,transcriber's ,notes3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics71 text enclosed by equal signs is in bold 7bold71 and encloses subscripted material4 ,the whole number part of a mixed fraction is separated from the fractional part with -1 for example1 #b-a_/b4 ,additional ,transcriber's ,notes are at the end4 ,how to ,become a ,scientist4 ,,giving ,interesting and ,instructive ,experiments ,,in ,,chemistry1 ,mechanics1 ,acoustics ,,and ,,pyrotechnics4 ,,also ,,containing ,,mathematical ,,problems and ,,puzzles ,,both ,,useful ,,and ,,amusing4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,frank ,,tousey1 ,publisher1 #bd ,,union ,,square4 99 99 99 99 99 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #aijj1 by ,,frank ,,tousey1 in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,how to ,become a ,scientist4 ,chemistry1 optics1 pneumatics1 mechanics1 and mathematics1 all contribute their share towards furnishing recreation and sport for the social gathering1 or the family fireside4 ,the magical combinations and effects of chemistry have furnished an almost infinite variety of pleasant experiments1 which may be performed by our youthful friends with great success if a little care be taken2 and the other branches of natural science are nearly as replete with interest4 ,the following repertoire of such tricks and illusions will be found exceedingly complete1 although pains have been taken to select only the best and most startling of them4 ,a large number are entirely new1 but are described with sufficient clearness to enable any person of ordinary intelligence to become expert in them1 with a little practice4 ,chemical ,amusements4 ,chemistry is one of the most attractive sciences4 ,from the beginning to the end the student is surprised and delighted with the developments of the exact discrimination1 as well as the power and capacity1 which are displayed in various forms of chemical action4 ,dissolve two substances in the same fluid1 and then1 by evaporation or otherwise1 cause them to reassume a solid form1 and each particle will unite with its own kind1 to the entire exclusion of all others4 ,thus1 if sulphate of copper and carbonate of soda are dissolved in boiling water1 and then the water is evaporated1 each salt will be reformed as before4 ,this phenomenon is the result of one of the first principles of the science1 and as such is passed over without thought2 but it is a wonderful phenomenon1 and made of no account1 only by the fact that it is so common and so familiar4 ,it is by the action of this same principle1 8chemical affinity10 that we produce the curious experiments with ,sympathetic ,inks4 ,by means of these1 we may carry on a correspondence which is beyond the discovery of all not in the secret4 ,with one class of these inks1 the writing becomes visible only when moistened with a particular solution4 ,thus1 if we write to you with a solution of the sulphate of iron1 the letters are invisible4 ,on the receipt of our letter1 you rub over the sheet a feather or sponge1 wet with a solution of nut-galls1 and the letters burst forth into sensible being at once1 and are permanent4 #b4 ,if we write with a solution of sugar of lead1 and you moisten with a sponge or pencil1 dipped in water impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen1 the letters will appear with metallic brilliancy4 #c4 ,if we write with a weak solution of sulphate of copper1 and you apply ammonia1 the letters assume a beautiful blue4 ,when the ammonia evaporates1 as it does on exposure to the sun1 the writing disappears1 but may be revived again as before4 #d4 ,if you write with the oil of vitriol very much diluted1 so as to prevent its destroying the paper1 the manuscript will be invisible except when held to the fire1 when the letters will appear black4 #e4 ,write with cobalt dissolved in diluted muriatic acid2 the letters will be invisible when cold1 but when warmed they will appear a bluish green4 ,we are almost sure that our secrets thus written will not be brought to the knowledge of a stranger1 because he does not know the solution which was used in writing1 and1 therefore1 does not know what to apply to bring out the letters4 ,to ,light a ,candle ,without ,touching the ,wick4 ,let the candle burn until it has a good long snuff2 then blow it out with a sudden puff1 a bright wreath of white smoke will curl up from the hot wick4 ,now1 if a flame be applied to this smoke1 even at a distance of two or three inches from the candle1 the flame will run down the smoke and rekindle the wick in a very fantastic manner4 ,to perform this experiment nicely1 there must be no draught or 8banging0 doors while the mystic spell is rising4 ,magic ,milk4 ,lime-water is quite transparent1 and clear as common spring water2 but if we breathe or blow into it1 the bright liquid becomes opalescent and as white as milk4 ,the best way to try this simple experiment is to put some powdered quicklime into a wine bottle full of cold water2 shake them well together1 now and then1 for a day2 then allow the bottle to remain quiet till the next day1 when the clear lime-water may be poured off from the sediment4 ,now fill a wine-glass or tumbler with the lime-water thus made1 and blow through the liquid with a glass tube1 a piece of new tobacco-pipe1 or a clean straw1 and in the course of a minute or so--as the magicians say--8the water will be turned into milk40 ,by means of this pastime 8,wise ,men0 can ascertain which young ladies are in love and which young gentlemen are not4 ,with a shrewd guess they present1 as a test1 a glass of lime-water to the one and of pure water to the other1 with unerring effect4 ,the ,mimic ,vesuvius4 ,this experiment is a demonstration of the heat and light which are evolved during chemical combination4 ,the substance phosphorus has a great affinity for oxygen gas1 and wherever it can get it from it will1 especially when aided by the application of heat4 ,to perform this experiment1 put half a drachm of solid phosphorus into a ,florence oil-flask1 holding the glass slantingly1 that the phosphorus may not take fire and break the glass2 pour upon it a gill and a half of water1 and place the whole over a tea-kettle lamp1 or any common lamp filled with spirits of wine2 light the wick1 which should be about half an inch from the flask2 and as soon as the water is boiling hot1 streams of fire1 resembling sky-rockets1 will burst at intervals from the water2 some particles will also adhere to the sides of the glass1 immediately displaying brilliant rays1 and thus continue until the water begins to simmer1 when a beautiful imitation of the aurora borealis will commence and gradually ascend until it collects into a pointed cone at the mouth of the flask2 after a half a minute1 blow out the flame of the lamp1 and the apex of fire that was formed at the mouth of the flask will rush down1 forming beautiful illumined clouds of fire1 rolling over each other for some time2 and when these disappear1 a splendid hemisphere of stars will present itself4 ,after waiting a minute or two1 light the lamp again1 and nearly the same phenomena will be displayed as at the beginning4 ,let a repetition of lighting and blowing out the lamp be made for three or four times1 so that the number of stars may be increased2 and after the third or fourth act of blowing out the lamp1 the internal surface of the flask will be dry4 ,many of the stars will shoot with great splendor from side to side1 while others will appear and burst at the mouth of the flask4 ,what liquid remains in the flask will serve for the same experiment three or four times1 without adding any water4 ,care should be taken1 after the operation is over1 to put the flask in a cool and secure place4 ,the ,real ,will-o'-the-,wisp4 ,into a small retort place about an ounce of strong liquor of potash2 that is1 pure potash dissolved in water1 together with about a drachm of phosphorus4 ,let the neck or beak of the retort dip into a saucer of water1 say half an inch deep2 now very gently heat the liquid in the retort with a spirit-lamp until it boils4 ,in a few minutes the retort will be filled with a white cloud2 then the gas generated will begin to bubble at the end of the saucer2 a minute more1 each bubble1 as it issues from the boiling fluid1 will spontaneously take fire as it comes into the air1 forming at the same time the philosopher's ring of phosphoric acid4 ,care is required in handling phosphorus2 but our young chemical readers will1 we think1 not forego this wonderful experiment for the want of due attention2 for1 without proper care on their part1 we must give up showing them wonders even greater than these4 ,the ,paper ,oracle4 ,some amusement may be obtained among young people by writing1 with common ink1 a variety of questions1 on different bits of paper1 and adding a pertinent reply to each1 written with nitro-muriate of gold4 ,the collection should be suffered to dry1 and put aside1 until an opportunity offers for using them4 ,when produced1 the answers will be invisible2 desire different persons to select such questions as they may fancy1 and take them home with them2 then promise1 if they are placed near the fire during the night1 answers will appear written beneath the questions in the morning2 and such will be the fact1 if the paper be put in any dry1 warm situation4 ,the ,mimic ,gas-,house4 ,this shows a simple way of making illuminating gas1 by means of a tobacco-pipe4 ,bituminous coal contains a number of chemical compounds1 nearly all of which can1 by distillation1 be converted into an illuminating gas2 as with this gas nearly all our cities are now lighted in the dark hours of night4 ,to make it1 obtain some coal-dust 7or walnut or butternut meats will answer71 and fill the bowl of a pipe with it2 then cement the top over with some clay2 place the bowl in the fire1 and soon smoke will be seen issuing from the end of the stem2 when that has ceased coming apply a light and it will burn brilliantly for several minutes2 after it has ceased1 take the pipe from the fire and let it cool1 then remove the clay1 and a piece of coke will be found inside3 this is the excess of carbon over the hydrogen contained in the coal1 for all the hydrogen will combine with carbon at a high temperature1 and make what are called hydrocarbons--a series of substances containing both these elemental forms of matter4 ,alum ,basket4 ,make a small basket1 about the size of the hand1 of iron wire or split willow2 then take some lamp-cotton1 untwist it1 and wind it around every portion of the basket4 ,then mix alum1 in the proportion of one pound with a quart of water1 and boil it until the alum is dissolved4 ,pour the solution into a deep pan1 and in the liquor suspend the basket1 so that no part of it touch the vessel or be exposed to the air4 ,let the whole remain perfectly at rest for twenty-four hours2 when1 if you take out the basket1 the alum will be found prettily crystallized over all the limbs of the cottoned frame4 ,in like manner1 a cinder1 a piece of coke1 the sprig of a plant1 or any other object1 suspended in the solution by a thread1 will become covered with beautiful crystals4 ,if powdered tumeric be added to the hot solution1 the crystals will be of a bright yellow2 if litmus be used instead1 they will be of a bright red2 logwood will yield them of a purple1 and common writing-ink1 of a black tint2 or1 if sulphate of copper be used instead of alum1 the crystals will be of fine blue4 ,but the colored alum crystals are much more brittle than those of pure alum1 and the colors fly2 the best way of preserving them is to place them under a glass shade1 with a saucer containing water4 ,this keeps the atmosphere constantly saturated with moisture1 the crystals never become too dry1 and their texture and color undergo but little change4 ,the ,magic ,bottle4 ,this trick1 if well managed1 is one of the most wonderful that can be performed in a drawing-room without apparatus2 but it requires dexterity at the conclusion4 ,the person performing the trick offers to pour from a common wine-bottle1 port-wine1 sherry1 milk1 and champagne1 in succession1 and in any order4 ,to accomplish the trick1 you must make solutions of the following chemicals1 and label the bottles with numbers1 thus3 ,no4 #a4 ,a mixture of two parts perchloride of iron1 and one part sulphuric acid 7vitriol74 ,no4 #b4 ,a strong solution of the sulphocyanate of potash4 ,no4 #c4 ,a strong solution of acetate of lead4 ,no4 #d4 ,a solution of bicarbonate of soda1 or potash4 ,no4 #e4 ,a clear solution of gum arabic4 ,procure a champagne-bottle1 and wash it out well2 then pour three teaspoonfuls of ,no4 #a into it4 ,as the quantity is very small1 it will not be observed1 especially if you are quick in your movements4 ,pour some distilled or rain water into a common water-bottle1 or jug1 and add a tablespoonful of ,no4 #e to it2 then set it aside1 ready for use4 ,provide some wine-glasses1 of four different patterns1 and into one pattern put one drop of solution ,no4 #b2 into another1 three drops of solution ,no4 #b2 rinse the third with solution ,no4 #c1 and the fourth with solution ,no4 #d4 ,arrange the glasses on a small tray1 remembering the solutions that were poured into each pattern4 ,everything being ready1 take the champagne bottle that you have prepared1 from two or three others1 and holding it up1 to show the company that it is clear and empty2 you must desire some person to hand you the water-bottle or jug1 and then fill up the bottle with the water4 ,pour some of the contents of the bottle into an unprepared glass1 in order to show that it is water2 then say3 8,change to champagne10 and pour the liquid from the bottle into one of the glasses rinsed with ,no4 #d2 then pour into the glass containing three drops of ,no4 #b1 and it will change to port wine2 but if poured into the glass rinsed with ,no4 #c1 it will change to milk2 and if into the glass with one drop of ,no4 #b1 it will produce sherry4 ,be careful in pouring the fluid from the bottle1 not to hold it high above the glasses1 but to keep the mouth of it close to the edges1 otherwise persons will observe that it undergoes change of color after it is poured into them2 and1 on this account1 the glasses should be held rather high4 ,as all the solutions used in the above trick are deleterious1 they should not be left about in the way of children1 and1 of course1 the fluid in the wine-glasses must not even be tasted2 but if any of the company wish to drink the wines you have made1 then the tray must be adroitly exchanged for another with the proper wines placed on it4 ,the ,faded ,rose ,restored4 ,take a rose that is quite faded1 and throw some sulphur on a chafing-dish of hot coals2 then hold the rose over the fumes of the sulphur1 and it will become quite white2 in this state dip it into water1 put it into a box1 or drawer1 for three or four hours1 and when taken out it will be quite red again4 ,the ,protean ,liquid4 ,a red liquor1 which1 when poured into different glasses1 will become yellow1 blue1 black1 and violet1 may be thus made3 ,infuse a few shavings of logwood in common water1 and when the liquor is red1 pour it into a bottle2 then take three drinking-glasses1 rinse one of them with strong vinegar1 throw into the second a small quantity of pounded alum1 which will not be observed if the glass has been newly washed1 and leave the third without any preparation4 ,if the red liquor in the bottle be poured into the first glass it will assume a straw color2 if into the second1 it will pass gradually from bluish-gray to black1 provided it be stirred with a bit of iron1 which has been privately immersed in good vinegar2 in the third glass the red liquor will assume a violet tint4 ,the ,changeable ,ribbon4 ,dip a rose-colored ribbon into nitric acid1 diluted with eight or ten parts of water1 and as soon as the color disappears1 which it will do in a short time1 take out the ribbon and put it into a very weak alkaline solution1 when the alkali will quickly neutralize the acid1 and the color will reappear4 ,the ,chemical ,chameleon4 ,put a drachm of powdered nitrate of cobalt into a vial1 containing an ounce of the solution of caustic potash1 when the decomposition of the salt1 and precipitation of a blue oxide of cobalt will take place4 ,cork the vial1 and the liquid will assume a blue color1 from which it will pass to a lilac1 afterward to a peach tint1 and finally to a light red4 ,musical ,flame4 ,fit a good cork into a wine-bottle2 burn a hole through the cork with a round iron skewer1 and into it fix a piece of tobacco pipe about eight inches long4 ,put into the bottle about two or three ounces of zinc1 in slips1 such as the waste cuttings from a zinc-worker2 now pour water on to the zinc until the bottle is more than half full2 then add about three parts of a wine-glassful of sulphuric acid 7oil of vitriol72 this causes a rapid effervescence at first1 but which subsides to a moderate and continuous boiling for a lengthened period2 as soon as the boiling is regular1 the cork with the pipe through it may be inserted into the bottle4 ,if a light be placed to the end of the pipe1 a flame will be produced1 which will continue to burn so long as there is any visible action in the bottle4 ,this flame is the ignited hydrogen gas 7water gas71 resulting from the decomposition of water by the acid and zinc1 and as such is an exceedingly interesting experiment4 ,now1 to be musical1 procure a glass or metal pipe1 about sixteen or eighteen inches long1 and from half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter2 place the tube over the flame1 and allow the pipe to be about three to five inches up the tube1 which will act as a kind of high chimney2 it must be held perfectly steady and upright1 at a particular distance up the tube1 which varies according to the size of the flame4 ,a beautiful sound is thus produced1 similar to an organ-pipe4 ,this sound1 or 8musical flame10 varies in note according to the diameter of the tube1 being deeper or more bass as the tube is increased in size4 ,by using various-sized tubes1 different sounds are thus readily produced4 ,the true explanation of this singular experiment remains yet to be solved4 ,optical ,amusements4 ,the science of optics affords an infinite variety of amusements1 which cannot fail to instruct the mind1 as well as delight the eye4 ,by the aid of optical instruments we are enabled to lessen the distance to our visual organs between the globe we inhabit and 8the wonders of the heavens above us20 to watch 8the stars in their courses10 and survey at leisure the magnificence of 8comets importing change of times and states20 to observe the exquisite finish and propriety of construction which are to be found in the most minute productions of the earth2--to trace the path of the planet1 in its course around the magnificent orb of day1 and to detect the pulsation of the blood1 as it flows through the veins of an insect4 ,these are but a few of the powers which this science offers to man2 to enumerate them all would require a space equal to the body of our work2 neither do we propose to notice the various instruments and experiments which are devoted to purposes merely scientific2 it being our desire only to call the attention of our juvenile readers to such things as combine a vast deal of amusement with much instruction1 to inform them as to the construction of the various popular instruments2 to show the manner of using them1 and to explain some of the most attractive experiments which the science affords4 ,by doing thus much1 we hope to offer a sufficient inducement to extend inquiry much further than the information which a work of this nature will enable us to afford4 ,the ,camera ,obscura4 ,this is a very pleasing and instructive optical apparatus1 and may be purchased for a small sum4 ,but it may be easily made by the young optician4 ,procure an oblong box1 about two feet long1 twelve inches wide1 and eight high4 ,in one end of this a tube must be fitted containing a lens1 and be made to slide backward and forward1 so as to suit the focus4 ,within the box should be a plain mirror1 reclining backward from the tube at an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,at the top of the box is a square of unpolished glass1 upon which1 from beneath1 the picture will be thrown1 and may be seen by raising the lid4 ,to use the camera1 place the tube with the lens on it opposite to the object1 and having adjusted the focus1 the image will be thrown upon the ground glass1 as above stated1 where it may be easily copied by a pencil or in colors4 ,the ,magic ,lantern4 ,the object of this ingenious instrument is to represent1 in a dark room1 on a white wall or cloth1 a succession of enlarged figures of remarkable1 natural1 or grotesque objects4 ,it consists of a tin box1 with a funnel on the top1 and a door on one side of it4 ,this funnel1 by being bent1 serves the double purpose of letting out the smoke and keeping in the light4 ,in the middle of the bottom of the box is placed a movable lamp1 which must have two or three good lights1 at the height of the center of the polished tin reflector4 ,in the front of the box1 opposite the reflector1 is fixed a tin tube1 in which there slides another tube4 ,the sliding tube has1 at its outer extremity1 a convex lens fixed in it1 of three inches in diameter4 ,the focus of the smaller of these lenses may be about five inches4 ,between the stationary tube and the lamp1 there must be a split or opening to admit of the passage of glass sliders1 mounted in paper or wooden frames1 upon which sliders it is that the miniature figures are painted1 which are intended to be shown upon the wall4 ,the distinctness of the enlarged figures depends not only upon the goodness of the magnifying glass1 but upon the clearness of the light yielded by the lamp4 ,it may be purchased ready made of any optician4 ,to ,paint the ,glasses4--,the slides containing the objects usually shown in a magic lantern are to be bought of opticians with the lantern1 and can be procured cheaper and better in this way than by any attempt at manufacturing them4 ,should1 however1 the young optician wish to make a few slides1 of objects of particular interest to himself1 he may proceed as follows3 ,draw on a paper the subject you desire to paint4 ,lay it on a table or any flat surface1 and place the glass over it2 then draw the outlines with a very fine pencil1 in varnish mixed with black paint1 and1 when dry1 fill up the other parts in their proper colors4 ,transparent colors must be used for this purpose1 such as carmine1 lake1 ,prussian blue1 verdigris1 sulphate of iron1 tincture of ,brazil wood1 gamboge1 etc42 and these must be tempered with a strong white varnish1 to prevent their peeling off4 ,then shade them with black1 or with bistre1 mixed with the same varnish4 ,to ,exhibit the ,magic ,lantern4--,the room for the exhibition ought to be large1 and of an oblong shape4 ,at one end of it suspend a large sheet1 so as to cover the whole of the wall4 ,the company being all seated1 darken the room1 and placing the lantern with its tube in the direction of the sheet1 introduce one of the slides into the slit1 taking care to invert the figures2 then adjust the focus of the glasses in the tube1 by drawing it in or out1 as required1 and a perfect representation of the object will appear4 ,effects of the ,magic ,lantern4--,most extraordinary effects may be produced by means of the magic lantern2 one of the most effective of which is a tempest at sea4 ,this is effected by having two slides painted1 one with the tempest as approaching on one side1 and continuing in intensity till it reaches the other4 ,another slide has ships painted on it1 and while the lantern is in use1 that containing the ships is dexterously drawn before the other1 and represents ships in the storm4 ,the effects of sunrise1 moonlight1 starlight1 etc41 may be imitated also1 by means of double sliders2 and figures may be introduced sometimes of fearful proportions4 ,heads may be made to nod1 faces to laugh2 eyes may be made to roll1 teeth to gnash2 crocodiles may be made to swallow tigers2 combats may be represented2 but one of the most instructive uses of the slides is to make them illustrative of astronomy1 and to show the ratio of the seasons1 the cause of the eclipses1 the mountains in the moon1 spots on the sun1 and the various motions of the planetary bodies and their satellites4 ,the ,phantasmagoria4 ,between the phantasmagoria and the magic lantern there is this difference3 in common magic lanterns the figures are painted on transparent glass2 consequently the image on the screen is a circle of light1 having figures upon it2 but in the phantasmagoria all the glass is opaque1 except the figures1 which1 being painted in transparent colors1 the light shines through them1 and no light can come upon the screen except that which passes through the figure4 ,there is no sheet to receive the picture1 but the representation is thrown on a thin screen of silk or muslin1 placed between the spectators and the lantern4 ,the images are made to appear approaching and receding1 by removing the lantern further from the screen1 or bringing it nearer to it4 ,this is a great advantage over the arrangements of the magic lantern1 and by it the most astonishing effects are often produced4 ,dissolving ,views4 ,the dissolving views1 by which one landscape or scene appears to pass into the other while the scene is changing1 are produced by using two magic lanterns1 placed side by side1 and that can be inclined towards each other when necessary1 so as to mix the rays of light1 proceeding from the lenses of each1 together1 which produces that confusion of images1 in which one view melts1 as it were1 into the other1 which gradually becomes clear and distinct4 ,how to ,raise a ,ghost4 ,the magic lantern or phantasmagoria may be used in a number of marvelous ways1 but in none more striking than in raising an apparent specter4 ,let an open box1 about three feet long1 a foot and a half broad1 and two feet high1 be prepared4 ,at one end of this place a small swing dressing-glass1 and at the other let a magic lantern be fixed1 with the lenses in a direction towards the glass4 ,a glass should now be made to slide up and down in the groove to which a cord and pulley should be attached1 the end of the cord coming to the lower part of the left hand side4 ,on this glass the most hideous specter that can be imagined may be painted1 but in a squat or contracted position1 and when all is done1 the lid of the box must be prepared by raising a kind of gable at the end of the box1 and in its lower part an oval hole should be cut sufficiently large to suffer the rays reflected from the glass to pass through them4 ,on the top or the box place a chafing-dish1 upon which put some burning charcoal4 ,now light the lamp in the lantern1 sprinkle some powdered camphor or white incense on the charcoal1 adjust the slide on which the specter is painted1 and the image will be thrown upon the smoke4 ,in performing the feat the room must be darkened1 and the box should be placed on a high table1 that the hole through which the light comes may not be noticed4 ,to ,imitate a ,mirage4 ,provide a glass tumbler two-thirds full of water1 and pour spirits of wine upon it2 or pour into a tumbler some syrup1 and fill it up with water2 when mixed1 the object seen through it will be inverted4 ,two-fold ,reflections4 ,provide a circular piece of glass1 and with a common awl1 moistened with spirits of turpentine1 pierce the center of the glass2 hold it encircled with the fingers and thumb in the sunshine1 or the strong light of a lamp1 when these striking effects will be produced3 ,if the glass be red1 the hole pierced in the middle will be reflected green2 if the glass be green1 the spot will be red2 if blue1 orange2 and if yellow1 indigo4 ,the ,thaumatrope4 ,cut out a piece of card-board of circular form1 and affix to it six pieces of string1 three on each side4 ,paint on one side of the card a bird1 and on the other a cage1 taking care to paint the bird upside down1 or the desired effect will not be produced4 ,when showing the toy1 take hold of the center strings1 between the forefinger and thumb1 and twirl the card rapidly around1 and the bird will appear snugly ensconced in its cage4 ,the principle on which this effect is produced is1 that the image of any object received on the retina or optic nerve is retained on the mind about eight seconds after the object causing the impression is withdrawn1 being the memory of the object2 consequently1 the impression of the painting on one side of the card is not obliterated ere the painting on the other side is brought before the eye4 ,it is easy to understand from this fact how both are seen at once4 ,many objects will suit the thaumatrope1 such as a juggler throwing up two balls on one side1 and two balls on the other2 and according to the pairs of strings employed1 he will appear to throw up two1 three1 or four balls2 the body and legs of a man on one side1 and the arms and head on another2 a horse and his rider2 a mouse and trap4 ,but we leave it to the ingenuity of our readers to devise for themselves4 ,,pneumatic ,,amusements4 ,the branch of the physical sciences which relates to the air and its various phenomena is called ,pneumatics4 ,by it we learn many curious particulars4 ,by it we find that the air has weight and pressure1 color1 density1 elasticity1 compressibility1 and some other properties with which we shall endeavor to make the young reader acquainted1 by many pleasing experiments1 earnestly impressing upon him to lose no opportunity of making physical science his study4 ,to show that the air has weight and pressure1 the common leather sucker by which boys raise stones will show the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,it consists of a piece of soft but firm leather1 having a piece of string drawn through its center4 ,the leather is made quite wet and pliable1 and then its under part is placed upon the stone and stamped down by the foot4 ,this pressing of the leather excludes the air from between the leather and the stone1 and by pulling the string a vacuum is left underneath its center2 consequently the weight of the air about the edges of the leather not being counterbalanced by any air between it and the stone1 enables the boy to lift it4 ,the ,magic ,tumbler4 ,the air which for about forty miles surrounds our earth has a definite weight2 and although we can neither see nor feel it1 we are conscious of its presence by the momentary operation of breathing4 ,the weight of a column of air one inch square1 and forty miles high1 is about fifteen pounds4 ,the reason why we are not crushed down by this enormous weight is because we are surrounded on all sides by it1 and as the pressure of weight is equal all around1 it becomes1 as far as we are personally concerned1 insensible4 ,that the air does exert a definite pressure1 in consequence of its weight1 may be easily proved by any one with the above simple apparatus--only a tumbler and a sheet of paper4 ,fill a tumbler quite full of water1 and carefully draw over its top a sheet of clean letter paper1 and be careful to see that there are no bubbles of air in the water2 place your hand over the paper while inverting it1 and when the glass is mouth downward the water will be kept in1 until the paper becomes wet through4 ,the air pressing against the mouth of the tumbler is of greater weight than the contained water1 and so1 until some air can get in to supply the place of the water1 it cannot fall out4 ,the ,weight of the ,air ,proved by a ,pair of ,bellows4 ,shut the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows1 and after having squeezed the air out of them1 if they are perfectly air-tight1 we shall find that a very great force1 even some hundreds of pounds1 is necessary for separating the boards4 ,they are kept together by the weight of the heavy air which surrounds them1 in the same manner as if they were surrounded by water4 ,the ,revolving ,serpent4 ,this illustration represents an amusing and instructive experiment1 which proves the ascension of heated air by rendering its effects visible1 and it may also be used to test the direction of the currents in our rooms and dwellings4 ,to construct one1 a piece of card-board is taken and cut in the form of a spiral1 and to give effect it may be painted to represent a serpent4 ,then prepare a stand1 having a needle in its upper end1 and suspend the serpent from its center on the needle4 ,if this be now placed over a stove1 or the tail of the serpent suspended by a bit of thread over a lamp1 the heated air ascending through it will cause it to revolve in a very amusing manner4 ,two serpents may be made to turn in opposite directions1 by pulling out one from the one side1 and the other in the reverse direction1 so that their heads may point toward each other when suspended4 ,to ,put a ,lighted ,candle ,under ,water4 ,procure a good-sized cork1 or bung2 upon this place a small1 lighted taper2 then set it afloat in a pail of water4 ,now1 with a steady hand1 invert a large drinking glass over the light1 and push it carefully down into the water4 ,the glass being full of air1 prevents the water from entering it4 ,you may thus see the candle burn under water1 and bring it up again to the surface1 still alight4 ,this experiment1 simple as it is1 serves to elucidate that useful contrivance called the diving-bell1 being performed on the same principle4 ,the largest drinking-glass holds but half a pint1 so that your diving light soon goes out for the want of air4 ,as an average1 a burning candle consumes as much air as a man1 and he requires nearly a gallon of air every minute1 so that1 according to the size of the glass over the flame1 you can calculate how many seconds it will remain alight2 of course1 a large flame requires more air than a small one4 ,for this1 and several other experiments1 a quart bell-glass is very useful1 but being expensive it is not found in every parlor laboratory3 one is1 however1 easily made from a green glass pickle-bottle2 get a glazier to cut off the bottom1 and you have a bell-glass that ,chilton would not reject4 ,to ,place ,water in a ,drinking-,glass ,upside ,down4 ,procure a plate1 a tumbler1 and a small piece of tissue or silver paper4 ,set the plate on a table1 and pour water in it up to the first rim4 ,now slightly crumple up the paper1 and place it in the glass2 then set it on fire4 ,when it is burnt out1 or rather just as the last flame disappears1 turn the glass quickly upside down into the water4 ,astonishing6 the water rushes with great violence into the glass6 ,now you are satisfied that water can be placed in a drinking-glass upside down4 ,hold the glass firm1 and the plate also4 ,you can now reverse the position of the plate and glass1 and thus convince the most skeptical of the truth of your pneumatic experiment4 ,instead of burning paper1 a little brandy or spirits of wine can be ignited in the glass2 the result of its combustion being invisible1 the experiment is cleaner4 ,,amusements ,,in ,,mechanics4 ,there is no subject so important as mechanics1 as its principles are founded upon the properties of matter and the laws of motion2 and1 knowing something of these1 the tyro will lay the foundation of all substantial knowledge4 ,the properties of matter are the following3 ,solidity 7or impenetrability71 divisibility1 mobility1 elasticity1 brittleness1 malleability1 ductility and tenacity4 ,the laws of motion are as follows3 #a4 ,every body continues in a state of rest1 or uniform rectilineal motion1 unless affected by some extraneous force4 #b4 ,the change of motion is always proportionate to the impelling force4 #c4 ,action and reaction are always equal and contrary4 ,experiment of the ,law of ,motion4 ,in shooting at 8taw10 if the marble be struck 8plump10 as it is called1 it moves forward exactly in the same line of direction2 but if struck sideways1 it will move in an oblique direction1 and its course will be in a line situated between the direction of its former motion and that of the force impressed4 ,it is called the resolution of forces4 ,balancing4 ,the center of gravity in a body is that part about which all the other parts equally balance each other4 ,in balancing a stick upon the finger1 or upon the chin1 it is necessary only to keep the chin or finger exactly under the point which is called the center of gravity4 ,the ,balanced ,coin4 ,it seems to be an astounding statement that a quarter1 or other piece of money1 can be made to spin on the point of a needle4 ,to perform this experiment1 procure a bottle1 cork it1 and in the cork place a needle4 ,now take another cork and cut a slit in it1 so that the edge of the coin will fit into the slit2 next place two forks in the cork1 and placing the edge of the coin on the needle1 it will spin around without falling off4 ,the reason is this3 that the weight of the forks projecting as they do so much below the coin1 brings the center of gravity of the arrangement much below the point of suspension1 or the point of the needle1 and therefore the coin remains perfectly safe and upright4 ,the ,spanish ,dancer4 ,the laws which govern the motion of bodies are capable of many pleasing illustrations1 and the example which we now give of causing rotary motion is very interesting and easily performed4 ,take a piece of card1 and cut out a little figure1 and paste or gum it in an erect position on the inside of a watch-glass4 ,then procure a black japanned waiter1 or a clean plate will do1 and1 holding it in an inclined position1 place the figure and watch-glass on it1 and they will1 of course1 slide down4 ,next let fall a drop of water on the waiter1 place the watch-glass on it1 and again incline the waiter1 and instead of the watch-glass sliding down1 it will begin to revolve4 ,it will continue to revolve with increasing velocity1 obeying the inclination and position of the plane1 as directed by the hand of the experimentalist4 ,the reason of this is1 in the first place1 in consequence of the cohesion of the water to the two surfaces1 a new force is introduced1 by which an unequal degree of resistance is imparted to different parts of the watch-glass in contact with the waiter1 and1 consequently1 in its effort to slide down1 it revolves4 ,again1 if the drop of water be observed1 it will be seen that it undergoes a change of figure2 a film of water1 by capillary action1 is drawn to the foremost portion of the glass1 while1 by the centrifugal force1 a body of water is thrown under the under part of it4 ,the effect of both these actions is to accelerate the motion1 or1 in other words1 to gradually increase the speed4 ,the ,mechanical ,bucephalus4 ,the illustration of the horse furnishes a very good solution of a popular paradox in mechanics3 ,given1 a body having a tendency to fall by its own weight2 required1 how to prevent it from falling by adding to it a weight on the same side on which it tends to fall4 ,take a horse in an erect position1 the center of gravity of which is somewhere about the middle of its body4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that were it placed on its hinder legs1 on a table1 the line of its direction1 or center1 would fall considerably beyond its base1 and the horse would fall on the ground2 but to prevent this1 there is a stiff wire attached to a weight or bullet1 connected with the body of the horse1 and by this means a horse prances on a table without falling off2 so that the figure that was incapable of supporting itself1 is actually prevented from falling by adding a weight to its unsupported end4 ,this seems almost impossible1 but when we consider that in order to have the desired effect1 the wire must be bent1 and the weight be further under the table than the horse's feet are on it1 the mystery is solved1 as it brings the total weight of bullet and horse in such a position that the tendency is rather to make it stand up than to let it fall down4 ,the ,revolving ,image4 ,this little figure may be made to balance itself amusingly4 ,get a piece of wood1 about two inches long2 cut one end of it into the form of a man's head and shoulders1 and let the other end taper off to a fine point4 ,next furnish the little gentleman with a pair of wafters1 shaped like oars1 instead of arms1 but they must be more than double the length of his body2 stick them in his shoulders1 and he is complete4 ,when you place him on the tip of your finger1 if you have taken care to make the point exactly in the center1 he will stand upright4 ,by blowing on the waiters he may be made to turn around very quickly4 ,it is explained by the reasons that were given in the experiment of the 8balanced coin40 ,the ,bridge of ,knives4 ,place three glasses in the form of a triangle1 and arrange the handles of three knives upon them4 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 the blade of ,no4 #a over that of ,no4 #b1 and that over ,no4 #c1 which rests on ,no4 #a4 ,the bridge so made will be self-supported4 ,the ,parlor ,boomerang4 ,the boomerang is a weapon used by the savages of ,australia4 ,by them it is made of a flat piece of hard wood4 ,the peculiarity of this instrument is1 that in whatever direction it is thrown1 it will return to the place from whence it started1 in a curve4 ,the ,australian aborigines use it with great dexterity1 making it travel around a house and return to their feet1 or they can throw it on the ground so that it will fly into the air1 form a perfect arc over their heads1 and strike them on the back4 ,this curious instrument can be made in miniature1 and is a very amusing toy for the parlor4 ,get a piece of tolerably stiff cardboard1 and cut from it a figure resembling a boomerang4 ,the next thing is to propel it through the air so that it will return to your feet2 to do this1 lay the boomerang on a flat book1 allowing one end to project about an inch2 then1 holding the book to a slight angle1 strike the projecting end of the boomerang with a piece of stick1 or heavy pen-holder1 when it will fly across the room and return to your feet4 ,the ,balanced ,turk4 ,a decanter or bottle is first obtained1 and in its cork is placed a needle2 on this is balanced a ball of wood1 having a cork or wooden figure cut out1 standing on the top4 ,from the ball project two wires1 bent semicircularly1 having at their extremities two bullets4 ,push the bullets1 and the whole will turn around on the needle1 the figure standing upright all the while2 and1 twist it about from side to side as much as you like1 it will always regain its erect position4 ,the two bullets in this case cause the center of gravity to fall below the ball on which the figure is placed1 and1 in consequence1 as the center of gravity always assumes the lowest position1 it cannot do so without making the figure stand erect1 or1 in other words1 until the bullets themselves are equally balanced4 ,any boy may whittle one of these toys out with a jack-knife4 ,the ,complacent ,vizier4 ,among the novelties which scientific investigation has added to our toys1 are several figures which will raise themselves upright when thrown down1 and regain the erect position1 notwithstanding their equilibrium is disturbed4 ,the figures themselves are made of the pith of elder trees1 or any other very light substance4 ,each is placed on half a bullet1 or may be made to stand on its head1 by making its cap of lead4 ,their appearance is very droll when they are moved about1 as they seem every moment to be falling over1 and yet continually right themselves4 ,the philosophy of this is1 that the center of gravity being in the base1 and always trying to assume the lowest position1 it keeps the figures upright4 ,however much the equilibrium is disturbed1 it will always try to regain its original position4 ,,arithmetical ,,amusements4 ,as the principal object of these articles is to enable the young reader to learn something in his sports1 and to understand what he is doing1 we shall1 before proceeding to the curious tricks and feats connected with the science of numbers1 present him with some arithmetical aphorisms1 upon which most of the following examples are founded3 ,aphorisms of ,number4 #a4 ,if two even numbers be added together1 or subtracted from each other1 their sum or difference will be an even number4 #b4 ,if two uneven numbers be added or subtracted1 their sum or difference will be an even number4 #c4 ,the sum or difference of an even and an uneven number added or subtracted will be an uneven number4 #d4 ,the product of two even numbers will be an even number1 and the product of two uneven numbers will be an uneven number4 #e4 ,the product of an even and uneven number will be an even number4 #f4 ,if two different numbers be divisible by any one number1 their sum and their difference will also be divisible by that number4 #g4 ,if several different numbers1 divisible by #c1 be added or multiplied together1 their sum and their product will also be divisible by #c4 #h4 ,if two numbers divisible by #i1 be added together1 their sum of the figures in the amount will be either #i or a number divisible by #i4 #i4 ,if any number be multiplied by #i1 or by any other number divisible by #i1 the amount of the figures of the product will be either #i or a number divisible by #i4 #aj4 ,in every arithmetical progression1 if the first and last term be each multiplied by the number of terms1 and the sum of the two products be divided by #b1 the quotient will be the sum of the series4 #aa4 ,in every geometric progression1 if any two terms be multiplied together1 their product will be equal to that term which answers to the sum of these two indices4 ,thus1 in the series3 #a #b #c #d #e #b #d #h #af #cb ,if the third and fourth terms1 #h and #af1 be multiplied together1 the product1 #abh1 will be the seventh term of the series4 ,in like manner1 if the fifth term be multiplied into itself1 the product will be the tenth term2 and if that sum be multiplied into itself1 the product will be the twentieth term4 ,therefore1 to find the last1 or twentieth term of a geometric series1 it is not necessary to continue the series beyond a few of the first terms4 ,previous to the numerical recreations1 we shall here describe certain mechanical methods of performing arithmetical calculations1 such as are not only in themselves entertaining1 but will be found more or less useful to the young reader4 ,to ,find a ,number ,thought of4 ,,first ,,method4 ,,example4 ,let a person think of a number1 say #f #a4 ,let him multiply by #c #ah #b4 ,add #a #ai #c4 ,multiply by #c #eg #d4 ,add to this the number thought of #fc ,let him inform you what is the number produced2 it will always end with #c4 ,strike off the #c1 and inform him that he thought of #f4 ,,second ,,method4 ,,example4 ,suppose the number thought of to be #f #a4 ,let him double it #ab #b4 ,add #d #af #c4 ,multiply by #e #hj #d4 ,add #ab #ib #e4 ,multiply by #aj #ibj ,let him inform you what is the number produced4 ,you must then1 in every case1 subtract #cbj2 the remainder is1 in this example1 #fjj2 strike off the #b ciphers1 and announce #f as the number thought of4 ,,third ,,method4 ,desire a person to think of a number--say #f4 ,he must then proceed3 ,,example4 #a4 ,to multiply this number by itself #cf #b4 ,to take #a from the number thought of #e #c4 ,to multiply this by itself #be #d4 ,to tell you the difference between this product and the former #aa ,you must then add #a to it #ab ,and halve this number #f ,which will be the number thought of4 ,,fourth ,,method4 ,desire a person to think of a number--say #f4 ,he must then proceed as follows3 ,,example4 #a4 ,add #a to it #g #b4 ,multiply by #c #ba #c4 ,add #a again #bb #d4 ,add the number thought of #bh ,let him tell you the figures produced #bh #e4 ,you then subtract #d from it #bd #f4 ,and divide by #d #f ,which you can say is the number he thought of4 ,,fifth ,,method4 ,,example4 ,suppose the number thought of be #f #a4 ,let him double it #ab #b4 ,desire him to add to this a number you tell him--say #d #af #c4 ,to halve it #h ,you can then tell him that if he will subtract from this the number he thought of1 the remainder will be1 in the case supposed1 #b4 ,,note4--,the remainder is always half the number you tell him to add4 ,to ,discover ,two or ,more ,numbers that a ,person has ,thought of4 ,,first ,,case4 ,where each of the numbers is less than #aj4 ,suppose the numbers thought of were #b1 #c1 #e4 ,,example4 #a4 ,desire him to double the first number1 making #d #b4 ,to add one to it #e #c4 ,to multiply by #e #be #d4 ,to add the second number #bh ,there being a third number1 repeat the process4 #e4 ,to double it #ef #f4 ,to add #a to it #eg #g4 ,to multiply by #e #bhe #h4 ,to add the third number #bij ,and to proceed in the same manner for as many numbers as were thought of4 ,let him tell you the last sum produced 7in this case1 #bij74 ,then1 if there were two numbers thought of1 you must subtract #e2 if three1 #ee2 if four1 #eee4 ,you must here subtract #ee2 leaving a remainder of #bce1 which are the numbers thought of1 #b1 #c1 and #e4 ,,second ,,case4 ,where one or more of the numbers are #aj1 or more than #aj1 and where there is an odd number of numbers thought of4 ,suppose he fixes upon five numbers1 viz41 #d1 #f1 #i1 #ae1 #af4 ,he must add together the numbers as follows1 and tell you the various sums3 #a4 ,the sum of the #ast and #b;d #aj #b4 ,the sum of the #b;d and #c;d #ae #c4 ,the sum of the #c;d and #dth #bd #d4 ,the sum of the #dth and #eth #ca #e4 ,the sum of the #ast and last #bj ,you must then add together the #ast1 #c;d1 and #eth sums1 viz41 #aj #bd #bj #ed1 and the #b;d and #dth1 #ae #ca #df2 take one from the other1 leaving #h4 ,the half of this is the first number1 #d2 if you take this from the sum of the #ast and #b;d you will have the #b;d number1 #f2 this taken from the sum of the #b;d and #c;d will give you the #c;d1 #i2 and so on for the other numbers4 ,,third ,,case4 ,where one or more of the numbers are #aj1 or more than #aj1 and where an even number of numbers has been thought of4 ,suppose he fixes on six numbers1 viz3 #b1 #f1 #g1 #ae1 #af1 #ah4 ,he must add together the numbers as follows1 and tell you the sum in each case3 #a4 ,the sum of the #ast and #b;d #h #b4 ,the sum of the #b;d and #c;d #ac #c4 ,the sum of the #c;d and #dth #bb #d4 ,the sum of the #dth and #eth #ca #e4 ,the sum of the #eth and #fth #cd #f4 ,the sum of the #b;d and last #bd ,you must then add together the #b;d1 #dth1 and #fth sums1 #ac #ca #bd #fh1 and the #c;d and #eth sums1 #bb #cd #ef4 ,subtract one from the other1 leaving #ab2 the #b;d number will be #f1 the half of this2 take the #b;d from the sum of the #ast and #b;d1 and you will get the #ast2 take the #b;d from the sum of the #b;d and #c;d1 and you will have the #c;d1 and so on4 ,how ,many ,counters ,have ,i in ,my ,hands8 ,a person having an equal number of counters in each hand1 it is required to find how many he has altogether4 ,suppose he has #af counters1 or #h in each hand4 ,desire him to transfer from one hand to the other a certain number of them1 and to tell you the number so transferred4 ,suppose it be #d1 the hands now contain #d and #ab4 ,ask him how many times the smaller number is contained in the larger2 in this case it is three times4 ,you must then multiply the number transferred1 #d1 by the #c1 making #ab1 and add the #d1 making #af2 then divide #af by the #c minus #a2 this will bring #h1 the number in each hand4 ,in most cases fractions will occur in the process2 when #aj counters are in each hand and if four be transferred1 the hands will contain #f and #ad4 ,he will divide #ad by #f and inform you that the quotient is #b-a_/c4 ,you multiply #d by #b-a_/c1 which is #i-a_/c4 ,add four to this1 making #ac-a_/c equal to #dj_/c4 ,subtract #a from #b-a_/c1 leaving #a-a_/c or #d_/c4 ,divide #dj_/c by #d_/c1 giving #aj1 the number in each hand4 ,the ,three ,travelers4 ,three men met at a caravansary or inn1 in ,persia2 and two of them brought their provisions along with them1 according to the custom of the country2 but the third1 not having provided any1 proposed to the others that they should eat together1 and he would pay the value of his proportion4 ,this being agreed to1 ,a produced #e loaves1 and ,b #c loaves1 all of which the travelers ate together1 and ,c paid #h pieces of money as the value of his share1 with which the others were satisfied1 but quarreled about the division of it4 ,upon this the matter was referred to the judge1 who decided impartially4 ,what was his decision8 ,at first sight it would seem that the money should be divided according to the bread furnished2 but we must consider that as the #c ate #h loaves1 each one ate #b-b_/c loaves of the bread he furnished4 ,this from #e would leave #b-a_/c loaves furnished the stranger by ,a2 and #c - #b-b_/c #a_/c furnished by ,b1 hence #b-a_/c to #a_/c #g to #a1 is the ratio in which the money is to be divided4 ,if you imagine ,a and ,b to furnish1 and ,c to consume all1 then the division will be according to amounts furnished4 ,the ,money ,game4 ,a person having in one hand a piece of gold1 and in the other a piece of silver1 you may tell in which hand he has the gold1 and in which the silver1 by the following method3 ,some value1 represented by an even number1 such as #h1 must be assigned to the gold2 and a value represented by an odd number1 such as #c1 must be assigned to the silver2 after which1 desire the person to multiply the number in the right hand by any even number whatever1 such as #b1 and that in the left by an odd number1 as #c2 then bid him add together the two products1 and if the whole sum be odd1 the gold will be in the right hand1 and the silver in the left2 if the sum be even1 the contrary will be the case4 ,to conceal the artifice better1 it will be sufficient to ask whether the sum of the two products can be halved without a remainder1 for in that case the total will be even1 and in the contrary case odd4 ,it may be readily seen that the pieces1 instead of being in the two hands of the same person1 may be supposed to be in the hands of two persons1 one of whom has the even number1 or piece of gold1 and the other the odd number1 or piece of silver4 ,the same operations may then be performed in regard to these two persons1 as are performed in regard to the two hands of the same person1 calling the one privately the right1 and the other the left4 ,the ,philosopher's ,pupils4 ,to find a number of which the half1 fourth1 and seventh1 added to three1 shall be equal to itself4 ,this was a favorite problem among the ancient ,grecian arithmeticians1 who stated the question in the following manner3 8,tell us1 illustrious ,pythagoras1 how many pupils frequent thy school80 8,one-half10 replied the philosopher1 8study mathematics1 one-fourth natural philosophy1 one-seventh preserve silence1 and there are three females besides40 ,the answer is #bh3 #ad #g #d #c #bh4 ,the ,certain ,game4 ,two persons agree to take1 alternately1 numbers less than a given figure1 for example1 #aa1 and to add them together till one of them has reached a certain sum1 such as #ajj4 ,by what means can one of them infallibly attain to that number before the other8 ,the whole artifice in this consists in immediately making choice of the numbers1 #a1 #ab1 #bc1 #cd1 and so on1 or of a series which continually increases by #aa1 up to #ajj4 ,let us suppose that the first person1 who knows the game1 makes choice of #a1 it is evident that his adversary1 as he must count less than #aa1 can at most reach #aa1 by adding #aj to it4 ,the first will then take #a1 which will make #ab2 and whatever number the second may add1 the first will certainly win1 provided he continually add the number which forms the complement of that of his adversary to #aa2 that is to say1 if the latter take #h1 he must take #c2 if #i1 he must take #b2 and so on4 ,by following this method1 he will infallibly attain to #hi1 and it will then be impossible for the second to prevent him from getting first to #ajj2 for whatever number the second takes he can attain only to #ii2 after which the first may say--8and #a makes #ajj40 ,if the second take #a after #hi1 it would make #ij1 and his adversary would finish by saying--8and #aj make #ajj40 ,between two persons who are equally acquainted with the game1 he who begins must necessarily win4 ,the ,dice ,guessed ,unseen4 ,a pair of dice being thrown1 to find the number of points on each die without seeing them4 ,tell the person who cast the dice to double the number of points upon one of them1 and add #e to it2 then to multiply the sum produced by #e1 and to add to the product the number of points upon the other die4 ,this being done1 desire him to tell you the amount1 and having thrown out #be1 the remainder will be a number consisting of two figures1 the first of which1 to the left1 is the number of points on the first die1 and the second figure1 to the right1 the number of the other4 ,thus3 ,suppose the number of points of the first die which comes up to be #b1 and that of the other #c2 then1 if to #d1 the double of the points of the first1 there be added #e1 and the sum produced1 #i1 be multiplied by #e1 the product will be #de2 to which1 if #c1 the number of points on the other die1 be added1 #dh will be produced1 from which1 if #be be subtracted1 #bc will remain2 the first figure of which is #b1 the number of points on the first die1 and the second figure #c1 the number on the other4 ,the ,famous ,forty-five4 ,how can number #de be divided into four such parts that1 if to the first part you add #b1 from the second part you subtract #b1 the third part you multiply by #b1 and the fourth part you divide by #b1 the sum of the addition1 the remainder of the subtraction1 the product of the multiplication1 and the quotient of the division1 be all equal8 ,the first is #h2 to which add #b1 the sum is #aj ,the second is #ab2 subtract #b1 the remainder is #aj ,the third is #e2 multiplied by #b1 the product is #aj ,the fourth is #bj2 divided by #b1 the quotient is #aj -- #de ,required to subtract #de from #de1 and leave #de as a remainder4 ,,solution4--#i #h #g #f #e #d #c #b #a #de4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #de4 -------------------------------------- #h #f #d #a #i #g #e #c #b #de4 ,the ,astonished ,farmer4 ,a and ,b took each #cj pigs to market4 ,a sold his at #c for a dollar1 ,b at #b for a dollar1 and together they received #be4 ,a afterwards took #fj alone1 which he sold as before1 at #e for #b1 and received but #bd3 what became of the other dollar8 ,this is rather a catch question1 the insinuation that the first lot were sold at the rate of #e for #b1 being only true in part4 ,they commence selling at that rate1 but after making ten sales1 ,a's pigs are exhausted1 and they have received #bj2 ,b still has #aj1 which he sells at 8two for a dollar10 and of course receives #e2 whereas had he sold them at the rate of #e for #b1 he would have received but #d4 ,hence the difficulty is easily settled4 ,the ,expunged ,figure4 ,in the first place we desire a person to write down secretly1 in a line1 any number of figures he may choose1 and add them together as units2 having done this1 tell him to subtract that sum from the line of figures originally set down2 then desire him to strike out any figure he pleases1 and add the remaining figures in the line together as units 7as in the first instance71 and inform you of the result1 when you will tell him the figure he has struck out4 #gfedb -#bd #bd ----- #gfeah ,suppose1 for example1 the figures put down are #gfedb2 these added together1 as units1 make a total of #bd2 deduct twenty-four from the first line1 and #gfeah remain2 if #e1 the center figure1 be struck out1 the total will be #bb4 ,if #h1 the first figure1 be struck out1 #ai will be the total4 ,in order to ascertain which figure has been struck out1 you make a mental sum one multiple of #i higher than the total given4 ,if #bb be given as the total1 then #c times #i are #bg1 and #bb from #bg show that #e was struck4 ,if #ai be given1 that sum deducted from #bg shows #h4 ,should the total be equal multiples of #i1 as #ah1 #bg1 #cf1 then #i has been expunged4 ,with very little practice1 any person may perform this with rapidity3 it is therefore needless to give any further examples4 ,the only way in which a person can fail in solving this riddle is when either a number #i or a #j is struck out1 as it then becomes impossible to tell which of the two it is1 the sum of the figures in the line being an even number of nines in both cases4 ,mysterious ,addition4 ,it is required to name the quotient of five or three lines of figures--each line consisting of five or more figures--only seeing the first line before the other lines are even put down4 ,any person may write down the first line of figures for you4 ,how do you find the quotient8 #hf1bad #db1fhj #eg1cai #fb1hed #cg1ade ------ #bhf1bab ,when the first line of figures is set down1 subtract #b from the last right-hand figure1 and place it before the first figure of the line1 and that is the quotient for five lines4 ,for example1 suppose the figures are #hf1bad1 the quotient will be #bhf1bab4 ,you may allow any person to put down the two first and the fourth lines1 but you must always set down the third and fifth lines1 and in doing so always make up #i with the line above4 ,therefore in the annexed diagram you will see that you have made #i in the third and fifth lines with the lines above them4 ,if the person you request to put down the figures should set down a #a or #j for the last figure1 you must say3 8,we will have another figure10 and another1 and so on until he sets down something above #a or #b4 #fg1hef #dg1bah #eb1gha ------ #afg1hee ,in solving the puzzle with #c lines1 you subtract #a from the last figure1 and place it before the first figure1 and make up the third line yourself to #i4 ,for example3 #fg1hef is given1 and the quotient will be #afg1hee1 as shown in the above diagram4 ,the ,remainder4 ,a very pleasing way to arrive at an arithmetical sum1 without the use of either slate or pencil1 is to ask a person to think of a figure1 then to double it1 then add a certain figure to it1 now halve the whole sum1 and finally to abstract from that the figure first thought of4 ,you are then to tell the thinker what is the remainder4 ,the key to this lock of figures is1 that half of whatever sum you request to be added during the working of the sum is the remainder4 ,in the example given1 #e is the half of #aj1 the number requested to be added4 ,any amount may be added1 but the operation is simplified by giving only even numbers1 as they will divide without fractions4 ,think of #g ,double it #ad ,add #aj to it #aj -- ,halve it #b 7 #bd -- ,which will leave #ab ,subtract the number thought of #g -- ,the remainder will be #e ,the ,three ,jealous ,husbands4 ,three jealous husbands1 ,a1 ,b and ,c1 with their wives being ready to pass by night over a river1 find at the water-side a boat which can carry but two at a time1 and for want of a waterman they are compelled to row themselves over the river at several times4 ,the question is1 how those six persons shall pass1 two at a time1 so that none of the three wives may be found in the company of one or two men1 unless her husband be present8 ,this may be effected in two or three ways2 the following may be as good as any3 ,let ,a and wife go over--let ,a return--let ,b's and ,c's wives go over--,a's wife returns--,b and ,c go over--,b and wife return1 ,a and ,b go over--,c's wife returns1 and ,a's and ,b's wives go over--then ,c comes back for his wife4 ,simple as this question may appear1 it is found in the works of ,alcuin1 who flourished a thousand years ago1 hundreds of years before the art of printing was invented4 ,the ,arithmetical ,mouse-,trap4 ,one of the best and most simple mouse-traps in use may be constructed as follows3 ,get a slip of smooth pine1 about the eighth of an inch thick1 a quarter of an inch broad1 and of sufficient length to cut out the following parts of a trap3 ,first1 an upright piece1 three or four inches high1 which must be square at the bottom1 and a small piece to be cut off at the top to fit a notch in ,no4 #b4 ,the second piece must be of the same length as the first1 with the notch cut across nearly at the top of it1 to fit the top of ,no4 #a1 and the other end of it trimmed to catch the notch in ,no4 #c4 ,the third piece should be twice as long as either of the others2 a notch1 similar to that in ,no4 #b1 must be cut in one end of it to catch the lower end of ,no4 #b4 ,having proceeded thus far1 you must put the pieces together1 in order to finish it1 by adding another notch in ,no4 #c1 the exact situation of which you will discover as follows3 ,place ,no4 #a upright1 then put the notch of ,no4 #b in the thinned top of ,no4 #a2 then get a flat piece of wood1 or a slate1 one end of which must rest on the ground1 and the center of the edge of the other on the top of ,no4 #b4 ,you will now find the thinned end of ,no4 #b elevated by the weight of the flat piece of wood or slate2 then put the thinned end of it in the notch of ,no4 #c1 and draw ,no4 #b down by it1 until the whole forms a resemblance of a figure #d2 at the exact place where ,no4 #c touches the upright1 cut a notch1 which1 by catching the end of ,no4 #a1 will keep the trap together4 ,you may now bait the end of ,no4 #c with pieces of cheese2 a mouse1 by nibbling the bait1 will pull down ,no4 #c1 the other pieces immediately separate1 and the slate or board falls upon the mouse4 ,we have seen numbers of mice1 rats and birds caught by this4 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,chemist4 ,in the eleventh century1 and during the reign of ,king ,henry the ,first1 surnamed ,beauclerk1 or the fine scholar1 there appeared for the first time in certain books1 professing to teach the art of making gold1 the words chemistry1 chemist1 derived from the ,greek4 ,seven hundred years and more have passed away1 and that which was only the pursuit of a shadow called alchemy1 has resulted in the acquisition of a great and noble science1 now and again called chemistry4 ,so it is with the great edifice ,chemistry2 we may1 in these brief pages1 peep in at the open door1 but should we desire to go beyond the threshold1 there are numerous guides1 such as ,roscoe1 ,wilson1 and ,fownes1 who will conduct us through the mazes of the interior1 and explain in elementary language the beautiful processes which have become so useful to mankind4 ,chemistry is one of the most comprehensive of all the sciences1 and at the same time one which comes home to us in the most ordinary of our daily avocations4 ,most of the arts of life are indebted to it for their very existence1 and nearly all have been1 from time to time1 improved by the application of its principles4 ,chemistry is1 in fact1 the science which treats of the composition of all material bodies1 and of the means of forming them into new combinations1 and reducing them to their ultimate elements1 as they are termed2 that is1 bodies which we are unable to split up1 as it were1 or separate into other bodies4 ,to take a common substance as an illustration2 water1 by a great number of processes1 can be separated into two other substances1 called oxygen and hydrogen1 in the proportion by weight of #h parts of the first to #a of the second2 but no power that we at present possess can separate the oxygen and hydrogen into any other bodies2 they are therefore called ultimate elements1 or undecomposable bodies4 ,again1 sulphate of magnesia 7common ,epsom salts7 can be very easily separated into two other substances1--sulphuric acid and magnesia2 and in this instance1 both these substances can again be subdivided--the acid into sulphur and oxygen1 and the magnesia into a metallic body called magnesium and oxygen2 but sulphur1 oxygen1 and magnesium are incapable of further division1 and are therefore called ultimate elements4 ,these ultimate elements amount to #fd in number1 according to the present state of our knowledge1 and may be arranged in various ways2 the simplest plan1 perhaps1 is dividing them into ,non-metallic and ,metallic elements4 ,the ,non-metallic elements are3--#a4 ,oxygen4 #b4 ,hydrogen4 #c4 ,nitrogen4 #d4 ,chlorine4 #e4 ,iodine4 #f4 ,bromine4 #g4 ,fluorine4 #h4 ,carbon4 #i4 ,sulphur4 #aj4 ,selenium4 #aa4 ,tellurium4 #ab4 ,silicon4 #ac4 ,boron4 #ad4 ,phosphorus4 ,the last-named element is the connecting link with the metals through arsenic1 which phosphorus closely resembles in its chemical properties4 ,the ,metallic elements may be sub-divided into the metals of the alkalies1 the metals of the alkaline earths1 the metals of the earths1 and the other metals sometimes called metals proper4 #ast4 ,the metallic bases of the alkalies3--potassium1 sodium1 lithium1 ammonium1 csium1 rubidium4 #b;d4 ,the metallic bases of the alkaline earths3--calcium1 strontium1 barium4 #c;d4 ,the metallic bases of the earths3--aluminum1 glucinum1 zirconium1 thorium1 yttrium1 erbium1 cerium1 lanthanum1 didymium4 #dth4 ,the metals proper1 the most important of which are3--platinum1 gold1 silver1 mercury1 copper1 iron1 tin1 lead1 nickel1 zinc1 bismuth1 antimony1 manganese1 cobalt1 arsenic4 ,now1 from these elementary bodies1 united together in various proportions1 is formed the infinite variety of substances around us1 whether animal1 vegetable1 or mineral2 in fact1 a few only are generally employed3--in the case of animals and vegetables1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 nitrogen1 with occasionally some sulphur1 calcium1 phosphorus1 and silicon1 suffice for building up the beautiful forms of animated nature2 while the fabric of our globe itself consists for the most part of the earths2 silex1 i4e41 flint or crystal2 lime1 in the shape of chalk1 marble1 or limestone1 such as our flagstones are composed of2 slate and granite1 which are compounds of aluminium1 silica1 and small quantities of oxide of iron1 and sometimes a little potash1 etc42 and through their masses are projected irregular streams--veins as they are termed--of the metals1 either in a pure state1 as is the case sometimes with gold1 silver1 platinum1 mercury1 and perhaps one or two others2 or combined with one of the non-metallic elements1 or with one another4 ,late calculations have determined the composition of the earth's solid crust in #ajj parts by weight to be3 ,oxygen #dd4j to #dh4g4 ,silicon #bb4h 8 #cf4b4 ,aluminium #i4i 8 #f4a4 ,iron #i4i 8 #b4d4 ,calcium #f4f 8 #j4i4 ,magnesium #b4g 8 #j4a4 ,sodium #b4d 8 #b4e4 ,potassium #a4g 8 #c4a4 ------ ------ #ajj4j #ajj4j ------ ------ ,all these combinations are effected by certain powers1 termed forces2 those which cause the union of the elements are called the forces of attraction2 those causing their separation1 the forces of repulsion4 ,the force of attraction when exerted between masses of matter1 is termed gravitation2 when it unites particles of matter of a similar kind and produces masses1 it is called the attraction of cohesion2 when the particles united are of a dissimilar character1 it is then termed chemical or elective affinity4 ,for example1 the crystals of ,epsom salts are formed from minute particles of the salt1 united into a larger or smaller mass by the attraction of cohesion1 while the elements of which each particle consists1 namely1 the sulphur1 oxygen1 and magnesium1 are united by the attraction of chemical affinity4 ,cohesion thus unites particles of a similar kind2 chemical affinity1 of a dissimilar nature4 ,it is to cohesion that the existence of masses of matter is owing1 and its power increases as the squares of the distances diminish1 in an inverse ratio to the squares of the distances of the particles on which it acts4 ,the power exerted by cohesion may be exhibited in various ways4 ,this is one3 ,procure two discs of glass about three inches in diameter1 their surfaces being ground extremely smooth2 fix each into a square piece of wood1 taking care that they are placed accurately in the center2 then put them together by sliding their edges very carefully over each other1 so as to avoid any air getting between them1 and you will find a great force necessary to separate them4 ,a hook should be fixed into the center of each piece of wood1 so that they may be suspended1 and a weight hung to the lower one4 ,it is almost impossible for any one to separate them by merely pulling them with both hands2 a weight of many pounds is required for that purpose4 ,in like manner two freshly-cut surfaces of caoutchouc will1 on being squeezed together1 cohere so perfectly1 that it is difficult to tear them asunder1 and it is in this way that tubes of caoutchouc may be rapidly prepared for experiments1 where little or no pressure is exerted4 ,chemical affinity is sometimes called elective1 or the effect of choice1 as if one substance exerted a kind of preference for another1 and chose to be united to it rather than to that with which it was previously combined2 thus1 if you pour some vinegar1 which is a weak acetic acid1 upon some pearlash 7a combination of potash and carbonic acid71 or some carbonate of soda 7a combination of the same acid with soda71 a violent effervescence will take place1 occasioned by the escape of the carbonic acid1 displaced in consequence of the potash or soda preferring the acetic acid1 and forming a compound called an acetate4 ,then if some sulphuric acid be poured on this new compound1 the acetic acid will in its turn be displaced by the greater attachment of either of the bases1 as they are termed1 for the sulphuric acid4 ,again1 if into a solution of blue vitriol 7a combination of sulphuric acid with oxide of copper7 the bright blade of a knife be introduced1 the knife will speedily be covered with a coat of copper1 deposited in consequence of the acid preferring the iron1 of which the knife is made1 a quantity of it being dissolved in exact proportion to the quantity of copper deposited4 ,it is on the same principle that a very beautiful preparation called a silver-tree1 or a lead-tree1 may be formed thus3--,fill a wide bottle1 capable of holding from half a pint to a pint1 with a tolerably strong solution of nitrate of silver 7lunar caustic71 or acetate of lead1 in pure distilled water2 then attach a small piece of zinc by a string to the cork or stopper of the bottle1 so that the zinc shall hang about the middle of the bottle1 and set it by where it may be quite undisturbed2 in a short time1 brilliant plates of silver or lead1 as the case may be1 will be seen to collect around the piece of zinc1 assuming more or less of the crystalline form4 ,this at first is a case of elective affinity2 the acid with which the silver or lead was united prefers the zinc to either of those metals1 and in consequence discards them in order to attach the zinc to itself1 subsequently a voltaic current is set up between the two metals1 and the process will continue until almost the whole of the zinc is taken up1 or nearly the whole of the silver or lead deposited4 ,again1 many animal and vegetable substances consist for the most part of carbon or charcoal1 united with oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion which forms water4 ,now oil of vitriol 7strong sulphuric acid7 has so powerful an affinity1 or so great a thirst for water1 that it will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists2 if you then pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar1 or place a chip of wood in it1 the sugar or wood will speedily become quite black1 or be charred1 as it is called1 in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen being removed by the sulphuric acid1 and only the carbon1 or charcoal1 left4 ,when ,cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in vinegar1 she was exhibiting unwittingly an instance of chemical elective affinity2 the pearl being simply carbonate of lime1 which was decomposed by the greater affinity or fondness of lime for its new acquaintance 7the acetic acid of the vinegar7 than for the carbonic acid1 with which it had been united all its life1--an example of inconstancy in strong contrast with the conduct of its owner1 who chose death rather than become the mistress of her lover's conqueror4 ,gases4 ,the three permanent gaseous elements are oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen4 ,the compound gases are very numerous1 some being combustible1 and others supporters of combustion4 ,gases are for the most part transparent and colorless1 with a few exceptions1 and of course1 like the air of the atmosphere1 invisible4 ,they are little affected by the attraction of cohesion1 but rather1 on the contrary1 the particles composing them have a constant tendency to separate from each other1 so that their force of expansion is only limited by the pressure under which they may be kept1 and the temperature they may be exposed to4 ,they have a tendency to penetrate each other1 as it were2 for instance1 if you take a jar of heavy gas1 such as carbonic gas1 set it with its mouth upwards1 then invert over it another jar containing hydrogen1 a gas nearly twenty-two times lighter1 in a very short time the two gases will have become thoroughly mixed1 the heavy carbonic acid having risen1 and the light hydrogen fallen1 until the gases are thoroughly mixed1 each jar containing an equal quantity of each gas4 ,oxygen ,gas4 ,this gas1 so named from two ,greek words signifying the maker of acid1 was discovered by ,dr4 ,priestly in #aggd4 ,he obtained it by heating the red oxide of mercury in a glass retort1 when the gas escaped in considerable quantities4 ,in the ensuing year ,scheele obtained it by a variety of methods1 and a few years afterwards ,lavoisier discovered that it was contained in atmospheric air1 where it exists in the proportion of about one-fifth1 the remaining four fifths being almost entirely nitrogen4 ,oxygen gas may be obtained for the purpose of experiment1 by heating to redness the black oxide of manganese in an iron bottle1 to the mouth of which a flexible tube is attached to convey away the gas as fast as it is liberated from the manganese4 ,the first portions should be allowed to escape1 being mixed with the air in the tubes and bottle1 and the remainder may be collected in a gasometer1 or in glass jars inverted over water4 ,another method to obtain the gas1 and one to be used only in the absence of other ingredients1 is to mix in a retort some of this same oxide of manganese with about half its weight of strong sulphuric acid1 and apply heat to the retort1 when the gas will come over in considerable quantities2 the first portions must be allowed to escape as before4#a ,if the gas is required very pure1 a small quantity of the salt called chlorate of potassa1 may be heated in a retort1 and oxygen gas will be evolved1 and may be collected as before4 ,if you have an iron bottle1 the first mode is by far the cheapest1 as the heat of a bright fire is sufficient for the operation1 and a large quantity of gas is obtained in a short time from a very inexpensive material4 ,the most rapid and convenient process of all is to heat a mixture of two parts chlorate of potash1 and one of powdered black oxide of manganese1 in a common clean oil flask1 to which a cork and bent tube has been adapted4 ,care must be taken not to mistake sulphide of antimony for black oxide of manganese1 as very serious accidents have arisen from this cause4 ,oxygen is largely distributed over our globe1 both in its uncombined state1 and in union with other substances4 ,besides forming one-fifth of the atmosphere1 it forms eight-ninths by weight of all the water in the ocean1 rivers1 and springs on the face of the whole earth4 ,it also1 in combination with various metals1 forms the various earths and minerals of which the crust of the earth consists1 so that it is the most abundant and widely distributed substance in nature1 and in combination with other elements1 forms nearly half the weight of the solid earth4 ,in its uncombined state it is a colorless gas1 somewhat heavier than atmospheric air1 without taste or smell4 ,it is a powerful supporter of combustion1 and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life1 which cannot exist for any time without a free supply of this gas1 which is constantly consumed in the act of breathing and is replaced by an equivalent portion of carbonic acid gas4 ,the want of oxygen is partly the cause of the oppression felt in crowded rooms1 where the air cannot be renewed so fast as is required for the number of persons who are constantly consuming the oxygen2 and if an animal be confined under a glass jar inverted over water1 it will presently die1 just for the same reason that burning tapers are extinguished under similar circumstances4 ,if a jet of this gas be thrown upon a piece of charcoal1 sulphur1 or almost any combustible body in a state of ignition1 it will make it burn with great vividness and rapidity4 ,,footnote3 #a ,some boiling water should be added to the mass left in the retort directly the gas has ceased to come away1 or it will adhere to the glass so firmly1 that the retort will certainly be spoilt4 ,experiment4 ,but by far the most intense heat1 and most brilliant light1 may be produced by introducing a piece of phosphorus into a jar of oxygen4 ,the phosphorus may be placed in a small copper cup1 with a long handle of thick wire passing through a hole in a cork that fits the jar4 ,the phosphorus must first be ignited2 and1 as soon as it is introduced into the oxygen1 it gives out a light so brilliant that no eye can bear it1 and the whole jar appears filled with an intensely luminous atmosphere4 ,it is well to dilute the oxygen with about one-fourth part of common air to moderate the intense heat which is nearly certain to break the jar if pure oxygen is used4 ,experiment4 ,if a piece of charcoal1 which is pure carbon or nearly so1 be ignited1 and introduced into a jar containing oxygen or common atmospheric air1 the product will be carbonic gas only1 of which we shall speak presently4 ,as most combustible bodies contain both carbon and hydrogen1 the result of their combination is carbonic acid and water4 ,this is the case with the gas used for illumination2 and in order to prevent the water so produced from spoiling goods in shops1 various plans have been devised for carrying off the water when in the state of steam4 ,this is generally accomplished by suspending over the burners glass bells1 communicating with tubes opening into the chimney1 or passing outside the house4 ,to show that oxygen1 or some equivalent1 is necessary for the support of combustion1 fix two or three pieces of wax-taper on flat pieces of cork1 and set them floating on water in a soup-plate1 light them1 and invert over them a glass jar2 as they burn1 the heat produced may perhaps at first expand the air so as to force a small quantity out of the jar1 but the water will soon rise in the jar1 and continue to do so until the tapers expire1 when you will find that a considerable portion of the air has disappeared1 and what remains will no longer support flame2 that is1 the oxygen has been converted partly into water1 and partly into carbonic acid gas1 by uniting with the carbon and hydrogen1 of which the taper consists1 and the remaining air is principally nitrogen1 with some carbonic acid2 the presence of the latter may be proved by decanting some of the remaining air into a bottle1 and then shaking some lime-water with it1 which will absorb the carbonic acid and form chalk1 rendering the water quite turbid4 ,nitrogen4 ,this gas is1 as its name implies1 the producer of niter1 or at least forms a portion of the nitric acid contained in niter4 ,it is rather lighter than atmospheric air1 colorless1 transparent1 incapable of supporting animal life1 on which account it is sometimes called azote--an objectionable name1 as it is not a poison like many other gases1 but destroys life only in the absence of oxygen4 ,this gas extinguishes all burning bodies plunged into it1 and does not itself burn4 ,it exists largely in nature1 for four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen gas4 ,it is also an important constituent of animal bodies1 and is found in the vegetable world4 ,nitrogen may be most easily obtained for experiment by setting fire to some phosphorus contained in a porcelain or metallic cup1 placed under a gas jar full of air1 and resting on the shelf of the pneumatic trough1 or in a soup-plate filled with water4 ,nitrogen combines in five different proportions with oxygen producing five distinct chemical compounds1 named respectively nitrous oxide1 nitric oxide1 nitric tri-oxide1 nitric tetroxide1 nitric pent-oxide1 which last1 united with water1 forms nitric acid1 now called hydric nitrate1 as nitrous acid is termed hydric nitrite4 ,nitrous oxide gas is generally known by the name of 8laughing gas10 from the jolly sensations experienced on inhaling it4 ,it may be procured by distilling in a glass retort a salt called nitrate of ammonia1 which yields the gas in considerable quantities1 and it should be kept standing in jars over water for some hours before it is used4 ,it should be transferred into a silk air-tight bag1 furnished with a stop-cock and mouth-piece1 from which the gas may be breathed2 a little practice is required to do this easily1 and more resolution to desist when the gas begins to produce its effects1 as it appears to fascinate the experimenter1 and actual force is often necessary to remove the bag from the mouth4 ,the effects produced vary according to the temperament of the person inhaling it2 they are1 however1 always of a highly pleasurable nature1 muscular action being generally greatly exalted1 compelling the individual to race round the apartment and execute leaps and pirouettes perfectly astounding4 ,some persons shout and sing1 and ,i have seen one expend his superfluous animation in twisting his features into such ludicrous grimaces as would be the envy of the candidates at a grinning match1 and beat them all out of the field4 ,this gas is heavier than air1 and supports combustion nearly as energetically as oxygen1 as may be shown by introducing a piece of ignited phosphorus into a jar of this gas4 ,it will not1 however1 support the life of small animals1 such as mice1 which introduced into it die very quickly4 ,the next compound of nitrogen with oxygen1 when one proportion of nitrogen unites with two of oxygen1 is termed nitric oxide gas4 ,it may be easily procured by heating in a retort some copper turnings in dilute nitric acid4 ,it is colorless and transparent1 and has the property of combining with oxygen to form other compounds4 ,experiment4 ,into a jar of this gas standing over water pass some oxygen gas4 ,the jar will be filled with red fumes1 which will be rapidly absorbed by the water4 ,if atmospheric air be used instead of oxygen1 there will remain in the jar the nitrogen of the air amounting to four-fifths of the air employed4 ,this gas is destructive to animal life1 in consequence of its property of uniting with the oxygen in the lungs1 and producing the highly corrosive nitrous acid gas4 ,it will1 however1 support the combustion of a few substances1 phosphorus for instance1 provided it is sufficiently heated before being plunged into the gas4 ,we pass over the third and fourth compounds of nitrogen with oxygen1 as they are not calculated for amusing experiments4 ,nitric acid is easily prepared on the small scale1 by gradually heating equal parts by weight of nitric and sulphuric acid in a retort to which a receiver has been adapted4 ,the receiver1 which may be a clean oil flask1 should be kept cool with wetted blotting paper4 ,nitrogen combines with chlorine and iodine1 forming detonating compounds1 the former being so extremely dangerous that it will be better to pass it by4 ,the compound with iodine1 called iodide of nitrogen1 may very easily be made by pouring a strong solution of ammonia 7a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen7 upon some iodine in a vial1 shaking them well together1 and after letting them stand for a few hours1 pouring off the fluid2 the black powder remaining in the vial is the explosive compound1 the iodide of nitrogen4 ,when dry1 it is very apt to detonate spontaneously2 it should therefore be shaken out of the vial while wet1 and spread in very small quantities on separate pieces of blotting paper1 which should be kept apart from each other4 ,when thoroughly dry1 the slightest touch with the point of a feather1 shaking the paper on which it rests1 or even opening too rapidly the door of a closet where it has been put to dry1 will cause it to explode1 producing a quantity of violet-colored fumes4 ,the explosion is somewhat violent1 producing a sharp cracking noise2 and the greatest care should be taken in experimenting with it4 ,atmospheric ,air4 ,as has been already mentioned1 nitrogen is the principal constituent of the air of the atmosphere which surrounds our globe1 extending to a height of about forty-five miles above it1 and playing a most important part in the economy of nature1 inorganic as well as organic4 ,this atmospheric air consists by volume of nearly four-fifths of nitrogen1 and rather more than one-fifth of oxygen1 viz43 seventy-nine of the former to twenty-one of the latter1 or twenty-three parts by weight of oxygen and seventy-seven of nitrogen2 it generally contains also a variable proportion of the vapor of water1 and a very small quantity of carbonic acid gas1 being only about four volumes to #aj1jjj of air4 ,its constituent parts are easily separated1 as it is a mechanical mixture and not a chemical compound1 though the mixture by diffusion is so complete that chemists have not been able to ascertain any difference in the composition of air taken from all parts of the world1 and from different heights1 up to the highest point which has to this time been attained4 ,the atmosphere presses on the surface of the globe1 and every being on it1 with a force of about fifteen pounds to every square inch of surface1 but as it presses equally in all directions1 upwards as well as downwards1 its weight cannot be perceived unless the pressure be removed from one surface by some artificial means4 ,atmospheric air contains1 besides the oxygen and nitrogen1 its principal constituents1 a small proportion of carbonic acid gas1 as has been mentioned1 and this may be shown by filling a tube about half full of lime-water1 and shaking it with the air contained in the other half1 when it will become slightly turbid from the insoluble carbonate of lime formed4 ,when we consider that every living animal is constantly consuming oxygen1 and replacing it by carbonic acid gas1 and that all burning bodies1 fires in our dwellings1 furnaces1 artificial lights of all kinds1 act in the same way in abstracting the oxygen from the air1 and replacing it by immense quantities of carbonic acid gas1 which is a poison to all animals who breathe1 or attempt to breathe it1 we must wonder what becomes of this irrespirable gas1 as it is found to exist in the air in quantities so minute1 and by what means the oxygen is restored1 and the air again made fit for respiration4 ,this is effected by one of those laws which the wisdom of the ,creator has impressed upon matter1 by which one part of creation as it were balances another1 and all proceeds in an endless circle of change4 ,this carbonic acid1 which is so poisonous to animal life1 is the food of the vegetable world1 plants having the power of taking up the carbonic acid into their pores2 converting the carbon into their own substance1 and rejecting the oxygen1 which is again respired by animals1 c4 ,in the same way1 all animal refuse is the food of vegetables1 and is used under the name of manures4 ,the atmosphere contains also a variable quantity of vapor of water1 invisible as long as it is in the state of vapor1 but it may be rendered obvious by bringing any very cold body into warm air1 when the vapor will condense on the cold body in the form of small drops of water4 ,a tumbler of fresh-pumped water brought into a crowded room is almost immediately covered with moisture1 and it may also be seen on bottles of wine which have been put into ice before coming to table4 ,fogs are occasioned by the condensation of vapor produced by mixing a current of warm air with a colder air4 ,the banks of ,newfoundland are notorious for dense fogs1 occasioned by the warm air brought from the south by the great ,gulf ,stream1 mixing with the cold air from the ,arctic regions1 and thus precipitating the vapor in a visible form1 rendering everything but itself invisible4 ,the famous ,london fogs depend upon the same precipitation of the vapor of water1 with the addition of the smoke from the numerous sea-coal fires1 which give it that interesting yellow tinge for which it is so remarkable4 ,aqueous vapor appears to impart a transparency to air1 and permits objects to be seen more distinctly in proportion to its quantity2 hence1 when distant hills appear nearer1 and objects upon them more distinct than usual1 rain may be expected1 the air being fully charged with vapor ready to be deposited on the slightest cause4 ,hydrogen4 ,hydrogen gas is the lightest substance known1 being fifteen times lighter than atmospheric air4 ,it is colorless and transparent1 incapable of supporting combustion or respiration1 but is itself combustible4 ,hydrogen1 as its name implies 7being derived from two ,greek words1 signifying the generator of water71 is a constituent of water in the proportion of one-ninth by weight1 and is always obtained by decomposing that fluid1 by presenting to it some body to take up its other ingredient1 oxygen1 and so set the hydrogen at liberty4 ,if the steam of water be passed through a red-hot gun-barrel1 containing iron filings1 the water is decomposed1 the iron taking the oxygen1 and the hydrogen comes over in torrents2 but as every one has not a gun-barrel and furnace to heat it1 the usual mode is to employ dilute sulphuric acid1 and iron filings1 or zinc1 in small pieces1 and it may be collected over water by means of a bent tube issuing from the bottle in which it is formed4 ,it is so light that it was used to fill balloons before coal gas was to be had1 and if you procure a light air-tight bag of silk1 or thin membrane1 such as a turkey's crop1 and fill it with gas1 it will ascend rapidly1 and dance about the ceiling of a room4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,attach a tobacco-pipe to a bladder filled with this gas1 and blow some soap-bubbles with it2 they will rise very rapidly1 and if a lighted taper be applied to them they burn4 ,if you mix in a soda-water bottle one-third of oxygen with two-thirds of hydrogen1 and apply flame1 the mixture will explode with a sharp report4 ,great care must be taken in all experiments with the mixed gases4 ,to avoid danger the gases are placed in separate ,india-rubber bags1 and are only brought together at the jet4 ,this is an expensive apparatus1 and should only be used by experienced persons4 #b4 ,if a jar of this gas be held with its mouth downwards1 and a lighted taper passed up well into the jar1 the taper will be extinguished1 and the gas take fire1 and burn quietly at the mouth of the jar2 if mixed with oxygen or atmospheric air1 it will explode4 ,hold open the jet of hydrogen issuing from a small tube1 hollow cylinders of glass or earthenware1 ,florence flasks1 or hollow glass balls1 and musical sounds will be produced1 which were supposed to depend on some peculiar property of hydrogen gas1 until ,mr4 ,faraday tried flame from coal gas1 olefiant gas1 and even the vapor of ether1 when the sounds were still produced1 and he attributed them to a continuous explosion1 or series of explosions1 produced by the union of oxygen with the hydrogen of the flames4 ,water4 ,with oxygen1 hydrogen unites to form the important compound water1 which exists not only in the obvious form of oceans1 rivers1 lakes1 rains1 dews1 c41 c41 but is found intimately combined with many substances1 giving them some of their peculiar properties4 ,many crystals have a definite proportion of water combined with them1 and on losing this water they lose their crystalline form4 ,many acids also cannot exist as acids without water4 ,the slaking of lime depends upon the union of water with the lime1 the dry powder resulting from the process being a hydrate of lime1 the water having become solidified1 and in passing from the fluid to the solid state gives out its latent caloric1 producing the heat observed during the process4 ,when a large quantity of lime1 a barge-load for instance1 has got wetted by accident1 the heat evolved has been sufficient to set fire to the barge4 ,at the temperature of #cb of ,fahrenheit's thermometer1 water loses its fluid form1 and becomes ice4 ,as it solidifies1 it starts into beautiful crystals1 which unite and cross each other at determinate angles4 ,ice is lighter than the water on which it floats1 forming a protection to the water beneath1 and preventing it from being frozen so rapidly2 else1 if the ice were heavier than water1 and consequently sank as soon as formed1 each portion of water would be frozen in its turn1 until rivers became solid throughout1 and every living creature in them must be destroyed4 ,now1 the temperature of the water under the ice is seldom much below #dj1 and if care be taken to break holes at intervals to allow access to the air1 the fish and other aquatic animals seldom suffer even in our coldest winters4 ,although it is impossible to raise ice even one degree above #cb without thawing1 it is not difficult to reduce water many degrees below that point without freezing it4 ,in order to obtain both the constituents of water in a separate state1 it must be decomposed by galvanism1 each pole of a battery terminating in a separate tube containing water1 when the result will be that at the positive pole oxygen gas will be evolved1 and hydrogen at the negative1 the latter being double the quantity of the former4 ,now1 if you mix the gases thus obtained1 introduce them into a vessel called a 8,eudiometer10 and pass an electric spark through them from a ,leyden vial1 a sudden flash will be seen1 and the gases will entirely disappear1 being again converted into water4 ,if you have a mercurial trough1 and perform this experiment over mercury1 the inside of the eudiometer will exhibit minute drops of water4 ,thus you have proved both by analysis and synthesis1 that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen1 in the proportion of one volume of the former to two of the latter4 ,experiment4 ,take some perfectly pure distilled water1 filter it1 surround it with a mixture of light snow1 or powdered ice1 and salt1 taking care to keep it perfectly still1 a thermometer having been previously placed in it4 ,the mercury will gradually sink many degrees below the freezing point #cb 7it has been reduced as low as #d71 the water still remaining fluid2 when all at once1 either from shaking the table1 or simply because the reduction can be carried no further1 it suddenly starts into ice1 and the thermometer jumps up at once to #cb1 where it remains until the whole is frozen1 when the temperature gradually sinks to that of the surrounding medium4 ,now if you remove the glass of ice from the freezing mixture into the apartment1 and watch the thermometer1 you will find it gradually rise to #cb1 and there remain until all the ice is melted1 when it will gradually acquire the temperature of the room4 ,the reason of this is1 that the water in passing from the solid to the fluid form absorbs1 and in passing from the fluid to the solid form gives out caloric1 so maintaining the temperature at #cb1 the point at which the change of form takes place1 until it is completed4 ,between the temperature of #cb and #bab1 water exists in a fluid form1 under ordinary circumstances2 but at the latter point it assumes the form of vapor or steam1 and acquires many of the properties of gases1 being indefinitely expansible by heat1 the force increasing as the temperature is raised1 provided the steam be confined1 until it becomes irresistible--witness the frequent explosions of steam-engines in this country1 where the engines are worked at a high pressure4 ,the temperature at which water boils is modified by the pressure applied to it4 ,thus1 as you ascend a mountain1 and so pass through a portion of the atmosphere1 water boils at a lower temperature1 until at great heights it boils at so low a heat1 that good tea cannot be made because it is impossible to heat the water sufficiently4 ,under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump1 water boils at about #adj4 ,chlorine4 ,another gaseous element1 sometimes called a supporter of combustion1 is named chlorine1 from a ,greek word signifying yellowish green4 ,this gas was formerly called 8oxymuriatic acid10 being supposed to be a compound of oxygen and muriatic acid gases1 until ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in a series of masterly experiments carried on during the years #ahjh-i-aj and #aa1 proved that it contained no oxygen or muriatic acid1 and that it was in fact a simple or undecompounded substance1 and changed its name to chlorine1 which name was1 after some discussion1 accepted by the scientific world1 and is still in use4 ,this gas may be obtained for experiment1 by gently heating in a retort a mixture of muriatic or hydrochloric acid1 hydrochloride1 as it is now called1 with some black oxide of manganese3 the muriatic acid1 a compound of chlorine and hydrogen1 is decomposed1 and so is the oxide of manganese1 giving out some of its oxygen1 which takes the hydrogen from the muriatic acid to form water1 while the chlorine gas1 with which the hydrogen had been united1 is set at liberty1 and may be collected in jars over water4 ,chlorine gas is transparent1 of a greenish yellow color1 has a peculiar disagreeable taste and smell1 and if breathed even in small quantities1 occasions a sensation of suffocation1 of tightness in the chest1 and violent coughing1 attended with great prostration4 ,i have been compelled to retire to bed from having upset a bottle containing some of this gas4 ,it destroys most vegetable colors when moist1 and is in fact the agent now universally employed for bleaching purposes4 ,it has also the power of combining with and destroying all noxious smells1 and is invaluable as a purifier of foul rooms1 and destroyer of infection4 ,for these latter purposes it is used in combination with lime1 either in substance or solution1 under the name of 8,chloride of ,lime40 ,chlorine gas is a powerful supporter of combustion1 many of the metals taking fire spontaneously when introduced in a fine state of division into the gas4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,into a jar of chlorine gas introduce a few sheets of copper leaf1 sold under the name of ,dutch foil1 when it will burn with a dull red light4 #b4 ,if some metallic antimony in a state of powder be poured into a jar of this gas1 it will take fire as it falls1 and burn with a bright white light4 #c4 ,a small piece of the metal potassium may be introduced1 and will also take fire4 #d4 ,a piece of phosphorus will also generally take fire spontaneously when introduced into this gas4 ,in all these cases direct compounds of the substances with chlorine are produced1 called chlorides4 #e4 ,if a lighted taper be plunged quickly into the gas1 it will continue to burn with a dull light1 giving off a very large quantity of smoke1 being in fact the carbon of the wax taper1 with which the chlorine does not unite2 while the other constituent of the taper1 the hydrogen1 forms muriatic acid by union with the chlorine4 #f4 ,this substance has the property of destroying most vegetable colors and is used in large quantities for bleaching calico1 linen1 and the rags of which paper is made4 ,it is a curious fact that it shows this property only when water is present1 for if a piece of colored cloth is introduced dry into a jar of the gas1 also dry1 no effect will be produced--wet the cloth1 and reintroduce it1 and in a very short time its color will be discharged4 #g4 ,introduce a quantity of the infusion of the common red cabbage1 which is of a beautiful blue color1 into a jar of this gas1 and it will instantly become nearly as pale as water1 retaining a slight tinge of yellow4 ,a solution of sulphate of indigo can always be obtained1 and answers well for this experiment4 ,muriatic ,acid ,gas1 or ,chloride4 ,with chlorine1 hydrogen forms a compound called muriatic1 or hydrochloric acid gas4 ,it cannot easily be formed by the direct union of its elements1 but is procured from some compound in which it exists ready formed4 ,common salt 7chloride of sodium7 is generally employed2 and when acted on by strong sulphuric acid 7or oil of vitriol71 the gas is disengaged in abundance4 ,it must be collected over mercury1 for water absorbs it1 forming the liquid muriatic1 or hydrochloric acid4 ,a lighted taper plunged into this gas is instantly extinguished4 ,it is very dangerous to animal life if respired4 ,it has the property of destroying animal effluvia1 and was once employed to purify the cathedral of ,dijon1 which was so filled with putrid emanations from the bodies buried in it1 that it had been closed for some time4 ,it perfectly succeeded1 but it is so destructive to all metallic substances that it is not used now1 for the chlorides of lime and zinc have since been discovered to act more effectually than the muriatic acid gas1 without its inconvenience4 ,the compounds of hydrogen with iodine are passed over4 ,with nitrogen1 hydrogen unites and forms one of the most extraordinary compounds in the whole range of chemistry1--the gas called ammonia4 ,this is the only gas possessing what are called alkaline properties2 i4e41 it changes the blue color of certain vegetables to green1 yellow to deep brown1 and unites with the acids to form neutral compounds1 just as the other alkalies1 potash and soda1 which are oxides of metals4 ,it may be procured in abundance by heating the hydrochlorate of ammonia1 or sal ammoniac1 as it is usually called1 with quick-lime1 which takes the hydrochloric acid1 and sets free this remarkable gas4 ,it must be received over mercury1 as it is absorbed to almost any extent by water1 forming the fluid sold as 8spirits of hartshorn0 in the shops4 ,this gas is colorless and transparent1 lighter than atmospheric air1 and will not support combustion2 it has a very pungent but not disagreeable smell4 ,under certain circumstances it is combustible4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,take a bottle containing chlorine gas1 and invert over its mouth another filled with ammoniacal gas2 then if the bottles be held in the hand 7guarded by a pair of gloves71 and suddenly turned1 so that the chlorine be uppermost1 the two gases will unite so rapidly that a white flame fills the bottles for an instant4 #b4 ,substitute for the chlorine of the last experiment a bottle of carbonic or hydrochloric acid gas2 in either case the gases disappear1 and a light white powder settles on the sides of the bottles1 being the carbonate or hydrochlorate of ammonia1 according to the acid used4 ,carbonate of ammonia is the substance sold for 8smelling salts20 and the hydrochlorate1 or muriate of ammonia1 is the salt called 8sal ammoniac10 whence the alkaline gas was first obtained1 and from which it got its name of ammonia4 ,the salt itself was so called1 because it was formerly brought from the deserts near the ruins of the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,this salt is1 as has been shown1 a compound of muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal gas1 containing therefore only three simple elements--hydrogen1 chlorine1 and nitrogen1 all gases1 and known only in the gaseous state1 its symbol being ,,nh#d;,c#b2 yet they by union form a solid body1 resembling in all essential qualities the salts of potash and soda1 which are oxides of known metals4 ,moreover1 if some mercury be placed in a solution of this salt1 and subjected to the action of galvanism1 the negative pole being applied to the mercury1 and the positive to the sal ammoniac1 the mercury presently loses its fluidity1 increases greatly in size1 and in fact presents the same appearance as when it is mixed with some metal1 forming what is called an 8amalgam40 ,when the battery ceases to act1 a succession of white films forms on the surface of the amalgam1 and the mercury soon returns to its original state4 ,how is this to be explained8 ,some chemists have supposed that there must be a base united to the mercury1 and have named this hypothetical substance 8ammonium10 to correspond to potassium and sodium1 the bases of potash and soda1 which resemble ammonia in so many properties4 ,but what is this ammonium8 and how is it formed8 for hydrogen and nitrogen are simply elementary bodies4 ,are all metals compounds of gases8 and are there but a few elements instead of the #fd now enumerated8 ,this1 however1 is a difficult question1 not fitted for discussion here4 ,carbonate of ammonia may be obtained by mixing together powdered chalk 7which is a carbonate of lime7 and muriate of ammonia1 and heating the mixture in close vessels1 when the salt in question will rise in fumes1 and be condensed in a mass in the upper part of the vessel4 ,it is1 however1 so largely produced in other manufactures1 particularly in gas-works1 that there is no necessity to resort to the more expensive and direct method4 ,it is the well-known 8smelling salts40 ,the only other salt of ammonia worth our notice here is the nitrate1 from the destructive distillation of which is obtained the nitrous oxide1 or laughing gas1 already mentioned4 ,iodine--,bromine--,fluorine4 ,on the coasts of certain islands belonging to the ,duke of ,argyll1 vast quantities of sea-weed are occasionally torn up from their ocean beds and deposited on the shores4 ,this weed1 after being partially dried by exposure to the sun and air1 is burnt in a shallow pit2 the ashes are then collected1 and form the commercial raw material called kelp1 from which iodine is procured by a gradual series of processes4 ,experiments4 ,iodine has a beautiful metallic luster1 with a bluish black color1 and should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle4 ,a small quantity placed in a clear flask and heated1 affords a magnificent violet vapor1 which may be poured from the flask into another glass vessel1 when it condenses again into crystalline plates4 ,the color of the vapor originates the name of this element1 so called from a ,greek word1 meaning violet-colored4 ,if a little iodine be placed in contact with a thin slice of phosphorus1 the latter takes fire almost immediately4 ,bromine4 ,from the ,greek1 signifies a bad odor1 and is most intimately allied with chlorine and iodine2 like these elements1 it belongs to the sea1 and is a constituent of sea-water4 ,bromine is a very heavy fluid1 and should be preserved by keeping it covered with water in a stoppered bottle4 ,experiments with liquid bromine are not recommended1 as all the most interesting ones can be performed with the vapor1 which is easily procured by letting fall a few drops of bromine into a warm dry bottle4 ,experiments4 ,pounded antimony sprinkled into the vapor takes fire immediately4 ,a thin slice of phosphorus placed in a deflagrating ladle and placed into the vapor of bromine ignites very quickly4 ,a solution of sulphate of indigo1 or an infusion of red cabbage1 are easily bleached by being shaken violently with the vapor of bromine4 ,fluorine4 ,in many parts of ,england1 especially in ,devonshire1 ,cornwall1 and above all in ,derbyshire1 is found a very beautiful mineral1 known by the name of ,fluor ,spar1 ,derbyshire ,spar1 and called by the miners ,blue ,john1 to distinguish it from another mineral found in the same locality1 called ,black ,jack4 ,it occurs in very regular and frequently large crystals in the form of cubes1 and occasionally in octodra4 ,it is a compound of calcium with fluorine1 and is very abundant in certain fossil bones4 ,this element1 in combination with hydrogen and called hydrofluoric acid1 acts so energetically upon all substances containing silica1 that it cannot be preserved in vessels of glass or porcelain--very few of the metals are capable of resisting its action1 lead being nearly the only common metal possessed of this power4 ,gutta percha may also be employed for vessels to hold it4 ,this property of dissolving silica has caused this acid to be used for engraving on glass4 ,experiment4 ,mix one part of fluor-spar1 quite pure1 with two parts of oil of vitriol1 in a saucer1 and apply a gentle heat1 when the acid will be disengaged in the form of vapor4 ,prepare a piece of glass after the manner of engraving on copper1 by coating it with a thin covering of wax1 placing a paper over the wax1 and then drawing any design with a sharp-pointed instrument1 when1 on removing the paper1 the wax-coating will be found to be removed wherever the instrument has passed over it4 ,now invert this glass over the fumes of the acid for half an hour or so1 and then heat the glass so as to soften the coating1 and wipe it off2 the design will then appear 8bitten in10 as the term is1 that is1 the acid will have dissolved the glass wherever it was not protected by the wax1 and will exhibit the design indelibly fixed on the glass4 ,this acid requires the greatest care in handling1 for it is extremely corrosive1 producing very troublesome ulcers if it comes in contact with the skin2 even the fumes will produce smarting if the skin is long exposed to them4 ,carbon4 ,the next substance in our list of elementary bodies is named carbon4 ,the purest form of carbon is the precious stone called diamond1 which consists entirely of carbon in a crystallized form4 ,the ,french chemist ,lavoisier was the first who proved the combustibility of the diamond2 and ,sir ,h4 ,davy found that when once set on fire it would continue to burn in oxygen gas air1 and that the product of the combustion was carbonic acid gas1 exactly equal in quantity to the gas produced by burning an equal weight of pure charcoal1 the most common form of carbon4 ,plumbago1 or 8black-lead10 as it is very improperly called1 is also nearly pure carbon1 a very small quantity of iron being united with it4 ,by far the greater part of all vegetable1 and a very large portion of animal bodies consists of carbon2 and in the state of carbonic acid in combination with lime and some other earths1 it forms nearly the half of all the chalk1 marble1 and limestone of our hills2 so that it is1 in one shape or other1 one of the most widely diffused bodies in nature4 ,carbon forms two gaseous compounds with oxygen2 the first1 called carbonic oxide1 is easily obtained by boiling oxalic acid with its own bulk of sulphuric acid1 in a flask to which a cork and bent tube is attached4 ,the gas comes over in large quantities1 and must be collected in a gas jar1 or the pneumatic trough4 ,it is inflammable1 and burns with a lambent blue flame4 ,the other compound1 carbonic acid1 is transparent1 colorless1 much heavier than atmospheric air1 has an agreeable taste1 has the power of irritating the mucous membrane of the nose 7as any one can tell who has drunk soda-water71 without possessing any particular odor1 is absorbed by water1 does not support respiration1 and extinguishes flame4 ,carbonic acid gas may be obtained with the greatest facility by pouring some muriatic or sulphuric acid1 diluted with about six parts of water1 upon some pieces of marble or limestone in a bottle with a tube attached1 when the gas comes over in torrents4 ,it may be collected over water4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,to show the great comparative weight of this gas1 place a lighted taper at the bottom of a tall glass jar1 then take a jar full of carbonic acid gas1 and pour it as you would pour water into the jar containing the lighted taper2 you will soon find the taper will be extinguished as effectually as if you had poured water on it1 and the smoke of the taper will float on the surface of the gas in very beautiful wavy forms4 #b4 ,heat a piece of the metal potassium in a metal spoon 7platinum is best71 and if introduced in a state of ignition into the gas1 it will continue burning brilliantly1 producing a quantity of dense smoke1 which is the carbon from the carbonic acid1 the potassium having seized the oxygen1 and being converted by it into potash4 #c4 ,if a mouse1 bird1 or other small animal be placed in a jar of this gas1 it becomes insensible almost immediately2 but if speedily removed it will occasionally recover4 #d4 ,shake up some water with some of this gas in a bottle2 the greater part of the gas will be absorbed by the water1 which acquires a sparkling appearance and a pleasant sharp taste2 with the addition of a little soda this becomes the well-known beverage called soda-water1 so famous for removing the morning headaches caused by 8that salmon0 having disagreed at yesterday's dinner4 ,it is the presence of this gas which renders it so dangerous to descend into deep wells1 for by its great weight it collects at the bottom1 and instantly suffocates any unfortunate person who incautiously subjects himself to it4 ,hence it is prudent always to let down a lighted candle before any one descends into a well1 or other deep excavation1 and if the candle is extinguished1 it is necessary to throw down several pails of water--lime-water1 if possible--and again to try the candle1 which must burn freely before it is safe for any one to descend4 ,it is this same gas1 under the name of 8choke-damp10 which proves so dangerous to miners1 particularly after an explosion of 8fire-damp10 for it is the principal product of the explosion1 and it is by no means an easy matter to dislodge it4 ,carbonic acid gas has been condensed into the fluid form by causing it to be disengaged under great pressure2 the fluid acid has the appearance of water4 ,when the pressure is removed1 as by allowing some of the fluid acid to escape from the vessel in which it has been condensed1 it instantly reassumes the gaseous form1 and in so doing absorbs so much latent caloric that a portion of the acid is actually solidified1 and appears in the shape of snow1 which may be collected and preserved for a short time4 ,carbonic acid and lime are mutually tests for each other4 ,if a jar containing a little lime-water be put into a jar of this gas1 it speedily becomes turbid1 the gas uniting with the lime1 and producing chalk 7the carbonate of lime71 which is insoluble in water4 ,this gas is produced in large quantities by the respiration of animals1 as may be proved by respiring through a tube immersed in lime-water1 when the water will be instantly rendered turbid from the formation of chalk4 ,carbon and ,hydrogen4 ,to the combination of these elements in various proportions1 and with the occasional addition of other substances1 we are indebted for all1 or nearly all1 our means of obtaining light and heat4 ,coal1 wood1 spirit1 oil1 and all the varieties of fats1 are composed principally of carbon and hydrogen1 and may easily be converted into the gas with which our houses and streets are lighted1 which is nearly pure carbureted hydrogen4 ,the two chief definite gaseous compounds of those two elements are the light carbureted hydrogen and the heavy carbureted hydrogen1 or olefiant gas4 ,the first is easily procured by stirring the bottom of stagnant water on a hot summer's day1 and collecting the bubbles in a bottle filled with water and inverted over the place where the bubbles rise4 ,this gas burns with a yellowish flame1 and when mixed with a certain proportion of air1 or oxygen gas1 explodes with great violence on the application of a flame4 ,it is the much dreaded fire-damp generated so profusely in some coal-mines1 and causing such fearful destruction to life and property when accidentally inflamed4 ,the other compound1 the heavy carbureted hydrogen1 forms part of the gas used for illumination2 and1 in fact1 whatever substance is employed for artificial light1 whether oil1 tallow1 wax1 etc41 etc41 it is converted into this gas by heat1 and then furnishes the light by its own combustion4 ,this gas has some very curious properties1 and may be obtained nearly pure by mixing in a retort1 very carefully1 one part of spirits of wine and four of sulphuric acid4 ,a lamp must be placed under the retort1 when the gas will be speedily disengaged1 and come over in great abundance2 it may be collected over water4 ,this gas is transparent1 colorless1 will not support combustion1 but is itself inflammable1 burning with a brilliant white light1 and being converted into carbonic acid and water4 ,if mixed with three or four times its bulk of oxygen1 or with common atmospheric air in much larger proportion1 it explodes with great violence4 ,this gas is sometimes called 8olefiant gas10 from the property it has of forming an oily substance when mixed with chlorine4 ,experiment4 ,into a jar standing over water half full of this gas1 pass an equal quantity of chlorine gas4 ,the gases will speedily unite and form an oily-looking liquid1 which may be collected from the sides of the jar as it trickles down4 ,by continually supplying the jar with the two gases as they combine1 a considerable quantity of this substance may be collected4 ,care should be taken that the olefiant gas is rather in excess4 ,the substance produced is insoluble in water1 with which it should be washed by shaking them together in a tube1 and has a pleasant sweetish taste and aromatic smell1 somewhat resembling ether4 ,coal ,gas4 ,the gas so universally employed for the purposes of illumination is a mixture of the carbureted and the bi-carbureted hydrogen1 with minute portions of other gases scarcely worth mentioning4 ,it is procured by submitting coals to a red heat in iron retorts1 having a tube passing from one end1 along which passes all the fluid and gaseous matter separated from the coal1 namely1 gas tar1 ammoniacal liquor1 and various gases1 carbureted hydrogen1 carbonic acid1 sulphureted hydrogen1 etc41 etc4 ,the tar and ammoniacal liquor remain in the vessel in which the tubes from the retorts terminate1 and the gaseous productions are conveyed through water and lime to separate the impurities2 the remaining gas1 now fit for use1 passes into large iron vessels1 called gasometers1 inverted over water 7like the jars in a pneumatic trough71 whence it is sent through pipes and distributed where required4 ,what remains in the retorts is called coke4 ,it consists principally of charcoal mixed with the earthy and metallic particles contained in the coal4 ,experiment4 ,if you possess an iron bottle1 fill it with powdered coal1 and attach a flexible tube to it1 and put it in the fire2 as soon as it becomes red-hot1 large quantities of smoke will escape from the end of the tube1 being the gas mixed with all its impurities4 ,by passing it through water 7if mixed with lime it will be better71 the gas may be collected in jars standing over water1 and submitted to experiment4 ,if you do not possess a bottle1 take a tobacco-pipe with a large bowl1 fill the bowl with small coal1 cover it with clay or putty1 and when dry put it into the fire1 and the gas will soon appear at the other end of the pipe1 when it may be lighted1 or the gas may be collected over water1 as in the former experiment4 ,the light carbureted hydrogen contained in this gas is given off spontaneously in some coal-mines1 and as it forms explosive mixtures with atmospheric air1 the mines where it abounds could not be worked except at the greatest risk until about the beginning of the present century1 when ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 while prosecuting some researches on the nature of flame1 found that flame would not pass through metallic tubes1 and he gradually reduced the length of the tubes1 until he found fine iron-wire gauze formed an effectual barrier against the passage of flame4 ,he then thought that if the light in a lantern were surrounded with this gauze it might safely be used in an inflammable atmosphere1 where a naked light would instantly cause an explosion4 ,upon submitting the lamp to experiment1 he found that by passing coal-gas by degrees into a vessel in which one of his lamps was suspended1 the flame first became much larger1 and then was extinguished1 the cylinder of gauze being filled with a pale flame1 and though the gauze sometimes became red-hot1 it did not ignite the gas outside4 ,as the supply of coal-gas was diminished1 the wick of the lamp was rekindled1 and all went on as at first4 ,a coil of platinum wire was afterwards suspended in the lamps1 which becomes intensely heated by the burning gas1 and gives out sufficient light to enable the miner to see to work4 ,as long as the gauze is perfect it is almost impossible for the external air to be kindled by the wick of the lamp1 but the miners are so careless that they will often remove the gauze to get a better light1 to look for a tool1 or some cause equally trivial1 and many lives have been lost in consequence of such carelessness4 ,the effect of the fine wire gauze in preventing the passage of flame may be shown by bringing a piece of the gauze gradually over the flame of a spirit-lamp1 until it nearly touches the wick1 when the flame will be nearly extinguished1 but the vapor of the spirit passes through1 and may be lighted on the upper side of the gauze1 which will thus have a flame on either side1 though totally unconnected with each other4 ,the flame from a gas-burner will answer as well as the spirit-lamp4 ,nearly all the fluids1 and solids also1 used for procuring artificial light1 such as naptha1 various oils1 tallow1 wax1 spermaceti1 spirits of wine1 ether1 etc41 are compounds of carbon and hydrogen in different proportions1 with the occasional addition of some other elements1 especially oxygen and hydrogen1 in the proportions to form water2 as a general rule1 those bodies containing the greatest proportion of carbon give the most light1 though not necessarily the most heat4 ,phosphorus4 ,the next body we have to notice is phosphorus1 a most remarkable substance1 procured from the earthy part of bones by a process not worth detailing here4 ,it should be always kept under water1 and the naked fingers should not be allowed even to touch it1 for the smallest piece getting under the nail will inflame the first time the hand comes near the fire1 and produce a sore very painful and difficult to heal4 ,it should be cut under water by a knife or scissors1 and removed with a pair of forceps4 ,its combustible properties have been frequently mentioned4 ,it has also the property of shining in the dark1 so that if you write on a wall with a solution of phosphorus in oil1 the letters will appear luminous in the dark--there is no danger1 excepting from the greasiness of the oil4 ,of the compounds of phosphorus with oxygen we have nothing to do here1 but it forms with hydrogen a very curious gaseous compound1 which takes fire spontaneously on the contact of air1 or almost any gas containing oxygen4 ,experiments4 ,it may be procured in either of two ways1 according to the purpose for which it is wanted4 ,the simplest way is to put a lump or two of phosphuret of lime into a saucer1 about two inches in depth1 containing some very diluted hydrochloric acid2 bubbles of gas will speedily arise1 and bursting on the surface of the fluid will burn with a slight explosion1 and a circular wreath of smoke will rise into the atmosphere1 enlarging as it rises1 and wreathing itself round and round in the most elegant forms4 ,care must be taken that the phosphuret is fresh1 and has been kept in a well-closed bottle1 or the experiment will fail4 ,the apartment must be free from draughts4 ,if you desire to collect the gas1 another method must be employed4 ,fill a small retort quite full1 neck and all1 of a solution of caustic potash1 drop five or six pieces of phosphorus into it1 place the finger on the end of the retort1 and immerse it in a basin also containing a hot solution of potash1 remove the finger1 and on applying the heat of a lamp to the retort1 the gas will soon be disengaged rapidly1 and drive out the fluid in the retort2 it then escapes into the air1 when it inflames with the same appearances as before described4 ,or it may be collected in gas jars filled with the potash solution1 and held over the mouth of the retort4 ,the object in using hot solution of potash in the basin is1 that when the gas ceases to be given off1 and the heat of the lamp is withdrawn1 the hot fluid may gradually fill the vacuum which will form in the retort1 and so prevent its being broken4 ,this gas is transparent and invisible1 like most other gases4 ,it is very poisonous if inhaled4 ,if kept for any time1 it loses its property of spontaneous inflammation1 and must therefore be made at the time it is required4 ,sulphur4 ,sulphur1 or brimstone1 as it is frequently called1 is sold in the form of sticks1 or roll brimstone1 or in fine powder called flowers of brimstone4 ,it is capable of showing electric phenomena when rubbed1 giving out slight sparks1 and first attracting and then repelling light bodies1 such as small pieces of paper1 etc4 ,it is so bad a conductor of heat1 that if grasped suddenly in a hot hand1 it will crack and split into pieces just as glass does when suddenly heated or cooled--of course ,i am speaking of the roll brimstone4 ,water has no effect on it1 as may be seen in the pans placed for pet dogs to drink out of1 where the same piece of brimstone lies for years entirely unaltered1 though it is supposed to prevent the dogs from having the mange6 ,sulphur is largely used in the arts1 principally in the manufacture of gunpowder1 and fireworks of various kinds4 ,it combines with hydrogen and forms a gaseous compound called sulphureted hydrogen1 which is almost the most poisonous of all the gases4 ,it fortunately has so abominable a smell that due notice is given of its presence4 ,rotten eggs1 a dirty gun-barrel1 cabbage water1 putrid animal and vegetable matter1 etc41 are indebted to this gas for their inviting odor2 and it is found in certain mineral springs1 as at ,harrogate1 where the water contains a considerable quantity of this gas1 and is found useful in many diseases of the skin4 ,it is also given off in a gaseous form by some volcanoes4 ,this gas may be obtained by pouring dilute hydrochloric acid upon a metallic sulphuret1 such as that called crude antimony1 being a native sulphuret of that metal4 ,the gas may be kept for a short time over water4 ,it is colorless and transparent1 inflammable1 but quite irrespirable1 a small bird dying instantly when placed in air containing only #a-aejjth of this gas4 ,its most remarkable property perhaps is the effect it has on certain metallic oxides and other metallic salts1 blackening them instantly4 ,white paint is easily stained by this gas1 and it will darken the color of a metal in a solution1 especially of lead1 even when diluted with #bj1jjj times its weight of water4 ,by way of experiment slips of ribbon1 silk1 or even paper1 may be wetted with various metallic solutions1 such as silver1 mercury1 lead1 etc41 or words may be written with the solutions1 and on holding them over a stream of this gas they will be instantly darkened4 ,if this gas be collected in the pneumatic trough1 which is usually painted white1 you will have the pleasure of seeing the color changed to a very dark brown when your experiments are finished4 ,with this very limited description of some of the non-metallic elements and their combinations1 we must1 for want of space1 take leave of this division of chemistry1 8the beginning of which is pleasure1 its progress knowledge1 its objects truth and utility40 ,metals4 ,we have a few words to say about a class of bodies called metals1 which are of the utmost importance to mankind1 and indeed without some of them1 especially iron1 few of the arts of civilized life could exist4 ,fifty substances are now included in the list of metals2 some of them1 however1 are only supposed to exist1 such as ammonium1 the supposed base of ammonia2 and very many are to be viewed rather in the light of chemical curiosities1 as from their great rarity they are too expensive for use1 even if possessed of valuable properties of which others might be destitute4 ,several metals have been known from the earliest period of which we have any record2 such were iron1 gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 tin1 mercury1 and probably zinc1 or at least its ores2 for brass1 which is an alloy of copper and zinc1 is frequently mentioned in the early part of the ,old ,testament4 ,in the sixteenth century others were discovered1 such as antimony and bismuth4 ,in the last century1 cobalt1 arsenic1 platinum1 nickel1 manganese and chromium1 together with several unimportant metals1 were discovered by various philosophers2 while in the present century1 ,dr4 ,wollaston discovered rhodium1 the hardest and nearly the most indestructible of all the metals2 and a few years later ,sir ,humphry ,davy found that the alkalies1 potash and soda1 with many of the earths as they were called1 had each a metal for its base1 to which he gave the ,latin name of the alkali or earth1 with the termination um1 as potassium1 the base of potassa1 sodium of soda1 calcium of calx 7lime71 etc4 ,until ,sir ,h4 ,davy's discovery of the metals of the alkalies1 great specific gravity was regarded as one of the most striking characteristics of a metal1 the lightest of them being much heavier than the heaviest earth2 but potassium is very much lighter than water1 and not much heavier than spirits of wine4 ,the other metals vary from a specific gravity of nearly twenty-one--or twenty-one times heavier than an equal bulk of water--that of platinum1 to somewhat less than seven1 which is the specific gravity of antimony4 ,when pure1 they all have a luster1 differing indeed among themselves1 but so peculiar that it is called the metallic luster2 for instance1 gold and copper are yellow and red--nearly all the others white1 but of a different shade2 still there is no mistaking their metallic character1 no other substances at all equaling them in this respect4 ,they are also opaque1 although some1 like gold1 when reduced to thin films1 allow light to pass through them4 ,they are all good conductors of heat and electricity1 though some possess that property to a greater extent than others4 ,many of them are what is called malleable1 that is1 may be extended or spread out by rolling1 or beating them with a hammer2 and ductile1 or have the property of being drawn out into wire4 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 and iron are the most remarkable in this respect4 ,all the metals are fusible1 but some require very different degrees of heat to render them fluid--platinum requiring the heat of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe1 while tin melts in the flame of a candle1 and mercury is fluid at all temperatures in this climate1 but becomes solid at #dj degrees ,fahrenheit below #j--;a temperature occasionally experienced in the ,arctic regions1 where the mercurial thermometer is useless1 the mercury becoming solid4 ,they are all excellent conductors of heat and electricity1 and have the property of reflecting light and forming mirrors2 for looking-glasses owe their power of reflecting objects principally to what is called the 8silvering20 that is1 a mixture of mercury and tin spread over the back of the glass1 which being transparent1 allows the image reflected from the metal to pass through it4 ,the following classification is most instructive1 because it suggests to the young student that there must be identical properties in the metals thus placed together3 ,class #a4 ,ammonium1 csium1 lithium1 potassium1 sodium4 ,class #b4 ,calcium1 barium1 strontium4 ,class #c4 ,aluminium1 cerium1 didymium1 erbium1 glucinium1 lanthanum1 thorium1 yttrium1 zirconium4 ,class #d4 ,zinc class3 cadmium1 magnesium1 zinc4 ,class #e4 ,iron class3 cobalt1 chromium1 indium1 iron1 manganese1 nickel1 uranium4 ,class #f4 ,tin class3 niobium1 tantalum1 tin1 titanium4 ,class #g4 ,tungsten class3 molybdenum1 tungsten1 vanadium4 ,class #h4 ,arsenic class3 antimony1 arsenic1 bismuth4 ,class #i4 ,lead class3 lead1 thallium4 ,class #aj4 ,silver class3 copper1 mercury1 silver4 ,class #aa4 ,gold class3 gold1 iridium1 osmium1 palladium1 platinum1 rhodium1 ruthenium4 ,potassium4 ,potassium was discovered by ,sir ,h4 ,davy in the beginning of the present century4 ,it is a brilliant white metal1 so soft as to be easily cut with a penknife1 and so light as to swim upon water1 on which it acts with great energy1 uniting with the oxygen1 and liberating the hydrogen1 which takes fire as it escapes4 ,experiment4 ,trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel's-hair brush dipped in water1 and place a piece of potassium about the size of a pea on one of the lines1 and it will follow the course of the pencil1 taking fire as it runs1 and burning with a purplish light4 ,the paper will be found covered with a solution of ordinary potash4 ,if turmeric paper be used1 the course of the potassium will be marked with a deep brown color4--,corollary4 ,hence1 if you touch potassium with wet fingers you will burn them4 ,if a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice1 it will instantly take fire1 and form a deep hole1 which will be found to contain a solution of potash4 ,in consequence of its great affinity for oxygen1 potassium must be kept in some fluid destitute of that element1 such as naphtha4 ,caution6--,as the globules of potassium after conversion into potash1 when thrown on ice or water burst1 strewing small particles of caustic hot potash in every direction1 the greatest care should be taken to keep at a sufficient distance whilst performing the above experiment4 ,saltpeter1 or niter1 is a compound of this metal 7or rather its oxide7 with nitric acid4 ,it is one of the ingredients of gunpowder1 and has the property of quickening the combustion of all combustible bodies4 ,mix some chlorate of potash with lump sugar1 both being powdered1 and drop on the mixture a little strong sulphuric acid1 and it will instantly burst into flame4 ,this experiment also requires caution4 ,want of space precludes us from considering the individual metals and their compounds in detail2 it must suffice to describe some experiments showing some of their properties4 ,the different affinities of the metals for oxygen may be exhibited in various ways4 ,the silver or zinc tree has already been described4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,into a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water immerse a clean plate or slip of copper4 ,the solution1 which was colorless1 will soon begin to assume a greenish tint1 and the piece of copper will be covered with a coating of a light gray color1 which is the silver formerly united to the nitric acid1 which has been displaced by the greater affinity or liking of the oxygen and acid for the copper4 #b4 ,when the copper is no longer coated1 but remains clean and bright when immersed in the fluid1 all the silver has been deposited1 and the glass now contains a solution of copper4 ,place a piece of clean iron in the solution1 and it will almost instantly be coated with a film of copper1 and this will continue until the whole of that metal is removed1 and its place filled by an equivalent quantity of iron1 so that the nitrate of iron is found in the liquid4 ,the oxygen and nitric acid remain unaltered in quantity or quality during these changes1 being merely transferred from one metal to another4 ,a piece of zinc will displace the iron in like manner1 leaving a solution of nitrate of zinc4 ,nearly all the colors used in the arts are produced by metals and their combinations2 indeed1 one is named chromium1 from a ,greek word signifying color1 on account of the beautiful tints obtained from its various combinations with oxygen and the other metals4 ,all the various tints of green1 orange1 yellow1 and red1 are obtained from this metal4 ,solutions of most of the metallic salts give precipitates with solutions of alkalies and their salts1 as well as with many other substances1 such as what are usually called prussiate of potash1 hydro-sulphuret of ammonia1 etc42 and the colors differ according to the metal employed1 and so small a quantity is required to produce the color that the solutions before mixing may be nearly colorless4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,to a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a solution of prussiate of potash1 and a blue color will be produced4 #b4 ,substitute sulphate of copper for iron1 and the color will be a rich brown4 #c4 ,another blue1 of quite a different tint1 may be produced by letting a few drops or a solution of ammonia fall into one of sulphate of copper--a precipitate of a light blue falls down1 which is dissolved by an additional quantity of the ammonia1 and forms a transparent solution of the most splendid rich blue color4 #d4 ,into a solution of sulphate of iron let fall a few drops of a strong infusion of galls1 and the color will become a bluish-black--in fact1 ink4 ,a little tea will answer as well as the infusion of galls4 ,this is the reason why certain stuffs formerly in general use for dressing-gowns for gentlemen were so objectionable2 for as they were indebted to a salt of iron for their color1 buff as it was called1 a drop of tea accidentally spilt produced all the effect of a drop of ink4 #e4 ,put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces of granulated zinc1 fill it about one-third full of water1 put in a few grains of iodine and boil the water1 which will at first acquire a dark purple color1 gradually fading as the iodine combines with the zinc4 ,add a little more iodine from time to time1 until the zinc is nearly all dissolved4 ,if a few drops of this solution be added to an equally colorless solution of corrosive sublimate 7a salt of mercury7 a precipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet color1 brighter if possible than vermilion1 which is also a preparation of mercury4 ,crystallization of ,metals4 ,some of the metals assume certain definite forms in returning from the fluid to the solid state4 ,bismuth shows this property more readily than most others4 ,experiment4 ,melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the fire2 remove it as soon as the whole is fluid2 and when the surface has become solid break a hole in it1 and pour out the still fluid metal from the interior2 what remains will exhibit beautifully-formed crystals of a cubic shape4 ,sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner1 but its fumes1 when heated1 are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter them4 ,one of the most remarkable facts in chemistry1 a science abounding in wonders1 is the circumstance1 that the mere contact of hydrogen1 the lightest body known1 with the metal platinum1 the heaviest1 when in a state of minute division1 called spongy platinum1 produces an intense heat1 sufficient to inflame the hydrogen2 of course this experiment must be made in the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen4 ,time and space 7or rather the want of them7 compel us to conclude with a few experiments of a miscellaneous character4 ,to ,form a ,solid ,from ,two ,liquids4 ,prepare separately1 saturated solutions of sulphate of magnesia 7,epsom salts7 and carbonate of potash4 ,on mixing them the result will be nearly solid4 ,solutions of muriate of lime and carbonate of potash will answer as well4 ,to ,form a ,liquid ,from ,two ,solids4 ,rub together in a ,wedgewood mortar a small quantity of sulphate of soda and acetate of lead1 and as they mix they will become liquid4 ,carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper1 previously reduced to powder separately1 will also1 when mixed1 become liquid1 and acquire a most splendid blue color4 ,the greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular forms1 or become crystallized1 when passing from the fluid to the solid state2 and the size and regularity of the crystals depend in a great measure on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they were dissolved4 ,sugar is a capital example of this property2 the ordinary loaf-sugar being rapidly boiled down1 as it is called3 while to make sugar-candy1 which is nothing but sugar in a crystallized form1 the solution is allowed to evaporate slowly1 and as it cools it forms into those beautiful crystals termed sugar-candy4 ,the threads found in the center of some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of hastening the formation of the crystals4 ,experiments4 #a4 ,make a strong solution of alum1 or of sulphate of copper1 or blue vitriol1 and place in them rough and irregular pieces of clinker from stoves1 or wire-baskets1 and set them by in a cool place1 where they will be free from dust1 and in a few days crystals of the several salts will deposit themselves on the baskets1 etc42 they should then be taken out of the solutions1 and dried1 when they form very pretty ornaments for a room4 #b4 ,fill a ,florence flask up to the neck with a strong solution of sulphate of soda1 or ,glauber's salt1 boil it1 and tie the mouth over with a piece of moistened bladder while boiling1 and set it by in a place where it cannot be disturbed4 ,after twenty-four hours it will probably still remain fluid4 ,pierce the bladder covering with a penknife1 and the entrance of the air will cause the whole mass instantly to crystallize1 and the flask will become quite warm from the latent caloric1 of which we have spoken before1 given out by the salt in passing from the fluid to the solid state4 ,it is better to prepare two or three flasks at the same time1 to provide against accidents1 for the least shake will often cause crystallization to take place before the proper time4 ,changes of ,color ,produced by ,colorless ,liquids4 ,make a strong infusion of the leaves of the red cabbage1 which will be of a beautiful blue color2 drop into it a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid1 and the color will change to a bright red2 add some solution of carbonate of potash1 or soda1 and the red color will gradually give way to the original blue2 continue adding the alkaline solution1 and the fluid will assume a bright green color4 ,now resume the acid1 and as it is dropped in1 the color will again change from green to blue1 and from blue to red4 ,now this simple experiment illustrates three points3 first1 that acids change the color of most vegetable blues and greens to red2 second1 that alkalies change most blues and reds to green2 and third1 that when the acid and alkali are united together1 they both lose their property of changing color1 and become what is called a neutral salt1 i4e4 a compound possessing the properties of neither of its constituents4 ,,acoustics4 ,acoustics is the science relating to sound and hearing4 ,sound is heard when any shock or impulse is given to the air1 or to any other body which is in contact directly or indirectly with the ear4 ,difference ,between ,sound and ,noise4 ,noises are made by the crack of whips1 the beating of hammers1 the creak of a file or saw1 or the hubbub of a multitude4 ,but when a bell is struck1 the bow of a violin drawn across the strings1 or the wetted finger turned round a musical glass1 we have what are properly called sounds4 ,sounds1 ,how ,propagated4 ,sounds are propagated on all bodies much after the manner that waves are in water1 with a velocity of #a1adb feet in a second4 ,sounds in liquids and in solids are more rapid than in air4 ,two stones rubbed together may be heard in water at half a mile2 solid bodies convey sounds to great distances1 and pipes may be made to convey the voice over every part of the house4 ,to ,show ,how ,sound ,travels ,through a ,solid4 ,take a long piece of wood1 such as the handle of a hair broom1 and placing a watch at one end1 apply your ear to the other1 and the tickings will be distinctly heard4 ,to ,show ,that ,sound ,depends on ,vibration4 ,touch a bell when it is sounding1 and the noise ceases2 the same may be done to a musical string with the same results4 ,hold a musical pitch-fork to the lips1 when it is made to sound1 and a quivering motion will be felt from its vibrations4 ,these experiments show that sound is produced by the quick motions and vibrations of different bodies4 ,musical ,figures ,resulting ,from ,sound4 ,cover the mouth of a wine-glass1 having a foot-stalk1 with a thin sheet of membrane1 over which scatter a layer of fine sand4 ,the vibrations excited in the air by the sound of a musical instrument1 held within a few inches of the membrane1 will cause the sand on its surface to form regular lines and figures with astonishing celerity1 which vary with the sound produced4 ,to ,make an olian ,harp4 ,this instrument consists of a long1 narrow box of very thin deal1 about six inches deep1 with a circle in the middle of the upper side of an inch and a half in diameter1 in which are to be drilled small holes4 ,on this side seven1 ten or more strings of very fine catgut are stretched over bridges at each end1 like the bridges of a fiddle1 and screwed up or relaxed with screw-pins4 ,the strings must all be tuned to one and the same note1 and the instrument should be placed in a window partly open1 in which the width is exactly equal to the length of the harp1 with the sash just raised to give the air admission4 ,when the air blows upon these strings with different degrees of force1 it will excite different tones of sound4 ,sometimes the blast brings out all the tones in full concert1 and sometimes it sinks them to the softest murmurs4 ,a colossal imitation of the instrument just described was invented at ,milan in #aghf by the ,abbate ,gattoni4 ,he stretched seven strong iron wires1 tuned to the notes of the gamut1 from the top of a tower sixty feet high1 to the house of a ,signor ,moscate1 who was interested in the success of the experiment2 and this apparatus1 called the 8giant's harp10 in blowing weather yielded lengthened peals of harmonious music4 ,in a storm this music was heard at a greater distance4 ,,fireworks4 ,we know full well the intense delight taken by boys in risking their limbs or their lives1 especially when such risk is accompanied with noise4 ,boys always have done so1 and always will do so in spite of the very best of advice or precautions4 ,as1 therefore1 it is impossible to keep them from making noises1 and endangering themselves1 we have1 in this article1 endeavored to show them how to make as much noise as possible1 with as little danger as possible4 ,what is there that makes the most noise1 and is most dangerous8 ,gunpowder1 of course4 ,therefore1 we have given descriptions of the best methods of employing this material1 feeling quite sure that of accidents with gunpowder nine out of every ten are caused by ignorance4 ,we knew a boy who lost the use of a thumb1 and took all the skin off the palm of his right hand1 by ignorant management of powder4 ,he had read of blasting rocks1 and nothing would satisfy him but blasting a bank4 ,so he bored a deep hole in it with a stick1 filled the hole with gunpowder1 and then poked a lighted lucifer into the powder4 ,the consequence was that his face was so scorched as not to be recognized1 all his eyebrows and eyelashes1 and most of his hair were burned off1 while his right hand was injured1 as has been already mentioned4 ,now that boy had been studiously kept out of the way of powder by female relatives1 and was naturally profoundly ignorant of its effects4 ,had he been taught to handle it1 he would not now be forced to keep his right hand closed1 or to write by holding the pen between the fingers of his clenched hand4 ,gunpowder4 ,it will not be very advisable for the firework boy to make his own powder1 but still it will not be amiss that he should know how it is prepared4 ,pulverize separately #e drams of nitrate of potass1 #a dram of sulphur1 and #a dram of newly-burnt charcoal2 mix them together in a mortar1 with a little water1 so as to make the compound into a dough1 which roll out into round pieces of the thickness of a pin upon a slab4 ,this must be done by moving a board backwards and forwards until the dough is of a proper size4 ,when three or four of these pieces are ready put them together1 and cut them off into small grains4 ,place these grains on a sheet of paper1 in a warm place1 where they will soon dry1 but away from a fire4 ,during granulation the dough must be prevented from sticking by using a little of the dry compound powder4 ,this mode of granulation1 though tedious1 is the only one to be used for so small a quantity for the sake of experiment4 ,in making powder in a large way it is granulated by passing the composition through sieves4 ,how to ,make ,touch-,paper4 ,dissolve in a little spirits of wine or vinegar a little saltpeter1 then take some purple or blue paper1 and wet it with the above liquor1 and it will be fit for use4 ,when pasting paper on any of the following works take care that the paste does not touch that part which is to burn4 ,the method of using this paper is to cut it into slips long enough to go once round the mouth of a serpent1 cracker1 etc4 ,cases for ,squibs1 ,flower-,pots1 ,rockets1 ,roman ,candles1 ,etc4 ,procure a hard wooden cylinder1 or1 if possible1 one made of metal1 whose diameter corresponds with that of the interior of the proposed case4 ,roll round it several folds of cartridge paper1 and paste the edges well1 so that it may be held securely4 ,tie it round until dry4 ,to ,choke the ,cases4 ,when the cases are thus made they will require to be tied at the lower end4 ,this is called choking them1 and as much force is required it is necessary4 ,fix a wire into a small solid cylinder4 ,take another short piece1 an inch or two long1 with a hole up it to admit the other end of the wire1 fit it on1 and pass it up the case4 ,then having fastened a piece of whip-cord to a post1 wind it round the part left hollow by the wire1 which should be about half an inch from the end2 pull it tight with the right hand1 and work the case round with the left4 ,cut out a piece of touch paper two inches long1 and an inch and a half broad1 wind it round the choke1 and tie it on with a piece of fine string--twist it to a point4 ,the cases are best choked while damp4 ,composition for ,squibs1 ,etc4 ,gunpowder1 half a pound2 charcoal1 #a ounce2 brimstone1 #a ounce1 or in like proportion2 grind them in a muller or pound them in a mortar4 ,or you may take #a part steel filings1 #a charcoal1 #a sulphur1 and #d powder1 which is a very good mixture1 and can be rubbed together in a mortar4 ,how to ,fill the ,cases4 ,your cases must be very dry when ready1 and should be put into an iron or wooden mold2 first put in a thimble full of your powder1 and ram it down very hard with your ruler1 then put in a little more till the case is full1 ramming it down hard every time4 ,if you have no mold1 hold the case in your left hand with the twisted touch-paper downwards1 and fill it after the same manner4 ,when you have filled within an inch of the top1 fill up this with loose powder not rammed1 for a bang1 and fold in the ends2 after filling a dozen or two melt some pitch in a small ladle1 and smear the end of the case with it by means of a small brush4 ,to ,make ,crackers4 ,cut some stout cartridge-paper into pieces three inches and a half broad and one foot long1 fold down one edge of these pieces lengthwise about three-quarters of an inch broad1 then fold the double edge down a quarter of an inch1 and turn the single edge back half over the double fold4 ,open it1 and lay all along the channel which is formed by the folding of the paper some meal powder1 then fold it over and over till the paper is doubled up1 rubbing it down at every turn2 this being done bend it backwards and forwards two inches and a half1 or thereabouts1 at a time1 as often as the paper will allow4 ,hold all these folds flat and close1 and with a small pinching cord give one turn round the middle of the cracker and pinch it close2 bind it with pack thread as tight as you can1 then in the place where it was pinched prime one end and cap it with touch-paper4 ,when these crackers are fired they will give a loud report at every turn of the paper3 if you want a great number of these1 you have only to cut the paper longer1 or join it on to a greater length2 but if they are made very long you must have a piece of wood with a groove in it deep enough to let in half the cracker1 which will hold it straight while you are pinching it4 ,roman ,candles and ,stars4 ,these are best made with the following ingredients3 #a ounce of powder1 #a ounce of sulphur1 and #b ounces of niter4 ,some persons1 however1 prefer #a part sulphur1 #a charcoal1 #a iron filings1 #d of powder1 and #h of niter4 ,the composition being made1 in filling the cases fill the contrary way to a squib--stop up the choke by driving down a piece of paper4 ,put in #a quill of gunpowder loose and #a star made in the following manner3 #a ounce of camphor1 #a of sulphur1 #b of meal powder1 #a ounce of the colored fires1 moisten them with oil of turpentine1 and work them into little round balls4 ,having placed a star within the case1 put in above it #c quills of the composition1 ram down1 then powder1 star1 and composition alternately1 till the case is full4 ,paste touch-paper round the top and twist to a point4 ,rockets4 ,there are several recipes for making rockets1 the best of which is #c ounces of charcoal1 #f of sulphur1 #h of niter1 #cb of meal powder4 ,another very good one is1 #c ounces of iron filings1 #d of powdered charcoal1 #h of sulphur1 #af of niter1 and #fd of meal powder4 ,if a smaller quantity is wanted divide each proportion by #b1 if a still smaller divide by #d4 ,rains4 ,sometimes gold or silver rains are added to rockets1 which give them a very beautiful appearance4 ,a gold rain is made of #b parts sawdust1 #d sulphur1 #d meal powder1 #f glass dust1 #af niter1 in all #cb parts4 ,a silver rain may be made of #b parts salt prunella1 #h sulphuret of antimony1 #h sulphur1 #h meal powder1 and #ad niter1 in all #cb parts4 ,catherine ,wheels4 ,these are very pretty fireworks1 and are made to turn on a pivot4 ,there are many recipes for the composition of which they are formed2 #a part camphor1 #a sulphur1 #a niter1 #b meal powder4 ,another is1 #c parts iron filings1 #d sulphur1 #ab niter1 #af meal powder4 ,this composition is to be rammed into small cases1 and bound round a small wheel having a hole for a pivot in the center4 ,various ,colored ,fires4 ,the following recipes will give the young firework maker a great variety of the most beautiful fires4 ,they should never be fired in a room1 however1 and always away from a dwelling4 ,crimson ,fire4 ,the principal ingredient in this is nitrate of strontium1 of which #dj parts are taken1 with #ac of sulphur1 #ae of chlorate of potass1 #d of sulphuret of antimony1 and #b of lamp-black4 ,these1 as all the ingredients for the other fires1 should be rubbed in a ladle1 and they may be used in a ladle or iron dish set on the ground4 ,blue ,fire4 ,the ingredients of blue fire are #bj parts2 #ab of niter1 #d of sulphur1 #b of sulphuret of antimony1 and #b of lamp-black4 ,green ,fire4 ,the ingredients for green fire are in #ed parts2 #db of nitrate of barytes1 #h of sulphur1 #c of chlorate of potass1 and #a of lamp-black4 ,purple ,fire4 ,the best recipe for purple fire is of #fj parts2 #be of niter1 #be of nitrate of strontium1 #g of sulphur1 #b of realgor1 and #a of lamp-black4 ,white ,fire4 ,the best and purest white fire is made of #bd parts of niter1 #g of sulphur1 #b of red arsenic1 and one of lamp-black4 ,spur ,fire4 #i parts of niter1 #d of sulphur1 and #c of lamp-black1 well rubbed together4 ,blue ,lights4 ,these are made of #d parts of sulphur1 #b of niter1 and #a of powder1 and are rammed into squib-cases the contrary way4 ,port or ,wildfires4 ,saltpeter #d parts1 meal powder #f parts1 and sulphur #c parts4 ,the composition to be moistened with linseed-oil4 ,slow ,fire for ,wheels4 ,saltpeter #d parts1 sulphur #b parts1 and meal powder #b parts4 ,dead ,fire for ,wheels4 ,saltpeter #e parts1 sulphur #a part1 lapis calaminaris #a part1 and antimony #a part4 ,cautions4 ,such are the principles and methods by which fireworks may be made2 but we would advise our young friends to be very cautious1 and never to attempt making any fireworks by candlelight2 always to select some outhouse for their operations2 to see that no iron or steel implements are about the place in which their fireworks are being manufactured1 or they may go off before they wish it2 to use wooden or brass implements in the bruising1 grinding1 and sifting of their mixtures2 and never to bring the fireworks1 or any of their ingredients1 into the dwelling-house1 or they may suddenly receive a 8,heavy blow and great discouragement40 ,to ,make an ,illuminated ,spiral ,wheel4 ,procure a circular horizontal wheel two feet in diameter with a hole quite through the nave1 then take four thin pieces of deal three feet long each1 and three-quarters of an inch broad each4 ,one end of each of these pieces is to be nailed to the felloe of the wheel at an equal distance from one another1 and the other end nailed to a block with a hole in its bottom1 which must be perpendicular with that in the block of the wheel1 but not so large4 ,the wheel being thus made1 a hoop planed down very thin must be nailed to the felloe of the wheel1 and wound round the four sticks in a spiral line from the wheel to the block at the top2 on the top of this block a case of ,chinese fire must be fixed1 and on the wheel any number of cases1 which must incline downwards and burn two at a time4 ,the axis of the wheel must be a little longer than the cone1 and made very smooth at the top1 on which the upper block is to turn and the whole weight of the wheel to rest4 ,,the ,,end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,useful ,,and ,,instructive ,,books4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,and ,,manage ,,pets--,giving complete information as to the manner and method of raising1 keeping1 taming1 breeding1 and managing all kinds of pets2 also giving full instructions for making cages1 etc4 ,fully explained by #bh illustrations1 making it the most complete book of the kind ever published4 ,price #aj cents4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,electrical ,,tricks--,containing a large collection of instructive and highly amusing electrical tricks1 together with illustrations4 ,by ,a4 ,anderson4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers1 or sent1 post-paid1 upon receipt of the price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 ,publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,write ,,letters--,a wonderful little book1 telling you how to write to your sweetheart1 your father1 mother1 sister1 brother1 employer2 and1 in fact1 everybody and anybody you wish to write to4 ,every young man and every young lady in the land should have this book4 ,it is for sale by all newsdealers4 ,price #aj cents1 or sent from this office on receipt of price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,puzzles--,containing over #cjj interesting puzzles and conundrums with key to same4 ,a complete book4 ,fully illustrated4 ,by ,a4 ,anderson4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers1 or sent1 post-paid1 upon receipt of the price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 ,publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,do #dj ,,tricks ,,with ,,cards--,containing deceptive ,card ,tricks as performed by leading conjurers and magicians4 ,arranged for home amusement4 ,fully illustrated4 ,price #aj cents4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,magic ,,lantern--,containing a description of the lantern1 together with its history and invention4 ,also full directions for its use and for painting slides4 ,handsomely illustrated1 by ,john ,allen4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 or will be sent to your address1 post-paid1 on receipt of price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,,an ,,actor--,containing complete instructions how to make up for various characters on the stage2 together with the duties of the ,stage ,manager1 ,prompter1 ,scenic ,artist and ,property ,man4 ,by a prominent ,stage ,manager4 ,price #aj cents4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,the ,,black ,,art--,containing a complete description of the mysteries of ,magic and ,sleight-of-,hand1 together with many wonderful experiments4 ,by ,a4 ,anderson4 ,illustrated4 ,price #aj cents4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,how ,,to ,,be ,a ,,detective--,by ,old ,king ,brady1 the world known detective4 ,in which he lays down some valuable and sensible rules for beginners1 and also relates some adventures and experiences of well-known detectives4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 or sent to your address1 post-paid1 on receipt of price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,conjurer--,containing tricks with ,dominoes1 ,dice1 ,cups and ,balls1 ,hats1 etc4 ,embracing #cf illustrations4 ,by ,a4 ,anderson4 ,price #aj cents4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,mechanical ,,tricks--,containing complete instructions for performing over sixty ,mechanical ,tricks4 ,by ,a4 ,anderson4 ,fully illustrated4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers1 or we will send it by mail1 postage free1 upon receipt of price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 ,publisher1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,sixty ,,tricks ,,with ,,cards--,embracing all of the latest and most deceptive card tricks with illustrations4 ,by ,a4 ,anderson4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers1 or we will send it to you by mail1 postage free1 upon receipt of price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 ,publisher1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,electrical ,,machines--,containing full directions for making electrical machines1 induction coils1 dynamos1 and many novel toys to be worked by electricity4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,r4 ,bennett4 ,fully illustrated4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 or will be sent to your address1 post-paid1 on receipt of price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,bowler--,a complete manual of bowling4 ,containing full instructions for playing all the standard ,american and ,german games1 together with rules and systems of sporting in use by the principal bowling clubs in the ,united ,states4 ,by ,bartholomew ,batterson4 ,price #aj cents4 ,for sale by all newsdealers in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 or sent to your address1 postage free1 on receipt of the price4 ,address ,frank ,tousey1 publisher1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,secret ,service4 ,old and ,young ,king ,brady1 ,detectives4 #cb ,pages of ,great ,detective ,stories4 ,handsomely ,decorated ,covers4 ,issued ,weekly4 ,price #e ,cents4 ,containing ,stories of ,old ,king ,brady1 the ,great ,detective1 assisted by ,young ,king ,brady1 his faithful young pupil4 ,embracing the most daring adventures1 startling scenes and hairbreadth escapes ever published4 ,,read ,,the ,,following ,,list4 #a4 ,the ,black ,band2 or1 ,the ,two ,king ,bradys ,against a ,hard ,gang4 #b4 ,told by the ,ticker2 or1 ,the ,two ,king ,bradys on a ,wall ,street ,case4 #c4 ,the ,bradys ,after a ,million2 or1 ,their ,chase to ,save an ,heiress4 #d4 ,the ,bradys' ,great ,bluff2 or1 ,a ,bunco ,game that ,failed to ,work4 #e4 ,in and ,out2 or1 ,the ,two ,king ,bradys on a ,lively ,chase4 ,for sale by all newsdealers or sent post-paid on receipt of price1 #e cents per copy1 by ,,frank ,,tousey1 ,publisher1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our ,,ten ,,cent ,,hand ,,books4 ,,useful1 ,,instructive ,,and ,,amusing4 ,containing valuable information on almost every subject1 such as ,writing1 ,speaking1 ,dancing1 ,cooking2 also ,rules of ,etiquette1 ,the ,art of ,ventriloquism1 ,gymnastic ,exercises1 and ,the ,science of ,self-,defense1 etc41 etc4 #a ,napoleon's ,oraculum and ,dream ,book4 #b ,how to ,do ,tricks4 #c ,how to ,flirt4 #d ,how to ,dance4 #e ,how to ,make ,love4 #f ,how to ,become an ,athlete4 #g ,how to ,keep ,birds4 #h ,how to ,become a ,scientist4 #i ,how to ,become a ,ventriloquist4 #aj ,how to ,box4 #aa ,how to ,write ,love ,letters4 #ab ,how to ,write ,letters to ,ladies4 #ac ,how to ,do ,it2 or1 ,book of ,etiquette4 #ad ,how to ,make ,candy4 #ae ,how to ,become ,rich4 #af ,how to ,keep a ,window ,garden4 #ag ,how to ,dress4 #ah ,how to ,become ,beautiful4 #ai ,frank ,tousey's ,u4 ,s4 ,distance ,tables1 ,pocket ,companion and ,guide4 #bj ,how to ,entertain an ,evening ,party4 #ba ,how to ,hunt and ,fish4 #bb ,how to ,do ,second ,sight4 #bc ,how to ,explain ,dreams4 #bd ,how to ,write ,letters to ,gentlemen4 #be ,how to ,become a ,gymnast4 #bf ,how to ,row1 ,sail and ,build a ,boat4 #bg ,how to ,recite and ,book of ,recitations4 #bh ,how to ,tell ,fortunes4 #bi ,how to ,become an ,inventor4 #cj ,how to ,cook4 #ca ,how to ,become a ,speaker4 #cb ,how to ,ride a ,bicycle4 #cc ,how to ,behave4 #cd ,how to ,fence4 #ce ,how to ,play ,games4 #cf ,how to ,solve ,conundrums4 #cg ,how to ,keep ,house4 #ch ,how to ,become ,your ,own ,doctor4 #ci ,how to ,raise ,dogs1 ,poultry1 ,pigeons and ,rabbits4 #dj ,how to ,make and ,set ,traps4 #da ,the ,boys of ,new ,york ,end ,men's ,joke ,book4 #db ,the ,boys of ,new ,york ,stump ,speaker4 #dc ,how to ,become a ,magician4 #dd ,how to ,write in an ,album4 #de ,the ,boys of ,new ,york ,minstrel ,guide and ,joke ,book4 #df ,how to ,make and ,use ,electricity4 #dg ,how to ,break1 ,ride and ,drive a ,horse4 #dh ,how to ,build and ,sail ,canoes4 #di ,how to ,debate4 #ej ,how to ,stuff ,birds and ,animals4 #ea ,how to ,do ,tricks with ,cards4 #eb ,how to ,play ,cards4 #ec ,how to ,write ,letters4 #ed ,how to ,keep and ,manage ,pets4 #ee ,how to ,collect ,stamps and ,coins4 #ef ,how to ,become an ,engineer4 #eg ,how to ,make ,musical ,instruments4 #eh ,how to ,become a ,detective4 #ei ,how to ,make a ,magic ,lantern4 #fj ,how to ,become a ,photographer4 #fa ,how to ,become a ,bowler4 #fb ,how to ,become a ,west ,point ,military ,cadet4 #fc ,how to ,become a ,naval ,cadet4 #fd ,how to ,make ,electrical ,machines4 #fe ,muldoon's ,jokes4 #ff ,how to ,do ,puzzles4 #fg ,how to ,do ,electrical ,tricks4 #fh ,how to ,do ,chemical ,tricks4 #fi ,how to ,do ,sleight of ,hand4 #gj ,how to ,make ,magic ,toys4 #ga ,how to ,do ,mechanical ,tricks4 #gb ,how to ,do ,sixty ,tricks with ,cards4 #gc ,how to ,do ,tricks with ,numbers4 #gd ,how to ,write ,letters ,correctly4 #ge ,how to ,become a ,conjurer4 #gf ,how to ,tell ,fortunes by the ,hand4 #gg ,how to ,do ,forty ,tricks with ,cards4 #gh ,how to ,do the ,black ,art4 #gi ,how to ,become an ,actor4 #hj ,gus ,williams' ,joke ,book4 ,all the above books are for sale by newsdealers throughout the ,united ,states and ,canada1 or they will be sent1 post-paid1 to your address1 on receipt of #aj;c4 each4 ,send ,your ,name and ,address for ,our ,latest ,illustrated ,catalogue4 ,,frank ,,tousey1 ,publisher1 #bd ,,union ,,square1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the one footnote has been moved to the end of its section4 ,punctuation has been made consistent4 ,mathematical notation has been standardized to current conventions4 ,for example1 the notation #a-b for fractions has been changed to #a_/b4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in the original publication1 except that obvious typographical errors have been corrected4 p4 #ad3 ,there is no illustration in the original book 7,this illustration represents7 ,the following change was made3 p4 #g3 #b changed to #c 7,no4 #c1 it7