,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,how ,,to ,,build ,a ,,house4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,ch,,teau4 ,,how ,,to ,,build ,a ,,house3 ,,an ,,architectural ,,novelette4 ,,by ,e4 ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc4 ,,translated ,,by ,,benjamin ,,bucknall1 ,,architect ,illustration3 ,two men talking ,,london3 ,,sampson ,,low1 ,,marston1 ,,low1 ,,and ,,searle1 ,,crown ,,buildings1 #ahh1 ,,fleet ,,street4 #ahgd4 ,all ,rights ,reserved4 ,,london ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,,translator',s ,,note4 ,among the voluminous and invaluable published works of ,m4 ,viollet-le-,duc1 none perhaps will have greater interest for the amateur or for the practical architect than the 8,histoire d'une ,maison40 ,of all the architectural problems of the day there is not one of greater importance or difficulty than that of building a house which shall fulfil the various needs and conditions of a modern dwelling2 and the author has brought the results of a long course of study1 observation1 and experience1 to bear upon this problem in a most practically instructive and fascinating shape4 ,a lively narrative introduces the reader to the minute and thorough discussion of every stage of the processes involved1 so that his attention is agreeably relieved2 and each step is illustrated by plates and diagrams1 which render the details intelligible even to the least informed student4 ,as the scene of this architectural novelette is laid in ,france1 there is much both in the general remarks and in the arrangements of the building described which only applies to the social conditions and requirements of the ,french4 ,but the value of the principles laid down and the practical instruction conveyed is not thereby materially lessened1 since every page of the book exhibits important truths or excellent methods1 which are of general application4 ,by following out those principles it would be easy to obtain the same admirable adaptation of arrangement1 soundness of construction1 and charm of design for an ,english house1 which the author has so ably laid down and fully illustrated in reference to its ,french counterpart4 ,it may be interesting to the reader to know that the 8,histoire d'une ,maison0 was written and illustrated by ,m4 ,viollet-le-,duc during the evenings of two months--,july and ,august--of last year 7#ahgc71 which were spent by him in the ,alps for the purpose of surveying and mapping for the ,french ,government the whole of the ,french ,alps--a task accomplished by him1 alone and unassisted1 with minute accuracy and beauty of delineation1 and in a marvellously brief time4 ,,benjamin ,,bucknall1 ,architect4 ,,oystermouth1 ,,swansea1 ,april #ast1 #ahgd4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,paul ,,gets ,,an ,,idea #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,with ,a ,,little ,,help1 ,,paul',s ,,idea ,,is ,,developed #ac ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,tree ,,of ,,knowledge #bf ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,paul',s ,,ideas ,,respecting ,,art1 ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,were ,,modified #ca ,,chapter ,v4 ,,paul ,,pursues ,a ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,in ,,practical ,,architecture #dj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,how ,,paul ,,is ,,led ,,to ,,recognize ,,certain ,,distinctions ,,between ,,ethics ,,and ,,architecture #fj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,setting ,,out ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,house1 ,,and ,,operations ,,on ,,the ,,ground #ga ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,paul ,,reflects #ha ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,paul1 ,,clerk ,,of ,,the ,,works #hh ,,chapter ,x4 ,,paul ,,begins ,,to ,,understand #if ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,building ,,in ,,elevation #ajf ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,observations ,,addressed ,,to ,,eug,,ne ,,by ,,paul1 ,,and ,,the ,,replies ,,made ,,to ,,them #aae ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,visit ,,to ,,the ,,building #aba ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,paul ,,feels ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,improving ,,himself ,,in ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,drawing #abf ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,staircases #acc ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,critic #acg ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,paul ,,inquires ,,what ,,architecture ,,is #adf ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,theoretical ,,studies #aef ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,theoretical ,,studies 7continued7 #agb ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,studies ,,interrupted #ahc ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,building ,,recommenced--,,the ,,timber ,,work #ahi ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,chimneys #bjd ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,cantine #baa ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,joiner',s ,,work #bad ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,what ,,paul ,,learnt ,,at ,,chateauroux #bbb ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,slating ,,and ,,plumbing #bcj ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,order ,,in ,,finishing ,,the ,,work #bda ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,house-,,warming #bdg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,fig ,,page ,,the ,,old ,,ch,,teau ,frontispiece4 ,,the ,,old ,,cellar ,vignette4 #a4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,ground ,,floor #bb #b4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,floor #bd #c4 ,,roof ,,plan #cc #d4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,floor #cf #e4 ,,the ,,entrance ,,front #cg #f4 ,,example ,,of ,a ,,building ,,site #df #g4 ,,ditto #dg #h4 ,,ditto #di #i4 ,,section ,,of ,,cellar ,,vault #ec #aj4 ,,the ,,old ,,cellar #ed #aa4 ,,the ,,old ,,cellar ,,stairs #ef #ab4 ,,the ,,bulged ,,walls #eh #ac4 ,,construction ,,of ,a ,,roof ,,principal #fb #ad4 ,,cambered ,,timber #fg #ae4 ,,the ,,old ,,roof #fh #af4 ,,coupled ,,timbers #fi #ag4 ,,ditto #fi #ah4 ,,timber ,,clips #gj #ai4 ,,setting ,,out ,,the ,,building #gc #bj4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,theodolite #gi #ba4 ,,the ,,cellar ,,plan #hi #bb4 ,,deposit ,,of ,,excavated ,,soil #ib #bc4 ,,foundation ,,stones #id #bd4 ,,section ,,of ,,sewer #ie #be4 ,,centering ,,of ,,cellar ,,vault #ig #bf4 ,,section ,,of ,,cellar ,,air-,,holes #ii #bg4 ,,respective ,,view ,,of ,,ditto #ajj #bh4 ,,spring ,,of ,,the ,,cellar ,,vaulting #aja #bi4 ,,the ,,garden ,,front #ajc #cj4 ,,the ,,quoin ,,stones #ajg #ca4 ,,the ,,window ,,casing #ajh #cb4 ,,the ,,ceilings #aaj #cc4 ,,method ,,of ,,trimming ,,the ,,floors #aab #cd4 ,,perspective ,,of ,,ditto #aab #ce4 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,building ,,operations #abj #cf4 ,,hollow ,,bedded ,,stones #abc #cg4 ,,drawing ,,models #abh #ch4 ,,ditto #abi #ci4 ,,plans ,,and ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,stairs #acb #dj4 ,,the ,,staircase ,,string #ace #da4 ,,step ,,of ,,winding ,,stairs #acf #db4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,side ,,walls1 ,,with ,,details #afc #dc4 ,,an ,,oriel ,,window #aff #dd4 ,,bay ,,window ,,of ,,billiard-,,room #agj #de4 ,,detail ,,of ,,cornice1 ,,string ,,course1 ,,etc4 #agf #df4 ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,house #aia #dg4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,roof ,,supports #aib #dh4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,roof #aid #di4 ,,the ,,staircase ,,roof #aif #ej4 ,,flaws ,,in ,,timber #aih #ea4 ,,coupled ,,beams #aii #eb4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,floor ,,joists #bja #ec4 ,,ditto #bja #ed4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,floor ,,beams #bja #ee4 ,,the ,,dormer ,,windows #bjc #ef4 ,,the ,,doors #baf #eg4 ,,details ,,of ,,ditto #bag #eh4 ,,the ,,casements #bah #ei4 ,,details ,,of ,,ditto #bai #fj4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,slating #bcc #fa4 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,plumber',s ,,work #bce #fb4 ,,the ,,new ,,house #beh ,,how ,,to ,,build ,a ,,house4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,paul ,,gets ,,an ,,idea4 ,who is happier than the young student from the ,lyceum when he comes home for the summer vacation1 bringing with him proofs of a well-spent year8 ,everything smiles upon him4 ,the sky is serene1 the country wears its loveliest dress1 and the fruit is ripe4 ,everyone congratulates him on his success1 and predicts for him1 after his six weeks' repose1 an energetic recommencement of congenial labour1 crowned by a brilliant career in the future4 ,yes1 our student is a happy fellow2 the air seems preternaturally light1 the sun shines more brightly1 and the meadows wear a richer green4 ,even the unwelcome rain is laden with perfume4 ,as soon as the morning breaks he hastens to revisit his favourite haunts in the park--the stream1 the lake1 and the farm--to see the horses1 the boat1 and the plantations4 ,he chats with the farmer's wife1 who smilingly presents him with a nice galette1 hot from the oven4 ,he walks with the gamekeeper1 who tells him all the news of the neighbourhood while going his rounds4 ,the sound of the sheep bells is musical--nay1 even the monotonous song of the shepherd-boy1 now grown a tall fellow1 and aspiring to the full dignity of shepherd4 ,it is indeed a happy time4 ,but in a few days the shade of the noble trees1 the lovely scenery1 the long walks1 the gamekeeper's stories1 and even the boating1 become wearisome1 unless some congenial occupation presents itself to occupy the mind4 ,it is the privilege of old age alone to delight in memories1 and always to find fresh pleasure in the contemplation of woods and fields4 ,the stores of memory are soon exhausted by youth2 and quiet meditation is not to its taste4 ,monsieur ,paul--a lively youth of sixteen--did not1 perhaps1 indulge in these reflections in the abstract2 but as a matter of fact1 after a week passed at the residence of his father1 who cultivated his considerable estate in the province of ,berry1 he had almost exhausted the stock of impressions which the return to the paternal domain had excited4 ,during the long scholastic year how many projects had he not formed for the next vacation6 ,six weeks seemed too short a time for their accomplishment4 ,how many things had he to see again2 how much to say and do4 ,yet in eight days all had been seen1 said1 and done4 ,besides1 his eldest sister1 who had been lately married1 had set out on a long journey with her husband2 and as to ,lucy1 the youngest1 she seemed too much occupied with her doll and its wardrobe to take an interest in the thinkings and doings of her respected brother4 ,it had rained all day2 and the farm1 visited by ,m4 ,paul for the fifth time1 had presented a sombre and mournful aspect4 ,the fowls crouching under the walls had a pensive look2 and even the ducks were dabbling in the mud in melancholy silence4 ,the gamekeeper had indeed taken ,m4 ,paul with him on a hare-hunting expedition1 but they had returned without success1 and pretty well soaked4 ,to his disappointment1 ,m4 ,paul had found the keeper's stories rather long and diffuse--not the less so as they were being repeated for the third time with few variations4 ,moreover1 the veterinary surgeon had announced that morning1 to ,m4 ,paul's vexation1 that his pony had caught a cold and must not quit the stable for a week4 ,the paper had been read after dinner1 but ,m4 ,paul was little attracted by its politics1 and the miscellaneous intelligence was deplorably uninteresting4 ,monsieur de ,gandelau 7,paul's father7 was too much taken up with agricultural matters1 and perhaps also with the treatment of his gout1 to seek to relieve the ennui of which his son was the victim2 and ,madame de ,gandelau1 still suffering from the depression caused by her eldest daughter's departure1 was working with a kind of desperation at a piece of tapestry1 whose destination was a mystery to all about her1 and perhaps even to the person who was so laboriously adding stitch to stitch4 8,you have had a letter from ,marie80 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 putting down the newspaper4 8,yes1 my dear1 this evening4 ,they are enjoying themselves excessively2 the weather has been charming1 and they have had the most delightful excursions in the ,oberland4 ,they are on the point of passing the ,simplon for ,italy4 ,marie will write to me from ,baveno1 ,htel de----0 8,capital6 and how are they80 8,quite well40 8,and they still mean to go to ,constantinople on that important business80 8,yes1 ,n---- has had a letter urging him to go2 they will take ,italy only en route4 ,they hope to embark at ,naples in a month1 at latest4 ,but ,marie tells me they cannot return within a year4 ,she does not appear to think much of so long an absence1 but it gives me a pang which no arguments for its necessity can alleviate40 8,ah6 well1 but do you expect our children to marry for our advantage8 ,and was it not settled that it should be so8 ,they say affection seldom stands the test of living constantly together on a journey4 ,n---- is a good1 noble fellow1 hard-working1 and a little ambitious1 which is no bad thing4 ,marie loves him2 she has intelligence and good health4 ,they will pass the trial successfully1 ,i have not a doubt1 and will return to us well-tried companions for life1 thoroughly acquainted with each other1 and having learned how to further and to suffice for one another's happiness2 and with that spice of independence which is so necessary for preserving a good understanding with one's neighbours40 8,i daresay you are right1 my dear2 but this long absence is not the less painful to me1 and this year will seem a long one4 ,i shall certainly be glad when ,i begin to prepare their rooms for them here1 and have only a few days to reckon till ,i may hope to see them again40 8,certainly1 certainly2 and ,i too shall be delighted to see them at home4 ,paul1 too6 ,but as it is certain they will be a year away1 it would be a fine opportunity for resuming my plan40 8,what1 my dear8 ,do you mean building the house you were thinking of1 on that bit of land which is part of ,marie's dowry8 ,i beg of you to do nothing of the kind4 ,we have quite enough room for them here1 and for their children1 if they have any4 ,and1 after this long absence1 it will be a new trial to me to have ,marie settled at a distance from us--not to have her near me4 ,besides1 her husband cannot stay three-quarters of a year in the country4 ,his engagements do not allow of it4 ,marie would then be alone4 ,what can she do in a house all to herself1 with her husband absent80 8,she will do1 my love1 as you did yourself1 when my business called me--as it did too often--away from home2 yet we were young then4 ,she will have her house to see after2 she will get into the way of managing her property2 she will have occupation and responsibilities2 and so she will be satisfied with herself and with the result of her thought and work4 ,believe me1 ,i have seen the warmest family affections weakened and destroyed by the habit of married children living with their parents4 ,the wife likes to be mistress in her own house2 and this is a sound and just feeling2 we should not run counter to it4 ,a woman who has been wisely educated1 having a house to look after and the responsibility and independence which responsibility in every form brings with it1 is more capable of maintaining her own dignity of character than one who has been kept all her life in a state of tutelage4 ,marie would be very comfortable here1 very happy to be with us1 and her husband would be not less satisfied in knowing that she was with us2 but she would not have a home of her own4 ,an unmarried daughter is only in her place when with her mother2 but a wife is only in her place in her own house4 ,a married woman in her mother's house takes her place only as a guest4 ,and even if we suppose no mutual irritation to arise from this life in common--and this can hardly fail to arise--it is certain that indifference to practical interests1 nonchalance1 and even ennui1 and all the dangers thence ensuing1 are sure to be caused by it4 8,you have brought up your daughter too well for her not to be ardently desirous of fulfilling all her duties2 you have always shown her an example of activity too conspicuous for her not to wish to follow it4 ,let us1 then1 afford her the means of doing so4 ,will you not be better pleased to see her managing her own house1 and delighted to entertain us there1 than to have her here incessantly at your elbow1 with nothing to do2 a judge1 silent and respectful1 if you like1 but still a judge1 of all your ways and doings8 ,do you think that her husband1 when he can snatch a few moments from business1 will enjoy as much pleasure in finding her constantly here1 as he will experience at seeing her in her own house1 delighted to show him all she has done during his absence2 engaged in rendering their common abode more and more agreeable and convenient from day to day8 ,if you reflect1 you will observe that those who in our day have given1 though in high social position1 the most occasion for scandal1 have been1 for the most part1 women whose early married life was passed thus1 without a home of their own1 leading that nondescript life which is neither that of the daughter nor the mistress of the house--the responsible housekeeper1 to call things by their right names40 ,some tears had moistened ,madame de ,gandelau's embroidery4 8,you are right again1 my dear10 said she1 pressing her husband's hand2 8your plan is just and reasonable40 ,paul1 though turning over the leaves of an illustrated periodical1 had not lost a word of this conversation4 ,the idea of seeing a house built for his eldest sister was very agreeable to him4 ,already1 to his youthful imagination1 this house in the future seemed1 as compared with the old family mansion1 a fairy palace1 elegant and splendid1 full of light and gaiety4 ,it must be confessed that ,m4 de ,gandelau's habitation had nothing to charm the eyes4 ,enlarged by successive additions1 two long wings of gloomy aspect were clumsily patched on to the main body1--formerly a castle1 two towers of which1 dismantled and crowned by low roofs1 flanked the angles4 ,between the two wings and this main building1 there extended a courtyard1 always damp1 enclosed by old iron railings1 and the remains of a moat now converted into a kitchen garden4 ,a third wing1 the prolongation of the old castellated building1 erected by ,m4 de ,gandelau soon after his marriage1 contained the private apartments of the family--the most attractive part of the chteau4 ,the drawing and dining rooms1 the billiard-room1 and ,m4 de ,gandelau's study formed part of the old main building4 ,as to the two parallel wings1 they contained rooms opening into irregular passages1 which1 not being all on a level1 were somewhat perilous to unwary feet4 ,next morning1 ,paul1 going to inquire how his pony was1 met old ,master ,branchu coming into the yard with a little cart full of pieces of wood1 bags of plaster1 and tools4 8,what are you going to do with that1 ,master ,branchu80 8,i am going to mend the pigeon-house1 ,monsieur ,paul40 8,how ,i should like to help you60 8,no1 ,monsieur ,paul1 you would dirty your clothes2 you might hurt yourself2 it is not your business4 ,but you may see us work1 if you like40 8,it must be a capital amusement to build60 8,as to amusement1 it's no amusement2 yet it isn't so disagreeable neither1 when you have to work for a good gentleman like your father2 when you have your pay regular1 and a bottle of wine when it's hot2 and when the people you work for do not grudge you what's reasonable--that's comfortable4 ,you do your work1 and pick up your tools at the end of the day with a merry heart4 ,but when you have to do with close-fisted people1 it's a miserable business1 for you must pay for what you have to work with4 ,this plaster in the cart1 and the bricks1 and so on1 cost money of course4 ,and if you can't get paid yourself1 you must find money somewhere1 and get into no end of trouble4 ,but ,i must be off2 there's my lad waiting for me40 8,could you build a large house1 ,master ,branchu80 8,i should think so1 ,master ,paul4 ,why1 ,i built the mayor's1 which is big enough in all conscience60 ,meantime1 ,paul no longer finds the hours hang heavily1 as they did the day before2 he has got an idea4 ,this house in prospect for his sister has seized on his imagination2 he figures it to himself sometimes as a palace1 sometimes as a turreted manor-house of the old style1 sometimes as a ,swiss cottage1 covered with ivy and clematis1 with innumerable carved balconies4 ,he has a grown-up cousin who is an architect2 he has often seen him at work at a drawing-board2 under his hand buildings rose as by enchantment4 ,it did not appear very difficult work4 ,his cousin ,eugne has the necessary instruments in the room he occupies when he comes to the chteau4 ,paul will try to put on paper one of those plans of which his imagination has given him a glimpse4 ,but there is a difficulty at the outset4 ,he must know what would suit his sister best2 a baronial castle1 with towers and battlements1 a ,swiss cottage1 or an ,italian villa4 ,if it is to take her by surprise1 the surprise must be at any rate an agreeable one4 ,after a good hour's meditation1 ,m4 ,paul thinks1 and with some reason1 that he ought to go and consult his father4 8,oh1 oh6 you are in a great hurry10 said his father1 after ,paul's first words4 8,but we are not quite so far advanced as that4 ,you want to draw a plan for ,marie's house4 ,well1 try then4 ,but in the first place1 we must know what your sister wants--how she would like her house arranged4 ,after all1 ,i am not sorry to hasten forward things a little4 ,we will send her a telegram40 ,,telegram4 8,baveno4 ,italy4 ,from ,x---- ,mad4 ,n----1 ,htel de ----4 ,paul wants to build a house here for ,marie4 ,send programme40 ,twenty hours afterwards the following telegram reached the chteau3-- 8,x----4 ,from ,baveno4 ,to ,m4 de ,gandelau4 ,arrived this morning--all well4 ,paul has an excellent idea4 ,ground-floor--entrance-hall1 drawing-room1 dining-room1 pantry1 kitchen not underground1 billiard-room1 study4 ,first-floor--two large bedrooms1 two dressing-rooms2 baths2 small bedroom1 dressing-room2 linen-room1 closets1 attic-bedrooms2 cupboards plenty2 staircase not break-neck4 ,,marie ,n----40 ,without doubting for a moment that his sister had taken in earnest the despatch addressed to her1 and had replied accordingly1 ,paul set himself resolutely to work1 and1 installed in ,eugne's room1 and making the best of his skill in drawing1 endeavoured to realize on paper the programme given above4 ,the difficulties of this undertaking were however serious enough to make it necessary to tell ,m4 ,paul twice that breakfast was on the table4 ,the afternoon passed rapidly away1 and on assembling for dinner1 ,paul presented a fine sheet of paper fairly covered with plans and elevations4 8,a creditable piece of work10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau unrolling it2 8but your cousin is coming to-morrow1 and he will be able to criticize your plan better than ,i can40 ,all the night ,paul was in a state of excitement4 ,he dreamed of a palace rising under his direction4 ,but there was always some defect in his building4 ,there were no windows2 the staircase was only a shaky ladder1 and his sister ,marie would not venture to mount it4 ,in one place the ceilings were so low that you could not stand upright2 elsewhere they were of terrific height4 ,old ,branchu was laughing and shaking the walls with his hand to show they were not firm4 ,the chimney smoked horribly1 and his little sister was impetuously demanding a room for her doll4 ,paul had looked at his plan again as soon as he got up1 and it appeared to him much less satisfactory than it had done the night before2 in fact1 he blushed at the thought of showing it to his cousin1 who was coming to breakfast2 he was hesitating1 and thinking of destroying the painful labour of a whole day4 8,father1 ,i think my cousin will laugh at me if ,i show him my drawing40 8,my dear boy10 replied ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8when we have done what we can1 i4e41 the best we can1 we must not shrink from criticism1 which is the only means of ascertaining the insufficiency of our knowledge and supplying its defects4 ,you would be very silly if you thought you could become an architect in a single morning2 but if1 after having made an effort to express an idea which you think good1 either in drawing or otherwise1 you should hesitate to submit your essay to some one more skilful than yourself1 for fear of eliciting more criticism than applause--it would not be modesty1 but a very reprehensible vanity1 for it would deprive you of advice which cannot fail to be useful to you1 at your age especially40 ,when his cousin had come it was nevertheless necessary for ,m4 de ,gandelau to tell his son to bring his attempt1 to induce our architectural tyro to unroll again the paper he had covered the day before with such painfully elaborate designs4 8,well1 my young cousin10 said the visitor1 8so you want to become an architect4 ,take care6 all is not couleur de rose in that profession1 as it would appear on your paper40 ,in a few words ,eugne was informed of what was intended4 8,very good6 ,here is the drawing-room and the entrance-hall4 ,i don't quite understand the staircase1 but that is a matter of detail4 ,and the elevations8 ,but it's a palace6--columns1 balustrades6 ,well1 we can set to work at once40 8,could we1 cousin8 ,suppose we tell ,master ,branchu2 he is at work close by40 8,a little patience--this is only a sketch4 ,how about the definitive plans2 and the estimates2 and the details of execution8 ,we must go methodically to work4 ,you must know1 cousin1 that the more rapidly we want a building erected1 the more desirable it is that everything should be perfectly arranged beforehand4 ,remember the trouble your neighbour1 ,count ---- has had1 who has been beginning his chteau again and again every spring for six years1 without being able to get it finished1 because he could not indicate all that he wanted at first1 and his architect had not the courage to insist upon adopting a well-planned design once for all2 and because he has listened to all the whims1 or rather to all the officious advice which friends of the family did not fail to offer1 one respecting the size of the rooms1 another about the placing of the staircases1 a third on the style and decoration4 ,we have only a year before us1 we must therefore not begin till we are certain of not taking false steps2 besides1 your sister must approve the plan4 ,let us consider a little2 and first let us come to an understanding about the means of construction you decide to adopt4 ,as we are in a hurry we have hardly a choice2 we cannot think of building the house with worked stone from top to bottom2 that would take too long1 and cost too much4 ,we must adopt a method of construction that is simple1 and can be rapidly executed4 ,does that meet your ideas8 ,you introduce columns in your front2 for what purpose8 ,if they form a portico1 they will make the rooms dark and gloomy2 if they are attached to the walls1 they are of no use here4 ,and this balustrade on the upper cornices--what does that mean8 ,do you suppose your lady sister will walk among the gutters8 ,that is for the service of the cats1 ,i suppose4 ,and please to explain this3 on the plan ,i observe that from the entrance-hall you have to go through the dining-room to reach the drawing-room4 ,but if visitors come while you are at table1 you will have to ask them to wait at the door1 or invite them to see you and your friends eat4 8,and so the kitchen opens on the billiard-room4 ,come1 we must go a little more deeply into the matter2 shall we set to work to do so8 ,between us we shall perhaps get through the business a little faster1 and you will give me ideas2 for you know your elder sister's tastes and habits better than ,i do4 ,you will thus be able to supplement the scantiness of the programme given us4 ,think about it1 and early to-morrow morning we will proceed to work out our plan40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,with ,a ,,little ,,help1 ,,paul',s ,,idea ,,is ,,developed4 ,in fact1 early in the morning ,paul might be seen going into his cousin's room4 ,everything was ready3 drawing-board1 ,t-squares1 compasses1 and pencils4 8,take your seat here1 cousin2 you are going to render on paper the result of our meditations1 since you know so well how to make use of our instruments4 ,let us proceed methodically4 ,in the first place1 you doubtless know the ground on which your father intends to have your sister's country house built40 8,yes1 it is down there below the wood1 about two miles off--that little valley at the bottom of which runs the brook which turns ,michaud's mill40 8,just show me that on the plan of the estate4 ,oh1 ,i see it40 8,you see1 cousin1 it is here4 ,on the south side of the plateau are the arable lands1 then the ground slopes a little to the north towards the brook4 ,here there is a fine spring of fresh water issuing from the wood1 which is on the west4 ,on the declivity of the plateau1 and at the bottom of the valley1 are meadows with a few trees40 8,on which side then is the pleasantest view80 8,towards the bottom of the valley1 on the south-east40 8,how do you get to the meadow from your father's house80 8,by crossing the wood2 then you go down to the bottom of the valley by this road2 you cross a bridge here1 then you ascend along the plateau obliquely by this path40 8,very good2 we must therefore build the house almost on the summit of the incline facing the north--sheltering it from the north-west winds under the neighbouring wood4 ,the entrance will have to front the ascending road2 but we must arrange for the principal apartments to command the most favourable aspect1 which is south-east2 moreover1 we must take advantage of the open view on the same side1 and not disregard the spring of fresh water that flows on the right towards the bottom of the valley2 we shall therefore approach it and locate the house in that resting-place which nature has arranged so favourably to our views1 some yards below the plateau4 ,we shall thus be tolerably sheltered from the south-west winds1 and shall not have the dull-looking plain1 which extends as far as the eye can reach1 in front of the house4 ,this settled1 let us look at the programme4 ,no dimensions of rooms are mentioned2 we shall therefore have to determine this4 ,according to what your father has told me1 he intends this house to be for constant residence1 habitable in summer as well as in winter1 and consequently to contain all that is suitable for a large landed proprietor4 ,he means to spend about #hjjj upon it2 it is therefore a matter which demands serious study1 especially as your sister and her husband make a great point of #8comfort4' ,i was at their house in ,paris1 and found it admirably fitted up1 but nothing sacrificed to vanity or mere appearances4 ,we may therefore start from these data4 ,let us begin by the plan of the ground-floor4 ,the principal apartment is the drawing-room1 where the family assemble4 ,we cannot give it less than #af or #ag feet in width1 by #bd to #bh feet in length4 ,first draw a parallelogram to these dimensions4 ,ah1 stay6 not mere guess-work4 ,take your scale40 ,paul looked at his teacher in some perplexity4 8,i forgot2 perhaps you don't know what a scale means4 ,indeed your plan seems to have taken no account of anything of the kind4 ,listen to me1 then3 ,when you wish to build a house1 or any edifice1 you give the architect a programme1 i4e41 a complete list of all the rooms and accessories that are wanted4 ,but this is not enough2 you say such or such a room must have such or such a width by such or such a length1 or have such or such an area so as to accommodate so many persons4 ,if it is a dining-room1 for instance1 you will mention that it must accommodate #aj1 #ae1 #bj1 or #be persons at table4 ,if it is a bedroom1 you will specify that besides the bed 7which is a matter of course7 it must accommodate such or such pieces of furniture or occupy an area of #cjj feet1 #djj feet1 c4 ,now you know that an area of #djj feet is equivalent to a square whose side is #bj feet1 or a parallelogram of about #bd feet by #af feet #h inches1 or of #cj feet by #ac feet #d inches4 ,but these last dimensions would not suit a room2 they are rather the proportions of a gallery4 ,independently1 therefore1 of the area of a room1 its breadth and length must bear certain relations according to its purpose4 ,a drawing-room or a bedchamber may be square2 but a dining-room1 if it is to accommodate more than ten persons at table1 must be longer than it is broad1 because a table increases in length but not in width1 according to the number of the guests4 ,you must therefore add #8leaves' to the dining-room as you do to the table4 ,do you understand8 ,good4 ,at this point then the architect1 in preparing the plan1 even if it is only a sketch1 adopts a scale1 i4e41 he divides a line drawn upon his paper into equal parts1 each representing a foot4 ,and to save time1 or to simplify the work1 he takes for each of these divisions the #aibth1 or the #ifth1 or the #dhth part of a foot4 ,in the first case we call it a scale of #a_/afth of an inch to a foot1 or a scale of #af feet to an inch2 in the second1 a scale of th of an inch to a foot1 or a scale of #h feet to an inch2 in the third1 a scale of th of an inch to a foot1 or a scale of #d feet to an inch4 ,thus you prepare a plan one hundred and ninety-two1 ninety-six1 or forty-eight times smaller than its realization will be4 ,i need not say that we may make scales in any proportion ad infinitum--one1 two1 or three hundredths of an inch to a foot1 or to #aj1 #ajj1 or #a1jjj feet1 as we do for drawing maps4 ,in the same way we may give details on a scale of #f inches to a foot1 or half the actual size2 #b inches to a foot1 or a sixth of the actual size1 c4 ,having chosen his scale1 the architect is enabled to give to each part of the plan exact relative dimensions4 ,if he has adopted the scale of one-eighth of an inch to a foot1 and wishes to indicate a door #d feet in width1 he takes #d_/hths4 ,do you understand8 ,i am not quite sure that you do2 but a few hours' practice will render you au fait at it4 ,to show you distinctly the utility of a scale1 ,i will take your plan4 ,your drawing-room is an oblong4 ,i will suppose it #bj feet by #bg feet2 that is pretty nearly the relative proportion of the sides4 ,a ninth of the longer side measured by the compass is #c feet4 ,i measure your faade by this and find that your lower story is #cj feet high4 ,now fancy to yourself how 7,i will not say your drawing-room1 but7 your entrance-hall1 whose sides are only #ac feet1 would look with a height of #cj feet between the floor and the ceiling4 ,it would be a well4 ,your elevation therefore is not on the same scale as your plan4 ,take for your sister's drawing-room #ah_/afths on this graduated rule1 which will give #ah feet on a scale of #a_/afth of an inch to a foot4 ,just so2 that gives us the shorter side of the drawing-room4 ,now take #bg_/afths on the same rule1 which will give #bg feet2 that will be the longer side4 ,now your oblong is drawn with dimensions perfectly exact4 ,you will have to surround this room with walls1 for we can scarcely give ordinary floors a greater width2 you must therefore have walls to receive the joists4 ,a rubble wall through which flues have to pass1 can hardly be less than #a foot #h inches in thickness4 ,your drawing-room will therefore support itself4 ,next in importance to the drawing-room is the dining-room4 ,where are we to place it8 ,we ought1 especially in the country1 to be able to enter it directly from the drawing-room4 ,is it to be on the right1 or on the left8 ,you have not the least idea2 nor ,i either4 ,but chance cannot settle the question4 ,let us think about it a little4 ,it would seem natural to put the kitchen near to the dining-room4 ,but the position of the kitchen is a matter presenting some difficulties4 ,when you are not at table you don't like to have the smell of the viands1 or hear the noise of those engaged in kitchen work4 ,on the one hand1 the kitchen ought not to be far from the dining-room2 on the other hand1 it ought to be far enough from the chief rooms for its existence not to be suspected4 ,besides1 the back-yard1 the outbuildings1 the poultry-yard1 a small vegetable garden1 wash-houses1 c41 ought to be near the kitchen4 ,it is a matter of importance too that the kitchen should not have a south aspect4 ,and we must not forget that your sister1 who knows how a house ought to be managed1 has taken the precaution to say in her laconic programme3 #8,kitchen not underground4' ,she is right3 underground kitchens are unhealthy for those who live in them1 present difficulties in the way of surveillance1 and diffuse their odour through the ground floor4 ,we shall put it therefore on a level with the dining-room1 but without direct communication with the latter1 to avoid odours and noises4 ,let us examine our ground1 its position and aspects4 ,the most undesirable aspect1 and that which in the present case offers the least agreeable prospect1 is the north-west4 ,we shall therefore place the drawing-room with its exterior angle towards the south-east2 on the right we shall put the dining-room2 and next the kitchen1 which will thus face the north4 ,do not be in a hurry to draw the plan of these subordinate apartments1 for we must know first what position they are to occupy in relation to the drawing-room and the entrance-hall4 ,we are required to provide a billiard-room4 ,it will be well to place it on the south-east1 as a pendant to the dining-room4 ,the hall and your brother-in-law's study must be near the entrance4 ,if we place the dining-room and the billiard-room1 whose dimensions are to be nearly equal to those of the drawing-room1 in juxtaposition and continuation with the latter1 the drawing-room will be lighted only on one of its shorter sides1 for we must put the entrance-hall in front4 ,the drawing-room would in that case be gloomy1 and would command a view of the country only in one direction4 ,let us then put the dining-room and the billiard-room at right angles to the drawing-room1 allowing the latter to jut out on the sides of the favourable aspect4 ,let us give each of these two apartments a length of #bd feet by a width of #ah feet4 ,these are convenient dimensions4 ,then mark in front of the drawing-room an entrance-hall1 whose area we shall determine presently4 8,we will try next to give to the walls of those apartments the position required by the general construction4 ,the entrance to the dining-room and the billiard-room--which is also a place of assembly--is to be from the drawing-room4 ,the opening from the drawing-room into the billiard-room must therefore be wide enough for those who may be in either of those apartments to assemble without inconvenience4 ,but we ought to be able to reach the entrance-hall from the billiard-room without going through the drawing-room2 and so with the dining-room4 ,we observe that lateral prospects were required for the drawing-room1 whose length is #bg feet4 ,if we take #h feet for the side-lights1 and #a foot #f inches for the thickness of the wall of the billiard-room or the dining-room1 there will remain #ag feet #f inches to the entrance partition of the drawing-room2 our billiard-room and dining-room being #ah feet wide1 these apartments will reach #h inches beyond the entrance-partition of the drawing-room4 ,that does not matter4 ,let us mark out the second wall1 also #a foot #f inches thick4 ,thus we have the three chief apartments determined4 ,in the central line of the billiard-room we will make an opening into the drawing-room of #h feet #f inches4 ,on the side of the wall separating it from the dining-room we will open a door of #d feet #f inches into the dining-room1 within #h inches of the partition separating the drawing-room from the entrance-hall4 ,thus we shall enter this dining-room1 not in the centre1 but on one side1 which is more convenient2 for you know that in going to or leaving it the gentlemen offer their arms to the ladies4 ,it is therefore desirable that in going out or coming in there should be no obstacle in their way4 ,the door leading from the drawing-room to the dining-room will be also out of the central line of the opening from the drawing-room into the billiard-room2 but that ,i do not mind4 ,this door will balance with the window on this side looking outwards1 and we will put the fireplace between them4 ,we will open a central door from the entrance-hall into the drawing-room4 8,in front1 against the wall of the billiard-room1 let us put your brother-in-law's study1 with a small anteroom1 where people who have business with him can wait1 so as not to be wandering about in the hall4 ,on the dining-room side 7of the hall7 we will put the pantry4 ,the study must be at least #ab feet #f inches wide4 ,we will make the entrance-hall jut out a little to form a projection4 8,the staircase is a very important point in every house4 ,it should be proportioned to the house1--neither too spacious nor too scanty4 ,it must not occupy space uselessly2 it must give easy access to the upper stories1 and be sufficiently conspicuous4 ,if we take a part of the staircase out of the entrance-hall1 which is very large--#ah feet by #af feet--it will be very conspicuous1 and we shall gain room4 ,the width of a staircase in a house of this style and size should be at least #d feet4 ,but the hall ought to communicate directly with the dining-room1 the pantry1 and all the offices to the right of the plan4 ,let us reserve a passage of #d feet and mark the first step4 ,the height of the lower story between floor and floor should be1 reckoning the size of the rooms1 #ae feet2 which will give them a clear height of #ad feet1 reserving #a foot for the thickness of the floor of the chamber story4 ,the steps of an easy staircase should be about #f inches high4 ,to ascend #ae feet we require thirty steps4 ,each step should be #aj to #ab inches wide4 ,the staircase should have an extension of #be feet for steps of #aj inches in width1 or #cj feet for steps of #ab inches1 reckoning thirty steps4 ,let us take a mean--say #bg feet4 ,we must find room for this extension of #bg feet at the least4 ,we will therefore place a staircase projection at the angle of the entrance-hall prominent enough to bring us1 in winding round a newel 7which will be in the prolongation of the wall on the right of the drawing-room71 to the first floor1 passing out into the antechamber of this floor4444 ,i mark out this staircase for you3 we shall have to return to it4 ,the first fifteen steps come into the length of the newel and the wall1 and allow us to place below the last half flight of the stairs the water-closet for the family on the ground floor4 ,opening from the passage we will next put the pantry4 ,then the servants' staircase in a tower2 then the serving-room2 then the kitchen in the wing2 a bakehouse and scullery1 a wash-house1 and a way out from the kitchen to the kitchen garden4 ,forming a return1 we will put a stable for three horses1 a coach-house for two carriages1 a harness-room1 and a small flight of stairs to reach the rooms for the coachman and groom1 and the hay-loft in the roof4 ,near the stable we will leave a way into the yard and the larder and servants' conveniences4 8,we will separate all these offices from the main building by a plinth wall and trellis-work at the right of the round tower servants' staircase1 which will give us a courtyard for the kitchen1 stable1 and coach-house4 ,in front we will reserve a space for the poultry-yard1 the fowl-house1 and the manure pit4444 8,now that we have traced out the general plan of our ground floor1 let us try to improve it in detail4 8,it would be very nice to have a bay window at the end of the drawing-room looking out on the garden4 ,nothing prevents us from planning another at the end of the billiard-room1 with a divan where the gentlemen might smoke1 and a third at the end of the dining-room1 which would allow the dishes to be passed in through a turn from the serving-room1 and afford room for the sideboard and carving tables4 8,we shall find these projections useful on the first floor4 8,but we ought to have a way out from the drawing-room or the billiard-room into the garden4 ,i must confess that ,i am not very fond of those flights of steps1 which are scorching under a hot sun and very disagreeable in wind and rain2 if1 then1 in the angle formed by the billiard-room with the drawing-room1 and along it1 we were to place a conservatory inclosing a flight of steps1 ,i think it would be a convenient arrangement4 ,thus we could pass from the drawing-room or the billiard-room into this conservatory1 and could take coffee there in wet weather1 and have a covered approach to the garden4 ,some flowers and shrubs placed along the glazed side would enliven the billiard-room without darkening it4 ,but in front of the entrance-hall we will have a flight of steps in the usual style1 which we shall take care to put under shelter1 the position of the staircase allowing us to do so without difficulty4 8,let us draw out all this as nearly as we can2 we shall have to revise it when we have studied the first floor1 whose arrangements may oblige us to modify some of those on the ground floor 7,fig4 #a74 8,as the walls must rise from the bottom1 you will put a piece of tracing paper over this ground-plan to avoid loss of time4 ,you will thus have beneath your eyes and pencil the walls to which you must accommodate the superstructure1 and we shall presently see whether there is reason to modify some parts of this ground-plan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,ground ,,floor4 ,a1 entrance-hall2 ,b1 drawing-room2 ,c1 dining-room2 ,d1 billiard-room2 ,e1 study2 ,f1 conservatory inclosing flight of steps2 ,g1 butler's pantry2 ,h1 kitchen2 ,i1 serving-room2 ,k1 ,l1 bakehouse and wash-house2 ,m1 office-yard2 ,n1 ,s1 poultry-yard2 ,o1 stable2 ,p1 coach-house2 ,r1 harness-room2 a1 servants' staircase2 b1 cellar steps2 c1 groom's staircase2 ,v1 ,w1 water-closets4 8,just so4 ,let us first trace the termination of the staircase2 the last of the thirty steps we shall require is in a line with the wall on the right of the entrance-hall2 it is the landing which will open on the antechamber above the hall4 ,over the drawing-room we shall place ,madame ,n4's room2 but as this area would be too large1 we shall take advantage of the space to put a second partition1 which will give double doors and a capital space for closets1 which ladies never find superfluous4 ,to give light in this space we shall glaze an upper portion of the partition next to the antechamber4 ,these double doors will insure greater privacy in the bedroom1 and prevent the passage of sounds4 ,besides1 this second antechamber will enable us to provide a direct communication with ,monsieur ,n4's apartment1 which we shall place in the favourable aspect1 that is over the billiard-room4 8,as this area also is too large1 we shall take out of the space thus available a lady's dressing-room1 and a bathroom2 and provide an entrance to ,monsieur ,n4's room direct from the antechamber through a private passage1 which will also open into the lady's dressing-room1 that for your brother-in-law over the study1 his bedchamber and the closets for these apartments4 ,thus when the two doors leading to the antechamber are shut1 these rooms will be completely cut off4 ,with a corridor answering to that of the ground floor on the right we shall establish a communication between the antechamber1 the servants' staircase1 the linen-room 7an important matter71 which we shall place over the kitchen1 with a large wardrobe for your sister on the right of her bedroom1 and a nursery 7for we must provide for every contingency71 which1 as well as the wardrobe1 will be over the dining-room4 ,the recess or bay window of the ground floor will afford us the means of giving a nice dressing-room for the children's or guests' room on the first floor2 and that of the billiard-room will furnish a very agreeable addition to ,monsieur ,n4's room4 ,as to the bay window in the drawing-room1 we will cover with a flat1 with a balustrade1 which will give your sister's room a handsome balcony1 where an awning and flowers can be placed in the summer4 7,fig4 #b47 8,you see1 ,paul1 our plan begins to assume a definite shape4 ,breakfast will soon be ready3 go and take a walk1 and in the afternoon we will resume our work1 that is to say1 we will proceed to the elevations40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,floor4 ,a1 antechamber2 ,b1 ,madame ,n4's bedroom2 ,c1 dressing-room and bathroom2 ,d1 wardrobe2 ,e1 ,monsieur ,n4's bedroom2 ,f1 dressing-room and bathroom2 ,g1 nursery2 ,h1 dressing-room2 ,i1 linen-room2 ,p1 lumber-room2 ,w1 water-closets4 ,on going down to the garden1 ,paul began to examine the family mansion with an attention he had never yet bestowed upon it4 ,he had never thought before of observing how its apartments were arranged4 ,he began to calculate the space lost in those interminable passages2 he perceived here and there dark and useless corners4 ,the staircase started badly4 ,on the ground floor it could not be found without knowing the arrangement of the house4 ,the kitchen was at a vast distance from the dining-room1 and to get from the one to the other you must cross a carriage road1 go down two steps and mount six4 ,for the first time in his life this struck him as barbarous4 ,walking about waiting for the breakfast bell1 ,paul began to ask himself whether his father would not do well to pull down his old mansion and build one on a new plan devised by himself with his cousin's advice4 ,he began to reckon up the several faults in the arrangement of the house1 not forgetting its too numerous break-neck passages4 ,he considered the sombre drawing-room1 flanked on two sides by the two old towers that masked the side views1 his father's little study lighted by a narrow window and entered by a pretty large room1 generally unused1 and which served as a fruit-room in the autumn2 many other defects besides4444 8,well10 said his father1 as soon as they were seated at table1 8you have been already at work this morning80 ,paul1 full of the subject that had engaged him1 gave an exact description of the plan which had been prepared2 but could not finish without indulging in some critical remarks on the family mansion4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,tree ,,of ,,knowledge4 ,his mother looked at him with astonishment2 his father became serious1 and said3 8,paul1 this house satisfies your mother just as it is1 and me too2 you three--your two sisters and yourself--were all born here2 my father left it to me1 and ,i have added to it only what has been necessary4 ,there is not a corner in this house but is associated with some happy or mournful reminiscence2 it has been consecrated by the labours of three generations of honourable occupants4 ,all the people of the neighbourhood1 who please to give it the name of the ,chteau1 know that they may look for bread here when they want it1 clothes for their little ones1 advice in their differences1 and relief if they are ill4 ,they do not need to be shown the staircase that leads to your mother's room or my study1 for they know it as well as we do2 they know as well as we do those #8break-neck places' on which you are so severe1 and do not get lost in the long passages4 ,if the kitchen is a little too far from the dining-room1 it is large enough to hold the harvest-men when they come to supper1 and the shepherds when they come to settle their accounts4 ,i do not think ,i should be justified in altering all this1 for this house belongs1 ,i may say1 to the neighbourhood2 and you should not forget any more than ,i do that1 in #agic1 my grandfather remained here alone with his wife and my father without molestation1 while all the neighbouring chteaux were abandoned and pillaged4 8,when we are gone--your mother and ,i--you will do what you think fit with this house2 but if there is one piece of advice ,i would impress upon you1 it is--,keep it as it is1 for it may outlast you and your children4 ,keep it1 for you must have committed many faults before it can cease to be a shelter for our family4 8,i know as well as you--perhaps better--all that it needs to adapt it to the taste of the day2 and if ,i were to sell it to some wealthy proprietor1 he would probably soon demolish it and build a house or a chteau more comfortable1 and better suited to modern habits4 ,what such a purchaser might do ,i cannot1 ,i ought not to do4 8,the good people with wooden shoes on their feet and woollen cloaks on their backs who come here to talk with me1 and who would protect my old house1 if need were 7,i have had proof of it71 would cease to come into a new dwelling with which they were not familiar1--where everything would have a tendency to repel them1 if not to arouse envious reflections in them4 ,i should become unaccustomed to see them2 and while it seems to me quite natural to see them at any time in this house--which only recalls the past1 and where all is simple and somewhat rough1 like themselves--it would probably appear to me strange to introduce them into apartments arranged and decorated in modern taste4 8,it is undesirable to disturb visual associations2 our simple-minded neighbours connect in thought the inhabitant with the house3 change the latter1 and they will no longer recognize the former4 8,your cousin knows still better than you or ,i what are the defects of our old mansion1 and how it might be rendered much more attractive2 yet he has never suggested modifications to me1 because he perceives1 as ,i do1 that by making any change in such buildings acquired habits among those around us would be disturbed in a way that could only be injurious4 8,and here are you--an architect of two or three hours' standing1 and before you know whether you could improve on the house as it is--thinking of pulling it down4 ,be a little more modest2 when you have studied some time and seen more1 you will know that a dwelling ought to be1 to a man and his family1 a well-suited dress1 and that when a residence is perfectly adapted to the manners and habits of those it shelters1 it is excellent4 ,how many proprietors have ,i seen who1 while destroying their ancestral mansion1 to replace it by a habitation conformable as they thought to the requirements of the moment1 have by the same act ruptured the tie which attached their family to the humble inhabitants of the neighbourhood60 ,the only reply ,paul offered to these arguments was to go and embrace his mother and father2 and no better could have been thought of4 8,i don't exactly see10 said ,paul to his cousin1 when they were both in the park after breakfast1 8why my father should wish to have a house built for my sister1 since he thinks it so desirable to keep for himself and for us the old mansion in which we were born40 8,it is not a matter of very easy explanation2 but you are old enough1 ,paul1 to understand it4 ,in the first place1 your sister ,marie now bears another name than yours2 and a well-known respected name has a similar standing in the neighbourhood with the old house to which1 so to speak1 it is attached4 ,if you had not been born1 and your parents were no longer living1 ,madame ,n----1 your sister1 on coming to live on this estate1 might safely pull down the old house and build a new one1 for it would not be more difficult to introduce the new house than the name of a new proprietor4 ,she would have to create new ties with all this little world that surrounds you1 and consequently to establish between this world and her new family relations differing probably from those which now exist between your father and the people of your neighbourhood4 ,your father's connection with the peasants of ,berri1 among whom he has always lived1 is intertwined with traditions handed down through several generations without interruption4 ,he can therefore obtain services from them1 and inspire them with a confidence which would not be accorded to new-comers1 or to any name but his2 while these peasants on their part unsuspectingly accept favours which they know from long experience to be disinterested4 ,the old manor-house1 occupied by a stranger bearing a new name1 would lose the prestige which your father so justly appreciated2 there would in that case be no advantage in preserving its time-honoured aspect4 ,m4 de ,gandelau1 therefore1 who does nothing without consideration1 perceives that some day or other1 by the pressure of circumstances1 his house might be no longer suitable for his children1 so that before its possible disappearance1 he builds a new one for your sister2 a house to which the neighbourhood will become gradually accustomed1 and which will form a new family centre2 for ,madame ,marie is beloved and esteemed throughout the neighbourhood4 ,people will become accustomed to the more modern habits of the new manor-house1 and no one will then think it strange that the old one should be demolished4 ,your father is preparing a gradual transition from a social condition1 which1 though on the decline even in the country districts1 still exists1 to that which is destined to replace it4 ,you see1 then1 that though he values the past1 and endeavours to preserve its advantages1 he does not believe in its perpetuity1 and foresees the time when it must vanish before the habits and requirements of the present4 ,natural as is your father's mode of living1 because it is the result of habits that have not been interrupted for many generations1 it would be difficult for a new-comer to conform to these habits4 ,besides1 this estate which ,m4 de ,gandelau has rendered so productive1 and which he has increased in extent1 will have to be divided at his decease amongst his three children4 ,already he has detached a portion of it to form your sister's dowry4 ,he intends1 then1 by the residence we are going to build1 to have this part now brought into harmony with the habits of the new proprietors1 who are young1 and whose mode of life must be different from that which still suits your father4 ,when you are older you will appreciate all these things better4 ,let us go and resume our work40 ,paul was endeavouring to gain a clear view of the grave subjects his cousin had been discussing4 ,he recalled the conversation of the preceding days between his father and mother1 and his mind was evidently full of ideas1 new to him1 which had been thus suggested4 ,at any rate1 the old house began to assume in his eyes a venerable appearance1 and he was no longer inclined to censure its inconvenient arrangements and somewhat inelegant exterior4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,paul',s ,,ideas ,,respecting ,,art1 ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,were ,,modified4 8,before resuming our pencil10 said ,eugne1 as soon as they were seated once more in his study1 8you must know how you are going to proceed4 ,we have sketched the ground plans4 ,we know that they can be realized1 that the construction will present no special difficulties2 that the partition walls of the upper stories stand vertically on those of the lower ones2 that the bearings of the floors are reasonable1 and that the openings are conveniently placed4 ,that is satisfactory so far4444 ,but now1 do you realize these plans in elevation8 ,that is1 can you fancy the house as standing1 with its stories1 its roofing1 its windows1 c480 8,well1 ,i can't say ,i do40 8,you must then first picture the building to yourself as if it actually existed4444 ,i know that this is hardly possible for you1 since there are many architects who are as far off as you from being able to do so when they have drawn horizontal plans on paper1 and who in drawing these plans do not see the building for which they are designed4 ,reflect a little2 examine their outlines well1 and endeavour to give them in elevation some definite form in your mind's eye before making use of the pencil4444 ,take your time4 ,i have a letter to write1 and some accounts to attend to2 so while ,i am engaged1 try to give me the elevation of one of the fronts of the house1--the entrance-front1 for example1 on the north side1--and we will discuss your design4 ,i only give you one piece of advice1--that is1 to put nothing upon paper without having previously considered whether your design is appropriate and useful4 8,come1 try your best2 and don't forget the scale of proportions40 ,paul was much embarrassed1 and found the work by no means easy4 ,the ideas which had suggested themselves in abundance at his first attempt were not forthcoming now4 ,however1 at the end of a good hour and a half he presented a sketch to his cousin4 8,it might be worse10 said ,eugne4 8,you have given the ground floor #ae feet from floor to floor1--that was about what we said2 but why the same height for the first floor8 ,the rooms are smaller1 and more airy2 there is therefore no need to give an equal height to this story1 and #ac feet #f inches would be quite enough4 ,and why put round arched windows on the ground floor8 ,arched windows are difficult to fit with casements1 and there is a difficulty with shutters1 jalousies1 or outside blinds4 ,again1 the windows of your principal staircase do not ramp with the stairs1 and would be cut in the middle by it2 which would prevent their being opened1 and expose them to danger from the feet in ascending or descending4 ,in the next place1 your stair turret does not rise above the cornice1 and would not enable you to enter the attics4 ,and so with the servants' staircase4 ,your roofs are double pitched2 that is1 with two angles of inclination4 ,that is not quite the thing for this district4 ,the roofs should be simply triangular1 and without hips1 which are difficult to keep in repair4 ,gables are preferable4 ,you have marked quoins of stone at the angles4 ,i see no harm in that2 but how would you form your window reveals thus enframed by a kind of pilaster8 ,none of your chimney-stacks rise above your roof2 yet you are aware that they usually show4 ,your attic windows are too low1 and you would run your head against the top in looking out of them4 ,the lintels of these dormer windows must be at least #f feet #f inches above the floor4 ,and why make your dormer windows oval8 ,it is a very inconvenient shape1 and they are difficult to open and shut4 ,you have drawn the entrance flight of steps in perspective1 as the ,chinese do 444 but that is a trifle4 ,what will you build your walls with8 ,masonry1 rubble-work1 masonry and rubble mingled1 or stone and bricks8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,roof ,,plan4 8,let us study this together4 ,when you draw a horizontal or ground plan1 independently of the arrangements1 you have to consider how your buildings shall be covered in4 ,for the most important question in a building is that of the manner of roofing it1 as every building intended for internal use is a shelter4 ,that is unquestionable1 is it not8 ,well1 then1 in your building1 the plans of which you have now before you1 what is observable in the general form of the main block8 ,two parallelograms intersecting--so 7,fig4 #c74 ,one parallelogram1 a b c d1 intersected by another1 e f g h4 ,we do not now take into account the bay windows and staircases4 ,if then we raise gables upon the walls1 a c1 b d1 with a length of slope equal to the line a c1 we shall have two equilateral triangles whose bases will be a c and b d1 and the angles of inclination #fj1 which is the most suitable pitch for slating1 inasmuch as it gives no hold to the snow or opportunity for mischief to the wind4 ,if in like manner we erect upon the walls e f g h two gables having a similar inclination1 these walls being less in length than those marked a b c d1 the triangles will be smaller and their summits less elevated than the first4 ,consequently the roof raised upon the smaller parallelogram will penetrate that raised upon the larger1 and will form by its penetration internal angles which we call valleys2 ,i draw these valleys i k1 k l1 m n1 m o4 ,the inclination of the two roofs being equal1 these valleys will1 in plan1 divide the right angle into two equal angles3 you know enough of geometry to understand that4 8,here1 then1 we see the simplest way of roofing our building2 and when roofing is in question1 the simplest methods are always the best4 ,now1 in order that our two stairs may give access to the third story1 it is necessary that their walls should rise above the cornice of the building and form for them alone an additional story4 ,we will then raise these stair-walls and will give them roofs of their own4 ,one--that of the principal stairs--shall be pyramidal2 and the other--that of the small stairs--conical4 8,there is no reason why we should not erect upon the two walls g z1 s t1 of the bay windows1 small gables1 always with the same inclination of #fj1 and cover these projections with two small roofs abutting against the great gables a c1 b d4 ,as to the building appropriated on the ground floor to the kitchen and on the first floor to the linen-room1 we will follow the same method1 and1 erecting a gable on the wall u v1 we shall have upon this wing a triangular roof1 which will also abut against the great gable b d4 ,we shall then have a meeting of two slopes at the bottom of the roof of the bay window s t1 and of that of the linen-room wing4 ,we shall form a lean-to 7so as to do without inner gutters17 which will penetrate these two roofs and discharge the water at t4 ,the horizontal projection1 therefore1 of this assemblage of roofs1 will be as the drawing shows in ,fig4 #c4 ,the chimney-stacks will pass through these roofs1 as ,i indicate to you2 and in order to prevent the chimneys from smoking1 these stacks should rise at least to the level of the ridge1 that is1 a little above the topmost crest of the highest roof4 ,with regard to the roofs of the outbuildings1 as they are lower--being only one story in height--we need not trouble ourselves about them just now4 8,observe that1 as these gables rise perpendicularly1 we are enabled to get in the roof a third story1 affording some very convenient bedrooms for guests1 besides the servants' rooms 7in the attics71 which we must provide1 and light by means of dormer windows2 while we shall be able to provide for the bedrooms in the gables handsome windows with balconies1 if we wish4 8,that settled1 in principle1 it will be as well to arrange the divisions of this story in the roof4 ,lay a piece of tracing-paper upon the plan of the first floor4 ,good3 now trace all the thick walls which must of necessity be carried up under the roof1 since they contain fireplaces4 ,draw #c feet #c inches within the eave walls--i4e4 those which do not carry gables--a line that indicates the space rendered useless by the slope of the roof2 thus you will get the space of which you are able to make use4 ,the principal stairs reach to this floor1 as well as the servants' stairs4 ,to the left of the thick division wall1 which1 from the principal staircase1 goes to join the angle of the main building towards the south-east--the desirable aspect--we are going to dispose the bedrooms for guests1 which will thus form a separate quarter communicating with the chief apartments by the principal stairs4 ,we can in this part get two good bedrooms1 ,a and ,b1 with their dressing-rooms a and b2 and two smaller bedrooms ,c and ,d1 all having fireplaces4 ,we must not forget the water-closet for these rooms1 at ,w4 ,on the other side1 in immediate communication with the servants' stairs1 we can easily get four servants' bedrooms1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 a lumber-room ,i1 and a water-closet ,l1 for the servants4 7,fig4 #d47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,floor4 8,in the upper part of the coach-house and stable building and over the wash-house1 we shall also be able in the roofs to arrange three or four bedrooms for the coachman1 groom1 c4 8,and now for the elevations4 8,we will raise the ground floor #d feet above the exterior ground level1 in order to give air to our cellars1 and to preserve the ground floor from the moisture of the earth4 ,we will give the lower rooms a height of #ad feet to the ceiling4 ,draw at this level a horizontal string course #ab inches deep1 which will be the thickness of the floor4 ,to the rooms of the first floor1 which are smaller than those of the ground floor1 we will give a height of #ab feet in the clear4 ,now1 mark the thickness of the cornice1 with its tabling1 #a foot #i inches4 ,then will begin the roofs1 whose height will be fixed by that of the gables4 ,taking the entrance front we project the angles of the building1 the doors and the windows from the plan4 ,here1 then1 we have the outline of the faade arranged40 ,eugne then took the board and sketched the faade4 7,fig4 #e74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,the ,,entrance ,,front ,a fair copy on a small scale of all this was soon made1 to be sent to ,madame ,marie ,n----1 that they might know what she thought of it1 and might proceed to execute the plan as soon as her reply was received4 ,paul was beginning to perceive some of the difficulties accompanying even the most modest architectural undertaking1 and to ask himself how ,master ,branchu1 who could but just manage to write and cipher1 had been able to build the ,mayor's house1 which was not such a bad one to look at4 ,his cousin1 to whom he referred the question1 replied as follows3-- 8,branchu has a practical knowledge of his business2 he is a good country mason1 who began by carrying the hod3 he is the son of a mason1 and does what he has seen his father do before him4 ,besides this1 he is intelligent1 laborious1 and honest4 ,by practice alone he has succeeded in building as well as is usual in the country--perhaps a little better1 because he sets himself to work to reason about what he is doing4 ,he observes2 he is no simpleton1 nor is he vain2 he avoids faults1 and copies excellences wherever he sees them4 ,you shall see him at work1 and you will sometimes be surprised at the justness of his observations1 the persistency with which he defends his opinions1 and the practical methods of which he is master4 ,if you give him instructions1 and he does not quite understand them1 he says nothing1 but comes again next day to explain to you what he supposes was intended2 thus obliging you to repeat one by one all the doubtful points1 and to complete what seemed to him incomplete or vague in your statements4 ,i like ,branchu because of his persistent determination to understand the orders given him2 and what makes him seem troublesome to some appears to me a virtue2 for if you have to do with him1 you must have foreseen everything1 have an answer to every objection1 and know exactly what you wish in every particular4 ,he gave up working for ,count ----1 your neighbour1 because he had to undo next day what he had been ordered to do the day before4 ,ask him about it--the story is worth hearing4 ,this good man1 who has had only the most elementary experience in his business1 but is thoroughly master of it so far1 who knows the materials of the district well1 and how to make use of them1 will tell you that the architect of that interminable chteau is an ignoramus1 and will prove it to you1 after his fashion4 ,yet it is evident that the architect in question is a much more learned man than ,master ,branchu4 8,as a general rule1 in giving an order1 you should have thought seven times of the objections to which it is liable1 otherwise some ,master ,branchu may start up who1 with a single word will demonstrate your thoughtlessness4 ,an architect may1 indeed1 if he chooses1 stop the mouth of objectors when placed under his authority2 but to impose silence on people is not to prove that they are wrong1 especially if a few days afterwards the director of the works gives contrary orders4 ,every one has his share of amour-propre1 which must not be disregarded4 ,as a subordinate takes kindly and is flattered by the attention you give to his observations when they are well founded1 so1 on the other hand1 he is disposed to doubt your capability if you reject them without examination2 especially if1 a short time afterwards1 facts seem to prove that he might have been right4 ,there is only one means of establishing discipline among a body of workmen2 and that is proving to all that you know more about matters than they do1 and that you have duly taken account of difficulties40 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,paul ,,pursues ,a ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,in ,,practical ,,architecture4 ,meantime1 letters and newspapers were daily bringing the most distressing intelligence4 ,the enemy had crossed the ,french boundary a week ago4 ,building was a matter scarcely to be thought of4 ,m4 de ,gandelau was visited almost incessantly by country people coming to impart to him their fears and to ask his advice4 ,the able-bodied youths of the district were summoned to be incorporated in the mobile4 ,the manufactories of the neighbourhood were being closed for want of hands4 ,groups of peasants--men and women--might be met on the roads1 who1 contrary to the quiet habits of this province1 were speaking in excited tones2 some of the women were crying4 ,the labours of the fields were suspended2 a painful shudder seemed to pass through the country2 lights were seen in the cottages at a late hour of the night2 voices were heard calling to each other4 ,the cattle were brought in earlier than usual1 and were driven afield later in the morning4 ,when people met each other on the roads they would stay long talking4 ,sometimes1 instead of returning to their own abodes1 they would walk rapidly on together in the direction of the neighbouring town4 ,it was the #bjth of ,august1 #ahgj1 when1 going into his father's room early in the morning1 ,paul found him still more depressed than on the previous days and it was not merely his aggravated gout that caused the depression4 ,eugne was there4--8,some are too old1 others too young4 ,if this boy was four or five years older10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 embracing his son1 8,i would send him with all these young fellows who are summoned to the service2 but he is too young1 happily for his mother4 ,it will be a long struggle1 they say2 ,god only knows what will become of our poor country engaged in an insensate war2 but our duty is clear--to remain here among all these families1 distressed as they are1 and bereaved of their children2 to wait1 and try to calm down this distracted multitude4 ,do not let us surrender our self-possession1 or give way to useless disquietude2 let us work--that is the remedy for all evils2 and misfortune will not find us more destitute of courage after days of labour than after a period of feverish inactivity4 ,i see that ,paul will not be able to return so soon to college4 ,as to yourself1 ,eugne1 nothing obliges you just now to stay in one place rather than another4 ,your business will be suspended in every quarter2 remain here1 where you can make yourself useful as long as the country does not require your services4 8,who knows what may happen6 ,but even if this state of things continues1 we will try to build ,marie's house2 it will give employment to those who have been thrown out of work4 ,you will be able to give ,paul practical lessons in the elements of construction4 ,we shall1 perhaps1 run short of the one thing needful for building--money4 ,ah1 well6 that will oblige us to discover the means of doing without it4 ,we have the raw material2 we have hands1 and enough to keep them for some time to come4 ,let us1 then1 not give way to despondency and useless recriminations2 let us work2 we shall be only the better prepared if in one last effort we have to call upon all--old men and children with the rest--to defend our native soil40 ,madame de ,gandelau uniting her entreaties with those of her husband1 it was not difficult to persuade ,eugne to take up his quarters at the chteau4 ,in fact1 three days subsequently1 after having gone away to settle some affairs1 he was on his way back with an ample store of paper and instruments required for the details of a building plan4 ,they could not set to work till the sketch sent to ,paul's sister should be returned1 approved or amended4 ,it was decided that during the interval ,eugne should give ,paul the first notions of the building of a house1 that the morning should be the time for instruction1 and that in the afternoon our architectural tyro should reproduce the lesson in writing1 and have his work corrected at the family gatherings in the evening4 ,thus the days would be well occupied4 ,,lesson ,,the ,,first4 8,if you please1 ,paul1 we will take our lessons walking1 and for a good reason40 ,this arrangement was quite satisfactory to ,paul1 who was certainly not accustomed to this mode of teaching at the ,lyceum4 ,the prospect of a course of lessons delivered1 re-produced in writing by the pupil1 and corrected indoors1 had not seemed to him at the first blush quite to harmonize with the idea which a youth of sixteen forms of hours consecrated to recreation2 and although after his first attempts architecture seemed to him a very noble study1 and he was proud enough to think that his plan was perhaps at this moment being inspected by his sister ,marie and her husband1 yet1 at the moment he was directing his steps towards his cousin's apartment1 he had looked with a somewhat longing eye at the fine old trees in the park1 and the brilliant green of the meadows between their dark trunks4 ,a sigh of satisfaction escaped him as he tripped down the steps4 8,let us proceed leisurely towards that part of the estate where we are to build the house10 said his cousin1 as soon as they were outside2 8a knowledge of the ground is indispensable to the architect's further progress4 ,there are1 as you know1 several kinds of soils2 some resisting1 others soft and compressible in various degrees4 ,rocks form the firmest foundation--one on which we may build with confidence--provided they have not been excavated or disturbed4 ,the name of virgin soil is given to that which presents itself in the condition in which geological phenomena have placed it2 that of #8made ground' to soil which has been disturbed or deposited by man1 or produced by vegetation1 or brought to the spot by the sudden violence of torrents4 ,as a general rule1 we should give an exclusive preference to virgin soils2 yet even some of these must be mistrusted1 as ,i shall explain to you directly4 8,we must then endeavour to distinguish a virgin soil from #8made' or disturbed ground2 and to do so1 some acquaintance with elementary geology is indispensable4 ,thus1 the crystalliform rocks1 granites1 gneiss1 and crystalline schists remain in the condition in which the cooling of the globe and the upheavals of its crust have placed them4 ,the sandstones1 the calcareous rocks1 the marls1 the gravels1 even the clays deposited by water under an enormous pressure1 are stratified--that is to say1 deposited in layers1 like the courses of a building1 and present an excellent foundation4 ,the hill there on the right1 in whose direction your sister's wood extends1 presents1 as you see from this point1 escarpments laid bare by the waters of the brook we are going to cross2 observe that the stone1 which seems denuded1 presents itself in almost horizontal layers4 ,it is an oolitic limestone1 excellent for building1 and on which you may confidently rely as a foundation also4 ,in these strata1 therefore1 we may excavate cellars1 and make use of what we have taken from the excavations to raise the walls4 ,here we are walking on sandy clays1 intermingled with millstone grit4 ,this also forms a good and incompressible foundation4 ,it is otherwise with pure clays2 not that they are compressible1 but1 if they are not secured--if1 for instance1 they lie on a declivity--they are liable to slip in consequence of the infiltration of water between their layers1 and the house built on them goes down with them4 ,and thus you may sometimes see whole villages built on clayey declivities1 descending into the valley4 ,great attention1 therefore1 must be paid to the method in which you build in clays1 if you would avoid these dangers4 ,sometimes also1 when they are greatly compressed by a heavy building1 the clays sink down under the weight1 and rise proportionally at a little distance1 in see-saw fashion4 ,marine sands1 pure1 fine or gravelly1 are well adapted to receive foundations1 because the sand settles naturally1 however slightly moistened it may be4 ,to such a degree is this the case1 that we can form an artificial foundation if needful by depositing good beds of sea-sand on a questionable soil1 and moistening these beds thoroughly4 ,the finer the sand is and the freer from clay the better1 for its small1 hard1 equal grains leave only very slight intervals between them and touch on several points4 ,if the weight compresses the layer of sand1 and forces it to settle down1 the settling down is regular1 and consequently harmless4 ,the building settles thus to the extent of some fractions of an inch1 according to its weight2 but it does not dislocate1 because it settles uniformly4 ,the alluvial deposits formed by slowly-flowing waters1 such as rivers or lakes1 also compose good foundations1 because the layers of gravel or mud have been gradually deposited1 and are closely heaped together by the liquid that transported them4 ,it is quite otherwise with marshy soils1 for the water1 having no current1 has allowed vegetables to grow in its bed4 ,these vegetables on dying are annually replaced by others4 ,successive layers of detritus are then formed under very trifling pressure1 leaving between them innumerable cavities1 just like a heap of rotten hay4 ,these deposits are called peat-bogs4 ,nothing can be safely placed on these deposits1 for they sink down under the lightest burden4 ,stop6 here we are near the stream1 at a point which exhibits this phenomenon4 ,stamp on this closely-turfed soil4 ,you perceive that the ground sounds hollow1 and shakes beneath the shock4 ,sometimes these peat-beds reach to such a depth1 through the accumulation of vegetable detritus1 that the bottom can scarcely be reached4 ,if you build upon these1 your construction will gradually sink1 often unequally1 on account of the inclination of the sub-soil1 so that the building will lean to one side4 ,it is thus that at ,pisa and at ,bologna1 in ,italy1 there are towers which inclined thus while they were being built1 until the turf was completely compressed under their weight4 ,when these soils occur1 the turf must be removed1 the rock or gravel must be reached1 or piles must be driven in very close to each other1 until they can be forced no deeper4 ,then1 on the heads of these piles is placed what is called a raft1 a kind of wooden framing1 between the spaces of which concrete is poured1 and on which the first courses of masonry are placed4 ,whole cities are built thus4 ,venice and ,amsterdam rest only upon forests of piles driven in mud1 which is spongy1 because it was formed under a shallow sheet of water which had not power to compress it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 8,but it is not enough to know the nature of the soil on which a building is to be erected2 we must also examine the subjacent water-courses1 and how the rain-water flows off on the surface of the ground1 or beneath it4 ,the presence of a bed of clay1 however thin1 between strata of limestone1 grit or sand1 is a most important fact to the builder2 for such beds being impervious--that is1 not allowing the rain-water to penetrate them--give rise to currents or sheets of water1 which may occasion most disastrous consequences to the foundations4 ,examine this greenish layer just here1 along the escarpment2--it is of clay2 it is very thin1 and cannot retain water2 but suppose it were #bj inches thick4 ,the rains1 which will easily penetrate the gravel placed above1 will be arrested by this layer of clay1 and pursue their course along its plane of inclination1 and they will gradually form cavities like small grottoes1 and a concealed current4 ,if you build a cellar wall or a foundation descending below that accumulation of water1 it will reach your wall and penetrate it1 in spite of your efforts1 and will fill your cellars4 ,it will consequently be necessary at the outset to divert this accumulation of water by collecting it in a drain to keep it away from your buildings4 ,give me your note-book1 that ,i may show clearly what ,i mean by a sketch--7,fig4 #f74 ,let ,a ,b be the stratum of clay1 ,c ,d the pervious stratum of gravel or sand4 ,a sheet of water running from ,e to ,f will be formed after every shower4 ,this sheet will be arrested by the foundation or cellar wall ,g ,h1 and will soon permeate it1 since it cannot reascend nor penetrate the clay4 ,we must1 therefore1 provide1 at ,i1 a transverse drain1 with openings on the upper side1 through which water will find its way into the channel shown in sketch ,k4 ,this drain will take the water thus collected wherever you like1 and leave the wall ,g ,h perfectly dry4 ,you understand1 don't you8 8,but if you have to lay your foundations entirely in clay1 you must adopt much more serious precautions3 for1 as ,i told you just now1 the whole bed of clay may chance to slip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 8,banks of clay are apt to slip1 especially when they present such a section as ,i have drawn--7,fig #g74 ,let ,a be a bed of rock1 ,b a bed of clay4 ,rain-water falling on the upper side from ,d to ,c1 will pass at ,c below the bed of clay2 and if the rain is persistent1 it will form from ,c to ,e a soft1 slippery1 soapy stratum1 so that the clay bed ,c ,b ,e will slide over it by its own weight1 but especially if at ,g you have burdened it with a building4 8,how1 then1 can we guard against the danger8 ,first1 by collecting the water at ,c into a sewer1 or a dry stone drain1 so that it may not pass under the clay bed1--in case the latter is very thick4 ,secondly1 if it is only a few yards thick1 by getting down to the rock or gravel for the foundation wall1 and placing a collecting sewer at ,i1 as above4 ,then the triangular bed of clay1 ,c ,i ,k1 will not be able to slide1 being kept up by the firmly-planted and loaded wall4 ,the part of the clay lying below1 not being moistened from above1 will not slip4 ,but this wall1 ,h1 and its drain1 ,i1 must be thick enough to resist the pressure of the triangle ,c ,i ,k4 8,you perceive1 then1 how important it is to understand the soils on which you have to build2 and how essential it is for an architect to have some acquaintance with geology4 ,remember this well1 for the architects of the preceding generation have shown a contempt for these studies1 and have relied on their contractors in many instances where that knowledge was required4 8,we shall also take into consideration muddy low-lying soils1 permeated by water1 which cannot be dug into1 because their consistency is little better than that of compact mud1 and in which the deeper you dig the less resistance you meet4 ,when these soils are not of a turfy description1 contain little vegetable detritus1 and always retain the same quantity of water1 you can build upon them1 for water is not compressible4 ,your building is then a kind of boat2 the only question is1 how to prevent the water from escaping1 from receding under the weight of the structure as it does under that of a boat4 ,when you plunge into a bath half full of water1 the liquid rises along the brim proportionately to the volume of your body4 ,but suppose that a board cut out so as exactly to fit the outline of your body1 prevents the water from rising around you1 you will not be able to sink into the water1 and it will bear you on its surface4 ,well1 then1 the problem of building in a muddy soil consists in preventing the mud from rising around the house in proportion to the pressure4 ,i must once more give you a sketch1 showing the method of securing a successful result in this particular case4 7,fig4 #h47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 8,let us suppose we have been digging in #8made ground' ,a1 i4e41 ground in which we cannot build with security4 ,at ,b we reach the virgin soil1 but it is very moist--mud of old formation1 permeated by water1 and in which one sinks in walking4 ,the deeper we go into it the softer we find it4 ,a bar thrust down to the depth of two or three yards discovers no bottom1 and the holes made in it are immediately filled with water4 ,piles driven in sink up to the head4 ,now1 there can be no doubt that for an ordinary building it will not do to spend in foundations double what the building itself would cost4 ,we must consider1 therefore4 ,in this case we shall dig a trench of about #a foot #f inches to #b feet deep1 to receive the walls forming the perimeter of the house1 as drawn at ,e2 then1 in these trenches1 and over the whole area of the building1 we shall pour concrete1 having a thickness of #b feet to #b feet #f inches1 between the trenches1 as at ,f4 ,we shall thus have formed a cover of homogeneous material1 which will prevent the mud1 ,g ,h1 comprised within its edges1 from rising4 ,the weight of the made ground ,a will suffice to keep down the rest4 ,on a plateau of this kind you will be able to build securely4 8,you will1 perhaps1 ask me what #8concrete' is1 and how it is made4 ,you will learn this later on40 ,talking and making sketches1 ,paul and his cousin had reached the slope of the hill on which the house was to be built4 8,the situation is good10 said ,eugne4 8,we have an excellent calcareous soil1 from which we shall even be able to get stone or rubble fit for building4 ,here1 on the lower slopes1 we have fairly clean sandy clay1 with which we shall make brick4 ,and there is the spring of fresh water coming from the wood1 and passing out below the lowest of the limestone beds2 we shall easily secure it1 and lead it along the house1 where it will be doubly useful1 for it will give us water for the requirements of the household1 and carry off in a drain all the house sewage and impurities1 which we will discharge into that old excavation which ,i see on our left4 8,however1 we must examine before we proceed1 for it seems to me that these beds have already been worked at some points4 ,we should be very likely to meet with some of those carelessly-conducted quarryings which are too common in this neighbourhood40 8,how10 asked ,paul1 8can good building-stone be distinguished from that of inferior quality80 8,it is not always easy to distinguish it1 and in this1 as in many other branches of knowledge1 experience must confirm theory4 ,among calcareous stones1 which comprise1 with certain sandstones1 the materials that can be easily quarried and worked1 some are hard1 others soft2 but the hardest are not always those which best resist the effects of time4 ,many limestones contain clay1 and as this retains water1 when frosts supervene1 these clayey parts swell1 and burst blocks whose substance is composed of carbonate of lime1 and also of silica1 in larger or smaller quantity4 ,limestones free from clay are those which best resist moisture1 and are least liable to be damaged by frost4 ,when1 as here1 we have beds laid bare by erosion1 it is easy to distinguish the good from the defective ones4 ,thus1 observe that large dark-looking mass1 whose smooth bare edge has been covered with lichens for centuries2 it is of an excellent quality1 for lichens spread over a rock very slowly2 and to enable them to attach themselves to this stone and give it that grey speckled appearance1 the limestone must have resisted the decomposing action of the atmosphere4 ,now1 look at that bed of nearly pure white1 and which seems so sound4 ,well2 it has this fair appearance only because at every frost it has lost its skin2 its surface has been decomposed4 ,touch this rock1 and you will observe a white dust remaining on your hands4 ,it is so1 is it not8 ,the quality of this block is consequently bad2 in fact1 you see that below it the grass is covered with small calcareous exfoliations1 whereas the turf under the grey block is quite free from dust4 ,it is then very desirable for an architect1 when he intends to build1 to go and see the quarries1 and observe how the beds that compose them stand when exposed to the air1 a thing--,i may tell you--our brethren rarely do40 ,,lesson ,,the ,,second4 ,paul was greatly pleased with the method adopted by his cousin for giving him the first notions of building4 ,in the evening he presented as his day's work a fair transcription of all that his teacher had explained to him on the ground4 ,he even illustrated his text by some pretty good diagrams4 ,the corrections were quickly made after dinner4 ,but next day the incessant rain prevented them from going out1 and ,eugne decided that the second lecture should be given in the house4 8,we shall have illustrations enough before us2 the chteau itself will supply them4 ,we will go through it from cellar to attic1 and study its materials and methods of construction--to criticize them if they are bad1 or to take note of them if they are good40 ,when teacher and pupil had gone down into the cellars1 ,eugne began by saying1 8,look how damp this cellar wall on the side of the courtyard is2 and see how the mortar in the joints of the stones has fallen1 owing to two causes3--first1 in building these walls1 the precaution was not taken of cementing them on the outside1 so as to make the water in the ground run down to the bottom2 second1 the mortar employed in the building was not made with hydraulic lime4 ,there are two principal kinds of lime3 fat or rich lime and hydraulic lime4 ,the first is obtained by burning the compact limestones usually found at the top of the beds2 it is called fat because when slaked it is glutinous and sticks to the tool with which it is mixed2 this lime1 on being immersed in water1 swells and sends forth a dense vapour1 as you may have observed1 and mixed with sand is slow in setting4 ,employed above ground1 mortars made with this lime become at length very hard1 but retain more or less for a time a certain plasticity4 ,these mortars1 however1 as they are slow in setting1 are readily softened by water1 and cannot then ever harden4 ,hydraulic limes1 on the other hand 7obtained by burning the lias limestones71 when mixed with sand1 soon become very hard1 and set all the better for being in a damp place4 ,hence this lime is called hydraulic1 because it is employed for all masonry-work under water4 ,in default of lias limestones1 artificial hydraulic limes are made1 by grinding a certain proportion of clay with a limestone suitable for making ordinary lime4 ,hydraulic lime is tested by slacking--that is to say1 mixing it with water2 when it slakes with the production of very little vapour4 8,it is with hydraulic lime that concretes1 of which ,i spoke to you yesterday1 are made4 ,the mortar being prepared1 a certain proportion of hard gravel1 about the size of eggs1 is mingled with it2 the whole is well mixed and thrown into the excavations1 where it is rammed with wooden rammers4 ,if the lime is good and the concrete well made1 it forms a veritable rock1 similar to the conglomerates or pudding-stone of natural formation4 ,as1 when set1 water penetrates with difficulty through these concretes1 they prevent that percolation of subjacent water to which cellars made in wet grounds are liable4 8,if the wall you see there had been built with mortar made with hydraulic lime1 it would have been sound1 and the mortar joints would have been as hard as the stone itself4 ,you will easily understand that when the water has gradually softened and liquefied the mortar in the beds and joints at the base of a wall1 the stones which compose it settle1 and all the rest of the building suffers4 ,that is why the front of the house1 towards the court1 presents a considerable number of cracks1 that are filled in from time to time1 but of course with no result in doing away with the cause of the mischief4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 8,you observe that the cellar wall which receives the arch of the vault is very thick1 much thicker than is the wall of the ground floor4 ,the latter is scarcely #b feet thick1 whereas this is full #c feet4 ,this additional thickness is given to the inside principally to receive the springing of the vault4 ,a sketch will enable you to understand the reason of this arrangement4 ,let ,a 7,fig4 #i7 be the thickness of the wall of a house on the ground floor--a thickness of #a foot #h inches if cellars are wanted beneath the ground floor2 the floor line being at ,b and the outside ground line at ,c1 it will be well first to indicate the floor line by a projection1--a greater thickness given to this wall on the outside1 say of #b inches4 ,at ,a1 then1 the wall will have a thickness of #a foot #aj inches4 ,your cellar arch being drawn at ,d1 we must reserve a resting-place of at least #h inches1 to receive the first arch-stones of the spring of the vault2 then it is well to give on the side next the ground a greater projection1 to make a good footing for the plinth2 this projection being #b inches1 we shall have at ,f a thickness of #b feet and at ,g #b feet #h inches at least1 as it will not do for the wall which rises to bear on the oblique beds of the vault1 otherwise it would not have a solid footing1 and would be weakened or reduced in thickness by this arch1 which would penetrate it1 as we see in the drawing ,i4 ,but come here into this other cellar1 which belongs to the oldest part of the chteau1 and is built with good stones4 ,the builder did not wish to lose space within1 and as he built with worked stone he sought to economise material4 ,what1 then1 did he do8 7,fig4 #aj47 ,he gave his cellar wall only the thickness of that of the ground floor2 at regular distances he put massive corbels #b feet above the floor2 upon these corbels he carried arches projecting #aj inches1 and on these arches1 which replace the extra thickness or counter-wall of which ,i spoke to you just now1 he carried his vaulting arch4 ,this perspective sketch will enable us readily to understand this method of construction4 ,the upper wall thus leaves the vault perfectly free and rises plumb over its lower face4 8,is it all clear to you8 ,well1 let us go and look at that little flight of steps which perhaps you have never attentively examined4 ,it is #d feet #c inches wide1 which was large enough to afford a passage to the queues of wine4 ,observe 7,fig4 #aa73 the ramping vault is composed of as many arches1 one above another1 as there are steps2 that is extremely well managed1 solid and easily built4 ,in fact1 when the stone steps are laid1 over above them is successively fixed the same wood centre which1 of course1 is raised at each step2 and upon this centre an arch is built1 which is quickly done1 as the stones are worked ready4 ,in this way the arches follow the section of the steps1 and the centre being shifted--after each arch is keyed--to the next step commencing from the bottom1 two men can turn five or six of these arches in one day1 so that if there are twelve steps1 this ramping vault may be built in two days4 ,look1 ,i will show you how this construction should be denoted in perspective and geometrical section in your rsum to-day--,a and ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 8,let us go up to the ground floor4 ,look at the efflorescence resembling cotton wool on the interior of the walls3 it is the saltpetre which forms inside the stone1 and1 through the humidity of the ground1 crystallizes on the surface4 ,this saltpetre affects the stone injuriously1 ultimately eats it away1 and throws off any painting that we might endeavour to use as a counteractive on the interior surface4 ,mastic cements are made to stop the effects of the saltpetre1 but these means only delay its appearance for a short time without curing the evil1 and this cement soon falls off in a crust4 ,it is therefore necessary in building1 especially in the country1 to prevent the damp of the ground from rising up in the walls1 and to stop it at the ground level4 ,the interposition of a layer of pitch beneath the plinth has sometimes been tried1 in order to prevent the absorption of damp by the stones--or what is called capillary attraction--but this method is very inefficient4 ,the pitch oozes out under the pressure1 as it does not harden sufficiently to bear that pressure1 or it decomposes and combines with the lime4 ,the best plan is to lay a course of slates in the mortar-bed between the first lower courses of the plinth4 ,the slate effectually hinders that effect of capillary attraction1 and the damp is unable to rise in the walls4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 8,now observe this front wall in the court3 it forms a protuberance at the floor level of the first story4 ,we call that a bulging of the wall4 ,instead of preserving its vertical plane1 as it should have done1 it has bulged out2 and why8 ,because it has been thrust out by a force acting from within outwards4 ,what is that force8 ,it might be an arch2 but there is no arching on the ground floor4 ,it can therefore be only the floor4 ,it is not clear at first sight how a floor1 which is a horizontal plane1 can thrust2 for to thrust1 we must suppose the floor to expand in one direction1 which cannot be4 ,but see what happens4 ,give me your best attention4444 ,formerly1 to compose a floor1 large beams were laid from wall to wall1 and upon these beams lighter pieces of timber1 called joists2 then on these was laid a bed of earth1 gravel1 or sand1 and upon that a surface of mortar to receive the tiling4 ,this made a very heavy mass4 ,now1 as a piece of timber1 even of considerable section1 bends in time under its own weight--that is to say1 from being straight becomes curved--its tendency to bend will be proportionally greater when it is weighted4 ,the more it bends1 the more powerful its thrust upon the inner surface of the walls in which it has its bearing4 ,it is this pressure upon the interior surface that tends to thrust the wall outwards4 ,but if1 as in this case1 in order to relieve the bearing of the beams1 struts of wood have been put underneath 7,fig4 #ab71 this effect of thrust is all the more sensible because the arm of the lever is longer4 ,you do not quite understand1 ,i see4 ,a sketch will make it clear to you4 ,let ,a be the section of the wall1 or1 if you will1 its thickness4 ,if the beam bends according to the line ,c ,d1 there occurs a pressure at ,d1 which produces a thrust at ,f and the rounding of the wall1 as indicated by the dotted curves4 ,supposing even that in lieu of the strut ,e we have a stone corbel1 the effect produced will be the same1 though less forcible1 unless the tail of the corbel reaches through the wall1 as you see marked at ,i1 and this tail ,k is weighted in such a manner that the weight neutralizes the pressure which the beam exerts at the end ,l4 ,this has not been done here1 where instead of the wood strut1 a corbel was put4 ,this corbel has but a middling hold in the wall1 and the latter1 formed of small stones not very well built1 has not sufficient cohesion to resist the thrust exerted by the deflection of the beams4 ,but why1 you will ask me1 has this effect been produced at the floor level of the first story and not above8 ,because1 by the effect of the bulging we find here1 the wall has inclined above towards the inside1 and has thereby squeezed the second floor--its surfaces being placed1 by their very inclination1 perpendicularly to the curve line of the upper beams1 as ,i indicate to you at ,m1 exaggerating the effect for the purpose of making it clearer4 8,you see that each detail merits attention1 and that the builder ought to have a good reason for everything he does4 8,in work of every kind we learn to avoid faults only by analysing and searching into their causes and ascertaining their effects4 ,to become a good builder1 therefore1 it is not enough to familiarize one's self with rules of construction1 which cannot provide for all contingencies2 we must see and observe much1 and ascertain defective points in buildings that have been tested by time2 just as physicians become able to determine what a good constitution is only by studying diseases and their causes4 ,for the most part we appreciate what is good only through observing what is bad2 if1 in the absence of the bad1 we are able to admit that there is such a thing as the good4 ,an old proficient in architecture1 who1 when ,i was about your age1 was so kind as to aid me with his advice1 used often to say to me3 #8,i can tell you1 my dear fellow1 what you must avoid in the art of building2--as to explaining to you in what the good and the beautiful consist1 you must find out that yourself4 ,if you are a born architect1 you will know well enough how to discover it2 if not1 all that ,i could show you1 all the examples ,i could place before you1 would not give you talent4' ,and he was right4 ,the sight of the finest works in architecture may pervert the minds of students1 if it's not been explained to them how the authors of these works succeeded in making them beautiful by having avoided such or such faults4 8,but you have enough to write out for to-day4 ,make a fair copy of these sketches opposite your text1 and we will examine it this evening40 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,how ,,paul ,,is ,,led ,,to ,,recognize ,,certain ,,distinctions ,,between ,,ethics ,,and ,,architecture4 ,when1 in the evening1 ,paul's report of the lesson was read in the family circle1 ,m4 de ,gandelau interrupted the reading at this phrase incorrectly given1 8,good is only the absence of evil40 8,oh1 oh60 said his father2 8,charity is something more than the absence of evil4 ,if you give nothing to the poor man who asks bread of you2 if1 being able to swim1 you do not try to save a drowning man1 you do not do evil1 but certainly you do not do good40 8,that is not exactly what ,i said to ,paul10 replied ,eugne1 smiling4 8,respecting defects discovered in building1 ,i said1 #8,i believe that the good is the absence of the bad2' that is to say1 in building operations1 and perhaps in many other matters belonging to the purely material order of things1 to avoid what is bad is to do well1 but not to do good4 ,i must1 however1 admit that ,i did not sufficiently develop my thought4 8,two things are needed to make a good builder3 clear-sighted intelligence--which depends on our individual psychical nature--and the experience we acquire4 8,observation and experience thence resulting enable us to recognize what is defective and to avoid it2 but if1 notwithstanding the advantage thence derived1 we are not endowed by nature with clear-sighted intelligence1 experience1 though enabling us to avoid the bad1 does not of itself suffice for the discovery of the good4 8,moreover1 though in morals the good is absolute and independent of circumstances1 it is not the same with building4 ,what is good here is bad elsewhere1 on account of climate1 habits1 nature of materials1 and the way in which they are affected by local circumstances4 ,while1 for instance1 it is desirable to cover a roof with slates in a temperate and humid climate1 this kind of roofing is objectionable in a warm1 dry1 and windy climate4 ,wooden buildings will be excellent in one situation and unsuitable in others4 ,while it is desirable to admit the light by wide openings and to glaze large surfaces in northern climates1 because the sun's glare is subdued1 this would be objectionable in southern countries1 where the light is intense1 and where it is necessary to procure shelter from the heat4 ,a code of morals is possible1 but we cannot establish absolute rules in building2 experience1 reasoning1 and reflection must therefore always be summoned to our aid when we attempt to build4 ,very often young architects have asked me what treatise on building ,i should recommend as the best4 ,there is none1 ,i tell them2 because a treatise cannot anticipate all contingencies1--all the special circumstances that present themselves in the experience of an architect4 ,a treatise lays down rules2 but ninety-nine times out of a hundred you have to encounter the exception and cannot rely upon the rule4 ,a treatise on building is useful in habituating the mind to devise plans and have them put into execution according to certain methods2 it gives you the means of solving the problems proposed2 but it does not actually solve them1 or at least only solves one in a thousand4 ,it is then for intelligence to supply in the thousand cases presented what the rule cannot provide for40 ,,lesson ,,the ,,third4 8,yesterday10 said ,eugne to ,paul1 when the latter came into his room1 8we visited the cellars and the ground floor2 now we shall take a walk among the garrets of the chteau4 ,but first ,i must show you what is meant by a roof truss4 ,the simplest truss 7,fig4 #ac7 is composed of four pieces of wood3 two principal rafters1 a tie-beam1 and a king-post4 ,the two inclined pieces ,a are the blades2 the horizontal piece ,b is the tie-beam1 and the vertical piece ,c the king-post4 ,the upper ends of the blades meet in the king-post1 as ,i show you in the detail ,d1--namely1 by the means of two tenons ,e1 which fit into two mortises ,f1 and a shoulder ,g1 which make the whole pressure of the timber bear into the notch ,i4 ,the lower ends of the blades are similarly connected at the two extremities of the tie-beam1 as this other detail ,h shows us4 ,the king-post is also connected by a tenon1 in the centre of the tie-beam1 but loosely1 and without bearing upon this tie-beam4 ,when the tenons are let into the mortises1 pegs of wood are driven into the holes marked to fasten the whole well4 ,the more pressure there is on the top1 ,m1 the more the two blades tend to spread at the foot2 but these1 being fixed at the two ends of the tie-beam1 tighten the latter like the string of a bow4 ,the more this tie-beam is strained1 therefore1 the less it is inclined to bend1 and the object of the king-post is only to suspend it by its centre1 and to connect the heads of the blades4 ,but between ,m and ,n these rafters may bend under the weight of the roof covering2 two struts1 ,o ,p1 therefore are added1 which arrest this bending by bringing the pressure to bear on the king-post1 so that the latter is in its turn strained between ,m and ,p4 ,as wood will not stretch1 the point ,p is fixed1 and the two points ,o likewise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 8,now that you know what is the simplest roof-truss1 let us go up into the roofs40 ,these roofs were old1 and had been repaired and strengthened many times1 and formed a complication of timbers difficult enough to understand4 8,formerly10 said ,eugne1 8that is1 more than a century ago1 they used to make roofs such as you see here3 every rafter was framed1 that is1 each of the rafters composed a truss1 except the tie-beam1 which was introduced only at intervals4 ,then wood was in plenty1 and they scarcely thought of economising it4 ,at present it is less abundant1 and there is a difficulty in procuring a considerable number of pieces of large dimensions4 ,the noble forests that covered the soil of ,france have been foolishly wasted1 and long timbers of heart of oak are rare4 ,it has therefore been necessary to economise them4 ,the expedient has been adopted of placing strong trusses at a distance of about #ab feet from each other4 ,on these trusses have been placed purlins1 which are the horizontal pieces you see on this side2 and on these purlins longer or shorter rafters have been placed to receive the lathing for the tiles1 or the battens for the slates4 ,but all timber roofing should be fixed upon sleepers1 which are those horizontal pieces resting on the top of the walls1 which bind and isolate the tie-beams from the masonry2 for it is to be observed that timber is preserved for an indefinite time in the free dry air1 but soon decays in contact with a moist body1 such as stone is4 ,look here at this piece of wood1 almost buried in the masonry2 it is nearly reduced to touchwood1 while the blade above1 which is in the free dry air1 is as free from rot as if it were new4 8,formerly upper floors were made by putting joists resting on beams and the walls4 ,these joists and beams remained visible1 as you may see still in the kitchen and the large hall on the ground floor1 which serves as a store-room4 ,the air therefore could circulate round these timbers1 and they might last for centuries4 ,but it was considered that thus exposed they were not pleasant to look at--that they were not clean1 and allowed spiders to spin their webs in the interspaces4 ,laths were therefore nailed under these joists1 and this lathwork plastered so as to form what we call a ceiling4 ,timbers thus inclosed and deprived of air1 #8heated' 7as carpenters call it71 that is1 they fermented and soon began to decay4 ,in fact1 floorings with exposed joists which had resisted the action of time for centuries decayed and broke down in a short time after being inclosed4 ,i may add that formerly1 before using timber in building1 they took the precaution of leaving it exposed for some years to the action of the sun and rain4 ,they even kept it for some time in water1 to free it from the sap 7for sap is the ferment which makes wood rot74 ,when the timber1 after having been barked and roughly squared1 had remained in the open air for five or six years1 it was used4 ,but now-a-days we are in a hurry1 and make use of timber that has not been cut more than a year4 ,it is not dry1 it retains its sap1 and if it is then enclosed it ferments rapidly1 so that in a few years the largest beams are completely rotten4 ,prudent architects therefore hesitate to use wood for floors4 ,yet its use--even if only partially dried--would not entail serious inconvenience if it was not covered with plaster4 ,the worst that could happen would be the occurrence of cracks and shrinkings4 ,it would dry when in use1 as it would have dried in the open air4 8,there is no great disadvantage1 then1 in employing wood newly cut for roof-timbers1 which are generally left exposed4 ,they dry where they are4 ,they warp1 but do not perish of dry-rot4 8,as we shall not be able to find wood absolutely dry for your sister's house1 we shall leave the floor-joists visible1 and endeavour by simple and economical means to render them not unsightly4 8,but you ought to be well acquainted with the qualities of timber4 ,i will not tell you that nature has caused these large vegetable growths which we employ to grow for our pleasure or use4 ,nature is1 ,i think1 very little concerned as to whether the oak or the fir would serve any of our purposes2 and if human intelligence has been able to take advantage of these materials that spring up before us1 it is after having recognized and verified their properties by experience4 ,unfortunately1 it would seem as if the results of this experience did not tend to increase2 and judging from the way in which building-timber is most frequently employed1 we might be led to suppose that we are less informed than were our predecessors1 or that we have lost that habit of observation with which they were familiar4 8,wood1 being composed of fibres more or less lax or compact1 possesses a considerable power of resistance to a pressure exerted along these fibres1 but is easily bent or crushed under a pressure exerted across these same fibres4 ,thus a log of wood #d inches in diameter and a yard or so long1 placed on end1 will support1 without being crushed or contorted1 a pressure of #dj1jjj lbs42 whereas this weight will break or crush it if placed horizontally1 as you would crush a reed under your foot4 ,take a thoroughly sound bit of straw1 #d inches long1 and place your finger on one end of it1 holding the straw vertically on a table2 you will have to press pretty strongly on it to bend it1 while the least pressure on the same straw placed horizontally will flatten it4 ,the straw is a tube4 ,a tree consists of a series of tubes1 some enveloping others4 ,the more numerous1 close and fine these tubes are1 the more does the trunk resist pressure1 either in the direction of its length or its thickness4 ,but this shows us that to enable the wood to retain its power of resistance we must employ it as nature gives it to us2 and in fact this was done formerly4 ,each piece of timber was cut from a tree of larger or smaller size1 as the case required1 but they did not split the tree lengthwise to get several pieces of timber2 for the heart being harder and more compact than the sap-wood 7which is the spongy envelope beneath the bark71 and the concentric layers of wood being the closer and tougher in proportion to their nearness to the bark1 if you split a tree in two lengthwise one of its faces is much more resisting than the other1 the equilibrium is disturbed1 and flexure is easily produced under a weight4 ,the outer layers1 being the more recent1 are more spongy and lax in texture than the older layers that are near the heart2 consequently the process of drying makes these outer layers shrink more than the inner3 hence curvature4 ,let ,a 7,fig4 #ad7 be a split piece of wood2 the layers ,b are harder and more compact than those marked ,c1 which contain more moisture and whose fibres are softer4 ,in drying1 therefore1 this piece of wood will present a hollow bend on the outer side1 as ,i show at ,d4 ,if the wood is left entire1 as at ,e1 the effects of drying will neutralize each other1 and the piece will remain straight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 8,look at this old roof1 whose rafters are framed 7,fig4 #ae73 the wall plates1 ,a1 are cut from small trunks1 the heart being in the centre4 ,it is the same with the rafters ,b1 the tie-beams ,c1 the collars ,d1 the king-posts ,e1 the foot-pieces ,f1 and the foot-posts ,g2 all these pieces1 therefore1 have preserved their rigidity1 and none of them has been bent1 because they were used dry and were unsplit trunks4 ,observe1 on the contrary1 this purlin1 ,h1 placed on this truss1 ,i1 of recent date2 it is bent not so much on account of the weight of the rafters it supports as because it is split and the carpenter has unadvisedly turned the heart on the inside4 ,if he had done the contrary1--if the heart had been placed next to the rafters1--this purlin would probably not have bent1 perhaps have even become more rigid--that is to say1 it would be convex on the outer side4 ,carpenters1 however1 are but men1 and they do not care to give themselves trouble when they think they can avoid it4 ,the man that put this purlin here found it more convenient to place it on its sawn side than to turn it the other way with the flat under the rafters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 8,considering this quality of wood1 and of oak especially 7whose internal fibres are harder and closer than the outer layers71 when we have to place a piece of wood horizontally on two points of support or posts1 and wish to give it all the strength possible to bear a weight acting on its centre1 we saw it in two lengthwise1 and turning the flat faces outside1 bolt these two pieces together1 as shown here 7,fig4 #af74 ,then as the heart-wood is outside1 and the two pieces tend to become bent1 forming two convex surfaces1 as you see at ,a 7,fig4 #ag71 if they are firmly held by bolts furnished with good heads and nuts1 they must remain straight2 the tendency to curvature in the one neutralizing that in the other1 these two opposing forces tend to make the piece more rigid1 so that1 if you take a piece of timber that is slightly bent naturally and then place these two pieces with their hollow downwards1--that is1 after having placed one upon the other1 putting the tail of one against the head of the other1--you will have given this piece of wood all the resisting power of which it is capable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 8,it is in this way that clips and all coupled pieces should be placed4 ,here1 for example 7,fig4 #ah71 you see a pair of clips where the sawn faces have been turned outside to replace a decayed tie-beam4 ,we call clips those pieces of wood which1 in pairs1 usually clench two or more parts of a framing4 ,these clips1 ,a1 hold fast by means of notchings1 the blades ,b1 the king-post ,c1 and the two struts ,d4 ,iron bolts with screw-nuts tightly hold the notchings of the clips1 like a pair of jaws1 against the timbers which have to be kept in their place4 ,but this is enough for to-day1 and you will have plenty to do to make a fair transcript of this lesson in carpentry between now and this evening40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,setting ,,out ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,house1 ,,and ,,operations ,,on ,,the ,,ground4 ,next day a letter dated ,naples was received from ,madame ,marie ,n----1 expressing the liveliest and most patriotic apprehensions with regard to recent events4 ,paul's sister wished to induce the family to join her at ,naples2 her husband could not return to ,france just at present2 the business which called him to ,constantinople allowed of no delay1 and would oblige him to embark very shortly4 ,the letter terminated thus3 8,we have received ,paul's designs2 we suppose his cousin must have given him a little help4 ,i should be delighted1 and my husband too1 if there was any chance of such a plan being realized2 but who can think of building in the state in which our poor country is now6 ,rather make up your mind to come and join us40 8,well10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau after reading the letter1 8you see your plans are approved3 let us set to work at once4 ,if the ,prussians should come as far as this and set our old house on fire1 as their custom is1 they will not burn the walls of a building only just begun1 and what we have spent in its erection will not get into their pockets40 ,eugne1 helped by ,paul1 who calculated the items--he had never undertaken such a task before--drew up the estimate1 which amounted in all to #g1jjjl4 ,the earthworks and masonry were expected to cost #c1djjl4 ,master ,branchu was summoned3 8,a very good gentleman your father is10 said he to ,paul1 when it was settled that they should begin the following day2 8he sets people to work when the best hands are being turned off everywhere1 and old fellows like me1 who cannot go soldiering1 would have a hard time of it all the winter4 ,i shall go and drink his health with ,jean ,godard the carpenter1 who will be desperate glad like myself40 ,the rest of the day was employed in marking the principal dimensions on the plan1 so as to be able to set out the excavations4 ,master ,branchu was already on the ground next day1 equipped with lines1 stakes1 nails1 and broches1 a large carpenter's square1 and a water-level1 when ,paul and his cousin arrived at an early hour in the morning4 8,you see10 said ,eugne to ,paul1 8that the figures indicate on this plan the distances between the centre-lines of the walls4 ,consulting these dimensions1 we shall set out these centre-lines on the ground with the help of lines attached to what we call broches 7,fig4 #ai71 which consist of two stakes firmly fixed in the earth1 and a crosspiece4 ,the direction of one of the centre-lines being determined according to the orientation it suits us to choose1 the places of the other axes will follow according to the distance figured on the plan and the square returns40 ,eugne had soon settled the line of centre1 ,a1 for the dining and billiard-rooms1 according to the desired orientation4 ,then on this first centre-line was set out by means of a small theodolite another at right angles1 which was the centre-line of the entrance-hall4 ,these two lines once laid down1 the others were determined by means of the dimensions previously marked on the plan4 ,the centres of the principal walls were thus traced on the ground by lines attached to the broches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,as cellars were to be made under the whole extent of the main building1 ,eugne contented himself with ordering ,branchu to excavate the entire ground to a distance of about a yard beyond the lines of the perimeter4 ,two labourers with their picks set to work therefore at once to mark out the excavation4 8,if10 said he to the workmen1 8you find stone1 as may certainly be expected1 at no great depth1 and if it should prove to be of good quality1 you will take care not to break it up2 get it out for walling stone2 we will make use of it and pay you for your extra trouble4 ,if you find boulders1 let them be blasted1 and lay aside the best pieces for use4 ,to-morrow or the next day we shall give you the plan and section of the cellars4 ,meantime lay in a good store of bricks1 lime1 and sand2 you know that in this district it is desirable to arrange matters beforehand if we would have the materials when wanted4 ,it is ,september already1 and our cellars must be built at least before the first frosts40 8,this being settled then10 added ,eugne1 addressing ,paul when they were returning to the house1 8,i appoint you clerk of the works1 and these will be your duties3 ,you will come to the ground every morning1 and take care in the first place that the orders given in your presence are strictly executed4 ,for instance1 you will have to take account of the quantity of stone extracted from the excavation1 and to have it properly stacked in a heap about one yard thick1 two yards broad1 and of a length depending on the yield of the quarry4 ,having thus verified the daily increase of the heap1 we shall be secure against any abstraction from it4 ,you will keep a note-book in your pocket1 in which you will mark its daily augmentation1 and you will take care to have every leaf countersigned by ,branchu4 ,your business just now will be only overlooking2 but it will become more complicated as the works advance4 ,if materials are brought you will take account of the quantity1--in numbers if it is bricks1 or by solid content if it is sand or lime4 ,for this purpose ,i shall have brought to the ground one of those road-labourer's boxes1 which are a yard square and half a yard deep4 ,each measure when filled contains therefore half a cubic yard4 8,you will tell ,branchu to get a wooden shed built to keep his tools in1 and to keep the lime under cover till it is slacked4 ,if we had a contractor1 or some one with whom a bargain had been made1 we should not have to trouble ourselves about the quantity or content of the materials brought to the ground2 but as it is1 we must employ elementary means1 for ,branchu has not capital with which to provide materials4 ,we shall therefore give him the materials we buy1 or which the estate supplies1 on account4 ,you perceive the necessity of preventing these materials from being abstracted or wasted4 ,we pay him only for the labour4 ,this plan obliges us to be more attentive and vigilant1 but we are at least secured from being deceived as to the quality of the materials by a contractor1 who might think it his interest1 if he bought them1 to supply us with some of a quality inferior to that contemplated in the estimate4 8,we shall make the same terms with the carpenter4 ,your father tells me he has some oak timbers that have been cut more than two years1 and put in the wood-yard near the ,noiret farm4 ,let us go and have a look at them1 and mark those that can be employed4 ,our figured plan gives us the lengths of the flooring joists40 ,passing by the side of the rivulet that flows along the little valley1 ,eugne was looking attentively at its steep banks1 and was striking the rock faces with the iron-shod end of his stick4 8,what do you observe there80 said ,paul4 8,i think we shall find here good materials for our cellar vaulting4444 ,look at this yellowish stone1 porous like a sponge4 ,it is a present to us from this little water-course4 ,it brings down in its waters carbonate of lime1 which is incessantly being deposited on the grasses and vegetable detritus on its banks and in its bed4 ,this rivulet thus forms a light and very porous tufa1 which is soft and friable as long as it is thoroughly moist1 but which acquires a certain degree of hardness in drying4 ,formerly this rivulet was larger than it is now1 and it appears to me to have deposited a considerable thickness of this tufa as presented on its banks in their actual condition4 ,take this bit1 and look at it attentively4 ,you see that it is filled with cavities1--little cylindrical passages2 they represent the twigs around which carbonate of lime was deposited4 ,the twigs themselves decayed and disappeared long ago2 the coating has remained and been hardened in the air4 ,observe how light this kind of stone is1 being composed of cells scarcely thicker than egg-shells4 ,yet1 try to crush it under your heel4 ,it resists1 and the pressure scarcely blunts its asperities4 ,well1 dry it1 and in a week it will be even harder4 ,a smart blow with a hammer will be required to break it4 8,this material is perhaps the best for vaults1 on account of its lightness1 its toughness1 its cavities1 and that roughness of surface which makes the mortar adhere so closely to the joints that it cannot be separated1 and the whole1 when sufficiently dry1 seems to form only a single piece4 8,we shall send two excavators to get out a few cubic yards of it4 ,it is no difficult operation2 and when this tufa is in a damp state in its natural bed1 it can be very readily cut up into brick-shaped pieces40 ,they soon reached the ,noiret farm2 and there in fact1 under a shed along the wall of the barn1 were piled up pieces of timber roughly squared and blackened by damp4 ,eugne marked a certain number of them with his knife1 leaving those that were crooked1 knotty1 or cross-grained4 8,what is a cross-grained piece of timber80 asked ,paul4 8,cross-grained timbers are those whose fibres form a spiral round the heart4 ,you can understand how the fibres of the wood not being vertical1 and forming spirals more or less complete1 lose their resisting property2 these fibres1 on account of the circuit they make1--and which is not a regular one1--become disjoined1 and leave deep cracks between them4 ,these timbers1 therefore1 are rejected as defective1 as are also those whose heart is unsound1 or which have what they call soft rings2 that is1 diseased parts between their layers--a sort of interior ulcers which not only deprive the wood of its homogeneity of resistance but develop decay around them4 ,it often happens that these soft rings are not observed1 and that timbers which appear very sound fall rapidly to dust4 ,and as these diseases are frequent or rare according to the soils in which the wood grew1 it is essential to know whence the timbers employed in buildings came4 ,one forest will produce oak admirable in appearance1 but which rapidly decays2 another furnishes timber that is always sound4 ,generally1 timber grown on light and dry soils is good2 the produce of damp1 clayey ground is bad4 8,you will have these cross-grained and crooked timbers put on one side2 they will do to make the centres for the cellars2 they are fit for nothing else1 unless it be for firewood4 ,as to these fir poles1 they will serve for scaffolding40 ,it was late1 so the cousins asked for breakfast at the farm4 ,while they were laying the table1 ,paul said1 8,i want to know how you use the theodolite40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 8,in the case of an operation such as we have just been performing1 it is the simplest thing in the world4 ,i asked ,branchu to send my instrument to the chteau1 that ,i might not be troubled with it all the morning2 but there is no need to have it here to show how to use it4 ,you know that the theodolite consists of a graduated circle1 divided into #cfj degrees4 ,this circle1 movable on its centre1 is furnished with an air-bubble level1 and a telescope above1 both of which turn horizontally on a pivot in the centre of the circle4 ,the level and the centre of the telescope are perfectly parallel to the plane of the circle4 ,this is placed upon a stand with three legs1 and the circle is first fixed horizontally by means of three regulating screws1 and by turning the level4 ,the air-bubble must be always at the centre1 to whatever degree of the circle the tube is directed4 ,this being done1 and the feet being placed at the point marked on the ground--verifying the position by means of a plumb-line passing through the centre of the plate--the glass is directed towards a fixed point where a #8sight' is placed4 ,the glass of the telescope is crossed by two hairs at right angles1 which mark its centre4 ,the intersection of the two hairs must fall on the point on which the telescope is directed4 ,but previously the indicator or vernier below the telescope is set to the zero of the circle4 ,it is therefore the entire instrument that has been turned4 ,if1 then1 for example1 we wish to construct a right angle on the line joining the point where you are standing with the first sight1 you turn the glass till its indicator stands at #ij degrees 7the quarter of the circle74 ,you send a man with another sight in the direction of the glass1 and have this sight carried to right or left until its centre is exactly on the line of the vertical hair of the glass4 ,you have this sight fixed4 ,it is then certain that the line drawn from the point where you stand in the direction of the second sight forms a right angle with the first base line1 since two diameters cutting a circle divided into #cfj degrees at right angles give #ij degrees for each quarter of the circle4 ,by the help of this instrument1 having previously indicated on the plan of a building whose foundations you are laying out1 the angles which certain lines1 starting from any point1 form with each other1 you can transfer these angles to the ground4 ,suppose you have to lay the foundations of a semi-circular portico4 ,having fixed the centre1 and traced the semi-circle on the ground1 placing the theodolite on this centre1 you will be able to direct lines that will cut this circumference at regular intervals1 and which would mark1 for instance1 the centres of the columns or pillars4 ,since from point ,a to point ,b you have #ahj degrees 7,fig4 #bj71 you will divide these #ahj degrees into as many parts as you choose on the circle of the theodolite1 and the centre of the glass will give you1 at a great distance1 the same divisions on the semi-circular portico4 ,in the same way as the theodolite serves the purpose of laying the foundations of a building1 it enables us to take the bearings of a tract of country4 ,for suppose the base1 ,e ,f1 to be a known length which you have measured3 placing your instrument at ,e1 you direct the glass on a point ,c1--a tree1 a steeple1 or a pole2 you have then the number of degrees on the circle comprised by the angle ,c ,e ,f4 ,you transfer this angle to your paper1 then moving the instrument to the point ,f1 you direct it thence on this same point ,c2 you obtain similarly the angle ,c ,f ,e1 which1 transferred to the paper1 gives you exactly the position of the point ,c1 and the unknown distance from ,e to ,c and from ,f to ,c2 then either of these lengths will serve you for a base in its turn1 and operating from the point ,c and the point ,f1 and sighting a fourth point ,d1 you know the lengths ,c ,d and ,f ,d4 ,thus you can operate over a whole country2 this is what is called triangulation1 the first operation required for getting a map of the country4 ,but we are getting into another region of knowledge4 ,let us go to breakfast60 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,paul ,,reflects4 ,the omelette au jambon despatched1 ,paul remained silent4 8,well1 my young colleague1 you seem to be looking at something outside the real world4 ,is it hunger that gives you that pensive look8 ,shall we have another omelette80 8,no1 thank you4 ,my hunger is quite satisfied4 ,what bothers me is1 that ,i don't half understand all you have been so kindly explaining to me4 ,there are points which ,i cannot catch2 and ,i am asking myself whether ,i can be really of any use to you in overlooking the building4 ,it seems to me that ,i should have much to learn2 the little you have taught me is all in confusion in my head1 and we haven't even begun the work yet40 8,discouraged already6 ,come1 come6 each day's task can be finished in the day2 and a house is not built so fast but that you can add something every day to your store of practical knowledge1 without confusion4 8,all you learn will find its place in your brain1 for the head is a marvellous box2 the more you fill it the more it enlarges2 and everything classified in the compartment destined to receive it can always be found again4 ,the great thing is to keep one's bureau in good order1 and only to place in it objects well studied and sorted4 8,but each day you ought to make a complete transcript of the work done1 and leave nothing for the morrow4 ,the commission ,i give you--that is the daily record of all that is brought to the works1 and of the employment of the materials--what we call #8keeping account' is only a question of exactness and care4 ,the important point is not to let your work get beforehand with you4 ,two hours daily will suffice to take account on the spot4 ,you see that you will still have three or four hours left to attend to the details of the execution1 and to take your pleasure40 8,did you begin to learn architecture in this way80 8,oh6 by no means4 ,when ,i left college ,i was articled to an architect for two years1 who set me to copy drawings of buildings1 of which ,i was not told either the age1 or the country1 or the use2 then to lay on tints4 ,during this time1 ,i took lessons in mathematics1 geometry1 and drawings from models4 ,i was then prepared to enter the cole des ,beaux ,arts1 where not much is taught1 but where they compete to obtain medals and the ,grand ,prix1 if you can4 ,i remained there three years1 making five in all4 ,meantime1 ,i was obliged to get my living1 for ,i had no more than enough to pay for my lodging and to buy clothes4 ,i was obliged1 therefore1 to get into an office--that is to say1 to work for so much an hour at an architect's1 who was in large practice4 ,there ,i used to trace plans and nothing else1 except now and then to make some detail drawings4--,heaven knows how6--for ,i had never seen the smallest part of a building executed4 ,but my employer was not exacting1 and the master builders supplied by their experience what was wanting in these details4 ,seeing that all this would not put me in a speedy way to master my profession1 and being so fortunate as to have had a few hundred pounds left me1 ,i resolved to travel--to study architecture in actual buildings1 and no longer in those shown me on paper4 ,i set myself to observe1 to compare1 to see practical men at work1 to examine buildings that were crumbling to pieces1 that ,i might discover in anim vili the causes of their ruin4 8,at the end of five more years ,i was sufficiently acquainted with my profession to be able to practise it4 ,total--ten years2 and ,i had not built even a dog-kennel4 ,one of my patrons introduced me to an agency for government works1 where ,i saw methods employed which scarcely agreed with the observations ,i had been able to make during my previous architectural studies4 ,if at any time ,i allowed myself to make remarks on this discrepancy1 ,i found they were not well received4 ,this circumstance1 and the fact that a fine opportunity offered itself for making use of what ,i had learned1 occasioned my stay there to be of no long duration4 8,a large commercial company was on the point of erecting manufacturing works on an extensive scale4 ,they had engaged an architect who was proposing to erect buildings in the ,roman style1 which was not exactly what they wanted4 ,they did not think it quite to the purpose to build in the plains of the ,loire edifices recalling the splendours of ,ancient ,rome4 ,i was introduced to the directors2 they explained what they wanted to me4 ,i listened2 ,i worked indefatigably to acquire what ,i was ignorant of1 in order to satisfy my clients4 ,i visited factories1 made the acquaintance of large contractors1 studied building materials1 and at length furnished the draft of a plan which pleased them1 but which would scarcely satisfy me now4 ,the work was begun2 assiduous study1 and constant attendance on the ground1 enabled me to supply my deficiencies in point of knowledge1 so that they were satisfied with my commencement4 ,most of these gentlemen had town and country-houses4 ,i became their architect1 and this soon obtained me large practice and more work than ,i could execute2 especially as ,i have come to the conclusion that it is necessary to be always studying1 reasoning1 and improving2 so that 7looking at the matter in this light7 the further you advance the more difficulties you have to encounter40 8,how1 then1 should architecture be studied80 8,why1--as ,i have shown you1--by practising it4 ,in ,france1 at any rate1 no other method has been employed hitherto1 and perhaps this is the best40 8,but how do those learn to build who do not travel1 as you did1 but simply study in the usual way80 8,they do not learn to build4 ,they only learn to imagine and design impossible structures1 under the pretext of preserving the traditions of #8high art2' and when they are tired of putting these fancies on paper1 they have a place as clerk of works given them1 where they do what you are going to do2 the only difference being that they feel a disgust for the work because they were expecting something very different40 8,but1 beginning as ,i am going to begin1 shall ,i be able afterwards to study the--what shall ,i call it80 8,the theory1--the art1 in short4 ,certainly1 you will be able to study it much more easily2 for the modicum of practical knowledge you will have acquired in building a house1 or in seeing it built from foundation to roof1 will enable you to understand many things which1 without practice1 are inexplicable in the study of the art4 ,this will give you the habit of reasoning and of satisfying yourself as to the why and wherefore of certain forms and certain arrangements dictated by the necessities of practical building1--forms and arrangements which appear simply fanciful in the eyes of those who have no idea of those necessities4 8,how are children taught to speak8 ,is it by explaining to them the rules of grammar when they are only three years old8 ,no2 but by speaking to them1 and inducing them to speak to express their wishes or necessities4 ,when they have learned to speak nearly as well as you and ,i do1 the mechanism and rules of language are explained to them1 and then they can write correctly4 ,but before learning according to what laws words ought to be placed1 and how they ought to be written to compose a phrase1 they had become acquainted with the signification of each of them4 8,if we had not in ,france the most singular ideas respecting teaching1 we should begin with the beginning1 not with the end1 in the study of architecture4 ,we should impart to students the practical elementary methods of the art of building1 before setting them to work to copy the ,parthenon or the ,therm of ,antoninus ,caracalla1 which1 for want of those first practical notions are to them mere phantoms2 we should thus train their young minds to reason and to become aware of all their deficiencies1 instead of exciting their youthful vanity by exercises purely theoretical or artistic at an age when they cannot clearly understand the forms that are given to them as models40 8,a house such as we are going to build seems to me a very small affair4 ,surely such a construction can hardly supply the information necessary for erecting a great edifice40 8,do not imagine that1 ,paul2 construction1 apart from certain branches of scientific and practical knowledge1 which you will be able to study at leisure1 is nothing but a method1--a habit of reasoning1--a compliance with the rules of common sense4 ,of course you must possess common sense and consult it4 ,unfortunately1 there is a school of architects which disdains this natural faculty1 asserting that it fetters imagination2 for we have among us idealists1 as there are in literature and among painters or sculptors2 though if idealism is permissible among littrateurs and artists1--for there it is harmless1--in architecture it is quite another thing2 it is expensive1 and you and ,i have to pay for it4 ,we have consequently the right to consider it at least out of place4 ,the reasoning faculties and good sense have to be called into exercise quite as much in building a house as in constructing the ,louvre1 in the same way as you may show tact and intellect in a letter as well as in a large volume4 8,the ability of an architect is not determined by the quantity of cubic feet of stone he uses4 ,the size of the building makes no difference40 8,you maintain1 then1 that as much ability is required to build a moderate-sized house as to erect a vast palace80 8,i do not say that2 ,i say that the faculties of the mind1 reasoning1 accuracy1 the exact appreciation of the materials at our disposal1 and their proper use1 are manifested as well in the construction of the simplest habitation as in the erection of the most magnificent architectural monument40 8,i shall then be able to learn much in observing the building of my sister's house80 8,certainly4 ,first1 because one learns much when one has the wish to learn2 secondly1 because in a house1 as in the largest of palaces1 the entire architectural staff will have to present themselves before you1 from the excavator to the decorative painter4 ,whether the carpenter makes twenty doors or two hundred1 if you can get a clear notion of how a door is made1 hinged1 and hung1 one alone is quite enough2 you have no need to see a thousand40 8,but here we shall not be making doors 7for example7 such as those of royal apartments80 8,no2 but the principles on which they are1 or ought to be made1 are the same for both2 and it is by departing from these principles that we fall into mere whims and follies4 ,when you know how a wooden door is made you will see that the structure is adapted to the nature of the material employed1 viz41 wood1 and to the purpose it has to serve4 ,this knowledge acquired1 you will be able to study how clever men have made use of these elements1 and how 7without departing from fundamental principles7 they have produced simple or splendid works2 you will be able to do as they have done1 if you have talent1 and to seek new applications of principles4 ,but you must1 in the first place1 know how a door is made1 and not imitate at hazard1 while destitute of this preliminary practical knowledge1 the various forms that have been adopted1 be they good or bad40 ,paul continued thoughtful all the rest of the day4 ,it was evident that he was becoming aware of grave difficulties1 and the building of his sister's house was assuming in his mind disquieting proportions4 ,returning to the chteau1 he began to look at the doors1 the windows1 and the wainscoting1 as if he had never seen anything like them in his life2 and the longer he looked1 the more confused1 complicated1 and difficult to understand did it all appear to him4 ,he had never asked himself by what contrivances these pieces of wood were combined and held together1 and found hardly any satisfactory solutions of the questions he was putting to himself4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,paul1 ,,clerk ,,of ,,the ,,works4 8,go1 my dear ,paul1 and see how far the excavations are advanced this morning10 said ,eugne1 two days after the visit to the ground1 8and bring me your report4 ,take a rule and a note-book with you1 and take notes and measurements of what has been done4 ,you will examine the ground1 and tell me if they find blocks of stone near the surface of the soil1 or if the loose earth is deep4 ,in the meantime ,i am going to draw the plan of the cellars4 ,but take the tracing of the plan of the ground-floor of the house1 and on this plan1 mark out what they have begun to excavate1 and what they find4 ,the work cannot be far advanced2 but some excavations will have been already made1 since ,i have told ,branchu to set as many labourers to work as he could find1 so as to comply with your father's intentions40 ,a little embarrassed by his new duties1 ,paul soon reached the ground4 ,aided by ,branchu1 he took the measure of the diggings1 indicated the depths as well as he could1 and marked the spots where they found rock or loose earth4 ,this took him two good hours4 8,well10 said ,eugne1 when they were settled in the study1 after breakfast1 8there is the plan of the cellars 7,fig4 #ba74 ,let us see how it will suit your report of the ground1 and whether we shall have to make some modifications in this plan4 ,ah6 ,i see the rock is nearly on the surface towards the south1 and the loose soil reaches pretty uniformly a depth of three yards towards the north of our buildings4 ,we shall1 therefore1 make the cellars under the drawing-room1 the dining-room1 and the billiard-room1 in the limestone rock1--cutting the latter2 and we shall make a foundation for the front part1 especially for the stabling and coach-house1 with good masonry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 8,here 7,fig4 #ba7 is the plan of the cellars4 ,you see these axial lines3 they indicate the centres of the walls of the ground-floor1 and must not be departed from4 ,the figures denoting the thickness of the walls are always marked from these centres4 ,thus you see these dimensions are greater where the cellar-wall will have to carry the spring of the vaulting of the cellars--as ,i explained to you1 the other day4 8,we have a rivulet that will supply the services of the house1 by means of a reservoir1 which we will place as high as possible4 ,we have not yet taken the levels2 but judging by a glance1 ,i should say 7reckoning by the falls of the rivulet and the rapidity of its course7 that at #ajj yards from the house the reservoir will store the water so as to enable it to reach the level of the first floor by pipes4 ,that we shall have to ascertain4 ,otherwise we shall have recourse to a pump worked by horse-power or by a windmill4 ,we will afterwards conduct this stream of water into a drain along the walls at the north of the house1 as you see at ,a1 so that this drain may collect the waste water from the house by a conduit1 ,b1 and receive the closet discharges at ,c1 ,d1 and ,e4 ,the running water will thus take off this sewage into a tank1 which we will make down below in the kitchen-garden4 ,this water when it has settled is excellent--let me tell you--for watering the vegetables4 8,i have indicated on the plan at ,g the sections of the cellar barrel-vaults4 ,the cellars will measure #e feet from the floor to the spring of the vaults1 and the vaults will have a rise of #e feet4 ,these cellars1 therefore1 will have a height of #aj feet under the crown1 which will be very satisfactory1 especially as the ground is dry4 ,we shall then be able to make use of the cellars1 not only for storing wines but vegetables1 for a larder1 c4 ,the level of our ground-floor being #e feet above the general surface of the ground1 we shall easily ventilate these cellars by air-holes1 as ,i have marked at ,h4 ,the descent to them will be by the steps on the right1 situated near the wash-houses and by the servants' stairs in the turret4 ,the right-hand steps will serve for taking down stores1 and the winding-stairs for carrying up the wines and other things to the pantry4 8,have you seen whether ,branchu has taken care to have the materials extracted from the excavations regularly deposited80 8,yes3 but hitherto he has found only thin layers of what he calls rag2 but he has them stacked1 and tells me they will be very good for foundation walls40 8,he is right3 this rag is liable to injury from frost in the open air1 but it is hard1 and does very well in cellars2 and it makes good strong walling1 because it is bedded1--that is1 occurs in the natural state in thin parallel layers1 #d to #f inches thick40 8,that is just about what he told me2 but he added that it swallows up a great deal of mortar1 and ,i did not quite understand what he meant by that40 8,the fact is this2--the thinner the layers of stone are1 the more beds of mortar they require between them2 but if you have observed the thin stones in question you will have remarked that they are extremely rough and riddled1 with cavities on their beds4 ,there must be plenty of mortar between each course1 to fill these rugosities and cavities well3 and for that very reason masonry of this kind is excellent1 if you are not sparing of mortar2 and these rough surfaces adhere to the mortar much better than smooth surfaces could do3 they become incorporated with it1 and the whole soon forms one solid mass4 ,but then you must not spare lime and sand1 and that is why ,branchu says this kind of walling swallows up a great deal of mortar40 8,branchu also says that he has been finding stone good for making lime1 above blocks of building limestone1 and asks whether he is to put that aside40 8,certainly if the lime-burner at the ,mill cannot furnish us with lime1 we will make it ourselves2 this will not be difficult since we have plenty of firewood from the recent fellings40 8,branchu also asked me where he was to put the excavated earth40 8,you will tell him to-morrow morning1 to have it deposited en cavalier to the right and left of the excavations2 we shall want it to level the approaches to the house40 8,what is a cavalier80 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 8,it is an artificial mound of regular breadth and height1 so that its solid content can easily be calculated4 ,thus1 when earth is removed from diggings with wheelbarrows1--and this is1 as you see1 the means we are employing1--we mark out the area this mound is to occupy on the ground1 as at ,a ,b 7,fig4 #bb71 representing the length1 and ,c ,d the breadth4 ,that done1 the point ,b being farthest from where the excavation is going on1 the wheelbarrow men deposit their first loads at ,b1 leaving an inclined embankment not too steep for the barrows to be wheeled up it without too much labour4 ,thus by degrees an embankment1 ,a ,e ,b1 is formed4 ,then1 from the middle ,f half way up the incline ,a ,e1 they leave a road1 a b1 #e feet wide for the barrows to go up and down1 and then fill up the triangle1 ,a ,g ,f1 by inclined layers4 ,lastly1 they fill the triangle1 ,g ,f ,e4 ,the road1 g ,d h i1 remains to be filled up1 and the shovellers do this by depositing the soil on the road itself4 ,the mound being thus perfectly regular1 its slopes are produced by the running down of the soil--that is1 they form angles of about #dj with the horizon1 according to the nature of the embankment4 ,the mound being finished1 and measuring1 say1 #aj yards long at half its length from l to m1 and #d yards wide at half its height from n to b1--multiplying #aj yards by #d yards we get #dj superficial yards at this mean level4 ,multiplying this number by #b yards1 the height of the mound1 we get #hj cubic yards4 ,you know therefore that this quantity of earth has been moved1 and consequently1 what you have to pay1 if your cuttings and embankings are at so much per cubic yard1 or what a cubic yard of soil removed costs you if you pay by the day40 8,this will give us the solid content of the excavation then80 8,not exactly4 ,earth compressed1--settled down in the natural soil1--occupies a smaller volume than that which1 having been moved1 leaves many interspaces between the materials of the embankment4 ,soil when removed is said to increase1 more or less4 ,sea-sand does not increase1 while pebbly earth1 mixed with vegetable detritus1 increases greatly4 ,in your memoranda1 therefore1 you must take account of the looseness caused by excavating1 to get the solid content of the soil removed2 and take the solid content of the mounds when we make use of them1 to know the mass of earth we shall have to transport elsewhere40 8,you will now draw this plan of the cellars to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot1 so that you may figure the dimensions very legibly where required2 then ,i shall indicate to you on this plan the points where bedded stone must be placed40 8,what are bedded stones80 8,dressed stone laid as a foundation is thus designated1 and which is only dressed on its beds1--that is to say1 which presents no visible faces4 ,dressed stone has always two beds1 which are its horizontal surfaces1 one or more faces1 which are its exposed surfaces1 and its joints1 which are its separating surfaces4 ,thus1 let us suppose a corner stone1 bearing a pilaster1 and having the form indicated here 7,fig4 #bc71 the surface a b c d e f1 g h i j k l are the upper and lower beds4 ,the surfaces a l b g1 b g c h1 c d h i1 d e i j are the exposed faces1 and the surfaces c f j k1 a f k l are the joints1 as the adjacent stones touch these surfaces4 ,you will easily see that when stones are placed below the surface1 as a foundation1 it is not necessary to dress the faces which would be visible only to the moles4 ,this cutting therefore is saved2 the stone is left in the rough on its vertical faces1 and only those on which it rests are cut4 ,for these bedded stones solid blocks are chosen1 which sustain pressure1 but which may be very coarse in grain1 and even sensible to frost 7i4e41 liable to be cracked by frost71 and which could not be employed in the open air without danger2 under ground these stones are preserved from the action of frost4 ,but care must be taken with regard to these stones even more than for those above ground1 to place them according to their quarry-bed1 and their natural stratified position2 otherwise they might be broken or crushed beneath the weight of the masonry above4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 8,when our plan is drawn1 we shall indicate by a particular colour the parts where we wish bedded stones to be placed4 ,these will be the angles and the junctions of the walls which sustain the heaviest pressure relatively to the rest4 ,between these bedded stones the masonry will be carried up simply in rubble-work4 8,the ground being good1 we shall content ourselves with foundations only half a yard below the area of the cellars4 ,but as soon as we have reached this level1 the dressed stones will necessarily have faces visible in the cellars2 these stones will therefore not merely be bedded1 but faced and jointed4 ,we will not take the best and finest grained1 but those that resist pressure best1 and which in this district are the coarsest in appearance4 ,we shall put dressed stones in our cellars at the angles1 the jambs of the doors and air-holes1 and in the newels of the stairs4 8,but you have enough work for to-day and to-morrow morning4444 ,ah6 ,i was forgetting6 ,if ,branchu meets springs1 or drippings1 that trouble him1 inform me1 because we must immediately make drains to collect the water4 ,that will determine us as to the level to be given to the bed of our sewer40 8,what do you mean by the bed80 8,it is the part of a channel sluice or a sewer on which the water flows2 it is the bottom1 which ought to be formed so solidly that the force of the current cannot disturb it4 ,the beds of sewers1 therefore1 should be made of good flat stones1 or1 which is still better1 of hydraulic cement1 when it can be procured1 because the water finds its way between the joints of the stones2 while1 if the cement is properly used1 it forms along the whole channel one homogeneous mass perfectly water-tight4 ,besides we take care to give to the bed of a drain a section slightly concave1 joining its walls without angles2 for water takes advantage of angles to effect its work of destruction4 ,angles1 moreover1 are not easily cleared out when subterranean channels have to be cleansed4 ,the best form to give to a sewer is the one given here in section 7,fig4 #bd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,paul ,,begins ,,to ,,understand4 ,in spite of the news of the war1 which was daily assuming a more threatening character1 ,m4 de ,gandelau insisted on the works not being interrupted2 and the inhabitants of the chteau found in the execution of the plans prepared by ,eugne and ,paul a beneficial distraction from the sad forebodings which oppressed them4 ,in the evening1 after reading the paper1 which recorded1 alas6 only a succession of disasters1 everyone remained silent1 with eyes fixed on the hearth2 but soon1 with a determined effort1 ,m4 de ,gandelau started the inquiry how the house was getting on4 ,it was for ,paul1 as ,clerk of the ,works1 to give an account of the operations of the day1 and he began to perform his task with a fair amount of exactness and clearness4 ,he showed his memorandum books1 which1 thanks to ,eugne's corrections1 were not very badly drawn up1 and which1 by the help of a daily summary of accounts1 indicated the expenses that had been incurred4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,the excavations had hitherto furnished enough materials to obviate the necessity of sending for any from the neighbouring quarries4 ,about the #aeth of ,september the cellar walls were already beginning to make their plan visible1 and it was time to think of the exterior plinths in elevation1 and of the cellar vaultings1 for whose construction wooden centres were required4 ,the carpenter was therefore commissioned to send for timber-sawyers1 to convert some trunks of poplars1 which having been cut some time before1 were put by for the purpose4 ,the best part of the wood was sawn into thin boards for battens1 to be employed when required2 and the slabs--that is1 the part near the bark--were cut up for centring for the cellars4 ,as the plans gave only two barrel-vaults whose arches were different1 the curves were soon struck out1 and the carpenter prepared the centres1 which were fixed up as soon as the cellar walls reached the level of the spring of the vaults ,these centres were formed in the manner shown in ,fig4 #be--that is1 consisted each of a tie-piece1 ,a1 a king-post1 ,b1 two blades1 ,c1 and clips1 ,d1 which held fast the curves formed of slabs of poplar nailed together1 as shown at ,e1 and fixed at ,g and ,h on to the king-post by means of a notch1 ,f1 and to the tie-piece by an iron staple4 ,on these centres1 supported by props ,k1 and set five feet apart1 they laid a covering composed of planks1 ,l1 #c inches thick1 to receive the vaults1 which were made of blocks of tufa extracted from the banks of the rivulet1 #h inches in thickness1 with a good layer of mortar over all4 ,the openings for the air-holes had to be contrived in the haunches of the vault1 a piece of work which gave ,paul considerable trouble--or rather1 he had some difficulty in understanding it and sketching it in his note-book2 for1 as to ,branchu1 he did not seem to find any particular difficulty in it4 ,eugne had given the sketch for the air-holes at the same time as the section of the plinth1 #e feet in height above the ground level4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,this drawing presented1 in section at ,a1 and in plan at ,b1 the figure #bf4 ,eugne had to explain this sketch to his clerk-of-works1 who did not understand it at the first glance4 8,as the light comes from the sky1 at the mean angle of #de1 the cellars must be lighted accordingly10 said ,eugne4 8,the plinth consists of a course1 ,d1 half sunk in the ground1 two clear courses1 ,e ,f1 and a course bearing the set-off4 ,we give the cellar wall bearing the spring of the vaults1 #c feet4 ,the wall above the floor-level being #b feet1 this wall gives one foot on each side of the fixed centre-line1 but as the plinth has #d inches of projection outside1 there will be #af inches from the centre to the exterior face of this plinth4 ,within1 the wall descends plumb as far as the skew-back which carries the vaults4 ,a width of #h inches is needed to receive the latter4 ,thus1 from the centre-line below the spring of the vaults there will be #bj inches in the interior1 and #af inches on the exterior3 total1 #c feet4 ,the lower course rising above the surface #f inches1 and the height of the plinth being #e feet1 there remains above these #f inches1 #d feet #f inches1 which divided by three gives for each course #ah inches4 ,i take the opening of the air-hole in the second course2 out of the third1 ,i take a chamfer of #d inches1 to admit the light1 as the exterior1 ,m1 and the section indicate4 ,i cut the first course to a slope of #de1 as shown at ,i1 leaving a flat1 a1 of #ab inches1 as you see in the plan4 ,then1 behind this sill1 ,i place a lintel1 with a chamfer in the same way1 as drawn at ,o1 and take care to leave at b1 two rebates of #b inches1 for casements or gratings1 at discretion4 ,at the back of these rebates1 ,i splay the air-hole1 which has only #b feet #h inches of exterior opening1 to #c feet #d inches4 ,i draw in section an inclined line1 m n1 #h inches above the lintel ,o1 which #h inches will be the rise of the arched opening that will penetrate into the barrel-vault1 and whose curve in horizontal projection will give the outline ,x4 ,thus this arch1 ,x1 will receive the thrust of the courses of the barrel-vault1 and will throw it on the two cheeks1 ,p4 ,branchu will only have to mark the curve ,x on the covering of the centres to form his arched opening40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,it was not quite certain that ,paul perfectly caught this explanation1 though repeated several times2 and he did not understand it completely till he saw ,branchu construct the air-holes and the centres were removed 7,fig4 #bg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 8,i spare you the difficulties10 said ,eugne1 seeing that ,paul was puzzled to comprehend the construction of the cellars1 8for the structure of the vaults and their penetrations is a matter that requires long study4 ,we have made only simple barrel-vaults1 and you will observe that the cellar doors are all in the end walls1 or tympanums1 and not in the side walls bearing the springing of the vaults4 ,with the difficulties1 ,i also avoid useless expense4 ,the courses which form the plinth will be of hard stone1 but you will observe that1 except at the angles and for the air-holes1 they are only a facing1--they are not parpings1 that is1 do not form the whole thickness of the wall4 ,we have excellent rubble-stone1 which1 with the good mortar we employ1 offers greater resistance to pressure than is required to carry two stories and a roof4 ,letting these rough stones tooth out on the inside we tie them better into the haunches of the barrel-vaults 7,fig4 #bh71 and thus economise dressed stone4 ,you will also see in elevation1 above the plinth1 how we can spare dressed stone if we wish1 while preserving a perfectly sound construction4 ,we find moreover1 on the surrounding uplands1 layers of thin limestone1 which split in regular beds from #f to #h inches in thickness1 and which make capital range-work4 ,we call that range1 or coursed work1 in which the stone is laid with visible faces1 beds1 and joints somewhat roughly dressed4 ,this range-work facing1 which presents in its way an attractive appearance1 and whose rusticity contrasts with the smooth finish of the dressed stone1 is backed with ordinary rubble walling4 ,thus1 in districts where stone occurs naturally of this shape in the quarries1 we get an economical building material4 ,but it is puerile to amuse one's self with making thin coursed-work where soft freestone abounds1 and where it must be cut into little bits to obtain this appearance4 ,you will see that it is contrary to common sense to cut great blocks of stone into little bits1 and that when the quarries supply those only1 it is reasonable to employ them according to their natural dimensions1 and to adapt the construction to the nature and height of the stones4 ,here we have large blocks1 when we require them1 but they are not common4 ,in short1 we ought to proceed1 as far as possible1 according to the nature of the materials which the soil furnishes us in abundance40 ,the drain was made1 the vaults were turned2 the steps down to the cellars were laid2 the plinth had risen more than a yard above the ground4 ,it was time to think about studying the details of the elevations4 ,that overlooking the garden was only roughly sketched out4 ,paul was hoping that it would present a more regular appearance than that of the entrance side4 ,he made a remark to that effect1 for ,paul had seen in the environs of ,paris1 many country-houses that seemed to him charming1 with their four pepper-boxes at the angles1 their porch in the very centre of the faade1 and their zinc cresting on the roof4 ,he had too high an opinion of his cousin's ability to allow himself to criticise the faade of his sister's house1 as designed for the entrance side2 but in his heart he would have preferred something more conformable to the laws of symmetry4 ,those windows of all forms and dimensions shocked his taste a little4 ,when the faade on the garden side 7,fig4 #bi7 was sketched--a frontage which1 this time1 presented a symmetrical aspect--,paul declared himself satisfied with it2 and in the evening1 the family being assembled1 he asked why the entrance front did not present the symmetrical arrangements which delighted him on the garden side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 8,because10 said ,eugne1 8on the garden side our plan gives us rooms which are the counterparts of each other1 of equal dimensions and corresponding purposes2 while on the entrance side we have very diverse services in juxtaposition4 ,the question you raise1 ,paul1 is a very large one4 ,two methods may be followed4 ,on the one hand1 you may plan a symmetrical architectural casing1 in which you try1 as best you can1 to accommodate the services required by a habitation4 ,or1 on the other hand1 you may arrange these services1 in plan1 according to their importance1 their respective place1 and the relations that are to be established between them1 and erect the casing so as to suit these services1 without troubling yourself to obtain a symmetrical appearance4 ,when it is proposed to erect an edifice whose exterior aspect is destined to exhibit a grand unity of design1 it is desirable to endeavour to satisfy the rules of symmetry1 and to take care that the building shall not present the appearance of having been built piecemeal4 ,in a private habitation it is imperative first to satisfy the requirements of its inhabitants1 and not to incur needless expense4 ,the habitations of the ,ancients were not symmetrical1 any more than those of the ,middle ,ages4 ,symmetry strictly applied to domestic architecture is a modern conceit--an affectation--a false interpretation of the rules observed during the best periods of art4 ,the houses of ,pompeii are not symmetrical3 the country-house--the villa--of which ,pliny has left us a complete description1 did not present a symmetrical ensemble4 ,the castles1 manors1 and houses built during the ,middle ,ages are anything but symmetrical4 ,lastly1 in ,england1 in ,holland1 in ,sweden1 in ,hanover1 and in a large part of ,germany1 you may see numbers of dwellings wonderfully appropriate to the needs of their inhabitants1 which are constructed without regard to symmetry1 but which are nevertheless very convenient and elegant in appearance1 from the simple fact that they clearly indicate their purpose4 8,i know that there are many persons quite disposed to put themselves to inconvenience every day1 in order to have the vain pleasure of exhibiting regular and monumental faades outside2 but ,i think your sister is not one of those persons1 and therefore ,i have not hesitated to proceed according to what ,i conceive to be the law of common sense in making the designs for her habitation4 ,i can fancy her asking me1 with her quiet1 and slightly ironical smile-- 8#8,why1 my dear cousin1 did you make me so large a window in this small room8 ,we shall have to stop up half of it4'444 ,or1 #8,why did you not give me a window on this side1 where the view is so pretty8' 8,if ,i replied that it was to satisfy the laws of symmetry1 she would perhaps have laughed outright1 and1 in petto1 might probably have thought that her respected cousin was after all a fool1 with his #8laws of symmetry4'0 8,alas60 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8there are too many people in our country with whom considerations of vanity take precedence of everything else1 and that is one of the causes of our misfortunes4 ,appearance is the great object4 ,every retired bourgeois who has a country-house built1 wishes to have his turrets regularly disposed at the corners of a building1 symmetrical1 indeed1 but in which he is very indifferently lodged--satisfied if this inconvenient erection is called the chteau1 internal comfort being sacrificed to the gratification of exhibiting outside bad stucco carvings1 zinc ornaments on the roof1 and a quantity of nonsensical decorations which have to be renewed every spring4 ,build us then1 cousin1 a good house1 well sheltered from the sun and rain1 thoroughly dry within1 and in which nothing is sacrificed to that debased luxury which is a thousand times more offensive in our country districts than it is in the city40 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,building ,,in ,,elevation4 8,it is decided that we are to build our exterior walls with dressed stone and range-work10 said ,eugne1 while they were levelling-up to the ground-floor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 8,we have a good part of the materials on the ground4 ,as regards stones of large size1 we shall get them from the quarries of ,le ,blanc1 which are only a mile or two distant4 ,our quoins1 our door and window-openings1 our string-courses1 cornices1 dormer-windows1 and gable-copings1 will be made of dressed stone4 ,let us begin with the quoins4 ,this is how you will give the details to ,branchu2 it is a very simple matter4 ,in this part of the country they sell stone by the scantling2 that is to say1 the quarries supply it according to a measure stipulated beforehand1 and the price per cubic foot is less in proportion to the uniformity of the order1 and the ease with which it is executed4 ,now our walls on the ground-floor are #b feet thick3 let ,a be one of the corners 7,fig4 #cj72 for these you will require stones all of the same scantling--#b ft #aj in4 long by #b feet wide1 and a mean height of #ah inches1 which is the average thickness of the beds in the quarries of this district4 ,and these quoin stones will be placed as ,i have marked here1 one a b c d1 the other a e f g1 the result of which will be that each stone will form alternately on one side and the other a bond of #aj inches4 ,the range-work having its courses about #f inches thick1 we shall have three courses of the range-work in the height of each course of dressed stone1 and the building as it rises will present the appearance indicated by the perspective sketch ,b4 ,between the plinth mould and the string-course of the first floor we have #ad feet2 nine courses of stone1 plus the mortar beds1 therefore1 will constitute its height4 ,let us see how we are to arrange our window-casings4 ,we must consider how to place the jalousies1 which cannot be dispensed with in the country1 but which when folded back on the face of the walls produce a disagreeable effect1 very soon begin to get out of repair1 and are troublesome to shut or open1 imposing on the inmates of the dwelling a gymnastic exercise from which they would gladly be excused4 ,interior reveals will be required sufficiently deep for the casements1 not to be flush with the walls1 and to leave a space between them and the curtains4 ,our widest windows are #d feet wide in the clear2 our walls1 on the ground-floor1 are #b feet thick2 we can therefore find a place for the jalousies in the casing1 only on condition of dividing each of these leaves into two or three folds4 ,only those made of sheet iron will allow us to manage this1 because three sheets folded back on themselves are only #b inches thick1 including the room left for the play of the hinges4 ,this1 then1 is the method given 7in ,fig4 #ca7 of arranging the jambs of the windows3 the outside being at ,a1 we will leave a thickness1 ,b1 to mask the leaves of the jalousies folded up in the jamb of #d inches4 ,we will allow a space of #aj inches for these leaves at ,c4 ,then will come the window-frame1 #b inches thick2 total1 #ag inches4 ,we shall then have left #g inches of reveal inside at ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 8,you see at ,e how we shall build these window-openings3 a sill1 ,f1 of a single block of stone2 then a course1 ,g1 #af to #ah inches high1 bonding into the range-work2 a stone on end1 ,h1 only the thickness of the casing2 a third course1 ,i1 like that marked ,g2 and lastly1 the lintel4 ,we will make this only the thickness of the casing1 that is1 #ad inches2 we shall have left #i inches1 exactly space enough to turn an arch of bricks1 ,k 7these being #i inches long1 and with the joint #i inches74 ,this arch will bear our joists1 if there are any that have to rest in the outer walls1 and it will hinder a fracture of the lintels4 ,besides this we will pass a tie-bar1 ,l1 under the latter4 ,i find the tie-bar more effective at this level than at the level of the flooring4 ,a tie-bar is an iron sinew placed in the thickness of the walls to bind and keep in place the whole construction4 ,it is not always placed in houses built in country districts1 but it is unwise to omit it--indeed1 a very poor economy to do so2 for a building not tied is liable to be easily cracked4 ,but we shall speak of this again at the proper time4 ,make a fair copy of these sketches and show them to me2 and we will give these details to ,branchu4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 8,we must also decide how we shall construct the floors4 ,in ,paris1 at the present day1 they construct all the floors with joists of double ,t iron1 and for bearings of #af to #bj feet they take iron #d to #f inches in vertical section4 ,they pug these iron joists--placed about #bh inches apart1 and connected at intervals of about a yard1 by iron tie-bars in4 square--with plaster concrete4 ,this is no bad method1 certainly2 but here we have neither the iron joists1 which are so easily procured at the great centres1 nor the plaster-of-,paris1 which is perhaps too lavishly used in the capital1 but which is nevertheless an excellent material when it is properly employed1 especially for the interior4 ,we must construct the floors with wood4 ,but ,i have already told you that timbers which have not been soaked for some time1 and which have been cut scarcely two years1 decay very rapidly when enclosed1 chiefly in their bearings1 that is their extremities built in the walls4 ,to prevent our floors giving us anxiety respecting their durability1 we must leave the timbers visible1 and not build them in the walls4 ,we will1 therefore1 adopt the system of bearers attached to the walls to receive the bearings of the joists2 and as we have small oak trunks1 we will content ourselves with squaring them on two faces1 and place them diagonally1 as ,i show you here 7,fig4 #cb74 ,for bearings of #af to #bj feet1 which are the largest we have1 timbers #g inches square will be sufficient4 ,if we think them insufficient we will put an intermediate beam2 that remains to be seen4 ,these joists1 diagonally placed1 present moreover their maximum of resistance to deflection4 ,we will place them at #bj inches from centre to centre4 ,their bearings will be in the notches made in the bearers1 as marked at ,a1 and the soffits--which are the spaces between the joists--will be made with bricks placed flat-ways1 overlaid with mortar and plastered beneath4 ,we may decorate these ceilings with line painting1 which renders them light and agreeable to the sight1 as at ,h4 ,joists thus placed do not present internal angles difficult to keep clean1 and among which spiders spin their webs4 ,a dust with a soft brush readily cleans these soffits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 8,as to the bearers ,b1 7placed against the wall1 as section ,c shows71 they will be supported by corbels1 ,d1 a yard apart at most1 and by cramps1 ,i1 to prevent these timbers from giving out4 ,this arrangement will take the place of those cornices run in plaster1 which are of no use1 and which we could not get executed properly in this neighbourhood1 where we have no good workmen in plaster4 ,when partitions above have to be supported1 we will put a special joist1 the section of which ,i have sketched for you at ,e1 composed of two pieces1 a and b1 with an iron plate between them--the whole fastened together by iron pins at intervals4 ,joists like this are perfectly rigid4 8,as the joists rest on bearers1 we have no need to trouble ourselves about the windows1 but we shall require trimmers at the chimney-breasts and under the hearths1 and--to receive these trimmers--trimmer-joists4 ,you will easily see that it would be dangerous to lay pieces of wood under fireplaces4 ,accordingly1 we place on the two sides of the jambs of these fireplaces1 at a distance of #ab inches from the hearth-stones1 stronger joists1 which receive at #cb or #cf inches from the wall--to clear the width of the fireplace--a piece called a trimmer1 into which the joists are tenoned4 8,for the trimmer-joists we will take the type previously indicated at ,e2 we shall strengthen 7,fig4 #cc7 this beam in its bearing with a block1 ,d1 resting on a strong stone corbel4 ,we will bind the two pieces1 ,e and ,d1 by an iron strap1 ,f1 and frame the trimmer by a tenon1 ,h1 in the mortise ,g4 ,this trimmer will receive1 like the bearers1 the ends of the joists at ,i4 ,the space1 ,g ,k1 will be the under side of the hearth of the fireplace above2 it will be #cb inches wide1 and will be bedded with brick1 laid on tie-pieces of iron1 ,l4 ,these trimmer-joists1 ,e1 will have to be let into the wall about #d inches1 to render them firm and bind the structure2 but in the neighbourhood of the flues we have no reason to fear the effect of damp on the wood4 ,to sum up1 this is the appearance of these joists and trimmers underneath the fireplaces 7,fig4 #cd740 ,all this1 it must be confessed1 appeared rather strange to ,paul1 accustomed as he was to the invariable smooth white ceiling1 and who had never suspected that such level surfaces could hide such a framework4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,observations ,,addressed ,,to ,,eug,,ne ,,by ,,paul1 ,,and ,,the ,,replies ,,made ,,to ,,them4 ,paul1 with his head bent over the paper covered with sketches1 and his hands between his knees1 could not help thinking1 for his part1 that his cousin was covering a good deal of paper in making ceilings1 whereas they had always seemed to him the simplest thing in the world1 and the least susceptible of complication4 ,in his own mind1 in fact1 ,paul made scarcely any distinction between a sheet of paper stretched on a board1 and a ceiling4 ,so when ,eugne had repeated the phrase1 8,is it quite clear to you80 ,paul hesitated a little1 and said1 8,i think so10 adding1 after a pause-- 8,but1 cousin1 why not make floors and ceilings as they do everywhere else80 8,it seems to you a complicated affair1 my dear fellow10 replied ,eugne1 8and you would like to simplify the matter40 8,it is not exactly that10 rejoined ,paul2 8but how do they manage it generally2 do they employ all these contrivances8 ,i have not seen what you call bearers1 and trimmer-joists1 and trimmers and corbels1 in any of the ceilings ,i am acquainted with4 ,it is possible1 then1 to dispense with them1 is it not80 8,none of these appliances are dispensed with in ceilings of carpentry work1 but they are concealed by a coat of plaster2 and1 as ,i was telling you just now1 this covering of plaster is one of the causes of the decay of wooden floorings4 ,in all these floorings there are trimmer-joists and trimmers next the flues and hearths2 sometimes there are also bearers4 ,all this is bound together by iron work1 to form a rigid framing between two plane surfaces with as little space as possible between them4 ,in ,paris1 where the houses are very dry1 this method is still allowable2 but in the country it is difficult to obviate the damp1 and inclosed ceilings of this kind run the risk of soon falling into decay4 ,the timbers must be exposed to the air1 7,i say once more7 if we would preserve them4 ,this framework of wooden floorings exists in all that are constructed with these materials1 only you do not see it4 ,now it is desirable in architecture to make use of the necessities of the construction as a means of decoration1 and frankly to acknowledge those necessities4 ,there is nothing discreditable in allowing them to be seen2 and it is a mark of good taste1 good sense and knowledge1 to exhibit them by making them contribute to the decoration of the work4 ,in fact1 to people of good taste and good sense1 this is the only kind of decoration that is satisfactory1 because it alone is suggested by the requirements4 8,we have accustomed ourselves in ,france to decide everything1 but especially questions of ,art1 by what is called sentiment4 ,this is a convenient state of things for many persons1 who presume to talk about ,art without having ever had a pair of compasses1 a pencil1 a modelling tool1 or a paint-brush in their hands2 and professional men have gradually lost the habit of reasoning1 finding it easier to take refuge in the conclusions of those amateurs who fill pages while really saying nothing to the purpose1 and in so doing flatter the taste of the public while perverting it4 ,little by little1 architects themselves1 who of all artists should make good use of reasoning in their conceptions1 have acquired the habit of concerning themselves only with appearances1 and no longer trying to make these harmonize with the necessities of the structure4 ,at last these necessities have come to be looked at by them as annoyances2 they have concealed them so completely1 that the skeleton of an edifice--if ,i may so call it--is no longer in harmony with the dress it puts on4 ,we see on the one hand a structure1--often left to the mercy of contractors1 who manage it as best they can1 but naturally in subservience to their own interests1--on the other hand a form which indifferently suits that structure4 ,with your permission1 then1 we will not follow this example1 but will produce a building1 unassuming it may be1 yet one in which not a detail shall be found that is not the result either of a necessity of the structure or of the requirements of its occupants4 ,it will not cost us more on that account2 and when the work is completed1 we shall rest satisfied that there has been nothing disguised nor factitious1 nor useless1 in what we have produced1 and that the architectural organism we have built will always allow us to see its organs1 and how these organs perform their functions40 8,how is it1 then10 rejoined ,paul1 8that so many architects do not show 7as you propose to do here7 those necessities of the construction1 but disguise them8 ,why do they act in that way8 ,who obliges them to do so80 8,it would take a long time to explain that to you40 ,m4 de ,gandelau entered at these last words of the conversation4 8,we have worse and worse news10 said he4 8,the ,german armies are spreading everywhere2 we must expect to see the enemy here4 ,poor ,france6444 ,but what were you saying80 8,nothing10 replied ,eugne1 8that can have any interest in presence of our disasters4444 ,i was trying to make ,paul understand that in architecture we should not disguise any of the means of construction1 and that it is even in the interest of this art to avail itself of them as a basis for decoration2 that1 in a word1 we should be sincere1 that we should reason and trust only to ourselves----0 8,certainly60 rejoined ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8you lay your finger on our plague-spot as a nation---- ,to reason1 to trust only to ourselves1 to get a clear idea of everything and of every fact by study and labour1 to leave nothing to chance1 to disguise nothing from one's self or from others2 not to take phrases for facts----not to fancy ourselves protected by tradition or routine---- ,yes1 this is what we should have done---- ,it is too late1 and who can tell whether1 after the misfortunes which ,i anticipate1 our country will recover enough elasticity1 patience1 and wisdom to leave sentiment and keep to reason and serious work6 ,try to teach ,paul to reason1 to habituate himself to method1 to acquire a love for mental labour2 and whether he becomes an architect1 an engineer1 a soldier1 a manufacturer1 or an agriculturist like myself1 you will have rendered him the most valuable service4 ,above all1 may he never become a mere half-savant1 half-artist1 or a half-practitioner in any department--writing or talking about everything1 but incapable of doing anything himself4 ,work6 ,the more sinister the character of the news we receive1--the more heavily they weigh upon our hearts1--the more energetically should we give ourselves to useful and practical labour4 ,lamentations are to no purpose4 ,work60 8,let us go and look at the building10 said ,eugne1 who saw that ,paul continued in a meditative mood1 and was scarcely inclined to set to work again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,view ,,of ,,the ,,building ,,operations ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,visit ,,to ,,the ,,building4 ,the building was beginning to assume a definite shape2 the plan was becoming visible above the ground4 ,about twenty masons and stonecutters1 four carpenters and their helpers1 enlivened this quarter of the neighbourhood4 ,carts filled with bricks1 sand and lime1 were coming in4 ,two timber-sawyers were cutting up trunks of trees into planks2 a small movable forge had been lighted under the shelter of a clump of trees1 and was used for repairing tools1 with the prospect of being called into requisition for forging iron straps1 cramps1 bands1 and lintel bars4 ,a beautiful autumnal sun was shedding a warm but subdued light on the busy scene4 ,this spectacle succeeded in effacing from ,paul's mind the gloomy impression left by his father's words4 ,under this aspect work did not seem to him invested with that harsh and rugged form which had at first somewhat scared our holiday pupil4 ,paul proceeded therefore to follow his cousin over the ground as an attentive clerk of works 7,fig4 #ce71 listening with great care to his observations4 8,here is a stone1 ,master ,branchu10 said ,eugne1 8which must not be put in2 it has a flaw1 and as it would be a lintel1 it must be rejected40 8,but1 sir1 the flaw doesn't go far40 8,far or not1 ,i disallow it1--do you understand8 ,paul1 you will take care that it be not laid4444 ,observe this little chink that is barely visible2 strike the stone with this hammer on both sides4 ,just so2 the ring of the stone is dull on this side2 well1 that proves to you that it is not sound1 and with the help of the frost this piece on the right side will separate from its neighbour4444 ,here are some bricks that you will not let them use3 see how cracked they are2 these white spots too 444 they are particles of limestone which the fire has converted into lime4 ,when the damp acts upon them these particles of lime swell and burst the brick4 ,you must take care before allowing bricks to be used to have them well moistened4 ,those which contain portions of lime will fall to pieces and so will not be used40 8,but1 my good sir10 said ,branchu1 8it isn't my fault2 the bricks are not my business40 8,no2 but it is your business to send back those that are defective to the brickmaker1 and not to pay him for them1 since you have undertaken to get them supplied2 that will teach him to clear his ground thoroughly of bits of limestone4 ,there is some sand with clay in it1 see how it sticks to one's fingers6 ,master ,branchu1 ,i must have none but good coarse sand2 you know well where that is to be got4 ,this has been taken from the edge of the pit2 it is good for nothing but to be put in the haunches of the cellar vaults for filling up2 do not allow it to be used in the mortar--you understand1 ,paul6 ,mortar requires well granulated clean sand1 the grains of which do not adhere to each other2 and observe1--before using it have a few bucketfuls of water thrown on the heap4 ,take care1 too1 that the mortar is not mixed on the ground1 but on a wood platform4 ,you have done so hitherto1 that is quite right2 but take care that it is never made in any other way2 if you are in a hurry for it1 and one platform is not enough1 have two4 ,be very careful too1 ,paul1 to see that the stones are all well bedded in mortar40 8,oh6 you needn't trouble yourself1 sir1 ,i never do otherwise40 8,yes1 ,i know very well1 that for basements and hard stone this is pretty sure to be attended to2 but higher up your workmen are very apt to lay the stones on wedges and run the beds with liquid mortar1 which is easier4 ,be very careful about this1 ,paul4 ,all the stones ought to be laid over their place1 on thick wedges1 leaving a void of two and a half to three inches2 the mortar ought to be spread below over the whole surface1 and be about three-quarters of an inch thick2 then take away the four wedges1 and the stone settling down on the mortar1 it must be struck with a great wooden beetle till the joint is only three-eighths of an inch everywhere1 and the surplus mortar is pressed out all round----0 8,here are some hollow beds1 ,master ,branchu2 you must have them re-dressed40 8,what is a hollow bed80 said ,paul to his cousin1 in a whisper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 8,it is a concave bed surface of a stone10 replied ,eugne1 and added1 taking his note-book3 8,here 7,fig4 #cf71 you can understand that if the bed of a stone presents the section ,a ,b1 the middle ,c being more hollow than the edges1 the stone in question rests on the latter only2 consequently if the pressure is considerable the corners ,d ,e split off2 we then say that the stone is flushed4 ,it is better that the surfaces should be made as sketched at ,g1 and should not rest upon their edges4 8,till now1 ,master ,branchu1 you have been raising your building by means of runs or inclined planes1 but we are getting high2 we shall soon want scaffolding4 8,as we are building with range-work1 using dressed stone above the plinth only at the angles1 and for the door and window casings1 you will leave scaffolding holes between these wall stones4 ,then you will only want scaffolding-poles and put-logs4 ,for raising the material the carpenter is going to make you a hoist1 and you will employ the crab which ,i shall have sent from ,chateauroux1 where ,i have no use for it just now40 8,if it's the same to you1 sir1 ,i prefer our machine40 8,what6444 your wheel concern1 in which you put a couple of men like squirrels80 8,yes40 8,well1 as you like2 nevertheless ,i mean to send for the crab2 you shall try it40 8,in fact10 said ,eugne aside to ,paul1 8his machine1 which dates1 ,i believe1 from the ,tower of ,babel1 raises the loads1 when they are not too heavy1 much more easily than our winches2 and as we have no very heavy stones to raise1 we will not oppose his wishes on this point40 ,and turning to the master mason3 8,it is a settled matter1 ,master ,branchu1 that we do not allow any after-dressing1 except for some very delicate mouldings or chamfers if occasion requires2 you will set your stones completely dressed with only here and there a little thickness to be worked off40 8,certainly1 ,mr4 ,architect1 certainly2 ,i would rather build like that40 8,so much the better1 ,i am glad of it40 ,and addressing ,paul3 8,i know nothing more injurious than the custom that prevails in some great cities of after-dressing buildings4 ,rough blocks are laid2 then when all is built1 up they go and cut1 pare1 sink1 scrape1 mould1 and carve these shapeless masses1 most frequently regardless of the jointing2 without considering that they thus take away1 especially from soft stone1 that hard crust which it forms on its surface when newly cut on leaving the quarry1 and which resists the inclemency of the weather2 a crust which is never formed again when the materials have once produced it and have thrown off what is called their quarry-damp4 ,happily1 in many of our provinces the excellent custom has been retained of cutting each stone on the ground1 once for all1 in that form which it is permanently to keep2 and when once laid1 the stone-cutter's tool does not touch it again4 ,independently of the advantage ,i have just pointed out to you1 this method requires more care and attention on the part of the dressers1 and it is not possible then to put the beds and joints anywhere at random4 ,each stone1 on this plan1 has its proper destination1 and consequently the form suitable to its place4 ,lastly1 when a building is once raised1 it is finished3 there is no occasion to do anything more to it4 ,i must add1 that this method requires on the part of the architect1 a complete and finished study of each part of the work at every stage in his arrangement of the parts of the structure40 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,paul ,,feels ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,improving ,,himself ,,in ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,drawing4 ,one thing astonished ,paul1--the facility with which his cousin could express with a few strokes of his pencil what he wished to explain4 ,his perspective sketches1 above all1 seemed to him marvellous2 and our young architect began1 on his part1 to try to indicate on paper the forms he wished to master2 but1 to his great disappointment1 he succeeded only in producing a mere medley of lines which was incomprehensible1 even to himself1 a quarter of an hour afterwards4 ,yet in drawing out his memoranda1 to which his cousin attached importance1 he could not but feel that the means employed by his chief would be very useful to him if he could acquire them4 ,one day1 therefore1 after having spent several hours at the works in endeavouring to get a clear idea1 by sketching them1 of the form of some worked stones1 but without succeeding in obtaining a result even tolerably satisfactory1 ,paul went to his cousin's study1 and said to him-- 8,what ,i have learned of linear drawing is evidently not enough to enable me to render on paper the forms which you are able to explain so readily by a sketch2 ,i beg you therefore1 cousin1 to teach me how to set about representing clearly what ,i have before me1 or what ,i wish to explain40 8,i like to see you so anxious to learn1 ,paul2 indeed1 this is half the battle1 though only the half1 and in fact the easier one4 ,i shall not be able to teach you in eight days1 nor even in six months1 the art of drawing with facility either the objects you see1 or those which you conceive in your brain2 but ,i will give you the method you must follow2 and with labour1--much labour and time1--you will arrive1 if not at perfection1 at least at clearness and precision4 ,drawing implies not mere seeing1 but considering an object4 ,all who are not blind1 see2 but how many are there who know how to see1 or who in seeing reflect8 ,very few1 certainly2 because we are not habituated to this exercise from childhood4 ,all the higher orders of animals see as we do1 since their eyes are very similar to ours2 they have even the memory associated with vision1 as they recognize the objects or the beings which they like or dread or of which they make their prey4 ,but ,i do not think that animals acquire a notion of bodies or surfaces otherwise than by an instinctive faculty without the intervention of what we call reasoning4 ,many of our fellow-men do not see in any other way2 but it is their fault1 since they could reason4 ,but that is not the question now4 ,the following is the method ,i propose to you3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 8,you know what triangles and squares are2 you have studied elementary geometry1 and you seem to me to be tolerably familiar with it1 since you could evidently understand the plans1 the sections1 and even the projections of bodies on a vertical or horizontal plane2 or else my sketches would not have been intelligible to you4 ,i should wish you therefore to take some cards1 and drawing to a scale on each of them the various faces of a stone you see worked1 you will cut out these surfaces with scissors1 and with the help of strips of paper and paste you will join them1 so as to represent one or two of these pieces of stone4 ,the little model will thus become familiar to you2 you will know how the surfaces are joined1 and what are the angles they form4 ,in the evening1 by lamp-light1 you will place these little models before you in every possible position1 and copy them as they present themselves to your eyes1 taking care to indicate by a dotted line the junction lines of the surfaces which you do not see4 ,stay1--here on my table is a rhombohedron of wood1 which1 as you know and see1 presents six similar and equal faces whose sides are equal1 each of these faces consisting of two equilateral triangles united at their base4 ,see 7,fig4 #cg71 ,i take this body between my fingers by its two vertices2 if ,i show it to you in such a position that one of its faces is parallel to the plane of vision1 the two others will present themselves obliquely 7as at ,a72 you see three faces therefore1 but there are three others behind that are hidden from you4 ,how would these present themselves if this body were transparent8 ,just as indicated by the dotted lines4 ,if ,i make the rhombohedron revolve between my fingers1 so that two faces are perpendicular to the plane of vision1 7as at ,b71 two faces only will continue visible1 two others will be hidden from me1 and two follow the two lines a b1 c d4 ,now1 ,i present the rhombohedron so that none of its faces are parallel or perpendicular to the plane of vision1--thus 7vide ,c47 ,well1 ,i shall still see three faces1 but foreshortened--thrown out of shape by perspective2 and the three others will be indicated by the dotted lines4 ,in the evenings1 therefore1 make as many little models as you can1 representing the stones you have seen at the works1 and copy these little models in every position4 ,throw them at random on the table1 several together1 and copy what you see2 mark what is hidden from you by a dotted or finer line4 ,when you have practised this for a week1 many difficulties will have been already conquered4 ,and then for further advance40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,this method pleased ,paul very much1 and1 without losing time1 with the help of some of his memoranda1 he began to construct a little model of one of the stones whose faces he had measured4 ,it was the springer of an arch with a return face4 ,he succeeded in making a tolerably good model in card-board1 which he proudly displayed on the family table after dinner1 and which he copied first on its under-bed1 then as placed in various positions4 ,he would have continued his work all night1 so much was he fascinated with it1 and so many interesting discoveries did it enable him to make1 if at eleven o'clock ,madame de ,gandelau had not warned him that it was time to go to bed4 ,paul had some trouble in getting to sleep1 and his dreams presented to him nothing but card-board models of a very complicated description1 which he endeavoured unsuccessfully to put together4 ,so he got up rather late1 and on entering his cousin's room1 did not fail to attribute his tardy appearance to the bad night he had passed4 8,well10 said ,eugne1 8you have got the descriptive geometry fever2 so much the better2 it cannot be learned well unless you have a passion for it4 ,we will work at it together when the frost suspends our building operations and the bad weather shuts us up here4 ,an architect must be able to use descriptive geometry1 as we spell correctly1--without having to think about it4 ,perspective must be absolutely familiar to him4 ,neither can be learned too soon2 and it is only in early youth that these things can be acquired so thoroughly as to give us no trouble at any time to recall them1 even if we should live a hundred years4 ,you are a good swimmer2 and if you fall into the water you have no need to remind yourself what movements you must make to keep at the surface or direct your course3 well1 it is in this way you ought to know geometry and perspective2 only you must give a little more time to practising this essential branch of our art than is required for learning to swim like a frog40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,plans ,,and ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,stairs4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,staircases4 ,it was time to give the details required for the execution of the staircases4 ,eugne had told ,paul to prepare these details2 but ,paul1 as may be imagined1 had not been very successful in accomplishing his task1 and had only furnished an imbroglio perfectly unintelligible to others as well as to himself1 notwithstanding the summary hints given by the architect in chief4 8,come10 said ,eugne1 8we must apply ourselves to this work together4 ,branchu and the carpenter are asking for details4 8,let us take first the principal stairs1 and mark their walls 7,fig4 #ci74 ,for the height of the ground floor we have #ae feet1 including the thickness of the flooring2 and the steps ought not to be more than #f inches high1 each of them3 we must therefore reckon thirty steps from the level of the ground floor to the level of the first floor4 ,in breadth or in tread--the term used by builders--a step ought to be from #aj inches to a foot1 to give an easy ascent4 ,thirty steps therefore require an extension of from #be to #cj feet4 ,i think ,i told you this before1 when we drew the plan of the ground floor4 ,if we take the middle of the space reserved for the steps1 on our plan1 we find exactly #cj feet2 marking therefore the steps on this middle line1 and giving them #aa inches tread1 we can get two landing-places in the angles at ,a1 ,a4 ,we will make these steps wind so as to avoid sharp angles near the newel4 ,the first step will be at ,b1 the last at ,c4 ,at ,d1 under the stairs1 we will make the partition1 which will allow us to form the water-closet at ,a4 ,since at the landing-place1 ,a1 we have ascended eighteen steps 7each #f inches in height71 we shall have #h feet #f inches under the ceiling1 which is more than sufficient4 ,we will light it by a window1 ,e4 ,the two windows1 ,f1 will light the staircase and follow the level of the steps1 as the elevation shows4 ,for nothing is more ridiculous than to cut across windows by the steps of a staircase2 and although this is done constantly1 it is one of the absurdities which a builder ought to avoid4 ,from the servants' passage1 ,g1 the water-closet will be entered by the door ,h4 8,let us now draw the elevation1 or rather the vertical projection of these stairs4 ,this is how we proceed3 we draw the walls in elevation1 then divide the height to be ascended into as many parts as there are to be steps1 as ,i do at ,i4 ,projecting these divisions horizontally on the elevation1 and the ends of the stairs vertically with the walls and the newel1 indicated on the plan1 we get1 by the meeting of these two projections1 the section of the stairs along the walls and against the newel4 8,there we have it2 the last step is then at ,k1 on the level of the floor of the first story4 ,to reach the second story1 we have #ac feet #c inches to ascend from one floor to the next4 ,giving #f inches to each step1 we get twenty-six steps1 minus a fraction which is not worth counting4 ,we shall therefore preserve in plan the drawing of the first revolution1 starting from the step1 ,l1 which gives thirteen steps to the point ,m4 ,from this point we will draw the thirteen remaining steps to complete the number twenty-six1 as ,i have marked on the supplementary plan at ,n4 ,then for the elevation we will proceed as above4 ,we shall thus get the general section from ,v to ,x for the two stories4 ,the drawing being completed1 the next question is of what material the steps are to be made4 ,contained between walls and a newel1 which is a wall itself1 we can1 if we think well1 make them each of a single block of stone4 ,however1 that is scarcely practicable in this neighbourhood1 because we should have difficulty in procuring hard1 compact1 fine stone1 suitable for this object4 ,we will therefore content ourselves with making the first step only of stone1 and the others of wood1 covering them with good oak board2 and to avoid inserting them in the walls1 we will provide a projecting-string in stone1 forming a bracketing along the walls and the newel1 to receive their ends1 as shown here 7,fig4 #dj74 ,we will lath these steps on the underside where they are to be left in the rough1 and plane them only on the face1 or riser1 ,a4 ,that they may be firm in their place1 we will fasten them with stays1 ,b1 which will be covered by the boards forming the tread1 and will be fixed into the holes1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 8,as regards the servants' winding staircase1 we will make it of hard stone1 each step carrying a portion of the newel1 as sketched here 7,fig4 #da74 8,now try to put these instructions in a regular form1 that you may be able to give the details readily to the mason and carpenter40 ,with considerable labour ,paul succeeded in making a tolerably complete drawing from the indications furnished by his cousin3 but the latter was obliged often to help him2 for his clerk was not an expert in elementary descriptive geometry1 and these projections presented difficulties at every turn4 ,paul got into confusion with his lines1 took one point for another1 and would many a time have abandoned compasses1 square1 and drawing-pen in despair1 if ,eugne had not been at hand to set him right again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,critic4 ,it was the end of ,november1 and the weather had hitherto allowed our builders to make use of every day4 ,the autumn sun was favourable to the enterprise1 and at several points the house was reaching the height of the window-heads of the ground floor4 ,nevertheless it required all ,m4 de ,gandelau's determination to prevent the works from being suspended4 ,by degrees the ground was deserted by the able-bodied workmen1 who were being called away to the army4 ,those who remained had their attention distracted1 and were not making the best use of their time4 ,it was becoming difficult to get the hauling done1 all the horses and carts being pressed into the service of the country4 ,the province was furrowed in every direction by the tracks of regiments making for the ,loire4 ,many hours were spent in talk2 and every one was anxiously expecting news of the war1 which assumed an increasingly gloomy aspect4 ,however1 ,orleans had been re-occupied by the ,french troops1 and all hope did not seem lost4 ,paris was resisting4 ,in the meantime an addition was made to the circle at ,m4 de ,gandelau's chteau in the person of a friend of the family1 who1 having had his property occupied and injured by the ,germans1 had been obliged to abandon it for fear of worse1 and came to pay a visit to ,m4 de ,gandelau on his way to the west of ,france1 where he had relations4 ,he was a man of about fifty or sixty years of age1 tall1 and of frigid aspect1 though a perpetual smile seemed stereotyped on his face4 ,he might have been taken for a diplomatist of the old stamp4 ,the new-comer had read and travelled much1 knew a little of everything1 was a member of several learned societies1 and his opinion carried a certain weight with it in his dpartement4 ,he had been a candidate for the legislature2 had embarked in manufacturing speculations1 in which he had lost a good deal of money2 then in agricultural enterprises1 but as they threatened to ingulf the remainder of his fortune1 he ultimately rested content with the theoretical side of things1 and with publishing pamphlets on questions of all kinds1 printed at his own expense1 and lavishly circulated4 ,every one of these brochures professed to give a simple solution of all the difficulties in question1 whether in the domain of politics1 science1 manufactures1 commerce1 and even art4 ,building had been one of his hobbies2 but as architects appeared to him unpractical1 extravagant1 and imbued with prejudices1 he had taken the sole direction of his building operations1 making his own bargains1 treating directly with the contractors1 giving the plans1 and superintending the work4 ,this whim had been a very costly one1 and one fine morning his building fell to pieces4 ,as he had no more faith in engineers than in architects1 he had determined to lay out roads on his estate1 and have them made according to a system of his own4 ,his attempts in this line had not been more successful than those in building4 ,the roads persisted in being impracticable4 ,but ,m4 ,durosay 7that was the gentleman's name7 was one of those persons whom experience--even though acquired at their own expense--teaches but little4 ,in other respects he was a worthy man2 he was extremely polite and obliging--generous even--especially towards those who had the art of flattering his whims1 and who1 through interest or conviction1 gave him credit for being an infallible judge in matters of all kinds4 ,if any one had come to consult him on any subject at the moment he was about to step into a railway carriage1 he would have let the train go rather than not give a formal judgment1 with reasons in full4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that he judged everything by an priori system1 and would listen with only partial attention to the particular reasons that tended to modify its application to the case in question4 ,on the other hand1 he would allow his positions to be discussed1 and did not manifest the least impatience if his opinion was not shared by others4 ,he was fond of repeating this aphorism3 8,light emanates from the shock of conflicting ideas20--but with the understanding that he always played the part of the producer1 never that of the recipient4 ,a short time after his arrival1 and when the gloomy subjects of conversation which were the order of the day had been exhausted1 they began to talk about ,paul's house 7as it was the custom at the chteau to call it74 ,m4 ,durosay asked to see the designs4 8,building and ,i are old acquaintances2 ,i know something about it10 said he4 ,eugne could not repress a smile2 but the speaker took no notice of it1 his mishaps as a builder having left no painful recollections in his mind4 8,capital60 said ,m4 ,durosay1 when they had explained the plans to him1 and he had examined them4 8,i have seen houses in ,belgium something like this4 ,there are very good ideas here2 it will be a very pleasant habitation if our friends the ,prussians let you finish it4444 ,will you allow me to make one or two remarks about it80 8,certainly40 8,not that ,i presume for a moment to suggest any change in these plans1 which appear to me admirable4444 ,but ,i have had the opportunity of a wide field of observation and comparison4444 ,well1 then1 to tell you frankly my first impression1 this seems to me to have rather the character of a town-house1 what we call a htel1 than a country-house4444 ,you will excuse my saying so1 will you not8444 ,i do not understand a country-house thus shut in3 ,i should like to see a portico round it1 or at least a wide veranda2--windows opening out--a more decided reflex of exterior life40 8,but1 my dear friend10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8,i expect that my children will come and spend a good part of the year here2 it is no object with them to have one of those habitations in which people reside only for the two or three summer months1 and where they entertain the idlers of the city2 they want a good house1 which will perfectly exclude wind and wet1 where they can live comfortably at every season of the year40 8,certainly--a very proper consideration2 but what do you think of those ,north ,italian villas1 where the climate is pretty severe in winter and spring1 but which are not the less charming with their porticos1 terraces1 wide open entrance-halls1 and their balconies looking out over the country8 ,all these habitations have a dignified aspect2 they ennoble life1 we may say1 and enlarge those narrow ideas to which our age is only too prone4444 ,and then1 does it not seem to you that there is a too manifest want of symmetry1 at least in one of the faades8 ,doesn't this make the house look a little like those edifices which have been built piecemeal1 with a view to satisfy successive requirements--in short1 is there not a want of that unity which ought to be found in every work of art80 8,but it is not a work of art that ,i wish to leave my daughter2 it is a good house--convenient and substantial40 8,very good4 ,but you will allow that if we can secure both kinds of excellence1 so much the better4 ,for a person of such extreme refinement and so charming in every respect as your daughter1 it is but proper that a habitation should be provided reflecting in its exterior the charms and graces of its occupant4 ,it would be a pleasure to you1 in visiting ,madame ,marie1 to see in the distance her little family grouped around her under a portico of delicate architecture1 or under a loggia4444 ,but this seems to me more like the house of some grave ,flemish alderman4 ,in these gables there is a kind of severity which----0 8,come1 come1 my dear friend1 gables are not severe2 they are gables--that's all40 8,but indeed these gables with their high roofs have a severe aspect1 which by no means agrees with the idea one forms of a house built for pleasure40 8,but it is not a house built for pleasure2 it is a house built for people who are going to live in it1 not for summer loungers--especially as we never have such people in our neighbourhood40 8,still1 however1 ,i should have liked to give a warmth to these fronts 7which have a somewhat frigid aspect7 by light and airy projections1 and a covered gallery1 with a terrace over it40 8,warmth8 warmth8 ,why instead of that1 you would give us the rheumatism with your galleries4 ,they may do very well at ,nice or ,mentone1 but they are not to be thought of in our part of the country4 ,we want the sun upon the walls of our habitations1 while your porticos are like mushroom-houses40 8,i see1 my dear friend10 resumed ,m4 ,durosay1 after a pause1 8that you keep to your taste for what you call the practical side of things4 ,yet see what a good opportunity you have of giving your daughter one of those dwellings which1 while satisfying the material requirements of life1 would possess that perfume of art which is too rarely found in our country districts4 ,a little exterior elegance is a powerful charm which leaves an indelible trace in the mind4 ,it is thus that the ,italians preserve the poetry of the brilliant eras of their civilization4 ,they are willing1 at need1 to sacrifice something of what we call #8comfort'--the material conveniences of life--to keep up among them the noble traditions of high art40 8,i do not know what the traditions of high art are1 or whether those traditions preserve us from rain1 wind1 and sun2 but ,i must confess that your ,italian villas in the environs of ,verona and ,venice appear very dull and gloomy with their colonnades and closed shutters4 ,i have never had the wish to visit them1 for ,i imagine one would be very uncomfortable in them4 ,if they build them so with a view to offer tourists models of architecture1 all well and good2 but ,i make no pretensions to amuse or interest tourists1 and my daughter shares my ideas in the matter40 8,perhaps 444 but just now your daughter is travelling in ,italy2 she is going to sojourn on the shores of the ,bosporus2 who knows whether on her return here she would not be charmed to meet a kind of souvenir of the impressions she will not fail to have experienced there1 and whether the surprise you have in store for her would not be still more delightful if you tried in some measure to revive those impressions8 ,what do you think of it1 ,mr4 ,architect80 8,as for myself10 said ,eugne1 8,i am listening1 and cannot but be delighted to hear you discourse so ably on our art40 8,i may take it for granted1 then1 that you share my opinion1 and that you would be inclined to give this habitation1 which you have so skilfully arranged1 some of those external charms in which perhaps it is now deficient40 8,i cannot say that ,i should4 ,m4 de ,gandelau1 with his usual courtesy1 has left us quite at liberty1 and has simply stated the limit of expense to which he is prepared to go4 ,as regards other considerations1 our programme having been agreed upon1 we have not been restricted to an excessive severity of style1 nor forbidden the adoption of what you consider the exterior charms of a dwelling-house40 8,well2 although my friend with his practical mind does not appear sensible to these charms1 do not you1 as an artist1 think it desirable to add something to these fronts1 which are perhaps a little severe in aspect1 and which certainly with the help of your talent you could render less cold8 ,you know ,italy2 you have visited ,pompeii3 do you not find in the architecture of those countries abundant suggestions from which inspiration may be drawn--charming models1 in fact80 8,yes2 ,i have visited ,italy and ,france1 but ,i must confess that ,i have never been struck by the architectural works of those countries1 except so far as they preserved the imprint of the manners and customs of those whose genius produced them4 ,you mention ,pompeii4 ,that which has vividly affected me in the remains of this little provincial town of ,italy is precisely this characteristic4 ,its small dwellings exactly suited the habits of antiquity1 the time when they were erected1 and the climate of the district4 ,but from the study of these habitations ,i infer that since we do not live on the shores of the ,gulf of ,naples1 and have customs very different from those which suited the ,pompeians1 our dwellings ought not in any way to suggest the peculiarities of theirs2 that while1 for example1 it may have been very agreeable to them to sup in an open triclinium1 sheltered from the wind by a velum1 we cannot arrange dining-rooms after this model in the ,dpartement de l',indre2 and that though it might have been a luxury to them to sleep in a room whose area was only five or six square yards and the door of which1 left open1 introduced you to a court surrounded by a portico1 this would be very inconvenient here1 as we should run great risk of catching cold if we left the door open1 or of being suffocated if we shut it40 8,but as you have mentioned ancient dwellings1 allow me to remark that those of ,pompeii1 even the most luxurious1 do not exhibit externally any of those magnificent features which you seem to admire4 ,the ancients reserved for the interior such luxury as they affected1 and it does not appear that they troubled themselves to display anything of it to the passers-by4 ,i have not a very clear idea of what their villas1--their country-houses1--may have been2 but everything leads me to believe1 as far as we can judge from the remains preserved to us1 that in them nothing was sacrificed to that distinctively modern vanity which aims to make an external display of architectural forms to strike the vulgar4 8,i believe that those country palaces of ,northern ,italy with which you have been so deeply smitten1 are rather products of vanity than abodes adapted to the habits of those who have erected them2 in fact1 they have scarcely been inhabited1 and the dilapidated condition in which you see them does not date from yesterday4 ,erected to satisfy vanity and the desire to make a show1 they lasted as habitations only as long as works due to vanity are accustomed to last--that is1 for a few years of the life of an individual2 after which they were abandoned40 8,you call vanity10 replied ,m4 ,durosay1 8what ,i think to be love of art--the desire to exhibit a work of art40 8,probably we shall never agree upon that point10 answered ,eugne4 8,i think that art--in architecture at least--consists in being truthful and simple4 ,you see in it only a form that charms or repels you3 ,i look for something else2 or rather ,i consider first whether this form is really the expression of a requirement--whether a reason can be given for its existence2 and it charms me only so far as this condition is fulfilled1 according to my judgment40 8,you consider a barn1 therefore1 a work of art80 8,certainly2 if it is constructed so as to afford a suitable shelter for what it is intended to hold1 it is1 in my view1 more admirable than an inconvenient palace1 though decorated with colonnades and pediments40 8,you ought to go to ,america40 8,perhaps it would be wise to do so1 if ,i knew that its people tried to build simply in accordance with the tastes and requirements of the inmates4 ,but in ,america1 as everywhere else now-a-days1 they make pretensions to style1 and copy what they believe to be the beautiful par excellence2 that is1 they follow1 without discrimination1 traditions whose origin and principle they do not care to investigate40 8,come10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 who found the discussion rather tedious1 8we have travelled a good way from ,paul's house2 but to satisfy you1 when you come and see my daughter in her new dwelling1 we will have a pasteboard portico put up in front of one of the faades1 and under the shade some ,berri maidens dressed up as ,venetians1 and some gentlemen in scarlet robes playing on the guitar and the bassoon4 ,it is getting late1 and time to go to bed40 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,paul ,,inquires ,,what ,,architecture ,,is4 ,eugne expected ,paul to return to the discussion of the previous evening1 and in fact1 when they were going early in the morning to visit the works1 ,paul did not fail to throw out hints about it4 ,but he did not know how to give his curiosity a definite shape4 ,his cousin would not help him1 but wished to give him full leisure to bring his ideas to a focus4 8,is ,m4 ,durosay a judge of architecture80 said ,paul1 at last4 8,well1 he talks about it like a person who has some acquaintance with the art40 8,but yet you did not seem disposed to accede to what he asked40 8,what did he ask80 8,why----you know very well what ,i mean----4 ,he would have liked ,marie's house to be----more----40 8,more what80 8,more----less severe2 that it should have a portico and a loggia4 ,what is a loggia80 8,it is a wide covered balcony1 most frequently closed on the two sides1 but opening in front--whether on the ground floor or the upper stories--to the high road or the country40 8,and why should not a loggia be added to ,marie's house80 8,we might make one1 or several40 8,well1 then80 8,why then it must be placed in front of one of the apartments--the drawing-room1 for example1 on the ground floor1 in the middle of the garden front1 or if on the first floor1 in front of the best bedroom40 8,and would not that have a good effect80 8,perhaps it might3 but the apartment next to it1 opening upon this loggia1 would be dark and gloomy1 as the windows would be shaded by its ceiling40 8,ah6 yes1 that is true2 but in fact we have loggias at the end of the drawing-room1 the billiard-room1 and the dining-room40 8,yes2 only they are closed1 instead of being open towards the outside1 and these apartments gain in area through them4 ,these loggias are therefore recesses--what they formerly called #8bays4' ,we have thus all the advantages of a loggia without the inconveniences which in our climate it would entail40 8,why did you not say so to ,m4 ,durosay80 8,he could see it well enough2 there was no need to mention it to him40 8,he would have liked a portico1 too40 8,for what purpose80 8,i do not know----4 ,he said it would be pretty--that my sister and her children would form a group under it1 and that this would have a pretty effect at a distance40 8,and would it be very agreeable to your sister to produce #8a very pretty effect' at a distance80 8,oh1 ,i don't think she would care about it40 8,but who are we building the house for80 8,why1 for my sister40 8,not for strolling idlers1 therefore4 ,but the portico in question would have the same inconveniences as the loggias2 it would make the apartments opening under the arcades or colonnades dark and gloomy4 ,since then1 in our country we spend more of our time in rooms than under porticos1 we should have to pay rather dearly for the pleasure of forming groups for the gratification of passing strangers40 8,doubtless we should4 ,besides1 in front of the billiard-room we have a conservatory1 with steps down to the garden1 which may serve for a portico without darkening the room1 as it will be glazed40 8,certainly40 8,perhaps ,m4 ,durosay did not observe this40 8,oh6 ,i daresay he did2 but it has nothing imposing about it4 ,he would have liked a real covered portico1 in the style of the ,italian porticos40 8,he seems to be very fond of ,italian architecture40 8,which80 8,why1 that he was talking about40 8,but there are many kinds of architecture in ,italy1 belonging to different ages and latitudes1 and varying with the habits of the peoples who inhabit the peninsula40 8,you did not call his attention to that40 8,he must have known it40 8,i see that you don't think ,m4 ,durosay earnest in his opinions40 8,m4 ,durosay is an excellent man2 his opinions are sincere1 and therefore ,i regard them as serious2 but he and ,i look at things from a different point of view4 ,he judges questions of art as a man of the world1 on a ground of sentiment1 while ,i think we artists ought to decide them by reasoning4 ,sentiment does not reason2 it is like faith2 so it is impossible for us to understand one another1 since we speak a different language40 ,paul's views on the subject were as yet far from clear4 ,hitherto he had thought that architecture could be learned as we learn grammar and spelling2 and here was his cousin telling him that it found expression in several languages1 one of which might be known1 while the other remained quite unintelligible4 ,he could not understand what reasoning could have to do with a matter entirely relating to form and appearance2 yet he did not even know how to put questions to his cousin on the subject with a view to gaining light upon it4 ,he was going along1 therefore1 with his head bent1 striking down with his stick the withered thistles that encumbered the side of the path--,eugne1 on his side1 not seeming desirous of breaking the silence4 ,they arrived thus at the works2 they were almost deserted4 8,it froze last night10 said ,branchu2 8and it's going to be a hard frost40 8,well1 you must cover the stone-work with litter or straw1 and we shall have to stop4 ,put some scaffold planks on the walls1 the straw over them1 and slabs with stones at intervals4 ,take care that the planks project beyond the faces of the walls4 ,if you have not straw enough1 put soil on the slabs1 or turf clods4 ,as to the cellar vaults1 spread a good layer of mould over them1 and contrive some openings in the haunches1 so that the rain or melted snow may run off4 ,come1 set to work6 ,let all this be arranged for and finished to-morrow evening2 then we will stop till the end of the cold weather40 8,so much the better10 said ,master ,branchu1 8for all the young fellows are gone1 and none but poor creatures are left at the works40 8,this suspension of the building10 said ,eugne1 when they were returning to the chteau1 8will permit us to work out the details of construction without having to hurry over them40 8,yes10 replied ,paul2 8but ,i should much like to know how you set about it when you have to draw one of the details40 8,you must have learnt that in the two months we have been doing this sort of work40 8,not quite2 ,i perceive that you say what you intend1 and that what you intend shows itself drawn on paper2 now1 ,i have tried to do the same1 but though ,i knew well what ,i intended1 ,i could bring nothing to paper2 or if ,i did draw anything1 it made me forget what ,i had in my mind4 ,yet1 surely1 for everything one wants to do in architecture1 there must be a method1 a process1 a--what should ,i call it8--a recipe40 8,ah6 now ,i see what you mean4 ,but you must perceive1 my young cousin1 that people often fancy they understand and intend1 while they really do not always know what they intend1 and do not clearly understand the question in hand4 ,all this morning1 for instance1 you have been revolving in your mind this question which you have only just put to me2 and ,i have wished to give you leisure to present it in a definite form--to do which your brain has been obliged to work4 ,now1 thanks to the effort you have made1 you will comprehend the answer ,i am able to give you better4 ,you remember those two lines of ,boileau's-- 8,ce que l'on conoit bien s'nonce clairement1 ,et les mots pour le dire arrivent aisment10 and which are applicable to all the arts4 ,the great thing is to habituate one's self to clear conceptions4 ,unfortunately we learn to form phrases before we learn to reason1 and try to express an idea before it is completely elaborated in the brain4 ,then we fancy we can supply what is incomplete in this idea by a happy combination of words4 ,in architecture we think of forms that have seemed attractive1 before knowing whether they will be exactly appropriate to what reason and the rigorous observance of the necessities of construction1 or the requirements of the case1 demand4 ,in a speech1 the vulgar are readily seduced by a brilliant phrase1 and perceive only too late the intellectual void which this seductive form conceals4 ,similarly1 in architecture1 the vulgar are seduced by a picturesque aspect and an attractive form1 and have to pay the penalty of their error in the defects of the building4 ,m4 ,durosay1 in his admiration for certain forms that had charmed him as a tourist1 has not thought of asking himself whether these externals were in harmony with the requirements to be satisfied1 and what the structure itself demanded2 the turn of the phrase has arrested his attention1 and he has not inquired whether there was a clearly developed idea behind it4 ,we might1 therefore1 have argued together in this way for days1 without hope of convincing one another--he being entirely occupied with the form or fashion of the phrase1 and not troubling himself as to whether this form has a signification--whether this phrase expresses a clear idea4 ,all depends on this1 my dear ,paul1 and1 in my judgment1 our country1 which is so near the verge of absolute ruin1 will not recover itself until it learns to reflect before it speaks4 ,we build immense edifices1 costing fabulous sums1 yet we have no clear idea as to what they shall contain4 ,or rather1 we think only of making the casing1 and leave it an open question whether we shall use it for such or such a purpose4 ,and ,i would have you observe that this unfortunate habit prevails not with regard to public buildings only4 ,how many respectable men there are who1 like ,m4 ,durosay1 in proposing to build a house for themselves1 first determine to erect a chalet1 or an ,italian villa1 or an ,english cottage1 according to the fancy of the moment1 and make it quite a secondary question whether life will be comfortable in the case they are going to put up6 ,consequently you will see ,italian villas in the north of ,france and ,swiss chalets at ,nice4 ,learn to reason1 to observe before you proceed to act1 and you will be a good barrister1 a good physician1 a good soldier1 a good architect4 ,if nature has endowed you with genius1 so much the better2 it will supply a noble complement to your faculties2 but if you have not gained the habit of reasoning1 genius will be of no use to you1 or rather1 it cannot develop itself4 ,now1 to learn to reason1 you must labour much and labour long1 and not allow yourself to be led astray by appearances1 however attractive4 ,unfortunately1 our education and instruction in ,france lead us to content ourselves with mere appearances1 and to rely on traditions which are regarded as articles of faith1 and which consequently may not be discussed4 ,you will find ,m4 ,durosay's portico confronting you everywhere4 ,the army1 the government1 literature1 politics1 and the arts have their portico1 which you must adopt1 whatever has to be done or wherever an entrance has to be provided2 unless you have sufficient energy1 power for work1 independence of character1 practical knowledge1 persistent determination1 and the authority which that alone can secure1 to say3--,i will adopt your portico only as far as ,i think it advantageous to make use of it4 ,but to return to your question as to whether any definite prescriptions or rules of procedure can be given in architecture1 ,i reply that there are practical rules of procedure suitable to construction2 but as the materials and the means of execution vary continually1 any such rules ought to be modified by these variations4 ,in architecture there is a method to be followed in all cases that present themselves1 but there are no definite prescriptions or rules of procedure4 ,this method is none other than the application of your reasoning faculty to all particular cases2 for what is desirable in one set of circumstances is not so in another4 ,it is therefore on the observation of these circumstances--of facts1 customs1 climate1 and hygienic conditions--that your reason must rely before forming the conception of your work4 ,and when this operation is complete1 and all is properly arranged in your mind1 then you will be able to put on paper without hesitation the result of this intellectual labour40 8,i think ,i apprehend your meaning2 but how must ,i begin80 8,by acquiring the habit of observing everything1 and reflecting on everything you see1 hear1 or read4 ,when you have a ditch before you that you want to cross1 do you not ask yourself whether your legs will carry you to the other side8 do you not know1 as the result of previous observation1 whether you can jump the ditch or not1 and do you not decide accordingly8 ,you do not ask yourself before jumping whether ,achilles or ,roland was alleged by the poets to have leaped much wider spaces4 ,it is yourself1 your own strength1 that you consult--not that of heroes--on pain of tumbling into the water4 ,exactly in the same way1 if you have to build a house for a person you know1 you first remind yourself that a house is made for people to live in2 then you represent to yourself the habits of the owner1 you calculate the number of apartments he requires1 and what relations they will have to each other4 ,you know whether he lives alone1 or entertains much company2 whether he will live in the house at such or such a season2 whether he affects luxury or lives quietly2 whether he has many servants1 or employs only one1 c43 and when you have thoroughly considered all these essential conditions1 you will try to put on paper the result of these observations4 ,but if the first thing you think of is putting this person and his family in a house like those of ,pompeii1 or in a feudal chteau1 it is a thousand to one that you will build him an uncomfortable habitation--that you will be obliged to sacrifice the convenience of its arrangements in order to assign them a place in a building that belongs to a period and a civilization differing from our own civilization and times40 8,i can quite understand that1 but still we can learn how to make a door1 a window1 or a staircase40 8,that is to say1 it is possible to explain how people in former times set to work to make a door1 a staircase1 or a floor2 but it is not proposed1 nor ought it to be proposed1 in teaching you the methods employed by our predecessors1 to oblige you to do exactly what they did1 since you perhaps possess materials which they did not1 and your customs differ from theirs4 ,the instructions given you run thus1--at least they ought to run thus3 #8,these are the results of the experience acquired during past ages2 make these your starting-point2 do as your predecessors have done2 use your reasoning faculty in applying the knowledge that has been acquired1 but in obedience to the requirements of the present4 ,you ought not to be ignorant of what has been done before you1--it is an accumulation for the common good1 a possession secured to mankind4 ,you ought to be acquainted with its existence and value2 but1 as a partner in its advantages1 add your store of intelligence2 make a step in advance1 do not retrograde4' ,but observe3 there is only one means of preventing retrogression in architecture1 and that is making art the faithful expression of the requirements of the time in which we live1--making the building a casing suited to that which it is destined to contain40 8,and is not this always done80 8,not exactly4 ,we are something like persons who have inherited from their ancestors a costly stock of furniture1--a venerable and venerated heirloom--who keep and make use of this furniture1 though it is inconvenient to them1 and no longer suits the habits of the times2 who have even gone so far as to appoint a guardian for this old lumber1 who is enjoined not to allow it to be modified4 ,if therefore you1 the master of the house1 want to change the covering of this furniture1 or send some of the articles themselves1 which are more inconvenient than useful1 to the lumber-room1 the guardian you pay and lodge assumes a dignified air1 and declares that the function with which you have invested him1 and which he makes a point of strictly discharging1 forbids him to allow these modifications or suppressions2 that his honour is concerned in not allowing these relics to suffer injury or change1 since he is commissioned to preserve them4 ,for the sake of peace1 you continue to make use of this intolerable furniture1 and you retain its guardian40 8,i do not quite understand you40 8,by and by you will4 ,but observe1 ,i have given you fair warning4 ,if you go into some old mansion crammed with antiquated furniture1 take care not to criticise it2 for though the host and hostess may content themselves with smiling1 the guardian of those curiosities will take good care that you never set foot in that house again40 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,theoretical ,,studies4 ,the cold and the state of the times prevented the works from being continued4 ,the winter might be a long one4 ,eugne and ,paul prepared themselves1 therefore1 to employ this compulsory leisure to advantage4 ,it was decided between them that they should not merely draw out the details necessary for finishing the works1 but that ,eugne should take advantage of these winter days to enlighten ,paul on many points respecting which1 as clerk-of-works1 he was deficient4 ,paul took an increasing interest in this employment4 ,hitherto the execution had immediately followed the labours of the study1 and example and practice came to ratify theory2 but he was quite aware that all his attention and desire to follow the lead of his chief were not sufficient1 and that at each step he found himself confronted by a difficulty4 ,the further the work advanced1 the more utterly incapable did he feel himself4 ,he set to work1 therefore1 with a hearty desire to learn2 indeed1 so much the more eagerly as all that surrounded him assumed a more and more gloomy and desolate aspect4 ,paul had never spent a winter in the country1 although he used to come home to the ,christmas festivities2 the few days spent at his father's chteau had passed away so quickly1 that he had not time to consider how things looked out of doors4 ,besides1 the house was full of guests at that time2 the presence of his elder sister gave it animation2 everything had a holiday aspect4 ,but the scene was quite changed at the beginning of ,december1 #ahgj2 the neighbouring villages were deserted1 or occupied only for a few hours by troops ill-clad1 dying of hunger1 generally going to fight without enthusiasm1 and leaving the exhausted and the sick in the cottages4 ,then would come long lines of carriages that looked like so many funeral processions4 ,the snow was beginning to cover the fields and to muffle distant sounds4 ,seldom did any of the peasants come to the chteau4 ,the postman still paid his regular visits1 but the letters and newspapers he brought tended only to depress the spirits of the inmates4 ,sometimes they gave shelter to members of the ,garde ,mobile1 or to soldiers of the line2 but all were dumb3 the officers themselves would ask to be allowed to rest in their rooms under pretext of fatigue1 rather than go down to the drawing-room4 ,m4 de ,gandelau1 up early in the morning1 in spite of his gout1 seemed to be omnipresent2 he was to be found everywhere1 among the farms and at the neighbouring town1 facilitating the transport of munitions of war1 organizing hospitals1 supplying provisions and lightening the difficulties imposed by routine4 8,set ,paul to work1 my friend10 he said to ,eugne every evening2 8that is all the demand ,i make on your friendship4 ,i feel it is a considerable one1 but grant it1 ,i entreat you40 ,in fact1 the greater part of the day was passed in studying some question relating to building2 then the architect and his clerk-of-works would go and take a walk before the evening1 during which ,eugne did not fail to start some interesting topic4 ,the country and natural phenomena were the habitual subjects of these conversations2 and thus ,paul was learning to observe and reflect1 and it became every day clearer to him how much knowledge must be acquired to accomplish a task of even limited scope4 ,his cousin did not fail to reiterate the sentiment3 8,the more you know the more you will feel your want of knowledge2 and the highest acquisition in science is the conviction that we know nothing40 8,what good is it to learn1 then80 rejoined ,paul1 one day4 8,that we may become modest2 that we may occupy life with something better than those things to which vanity prompts us2 that we may make ourselves of some little use to our fellows1 without exacting gratitude from them40 ,eugne made ,paul draw a good deal1 and always from nature1 or from drawings executed while he was present1 for he had not brought with him any specimens of architectural design4 ,besides this1 ,paul made a fair copy of memoranda relating to the parts of the house already erected4 ,thus he gained a complete acquaintance with the structure of every part of the stone-work4 ,paul was therefore acquiring the power of drawing architectural details neatly1 and his cousin never failed to answer his questions4 ,paul had soon laid aside all timidity--or1 if we choose to deem it so1 amour propre--and no longer fearing to reveal his ignorance1 asked a good many questions4 ,eugne generally waited for such inquiries before he gave a lesson on any subject4 ,he wished the mind of his pupil to be already prepared by the craving for knowledge1 before teaching him4 ,it may be observed that these lessons treated of a great variety of subjects2 but ,eugne took care to connect them together by an exposition of those several principles which were continually suggested by them4 ,one day ,paul wished to know what an 8order0 is1 and what is understood by this word in architecture4 8,that is a comprehensive question1 ,paul2 and ,i scarcely know whether ,i shall be able to answer it so as to enlighten you on the subject4 ,the word has two significations in architecture3 #8order' may be understood to mean subordination1 or correlation between the parts4 ,but ,i think that is not what you are thinking of2 you probably intend to ask me the meaning of what are commonly called #8orders of architecture4' ,the idea of an #8order' in your mind implies a row of columns or vertical supports bearing an entablature4 ,that is it1 is it not80 8,yes1 that is what ,i mean40 8,well1 then1 in remote ages1 architects conceived the idea--which was a very natural one--of erecting vertical supports1 and placing cross-pieces of wood or stone connecting their summits2 and on this open colonnade they raised a roof4 ,this formed a shelter open below1 but covered in--what we call a halle4 ,but1 as in many cases it was also necessary to close in these covered spaces1 they built walls behind these vertical props1 leaving between them and the isolated supports a space called a #8portico4' ,it was thus1 for instance1 that certain ,greek temples were designed4 ,by degrees the genius of architects1 study1 and the observation of the exterior effect1 led them to give to these vertical props1 and to that which they support--that is1 the entablature--relative proportions1 of delicate and harmonious type1 whence laws were deduced2 for ,i would have you remark that the example always precedes the rule1 and that rules are only the results of experience4 ,in this way the ,greeks invented three orders3 the ,ionic1 the ,doric1 and the ,corinthian--each of which possesses its system of harmonious proportions and its special type of ornamentation4 ,among the ,greeks these systems were not so rigorously distinct as to prevent their frequently trenching on each other's precincts4 8,but the ,romans1 who were devotees of order1 and who undertook to impose it in everything and everywhere1 in adopting these arrangements from the ,greeks1 insisted on reducing these three systems to an almost absolute formula4 ,that simplified matters1 and the ,romans were fond of inclosing whatever appertained to art in an administrative frame4 ,a step further in the wrong direction was taken as the result of the study of classical antiquity in the sixteenth century2 authorities on the subject presumed finally to settle the relations between the different members of each of these orders2 and with a view to leave some degree of latitude to architects1 they even added two orders to the three original ones1 viz41 the ,tuscan and the ,composite4 ,these stereotyped orders have been applied on every occasion1 and in every fashion1 just as hangings are attached to a wall to decorate it4 ,architects have frequently bestowed more thought on placing an order on a faade1 than on the disposition of the building erected behind this front4 ,certainly nothing of the kind more contrary to reason has been produced than the ,colonnade of the ,louvre1 for its ordonnance has no relation to what it contains2 and this immense portico1 situated on the first story1 absolutely serves no other purpose than to obscure the openings for light placed along it1 while you never see any one walking in it4 ,but in those days it was obligatory to be magnificent1 at whatever cost4 ,we have not entirely renounced this solemn fooling2 and even now you may see #8orders' placed1 without its being possible to say why1 in front of buildings that could very well dispense with this adventitious decoration1 which is merely designed to prove to the public that there are such things as #8orders1' and architects capable of presenting them in those proportions which their formula requires4 8,but you will study these branches of architecture a little later on4 ,i think it a bad method of teaching art to allow flowers to be introduced into discourse before the power of expressing thought clearly has been acquired2 and it is thus that writers and speakers are formed who take balderdash for eloquence2 and architects1 who before they think of doing justice to the exigencies of construction1 and studying the requirements of the case1 amuse themselves with reproducing forms into whose origin1 justification1 and real meaning they have never inquired4 ,but just now1 let us keep to our proper business4 ,it is a house1 not a temple or a basilica1 that we are building4 ,we have to consider all its parts2 and this is work enough for us4 8,we have leisure to consider the details of our building thoroughly1 since the frost obliges us to suspend the works4 ,construction1 my dear fellow1 is an art requiring foresight4 ,the good builder is he who leaves nothing to chance1 who does not put off the solution of any problem1 and who knows how to give each function its place and value with respect to the whole1 and that at the right moment4 ,we have drawn plans for the several stories2 we have given the details necessary for constructing the lower parts of the house2 now we must draw the working elevations4 ,the first thing is to make an exact section of the front walls giving the height of the floors1 the levels of the tie-bars1 and the base of the roof40 ,eugne1 who1 as we may suppose1 had previously realized to himself1 if not drawn1 all the parts of the building1 had soon sketched out this section for ,paul1 who did not cease to wonder at the promptitude with which his master succeeded in drawing on paper any detail required4 ,he could not help remarking it again4 8,how do you manage to indicate the arrangement of all these parts of the building without hesitating a moment80 said he4 8,because ,i have thought about them1 and have represented to myself all these parts while drawing or setting you to draw their combinations4 ,if they are not on the paper they are in my head2 and when ,i have to render them intelligible to those who are commissioned to execute them1 ,i have only to write1 so to speak1 what ,i know by heart already4 ,and thus it is always desirable to proceed4 ,look at this section1 and these few details 7,fig4 #db72 let us examine the drawing together2 you will soon observe that you have already seen all that the sheet of paper contains1 and that with a little attention you would be able to arrange these different parts in their due order4 ,you see the thickness of the wall on the ground floor figured1 and with its central line dotted2 the height of the window sill1 ,a1 and its support2 the arrangement of the window casing and its lintel2 the height of the floor and its thickness4 ,the string-course1 ,b1 had to be determined2 it should have the thickness of this floor2 it indicates it externally4 ,then1 reducing the outside walls to #a foot #h inches on the first floor1 we put a set-off course at ,c2 window sills like those of the ground floor4 ,the height of the first story from floor to floor has already been settled4 ,the under member1 ,d1 of the cornice indicates the thickness of the second floor2 lastly comes the cornice table of hard stone which receives the eaves-gutter4 ,as regards the first floor windows1 they are formed like those of the ground floor1 excepting that the inside reveal is less deep by #d inches1 since the wall is #d inches less in thickness4 ,their lintels are similar1 as well as the casing which has to take the sheet-iron jalousies1 and the tie-bars come underneath these lintels4 ,as we have gables1 the cornices cannot return1 and must stop against a projection1 ,e1 which1 rising above the roof1 receives the coping1 ,f1 which will have a projecting fillet to cover the junction of the slating with the gable4 ,at ,g1 then1 ,i draw the angle of the building with this projection1 ,e1 and the coping we have spoken of4 ,as ,i foresee that the joists will have too long a bearing in some places1 ,i suppose the intermediate beams1 ,h1 to carry them and the corbels1 ,i1 for the support of these joists4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,side ,,walls1 ,,with ,,details4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,,an ,,oriel ,,window4 8,at ,k ,i have drawn the string-course of the first floor1 with the projections figured from the centre of the wall1 and the set-off course above2 also at ,l1 the cornice and its table-course4 ,you will observe that this table-course slopes towards the outer edge1 beneath the gutter1 so that1 in the event of an overflow1 the water may run off outside1 and not find its way into the wall4 ,this table-course has a throat1 a1 as well as the string-course1 to prevent the water from running down the wall4 ,these mouldings will have to be drawn to their full size for the stone-mason4 ,on the course1 ,m1 behind the gutter1 will stand the dormer gables1 which will admit light to the second floor in the roof4 ,as to the roofing1 of which ,i merely indicate here the base1 ,i will show you what it is to be4 ,take these sketches1 then1 and make from them figured drawings to a scale of half an inch to a foot1 so that they may be worked from4 8,in the meantime1 ,i am going to make a perspective sketch of the projecting bays or loges of the billiard-room and dining-room1 with the aid of which you may draw out these details4 ,we shall see how you acquit yourself4 8,the ,english in their country-houses are fond of employing this kind of projecting window4 ,they call them bay or oriel windows1 and often construct them on corbelling4 ,stay--here ,i have a sketch in my note-book of such a window in a house at ,lincoln1 dating from the sixteenth century 7,fig4 #dc74 ,this projecting oriel1 supported by a bracket1 is terminated by a small terrace forming a balcony on the first story4 ,observe1 by the by1 how well-devised this construction is4 ,this part of ,england possesses stone1 but that material is less common than brick4 ,the builder has used the dearer material only for the oriel window1 which he could scarcely erect in brick1 and for the jambs and lintels of the windows4 ,the rest of the structure is built of brick4 8,but10 continued ,eugne1 8your bay windows project too far to allow of their resting on corbelling40 8,what do you mean by corbelling80 8,it is a projecting piece of construction1 not rising from the bottom1 but supported by corbels2 whence the name corbelling4 ,the weight of the masonry resting on the tail1 i4e4 the part of the corbels fixed in the walls1 allows us to place on their projecting part a construction1 which1 being less heavy than that resting on their tail1 is thus sustained without fear of overbalancing4 ,we must also calculate the length of the arm of the lever--that is to say1 the relation of the projection of the corbels to the weight that secures their tail and that which rests on their head4 ,of course1 the further the corbels project the more does the weight placed on their outward extremity tell on that which keeps the balance4 ,so that a very trifling weight placed at the extremity of a greatly projecting corbel might overbalance a heavy mass placed at the tail4 ,corbels have1 therefore1 been frequently replaced by squinches--that is to say1 a system of masonry which brings the weight at the extremity to bear on the walls4 ,the architect who designed the oriel window ,i have just shown you did not trouble himself to make such an arrangement4 ,he constructed what is called a bracket--that is1 an inverted pyramid1 by means of three courses of corbelling2 or1 if you choose1 projecting one beyond the other1 so as to obtain a portion of a polygon4 ,on this supporting surface he has erected his window framing1 which is scarcely #i inches thick4 ,the bracket being built into the wall1 supports the window framing1 without being over-balanced1 on account of the weight of the wall4 ,closed balconies of this kind were frequently employed during the ,middle ,ages1 because they gave space in the upper stories without encroaching on the street1 and afforded side views4 ,and though civic regulations no longer allow us to build these projections in our cities1 nothing would hinder us from erecting them when we build in the country4 ,still1 there ought to be a good reason for adopting them4 ,and in our case these corbel constructions serve no purpose1 and it will cost us less to raise our bay window direct from the ground40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,,bay ,,window ,,of ,,billiard-,,room4 ,in about an hour ,eugne handed to ,paul the accompanying sketch 7,fig4 #dd71 giving the arrangement of the bay window of the billiard-room1 that he might study its construction4 ,it required a good deal of attention from our clerk-of-works1 and he could not master it thoroughly without frequently applying to his cousin for information and explanation4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,theoretical ,,studies--,continued4 ,the weather becoming more and more severe prevented the works from being resumed4 ,the parts that had been begun were hidden by a thick layer of mould and stubble1 which in its turn was covered by a mantle of snow4 ,the days were spent in working out details which were to be given to ,branchu and the carpenter when the weather allowed them to resume their labours4 ,during the long evenings1 theoretical questions relating to building were discussed1 when the family were assembled and the news of the day had been read4 ,to ,paul this was a means of gaining instruction1 and to the family generally a distraction from the gloomy thoughts that weighed down the spirits of all amid the depressing circumstances of the times4 ,paul had seen his cousin drawing several mouldings during the day1 to their full size2 but as he had drawings of his own to attend to1 he had not interrupted his work to put questions to his master4 ,but in the evening ,paul asked what were the methods to be employed in drawing these mouldings4 8,you still persist in asking for recipes1 ,paul10 replied ,eugne4 8,but there are no more any recipes for drawing mouldings than for any other parts of the building4 ,there are conditions imposed by the purpose1 the nature of the materials1 the method of employing them1 local custom1 and the effect to be obtained4 ,to the consideration of these conditions join common sense1 observation1 and study1 and you will be able to draw mouldings4 8,we will1 if you please1 examine these conditions separately4 8,the purpose3--,a moulding is executed1 you must suppose1 for some object2 if you draw a cornice1 it is to crown a wall1 to carry a gutter or the eaves of a roof1 to divert the rain-water from the wall2 that cornice therefore must project sufficiently to fulfil that object4--,the nature of the materials3--,it is evident that if you have1 on the one hand1 hard and tenacious stones1 supplied in large masses1 or1 on the other hand1 small and friable ones1 you will not be able to give the same profile to these different kinds of materials4--,the method of employing these stones must likewise influence the form to be given to this profile4 ,if we have to hoist stones by the aid of very simple and primitive means1 which do not allow us to raise considerable weights to great elevations1 we must avoid profiles requiring large blocks2 but if we have the means of doing so1 we can adopt them4--,local custom3--,it will be necessary for you to take account of the customs of the district in which you are building1 because these customs are most frequently the result of a judicious observation of the conditions imposed by the climate1 the requirements of the neighbourhood1 the method of working1 and the nature of the material itself4 ,i mean by custom1 not certain imported methods which are a mere affair of fashion1 but those which have been suggested1 as ,i have just said1 by long and judicious observation4--,a skilful architect can give a robust or a delicate aspect to a building by the drawing of a moulding4 ,he should always subordinate the drawing to the scale of the construction and to that of the materials4 ,it is ridiculous to aim at large mouldings if we have only thinly bedded stones1 or those of yielding quality1 in the same way as it is absurd to give delicate profiles to coarse stones and those difficult to cut4 8,you see1 then1 that in this1 as in all that concerns the art of building1 reasoning constitutes the first part of the recipe4 8,the ,athenians1 who erected their public buildings of white marble1 could allow themselves refinements in the drawing of their profiles which cannot be applied to the coarse limestone of our country4 ,and when the ,greeks built edifices with stone of a porous or coarse-grained texture1 they took care to cover its dressed surfaces with a very fine stucco1 which enabled them to conceal the coarseness of the material4 ,but though they were able to adopt this plan in a mild climate where it never freezes1 it would be impracticable in a region like ours1 where for two months in the winter the thermometer shows a mean of #g 7,fahr47 below freezing point1 and occasionally1 as just now1 falls as low as #bg below freezing4 ,this stucco would have to be renewed every spring4 8,our medival architects1 who did not follow what is called the classical tradition professed now at our cole des ,beaux ,arts1 and who did not go to ,rome or ,athens to study the art of building suitable to ,france1 had tried to discover that style of profile which suits our materials and climate--which seems reasonable enough2 and they not only discovered1 but skilfully applied that style4 ,i am going to give you proof of this4 8,first1 then1 as they did not lay stones in the rough1 as ,i have told you1 but ready worked--so that they did not need retouching when once in place--they were obliged to draw each profile within the height of a single course4 ,if these courses were deep1 their profiles might be large2 if they were shallow1 they must be small4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 8,let us take a string-course for example4 ,a string-course is a course of stone which indicates a floor--an intermediate resting-place in the height of a wall4 ,and it is not without reason that a projecting course is placed at the level of a floor3 first1 because it is well to give more strength to the wall at this level where timbers are lodged2 secondly1 because it is necessary to level up the building at the same height1 to make it even in order to raise a fresh story4 ,but this course should not arrest the rain-water1 and thus occasion the wet to penetrate into the walls2 on the contrary1 the profile should be so drawn as to throw off the wet1 so that the timbers may not decay4 ,observe1 then 7,a1 ,fig4 #de71 how architects who thought more of satisfying the requirements of construction than of borrowing forms from edifices that were not affected by the conditions imposed by our climate and style of building1 usually designed the profile of a string-course4 ,they drew the line a b at an angle of #fj4 ,from the point c they let fall a perpendicular1 c b1 on this line a b4 ,the angle a b c was therefore a right angle4 ,taking from b to d a greater or less length according to the hardness of the stone1 they hollowed out the moulding e1 which we call a water-drip1 or throat2 so that the rain-water falling on the inclined surface a b did not stay there1 but following the direction b d necessarily fell to the ground at d1 since it would not ascend into the hollow4 ,the surface of the wall1 c f1 was therefore protected4 ,if a cornice was to be made 7as at ,b71 they laid a first course g to support the projection of the table h2 then they laid1 as a second course1 this table h1 taking care to provide a drip at i4 ,if this table had to receive a metal or stone gutter1 they took care to cut a slope from j to k1 leaving the bed horizontal where the joints occur1 as shown in perspective at ,c4 ,the gutter rested then on the blocks left at l1 and if it allowed the rain-water to escape by the joints1 these drippings finding the slope k j1 followed it1 reached the throat i1 and fell to the ground without penetrating into the interior of the wall4 ,according as the stone employed was hard or soft1 the mouldings were more or less deep or shallow4 ,i suppose here the profile to be cut in a stone of moderate hardness1 whereas1 if the stone is very hard1 you can give the profile a sharper outline as at ,d4 ,you will then obtain a more striking effect1 darker shades and more brilliant lights4 ,but in drawing exterior profiles1 you must always consider the direction of the solar rays4 8,if1 for example1 you trace a profile such as this at ,e1 it is evident that as the sun's rays follow the direction ,o ,p1 all your mouldings will remain in the shade1 and will produce no effect4 ,but as soon as the sun gets lower and its rays have a more inclined direction1 ,r ,s1 all the mouldings will receive lines of light of nearly equal strength1 and the profile will give a series of uniform lights and shadows which will not indicate the projection4 ,but if you draw this profile according to figure ,f1 the solar rays following the same direction o' p'1 will meet the projections n m1 which will be luminous1 and when the direction is lowered you will always get differences of relation between the lights and shadows4 ,i give you only general views here2 it is for you to observe and profit by your own observations when you have the opportunity of studying actual buildings4 8,it is also very important to make the drawing of your profiles conform to the nature of the materials employed4 ,you cannot give to a material that is moulded1 cast or run1--like plaster or cements and mortars--the profiles that are suitable to stone4 ,materials thus laid on are adapted only to a fine and slightly projecting moulding4 ,in the same way1 if you design profiles for works in wood1 you must consider the ligneous and tenacious quality of this material1 and avoid surfaces of too great extent3 you must not leave out of sight the fact that wood allows of delicate workmanship2 that it is employed only in pieces that are relatively thin2 and that to be properly worked1 it requires the use of edged tools1 such as chisels and planes1 which follow the grain and are with difficulty worked across the grain4 ,in all this1 economy is in unison with common sense and the good effect produced2 for if you choose to introduce a profile that does not suit the material used1 you will give occasion to the employment of unusually difficult and consequently expensive processes1 and your work appears painful1 affected1 and laborious4 ,some architects think to create astonishment by thus adopting processes which do not harmonize with the materials they use2 who1 if they are constructing with brick1 strive to give to their building the appearance of a construction in stone2 who affect to imitate marble in wood1 or wood in plaster2 who seem in fact to make it their object to give to each of the materials employed forms that are not appropriate to their nature4 ,observe these undesirable methods1 with a view of always avoiding them1 if you would be an architect4 ,the perverted taste of most of those persons who employ builders is often an obstacle to the use of sensible methods2 but unfortunately1 among us1 classical studies have led artists into this false course1 and in the end the public have become enamoured of the undesirable results to which it conducts2 so that it is often difficult to induce employers to listen to reason1 and to proceed according to the dictates of a just appreciation of the proper use of materials4 ,but be this as it may1 this is one of the questions in regard to which an architect who respects his art ought never to yield40 8,it is1 in fact10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8a strange mania possessing some people who have building done for them1 to presume to impose the most ridiculous fancies on their architects2 but it is not of modern date1 since ,philibert de l',orme used to complain of it even in his time40 8,philibert de l',orme10 remarked ,paul1 8was1 ,i believe1 the architect of the ,tuileries40 8,yes1 in part at least10 replied ,eugne2 8but you have his book1 if ,i mistake not1 in your library40 8,certainly2 and ,i will go and find it for you40 ,m4 de ,gandelau soon returned to the drawing-room carrying the venerable folio4 8,here10 said he to his son1 8,i give it to you1 and you will do well to study these pages4 ,look at the title of the ,preface4 #8,noteworthy considerations for those who lightly undertake to build without the advice and counsel of learned architects2 and concerning the faults they commit and the inconveniences that arise from them6' ,this will make a commencement of your library as an architect if you are going to choose that vocation2 and you could not have before you a book better adapted to inspire correct sentiments and respect for that profession4 ,i cannot give any opinion of its technical merits1 which ,i cannot appreciate2 but through reading a few of these pages ,i have at least spared myself the expensive ambition1 by which some owners of property are possessed1 of being my own architect40 8,the sincerity of ,philibert de l',orme was not profitable to him10 rejoined ,eugne4 8,perhaps not2 but he has left us a book which makes us esteem him as a man1 independently of his merits as an architect1 three hundred years after its publication1 since it dates from #aegf2 this distinction was acquired at the cost of some annoyance during his life1 for we do not feel gratitude to people for telling us the truth when they are no longer here to reap the reward of their sincerity from public opinion40 8,hem6 444 then we must not be surprised if few people dare to proclaim these truths1 and if architects--since they are on the tapis--prefer to this posthumous glory that quiet and comfort which complaisance towards their clients during their life procures for them1 though this may occasion regret to the latter when the evil cannot be remedied1 or may involve them in useless expense40 8,come1 come10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8you are not one of the complying architects to whom you refer1 and yet you have still a very fair practice4 ,i do not know whether you will be talked of three centuries hence1 but ,i know that you are esteemed now40 8,the sentiment you have just uttered is therefore not absolutely true40 8,no1 certainly2 discretion tells for much in this matter1 and there is a way of uttering truths4 ,you must1 however1 allow that you have lost more than one engagement through having been too outspoken at the commencement40 8,doubtless2 ,i have even good reason to suppose that if ,i had not been aided by certain favourable circumstances which brought me into connection with clients accustomed to deal with affairs of a high and liberal order--with men of minds too elevated and serious to occupy themselves with the details of our profession--,i should not have found much to do4 ,from a general point of view you are right2 most persons about to build fear to apply to architects who are skilful in their profession1 but who are of an independent character4 ,what they look for 7and in this1 women often exercise an injurious influence7 are complaisant mediocrities1 who will lend themselves to all their fancies1 of which they will have the satisfaction of repenting soon afterwards40 8,you attack us unjustly10 replied ,madame de ,gandelau2 8women do not presume to be connoisseurs in architecture1 and they ask for nothing but a good arrangement of the interior of a house2 which is natural enough1 since they have the direction of domestic affairs1 and they1 more than any others1 suffer from the inconvenient or faulty arrangements of their dwellings40 8,i grant it2 but while1 on the one hand1 the mistress asks for arrangements often of a complicated kind1 and requiring a peculiar disposition of apartments to suit her convenience1 and the master on the other hand wishes for an exterior presenting a peculiar style or aspect with which he is smitten1 it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to reconcile these two requirements1 which are often contradictory2 so that the unfortunate architect1 desiring to please everybody1 and to grant mutually exclusive wishes1 can achieve no good result1 and when the work is finished each party blames him4 ,how many times have ,i been called in to remedy blunders1--bad work resulting from the architect's having been thus worried1 and from his fatal complaisance4 ,and these people would tell me that they were desols not to have selected me to direct the undertaking4 ,it was a little too late1 yet the example did not benefit others40 8,what can be done80 rejoined ,madame de ,gandelau4 8,if things are as you say1 you are offering ,paul a profession whose duties involve impossibilities2 and unless he obtains employment from the government44440 8,oh6 that is too uncertain a chance1 and a career that depends on the government scarcely deserves the name4 ,a man ought to be able to get on without reckoning on this very precarious support4 ,besides1 the elect are very few40 8,well then80 8,why then we must teach2 we must endeavour to make knowledge1 reason1 and the habit of reflection1 penetrate everywhere1 and especially into the minds of the rising generation4 ,when the influential classes1--those who employ builders1 and who1 it may be inferred1 are favoured by fortune1--know a little more than they do now1 they will perceive that they have everything to learn in all branches of practical knowledge1 and that the best they can do is to have recourse to professional men in the treatment of strictly professional matters1 and to leave them free scope4 ,in the case of an operation1 nobody has the presumption to advise the surgeon how it should be performed4 ,why then should everybody make bold to give his opinion to an architect respecting the method in which his work is to be accomplished80 8,the cases are not exactly alike40 8,nearly2 but as the former is a matter of life and death1 not a word is breathed in the presence of the surgeon2 while1 since the latter involves only the pocket1--sometimes the health indeed1 but only eventually1--each has a suggestion to make to the architect40 8,we have wandered rather far from mouldings10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau1 rising4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,studies ,,interrupted4 ,a few days after this conversation a considerable number of troops traversed the country4 ,the ,germans were manuvring on both sides of the ,loire1 and were threatening ,tours4 ,a general officer was quartered at ,m4 de ,gandelau's who was acquainted with ,eugne4 ,the latter was impatient at the inactivity to which he had been condemned since the war had begun to take so fatal a turn4 ,in the evening he had a long conversation with this officer1 and next morning announced to ,m4 de ,gandelau that he was intending to set out with the corps which was traversing the country2 observing that officers of the ,engineers were wanting1 and that he could at need fulfil their functions2 that his friend1 the general1 very much approved his determination2 and that in circumstances of such gravity he thought it his duty not to hesitate to go1 as he might possibly be of some service4 ,m4 de ,gandelau did not attempt to keep him2 he understood too well the sentiments by which his guest was influenced4 8,what shall we do with ,paul80 said he to ,eugne4 8,i believe you have ,vitruvius in the original in your library80 8,yes40 8,well1 if you will let me have it for an hour before ,i go1 ,i shall be able to explain to ,paul how he should set to work with this treatise3 that will prevent him from forgetting his ,latin1 and further him in the studies we have commenced40 8,an excellent idea40 8,you will require ,paul to give you1 twice a week1 the translation of a chapter1 with explanatory drawings3 that will keep his hand in and occupy his mind4 ,i do not suppose his translation will supersede even ,perrault's2 but that does not matter1 he will not be losing his time absolutely4 ,as soon as ,i can return you shall see me again40 ,paul was disconsolate at his cousin's departure1 and at not being able to accompany him2 he would have greatly liked to follow up his studies in the art of building by a course of military engineering in the field1 but this would have embarrassed his cousin1 and ,madame de ,gandelau would scarcely have survived her anxiety4 ,paul was furnished with the edition of ,vitruvius1 and the work to which he was to devote himself was explained to him4 ,two hours after1 ,eugne1 provided with a small portmanteau1 was on his way with his friend1 the general2 whose corps was en route for ,chateauroux4 ,promises to write as often as possible had been given on both sides4 ,we can easily imagine the gloomy aspect which ,m4 de ,gandelau's house assumed after this hasty departure4 ,at the very beginning of the war he had equipped and despatched all his able-bodied dependants4 ,there remained only two or three old men-servants1 and some female domestics whose husbands or children were for the most part in the army4 ,monsieur and ,madame de ,gandelau ceased to use the drawing-room1 in which beds had been placed for the wounded in case any should come4 ,the family used to assemble in ,madame de ,gandelau's room1 and took their meals in a small apartment that usually served for a pantry4 ,paul1 when his cousin was gone1 went to pay a visit to the works4 ,they were deserted2 snow covered the heap of walling stones1 the cut stones1 and the scattered timbers4 ,the walls1 which had reached a certain height1 protected by straw and surmounted by a crest of snow--their surfaces showing brown in contrast with the white veil that mantled them--and some pieces of wood black with damp1 gave to these incipient constructions the aspect of the dbris of a conflagration4 ,although at ,paul's age young people are not very accessible to sombre thoughts1 the poor boy could not restrain his tears in presence of this scene of desolation4 ,he recalled in thought this spot so animated a month before with its bands of active workmen4 ,all were gone1 and the soul of this habitation1 which he had begun to associate with all the joys of family life1 had just quitted him4 ,in spite of the cold he seated himself on a stone1 his head in his hands1 overwhelmed with gloomy thoughts4 ,this was the first deep grief1 the first severe disappointment1 he had experienced3 it seemed to him that all was over1 and that there was no more hope nor happiness possible for him in this world4 ,a hand laid upon his shoulder made him start2 he raised his head--his father was behind him4 ,paul threw himself into his arms at once1 sobbing4 8,come1 ,paul1 my boy1 calm yourself10 said ,m4 de ,gandelau to him4 8,we are living in a time of trials2 who knows what are reserved for us8 ,for us1 indeed1 they have scarcely begun4 ,think how much suffering there is in ,france now6 ,what are our anxieties and griefs compared with the anguish suffered by others6 ,reserve your tears2 perhaps you will have only too frequent occasion for them4 ,we need not be in a hurry to despond4 ,i observed you going in this direction1 and followed you1 anticipating your melancholy feelings4 ,but1 after all1 what is there to grieve over8 ,nothing1 or only a trifle4 ,set to work again courageously1 alone1 since our friend has been obliged to quit us to fulfil a sacred duty4 ,he will return2 you have learned to love and esteem him more3 prove to him that you are worthy of the affection he has exhibited to you by showing him some thoroughly good work when he comes back4 8,certainly he would be touched by your grief1 of which his absence is to a great extent the cause2 be assured that he would be still more touched to see that you had scrupulously followed his last instructions1 and that his presence is not the only inducement to make you like work40 ,father and son regained the house4 ,the counsels of ,m4 de ,gandelau1 and the pains he took to give ,paul a glimpse of brighter days1 had by degrees restored to him1 if not gaiety1 at least tranquillity of mind and the desire to do his best4 ,m4 de ,gandelau most dreaded for his son a feeling of despondency--that vague and sterile sadness on which youth sometimes loves to feed1 and which enervates the most gifted minds4 ,he therefore entered ,paul's room1 and taking up ,vitruvius1 which had been left on the table1 began to look through it4 ,m4 de ,gandelau was a good scholar1 though he never made a parade of his acquirements4 ,they were a possession he reserved for himself4 ,familiar with the classics1 he could read the text of ,vitruvius1 if not explain it architecturally in all its parts4 8,stay10 said he to ,paul1 8here is a chapter which must be interesting1 and which may teach you many things2 it is ,chapter ,,viii43 ,de generibus structur et earum qualitatibus1 modis ac locis4 ,how would you translate this title80 8,of the kinds of constructions1 and their qualities1 according to customs and localities10 replied ,paul4 8,yes1 that is the translation4 ,but on looking through this chapter1 ,i see that masonry only is considered2 the author1 in making use of the word structura1 seems to me to have wished only to treat of constructions of brick or stone4 ,it would be better1 doubtless1 to render the passage thus3 ,of the different kinds of masonry1 and the properties of this structure according to local usages and circumstances4 8,well1 set to work to translate this eighth chapter4 ,i see that the author has described the kinds of masonry whose use he recommends on such or such occasions4 ,you will therefore have to illustrate your translation by sketches4 ,come6 take courage1 and imagine your cousin at hand ready to rectify your mistakes40 ,paul therefore set himself to work1 endeavouring to embody in sketches each of ,vitruvius's descriptions4 ,this gave him no little trouble1 of course2 many words were new to him1 and the dictionary helped him only very imperfectly when it was necessary to know their exact sense4 ,nevertheless1 by degrees the work acquired a charm for him4 ,to further his comprehension of the author he tried to recall to mind buildings he had seen2 he remembered some instructions given by ,eugne2 and put on paper1 to the best of his ability1 opposite the translation1 sketches tolerably drawn1 if they were not the true expression of the descriptions in the original4 ,thus1 during the end of the month of ,december and the commencement of ,january1 he succeeded in translating a dozen chapters which his father selected for him1 giving illustrations of the text4 ,this gave him a great desire to become acquainted with the buildings existing in his author's times1 and he examined attentively a set of engravings by ,piranesi descriptive of ancient ,rome1 and which his father possessed4 ,m4 de ,gandelau had advised ,paul to write down the questions which his reading suggested to him1 so as to submit them to ,eugne on his return4 ,thus the days passed rapidly away3 and although sadness and anxiety darkened every hour1 yet1 as ,m4 de ,gandelau was incessantly occupied in relieving the misery around him and organizing the struggle against the invaders1 while ,paul was working with energy and seeing his results accumulating1 and ,madame de ,gandelau had organized a workroom in which the women of the village were engaged in providing linen for our unfortunate and destitute soldiers1 when the evening arrived1 the members of the family could still assemble with that feeling of secret joy which duty accomplished procures4 ,towards the close of ,january the inmates of the chteau learned from the newspapers that an armistice had been signed4 ,though this news announced the end of the struggle1 it presaged the commencement of the severest humiliations4 ,it produced1 therefore1 a sad1 rather than consolatory impression4 ,a few days afterwards ,eugne returned to the chteau4 ,it need not be said that he was welcomed with open arms1 and that ,paul especially manifested his joy4 ,they talked of resuming the works4 ,the last letters of ,madame ,marie announced that she would be home again towards the end of the following winter4 ,these letters1 filled as they were with expressions of the anxiety--the anguish--felt by the writer in her absence from ,france1 said nothing of the future house4 ,if then it could be finished1 the surprise would be complete4 ,while ,eugne was enjoying the rest he so much needed1 he looked through and revised ,paul's translation1 and corrected his sketches4 ,a fair copy was made of the whole2 and the first days of ,march drew on1 when it was decided to recommence the works4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,building ,,recommenced--,,the ,,timber ,,work4 ,towards the middle of ,march1 the weather being fine1 the works were resumed1 and instructions for executing the floors and roofs had to be given to the carpenter1 that no time might be lost4 ,paul was beginning to understand his cousin's sketches more readily1 and to be able to make himself useful4 ,besides1 he had acquired the excellent habit of asking for explanations when he had reason to suppose on a first view that he could not faithfully interpret a rough sketch2 and ,eugne was not sparing of explanation and commentaries4 ,his patience was inexhaustible4 ,nevertheless1 every time ,paul was embarrassed and was unable to solve a difficult question1 before putting him in the way to do so1 ,eugne used to let him try for a reasonable time4 8,reflect10 he would say to him1 8and you will be sure to find some solution4 ,if it is not the right one1 ,i will help you2 but you must get some result for yourself4 ,it is impossible to have a clear understanding of a solution given by a person who understands the matter1 until we have thoroughly considered it1 and made some efforts to solve the given problem ourselves4 ,this is a necessary preliminary exercise1 and one which puts the mind in a right state for comprehending4 ,draw a general section of the main building through the billiard-room and your brother-in-law's study3 ,i mean a transverse section which will indicate the walls1 the floors1 the fireplaces1 and roofs4 ,you have nearly all the necessary elements4 ,endeavour to arrange the whole in proper order1 that you may make all the parts of the building clear to yourself4 ,i do not wish to see this section till you have finished it4 ,not till then shall ,i correct it2 and that correction will be of advantage to you40 ,making use1 therefore1 of the details already drawn1 ,paul drew the transverse section1 not without difficulty2 but the roof-timbers were singularly conceived1--their composition appeared to him difficult and complicated4 ,he did not know how to close the wide opening between the billiard-room and the drawing-room4 ,the dormer-windows of the roof embarrassed him considerably4 ,besides1 he had much difficulty in realizing the junction of all these parts4 ,in spite of all his efforts he could not succeed in representing clearly their relative positions4 ,he was not satisfied1 and frankly told his cousin so4 8,i am very glad10 replied the latter1 8that you are not satisfied4 ,it would be a bad sign if you were1 for it would prove that you had not made any great effort4 ,your walls are fairly in their right place according to the section we have taken4 ,but the timbers1 the dormer-windows6--this could not hold together1 and is wanting in simplicity4 ,why so many pieces of wood8444 ,have you assured yourself of their utility8 ,we have walls2 let us make use of them4 ,why not make use of the wall which separates the billiard-room from the study to bear the roofing timbers in part8--especially as this wall receives chimney flues1 which must surely be carried up through the roof4 ,you did not remember the chimneys2 that is thoughtlessness1 for you see them marked in the plans of the ground floor and of the first and second floors40 8,i certainly thought of them10 replied ,paul2 8but ,i did not know how to carry them up through the roof40 8,and so you did not draw them2 that is certainly a way of avoiding the difficulty2 but yet you know they must go up through the roof4 ,that ,i cannot approve of2 putting aside a question is not solving it4 ,come1 let us revise all this together40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,house4 ,the section was soon corrected 7,fig4 #df71 and ,eugne did not fail to furnish it in detail1 according to the uses of the apartments through which the section was drawn2 which pleased ,paul greatly1 as he could thus realize the billiard-room completed1 with its opening into the drawing-room1 his brother-in-law's study1 with its doors2 then above1 his bedroom1 dressing-room1 and the two attic rooms4 ,this drawing appeared to him charming2 he could fancy himself already entering the apartments and enjoying his sister's surprise on examining these interiors4 ,he was wanting to show all these pretty things to ,madame de ,gandelau directly1 but ,eugne persuaded him to have a little patience4 8,all this10 he said1 8is a mere trifle indeed--nothing but fancy2 we shall have to furnish the details of the woodwork and internal arrangements1 and when we come to study them we shall find much to revise4 ,leave off looking at these interiors for a few minutes1 and let us examine the timber-work of the roof4 ,let us draw it in plan40 7,fig4 #dg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 8,the walls ,a ,b are the gables which are to support the purlins4 ,we have at ,c ,d two cross-walls1 which also form gables1 and will also receive the purlins4 ,but the spaces ,e ,c are too wide for purlins from ,e to ,c4 ,they measure #bb feet between2 now the purlins must not have a bearing of more than #ac feet if we would avoid their bending4 ,intermediate principals are therefore necessary at ,g ,h1 against the sides of the middle dormers ,i4 ,the purlins from ,a to ,g will not then exceed #ac feet in length1 and we shall be able to strengthen them by means of struts from the end gables4 ,from ,k to ,l there will be valley-rafters at the penetration of the roofs4 ,let us first consider the principals ,g ,h 7,fig4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 8,the height between the floors of the story in the roof should be #aj feet4 ,we will put two main supports ,a1 fixed into foot-pieces connected by a tie-rod1 which will pass under the floor2 upon these supports a tie-beam ,b2 then to secure the tie-beam to these supports1 clip-braces ,c4 ,on the ends of this tie-beam will rest the purlins ,d4 ,the blades ,e will fasten into this tie-beam and into the king-post ,f4 ,beneath the second purlins ,h1 it will be necessary to put clips ,g1 forming a collar-beam4 ,the ridge-pole ,i will be carried by the king-post1 with diagonal struts4 ,the other ends of the purlins will rest in the gables4 ,thus we shall be enabled to fix the rafters which will receive the battens and the slates4 ,these timbers 7tie-beams1 collar-beams1 and blades7 may pass through the longitudinal wall ,k1 containing the chimney flues1 and in turn the roof-timbers will stay the wall1 while the wall supports and stiffens the roof4 ,as to the middle of the building1 having the two walls ,c ,d1 it will suffice to rest the ridge-pole ,l across1 and relieve its bearing with two struts ,m1 tenoned into the ends of a beam ,n1 which will prevent their spreading4 ,at the level of the latter we will place the beams a b 7see ,fig4 #dg71 which will receive the ridge-poles ,o of the cross-roofs4 ,these beams will also be relieved by struts ,r4 ,on the ridge-poles ,o will come the meeting of the valley-rafters ,s 7shown in elevation at ,s74 ,thus the raftering will be everywhere well supported2 and1 relatively to the surface of the building1 we shall use but a small quantity of timber1 since we take every possible advantage of the support afforded us by the interior walls4 ,the gables will enable us to avoid the necessity of hip-roofs1 which are difficult to contrive and require a good deal of timber4 ,there remains the roof of the staircase4 ,in order that you may understand how to construct it1 ,i am going to draw it for you in perspective4 ,this roof is supported by walls which rise above the cornice of the building1 but it penetrates the main roof at ,x 7see ,fig4 #dg74 ,if you examine the drawing 7,fig4 #ci71 you will observe that the walls of the staircase leave an angle without any vertical support over the entrance-hall4 ,it will be necessary then to provide a bearing for the hip of the roof which comes over that space4 ,to effect this1 we will place on the two wall ends a small principal which shall receive the foot of the hip-rafter ,v1 denoted in ,fig4 #dg4 ,this arrangement is apparent in the perspective drawing 7,fig4 #di71 which gives the square tower of the principal stairs with its roof-framing4 ,we will raise the oblong newel ,a of this stairs up to the level of the cornice4 ,upon the walls we will lay the wall-plates ,b2 then from the three angles to the newel1 the foot-pieces ,c4 ,on the ends1 halved together1 of these foot-pieces we will erect the two king-posts ,p1 and the three hip-rafters ,e4 ,the feet of the two king-posts will be connected by the clips ,f4 ,as to the back hip-rafter ,g1 it will fix into the front of the king-post of the little principal1 as ,i show you at ,g2 and in order to hinder the principal from being thrust out by this hip-rafter1 clips ,h will connect the head of the king-post of the little principal with the king-post ,d of the roof4 ,on the angles of the hip-rafters at ,i1 it will be necessary to fix some blocks to carry the ends ,k of the purlins1 which will support the bearing of the rafters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 8,at ,l you see the gable which has to join the roof of the staircase2 and do not forget that stone filletings ,m must be built into the walls against which roofs abut1 forming a weather-moulding above these roofs1 to hinder the rain-water from getting in between the slating and the wall4 ,filletings are most commonly made with mortar or cement1 on the roofing itself2 but as that is subject to movement1 these filletings break away and have to be constantly renewed4 ,built into the masonry above the slope of the roofing1 they cover the junction of the slate or tile with the walls1 and1 being independent of the roof1 they cannot suffer from any giving in the timbers4 8,you will draw the roofs to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot2 ,i will correct your drawings1 and we will give them to the carpenter1 in order that he may prepare his timbers as soon as possible4 ,we will figure the scantlings of these timbers4 ,thus1 the blades on the principal rafters should be #h inches #g inches1 the collar-clips #c inches #g inches1 the king-posts #g inches #g inches1 the tie-beam the same1 the main supports #h inches #h inches1 the rafters #c inches #d inches1 the purlins #h inches #h inches1 without sap or flaws40 8,what do you mean by flaws80 8,depressions2 deficiencies of material apparent at the corners when timbers are squared which are rather crooked1 and which thereby leave sap visible on these corners and even a hollow place1 such as ,i mark here at ,a 7,fig4 #ej74 ,you will be careful not to allow flaws in timbers which the carpenter may employ for the roofs and joists4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 8,in considering our floors1 ,i see that for the billiard-room1 the dining-room1 and the drawing-room1 we shall do well to have in each of these apartments two beams to take the joists1 on account of the width of bearing1 and the partitions which come over these floors4 ,you remember that we deferred this question1 and that in the detail 7,fig4 #db71 and in the section 7,fig4 #df71 we have supposed the existence of these beams4 ,the joists in these three rooms1 instead of bearing from one side wall to the other1 will bear from the gable walls on to the beams4 ,but these beams1 though cut from the best oak1 invariably deflect sooner or later2 which1 to say the least1 looks very bad4 ,we will therefore make them each in two pieces1 sawn through in the manner ,i showed you for lintels1 and between the two pieces we will interpose a thin plate of iron4 ,that will enable us to treat the beams like the wall bearers1 and fit the joists into their sides1 instead of laying them on the top1 and consequently avoid a too great projection below the ceiling4 ,thus 7,fig4 #ea71 having two pieces of timber ,a1 #ab inches #f inches1 we will put between them a plate of iron th of an inch thick4 ,we will bolt the whole together at regular intervals as marked at ,d1 and1 in the notches ,c1 we will fix the ends of the joists ,e4 ,a few iron straps will be nailed across to connect these ends one to another1 and we shall obtain in this manner perfectly rigid floors4 ,the beams will be supported in their bearings by corbels1 and will not go more than six inches into the wall4 ,this then is another detail to be got ready for the carpenter4 ,mind and see that the ends of the beams within the wall have a coat of red lead1 and are enclosed in a box of sheet zinc1 ,no4 #ad1 to prevent the moisture of the wall from penetrating the grain of the wood4 ,well6 that is something done3 draw it all out neatly4 ,to-morrow1 when ,i have looked over your drawings1 we will send for ,jean ,godard1 and we will go and select the wood in your father's timber-yard40 ,next day ,paul presented his drawings4 ,many corrections were1 indeed1 necessary1 still on the whole his cousin congratulated him on the result4 ,paul was taking pains1 and was endeavouring to understand everything thoroughly2 and though he could not always find the simplest and most natural solutions1 he showed at least that he had reflected before putting anything on paper4 ,jean ,godard having been summoned1 the drawings were presented to him4 ,some explanations were given him1 after which ,eugne asked him if he had any observations to make4 ,jean ,godard was scratching his head1 but said nothing4 8,is there anything in all this that you do not clearly understand1 or that seems faulty80 said ,eugne to him4 8,no1 sir2 but yet these are floors that are out of the common way2 it will be difficult--we are not accustomed--and you see--it isn't what we generally do in carpentry40 8,which means that you must be paid more than for floors made in your way40 8,yes1 to be sure--you understand--there is labour to be considered--all these timbers here must be sawn--planed1 perhaps40 8,consider well1 ,jean4 ,the joists must be sawn on two faces only--the two faces that are seen2 but all joists are sawn out4 ,if we asked you to supply the wood1 you might say that you would not find joists of this kind2 but in this case you have to select from our wood4 ,if you use small timber it will be enough to saw two faces thus 7,fig4 #eb73 you may1 if you like1 leave the faces ,a roughly squared and only cleared of sap4 ,if you cut your joists out of large timber 7,fig4 #ec7 you will only have to run the saw-cuts as ,i have sketched here at ,b4 ,but ,i prefer to use small timber1 because it does not crook in drying1 as timber which is quartered is sure to do2 and ,i think we shall have enough of the former to prevent us from being obliged to employ this last method4 ,we shall have1 then1 to pay you only for the sawing of the two faces1 as for the joists you usually employ4 ,as for the beams1 they will be also sawn on two faces only1 for if we cut them from a single trunk we shall put the two sawn faces outside 7,fig4 #ed71 and the plate of iron being interposed at ,d we shall put below a moulded board ,c1 to cover the joining1 and the flaws1 should there be any4 ,with regard to the triangular notchings to be made at ,e1 they are less difficult to fashion than mortises1 and as the joists bear in full they have no tenons4 ,it is the same with the bearers which1 along the walls1 receive the ends of the joists1 and take the place of cornices4--,well1 what do you say about it80 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 8,why--still it isn't flooring such as we see everywhere40 8,what does that matter1 if it gives you no more trouble to make8 ,we shall take account of the time you spend1 as we furnish the wood2 consequently you are secured against loss4 ,make a careful estimate1 and if you like we will make a bargain4 ,we will pay you by the cubic foot as for ordinary flooring1 or take account of the time employed in working and pay you for that time4 ,make your choice60 ,jean ,godard twirled his cap about some time1 looked at the drawings in every possible way1 scratched his right ear again1 then his left1 and after a good half-hour declared that he consented to be paid for floors of this kind at the same rate as for ordinary floors according to measurement4 8,and you are right10 said ,eugne2 8for if you manage your work well1 if there is no bungling1 you will gain more by this bargain than if we paid you according to time1 because there is less work in flooring of this kind for the same quantity of material than in those you are accustomed to make1 especially in this neighbourhood40 ,jean ,godard1 however1 asked for an additional consideration for the bearers that were to be substituted for the rough fixing in the walls4 8,granted10 said ,eugne2 8we save plaster cornices1 and it is right that we should make you an allowance on that account40 ,it was therefore resolved that they should make a separate payment for the labour on the bearers1 that is1 for their notches and chamfers4 ,next day four pit-saws were at work1 cutting up the timber that had been stored4 ,the scene of labour had resumed all its activity4 ,in the masonry department a design for a dormer-window remained to be furnished1 but which was soon supplied 7,fig4 #ee71 and besides this the direction of the chimney flues4 ,eugne on giving ,paul the particulars of the dormer-windows1 section ,a and exterior elevation ,b1 drew his attention to their construction4 ,raised on a gutter-wall #bj inches thick1 they were to consist of two jambs of three courses each4 ,on the first two courses would be left a string-course ,c1 designed to cover the slate of the roofing and to form a filleting4 ,these two jambs would carry the lintel and two stones forming corbels4 ,two pieces on this lintel would receive the gable knees1 and would form the jambs of the higher opening designed to ventilate the attics4 ,the gable would consist of two courses surmounted by a finial4 ,the section indicated how the slopes of the coping would form a filleting on the small roofs of these dormer-windows behind1 and a drip in front1 to hinder the rain-water from running down the faces of the stone-work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,chimneys4 8,why do chimneys smoke80 asked ,paul of his cousin4 8,you mean rather to ask me10 replied the latter1 8why some chimneys smoke4 ,many causes contribute to make chimneys smoke1 while there is only one condition which must be observed if they are not to smoke4 ,we must therefore do our utmost to fulfil that condition1 viz4 a flue proportioned to the fireplace1 and the supply of a quantity of air to the latter proportioned to the combustion4 ,if the flue is too narrow for the amount of smoke given off by the combustion1 this smoke does not rise easily enough1 its advance in ascending is checked by friction1 and the discharge being insufficient for the production1 the smoke comes out into the room4 ,we can stimulate the combustion1 and consequently the ascent of the smoke by a current of external air directed towards the wood or coal4 ,when the fire is well lighted it warms the column of air that fills the chimney1 and the warmer this column is the lighter the air is1 and the more it tends to rise4 8,that is why in some ill-built chimneys a certain time is required before the smoke will take its proper course--that is to say1 the column of air must be warmed4 ,and until it is so1 the smoke passes not into the flue1 but into the room2 then we open a window to supply the fire with air1 which brightens it up so as to warm the flue and allow the smoke to take its proper course4 ,for the same reason all new chimneys smoke4 ,flues carried up in masonry are damp and cold1 and the air they contain is heavy2 it takes some time to warm and lighten it4 8,instead of opening a window to stimulate the fire 7which is a rather primitive method71 we supply each grate with an air draught--that is1 we give it a channel which conducts the external air to the combustible as soon as the least heat is developed1 that1 e4g4 of a piece of paper lighted4 ,immediately this exterior air is called in to fill the vacuum produced by the commencement of combustion1 and it stimulates the fire by bringing it oxygen4 ,the livelier the fire the more rapid is the draught2 and the more rapidly the air comes in1 the more brightly does the wood or coal burn4 ,the air-channel is to a grate what a pair of bellows are to a forge fire4 ,but the air-channel1 as well as the flue1 must bear a due proportion to the fireplace4 ,if the flue is too narrow1 the smoke is obstructed1 and comes out into the room2 if it is too wide1 it is not uniformly heated1 and the external currents of air--the winds--exert a pressure at its upper extremity which neutralizes the effect of the draught1 and the smoke is beaten down4 ,if the air-channel is too small for the extent of the grate1 it does not bring the quantity of air necessary for combustion2 the fire languishes1 it heats the flue imperfectly1 and the lukewarm smoke does not ascend rapidly enough4 ,if the air-channel is too large1 or brings in too considerable a volume of air1 the oxygen of which is not completely taken up1 then a part of the cold air enters the flue and does not stimulate the draught2 or1 if there are changes in the temperature1 the air-channel attracts the air from the chimney instead of bringing in air from the outside4 ,the process is reversed1 and the chimney smokes dreadfully40 ,it was in the evening1 after dinner1 and when the family were seated around the hearth1 that ,eugne was propounding this theory4 8,that appears to me simple enough10 said ,madame de ,gandelau2 8but then why does the chimney in my room1 which ,i have had altered several times1 smoke on certain days80 8,because your room1 ,madame1 is situated in the new wing of the house1 the roof of which is lower than that of the older part4 ,they could not carry the flue high enough to rise above the ridges of the roof of the old building1 for that isolated chimney would not have resisted the squalls4 ,when the wind comes on your side it finds the obstacle presented by the loftier building1 and rebounds3 an eddy is formed1 and whirling about on itself it becomes engulfed in your chimney-flue1 or at least obstructs for a time the passage of the smoke4 ,in such a case the flues should bifurcate2 as the pressure of the wind is never exerted equally in both orifices1 the air rushing into one makes the smoke issue violently through the other4 ,i know of no other plan3 ,i have already proposed it to you2 but you have thought1 not without reason1 that these flues1 which seem to raise two despairing arms towards heaven1 would be very ugly2 so you have resigned yourself to be smoked out of your room when a strong gust from the west is blowing40 8,yet the chimney-doctor put a sheet-iron pipe with a revolving cowl--what he calls1 ,i think1 a gueule de loup3 he told me it would work admirably1 but it was worse than before40 8,certainly2 when there are eddies and whirlwinds in consequence of some obstacle1 as here4 ,this cowl turns in all directions1 and among its rapid gyrations sometimes presents its mouth to the gust1 if only for an instant4 ,this mouth then performs the office of a funnel1 and the air1 rushing into the pipe1 sends the smoke in puffs into the very middle of the room40 8,exactly so2 you think1 therefore1 that those two ugly flues must be adopted80 8,certainly4 ,there are cities near to mountains1 all of whose houses1 however lofty1 are in the same condition4 ,geneva1 for example1 built between the ,salve and the ,jura1 is commanded1 though at a great distance1 by these mountains4 ,the violent winds which sometimes prevail on the lake are imprisoned between these two chains1 form eddies1 rush backwards and forwards1 and send violent gusts in every direction2 so that the ,genevese are obliged to put these double flues on their chimneys1 which at a distance present the aspect of a forest of old-fashioned telegraphs40 8,i hope1 then1 that you will build the chimneys in the new house in such a way that they will not smoke4 ,you know that ,marie would be much vexed if they should40 8,we will do our best2 and the local conditions are favourable to begin with2 we are not commanded by other elevations1 we have not any eddies of wind to fear2 along the plateau on which we are building the breezes are regular4 ,moreover1 we have only straight high roofs1 and all the flues rise above the ridges4 ,we shall build these flues with brick1 and make them of ample size4 ,nothing obliges us to give them very oblique directions2 they rise vertically1 or nearly so4 ,lastly1 we shall have a system of air-flues1 arranged from the very foundations1 in a cool aspect2 for that must be attended to1 since if the air-flues are open to the south--for example--the air they receive from without1 even during the winter1 is warmer than that of the room where the fire is lighted2 and then the air-flue draws the smoke which comes down into the room4 ,at least the fire cannot be lighted2 the wood is only charred1 and does not burn4 8,at ,paris they often have a single flue for several fireplaces 7arranged one over the other71 and parallel with it a ventilation-flue sending a branch to each of these fireplaces4 ,that is a good plan1 especially in houses where there are as many as five fireplaces1 one over the other2 because the weakening of the walls by the juxtaposition of a number of flues is thus avoided4 ,the fires exercise a reciprocal attraction1 and this system prevents smoke in the rooms4 ,these flues must have a section sufficient for all the fireplaces--that is1 for five ordinary chimneys1 one above another1 a section of #a foot #i inches superficial1 or #af inches square4 ,but here1 where we have only three stories and sufficient room1 ,i prefer having separate flues for each chimney2 especially as with the system of single flues all the fires must be lighted3 which is always the case in a large town4 ,if they are not1 it will happen in rapid changes of temperature that the smoke will pass into one of the higher or lower fireplaces instead of following the vertical column4 ,this inconvenience1 which by the by is only accidental1 is remedied by well-arranged dampers40 8,but10 said ,paul1 8does not this cold air of the air-channel chill the apartments80 8,this cold air comes into the fireplace itself1 not into the apartment2 it is evident that if a fire is not made1 the air-flue introduces cold air1 which contributes to lowering the temperature of the apartment4 ,it may be shut off by a damper4 ,but keep this in mind3 to make a fire burn wood1 or coal1 or anything else1 oxygen is needed4 ,you have learned that in your studies in chemistry and physics4 ,air1 therefore1 is required2 without air no fire4 ,formerly they did not take the trouble to provide air-flues for fireplaces1 because the air came into the rooms under the doors and through the ill-closed windows1 and also because the apartments being very large contained air enough to keep up a fire for some time4 ,and our grandfathers' chimneys1 be it observed1 smoked pretty considerably4 ,we of the present day are less hardy1 and like to have smaller rooms1 well shut in1 and we are afraid of draughts2 that is all very well1 but the chimney must have a draught1 since without it the fuel will not burn and therefore not warm you4 ,it is evident that this column of cold air1 which you call in to stimulate the combustion1 takes with it1 in ascending the flue1 a considerable amount of heat4 ,many plans have therefore been devised for preventing the heated air from passing rapidly away4 ,it is caused to turn in the flues1 and obliged to remain as long as possible1 or at least to leave in the walls of the numerous passages which it traverses a part of the heat it has absorbed4 ,these passages in their turn warm a surrounding cavity or room1 which is also supplied with air4 ,this air1 dilated by heat1 tends to escape4 ,issues are made for it1 which are called hot-air escapes4 ,this is the principle of the hot-air apparatus40 8,a propos of heating apparatuses10 said ,madame de ,gandelau1 8are you intending to construct one in the new house80 8,certainly2 its place is marked on the plan of the cellars below the entrance hall1 and its flue goes up in the interior angle of the great staircase4 ,a heating apparatus is indispensable in a country house1 especially if it is not lived in throughout the winter4 ,it is the means of preventing a good deal of injury to the house4 ,heating once or twice a week during the cold and damp season is sufficient to keep the apartments fairly dry40 8,do you not think the heat of the hot-air apparatus injurious to health80 8,the warm air issuing from the heating apparatus is unwholesome1 because in becoming warm it has lost a part of its oxygen1 and because oxygen is as necessary to us in supporting life as it is to fuel in supporting combustion4 ,we can avoid some of the injurious results to the animal economy arising from the deoxidized air by making it pass over basins filled with water on leaving the heat receiver2 but this means is only palliative1 and we thus lose part of the warmth4 8,i consider hot-air apparatuses desirable only for warming apartments that are not lived in1 such as entrance-halls1 staircases1 and passages2 but if hot-air escapes are provided in drawing-rooms1 dining-rooms1 and bedrooms1 care must be taken not to allow them to be open while the apartments are occupied4 ,open them only to dry the rooms when you are absent2 and when this is done1 open the windows1 and close the hot-air escapes when you shut the windows40 8,and the baths--how will you heat them80 8,by means of a boiler arranged near the heating apparatus1 with circulating pipes reaching to the bath-rooms on the first floor1 which are over the heating chamber1 or nearly so40 8,have you arranged for baths for the servants also80 8,yes1 under the bakehouse and wash-house1 below the ground floor40 8,you have provided for everything1 ,i see4 ,this conversation about the chimneys has been one of which you will do well to give a summary in your notes1 ,paul60 8,i will do so1 mother40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,cantine4 ,in spite of the recent disasters1 life seemed to return as by enchantment1 both in the towns and the rural districts4 ,in all directions every one was setting himself to work again to make up for lost time4 ,although the misfortunes which had nearly cut off all the sources of wealth in ,france were indelibly imprinted on their memories1 a patriotic instinct made its inhabitants redouble their efforts to repair the mighty ruin1 without indulging in vain recriminations4 ,those who travelled through ,france during the months of ,february and ,march1 #ahgj1 might have compared the country to an ant's nest disturbed by the foot of some incautious stroller4 ,these wonderful insects do not in such a case waste their time in lamentations1 and making processions to supplicate the ,providence of the ants3 they set to work immediately2 and if you pass by next day1 the traces of the convulsion that had almost destroyed the colony have disappeared4 ,but at the end of ,march the journals brought to the chteau the disastrous news from ,paris4 ,m4 de ,gandelau had been thinking of sending back his son to the ,lyceum4 ,although satisfied that ,paul would not be losing his time1 he thought it a pity that his classical studies should be any longer interrupted4 ,but the last news changed his intention4 ,he decided that his son should continue to work with his cousin1 who had resolved to stay at the chteau and wait the course of events4 ,m4 de ,gandelau1 loved and respected by the whole neighbourhood1 had no anxiety so far as he himself was concerned4 ,some sinister faces had presented themselves in the neighbouring villages1 but there was no opening for such emissaries there1 so they soon disappeared4 ,master ,branchu and ,jean ,godard had come to the chteau to tell ,m4 de ,gandelau that the workmen entreated him not to suspend the works1 and that if money was wanting1 they would consent to wait for better days4 ,for the present they would ask only for soup and bread4 ,in fact1 ,m4 de ,gandelau having made great sacrifices during the war1 had not just now at his disposal means sufficient for giving regular wages such as the energetic carrying out of the works would demand4 ,the most he could do was to supply provisions4 ,it was1 therefore1 decided that they should set up a provision store near the works2 that ,m4 de ,gandelau should furnish meal1 fuel1 fresh meat twice a week1 vegetables and bacon2 and that each workman should receive as many rations as his family and he required for their subsistence4 ,each ration was estimated at prime cost2 and the balance was to be paid in money at a future day1 according to a well-recognized and carefully-adjusted scale of wages4 ,half a dozen workmen who did not belong to the district would not accept this arrangement1 and quitted the works4 ,the others1 having full confidence in ,m4 de ,gandelau's good faith1 agreed to these terms1 with so much the more readiness as they had thus the pleasing prospect of the result of this fixed economy in the shape of a saving4 ,paul was commissioned with this new branch of administration1 and combined the functions of a purveyor with those of an inspector4 ,his cousin initiated him in the system of accounts he must keep1 so that all interests might be protected4 ,proud of this new employment1 he acquitted himself well4 ,rising at five o'clock in the morning1 he might be seen riding on his pony from the chteau to the mill1 from the mill to the neighbouring village1 and from the village to the building2 he gave an account to his father every evening of what had been given out during the day1 and to his cousin memoranda of the work done at the house4 ,this mode of life was giving vigour to his body2 the responsibility with which he saw himself invested was maturing his mind4 ,towards the end of ,may it would have been difficult to recognise in this robust1 sensible1 and methodical young man1 the careless schoolboy of the month of ,august preceding4 ,one morning ,eugne said to him1 8,you will have to go to ,chateauroux1 for we have not joiners here capable of executing our work4 ,i will put you in communication with a good master-joiner residing there1 and you will make arrangements with him2 but first we must be prepared with the necessary details40 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,joiner',s ,,work4 8,all the particulars of the woodwork10 continued ,eugne1 8ought to be furnished before a house is begun to be built1 for the first consideration in work of this kind is selecting the materials1 and only employing wood that is thoroughly dry1 and has been sawn out some years4 ,we have had but a short notice1 and have not been able to pay attention to this important part of our undertaking4 ,fortunately ,i am acquainted with a joiner at ,chateauroux1 who has a stock of well-seasoned wood of good quality1 which he is not very willing to part with1 as he keeps it for special work2 but he will let us have some1 as your father has rendered him some services4 8,but while only sound and dry wood must be employed in our joiner's work1 it is not less necessary to combine the parts according to the nature of the materials1 and not infringe the conditions imposed by them4 ,wood is sawn according to certain dimensions dictated by custom and the size of the trees4 ,thus1 for example1 a plank is only #h or #aj inches broad1 because trees fit for joiner's work are scarcely of larger diameter1 when the sap-wood is removed2 in making panels1 therefore1 it is advisable not to have them more than #h or #aj inches wide1 that they may not exceed the width of a plank4 ,if two or more boards are joined to make a panel1 they will separate in drying1 and leave a space between them2 whereas1 if we give each panel only the width of a plank1 even if it should shrink1 the shrinking occurs in the tongue1 and there is no disjointing4 ,these tongues must1 however1 be wide enough to bear the shrinking without leaving the rebate4 ,you will understand that better by and by4 8,in the last century many doors were made wide-framed1 that is1 doors the panels of which1 framed in moulding1 are from #af to #bj inches wide2 this was the fashion4 ,but at that time they employed none but very dry wood1 that had been felled and cut up for several years2 and these panels1 made of two boards1 notched or simply jointed1 did not shrink4 ,you see doors thus made in your father's drawing-room1 and there is only one in which the panel has opened4 ,in the present day such wood cannot be got for love or money2 we must therefore be content to give up those wide panels4 ,or1 if we insist upon having them1 they must be made of white wood--of sycamore1 because this wood dries quickly1 does not split nor warp1 that is1 it does not curve across the grain4 ,but sycamore is a soft wood1 liable to be attacked by worms1 especially in the country4 ,let us therefore keep to oak1 and construct our doors so that the panels may be only about #h inches wide4 ,we have folding and single doors4 ,the folding doors are #d feet wide2 the doors of a single leaf #cb to #dj inches4 ,their height varies from #g ft4 to #g ft4 #d in42 for it is quite useless to make them higher1 as we do not walk into our rooms with crosses and banners1 and the human stature rarely exceeds six feet4 ,there are many inconveniences in having doors too high2 they are liable to twist1 are not easily shut1 and1 if it is cold1 every time they are opened they let a considerable volume of damp1 freezing air penetrate into the rooms1 chilling them proportionately4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 8,let us begin1 then1 by drawing a folding-door4 ,we shall make the framing of this door of wood #a inch thick4 ,we call the outer upright pieces 7,fig4 #ef7 the hanging-stiles2 the pieces1 ,a1 the meeting-stiles2 the horizontal pieces between them1 the rails4 ,the stiles and the top and bottom rails shall be each #d inches wide1 the intermediate uprights1 or munton1 #b inches4 ,now each leaf--deducting an inch for the rebate1 or overlap1 in the middle--will be #b feet wide1 since the doorway must have an opening of #d feet3 deducting #d in4 #b in4 #c in4 for the two stiles and the munton--total1 #aj inches--there remain #ad inches for the two panels1 i4e41 #g inches for each panel4 ,the middle rail must be placed so that its centre shall be #c ft4 #d in4 from the ground2 for it is on this rail the lock is fixed1 and this rail should not be less than #f inches wide1 so that deducting for the mouldings1 say #b in41 there still remains #d in4 for the room of the lock1 whose box is usually from #c to #d in4 wide4 ,this kind of door is called square-framed3 all the joints being square1 without mitres1 and the panels being narrow1 these doors do not give1 and are perfectly ridged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 8,here is a detail of this framing 7,fig4 #eg73 ,let ,a be the wall-jamb of the doorway2 a door-frame1 ,b1 is fixed by means of iron stays to this jamb4 ,to it are fastened with screws the hinges1 ,c1 on which the door-leaves swing4 ,d is the hanging-stile2 ,e ,e1 the meeting-stiles2 ,f1 the intermediate munton2 ,g1 the panels1 with their tongues in the grooves4 ,the architraves1 ,h1 form a rebate around the hanging-stiles and the top rail4 ,moulded strips1 ,i1 are affixed along the rebate of the meeting-stiles1 in order to strengthen the rebate1 and to present to the hand a rounded edge that does not hurt the hand or fray the dress4 ,at ,k is denoted the top rail1 with its tenon1 ,l1 fitting into a mortice1 ,m1 which should be cut right through the stile4 ,at the juncture of the intermediate munton1 ,n1 the moulding1 ,o1 is cut square off to make way for the head of the munton1 whose tenon1 ,p1 goes into a mortice1 ,r4 ,at ,s you see the groove into which fits the tongues1 ,t1 of the panels2 which are increased in thickness at a certain distance from the tongue1 as you see at ,v1 to about ths of an inch4 ,you will observe that the chamfers1 ,x1 of the stiles stop beneath the joints1 in order to leave these all the strength of the wood4 ,doors of these dimensions will require three hinges to each leaf4 8,this explanation gives you the key to all good ordinary house joinery4 ,the rule is a simple one3 never to weaken the wood at the joints1 always to make these square1 and not to exceed the sizes of ordinary scantling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 8,our single-leaved doors will be made according to this system4 ,we have lastly to consider the window-casements4 ,in these we shall follow the same principle1 that is1 we shall avoid the defective mitre joints1 and have none but square joints4 ,here 7,fig4 #eh7 is one of these casements1 which consists of a fixed frame1 ,a1 fastened into the rebate of the stone-work1 ,b1 and of two folding casements4 ,the wood of the casements shall be #a in4 thick1 and the meeting-stiles shall lock one into the other4 ,to lessen the difficulty of glazing1 or to avoid the necessity of using plate-glass1 we will divide the length by a small bar1 ,c4 ,you will require the details of these window-casements4 ,i give them to you drawn in ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 8,at ,a ,i have marked the rebate of the window-jamb2 at ,b the fixed frame2 at ,c one of the stiles which works into the frame1 with the tongue to stop the passage of the air2 at ,d and ,e1 the right and left hand meeting-stiles1 with their method of locking4 ,on the projection1 ,f1 is affixed the crmone1 or fastener4 ,the detail1 ,g1 gives you the section of the sill-rail of the frame1 with its water-stop1 intended to hinder the rain or snow from penetrating to the inside4 ,but as it happens that in spite of this precaution the driving rain sometimes finds its way into the rebate1 a small channel1 a1 must be sunk in this rebate1 with two escapes1 that the water may not flow through1 and down the inner surface of the sill1 ,i4 ,in order to cover the junction of the wood sill-rail and the stone sill1 we shall affix the moulding1 ,k4 ,at ,l ,i denote for you the framing of the bottom rail of the casement and the stile2 and at ,m that of the glazing-bar and the same stile4 ,at ,o you will observe the outside rebates to receive the glass1 and the chamfers1 ,p1 with stops on the inside to leave at the joints all the strength of the wood4 ,besides the three hinges necessary for each leaf1 we must take into account the angle-plates at top and bottom to secure the casement from straining the joints and giving down in the middle1 for the glass cannot serve like door panels1 which stiffen the framing4 ,on the contrary1 the glass1 by its weight1 tends to put these casements out of shape4 8,you are going to set to work at these details1 ,paul1 and ,i will correct your drawings4 ,furnished with these designs1 you will then go to ,chateauroux and show them to the person who undertakes the work1 and he will fix his prices4 ,you will supplement the drawings by explanations1 keeping clearly in mind what ,i have told you1 and bring back his estimate4 ,i will also give you an introduction to an engineering friend of mine at ,chateauroux who will receive you as a relation1 and who will be able to give you any further information you require40 ,madame de ,gandelau at first objected to ,paul's journey2 but being assured that ,eugne's friend would be at the station to receive the young architect1 and that he would be entertained by a family who would be glad to receive him1 his mother was satisfied4 ,besides1 his absence would be for three or four days only1 and ,chateauroux is but fifty miles from ,m4 de ,gandelau's residence4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,what ,,paul ,,learnt ,,at ,,chateauroux4 ,paul now knew enough to feel that the commission with which he was charged was one of considerable importance4 ,the sole responsibility of it made him a little anxious4 ,it would have been easy enough to write to the joiner to come to the chteau2 but ,eugne had asked ,m4 de ,gandelau to send ,paul to see him1 in order to put his clerk of the works to the test1 and to know how he would manage the business4 ,eugne had given him ample instructions1 and taken care to have them repeated several times2 and ,paul had noted down the important points4 ,he was furnished with plans to show the number of openings1 the hanging of the doors1 the areas of the floors1 the extent of the wainscoting1 the dado-moulding1 the skirting1 c4 ,on arriving at ,chateauroux about ten o'clock in the morning1 ,paul found the engineer1 ,m4 ,victorien1 his cousin's friend1 waiting for him at the station as had been arranged4 ,m4 ,victorien was still young1 though his close-cut hair was growing grey4 ,a sun-burnt complexion1 a piercing eye1 and aquiline nose1 gave to his physiognomy a certain martial air which attracted our young architect at a glance4 ,a letter from ,eugne had informed him of the circumstances that had occasioned ,paul's giving his attention to building during the last six months4 ,m4 ,victorien had some acquaintance with ,m4 de ,gandelau1 and felt a particular esteem for his character4 ,such an introduction was more than enough to induce him to receive the traveller as a young brother4 ,madame ,victorien1 a short1 buxom brunette1 the very antithesis of her husband1 who was tall and thin1--could find nothing good enough for her guest4 ,at breakfast1 ,paul had to reply to all the questions that were addressed to him3--,how had the recent troubles been borne by the family at the chteau8 ,what was the new house like8 ,how far had it advanced8 ,how many workmen did they employ8 ,how was the work done8 ,paul gave the best answers he could think of1 and even ventured to draw some sketches to explain to his hosts the situation of the new house and its present stage of advancement4 8,well10 said ,m4 ,victorien1 8,i see that you have profited by the lessons you have had from your cousin1 who is more ready at making an explanatory sketch than any man ,i know40 ,this compliment encouraged ,paul1 who related the steps of his architectural education up to this time4 8,we shall have the whole of to-morrow to visit your joiner1 so if you like you shall accompany me to see some locks which ,i am making about six miles off4 ,that will perhaps interest you40 ,paul eagerly accepted the invitation1 although ,madame ,victorien protested against it1 asserting that her young guest must be fatigued1 and ought to be allowed to rest2 that he had risen very early that morning1 and so on4 8,what10 said ,m4 ,victorien1 8at his age and in excellent health1 fatigued by sitting two hours in a railway carriage6 ,get us a good dinner by the time we return--about seven o'clock--and you shall see if our friend doesn't do justice to it4 ,besides1 has he not told us that he is up at five o'clock every morning and is running about all day8 ,come1 let us set out40 ,they drove off in a small char--banc1 and soon left the town behind them4 ,when they were mounting the first hill ,m4 ,victorien said3 8,your cousin has not then been much fatigued by his short campaign4 ,i saw him only for a moment when he passed through with his corps4 ,he is an energetic man1 but he does not always take enough care of himself4 ,how clearly he explains a thing1 does he not8 ,it is a pleasure to take lessons of him4 ,we were fellow-students formerly1 and he hesitated whether he should become an architect or a civil engineer4 ,he had qualifications for both40 8,what is the difference1 then1 between an architect and an engineer80 ,paul ventured to ask4 8,upon my word1 that is a question not easy to answer--,i will give you an apologue3-- 8,there were once two little twins who resembled each other so much that even their mother could not distinguish them4 ,not only were their features1 height1 and gait the same1 but they had also the same tastes and abilities4 ,they had to work with their hands1 for their parents were poor4 ,both became masons4 ,they acquired skill in their calling1 and they worked equally well4 ,their father1 a narrow-minded man1 thought that these four hands which wrought at the same work with equal perfection1 would produce more and do still better by allotting separate labours to each pair4 ,to one of the pairs1 therefore1 he said3 #8,you shall only do underground work2' and to the other1 #8,you shall only work aboveground4' ,the brothers thought this scarcely reasonable1 as they had been accustomed to help each other in both sorts of work2 however1 as they were obedient children they complied4 ,but whereas hitherto these workmen had agreed and had co-operated to the advantage of the work1 from that time forward they did not cease to dispute with each other4 ,the one who worked above the cellars maintained that his foundations were not suitably prepared1 and the one who laid the latter asserted that the conditions of their structure were not respected4 ,the result was that they separated1 and as each had now become habituated to his particular work1 he remained unfit for anything else40 8,i think ,i see the gist of your apologue1 but----0 8,but it does not explain to you why a difference has been made between engineers and architects4 ,in fact1 a skilful engineer may be a good architect1 as an accomplished architect ought to be a good engineer4 ,engineers make bridges1 canals1 docks1 and embankments2 but this does not prevent them from raising lighthouses1 erecting factories1 warehouses1 and many other buildings4 ,architects ought to know how to do all these things2 they actually did them formerly1 because then the twin brothers were not separated1 or rather1 they were one and the same person4 ,but since this individuality has been separated into two1 each half follows its own direction4 ,if the engineers build a bridge1 the architects say it is ugly--and are not always wrong in saying so4 ,if the architects build a palace1 the engineers think1 not without reason1 that in its construction the materials have been employed unskilfully1 and without due economy or an exact acquaintance with their properties in point of durability and strength40 8,but why do engineers build bridges which architects do not consider beautiful80 8,because the question of art has been separated from that of science and calculation by that narrow-minded father who thought one brain could not entertain both4 ,the architects have been told3 #8,you are to be artists2 you are to look at nothing but form--trouble yourselves about nothing but form2' while to the engineers it has been said3 #8,you are to occupy yourselves only with science and its applications2 form does not concern you2 leave that to artists who dream with their eyes open1 and are incapable of reasoning6' 8,ah6 that seems strange to your young mind1 ,i can see4 ,it is simply absurd1 because the art of architecture is only a result of the art of constructing--that is1 of employing materials according to their qualities or properties2 and because architectural forms are notoriously derived from this judicious employment of them4 ,but1 my young friend1 as you grow older1 you will see in our poor country not a few even more important interests sticking in the rut of routine4--,st6 ,bob1 trot on6 it's all level now60 ,they soon arrived at the locks4 ,two coffer-dams1 one below1 one above1 barred the course of the water2 a large cast-iron siphon caused the current to pass over the workmen engaged in laying the foundations of the walls 7the lateral walls7 forming the chamber of the lock4 ,paul inquired about the working of the siphon1 which he soon understood1 as he had made one with quills and wax1 and had emptied glasses of water with it4 ,he had never imagined that this little hydraulic apparatus could be applied on so grand a scale4 ,he saw how they made the concrete which was run under the lateral walls of the chamber1 that is1 the space comprised between the two gates of the lock4 ,a horse was attached to a great wooden lever1 which caused an iron shaft to revolve in a vertical cylinder1 and which1 furnished with beaters1 mixed the slaked lime with the sand that was introduced at the top of this cylinder4 ,an opening at the bottom let the mortar1 well mixed1 run into wheelbarrows which the workmen were taking to a wooden floor1 where they mixed it with double its quantity of pebbles1 by means of rakes4 ,then other workmen transported the concrete1 well mingled1 to a shoot which conducted it to the bottom of the excavation1 where others again spread it in layers1 and rammed it down with wooden damsels4 ,paul inquired1 also1 respecting the arrangement of the gates1 the kerb1 the stay1 or sill1 over which the folded gates of the lock were to abut1 that is1 presenting an obtuse angle towards the upper part of the stream1 to resist the action of the current4 ,he saw the carpenters' workshop1 where they put the lock-gates on templets4 ,while superintending his works and giving his orders1 ,m4 ,victorien explained to ,paul how each department of labour contributed to the whole2 and the latter took notes and made sketches in his memorandum-book with a view to keep in mind what he heard and saw4 ,this attention on ,paul's part appeared to please ,m4 ,victorien4 ,so when they were again seated in the char--banc to return to the town1 the engineer did not fail to complete his explanations4 ,he described to him the lock-gates of seaports1 and how some were made in the present day thirty yards wide and more1 part iron1 part wood1 or entirely iron2 and promised to show him when they reached home the drawings of some of these locks4 ,the conversation then turned on bridges1 and by what means their piers could be built in the middle of a stream4 ,m4 ,victorien explained to him how1 by the use of means supplied by modern engineering1 piers were built in the middle of wide1 deep1 and rapid streams1 where formerly the operation was not regarded as practicable2 how they sunk double-plated iron cylinders vertically1 so that their lower extremity touched the bottom2 how1 with the help of powerful machinery1 they compressed the air in these enormous hollow columns1 and how they then filled these cylinders with masonry1 so that they thus obtained piers perfectly solid1 stable1 and capable of sustaining heavy pressures2 and while the metal-work must decay with time the columns of masonry remained intact1 having had time to gain a solid consistence4 ,m4 ,victorien's explanations thus opened to ,paul a new horizon of study1 and he began to ask himself whether he should ever have time to learn all these things2 for ,m4 ,victorien did not fail to repeat to him continually that an architect ought not to be ignorant of these methods of construction1 because it was possible that he would have to make use of them4 ,his attention1 therefore1 seemed distracted4 ,m4 ,victorien perceived it1 and said to him1 8,let us talk of something else1 for you seem to me rather tired40 8,no10 replied ,paul2 8but ,i had a good deal of difficulty in getting into my head all that my cousin told me about building a house only2 and ,i thought that when ,i had thoroughly understood the different things he explained to me1 ,i should have got the substance of all ,i had to learn3 and now ,i see that there are many other things relating to construction which ,i ought to know1 and--you know----0 8,and that disquiets and frightens you4 ,take time2 do not try to understand all at once2 listen attentively1 that is all4 ,by degrees it will be disentangled in your mind1 and be properly classified4 ,do not be anxious about it--young brains consist of a number of empty drawers4 ,youth need only be asked to open them2 each new acquisition comes of itself to take its place in that which suits it4 ,afterwards1 all we have to do is to open the drawer containing such or such a thing1 stored up almost without our being conscious of it3 we find it untouched1 fit to be used for its proper purpose4 ,only we must always keep all our drawers open in the gathering season1 a season which is but short4 ,if we leave the drawers shut during our early youth--that is1 from twelve to twenty-five--it is hard work to fill them afterwards1 for the locks are rusted1 or they have been filled1 we do not know how1 with useless rubbish40 ,chatting thus1 the travellers returned home1 where ,madame ,victorien had prepared them a good supper1 enlivened by the presence of two little fellows returned from school1 and who were soon very good friends with ,paul4 ,the following day was devoted to seeing the contractor for the woodwork1 and explaining to him the particulars ,paul had brought with him1 and preparing the estimates in which ,m4 ,victorien gave some assistance4 ,paul1 however1 well trained by his cousin1 executed his commission creditably1 and felt much flattered when1 at the close of the interview1 the contractor addressed him as #8,monsieur l',inspecteur1' giving him all sorts of technical explanations1 which ,paul did not always comprehend1 though he took good care not to show his ignorance1 waiting for the opportunity of asking his cousin to enlighten him where necessary4 ,on the morning of the third day they went to see some interesting buildings in the neighbourhood1 and in the evening1 at nine o'clock1 ,paul returned to the chteau1 his travelling-bag full of information which ,m4 ,victorien had given him respecting bridges1 locks1 and the building materials of the district1 and the way in which they were employed4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,slating ,,and ,,plumbing4 ,although ,paul could have returned to the ,lyceum at ,paris in ,june1 ,madame de ,gandelau insisted upon her son remaining at home during the summer4 ,she was afraid of typhus4 ,anxiety1 moreover1 was felt respecting the tranquillity of the great city which had been so cruelly tried and injured4 ,a tutor in the neighbourhood--a man of more learning than is usually possessed by those modest substitutes for the highest class of educators--came therefore every day to read with ,paul for an hour or two1 that he might not forget his ,latin2 and the rest of his time was devoted to superintending the works1 which were visibly advancing4 ,the walls were built1 the floor-joists fixed1 and they were beginning to raise the timber-work of the roofs2 and though there were no longer so many details to be given to the workmen1 the surveillance had to be more minute1 especially as ,eugne would not allow anything to escape observation1 and insisted upon having an account of everything4 ,sometimes1 when ,paul returned from the works1 ,eugne would ask him if he had seen such or such a part4 ,if ,paul hesitated1 he would say to him1 8,well1 my dear fellow1 you must go back and see that1 and bring me an account of it--not to-morrow1 mind1 but directly40 ,and ,paul would have to mount his pony again4 ,so in order to avoid these goings and comings1 which seemed to him at least monotonous1 he had acquired the habit of not returning till he had examined in detail all the points respecting which his cousin could possibly question him4 ,it was especially to the chain-rods that he had directed ,paul's attention4 ,he would ask him repeatedly how the claw ends were bedded2 and if the explanations did not agree1 ,paul had to return to the works1 and not leave them till he had seen with his own eyes that things had been done according to order4 ,besides this1 ,eugne visited the works three times a week with ,paul1 and instructions were given to the builders in his presence4 ,the former always took care to make his clerk of works repeat these instructions to him1 to be certain that they were understood4 ,the gutters1 the discharge of the rain-water1 and the roofing now required attention4 8,country builders generally manage roofing but indifferently10 said ,eugne1 8and especially the plumber's work4 ,we shall therefore have to be specially careful about this important part of our undertaking2 for a house badly roofed is in the same condition as a man incompletely or badly clothed4 ,both contract incurable maladies4 ,we have no good roof-plumbers here1 and must make up our minds to send for some from ,paris4 ,that will cost us a little more2 but it will be a saving in the end1 for we shall avoid incessant repairs and irreparable bungling4 ,as for the slating1 we will fasten it with hooks4 8,slates are commonly fastened on deal battens1 by means of nails2 but to drive these nails into the laths the slate must have two holes made in it1 since each is secured by two nails4 ,with the force of the wind the slates shake about1 make the holes larger1 and ultimately slip off the head of the nails2 then they fall4 ,to replace a single slate several must be removed1 and the last must necessarily be pierced below the overlap1 that is1 in the uncovered part of the slate4 ,with hooks we avoid these disadvantages1 and anyone can repair the roof4 ,these hooks are made of copper1 which allows them to be opened and closed many times without breaking them4 ,moreover1 the slate1 being held down at its bottom end1 cannot rattle with the wind1 and nothing can displace it4 ,in the ordinary mode of 7,french7 slating there are--one over the other--three thicknesses of slate4 ,the exposed part being #d inches--the slate is then #ac inches long4 ,the laths are nailed on the rafters #d inches apart from centre to centre 7,fig4 #fj74 ,thus at ,a you see the position of the laths and that of each slate4 ,the hooks lie upon the under slate1 in the interval between the intermediate slates1 and clip the lower end of the outer slate4 ,at ,b ,i show you1 in section half full size1 the lath1 ,c1 nailed upon the rafters1 and the hook1 whose point is driven into the lath1 with its return1 ,e1 clipping the exposed end of the slate4 ,so much for the plain parts of the roof2 and now for the returns--the hips and valleys4 ,where these occur1 as the slates are not flexible1 we must make use of lead or zinc2 the first of these metals is much the best1 and is less liable to crack and to oxidize4 ,we shall cover the hips with short lengths of lead bent to the form1 nailed1 and worked in with the courses of slate4 ,in the valleys we shall lay a sheet of lead1 on which at either side the slates will lie4 8,but you will study the manifold details of roofing when the men are at work1 for labour of this kind requires minute care4 ,we have to struggle with a subtle foe--water4 ,it discovers every interstice1 and takes advantage of the least negligence to make its inroads2 and so much the more since1 driven by the wind1 it acquires a power and an activity which it would not possess if it fell vertically1 like properly-behaved rain4 ,so in climates where showers are gentle and fall only in calm weather1 the roofs are simple1 and do not require the innumerable precautions demanded among ourselves2 and that is why ,i adopt the plan of securing the slates with hooks4 ,here the westerly and north-westerly winds are violent1 and drive the rain and snow under an angle of #cj4 ,slates held only at the top do not lie close1 and tilt up at their outer extremities1 and the rain and snow soon get in4 ,that is also the reason why we have given our roofs an angle of #fj2 for the rain1 when violently driven1 generally descends perpendicularly to this inclination1 and there is then no danger of its getting under the outer extremity of the slates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 8,the arrangement of the gutters also requires great attention4 ,their channel should have a sufficient inclination--say an inch in a yard--to ensure thorough clearance2 but each length of lead or zinc forming the channel should have a drip--a slight step of #a to #b inches--that the water may not find its way under the joints4 ,these requirements necessitate our giving to the gutters a sufficient depth to get these falls from the culminating points to the discharges1 or down-pipes1 and that these pipes may not be too far from each other1 so that the water may not have too long a course to make4 ,besides this1 we should contrive on the front of the gutters1 issues1 or small spouts for overflows1 so that if the snow or ice should encumber the orifices of the down-pipes the water may run off4 ,it is1 moreover1 desirable to give the back of the gutter a greater height than the front1 that the water may in no case get inside4 ,this1 then 7,fig4 #fa71 is the section we shall give to our gutters4 ,the stone course1 ,a1 behind the gutter being #af inches high1 the board which forms the front of the gutter shall be #ac inches4 ,you remember that upon the cornice-table we left a slope forming a hollow between each joint1 to ventilate the bottom of the gutter and to ensure the escape of the water in the event of an overflow4 ,our gutter1 then1 will consist of an oak board1 ,b1 forming the bottom1 of a side1 ,c1 forming the front1 and of a roll or bead fastened on the top edge of the front4 ,this front board is to be slightly inclined1 that the lead lining may have less tendency to give down4 8,the eaves of the roof being at ,d1 our lead lining shall be fastened at ,e by nailing1 follow the section of the gutter1 and be doubled over at its edge1 ,g4 ,we shall cover the front with another sheet of lead1 also doubled over at its top and bottom edges1 ,h ,i1 with clips of zinc screwed to the board4 ,this lead covering of the front will be held by screws1 whose heads must be covered with little caps1 a1 soldered over2 then a roll1 ,k1 will cover the bead and fold under the doubled edges1 ,g and ,h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,details ,,of ,,the ,,plumber',s ,,work4 8,but previously1 the bottom and fronts of the gutters will be attached by means of angle-irons1 ,l1 sunk-in flush1 and which are let into the wall at the bottom of the course1 ,a4 ,these angle-irons will come on the outside1 and not on the inside of the gutter4 ,at regular distances1 in the gutter-front1 we shall bore the holes for the little spouts1 ,m1 which serve as overflows4 8,the down-spouts1 placed in the angles of the building1 will pass1 at their upper orifice1 through an opening contrived in the cornice1 as shown by the detail1 ,n4 ,a funnel of lead will connect the bottom of the gutter with the orifice of the cast-iron down-pipe1 and will be soldered1 of course1 only to the bottom of the gutter1 resting loose in the part which enters the down-pipe4 8,in order to obtain the necessary falls in the bottom of the gutter1 we shall run in a thickness of plaster1 with stops of wood for the drips at the end of each length of the lead lining1 as you see at ,o4 ,these sheets of lead should not exceed #aj feet each in length4 8,the ridges of the roofs and dormers shall also be of lead doubled and folded1 as shown by the sketch1 ,p4 ,two strips of lead1 b1 are first nailed on to cover the slate1 d2 then the upper half of these strips are rolled and folded into the sheet1 i1 which covers the ridge roll4 ,this last piece of lead is1 besides1 held by screws1 whose heads are covered by a bit of lead2 thus there is no danger of its being displaced by the wind4 8,i describe to you here only the principal points in the roof-plumber's work1 which requires very great judgment and extreme care4 ,you will be able to study it practically in detail when we have good plumbers at work4 ,some of the ,parisian plumbers possess remarkable skill4 ,they will also attend to the arrangements for the supply of water in the house--the water-closets1 baths1 c4 ,but ,i have an important piece of advice to give you3 ,lead laid on oak that has not been steeped in water oxidizes very rapidly4 ,the acetic acid which this kind of wood contains changes the sheets of lead placed on it into ceruse in a few months1 especially if the wood is not sufficiently ventilated on the opposite side4 ,i will therefore point out to you the only kinds of wood that should be employed for the gutters and ridge rolls4 ,we will take old wood from the remains of the old mill1 which when cut up will be in the condition required1 for this wood has long ago discharged its sap4 8,your business1 as clerk-of-works1 when the plumbers begin their operations1 will especially consist in having the metal that is brought in carefully weighed1 and having the clippings safely put by in your presence4 ,these men1 accustomed to occupy themselves with their craft1 work somewhat after the fashion of artists1 and are inclined to disregard material interests2 they leave their lead and tin about in every corner4 ,you must be aware that we ought not to expose our country fellows to such strong temptations4 8,you must therefore weigh all the materials as they come in1 and then the clippings4 ,these will have to be put by in your presence in a place securely locked4 ,the difference between the weight of metal that comes in and that of this residue is the amount with which we are chargeable1 as lead work is paid by weight4 8,the joiner's contract you have brought me promises1 ,i believe1 that the flooring1 doors1 and window-frames shall be sent at the end of ,august80 8,yes2 and as regards the floorings1 the contractor tells me that1 having a good store of wood1 he could begin laying them on the #ast of ,august40 8,that would be too soon2 we must let the whole building dry a little first4 ,he is an energetic man2 if he begins on the #ast of ,september he will have finished by the #ast of ,october4 ,we will have the painters in then1 and by the #ast of ,december our house may be considered finished4 8,we must remember the marble-mason also1 and send him an order for the mantelpieces4 ,it is not too soon to think about it4 ,have you given the joiner the dimensions of the fireplaces80 8,yes2 they were marked on the plans40 8,well1 make a copy of these plans1 and we will send it to the marble-mason4 ,for this article also we shall have to deal with a ,paris house2 it will be cheaper to do so1 and we shall have a greater choice4 ,it is a very troublesome thing to be obliged1 as we are now-a-days1 to have recourse to ,paris for a hundred matters of detail with which building is concerned4 8,but except in certain great cities1 such as ,lyons1 ,tours1 ,bordeaux1 ,rouen1 ,nantes1 and ,marseilles1 where you may find warehouses tolerably well furnished1 the provinces supply nothing4 ,it was not so formerly2 this is one of the results of our excessive centralization4 8,i do my best to oppose this fatal tendency2 but when time presses we must have recourse to those great centres of manufactures connected with building4 ,if we ordered our chimney-pieces at ,chateauroux1 or even at ,tours1 we should have to wait half-a-year and pay more for them4 ,the dealer of whom we ordered them would be sure to send to ,paris for them1 and we may quite as well go to the fountain-head ourselves4 ,as regard the conservatory vestibule opening on the garden1 and the shelter over the entrance1 our blacksmith aided by a full detail of particulars will be able to execute them2 he is an intelligent workman4 ,country carpenters and blacksmiths are generally competent men40 8,why are they so80 8,because the carpenters have kept up their organization or corporations1 or at least something equivalent1 and workmen have to give proof of their efficiency before they can enter the guild4 8,the blacksmiths1 on the other hand1 have kept up their habit of working at the forge2 and the forge is the soul of blacksmiths' work4 ,in the large towns1 on the contrary1 casting is all the fashion2 and artisans connected with the building trades have lost their skill in the finer labour of the forge4 ,they have become mere fitters4 ,however there has been a reaction during the past few years1 and at the ,exhibition of #ahfg you might have seen excellent specimens of wrought-iron4 ,architects also have become unaccustomed to work of this kind1 and very few know how iron is wrought by the hammer1 or how welding is done2 so they give instructions to contractors which are incapable of being executed1 or which occasion them much useless labour4 ,architects ought therefore to be acquainted with the methods of workmanship in every department of labour they call into requisition1 and it is not at the cole des ,beaux-,arts they will learn that4 ,it is now more convenient to persuade them that matter was made to obey all the fancies of the artist2 that serves as an excuse for explanations1 and makes teaching less complicated4 ,the tax-payer and the owner of property who has occasion to employ an architect pay for this admirable doctrine rather dearly2 while1 without superior guidance1 the manufactures connected with building suffer perversion in endeavouring to realize the fancies of these gentlemen40 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,order ,,in ,,finishing ,,the ,,work4 ,the nearer the building was to completion1 the more complicated did the office work become4 ,when ,paul saw that nearly all the particulars had been furnished to the contractors1 he thought that he would only have to see that every part was duly constructed and put in place1 according to his cousin's instructions2 but the office work1 which during the first few months had taken only two or three hours a day1 was becoming onerous4 ,he had to arrange the memoranda1 in order to ascertain the quantities2 and that time might not be lost1 he was obliged to write or give orders to the workmen1 that they might come at the very moment they were wanted1 and1 in certain cases1 work together4 ,the joiner had sent part of the doors and window-frames1 and nearly all the flooring1 at the end of ,august4 ,they had then to order from the blacksmith the angle-plates1 door-bands and cramps2 and send to ,tours for ironmongery1 door-handles1 crmones1 locks1 bolts1 hinges1 c42 and to secure the due execution of these orders1 they had to specify the size of each article as required by the strength of the wood and the nature of the articles themselves4 ,eugne had gone to ,tours to look out samples of the ironmongery in question4 ,the joiner and the blacksmith had to work simultaneously1 and as they were not accustomed to be hurried1 it was often necessary to regulate the labour of each1 so that time should not be lost4 ,the slaters had come1 and were perpetually calling for the mason's or the carpenter's assistance4 ,and as their daily pay was considerable1 it was important not to allow them any pretext for idling4 ,eugne had therefore taught ,paul how he should contrive every evening to get a clear idea of the labour of various kinds that was to be executed next day1 and how he should allot everyone his part before quitting the works4 ,this necessity of foreseeing everything had appeared to ,paul a difficult task2 but his mind had become gradually accustomed to the business1 and he was acquiring the power of calculating with some ease what had to be accomplished4 ,eugne warned him that he must not expect help from the workmen in thus arranging things methodically2 and he had in fact observed that most of them1 when any piece of work was to be begun1 could not set about it1 because those whose duty it was to put things in readiness for them had not received notice to do so1 and had not made the necessary arrangements4 ,then the time would be wasted in running after one another4 8,the workman10 ,eugne would say to ,paul1 8is naturally improvident1 as are all those who have acquired the habit of being commanded by others1 and have no responsibility of their own4 ,he is not unaware of what will be necessary for accomplishing such or such a piece of work2 yet he waits till the moment it will have to be done without troubling himself whether the conditions required for its accomplishment will be present or not4 ,when1 therefore1 labourers in several departments are working together1 method1 order1 and foresight are demanded on the part of the architect2 otherwise much time is lost2 the workmen hinder instead of helping one another2 each does his own work without concerning himself as to whether it is at the fitting time or not4 ,the same piece of work may have to be recommenced twice or thrice40 ,the workmen who were to set the grates and fix the warming apparatus had come2 and though every provision had been made during the building for the passage of the flues1 for the ventilation and the hot pipes of the warming apparatus1 these workmen were continually calling for the mason4 ,but as ,eugne had pre-arranged everything for the purpose1 he had enjoined his clerk of the works not to allow these workmen to make holes in every direction for the passage of their pipes or other arrangements1 as they had been accustomed to do1 without respect for the building and the bearings of the floors4 ,but the passages were not obvious1 especially as they took very little trouble to look for them1 so that ,branchu was obliged to go and show them how they lay1 and open the orifices1 enlarging some and contracting others4 ,then the plumbers set about laying the water-pipes1 and the walls had to be pierced for them1 and cramp-holes made4 ,the joiners1 too1 would be requiring the mason to cramp in the window and door-frames4 ,it was necessary to mediate between these conflicting interests1 for ,branchu was getting confused1 and was going from one set of workmen to another without getting anything finished4 ,this period of his work therefore made ,paul acquainted with many details in building to which he had scarcely paid attention a few months before4 ,at the end of ,september the joiners' work was considerably advanced1 and the roofing quite finished1 so that soon the painting alone would remain to occupy attention4 ,the memoranda were in due order1 so that the accounts could be readily made out4 ,meantime1 ,m4 de ,gandelau was thinking of sending his son back to the ,lyceum at the end of the vacation2 it was necessary for him to complete his studies2 and though this year had not been lost to ,paul1 he was still too young to begin to study architecture1 supposing he intended to adopt that profession4 ,the question was therefore brought forward one evening towards the end of ,september1 en famille4 ,eugne remarked1 and with reason1 that ,paul had learned all he could in works on this small scale2 that if he were to remain longer in the country he would see the painters prepare the grounds and put on the successive coats of paint1 but this could not be of much use to him4 ,besides1 as ,madame ,marie was not to return till the spring1 it was desirable to allow the building to dry before proceeding with the interior decorations and upholstery4 ,the idea of returning to college was not very agreeable to ,paul after a year of this active life1 passed as it was almost entirely in the open air2 but reflection taught him that it would not be right to do otherwise4 ,moreover1 ,monsieur and ,madame de ,gandelau had business to attend to in ,paris1 and would pass a part of the winter there4 ,it was therefore decided that ,eugne should remain during the time required for getting the work finished1 so that no risks should be incurred in the winter1 and that ,paul should set out with his parents at the beginning of ,october4 ,the painting would not be begun till after the severe frosts4 ,eugne undertook to have this operation superintended1 and to visit the works himself during his stay at ,chateauroux1 where business of some importance required his presence towards the end of the winter4 ,all being thus arranged1 ,paul1 with a somewhat heavy heart1 quitted his beloved house on the #bnd of ,october1 and returned to the ,lyceum4 ,most of his comrades1 like himself1 had passed nearly the whole year away from ,paris1 and their studies had been suspended2 but very few had employed their time usefully4 ,so when ,paul related what he had done during these twelve months1 many laughed at him1 and some did not believe him2 but from that time forward he was called by no other name than ,monsieur l',architecte4 ,during this year he had made some advance in learning to reason1 in reflecting before he spoke1 and in listening patiently to those who knew more than himself1 so he found his old companions rather shallow and trifling4 ,on the occasion of a holiday he made a remark to this effect to his father1 with a certain mixture of vanity and regret4 ,m4 de ,gandelau guessed his mood of mind1 and did not let slip this occasion of correcting the reprehensible side of his thoughts4 8,it is possible10 said he1 8that your companions have not had the good fortune you have enjoyed of finding some one to take the trouble to set them to active work1 and teach them something of the practical side of life4 ,but it would be foolish in you1 and decidedly hurtful to your mind and character1 to despise those who are less informed than yourself in regard to a single branch of knowledge4 ,who knows whether in other matters they have not acquired a superiority you do not appreciate8 ,it should not be our object in the world 7and the ,lyceum is a little world not unlike the great one71 to shut ourselves up in our own knowledge and thus flatter our vanity1 but to discover that of others and endeavour to profit by it4 ,it should not be our object to shine by our knowledge1 or fancied knowledge1 and so occasion envy on the part of the foolish1 and a smile on that of people of sense1 but to elicit the knowledge possessed by others4 ,this course of conduct secures us a double advantage3 we avoid making enemies1 and we increase our store of knowledge4 8,it is not at all surprising that your companions know less than you about the building of a house2 but you must allow that your knowledge of the matter is but small2 and perhaps on other subjects they have more correct and complete ideas than you have4 ,it would have been ridiculous to conceal from your companions the nature of your occupations during your stay in the country2 but why should you make much of it8 ,if any of them who has a particular desire for information should put questions to you about it1 and if you see that he is really interested in your answers1 satisfy his desire2 but in the presence of people who care nothing about the matter1 be reserved1 or else you will get laughed at4 ,there is a vulgar phrase which exactly expresses this fact4 ,we say3 people are fond of 8trotting out0 those who are vain of their knowledge1 that is1 they get them to talk1 not to satisfy a legitimate curiosity1 but to make fun of them4 ,bear this in mind1 for it is true in the ,lyceum as well as everywhere else4 8,if your mind is really more developed than that of your comrades1 there is an easy way of making the fact apparent to all1 that is1 by acquiring more rapidly than they do the instruction equally offered to all4 ,get to the top of all your classes1 and nobody will laugh at you2 but all will observe that this year1 which has been a sterile one to so many others1 has been really a fruitful one to you40 ,paul took the hint1 and when he returned to the ,lyceum he left off talking about architecture1 and gave his mind to the work before him4 ,consequently1 he proved that his mind had been developed1 and on ,new ,year's ,day brought home most satisfactory testimonials of progress4 ,the nickname his schoolfellows had bestowed on him1 however1 still stuck to him4 8,ah1 well60 he would say to himself1 when they called him ,m4 l',architecte2 8,i shall make good their words1 for ,i am resolved to become an architect in earnest40 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,house-,,warming4 ,matters had been proceeding according to arrangement2 the painters' work1 begun at the commencement of ,february1 in fine weather1 was finished in ,april1 and likewise all the accessories4 ,m4 de ,gandelau1 who had returned to his estate at the end of ,january1 had caused the small park round the house to be planted1 and had ordered the most indispensable furniture1 wishing to leave his daughter to make choice herself of those articles which would express her own particular taste4 ,madame ,marie had announced ,april as the time of her return1 and subsequently ,may4 ,in the correspondence between her mother and herself nothing had been said about the house since the war4 ,madame ,marie had probably not regarded as serious what had been written to her respecting it2 and the disastrous events of the years #ahgj and #ahga seemed to have made all parties forget the project4 ,paul had set his heart on a surprise1 and had entreated ,madame de ,gandelau to say nothing about the house to her daughter4 ,and we may be sure that ,madame de ,gandelau had readily acquiesced in his wish4 ,they therefore wrote to ,madame ,marie that the family would not assemble at the chteau till ,whitsuntide1 and that as her father had some journeys in prospect in the interior1 she need not hurry herself about returning to ,france before that date4 ,madame de ,gandelau received1 on the #hth of ,may1 a letter informing her that her daughter and her husband would reach the station nearest to the chteau on the morning of the #aith1 ,whit ,sunday4 ,great was ,paul's joy when he received the news4 ,he would be able to be at home and enjoy his sister's surprise1 for he had been sadly afraid she might come while he was at the ,lyceum4 ,that would have been a dreadful disappointment to him4 ,so he worked harder than ever during the days between that and ,whitsuntide6 ,he had set his heart on giving pleasure to all at home by carrying off one of the highest prizes4 ,the holidays impatiently waited for1 at length arrived4 ,m4 de ,gandelau1 on account of the distance1 and ,paul's satisfactory progress1 had obtained permission for his son to return on ,saturday morning4 ,paul therefore reached the chteau at noon1 after more than seven months' absence4 ,we need not state that ,eugne had been invited to this family fte4 ,paul would hardly take time to eat his breakfast1 he was so impatient to see the house4 8,don't be in such a hurry10 his mother said more than once4 8,the house won't run away40 ,during breakfast1 his father put one or two questions to him respecting his studies2 but ,paul gave only short answers1 and then returned to the subject of the house1 overwhelming his cousin with inquiries4 8,and the woodwork1 is that a success8 ,and the painting8 ,what colour is the drawing-room8 ,and the plumber--has he put the cresting on the roof that he promised80 8,you are going to see all that directly1 and before night you will have plenty of time to examine everything in detail4 ,a little patience6 ,patience is the very first virtue of an architect40 ,the aspect of the new house was much changed since ,paul's departure4 ,the ground had been cleared and neatly gravelled4 ,the borders exhibited their spring attire2 and as some old trees had been left standing in the neighbourhood of the house1 it had quite the look of a place already occupied4 ,paul could not help jumping for joy on seeing how charming and picturesque the building was4 ,on turning down into the valley1 he began to run1 eager for a nearer view1 and ,eugne reached the steps only a few minutes after him4 ,paul had seen neither the shelter at the entrance1 nor the conservatory opening into the billiard-room4 ,the lead-work was not quite finished when he left1 and the vanes and cresting were not put up4 ,the dormer windows were not surmounted by their finials4 ,the casements were just put in1 but not glazed4 ,these last additions are like the bordering round a drawing1 or the frame inclosing a picture2 to unpractised eyes the last accessory seems to put every part in its proper place1 clears the whole1 and gives it the unity that seemed to be wanting4 ,paul was satisfied with the exterior aspect4 ,the interior1 though simple1 according to ,m4 de ,gandelau's express instructions1 was in good taste2 there was nothing to be seen in the way of plaster ornament or gilding4 ,the entrance-hall was surrounded by a low oak wainscot1 forming part with the door-cases4 ,the wood of the latter and of the wainscot had preserved its natural colour1 and was simply dressed with linseed-oil and wax4 ,above the wainscot1 the walls1 painted stone-colour1 set off by a few red lines1 gave a neat and inviting aspect to the entrance4 ,the drawing-room was surrounded by a wainscot five feet high1 painted white2 the fireplace1 wide and lofty1 could warm a numerous circle4 ,the jambs of the fireplace were cased with wood1 and on the lofty mantelpiece1 in an oaken frame1 was prettily painted a bird's-eye view of ,m4 de ,gandelau's estate4 ,the ceiling1 with its two beams and joists1 painted in light tones1 set off by black and white lines1 seemed to enlarge the apartment1 and gave it a warm and habitable appearance1 presenting on hot days lights and shades of an amber tint4 ,the wall between the ceiling and the wainscot was hung with painted canvas4 ,the chimney-piece stood out in bold relief on this back-ground4 ,the entrance end of the drawing-room would have been rather sombre if the wide opening into the billiard-room had not flooded it with light1 softened by the verdure of the plants within the little conservatory4 ,but what gave the drawing-room a character which fascinated ,paul at once1 was the bay-window1 all brilliant with light1 and furnished with a chintz-covered divan4 ,the billiard-room1 also1 was surrounded by a wainscoting of unpainted oak1 and the same painted hangings4 ,a portire closing over the bay-window made it serve the purpose of a little boudoir1 whence there was a charming view on three sides4 ,the plants placed in the conservatory1 transmitted on the south side only a softened and tranquil light into the billiard-room4 ,the dining-room had been decorated almost in the same style as the billiard-room1 and two large oaken sideboards formed part with the wainscoting in the two recesses reserved for them4 ,paul was eager to run up stairs to see his sister's rooms4 ,hung entirely with ,indian chintz1 with a plain brown dado1 this apartment exhibited great simplicity4 ,the ceiling1 however1 treated like those of the ground-floor1 gave it an original and pleasing aspect4 ,paul wanted to see everything1 and at the end of an hour1 his cousin having made an appointment with some workmen to give them orders about details1 left him to wander at will in the house4 ,the sun was already low when they thought of returning to the chteau4 8,well1 my young cousin1 are you satisfied with your work8 ,have things been done during your absence as you intended they should be80 8,i wish it was really my work10 replied ,paul2 8and ,i regret that ,i could not follow it to the end1 for now ,i see all finished1 it seems to me as if there was scarcely anything done when ,i went away40 8,it is with buildings1 my dear fellow1 as with all other human productions4 ,you know the saying3 #8,finis coronat opus4' ,finishing is everything4 ,finishing may not require the greatest labour and knowledge1 but it does1 perhaps1 require the highest degree of persistency1 method1 and care1 as ,i think ,i have already told you4 ,you have been really useful to me during the building--,i may say so without flattery1 because you have thrown your energy and your whole mind into the endeavour to understand the instructions ,i have given1 and to see that they were duly executed4 ,but you would have had nothing to occupy you seriously while the work was being finished1 since most of the recent additions came from the work-shops ready made2 you have nothing to regret1 therefore2 you would have lost your time here1 whereas you have1 it seems1 employed it well at the ,lyceum40 8,i never saw any hangings like this painted canvas before2 they look very well2 one might fancy they were tapestry40 8,yes1 ,i cannot imagine why these kind of hangings1 which were formerly much used1 should have been abandoned2 for it is clear that everybody could not have ,flemish or ,gobelin tapestry1 any more than ,cordova leather4 ,those things were very costly2 whereas1 painted canvas hangings do not cost much more than wall papers and less than upholstery hangings1 chintz excepted4 ,but it would scarcely do to hang a drawing-room or a dining-room with chintz2 it does not look substantial enough1 though it may be well enough for a bedroom4 ,in the principal apartments hangings should have a velvety1 warm1 substantial effect40 8,and are these of painted canvas substantial80 8,in appearance1 certainly1 and in reality also2 in proof of which you may see at ,rheims some dating from the fifteenth century1 and which are perfectly well preserved40 8,and how are these hangings made80 8,canvas cloths are taken1 either cross-woven or twilled1 of coarse texture1 manufactured for the purpose1 rather like the cloths of which sacks are made4 ,these cloths are stretched on a floor with tacks2 then they size them1 that is to say1 give them a coating of leather size1 to which is added a little ,spanish white4 ,then when this coat is dry they proceed to paint them in distemper1 as for theatre decorations4 ,on this ground anything we choose can be painted--diapers1 such as we have adopted here1 and which do not cost much1 as we stencil them2 or ornaments1 landscapes1 flowers1 and even figures4 ,the cost of the material is trifling1 and the value of the hangings depends on the artist's work4 ,when dry1 the cloths are rolled up1 and can be sent anywhere at small expense2 then on the spot they are stretched again on very thin frames1 called tapestry stretchers4 ,there is1 therefore1 a space between the wall and the hanging1 which is necessary in the country where sized papers always spoil2 and this is so much the more convenient1 as if the rooms are not warmed in winter1 and if damp is feared1 the cloths can be taken down1 rolled up1 and put in a dry place1 to be replaced in the spring1 as we do with tapestry40 8,i thought when ,i opened the drawing-room door that it was tapestry40 8,the coarse texture of the cloth does in fact resemble the tapestry stitch1 and the painting in distemper has the flat tone of wool4 ,on the whole1 the hangings of our house scarcely cost more than the high-priced papers that are made now-a-days1 and they last longer1 to say nothing of our being sure not to see our own patterns on everybody's walls40 8,very true2 often on going into a drawing-room ,i have recognized a paper which ,i had seen elsewhere4 ,but tell me1 cousin1 you have had lightning-conductors put up1 have you not80 8,certainly2 it was prudent to do so4 ,i have had two constructed3 one at the top of the staircase1 and the other on the centre-point of the main-ridge40 8,would not one have been enough80 8,i think not2 because lightning-conductors only protect the points inclosed in a cone of which they are the summit3 at least1 this is the recognized theory4 ,for between ourselves1 physicists are not quite agreed respecting the effects of the electric fluid1 the relative efficiency of conductors1 and the precautions to be used in putting them up4 ,i rely on my own experience1 which has proved to me that no building1 however exposed1 has been struck by lightning when the lightning-rods were numerous1 made of good conductors1 put in communication with each other1 and with their lower extremity dipping in water1 or very damp earth4 ,you know that water is a conductor of electricity2 if the lightning-rod terminates in dry earth the electricity accumulates1 and produces return shocks1 which are very dangerous4 ,the same effect results if the conducting-wire is interrupted2 the lightning-rod then produces the effect of a ,leyden jar--it becomes charged1 and is more dangerous than useful4 ,sockets with glass insulators have also been recommended2 but ,i have never observed that lightning-conductors otherwise well arranged caused accidents for want of insulators4 ,i consider this precaution superfluous1 because the fluid seeks the most direct path4 ,the rod properly arranged is that path2 so it should not make rapid angular turns1 but as far as possible be conducted by the shortest way1 and that which is nearest the vertical1 into the damp soil40 ,at dinner nothing was talked about but the new house and ,madame ,marie's arrival4 ,there was a lively discussion about the way of making the surprise complete4 ,the ceremonial1 to which ,m4 de ,gandelau had given some thought1 was soon arranged4 ,the contractors and craftsmen of the neighbourhood who had worked at the house were invited1 and a dinner was to be provided for them in the garden4 ,the gentleman who had given ,paul lessons1 the mayor1 the cur of the parish1 and some neighbours and friends1 among others ,m4 ,durosay1 who had again made his appearance in the neighbourhood1 were asked to be present at the house-warming4 ,the workmen had not been forgotten--they were all to receive some gratuity4 ,there was to be a ball in the new park for all the country people1 with the customary refreshments2 and in the morning the poor of the parish were to receive gratuities in kind4 ,paul was very much afraid that his sister had some inkling of the intended surprise4 ,he said that if no mention was made of the house1 which had been talked so much of before the war1 in the letters written to ,madame ,marie1 the very silence might appear to her suspicious4 8,he is right10 said ,madame de ,gandelau4 8,if ,marie asks us what has become of the project and of the programme she sent1 if she asks us how we have been occupied during the past year1 we shall be obliged to prevaricate considerably4 ,we shall contradict each other1 and ,i really am rather averse to anything of the sort4 ,we shall not be able to keep up a mystification for two or three hours together4 ,besides1 ,lucie is sure to let out the secret40 8,oh1 no60 said ,lucie2 8,i shall say nothing1 you may be quite sure40 8,your eyes will speak for you1 my dear child4 ,but ,i will manage the matter4 ,leave me alone for a few moments with ,marie4 ,i will tell her that ,paul1 for the sake of some occupation during his over long holiday1 has been building a small house1 with his cousin's assistance4 ,i shall allow her to suppose it to be a mere schoolboy's fancy4 ,she will think it is only done for amusement--a little building model1 cleverly constructed4 ,we can then talk to her about it without embarrassment1 in a jocular way4 ,then after dinner we will propose to her to go and see ,paul's house40 ,and so matters were arranged4 ,paul slept but little during this night1 though he had started very early from ,paris1 and had been using--in fact1 over-using--his legs all day4 ,the #aith of ,may1 #ahgb1 at #i4dj1 ,monsieur and ,madame ,n---- were getting out of the train at ,x---- ,station1 where ,monsieur de ,gandelau was awaiting them with a new chaise4 ,twenty minutes after they were entering the court of the chteau4 ,we need not dwell upon the embraces1 the transport mingled with tears1 that occupied the first minutes of their return4 ,madame de ,gandelau had arranged their rooms with all possible care1 as if they were going to make a long stay at the chteau4 ,of course the mother thought her daughter improved2 ,madame ,marie considered ,paul grown--almost a man1 in fact1 and ,mademoiselle ,lucie almost a young woman4 ,thanks to ,madame de ,gandelau1 ,paul's house was referred to during breakfast only as a matter of no importance4 ,the adventures of travel and the war were talked of4 ,after nearly two years' absence subjects of conversation could not be wanting4 ,but ,paul was agitated and absent4 ,his sister remarked it4 ,paul blushed up to his very eyes4 8,i think ,paul has some scheme in his head10 said ,m4 ,n----4 ,monsieur and ,madame de ,gandelau looked at each other1 smiling4 8,what is in the wind1 then10 said ,madame ,marie2 8a conspiracy80 8,perhaps10 replied ,madame de ,gandelau2 8but let us allow him the pleasure of carrying it out40 8,conspire1 dearest mother6 ,i will help you with all my heart10 said ,madame de ,n----1 with a smile that expressed archness as well as affection4 ,they could say nothing for the moment of the projected excursion1 for they were on the point of betraying themselves4 ,madame de ,gandelau wished her daughter to take some rest after her journey4 ,m4 ,n---- asked leave to despatch some letters that required immediate attention1 and silence reigned again in the chteau4 ,the day was hot1 and nothing was heard but the buzzing of insects on the lawns4 ,paul1 however1 could not keep quiet4 8,you are not a diplomatist yet10 his cousin said to him4 8,do1 my dear fellow1 remain still4 ,there's nobody but you stirring in the house4 ,you will let out the secret if you go on in this way4 ,go to your room1 take a book--a dull one2 you will get to sleep1 and the time will pass away40 8,but what about all the people who have been invited and are waiting down at the house80 8,ah6--yes--true4 ,well1 mount your pony1 go to the house and tell all the guests to admire the wonders of the new domain and to have patience4 ,say that ,madame ,marie is a little fatigued1 and that she will not be able to have the pleasure of meeting them till the afternoon4 ,then return40 ,paul did not allow this to be repeated1 so impossible did rest seem to him4 ,he would have given at this moment ten years of his life to make his sister resolve to get into the carriage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,it is impossible to say what the pony thought of the pace ,paul made him go1 at a temperature of #gg ,fahr4 in the shade4 ,he arrived in a foam at the new house1 so that most of the persons already assembled suspected that some accident had happened4 ,when ,paul1 quite out of breath1 told them that ,madame ,marie had put off her visit for an hour or two because she wanted rest1 they exclaimed1 8,if it is only that1 there's no need of any great hurry2 it is quite natural she should need rest after so long a journey40 ,then everyone wanted to hear news of the travellers1 and then they asked ,paul to see this and that4 ,paul was in a fever4 8,you are not going to ride back again in this state10 said the mayor2 8you are in a bath of perspiration1 and your pony is white with foam4 ,rest a little1 and drink a glass of wine40 ,it would have been discourteous not to comply1 for the mayor had brought a basket of petit vin de ,saumur4 ,they drank the health of the future occupants1 and the prosperity of the house1 so that ,paul lost a good hour4 ,at last he was able to retrace his road to the chteau1 at the same rate as before4 ,but on reaching the edge of the plateau he saw the chaise at a distance1 going towards the house4 ,he made a detour1 so as to join the party from the rear1 and reached them just as the new domain was coming in sight4 8,look60 said his sister2 8there's a horseman in a great heat4 ,where does he come from8 ,is it he who is directing the whole plot80 8,certainly10 replied her mother4 8,look60 ,they were in fact just beginning to see the outlines of ,paul's house1 with its slated roof glistening in the rays of the sun4 ,there was silence1 and1 it must be confessed1 a little emotion4 8,i had my suspicions about it10 said ,madame ,marie1 kissing her mother and father4 8,and so during your painful experiences of last year you were thinking of us so much as to have realized that project of a house which ,i thought was only a fancy8 ,and ,paul60 8,paul10 replied ,m4 de ,gandelau1 8has had his share in the work1 and has contributed substantially to the success of the project4 ,if he ever becomes an architect you will have been the first cause of it40 8,and you1 dear friend10 said ,madame de ,gandelau to her son-in-law1 who was kissing her hand tenderly1 8you say nothing60 8,m4 de ,gandelau had written to me about it1 and ,i was in the secret4 ,marie can tell you whether ,i have kept it or not40 8,so we were betrayed1 my poor ,paul10 exclaimed his mother4 8,m4 de ,gandelau wished to know whether settling in this neighbourhood would not disconcert our plans for the future4 ,i replied to him that1 on the contrary1 it would further them2 and that the only cause which had hindered my building a house here after our marriage was the fear of distressing you1 and making you suppose that we did not attach to your maternal hospitality the value it most justly claims4 ,marie wishes to reside here a great part of the year2 she is known and beloved in this her native place2 nothing could be more agreeable to her than to follow your example--near to you1 almost under your eyes--without giving you the trouble which a permanent residence in your house would have occasioned4 ,i had no need to consult her1 for ,i knew that you were realizing a dream which she was secretly cherishing1 without hoping for its speedy realization40 8,all is then for the best10 resumed ,madame de ,gandelau1 looking at her husband1 for she was thinking of what she had said to him one evening1 two years before4 ,the family were received with vivats in front of the entrance steps4 ,previous to entering the building1 they went round it2 and when they came to the group of master-workmen and foremen1 ,paul introduced them to his sister1 saying that it was owing to their zeal1 and their desire to see her soon settled in the neighbourhood1 that the completion of the work in less than two years1 was owing4 ,paul's compliment 7which was neatly turned71 but more particularly the courteous bearing of his sister1 who asked each what he had done1 inquired about their families1 and expressed to them her wish to employ them often1 gained her the heart of these good people1 who for the most part had known her as a child4 ,madame ,marie wanted to see everything4 ,at each step exclamations of joy were uttered1 and ,paul was embraced twenty times by his 8client40 ,monsieur ,n---- had taken possession of ,eugne1 who1 we need scarcely say1 was warmly congratulated4 ,m4 ,durosay did not fail to express his admiration every moment1 and was incessantly repeating1 8,it is a charming feudal manor-house60 8,but1 why1 my dear sir10 said ,madame ,marie1 at last quite weary of the phrase1 8,why do you call it a #8manor-house1' and #8feudal'8 ,i have neither manor nor vassals1 and ,i have no wish to possess any4 ,call it a house1 built for me by those who love me1 and which will always be open to our friends1 and always accessible to those who may need our help40 ,we may be sure that ,paul's resolution to become an architect was strengthened by what he felt on this occasion4 ,let us hope that his career may be as successful as that of the house whose history is here recorded4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,technical ,,terms ,,used ,,in ,,this ,,book4 ,,barrel-,,vault 7berceau de vote71 means a vault forming simply a portion of a cylinder4 ,,basement 7soubassement71 part of a building which receives the ground floor2 that is to say1 what is comprised between the floor within and the ground without the building4 ,,bay-,,window 7bretche71 a closed and covered balcony or loge1 having front and lateral views1 forming a projection without and a recess within4 ,when supported on corbels it is termed an oriel4 ,,bearer 7lambourde71 piece of wood fixed horizontally against a wall1 and intended to receive the ends of the joists of a floor4 ,the term is also given to the strips of oak fastened on the plaster bed of a floor1 and on which are screwed the slabs of parquetry4 ,,bed 7banc71 the word bed1 as a geological term1 signifies a homogeneous layer comprised between two natural horizontal beds or fissures1 supposing that the mass has not been deformed by an upheaving4 ,limestones and some sandstones are extracted in beds4 ,their thickness is very variable4 ,,bed-,,stones 7libage71 stone suitable for foundations4 ,,bed ,,of ,,the ,,stone 7lit de la pierre71 is the upper1 or under surface of the layer4 ,bottom-bed is the term used to designate the under-surface of a stone4 ,calcareous stones should be laid on their bed just as they were in the quarry4 ,,blade1 ,,or ,,principal-,,rafter 7arbaltrier71 piece of timber inclined1 according to the slope of a roof1 which is joined at the upper end into the king-post1 at its lower end into the tie-beam1 and which supports the purlins 7see next page74 ,,bond 7harpe71 projection formed by a dressed-stone for the purpose of a tie into brick or stone-walling4 ,,broken-,,backed ,,roof 7bresis71 a roof so called is one composed of two planes of inclination1 one of which is little and the other considerably inclined4 ,the dormer windows are generally opened in the lower and more inclined plane4 ,,chimney-,,stack 7souche de chemine71 is the part of the smoke-shaft which surmounts the roofs1 and is sometimes terminated with pots of earthenware or of sheet metal4 ,,clip 7moise71 comparatively thin piece of timber1 serving to connect the parts of a framing by means of notches which hold them1 and of bolts4 ,clips are usually placed in couples4 ,,concrete 7bton71 a compound of lime1 sand1 and gravel rammed in horizontal layers1 and thus forming a compact and homogeneous mass1 which hardens more or less rapidly1 according to the nature of the lime2 and on which the heaviest superstructure may be raised without fear of cracks or settlements4 ,in the making of concrete great care and attention is always necessary1 and a thorough acquaintance with the nature of the lime made use of4 ,,corbel 7corbeau71 support of stone or wood projecting from the face of a wall1 having its front moulded or carved1 its sides vertical and carrying a beam1 cornice1 shaft1 vault-springer1 c4 ,,elevation 7lvation74 ,by this word is designated in architecture the geometrical view of a faade2 properly speaking the vertical projection4 ,,embankment 7cavalier71 heap of excavated earth1 regularly placed and raised above the surface of the ground4 ,,filleting 7solin71 weathering formed above a roof-covering and following its slope against the walls which surmount it1 to hinder the rain from penetrating between the covering and the wall4 ,,foot-,,piece 7blochet71 piece of wood notched at right-angles on to the wall-plates of a roof to receive the foot of the rafters1 and the foot-post1 which hinders the rafter from sliding4 ,,frame 7dormant71 fixed frame of wood1 which receives the leaves of a door or the opening casements of a window4 ,,gable 7pignon71 terminal part of a wall1 which masks the timbering of a roof and follows its slopes4 ,,hip 7artier71 exterior angle formed by the meeting of two roof-surfaces on different planes4 ,,jamb 7jambage71 vertical side of a window or doorway4 ,the term is only applied to sides of masonry4 ,,joint 7joint71 vertical space left between two stones4 ,it is called dry-joint1 when the stones are laid close-fitting1 without mortar or cement between them2 and mortar-joint1 when this interval is filled with mortar4 ,,jointing 7appareil71 combination of worked stones4 ,,joist 7solive71 piece of wood laid horizontally to form flooring and receive the plaster bed on which are laid the floor quarries or the slabs of parquetry4 ,wood joists cannot1 without bending1 have a bearing greater than #af or #ag feet4 ,their strength and distance apart are determined by their bearing and the weight they should sustain4 ,joist-spaces 7entrevous71 intervals left between the joists of a floor4 ,keeping account 7attachement74 ,by this is meant memoranda of the work done or materials used on a building by means of written notes or figures4 ,,king-,,post 7poinon71 vertical piece of wood1 which in a principal receives the two blades1 and suspends the middle of the tie-beam4 ,,lintel 7linteau71 piece of timber or block of stone which1 laid across horizontally on the jambs of a door or window-opening1 completes the enclosure4 ,,made-,,ground 7remblai74 ,this term signifies earth and dbris that have been shifted by man to raise a piece of ground or fill up its hollows4 ,,meeting-,,stile 7battement71 vertical stile of a door or of a casement on the fastening side4 ,,mortise 7mortaise71 oblong hole made in a piece of framing to receive a tenon4 ,the lengthways of a mortise should always follow the grain of the wood4 ,,newel 7noyau71 pillar or column around which wind the steps of the stairs4 ,,notching 7embrvement71 sinking made in a piece of wood to receive a mortise and tenon framing4 ,,pole 7chasse71 trunk of a tree1 long and small1 which1 fixed up perpendicularly1 is employed for scaffolding buildings as they rise4 ,,post 7poteau7 vertical piece of wood1 which on its head receives one or more cross pieces4 ,the term frame-post is applied to the uprights of a framed partition1 and especially those which serve as door-frames4 ,,principal 7ferme71 framing of carpentry intended to carry the covering of a roof4 ,,profile 7profil71 section of the member of a moulding of an architectural detail4 ,,pugging 7pltras71 filling-in of plaster work between the joists of a floor or the uprights of a lath-and-plaster partition4 ,,purlin 7panne71 roofing-timber placed horizontally on the blade of a principal and which carries the rafters4 ,,put-,,log 7boulin71 piece of wood which1 resting in the wall at one end1 and upon the scaffold runners at the other1 serves to carry the platform upon which the men work in raising a building4 ,,rafter 7chevron71 piece of timber of small scantling1 on which is nailed the boarding or laths which receives the slates or tiles4 ,in good roofing rafters are placed #bj inches apart1 centre and centre1 at most4 ,they rest at bottom upon wall-plates1 or upon foot-pieces1 in their length on the side-pieces or purlins1 at their upper extremity against the ridge-piece4 ,,rebate 7feuillure71 longitudinal sinking made in frames1 posts1 and lintels1 to receive doors and window-casements1 c4 ,,ridge-,,pole 7fatage71 horizontal piece of wood which1 resting on the top of the king-posts of the principals1 forms the apex of the roof and receives the rafters4 ,the ridge-poles are supported in their bearing1 from one king-post to another1 by struts4 ,,riser 7contre-marche71 the upright face of a step4 ,,scale ,,of ,,proportion 7chelle de proportion74 ,the text sufficiently explains the use of the scale in architectural drawing1 rendering it needless to enlarge on the usefulness of this practical method4 ,by scale is also understood the relative proportions of an edifice4 ,certain architectural members give the scale of the whole4 ,thus1 a balustrade ought not to exceed elbow height1 nor fall short of it2 it then gives the scale of the building1 that is to say1 it indicates the actual size of the whole1 by taking for point of comparison the human height4 ,,screw-,,bolts 7boulon71 round iron pin1 with a square head at one end1 and a screw thread at the other1 on which turns an iron nut1 serving to hold pieces of timber together4 ,,section 7coupe71 view of a building1 or an architectural detail cut through4 ,,sill 7tableau71 part of the casing of a door or window which comes outside the enclosure4 ,,staircase 7cage d'escalier71 is the casing of masonry or timber-work in which are enclosed the steps of the stairs4 ,,stile 7montant71 term in joinery applied to all upright pieces4 ,,strap 7trier71 band of iron forming a stirrup1 and passing beneath the tie-beam of a principal1 suspends it to the king-posts by means of bolts4 ,,straight-,,tread 7giron-droit71 signifies a step of equal width all its length2 winding-tread1 a step narrow towards the outer string1 and enlarging towards the wall of the staircase4 ,it is said1 the steps of the stairs have a narrow tread when the width is small1 and have a wide tread when their width is large4 ,,string-,,board 7crmaillre71 piece of wood on which rests the ends of the steps of the stairs1 and which is grooved to ramp with and receive the ends of the steps4 ,,strut 7lien71 slanting piece of wood connecting the blade to the king-post of a principal1 or a horizontal bearer to a post4 ,,tenon 7tenon71 tongue left at the end of a piece of framing1 and which fits into the end of the mortise4 ,,tie-,,beam 7entrait71 horizontal piece of timber1 which receives at its extremities the foot of the blades of a principal or truss1 and which is suspended in the middle by the king-post4 ,,tread 7giron71 is the width of a stair-step4 ,,tread 7pas71 is the level surface of a step on which the foot is placed4 ,,trimmer 7chevtre71 piece of wood which1 framed into two trimmer-joists1 receives the ends of the joists1 the space of the hearth-stone from the fireplace1 or across the openings of doors or windows4 ,,trimmer-,,joist 7solive d'enchevtrure71 stronger joist to receive the trimmers in front of a hearth-stone or across a chimney-breast4 ,,valley 7noue71 interior angle1 formed by the meeting of two planes of roof4 ,,wall 7mur74 ,a gutter-wall is that which carries a gutter and receives the eaves of a roof2 a gable-wall that which closes in the timber-work of a roof2 a partition-wall that which within a building divides the rooms--takes the bearing of the floors and the chimney-flues4 ,,wall-,,face 7parement71 outer or inner surfaces of a wall4 ,,wall-,,plate 7sablire71 horizontal piece of wood laid on the top of a wall lengthwise1 and on which rest the tie-beams of the principals and the feet of the rafters4 ,,water-,,bar 7jet d'eau71 projecting moulding affixed to the bottom rail of window-casements and to the wood-sills1 and contrived to throw off the rain from the rebate1 and from the junction of the wood-sill with the stone-sill4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #aj ,changed3 ,when his cousin was come to3 ,when his cousin had come pg #aj ,changed3 architectural tyro to unrol again the paper to3 architectural tyro to unroll again the paper pg #ci ,changed3 facts seem to rove that he to3 facts seem to prove that he pg #di ,changed3 successful result in this pacrticular case to3 successful result in this particular case pg #ej ,changed3 it is easy to distingush the good to3 it is easy to distinguish the good pg #gh ,changed3 by means of a plumb-lime to3 by means of a plumb-line pg #ahc ,changed3 ,well1 if you well let me have it for an hour to3 ,well1 if you will let me have it for an hour