member1 with the face side just touching the cross line placed on the second member1 ,fig4 #aga1 and mark along the sides of the tenons4 7#aj7 ,square lines across the end to correspond with the lines just drawn4 7#aa7 ,saw accurately to the lines1 cutting the kerfs out of the mortises1 not the tails4 ,chisel out the mortises for the tenons1 ,fig4 #agb4 7#ab7 ,fit the parts together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,elementary ,,cabinet ,,work4 #aja4 ,combination ,plane4--,the most elementary of cabinet work necessitates considerable groove cutting1 rabbeting1 etc4 ,rabbets and grooves can be formed by means of the chisel1 the sides first being gaged4 ,a better way1 by far1 is to plane them4 ,in earlier practice1 joiners were obliged to have a great variety of special planes--one for each kind of work1 and frequently different planes for different sizes of the same kind of work4 ,there were rabbeting1 dado1 plow1 filletster1 beading1 matching planes1 etc41 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,fig4 #agc illustrates a modern combination plane which1 by an exchange of cutters1 can be made to do the work of a 7#a7 beader1 center beader1 7#b7 rabbet and filletster1 7#c7 dado1 7#d7 plow1 7#e7 matching plane1 and 7#f7 slitting plane1 different sized cutters for each kind of work permitting of a great variety of uses4 ,by means of a guide or fence1 the plane can be set to cut to a required distance from the edge of the board4 ,a stop or depth gage can be set so as to keep the plane from cutting any deeper than is desired4 ,when cutting across the grain1 as in cutting dadoes1 adjustable cutting spurs precede and score or cut the fibers of the wood on either side of the cutter4 #ajb4 ,drawer ,construction4--,the front of a drawer is usually made of thicker stock than the other parts4 ,fig4 #agd4 ,for example1 if the front were to be made of three-quarter inch stock the sides1 back and bottom would probably be made of three-eighths inch material4 ,drawer fronts are always made of the same material as the rest of the cabinet or desk while the sides1 back and bottom are usually made of some soft wood such as yellow poplar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,fig4 #age ,a illustrates a very common method of fastening the drawer sides to the front4 ,this form is used mainly upon cheap or rough construction4 ,it is commonly known as a rabbeted joint4 ,the half-blind dovetail1 ,fig4 #age ,b1 is a better fastening1 by far1 and is used almost exclusively on fine drawer construction4 #ajc4 ,directions for ,rabbeted ,corner4--,the rabbeted joint1 ,fig4 #age ,a1 sometimes called a rebate or ledge joint is made as follows3 7#a7 ,line across the face side of the drawer front at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the drawer sides2 also1 across the edges to the approximate depth of rabbet4 7#b7 ,set the gage and gage on ends and edges as far as the lines just placed1 for the depth of rabbet4 7#c7 ,cut the sides of rabbet1 paring across the grain as in cutting the dado4 ,fasten by nailing thru the drawer sides into the front1 not thru the front into the sides4 #ajd4 ,directions for ,dovetail ,corner4--,the front of the drawer should be laid out and cut first4 7#a7 ,gage on the end the distance the drawer side is to lap over the front4 7#b7 ,without changing the setting of the gage1 hold the head of the gage against the end of the drawer side and gage on both broad surfaces4 ,ordinarily1 one should not gage across the grain of the wood nor should the head of the gage be held against other than a face4 ,a little thought will show why exception has been made in this case4 7#c7 ,square a line across the face side--the inside surface--of the drawer front at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the drawer side4 ,this line gives the depth of mortise for the tails4 7#d7 ,the groove for the drawer bottom having been cut1 or its position marked on the end of the front1 lay out on the end the half tenons at both edges so that the groove shall come wholly within a tail mortise4 ,the amount of flare at which to set the bevel is given in ,chapter ,,viii1 ,section #ajj4 7#e7 ,determine the number of tenons wanted and divide the space between the flares just drawn into the required number of equal parts and draw center lines for the tenons1 ,fig4 #agf4 7#f7 ,with the bevel lay off to either side of these center lines the sides of the tenons4 7#g7 ,carry these lines down the face side to meet the line previously drawn to indicate mortise depth4 7#h7 ,saw exactly to the knife lines1 cutting1 ,fig4 #agg1 the kerfs out of the mortises1 not the tenons4 7#i7 ,chisel out the mortises4 ,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,the corresponding mortises and tails may now be laid out on the drawer side and worked4 7#aj7 ,by superposition1 ,fig4 #agi1 mark out the shape of the mortises to be cut in the sides4 7#aa7 ,saw and chisel these mortises4 ,fig4 #agb4 #aje4 ,directions for ,drawer4--7#a7 ,square the different members to size4 7#b7 ,groove the front and sides of the drawer to receive the drawer bottom4 ,these grooves should be made somewhat narrower than the bottom is thick to insure a good fit4 ,the under side of the bottom1 later1 may be gaged and beveled on the two ends and the front edge1 ,fig4 #ahj4 7#c7 ,lay out and cut in the drawer sides the dadoes into which the ends of the back are to be fitted1 ,fig4 #aha4 7#d7 ,lay out and cut the joints on the front of the drawer4 7#e7 ,get the bottom ready2 that is1 plane the bevels on the under side as suggested in #b1 above4 7#f7 ,assemble the members dry to see that all fit properly4 7#g7 ,take apart2 glue the joints by which the sides are fastened to the front and the joints by which the back is fastened to the sides4 ,glue the bottom to the front of the drawer but not to the sides or back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,sometimes on large or rough work nails are used instead of glue to fasten the members together4 ,in this case the front1 sides and back are put together1 the back being kept just above the grooves in the sides4 ,the bottom is then slipped in place under the back4 ,it is fastened to the front of the drawer only4 ,especial care should be taken in squaring the bottom for the squareness of the drawer is dependent upon this4 #ajf4 ,paneling4--,often it is desired to fill in a rather wide space with wood4 ,to offset the effects of shrinkage1 winding and warpage1 a panel rather than a single solid piece is used4 ,by increasing the number of panels a space of any size may be filled4 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 #ajg4 ,cutting ,grooves4--,grooves for panels are best cut by means of the panel plow or combination plane4 ,it is not necessary to gage for the sides of the groove2 the adjustments of the plane are such as to give the proper depth and location1 when once set1 and a cutter of the width equal to that of the desired groove inserted4 ,the fence of the plane must be held against one or the other of the faces4 ,fig4 #agc4 #ajh4 ,haunched ,mortise-and-,tenon4--,a groove must be plowed the full length of a piece to work it to advantage4 ,where a mortise-and-tenon joint is to be made in which the grooved surface is to become a part1 the tenon must be so cut as to allow its filling the groove4 ,the mortise should be cut before the groove is plowed4 ,the tenon1 after being worked the full width1 is gaged from the face edge to a width equal to the length of the mortise and worked to that size4 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,especial care must be taken in gluing up the frame that no glue shall get into the grooves or on the edges of the panel4 #aji4 ,rabbeting4--,fig4 #ahd shows a corner of a frame rabbeted to receive a glass4 ,rabbets are best worked with either a rabbet plane or the combination plane4 ,in rabbeting across the grain the spur must be set parallel with the edges of the cutter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,since the parts of the frame are rabbeted the full length for convenience1 a special joint is necessary at the corners4 ,the mortises are cut before the rabbets are worked4 ,the tenons are laid out so that the shoulder on one side shall extend as far beyond the shoulder on the opposite side as the rabbet is deep4 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,where rabbeting must be worked with a chisel alone1 ,fig4 #ahf illustrates the manner of loosening up the wood preparatory to removing it1 when the rabbet extends along the grain of the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,to place glass panels in rabbets1 first place a slight cushion of putty in the rabbet that the glass may rest against it4 ,a light cushion between the glass and the fillet will serve to keep the glass from breaking and will keep it from rattling4 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 #aaj4 ,fitting a ,door4--,a door is a frame with a panel or a combination of panels4 ,the names of the parts of a door and their relative positions are indicated in ,fig4 #ahh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 7#a7 ,mark with a trysquare and saw off the lugs1 the parts of the stiles which project beyond the rails4 7#b7 ,plane an edge of the door until it fits a side of the frame against which it is to be hung4 ,if the frame is straight1 this edge may be planed straight4 ,it is not wise to take for granted the squareness or straightness of a frame4 ,a test or series of tests may first be made with square and straight-edge4 ,a mechanic1 however1 usually planes an edge until it fits the frame1 testing by holding the door against the frame as near to its position as its size will allow4 7#c7 ,plane the bottom or top edge of the door until it fits the frame properly when the first planed edge is in position4 7#d7 ,measure the width of the frame at its top and bottom1 ,fig4 #ahi1 and transfer these dimensions to the top and bottom of the door1 connecting them with a straight edge4 ,when approaching the line1 in planing1 place the door against the frame often enough to see where the allowances must be made for irregularities in the frame4 7#e7 ,the length of the frame may next be measured on each side and these dimensions transferred to the door4 ,connect them with a straight edge and plane and fit as was directed in the third step4 ,a door to work well must not be fitted perfectly tight2 it must have a little 8play10 the amount depending upon the size of the door4 ,the edge of the door which is to swing free is usually planed slightly lower at the back arris than at the front4 ,an examination of the movement of an ordinary house door will show the reason for this4 #aaa4 ,hinging a ,door4--,the hinges most commonly used in cabinet making and carpentry are the kind known as butts4 ,where the door stands in a vertical position1 hinges in which the two parts are joined by a loose pin are generally used4 ,by removing the pins the door may be removed without taking the screws out of the hinge4 ,such hinges are more easily applied than those with the fixed pin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 7#a7 ,place the door in position2 keep it tight against the top and the hinge side of the frame4 7#b7 ,measure from top and bottom of the door to locate the position for the top of the higher hinge and the bottom of the lower hinge4 ,usually1 the lower hinge is placed somewhat farther from the bottom than the higher hinge is from the top4 7#c7 ,with the knife or chisel mark on both door and frame at the points just located1 ,fig4 #aij4 7#d7 ,take out the door1 place the hinge as in ,fig4 #aia1 and mark along the ends1 with a knife4 ,in a similar manner mark the frame4 ,make certain that the openings on door and on frame are laid off so as to correspond before proceeding further4 7#f7 ,set the gage for the depth the hinge is to be sunk and gage both door and frame4 7#g7 ,set another gage for width of openings and gage both door and frame1 keeping the head of the gage against the front of the door4 7#h7 ,chisel out these gains on door and frame4 7#i7 ,if loose-pin butts are used1 separate the parts and fasten them in place4 ,use a brad awl to make openings for the screws4 ,to insure the hinges' pulling tight against the side of the gain make the holes just a little nearer the back side of the screw hole of the hinge4 ,put the door in place and insert the pins4 ,it is a good mechanic who can make a door hang properly the first time it is put up4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to insert but one or two screws in each part of a hinge until the door has been tried4 7#aj7 ,if the door hangs away from the frame on the hinge side1 take it off2 take off hinge on door or frame1 or both if the crack is large2 chisel the gain deeper at its front4 ,by chiseling at the front only and feathering the cut towards the back1 the gain needs to be cut but about one-half as deep as if the whole hinge were sunk4 ,if the door should fail to shut because the hinge edge strikes the frame too soon1 the screws of the offending hinge must be loosened and a piece of heavy paper or cardboard inserted along the entire edge of the gain4 ,fasten the screws and cut off the surplus paper with a knife4 ,if plain butt hinges are used the operations are similar to those just described except that the whole hinge must be fastened to the door and the door held in place while fastening the hinges to the frame4 #aab4 ,locks4--,locks which are fastened upon the surface of a door are called rim locks4 ,those which are set into mortises cut in the edge of the door are called mortise locks4 ,locks are placed somewhat above the middle of the door for convenience as well as appearance4 ,three styles of cabinet locks such as are used on drawers and small boxes are shown in ,fig4 #aib4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,the manner of applying a cabinet lock will be suggested by the lock itself4 ,on surface locks1 7#a7 the lock is held against the inside of the door or drawer and the position of the keyhole is marked4 7#b7 ,this hole is bored4 7#c7 ,the lock is screwed in place1 and 7#d7 the escutcheon fastened to the outer or front surface4 ,if a face plate is used1 the door is closed1 the position marked1 after which the door is opened and the plate is set4 ,the face plate is mortised into the frame so that its outer surface shall be slightly lower than that of the wood4 ,with a lock such as the box lock1 ,fig4 #aib1 sufficient wood must be removed from the mortise so that the bolt may act properly before the plate is screwed fast4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,wood ,,and ,,wood ,,finishing4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,wood4 #aac4 ,structure4--,for convenience1 tree structure is usually studied 7#a7 in transverse or cross section1 7#b7 radially1 7#c7 tangentially4 ,illustration3 ,v4--,vessels or pores4 ,t4,s4--,tangential ,section4 ,c4,s4--,transverse ,r4,s4--,radial ,,fig4 #aic4 ,a transverse section is obtained by cutting a log at right angles to its length2 a radial section by cutting it along the radius2 a tangential section by making a cut at right angles to a radius4 ,fig4 #aic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,if we should cut transversely a young tree1 a sprout1 or branch of an oak or similar tree1 we should find it composed of three layers of tissue 7#a7 pith or medulla1 7#b7 wood1 7#c7 bark1 ,fig4 #aid4 ,these tissues1 if magnified1 would be found composed of little closed tubes or cells4 ,fig4 #aie4 ,examine the end of a log cut from a tree such as the oak2 we shall find that the center1 which in the young tree was soft1 has become hard and dry1 and that upon it are marked a series of concentric rings--rings having a common center4 ,these rings are known as annual rings because one is added each year4 ,usually1 about three-quarters of the rings from the center outward will be found to have a different color from the remaining ones4 ,these inner rings form what is called heartwood4 ,the wood of the remaining rings will be found softer and to contain a larger proportion of sap4 ,this part is called sapwood4 ,young trees are composed mainly of sapwood4 ,as the tree grows older more of it is changed to heartwood1 the heartwood becoming greater in proportion to the sapwood with age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,upon examining these rings each will be found to be made up of two layers2 one a light1 soft1 open1 rapid growth formed in the spring1 the other1 a dark1 hard1 close1 slow growth formed in the summer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,frequently1 the center of the annual rings is not in the center of the log4 ,fig4 #aif4 ,this is due to the action of the sun in attracting more nourishment to one side than to the other4 ,surrounding the sapwood is the bark4 ,the inner part of the bark is called bast and is of a stringy or fibrous nature4 ,bark is largely dead matter formed from bast1 ,fig4 #aie4 ,its function is to protect the living tissues4 ,between the bast and the last ring of the woody tissue is a thin layer called the cambium4 ,this layer is the living and growing part of the tree4 ,its cells multiply by division and form new wood cells on the inside and new bast cells on the outside4 ,heartwood is dead so far as any change in its cells is concerned4 ,its purpose is merely to stiffen and support the weight of the tree4 ,sapwood1 on the other hand1 has many active cells which assist in the life processes of the tree1 tho only in the outer layer of cells1 the cambium1 does the actual growing or increasing process take place4 ,again examining the end of the log1 we shall find bright lines radiating from the center4 ,they are composed of the same substance as the pith or medulla and are called pith or medullary rays4 ,these rays are present in all trees which grow by adding ring upon ring but in some they are hardly visible4 ,the purpose of these horizontal cells is to bind the vertical cells together and to assist in distributing and storing up plant food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,fig4 #aig shows a log cut longitudinally or lengthwise4 ,the lines we call grain1 it will be seen1 are the edges of the annual rings1 the light streaks being an edge view of the spring layer and the dark streaks an edge view of the summer or autumn wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,knots are formed by the massing or knotting of the fibers of the tree through the growth of a branch4 ,fig4 #aih shows the manner in which the fibers are turned4 ,this packing of the fibers is what causes a knot to be so much harder than the rest of the wood4 #aad4 ,growth4--,sap is the life blood of the tree4 ,in the winter when most of the trees are bare of leaves there is but very little circulation of the sap4 ,the coming of spring with its increase of heat and light1 causes the tree to begin to take on new life2 that is1 the sap begins to circulate4 ,this movement of sap causes the roots to absorb from the soil certain elements such as hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen and carbon1 also mineral salts in solution4 ,the liquid thus absorbed works its way upward1 mainly by way of the sapwood and medullary cells4 ,upon reaching the cambium layer1 the nourishment which it provides causes the cells to expand1 divide and generate new cells4 ,it also causes the buds to take the form of leaves4 ,when the sap reaches the leaves a chemical change takes place4 ,this change takes place only in the presence of heat and light1 and is caused by the action of a substance called chlorophyll4 ,the importance of the work performed by chlorophyll cannot be overestimated4 ,nearly all plant life depends upon it to change mineral substance into food4 ,animals find food in plant life because of this change4 ,assimilation is the process of taking up and breaking up1 by the leaves1 of carbonic acid gas with which the cells containing chlorophyll come in contact4 ,carbon1 one of the elements1 is retained1 but oxygen1 the other element1 is returned to the air4 ,carbon is combined with the oxygen and hydrogen of the water1 which came up from the roots1 to form new chemical compounds4 ,nitrogen and earthy parts1 which came with the water1 are also present4 ,chlorophyll gives to leaves and young bark their green color4 ,the roots of the trees are constantly drinking plant food in the daytime of spring and early summer4 ,from midsummer until the end of summer the amount of moisture taken in is very small so that the flow of sap almost ceases4 ,the leaves1 however1 are full of sap which1 not being further thinned by the upward flow1 becomes thickened thru the addition of carbonic acid gas and the loss of oxygen4 ,toward the end of summer this thickened sap sinks to the under side of the leaf and gradually flows out of the leaf and down thru the bast of the branch and trunk1 where another process of digestion takes place4 ,one part of this descending sap which has been partly digested in the leaves and partly in the living tissues of root1 trunk and branch1 spreads over the wood formed in the spring and forms the summer wood4 ,the second part is changed to bark4 ,what is not used at once is stored until needed4 ,the leaves upon losing their sap change color1 wither and drop off4 ,by the end of autumn the downward flow of changed sap from the leaves is completed and the tree has prepared itself for the coming winter4 ,it must be remembered that the foregoing changes are made gradually4 ,after the first movement of the sap in the early spring has nourished the buds into leaves of a size sufficient to perform work1 there begins a downward movement of food materials--slight at first1 to be sure1 but ever increasing in volume until the leaves are doing full duty4 ,we may say1 therefore1 that the upward movement of the sap thru the sapwood and the downward flow of food materials thru the bast takes place at the same time1 their changes being of relative volumes rather than of time4 #aae4 ,respiration and ,transpiration4--,plants1 like animals1 breathe2 like animals they breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbonic acid gas4 ,respiration which is but another name for breathing1 goes on day and night1 but is far less active than assimilation1 which takes place only during the day4 ,consequently more carbonic acid gas is taken in than is given out except at night when1 to a slight extent1 the reverse takes place1 small quantities of carbonic acid gas being given off and oxygen taken in4 ,very small openings in the bark called lenticles1 furnish breathing places4 ,oxygen is also taken in thru the leaves4 ,transpiration is the evaporation of water from all parts of the tree above ground1 principally from the leaves4 ,the amount of water absorbed by the roots is greatly in excess of what is needed4 ,that fresh supplies of earthy matter may reach the leaves1 the excess of water must be got rid of4 ,in trees with very thick bark1 transpiration takes place thru the lenticles in the bottom of the deep cracks4 #aaf4 ,moisture4--,water is present in all wood4 ,it may be found 7#a7 in the cavities of the lifeless cells1 fibers and vessels2 7#b7 in the cell walls2 and 7#c7 in the living cells of which it forms over ninety per cent4 ,sapwood contains more water than heartwood4 ,water-filled wood lacks the strength of wood from which the greater part of the moisture has been expelled by evaporation4 #aag4 ,shrinkage4--,water in the cell walls--it makes no difference whether the cells are filled or empty--causes their enlargement and consequently an increase in the volume of the block or plank4 ,the removal of this water by evaporation causes the walls to shrink2 the plank becomes smaller and lighter4 ,thick walled cells shrink more than thin ones and summer wood more than spring wood4 ,cell walls do not shrink lengthwise and since the length of a cell is often a hundred or more times as great as its diameter the small shrinkage in the thickness of the cell walls at ,a and ,b1 in ,fig4 #aii1 is not sufficient to make any noticeable change in the length of the timber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,since the cells of the pith or medullary rays extend at right angles to the main body1 ,fig4 #bjj1 their smaller shrinkage along the radius of the log opposes the shrinkage of the longitudinal fibers4 ,this is one reason why a log shrinks more circumferentially1 that is along the rings1 than it does radially or along the radii4 ,a second cause lies in the fact that greatly shrinking bands of summer wood are interrupted1 along the radii1 by as many bands of slower shrinking spring wood1 while they are continuous along the rings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,this tendency of the log to shrink tangentially or along the radii leads to permanent checks4 ,fig4 #bja ,a4 ,it causes logs sawed into boards to take forms as shown in ,fig4 #bja ,b4 ,warping is caused by uneven shrinkage4 ,sapwood1 as a rule1 shrinks more than heartwood of the same weight4 ,the wood of pine1 spruce1 cypress1 etc41 shrinks less than the wood of trees such as the oak4 #aah4 ,weight4--,wood substance is #a4f times as heavy as water2 it matters not whether it be wood of oak1 pine or poplar4 ,wood placed in water floats because of the air enclosed in its cells2 when the cells become filled with water it sinks4 ,the weight of any given piece of wood is determined 7#a7 by the wood substance--this is always the same2 7#b7 by the amount of water enclosed in its cells--this varies4 ,some kinds of woods are heavier than others similarly seasoned because they contain more wood substance in a given volume4 ,weight of wood is an important quality4 ,to a large extent1 strength is measured by weight2 a heavy piece of oak will be stronger than a light one of the same species4 ,lightness1 strength and stiffness are properties which recommend wood for different uses4 #aai4 ,other ,properties4--,strength1 elasticity1 hardness1 toughness and cleavability as applied to timber1 have their usual meaning4 #abj4 ,grain4--,wood fibers generally extend parallel to the axis of the trunk or branch which they form4 ,in this case the wood is said to be straight grained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,frequently1 the fibers grow around the tree as in ,fig4 #bjb1 or several layers may grow obliquely in one direction and the next series grow obliquely in the opposite direction1 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,boards cut from such trees will be cross grained or twisted4 ,the surface of the wood under the bark is seldom smooth4 ,usually these hollows are filled even by the addition of one or two new rings of growth4 ,however1 in some woods as maple1 the unevennesses are maintained1 the high places being added to as are the low4 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,a board cut tangentially from the tree in which the depressions are small and numerous will have 8birds' eyes04 ,dormant buds frequently cause small cone-shaped elevations1 which tho covered with successive layers of new wood1 retain their shape4 ,cross sections of these cones will appear on the sawed board as irregular circles with a dark speck in the center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,,felling ,,red ,,spruce ,,with ,,the ,,saw4 ,,adirondack ,,mountains1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,lumbering ,,and ,,milling4 #aba4 ,lumbering4--,lumbering is of two kinds3 conservative and ordinary4 ,the first seeks to so treat the forest that successive crops may be produced2 the second takes no account of the future4 ,it cuts only the better parts of the trees1 often destroying young and promising trees in so doing4 ,lumbering in the ,united ,states in usually carried on at quite a distance from habitation4 ,a camp is1 therefore1 prepared at a spot convenient for the logging operators4 ,here the men eat and sleep4 ,a lumberman selects the trees which are to be cut and marks them with a hatchet to prevent mistakes4 ,these trees are felled either with the ax or saw1 sometimes both4 ,fig4 #bje4 ,when the trees are down1 the lower branches and top are trimmed off with axes1 after which the trunks are sawed into logs of convenient length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,,hauling ,,spruce ,,logs ,,to ,,the ,,skidway4 ,,adirondack ,,mountains1 ,,new ,,york4 ,these logs are dragged away and collected in piles4 ,this is called skidding1 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,skidding is usually done with horses or oxen4 ,from these piles the logs are loaded upon sleds1 ,fig4 #bjg1 and hauled to the place from which they are loaded on cars1 rolled into a stream or otherwise transferred to the sawmill4 ,fig4 #bjh illustrates a method used in the south which combines skidding and hauling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,,load ,,of ,,white ,,pine ,,logs1 ,,hubbard ,,co41 ,,minnesota4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,,hauling ,,logs ,,by ,,mule ,,team ,,near ,,ocilla1 ,,georgia4 ,logs are transported to the sawmill in various ways3 ,they may be loaded on cars1 and hauled to the millpond1 ,figs4 #bji and #baj4 ,they may be floated down some stream4 ,where a stream is not deep they are often collected in the bed just below a specially prepared dam called a splash-dam4 ,when the dam is opened the sudden flood carries them along4 ,logs are often made into rafts where the stream is large and deep or they may be floated singly4 ,men called log or river drivers accompany these logs4 ,it is their duty to break up any jams which the logs may form4 ,river-driving is dangerous work and requires great daring on the part of the men4 ,they must learn to balance themselves on floating1 rolling logs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,,loaded ,,train ,,of ,,longleaf ,,pine1 ,,barham1 ,,louisiana4 ,when a log jam is broken the logs go out with a great rush and the driver must make his escape as best he can4 #abb4 ,milling4--,if the sawmill is located upon the banks of a running stream the logs are enclosed by a log boom until they are wanted for sawing4 ,fig4 #baa4 ,log booms are made by chaining logs together and stretching them across the river2 they are to the enclosed logs what fences are to cattle4 ,soaking logs in water helps to clean the wood4 ,the mineral matter which is soluble is washed out4 ,fig4 #bab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,,unloading ,,logs ,,from ,,train1 ,,pinogrande1 ,,california4 ,three kinds of saws are in common use in cutting logs into lumber3 circular1 band and gang4 ,circular saws cut faster than band-saws but are rather wasteful because they cut such a wide kerf4 ,a large circular saw frequently cuts a kerf one-quarter of an inch wide4 ,gang saws cut out several boards at the same time4 ,band-saws1 because of their economy1 are displacing the others4 ,the common forms into which logs are sawed are timbers1 planks and boards4 ,timbers refer to the larger pieces such as are used for framing2 planks are wide pieces over one and one-half inches thick2 and boards are wide pieces less than one and one-half inches thick4 ,at the mill the log is drawn from the water1 up a slide1 ,fig4 #bac1 by an endless chain4 ,in the mill it is inspected for stones and spikes and then measured4 ,next it is automatically pushed out of the slip upon a sloping platform called the log deck where it is held by a stop until it is wanted at the saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,,the ,,glens ,,falls ,,boom1 ,,hudson ,,river1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,,log ,,pond ,,near ,,ocilla1 ,,georgia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,,double ,,cut ,,saw ,,mill1 ,,pinogrande1 ,,california4 ,when the carriage is empty the stop is withdrawn and at the same time revolves so as to throw the log upon the carriage4 ,iron hooks called dogs are then fastened in the log in such a way that it cannot turn4 ,fig4 #bad4 ,the carriage and log move toward the saw and a slab is cut off the log4 ,a reversing lever takes the carriage back2 again the log is moved to the saw4 ,this is repeated until a few boards are cut off4 ,the more modern band saws have teeth on each edge of the blade so that the log is cut as the carriage moves backward as well as when it moves forward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,,log ,,slide ,,at ,a ,,mill ,,in ,,southern ,,georgia4 ,the dogs are released and the log is given a half turn on the carriage by means of a steam 8canter40 ,the side from which the slab and boards were sawed is placed against the knees--the standards or uprights of the carriage--and the log again dogged4 ,the opposite slab and a few more boards are sawed off after which the log is given a quarter turn and all but a few boards taken off4 ,a half turn of the log and the final sawings are made4 ,a series of 8live0 rolls--rolls which revolve in one direction--carry off the boards4 ,the rough edged boards1 which constitute about one-third of the whole number1 are held by stops and finished on saws called edgers4 ,the boards are now passed on to a trimmer or jump saw and cut to standard lengths4 ,timbers are trimmed to length by a butting saw4 ,slabs are sawed to a length of four feet one inch on a slasher4 ,these slabs are sawed into laths1 pickets1 or blocks the length of a shingle1 called shingle bolts4 ,from these bolts shingles are sawed4 #abc4 ,quarter ,sawing4--,fig4 #bae shows a common way of sawing 8quarter sawed0 lumber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,the faces of most of the boards are cut nearly parallel to the medullary rays1 these rays come to the surface at small angles and make the beautiful spotting often seen in oak and sycamore4 ,quarter-sawed boards do not warp or twist as much as the plain sawed because the annual rings are perpendicular to the face4 #abd4 ,waste4--,attached to every sawmill will be found tower-like structures from the tops of which smoke issues1 ,fig4 #baf4 ,these are called burners and into them are thrown thousands of tons of waste wood4 ,waste wood is used as fuel for the engines and for many other purposes but there still remains much that is burned as the cheapest way to get rid of it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,a ,,modern ,,sawmill1 ,,showing ,,refuse ,,burner4 #abe4 ,lumber ,transportation4--,sawed lumber is transported to the yards in various ways4 ,it is loaded and carried by boats1 by cars1 and in some places is floated to its destination in narrow wooden troughs called flumes4 ,on the ,pacific coast mills are frequently built out over the water on piles so that the lumber is loaded directly from the saws4 ,frequently lumber is formed into rafts and towed to its destination in a manner similar to that of the log rafts of the ,pacific4 #abf4 ,seasoning4--,there are two methods of drying wood1 in common use3 air drying and kiln-drying4 ,when lumber reaches its destination it is sorted and graded according to lumbermen's standards1 after which1 it is loaded upon trucks and hauled to the storage yards4 ,here1 it is so placed that air can get at the four sides of each piece and evaporate the water held by the 8green0 lumber4 ,this is called air seasoning4 ,the time necessary to season a piece of lumber so that it may be used for high-grade work depends upon the kind of wood1 its shape and size1 the condition of the atmosphere1 etc4 ,two1 three1 and even four years are often required2 the longer the better1 provided it is kept dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,,kiln ,,drying ,,tupelo1 ,,ionia1 ,,michigan4 ,it will never become perfectly dry because of the moisture in the air itself4 ,because of the slowness of this method of seasoning1 millmen resort to artificial means4 ,the lumber1 as it is needed1 is shut up in a room heated by steam4 ,fig4 #bag shows the method of 8sticking0 lumber in preparing it for the kiln4 ,high temperature1 no matter how much moisture may be contained in the air1 will evaporate water from wood4 ,green1 or fresh sap-wood may be partially seasoned by boiling it in hot water or by steaming it4 ,pine1 spruce1 cypress1 cedar1 etc41 may be placed in the kiln as soon as sawed1 four days for one inch thick boards being sufficient to dry them4 ,hard woods1 such as oak1 maple1 birch1 etc41 are usually allowed to 8air season0 for a period of from three to six months before being placed in the kiln4 ,six to ten days additional kiln-drying is allowed them4 ,the usual temperature for kilns is from #aeh to #ahj degrees ,fahr4 ,hardwoods lose moisture so slowly that to place them in the kiln directly from the saw would cause them to shrink very unevenly and hence make them subject to serious 8checks04 ,lumber is frequently steamed to prevent its checking and 8case hardening0 while being kiln dried4 #abg4 ,lumber ,terms and ,measurements4--8,clear0 lumber is lumber which is free from knots and sapwood4 8,dressed0 lumber or 8surfaced0 or 8sized0 lumber is lumber which has passed thru the planer4 ,the unit of measure is the board-foot which is one inch thick and twelve inches square4 ,boards less than one inch thick are sold by the square foot1 face measure4 ,shingles and lath are sold by the bundle4 ,moldings are sold by 8running0 or lineal measure4 ,prices are usually based upon the thousand feet2 thus1 #bjj feet1 #ast1 clear1 ,s#b,s1 7sized or surfaced on two sides7 at #dg per ,m4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,common ,,woods4 #abh4 ,classification4--,according to botanical classification1 woods belong to the ,flowering ,plants 7,phanerogamia74 ,classified further we have3 7#a7 ,naked seeds 7gymnosperms7 #a4 ,palm ferns1 etc4 7cycadace7 #b4 ,joint firs 7gnetace7 #c4 ,pines1 firs1 etc4 7conifers7 7#b7 ,fruits 7angiosperms7 #a4 ,one-seed-leaf 7monocotyledons7 7,bamboos1 palms1 grasses1 etc47 #b4 ,two-seed-leaf 7dicotyledons7 a4 ,herbs4 b4 ,broad-leafed trees4 7oak1 ash1 elm1 etc47 ,conifers and broad-leaved trees are alike in that they add a new layer of wood each year which covers the old wood of root1 trunk and branch4 ,they are known as exogens--outward growers4 ,in woods such as the palms1 bamboos1 and yuccas1 growth is made from within4 ,the new wood strands mingle with the old and cause the cross sections to appear dotted1 ,fig4 #bah4 ,trees of this class--endogens--after some years of growth form harder wood near the surface with younger and softer growth toward the center--quite the reverse of the exogens4 ,there are no annual rings4 ,growth takes place mainly at the top4 ,other classifications1 such as deciduous1 8hard woods10 8evergreens10 8soft woods10 are in common use but are not very accurate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,deciduous trees are the broad-leaved trees and are so called because they lose their leaves in the fall4 ,broad-leaved trees are also called hard woods4 ,conifers are called evergreens because their needle-shaped leaves remain green on the tree the year around4 ,they are also known as soft woods4 ,most of our timber is furnished by 7#a7 the needle-leaved conifers and 7#b7 the broad-leaved trees4 ,,coniferous ,,woods4#a #a ,the descriptive matter in small type is quoted1 by permission1 from a report of the ,division of ,forestry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 #abi4 ,cedar4--,fig4 #bai4 ,light1 soft1 stiff1 not strong1 of fine texture2 sap and heartwood distinct1 the former lighter1 the latter a dull grayish brown1 or red4 ,the wood seasons rapidly1 shrinks and checks but little1 and is very durable4 ,used like soft pine1 but owing to its great durability preferred for shingles1 etc4 ,small sizes used for posts1 ties1 etc4 7,since almost all kinds of wood are used for fuel and charcoal1 and in the construction of fences1 barns1 etc41 the enumeration of these uses has been omitted in this list47 ,cedars usually occur scattered1 but they form1 in certain localities1 forests of considerable extent4 #acj4 ,cypress4--,fig4 #bbj4 ,cypress wood in appearance1 quality1 and uses is similar to white cedar4 8,black cypress0 and 8white cypress0 are heavy and light forms of the same species4 ,the cypress is a large deciduous tree occupying much of the swamp and overflow land along the coast and rivers of the ,southern ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 #aca4 ,pine4--,fig4 #bba4 ,very variable1 very light and soft in 8soft0 pine1 such as white pine2 of medium weight to heavy and quite hard in 8hard0 pine1 of which longleaf or ,georgia pine is the extreme form4 ,usually it is stiff1 quite strong1 of even texture and more or less resinous4 ,the sapwood is yellowish white2 the heartwood1 orange brown4 ,pine shrinks moderately1 seasons rapidly and without much injury2 it works easily2 is never too hard to nail 7unlike oak or hickory72 it is mostly quite durable1 and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring insects4 ,the heavier the wood1 the darker1 stronger and harder it is1 and the more it shrinks and checks4 ,pine is used more extensively than any other kind of wood4 ,it is the principal wood in common carpentry1 as well as in all heavy construction1 bridges1 trestles1 etc4 ,it is used also in almost every other wood industry1 for spars1 masts1 planks1 and timbers in ship building1 in car and wagon construction1 in cooperage1 for crates and boxes1 in furniture work1 for toys and patterns1 railway ties1 water pipes1 excelsior1 etc4 ,pines are usually large trees with few branches1 the straight1 cylindrical1 useful stem forming by far the greatest part of the tree4 #acb4 ,spruce4--,fig4 #bbb4 ,resembles soft pine1 is light1 very soft1 stiff1 moderately strong1 less resinous than pine2 has no distinct heartwood1 and is of whitish color4 ,used like soft pine1 but also employed as resonance wood and preferred for paper pulp4 ,spruces1 like pines1 form extensive forests2 they are more frugal1 thrive on thinner soils1 and bear more shade1 but usually require a more humid climate4 8,black0 and 8white0 spruce as applied by lumbermen1 usually refer to narrow and wide ringed forms of black spruce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,,broad-,,leaved ,,woods4 #acc4 ,ash4--,fig4 #bbc4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 stiff1 quite tough1 not durable in contact with soil1 straight grained1 rough on the split surface and coarse in texture4 ,the wood shrinks moderately1 seasons with little injury1 stands well and takes a good polish4 ,in carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber1 stairways1 panels1 etc42 it is used in shipbuilding1 in the construction of cars1 wagons1 carriages1 etc41 in the manufacture of farm implements1 machinery1 and especially of furniture of all kinds1 and also for harness work2 for barrels1 baskets1 oars1 tool handles1 hoops1 clothespins1 and toys4 ,the trees of the several species of ash are rapid growers1 of small to medium height with stout trunks2 they form no forests1 but occur scattered in almost all broad-leaved forests4 #acd4 ,basswood4--,fig4 #bbd4 7,lime tree1 ,american linden1 lin1 bee tree73 ,wood light1 soft1 stiff but not strong1 of fine texture1 and white to light brown color4 ,the wood shrinks considerably in drying1 works and stands well2 it is used in carpentry1 in the manufacture of furniture and woodenware1 both turned and carved1 in cooperage1 for toys1 also for paneling of car and carriage bodies4 ,medium to large sized trees1 common in all ,northern broad-leaved forests2 found throughout the ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 #ace4 ,birch4--,fig4 #bbe4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 of fine texture2 sapwood whitish1 heartwood in shades of brown with red and yellow2 very handsome1 with satiny luster1 equaling cherry4 ,the wood shrinks considerably in drying1 works and stands well and takes a good polish1 but is not durable if exposed4 ,birch is used for finishing lumber in building1 in the manufacture of furniture1 in woodturnery for spools1 boxes1 wooden shoes1 etc41 for shoe lasts and pegs1 for wagon hubs1 ox yokes1 etc41 also in wood carving4 ,the birches are medium sized trees1 form extensive forests northward and occur scattered in all broad-leaved forests of the ,eastern ,united ,states4 #acf4 ,butternut4--,fig4 #bbf4 7,white ,walnut47 ,wood very similar to black walnut1 but light1 quite soft1 not strong and of light brown color4 ,used chiefly for finishing lumber1 cabinet work and cooperage4 ,medium sized tree1 largest and most common in the ,ohio basin2 ,maine to ,minnesota and southward to ,georgia and ,alabama4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 #acg4 ,cherry4--,fig4 #bbg4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 of fine texture3 sapwood yellowish white1 heartwood reddish to brown4 ,the wood shrinks considerably in drying1 works and stands well1 takes a good polish1 and is much esteemed for its beauty4 ,cherry is used chiefly as a decorative finishing lumber for buildings1 cars and boats1 also for furniture and for turnery4 ,it is becoming too costly for many purposes for which it is naturally suited4 ,the lumber-furnishing cherry of this country1 the wild black cherry1 is a small to medium sized tree1 scattered through many of the broad-leaved woods of the western slope of the ,alleghanies1 but found from ,michigan to ,florida and west to ,texas4 #ach4 ,chestnut4--,fig4 #bbh4 ,wood light1 moderately soft1 stiff1 not strong1 of coarse texture2 the sapwood light1 the heartwood darker brown4 ,it shrinks and checks considerably in drying1 works easily1 stands well1 and is very durable4 ,used in cabinet work1 cooperage1 for railway ties1 telegraph poles1 and locally in heavy construction4 ,medium sized tree very common in the ,alleghanies1 occurs from ,maine to ,michigan and southward to ,alabama4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 #aci4 ,elm4--,fig4 #bbi4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 very tough2 moderately durable in contact with the soil2 commonly cross-grained1 difficult to split and shape1 warps and checks considerably in drying1 but stands well if properly handled4 ,the broad sapwood whitish1 heart brown1 both shades of gray and red2 on split surface rough1 texture coarse to fine1 capable of high polish4 ,elm is used in the construction of cars1 wagons1 etc41 in boat and ship building1 for agricultural implements and machinery2 in rough cooperage1 saddlery1 and harness work1 but particularly in the manufacture of all kinds of furniture1 where the beautiful figures1 especially of the tangential or bastard section1 are just beginning to be duly appreciated4 ,the elms are medium to large sized trees1 of fairly rapid growth1 with stout trunk1 form no forests of pure growth1 but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our country4 #adj4 ,gum4--,this general term refers to two kinds of wood usually distinguished as sweet or red gum1 and sour1 black1 or tupelo gum1 the former being a relative of the witch-hazel1 the latter belonging to the dogwood family4 ,sweet ,gum4 ,fig4 #bcj4 7red gum1 liquidambar72 ,wood rather heavy1 rather soft1 quite stiff and strong1 tough1 commonly cross-grained1 of fine texture2 the broad sapwood whitish1 the heartwood reddish brown2 the wood warps and shrinks considerably1 but does not check badly1 stands well when fully seasoned1 and takes good polish4 ,sweet gum is used in carpentry1 in the manufacture of furniture1 for cut veneer1 for wooden plates1 plaques1 baskets1 etc41 also for wagon hubs1 hat blocks1 etc4 ,a large sized tree1 very abundant1 often the principal tree in the swampy parts of the bottoms of the ,lower ,mississippi ,valley2 occurs from ,new ,york to ,texas and from ,indiana to ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 #ada4 ,hickory4--,fig4 #bca4 ,wood very heavy1 hard and strong1 proverbially tough1 of rather coarse texture1 smooth and of straight grain4 ,the broad sapwood white1 the heart reddish nut brown4 ,it dries slowly1 shrinks and checks considerably1 is not durable in the ground1 or if exposed1 and1 especially the sapwood1 is always subject to the inroads of boring insects4 ,hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock1 but is also extensively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery1 for tool handles1 timber pins1 for harness work and cooperage4 ,the hickories are tall trees with slender stems1 never form forests1 occasionally small groves1 but usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities4 ,hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock1 but is also extensively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery1 for tool handles1 timber pins1 for harness work and cooperage4 ,the hickories are tall trees with slender stems1 never form forests1 occasionally small groves1 but usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities4 #adb4 ,maple4--,fig4 #bcb4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 stiff1 and tough1 of fine texture1 frequently wavy grained1 thus giving rise to 8curly0 and blister0 figures2 not durable in the ground or otherwise exposed4 ,maple is creamy white1 with shades of light brown in the heart2 shrinks moderately1 seasons1 works and stands well1 wears smoothly and takes fine polish4 ,the wood is used for ceiling1 flooring1 paneling1 stairway and other finishing lumber in house1 ship and car construction2 it is used for the keels of boats and ships1 in the manufacture of implements and machinery1 but especially for furniture1 where entire chamber sets of maple rival those of oak4 ,maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks1 for shoe pegs1 for piano actions1 school apparatus1 for wood type in show bill printing1 tool handles1 wood carving1 turnery and scroll work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,the maples are medium sized trees1 of fairly rapid growth2 sometimes form forests and frequently constitute a large proportion of the arborescent growth4 #adc4 ,oak4--,fig4 #bcc4 ,wood very variable1 usually very heavy and hard1 very strong and tough1 porous1 and of coarse texture2 the sapwood whitish1 the heart 8oak0 brown to reddish brown4 ,it shrinks and checks badly1 giving trouble in seasoning1 but stands well1 is durable and little subject to attacks of insects4 ,oak is used for many purposes2 in shipbuilding1 for heavy construction1 in common carpentry1 in furniture1 car and wagon work1 cooperage1 turnery1 and even in wood carving2 also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm implements1 wooden mill machinery1 for piles and wharves1 railway ties1 etc4 ,the oaks are medium to large sized trees1 forming the predominant part of a large portion of our broad-leaved forests1 so that these are generally 8oak forests0 though they always contain a considerable proportion of other kinds of trees4 ,three well marked kinds1 white1 red1 and live oak are distinguished and kept separate in the market4 ,of the two principal kinds1 white oak is the stronger1 tougher1 less porous1 and more durable4 ,red oak is usually of coarser texture1 more porous1 often brittle1 less durable1 and even more troublesome in seasoning than white oak4 ,in carpentry and furniture work1 red oak brings about the same price at present as white oak4 ,the red oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks1 and like the latter1 are usually represented by several species in any given locality4 ,live oak1 once largely employed in shipbuilding1 possesses all the good qualities 7except that of size7 of the white oak1 even to a greater degree4 ,it is one of the heaviest1 hardest and most durable building timbers of this country2 in structure it resembles the red oak but is much less porous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 #add4 ,sycamore4--,fig4 #bcd 7button wood1 button-ball tree1 water beech73 ,wood moderately heavy1 quite hard1 stiff1 strong1 tough1 usually crossgrained1 of coarse texture1 and white to light brown color2 the wood is hard to split and work1 shrinks moderately1 warps and checks considerably but stands well4 ,it is used extensively for drawers1 backs1 bottoms1 etc41 in cabinetwork1 for tobacco boxes1 in cooperage1 and also for finishing lumber1 where it has too long been underrated4 ,a large tree1 of rapid growth1 common and largest in the ,ohio and ,mississippi valleys1 at home in nearly all parts of the eastern ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 #ade4 ,tulip ,wood4--,fig4 #bce4 ,tulip tree4 7yellow poplar1 white wood73 ,wood quite variable in weight1 usually light1 soft1 stiff but not strong1 of fine texture1 and yellowish color2 the wood shrinks considerably1 but seasons without much injury2 works and stands remarkably well4 ,used for siding1 for paneling1 and finishing lumber in house1 car and shipbuilding1 for sideboards and panels of wagons and carriages2 also in the manufacture of furniture1 implements and machinery1 for pump logs1 and almost every kind of common woodenware1 boxes1 shelving1 drawers1 etc4 ,an ideal wood for the carver and toy man4 ,a large tree1 does not form forests1 but is quite common1 especially in the ,ohio basin2 occurs from ,new ,england to ,missouri and southward to ,florida4 #adf4 ,walnut4--,fig4 #bcf4 ,black ,walnut4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 of coarse texture2 the narrow sapwood whitish1 the heartwood chocolate brown4 ,the wood shrinks moderately in drying1 works and stands well1 takes a good polish1 is quite handsome1 and has been for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country4 ,walnut formerly used1 even for fencing1 has become too costly for ordinary uses1 and is to-day employed largely as a veneer1 for inside finish and cabinet work1 also for turnery1 for gunstocks1 etc4 ,black walnut is a large tree1 with stout trunk1 of rapid growth1 and was formerly quite abundant throughout the ,alleghany region1 occurring from ,new ,england to ,texas1 and from ,michigan to ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,wood ,,finishing4 #adg4 ,wood ,finishes4--,finishes are applied to wood surfaces 7#a7 that the wood may be preserved1 7#b7 that the appearance may be enhanced4 ,finishing materials may be classed under one or the other of the following3 ,filler1 stain1 wax1 varnish1 oil1 paint4 ,these materials may be used singly upon a piece of wood or they may be combined in various ways to produce results desired4 #adh4 ,brushes4--,good brushes are made of bristles of the wild boar of ,russia and ,china4 ,these bristles are set in cement and are firmly bound by being wrapped with wire in round brushes or enclosed in metal in flat brushes4 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,a large brush1 called a duster1 is used for removing dust or loose dirt from the wood1 ,fig4 #bch4 ,small brushes1 used for tracing1 usually have chiseled edges1 ,fig4 #bci4 ,bristle brushes are expensive and should be well cared for4 ,brushes that have been used in shellac and are not soon to be used again should be cleaned by rinsing them thoroughly in a cup of alcohol4 ,this alcohol may be used later for thinning shellac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,varnish and paint brushes should be cleaned in turpentine4 ,if they are to be laid away for some time1 a strong soap suds1 or lather made from some of the soap powders1 should be well worked into the brush1 after the preliminary cleansing4 ,it should then be carefully pressed into proper shape and laid away flat on a shelf4 ,when the brush is to be used again1 it should first be washed out1 to get rid of all the soap4 ,brushes that are used from day to day should be kept suspended1 when not in use1 as in ,fig4 #bdj1 so that their bristles shall be kept moist1 without their touching the bottom of the bucket or can4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,since alcohol evaporates rapidly1 shellac cans with cone tops should be used or1 better1 a can in which the brush handle may extend through the top4 ,fig4 #bda shows a can which is made double4 ,varnish is kept in the inner portion and water in the outer ring4 ,the cover fits over the inner can and into the water space1 thus sealing the varnish air-tight but removing all danger of the cover's sticking to the sides of the can4 ,the brush is suspended from the 8cleaning wire0 so that its bristles rest in the liquid4 ,if delicate woods are to be varnished1 stone or glass jars would better be used to hold the liquid1 for metal discolors it slightly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 #adi4 ,general ,directions for ,using ,brush4--7#a7 ,hold the brush as in ,fig4 #bdb4 7#b7 ,dip the end of the brush in the liquid to about one-third the length of the bristles4 7#c7 ,wipe off the surplus liquid on the edge of the can1 wiping both sides of the brush no more than is necessary to keep the liquid from dripping4 ,a wire stretched across the can as in ,fig4 #bdc provides a better wiping place for the dripping brush4 ,in wiping the brush on the edge of the can1 some of liquid is likely to 8run0 down the outside4 7#d7 ,using the end of the brush1 apply the liquid near one end of the surface to be covered4 7#e7 8,brush0 in the direction of the grain4 7#f7 ,work towards and out over the end of the board1 leveling the liquid to a smooth film of uniform thinness4 ,the strokes should be 8feathered10 that is1 the brush should be lowered gradually at the beginning of the sweep and raised gradually at the close1 otherwise1 ugly 8laps0 will result4 ,the reason for working out over the ends rather than from them will appear with a little thought4 7#g7 ,now work toward the second end4 ,the arrows1 ,fig4 #bdd1 show the general directions of the final or feathering strokes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,edges are usually covered first and adjoining surfaces afterward4 ,it frequently happens that surplus liquid runs over a finished surface1 especially when working near the arrises4 ,this surplus can be 8picked up0 by wiping the brush upon the wire of the bucket until the bristles are quite free of liquid1 and giving the part affected a feathering sweep4 ,if the object has an internal corner1 work from that out over the neighboring surfaces4 ,panels and sunk places should be covered first4 ,afterward1 the raised places1 such as stiles1 rails1 etc41 may be attended to4 ,wherever possible the work should be laid flat so that the liquid may be flowed on horizontally4 ,this is of especial advantage in varnishing4 ,vertical work should always be begun at the top and carried downward4 ,tracing consists in working a liquid up to a given line but not over it1 such as painting the sash of a window4 ,tracing requires a steady hand and some practice4 ,a small brush is generally used and the stroke is made as nearly continuous as the flow of the liquid will allow4 ,fig4 #bde4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 #aej4 ,fillers4--,fillers are of two kinds1 paste and liquid4 ,they are used to fill up the wood pores and thus give a smooth1 level1 non-absorbent surface1 upon which other coverings may be placed4 ,paste fillers are for use upon coarse grained woods such as oak and chestnut1 while liquid fillers are for close grained woods such as ,georgia pine4 ,fillers are not a necessity1 especially the liquid1 but the saving affected by their use is considerable4 ,not only are they cheaper than varnish but one or two coats of filler will take the place and permit a saving of two or three coats of the more expensive material4 ,liquid filler should be applied evenly with a brush and allowed to dry twenty-four hours1 after which it may be sanded smooth with ,no4 #jj paper4 ,it is used mainly upon large work such as porch ceilings and interior finish1 like ,georgia pine4 ,on fine cabinet work1 one or two coats of thin white shellac is used as a filler upon close grained wood4 ,shellac forms a surface which after twenty-four hours1 can be sandpapered so as to make a very smooth surface4 ,varnish applied to the bare wood has a tendency to darken and discolor it4 ,filling with shellac preserves the natural color4 ,paste filler is sold by the pound in cans of various sizes4 ,the best fillers are made of ground rock crystal mixed with raw linseed oil1 japan and turpentine4 ,for preserving the natural color of the wood1 filler is left white2 for ,flemish1 it is colored brown2 for antique and weathered finishes1 it is dark4 ,fillers can be purchased ready colored4 #aea4 ,filling with ,paste ,filler4--7#a7 ,thin the filler with turpentine until it makes a thin paste4 7#b7 ,with a stiff-bristled brush1 force the filler into the pores of the wood and leave the surface covered with a thin coating4 7#c7 ,allow this to stand until the filler has 8flatted10 that is1 until the 8gloss0 has disappeared and the filler becomes dull and chalkish4 ,the time required for this to take place varies4 ,twenty minutes is not unusual4 7#d7 ,rub the filler off just as soon as it has flatted--do not let it stand longer1 for the longer it stands the harder it is to remove4 ,rub across the grain as much as is possible1 using a wad of excelsior4 ,finish fine work by going over it a second time with a cloth1 rubbing with the grain as well as across1 that the 8high lights0 may be clear of filler4 ,on fine work use a felt pad to rub the filler into the pores1 and rub off with a cloth only4 ,twenty-four hours should be allowed the filler to harden4 ,one filling is sufficient for ordinary work2 on fine work the above process is sometimes repeated after the first filling has hardened4 ,the striking contrasts in the grain of wood such as oak and chestnut1 obtained by the use of colored fillers1 are due to the dark filler's remaining in the open grain but being wiped off of the close grain--the 8high lights40 ,on quarter-sawed oak1 each flake is sometimes sanded with fine paper1 ,no4 #jj1 to remove the stain that the contrast may be sharper4 ,excelsior and rags used in cleaning off filler must not be allowed to lie around but must be burned for they are subject to spontaneous combustion and are dangerous4 #aeb4 ,stains4--,stains are used to darken the high lights of wood preparatory to the application of a relatively darker filler4 ,by varying the intensity of the stain different results may be obtained with the same color of filler4 ,stains are also used without fillers4 ,there are three kinds of stains3 7#a7 water1 7#b7 oil1 7#c7 spirit4 ,each kind has its advantages and its disadvantages4 ,wood stains are cheap1 penetrate the wood deeply1 and are transparent4 ,they cause the grain of the wood to 8rough up10 however1 and for this reason are used mainly upon hard woods which require darkening before the application of a filler4 ,the wood is sanded before the filler is applied4 ,where water stain is not to be followed by filler1 it is customary to thoroughly moisten the surface to be covered with water alone4 ,after this has dried1 the surface is sanded with fine paper and the stain applied4 ,the stain does not raise the grain as it otherwise would4 ,water stains may be applied with a brush or a sponge4 ,they are sometimes heated that they may enter the wood more deeply4 ,any coloring matter that can be dissolved in water will make a wood dye or stain4 ,oil stains1 like water stains1 are often used to stain wood before filling4 ,they are more generally used where no filling is desired4 ,they are easier to apply evenly than water or spirit stains4 ,they do not raise the grain of the wood like the other stains4 ,on the other hand1 they do not penetrate and therefore cannot color hard woods dark4 ,neither do they give the clear effects4 ,most oil stains are applied with a brush1 after which the surface of the wood is immediately wiped clean with a cloth4 ,spirit stains are but little used where surfaces of any size are to be covered4 ,they are expensive1 fade easily1 and are hard to apply evenly4 ,they are applied with a brush and dry very quickly4 ,a stain which penetrates deeply and is clear is obtained by placing the wood in a closed receptacle in which is placed a dish of concentrated ammonia4 ,the fumes of this liquid cause a chemical change to take place1 giving to the wood a rich nut-brown color4 #aec4 ,waxing4--,an old finish that has recently become popular is that of waxing4 ,it takes the place of the varnish1 by which it was supplanted years ago4 ,wax finish is easily applied and is cheaper than varnish4 ,it will not stand wetting4 ,however1 it is easily repaired4 ,our ancestors used to make wax polish by 8cutting0 beeswax with turpentine4 ,rapid drying and hardening waxes can be purchased now-a-days4 ,they require a smooth surface and a very thin application for a successful result4 ,too much wax upon a rough surface will produce very ugly1 white1 chalk-like spottings as the wax dries4 ,these are especially noticeable upon dark finishes4 ,waxes colored black overcome this but are not needed if the ordinary wax is properly applied4 ,in finishing with wax the following directions may be followed3 7#a7 ,stain the wood1 if a very dark finish is desired4 7#b7 ,if the wood is coarse-grained1 put on two coats of paste filler and rub it off carefully1 that a smooth surface may be prepared4 ,allow the stain twelve hours in which to dry1 also each coat of the filler4 7#c7 ,with a soft cloth apply as thin a coating of wax as can be and yet cover the wood4 ,wax is in paste form4 7#d7 ,allow this to stand five or ten minutes1 then rub briskly with a soft dry cloth to polish4 7#e7 ,after this coat has stood for twenty-four hours another may be applied in the same manner4 ,a thin coat of shellac brushed evenly upon the hardened filler 8brings out0 the grain and makes an excellent base for wax as well as varnish4 ,it should stand twenty-four hours and then be sanded smooth with ,no4 #jj sandpaper before the wax is applied4 ,there are other patent preparations which give the same soft effects as wax and are as easily applied--in fact1 some of them are but wax in liquid form4 #aed4 ,varnishes4--,varnishes are used where a hard transparent coating is desired4 ,there are two kinds1 7#a7 shellac or spirit varnish1 7#b7 copal or oil varnish4 ,varnishes vary greatly in quality and therefore in price4 ,if made of specially selected pale gum for use on light or white woods the price will be higher than for that of ordinary color tho the quality may be no higher4 ,rubbing varnishes are so made that they may take a 8rubbed finish40 ,varnishing should be done in a room in which the temperature can be kept from #gj to #hj degrees ,fahr41 and which is comparatively free from dust4 ,the surface to be covered must be clean1 dry and filled even and smooth4 #aee4 ,shellac4--,shellac or spirit varnish is a solution of lac and alcohol4 ,lac is soluble in both grain and wood alcohol but grain alcohol is preferable4 ,beds of crude lac are found in parts of ,africa and ,south ,america where the lac has been left by the decay of leaves and twigs which it at one time encrusted4 ,crude lac is deposited upon leaves and twigs of certain of the lac-bearing trees by countless numbers of insects which draw out the sap4 ,stick-lac is crude lac which has been purified somewhat of the bodies and eggs of the insects and rolled into stick forms4 ,when crushed and washed it is known as seed-lac4 ,when fully purified1 which is done by melting and straining1 it is spread out and is known as shellac4 ,white shellac is obtained by bleaching4 ,orange shellac is unbleached4 ,pure white shellac is used where the more yellow shellac would discolor4 ,orange shellac is stronger than white and will last longer but is harder to apply because it sets more rapidly4 ,shellac varnish sets quickly1 dries hard but softens under moisture4 ,unlike oil varnish1 it does not 8level up0 and must1 therefore1 be brushed on quickly1 using long1 even strokes4 ,no spots must be omitted for they cannot be 8touched up40 #aef4 ,shellac ,finishes4--,the use of one or more coats of shellac preparatory to a varnish finish has been noted4 ,a very simple finish1 and one that is easily applied1 is obtained by covering stained wood with a very thin coat of shellac4 ,to obtain the finish known as egg-shell gloss1 7#a7 ,coat the smooth wood with from three to six applications of thin shellac4 ,allow each coat twenty-four hours in which to harden4 7#b7 ,rub to a smooth surface each hardened coat using curled hair or fine steel wool or fine oiled sandpaper4 #aeg4 ,oil or ,copal ,varnishes4--,oil varnish is composed of copal gum1 boiled oil and turpentine4 ,copal gums are obtained from ,africa mainly1 in certain parts of which they are found as fossil resins1 the remains of forests which once covered the ground4 ,pressed flaxseed furnish crude linseed oil while the long leaf pine of the ,south1 furnishes the turpentine pitch4 ,the oil is prepared for use by boiling it in huge kettles with different materials which cause it to change chemically4 ,it is then put away to settle and age1 that is to clear and purify itself4 ,it takes from one to six months for the oil to reach a proper degree of clearness and purity4 ,turpentine is obtained from its pitch by distillation4 ,the copal gums are melted and boiled thoroly with the oil4 ,turpentine is added after the mixture of gum and oil has cooled sufficiently4 ,the whole is then strained several times1 placed in tanks to age or ripen4 ,from one month to a year1 or even more1 is required4 ,the quality of varnish depends upon the qualities of the gums1 the proportion of oil and turpentine and the care which is exercised in the boiling process4 #aeh4 ,flowing ,copal ,varnish4--7#a7 ,lay on the varnish quickly in a good heavy coat4 ,use a good varnish brush and dip the bristles deeply into the liquid1 wiping them off just enough to prevent dripping4 7#b7 ,wipe the bristles quite free of varnish2 go over the surface and pick up as much of the surplus liquid as the brush will hold4 ,replace the varnish in the can by wiping the bristles on the wire of the can4 ,repeat until the entire surface has been left with but a thin smooth coating4 ,two1 three1 four or more coats are applied in this manner1 forty-eight hours being allowed between each for drying4 ,dry varnish comes off in sanding as a white powder2 if not dry it will come off on the sandpaper as little black spots4 #aei4 ,typical ,finishes for ,coarse-,grained ,woods4--,egg-,shell gloss3 7#a7 ,one coat of water stain1 ,english1 golden1 etc41 according to the result desired4 7#b7 ,allow time to dry1 then sandpaper lightly with fine sandpaper4 ,this is to smooth the grain and to bring up the highlights by removing stain from some of the wood4 ,use ,no4 #jj sandpaper and hold it on the finger tips4 7#c7 ,apply a second coat of the stain diluted about one-half with water4 ,this will throw the grain into still higher relief and thus produce a still greater contrast4 ,apply this coat of stain very sparingly1 using a rag4 ,should this stain raise the grain1 again rub lightly with fine worn sandpaper1 just enough to smooth4 7#d7 ,when this has dried1 put on a light coat of thin shellac4 ,shellac precedes filling that it may prevent the high lights--the solid parts of wood--from being discolored by the stain in the filler1 and thus causing a muddy effect4 ,the shellac being thin does not interfere with the filler's entering the pores of the open grain4 7#e7 ,sand lightly with fine sandpaper4 7#f7 ,fill with paste filler colored to match the stain4 7#g7 ,cover this with a coat of orange shellac4 ,this coat of shellac might be omitted but another coat of varnish must be added4 7#h7 ,sandpaper lightly4 7#i7 ,apply two or three coats of varnish4 7#aj7 ,rub the first coats with hair cloth or curled hair and the last with pulverized pumice stone and crude oil or raw linseed oil4 ,dull finish3 ,a dead surface is obtained by rubbing the varnish after it has become bone dry1 with powdered pumice stone and water1 using a piece of rubbing felt4 ,rub until the surface is smooth and even being careful not to cut thru by rubbing too long at any one spot4 ,the edges are most likely to be endangered4 ,use a wet sponge and chamois skin to clean off the pumice4 ,polished finish3 ,the last coat should be rubbed first with pulverized pumice stone and water1 and then with rotten stone and water4 ,for a piano finish rub further with a mixture of oil and a little pulverized rotten stone1 using a soft felt or flannel4 ,a rotary motion is generally used and the mixture is often rubbed with the bare hand4 ,gloss finish3 ,for a gloss finish1 the last coat is not rubbed at all4 #afj4 ,patching4--,it frequently happens in rubbing with pumice that the varnish is cut thru so that the bare wood shows4 ,to patch such a spot proceed as follows3 7#a7 ,sandpaper the bare place lightly with very fine paper1 ,no4 #jj1 to smooth the grain of the wood raised by the pumice water4 7#b7 ,if the wood has been stained or filled1 color the spot to match the rest of the finish4 ,apply a little with a cloth and wipe off clean4 7#c7 ,when this has dried1 apply a thin coat of varnish to the bare wood1 carefully4 ,draw it out beyond the bare wood a little1 8feathering0 it so that there shall not be a ridge4 7#d7 ,allow this to dry hard and apply a second coat1 feathering it beyond the surface covered by the first coat4 7#e7 ,repeat until the required thickness has been obtained2 then 7#f7 rub with pumice and water4 ,rub lightly1 using a little pumice and much water4 ,the slightly raised rings made by the lapping of one coat upon another will need special attention4 ,it is best not to sandpaper between coats1 because of the danger of scratching the rubbed finish adjoining the patch4 #afa4 ,painting4--,the purpose of paints is to preserve the wood by covering it with an opaque material4 ,paints are usually composed of white lead or zinc oxide and coloring materials mixed or thinned with raw or boiled linseed oil4 ,turpentine is also used for thinning and as a drying agent4 ,paint must be well brushed out so that a thin film may result4 ,in painting1 7#a7 ,cover the knots with shellac1 or the oil of the paint will be absorbed thru two or three coats and a discoloration result4 7#b7 ,put on a prime coat4 ,this coat should be mixed as thin as it can be and still not 8run0 when applied to vertical surfaces4 7#c7 ,fill the nail holes with putty4 ,sand lightly if a smooth finish is desired4 7#d7 ,apply two or three coats of paint thin enough to flow freely but thick enough to cover well and not 8run40 ,the second coat is given a little more than the usual amount of turpentine that a 8flat effect0 may prepare the way for the final gloss coat4 ,if the last coat is to be dull1 turpentine is used in it as well as the second4 ,oil causes gloss1 turpentine causes a dull or flat effect4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,additional ,,joints4 ,illustration3 ,butt ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,hopper ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,toe ,nail ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,glued and ,blocked ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,doweled ,butt ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,draw ,bolt ,joint4 ,,plate #a4 ,illustration3 ,end-,lap ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,middle-,lap ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,lapped ,dove-tail ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,ledge or ,rabbet4 ,illustration3 ,gained ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,through ,mortise ,tenon4 ,,plate #b4 ,illustration3 ,stub ,mortise ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,pinned ,mortise ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,double ,mortise and ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,slip ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,wedged ,mortise ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,fox ,tail ,tenon4 ,,plate #c4 ,illustration3 ,dove-tail ,mortise ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,tusk ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,stretcher ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,stretcher ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,ledge and ,miter ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,spline ,miter4 ,,plate #d4 ,illustration3 ,dovetail ,dado4 ,illustration3 ,lapped ,strapped ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,fished ,joint--,a4 ,illustration3 ,fished ,joint--,b4 ,illustration3 ,splice ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,scarf ,joint4 ,,plate #e4 ,illustration3 ,spliced ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,scarf ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,bevel-,shoulder ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,thrust ,joint--,a4 ,illustration3 ,thrust ,joint--,b4 ,,plate #f4 ,illustration3 ,spline ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,matched ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,rabbeted ,fillistered ,joint4 ,illustration3 ,beaded ,joint4 ,,plate #g4 ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,,wood ,,finishing ,,recipes4 #a4 ,wax4--,cut up beeswax and add to it about one-third of its volume of turpentine4 ,heat to the boiling point in a double boiler4 ,or1 melt a quantity of beeswax and to this add an equal quantity of turpentine4 ,care must be taken that the turpentine shall not catch fire4 #b4 ,water ,stains4--,any coloring matter that is soluble in water will make a stain4 ,mahogany3 ,three quarts of boiling water1 one ounce of ,bismarck-brown aniline4 ,brown3 ,extract of logwood1 the size of a walnut1 dissolved by boiling in four ounces of water4 ,apply hot and repeat until the desired color is obtained4 ,black3 ,first stain the wood brown with the logwood solution4 ,coat this with a stain prepared as follows3 ,soak a teaspoonful of cast iron filings in four ounces of acetic acid or vinegar4 ,allow it to stand for a week1 stirring it occasionally4 ,walnut3 ,make a strong solution of powdered bichromate of potash and hot water4 ,over this stain1 apply a coat of the logwood stain4 #c4 ,oil ,stains4--,coach colors ground in ,japan when thinned with turpentine make good stain4 ,mix in the proportion of one-half gallon of turpentine to one pound of color and add a little boiled oil4 ,colors commonly used are drop black1 ,vandyke brown1 medium chrome yellow1 burnt and raw umber and burnt and raw sienna4 ,green3 ,drop-black1 two parts1 medium chrome yellow1 one part1 a little red to kill the brightness4 ,walnut3 ,asphaltum with a little ,venetian red4 ,golden oak3 ,asphaltum and turpentine thinned like water1 to be followed with filler darkened with burnt umber and black4 ,antique oak3 ,raw sienna properly thinned1 with a little burnt umber and black added4 #d4 ,spirit ,stains4 ,black3 ,alcohol and aniline black4 ,mahogany3 ,alcohol and ,bismark brown4 ,aniline stains cut with alcohol1 and mixed with white shellac and banana oil or amyl alcohol in equal parts make good stains for small pieces of work4 ,,appendix ,,iii4 ,,working ,,drawings4 ,a working drawing of an object consists of one or more views of that object so drawn that they make known the size1 shape1 kind of material1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,a working drawing differs from a perspective4 ,the former represents an object as it really is1 the second1 represents the object as it appears4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 #a4 ,instruments4--,special instruments are required for the making of a mechanical drawing4 ,fig4 #b shows a drawing-board with paper fastened to it1 also a ,t-square and the two triangles4 ,a compass is needed for drawing circles and arcs of circles4 ,the ,t-square is used for drawing horizontal lines4 ,the head must be held firmly against the edge of the board and the lines drawn from left to right4 ,vertical and oblique lines are drawn from the ,t-square upward1 the triangles being held against the edge of the ,t-square which1 at the same time1 is held against the edge of the board4 #b4 ,conventions4--,since it would be impossible to make full-sized drawings of some objects--a house for instance--it is customary to use a scale and by means of it make a smaller drawing1 which shall have all of its parts properly proportioned4 ,for example1 if a drawing has printed upon it 8 inch #a inch10 it means for every inch of the object the drawing is but one-half an inch4 ,the scale is to be used for measuring only4 ,there is quite a variety of scales4 ,whatever scale is used1 the numbers placed upon the drawing must represent the size of the object and not of the drawing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,in ,fig4 #c is shown a mechanical drawing of a common wood spool4 ,it will be seen that there are different kinds of lines4 ,each has its meaning1 as follows3 ,illustration3 #a4 ,light line--,for penciling and cross-hatching4 #b4 ,full line--,for visible outlines of objects and limits of parts4 #c4 ,heavy line--,for border lines4 #d4 ,dot line--,for invisible outlines of objects and limits of invisible parts4 ,same width as #b4 #e4 ,dash line--,for projection lines4 ,same width as #a4 #f4 ,long dash line--,for dimension lines4 ,same width as #a4 #g4 ,dot-and-dash line--,for center lines and section lines4 ,same width as #a4 ,when there is not room for the figures that represent dimensions1 the arrow heads may be turned in the direction of the measurement and placed outside4 ,the figure1 too1 may be placed outside if necessary4 ,nothing but the letters1 the figures and the barbs--not the shafts--of the arrow are drawn free-hand4 ,sometimes1 it is desirable to have one dimension shorter than the scale selected would allow2 this is done by means of a broken view3 ,fig4 #d4 ,the figured dimension prevents confusion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,in ,fig4 #e1 is shown a sectional drawing4 ,sectional drawings represent an object as it would appear if cut1 with the part nearer the worker removed4 ,sections are indicated by 8cross hatching10 the lines being equally spaced and drawn at an angle of #de degrees4 ,screws and nails are represented as in ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 #c4 ,projection and ,relation of ,views4--,the names and the relative positions of three views are shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,from these it will be seen 7#a7 that the different views are arranged with reference to the front view1 so that the part of a side view which is nearest the front view represents a part of the front of the object1 7#b7 that the corresponding horizontal measurements of top and front views are alike1 7#c7 that the corresponding vertical measurements of front and side views are alike1 7#d7 that the corresponding vertical measurements of the top view and horizontal measurements of a side view are alike4 #d4 ,letters and ,figures4--,letters are usually made freehand1 light ruled lines at the top and bottom acting as guides4 ,a simple style of letter and figure is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,they are placed in spaces that the proportion of the parts may the more readily be seen4 ,they may be narrowed or widened by changing the width of the spaces1 and shortened or lengthened by changing the height of the spacer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 #e4 ,constructions4--,the hexagon1 or six-sided figure2 the octagon1 or eight-sided figure2 and the ellipse are so very frequently used in simple woodwork1 that their construction is given here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,directions for hexagon1 ,fig4 #i3 ,describe a circle of a size equal to the required distance of hexagon from corner to corner4 ,draw the diameter ,a-,b4 ,with the point ,a as a center1 using the radius of the circle1 cut the circle at #a and #b4 ,with ,b as a center1 and the same radius1 cut the circle at #c and #d4 ,connect ,a-#a1 ,a-#b1 #b-c1 etc4 ,connecting every other point1 as ,a-#c1 #b-;,b1 etc41 makes a six-pointed star4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,directions for octagon1 ,fig4 #aj3 ,draw a square with a width equal to the desired width of the octagon from side to side4 ,draw the diagonals4 ,with the points ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and ,d as centers and a radius equal to one-half the diagonal1 cut the sides of the square at #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,connect these points as shown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,directions for ellipse1 ,fig4 #aa3 ,an ellipse is a curve such that the sum of the distances from any point on it to two fixed points called the focii shall always be the same4 ,an easy way to construct such a curve is to place two thumb tacks at the focii1 attach the ends of a string to them4 ,with a pencil moving freely in the string but holding it taut draw the curve4 ,by moving the tacks farther apart or closer together and by lengthening or shortening the string1 the size and shape of the curve may be changed as desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 #f4 ,order of ,procedure4--,beginners should strive to know and to acquire good practice in drawing4 ,before beginning see that the pencil is properly sharpened4 7#a7 ,determine the size and spacings of the views so that the parts of the drawings may be properly placed4 7#b7 ,with light full lines block out the different views4 ,blocking-out lines are made of indefinite length and the proper distances marked off on them after they are drawn4 ,holding the rule or scale upon the drawing vertically1 mark off the vertical spaces4 ,draw light lines thru these points4 ,upon one of these horizontal lines lay off the horizontal spaces4 ,draw light vertical lines thru these points4 ,fig4 #ab4 7#c7 ,put on the dimensions4 7#d7 ,put on the lettering4 7#e7 ,the drawing is ready for inking4 ,in blocking-out1 all lines are made full1 light4 ,in inking1 the different kinds must be represented properly4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,if it is not to be inked go over the lines that represent edges with the pencil a second time so that the outlines of the object will 8stand out40 ,books on the ,manual ,arts ,beginning ,woodwork4 ,at ,home and in ,school4 ,by ,,clinton ,,sheldon ,,van ,,deusen2 illustrated by ,edwin ,victor ,lawrence4 ,a full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood4 ,this description is given through directions for making a few simple1 useful articles suitable either for school or home problems4 ,even without a teacher a bright boy1 by following this book faithfully1 may acquire considerable skill4 ,it is a safe guide for farmers' boys as well as for city boys1 and is especially well suited for use in rural and village schools in which the teacher has had but little experience in the use of woodworking tools4 ,the book is illustrated by more than one hundred figures1 including ten plates of working drawings4 ,each of these figures is an original drawing made expressly for this book4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,problems in ,woodworking4 ,by ,m4 ,w4 ,,murray4 ,a convenient collection of good problems ready to place in the hands of the pupils4 ,it consists of forty plates bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners4 ,each plate is a working drawing1 or problem in bench work that has been successfully worked out by boys in one of the grades from seven to nine inclusive4 ,many of the problems can be worked out in various ways according to the individual ability1 interest and taste of the pupil4 ,price1 #ge cents4 ,board covers1 #bj cents extra4 ,problems in ,furniture ,making4 ,by ,,fred ,d4 ,,crawshaw4 ,this book consists of #cb plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools and #bd pages of text1 including chapters on design1 construction and finishes1 and notes on the problems4 ,price1 in heavy paper covers1 #a4jj4 ,board covers1 #bj cents extra4 ,problems in ,mechanical ,drawing4 ,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,bennett4 ,with drawings made by ,fred ,d4 ,crawshaw4 ,this book consists of #hj plates and a few explanatory notes1 and is bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners4 ,its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple1 practical problems4 ,these have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique1 the interest of the pupils1 and the subjects usually included in a grammar and first-year high school course4 ,the book covers simple projection--straight lines and circles1 problems involving tangents1 planes of projection1 revolution of solids1 developments1 intersections1 isometric projection1 lettering and working drawings4 ,each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,board covers1 #bj cents extra4 ,classroom ,practice in ,design4 ,by ,,james ,,parton ,,haney4 ,a concise1 up-to-date1 richly illustrated booklet on the teaching of applied design4 ,very suggestive4 ,price1 #ej cents4 ,the ,wash ,method of ,handling ,water ,colour4 ,by ,,frank ,,forrest ,,frederick4 8,this little book is a helpful guide and affords a stimulus to the use of water-color as practiced by the earlier painters1 whose beautiful work is unexcelled40 ,price1 #ej cents4 ,manual ,training ,magazine4 ,an illustrated1 bi-monthly publication devoted to the interests of the ,manual ,arts in ,education4 ,subscription price1 #a4ej a year2 single copies1 #ce cents4 ,in foreign countries1 including ,canada1 #a4ge a year2 single copies1 #dj cents4 ,illustration ,the ,manual ,arts ,press ,peoria1 ,illinois ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent hyphenation and spelling have been retained except as mentioned under ,changes made below4 ,page #ce1 444 being careful to hold so as to get the full benefit 4443 part of the sentence appears to be missing4 ,pages #acb-acc3 ,figs4 #bad and #bac appear in reverse order in the source document4 ,page #adf1 paragraph starting ,hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock 4443 the repeated paragraph is also repeated in the source document2 444 giving rise to 8curly0 and blister0 figures 4443 should be either 8curly and blister0 or 8curly0 and 8blister04 ,page #aef1 ,wood stains are cheap 4443 possibly an error for ,water stains are cheap 4444 ,changes made ,several obvious minor typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,some punctuation inconsistencies in illustration captions and references have been standardised4 ,captions with ,figs4 #ie1 #aai1 #aic3 dashes have been added to some of the entries for consistency4 ,page #i3 heading ,,part ,i4 ,,tools ,,and ,,elementary ,,processes4 has been inserted cf4 the ,table of ,contents4 ,page #dc3 ,a ,true and smooth 444 has been replaced with #a4 ,true and smooth 4444 ,page #ih3 444 ,chapter ,i1 ,sec-#a 444 has been changed to 444 ,chapter ,i1 ,section #a 4444 ,page #aaf3 ,,part ,,three has been changed to ,,part ,,iii for consistency4 ,page #ach3 dicotyledon has been changed to dicotyledons4 ,page #aga3 bicromate has been changed to bichromate4