,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,und]scores 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate italics 9 ! orig9al text4 ,equal signs 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate bold 9 ! orig9al text4 ,small capitals h be5 conv]t$ to ,,solid capitals4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s !y d n break up p>agraphs4 ,typographical & punctuation errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,,/eel3 ,a ,,manual ,,= ,,/eel-,,us]s4 ,,by ,,william ,,metcalf4 ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,,fir/ ,,?\s&4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,john ,,wiley ,,sons4 ,,london3 ,,*apman ,,hall1 ,,limit$4 #ahif4 ,copyright1 #ahif1 ,,by ,,william ,,metcalf4 ,,rob]t ,,drummond1 ,,electrotyp] ,,& ,,pr9t]1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,introduction4 ,tw5ty-sev5 ye>s ( active practice 9 ! manufacture ( /eel br\ght ! au?or 9 daily contact ) que/ions involv+ ! manipulation ( /eel1 its prop]ties1 & ! results ( any op]ations to :i* x 0 subject$4 ,blacksmi?s1 edge-tool mak]s1 die-mak]s1 ma*9e-build]s1 & eng9e]s 7 cont9ually ask+ que/ions ^: answ]s involv$ /udy & exp]im5t4 ,dur+ ^! ye>s ! ,bessem] & ! op5-he>? processes 7 develop$ f infancy to _! pres5t enorm\s /ature2 & ! %ad[s ( ^! "y giants1 ev] m5ac+ to ! exp5sive & fragile crucible1 kept "o 9 a con/ant /ate ( wat*+1 anxiety1 & m /udy4 ,! lit]ature ( /eel has gr[n ) ! art2 its books are no long] to be c\nt$ on ! f+]s1 !y are to be weigh$ 9 tons4 ,!n :y write ano!r8 ,because !re seems to be "o little gap4 ,metallurgi/s & sci5ti/s h work$ & are /ill work+2 !y h giv5 to ! _w mu* in=mation = :i* ! _w %\ld be ?ankful4 ,eng9e]s h exp]im5t$ & te/$1 z !y nev] did be=e1 & ?\s&s ( tables & results are record$1 provid+ com+ eng9e]s ) a m9e ( invaluable weal?4 ,/eel-work]s & temp]]s h writt5 mu* t is ( great practical value4 ,/ill ! que/ions come1 & !y are almo/ always ^? involv+ an intimate acqua9tance ) ! prop]ties ( /eel1 :i* is only to be ga9$ by contact ) bo? manufactur]s & us]s4 ,9 ?is little manual ! ef=t is made to fill ?is gap & to give to all /eel-us]s a sy/ematic1 cond5s$ /atem5t ( facts t c\ld n be obta9$ o!rwise1 except by travell+ ?r\gh miles ( lit]ature1 & possibly n !n4 ,!re are no tables1 & no exact data2 su* w\ld be m]ely a re-compilation ( "w already done by abl] m9ds4 ,x is a record ( exp]i5ces1 & s x may seem to be dogmatic2 ! au?or believes its /atem5ts to be true--!y are true z f> z 8 k goes2 o!rs c v]ify !m by trial4 ,if ! /atem5ts made prove to be ( value to o!rs1 !n ! au?or w feel t he has done well to record !m2 if n1 !re is probably no?+ said t is likely to result 9 any h>m4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,page ,,g5]al ,,description ,,( ,,/eel1 ,,& ,,me?ods ,,( ,,manufacture4--,cem5t$ or ,conv]t$ ,/eel4 ,bli/]1 ,g]man1 ,%e>1 ,d\ble-%e>4 ,crucible-/eel1 ,bessem]1 ,op5-he>? #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,applications ,,& ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,k9ds ,,( ,,/eel4--,crucible1 ,op5-he>?1 ,bessem] #ad ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,alloy ,,/eels ,,& ,,_! ,,uses4--,self-h>d5+1 ,manganese1 ,nickel1 ,silicon1 ,alum9um #bg ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,c>bon4--,g5]al ,prop]ties & ,uses4 ,modes ( ,introduc+ ,x 9 ,/eel4 ,c>bon ,temp]s1 ,h[ ,det]m9$4 ,! ,c>bon-l9e4 ,effects ( ,c>bon1 9 ,l[ ,/eel1 9 ,high ,/eel4 ,importance ( ,att5tion to ,composition #cg ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eel4--,f\r ,conditions3 ,solid1 ,pla/ic1 ,granul>1 ,liquid4 ,effects ( ,heat4 ,size ( ,gra94 ,recalesc5ce1 ,magnetism4 ,effects ( ,cool+1 ,h>d5+1 ,s(t5+1 ,*eck+4 ,effects ( ,=g+ or ,roll+1 ,hot or ,cold4 ,cond5s+1 ,hamm]-ref9+1 ,bur/+4 ,ranges ( ,t5acity1 etc4 ,natural ,b>1 ,anneal$ ,b>1 ,h>d5$ ,b>1 etc4 #eb ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,heat+4--,= ,=g+2 ,h>d5+2 ,ov]heat+2 ,burn+2 ,re/or+2 ,weld+ #gg ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,anneal+ #hd ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,h>d5+ ,,& ,,temp]+4--,size ( ,gra92 ,ref9+ at ,recalesc5ce2 ,specific-gravity ,te/s2 ,temp] ,colors2 ,h[ to ,break ,"w2 a ,^w = ! ,workman #if ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,effects ,,( ,,gr9d+4--,glaze1 ,sk91 ,dec>boniz$ ,sk91 ,crack$ ,surfaces1 ,pickl+ #abh ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,impurities ,,& ,,_! ,,effects4--,cold-%ort4 ,r$-%ort1 ,hot-%ort1 ,irregul>ities1 ,segregation1 ,oxides1 etc41 ,wild ,heats1 ,porosity4 ,remov+ ,la/ ,fractions ( ,hurtful ,elem5ts4 ,&rews ,brok5 ,rail & ,propell]-%aft #abi ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,h>d5+4--,comb9$1 ,graphitic1 ,dissolv$1 ,cem5t1 ,h>d5+ & ,non-h>d5+ ,c>bon4 ,c>bides4 ,allotropic ,=ms ( ,iron 1 1 etc4 ,iron z an ,igne\s ,rock or z a ,liquid #adf ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,inspection4--,+ots1 ,b>s1 ,f9i%$ ,"w4 ,temp]s & ,s\ndness ( ,+ots4 ,seams1 ,pipes1 ,laps1 ,burns1 ,/>s #aea ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,specifications4--,physical1 ,*emical1 & ( ,s\ndness & ,fre$om f ,scrat*es1 ,%>p ,re-entrant ,angles1 etc4 #aed ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,humbugs #afa ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,conclusions #afd ,,gloss>y4 ,,def9itions ,,( ,,%op ,,t]ms ,,us$ #afg ,,/eel3 ,a ,,manual ,,= ,,/eel ,,us]s4 ,i4 ,,g5]al ,,description ,,( ,,/eel ,,& ,,( ,,modes ,,( ,,its ,,manufacture4 ,/eel may be gr\p$ "u f\r g5]al heads1 ea* receiv+ its "n f ! mode ( its manufacture2 ! g5]al prop]ties ( ! diff]5t k9ds are ! same1 modifi$ to "s ext5t by ! diff]5ces 9 ! op]ations ( mak+ !m2 ^! diff]5ces are s slight1 h[ev]1 t aft] hav+ m5tion$ !m ! discussion ( v>i\s qualities & prop]ties 9 ! foll[+ pages w be g5]al1 & ! facts giv5 w apply to all k9ds ( /eel1 exceptions be+ po9t$ out :5 !y occur4 ,! fir/ g5]al division ( /eel is cem5t$ or conv]t$ /eel1 kn[n to ! trade z bli/]-/eel1 ,g]man1 %e>1 & d\ble-%e> /eel4 ,?is is probably ! olde/ ( all kn[n k9ds ( /eel1 z !re is no record ( ! beg9n+ ( its manufacture4 ,?is /eel is bas$ ^u ! fact t :5 iron n saturat$ ) c>bon is pack$ 9 c>bon1 ) all air exclud$1 & subject$ to a high temp]ature1--any temp]ature above a l[ r$ heat1--c>bon w be absorb$ by ! iron conv]t+ x into /eel1 ! /eel be+ h>d] or mild]1 conta9+ m or less c>bon1 det]m9$ by ! temp]ature & ! "t ( contact4 ,exp]i5ce & c>eful exp]im5t h %[n t at a bright orange heat c>bon w p5etrate iron at ! rate ( ab\t "o eigh? ( an in* 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,?is applies to complete saturation1 above #ajj c>bon2 liquid /eel w absorb c>bon ) great rapidity1 becom+ saturat$ 9 a few m9utes1 if en\gh c>bon be add$ to cause saturation4 ,,manufacture ,,( ,,bli/]-,,/eel4 ,b>s ( wr\ght iron are pack$ 9 lay]s1 ea* b> surr\nd$ by *>coal1 & ! :ole h]metically seal$ 9 a fire-brick vessel lut$ on top ) clay2 heat is !n appli$ until ! :ole is br\ght up to a bright orange color1 & ?is heat is ma9ta9$ z ev5ly z possible until ! :ole mass ( iron is p5etrat$ by c>bon2 usually b>s ab\t ?ree qu>t]s ( an in* ?ick are us$1 & ! heat is requir$ to be ma9ta9$ = ?ree days1 ! c>bon1 ent]+ f bo? sides1 requir+ ?ree days to travel ?ree eigh?s ( an in* to ! c5tre ( ! b>4 ,if ! furnace be runn+ hot1 ! conv]sion may be complete 9 two days1 or less4 ,! furnace is !n cool$ & ! b>s are remov$2 !y are f\nd to be cov]$ ) num]\s bli/]s1 giv+ ! /eel its "n4 ,! b>s ( t\gh wr\ght iron are f\nd to be conv]t$ into highly cry/all9e1 brittle /eel4 ,:5 bli/]-/eel is heat$ & roll$ directly into f9i%$ b>s1 x is kn[n comm]cially z ,,g]man ,,/eel4 ,:5 bli/]-/eel is heat$ to a high heat1 weld$ "u a hamm]1 & !n f9i%$ "u a hamm] ei!r at ! same heat or aft] a slight re-heat+1 x is kn[n z ,,%e>-,,/eel1 or ,,s+le-,,%e>4 ,:5 s+le-%e> /eel is brok5 into %ort] l5g?s1 pil$1 heat$ to a weld+-heat & hamm]$1 & !n hamm]$ to a f9i% ei!r at t heat or aft] a slight re-heat+1 x is kn[n z ,,d\ble-,,%e> ,,/eel4 ,seebohm gives ano!r def9ition ( s+le-%e>1 & d\ble-%e>2 probably bo? are correct1 be+ diff]5t %op designations4 ,until )9 ! la/ c5tury ! above /eels 7 ! only k9ds kn[n 9 comm]ce4 ,!re 0 a little /eel made 9 ,india by a melt+ process1 kn[n z ,wootz4 ,x am\nt$ to no?+ 9 ! comm]ce ( ! _w1 & is m5tion$ because x is ! olde/ ( kn[n melt+ processes4 ,al?\gh conv]t$ /eel is s old1 & s few ye>s ago 0 ! only available k9d ( /eel 9 ! _w1 no?+ m ne$ be said ( x "h1 z x has be5 almo/ sup]s$$ by ca/ /eel1 sup]ior 9 quality & *eap] 9 co/1 except 9 crucible-/eel4 ,inquir+ read]s w f9d 9 ,p]cy1 & _m o!r works1 su* full & detail$ acc\nts ( ! manufacture ( ^! /eels t x w\ld be a wa/e ( space & "t to repr9t !m "h1 z !y are ( no m comm]cial importance4 ,9 ! la/ c5tury ,daniel ,huntsman1 ( ,engl&1 a mak] ( clocks1 f\nd great difficulty 9 gett+ reliable1 durable1 & uni=m spr+s to run 8 clocks4 ,x occurr$ to him t he might produce a bett] & m uni=m article by fus+ bli/]-/eel 9 a crucible4 ,he tri$ ! exp]im5t1 & aft] ! usual tr\bles ( a pione] he succe$$1 & produc$ ! article he requir$4 ,?is f\nd$ & e/abli%$ ! great ,crucible-ca/-/eel indu/ry1 ^: b5efits to ! arts are almo/ incalculable2 & none ( ! great inv5tions ( ! latt] half ( ?is n9ete5? c5tury h produc$ any?+ equal 9 quality to ! f9] grades ( crucible-/eel4 ,,crucible-,,ca/ ,,/eel is ! second ( ! f\r g5]al k9ds ( /eel m5tion$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]4 ,al?\gh ,huntsman succe$$ s well t he is cle>ly entitl$ to ! cr$it ( hav+ inv5t$ ! crucible process1 he met ) _m difficulties1 f porosity ( 8 +ots ma9ly2 ?is tr\ble 0 correct$ l>gely by ,hea? by ! use ( black oxide ( manganese4 ,hea? attempt$ to keep 8 process secret1 b x 0 /ol5 f him1 & he sp5t ! re/ ( a tr\bl$ life 9 try+ to get "s comp5sation f ! pilf]]s ( 8 process4 ,an int]e/+ & pa!tic acc\nt ( 8 tr\bles w be f\nd 9 ,p]cy4 ,hea?'s inv5tion 0 n complete1 & x 0 f9i%$ by ! eld] ,mu%et1 :o introduc$ 9 addition to ! oxide ( manganese a small quantity ( f]ro-manganese1 an alloy ( iron & manganese2 & x 0 n[ possible1 ) c>e & skill1 to make a quality ( /eel :i* = uni=mity1 /r5g?1 & g5]al utility has nev] be5 equall$4 ,crucible-/eel 0 produc$ !n by *>g+ into a crucible brok5 bli/]-/eel1 a small quantity ( oxide ( manganese1 & ( f]ro-manganese1 or ,spiegel-eis51 cov]+ ! crucible ) a cap1 & melt+ ! cont5ts 9 a coke-furnace1 a simple furnace :]e ! crucible 0 plac$ on a /& ( refractory mat]ial1 surr\nd$ by coke1 & fir$ until melt$ ?or\ghly4 ,! fir/ crucibles us$1 & ^? /ill us$ l>gely 9 ,%effield1 7 made ( fire-clay2 a bett]1 l>g]1 & m durable crucible1 us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates exclusively1 & 9 ,europe to "s ext5t1 is made ( plumbago1 cem5t$ by en\gh ( fire-clay to make x /rong & t\gh4 ,z ! dem&s = /eel increas$ & v>i$ x 0 f\nd t ! c>bon c\ld be v>i$ by mix+ wr\ght iron & bli/]-b>1 & s a great v>iety ( temp]s 0 produc$1 f /eel conta9+ n m ?an #j4aj ( c>bon up to /eel conta9+ #a4ej to #b ( c>bon1 & ev5 high] 9 special cases4 ,x 0 soon f\nd t ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 /eel c\ld be det]m9$ by exam9+ ! fractures ( cold +ots2 ! fracture due to a c]ta9 quantity ( c>bon is s di/9ct & s un*ang+ = t quantity t1 once kn[n1 x _c be mi/ak5 = any o!r4 ,! +ot is s s5sitive to ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t t diff]5ces ( 4#je may be obs]v$1 & 9 ev]yday practice ! skill$ inspector w select fifte5 diff]5t temp]s ( +ots 9 /eels rang+ f ab\t #ej c>bon to #aej c>bon1 ! mean diff]5ce 9 c>bon f "o temp] to ano!r be+ only 4#jg4 ,& ?is is no guess-"w2--no *emical color det]m9ation w approa* x 9 accuracy1 & su* "w c only be *eck$ by c>eful analysis by combu/ion4 ,?is is ! /eel-mak]'s greate/ /ronghold1 z x is possible by ?is means = a c>eful1 skilful man to furni% to a consum]1 ye> aft] ye>1 hundr$s or ?\s&s ( tons ( /eel1 n "o piece ( :i* %all v>y 9 c>bon m ?an 4#je above or bel[ ! mean = t temp]4 ,! ^w 8temp]0 us$ "h ref]s to ! quantity ( c>bon conta9$ 9 ! /eel1 x is ! /eel-mak]'s ^w2 ! "q1 8,:at temp] is x80 answ]$1 ,no4 #c1 ,no4 #f1 or any o!r designation1 means a fix$1 def9ite quantity ( c>bon4 ,:5 a /eel-us] h>d5s a piece ( /eel1 & !n lets d[n ! temp] by g5tle heat+1 & he is ask$1 8,:at temp] is x80 he w answ] /raw1 light br[n1 br[n1 pigeon-w+1 light blue1 or blue1 z ! case may be1 & he means a fix$1 def9ite degree ( s(t5+ ( ! h>d5$ /eel4 ,x is an un=tunate multiple mean+ ( a v common ^w1 yet ! uses h become s fix$ t x seems to be impossible to *ange !m1 al?\gh !y sometimes cause s]i\s confusion4 ,! quantity ( c>bon conta9$ 9 /eel1 & inde$ ( all +r$i5ts1 z a rule1 is designat$ 9 "o hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t2 ?us t5 74#aj7 c>bon means t5 "o hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t2 n9ete5 74#ai7 c>bon means n9ete5 "o hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t2 "o hundr$ & ?irty-five 7#a4ce7 c>bon means "o hundr$ & ?irty-five "o hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t1 & s on4 ,s also = cont5ts ( silicon1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 manganese & o!r usual +r$i5ts4 ,?is enum]ation w be us$ 9 ?is "w1 & c>e w be tak5 to use ! ^w 8temp]0 9 su* a way z n to cause confusion4 ,x has be5 /at$ t crucible-ca/ /eel is made f t5 c>bon up to two hundr$ c>bon1 & t its cont5t ( c>bon c be det]m9$ by ! eye1 f fifty c>bon upw>ds1 by exam9+ ! fracture ( ! +ots4 ,! limitation f fifty c>bon upw>ds is n int5d$ to mean t +ots conta9+ less ?an fifty c>bon h no di/9ctive /ructures due to ! quantity ( c>bon2 !y h su* di/9ctive /ructures1 & ! difficulty 9 obs]v+ !m is m]ely physical4 ,+ots conta9+ fifty c>bon are s t\gh t !y c only be fractur$ by be+ nick$ ) a set deeply1 & !n brok5 (f2 bel[ ab\t fifty c>bon ! +ots are s t\gh t x is almo/ impossible to break op5 a l>ge en\gh fracture to enable ! inspector to det]m9e accurately ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t2 !re=e x is usual 9 ^! mild] /eels1 :5 accuracy is requir$1 to resort to quick color analyses to det]m9e ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t4 ,color analyses bel[ fifty c>bon may be fairly accurate1 above fifty c>bon !y are wor?less4 ,z ! prop]ties & reliability ( crucible-/eel became bett] kn[n ! dem& increas$1 & ! requirem5ts v>i$ & 7 met by skilful manufactur]s1 until1 by ! ye> #ahfj1 +ots 7 produc$ weigh+ _m tons by p\r+ ! cont5ts ( _m crucibles into "o m\ld2 9 ?is way ! m urg5t dem&s 7 met1 b ! mat]ial 0 v exp5sive & ! risks 9 manufactur+ 7 great4 ,ab\t ?is "t1 /imulat$ by ! desire ( enlight5$ gov]nm5ts to increase _! p[]s ( de/ruction 9 w> by ! use ( heavy guns ( great] p[] ?an c\ld be obta9$ by ! use ( ca/ iron1 & = heavi] %ip-armor to be us$ 9 def5ce1 ,mr4 ,bessem]1 ( ,engl&1 n[ ,sir ,h5ry ,bessem]1 reason$ t if melt$ ca/ iron 0 r$uc$ to wr\ght iron by puddl+1 or boil+1 by ! m]e oxidation1 or burn+ out1 ( ! excess ( c>bon & silicon f ! ca/ iron1 t ! same ca/ iron might be r$uc$ to /eel 9 l>ge masses by bl[+ air ?r\gh a molt5 mass 9 a close vessel1 reta9+ en\gh heat to keep ! mass molt5 s t ! result+ /eel c\ld be p\r$ into +ots z l>ge z might be desir$4 ,at ab\t ! same "t1 or a little e>li]1 ,mr4 ,kelly1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 devis$ & pat5t$ ! same me?od4 ,bo? ( ^! g5tlem5 demon/rat$ ! pot5cies ( _! inv5tion1 & nei!r br\ght x to a successful issue4 ,to p]si/5t & intellig5t iron-ma/]s ( ,sw$5 mu/ be giv5 ! cr$it ( br++ ! process ( ,bessem] to a comm]cial success1 & s !y gave to ! _w pneumatic or ,bessem] /eel1 ! latt] "n hold+1 prop]ly1 z a j tribute to ! inv5tor1 & ?is inaugurat$ ! ?ird g5]al division3 ,,bessem] ,,/eel4 ,bessem] /eel is made by p\r+ into a bottle-%ap$ vessel l9$ ) refractory mat]ial a mass ( molt5 ca/ iron1 & !n bl[+ air ?r\gh ! iron until ! c>bon & silicon are burn$ out4 ,! gases & flame result+ escape f ! m\? ( ! vessel4 ,! combu/ion ( c>bon & silicon produce a temp]ature suffici5t to keep ! mass ?or\ghly melt$1 s t ! /eel may be p\r$ into m\lds mak+ +ots ( any desir$ size4 ,9 ! beg9n+1 & = _m ye>s1 ! l9+ ( ! vessel 0 ( silici\s or acid mat]ial1 & x 0 f\nd t all ( ! phosphorus & sulphur conta9$ 9 ! ca/ iron rema9$ 9 ! result+ /eel1 s t x 0 necess>y to h no m ( ^! elem5ts 9 ! ca/ iron ?an 0 all[able 9 ! /eel4 ,! high] limit = phosphorus 0 fix$ at t5 po9ts 74#aj71 & t is ! recogniz$ limit ! _w ov]4 ,:5 ,bessem] pig is quot$1 or sold & b\ght1 x means always a ca/ iron conta9+ n m ?an t5 phosphorus4 ,9 reg>d to sulphur1 x 0 f\nd t if too mu* 7 pres5t ! mat]ial w\ld be r$-%ort1 s t x c\ld n be work$ conv5i5tly 9 ! rolls or "u ! hamm]1 & t :5 ! am\nt ( sulphur pres5t 0 n en\gh to produce r$-%ortness x 0 n suffici5t to hurt ! /eel4 ,z r$-%ort mat]ial is co/ly & tr\blesome to ! manufactur]1 x 0 n f\nd necess>y to fix any limit = sulphur1 because ! mak]s c\ld be dep5d$ ^u to keep x )9 work+ limits4 ,lat] inve/igations prove ?is to be a fallacy1 z mu* z t5 or ev5 m sulphur has be5 f\nd 9 brok5 rails & %afts1 ! /eel hav+ made workable by a p]c5tage ( manganese4 7,see ! results ( ,&rews's inve/igation giv5 9 ,*ap4 ,x47 ,dur+ ! op]ation ( bl[+ ,bessem] /eel ! flame issu+ f ! vessel is indicative ( ! elim9ation ( ! elem5ts1 & x is f\nd t :ile ! combu/ion is p>tially simultane\s ! silicon is all remov$ be=e ! c>bon1 & ! *>act]i/ic :ite flame t[>ds ! end ( ! bl[ is kn[n z ! c>bon flame2 :5 ! c>bon is burn$ out1 ?is flame drops sudd5ly & ! op]ator kn[s t ! bl[ is complet$4 ,any subsequ5t bl[+ w\ld result 9 burn+ iron only4 ,dur+ ! bl[ ! /eel is *>g$ heavily ) oxyg51 & if ?is 7 left 9 ! /eel x w\ld be rott51 r$-%ort1 & wor?less4 ,?is oxyg5 is remov$ l>gely by ! addition ( a pr$et]m9$ quantity ( f]ro-manganese1 usually melt$ previ\sly & !n p\r$ into ! /eel4 ,! manganese takes up ! great] "p ( ! oxyg51 leav+ ! /eel free f r$-%ortness & easily work$4 ,! fact t ! phosphorus ( ! iron rema9$ 9 ! /eel not)/&+ ! active combu/ion & high temp]ature l$ to ! dictum t at high temp]atures phosphorus c\ld n be elim9at$ f iron4 ,?is conclusion 0 cr$it$ because 9 "s ( ! s-call$ direct processes ( mak+ iron :]e ! temp]ature 0 nev] high en\gh to melt /eel all1 or ne>ly all1 ( ! phosphorus 0 remov$ f ! iron4 ,= _m ye>s /eel-mak]s ! _w ov] work$ ^u ?is basis1 & devot$ !mselves to procur+ = _! "w iron conta9+ n m ?an t5 74#aj7 phosphorus1 n[ univ]sally kn[n & quot$ z ,bessem] iron4 ,two "y ,engli% *emi/s1 ,sidney ,gil*ri/ ,?omas & ,p]cy ,c4 ,gil*ri/1 be+ c>eful ?9k]s1 conclud$ t ! "q 0 "o ( *emi/ry & n "o ( temp]ature2 accord+ly !y set to "w to obta9 a basic l9+ = ! vessel & to produce a basic slag f ! bl[ :i* %\ld reta9 9 x ! phosphorus ( ! iron4 ,aft] ! usual r\t9e ( exp]im5t1 & aga9/ ! d\bt+s ( ! exp]i5c$1 !y succe$$1 & produc$ a /eel practically free f phosphorus4 ,= ! practical work+ ( _! process x 0 f\nd bett]1 or necess>y1 to use iron l[ 9 silicon & high 9 phosphorus1 us+ ! phosphorus z a fuel to produce ! high temp]ature t is necess>y in/ead ( ! silicon ( ! acid process4 ,9 ! acid process x is f\nd necess>y to h high silicon--two p]c5t or m--to produce ! temp]ature necess>y to keep ! /eel liquid2 9 ! ,?omas-,gil*ri/ process phosphorus takes ! place ( silicon = ?is purpose4 ,9 ?is way ! basic ,bessem] process 0 work$ out & became prom95t4 ,! basic ,bessem] process is ( great value to ,engl& & to ! cont95t ( ,europe by enabl+ manufactur]s to use _! native ores1 :i* are usually too high 9 phosphorus = ! acid process1 s t be=e ?is inv5tion ne>ly all ( ! ores = mak+ ,bessem] /eel 7 import$ f ,sw$51 ,spa91 & ,africa4 ,! basic process has f\nd little developm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 because ! great abundance ( pure ore keeps ! acid process ! *eap]1 except 9 "o or two special localities4 ,:]e ! basic process is pr(itable 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x is work$ successfully4 ,at ab\t ! "t t ,bessem] made 8 inv5tion ,william ,siem5s1 aft]w>d ,sir ,william1 inv5t$ ! well-kn[n reg5]ative gas-furnace4 ,a ,fr5*man nam$ ,m>t9 utiliz$ ?is furnace to melt /eel 9 bulk 9 ! he>? ( ! furnace1 develop+ :at 0 kn[n = "s ye>s z ,siem5s-,m>t9 /eel1 or op5-he>? /eel2 ! latt] "n has prevail$1 & op5-he>? /eel is ! f\r? ( ! g5]al k9ds ( /eel m5tion$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]4 ,at fir/ op5-he>? /eel 0 made ^u a specially prep>$ s& bottom1 by fir/ melt+ a ba? ( ca/ iron & !n add+ wr\ght iron to ! ba? until by ! additions ( wr\ght iron & ! action ( ! flame ! c>bon & silicon ( ! ca/ iron 7 r$uc$ until ! :ole became a mass ( molt5 /eel4 ,sometimes iron ore is us$ in/ead ( wr\ght iron z ! r$uc+ ag5t2 ?is is call$ ! pig & ore process4 ,n[ 9 g5]al practice wr\ght iron1 /eel scrap1 & iron ore are us$1 sometimes alone & sometimes toge!r1 z economy or special requirem5ts make x conv5i5t4 ,x 0 f\nd z 9 ! ,bessem]1 s 9 ! op5-he>?1 ! sulphur & ! phosphorus ( ! *>ge rema9$ 9 ! /eel1 mak+ x necess>y to see t 9 ! *>ge !re 0 no m ( ^! elem5ts ?an ! /eel w\ld be>4 ,?is is kn[n n[ z ! acid op5-he>? process4 ,aft] ! success ( ! basic ,bessem] process 0 assur$ ! same pr9ciple 0 tri$ 9 ! op5-he>?2 a basic bottom ( dolomite or ( magnesite 0 sub/itut$ = ! acid s& bottom1 & c>e 0 tak5 to secure a basic slag 9 ! ba?4 ,success 0 great] ?an 9 ! ,bessem]2 phosphorus 0 elim9at$ & a bett] article 9 e way 0 made by ?is process1 n[ us$ ext5sively ov] ! :ole civiliz$ _w4 ,?is is ! basic op5-he>? process4 ,nei!r ! basic ,bessem] process nor ! basic op5-he>? remov$ sulphur1 s t ?is elem5t mu/ /ill be kept l[ 9 ! orig9al *>ge1 until "s way %all be f\nd = its sure & economical elim9ation4 ,! f\r g5]al divisions1 !n1 are3 ,conv]t$ or ,cem5t$ ,/eel4 ,crucible-ca/ ,/eel4 ,bessem] ,acid ,basic ,ca/ ,/eel4 ,op5-he>? ,acid ,basic ,ca/ ,/eel4 ,little or no?+ m w be said ( ! fir/ k9d1 z x has be5 s ?or\ghly sup]s$$ by ! ca/ /eels4 ,aft] a /atem5t ( ! mo/ pat5t applications & uses ( ! diff]5t ca/ /eels ! discussions :i* foll[ w apply to all1 because practically !y are all gov]n$ by ! same g5]al laws4 ,,ii4 ,,applications ,,& ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,k9ds ,,( ,,/eel4 ,:]e exact uni=mity ( composition is n a necessity1 & :]e weld+ is requir$1 cem5t$ or conv]t$ /eel may be pref]r$ to ca/ /eel1 because ! conv]t$ b> reta9s ! occlud$ lay]s ( slag :i* give to wr\ght iron its peculi> weld+ prop]ties1 & = ?is reason bli/]- or %e>-/eel may be weld$ m easily & surely ?an ca/ /eel4 ,= tires1 composite dies1 & _m comp\nd articles ?is /eel w d v well1 & x may be work$ ) good results by almo/ any smi? ( ord9>y skill2 h[ev]1 ow+ to ! m uni=m /ructure & ! great] durability ( ! ca/ /eels1 !y h1 ev5 = ^! purposes1 almo/ entirely displac$ ! m easily work$1 b less durable1 cem5t$ /eels4 ,,crucible-,,ca/ ,,/eel4 ,= all purposes crucible-/eel has prov$ to be sup]ior to all o!rs2 x is well kn[n to all exp]i5c$ & obs]v+ work]s 9 /eel t1 giv5 an equal composition1 crucible is /rong] & m reliable 9 e way ?an any ( ! o!r k9ds ( /eel4 ,?is may read l a m]e dictum1 & x might be ask$ prop]ly1 ,:at are ! pro(s8 ,! pro(s are want+ = two reasons3 fir/1 because crucible-/eel is s exp5sive t except = gun p>ts1 armor1 & su* uses :]e exp5se c\ld be ignor$1 crucible-/eel nev] came into ext5sive use = /ructural purposes2 second1 t :ile ?\s&s ^u ?\s&s ( te/s ( ! *eap] /eels are record$ & available to eng9e]s v few ( su* te/s h be5 made on crucible-/eel1 simply because x has n be5 us$ = /ructural purposes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 intellig5t mak]s ( crucible-/eel h = self-pres]vation made c>eful /udy ( ! relative prop]ties ( ! diff]5t /eels 9 ord] t !y might "k :at to expect f ! *eap] processes4 ,9 ?is way !y h surr5d]$ boil]-/eel1 spr+-/eel1 ma*9]y-/eel1 batt]+-tool /eel1 *eap die-/eel1 & _m small] applications2 n because !y c\ld n produce a bett] article1 b because ! *eap] /eels met ! requirem5ts ( consum]s satisfactorily1 & !re=e !y c\ld n be expect$ to pay a high] price = an article ^: sup]iority 0 n a necessity 9 _! requirem5ts4 ,/ill ?is /at$ sup]iority is prov5 be/ by ! fact t _m c>eful consum]s :o h special reasons = /udy+ durability z aga9/ fir/ co/ adh]e to ! high] pric$ crucible-/eel = su* uses z1 = in/ance1 p>ts ( m9+- & qu>ry+-drills1 high-spe$ sp9dles1 9 cotton-mills1 & 9 exp5sive la!s & ma*9es ( t k9d4 ,?is sort ( te/imony %\ld be m conclusive ?an t ( int]e/$ /eel-mak]s1 because ^! m5 pay _! own money = ! high] pric$ mat]ial1 & because m5 :o are mo/ c>eful ( ! quality ( _! produce & ( _! reputation are ! mo/ cle>-head$ & mo/ s5sible m5 ( _! class2 !y h ! be/ bus9ess & ! greate/ success4 ,su* m5 are n fools2 !y may be dep5d$ ^u to try ev]y?+ ( promise ) ! greate/ c>e1 & to use only t ?+ :i* pays !m be/4 ,9 fact su* m5 d use ! *eap] /eels freely :]ev] !y c d s safely4 ,a good c>-spr+1 c>riage-spr+1 or wagon-spr+ is made f ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel1 a spr+ t w we> out ! c> or c>riage2 x w\ld be /upid !n to buy m exp5sive /eel = su* purposes1 = ev5 if crucible-/eel w\ld we> out two c>s or two wagons ! own] nev] expects to take ! spr+s out ( an old wagon to put !m "u a new "o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! wat*-spr+ mak] or ! clock-spr+ mak] w f9d a great advantage 9 us+ ! v be/ crucible-/eel t c be made4 ,a sl$ge1 a maul1 or a hamm] c be made ( su* excell5t quality f prop]ly select$ ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel t x w\ld be fooli% = mak]s ( su* tools to cont9ue to buy crucible-/eel1 ev5 ?\gh !y knew x to be sup]ior1 = l[] fir/ co/ 9 su* cases outweighs sup]iority t _c be %[n = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,locomotive-boil]s1 crank-p9s1 slide-rods1 connect+-rods1 & spr+s c be made ( su* good quality ( ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel t1 l ! 8"o-horse %ay10 ! :ole ma*9e w we> out at ! same "t practically1 & t a good long "t2 !re w\ld be no reason 9 ?is case = us+ crucible-/eel = "o or m ( ^! p>ts1 al?\gh tw5ty-five ye>s ago x 0 by means ( crucible-/eel t eng9e]s le>n$ to use /eel = ^! purposes4 ,a good cam = an ord9>y ma*9e1 su* z a %e> or pun*1 may be made ( ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel :]e great] /r5g? & endurance are requir$ ?an c be _h 9 ca/ iron2 on ! o!r h&1 mak]s ( cams = delicately adju/$ high-spe$ ma*9es :]e intricacy & accuracy are necess>y w t\* no?+ b ! v be/ crucible-/eel ( f9e-tool quality = _! "w4 ,x is ( no use to sugge/ ! great] *eapness ( ! o!r /eels2 !y h tri$ !m ?or\ghly1 & !y "k t 9 _! case ! highe/ pric$ is ! *eape/4 ,?is sup]iority ( crucible-/eel has be5 d\bt$1 because ! claim appe>$ to re/ solely ^u ! /atem5ts ( /eel-mak]s1 & n to h any sci5tific basis2 !re is1 h[ev]1 a sci5tific basis = ! fact4 ,giv5 ?ree samples ( /eel ( say ! foll[+ composition3 ,crucible4 ,op5-he>?4 ,bessem]4 ,c>bon #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj ,silicon 4#aj 4#aj 4#aj ,phosphorus 4#je 4#je 4#je ,sulphur 4#jb 4#jb 4#jb ,copp]1 ars5ic1 etc4 traces ,:y %\ld !re be any diff]5ce 9 ! /r5g? ( ! ?ree8 ,9 m]e t5sile /r5g? 9 an untemp]$ b> ! diff]5ce might n be v great1 al?\gh all exp]i5c$ p]sons w\ld expect ! crucible to %[ ! highe/2 b x is n necess>y to make ! claim1 because we h n en\gh te/s ( crucible-/eel to enable u to e/abli% a mean1 & "o or two te/s are insuffici5t to e/abli% a rule 9 any case4 ,!re h be5 made1 h[ev]1 hundr$s ( te/s ( h>d5$ & temp]$ samples by ! mo/ exp]t p]sons1 ) "o inv>iable result3 ! crucible-/eel is incomp>ably f9] & /rong] ?an ! o!rs1 & ! op5-he>? is almo/ inv>iably /rong] & f9] ?an ! ,bessem]4 ,un=tunately = ! argum5t ^! te/s _c be record$ s z to be intelligible to ! non-exp]t1 because we _c tabulate ! result ( ! t\* ( ! exp]t h& or ! obs]vation ( ! exp]i5c$ eye4 ,= a "t x 0 popul> to call ^! diff]5ces my/]ies1 & s let !m pass2 ?is1 h[ev]1 0 n satisfactory1 & ! "q 0 /udi$ c>efully = ! physical reasons :i* mu/ exi/4 ,mu* ?\ght l$ to ! conclusion t ! reason lay ) ! ?ree elem5ts oxyg51 nitrog51 & hydrog52 !y are kn[n to exi/ 9 great] or less quantity 9 all iron & /eel4 ,x is kn[n t ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 beyond c]ta9 small limits produces r$-%ortness & g5]al weakness2 x is probably a mu* m hurtful elem5t ?an phosphorus or sulphur1 b no quantitative me?od = its det]m9ation has be5 work$ out2 !re is an ef=t n[ be+ made to develop a simple & exp$iti\s oxyg5 det]m9ation1 & x is to be hop$ t x w be successful4 ,9 ! crucible no m oxyg51 hydrog51 or nitrog5 c get into ! /eel ?an is conta9$ 9 ! mat]ial *>g$ & 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! crucible1 or ?an may p5etrate ! walls ( ! crucible dur+ melt+4 ,9 ! op5 he>? ! process is an oxidiz+ "o1 & besides ! *>ge is swept cont9u\sly by hot flames conta9+ all ( ^! elem5ts4 ,9 ! ,bessem] process ! conditions are worse /ill1 z ^! elem5ts are all bl[n ?r\gh ! :ole mass ( ! /eel4 ,we "k ! effect ( oxyg5 & h[ to elim9ate x practically4 ,p]cy gives ! effects ( nitrog5 z caus+ h>dness & extreme brittl5ess1 & giv+ to iron or /eel a brassy lu/re4 ,su* a brassy lu/re may be se5 frequ5tly 9 op5-he>? or ,bessem] /eel1 & occasionally 9 crucible-/eel4 ,:5 se5 9 crucible-/eel x is kn[n to be due to ! fact t ! cap ( ! crucible became displac$1 expos+ ! cont5ts to ! direct action ( ! flame4 ,( ! effect ( hydrog5 we "k less2 !re is no reason app>5t :y x may n be z pot5t z ! o!rs4 ,ammonia 9 suffici5t quantity to be detect$ by ! nose has (t5 be5 obs]v$ 9 op5-he>? & ,bessem] /eel4 ,to settle ! nitrog5 "q ,pr(4 ,john ,w4 ,langley develop$ "s ye>s ago a v delicate & accurate process = ! det]m9ation ( nitrog5 ev5 9 m9ute quantities2 ! process 0 t$i\s & exp5sive1 s t x 0 n adapt$ = daily use2 x involv$ ! c>eful elim9ation ( nitrog5 f all ( ! reag5ts to be us$1 requir+ sev]al days' "w1 9 ea* case to prep>e = only a few nitrog5 det]m9ations4 ,by ?is process x 0 f\nd1 9 e "o ( _m trials1 t crucible-/eel conta9$ ! lea/ am\nt ( nitrog51 op5-he>? /eel ! next great] quantity1 & ,bessem] /eel ! greate/ am\nt4 ,he f\nd no exceptions to ?is4 ,= _m ye>s great ef=ts _h be5 made bo? 9 ,europe & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to make by ! ,bessem] or ! op5-he>? process a *eap melt+-product to be us$ 9 ! crucible in/ead ( ! exp5sive irons :i* s f> h prov$ to be necess>y to give ! be/ results4 ,!re appe>$ to be no difficulty 9 mak+ a mat]ial z pure *emically1 or pur]1 ?an ! mo/ fam\s irons 9 ! _w1 & ?is mat]ial 0 urg$ ^u ! crucible-/eel mak]s4 ,c>eful te/s ( su* mat]ial fail$ to produce ! requir$ article2 9 fact x 0 demon/rat$ ov] & ov] aga9 t an inf]ior wr\ght iron w\ld produce a /rong] /eel ?an ?is v pure /eel melt+-mat]ial1 & crucible-/eel mak]s 7 compell$ to adh]e to ! m co/ly irons to produce _! f9] grades4 ,pr(4 ,langley det]m9$ ! nitrog5 9 a giv5 quantity ( op5-he>? & ,bessem] /eel2 ?is same mat]ial 0 !n melt$ 9 a crucible1 & x 0 f\nd t ! result+ +ots conta9$ ne>ly z mu* nitrog5 z ! orig9al *>ge4 ,! quantity 0 r$uc$ slightly2 /ill ?is /eel conta9$ m nitrog5 ?an any o!r sample ( crucible-/eel t he _h te/$4 ,! physical te/ ( ?is trial /eel %[$ ! usual weakness ( ! ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel1 z comp>$ to crucible-/eel4 ,! next /ep 0 to try to get rid ( nitrog5 by ! use ( "s aff9ity1 z oxyg5 is remov$ by manganese4 ,boron & titanium seem$ to be ! mo/ feasible elem5ts2 boron appe>$ to (f] less *ance ( success1 & titanium 0 select$4 ,a f]ro-titanium conta9+ six p] c5t ( titanium 0 import$ f ,europe at "s exp5se4 ,z ! mo/ c>eful & exact+ analyses ( ?is mat]ial fail$ to reveal a trace ( titanium1 x 0 n us$4 ,aft] _m futile ef=ts ,langley succe$$1 by means ( electric heat1 9 r$uc+ rutile & produc+ a small quantity ( an alloy ( iron & titanium4 ,a trial ( ?is alloy1 al?\gh n conclusive1 l$ to ! belief t su* an alloy c\ld be us$ successfully to elim9ate nitrog52 b z its co/1 ab\t two doll>s a p\nd1 0 prohibitory ( any comm]cial use1 ! subject 0 n pursu$ f>!r4 ,al?\gh we "k ^! elem5ts only z gases1 !re is no reason to suppose t _! atoms may n be z pot5t1 :5 add$ to /eel1 z atoms ( c>bon1 silicon1 phosphorus1 or any o!r sub/ance4 ,su* are ! facts = crucible-/eel z f> z !y are kn[n2 x is va/ly m exp5sive ?an any o!r k9d ( /eel1 yet = ! pres5t x holds its own unique & valuable place 9 ! arts4 ,= all tools requir+ a f9e edge = cutt+ purposes1 su* z la!-tools1 drills1 taps1 ream]s1 mill+-cutt]s1 axes1 razors1 pocket-knives1 ne$les1 grav+-tools1 etc42 = f9e dies :]e %>p outl9e & great endurance are requir$2 = f9e spr+s & f9e ma*9]y p>ts & f9e files & saws1 & = a hundr$ simil> uses1 crucible-ca/ /eel /ill /&s pre-em95t1 & mu/ rema9 s until "s g5ius %all remove f ! *eap] /eels ! elem5ts t unfit !m = ^! purposes4 ,z /at$ be=e1 crucible-/eel is divid$ into fifte5 or m diff]5t temp]s1 rang+ 9 c>bon f 4#ej to #a4ej4 ,ea* ( ^! temp]s has its specific uses1 & a few w be po9t$ out 9 a g5]al way4 4#ej to 4#fj c>bon is be/ adapt$ = hot "w & = batt]+-tools4 4#fj to 4#gj c>bon = hot "w1 batt]+-tools1 & tools ( dull edge4 4#gj to 4#hj c>bon = batt]+-tools1 cold-sets1 & "s =ms ( ream]s & taps4 4#hj to 4#ij c>bon = cold-sets1 h&-*isels1 drills1 taps1 ream]s1 & dies4 4#ij to #a4jj c>bon = *isels1 drills1 dies1 axes1 knives1 & _m simil> purposes4 #a4jj to #a4aj c>bon = axes1 hat*ets1 knives1 l>ge la!-tools1 & _m k9ds ( dies & drills if c>e be us$ 9 temp]+ !m4 #a4aj to #a4ej c>bon = la!-tools1 grav+-tools1 scrib]s1 scrap]s1 little drills1 & _m simil> purposes4 ,! be/ all-ar\nd tool-/eel is f\nd betwe5 4#ij & #a4aj c>bon2 /eel t c be adapt$ safely & successfully to m uses ?an any o!r temp]4 ,at some:]e f 4#ij to #a4jj c>bon1 iron appe>s to be saturat$ ) c>bon1 giv+ ! highe/ effici5cy 9 tools & ! highe/ results 9 ! te/+-ma*9e except = compressive /ra9s4 ,m w be said ^u ?is po9t 9 treat+ ( ! c>bon-l9e4 ,mu* m c\ld be said ab\t ! uses = ! diff]5t temp]s ( /eel2 x w\ld be easy to write out 9 great detail ! exact c>bon :i* exp]i5ce has %[n to be be/ adapt$ to any "o ( hundr$s ( diff]5t uses1 b x w\ld only be confus+ & mislead+ to a great _m p4 ,x is )9 ! exp]i5ce ( e /eel-mak] t m5 are j z v>iable z /eel1 & ! successful /eel-mak] mu/ famili>ize himself ) ! p]sonal equations ( 8 patrons4 ,"o man on ! sunny side ( a /reet may be mak+ an excell5t k9d ( tool f a c]ta9 grade & temp] ( /eel1 & be p]fectly happy & prosp]\s 9 its use4 ,8 competitor on ! %ady side ( ! /reet may fail 9 try+ to use ! same /eel = ! same purpose & condemn x utt]ly4 ,! "k x all ag5t w condemn ! latt] man ) an intimation t 8 e>s are too long1 & s lose 8 trade4 ,! tactful ag5t w supply him ) /eel a temp] high] or a temp] l[]1 until he hits ^u ! "r "o1 & s w reta9 bo? m5 on 8 li/2 & bo? m5 w turn out equally good products4 ,few m5 "k _! own p]sonal equations1 & ! be/ way = a /eel-us] to d is to tell ! /eel-mak] :at he wants to accompli%1 & put ^u him ! responsibility ( select+ ! be/ temp]4 ,x co/s no m to make & to provide "o temp] ?an ano!r2 !re=e ! "o inducem5t ( ! /eel-mak] is to give 8 patron t :i* is be/ adapt$ to 8 use4 ,?is plan puts all ( ! responsibility ^u ! /eel-mak]1 j :]e x ought to be1 because he %\ld "k m ab\t ! adaptability ( 8 /eel ?an any o!r p]son4 ,,bessem] ,,/eel4 ,bessem] /eel is probably ! *eape/ ( all grades ( /eel2 t is to say1 x c be made s rapidly1 s cont9u\sly1 & 9 su* enorm\s quantities t a great] output p] doll> inve/$ c be made ?an by ei!r ( ! o!r processes4 ,aga91 ! "w is controll$ & op]at$ by ma*9]y to a mu* great] ext5t ?an 9 ! o!r processes2 !re=e ! co/ ( labor p] ton ( product bo? = skill$ & unskill$ labor is less ?an 9 ! crucible or ! op5-he>? me?od4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x might be inf]r$ t ! result w\ld be ! ev5tual driv+ out ( all o!r /eels by ?is1 ! *eape/4 ,?is w\ld be ! inevitable result if ,bessem] /eel 7 z well adapt$ to all purposes z ei!r ( ! o!r k9ds ( /eel2 !re are limitations :i* prev5t ?is4 ,! s\rce ( heat 9 ! ,bessem] process is 9 ! combu/ion ( ! elem5ts ( ! *>ge1 !re is no extrane\s s\rce ( heat2 !re=e1 if ! heat be too cold1 !re is no way to rem$y x unless x be by ! addition ( f]ro-silicon & m bl[+2 if x be too hot1 x may be all[$ to /& a few m9utes to cool4 ,/ill 9 ei!r case ! rem$y is some:at d\btful4 ,?is limitation mu/ n be tak5 z be+ fatal to good "w1 = 9 skilful h&s su* cases are r>e1 & ! product is g5]ally fully up to ! /&>d ( good "w4 ,z !re is no kn[n sure way ( /opp+ ! bl[ at a giv5 po9t 9 ! op]ation to produce a /eel ( requir$ c>bon1 x is usual to bl[ cle> d[n1 t is1 to burn out all ( ! c>bon practically & !n to re-c>bonize by ! addition ( spiegel-eis5 or f]ro-manganese4 ,x is necess>y1 also1 to add ! manganese 9 "o ( ^! =ms to remove ! oxyg5 introduc$ dur+ ! bl[2 ?is mu/ be done quickly1 & all accompli%$ be=e ! metal becomes too cold = p\r+ into +ots4 ,s little "t = reactions is available t x is d\btful if ! mat]ial is ev] q z homog5e\s z x c be made by ei!r ( ! o!r processes4 ,not)/&+ ^! limitations1 :i* are n m5tion$ to ?r[ d\bt ^u ! process1 b m]ely to in=m read]s fully s z to enable !m to judge rightly z to :at may be expect$1 enorm\s quantities ( good1 reliable ,bessem] /eel are made to meet _m requirem5ts4 ,= good1 s]viceable1 *eap rails ,bessem] /eel /&s pre-em95t1 & if x f\nd no o!r use x w\ld be difficult to ov]e/imate ! b5efit to ! _w ( ?is "o great success4 ,bessem] /eel is us$ l>gely = a great numb] ( purposes1 ,bessem] billets be+ n[ z regul> an article ( comm]ce z pig iron4 ,= wire = all ord9>y purposes2 = skelp to be work$ into butt-weld$ & lap-weld$ tub+2 = wire nails1 %aft+1 ma*9]y-/eel1 tank-plates1 & = _m o!r uses1 ,bessem] /eel has absorb$ ! m>kets almo/ entirely4 ,= common cutl]y1 files1 %ovels1 picks1 batt]+-tools1 & _m su* uses x conte/s ! m>ket ) op5-he>? /eel2 & :ile _m eng9e]s n[ specify t _! /ructural %apes1 plates1 beams1 angles1 etc41 mu/ be ( op5-he>? /eel1 !re are _m em95t eng9e]s :o see no ne$ = ?is discrim9ation1 !y be+ satisfi$ t if _! requirem5ts are met ! process by :i* !y are met is a matt] ( indiff]5ce4 ,,op5-,,he>? ,,/eel4 ,z 9 ! ,bessem] process1 s 9 ! op5-he>?1 c>bon & silicon are burn$ out1 phosphorus is remov$ on ! basic he>?1 & ! sulphur ( ! *>ge rema9s 9 ! /eel4 ,dur+ ! op]ation oxyg5 & nitrog5 are absorb$ by ! /eel1 al?\gh n q s l>gely z 9 ! ,bessem] process1 s t practically ! *emical limitations are ! same 9 ea*4 ,! op5-he>? r$uctions are mu* sl[] ?an 9 ! ,bessem]1 ea* heat requir+ f five to eight h\rs = its completion2 ! furnace mu/ be op]at$ by a skill$ man ( good judgm5t1 s t m "t & m skill$ labor p] ton ( product are requir$ ?an 9 ! ,bessem]1 & ! mak+ ( an equal quality z *eaply 9 ! op5 he>? is problematical4 ,! op5 he>? has extrane\s s\rces ( heat at ! comm& & "u ! control ( ! op]ator1 & !re ne$ be no cold heats1 & no too hot heats4 ,! "t = reactions is mu* long]1 & = ?is reason !y ought to be m complete1 & !y are s 9 good h&s2 yet x is a fact t1 z ! op]ation is a quiet "o comp>$ to ! ,bessem]1 & n ne>ly s p[]ful & en]getic1 a c>eless or unskilful op]ator may produce 9 ! op5 he>? an unev5 result t is q z bad z any?+ t c be br\ght out ( a ,bessem] conv]t]4 ,! process t elim9ates ! human factor has n yet be5 inv5t$4 ,= f9e boil]-plates1 armor-plates1 & gun p>ts op5-he>? /eel has won its place z completely z has ! crucible = f9e-tool /eel or ! ,bessem] = rails4 ,= all int]m$iate products !re is a cont9u$ race & ke5 competition1 s t x is impossible to draw any h>d & fa/ l9e betwe5 ! products ( ! ?ree processes :]e !y approa* ea* o!r2 ! only cle> di/9ctions are at ! o!r extremes4 ,ow+ to ! p[] to hold & manipulate a heat 9 ! op5-he>? x is safe to say t x is sup]ior to ! ,bessem] 9 ! manufacture ( /eel ca/+s2 & ow+ to its mu* great] *eapness x is difficult = ! crucible to compete ) x at all 9 ?is bran* ( manufacture4 ,9 conclusion ( ?is *apt] x is safe to say t 9 good h&s ^! processes are all good1 & ea* has its own special function to p]=m4 ,,iii4 ,,alloy ,,/eels ,,& ,,_! ,,uses4 ,9 addition to ! f\r g5]al k9ds ( /eel treat$ ( 9 ! la/ *apt] !re are a numb] ( /eels 9 ! m>ket :i* conta9 o!r metals1 & :i* may be t]m$ prop]ly alloy /eels1 to di/+ui% !m f c>bon /eel1 or ! regul> /eels ( _w-wide use :i* dep5d ^u ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t = _! prop]ties4 ,! mo/ g5]ally kn[n ( ! alloy /eels is ! s-call$ ,self-h>d5+ /eel4 ,self-h>d5+ /eel is s call$ because :5 x is heat$ to ! "r temp]ature1--ab\t a m$ium orange color1--& is !n all[$ to cool 9 ! air1 x becomes v h>d4 ,?is /eel is s easily /ra9$ t x is impossible1 z a rule1 to qu5* x 9 wat] )\t crack+ x4 ,x may be qu5*$ 9 a bla/ ( air )\t crack+1 & s be made mu* h>d] ?an if x be all[$ to cool m sl[ly 9 a quiet atmosph]e4 ,if x be qu5*$ 9 oil or wat]1 x w become excessively h>d1 mu* h>d] ?an :5 qu5*$ 9 air1 & x w almo/ inv>iably be crack$1 or if x be n crack$ x w be s excessively brittle z to be ( little use4 ,self-h>d5$ /eel is s h>d 9 :at may be call$ its natural condition1 t is1 9 ord9>y b>s1 t x _c be ma*9$1 drill$1 plan$1 or turn$ 9 a la!4 ,by keep+ x 9 an anneal+-furnace at ab\t bright orange heat = ab\t tw5ty-f\r to ?irty-six h\rs1 & !n cov]+ x ) hot s& or a%es 9 ! furnace1 & all[+ ab\t ! same "t = x to cool1 x may be anneal$ pretty ?or\ghly s t x may be ma*9$ readily4 ,:5 anneal$ 9 ?is way & =m$ into cutt]s ( irregul> %ape1 or dies1 x has be5 f\nd s f> n to be economical or well adapt$ to su* "w1 s t up to ! pres5t "t anneal+ is m ( a sci5tific ?an a useful fact4 ,self-h>d5$ /eel has ! useful prop]ty ( reta9+ its h>dness :5 heat$ almo/ to r$ness2 !re=e x may be us$ z a la! or simil> cutt] ^u h>d "w1 su* z cutt+ ca/ iron & o!r metals1 at a mu* high] spe$ ?an is possible ) ord9>y /eel1 :i* w\ld be s(t5$ by ! heat g5]at$ by ! high spe$4 ,?is prop]ty makes self-h>d5$ /eel v useful & economical = _m purposes4 ,self-h>d5$ /eel is an alloy ( iron1 c>bon1 tung/51 & manganese1 & "s br&s conta9 *romium 9 addition to ^!1 & x is claim$1 & probably truly1 t ! *romium improves ! quality ( ! /eel4 ,x 0 suppos$ = a long "t t tung/5 0 ! h>d5] t gave to self-h>d5$ /eel its peculi> prop]ties4 ,by means ( an op5 he>?1 /eel 0 produc$ conta9+ ab\t #c tung/5 & little c>bon & manganese4 ,?is /eel work$ l any mild /eel1 except t x 0 hot-%ort & difficult to =ge4 ,x 0 n h>d & _h no h>d5+ prop]ties2 t is1 x did n h>d5 9 ! ord9>y s5se :5 qu5*$ 9 wat]4 ,! addition ( c>bon to ?is /eel1 keep+ ! manganese l[1 produc$ a /eel v difficult to "w1 :i* w\ld h>d5 l ord9>y /eel :5 qu5*$1 & :i* _h no self-h>d5+ prop]ties :atev]4 ,! addition ( #b to #c ( manganese to ?is /eel produc$ self-h>d5+ /eel hav+ ! usual prop]ties4 ,manganese1 !n1 is ! metal t gives ! self-h>d5+ prop]ty1 & ?is might h be5 anticipat$ by consid]+ ! prop]ties ( ,hadfield's manganese /eel1 :i*1 :5 x conta9s above #g manganese1 _c be anneal$ s t x c be ma*9$ or drawn into wire4 ,f ?is x might be inf]r$ t tung/5 is n a necess>y con/itu5t ( self-h>d5$ /eel2 t x p]=ms an important function w be %[n pres5tly4 ,te/s ( ! iron-tung/5 alloy l[ 9 c>bon gave only a small increase 9 /r5g? above ord9>y l[ ca/ /eel conta9+ little c>bon2 x 0 difficult & tr\blesome to "w1 & m exp5sive ?an ! common /eels1 s t its production pres5t$ no advantages4 ,:5 c>boniz$1 x 0 f9e-gra9$ & c\ld be made exce$+ly h>d2 x 0 brittle1 & comp>$ to v ord9>y ca/ /eel comp>atively wor?less4 ,9 self-h>d5$ /eel tung/5 is ! mordant t holds ! c>bon 9 solution & enables ! /eel to reta9 its h>dness at comp>atively high temp]atures4 ,t x does hold ! c>bon 9 solution may be prov$ 9 a mom5t by a beautiful te/1 fir/ obs]v$ by ,pr(4 ,john ,w4 ,langley4 ,:5 a piece ( c>bon /eel is press$ aga9/ a rapidly runn+ em]y :eel1 !re is giv5 (f a %[] ( brilliant sp>ks :i* fla% out 9 innum]able :ite1 t9y />s ( great beauty2 x is accept$ t ?is brilliancy is due to ! explosive combu/ion ( p>ticles ( c>bon4 ,:5 a /eel conta9+ z mu* z ?ree p] c5t ( tung/5 is press$ aga9/ ! :eel1 ! entire abs5ce ( ^! brilliant fla%es is at once noticeable1 & if !re be an occasional little fla% x only s]ves to emphasize ! abs5ce ( ! myriads4 ,in/ead !re is an emission ( a comp>atively small numb] ( dull p>ticles1 & !re is cl++ to ! :eel closely a heavy b& ( a deep1 ri* r$ color4 ,?is r$ /reak is di/9ctive ( ! pres5ce ( tung/54 ,by te/+ v>i\s pieces x 0 soon obs]v$ t diff]5t quantities ( tung/5 gave diff]5t sizes ( r$ /reaks2 z tung/5 decreas$ ! wid? ( ! b& dim9i%$ & ! numb] & brilliancy ( c>bon sp>ks increas$4 ,z little z 4#aj tung/5 w %[ a f9e r$ l9e amid/ a brilliant display ( sp>ks1 & x soon became possible to det]m9e s closely by ! /reak ! quantity ( tung/5 pres5t t ! ord9>y analyses = tung/5 became unnecess>y1 except 9 occasional important cases :]e analysis 0 us$ m]ely to confirm ! te/imony ( ! :eel4 ,self-h>d5+ /eel1 !n1 is a /eel :i*1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( manganese & tung/51 h>d5s :5 qu5*$ 9 quiet air1 & :i* reta9s its h>dness almo/ up to a r$ heat4 ,x may be =g$ betwe5 ! temp]atures f orange to bright orange2 x _c be work$ safely outside ( ?is range4 ,! m quickly x is qu5*$ ! h>d] x w be2 & x may be anneal$ s t x c be ma*9$ readily4 ,!re=e x is n self-h>d5+2 x simply has all ( ! prop]ties ( c>bon /eel modifi$ pr(\ndly by tung/5 & manganese4 ,if a piece ( ?is /eel w n h>d5 suffici5tly by cool+ 9 ! air quietly1 t difficulty may be rem$i$ by cool+ x 9 an air-bla/2 if qu5*+ 9 an air-bla/ w n give suffici5t h>dness1 ! /eel _h bett] be reject$1 = qu5*+ 9 oil or wat] means almo/ c]ta9 de/ruction4 ,z /at$ be=e1 ! range ( temp]ature 9 :i* self-h>d5$ /eel c be =g$ safely is mu* small] ?an = a high-c>bon /eel2 x is h>d] at ?is heat ?an c>bon /eel & n s pla/ic1 s t x requires m c>e & m heats 9 work+ x to tool-%apes4 ,?is /eel is s s5sitive t x (t5 occurs 9 r$ress+ x t x w crumble at a heat t 0 all "r 9 ! fir/ work+4 ,?is difficulty may be rem$i$ by fir/ cutt+ (f ! %att]$ "p ) a %>p tool1--x mu/ be cut hot1--!n heat+ ! piece up to ne>ly a lemon color1 heat+ x ?r\gh )\t soak+ x 9 ! fire1 & !n all[+ x to cool sl[ly 9 a w>m1 dry place4 ,aft] ?is treatm5t ! /eel may be heat$ & work$ z at fir/4 ,?is treatm5t does n anneal ! /eel s(t1 because ! heat is n cont9u$ long en\gh1 & ! cool+ is n suffici5tly sl[2 x does relieve ! /ra9s 9 ! /eel1 s t x is pla/ic & malleable4 ,?is treatm5t is good 9 any high /eel :i* has become refractory f previ\s work+4 ,self-h>d5$ /eel is n z /rong 9 ! h>d5$ condition z good high-c>bon /eel2 x has n be5 us$ successfully = cutt+ *ill$ ca/ iron1 = in/ance4 ,if made h>d en\gh to cut a *ill1 x is s brittle t ! cutt+-edge w crumble in/ead ( cutt+2 if ! temp] be let d[n en\gh to /op ! crumbl+1 ! /eel w be s(t] ?an ! *ill1 & ! edge w curl up in/ead ( cutt+4 ,ow+ to ! ret5tion ( h>dness at a high] temp]ature ?an c>bon /eel w be> ?is /eel is capable ( do+ a great am\nt ( "w at high spe$1 s t = mu* la!-"w x is *eap at almo/ any price4 ,ow+ to its brittle1 friable nature its use is limit$ to ! simpl] =ms ( tools1 & to a n>r[] range ( "w ?an is possible ) c>bon /eel4 ,,*rome ,,/eel4 ,an alloy ( *romium ) c>bon /eel has be5 be=e ! public = _m ye>s1 & great] claims h be5 made = x ?an exp]i5ce seems to ju/ify4 ,*rome /eel is f9e-gra9$ & v h>d 9 ! h>d5$ /ate1 & x w d a l>ge am\nt ( "w at ! fir/ dress+2 ^u r$ress+ x det]iorates mu* m rapidly ?an c>bon /eel & becomes inf]ior2 x is believ$ t ?is is due to a rapid oxidation ( ! *romium4 ,x is claim$ = x t x w endure mu* high] heats )\t injury ?an c>bon /eels ( ! same temp]4 ,int5d+ pur*as]s w d well to satisfy !mselves ^u ^! po9ts be=e inve/+ too heavily4 ,,silicon ,,/eel4 ,/eel conta9+ two to ?ree p] c5t ( silicon 0 put ^u ! m>kets1 & great claims 7 made = x4 ,x is exce$+ly f9e-gra9$ & h>d5s v h>d2 x is brittle1 mu* m liable to crack 9 h>d5+ ?an ord9>y /eel1 & x is n ne>ly s /rong z c>bon /eel4 ,x is made *eaply en\gh z f> z melt+ goes1 b x may n be melt$ dead1 & !re=e s\nd1 because long-cont9u$ high heat w de/roy x2 !re=e ! +ots are m honeycomb$ ?an well-melt$ c>bon /eel +ots4 ,! /eel w n be> :at is kn[n z a weld+-heat 9 /eel-work+2 x is hot-%ort2 = ?is reason ! b>s are m seamy ?an is usual 9 c>bon /eel4 ,add$ to ?is ! hot-%ortness makes x s difficult to "w t ! labor co/ is high4 ,altoge!r1 !n1 silicon /eel is exp5sive1 & x pres5ts no extra good qualities 9 comp5sation4 ,,manganese ,,/eel4 ,! glassy h>dness1 brittl5ess1 & friability ( f]ro-manganese & ( spiegel-eis5 are well kn[n2 ^! are products ( ! bla/-furnace1 & ! manganese ranges all ! way f say #aj up to #hj4 ,/eel conta9+ f #a to #c ( manganese is ab\t z brittle & almo/ z unworkable z spiegel-eis51 & a fair d$uction w\ld be t manganese above v small limits w n =m any useful alloy ) iron4 ,_m a g5]al law ( nature has be5 bas$ ^u mu* m meagre data & has be5 ann\nc$ ) a great fl\ri% ( trumpets2 su* discov]ies are usually he>d ( no m aft] ! fir/ bl>e has di$ away4 ,r4 ,a4 ,hadfield1 ( ,%effield1 ,engl&1 is an inquir] :o wants to "k1 & :o is will+ to travel ! :ole road 9 ord] to f9d out4 ,hadfield discov]$ t an alloy ( iron & manganese conta9+ f #g to #bj ( manganese 0 a comp\nd possess+ _m rem>kable prop]ties4 ,?is alloy is n[ kn[n z manganese /eel4 ,manganese /eel is bo? h>d & t\gh to a degree n f\nd 9 any o!r metal or alloy4 ,x is s h>d & /rong t x _c be ma*9$ ) ! be/ ( tools made ( ! f9e/ /eel4 ,ca/+s made ( x may be batt]$ into all sorts ( %apes z completely z if !y 7 made ( ! milde/ dead-s(t /eel2 /ill !y are too h>d to be ma*9$4 ,! ord9>y h>d5+ process t\gh5s ?is /eel in/ead ( h>d5+ x to brittl5ess4 ,?is /eel is non-magnetic1 & ?is prop]ty alone w\ld give x exce$+ly great value if ! /eel c\ld only be work$ into ! requir$ %apes4 ,up to ?is "t all attempts to anneal ?is /eel h fail$1 & ?is p]si/5t h>dness is ! be/ pro( t manganese is ! real h>d5] 9 self-h>d5$ /eel4 ,s f> c>bon & manganese h n be5 sep>at$ 9 ?is /eel or 9 any o!r4 ,p]si/5t attempts h be5 made to produce manganese /eel l[ 9 c>bon1 b all h be5 failures1 because any op]ation t burn$ out ! c>bon took ! manganese ) x4 ,! hope 0 t a non-magnetic alloy might be produc$ t w\ld be s(t en\gh to "w4 ,?is may yet be accompli%$1 & if x %\ld be ano!r great /ep 9 ! arts w h be5 tak54 ,h>d1 t\gh1 /rong1 non-magnetic--:at great ?+s may n come out ( ?is :5 x has be5 work$ out f9ally8 ,s9ce ?is 0 writt5 c>bonless manganese has be5 produc$ :i* is claim$ to conta9 #ih ( manganese & no c>bon1 b at pres5t x is sold at #a p] p\nd4 ,if x c be produc$ m *eaply1 x may lead to a workable non-magnetic alloy ( iron & manganese :i* may prove to be ( great value to electricians & to wat*mak]s4 ,! uses ( manganese /eel are l>ge & gr[+1 & x mu/ be reg>d$ z hav+ an e/abli%$ & a prom95t place4 ,x has be5 /at$ t 9 self-h>d5$ /eel & 9 manganese /eel manganese is ! h>d5]2 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t c>bon is always pres5t1 t x is ! "o great h>d5]1 b its h>d5+ prop]ty 9 ! abs5ce ( manganese dep5ds directly ^u rapidity ( cool+4 ,by rapid cool+ /eel conta9+ c>bon is made h>d] ?an glass1 & by sl[ cool+ x may be made s(t] & m ductile ?an ord9>y wr\ght iron4 ,self-h>d5$ /eel may be anneal$ s t x c be ma*9$1 b x is by no means z s(t & ductile z well-anneal$ c>bon /eel4 ,manganese /eel has n be5 anneal$ at all2 x _c be anneal$ by any ( ! well-kn[n anneal+ processes2 "s new way ( do+ x mu/ be discov]$4 ,!re=e x is prop] to say t ! peculi> h>d5+ prop]ties ( ^! two /eels are due to manganese4 ,,nickel ,,/eel4 ,! addition ( a few p] c5t ( nickel to mild /eel adds greatly to its /r5g?--s mu* s t nickel /eel is n[ _w-r5[n$ z us$ 9 armor-plate = navy vessels1 & = great guns4 ,rec5t reports f ! ordnance bureaus indicate t x w also be ( great use 9 ! b>rels ( small arms1 by means ( :i* !y may be made light]1 & /ill ( suffici5t /r5g?4 ,nickel is s exp5sive & x adds s mu* to ! co/ ( /eel t its use = ord9>y /ructural purposes1 bridges1 etc41 has n be5 f\nd to be economical4 ,"s ye>s ago c>eful exp]im5ts 7 made ) nickel alloy 9 a f9e grade ( high-c>bon tool-/eel to f9d out :e!r su* /eel w\ld be improv$ z mu* z are ! mild /eels4 ,9 su* case ! exp5se w\ld n c\nt1 = if ! be/ /eel c be made bett] !re are _m us]s :o w\ld gladly pay a high] price = a bett] s]vice4 ,! results 7 n enc\rag+4 ,! high-c>bon nickel /eel 0 n z /rong z ! same quality ( /eel )\t nickel2 ! mixture seem$ to be imp]fect1 conta9+ little d>k specks1 suppos$ to be c>bon ?r[n into ! graphitic /ate4 ,! /eel did n ref9e z well & 0 n z /rong z ! c>bon /eel4 ,all ( ?is applies to high-c>bon tool-/eel1 h>d5$ & temp]$2 no te/s 7 made ( ! /eel unh>d5$1 = !y w\ld h be5 ( no practical use4 ,,alum9um ,,/eel4 ,:5 a heat ( /eel is boil+ viol5tly1 is wild1 & unfit to be p\r$1 ! addition ( a m9ute quantity ( alum9um w h ! effect ( quiet+ x quickly4 ,half an ounce to an ounce ( alum9um to a ton ( /eel w be en\gh usually1 & = ?is purpose alum9um has become useful to /eel-mak]s4 ,if a little too mu* alum9um be add$1 ! +ots w pipe f end to end2 !re=e ! use ( alum9um is re/rict$ to small quantities4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n t a consid]able p]c5tage ( alum9um adds no good prop]ties to /eel2 !re=e alum9um /eel s call$ may be treat$ lat] "u a diff]5t head+4 ,,iv4 ,,c>bon4 ,( all ( ! abundant elem5ts ( nature c>bon is pres5t$ 9 ! greate/ v>iety ( =ms1 & admits ( ! greate/ numb] ( useful applications4 ,9 ! =m ( ! diamond x is ! h>de/ ( sub/ances1 & is ! base us$ 9 det]m9+ ! comp>ative h>dness ( all o!rs4 ,9 ! =m ( graphite x is s(t & smoo?1 & is "o ( ! be/ & mo/ durable ( lubricants4 ,9 ! =m ( soot x is probably ! s(te/ ( solids4 ,9 ! =m ( coal x is ! "o great & abundant fuel ( ! _w1 :ile z graphite aga9 x is "o ( ! be/ ( refractory mat]ials4 ,h>d1 s(t1 highly combu/ible1 almo/ infusible1 refractory1 x l5ds itself to ! greate/ v>iety ( useful applications4 ,to ! iron- & /eel-mak] or work] x is simply indisp5sable2 z *>coal or coke x is ! fuel ( ! smelt]2 z gas1 ei!r c>bon monoxide or z a hydroc>bon1 x is ! *eape/ & mo/ manageable fuel = melt+ & = all op]ations requir+ heat4 ,z graphite1 plumbago1 mix$ ) a little fire-clay z a b9d]1 x is ! be/ mat]ial = crucibles 9 :i* to melt metals2 z soot x =ms ! be/ coat+ = m\lds into :i* metals are to be ca/4 ,durable beyond almo/ any o!r sub/ance1 x w\ld make ! v be/ pa9t = metal /ructures if !re 7 any kn[n way to make x adh]e4 ,,c>bon ,,9 ,,iron4 ,c>bon may be introduc$ into iron 9 any quantity f a few hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t z usually f\nd 9 wr\ght iron1 & 9 :at is kn[n z dead-s(t /eel1 up to ab\t f\r p] c5t z f\nd 9 ca/ iron4 ,by ! addition ( manganese z high z six or sev5 p] c5t ( c>bon has be5 introduc$ into iron4 ,c>bon does n =m a true alloy ) iron1 nei!r does x =m any /able *emical comp\nd4 ,its condition 9 iron seems to be z v>iable z x is 9 nature1 & sometimes x has be5 suppos$ to be z caprici\s z x is v>iable4 ,x is hop$ t ! read] ( ^! pages w f9d t !re is no caprice ab\t x1 t its action is gov]n$ by z sure laws z any 9 nature1 & t c]ta9 results may be pr$icat$ ^u any treatm5t to :i* x is subject$4 ,! !ories ( its actions are z num]\s & v>iable z are ! actions !mselves1 & !y w be treat$ 9 a sep>ate *apt]1 ?is *apt] be+ conf9$ to a /atem5t ( kn[n facts4 ,z /at$ 9 ,*ap4 ,i1 c>bon may be introduc$ into iron by heat+ c>bon & iron 9 contact :5 air is exclud$2 &1 conv]sely1 c>bon is burn$ out ( ca/ iron by ! ,bessem] & op5-he>? processes to r$uce ! ca/ iron to ca/ /eel4 ,9 ! crucible any quantity ( c>bon may be obta9$ 9 /eel by melt+ a mixture ( high bli/]-/eel & wr\ght iron1 or ca/ iron & wr\ght iron1 or by *>g+ ) wr\ght iron ! necess>y quantity ( coke or *>coal4 ,:5 us+ plumbago crucibles1 ! iron takes up "s c>bon f ! crucible2 also ! spiegel-eis5 or f]ro-manganese us$ adds "s c>bon2 & = ^! two s\rces ( c>bon ! melt] all[s :5 he decides ^u ! quantity ( *>coal ne$$4 ,results f crucible-melt+ are n /rictly uni=m2 ev5 if e *>ge 7 weigh$ 9 a *emical balance accurately ! product w\ld n be uni=m1 because "o crucible gives (f m c>bon ?an ano!r2 9 "o crucible a little m *>coal may be burn$ & escape z gas ?an 9 ano!r2 & mo/ v>iable ( all1 unless ! *>coal has be5 dri$ ?or\ghly1 is ! quantity ( moi/ure 9 ! *>coal4 ,"o *>ge ( *>coal may be dry1 & ! next may conta9 z mu* z tw5ty-five p] c5t ( moi/ure2 obvi\sly equal weights 9 su* a case w\ld n give equal quantities ( c>bon to ! /eel4 ,9 crucible /eel ?is is no disadvantage2 a skilful mix] w get f #ge to #ij ( 8 +ots ( ! desir$ temp]2 ! o!r +ots w all be 9 dem& = o!r uses1 & z he c sep>ate !m all ) absolute c]ta9ty by ocul> inspection1 z describ$ be=e1 he labors "u no fe> ( bad results4 ,9 ! ,bessem] process x is usual to burn out all ( ! c>bon & !n to add ! requir$ am\nt 9 ! spiegel2 = /ructural /eels & = rails ?is me?od is satisfactory4 ,= high /eel--f fifty to a hundr$ or m c>bon--! spiegel me?od does n answ] s well1 because x increases ! quantity ( manganese to too great an am\nt2 high] c>bon is !n sometimes put 9 by ! addition ( a giv5 quantity ( pure pig iron previ\sly melt$1 or by putt+ coke 9 ! ladle1 b ?is is v unc]ta9 on acc\nt ( ! t5d5cy ( ! coke to float1 & be dissipat$ z a gas in/ead ( ent]+ ! /eel4 ,! ,d>by me?od is to place 9 ! way ( ! /ream ( /eel z x is p\r$ f ! vessel to ! ladle a refractory-l9$1 funnel-%ap$ vessel fill$ ) f9ely divid$1 b n p[d]$1 coke4 ,z ! /ream ru%es ?r\gh ! coke x absorbs c>bon ) great rapidity1 & x is ass]t$ t ! curr5ts & eddies =m$ 9 ! ladle by ! ru% ( ! /ream cause an ev5 di/ribution ( c>bon4 ,t c>bon w be tak5 up 9 ?is way is c]ta92 t a requir$ am\nt1 ev5ly di/ribut$1 c be obta9$ is n s c]ta94 ,9 ! acid op5-he>? z 9 ! ,bessem] process = mild] /eels x is usual to burn ! c>bon out almo/ entirely1 & !n to add ! desir$ am\nt ) ! spiegel4 ,high] c>bon may be obta9$ by ! addition ( pure pig iron1 or by us+ c>bon bricks pa/$ toge!r ) t> & weight$ ) iron turn+s2 ^! bricks may be pu%$ "u ! surface 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ba?1 & 9 ?is way ! c>bon c be di/ribut$ pretty ev5ly4 ,9 good practice n[ ! melt is /opp$ at ! c>bon desir$ ) great success1 ?us sav+ "t & exp5se4 ,9 ! basic op5-he>? ! melt]1 by ! use ( a little c>e & good judgm5t1 /ops 8 melt at ! requir$ c>bon1 & s avoids any additional op]ations1 unless 8 *>ge is excessively high 9 phosphorus & 8 /eel is to be v l[ 9 ! same2 9 t case he may h to melt cle> d[n & re-c>bonize4 ,/eel ( #acj c>bon ) phosphorus 4#je may be made on ! basic he>? f a *>ge conta9+ #aj to #ab phosphorus )\t melt+ bel[ #acj c>bon4 ,if high-c>bon ,bessem] /eel is n uni=m1 x is n to be wond]$ at1 b z a matt] ( fact x is usually f\nd to be fairly uni=m1 suffici5tly s to "w well4 ,if op5-he>? /eel ( high c>bon is n uni=m1 x is cle>ly because ! mak] w\ld n take a little tr\ble to h x s4 ,assum+ t = conv5i5ce ca/ /eel is grad$ = c>bon cont5t by ev5 t5s1 & t ! diff]5t temp]s are sep>at$ half-way betwe5 ! t5s1 we h3 ,c>bon4 4#aj includ+ f 4#je to 4#ae 4#bj 8 8 4#af 8 4#be 4#cj 8 8 4#bf 8 4#ce 4#dj 8 8 4#cf 8 4#de 4#ej 8 8 4#df 8 4#ee 4#fj 8 8 4#ef 8 4#fe 4#gj 8 8 4#ff 8 4#ge 4#hj 8 8 4#gf 8 4#he 4#ij 8 8 4#hf 8 4#ie #a4jj 8 8 4#if 8 #a4je #a4aj 8 8 #a4jf 8 #a4ae #a4bj 8 8 #a4af 8 #a4be #a4cj 8 8 #a4bf 8 #a4ce #a4dj 8 8 #a4cf 8 #a4de #a4ej 8 8 #a4df 8 #a4ee ,?is cov]s ! usual comm]cial range f :at is kn[n z dead-s(t /eel up to a high1 la!-temp] /eel4 ,high] /eels are us$ sometimes1 ev5 up to #bbe c>bon1 b !y are s exceptional t x is n wor? :ile to cont9ue ! li/ above #aej4 ,?is li/ all[s a v>iation ( 4#je c>bon above & bel[ ! datum ( ea* temp]2 "s m>g9 mu/ be _h ( c\rse1 & ?is is suffici5t 9 ! h&s ( a c>eful /eel-mak]2 x is f\nd 9 practice to be satisfactory to ! us]4 ,ev5 9 ! highe/ la!-/eel :]e ! /ra9s f h>d5+ are ! greate/1 because ! *ange 9 volume due to a degree ( temp]ature is ! greate/1 a v>iation ( ?ree or f\r po9ts above & bel[ ! mean does n make en\gh diff]5ce 9 ! results to ?r[ a skilful temp]] (f f 8 desir$ conditions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a diff]5ce ( a full temp] w ?r[ ! mo/ skilful work] (f f ! track1 & s t mu* v>iation is n all[able4 ,= in/ance1 if a man be work+ #acj c>bon1 & he %\ld receive a lot ( /eel ( #abj c>bon1 he w\ld get 8 "w too s(t 9 foll[+ 8 regul> me?ods2 !n if he d\bt$ himself1 z he w\ld be apt to d1 & rais$ 8 heat to correct 8 suppos$ ab]ration1 he w\ld get 8 "w too h>d1 co>se-gra9$1 & brittle2 if he tri$ to correct ?is by draw+ to a l[] temp] color1 8 tools w\ld be too s(t4 ,aga91 if he receiv$ a lot ( /eel ( #adj c>bon & proce$$ 9 8 regul> way1 he w\ld get a lot ( crack$ tools4 ,s t 9 ei!r case ! result w\ld be confusion4 ,x is probable t 9 almo/ any case ei!r #abj or #adj c>bon w\ld make a ?or\ghly good tool if ! temp]] knew :at he 0 work+ ) & adapt$ 8 heats to ! c>bon4 ,b he does n "k ( ! v>iation1 & ev5 if he did he w\ld say1 v rightly1 t he did n propose to make daily *anges 9 8 me?ods to suit ! conv5i5ce or ! c>elessness ( ! /eel-mak]4 ,x mu/ n be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ?is n>r[ range = ea* temp] limits ! capacity ( ! /eel2 x m]ely gives ! limit = regul> easy work+4 ,to illu/rate3 ,a good la!-tool may be made ( #ajj-;c>bon /eel1 & ( #aej c>bon2 b no work] c\ld use ^! temp]s indiscrim9ately1 nor ev5 alt]nately1 al?\gh he knew :i* 0 :i*1 because he c\ld n *ange all ( 8 heats say e five m9utes & turn out satisfactory "w4 ,a spr+ ( giv5 size1 & to c>ry a giv5 load1 may be made equally good ( #fj-;c>bon /eel or ( #adj c>bon1 & su* "w is done frequ5tly 9 %ops t are atta*$ to /eel-works2 b ! spr+-mak] mu/ be told be=eh& :at he is to "w )1 & he mu/ be giv5 en\gh ( "o k9d ( /eel to make say a day's "w1 s t he c g along regul>ly4 ,! spr+s w be good1 b ! "o conta9+ #adj c>bon w h ! highe/ ela/icity & ! mo/ life1 al?\gh bo? w h ! same modulus ( ela/icity4 ,! spr+-mak] :o buys 8 /eel w n submit to any su* v>iations1 & he ought n to be ask$ to d x1 because "o temp] ( /eel co/s no m ?an ano!r1 & ! select+ out & sep>at+ ! temp]s is only a matt] ( a little c>e4 ,is x practicable to keep /eel uni=m 9 c>bon )9 su* n>r[ limits8 ,9 crucible-/eel practice x is v easy to d s4 ,all +ots ( #fj c>bon upw>ds up to f\r or f\r & "o half in*es squ>e may be brok5 completely (f at ! top1 & !n ! clean fracture w indicate ! quantity ( c>bon inv>iably1 & aft] ! +ot has be5 glanc$ at & m>k$ prop]ly x is z easy to put x on its prop] pile z to put x on any o!r4 ,9 a good light a compet5t inspector w m>k ?irty or =ty +ots p] m9ute & d x correctly2 x is z easy to ! tra9$ eye z x is to read a pr9t$ page4 ,?is inspection is s important t x %\ld nev] be neglect$4 ,x is n co/ly1 mu* less ?an a doll> a ton4 ,) l>g] +ots only a piece c be brok5 (f f ! edge1 b if ! topp] does 8 "w prop]ly1 en\gh c be tak5 (f to %[ ! temp] cle>ly4 ,l>ge +ots conta9+ ! cont5ts ( a numb] ( crucibles are liable to unev5ness ( temp] f hav+ unev5 mixtures 9 ! pots & f bad teem+ into ! m\lds2 ?is c be detect$ usually 9 ! +ot inspection1 & if n x c be f\nd lat] dur+ ano!r inspection4 ,su* v>iations are (t5 call$ segregations4 ,?is "q ( segregation w be discuss$ 9 a future *apt]4 ,9 ! ,bessem] & ! op5-he>? practice ocul> inspection ( +ots to det]m9e c>bon is n us$4 ,en\gh exam9ations h be5 made to %[ t ! fractures1 al?\gh diff]+ f ^? ( crucible-/eel1 are q z *>act]i/ic1 & ocul> inspection c\ld be us$4 ,! +ots are l>ge usually & to h&le & top !m w\ld be exp5sive2 b ! heats are also l>ge1--f five tons up to ?irty tons 9 "o heat1--& z !y are suppos$ to be homog5e\s1 "o *emical c>bon analysis is en\gh = ea* heat4 ,bel[ #ej c>bon a quick color analysis is accurate en\gh2 above #ej c>bon combu/ion %\ld be us$1 = 9 high c>bons ! color te/ 9 ! be/ h&s is only ! wilde/ guess-"w4 ,! t5-po9t range ( c>bon is f> m difficult to atta9 9 high-c>bon op5-he>? practice ?an 9 ! crucible4 ,9 "o case :]e ! limit fix$ 9 a specification 0 #ij to #aaj c>bon1 two full temp]s1 "o ( ! mo/ skilful & successful conc]ns 9 ! _w fail$ to meet ! specification 9 tw5ty-ton & ?irty-ton furnaces4 ,x 0 suppos$ at fir/ t ! tr\ble came f us+ diff]5t heats1 & l>ge lots ( billets 7 s5t out ) ! heat numb] /amp$ on ea* billet4 ,! same v>iations 7 f\nd 9 e heat1 ! c>bon rang+ f #hj to #abj4 ,! specification 0 met )\t any tr\ble 9 five-ton furnace4 ,?is illu/ration %\ld n lead to ! conclusion t practically uni=m /eel _c be obta9$2 !re is little d\bt t if ! #cj-ton heats _h be5 /irr$ ?or\ghly 9 ! furnace ! requir$ limits w\ld h be5 obta9$4 ,nei!r is x to be und]/ood t ! same v>iation w\ld occur 9 mild /eel "u #cj c>bon4 ,a call = #bj c>bon w\ld n result 9 /eel rang+ f bel[ #aj to above #cj1--su* a result w\ld %[ gross c>elessness on ! "p ( ! melt]1--! v>iation w\ld g by p]c5tage2 ?us ! v>iation 9 ! high /eel is f #ae bel[ to #ae above ! mean ( #ajj1 or ev5 z mu* z #bj4 ,if #bj-;c>bon /eel be requir$1 a v>iation ( #bj w\ld give a range f #af to #bd c>bon1 or well )9 ! limits ( "o temp]4 ,?is matt] w be consid]$ f>!r "u ! head ( ,segregation4 ,! appropriate applications ( ! diff]5t temp]s ( /eel h be5 /at$ 9 a g5]al way1 ) ! advice t = all tool purposes x is bett] to leave ! selection ( ! temp] to ! /eel-mak]2 also 9 /ructural "w x may prove to be bett] to leave ! "q ( temp]1 or c>bon cont5t1 to ! /eel-mak]1 :o %\ld "k h[ to meet any specification t is )9 ! capacity ( /eel4 ,on ! o!r h&1 e eng9e] %\ld "k :at is atta9able1 & an ef=t to give ?is in=mation 9 m def9ite =m w be made 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,a g5]al view w n[ be tak5 ( :at may be call$ ! c>bon-l9e4 ,illu/ration ,let ! horizontal l9e repres5t iron1 ! incl9$ l9e iron plus c>bon1 & ! v]ticals physical prop]ties4 ,we d n "k ! physical prop]ties ( pure iron4 ,assum+ !m to be uni=m1 let ! v]tical at 4#je repres5t ! t5sile1 torsional1 transv]se1 or compressional /r5g? ( /eel ( #e c>bon2 !n = e increm5t ( c>bon up to #ij to #ajj !re w be an increase ( /r5g? to resi/ any ( ^! /ra9s1 increas+ 9 su* regul> am\nts z to make ! result+ c>bon-l9e practically /raight1 z %[n 9 ! sket*4 ,above #ajj c>bon ^! resi/ances w all decrease1 except resi/ance to compression4 ,s f> z x is kn[n1 compressive /r5g? increases slightly ) ! c>bon1 until ca/ iron is fairly rea*$2 !n ! pres5ce ( silicon1 & ! fact t we are deal+ ) a ca/+ in/ead ( =g$ or roll$ metal1 causes a rapid fall 9 all resi/ances until ! /r5g? is bel[ t ( #e c>bon /eel4 ,) increase ( c>bon !re is a r$uction ( ductility1 s t ! ext5sion ( l5g? & r$uction ( area decrease z ! /r5g? increases4 ,9 e case ! eng9e] mu/ decide h[ little ductility he c d ) safely 9 secur+ ! ultimate /r5g? or ! ela/ic limit he may require4 ,! highe/ /r5g? & ! greate/ ductility _c be _h toge!r2 !y are inv]se functions "o ( ! o!r4 ,if ! exact resi/ances due to c>bon 7 kn[n along ! :ole l9e1 x w\ld be ( great value to give !m "h b ne>ly all ( ! ?\s&s ( te/s publi%$ are influ5c$ by ! quantities ( silicon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 manganese1 or oxides pres5t1 & an ef=t to det]m9e ! effects ( ! c>bon-l9e exactly w\ld be haz>d\s4 ,kirkaldy's te/s ( ,fag]ota /eel1 publi%$ 9 #ahgf1 furni% a valuable guide 9 ?is direction4 ,web/]'s exp]im5ts on ! effects ( ! diff]5t elem5ts1 phosphorus1 manganese1 etc41 are int]e/+ & valuable1 b he has n yet te/$ a complete c>bon-l9e ) no o!r v>iables4 ,x has be5 /at$ "t & aga9 by exp]i5c$ /eel-mak]s t ! be/ /eel1 ! mo/ reliable "u all circum/ances1 is t :i* comes ne>e/ to pure iron & c>bon4 ,"s intellig5t /eel-mak]s1 & eng9e]s ca/ d\bts ^u ?is /atem5t1 & ass]t t because phosphorus up to a c]ta9 limit1 or manganese1 or silicon1 or 9 fact x may be said almo/ any elem5t1 add$ to dead-s(t /eel w give an increase ( /r5g?1 !re=e ! pres5ce ( "o or m ( ^! elem5ts is n only n h>mful1 b b5eficial4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 e "o ( ^! elem5ts is h>mful1 ei!r 9 produc+ cold-%ortness1 or r$-%ortness1 or brittl5ess1 & n "o ( !m w add any good quality to /eel t may n be obta9$ bett] by ! use ( c>bon4 ,giv5 a uni=m m9imum cont5t ( ^! impurities1 ! c>bon-l9e may be dep5d$ ^u to furni% any desirable quality t is obta9able 9 /eel2 & x is c]ta91 always sure1 t t /eel :i* is ! ne>e/ to pure c>bon & iron w endure ! mo/ puni%m5t ) ! lea/ h>m4 ,t is to say1 t su* a /eel :5 ov]heat$ a little1 or ov]work$1 or subject$ to any ( ! irregul>ities t are inevitable 9 %op practice1 w suff] less p]man5t h>m ?an a /eel ( equal /r5g? :]e !re is less c>bon & ! additional /r5g? is giv5 by any o!r kn[n sub/ance4 ,x is difficult to %[ ?is f te/+-ma*9e data1 inde$ x is d\btful if any su* data exi/1 b exp]i5ce 9 ! /eel-works1 9 ! bridge- & ma*9e-%ops1 & 9 ! field proves x to be true4 ,= fur!r discussion ( ?is "q see ,*ap4 ,x4 ,! effects ( a small diff]5ce 9 phosphorus or 9 silicon cont5ts are %[n pla9ly & unmi/akably 9 high-c>bon /eel1 & n s pla9ly 9 l[-c>bon /eel2 b z !re is no kn[n h>d & fa/ l9e t divides l[ /eel1 m$ium /eel1 & high /eel1 s !re is no m>k$ diff]5ce 9 _! prop]ties4 ,! same rules hold all along ! l9e1 ! same laws gov]n all ( ! way ?r\gh4 ,!re is no set ( prop]ties peculi> to l[ /eel & ano!r set peculi> to high /eel2 ! same laws gov]n all1 & diff]5ces are ^? ( degree & n ( law4 ,giv5 ?ree samples ( /eel ( ! foll[+ compositions3 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #c4 ,silicon 4#jb 4#bj 4#jb ,phosphorus 4#ja 4#ja 4#jb ,sulphur 4#jje 4#jje 4#jje ,manganese 4#ajj 4#ajj 4#ajj ,c>bon #a4ajj #a4ajj #a4ajj ,a skilful work]1 n kn[+ ! composition ( any1 w pick !m out inv>iably by temp]+ !m & te/+ !m ) a h&-hamm] & by inspect+ ! fractures4 ,he w pron\nce ,no4 #a to be ! be/ & ! /ronge/ 9 e way2 ,no4 #b to be n q z /rong z ,no4 #a1 & m liable to crack f a little v>iation 9 heat2 ,no4 #c to be n s /rong z ,no4 #a1 & t x w n come q z f9e z ei!r ( ! o!rs1 &1 l ,no4 #b1 x w n /& z mu* v>iation 9 heat z ,no4 #a4 ,give a ton ( ea* to a skilful axe-mak]1 f :i* he w make "o ?\s& axes ( ea*1 & he w be sure to report ,no4 #a all "r2 ,no4 #b good /eel1 m loss f crack$ axes ?an 9 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #c good /eel1 "s incl9ation to crack2 x w n ref9e z well z ,no4 #a & is n z /rong4 ,?is is no guess-"w1 nor is x a fancy case2 x is simple fact1 borne out by long exp]i5ce4 ,give a skilful die-mak] "o hundr$ blocks ( ea* to be made into dies4 ,he w n break "o ( ,no4 #a 9 h>d5+ !m2 he w probably break five to t5 ( ,no4 #b2 & if he breaks none ( ,no4 #c--;a d\btful case--he w f9d 9 use t ,no4 #a w d f twice to tw5ty times z mu* "w z ei!r ( ! o!rs4 ,if he is mak+ exp5sive dies1--_m dies co/ hundr$s ( doll>s ea* = ! engrav+1--he w ?9k ,no4 #a *eap at #be c5ts a p\nd1 & ei!r ( ! o!rs de> at #ae c5ts a p\nd4 ,9 su* /eel1 !n1 ! abs5ce ( a few po9ts ( silicon1 or ( a po9t or two ( phosphorus1 is wor? easily #aj c5ts a p\nd4 ,n[ let ! c>bon 9 ^! ?ree /eels be r$uc$ to #aj1 mak+ !m ! milde/ /ructural /eel4 ,! diff]5ces to be f\nd 9 ! te/+-ma*9e 9 t5sile /r5g?1 ela/ic limit1 ext5sion1 & r$uction ( area w be almo/ or altoge!r no?+2 9 =g+1 flang+1 pun*+1 etc41 "u ord9>y conditions diff]5ces w\ld n be obs]vable2 !re=e !re w\ld be no practical diff]5ce 9 value4 ,b let ! silicon be rais$ to #cj or ! phosphorus to #aj1--! ,bessem] limit1--or let bo? be rais$ toge!r1 & bo? ! te/+-ma*9e & %op practice w\ld %[ a m>k$ diff]5ce4 ,?is %[s t 9 ! abs5ce ( c>bon ! action ( ^! elem5ts is sluggi% z comp>$ to _! effects 9 ! pres5ce ( high c>bon1 or 9 ! l[-c>bon /eels _! effects are n s obs]vable4 ,t _! influ5ce is !re1 !re c be no d\bt1 b if x be n en\gh to endang] ! mat]ial x is n wor? :ile to take x into acc\nt4 ,is x safe & wise1 !n1 = /eel-us]s to ignore composition8 ,us]s ( tool-/eel may d s safely1 because ! smalle/ v>iations w manife/ !mselves s unmi/akably t !y give imm$iate w>n+1 & ! /eel-mak] mu/ keep 8 product up to a rigid /&>d ( excell5ce or lose 8 "* & 8 trade4 ,_m ( ! able/ us]s ( /ructural /eel take a simil> gr\nd1 & say1 ,we h no?+ to d ) me?od or composition if ! mat]ial meets our te/s4 ,x is believ$ t if ^! m5 knew h[ easy x is = a skilful work] to doctor tempor>ily an (f heat by a little manipulation1 & h[ dang]\s ! same may become by a little (f practice 9 ! field1 !y w\ld be conv9c$ t "s limits %\ld be put ^u composition1 especially if !y c\ld realize t a reasonable specification w\ld add no?+ to co/1 z competition w\ld take c>e ( t4 ,! read] is ref]r$ aga9 to ,*ap4 ,x on impurities4 ,v4 ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eel4 ,/eel is v s5sitive to heat4 ,9 g5]al x may be /at$ t1 />t+ ) cold /eel1 e degree ( heat add$ causes a *ange 9 size & 9 /ructure1 until ! limit is rea*$ :]e dis9tegration beg9s4 ,! *anges are n cont9u\s2 !re are "o or two breaks 9 ! l9e1 notably at ! po9t :]e we h :at is call$ recalesc5ce2 ?is is a m>k$ ph5om5on & x w be consid]$ lat]4 ,! effects ( heat are p]man5t1 s t x is a fact t e v>iation ( temp]ature :i* is m>k$ en\gh to be visible to ! nak$ eye w leave a /ructure1 due to t v>iation1 :5 ! /eel is cold1 :i* w be obs]vable by ! nak$ eye1 & su* /ructure1 :5 n influ5c$ by ext]nal =ce1 su* z by hamm]+ or roll+1 is z inv>iable & c]ta9 z is ! /ructure ( an +ot due to ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t4 ,?is prop]ty furni%es :at may be call$ ! /eel-mak]'s & ! /eel-us]'s !rmomet]4 ,by its means ! /eel-mak] c discov] e irregul>ity 9 heat+ t may h be5 p]petrat$ by ! op]atives2 s also ! /eel-us] c decide :e!r ! /eel furni%$ him has be5 heat$ & work$ uni=mly & prop]ly1 & lat] he c tell :e!r ^? :o h %ap$ ?is /eel to its f9al =ms h done _! "w prop]ly4 ,a ?or\gh k ( ?is prop]ty is ess5tial to a /eel-mak]2 until he possesses x he is n fit to conduct 8 bus9ess4 ,x is ( great importance to ! /eel-us]1 & e eng9e] %\ld try to acquire a k ( x 9 ord] t he may n be fool$ by ! c>elessness or rascality ( ^? :o h prec$$ him4 ,! /eel-mak] acquires ?is k by daily contact ) ! facts2 ! eng9e] does n h x =c$ ^u him 9 ?is way1 b he %\ld seek opportunities ( obs]vation1 :i* w be abundant 9 8 e>li] practice :5 he is s5t ^u inspection duty4 ,l ! /ructure ( +ots1 ?is heat-/ructure _c be illu/rat$ on pap]1 & an attempt to d s w\ld be mislead+2 attempts at description w be made 9 ! hope t by _! means ! eng9e] w h a pretty good idea :at to look =1 & to "k :5 8 suspicions %\ld be ar\s$4 ,9 addition to ! ocul> obs]vations m5tion$ x has be5 %[n by specific-gravity det]m9ations1 & by delicate electrical te/s ?r\gh small ranges ( temp]ature1 t /eel is z truly !rmometrical z m]cury4 ,/eel passes ?r\gh or into f\r g5]al conditions due to heat4 ,fir/1 9 ! cold /ate1 x is a cry/all9e solid ( no uni=m /ructure1 = its /ructure is influ5c$ by e elem5t t ent]s into x1 & by e irregul>ity ( heat to :i* x has be5 subject$4 ,good /eel may be describ$ z hav+ a blui%-gray color1 uni=m gra9 z se5 by ! nak$ eye1 & little lu/re4 ,b x %\ld h "s lu/re & a silky appe>ance4 ,:5 x is "r1 a /eel-work] w say x is 8sappy10 & t "n1 absurd z x may s\nd :5 appli$ to a metal1 really expresses an appe>ance1 & implies an excell5ce t x w\ld be h>d to f9d a bett] ^w =4 ,if ! /ructure be dull & s&y-look+1 ! /eel-work] w say x is 8dry10 & t t]m is z sugge/ive & appropriate z ! ^w 8sappy40 ,if ! fracture be granul> ) bright1 fla%+ lu/re1 ! /eel-work] w say x is 8fi]y10 & aga9 8 t]m is expressive & prop]4 ,x is p]fectly safe to say t /eel ( a 8sappy0 appe>ance is good /eel2 b 9 ord] to "k :at x is x mu/ be le>n$ by obs]vation1 x _c be describ$ 9 exact t]ms4 ,x is equally c]ta9 t a 8dry0 fracture indicates a mean /eel1 a /eel inh]5tly mean1--too mu* phosphorus1 or silicon1 or oxides1 or all comb9$1--& su* a /eel is incurable4 ,a 8fi]y0 fracture indicates too mu* heat4 ,x may be f\nd 9 ! be/ /eel & 9 ! poore/2 x may be correct$ by simply heat+ to a prop] temp]ature4 ,x %[s t "s "o ne$s to be reprim&$ = c>eless "w4 ,if n[ an inquir] w take a piece ( good /eel ( 8sappy0 fracture1 & ( 8dry0 /eel ( dull1 s&y fracture ( ! same c>bon1 & w heat !m say fir/ to d>k orange1 !n to bright orange1 d>k lemon1 & s on1 & exam9e ! fractures aft] ea* heat+1 he w f9d a 8fi]y0 fracture 9 ! 8dry0 /eel at a heat mu* bel[ t :i* is necess>y to make ! 8sappy0 /eel 8fi]y40 ,?is is "o pro( t good /eel w endure m puni%m5t ?an poor /eel4 ,cold /eel is n pla/ic 9 ! common acceptance ( ! ^w2 /rictly speak+ x has "s pla/icity1 z %[n 9 ! ext5sion not$ 9 pull+ x2 ?is is its measure ( ductility4 ,also x may be drawn cold to f9e wire ( only a few ?\s&?s ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & x has be5 roll$ cold to "o five ?\s&? ( an in* ?ick4 ,b ?is "w mu/ be done ) great c>e2 ! /eel soon becomes brittle1 & a little ov]draw+ or ov]roll+ w cru% ! gra9 & ru9 ! /eel2 !re=e ! "w mu/ be done a little at a "t1 & be foll[$ by a c>eful anneal+4 ,to r$uce a ,no4 #e wire rod to 4#jje in* diamet] w require ) high /eel suitable = hair-spr+s ab\t f\rte5 anneal+s4 ,a skilful hamm]man w take a piece ( mild cold /eel1 & by means ( light1 rapid bl[s he w heat x up to a bright lemon heat )\t fractur+ x2 !n he w h x ?or\ghly pla/ic & malleable4 ,?is has no practical comm]cial value2 x is a beautiful sci5tific exp]im5t exhibit+ high manual skill1 & %[+ t !re is no h>d & fa/ l9e betwe5 non-pla/icity & pla/icity4 ,! fir/ condition1 !n1 is cold /eel1 n pla/ic1 n malleable4 ,:5 /eel is heat$1 x beg9s to %[ color at ab\t #gjj to #hjj ,f42 ! fir/ color is kn[n z d>k *]ry r$1 or1 bett]1 orange r$3 above ?is color x turns to a di/9ct1 r d>k1 or m$ium orange color2 ?is is ! heat ( recalesc5ce1 a good =g+-heat1 & ! be/ anneal+- & qu5*+-heat4 ,at ?is heat & above x good /eel is truly pla/ic & malleable2 a roll] or hamm]man w say1 8,x works l wax10 & s x does4 ,?is is ! second or pla/ic condition4 ,heat$ above ?is pla/ic condition to a bright lemon 9 high /eel1 or to a creamy1 almo/ sc9tillat+1 heat 9 mild /eel1 /eel w g to pieces "u ! hamm] or 9 ! rolls2 ! workman w probably say x is burn$1 b x is n burn$ necess>ily2 x is simply heat$ up to ! ?ird or granul> condition2 x is ! beg9n+ ( dis9tegration & ! end ( pla/icity4 ,?is granul> condition is important 9 sev]al ways4 ,x is made use ( 9 ,sw$51 & has be5 demon/rat$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to det]m9e ! quantity ( c>bon 9 /eel4 ,an intellig5t blacksmi? is giv5 a set ( rods ( pr$et]m9$ c>bon1 rang+ f #ajj c>bon to z]o1 or ?r\gh any range t may be necess>y2 ea* rod is m>k$ to indicate its c>bon4 ,he takes ! rods "o by "o & heats !m until !y sc9tillate1 well up into ! granul> condition1 !n lays !m on 8 anvil & hamm]s !m1 obs]v+ c>efully ! color at :i* ea* "o becomes pla/ic z x cools sl[ly4 ,aft] a little practice he is giv5 rods t are n m>k$1 & by treat+ !m 9 ! same way he w give !m _! prop] numb]s1 r>ely miss+ ! c>bon by z mu* z #aj po9ts1 or "o temp]4 ,x is a beautiful & useful illu/ration ( ! effect ( c>bon4 ,! rule is1 ! high] ! c>bon ! l[] ! granulat+-po9t2 or1 z is well kn[n1 high /eel w melt at a l[] temp]ature ?an l[ /eel4 ,?is %[s t e temp] ( /eel has its dis9tegration temp]ature :]e x passes f pla/ic to granul>1 z fix$ z its fusion-po9t or its po9t ( recalesc5ce4 ,/eel passes f ! granul> condition to ! liquid or f\r? =m4 ,!re is little ( int]e/ 9 ! liquid condition ( /eel to any b ! /eel-mak]2 :at !re is to be said w be m5tion$ lat]4 ,/eel 9 cool+ f ! liquid passes ?r\gh ! granul> & ! pla/ic conditions to ! cold /ate4 ,! granul> =m is ( special int]e/ to ! /eel-mak] = ! reason t 9 ?is condition ! /eel has m ( adhesion ?an cohesion2 x w /ick to any?+ x t\*es1 & s _c be made to fl[4 ,?is is ! cause ( 8be>s10 8/ick]s10 & _m ( ! tr\bles ( ! melt]4 ,!re=e /eel mu/ be put into ! m\lds :ile x is /ill molt51 & m\lds %\ld be well smok$ or lime-wa%$ to prev5t /ick]s4 ,?is condition is ( great int]e/ to eng9e]s1 because ! failure to roll or %ape molt5 /eel by p\r+ x directly betwe5 ! rolls is d\btless due to ?is adhesive1 non-cohesive condition4 ,to produce %eets1 b>s1 & all sorts ( %apes f molt5 /eel direct1 )\t ! exp5se ( mak+1 h&l+1 & re-heat+ +ots1 is an entic+ idea :i* has occupi$ ! m9ds & ef=ts ( _m able me*anics & eng9e]s4 ,if /eel pass$ directly f ! liquid to ! pla/ic condition z glass does1 hamm]s & rolls w\ld soon be replac$ by dies at a great sav+ ( co/ & labor4 ,x is no wond] t su* a desirable end has l$ to _m p]si/5t & co/ly ef=ts1 b until "s way c be devis$ to elim9ate ?is granul> =m 9 cool+ x w\ld seem t all su* ef=ts mu/ end 9 failure4 ,z /eel cools d[n ?r\gh ! pla/ic condition ! cool+ is n cont9u\s2 !re are two or ?ree po9ts :]e x is arre/$ = a "t1 & at "o notable po9t ! cool+ is n only arre/$1 b aft] a few mom5ts ( /op ! op]ation is rev]s$1 ! /eel becomes visibly hott]1 & !n ! cool+ goes on regul>ly2 !re may be o!r slight pauses1 b !y are ( little importance comp>$ to ?is "o1 :i* is kn[n z ! po9t ( recalesc5ce4 ,!re are _m !ories ( ! cause ( ?is recalesc5ce2 ! able/ sci5ti/s are /ill work+ at x2 & until "s def9ite conclusion is rea*$ x is n wor? :ile to write pages ( discussion :i* may be f\nd fully /at$ & illu/rat$ ov] & ov] aga9 9 ! v>i\s te*nical j\rnals1 & transactions ( diff]5t eng9e]+ societies4 ,!re are "s prop]ties ( /eel ( great int]e/ :i* seem to clu/] ar\nd ?is recalesc5ce-po9t2 !y w be not$ z !y are rea*$4 ,we h se5 t !re is a m>k$1 def9ite /ructure ( ! gra9 ( +ots due to e quantity ( c>bon1 & also t !re is a fix$ limit ( malleability = e quantity ( c>bon4 ,x is kn[n also t ! recalesc5ce-po9t %ifts slightly ) a *ange ( c>bon1 & t x is mu* m m>k$ & bright] 9 high-c>bon /eel ?an 9 l[4 ,!re are no o!r sure indications ( ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t4 ,z soon z an +ot is heat$ up to orange color1 or ! recalesc5t-po9t1 x loses its di/9ctive /ructure & its fracture no long] furni%es a sure guide4 ,if ?ree +ots ( say1 #bj1 #hj1 & #abj c>bon respectively be heat$ to orange & !n cool$ sl[ly1 _! fractures w be s diff]5t z to enable an exp]t to place !m prop]ly 9 _! ord] ( c>bon1 & to classify !m z mild1 h>d1 & h>d]2 beyond t he c\ld n g2 if he attempt$ to give !m _! temp] numb]s1 he w\ld be likely to miss by f\r or five numb]s ei!r way1 & a correct m>k w\ld be only a lucky guess4 ,hamm]+ & roll+ heat$ /eel affect ! gra9 or /ructure pr(\ndly2 a high /eel may be work$ s t ! gra9 w look mild1 & a mild /eel may be s work$ t ! gra9 w look h>d4 ,x is common to see a b> ( /eel ) a f9e gra9 at "o end & a co>se gra9 at ! o!r1 & ?is /ate ( ?+s (t5 fright5s a consum]1 :o imag9es t he has receiv$ a v irregul>1 unev5 article1 & he is z (t5 a/oni%$ :5 x is %[n to him t at ! same prop] heat ! two ends w ref9e & h>d5 equally well1 & be exactly alike4 ,9 su* a b> "o end has be5 f9i%$ a little hott] ?an ! o!r1 & ! gra9 is due to ! heat 9 ea* case4 ,?is unev5 heat+ may h be5 incid5tal or c>eless2 ) skilful work]s x is r>e4 ,"o end might h be5 f9i%$ s cold z to cru% ! gra91 & ! o!r end s hot z to cause incipi5t dis9tegration1 b a compet5t inspector w\ld discov] ei!r condition at once & reject ! b>4 ,!re is1 !n1 a specific /ructure due to temp]ature2 x is modifi$ by c>bon & by treatm5t "u ! hamm] or 9 ! rolls4 ,if a b> ( /eel be heat$ up to ! highe/ pla/ic limit1 j s t x w n fall to pieces1 & !n cool$ sl[ly )\t di/urbance1 & a fracture be tak51 x w be f\nd to be co>se & ) an exce$+ly brilliant lu/re4 ,n[ let x be heat$ aga9 to a bright lemon color1 b /ill pla/ic1 & cool$ z be=e2 x w be f\nd to be co>se1 ) bright lu/re1 b nei!r s co>se nor s bright z ! fir/ piece4 ,!n let x be treat$ 9 ?is way to lemon color1 light orange1 m$ium orange1 d>k orange1 & orange r$2 z ! heats g d[n ! gra9 w be f9] & ! lu/re w be less1 until at ab\t m$ium orange ! lu/re w be abs5t4 ,if any numb] ( b>s ( ev5 composition be heat$ 9 ?is way1 ! fractures w all be alike = ea* temp]ature4 ,if a s]ies ( b>s ( ! diff]5t full temp]s1 ab\t sev5 9 all1 be treat$ 9 ?is way1 ! /ructures due to a giv5 temp]ature w all be simil>1 b !re w be no two exactly alike1 because high /eel is mu* m pr(\ndly affect$ by heat ?an l[ /eel4 ,sev5 temp]s are m5tion$ "h1 because t is ! numb] ( full temp]s 9 common use4 ,/eel is grad$ out into fifte5 temp]s ord9>ily by ! int]polation ( half numb]s2 ?is is easy & sure 9 ! +ot inspection4 ,9 ! above exp]im5t ! diff]5ces due to c>bon are n q s delicate1 & ! "w is hamp]$ 9 ! heat+ by ! p]sonal equation1 s t ! use ( sev5 full temp]s is ref9em5t en\gh4 ,!re is a diff]5ce due to e sep>able quantity ( c>bon1 :i* c\ld be %[n if all ( ! op]ations ( ! exp]im5t 7 exact4 ,if :5 a b> is brok5 cold ! fracture is unev51 ) co>se gra9 9 "o "p & f9e gra9 9 ano!r1 x %[s t !re has be5 unev5 heat+4 ,if "o side has l>ge gra9 & ! o!r side is f9e1 ! b> has be5 a great deal hott] on ! side hav+ co>se gra9 ?an on ! o!r3 ! heat] has let ! b> lie 9 ! furnace ) "o side expos$ to a hot flame & ! o!r protect$ f ! flame 9 "s way2 he has neglect$ to turn ! b> ov] & heat x ev5ly4 ,if ! outside ( ! b> is f9e & ! c5tre is co>se1 ! b> has be5 v hot all ?r\gh & has be5 f9i%$ by light bl[s ( ! hamm] or by light passes 9 ! rolls2 x has be5 work$ sup]ficially & n ?or\ghly4 ,if ! outside ( ! b> is co>se & ! c5tre is f9e1 ! /eel has be5 heat$ on ! surface too hot & too quickly2 x has n _h "t to get hot ?r\gh1 & x has _h too little "w 9 ! f9i%+4 ,if ! gra9 is d>k1 ) ! appe>ance ( a r heavy india-ink t9t1 ! /eel has be5 f9i%$ too cold1 & x w be f\nd to be brittle4 ,if ! gra9 is v d>k1 especially ab\t ! middle1 look+ almo/ black1 !n x has be5 f9i%$ altoge!r too cold3 ! gra9 is dis9tegrat$1 & ! b> is fit only = ! scrap heap4 ,a b> ( ?is k9d conta9+ en\gh c>bon to h>d5 w h>d5 ?or\ghly1 & (t5 appe> to be s\nd & f9e1 b x is n s\nd & w n d good "w2 if x be br\ght up to a prop] heat & =g$ to a po9t1 x w almo/ c]ta9ly bur/1 %[+ t ! integrity ( ! /eel has be5 de/roy$4 ,if a b>1 or plate1 or beam %[s cracks on ! surface or at ! corn]s1 ) r\gh1 torn surfaces1 ! /eel has ei!r be5 sup]ficially burn$ or x is r$-%ort4 ,9 ei!r case x %\ld be reject$1 = ! cracks1 al?\gh small1 w provide />t+-po9ts = ultimate fractures1 :e!r x be tool-/eel t is to be h>d5$1 or /ructural /eel t is to be /ra9$ )\t h>d5+4 ,if ! /eel is to be ma*9$1 s t all ( ! cracks c be cut out1 !n 9 ma*9]y-/eel ! removal ( ^! surface defects might leave ! f9i%$ piece suffici5tly s\nd & good4 ,if1 h[ev] ! /eel is to be h>d5$1 & ! defects %\ld be due to r$-%ortness1 ! piece w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly break 9 ! h>d5+2 & if x 7 n r$-%ort1 !n unless ! cracks 7 cut away entirely1 if ! lea/ trace ( ! crack is !re1 al?\gh x may n be visible1 t trace w be suffici5t to />t a crack :5 ! piece is h>d5$4 ,,effects ,,( ,,cool+4 ,increase ( heat causes increase ( s(tness up to ! liquid condition4 ,decrease ( heat--cool+--increases h>dness up to ! h>dness ( glass4 ,z an inv>iable rule ! rate ( cool+ fixes ! degree ( h>dness to be _h 9 ! cold piece )9 ! limits ( obta9able h>dness or s(tness4 ,sl[ cool+ reta9s s(tness1 s t :5 anneal+ is to be done ! sl[] ! cool+ ! bett]4 ,cool+ is always a h>d5+ process1 b :5 x is c>ri$ on sl[ly m s(tness1 w be reta9$ ?an :5 ! cool+ is quick4 ,rapid cool+ produces h>dness1 & ! m ne>ly in/antane\s x is ! great] ! h>dness w be4 ,?is prop]ty ( h>d5+ is ( su* extreme importance t x w be treat$ fully 9 a sep>ate *apt]4 ,!re is an app>5t exception to ?is rule %[n 9 ! op]ation call$ wat]-anneal+4 ,x is common1 :5 "w is hurri$1 to heat a piece ( /eel c>efully & uni=mly up to ! fir/ color1 t is1 until x j beg9s to %[ color1 & !n to qu5* x 9 wat]4 ,?is is call$ wat]-anneal+2 & _m believe t because a piece s treat$ is left s(t] ?an x 0 be=e treatm5t1 ! wat]-cool+ _h some?+ to d ) x4 ,! fact is t hamm]+ & roll+ are h>d5+ processes4 ,:5 ! increm5t ( heat due to ! "w is less ?an ! decrem5t ( heat due to radiation1 ! compact+ ( ! gra9 increases h>dness4 ,?is process leaves ! piece h>d] ?an does ! qu5*+ 9 wat]-anneal+2 ! decrease 9 h>dness due to wat]-anneal+ is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! effects ( ! two op]ations4 ,let two pieces ( ! same b> be heat$ exactly ! same = wat]-anneal+2 let "o be qu5*$ 9 wat]1 & ! o!r be all[$ to cool 9 ! air 9 a dry place4 ,!n ! sup]ior s(tness ( ! air-cool$ piece w %[ t ! s-call$ wat]-anneal+ furni%es no exception to ! rule4 ,!re is "o extremely important matt] connect$ ) cool+ t %\ld be not$ c>efully4 ,x is a common practice among /eel-work]s :5 !y get a "p ( a piece ( /eel too hot to p>tially qu5* t "p1 & !n g on ) _! heat+2 or if !y are 9 a hurry to get out a big day's "w1 or if ! wea!r is hot1 & a pile ( r$-hot b>s is uncom=table1 to da% wat] ov] ! pile & hurry ! cool+4 ,?is practice means *ecks 9 ! /eel1 hundr$s ( !m4 ,illu/ration ,a b> breaks & has ?is appe>ance4 ,! d>k spot is ! *eck2 x did n %[ 9 ! b>1 no inspector c\ld see x1 b x broke ! b>4 ,any "o c prove ?is to 8 own satisfaction 9 a few m9utes4 ,take a b> ( conv5i5t size1 ab\t "o in* by "o eigh?2 heat x c>efully to an ev5 m$ium orange color & qu5* x completely2 !n snip x ) a h&-hamm] ov] ! edge ( an anvil1 snipp+ away until satisfi$ t x is s\nd /eel4 ,!re are no *ecks4 ,n[ beat a simil> l5g? ( ! same b> 9 ! same way1 & pass x ?r\gh ! /ream f ! bo%-pipe1 or subm]ge x = a mom5t 9 ! bo%1 n long en\gh to produce m ?an ! slighte/ trace ( a *ange 9 ! color2 !n put x back 9 ! fire & br+ x g5tly to ! uni=m color us$ be=e1 & qu5* x completely4 ,n[ :5 x is snipp$ ov] ! anvil x w %[ num]\s *ecks1 doz5s ( !m4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t ! complete subm]sion = a mom5t may n produce *ecks at e trial1 because ! complete subm]sion p]mits practically uni=m cool+1 :i* if cont9u$ to complete cool+ w\ld be simply ! ord9>y h>d5+ process4 ,/ill x w produce *ecks 9 ! majority ( cases1 indicat+ t />t+ ! *anges1 /ra9s1 or :atev] !y are ( ! qu5*+ process & !n /opp+ !m sudd5ly :ile ! /eel is 9 ! pla/ic condition does cause dis9tegration1 s t ! op]ation is dang]\s & %\ld n be tol]at$4 ,pass+ ! hot /eel ?r\gh a /ream ( wat] or da%+ wat] ov] x mu/ cause diff]5t rates ( cool+1 & necess>ily produce local /ra9s result+ 9 *ecks4 ,^! latt] ways ( injur+1 !re=e1 r>ely fail to produce ! ru9\s *ecks4 ,if ?is positive de/ruction is produc$ 9 ?is way1 9 /eel conta9+ en\gh c>bon to h>d5 x is cle> t simil>1 al?\gh n s pron\nc$1 results w be produc$ 9 ! milde/ /eels :5 !y are treat$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,! rule1 !n1 %\ld be3 ,nev] all[ wat] to come 9 contact ) hot /eel1 & nev] all[ hot /eel to be laid d[n ^u a damp floor4 ,ev5 ! spray f wat] :i* is run ^u roll-necks may cause ^! *ecks 9 /eel t is pass+ ?r\gh ! rolls1 s t x is bett] to put up a gu>d to deflect su* wat] away f ! body ( ! roll4 ,a hamm]man may sweep a b> ) a damp broom to cause ! vapor to explode ) viol5ce :5 ! hamm] comes d[n1 & s te> away all r\gh scale & produce a beautiful f9i%4 ,a c>eful1 skilful man may be p]mitt$ to d ?is1 b z surely z he gets 8 broom too wet1 s t drops ( wat] w fall on ! /eel & :irl ar\nd 9 ! sph]oidal condition1 j s surely w he *eck ! /eel4 ,! be/ way is to h ! broom n wet en\gh to drip1 & !n to /rike x up aga9/ ! top die :5 x is ready to desc5d2 suffici5t moi/ure w be caught ^u ! die to cause a l\d explosion :5 x /rikes ! hot /eel2 x is a viol5t explosion & w drive (f e p>ticle ( deta*able scale1 leav+ z beautiful a surface z t :i* is peculi> to ,russia %eet iron4 ,x is common 9 roll+ tires to run jets ( wat] ov] ! tire to break up ! scale & produce a clean surface4 ,tire-mak]s ass]t t exp]i5ce %[s t ! wat] does no h>m4 ,!re are two reasons = ?is if x be true3 fir/1 ! /eel is ( m$ium c>bon & m in]t ?an high /eel1 & x has be5 hamm]$ & compact$ be=e roll+2 second1 ! tires are usually turn$1 & ?is w\ld cut away any little *ecks t might occur on ! surface4 ,! magnetic prop]ties ( /eel are well kn[n4 ,s(t /eel1 l s(t wr\ght iron1 _c be magnetiz$ p]man5tly2 high] c>bon /eel w reta9 magnetism a long "t1 & h>d5$ /eel w reta9 x /ill long]4 ,h>d5$-/eel magnets are ! mo/ p]man5t4 ,! p]man5cy & ! effici5cy ( a magnet increase ) ! quantity ( c>bon up to ab\t #he c>bon2 /eel ( high] c>bon ?an ?is w n make magnets ( s good p]man5cy4 ,! effici5cy ( a magnet ( #he c>bon is increas$ l>gely by ! addition ( a little tung/52 a little less ?an 4#je is suffici5t4 ,x has be5 %[n t tung/5 has ! prop]ty ( reta9+ ! h>dness ( /eel up to a relatively high temp]ature2 ?is additional p[] ( reta9+ magnetism may indicate a close relation betwe5 ! conditions set up by magnetism & by h>d5+4 ,x has be5 /at$ t maximum physical prop]ties1 except z to compression1 are f\nd at f #ij to #ajj c>bon2 n[ we f9d maximum magnetic prop]ties 9 ! same region4 ,pr(4 ,arnold has f\nd by microscopic te/s ! same po9t ( saturation2 he fixes x at #hi c>bon & d$uces f x an un/able c>bide ( ,fe,c4 ,! magnetic maximum 0 f\nd by magnet-mak]s by actual use 9 l>ge numb]s ( magnets4 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,w4 ,langley f\nd ! same maximum 9 a s]ies ( c>eful & delicate exp]im5ts und]tak5 to det]m9e ! be/ composition & ! be/ treatm5t = ! production ( p]man5t magnets4 ,magnetism is affect$ by temp]ature1 & x is f\nd t /eel becomes non-magnetic at or ab\t ! po9t ( recalesc5ce4 ,?is is important to electricians1 z x m>ks ! limit ( temp]ature t is available to !m4 ,x is ( int]e/ to ! sci5ti/s1 z x is ano!r indication ( ! importance ( ! *anges t take place at ?is temp]ature4 ,lat]1 recalesc5ce w be f\nd to be an equally important po9t to ! /eel-work]1 especially to ! temp]]4 ,x has be5 /at$ t if a b> ( /eel be heat$ to any visible temp]ature & !n be cool$ )\t di/urbance !re w be a result+ gra9 or /ructure t is due to ! highe/ temp]ature to :i* ! b> 0 subject$4 ,z a rule ! highe/ temp]ature leaves a gra9 t appe>s to ! eye to be ! l>ge/1 or co>se/1 :e!r ! microscope %[s x to be compos$ ( l>g] cry/als or n4 ,let ! foll[+ squ>es repres5t ! app>5t sizes ( ! gra9s3 ,illu/ration #a4 ,! natural b>1 untreat$4 #b4 ,gra9 due to d>k orange or orange r$4 #c4 8 8 8 m$ium orange4 #d4 8 8 8 bright orange4 #e4 8 8 8 d>k lemon4 #f4 8 8 8 m$ium lemon4 #g4 8 8 8 bright lemon4 #h4 8 8 8 v bright lemon1 or creamy4 ,^! designations are us$ because /eel 9 cool+ d[n1 or 9 heat+ up1 runs ?r\gh a s]ies ( yell[ t9ts1 n r$s4 ,x is common to see ! expression 8gl[+ :ite0 appli$ to /eel t is n ev5 melt$1 :5 z a matt] ( fact melt$ wr\ght iron is n q :ite4 ,an occasional heat ( /eel may be se5 t c\ld fairly be call$ :ite1 & !n ! melt] kn[s t x is altoge!r too hot1 & t he mu/ cool ! /eel or make bad +ots4 8,gl[+ :ite10 l 8*]ry r$10 w d = ord9>y talk1 b n = accurate description1 al?\gh 8*]ry r$0 comes ne>] to describ+ ! dy+ color ?an 8gl[+ :ite0 comes to describ+ ! highe/ heat4 ,an arc light may be 8gl[+ :ite10 & sunlight is 8gl[+ :ite10 & :5 ei!r light falls ^u melt$ /eel x %[s h[ f> ! /eel is f be+ 8gl[+ :ite40 ,ref]r+ to ! squ>es3 ,if a b> t has be5 heat$ to ,no4 #h be re-heat$ to ,no4 #b & be kept at t color a few m9utes to all[ ! /eel to arrange itself1 9 o!r words1 to provide = lag1 & !n be cool$1 x w be f\nd to h gra9 ,no4 #b4 ,sometimes 9 p]=m+ ?is exp]im5t ! fracture w be int]sp]s$ ) brilliant spots z if x 7 set ) gems2 ?is %[s t n q en\gh "t 0 all[$ = lag4 ,ano!r trial ) a little m "t w br+ x to a complete ,no4 #b fracture4 ,if n[ x be heat$ to ,no4 #d1 or #e1 or #f 9 ! same way1 x w be f\nd to h :5 cold ! gra9 due to ,no4 #d1 or #e1 or #f temp]ature4 ,?is may be repeat$ any numb] ( times1 & ! *anges may be rung on all ( ! numb]s1 until ! dis9tegrat+ effect ( num]\s heat+s beg9s to de/roy ! /eel4 ,?is prop]ty ( regi/]+ temp]ature1 ?is /eel !rmomet]1 is ( great value1 & x w be ref]r$ to frequ5tly4 ,,effects ,,( ,,me*anical ,,"w4 ,:5 an +ot is heat$ & !n hamm]$1 roll$1 or press$ hot1 its d5sity w be increas$1 z well z its /r5g? :5 cold "u all /ra9s4 ,if x be hamm]$ c>efully1 ) heavy bl[s at fir/1 & ) light] & quick] bl[s at ! la/1 ! gra9 w become v close & f9e2 x is call$ 8hamm]-ref9$40 ,:5 d[n to ! s-call$ *]ry r$1 orange r$1 great c>e is ne$$1 & :5 black beg9s to %[ ?r\gh ! r$ mu* caution mu/ be us$2 any heavy bl[s w cru% ! gra9 & produce ! d>k or black color m5tion$ be=e4 ,f9e-tool mak]s atta* great importance to ?is hamm]-ref9+2 "s ( ! mo/ exp]t w n h a roll$ b> if a well-hamm]$ "o c be _h4 ,at fir/ ?\ght ?is w\ld seem to be a m]e notion1 b ! te/imony 9 favor ( hamm]+ is s univ]sal among ^? :o "k _! bus9ess t x w\ld seem z if x mu/ be bas$ ^u "s reason4 ,if x h any sci5tific basis ( fact1 x is t ! %ocks or vibrations ( ! hamm] keep ! c>bon 9 m intimate union ) ! iron1 :e!r x be comb9ation or solution1 ?an ei!r roll+ or press+ w d4 ,aft] consid]+ ! ph5om5a ( h>d5+1 temp]+1 anneal+1 etc41 x may be conclud$ t !re is some?+ 9 ?is4 ,x is easy to laugh at & to d]ide %op prejudices1 & !re are en\gh ( !m t des]ve ridicule2 aga91 !re are "s t w n d[n1 & !y compel ! sci5ti/ to hunt = explanations4 ,b aft] all1 ridicule is dang]\s2 x is possible t a c>eful comp>ison ( "s ( ! laws laid d[n by ! highe/ sci5ti/s w\ld t5d to excite ! risibles4 ,if ! h&-work] sometimes fl\nd]s 9 ! mud1 ! sci5ti/ is sometimes envelop$ & grop+ 9 mi/4 ,hot-roll+ produces results simil> to ^? ( hot-hamm]+2 x makes ! gra9 f9]1 increases d5sity1 & adds to ! /r5g?4 ,! same precautions are ne$$ 9 roll+ z 9 hamm]+4 ,heavy passes ) rapid r$uction may be us$ to advantage :ile ! /eel is hot & ?or\ghly pla/ic2 z ! heat falls ! passes %\ld be light] to avoid cru%+ ! gra94 ,ov]roll+1 l too mu* hamm]+1 may be m injuri\s ?an too little "w2 a co>se1 irregul> /ructure due to too little "w may be rectifi$ & made f9e & ev5 by anneal+1 :ile if ! gra9 be cru%$ by ov]work ! damage _c be cur$ by anneal+2 ! anneal$ gra9 may appe> to be all "r1 b on te/+1 ! /r5g? w be f\nd impair$4 ,by c>e & light passes /eel may be roll$ safely d[n to a black heat & be made ela/ic & spr+y4 ,x is common to roll spr+-/eel 9 ?is way s t x may be =m$ into a spr+ & h all ( ! prop]ties ( a temp]$ spr+ )\t go+ ?r\gh ! op]ations ( h>d5+ & temp]+4 ,?is is (t5 desirable = spr+-mak]s1 z x saves !m consid]able exp5se2 b x is haz>d\s "w1 because x is s difficult to heat e piece exactly to ! same temp]ature1 & secure e "t ! same numb] ( passes & ! same pressure 9 ea*4 ,! be/ roll] w get "s pieces too h>d & brittle1 & "s too s(t & ductile4 ,a c>eful /eel-mak] w %un su* "w4 ,cold-hamm]+1 cold-roll+1 & cold-draw+ r$uce specific-gravity & increase t5sile1 transv]se1 compressive1 & torsional /r5g?4 ,!y increase h>dness & brittl5ess1 r$uc+ ductility4 ,! h>dness due to cold-work+ is diff]5t f t due to hot-"w or qu5*+2 ! latt] op]ations produce great ela/icity z well z h>dness4 ,! h>dness due to cold-work+ might be describ$ z h>%ness2 ! /eel is n truly spr+y2 ( c\rse x w b5d f>!r )\t p]man5t set ?an an anneal$ piece1 b x nev] has ! true spr+ ela/icity4 ,if x be work$ f> en\gh to be really spr+y1 x w be> ! same relation to a hot-work$ spr+ t a piece ( cross-gra9$1 bra%y oak be>s to a piece ( well-season$1 /raight-gra9$ hickory4 ,! hamm]+ ( r\nd sections betwe5 flat dies t5ds to bur/ ! b>s 9 ! c5tre2 great c>e mu/ be us$ to avoid ?is1 & ! mo/ skilful & c>eful hamm]m5 w (t5 turn out bur/$ b>s4 ,! bur/s d n %[ on ! surface2 ! b>s are true to size1 r\nd1 smoo?1 & s\nd on ! outside4 ,! safe/ plan is to hamm] 9 a ,v-die1 or 9 r\nd$ sw$ges4 ,radial roll+ w produce ! same results1 & x is on ?is pr9ciple t ! celebrat$ ,mansmann tubes are made4 ,! explanation seems to be simple1 z ! foll[+ exagg]at$ sket*es w %[3 ,illu/ration ,no4 #a has be5 /ruck2 x is !n turn$ up to position ,no4 #b & knock$ into %ape ,no4 #c4 ,! rapid hamm]+ ( a b>1 turn+ x a little at a "t1 mu/ bur/ x if ! bl[s are heavy en\gh to de=m ! :ole section4 ,heavy radial roll+ produces ! same results4 ,! conclud+ pages ( ?is *apt] w be devot$ to a few examples %[+ by te/s ! effects ( heat & "w ^u specific-gravity1 t5sile /r5g?1 ela/icity1 & ductility2 !y are n to be tak5 z fix+ exact limits 9 any case2 !y are giv5 m]ely to illu/rate ! tru? ( ! g5]al prop]ties /at$1 & to %[ ! wide ranges ( /r5g? t are atta9able by v>y+ c>bon & "w4 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,"* ,+ot ,numb]s4 ( ---------------------------------------- - ,/eel4 #a #b #c #d #e #f ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,c>bon 4#cjb 4#dij 4#ebi 4#fdi 4#hja 4#hda ,silicon 4#jai 4#jcd 4#jdc 4#jci 4#jbi 4#jci ,phosphorus 4#jdg 4#jje 4#jdg 4#jcj 4#jce 4#jbd ,sulphur 4#jah 4#jaf 4#jah 4#jab 4#jaf 4#jaj ,sp4 gr4 +ots4 #g4hee #g4hcf #g4hda #g4hbi #g4hch #g4hbd ,sp4 gr4 b>s1 burn$1 #a #g4hah #g4gia #g4ghi #b #g4had #g4haa #g4ghd #c #g4hbc #g4hcj #g4ghj #d #g4hbf #g4hdi #g4hjh #e #g4hha #g4hjf #g4hab cold1 #f #g4hdd #g4hbd #g4hbi ,diff4 #f-a 4#jbe 4#jcd 4#jdj ,mean diff4 ( c>bon 4#jga ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,c>bon 4#hfg 4#hga 4#iee #a4jje #a4jeh #a4jgi ,silicon 4#jeg 4#jec 4#jei 4#jhh 4#abj 4#jci ,phosphorus 4#jad 4#jbd 4#jgj 4#jcd 4#jfd 4#jdd ,sulphur 4#jah 4#jab 4#jaf 4#jab 4#jjf 4#jjd ,sp4 gr4 +ots4 #g4hai #g4hah #g4hac #g4hjg #g4hjh #g4hje ,sp4 gr4 b>s1 burn$1 #a #g4geb #g4gdd #g4fij #b #g4gee #g4gdi #g4gda #c #g4geh #g4gee #g4gfi #d #g4ggc #g4ghi #g4gih #e #g4gij #g4hab #g4haa cold1 #f #g4hbe #g4hbf #g4hbe ,diff4 #f-a 4#jgc 4#jhb 4#ace ,mean diff4 ( c>bon ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,! twelve +ots treat$ "h 7 fir/ select$ by ocul> inspection = c>bons2 ! c>bons 7 !n det]m9$ by combu/ion analyses4 ,x w be se5 t ! inspection 0 correct1 & t ! mean diff]5ce 9 c>bon betwe5 consecutive numb]s is 4#jjg4 ,betwe5 ,nos4 #g & #h !re is a diff]5ce ( only 4#jjd2 :5 ! analy/ discov]$ ?is1 he ask$ = a re9spection1 n giv+ any reason = 8 reque/4 ,! inspectors made new fractures1 exam9$ ! +ots c>efully 9 good light1 & report$ t !y err$ ! fir/ "t1 t bo? +ots belong$ 9 ! same temp] numb]1 b t if !re 7 any diff]5ce ,no4 #h 0 ! h>d]4 ,x is n claim$ t a diff]5ce ( 4#jjd is really obs]vable4 ,! cont5ts ( silicon1 phosphorus1 & sulphur %[ cle>ly t ! controll+ elem5t is c>bon4 ,?is exp]im5t has be5 repeat$ a numb] ( times1 & always ) ! same result1 %[+ t !re is no unc]ta9ty 9 ?is me?od ( sep>at+ temp]s4 ,p>ts ( ^! +ots 7 r$uc$ to -in* r\nd b>s4 ,! specific gravities ( ! +ots 7 tak51 %[+ g5]ally a r$uction ( sp4 gr4 = an increase ( c>bon4 ,no4 #c & #e are anomal\s2 an explanation ( ?is c\ld d\btless h be5 f\nd if a c>eful inve/igation _h be5 made1 b !re 0 no re-exam9ation4 ,! sp4 gr4 ,no4 #f are ( ! -in* b>s z !y came f ! rolls2 !y are all heavi] ?an ! +ots except ,no4 #d1 & !y are ( ne>ly uni=m sp4 gr42 ?is is due d\btless to ! fact t ! high] c>bon /eels are s mu* h>d] ?an ! l[-c>bon /eels t x requir$ mu* m "w to r$uce !m to ! b>s1 & z hot-work+ increases d5sity1 ! d5sities ( ! high] c>bons 7 increas$ m ?an ^? ( ! l[]4 ,! b>s 7 nick$ six times at int]vals ( ab\t -in* & !n heat$ s t ! ends 7 sc9tillat+1 ready to pass into ! granul> condition1 & ! heat 0 s regulat$ z to h ea* piece less hot ?an ! piece next ne>] to ! end1 ! la/ piece1 ,no4 #f1 be+ black & z ne>ly cold z possible4 ,x is manife/ t ?is op]ation is subject to ! error ( accid5tally gett+ ,no4 #b1 = in/ance1 hott] ?an ,no4 #a1 & s on1 s t p]fect regul>ity is n to be expect$2 to obta9 a true rule ( expansion x w\ld be necess>y to make hundr$s ( su* exp]im5ts & use ! mean ( all4 ,x w be notic$ t ,no4 #d is abnormal 9 ! +ot s]ies1 & t ! ,no4 #f piece ( ,no4 #d is abnormal 9 be+ light] ?an ! +ot2 probably ?is ,no4 #f ( ,no4 #d 0 hot :5 x 0 int5d$ to be cold4 ,also ,no4 #b ( +ot ,no4 #c is light] ?an its ,no4 #a1 %[+ ano!r irregul>ity 9 heat+4 ,tak+ ! :ole li/ ( ,no4 #a pieces1 !y are all light] ?an _! respective ,no4 #f pieces2 ! diff]5ces ( sp4 gr4 #f-a are progressive1 be+ only 4#jbe = ! ,no4 #c +ot & 4#ace = ! ,no4 #ab +ot4 ,?is %[s cle>ly t expansion due to a giv5 diff]5ce 9 temp]ature is mu* great] 9 high /eel ?an 9 l[ /eel4 ,?is cle>s away ! my/]y ( ! s-call$ trea*]y ( high /eel1 its t5d5cy to crack :5 h>d5$4 ,!re is no trea*]y ab\t x2 x is v s5sitive to temp]ature1 & x mu/ be treat$ accord+ly4 ,a few examples w n[ be giv5 to %[ ! *anges ( t5sile /r5g?1 ductility1 etc41 t may be _h by diff]5ces ( c>bon1 & by diff]5ces ( treatm5t1 anneal+1 h>d5+1 & temp]+4 ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,"* ( ,/eel4 ,o4 ,h4 ,crucible ,o4 ,h4 ,o4 ,h4 ,o4 ,h4 ,%eet ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c>bon 4#ji to 4#ab 4#dce 4#ej 4#fj 4#gj ,silicon 4#jjh 4#jad 4#jbe ,phosphorus 4#jjg 4#jej 4#jaf ,sulphur 4#jbf 4#jbh 4#jbh ,manganese 4#jee 4#bjd 4#cbe ,t5sile /r5g?1 lbs4 p] sq4 94 #dfhjj #gcadb #hdbbj #a #jhhjj #aagdjj ,ela/ic limit #cjijj #fcefj #gaejj #fiihj ,elongation 9 #b 9 #a #be #ad4e #aa4e 94 #da 94 #db ,r$uction ( area #ge4he #fb4c #bi4ia #ac4ee #h4ei silky ,fracture cup ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,crucible ,crucible ,crucible ,crucible ,"* ( ,eye-b>1 ,eye-b>1 ,eye-b>1 -94 ,/eel4 #b #a4 #b #a4 #b #a4 ,drawn ,wire4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,c>bon 4#if #a4ce #a4dj #a4ae ,silicon 4#aef 4#jb ,phosphorus 4#jjh 4#jb ,sulphur 4#jae trace ,manganese 4#bd 4#cj ,t5sile /r5g?1 lbs4 p] sq4 94 #abdhjj #ajjgcc #aaggaj #adaejj ,ela/ic limit #fejjj #hejgh #fihej #ibdbj ,elongation #d4ge 4#e #g4bh at #b #b4he 9 #b ,r$uction ( area #ac4jc #b4db broke 9 neck broke broke slight 9 head 9 ,fracture flaw1 close grip f9e gra9 gra9 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,o4 ,h4 is ! abbreviation = op5 he>?4 ,second column is mean ( #bd analyses & #bd te/s ( boil]-%eets4 ,,table ,,iii4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,t5sile ,ela/ic ,elongation4 ,r$uc- ,cold-drawn ,wire1 ,/r5g?1,limit1 ----------- tion ( -in* ,diam4 lbs4 p] lbs4 p],9 #c ,p] ,area1 sq4 94 sq4 94 94 c5t4 p] ct4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,cold-drawn1 broke 9 grip #ada1ejj #ib1djj 4#jf #b4jj #b4db ,same b> drawn black #ach4djj #aad1gjj 4#ah #f4jj #ab4de 8 8 anneal$ #ih1daj #fh1aaj 4#cj #aj4jj #aa4fi 8 8 h>d5$ & !n drawn black #bdh1gjj #aeb1hjj 4#be #h4cc #ai4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,analysis ( ?is b> is giv5 9 ,table ,,ii 9 ! la/ column4 ,a te/ ( -in* wire to %[ effect ( cold-draw+1 temp]+1 anneal+1 & h>d5+ & temp]+4 ,f\r pieces 7 cut f ! same b>4 ,x is probable t ! fir/ piece w\ld h giv5 a little high] t5sile if x _h n brok5 9 ! grip2 x 0 clamp$ too tight4 ,! second piece 0 heat$ until x pass$ ?r\gh all ( ! temp] colors & turn$ black1 te*nically call$ 8draw+ black10 or draw+ out all ( ! temp]4 ,x is n q anneal+2 ! idea 0 to f9d ! effect ( temp]-draw+ ^u a cold-h>d5$ drawn wire4 ,! effect ( ?is op]ation 0 to l[] ! ultimate & raise ! ela/ic /r5g?1 increas+ also ! ductility4 ,! ?ird piece 0 heat$ c>efully to ! recalesc5ce-po9t1 & cool$ sl[ly1 ?us anneal+ x completely1 & giv+ ! normal /r5g? ( a b> ( ?is composition4 ,! f\r? piece 0 heat$ to recalesc5ce & qu5*$1 h>d5+ & ref9+ x ?or\ghly2 x 0 !n temp]$ ?r\gh all ( ! colors until x turn$ black2 ! result %[s ! enorm\s pot5cies !re are 9 ! h>d5+ & temp]+ op]ations4 ,! cases giv5 9 ,table ,,ii 7 select$ indiscrim9ately1 s z to %[ bett] ! effect ( c>bon1 z we "h h te/s ( ord9>y te/-b>s1 boil]-%eet1 small eye-b>s1 & drawn wire4 ,! #if-;c>bon eye-b> & ! #aae-;c>bon -in* wire are ! ne>e/ to ! #ajj-;c>bon saturation limit m5tion$ be=e1 & !y %[ ! highe/ /r5g?4 ,! #if-;c>bon eye-b> _h a slight flaw 9 ! fracture1 :i* d\btless caus$ x to break bel[ its real /r5g?4 ,! #ace-;c>bon eye-b> broke 9 ! head 9 a way to indicate t !re 0 "s local /ra9 !re1 due to =g+4 ,^! examples are n giv5 z e/abli%+ any g5]al law2 !y are illu/rations ( :at all exp]i5ce %[s to be ! fact1 t ! /r5g? ( /eel is affect$ pr(\ndly by ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t1 & also by heat & by me*anical "w4 ,f #df1hjj lbs4 to #bdh1gjj lbs4 t5sile /r5g? p] squ>e in* is an enorm\s range1 & ^! figures probably repres5t pretty closely ! ultimate limits at pres5t atta9able4 ,an inspection ( ! analyses makes x cle> t ! o!r elem5ts pres5t 9 addition to c>bon 7 n !re 9 suffici5t quantity or v>iety to h _h mu* effect ^u ! results4 ,,vi4 ,,heat+ ,,= ,,=g+2 ,,= ,,h>d5+2 ,,= ,,weld+4 ,,burn+1 ,,ov]heat+1 ,,re/or+4 ,f :at has be5 said already ab\t ! effects ( heat x foll[s )\t fur!r argum5t t heat+ is "o ( ! mo/ important1 or p]haps m prop]ly ! mo/ important ( all1 ( ! op]ations to :i* /eel has to be subject$4 ,! fir/ & vital ?+ to be borne 9 m9d is t all heat+ %\ld be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,x has be5 %[n t heat affects ! gra91 ! /ructure1 z surely z x moves ! m]cury-column1 & su* be+ ! case x is pla9 t z p]fect uni=mity z x is possible to atta9 is ! fir/ ess5tial = all heat+1 no matt] :at ! ultimate object may be4 ,9 heat+ = =g+ ! limit lies betwe5 ! po9t ( recalesc5ce1 ! beg9n+ ( true pla/icity1 & ! granul> condition1 ! end ( pla/icity2 ^! temp]atures lie betwe5 d>k or m$ium orange = all /eels & m$ium or light lemon on ! upp] limit1 dep5d+ on ! c>bon cont5t1 or l[] if x be an alloy /eel4 ,if !re is mu* "w to be done ^u a piece ( /eel1 x is well to heat at fir/ to z high a temp]ature z is safe1 & !n to =ge or "w heavily at ! high] heat1 r$uc+ ! bl[s or passes z ! piece is r$uc$ & ! temp]ature falls4 ,al?\gh ?is high heat+ w raise ! gra9 ( ! /eel1 ! heavy work+ w br+ x back to a f9e1 compact /ructure4 ,if little "w is to be done1 !n x is bett] to heat z l[ z may be safe1 & all[ ! "w to be done )\t lett+ ! heat d[n bel[ orange r$1 s t ! /eel may n be cru%$ 9 ! gra94 ,bel[ orange r$1 ! s call$ 8d>k *]ry10 /eel %\ld n be =g$1 except t 9 =g+ = f9e tools x is well to give _m light & rapid bl[s until black beg9s to %[ 9 ord] to hamm]-ref9e x2 ?is mu/ be done ) extreme c>e s z n to cru% ! /eel & cause crack+ 9 ! subsequ5t h>d5+1 or crumbl+ 9 ! h>d5$ tool4 ,,heat+ ,,= ,,h>d5+4 ,:5 a piece ( /eel is to be h>d5$ by qu5*+ 9 wat] or any quick-cool+ m$ium1 x %\ld be heat$ ) great c>e to ! exact temp]ature to produce ! requir$ h>dness4 ,aft] =g+1 no piece ( /eel %\ld be qu5*$ )\t fir/ be+ heat$ uni=mly to ! prop] temp]ature4 ,ede 9 8 book recomm5ds qu5*+ imm$iately aft] =g+ 9 "s cases4 ,! s-call$ ,h>vey pat5t recomm5ds cool+ f a high heat d[n to ! requir$ heat & !n qu5*+4 ,bo? practices are bad4 ,9 ! ,ede case ?is is believ$ to be ! only bad piece ( advice 9 8 v valuable book--9 e o!r respect ! mo/ practical & useful book ^u ! manipulation ( /eel kn[n to ! au?or4 ,! reason = object+ to ! qu5*+ aft] =g+ )\t re-heat+ is t =g+ always sets up unev5 /ra9s 9 ! mass2 ! fl[ is easi] f ! sides ?an f ! middle ( ! piece1 & !re=e ! am\nt ( "w done ^u "o "p is great] ?an ^u ano!r2 also x is impossible to hamm] or press a piece ( /eel ) exact uni=mity ?r\gh\t1 s t x foll[s t aft] =g+ !re is nev] exact uni=mity ( texture or temp]ature1 & su* uni=mity is ! "o ess5tial ?+ to insure good & ev5 h>d5+4 ,! practice ( all[+ a highly heat$ piece to cool d[n to a giv5 color & !n qu5*+ is objectionable1 because x produces a co>se & brittle gra9 due to ! high] heat4 ,ref]r+ to ! illu/ration on page #fg ( ! squ>es repres5t+ gra9s due to diff]5t temp]atures3 ,assume t squ>e ,no4 #c repres5ts ! heat at :i* qu5*+ is to take place1 & ,no4 #f is ! heat to :i* ! piece has be5 subject$2 !n ! piece :5 x has cool$ to ,no4 #c w n h ! gra9 due to ,no4 #c heat3 x w h a l>g]1 co>s] gra9 t =m$ z ! piece cool$ f ,no4 #f4 ,if n[ x be qu5*$1 x w h only ! h>dness due to ,no4 #c1 ) a mu* co>s] & m brittle gra9 ?an ,no4 #c heat %\ld give4 ,! way to manage su* a case is to let ! piece cool completely & assume ! ,no4 #f gra92 !n re-heat c>efully to exactly ,no4 #c & no hott]2 keep ! piece at t heat = a few m9utes1 or mom5ts1 accord+ to its size1 to all[ = lag2 !n x w h ! f9] gra9 due to ,no4 #c heat1 & :5 qu5*$ x w be z h>d z "u ! o!r me?od1 & x w be mu* f9] & /rong]4 ,! same rule applies to any two temp]atures4 ,z an expression ( exactness z to ev5ness ( heat1 x may be said t ! piece %\ld be z uni=m 9 color z if x _h be5 dipp$ into a pot ( pa9t4 ,:5 su* uni=mity is atta9$1 a break f qu5*+ is r>e1 unless ! piece has be5 %amefully ov]heat$ s t ! /ra9s ( qu5*+ are great] ?an ! t5acity ( ! /eel4 ,,heat+ ,,= ,,weld+4 ,:5 an +ot is to be =g$ or roll$1 x is well to take ! highe/ heat possible--t imm$iately bel[ ! heat ( granulation4 ,su* a heat may be tak5 safely by keep+ ! /eel cov]$ ) a surface flux to protect x f ! flame4 ,ord9>y r$ clay1 dri$ & p[d]$1 is an excell5t flux = ! purpose1 & ! *eape/ kn[n4 ,melt$ & p[d]$ borax is ! be/ ( kn[n fluxes1 b x is s exp5sive t1 z a rule1 x is us$ only on ! f9e/ tool-/eel1 or on "s ( ! alloy /eels :]e ! highe/ heat possible is n above a bright orange color1 or h>dly s high4 ,a good flux1 int]m$iate 9 co/ betwe5 common r$ clay & p[d]$ borax1 is an e>? or m9]al b>ite1 or heavy sp>4 ,?is mat]ial fuses m readily ?an r$ clay & n q s easily z borax4 ,x =ms a good protective cov]+ on ! /eel1 & x is ne>ly or q z effici5t z borax4 ,! object 9 heat+ s high is to make ! /eel z s(t & pla/ic z x may be1 s t ! subsequ5t work+ w close up all porosity z f> z possible4 ,ne>ly all +ots h 9 !m a great] or less numb] ( cavities1 commonly call$ bl[-holes1 t are caus$ by ! sep>ation ( occlud$ gases dur+ cool+4 ,if su* porosities are n oxidiz$ on ! surface !y w disappe> "u heavy work+ at a high heat4 ,x is probable t "u ! compression ( ! "w ! gases are r$issem9at$ 9 ! mass & ! walls ( ! cavities are reunit$4 ,if !re be ! slighte/ oxidation ( ! surface ( a cavity ! walls w n reunite3 !re w be left 9 ! mass a little flat film ( oxide :i* w prev5t ! union4 ,9 mild /eels us$ = ma*9]y or /ructural purposes ^! little films may d no h>m1 ! factor ( safety be+ suffici5t to m ?an cov] any weak5+ effect4 ,9 tool-/eel t is to be h>d5$ su* little films are almo/ c]ta9 to cause fracture4 ,dies z l>ge z twelve in*es squ>e & six to eight in*es ?ick1 hav+ be5 heat$ & qu5*$ ) ! greate/ c>e1 h split fairly 9 two1 & h reveal$ 9 ! fracture a little film no l>g] ?an half an in* 9 diamet] & ( inappreciable ?ickness4 ,at ! same "t ! p]fectly uni=m gra9 & h>dness %[$ t ! highe/ skill _h be5 us$4 ,?is is only "o illu/ration ( ! fact t e break 9 ! cont9uity ( ! gra9 9 /eel =ms a />t+-po9t = fracture "u heavy /ress4 ,f :at has be5 said x is pla9 t to weld two pieces ( /eel toge!r is a difficult matt]2 /ill x c be done if great c>e be us$4 ,9 g5]al x is bett] to avoid su* weld+ except 9 cases ( necessity4 ,! weld+ ( /eel tub+1 & ! electric weld+ ( rails1 frogs1 swit*es1 etc41 is done on a l>ge scale & satisfactorily1 s t x w n d to say t /eel _c be weld$4 ,x c be weld$ or pa/$ toge!r1 & x is a good op]ation to avoid 9 all high /eel4 ,9 case /eel is to be h>d5$ a weld w reveal itself almo/ c]ta9ly4 ,,burn+ ,,9 ,,heat+4 ,:5 a piece ( /eel breaks & %[s a co>se1 fi]y fracture1 x is common to say t x is burn$4 ,?is is n necess>ily ! case4 ,!re are sev]al degrees 9 ! effects ( heat4 ,! fir/ is ! rais+ ( ! gra92 ! second1 9 high /eel1 is ! dec>boniz+ or burn+ out ( c>bon f ! surface 91 ! dep? ( ! dec>boniz+ dep5d+ ^u "t & temp]ature2 ! ?ird is oxidiz+1 or actual burn+ 9 ! common acceptance ( ! t]m4 ,all ( ^! op]ations g on to a slight ext5t e "t a piece ( /eel is heat$1 b :5 ! heat+ is done c>efully !re is only a small film ( /eel t is dec>boniz$ & oxidiz$1 & ?is film flies (f :5 ! piece is qu5*$ = h>d5+4 ,:5 ! /eel is =g$ or roll$ ?is sk9 w be unit$ firmly to ! /eel1 & x w be ?9n] or ?ick]1 accord+ to ! numb] ( heat+s & ! "t ( exposure to ! fire4 ,9 tool-mak+ ?is sk9 mu/ always be remov$4 ,_m an exp5sive tool is made p]fectly wor?less by n hav+ ?is sk9 all remov$1 ow+ usually to mi/ak5 economy4 ,! /eel is exp5sive1 & ! tool-mak] does n wi% to cut x up into wor?less *ips4 ,:5 a tool co/+1 say1 tw5ty-five doll>s is made useless by failure to cut away tw5ty-five c5ts' wor? ( useless sk91 ! economy ( su* an op]ation requires no discussion4 ,x is impossible to =ge a piece ( /eel )\t produc+ su* a sk91 & x is well kn[n t dec>boniz$ iron w n h>d54 ,ord9>ily a cut ( _/ ( an in* %\ld remove su* a sk9 on /raight roll$ or hamm]$ b>s4 ,9 ! case ( a %ap$ =g+ :]e _m re-heat+s h be5 requir$ ! =geman w h done good "w if ! cutt+ away ( ( an in* w pres5t a good surface3 tool-mak]s %\ld consid] ?is & all[ = x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if a tool-mak] f9ds t ! removal ( ( an in* f a b>1 or ( an in* f a =g+ w n yield him a good1 h>d surface1 he %\ld hold ! /eel-mak] responsible = bad "w4 ,actual burn+ reveals itself 9 r\gh te>s1 & cracks at ! surface & corn]s ( ! piece4 ,su* a piece %\ld g to ! scrap heap4 ,ov]heat$ /eel ( co>se1 fi]y gra9 has be5 injur$1 & n necess>ily de/roy$4 ,su* a piece may be re/or$ to any f95ess ( gra9 by heat+ to ! "r temp]ature--m$ium orange = ! be/ gra9--keep+ x at t heat =1 say1 "o m9ute = a little piece1 & five to t5 or fifte5 m9utes = a l>ge piece4 ,! heat %\ld p5etrate ! :ole mass1 & x %\ld n be all[$ to run above ! giv5 color 9 any "p1 n ev5 = a mom5t4 ,x %\ld !n be all[$ to cool 9 a dry place1 )\t di/urbance4 ,! gra9 w n[ be f9e & uni=m1 & ! /eel may be work$ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,?is simple op]ation is all t is necess>y to re/ore to a f9e gra9 any piece ( /eel t has be5 ov]heat$1 provid$ t ! piece has n be5 actually burn$ nor ruptur$4 ,,vii4 ,,anneal+4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! gra9 or /ructure ( /eel is pr(\ndly affect$ by heat1 s t any diff]5ce ( heat-color t is visible to ! nak$ eye w cause a diff]5ce ( gra9 t is also visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,specific-gravity te/s & delicate magnetic te/s h prov$ t = e v>iation 9 gra9 !re is a diff]5ce ( specific-gravity1 :i* means1 ( c\rse1 a diff]5ce 9 volume2 f ?is x is cle> t if 9 any "o piece ( /eel !re exi/s a v>iety ( gra9 due to unev5 heat+1 !re mu/ necess>ily be 9 ! mass int]nal de/ructive /ra9s4 ,^! /ra9s become manife/ :5 a piece ( unev5ly heat$ /eel cracks 9 h>d5+2 9 ?is case ! /ra9s are great] ?an ! t5acity ( ! /eel4 ,x is well kn[n1 also1 t all work+ ( /eel1 su* z =g+ or roll+1 has a h>d5+ effect1 s t ord9>y b>s or =g+s _c be ma*9$ readily 9 ! condition 9 :i* !y are left by ^! op]ations4 ,if !re 7 no rem$y = ^! conditions ( int]nal /ress & initial h>dness1 ! g5]al use ( /eel w\ld be v difficult1 & its application w\ld be limit$ s]i\sly4 ,=tunately1 !re are ?ree prop]ties ( /eel :i* furni% an easy & effici5t rem$y4 ,fir/1 ! fact t /eel w assume by m]e heat+ a gra9 or /ructure due to any temp]ature1 no matt] :at its previ\s /ructure may h be51 makes x a simple matt] to remove practically all irregul>ities ( gra9 & /ress1 by heat+ ! mass to a p]fectly uni=m color & all[+ x to cool uni=mly4 ,second1 z heat+ is a s(t5+ process always1 ! m]e heat+ ( any piece ( /eel w s(t5 x1 & ! am\nt ( ?is s(tness t c be reta9$ :5 ! piece is cold is a direct function ( ! l5g? ( "t ( cool+1 s t by suffici5tly sl[ cool+ any /eel c be left reasonably s(t4 ,?is does n apply to ,hadfield's manganese /eel1 :i* _c be made s(t :5 cold by any ( ! kn[n processes ( anneal+4 ,?ird1 by ref]5ce to ! specific-gravity table ,no4 ,i1 ,*ap4 ,v1 x w be se5 t ! *ange 9 volume due to diff]5ces ( temp]ature is mu* less 9 mild /eel ?an 9 high /eel4 ,?is fact does n re/ ^u ! evid5ce ( ?is table alone2 x is a fact ( common k to all /eel-mak]s t mild /eel is mu* m in]t ?an high /eel2 !re=e diff]5ces ( heat & work+ t produce s]i\s results 9 high /eel are h>dly appreciable 9 mild /eel4 ,z a rule all /ructural /eels are comp>atively mild1 !re=e !y are g5]ally 9 a fit condition = use :5 !y leave ! rolls or =ge4 ,9 cases ( special =g+1 :]e "o "p is heat$ & ano!r is left cold1 z 9 ! =g+ ( ! heads ( eye-b>s1 x w\ld seem to be wis] to anneal su* pieces to remove ! area ( /ra9 t mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! unheat$ p>ts & ^? t 7 heat$ & =g$4 ,! op]ation ( remov+ /ra9s & h>dness by c>eful1 uni=m heat+ & sl[ cool+ is kn[n z anneal+4 ,anneal+ %\ld n be confus$ ) temp]+4 ,temp]+ is ! p>tial s(t5+ ( h>d5$ /eel1 to remove "s ( ! exce$+ brittl5ess ( h>d5$ /eel1 & s to make x /rong & highly ela/ic :ile x is /ill v h>d4 ,anneal+ is ! complete s(t5+ ( a piece ( /eel2 t is to say1 z a rule1 ! obta9+ ( ! utmo/ s(tness t is possible2 or 9 any case to h ! /eel s(t] ?an any temp]+ w\ld leave x4 ,anneal+1 & temp]+ are frequ5tly us$ synonym\sly4 ,su* misuse ( t]ms 9 speak+ ( te*nical matt]s leads to confusion ( ideas & misund]/&+s4 ,z a rule1 ! be/ heat to use = anneal+ is t :i* gives a m$ium orange color2 x is a good heat to qu5* f2 x is a little above ! heat ( recalesc5ce1 ab\t #fee ,c5t4 ,?is heat is t :i* gives ! f9e/ gra9 to /eel :5 x is h>d5$1 & is kn[n z ! ref9+ heat4 ,z /eel is ?or\ghly pla/ic & s(t at ?is heat1 & z x yields ! be/ & /ronge/ gra9 :5 cool$ f ?is heat1 x is cle> t !re is no?+ to be ga9$ by heat+ any high] = anneal+4 ,9 anneal+1 ! /eel %\ld be br\ght up to ! "r color1 m$ium orange1 & left at t heat until x is hot ?r\gh1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! heat does n run any high] 9 any "p ( ! piece4 ,if ! corn]s or edges or any "p be all[$ to run up to bright orange1 or to m$ium or bright lemon1 z is (t5 done1 !n !re is bad "w2 ! result w be unev5 gra9 & int]nal /ra9s4 ,:5 /eel is to be h>d5$ aft]w>ds1 !re may be no h>m 9 heat+ up to an ev5 lemon color2 b :]e is ! use 9 apply+ ?is excess ( heat m]ely to make a co>se gra91 :5 ! l[]1 m$ium orange color w give j z good s(tness & a mu* bett] gra98 ,! "t necess>y = good anneal+ dep5ds ^u ! size ( ! piece2 a wire may be br\ght up to ! "r heat 9 five m9utes or less1 & heat$ ?r\gh 9 ano!r m9ute2 !n x %\ld be remov$ f ! fire1 z e additional mom5t ( heat+ w only injure ! /eel4 ,a block six or eight in*es cube may require ?ree to five h\rs to br+ x up to ! color & h x heat$ ?r\gh1 & suffici5t "t %\ld be giv52 b z soon z x is hot ?r\gh x %\ld be remov$ f ! fire4 ,a six-in* block may be br\ght up to a m$ium orange color 9 tw5ty m9utes or less 9 a hot furnace1 & !n if x be kept 9 su* a furnace until x is hot all ?r\gh1 ! surface & edges w almo/ c]ta9ly be br\ght to a bright lemon color1 ) bad results4 ,to d good anneal+ a piece %\ld nev] be hott] 9 "o "p ?an 9 ano!r1 & no "p %\ld be hott] ?an necess>y1 usually ! m$ium orange color4 ,anneal+1 !n1 is a sl[ process comp>atively1 & suffici5t "t %\ld be all[$4 ,!re are _m ways ( anneal+ /eel1 & g5]ally ! plan us$ is well adapt$ to ! result desir$2 x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to consid] ! end aim$ at & to adopt means to accompli% x1 because a plan t is excell5t 9 "o case may be entirely ineffici5t 9 ano!r4 ,probably ! greate/ am\nt ( anneal+ is done 9 ! manufacture ( wire1 :]e _m tons mu/ be anneal$ daily4 ,= anneal+ wire sunk5 cyl9drical pits built ( fire-bricks are us$ usually2 ! coils ( wire are pil$ up 9 ! cyl9d]s1 :i* are !n cov]$ tightly1 & heat is appli$ ?r\gh flues surr\nd+ ! cyl9d]s1 s t no flame comes 9 contact ) ! /eel4 ,= all ord9>y uses ?is me?od ( anneal+ wire is quick1 economical1 & satisfactory4 ,! wire comes out ) a heavy scale ( oxide on ! surface2 ?is is pickl$ (f 9 hot acid1 & ! /eel %\ld !n be wa%$ 9 limewat]1 !n 9 clean wat]1 & f9ally dri$4 ,if x be desir$ to make drill-wire = drills1 pun*es1 grav+-tools1 etc41 ?is plan w n answ]1 because "u ! removable scale !re is left a ?9 film ( dec>boniz$ iron :i* _c be pickl$ (f )\t ru9+ ! /eel1 & :i* w n h>d54 ,x is pla9 t ?is s(t surface mu/ be ru9\s to /eel int5d$ = cutt+-tools1 = x prev5ts ! extreme edge f h>d5+--! v place t mu/ be h>d if cutt+ is to be done4 ,tools = drills1 la!-tools1 ream]s1 pun*es1 etc41 are usually anneal$ 9 iron boxes1 fill$ 9 ! spaces betwe5 ! tools ) *>coal2 ! box is !n loot$ & heat$ 9 a furnace adapt$ to ! "w4 ,?is is a satisfactory me?od g5]ally1 because ! tools are ei!r gr\nd or turn$ aft] anneal+1 remov+ any dec>boniz$ film t may be f\nd2 ! *>coal usually takes up all ( ! oxyg5 & prev5ts ! =mation ( heavy scale & dec>boniz$ surfaces1 b x does n d s entirely1 & s = anneal+ drill-wire ?is plan is n satisfactory4 ,x is a common practice 9 anneal+ 9 ?is way to cont9ue ! heat+ = _m h\rs1 sometimes z _m z ?irty-six h\rs1 9 ! mi/ak5 notion t long-cont9u$ heat+ produces great] s(tness1 & "s p adh]e to ?is plan 9 spite ( remon/rances1 because !y f9d t pieces s anneal$ w turn z easily z s(t ca/ iron4 ,?is la/ /atem5t is true2 ! pieces may be turn$ 9 a la! or cut 9 any way z easily z s(t ca/ iron1 = ! reason t t is exactly :at !y are practically4 ,:5 /eel is made prop]ly1 ! c>bon is ne>ly all 9 a condition ( complete solution2 x is 9 ! v be/ condition to h>d5 well & to be endur+4 ,:5 /eel is heat$ above ! recalesc5ce-po9t into ! pla/ic condition1 ! c>bon at once beg9s to sep>ate out ( solution & into :at is kn[n z ! graphitic condition4 ,if x be kept hot long en\gh1 ! c>bon w practically all take ! graphitic =m1 & !n ! /eel w n h>d5 prop]ly1 & x w n hold its temp]4 ,to illu/rate3 ,let a piece ( #ij-;c>bon /eel be h>d5$ & drawn to a light br[n temp]2 x w be f\nd to be almo/ file h>d1 v /rong1 & capable ( hold+ a f9e1 ke5 edge = a long "t4 ,next let a "p ( ! same b> be buri$ 9 *>coal 9 a box & be clos$ up air-tight1 !n let x be heat$ to a m$ium orange1 no hott]1 & be kept at t heat = twelve h\rs1 a common practice1 & !n cool$ sl[ly4 ,?is piece w be easily cut1 & x w h>d5 v h>d1 b :5 drawn to ! same light br[n z ! o!r tool a file w cut x easily2 x w n hold its edge1 & x w n d good "w4 ,cle>ly 9 ?is case "t & money h be5 sp5t m]ely 9 spoil+ good mat]ial4 ,!re is no?+ to be ga9$1 & !re is ev]y?+ to be lo/1 9 long-cont9u$ heat+ ( any piece ( /eel = any purpose4 ,:5 x is hot en\gh1 & hot ?r\gh1 get x away f ! fire z quickly z possible4 ,?is me?od ( box-anneal+ is n satisfactory :5 appli$ to drill-wire1 or to long ?9 /r&s int5d$ = clock-spr+s1 wat*-spr+s1 etc4 ,! coils or /r&s d n come out ev52 !y w be h>d] 9 "o "p ?an 9 ano!r2 !y w n take an ev5 temp]4 ,:5 h>d5$ & temp]$1 "s p>ts w be f\nd to be j "r1 & o!rs w h a s(t surface1 or w n hold a good temp]4 ,! reason ( ?is seems to be a want ( uni=mity 9 ! conditions3 ! *>coal does n take up all ( ! oxyg5 be=e ! /eel is hot en\gh to be attack$1 & s a dec>boniz$ surface is =m$ 9 "s p>ts2 or x may be t "s ( ! c>bon dioxide :i* is =m$ comes 9 contact ) ! surface ( ! /eel & takes ano!r equival5t ( c>bon f x4 ,:atev] ! reaction may be1 ! fact is t mu* s(t surface is =m$4 ,?is s(t surface may n be m ?an 4#jja ( an in* ?ick1 b t is en\gh to ru9 a wat*-spr+ or a f9e drill4 ,aga91 x seems to be impossible to heat su* boxes ev5ly2 x is manife/ t x mu/ take a consid]able l5g? ( "t to heat a mass ( *>coal up to ! requir$ temp]ature1 & if ! :ole be n s heat$ "s ( ! /eel w n be heat$ suffici5tly2 ?is w %[ itself 9 ! subsequ5t draw+ ( ! wire or roll+ ( ! /r&s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! :ole mass be br\ght up to ! requir$ heat1 "s ( ! /eel w h come up to ! heat quickly1 & w !n h be5 subject$ to t heat dur+ ! balance ( ! op]ation1 & 9 ?is way ! c>bon w be ?r[n out ( solution p>tly4 ,?is is prov5 by ! fact t /r&s made 9 ?is way & h>d5$ & temp]$ by ! cont9u\s process w be h>d & s(t at regul> int]vals1 %[+ t "o side ( ! coil has be5 subject$ to too mu* heat4 ,?is tr\ble is ov]come by op5 anneal+1 :i* w be describ$ pres5tly4 ,:5 /eel is heat$ 9 an op5 furnace1 !re is always a scale ( oxide =m$ on ! surface2 ?is scale1 be+ h>d1 & ( ! nature ( s& or ( s&/one1 gr9ds away ! edges ( cutt+-tools1 s t1 al?\gh ! /eel und]nea? may be s(t & 9 good cutt+ condition1 ?is gritty surface is v objectionable4 ,?is tr\ble is ov]come by anneal+ 9 clos$ vessels2 :5 *>coal is us$1 ! difficulties j m5tion$ 9 connection ) wire- & /r&-anneal+ op]ate to "s ext5t1 al?\gh n s s]i\sly1 because ! /eel is to be ma*9$1 remov+ ! surface4 ,! ,jones me?od ( anneal+ 9 an atmosph]e ( gas is a complete cure = ^! tr\bles4 ,jones uses ord9>y gas-pipes or weld$ tubes ( sizes to suit ! class ( "w4 ,"o end ( ! tube is weld$ up solid2 ! o!r end is re9=c$ by a b& ^u :i* a screw-?read is cut2 a cap is made to screw on ?is end :5 ! tube is *>g$4 ,a gas-pipe ( ab\t -in* diamet] is screw$ into ! solid end1 & a hole ( _/- to -in* diamet] is drill$ 9 ! cap4 ,:5 ! tube is *>g$ & ! cap is screw$ on1 a hose connect$ ) a gas-ma9 is atta*$ to ! piece ( gas-pipe 9 ! solid end ( ! tube2 ! gas-pipe is long en\gh to project out ( ! end ( ! furnace a foot or s ?r\gh a slot made 9 ! end ( ! furnace = t purpose4 ,! gas is n[ turn$ on & a flame is held ne> ! hole 9 ! cap until ! escap+ gas ignites2 ?is %[s t ! air is driv5 out & replac$ by gas4 ,! pipe is n[ roll$ into ! furnace & ! door is clos$1 ! gas cont9u+ to fl[ ?r\gh ! pipe4 ,by keep+ ! pipe d[n to a prop] anneal+-heat x is manife/ t ! /eel w n be any hott] ?an ! pipe4 ,by heat+ ! pipe ev5ly by roll+ x ov] occasionally ! /eel w be heat$ ev5ly4 ,a little exp]i5ce w tea* ! op]ator h[ long x takes to heat ?r\gh a giv5 size ( pipe & its cont5ts1 s t he ne$ n expose 8 /eel to heat any long] ?an necess>y4 ,!re is n a great quantity ( gas consum$ 9 ! op]ation1 because ! exp&+ gas 9 ! tube makes a back pressure1 ! v5t 9 ! cap be+ small4 ,?is seems to be ! p]fection ( anneal+4 ,a tube conta9+ a bu%el or m ( bright1 poli%$ tacks w deliv] !m all p]fectly bright & z ductile z lead1 %[+ t !re is no oxidation :atev]4 ,exp]im5ts ) drill-rods1 ) ! use ( natural gas1 h %[n t !y c be anneal$ 9 ?is way1 leav+ ! surface p]fectly bright1 & ?or\ghly h>d :5 qu5*$4 ,?is ,jones process is pat5t$4 ,al?\gh ! ,jones process is s p]fect1 & necess>y = bright surfaces1 its detail is n necess>y :5 a t>ni%$ surface is n objectionable4 ,! *>coal difficulty c be ov]come also4 ,let a pipe be made l a ,jones pipe )\t a hole 9 ! cap or a gas-pipe 9 ! end4 ,to *>ge x fir/ ?r[ a h&ful ( res9 into ! bottom ( ! pipe1 !n put 9 ! /eel1 !n ano!r h&ful ( res9 ne> ! op5 end1 & screw on ! cap4 ,! cap is a loose fit4 ,n[ roll ! :ole into ! furnace2 ! res9 w be volatiliz$ at once1 fill ! pipe ) c>bon or hydroc>bon gases1 & unite ) ! air long be=e ! /eel is hot en\gh to be attack$4 ,! gas w cause an outw>d pressure1 & may be se5 burn+ z x leaks ?r\gh ! jo9t at ! cap4 ,?is prev5ts air f com+ 9 contact ) ! /eel4 ,?is me?od is z effici5t z ! ,jones plan z f> z p]fect heat+ & easy managem5t are conc]n$4 ,x r$uces ! scale on ! surfaces ( ! pieces1 leav+ !m a d>k gray color & cov]$ ) f9e c>bon or soot4 ,= anneal+ blocks or b>s x is h&i] & *eap] ?an ! ,jones plan1 b x w n d = poli%$ surfaces4 ,?is me?od is n pat5t$4 ,,op5 ,,anneal+4 ,op5 anneal+1 or anneal+ )\t boxes or pipes1 is practis$ :]ev] !re are comp>atively few pieces to anneal & :]e a regul> anneal+-plant w\ld n pay1 or 9 a specially arrang$ anneal+-furnace :]e drill-wire1 clock-spr+ /eel1 etc41 are to be anneal$4 ,= ord9>y "w a blacksmi? has ne> 8 fire a box ( dry lime or ( p[d]$ *>coal4 ,he br+s 8 piece up to ! "r heat & buries x 9 ! box1 :]e x may cool sl[ly4 ,9 anneal+ 9 ?is way x is well n to use bla/1 because x is liable to =ce all edges up to too high a heat & to make a v heavy scale all ov] ! surface4 ,) a little common-s5se & by ! use ( a little c>e ?is way ( anneal+ is admirable4 ,x is a common practice :]e !re is a furnace 9 use 9 daytime & all[$ to g cold at night to *>ge ! furnace 9 ! ev5+1 aft] ! fire is drawn1 ) /eel to be anneal$1 close ! doors & damp]1 & leave ! :ole until morn+4 ,! furnace does n look too hot :5 x is clos$ up1 b no "o kn[s h[ hot x w make ! /eel by radiation3 ! /eel is almo/ always made too hot1 x is kept hot too long1 & s conv]t$ into ca/ iron1 & !re is an excessively heavy scale on x4 ,_m ?\s&s ( doll>s wor? ( good /eel are ru9$ annually 9 ?is way1 & x is 9 e way ab\t ! wor/ me?od ( anneal+ t 0 ev] devis$4 ,to anneal wire or ?9 /r&s 9 an op5 furnace ! furnace %\ld be built ) v]tical walls ab\t two feet high & !n ar*$ to a half circle4 ,! inports = flame %\ld be v]tical & op5 into ! furnace at ! top ( ! v]tical wall2 ! outports = ! gases ( combu/ion %\ld be v]tical & at ! same level z ! inports & on ! opposite side ( ! furnace f ! inports4 ,^! outflues may be c>ri$ "u ! floor ( ! furnace to keep x hot4 ,! bottom ( ! door %\ld be at ! level ( ! ports to keep indraught air away f ! /eel4 ,! anneal+-pot is !n ! :ole size ( ! furnace--two feet deep--& clos$ all ar\nd4 ,! draught %\ld be regulat$ s t ! flame w pass ar\nd ! ro(1 or s ne>ly s z to nev] t\* ! /eel1 n ev5 9 mom5t>y eddies4 ,9 su* a furnace clock-spr+ wire n m ?an 4#ja in* 9 diamet]1 or clock-spr+ /r&s n m ?an 4#jjf to 4#jjh in* ?ick & sev]al hundr$ feet long1 may be anneal$ p]fectly4 ,! /eel is scal$ ( c\rse1 b ! op]ation is s quick & s complete t !re is no dec>boniz$ surface "u ! scale4 ,?is plan is bett] ?an ! ,jones me?od or any clos$ me?od1 because ! big boxes necess>y to hold ! /r&s or coils _c be heat$ up )\t 9 "s p>ts ov]heat+ ! /eel2 all ( :i* is avoid$ 9 ! op5 furnace1 because by means ( peep-holes ! op]ator c see :at he is ab\t1 & aft] a little practice he c anneal l>ge quantities ( /eel uni=mly & effici5tly4 ,,viii4 ,,h>d5+ ,,& ,,temp]+4 ,= ne>ly all /ructural & ma*9]y purposes /eel is us$ 9 ! condition 9 :i* x comes f ! rolls or ! =ge2 9 exceptional cases x is anneal$1 & 9 "s cases su* z = wire 9 cables or = be>+s 9 ma*9]y1 x is h>d5$ & temp]$4 ,= all uses = tools /eel mu/ be h>d5$1 or h>d5$ & temp]$4 ,! op]ations ( h>d5+ & temp]+1 includ+ ! necess>y heat+1 are ! mo/ important1 ! mo/ delicate1 & ! mo/ difficult ( all ( ! manipulations to :i* /eel is subject$2 ^! op]ations =m an art 9 !mselves :]e skill1 c>e1 good judgm5t1 & exp]i5ce are requir$ to produce reliable & satisfactory results4 ,x is a common idea t all t is necess>y is to heat a piece ( /eel1 qu5* x 9 wat]1 br9e1 or "s pet no/rum1 & !n w>m x to a c]ta9 color2 ^! are inde$ ! only op]ations t are necess>y1 b ! way 9 :i* !y are done are all-important4 ,an exp]i5c$ /eel-mak] is (t5 amaz$ at ! confid5ce ) :i* an ignorant p]son w put a valuable tool 9 ! fire1 ru% ! heat up to "s bright color1 or half a doz5 colors at once1 & s\se x into ! cool+-ba? )\t reg>d to consequ5ces4 ,t su* "w does n always result 9 disa/r\s fractures %[s t /eel does possess m>vell\s /r5g? to resi/ ev5 ! wor/ disreg>d ( rules & facts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! beautiful "w ^u ! mo/ delicate & difficult %apes t is done by "o skill$ 9 ! art _c b excite ! surprise & admiration ( ! onlook] :o is famili> ) ! physics ( /eel1 & :o c appreciate ! delicacy ( h&l+ requir$ 9 ! op]ation4 ,!re are a few simple laws to obs]ve & rules to foll[ :i* w lead to success2 !y w be /at$ 9 ?is *apt] z cle>ly z may be1 9 ! hope ( giv+ ! read] a good />t+-po9t & a pla9 pa? to foll[2 b he :o w\ld become an exp]t c d s only by travell+ ! road c>efully /ep by /ep4 ,! hair-spr+ ( a wat*1 or a little p9ion or pivot1 s small t x c only be se5 ?r\gh a magnify+-glass1 ! exquisitely engrav$ die co/+ hundr$s or ?\s&s ( doll>s1 & ! huge armor-plate weigh+ _m tons1 mu/ all be h>d5$ & temp]$ "u precisely ! same laws & 9 exactly ! same way2 ! only diff]5ce is 9 ! means ( gett+ at x 9 ea* case4 ,ref]r+ n[ to prop]ties m5tion$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]s1 we h fir/ to heat ! piece to ! "r temp]ature & !n to cool x 9 ! quicke/ possible way 9 ord] to secure ! greate/ h>dness & ! be/ gra94 ,9 do+ ?is we subject ! /eel to ! greate/ %ocks or /ra9s1 & great c>e mu/ be us$4 ,! importance ( uni=mity 9 heat+ = =g+ & = anneal+ has be5 /at$1 & x has be5 %[n h[ an error 9 ?is may be rectifi$ by ano!r & a m c>eful heat+2 :5 x comes to h>d5+1 ?is uni=mity mu/ be insi/$ ^u & emphasiz$1 = z a rule an error "h has no rem$y4 ,!re may be cases ( bad "w t d n cause actual fracture t c be rem$i$ by re-heat+ & h>d5+1 b ^! are r>e1 because ev5 if incurable fracture does n occur ! error is n discov]$ until ! piece has be5 put to "w & its failure develops ! errors ( ! temp]]4 ,if ! error is "o ( m]ely too l[ heat1 n produc+ ?or\gh h>d5+1 x w g5]ally be discov]$ by ! op]ator1 :o w !n try aga9 & possibly succe$2 b if ! error be ( unev5 heat1 or too mu* heat1 ! probabilities are t x w n be discov]$ until ! piece fails 9 "w1 :5 x w be too late to apply any rem$y4 ,ref]r+ to ,table ,i1 ,*ap4 ,v1 treat+ ( specific gravities1 x is cle> t all /eel possesses diff]5t specific gravities1 due to diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 & t ^! diff]5ces ( specific gravity increase z ! c>bon cont5t increases2 x foll[s t if a piece ( /eel be heat$ unev5ly1 int]nal /ra9s mu/ be set up 9 ! mass1 & x is c]ta9 t if /eel be qu5*$ 9 ?is condition viol5t /ra9s w be set up1 ev5 to ! caus+ ( fractures4 ,! !ory ( ?is action1 z ( all h>d5+1 is involv$ 9 discussion :i* w be consid]$ lat]2 9 ?is *apt] ! facts w be dealt )4 ,:5 a piece ( /eel is heat$1 no matt] h[ unev5ly or to :at temp]ature bel[ actual granulation1 & is all[$ to cool sl[ly & )\t di/urbance1 x w n break or crack "u ! op]ation4 ,if a piece be heat$ z unev5ly z1 say1 m$ium orange 9 "o "p & m$ium lemon 9 ano!r1 & is !n qu5*$1 x w be almo/ c]ta9 to crack if x conta9s en\gh c>bon to h>d5 at all 9 ! common acceptance ( ! t]m1 t is to say1 file h>d or hav+ c>bon #dj or high]4 ,?is fact is too well kn[n to be op5 to discussion2 !re=e ! qu5*+ ( hot /eel1 ! op]ation ( h>d5+1 does set up viol5t /ra9s 9 /eel1 no matt] :at ! true !ory ( h>d5+ may be4 ,ref]r+ to ,*ap4 ,v1 to ! s]ies ( squ>es repres5t+ ! app>5t sizes ( gra9 due to diff]5t temp]atures1 simil> results foll[ f h>d5+1 ) ! exceptions t ! diff]5t /ructures are f> m pla9ly m>k$1 & ! squ>es %\ld be arrang$ a little diff]5tly2 !y are %[n z cont9u\sly l>g] 9 ,*ap4 ,v1 f ! gra9 ( ! cold b> up to ! highe/ temp]ature2 ?is is true if a b> has be5 roll$ or hamm]$ prop]ly into a f9e condition ( gra94 ,( c\rse if a b> be f9i%$ at1 say1 m$ium orange x w h a gra9 due to t heat--,no4 #c 9 ! s]ies ( squ>es4 ,!n if x be heat$ to d>k orange & cool$ f t heat x w take on a gra9 correspond+ to squ>e ,no4 #b1 & ,no4 #a squ>e w be elim9at$4 ,! s]ies ( squ>es to repres5t h>d5$ gra9 w be z foll[s3 ,illu/ration ,! heat colors be+ ! same z be=e1 viz43 #a4 ,! natural b>--untreat$4 #b4 ,qu5*$ at d>k orange or orange r$4 #c4 8 8 m$ium orange--ref9$4 #d4 8 8 bright orange4 #e4 8 8 d>k lemon4 #f4 8 8 m$ium lemon4 #g4 8 8 bright lemon4 #h4 8 8 v bright lemon or creamy4 ,heats #f1 #g1 #h w almo/ inv>iably produce cracks al?\gh ! pieces be ev5ly heat$4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration ,^! squ>es d n repres5t absolute /ructures ) m>k$ divisions2 !y are only ! /eps on an incl9e1 l ! temp] numb]s 9 ! c>bon s]ies2 ?us1 ! c>bon-l9e is cont9u\s1 b ! temp] divisions repres5t /eps up ! incl9e4 ,s ) ! s]ies ( squ>es1 ! *anges ( gra9 or /ructure are cont9u\s1 z repres5t$ by ! d\bly incl9$ l9e2 ! squ>es be+ only ! /eps to indicate easily obs]v$ divisions4 ,! m9ut5ess ( ! *anges is illu/rat$ by ! fact t 9 a piece heat$ cont9u\sly f creamy to d>k orange & qu5*$1 diff]5ces ( gra9 h be5 obs]v$ unmi/akably on opposite sides ( pieces brok5 (f n m ?an in* ?ick4 ,9 practice ! diff]5ces due to ! colors giv5 9 ! li/ above are z pla9 & surely m>k$ z are ! diff]5ces 9 ! /ructure ( +ots due to ! diff]5t temp] c>bons already describ$4 ,9 ?is h>d5$ s]ies ea* c>bon temp] gives its own peculi> gra92 9 l[ /eel1 say #dj c>bon comp>$ to #a4jj c>bon or high]1 ,no4 #c w be l>g] & ,no4 #h w be small] 9 ! l[ temp] ?an 9 ! high--ano!r illu/ration ( ! fact t l[ /eel is m in]t to ! action ( heat ?an high /eel4 ,all grades & all temp]s g ?r\gh ! same *anges1 b !y are m m>k$ 9 ! high ?an 9 ! l[ /eel4 ,! gra9 ( h>d5$ /eel is affect$ by ! pres5ce ( silicon1 phosphorus1 & manganese1 & d\btless by any o!r +r$i5ts1 ^! ?ree be+ ! mo/ common4 ,x is 9 ! gra9 ( h>d5$ /eel t ! conditions describ$ 9 ,*ap4 ,v z 8sappy10 8dry10 & 8fi]y0 are ! mo/ easily & frequ5tly obs]v$1 al?\gh ! same conditions obta9 9 unh>d5$ /eel 9 a mann] t is useful to an obs]v+ /eel-us]4 ,b x is 9 ?is h>d5$ condition t ! excell5ces or defects ( /eel are br\ght out & emphasiz$4 ,:5 a piece ( /eel is heat$ cont9u\sly f 8creamy10 or sc9tillat+1 d[n to black1 or unheat$1 & is !n qu5*$1 ! gra9 w be f\nd to be co>se/1 h>de/1 & mo/ brittle at ! hotte/ end1 & ) ! brighte/ lu/re1 ev5 to brilliancy1 & to become f9] d[n to a c]ta9 po9t1 not$ z ,no4 #c 9 ! s]ies ( squ>es1 or at a heat :i* %[s ab\t a m$ium orange color2 "h ! gra9 becomes exce$+ly f9e1 & "h ! /eel is f\nd to be ! /ronge/ & to be )\t lu/re4 ,bel[ ?is heat ! gra9 appe>s co>s] & ! /eel is less h>d1 until ! gra9 & condition ( ! unheat$ "p are rea*$4 ,?is f9e condition1 kn[n z ! ref9$ condition1 is v rem>kable4 ,x is ! condition to be aim$ at 9 all h>d5+ op]ations1 ) "o or two exceptions :i* w be not$1 because 9 ?is /ate /eel is at its be/2 x is /ronge/ !n1 & x w\ld seem to be cle> )\t argum5t t ! f9e/ gra9 & ! /ronge/ w hold ! be/ at a f9e cutt+-edge1 & w d ! mo/ "w ) ! lea/ we>1 al?\gh a co>s] gra9 may be a little h>d]1 ! co>s] & m brittle condition ( ! latt] m ?an c\nt]balanc+ its sup]ior h>dness4 ,! advantages ( ?is ref9$ condition are s great t x is f\nd to be well to h>d5 & ref9e mild-/eel dies1 & batt]+- & cutt+-tools t are to be us$ = hot "w1 al?\gh ! heat w draw out all ( ! temp] 9 ! fir/ few m9utes1 because ! sup]ior /r5g? ( ! f9e gra9 w enable ! tool to d twice to tw5ty times m "w ?an an unh>d5$ tool4 ,! ref9+-heat1 l mo/ o!r prop]ties1 v>ies ) ! c>bon2 ! m$ium orange giv5 is ! prop] heat = normal tool-/eel ( f ab\t #ij to #aaj c>bon4 ,/eel ( #aej c>bon w ref9e at ab\t a d>k orange1 & /eel ( #ej to #fj c>bon w require ab\t a bright orange to ref9e x4 ,?is range is small1 b x mu/ be obs]v$ & work$ to if ! be/ results are desir$4 ,a color-bl9d p]son c nev] le>n to h>d5 /eel prop]ly4 ,9 /udy+ ?is ph5om5on ( ref9+1 ! conclusion 0 rea*$ t x occurr$ at or imm$iately above ! temp]ature t broke up ! cry/all9e condition ( cold /eel & br\ght x fairly into ! second1 ! pla/ic condition4 ,f>!r obs]vation l$ to ! conclusion t ! co>s] gra9 & great] h>dness caus$ by high] heats 7 due to ! gradual *ange f pla/ic t[>d granul> condition t takes place z ! heat increases4 ,lat] inve/igations h giv5 no reason = *ang+ ^! conclusions4 ,:5 ! ph5om5on ( recalesc5ce 0 obs]v$ & inve/igat$ by ,osmond & o!rs1 diff]5t !ories 7 advanc$ 9 explanation4 ,langley conclud$ t if recalesc5ce occurr$ at ! *ange f a pla/ic to a cry/all9e condition1 !n ! heat absorb$ & aga9 set free dur+ su* *anges w\ld acc\nt = ! visible ph5om5on ( recalesc5ce4 ,aga91 if x %\ld prove t recalesc5ce occurr$ at ! ref9+ po9t1 ! conjunction ( ^! ph5om5a w\ld indicate /rongly1 fir/1 t ref9+ does occur at ! po9t :]e ?is *ange ( /ructure is complete 9 ! rev]se ord]1 f cry/all9e to pla/ic2 & second1 ! fir/ be+ true1 recalesc5ce w\ld be expla9$ z /at$1 z indicat+ ! inevitable absorption & emission ( heat due to su* a *ange4 ,langley fitt$ up an electric app>atus = heat+ /eel1 9 a box s plac$ t ! light 0 practically uni=m1 t is1 s t bright sunlight1 or a cl\dy sky1 or pass+ cl\ds w\ld n affect s]i\sly ! obs]vation ( heat-colors4 ,pieces ( /eel 7 heat$ f> above recalesc5ce1 up to bright lemon1 & !n all[$ to cool sl[ly2 9 ?is way recalesc5ce 0 %[n cle>ly4 ,x 0 f\nd to occur at ! ref9+ heat 9 e case1 %ift+ = diff]5t c>bons j z ! ref9+ heat %ifts4 ,imm$iately "u ! pieces be+ obs]v$ 0 a vessel ( wat] into :i* ! pieces c\ld be dropp$ & qu5*$4 ,aft] obs]v+ ! heat+ & cool+ until ! eye 0 well tra9$1 pieces 7 qu5*$ at diff]5t heats & ! results 7 not$4 ,x 0 f\nd t 9 ! asc5d+ heats no great h>dness 0 produc$ until ! recalesc5ce heat 0 rea*$ or pass$ slightly2 & 9 ! desc5d+ heat excessive h>d5+ occurr$ at a little bel[ ! recalesc5t heat1 al?\gh no su* h>d5+ occurr$ at t color dur+ asc5d+ heats4 ,?is app>5t anomaly is due simply to lag4 ,if1 9 asc5d+1 ! piece be held = a few mom5ts at ! recalesc5t po9t1 no increase be+ all[$1 & !n x be qu5*$1 x w h>d5 ?or\ghly & be ref9$4 ,if1 9 desc5d+1 ! cool+ be arre/$ at a little bel[ ! recalesc5ce = a few mom5ts1 nei!r increase nor decrease be+ all[$1 & !n ! piece be qu5*$1 x w n h>d5 any bett] ?an if x be qu5*$ imm$iately ^u rea*+ ! same heat 9 asc5d+4 ,"t mu/ be all[$ = ! *anges to take place1 & lag mu/ be provid$ =4 ,^! exp]im5ts %[ t ref9+ & recalesc5ce take place at ! same temp]ature4 ,,z ,,to ,,h>dness4 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,w4 ,langley %[$ by sp4 gr4 det]m9ations t /eel qu5*$ f #bab ,f4 9 wat] at #fj ,f4 %[$ ! h>d5+ effect ( su* qu5*+1 ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature be+ only #aeb ,f4 ,pr(4 ,s4 ,p4 ,langley1 ( ! ,smi?sonian1 prov$ ! same to be true by delicate electrical te/s1 & ^! aga9 7 confirm$ by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,w4 ,langley 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,case ,s*ool ( ,sci5ces4 ,a piece ( ref9$ /eel w r>ely be h>d en\gh to scrat* glass4 ,a piece ( /eel qu5*$ f creamy heat w almo/ always scrat* glass4 ,! maximum h>dness is produc$ by ! highe/ heat1 or :5 temp]ature m9us cold is a maximum2 ! lea/ h>dness is f\nd by qu5*+ at ! l[e/ heat above ! cool+ m$ium1 or :5 temp]ature m9us cold is a m9imum--! "t requir$ to qu5* be+ a m9imum 9 bo? cases4 ,:at occurs betwe5 ^! limits8 ,is ! curve ( h>dness a /raight l9e1 or an irregul> l9e8 ,let a piece ( /eel be heat$ z uni=mly z possible f a creamy heat at "o end to black at ! o!r1 & !n be qu5*$4 ,n[ take a newly brok5 h>d file & draw its %>p corn] g5tly & firmly ov] ! piece1 beg9n+ at ! black-heat$ end4 ,! file w take hold1 & z x is drawn along x w be felt t ! piece becomes slightly h>d] z ! file advances1 until sudd5ly x w slip1 & no am\nt ( pressure w make x take hold above t po9t4 ,! piece has become sudd5ly file h>d4 ,next try ! same ?+ ) a diamond2 ! diamond w cut easily until ! po9t is rea*$ :]e ! file slipp$1 !n !re w be f\nd a great increase ( h>dness4 ,f ?is po9t to ! end ( ! piece x is obs]v$ readily by ! action ( ! diamond t !re is a gradual increase ( h>dness f ! hump to ! end ( ! piece to ! creamy-heat$ end4 ,attempts 7 made to measure ?is curve ( h>dness by putt+ a load on ! diamond & dragg+ x ov] ! piece2 b no diamond obta9able w\ld be> a load heavy en\gh to produce a groove t c\ld be measur$ accurately by micromet]4 ,an exam9ation ( su* a groove1 ?r\gh a /rong magnify+-glass reveal$ ! conditions pla9ly2 ! groove ( h>dness may be illu/rat$ on an exagg]at$ scale2 ?us3 ,illu/ration ,! next "q 01 ,:]e does ?is hump occur1 & :at is ! cause ( x8 ,c>eful obs]vation %[$ t x occurr$ at ! po9t ( recalesc5ce1 at ! ref9+-po9t4 ,?is ^w po9t mu/ n be tak5 z space )\t dim5sion 9 ?is connection2 x is us$ 9 ! common s5se ( at or adjac5t to a giv5 place4 ,!re is ( c\rse a small all[able range ( temp]ature above any giv5 exact po9t ( recalesc5ce1 su* z #fee ,c4 or #abaa ,f4 ,by sup]impos+ ,langley's curves ( cool+ & ( h>d5+ 7see ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,civ4 ,eng41 ,vol4 ,,xxvii1 p4 #djc71 ! relation betwe5 recalesc5ce & ! h>d5+-hump is obvi\s4 ,illu/ration ,x is safe to say t exp]i5ce proves t ! ref9$ condition is ! be/ = all cutt+-tools ( e %ape & =m4 ,x seems to be obvi\s2 ! /eel is !n 9 its /ronge/ condition1 & :5 ! gra9 is f9e/1 ! cry/als ! smalle/1 a f9e edge %\ld be ! mo/ endur+1 because !re is a m intimate contact betwe5 ! p>ticles4 ,t a /eel w ref9e well1 & be /rong 9 t condition is ! /eel-mak]'s f9al te/ ( quality4 ,no /eel-mak] :o has a prop] reg>d = ! "* ( 8 product w accept raw mat]ial ^u m]e analysis2 analysis is ( ! utmo/ importance1 = mat]ial = /eel-mak+ mu/ be ( a quality t w produce a c]ta9 quality ( /eel1 or ! result w be an inf]ior product4 ,?is applies to acid ,bessem] & op5-he>?1 & to crucible-/eel especially2 ! basic processes admit ( a r$uction ( phosphorus n obta9able 9 ! o!rs4 ,9 mak+ f9e-tool /eel a bad *>ge 9 ! pot inevitably means a bad piece ( /eel4 ,x may happ5 also t an iron ( app>5tly good analysis w n produce a really f9e /eel2 !n !re mu/ be a se>* = unusual elem5ts1 su* z copp]1 ars5ic1 antimony1 etc41 or = dirt1 left 9 ! iron by c>eless work+4 ,! ref9+-te/ !n is z necess>y z analysis1 = if /eel w n ref9e ?or\ghly x w n make good tools4 ,batt]+-tools1 su* z sl$ges1 hamm]s1 flatt]s1 etc41 %\ld be ref9$ c>efully1 = al?\gh _! "w is ma9ly compressive !y are liable to receive1 & d get1 bl[s on ! corn]s & edges t w\ld ru9 !m if !y 7 n 9 ! /ronge/ condition possible4 ,! reasons = ref9+ hot-work+ tools h be5 /at$ already4 ,engrav$ dies = use 9 drop-presses :]e !y are subject$ to heavy bl[s are und\bt$ly 9 ! mo/ durable condition :5 !y are ref9$1 b !y are subject$ n only to impact1 b to enorm\s compression1 & !re=e !y mu/ be h>d5$ deeply4 ,:5 a die-block is heat$ s z to ref9e1 & !n is qu5*$1 x h>d5s p]fectly on ! surface & n v deeply1 & x is q common 9 su* a case to see a die cru%$ by a few bl[s3 ! h>d5$ "p is driv5 bodily into ! s(t /eel bel[ x1 & ! die is ru9$2 ?us3 ,illu/ration ,to avoid ?is1 su* a die %\ld be heat$ to ,no4 #e1 or a d>k lemon1 & qu5*$ sudd5ly 9 a l>ge volume ( ru%+ wat]4 ,x w !n h ! enorm\s resi/ance to compression t is s well kn[n 9 v h>d /eel1 & x w be h>d5$ s deeply t ! bl[ ( ! hamm] w n cru% ?r\gh ! h>d "p4 ,?is is ! be/ condition1 too1 ( an armor-plate t is to resi/ ! impact ( a projectile4 ,x w be brittle1 a light bl[ ( a hamm] w snip ! corn]s1 b x _c be cru%$ by ord9>y "w4 ,dies made 9 ?is way h turn$ out ?\s&s ( gross ( /amp$ pieces1 %[+ no appreciable we>4 ,to h>d5 a die 9 ?is way is a critical op]ation1 because ! /ra9s are s enorm\s t a v trifl+ unev5ness 9 ! heat w break ! piece1 b ! skill ( exp]t temp]]s is s great t !y w h>d5 hundr$s ( dies 9 ?is way & n lose "o if ! /eel be s\nd4 ,,heat+ ,,= ,,h>d5+4 ,a smi? c heat an occasional piece = h>d5+1 9 8 ord9>y fire by us+ c>e & tak+ a little "t4 ,:]e !re are _m pieces to be h>d5$1 special furnaces %\ld be us$4 ,= ?\s&s ( little pieces1 su* z saw-tee? or little spr+s1 a l>ge furnace ) a brick floor1 & s arrang$ t ! flame w n imp+e on ! pieces1 is good4 ,! op]ator c wat* ! pieces1 & z soon z any come to ! "r color he c draw !m out1 lett+ !m drop into ! qu5*+-tank1 :i* %\ld be "r "u ! door or close at h&4 ,= twi/-drills1 ream]s1 etc41 a lead ba?1 or a ba? ( melt$ salt & soda1 is us$4 ,! lead ba? is ! be/ if c>e be tak5 to draw (f ! fumes s z n to poison ! heat]s4 ,because a ba? ( ?is k9d is ( exactly ! "r color at ! top x is n to be assum$ t pieces c be heat$ 9 x & h>d5$ )\t fur!r att5tion4 ,?\s&s ( tools are ru9$1 & ?\s&s ( doll>s are ?r[n away annually1 by unobs]v+ m5 :o assume t because a lead ba? appe>s to be exactly ! "r color at ! surface x is !re=e j "r4 ,a d>k orange color surface may h und]nea? x an increas+ly high] temp]ature1 up to a bright lemon at ! bottom1 & tools heat$ 9 su* a ba? w h all ( ! v>y+ temp]atures ( ! ba?2 !n crack$ tools1 twi/$ tools1 brittle tools1 tools too h>d at "o end & n h>d en\gh at ! o!r1 w come out ) exasp]at+ regul>ity4 ,all ( ?is c be avoid$ by a simple ?or\gh /irr+ ( ! ba?1 to be done z (t5 z may be necess>y to keep x uni=m4 ,9 heat+ too!d tools1 taps1 ream]s1 mill+-cutt]s1 & ! l1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! po9ts ( ! tee? nev] get above ! ref9+-heat1 ! d>k or m$ium orange requir$4 ,x is no easy matt] to d ?is except 9 a uni=m ba?1 b x mu/ be done4 ,if ! tee? are bright lemon1 or ev5 bright orange1 :5 ! body ( ! tool is at m$ium orange ref9+-heat1 ! probabilities are t !y w %ell (f f ! h>d5$ tool z easily z ! gra9s f a cob ( corn4 ,ev5 if !y are n s bad1 if !y d n crack (f1 !y w be co>se-gra9$ & brittle2 !y w n hold a good edge1 & !y w n d good "w4 ,if a long tool1 su* z a drill1 etc41 be heat$ m$ium orange on "o side & bright orange on ! o!r1--a diff]5ce ( #ajj to #bjj ,f41--& be qu5*$1 x w come out ( ! ba? curv$2 x mu/ be curv$4 ,9 qu5*+ a long tool :i* x is desir$ to h /raight x %\ld be dipp$ v]tically1 s z to cool all ar\nd ! axis simultane\sly4 ,if su* a tool be dipp$ sideways1 x w come out b5t4 ,9 heat+ edge-tools ( all k9ds x is be/ to heat fir/ ! ?ick] "p1 away f ! edge1 & !n :5 ! body has come up to ! ref9+-heat to draw ! edge into ! fire & let x come up la/2 z soon z a uni=m color is rea*$ qu5* promptly4 ,if ! edge be expos$ to ! fire 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! op]ation1 x w almo/ c]ta9ly become too hot be=e ! ?ick] p>ts are hot en\gh4 ,:5 a smoo?1 cyl9drical piece is to be h>d5$1 x %\ld be roll$ ar\nd f "t to "t :ile heat+1 unless x is 9 a lead ba?2 if x be left to lie quietly 9 a furnace until x is hot1 x w h a s(t /reak along ! "p t 0 upp]mo/4 ,! cause ( ?is is n cle>2 ! fact is z c]ta9 z hundr$s ( te/s c make any fact4 ,! exp]im5t c be made by re-heat+ ! piece ) ! s(t /reak d[n2 !n ! orig9al s(t /reak w come out h>d1 & ano!r s(t /reak w be f\nd on top4 ,! *anges c be rung ^u ?is indef9itely4 ,a mak] ( roll]-tube exp&]s _h great tr\ble ) 8 exp&]-p9s2 !y cut1 & wore out on "o side4 ,he tri$ _m makes & _m temp]s ( /eel ) ! same result4 ,he 0 told to turn 8 p9s ov] & ov] z he heat$ !m & 8 tr\bles w\ld end4 ,he repli$3 8,:y1 ( c\rse2 ,i c see ! reason & s5se 9 t40 ,if he did see ! reason1 he is ! only p]son kn[n1 s f>1 :o has done s4 ,8 p9s work$ all "r f t "t4 ,9 h>d5+ ,,r\nd ,,sections x is necess>y to use great c>e to h ! heat p]fectly uni=m & n too high1 because ! circul> =m is ! mo/ rigid1 (f]+ ! greate/ resi/ance to *ange4 ,= ?is reason a r\nd piece w be almo/ c]ta9 to split if x be heat$ above a m$ium orange1 or if x be heat$ unev5ly4 ,_m a r\nd piece is crack$ by a heat1 or by a little unev5ness ( heat1 t ano!r section w\ld endure safely4 ,a roll ) j\rnals is p]haps ! mo/ difficult ( all tools to h>d5 successfully2 ! mo/ exp]t temp]]s w n be surpris$ at los+ z _m z "o roll 9 five4 ,engrav$ dies require to be h>d5$ )\t oxidiz+ ! engrav$ face1 s t ! f9e/ l9es w be pres]v$ cle> & clean4 ,?is is done by bury+ ! engrav$ face 9 c>bonace\s mat]ial 9 su* a way z to prev5t ! flame or any hot air f com+ 9 contact ) x4 ,!re are _m ways ( do+ ?is1 & _m diff]5t c>bonace\s mixtures are us$2 "o simple1 & kn[n to be satisfactory1 plan w be expla9$ z suffici5t to give any int5d+ op]ator a good />t+-po9t4 ,! c>bonace\s mat]ial pref]r$ is burnt lea!r p[d]$--& ! old] x is ! bett]--until x is r$uc$ to a%1 s t ! mat]ial %\ld be sav$ aft] ea* op]ation to be us$ aga9 mix$ ) en\gh new mat]ial to make up ! necess>y quantity4 ,illu/ration ,d is ! die to be heat$2 ,b is an op5 box ab\t two in*es deep & "o in* l>g] ea* way ?an ! die2 ,l is ! burnt lea!r pack$ 9 ?or\ghly1 & z full z ! box w hold4 ,! engrav$ face is d[n1 emb$d$ 9 ! burnt lea!r1 & secure f contact ) flame or air4 ,sometimes p[d]$ *>coal is us$1 ) or )\t a mixture ( t>1 accord+ to ! fancy ( ! op]ator4 ,"s op]ators pref] to h ! box s high z to leave only ! top surface ( ! emb$d$ die expos$1 b ! mo/ successful work]s pref] ! plan sket*$1 because !y c see m ( ! die1 & s regulate bett] ! ev5 heat+4 ,! die & box are put 9 ! furnace1 & ! heat+ is wat*$1 ! die be+ turn$ & mov$ ab\t 9 ! furnace s z to obta9 a p]fectly ev5 heat4 ,:5 ! "r temp]ature is rea*$1 ! :ole is )drawn f ! furnace2 ! die is lift$ out ( ! box & plung$ into ! wat] imm$iately4 ,!re mu/ be no delay at ?is po9t :atev]2 a few mom5ts' exposure ( ! hot die to ! air w result 9 oxidation & scal+ ( ! engrav+4 ,9 heat+ su* a die a furnace %\ld be us$4 ,x c be done 9 a smi?'s fire1 b x is a haz>d\s plan1 & gives _m *ances = a failure4 ,a furnace ) an ev5 b$ ( inc&esc5t coke is good1 & su* a furnace is v useful = _m o!r purposes4 ,:]e _m dies are to be h>d5$1 ! h&ie/ appliance is a little furnace ) brick floor & l9+1 & heat$ by petroleum or gas1 s arrang$ t ! flames w n imp+e ^u ! piece to be heat$4 ,su* furnaces are n[ made to "w s p]fectly t illum9at+-gas is f\nd to be an economical fuel4 ,= qu5*+ !re %\ld be pl5ty ( wat]4 ,= small dies t c be h&l$ easily by "o man a l>ge tub or tank ( wat] w answ] if ! op]ator w keep ! die 9 rapid motion 9 ! wat]4 ,runn+ wat] is ! be/4 ,a h&y plan is to h ! inlet-pipe project v]tically a %ort di/ance ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! tank1 produc+ a /rong upw>d curr5t :i* w /rike directly aga9/ ! face ( ! subm]g$ die4 ,"s pref] a d[nw>d /ream2 o!rs a side /ream2 o!rs1 aga91 pref] a %[]-ba?2 &1 aga91 "s use side jets4 ,a v effici5t tank has a p>tition runn+ f a few in*es f ! bottom to )9 a few in*es ( ! surface ( ! wat]1 & s plac$ z to sep>ate1 say1 n9e t5?s ( ! tank f "o t5?4 ,9 ! small] comp>tm5t !re is an ,ar*im$ean screw driv5 at a spe$ ( #bjj to #cjj revolutions2 ?is drives ! wat] "u ! p>tition & out ov] ! top 9 a viol5t curr5t4 ,! /eel is qu5*$ 9 ! l>g] space4 ,:]e wat] is an item ( exp5se1 ?is plan is economical1 & x is c]ta9ly effici5t4 ,an excell5t way ( qu5*+ l>ge faces1 su* z anvils1 is to h a tank rais$ twelve to fifte5 feet f ! floor4 ,9 ! bottom ( ! tank is a pipe ) a valve1 to be op]at$ by a lev]4 ,! :ole is enclos$ 9 a sort ( closet ) a door 9 "o side4 ,:5 ! piece is hot1 x is plac$ imm$iately "u ! pipe1 ! door is clos$1 ! valve is op5$1 & a great body ( wat] is da%$ d[n ^u ! face t is to be h>d5$4 ,a slight modification ( ?is plan is us$ 9 h>d5+ armor-plates1 :]e _m jets are us$ to insure ev5 qu5*+ ( ! l>ge surface4 ,?is plan is suppos$ to be pat5t$1 or1 m prop]ly1 x is pat5t$2 b z x is v old & well kn[n ! pat5t %\ld n be all[$ to di/urb anybody4 ,wat] only has be5 m5tion$ s f> z a qu5*+ m$ium1 because x is ! simple/ & ! *eape/ g5]ally4 ,oil is us$ frequ5tly :]e extreme h>dness is n necess>y & t\ghness is desirable4 ,oil gives a good h>dness ) t\ghness1 & x is us$ almo/ univ]sally = spr+s1 & x is sometimes us$ to t\gh5 railroad axles & simil> "w4 ,! oil acts m sl[ly ?an wat] & leaves ! piece 9 m ne>ly a temp]$ condition2 x is nei!r s h>d nor s brittle z x w\ld be if qu5*$ 9 wat]4 ,/raits fi%-oil is good & *eap2 l>d-oil gives great] h>dness ?an fi%-oil2 m9]al oil is too fi]y to use safely2 b !re are mix$ oils 9 ! m>ket made expressly = h>d5+ :i* are *eap & effici5t4 ,if x is desir$ to get ! greate/ h>dness1 br9e w h>d5 h>d] ?an fre% wat]2 & m]cury w give ! greate/ h>dness ( all4 ,x is a r exp5sive cool+ m$ium4 ,acid add$ to wat] increases its h>d5+ p[]2 b ^? :o "k ! effects ( acids w be v *>y ( us+ !m4 ,z to heat+1 too mu* emphasis _c be giv5 to ! importance ( ev5 temp]ature ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,! illu/ration ( ! pa9t$ piece m5tion$ 9 connection ) heat+ = =g+ applies m =cibly "h4 ,e piece t is to be qu5*$ %\ld look z if x 7 cov]$ ) a p]fectly ev5 coat ( pa9t ( ! exact t9t necess>y to give ! be/ result4 ,all h>d5+ %\ld be done on a ris+ temp]ature1 because !n ! gra9 & /ra9s _c be great] ?an ^? due to ! highe/ heat1 & ?is maximum heat c be wat*$ & kept )9 limits4 ,if a piece be qu5*$ f a fall+ temp]ature1 ! gra9 & /ra9s w be ^? due to ! highe/ temp]ature1 modifi$ slightly by ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* x has cool$1 & always co>s] & m brittle ?an if qu5*$ at ! same heat produc$ by ris+ temp]ature4 ,if by accid5t a piece gets too hot to be qu5*$1 x %\ld be all[$ to g entirely cold1 & !n be heat$ aga9 to ! "r color4 ,aft] a piece ( /eel is h>d5$ x is usually temp]$ to relieve "s ( ! /ra91 r$uce brittl5ess1 & increase ! t\ghness4 ,?is is done by heat+2 usually ! piece is held ov] ! fire1 or 9 contact ) a l>ge piece ( /eel or iron heat$ = ! purpose1 until x takes on a c]ta9 color :i* indicates ! degree ( temp]+ t is want$4 ,:]e great numb]s ( pieces are to be temp]$1 a ba? is v conv5i5t4 ,boil+ 9 wat] produces only a slight temp]+ suffici5t = "s purposes4 ,/eam+ "u giv5 pressure w produce ev5 heat+ & uni=m temp]+4 ,:5 pieces are qu5*$ 9 oil1 !y c be temp]$ easily & nicely by wat*+ ! oil t adh]es to !m4 ,:5 ! oil is dri$ (f & beg9s to *>1 ! temp]+ is good1 ab\t "r = saw-tee?4 ,if ! heat is run up until ! oil fla%es1 ! temp]+ is pretty ?or\gh & is ab\t "r = good spr+s4 ,if ! oil be all burn$ (f1 !re w be little temp] left except 9 v high /eel4 ,high /eel becomes mu* h>d] :5 qu5*$ ?an l[ /eel2 consequ5tly v high h>d5$ /eel may be heat$ until x beg9s to %[ color & /ill reta9 consid]able h>dness or temp]1 :]eas a mild] /eel1 "u #ij or #ajj c>bon1 :5 heat$ to su* a degree w reta9 no temp]1 x w be s(t4 ,saw-tee?1 tap1 ream]1 & mill+-cutt] tee?1 may be drawn1 & usually %\ld be drawn1 d[n until a file w b>ely cat* !m2 !n !y w d excell5t "w4 ,_m inexp]i5c$ temp]]s are apt to compla9 if su* tools c be fil$ at all :5 drawn to ! prop] color1 =getful or ignorant ( ! fact t a file %\ld always conta9 ab\t twice z mu* c>bon z a tap or ream]1 & t if bo? are drawn to ! same color ! file mu/ necess>ily be ! h>d]4 ,su* m5 (t5 de/roy mu* good "w by try+ to get ! tools too h>d4 ,if a tap-too? be left file h>d1 x w be pretty c]ta9 to snip (f :5 put to "w4 ,,temp] ,,colors4 ,:5 a clean piece ( iron or /eel1 h>d5$ or unh>d5$1 is expos$ to heat 9 ! air1 x w assume diff]5t colors z ! heat increases4 ,fir/ w be notic$ a light1 delicate /raw color2 !n 9 ord] a deep /raw1 light br[n2 d>k] br[n2 br[n %ad$ ) purple1 kn[n z pigeon-w+2 z ! br[n dies out a light blui% ca/2 light brilliant blue2 d>k blue2 black4 ,:5 black1 ! temp] is gone4 ,x is well e/abli%$ t ^! colors are due to ?9 films ( oxide t are =m$ z ! heat progresses4 ,^! colors are v beautiful1 & z useful z !y are beautiful1 furni%+ an unv>y+ guide to ! condition ( h>d5$ /eel4 ,! draw+ ( h>d5$ /eel to any ( ^! colors is temp]+4 ,s we h ! diff]5t temp]s3 ,light /raw ,= la!-tools1 files1 etc4 ,/raw 8 8 8 8 8 ,light br[n 8 taps1 ream]s1 drills1 etc4 ,d>k] br[n 8 8 8 8 8 ,pigeon-w+ 8 axes1 hat*ets1 & "s drills ,light blue 8 spr+s ,d>k blue 8 "s spr+s2 b seldom us$ ,?is is ! un=tunate second use ( ! ^w temp]1 :i* mu/ be borne 9 m9d if confusion is to be avoid$ 9 consult+ ) /eel-mak]s & /eel-work]s4 ,! mean+s may be tabulat$ ?us3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,temp]4 ,/eel-mak]'s ,mean+4 ,/eel-work]'s ,mean+4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,v high #aej c>bon light /raw ,high #ajj to #abj ,c /raw ,m$ium #gj to #hj ,c br[n to pigeon-w+ ,mild #dj to #fj ,c light blue ,l[ #bj to #cj ,c d>k blue ,s(t or dead-s(t "u #bj ,c black ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,! uses giv5 = temp] colors are n meant to be absolute2 !y m]ely give a good g5]al idea2 exp]i5c$ m5 are guid$ by results1 & temp] 9 e case 9 ! way t proves to be mo/ satisfactory4 ,,diff]5ce ,,betwe5 ,,cracks ,,& ,,seams4 ,:5 temp]]s f9d t _! tools are crack+ "u _! treatm5t1 !y are apt to assume t1 z !y are work+ 9 _! ord9>y way1 !re mu/ be some?+ wrong ) ! /eel4 ,x is ei!r seamy1 or h>d] ?an usual1 or n uni=m 9 temp]1 or x is ( inf]ior quality4 ,all or any ( ^! conditions may exi/ & be ! cause ( ! tr\ble2 b e man %\ld be> 9 m9d t he is also a v>iable quantity2 he may be unwell & n see & obs]ve z closely z usual2 !re may be a long spell ( unusual wea!r giv+ him a light diff]+ f t to :i* he is accu/om$2 or1 z is (t5 ! case1 he may simply h unconsci\sly dep>t$ f ! ev5 track by n hav+ 8 m9d c>efully int5t ^u ! r\t9e :i* has become a sort ( second nature to him1 s t = a "t he ceases to ?9k1 makes ( himself an animat$ ma*9e1 & ! ma*9e left to itself does n run ) p]fect regul>ity4 ,if p]sonal pride1 egotism1 or ill temp] be set aside1 x is always easy to f9d out :e!r ! fault is 9 ! /eel or 9 ! man2 t once det]m9$ ! rem$y is easily appli$1 & ! soon] ! bett] = all p>ties4 ,h[ to ,break a ,tool4 ,let an ord9>y axe be consid]$4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration ,illu/ration ,if ! axe be crack$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #a1 ! corn]s h be5 hott] ?an ! middle ( ! blade2 probably by snipp+ ! corn]s & ! middle & comp>+ ! fractures ! co>s] gra9 at ! corn]s w tell ! tale4 ,if ! crack be z %[n 9 ,no4 #b1 ! middle ( ! blade has be5 hott] ?an ! corn]s3 snipp+ & comp>+ ! gra9s w tell ! /ory4 ,if ! crack be m ne>ly a /raight l9e1 z %[n 9 numb] #c1 ! *ances are t !re is a seam !re & ! /eel is at fault4 ,h[ to ,tell a ,seam f a ,wat]-crack4--,a seam is caus$ by a gas-bubble 9 ! +ot :i* has n be5 clos$ up by hamm]+ or roll+2 x always runs 9 ! direction ( ! "w2 9 b>s x is p>allel to ! axis4 ,! walls ( a seam are always m or less smoo?1 ! surfaces hav+ be5 rubb$ toge!r "u heavy pressure dur+ hamm]+ or roll+1 & !y are black usually1 be+ coat$ ) oxide4 ,! walls ( a wat]-crack are nev] smoo?1 !y are r\gh & gritty1 & !y may h any ( ! temp] colors caus$ by ! action ( wat] & heat4 ,!re ne$ nev] be any "q z to :i* is :i*4 ,if a long tool cracks d[n ! middle1 x may be f too mu* heat1 f seams1 or f a lap4 ,a lap is caus$ by c>eless work+ "u a hamm]1 or by bad draughts 9 ! rolls1 fold+ "p ( ! /eel ov] on itself4 ,laps1 l seams1 run p>allel to ! axis ( a b>1 & usually 9 v /raight l9es4 ,any long piece ( /eel may be split 9 h>d5+ by too mu* heat4 ,9 mak+ ! exp]im5t ( heat+ a piece cont9u\sly f sc9tillat+1 or creamy color1 d[n to black1 to %[ ! diff]5ces ( gra9 due to ! diff]5t heats1 ! sample almo/ inv>iably splits d[n ! middle z f> z ! /rong1 ref9$ gra91 or ne>ly t f>4 ,z /at$ be=e1 a r\nd b> w be almo/ c]ta9 to split if x be heat$ up to m$ium lemon1 al?\gh a squ>e b> may endure ! same heat )\t crack+4 ,an exam9ation ( ! walls ( a split w settle at once :e!r x is a seam1 a lap1 or a wat]-crack4 ,a seam w n necess>ily be long2 its walls w be smoo?4 ,a lap usually runs ! :ole l5g? ( ! b>1 & ! walls are smoo?4 ,by smoo? walls ( seams & laps comp>ative smoo?ness is meant2 !y are sometimes poli%$1 b n always1 & !y are nev] granul> l ! walls ( wat]-cracks4 ,if ! split be a wat]-crack1 ! walls w be r\gh & granul>4 ,aft] a temp]] has /raight5$ himself out1 & br\ght 8 "w to usual accuracy & uni=mity1 if 8 tools cont9ue to crack & indicate weakness 9 ! /eel1 x is "t = him to suspect ! "* ( 8 mat]ial & to require ! /eel-mak] to ei!r %[ up ! faults 9 temp]+1 or improve ! quality ( 8 product4 ,a ,,^w ,,= ,,! ,,workman4 ,give him a *ance4 ,a /eel-work] to be exp]t mu/ h a well-tra9$ eye & "k h[ to use x4 ,he mu/ "w ) delicate t9ts1 rang+ 9 ! yell[s f creamy yell[ to d>k orange or orange r$ z extremes1 & mo/ ( 8 "w mu/ be done betwe5 bright lemon & m$ium orange 9 =g+1 & betwe5 r d>k to m$ium orange1 or possibly ne>ly light orange1 :5 h>d5+ & temp]+4 ,probably 9 no o!r bus9ess is !re su* ridicul\s wa/e z is (t5 f\nd 9 /eel-work+ :]e ! manufactur] economizes 9 8 blacksmi?s4 ,a l>ge1 weal?y railroad condemns a br& ( /eel4 ,! /eel-mak] goes to ! %op & is in=m$ by a bright1 intellig5t blacksmi? t ! /eel w n make a track-*isel4 ,x is a hot summ] day2 ! smi? is work+ ov] a huge fire ) a l>ge piece ( "w 9 ! middle ( ! fire & a numb] ( small pieces ( /eel /uck 9 ! edge ( ! fire4 ,he is weld+ l>ge iron frog-po9ts1 & 9 ! int]val he is fill+ a hurri$ ord] = f\r doz5 track-*isels = :i* ! trackm5 are wait+4 ,he is n m]ely =g+ ! *isels1 he is h>d5+ & temp]+ !m4 ,! gl>e ( ! weld+-"w makes him color-bl9d1 ! hurry gives him no "t = manipulation1 & ! trackm5 h no *isels4 ,aft] a ?or\gh expression ( sympa?y = ! smi? ! /eel-mak] turns ^u ! =eman & ma/] me*anic1 & gives !m su* a tongue-la%+ t !y turn away sil5c$ & a%am$4 ,page aft] page ( su* cases c\ld be writt51 b "o %\ld be en\gh4 ,a /eel-mak] has a ?or\ghly skill$ & exp]t /eel-work]2 he ru%es into ! %op & says1 8,mike1 ref9e ?is "r away1 please2 ,i want to "k :at x is40 ,mike replies1 8,i w d t to-morr[2 ,i am weld+ to-day40 ,t is entirely satisfactory2 ^? m5 und]/& "o ano!r1 & !y "k a little some?+ ab\t _! bus9ess4 ,a temp]] %\ld d no o!r "w :5 he is heat+ = h>d5+1 & he %\ld always be all[$ to use z mu* "t ab\t x z he pleases1 assum+ t he is a dec5tly hone/ man :o pref]s good "w to bad2 & z a rule su* hone/ m5 are 9 ! majority1 if !y are giv5 a fair *ance4 ,,ix4 ,,on ,,! ,,surface4 ,! condition ( ! surface ( /eel has mu* to d ) its successful h>d5+ & work+4 ,a slight film adh]5t to ! surface ( /eel w prev5t its h>d5+ prop]ly2 ! /eel may h>d5 "u su* a film & n be h>d ^u ! imm$iate surface1 &1 z 9 almo/ e case a h>d1 /rong surface is necess>y to good "w1 x is important t a piece ( /eel to h>d5 well %\ld h a clean surface ( s\nd /eel4 ,x has be5 /at$ already t all b>s & =g+s ( /eel h ^u ! surface a coat ( oxide ( iron1 & imm$iately b5ea? ?is a ?9 film ( dec>boniz$ iron4 ,nei!r ( ^! sub/ances w h>d51 & 9 e case :]e a h>d-be>+ surface or a ke5 cutt+-edge is desir$ ^! coat+s mu/ be remov$4 ,poli%$ drill-wire & cold-roll$ spr+-/eel = wat*es1 clocks1 etc41 %\ld h p]fect surfaces1 & x is ! duty ( /eel-mak]s to turn !m out 9 t condition4 ,all black /eel1 or hot-f9i%$ /eel1 conta9s ^! coat+s4 ,9 ! manufacture ( railroad1 wagon1 & c>riage spr+s x is n necess>y or cu/om>y to pay any att5tion to ^! coat+s2 ! body ( ! /eel h>d5s well1 giv+ ! requir$ resili5ce & ela/icity1 s t an unh>d5$ coat ( 4#ja to 4#jja in* ?ick does no h>m4 ,to all be>+-surfaces & cutt+-edges su* coat+s are fatal4 ,! ord9>y way ( prep>+ /eel is to cut ! sk9 (f1 & ?is is suffici5t if en\gh be tak5 (f2 x happ5s (t5 t a pur*as]1 9 pursuit ( economy & unaw>e ( ! importance ( ?is sk91 ord]s 8 b>s or =g+s s close to size t :5 !y are f9i%$ ! dec>boniz$ sk9 is n all remov$1 & ! result is an exp5sive tap1 ream]1 mill+-cutt]1 or "s tool ( t sort ) ! po9ts ( ! tee? s(t & wor?less4 ,9 small tools _/ in*1 9 m$ium-size tools1 say up to two or ?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 in* cut (f %\ld be pl5ty2 9 l>ge tools & dies1 especially 9 %ap$ =g+s1 x w\ld be wis] to cut away _/ in*4 ,9 _m cases suffici5t h>dness c be obta9$ by pickl+ (f ! surface-scale1 b ?is w n d :]e ?or\gh h>d5+ is requir$1 because ! acid does n remove ! ?9 dec>boniz$ surface4 ,x seems to be impracticable to remove ! dec>boniz$ sk9 by ! action ( acid1 = if ! /eel be left 9 ! acid long en\gh to accompli% ?is ! acid w p5etrate deep]1 oxidiz+ & ru9+ ! /eel z x advances4 ,gr9d+ is frequ5tly resort$ to1 be+ quick] & *eap] ?an turn+1 plan+1 or mill+4 ,:5 gr9d+ is us$1 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to glaze ! surface ( ! /eel1 or if x %\ld be glaz$ ! glaze mu/ be remov$ by fil+ or scrap+4 ,9 ! manufacture ( files x is cu/om>y to gr9d ! blanks aft] !y are =g$ & be=e ! tee? are cut4 ,aft] ! blanks are gr\nd !y are held up to ! light & exam9$ c>efully = glaze4 ,e blank t %[s by ! fla% ( light t x is glaz$ is put to "o side2 !n ^! glaz$ blanks are tak5 by o!r op]atives & fil$ until all traces ( glaze are remov$4 ,! file-mak] w expla9 t if ?is be n done ! files :5 h>d5$ w be s(t at ! tips ( ! tee? ov] ! :ole ( ! glaz$ surface4 ,?is inspection & fil+ ( blanks involves consid]able exp5se1 & x is c]ta9 t su* an exp5se w\ld n be incurr$ if x 7 n necess>y4 ,?is glaze does n appe> to be due to burn+1 at lea/ ! /ones are run 9 wat]2 ! blanks are h&l$ by ! b>e h&s ( ! gr9d]s1 & d n appe> to be hot4 ,aft] pieces are h>d5$ & temp]$ !y frequ5tly require gr9d+ to br+ !m to exact dim5sions4 ,?is is usually done on em]y-:eels ) an abundance ( wat]1 & z no temp] colors are develop$ indicat+ heat x is assum$ t no h>m c be done4 ,j "h mu* valuable "w is de/roy$4 ,! temp]$ piece is put on ! :eel1 9 a 8flood ( wat]02 ! "w is ru%$1 & ! piece comes out lit]ally cov]$ ) little surface-cracks runn+ 9 e direction1 p]fectly visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,until ! /eel-work] le>ns bett] he blames & condemns ! /eel4 ,?is result is v common 9 ! manufacture ( %e>-knives1 scissors1 %e>-blades1 dies1 etc4 ,sometimes too a r\nd be>+ or exp&]-p9 is h>d5$2 exam9$ by means ( a file x appe>s p]fectly h>d2 x is !n gr\nd1 n q heavily en\gh to produce surface-cracks1 b /ill heavily1 & on a glaz$ :eel4 ,x is f\nd n[ t ! surface is s(t2 only a ?\s&? ( an in* or s has be5 cut (f1 & ! /eel is condemn$ at once because x w h>d5 only sk9 deep4 ,let ! file be drawn heavily ov] ! surface & x w be f\nd t ! s(t surface is only ab\t a ?\s&? ( an in* ?ick1 & und]nea? ! /eel is p]fectly h>d4 ,n[ gr9d slightly on a %>p1 clean :eel & re-h>d52 ! surface w be f\nd to be p]fectly h>d4 ,gr\nd heavily aga9 on ! glaz$ :eel1 x w become s(t1 z be=e4 ,^! op]ations c be repeat$ ) unv>y+ results until ! :ole piece is gr\nd away4 ,^! difficulties occur m ) em]y-:eels ?an ) gr9d/ones1 ei!r because em]y-:eels glaze m easily ?an gr9d/ones1 or because1 ow+ to _! sup]ior cutt+ p[]s "u any circum/ances1 !y are m neglect$ ?an gr9d/ones4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t ^! bad results occur almo/ inv>iably on glaz$ :eels4 ,x is r>e to f9d any bad "w come (f f a clean1 %>p :eel1 unless ! pressure has be5 s excessive z to %[ t ! op]ator is ei!r fooli% or /upid4 ,! rem$y is simple3 ,keep ! :eels clean & %>p4 ,_m gr9d]s :o und]/& ?is matt] w n run any :eel m ?an "o day )\t dress+1 nor ev5 a :ole day if ! "w is cont9u\s & !y h reason to appreh5d dang]4 ,a ,,few ,,words ,,9 ,,reg>d ,,to ,,pickl+4 ,pickl+ is ! plac+ ( /eel 9 a ba? ( dilute acid to remove ! scale4 ,x is a necess>y op]ation 9 wire-mak+ & = _m o!r purposes1 & x may be ha/5$ by hav+ ! acid hot4 ,sulphuric acid is us$ g5]ally2 x is effici5t & *eap4 ,:5 ?9 %eets are to be pickl$1 ! acid %\ld n be too hot1 or x w raise a ra% all ov] ! %eet 9 _m cases4 ,?is indicates "s uns\ndness 9 ! /eel1 ! pres5ce probably ( innum]able little bubbles ( occlud$ gases4 ,?is is possibly true1 yet ! same %eets pickl$ prop]ly & br\ght out smoo? w poli% p]fectly1 or if cut up w make ?\s&s ( little tools t w %[ no evid5ce ( uns\ndness4 ,/eel %\ld nev] be left 9 ! pickl+-ba? any long] ?an is necess>y to remove ! scale2 x seems unnecess>y to w>n read]s t ! acid w cont9ue to act on ! /eel1 eat ! /eel aft] ! scale is remov$4 ,:5 tak5 f ! pickle1 ! /eel %\ld be wa%$ 9 limewat] & pl5ty ( clean runn+ wat]2 b ?is does n take out all ( ! acid4 ,x %\ld !n be bak$ = sev]al h\rs at a heat ( #djj to #dej ,f4 to decompose ! rema9+ acid4 ,?is is j bel[ a blu+ heat1 & x does n discolor or oxidize ! surface4 ,x is kn[n z ! sizzl+-heat1 ! heat t ! exp]t laundry-woman gets on h] flat-iron :i* %e te/s ) h] moi/5$ f+]4 ,acid if n tak5 (f completely w cont9ue to act ^u & rot ! /eel2 h[ f> ?is w g on is n kn[n exactly2 = in/ance1 x is n kn[n :e!r if a block six in*es cube 7 pickl$ & m]ely wa%$1 ! rema9+ acid w\ld p5etrate & rot ! :ole mass or n4 ,!re mu/ be "s relation betwe5 ! mass ( ! /eel & ! p[] ( a small am\nt ( acid to p5etrate4 ,! p[] ( acid c be illu/rat$ on ! o!r extreme3 ,a lot ( wat*-spr+ /eel is f9i%$ 9 long coils & 4#jaj in* ?ick2 :5 la/ pickl$1 ! bak+ 0 neglect$2 ! /eel is t\gh1 x h>d5s well1 & :5 temp]$ x is spr+y & /rong2 by all ( ! te/s x is j "r 9 e coil4 ,x is %ipp$ away & 9 ?ree or f\r weeks ! spr+-mak] beg9s "w on x4 ,he reports at once t x is rott5 & wor?less1 x w n make a spr+ at all1 & he is angry4 ,! /eel is return$ to ! mak] & he f9ds ! report true3 ! /eel is rott5 & wor?less4 ,!n by dilig5t inquiry he f9ds t ! la/ bak+ 0 omitt$1 & he pockets 8 loss1 s5d+ an humble apology to ! irate spr+-mak]4 ,:e!r ! residual acid c ru9 a l>ge piece ( /eel or n ne$ n be consid]$ :5 ! simple op]ation ( bak+ w remove ! possibility ( h>m4 ,x4 ,,impurities ,,9 ,,/eel4 ,any elem5ts 9 /eel :i* r$uce its /r5g? or durability 9 any way may be class$ z impurities4 ,a !oretical ideal ( pure /eel is a comp\nd ( iron & c>bon2 x is an ideal t is nev] rea*$ 9 practice1 b x is "o t is aim$ at by _m manufactur]s & consum]s1 because exp]i5ce %[s t1 especially 9 high /eels1 ! m ne>ly x is atta9$ ! m reliable & safe is ! product4 ,all /eel conta9s silicon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog51 none ( :i* add any useful prop]ty to ! mat]ial4 ,x is admitt$ t1 />t+ ) v small quantities ( silicon or phosphorus 9 mild /eel1 small additions ( ei!r elem5t w increase ! t5sile /r5g? ( ! /eel p]ceptibly up to a giv5 am\nt1 & t !n ! addition ( m ( ei!r "o w cause a r$uction ( /r5g?4 ,! same increase ( /r5g? c be obta9$ by ! addition ( a little c>bon1 produc+ a mu* m reliable mat]ial4 ,x is n kn[n t ev5 su* slight app>5t ga9 9 /r5g? c be made by us+ oxyg51 nitrog51 or hydrog54 ,manganese is pres5t 9 all /eel z a necess>y +r$i5t1 x gives an increase 9 /r5g? 9 ! same way z phosphorus1 & :5 increas$ beyond a small limit x causes brittl5ess4 ,hadfield's manganese /eel is a unique mat]ial1 n to be consid]$ 9 connection ) ! ord9>y /eel ( comm]ce4 ,web/]'s exp]im5ts are p]haps ! mo/ complete ( any t %[ ! effects ( small increases ( silicon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 & manganese1 b z ^! are n complet$ !y are n quot$ "h1 because ,mr4 ,web/] may rea* additional & diff]5t results be=e ^! pages are pr9t$4 ,! *ief bad qualities ( /eel t are caus$ by ^! impurities are kn[n z 8r$-%ortness10 8cold-%ortness10 & 8hot-%ortness40 ,a /eel is call$ r$-%ort :5 x is brittle & friable at :at is kn[n commonly z a l[ r$ heat--8*]ry r$10 8orange r$40 ,r$-%ortness is caus$ *iefly by sulphur or by oxyg52 _m o!r elem5ts may produce ! same effects2 x seems probable t nitrog5 may be "o ( ^!1 b ! real action ( nitrog5 is z yet obscure4 ,a r$-%ort /eel is difficult to "w2 x mu/ be work$ at a high heat--f bright orange up to ne> ! heat ( granulation--or x w crack4 ,:5 h>d5$1 x is almo/ c]ta9 to crack4 ,:5 r$-%ort /eel is work$ ) c>e into a s\nd condition1 x may :5 cold be reasonably /rong1 b h>dly any eng9e] ( exp]i5ce w\ld be will+ to tru/ x4 ,hot-%ort /eel is t :i* _c be work$ at a high heat1 say above a m$ium to light orange1 b :i* is g5]ally malleable & works s\ndly at m$ium orange d[n to d>k orange1 or almo/ black4 ,?is is a *>act]i/ic ( mo/ ( ! s-call$ alloy /eels1 or /eels conta9+ consid]able quantities ( tung/51 manganese1 or silicon4 ,x is claim$ t *rome /eel may be work$ at high heats & t x is less easily injur$ 9 ! fire ?an c>bon /eel4 ,?is is n )9 ! au?or's exp]i5ce4 ,x is ?is prop]ty ( hot-%ortness t makes ! alloy /eels s exp5sive2 ! +ots _c be heat$ hot en\gh nor work$ heavily en\gh to close up porosities1 & !re=e1 !re is a heavy loss f seams4 ,! range ( heat at :i* !y c be work$ is s small t _m re-heat+s are requir$1 increas+ greatly ! co/ ( work+4 ,z comp>$ to good c>bon /eel !y are liable to crack 9 h>d5+1 & :5 h>d5$ !y are friable1 al?\gh !y may be excessively h>d4 ,cold-%ort /eel is /eel :i* is weak & brittle :5 cold1 ei!r h>d5$ or unh>d5$4 ,( ^? :i* are always f\nd 9 /eel1 phosphorus is ! "o well-kn[n elem5t :i* produces cold-%ortness4 ,x is cle> t no "o c h any use = cold-%ort /eel4 ,r$-%ort or hot-%ort /eel may be ( "s use :5 work$ successfully into a cold condition1 b cold-%ort /eel is to be avoid$ 9 all cases :]e ! /eel is us$ ultimately cold4 ,if ! !oretically p]fect /eel is a comp\nd ( iron & c>bon1 x _c be obta9$ 9 practice1 & ! only safegu>d is to fix a maximum above :i* o!r elem5ts are n to be tol]at$4 ,9 tool-/eel ( ord9>y /&>d excell5ce su* maximum %\ld be 4#jb ( "o p] c5t2 x may be work$ to easily & economically1 except p]haps 9 silicon1 :i* elem5t is g5]ally giv5 (f to "s ext5t by ! crucible2 x %\ld be kept z l[ z possible1 h[ev]1 say well "u #aj1 "o t5? ( "o p] c5t4 ,"s p claim t a little high] silicon makes /eel s\nd] & bett]2 b any exp]t temp]] w soon obs]ve ! diff]5ce betwe5 /eels ( 4#aj & 4#ja silicon4 ,= ! highe/ & be/ grade ( tool-/eel ! maximum %\ld be ! lea/ atta9able4 ,e "o hundr$? ( "o p] c5t ( phosphorus1 silicon1 or sulphur w %[ itself 9 f9e tool-/eel :5 x is h>d5$4 ,x is assum$1 ( c\rse1 t su* impurities z copp]1 antimony1 ars5ic1 etc41 exi/ only z m]e traces1 or n at all4 ,z oxyg5 mu/ be at a m9imum1 no "o has yet succe$$ 9 mak+ a really f9e tool-/eel f ! products ( ! ,bessem] or ( ! op5-he>? process4 ,! removal ( ! la/ fractions ( ^! impurities is difficult & exp5sive2 = in/ance1 a /eel melt+ iron ( ,silicon 4#jc to 4#jf ,phosphorus 4#jc 8 4#jb ,sulphur 4#jjb or less may be b\ght = #b c5ts a p\nd or less1 :]eas an iron ( ,silicon 4#jb ,phosphorus 4#ja ,sulphur trace c h>dly be b\ght = less ?an #e c5ts a p\nd4 ,?is diff]5ce ( ?ree c5ts a p\nd is ju/ifiable :5 ! highe/ grade ( tool-/eel is to be made2 & x w\ld be silly to require any su* mat]ial 9 any spr+1 ma*9]y1 or /ructural /eel4 ,9 addition to ^! impurities !re are o!r difficulties to be gu>d$ aga9/1 *ief among :i* is an unev5 di/ribution ( elem5ts4 ,9 all /eel !re is "s segregation2 t is to say1 z ! liquid metal freezes1 ! elem5ts are to "s ext5t squeez$ out & collect$ 9 t "p ( ! +ot :i* congeals la/4 ,x is claim$ t 9 ! ,bessem] & ,op5-he>? processes any f]ro-silicon add$ to quiet a heat1 or any f]ro-manganese add$ to remove oxyg51 are at once absorb$ & di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! mass1 & s :5 any s]i\s irregul>ity is discov]$ x is *>g$ to segregation4 ,a heat may produce billets ( #ge c>bon & #abj c>bon1 & aga9 x is call$ segregation4 ,z a rule1 in]tia has m to d ) su* diff]5ces ?an segregation4 ,"o crucible ( /eel may produce an +ot conta9+ #ij c>bon & #acj c>bon4 ,segregation has no?+ to d ) ?is3 a c>eless mix] has put a heavy lump ( #adj- or #aej-;c>bon /eel 9 ! bottom ( ! pot & cov]$ x up ) iron4 ,! /eel melt$ fir/ & settl$ 9 ! bottom ( ! pot1 ! iron melt$ lat] & settl$ on top ( ! /eel1 & !y did n mix4 ,! teem+ 0 n suffici5t to cause a ?or\gh mix+4 ,segregation cov]s a multitude ( s9s4 ,exactly h[ mu* is s9 & h[ mu* is segregation w n be kn[n until analyses are made ( ! top1 middle1 & bottom ( ! ba?1 & ( ! cont5ts ( ! ladle1 ^! to be comp>$ to analyses ( ! top1 bottom1 & middle ( ! +ots4 ,!re is c]ta9ly an unavoidable am\nt ( segregation1 & z equally c]ta9 an am\nt ( curable irregul>ity due to in]tia4 ,,wild ,,heats4 ,aft] /eel is melt$1 :e!r 9 a crucible1 an op5 he>?1 or a ,bessem] vessel1 x boils ) m or less viol5ce4 ,?is boil+ is caus$ by ebullition ( gases1 & if /eel be p\r$ into m\lds :ile x is boil+ ! result+ +ot w be f\nd to be honeycomb$ to an ext5t t is gov]n$ by ! degree ( ! boil+4 ,if a heat boils viol5tly & p]si/5tly1 x is said to be 8wild10 & if a wild heat be teem$ ! +ots w be honeycomb$ completely2 su* +ots _c be work$ into ?or\ghly s\nd /eel1 & no melt] :o has any reg>d = 8 "w w teem a wild heat if he kn[s x4 ,to /op ! boil+ is call$ 8dead-melt+10 8kill+0 ! /eel1 s t x %all be quiet 9 ! furnace & 9 ! m\lds4 ,a crucible-/eel mak] :o kn[s 8 bus9ess c1 & he w1 always dead-melt 8 /eel4 ,x only requires a few m9utes ( application ( a heat a little above melt+ temp]ature1 & ?is c be appli$ by a skill$ melt] )\t burn+ 8 crucible or cutt+ d[n 8 furnace2 ?is is inde$ ab\t all ( ! art !re is 9 crucible-melt+1 ! rema9+ op]ations be+ easy & simple4 ,dead-melt+ 9 ! ,bessem] vessel is n possible by increase ( "t2 wild heats are manag$ diff]5tly1 probably by add+ manganese or silicon1 or bo?1 b exactly h[ is n )9 ! au?or's exp]i5ce4 ,dead-melt+ 9 ! op5 he>? w\ld appe> at fir/ sight to be always possible1 b !re are m difficulties 9 ! way ?an 9 ! case ( crucible-melt+4 ,! heat may be wild :5 ! "r c>bon is rea*$1 & !n ! melt] mu/ use a little f]ro-silicon1 or silico-spiegel1 or highly silici\s pig1 or alum9um1 & he mu/ use good judgm5t s z n to h 8 /eel ov]dos$ ) any ( ^!4 ,f half an ounce to an ounce ( alum9um to a ton ( /eel is usually suffici5t1 & al?\gh any consid]able cont5t ( alum9um is injuri\s to /eel !re is little dang] ( its be+ add$1 because ( its co/1 & because a little too mu* alum9um w cause ! +ots to pipe f top to bottom4 ,silicon seems to be ! mo/ k9dly elem5t to use1 & x is claim$ t a cont5t ( silicon z high z #bj is n injuri\s2 "s p claim t x is b5eficial4 ,t x does help mat]ially 9 ! production ( s\nd /eel !re c be no d\bt1 & if su* /eel meets all ( ! requirem5ts ( ! eng9e] & ( practice x w\ld seem to be wise n to place ! upp] limit = silicon s l[ z to prev5t its suffici5t use 9 secur+ s\ndness4 ,b ! au?or _c conc$e t z mu* z #bj silicon is necess>y4 ,9 crucible practice high silicon is n necess>y2 9 8melt+-iron10 or iron to be melt$1 x means s mu* dirt1 indicat+ c>eless workman%ip2 b !re w always be a little silicon pres5t :i* ! /eel has absorb$ f ! walls ( ! crucible dur+ ! op]ation ( melt+4 ,9 high tool-/eel silicon %\ld be at ! l[e/ m9imum t is atta9able4 ,?is discussion ( wild heats may appe> to be outside ( ! scope ( ?is "w1 & to belong exclusively to ! art ( manufactur+ /eel1 ( :i* ?is book does n pret5d to treat4 ,?is is true s f> t x is n recomm5d$ t ! eng9e] %all m$dle 9 any way ) ! manufactur] 9 ! managem5t ( 8 "w2 on ! o!r h&1 x is vital to ! eng9e] t he %\ld "k ab\t x1 because wild /eel may hamm] or roll p]fectly well1 x may appe> to be s\nd1 b ! au?or _c believe t x is ev] s\nd & reliable4 ,aga91 x has a sci5tific int]e/2 t wildness is due to too mu* gas1 & probably to c>bon-gas1 may be %[n by an illu/ration4 ,x has its p>allel 9 ! ris+ ( ! iron 9 a puddl+-furnace at ! close ( ! boil1 a ph5om5on ) :i* e "o is famili> :o has wat*$ a heat be+ boil$ or puddl$4 ,t all ( ! iron does n run out ( ! puddl+-furnace at ?is /age is ow+ to ! fact t !re is n heat en\gh 9 ! puddl+-furnace to keep ! iron liquid aft] x has be5 dec>boniz$4 ,dur+ ! runn+ ( a basic op5-he>? furnace an app>5tly dead heat 0 tapp$2 be=e ! /eel rea*$ ! ladle !re 0 a sort ( explosion2 ! /eel 0 bl[n all ov] ! %op1 ! m5 _h to run = _! lives1 & n "o t5? ( ! /eel rea*$ ! ladle4 ,! manag] 0 rat$ r\ndly = c>elessness 9 n hav+ dri$ 8 sp\t1 & ! incid5t clos$4 ,a few days lat] ano!r quiet heat 0 tapp$ & x ran into ! ladle2 ab\t ! "t ! ladle 0 full ! /eel rose rapidly1 l a beat5 egg or :ipp$ cream1 & ran out on to ! floor1 cutt+ ! sides ( ! ladle1 ! ladle-*a9s1 & ! crane-beams z x fl[$4 ,! m5 ran1 & !re 0 no injury to ! p]son4 ,aga9 ! manag] 0 blam$1 ?is "t = hav+ a damp ladle1 & he 0 notifi$ ( an imp5d+ dismissal if su* a ?+ occurr$ aga94 ,he prote/$ t he knew ! ladle & ! /opp] 7 r$-hot1 t he _h exam9$ !m p]sonally & c>efully1 & knew he /at$ ! tru?4 ,!re 7 sev]al reasons = look+ into ! matt] f>!r3 fir/1 ! man 9 *>ge 0 kn[n to be tru?ful & c>eful1 s t !re 0 no reason = d\bt+ 8 ^w2 second1 if ! vessel & rod 7 r$-hot1 !re c\ld be no aque\s moi/ure !re2 &1 f9ally1 su* an ebullition f dampness 0 contr>y to exp]i5ce1 z a small quantity ( wat] "u a mass ( molt5 iron1 or slag1 results almo/ inv>iably 9 a viol5t explosion1 l t ( gunp[d] or dynamite4 ,^u inquiry x 0 f\nd t prior to bo? ebullitions !re _h be5 a l>ge hole 9 ! furnace-bottom1 requir+ ab\t a peck ( mat]ial to fill x 9 ea* case4 ,magnesite 0 us$2 ! magnesite 0 b\ght raw1 & burn$ 9 ! place4 ,x is well kn[n t x takes a long "t & high heat to drive c>bonic acid out ( magnesite1 & x 0 surmis$ t insuffici5t roa/+ might h caus$ ! tr\ble4 ,samples ( burn$ & ( raw magnesite 7 s5t to ! laboratory1 & ! burn$ 0 f\nd to conta9 ab\t z mu* c>bonic acid z ! raw magnesite4 ,!n ! case seem$ cle>3 ,?is heavily *>g$ magnesite 0 pack$ into ! hole2 ! heat 0 *>g$ & melt$4 ,! magnesite held ! c>bonic acid until ne> ! close ( ! op]ation2 !n ! int5se heat ( ! /eel =c$ ! release ( ! gas1 :i* 0 at once absorb$ by ! /eel4 ,ow+ to ! sup]9cumb5t weight ( ! /eel ! gas 0 absorb$ quietly1 & :5 ! weight 0 remov$ ! gas escap$1 exactly z x does at ! close ( puddl+ or 9 ! fro?+ ( yea/4 ,:e!r ! c>bonic acid rema9$ su*1 or :e!r x took up an equival5t ( c>bon & became c>bonic oxide1 & !n aga9 took up oxyg5 f ! ba?1 & s kept on increas+ 9 volume1 is n kn[n4 ,! facts seem cle>1 & ! collat]al pro( is t ?or\gh burn+ ( ! magnesite1 & ( any dolomite t 0 us$1 prev5t$ a recurr5ce ( any su* accid5ts4 ,su* ebullitions h occurr$ & caus$ ! burn+ to dea? ( pitm51 & ! /atem5t ( ! above case may be ( use to melt]s 9 ! future :o h n met su* an exp]i5ce4 ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,nitrog54 ,oxyg5 & nitrog5 are pres5t 9 all /eel & bo? are injuri\s1 probably ! mo/ s ( all impurities4 ,! oxides ( iron are too well kn[n to ne$ discussion or description2 !y are ! iron ores mix$ ) gangue4 ,!y are brittle1 friable1 h>d1 & weak1 l s&/ones4 ,mix$ 9 /eel !y c be no?+ b weak5]s1 elem5ts ( dis9tegration4 ,let any "o take a h&ful ( scale--or ru/--oxide ( iron1 9 8 f+]s & crumble x1 & x w be difficult = him to imag9e h[ su* mat]ial c\ld be any?+ b h>mful :5 incorporat$ 9 /eel4 ,langley has %[n1 & o!r sci5ti/s h confirm$ him1 t oxyg5 may exi/ 9 iron 9 solution1 & n z oxide2 ! discov]y 0 att5d$ ) ! ass]tion t su* dissolv$ oxyg5 produc$ excessive r$-%ortness4 ,! pro( t r$-%ortness 0 caus$ 9 ?is way 0 complet$ by ! removal ( ! oxyg5 f "s extremely r$-%ort /eel2 ! r$-%ortness disappe>$ ) ! oxyg5 & ! /eel work$ p]fectly4 ,:5 /eel is melt$ v l[ 9 c>bon1 by any process1 x is c]ta9 to be r$-%ort & rott5 unless ! greate/ c>e be us$ to prev5t ! introduction ( oxyg54 ,crucible-/eel ( #ae c>bon or less w z a rule be r$-%ort & cold-%ort2 x w n weld1 & is g5]ally ?or\ghly wor?less4 ,! same mat]ial melt$ to conta9 #ah to #be c>bon w be t\gh & waxlike1 hot or cold4 ,x w weld easily into tubes1 & may be /amp$ cold into almo/ any desir$ %ape4 ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel ( less ?an #h c>bon is almo/ c]ta9 to be equally wor?less1 :]eas ! same mat]ial bl[n or melt$ n bel[ #aj or #ab c>bon1 & re-c>boniz$ n above #bj1 w be t\gh & good at any heat "u granulation1 & equally good & t\gh :5 cold4 ,z to ,bessem] /eel1 ! au?or _c say :e!r x w\ld be possible to /op ! bl[ betwe5 #aj & #ae c>bon or n1 b x seems c]ta9 t if !re be no ov]bl[+ r$-%ortness & cold-%ortness may be avoid$ by c>boniz+ back to ab\t #ae by ! use ( manganese or silicon1 or bo? toge!r4 ,9 ! op5 he>? x is always possible to /op ! melt at #aj c>bon1 & to deoxidize ! heat s z to avoid %ortness1 & n to g above #bj c>bon4 ,su* /eel w be s\nd & t\gh2 x w weld & /amp p]fectly1 & w be satisfactory = all reasonable requirem5ts4 ,! reason ( ?is seems to be simple & pla93 ,9 melt+ or bl[+ out ! la/ fractions ( c>bon bel[ #aj to #ae ! same quantity ( air p] second or m9ute mu/ be us$ z :5 burn+ out ! high] quantities1 & n[ !re is s little c>bon to be attack$ t ! oxyg5 necess>ily attacks ! iron 9 great] & great] =ce z ! c>bon decreases4 ,?is leaves an excess ( oxyg5 9 ! /eel :i* _c be remov$ by ! ord9>y quantities ( silicon1 or manganese1 or alum9um4 ,if m manganese or silicon be us$1 ! r$-%ortness & weakness c be cur$ l>gely2 b !n ! c>bon is rais$ consid]ably1 & ?us ! /eel is br\ght up to :]e x w\ld h be5 )\t ?is excessive dec>boniz+1 ) ! diff]5ce t x is n q s /rong4 ,:at good is !re1 !n1 9 extremely l[ melt+8 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t !re are t\gh1 good-work+ /eels 9 ! m>ket ( c>bon #e1 manganese #bj4 ,!y are made 9 small furnaces1 work$ ) great c>e2 ! product is exp5sive1 &1 unless x is want$ to be weld$ 9 place ( common wr\ght iron1 x is 9 no case z good z well-made /eel ( #ab to #bj c>bon2 ev5 = weld+ ! latt] is sup]ior if ! work] w only be satisfi$ to "w at a lemon in/ead ( a sc9tillat+ heat4 ,^! special cases d n militate aga9/ ! g5]al fact t extremely l[ /eel is usually r$-%ort & weak4 ,! above is writt5 = ! consid]ation ( ^? eng9e]s :o ?9k !y are go+ safe :5 !y prescribe l[ t5sile /r5g? & excessive ductility4 ,if ^! requirem5ts meant ! reception ( pure1 or ne>ly pure1 iron1 indicat$ by ! l[ t5acity & high /ret*1 !n !y w\ld be wise2 b if !y result1 z !y almo/ c]ta9ly d1 9 initially good mat]ial rott$ by ov]doses ( oxyg5 ! wisdom may n be s app>5t4 ,,nitrog54 ,! real influ5ce ( nitrog5 is n kn[n to ! au?or4 ,p]cy %[s t nitrog5iz$ iron is h>d1 exce$+ly friable1 & causes a brilliant1 brassy lu/re4 ,he also says nitrog5 is driv5 out at a yell[ heat2 d\btless ?is is true ( ! excess ( nitrog51 b x has be5 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,ii t melt+ 9 a crucible w n drive ! nitrog5 out ( ,bessem] /eel4 ,:5 crucible-/eel n made f ,bessem] scrap & ,bessem] /eel ( equal analysis are comp>$ 9 ! temp]$ condition1 !re is almo/ inv>iably a yell[i% t+e ov] ! fre% ,bessem] fracture :i* di/+ui%es x f ! crucible-/eel4 ,! ,bessem] /eel is also ! weak]4 ,^! diff]5ces are believ$ to be due to nitrog54 ,langley ma9ta9s 8 belief t oxyg5 is /ill ! *ief mis*ief-mak]2 ! au?or believes nitrog5 to be ! m pot5t ( ! two2 !re is no kn[n way to remove ! nitrog51 & !re ! "q /&s4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,dis9tegration4 ,x has be5 /at$ "t & aga9 t ^! impurities are elem5ts ( dis9tegration1 & t x w\ld be wise 9 e case to re/rict ! quantities all[able )9 reasonable limits1 giv+ ! /eel-mak] suffici5t leeway to enable him to "w effici5tly & economically1 & at ! same "t to keep ! quantities ( ^! impurities z l[ z possible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 able1 successful1 & cons]vative eng9e]s h claim$ t if ! /eel-mak] meets _! physical requirem5ts z %[n by prescrib$ te/s !y1 ! eng9e]s1 %\ld be satisfi$2 t !y %\ld n int]f]e ) *emical composition1 z !y _h no fe> ( subsequ5t dis9tegrations4 ,?is argum5t 0 answ]$ by ! /atem5t t skill$ /eel-work]s c\ld manipulate poor /eel s z to br+ x up to ! requirem5ts2 t ! well-tra9$ work]s 9 ! bridge-%ops w\ld n abuse ! /eel2 t ! inh]5t defici5cies w\ld n be develop$2 ! "w w\ld g out app>5tly satisfactory2 & t x might rema9 s = a long "t1 9 ! abs5ce ( unusual %ocks or /ra9s1 b t 9 an em]g5cy su* mat]ial might fail because ( det]ioration :]e a pur] mat]ial w\ld h held on4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( pro(s su* /atem5ts h be5 met ) a smile ( incr$ulity4 ,=tunately "s pro(s are n[ at h&1 & z ! me?od ( gett+ !m has be5 obta9$1 m w foll[ f "t to "t4 ,9 ,eng9e]+1 ,jan4 #ag1 #ahif1 ,mr4 ,?omas ,&rews1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 gives ! foll[+ cases3 ,a fracture ( a rail into _m pieces1 caus+ a s]i\s accid5t4 ,a brok5 propell]-%aft :i* ne>ly caus$ a disa/r\s accid5t4 ,analysis ( ! rail3 ,c>bon #j4ddj ,silicon #j4jdj ,manganese #j4hjj ,sulphur #j4ajj ,phosphorus #j4jfd ,x is cle> t ! sulphur is excessive1 & t x 0 neutraliz$ s z to make ! /eel workable by an excess ( manganese4 ,( ! propell]-%aft ,mr4 ,&rews says *emical analysis ( outside & c5tral portions ( ! %aft %[$ s]i\s segregation4 8,! p]c5tage ( comb9$ c>bon 0 ne>ly #ej p] c5t great] 9 ! inside ( ! %aft ?an on ! outside2 ! manganese 0 also 9 excess 9 ! inside ( ! %aft2 ! phosphorus & sulphur _h also segregat$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! %aft to ne>ly ?ree times ! p]c5tage ( ^! elem5ts f\nd ne> ! outside ( ! %aft40 ,un=tunately ,mr4 ,&rews does n give ! analysis ( ! %aft4 ,a numb] ( micro-sections ( ! rail & ( ! %aft 7 made & exam9$4 8,num]\s micro-sulphur flaws 7 f\nd1 v>y+ 9 size f #j4jae in* d[nw>d1 int]sp]s$ or segregat$ 9 ! int]cry/all9e junctions ( ! ultimate cry/als ( ! /eel1 & be+ locat$ 9 su* a mann] z to prev5t metallic cohesion betwe5 ! facets ( ! cry/als1 ?us induc+ l9es ( int]nal weakness liable to be act$ ^u by ! /ress & /ra9 ( actual we>40 ,! dim5sions ( ^! flaws 9 ! rail v>i$ f 4#jaej 4#jjab to 4#jjaj 4#jjjd p>ts ( an in*4 ,9 ! %aft f 4#jafj 4#jjcj to 4#jjbj 4#jjaf p>ts ( an in*4 ,9 ! rail he f\nd z _m z #ad flaws 9 an area ( only #j4jjjah squ>e in*1 equal to ne>ly #fj1jjj flaws p] squ>e in*4 ,9 ! %aft he f\nd z _m z #cd flaws 9 an area ( only #j4jjjah squ>e in*1 equal to ne>ly #aij1jjj p] squ>e in*4 ,9 speak+ ( ! %aft he says3 8,9 addition to bl[-holes1 air-cavities1 etc41 ! int]ior ( ! %aft 0 lit]ally honeycomb$ ) micro-sulphide ( iron flaws1 :i* 7 me%$ ab\t & ar\nd ! prim>y cry/als ( ! metal 9 e direction40 8,! delet]i\s effects ( an excess ( manganese 9 int]f]+ ) ! normal cry/allization ( ! normal c>bide ( iron areas 7 also p]ceptible40 ,z ! numb] ( micro-sulphur flaws 9 ! %aft 7 ab\t ?ree times z _m z 9 ! rail1 we may assume t ! %aft conta9$ at lea/ z l>ge a p]c5tage ( sulphur z ! rail1 &1 ow+ to ! g5]al honeycomb$ /ructure1 x w\ld n be a f> guess to assume t ! /eel 0 teem$ wild4 8,! delet]i\s effect ( ^! trea*]\s sulphur areas & o!r microscopic flaws1 ) _! prolong$ ramifications spread+ along ! int]cry/all9e spaces ( ! ultimate cry/als ( ! metal & de/roy+ metallic cohesion1 w be easily und]/ood40 8,con/ant vibration gradually loos5s ! metallic adh]5ce ( ! cry/als1 especially 9 areas :]e ^! micro-flaws exi/4 ,cank]+ by int]nal corrosion & dis9tegration is induc$ :5ev] ! t]m9ations ( any ( ! sulphide areas or o!r flaws 9 any way become expos$ at ! surface ( ! metal1 ei!r to ! action ( sea-wat]1 or atmosph]ic or o!r oxidiz+ influ5ces4 ,9 _m o!r ways1 also1 x w be se5 h[ delet]i\s is _! pres5ce40 8,int]nal micro-flaws ( v>i\s "* are nev]!less almo/ inv>iably pres5t 9 masses ( /eel1 & con/itute s\rces ( initial weakness :i* n unfrequ5tly produce ^? my/]i\s & sudd5 fractures ( /eel axles1 rails1 tires1 & %afts productive ( su* calamit\s results4 ,a fracture once comm5c+ at "o ( ^! micro-flaws 7/>t$ probably by "s sudd5 %ock or vibration1 or ow+ to ! det]ioration caus$ by fatigue 9 ! metal7 runs /raight ?r\gh a /eel =g+ on ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance1 9 a simil> mann] to ! fracture ( glass or ice40 ,x is und]/ood t simil> inve/igations are be+ c>ri$ out on an ext5sive scale by ,pr(4 ,arnold2 9 ! meantime ! above cases %\ld satisfy any "o t ^! impurities are elem5ts ( dis9tegration1 & t ! less !re are ( !m 9 any /eel ! bett] = ! /eel4 ,x seems cle> t if #aj sulphur w cause #fj1jjj flaws p] squ>e in*1 #ja sulphur ought n to cause m ?an "o t5? ( t numb]2 or1 if an equal numb]1 !n !y c\ld only be "o t5? ( ! size4 ,! segregation f\nd 9 ! %aft is s excessive t x w\ld seem probable t !re 0 a good deal ( s9 !re also2 b1 ev5 if x 7 unavoidable segregation1 ! h>m w\ld h be5 j s mu* ! less if !re _h be5 less ( total impurities pres5t to segregate4 ,,ars5ic4 ,ars5ic is kn[n to be v h>mful 9 tool-/eel1 & x is prop] to assume t x c d no good 9 /ructural /eel4 ,9 any case :]e ! prop]ties ( /eel d n come up to ! /&>d to be expect$ f ! regul> analysis exam9ation %\ld be made = ars5ic1 antimony1 copp]1 etc4 ,^! are n z univ]sal con/itu5ts ( /eel z silicon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 & manganese1 b !y are pres5t frequ5tly1 & 9 any appreciable am\nt !y are bad4 ,,xi4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,h>d5+4 ,! h>d5+ ( /eel is su* a m>k$ ph5om5on1 & "o ( s great importance1 t x has always attract$ a great deal ( att5tion1 & _m !ories h be5 put =w>d 9 explanation4 ,be=e *emi/ry 0 br\ght to be> ^u ! subject ! propos$ !ories 7 bas$ ^u assumption1 & z !re 7 no pro(s "o _h z mu* "r to consid]ation z ano!r1 & none seem$ to be altoge!r satisfactory4 ,s9ce sci5ce has tak5 up ! "q ! !ories are ab\t z num]\s z ! inve/igators1 & :ile no "o c claim z yet to h settl$ ! matt] def9itely1 ea* "o has an app>5t basis ( reason d$uc$ f obs]v$ facts4 ,among e>ly obs]vations x 0 not$ t :5 unh>d5$ /eel & h>d5$ /eel 7 dissolv$ 9 acid a mu* l>g] am\nt ( c>bon 0 f\nd 9 ! solution ( ! unh>d5$ ?an 9 t ( ! h>d5$ /eel4 ,?is l$1 fir/1 to ! di/9ction ( comb9$ c>bon & graphitic c>bon1 a di/9ction t has be5 ma9ta9$ ?r\gh subsequ5t inve/igations4 ,x seems to be well e/abli%$ n[ t !re is a def9ite c>bide ( iron1 ,fe,c1 & "s obs]v]s believe x to be ! h>d sub/ance 9 h>d5$ /eel4 ,foll[+ ?is came ! ann\ncem5t t ^! conditions1 comb9$ & graphitic c>bon1 repres5t$ two diff]5t =ms ( c>bon1 & !y 7 designat$ z cem5t c>bon & h>d5+ c>bon2 also z non-h>d5+ & h>d5+ c>bon4 ,lat] inve/igation hav+ e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( ! c>bide ,fe,c1 ?is 0 claim$ to be ! h>d body1 b ?is has n met univ]sal acceptance4 ,ano!r inve/igator1 /udy+ by means ( ! pyromet] & obs]v+ heat ph5om5a1 concludes t h>d5+ is due to an allotropic condition ( ! iron itself2 t :5 iron is heat$ above ! recalesc5t-po9t1 & presumably bel[ granulation1 x becomes 9 itself excessively h>d2 t sudd5 cool+ prev5ts its *ang+ f ?is =m1 & s1 :5 !re is c>bon pres5t1 ! result ( qu5*+ is great h>dness4 ,:5 /eel is all[$ to cool sl[ly to bel[ recalesc5ce1 ! iron assumes ano!r =m1 & "o :i* _c be h>d5$ by qu5*+2 ?is latt] is kn[n z iron1 & ! h>d5+ k9d z iron4 ,a lat] inve/igator f9ds x necess>y to h a ?ird allotropic =m to meet "s ( ! ph5om5a1 :i* he designates by ano!r ,greek lett]4 ,ano!r inve/igator e/abli%es indep5d5tly ! saturation-po9t1 :i* 0 po9t$ out & publi%$ tw5ty ye>s ago1 viz41 some:]e ab\t #ij to #ajj c>bon2 he fixes ! saturation-po9t at #hi c>bon & gives ! =mula ,fe,c4 ,he assumes t ?is is an exce$+ly un/able c>bide1 t x is =m$ betwe5 recalesc5ce & granulation1 & c only be fix$ by qu5*+1 & t :5 /eel is qu5*$ ! fix+ ( ?is c>bide is ! cause ( h>dness4 ,a /ill lat] inve/igation e/abli%es ?is saturation-po9t at ab\t #ajj c>bon by obs]v+ t 9 h>d5$ /eel ( #ace c>bon !re is a comb9ation ( #ajj c>bon :i* is ! excessively h>d "p ( ! /eel1 & a portion conta9+ ! rema9+ #ce p>ts ( c>bon t is n q s h>d1 & he sugge/s a f\r? allotropic =m to cov] ?is "p4 ,x is also sugge/$ t /eel %\ld be consid]$ & treat$ z an igne\s rock2 judg+ f ! appe>ance ( magnifi$ micro-sections1 ?is sugge/ion appe>s to be a happy "o = ! purpose ( mak+ comp>isons4 ,! above !ories ( h>d5+1 & o!rs1 are n to be reg>d$ z antagoni/ic or contradictory1 d\btless !re are g]ms ( tru? 9 e "o ( !m1 or ea* "o may be m]ely ! individual's way ( sugge/+ an explanation ( ! same obs]v$ ph5om5a1 s t :5 a f9al conclusion is rea*$ ea* may be f\nd to h be5 travell+ 9 ! same direction by a diff]5t pa?4 ,x is c]ta9 t able1 pati5t1 pa9/ak+1 m5 are work+ fai?fully to produce a solution ( ! problem1 & ev5 if _! ideas1 z briefly giv5 above1 d seem to be contradictory x w\ld only ev9ce deep] ignorance & a /upid m9d 9 any :o %\ld attempt to ridicule or unduly criticise hone/ "w be=e x is complet$4 ,:ile ^! inve/igations are go+ on1 & be=e any def9ite conclusion is rea*$1 is !re any well-e/abli%$ safe gr\nd = ! /eel-work] & ! eng9e] to /& ^u8 ,!re c]ta9ly is a good work+ hypo!sis = all to use1 & "o :i* x is believ$ w always be ! "r "o to foll[ no matt] :at ! f9al explanation ( ! rem>kable ph5om5a ( h>d5+1 temp]+1 & anneal+ may prove to be4 ,aft] _m ye>s ( c>eful exp]im5t+ & /udy ,pr(4 ,j4 ,w4 ,langley came to ! conclusion t no matt] :at ! f9al result might be z to c>bides1 allotropic conditions1 etc41 t if /eel 7 consid]$ z iron conta9+ c>bon 9 solution1 :e!r x 7 a *emical comb9ation or a m]e solution1 & t cold /eel be reg>d$ z a congeal$ liquid 9 a /ate ( t5sion1 !n all kn[n ph5om5a c\ld be acc\nt$ =1 & all kn[n conditions c\ld be produc$ ) c]ta9ty by well-kn[n applications ( heat & =ce4 ,:5 c>bon is 9 ! s-call$ comb9$ condition1 !n ! solution maybe comp>$ to pure sea-wat]2 :5 ! c>bon is p>tly comb9$ & p>tly graphitic1 ! solution may be comp>$ to muddy sea-wat]1 ! mud repres5t+ ! graphitic c>bon4 ,:5 ! c>bon is practically all graphitic1 z 9 ov]-anneal$ /eel1 !n ! solution may be comp>$ to ?or\ghly muddy fre% wat]4 ,?is hypo!sis ( solution agrees well ) ! saturation not$2 !n ab\t #ajj c>bon is all t iron w dissolve )\t extrane\s =ce2 & high] c>bon mu/ be =c$ into solution by ! "w ( hamm]s1 presses1 or rolls4 ,?is gives reason to ! exp]i5c$ tool-mak]'s well-kn[n pref]5ce = well-hamm]$ /eel4 ,! hypo!sis ( t5sion1 probably molecul>1 cov]s all ( ! ph5om5a ( excessive h>dness due to high heat1 :i* means high molecul> motion *eck$ viol5tly by sudd5 qu5*+4 ,x acc\nts = ! progressive s(t5+ due to e add$ degree ( heat1 & x acc\nts = rupture1 crack+1 due to excessive heat or to any unev5ness ( heat4 ,)\t ?is hypo!sis ( t5sion x is difficult to und]/& :y qu5*+ %\ld rupture a piece ( /eel1 no matt] :at ! degree ( heat1 or h[ unev5 x might be4 ,)\t x1 too1 x is h>d to see h[ successive additions ( heat c cause gradual *anges f to iron1 or f an un/able c>bide to an imp]fect solution4 ,x w\ld seem t ! allotropic *anges1 or ! decompositions ( c>bides1 mu/ be m m>k$ ?an ! gradual *anges f h>d to s(t :i* we "k to take place by sl[ & g5tle accretions ( heat4 ,!re is no prop]ty ( /eel kn[n to ! au?or :i* is n cov]$ by ,langley's hypo!sis1 & !re=e x is put =w>d ) confid5ce = eng9e]s & /eel-us]s to "w by until ! sci5ti/s %all h complet$ _! inve/igations1 & aft] t x is believ$ t x w be a safe work+ hypo!sis1 because sci5ce does n *ange facts1 x only collates !m & reveals ! laws ( action4 ,"u ?is hypo!sis ( ,langley's we may def9e h>dness z t5sion1 s(tness z abs5ce ( t5sion4 ,?is is n /at$ z e/abli%$ fact2 x is giv5 z a simple def9ition to cov] ! kn[n ph5om5a until ! f9al solution ( ! problem %all lead to a bett] explanation4 ,reg>d+ /eel z a solution ( c>bon 9 iron1 "o important fact may be set d[n z e/abli%$ ?or\ghly3 t is1 t ! m p]fect ! solution "u all circum/ances ! bett] ! /eel4 ,cont9u$ application ( heat 9 any "p ( ! pla/ic condition all[s c>bon to sep>ate out ( solution into a condition ( m]e mixture2 x conv]ts ! cle> sea-wat] into muddy wat]2 ?is is ! reason :y s mu* emphasis has be5 giv5 9 previ\s *apt]s to ! h>mfulness ( long-cont9u$ heat+4 ,9 e case1 :5 /eel is hot en\gh = ! purpose desir$1 x %\ld be remov$ at once f ! fire4 ,,xii4 ,,inspection4 ,c>eful & sy/ematic inspection is ( ! utmo/ importance f ! fir/ op]ation ( melt+ to ! la/ act ( ! f9i%]4 ,assum+ t e op]ator is hone/ & consci5ti\s 9 ! p]=mance ( 8 "w1 ! p]sonal equation mu/ be consid]$1 z well z ! exig5cies ( ! _m op]ations4 ,! /eel-mak] mu/ inspect 8 +ots to see t !y are melt$ well & teem$ prop]ly1 t !y are s\nd & clean1 & to det]m9e _! prop] temp]4 ,:5 "w is f9i%$1 he mu/ inspect x to see t x has be5 work$ at prop]1 ev5 heats1 t x is correct 9 dim5sions1 & t all pipes & seams h be5 cut out4 ,aft] all ?is has be5 done fai?fully x 7 well t 8 "w 7 done :5 x 7 well done4 ,su* is n 8 happy lot2 e successive manipulator may ru9 ! /eel by c>elessness or ignorance1 & x is a gala day = a /eel-mak] :5 he does n receive "s sample ( /upid ignorance or gross c>elessness1 ) an intimation t x w\ld be well = him to le>n h[ to make /eel be=e he presum$ to (f5d by s5d+ out su* wor?less mat]ial4 ,& sometimes1 ?\gh n s (t5 if he kn[s 8 bus9ess1 he f9ds a compla9t well f\nd$2 !n he mu/ regulate 8 own h\sehold & make 8 peace ) 8 angry cu/om] z be/ he c4 ,! eng9e] mu/ inspect 8 /eel to see t x is s\nd1 & clean1 & f9i%$ prop]ly1 z he has a "r to expect t x %\ld be4 ,x is n int5d$ "h to lay d[n rules = %op & field inspection1--t is an art 9 itself outside ( ! function or ! exp]i5ce ( a /eel-mak]1--b "s h9ts may be giv5 z to ! exam9ation ( /eel z x comes f ! mill1 & x has be5 ! aim 9 previ\s *apt]s to give su* in=mation z may enable an eng9e] to =m a good judgm5t z to matt]s :i* are n likely to come to 8 k 9 ! c\rse ( ord9>y practice4 ,/eel %\ld be s\nd2 x %\ld be exam9$ be=e x is oil$ or pa9t$4 ,all pipe %\ld be cut (f2 a pipe ( any consid]able size w %[ 9 ! end ( a %e>$ b>1 & a c>eful obs]v] w soon le>n to detect x4 ,if !re is reason to suspect a pipe1 file ! place & ! pipe w be reveal$ if x is !re4 ,d n *ip at x1 = a *isel w (t5 smoo? a l9e :i* a file w br+ out4 ,9 tool-/eel !re %\ld n only be no pipe1 !re %\ld be no /> left 9 ! b>4 ,a 8/>0 is a bright spot :i* %[s ! la/ ( ! pipe1 n q cut away2 ! /eel is n solid 9 ! /> & x w n make a good cutt+-edge2 x may ev5 cause a sl$ge to split4 ,,seams4 ,9 tool-/eel !re %\ld be no seams at all4 ,"s mak]s decl>e t 9 high /eel1 seams are evid5ces ( good quality2 su* a /atem5t is ! v]ie/ fraud2 x is h>d to get any high /eel free f seams1 & !re=e if ! mak] c get ! us] to believe t a seam is a good ?+ he c enhance 8 pr(it2 t is1 he c enhance x = a "t until 8 fraud is und]/ood4 ,"s seams are h>d to see2 :5 !re is reason to suspect "o1 a little fil+ across ! l9e w %[ x 9 a di/9ct black l9e if x is !re4 ,a file is an indisp5sable tool = an inspector1 bett] ?an a *isel or a gr9d/one4 ,9 ma*9]y & /ructural /eel a few small seams may be unobjectionable2 too close inspection may lead to unnecess>y co/ )\t a comp5sat+ ga92 /ill e eng9e] %\ld res]ve ! "r to det]m9e :at seams are all[able & :at are n1 = 8 own safety4 ,laps %\ld n be tol]at$ 9 any "w4 ,torn cracks on edges or surface indicate burn$ /eel or r$-%ort /eel2 !y %\ld n be all[$4 ,! gra9 ( /eel %\ld be practically uni=m1 n too co>se1 n ) brilliant lu/re1 nor ) a d>k india-ink t9t4 ,) an ev5 f9e gra91 a bright lu/re may indicate a mild /eel n work$ badly4 ,inspectors mu/ le>n by practice :at is tol]able & :at is n1 z x is impossible to lay d[n h>d & fa/ rules2 x is safe1 h[ev]1 to say t a fairly f9e gra9 ( ev5 texture1 n mu* lu/re1 & no india-ink %ade1 is indicative ( good heat+ & prop] work+4 ,) ^! few g5]al h9ts ! subject mu/ be left1 =1 l temp]+1 inspect+ is an art 9 itself1 & x _c be taught 9 a book4 ,an exp]t inspector w see seams & pipes ) 8 nak$ eye t a novice c\ld n detect ) an ord9>y magnify+-glass4 ,x may d no h>m to ! inspector to sugge/ to him t amiability & good s5se are ! be/ +r$i5ts to mix ) s\nd judgm5t4 ,if he w cultivate ^!1 & le>n to di/+ui% betwe5 a m]e blemi% & a real defect1 he w f9d 8 "w made easy & pleasant2 & he w be f> less likely to h bad "w ?ru/ at him ?an he w if he makes x app>5t t he reg>ds himself z ! only hone/ man4 ,,xiii4 ,,specifications4 ,specifications %\ld cov] ?ree pr9cipal po9ts3 ,physical prop]ties3 ,ela/ic limit2 ultimate t5sile /r5g?2 elongation2 r$uction ( area4 ,*emical con/itu5ts3 ,limit+ silicon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 manganese1 & copp]2 all o!r elem5ts to be abs5t or m]e traces 9 quantity1 except c>bon4 ,f9i% & g5]al condition3 ,fix+ limit ( v>iation 9 size f a giv5 /&>d2 conditions z to pipes1 seams1 laps1 uni=mity ( gra91 & o!r defects2 no r$-%ortness4 ,,physical ,,prop]ties4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ,*ap4 ,v t t5sile /r5g? may be _h f #df1hjj lbs4 p] squ>e in* to #bdh1gjj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,!re are publi%$ 9 _m transactions & te*nical p]iodicals ?\s&s ( te/s giv+ ela/ic & ultimate /r5g?1 ductility1 etc41 s t e eng9e] c f9d easily :at has be5 done to guide him z to :at he c get4 ,9 almo/ e case ! eng9e] mu/ be ! judge z to ! requirem5ts 9 ea*2 !re=e x w\ld be useless to attempt to lay d[n any fix$ rules or limits4 ,_m eng9e]s adh]e to l[ t5acity & high ductility 9 ! belief t !y are secur+ t mat]ial :i* w be safe/ aga9/ sudd5 %ocks & viol5t accid5tal /ra9s4 ,!oretically ?is appe>s to be correct1 b if ! /atem5ts made 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s are cr$ible x is pla9 t ! limit to su* safety c be pass$1 & t 9 insi/+ ^u too l[ t5acity & high ductility ! eng9e] may be gett+ simply a rott51 microscopically uns\nd mat]ial1 ?r\gh no fault ( ! manufactur]1 :o has be5 compell$ to ov]melt or ov]bl[ 8 /eel to meet ! requirem5ts1 & s r$uc+ ! quality ( o!rwise good mat]ial at no sav+ 9 co/ to himself1 & at a consid]able co/ 9 quality to ! consum]4 ,any manufactur] w\ld r *eck 8 melt betwe5 #aj & #ae c>bon1 or /op 8 bl[ s z to be sure n to ov]bl[1 if he 7 ask$ to d s1 because x w\ld save him "t & exp5se1 & x w\ld yield s\nd]1 bett]1 & easi] work+ /eel4 ,x may n be wise yet = an eng9e] to fix limits z to bl[+ or melt+1 = ! reason t nei!r he nor 8 assi/ants w\ld "k h[ to insure compliance1 & 9 attempt+ to d x !y might int]f]e too f> ) manufactur+ op]ations & s involve !mselves 9 responsibilities :i* !y ought n to assume4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if !y w let ! c>bon & t5sile /r5g? run up a little & r$uce ductility slightly1 x is safe to say t any manufactur] w be glad ( ! *ance to help !m to get ! be/ results1 :i* involve no extra co/4 ,boil]-/eel & rivet-/eel usually suff] ! mo/ 9 ?is respect4 ,a boil] %\ld be t\gh1 yet x is ! belief ( ! au?or t boil]s made ( ! #df1hjj-lb4 /eel ( :i* ! analysis is giv5 9 ,*ap4 ,v w\ld n la/ half z long z boil]s made ( #fe1jjj-lb4 to #gj1jjj-lb4 /eel :5 ! increas$ /r5g? 0 ga9$ by add$ c>bon & no ov]melt+ 0 all[$4 ,9 ! same table ! 8,crucible-%eet0 column gives a mean ( #bd te/s1 & a mean analysis1 ( boil]-/eel :i* has be5 9 use 9 #ab boil]s = ne>ly #af ye>s4 ,! boil]s are 9 p]fectly good condition2 !y h be5 subject$ to sev]e & v irregul> usage1 & !y h be5 9 e way satisfactory4 ,only "o te/-piece ( ! #bd 0 mild en\gh to /& ! ord9>y b5d+ te/ aft] qu5*+4 ,t #df1hjj-lb4 /eel is rem>kably pure *emically2 x is unusually r$-%ort4 ,x w\ld appe> to "s to be an ideal rivet-/eel2 x w\ld /& a v high heat1 x w\ld head well & f9i% beautifully "u a button-set4 ,!re is e probability t ! majority ( rivets driv5 ( t /eel w\ld be crack$ on ! "u side ( ! head1 :]e ! cracks w\ld nev] be discov]$ until 9 s]vice ! heads flew (f4 ,rails are usually made ( #dj to #de c>bon1 tires f 4#fe up to #hj c>bon1 crank-p9s z high z #gj c>bon1 ) #he1jjj lbs4 to #ie1jjj lbs4 t5sile /r5g? & #ab to #ae elongation4 ,x is difficult to see h[ a bridge or a boil] is to be subject$ to any su* viol5t usage z ^! receive daily2 & :ile x is n advis$ t ev5 #dj c>bon %\ld be us$ 9 boil]s or bridges1 al?\gh x w\ld be p]fectly safe1 x does seem to be unreasonable to run to ! o!r extreme to ! injury ( ! mat]ial4 ,= /eel = spr+s1 & = all sorts ( tools t are to be temp]$1 !re is no ne$ ( a specification ( physical prop]ties z !y are indicat$ by te/+-ma*9es4 ,! requirem5t t !y %all h>d5 safely & d good "w aft]w>ds involves necess>ily1 high /eel ( suitable quality4 ,,*emical ,,con/itu5ts4 ,no eng9e] %\ld1 unless he be an exp]t /eel-mak]1 attempt to specify an exact *emical =mula & a correspond+ physical requirem5t2 9 do+ s he w\ld probably make two requirem5ts :i* c\ld n be obta9$ 9 "o piece ( /eel1 & s subject himself to a back d[n or to ridicule1 or bo?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he may prop]ly1 & he %\ld fix1 a limit beyond :i* ! hurtful elem5ts w\ld n be tol]at$4 ,not)/&+ satisfactory ma*9e te/s1 successful %op-"w1 & a lib]al m>g9 ( safety1 no /eel c be reli$ ^u t is ov]load$ ) phosphorus1 sulphur1 manganese1 oxyg51 antimony1 ars5ic1 or nitrog54 ,9 reg>d to silicon1 x is common to h z mu* z #bj to #be po9ts 9 tires1 ) #ee to #hj c>bon2 su* tires are made by ! be/ manufactur]s1 & !y endure well4 ,b x is c]ta9 t good1 s\nd /eel c be made = any purpose ) silicon n exce$+ #aj4 ,/ructural /eel c be made *eaply )9 ! foll[+ limits3 ,silicon 4#aj ,phosphorus 4#je ,sulphur 4#jb ,manganese 4#ej or ev5 4#cj ,copp] 4#jc ,c>bon to meet ! physical requirem5ts4 ,/eel made )9 ^! limits & n ov]bl[n or ov]melt$ mu/ be bett] 9 e way ?an /eel ( ,silicon 4#bj ,phosphorus 4#jh ,sulphur 4#je ,manganese 4#fj ,c>bon to meet ! same requirem5ts ,a /eel ( ! latt] composition1 or ) no fix$ limits1 may be made *eap] ?an ! fir/ by a doll> or two a ton2 b = any l>ge lot x is believ$ t ! fir/ specification w\ld be bid to at z l[ a price z if !re 7 no specification2 competition among manufactur]s w\ld fix t4 ,at any rate !re is no reason :y an eng9e] %\ld refuse to dem& fairly pure mat]ial :5 he c d s at little or no extra co/4 ,ars5ic1 antimony1 or any o!r elem5ts %\ld be abs5t1 or 4#jje4 ,,f9i% ,,& ,,g5]al ,,conditions4 ,z !re c be no su* ?+ z exact "w done1 !re mu/ be "s tol]ance z to v>iation 9 size4 ,9 /&>d sections1 %eets1 & plates ?is is usually cov]$ by a p]c5tage ( weight2 9 =g+s or any pieces t are to be ma*9$ ! consum] %\ld all[ en\gh to insure a clean1 s\nd surface4 ,b x w\ld be unwise to lay d[n any rule "h1 because conditions v>y2 a roll$ r\nd b> may f9i% nicely by a cut ( f _/ to _/ ( an in*1 & s also a neatly dropp$ =g+2 an ord9>y hamm]$ =g+ might require a cut ( or ( an in*2 su* a =g+ might be made clos] to size at a co/ = extra "t at ! hamm] f> exce$+ ! sav+ ( co/ 9 ! la!4 ,^! are cases :]e common-s5se & good judgm5t mu/ gov]n4 ,pipes %\ld n be tol]at$ if !y c be discov]$2 because a pipe appe>s small 9 ! end ( a b> x is no evid5ce t x is n l>g] f>!r 94 ,seams %\ld n be all[$ 9 any /eel t is to be h>d5$2 !y %\ld be a m9imum 9 any /eel1 z !y are ( no possible use2 small seams :5 n too num]\s may d no h>m 9 /ructural or ma*9]y /eel1 & consum]s %\ld be reasonable 9 reg>d to !m1 or else !y may h too high prices put ^u _! "w1 or too high heat us$ 9 ef=ts to close ! la/ few h>mless seams4 ,burns1 r\gh1 ragg$ holes 9 ! faces or on ! corn]s1 are inexcusable & %\ld be reject$2 ! /eel has be5 abus$1 or x is r$-%ort2 9 ei!r case ! ragg$ breaks are good />t+-po9ts = f9al rupture4 ,laps %\ld n be p]mitt$2 !y are evid5ces ( c>elessness2 !re c be no excuse = !m4 ,f9s are sometimes unavoidable 9 a difficult %ape2 = in/ance1 if a trapezoid is want$1 x may be roll$ 9 ?is =m3 ,illu/ration or 9 ?is3 ,illu/ration ,! consum] mu/ decide :i*2 if he wants %>p angles he mu/ accept ! f9 & cut x (f1 or h x cut (f by ! manufactur]4 ,rivet-/eel %\ld be te/$ rigidly = r$-%ortness1 because r$-%ort /eel may crack "u ! head z ! /eel cools4 ,emphasis is laid ^u ?is because eng9e]s w insi/ ^u excessive ductility 9 rivet-/eel1 n realiz+ t !y may be requir+ ! manufactur] to ov]dose 8 /eel ) oxyg5 to its s]i\s injury4 ,no %>p re-entrant angles %\ld be all[$ "u any circum/ances :]e !re is a possibility ( vibrations runn+ ?r\gh ! mass4 ,all re-entrant angles %\ld be fillet$ neatly4 ,no deep tool-m>ks %\ld be all[$2 a f9e l9e scor$ ar\nd a piece by a la!-tool1 or a %>p l9e cut 9 a surface by a plan+-tool w fix a l9e ( fracture z neatly z a diamond-scrat* w d x on a piece ( glass4 ,ind5tations by hamm]s or sl$ges %\ld be avoid$2 !y may n be z dang]\s z la!-cuts1 b !y c d no good1 & !re=e !y are ( no use4 ,,xiv4 ,,humbugs4 ,/eel is ( su* univ]sal use & int]e/ 9 all ( ! arts t x attracts ! att5tion ( w\ld-be inv5tors p]haps m ?an any o!r "o mat]ial4 ,half-in=m$1 or :olly un9=m$1 m5 get a smatt]+ ( k ( "s "o or m ( ! well-kn[n prop]ties ( /eel1 make an exp]im5t :i* produces a result t is new & />tl+ to !m1 & at once imag9e t !y h made a discov]y2 ?is !y proce$ to pat5t & !n (f] x to ! _w ) a great fl\ri% ( trumpets4 ,_m /eel-work]s1 ev5 m5 ( skill1 :o "k some?+ ( ! difficulties t foll[ irregul> "w1 or :o are n q fully in=m$ z to ! prop]ties ( /eel1 seize ^u ^! discov]ies 9 ! hope t !y h f\nd a royal road to success :]e all old pitfalls are remov$ & _! pa? is made easy4 ,n wi%+ to disc\rage pione]s 9 legitimate ef=ts to improve1 x is ! object ( ?is *apt] to w>n !m aga9/ be+ too ready to sp5d _! money because ( flam+ circul>s or glib tongues4 ,x is ! duty & ! int]e/ ( a /eel-mak] to exam9e & te/ e app>5tly new sugge/ion1 = ! reason t !re is /ill room = improvem5t1 & he %\ld let no opportunity = a bett]m5t slip pa/ him4 ,z a rule ! /eel-mak] does te/ e claim t is laid be=e him1 unless x be a repetition ( "s old plan long s9ce tri$ & f\nd wor?less4 ,?is is ! bane ( ! /eel-mak]'s life1 & yet he mu/ keep at ?is "w s t he may "k = himself :e!r any?+ ( value has be5 discov]$1 & also t he may advise 8 cli5tage prop]ly4 ,inv5tions relat+ to ! manufacture ( /eel h no int]e/ = /eel-us]s except z lively manufactur]s may adopt ! mi/ak5 plan ( fl\ri%+ trumpets to attract trade1 n always giv+ a correspond+ b5efit to ! consum]4 ,examples ( ?is sort ( ?+ may be illu/rat$ by s-call$ phosphorus /eel1 silicon /eel1 & alum9um /eel2 also ! case m5tion$ be=e ( p>ties recomm5d+ seams z evid5ces ( excell5ce 9 high /eel4 ,su* ef=ts are sometimes co/ly to consum]s until active competitive manufactur]s expose ! humbug4 ,among ! mo/ absurd ( su* claims are ^? :]e a no/rum is us$ to conv]t ord9>y ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel into ! f9e/ ( tool-/eel1 equal to ! be/ crucible-/eel2 = example1 a pat5t to conv]t mild ,bessem] /eel into ! f9e/ tool-/eel by m]ely c>boniz+ x by ! old cem5tation process2 ?is takes no acc\nt ( ! silicon1 manganese1 oxyg51 & nitrog5 9 ! mild ,bessem]1 makes no provision = _! removal1 & involves a co/ly me?od ( putt+ c>bon into poor /ock 9 face ( ! fact t a ,bessem] /eel mak] c put ! same am\nt ( c>bon !re at practically no co/1 & s produce a bett] mat]ial4 ,among ! humbugs t d n involve ! manufactur]1 ! pet "o is a no/rum = re/or+ burnt /eel2 ^! h be5 evolv$ by ! doz51 9 face ( ! fact t burn$ /eel _c be re/or$ except by smelt+1 & t ov]heat$ /eel1 co>se-gra9$ /eel1 c be re/or$ by m]ely heat+ x to ! "r temp]ature1 a process :i* has be5 expla9$ fully 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,ano!r pet is "s greasy comp\nd = t\gh5+ high /eel s z to make x d m "w4 ,?is is done by heat+ ! /eel to ab\t recalesc5ce & plung+ x into ! grease1 p]haps once1 or possibly two or ?ree times2 !n work+ x into a tool & proce$+ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,?is w make a good tool2 x is ! p>tial anneal+ plan expla9$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,n[ take a simil> piece ( /eel1 heat x ! same way1 lay x d[n 9 a w>m1 dry place alongside ! =ge-fire1 & let x cool2 !n heat x & "w x into a tool & x w beat ! greas$ tool4 ,:5 all ( ^! op]ations ( re/or+1 p>tial anneal+1 anneal+1 etc41 dep5d m]ely ^u temp]ature & rate ( cool+1 :y sp5d money = no/rums t add no possible b5efit8 ,!re is room = improvem5t 9 /eel1 great room = great improvem5ts2 !y w come 9 "t z sci5ce & k advance1 & great b5efits to ! consum]s w come ) !m4 ,?is *apt] is n writt5 to place difficulties 9 ! way ( legitimate improvem5t1 b to w>n unsuspect+ p aga9/ quack]y4 ,"s ( ! humbugs are hone/ productions ( well-mean+ ignorance1 & "s t come f design+ manufactur]s are n entitl$ to su* *>itable designation4 ,a k ( ! simple/ prop]ties ( /eel w enable a ?\ghtful man to judge z to :e!r a propos$ improvem5t is likely to be ( any value or n1 & ! w>n+s giv5 are int5d$ z a protection to ! unsuspect+ & cr$ul\s4 ,,xv4 ,,conclusions4 ,aft] p]usal ( ! prec$+ *apt]s ! read] may =m a ha/y conclusion t if /eel be s s5sitive z x is /at$ to be its use may be difficult & prec>i\s1 & t x mu/ be h&l$ 9 fe> & trembl+1 le/ ! result %\ld be a dang]\s /ructure1 & ! build] mu/ be 9 d\bt z to its safety4 ,! conveyance ( any su* impressions is n int5d$ at all2 emphasis has be5 laid ^u practices t are hurtful 9 ord] t e /eel-us] may "k :at to avoid1 solely t he may !n be sure t he has ! be/1 ! mo/ reliable1 & mo/ useful mat]ial t is kn[n to man4 ,,:at ,,to ,,avoid4 ,he %\ld avoid unev5 heat1 excessive heat1 or too l[ heat4 ,! range betwe5 orange r$ & ! heat t w granulate is s great t no "o :o is n a bungl] or indiff]5t ne$ ev] get outside ( x4 ,! uni=mity ( temp]ature t is insi/$ ^u is s easily se5 t any p]son :o is n color-bl9d %\ld h no tr\ble 9 secur+ x by ! simple/ manipulations ( ! furnace4 ,practical uni=mity ( ! "w put on a piece is readily secur$ by any me*anic ( ord9>y skill4 ,r$-%ort1 cold-%ort1 or honeycomb$ /eel are easily detect$1 &1 "u reasonable specifications1 ! /eel-mak]s c z easily avoid !m4 ,/eel a little high] ?an mo/ eng9e]s favor 9 _! specifications is c]ta9ly z safe z1 & likely to be s\nd] ?an1 extremely ductile /eel4 ,wild /eel1 result+ almo/ c]ta9ly 9 micro-honeycombs1 if n worse1 c only be avoid$ by ! co-op]ation ( ! manufactur]1 & eng9e]s %\ld impress ?is po9t ) en]gy4 ,su* micro-uns\ndness z is %[n 9 ,mr4 ,&rews's report ^u a brok5 rail & propell]-%aft c be r$uc$ to a m9imum by insi/+ ^u reasonably pure /eel4 ,if sulphur1 phosphorus1 silicon1 & oxyg5 are kept at a reasonable m9imum1 sulphides1 phosphides1 silicides or silicates1 & oxides mu/ be at a correspond+ m9imum4 ,t !re is mu* room = improvem5t 9 ! manufacture ( /eel is evid5t1 & :5 means ( gett+ rid ( oxyg51 nitrog51 & all o!r undesirable elem5ts h be5 f\nd ! /eel ( ! future w be v diff]5t 9 k9dl9ess ( work+ & 9 endurance ( /ra9s ?an t ) :i* we are famili>4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 t no matt] h[ p]fect ! manufacture may become1 nor :at ! f9al !ories ( h>d5+1 etc41 may be1 ! prop]ties /at$ 9 ^! pages w rema9 ! same z long z /eel cont9ues to be ess5tially a union ( iron & c>bon4 ,"s o!r alloy or comp\nd may displace c>bon /eel1 & pres5t an entirely new set ( prop]ties1 b !re is no?+ ( ! k9d 9 sight n[1 & eng9e]s ne$ h no fe> ( hav+ a new art to le>n v soon4 ,to "o :o has sp5t an ord9>y bus9ess lifetime 9 mak+ /eel1 /udy+ x1 & work+ ) x x becomes a subject ( absorb+ int]e/1 if n ( love2 & /eel :5 h&l$ reasonably is s true t 8true z /eel0 ceases to be a metaphor1 x is !n a fact :i* fills him ) ! mo/ entire confid5ce4 ,once m1 /eel highly *>g$ ) sulphur1 phosphorus1 ars5ic1 oxyg51 & nitrog5 is c]ta9ly highly *>g$ ) s _m elem5ts ( dis9tegration2 x takes m s]i\s h>m f ord9>y deviations f good practice1 su* little irregul>ities z occur inevitably 9 daily work+1 ?an /eel does :i* is m free f ^! elem5ts4 ,reasonably pure1 s\nd1 reliable /eel c be _h at mod]ate co/1 & all consum]s %\ld insi/ ^u hav+ x4 ,regul>1 uni=m1 reliable work+ c be _h :]e x is requir$1 & !re %\ld be no excuse = irregul> gra91 ov]heat$ "w1 unev5 "w1 or any o!r bungl+4 ,:]e skill is requir$ & reasonable discipl9e is en=c$1 good "w w n co/ any m ?an bad "w4 ,_m p /ill hold to ! idea t !re are _m my/]ies connect$ ) /eel1 & t _m unacc\ntable breaks occur :i* make x an unreliable mat]ial4 ,x is hop$ t :at has be5 set d[n 9 ^! pages w g f> to dissipate ^! suppos$ my/]ies1 & to give confid5ce to /eel-us]s4 ,_m breaks are unacc\nt$ =1 b x is n )9 ! au?or's exp]i5ce t any fracture ev] occurr$ t c\ld n h be5 expla9$ if x _h be5 exam9$ ?or\ghly 9 ! light ( :at we "k n[4 ,!re is mu* to be le>n$1 b !re are no my/]ies4 ,,gloss>y4 ,!re are _m %op t]ms us$ 9 ?is book :i* may n be famili> to all /eel-us]s4 ,!y are 9 common use 9 /eel-manufactories1 & def9itions ( !m w enable a /eel-us] to und]/& m cle>ly ! common talk he w he> 9 ! %ops4 ,bl[-holes4--,bl[-holes are ! small cavities1 usually sph]ical1 :i* are =m$ 9 +ots z ! /eel congeals by bubbles ( gas :i* _c escape ?r\gh ! already froz5 surface4 ,burn$4--,burn$ /eel is /eel t is r$uc$ to oxide 9 "p by excessive heat+4 ,*eck4--,a *eck is a small rupture caus$ by wat]2 x may run 9 any direction2 x is usually n visible until /eel is ruptur$4 ,*emical ,num]ation4--,*emical quantities are almo/ univ]sally express$ 9 hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t1 z expla9$ 9 ! body ( ! "w4 ,x is a v conv5i5t num]ation2 any /eel-work]1 melt]1 hamm]man1 etc41 w talk ( #bj1 or #ej1 or #acj c>bon2 or #h phosphorus2 or #aj1 #ae1 or #be silicon1 etc42 & w talk intellig5tly1 al?\gh he may n "k ! exact ma!matical value ( ^! po9ts4 ,dead-melt+2 synonym1 kill+4--,dead-melt+--kill+--means melt+ /eel 9 ! crucible or op5 he>? until x ceases to boil or evolve gases2 x is !n dead1 x lies quiet 9 ! furnace1 & kill$ prop]ly x w set 9 ! m\lds )\t ris+ or boil+4 ,dry4--,/eel is call$ dry :5 its fracture is s&y-look+1 )\t lu/re or %e51 & )\t a prop] blue ca/4 ,!re is m ( a %ade ( yell[i% s&/one4 ,x is an evid5ce ( impurity & weakness4 ,fi]y4--,fi]y /eel has a brilliant lu/re2 x is an evid5ce ( high heat4 ,if ! gra9 be fairly f9e & ( blui% ca/1 x is n necess>ily bad 9 mild /eel2 9 high /eel or 9 tool-/eel x %\ld n be tol]at$4 ,if ! gra9 be l>ge & ( brassy ca/1 x is sure evid5ce ( bad condition2 ! gra9 %\ld be re/or$ be=e ! /eel is us$4 ,9 h>d5$ /eel x is always bad1 except 9 dies to be us$ "u ! impact ( drop-hamm]s2 9 ?is case /eel mu/ be s h>d z to be slightly fi]y4 ,grade4--,grade applies to quality1 z crucible1 ,bessem]1 or op5-he>? grade4 ,or 9 ! crucible1 common1 spr+1 ma*9]y1 tool1 special tool1 etc41 etc4 ,x does n indicate temp] or relative h>dness4 ,honeycomb$4--,uns\nd f _m bl[-holes4 ,usually appli$ to +ots4 ,x is a bad condition4 ,lap4--,a lap is caus$ by c>eless hamm]+1 or by badly proportion$ grooves 9 rolls1 or by c>eless roll+4 ,a portion ( ! /eel is fold$ ov] on itself1 ! walls are oxidiz$ & _c unite4 ,a lap g5]ally runs cle> along a b>1 practically p>allel ) its axis2 x may be se5 by a novice4 ,lapp$ /eel %\ld be reject$ always4 ,ov]bl[n4--,/eel t has be5 bl[n 9 a ,bessem] conv]t] aft] ! c>bon is all burn$2 !n !re is no?+ b /eel to burn1 & ! result is bad4 ,ov]heat$4--,/eel t has be5 heat$ too hot1 & n q burn$2 its fi]y fracture exposes x4 ,! gra9 ( ov]heat$ /eel may be re/or$1 b re/or$ /eel is nev] z reliable z /eel t has n be5 ov]heat$4 ,ov]heat+ is a dis9tegrat+ op]ation4 ,ov]melt$4--,/eel t has be5 kept too long 9 fusion4 ,! f9e/ mat]ial may be ru9$ 9 a crucible by be+ kept 9 ! furnace any consid]able "t aft] x has be5 kill$4 ,op5-he>? /eel may be injur$ s]i\sly 9 ! same way4 ,prompt teem+ aft] kill+ %\ld be ! rule4 ,pipe4--,a pipe is ! cavity =m$ 9 an +ot :5 x cools2 ! walls *ill fir/ & ne>ly to ! full size ( ! m\ld1 !n ! %r9k+ mass sep>ates 9 ! middle1 =m+ a pipe4 ,a pipe %\ld be at ! top ( ! +ot2 x may occur any:]e by bad teem+4 ,po9t4--,"o hundr$? ( "o p] c5t ( any elem5t4 ,y h say #aj po9ts ( c>bon1 or #aj c>bon2 y want x rais$ a few po9ts to #ae or #ah c>bon4 ,recalesc5ce4--,:5 a piece ( /eel is heat$ above m$ium orange color & cools sl[ly1 at ab\t m$ium orange--#aajj to #abjj ,f4--! *ange ( color ceases1 !n ! color rises sometimes to bright orange1 & aft]w>ds ! cool+ goes on2 ?is ph5om5on is call$ recalesc5ce4 ,?is is n yet a common %op t]m4 ,re/or+4--,:5 a piece ( ov]heat$ /eel is re-heat$ to recalesc5ce1 kept !re a few m9utes1 & !n cool$ sl[ly1 its gra9 becomes f9e & its fi]y lu/re disappe>s2 ?is is call$ re/or+4 ,no no/rums are necess>y4 ,sappy4--,well-work$1 good /eel has a blui% ca/1 a f9e gra91 & a silky %e54 ,x is sappy2 x is z good z x c be made4 ,seam4--,a seam is a long] or %ort] defect1 caus$ by a bl[-hole :i* work+ has br\ght out to ! surface & n elim9at$4 ,x usually1 or always1 runs 9 ! direction ( work+4 ,seams are di/+ui%$ f laps by n be+ cont9u\s2 !y are usually only an in* or two 9 l5g?4 ,%ort 7,cold1 ,r$1 ,hot74-- ,cold-%ort /eel is weak & brittle :5 cold4 ,r$-%ort /eel is brittle at d>k orange or m$ium orange heat or at ! common *]ry r$ heat4 ,x may =ge well at a lemon heat1 & be reasonably t\gh :5 cold4 ,hot-%ort /eel is brittle & friable above a m$ium orange color2 x may =ge well f m$ium orange d[n to black heat4 ,/>4--,a brilliant spot 9 mid-section %[+ t ! pipe is n all cut away4 ,x %\ld be remov$ f tool-/eel especially1 z x may h consid]able dep?4 ,x is ( no use 9 any /eel4 ,temp]4--,us$ by ! /eel-mak] x means ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t4 ,x is l[ temp]1 m$ium1 or high2 or numb] s & s by 8 %op numb]s4 ,us$ by ! /eel-us] or ! temp]] x means ! color to :i* h>d5$ /eel is drawn3 /raw1 br[n1 pigeon-w+1 blue1 etc41 etc4 ,or1 x is ! /eel-mak]'s measure ( initial h>dness2 & x is ! /eel-us]'s measure ( f9al h>dness4 ,wat]-crack4--,a crack caus$ 9 h>d5+2 x may run 9 any direction gov]n$ by l9es ( /ress 9 ! mass4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f a *eck by be+ l>g]1 & usually pla9ly visible4 ,wild ,/eel4--,/eel 9 fusion t boils viol5tly1 & acts 9 ! m\lds l lively soda-wat] or be] does :5 p\r$ into a glass4