,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,mexico ,by ,,lewis ,,spence ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,anthropological ,,institute ,,of ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland ,,illustrated ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,publishers #aibc ,,to ,,my ,,wife1 ,,with ,,deepest ,,gratitude ,,and ,,affection ,,preface ,this book deals exclusively with the religion of the peoples of ancient ,mexico4 ,with the history and archology of that country ,i am not concerned in these pages1 unless where they have a bearing upon the main subject4 ,by 8,mexico0 ,i mean that region of ,north ,america lying between the ,tropic of ,cancer and the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec4 ,thus only passing reference to the religion of the ,maya of ,yucatan or the ,quiche of ,guatemala is made in the way of occasional comparison4 ,i have thought it best at the outset to make these points clear beyond the possibility of misapprehension4 ,it was formerly usual to regard the entire tract occupied by ,central ,american civilization from the ,tropic of ,cancer to ,nicaragua as one and indivisible in its manifestations4 ,but it is now clear that the type of advancement peculiar to the more northerly portion inhabited by the ,nahua 7,aztec and ,chichimec7 peoples of ,mexico proper presents numerous and striking divergencies from the more southerly though related ,maya civilization of ,yucatan and ,guatemala4 ,regarding the priority of these two cultures no doubt exists4 ,the ,maya was greatly the more ancient4 ,but during the century preceding the conquest of ,mexico by ,cortz it had been subjected to ,nahua immigration and influences1 especially as regards its religious beliefs4 ,it is therefore necessary to exercise caution in the identification of ,nahua or ,mexican with ,maya myths and divine forms1 and with this in view ,i have directed my researches more especially to an examination of the deities and ritual practices of the ,mexican area1 in the hope that once the fundamental beliefs of this better-known region have been ascertained1 the results arrived at may be applied with some measure of confidence to the obscure field of ,maya belief4 ,it seemed to me also essential1 if progress were to be made1 to apply a more intensive method of investigation than has hitherto been deemed possible or desirable to the first origins of the ,mexican gods1 and it is especially with the results obtained by this means that ,i am concerned rather than with the conclusions of others4 ,i have chosen ,the ,gods of ,mexico as the title of this book1 as its contents refer more particularly to the development and general description of the deities of ancient ,anahuac than to the questions of ritual1 priesthood1 or religious architecture4 ,it has seemed to me that1 once the fundamental nature of the gods has been made clear1 when the multitudinous and conflicting details regarding them have been sifted1 collated1 and reduced to order1 more will have been done to discover the whole purport of ,mexican religion than if investigation had been directed in particular to ritual practice4 ,but that ,i have not neglected the question of ritual is proved by the extended notices of the festivals ,i have appended to the description of each of the gods4 ,i have1 however1 confined my descriptions and criticisms of ceremonial to these1 and have refrained from the illustration of the sacraments of life and death1 baptism1 burial1 and the like1 as it is my hope to be able to deal with the whole subject of ritualistic practice among the ,mexicans at a future date4 ,many authorities1 even should they sympathize with the endeavour set forth in these pages1 will question its timeousness4 ,our knowledge of the religion of ancient ,mexico1 they will say1 is still too vague and too fragmentary to permit of the assemblage and criticism of its material4 ,such a charge it is impossible to gainsay4 ,yet the bitter-sweet experience of twenty years of meditation among the ruins of the ,mexican pantheon has emboldened me to attempt its partial restoration by the aid of such reconstructive capacity as ,i possess4 ,my reasons for essaying this rather adventurous undertaking are twofold4 ,the first is1 that although the time is scarcely ripe for it1 the venture may inspire more skilful investigators to address themselves to the task of research in a subject that has been unaccountably neglected in this country4 ,the second is the hope that those who come after me in the study of ,mexican religion may1 as the result of my labours1 be spared the many weary years of groping that have fallen to my lot1 and be enabled to commence their journey from the point where ,i now stand4 ,although political and financial conditions in ,mexico frequently arouse a passing agitation in the minds of ,british people1 the antiquities of that extraordinary land1 various as ,greece and mysterious as ,egypt1 have failed to appeal to them with the same degree of interest4 ,we have not yet1 perhaps1 quite recovered from the amazement with which in our own day we have seen the secret gates of the ,east unlocked and the prodigies of ,mesopotamia and the endless dynasties of the ,nile emerge therefrom4 ,yet an archology less venerable1 but no less notable1 pleads with us for recognition from a continent so closely associated with the spirit of modernity that we can scarcely believe in its ability to present us with the credentials of respectable antiquity4 ,american scientists1 however1 have in recent years successfully addressed themselves to the problems of ,isthmian research1 and the antiquaries of ,germany and ,france have1 in certain respects1 even improved upon their endeavours4 ,great ,britain alone remains insensible to the lure of old ,mexico1 and small indeed is the band of workers that she has given to this department of archology4 ,no manifestation of the life and thought of ancient ,mexico so well deserves the attention of ,british students of antiquity as its picturesque if bizarre religion4 ,our position in folklore is pre-eminent2 indeed we may with justice claim the reconstruction of traditional science as due to the efforts of ,british scholarship4 ,as the ,english word 8folklore0 is in world-wide use1 so is the terminology of the science it denotes replete with ,english expressions2 yet in ,british works which deal with traditional lore the ,mexican analogies employed are almost invariably quoted at second-hand1 sources of the most unsatisfactory description are drawn upon to illustrate ,mexican belief1 and it is obvious that the few modern treatises which have sought to explain this most involved of all mythologies are not sufficiently taken advantage of by authorities on folklore4 ,to those who possess even an elementary acquaintance with the study of ,mexican religion this will cause no surprise1 for the initial difficulties which confront even the experienced antiquary who desires to gain a working knowledge of its principles are sufficiently discouraging4 ,in all likelihood the quest is sooner or later abandoned in despair of acquiring that fundamental information from which it is possible to proceed to a more profound knowledge of the subject4 ,the native languages1 familiarity with which is desirable1 are complex and difficult of mastery4 ,the paintings or codices which depict the gods present a riot of symbolic intricacy sufficient in itself to damp enthusiasm4 ,many years must be spent in the study of a system of symbolic painting1 to which a specially qualified section of the ,mexican priesthood dedicated itself in the full knowledge of a mythological scheme at the nature of which we can but guess4 ,it is1 above all1 necessary to become thoroughly conversant with an overwhelming body of ,spanish ,colonial literature1 which must be handled with the greatest discretion1 owing to its vague1 contradictory1 and essentially untrustworthy character4 ,lastly1 an acquaintance with manuscript sources1 obscure and difficult of access1 is quite as indispensable1 and these1 indeed1 are among the most valuable of the adjuncts to a knowledge of ,mexican belief4 ,by far the most eminent and successful among modern writers on ,mexican mythology and ritual is ,professor ,eduard ,seler1 of ,berlin1 who1 owing to the generosity of the ,duc de ,loubat1 has been enabled to publish monographs upon the principal ,mexican hieroglyphical paintings or codices4 ,in these he has done much for the elucidation of the involved symbolism in which the native ,,mss4 abound1 and has greatly added to our knowledge of the divine forms represented in their grotesque pages4 ,elaborate photogravure reproductions of these1 the papyri of ,mexico1 have also been published1 superseding the older and less accurate copies in the great collection of ,lord ,kingsborough4 ,in his ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 #a too1 a work quite encyclopdic as regards its scope and aim1 ,professor ,seler has approached almost every problem presented by ,mexican archology4 ,but his work might have been of greater value had he been mindful of the difficulties which the subject presents to the non-specialist reader4 ,indeed1 the technicality and aridity of his general method often render his output comprehensible to few but the 8senior wranglers0 of the study4 ,american students of ancient ,mexico and ,central ,america have almost entirely confined themselves to the examination of sites and monuments4 ,in ,france1 ,m4 ,beuchat has provided students with an admirable handbook in his ,archologie ,amricaine1 which1 if too general in its purport and marred by a lack of linguistic knowledge1 is still valuable as an elementary manual to ,american antiquity4 ,the essays of ,lehmann1 ,de ,jonghe1 and ,preuss have provided the student with translations of manuscript material hitherto closed to him1 or have smoothed his way to a clearer comprehension of the difficulties connected with the ,mexican calendar4 ,the best modern ,english handbook on ,mexican archology is that by ,mr4 ,t4 ,athol ,joyce1 of the ,british ,museum1 but its lack of references is a serious drawback and the material it contains suffers from compression4 ,the method of my investigation of the divine forms of ,mexico is set forth in the introductory paragraph immediately preceding that part of the book which deals with the gods more especially4 ,regarding the tonalamatl and the ,calendar1 ,i have thought it best to relegate this difficult and obscure subject to an appendix1 in order that it should not interfere with the main current of proof4 ,in dealing with the ,codices throughout ,i have employed the pagination of ,seler rather than that of ,kingsborough1 as referring to the more modern and greatly preferable editions of the ,duc de ,loubat1 except in cases where a manuscript is to be found in ,kingsborough's work alone4 ,it is my sincere hope that the bibliography at the end of the book as well as that to be found at the conclusion of the appendix on the tonalamatl will lighten the labour of students of ,mexican religion1 whose co-operation in the discovery of errors ,i most cordially invite4 ,the illustrations in this book are1 for the most part1 taken from the native ,mexican codices or paintings1 and from representations of the gods in stone or pottery4 ,it has1 of course1 been impossible to furnish every picture or representation alluded to in the text1 but these1 in their entirety1 will be found in the excellent coloured reproductions in collotype published by the ,duc de ,loubat1 full particulars of which are given in the bibliography of the codices on pages #cgh-cha4 ,these reproductions can be consulted in many of the greater libraries1 especially in those connected with the ,universities4 ,i have preferred1 in many cases1 to furnish the student with those representations of the gods which he would have found it more or less difficult to procure4 ,the numbers of the pages or sheets attached to the illustrations refer to the places where the respective figures can be found in the reproductions of the ,duc de ,loubat4 ,in conclusion1 ,i have to thank my daughter1 who took infinite pains in transcribing from books and treatises difficult of access1 in the ,british ,museum and the ,advocates' ,library1 ,edinburgh1 and who sacrificed much of that time which young people usually devote to amusement in order that she might help me in a difficult task4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,the type and evolution of ,mexican religion--,the antiquity of ,mexican religion--,the literature of ,mexican religion3 ,i1 ,the native codices2 ,,ii1 ,the native writings2 ,,iii1 ,native art-forms2 ,,iv1 ,writings of the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico--,the origins of ,mexican religion--,evidence of early religion in ,mexico--,deification of the elements of growth--,evidences of primitive influences--,fetishtic origin of gods--,animal gods--,growth of the rain-cult--,the necessity for human sacrifice--,the later elements of ,mexican religion--,cultural elements of ,mexican religion--,the ,quetzalcoatl cult--,the cult of obsidian--,unity of religious conception throughout ,mexico pp4 #a-ce ,,chapter ,,ii ,,cosmogony ,the 8ages0 of ,mexican cosmogony--,the making of the earth--,the peopling of the earth--,creation of the sun and moon--,the ,historia de los ,mexicanos--,deluge myths--,the 8,coxcox0 fallacy--,the fall of the gods--,mexican conceptions of the universe--,the five regions of the world3 ,the ,tree of the ,east2 the ,tree of the ,north2 the ,tree of the ,west2 the ,tree of the ,south2 ,tlaxicco2 ,tlapcopa2 ,uitznauac or ,uitzlampa2 ,ciuatlampa2 ,mictlampa--,the supporters of the heavens--,the ,aztec heavens3 ,tlalocan2 ,homeyoca--,mictlampa as ,hades pp4 #cf-fd ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,great ,,gods ,method of treatment--,uitzilopochtli--,tezcatlipoc --,quetzalcoatl pp4 #fe-ade ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,creative ,,deities ,tonacatecutli--,tonacaciuatl pp4 #adf-aeb ,,chapter ,v ,,deities ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,growth ,,proper ,introductory--,tlazolteotl--,chicomecoa tl--,cinteotl--,ciuacoatl--,coatlicue-- ,xochiquetzal--,macuilxochitl or ,xochipilli--,xipe--,xilonen--,itzpapalo tl-- ,zapotlantenan--,ilamatecutli pp4 #aec-bcc ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,rain ,,and ,,moisture ,introductory--,tlaloc--,chalchihuitlicu e--,uixtociuatl--,atlaua--,napatecutli --,matlalcuy--,opochtli pp4 #bcd-bfg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,fire-,,gods ,xiuhtecutli--,chantico--,quaxolotl pp4 #bfh-bhd ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,octli ,,or ,,pulque 7,,drink7 ,,gods ,general--,tezcatzoncatl--,tepoxtecatl-- ,patecatl--,mayauel--,totoltecatl-- ,macuiltochtli--,totochtin--,tomiauhtecu tli pp4 #bhe-bii ,,chapter ,,ix ,,stellar ,,and ,,planetary ,,deities ,tonatiuh the ,sun-,god 7,piltzintecutli7--,metztli or ,tecciztecatl the ,moon-,god--,mixcoatl1 ,iztac ,mixcoatl or ,camaxtli--,tlauizcalpantecutli-- ,coyolxauhqui--,the ,tzitzimim pp4 #cjj-cbf ,,chapter ,x ,,gods ,,of ,,death1 ,,earth1 ,,and ,,the ,,underworld ,mictlantecutli--,mictecaciuatl--,tepeyo llotl pp4 #cbg-cce ,,chapter ,,xi ,,variants ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,gods ,itztli--,itztlacoliuhqui--,paynal--,yac atecutli pp4 #ccf-cdc ,,chapter ,,xii ,,minor ,,deities ,xolotl--,ixtlilton--,omacatl--,the ,ciuatete or ,ciuapipiltin pp4 #cdd-ceh ,,appendix ,,the ,,tonalamatl ,,and ,,the ,,solar ,,calendar ,day-signs--,model tonalamatl--,the day-gods--,gods of the 8weeks0--,lords of the night--,lords of the day-hours--,tonalamatl festivals-- ,recapitulation--,the calendar round--,the nemontemi--,the ,venus period--,short bibliography of works relating to the tonalamatl pp4 #cei-cga ,a ,,critical ,,bibliography ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion pp4 #cgb-cha ,,glossary pp4 #chb-chc ,,index pp4 #chd-chh ,,illustrations ,nephrite ,figure of a ,death-god ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,pages ,colossal ,statue of ,coatlicue #ad1 #ae ,statue of ,coatlicue #af1 #ag ,the ,great ,calendar ,stone of ,mexico #ch ,symbols of the 8,suns0 in ,mexican ,cosmogony #dj1 #da ,the ,trees of the ,world-quarters #eh1 #ei ,the ,tree of the ,middle-quarter #fj ,uitzilopochtli #ff ,coyolxauhqui #fg ,the ,red and ,black ,tezcatlipocs #ib ,tezcatlipoc in ,various ,forms #ic1 #ih ,altar of ,skulls to ,tezcatlipoc #ii ,quetzalcoatl and ,tlauizcalpantecutli #aah ,quetzalcoatl and the ,death-god #aai ,forms of ,quetzalcoatl #abj1 #aba ,tonacatecutli-,tonacaciuatl #aba ,forms of ,tlazolteotl #aef1 #aeg ,forms of ,chicomecoatl #agj ,cinteotl #aga ,ciuacoatl #ahj ,forms of ,ciuacoatl #aha ,xochiquetzal and her ,symbols #ahh ,forms of ,xochiquetzal #ahi1 #aij ,stone ,figures of ,macuilxochitl #aif1 #aig ,forms of ,macuilxochitl #aih ,forms of ,xochipilli #aii ,pottery ,figure of ,xochipilli #bjj ,forms of ,xochipilli #bja ,forms of ,xipe #bjd ,stone ,image of ,xipe #bje ,forms of ,xipe #bjh ,itzpapalotl #bbb ,itzpapalotl 7,stone of ,aristides ,martel7 #bbc ,xilonen and ,zapotlantenan #bbc ,forms of ,tlaloc #bcf1 #bcg1 #bdj ,chalchihuitlicue #beh ,chalchihuitlicue and ,tlauizcalpantecutli #bei ,chalchihuitlicue and ,uixtociuatl #bfj ,forms of the ,tlaloqu #bfa ,xiuhtecutli and ,tlauizcalpantecutli #bfh1 #bfi1 #bgb ,xiuhtecutli and ,chantico #bgf ,ixcoanhqui and ,chantico #bgg ,tepoxtecatl #bib ,patecatl1 with ,octli ,emblems #bic ,the ,octli-gods #bih1 #bii ,totoltecatl #bii ,forms of ,tonatiuh #cjj ,mexican ,idea of ,sacrifice to the ,sun-god #cja ,planetary ,deities #cjd ,forms of ,mixcoatl #caj1 #caa ,forms of ,tlauizcalpantecutli #cbj ,tlauizcalpantecutli and ,victim #cba ,forms of the ,underworld ,deities #cbh ,statue of an ,octli-god #cbi ,variants of the ,great ,gods #ccf ,xolotl and ,tlaloc #cdd ,minor ,deities #cde ,the ,lords of the ,night-hours #cfd ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,pronunciation ,,of ,,mexican ,the pronunciation of ,mexican names presents at first some little difficulty4 ,the letter ,x is invariably pronounced as sh1 so that ,mixcoatl and ,mexitli are1 viva voce1 ,mishcoatly and ,meshitlee1 the final tl being pronounced as tl followed by a short y1 although the natives in many parts of the country articulate it with a definite clicking sound1 unapproachable by a ,european4 ,the names of the more important gods are pronounced as follows3 ,uitzilopochtli ,wit-zil-o-potchtly ,tezcatlipoc ,tez-catly-poc ,quetzalcoatl ,quetzal-co-at-ly ,xipe ,shee-pay ,chalchihuitlicue ,chal-ch-wt-l-kway4 ,most of the others are comparatively simple of pronunciation4 ,the ch sound is pronounced as in ,spanish1 i4e4 hard1 as in 8thatch40 ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,mexico ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,the ,,type ,,and ,,evolution ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,if1 like the necromancers of old1 we possessed the power to summon the shades of the dead before us1 and employed this dread authority to recall from the place of shadows the spirit of a member of the priesthood of ancient ,mexico1 in order that we might obtain from him an account of the faith which he had professed while in the body1 it is improbable that we would derive much information regarding the precise significance of the cult of which he was formerly an adherent without tedious and skilful questioning4 ,he would certainly be able to enlighten us readily enough on matters of ritual and mythology1 calendric science and the like2 but if we were to press him for information regarding the motives underlying the outer manifestations of his belief1 he would almost certainly disappoint us1 unless our questionary was framed in the most careful manner4 ,in all likelihood he would be unable to comprehend the term 8religion10 of which we should necessarily have to make use1 and which it would seem so natural for us to employ2 and he would scarcely be capable of dissociating the circumstances of his faith from those of ,mexican life in general1 especially as regards its political1 military1 agricultural1 and artistic connections4 ,nor would he regard magic or primitive science as in any way alien to the activities of his office4 ,but if we became more importunate1 and begged him to make some definite statement regarding the true meaning and import of his religion ere he returned to his place1 he might1 perhaps1 reply3 8,if we had not worshipped the gods and sacrificed to them1 nourished them with blood and pleasured them with gifts1 they would have ceased to watch over our welfare1 and would have withheld the maize and water which kept us in life4 ,the rain would not have fallen and the crops would not have come to fruition40 #b ,if he employed some such terms as these1 our phantom would outline the whole purport of the system which we call ,mexican religion1 the rude platform on which was raised the towering superstructure of rite and ceremony1 morality and tradition1 a part of which we are about to examine4 ,the writer who undertakes the description of any of the great faiths of the world usually presupposes in his readers a certain acquaintance with the history and conditions of the people of whose religion he treats4 ,but the obscurity which surrounded all questions relating to ,mexican antiquity until the beginning of this century formerly made it essential that any view of its religious phase should be prefaced by an account of the peoples who professed it1 their racial affinities1 and the country they occupied4 ,this necessity no longer exists4 ,the ground has been traversed so often of late1 and ,i have covered it so frequently in previous works1 #c that ,i feel only a brief account of these conditions is necessary here1 such1 in a word1 as will enable the reader to realize circumstances of race1 locality1 and period4 ,the people whose religious ideas this book attempts to describe were the ,nahua of pre-,colombian ,mexico1 a race by no means extinct1 despite the oft-repeated assertions of popular novelists1 and which is now usually classed as a branch of the great ,uto-,aztecan family of the ,north ,american ,indian stock4 ,they spoke1 and their descendants still speak1 a language known as the ,nahuatl1 or ,nahuatlatolli 78speech of those who live by rule0 or 8by ritual observance074 ,at the era of the ,spanish invasion of their country in #aeai they had succeeded in overrunning and reducing to their dominion practically all that part of modern ,mexico which lies between the ,tropic of ,cancer and the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec4 ,they were1 in all probability1 immigrants from the north1 and their art-forms1 no less than their physique and beliefs1 have led certain writers to form the opinion that they came originally from the neighbourhood of ,british ,columbia1 or that they had a common origin with the ,indian tribes which inhabit that region at the present time4 ,however this may be1 the first ,nahua immigrants would appear to have entered the ,valley of ,mexico at some time during the eighth century of our era4 ,but the ,aztec1 part of a later swarm of ,nahua1 do not seem to have descended upon it until the middle of the thirteenth century1 or to have founded the settlement of ,mexico-,tenochtitlan until about the year #acgf4 ,at the period of their arrival in the valley they were a barbarous tribe of nomadic hunters1 wandering from place to place in search of fresh hunting-grounds1 precisely as did many ,north ,american ,indian tribes before reservations were provided for them4 ,gradually1 by virtue of their superior prowess in war1 they achieved the hegemony of the ,plateau of ,anahuac1 which boasted a tradition and civilization at least five hundred years old4 ,these they proceeded to assimilate with marvellous rapidity1 as is not infrequently the case when a race of hunters mingles with a settled agricultural population4 ,indeed1 in the course of the century and a quarter which intervened between the founding of ,mexico and the period of the ,spanish ,conquest1 they had arrived at such a standard of civilization as surprised their ,castilian conquerors4 ,when the ,aztec1 abandoning their wandering life1 finally settled in the ,valley of ,anahuac1 upon the site of ,tenochtitlan1 now the city of ,mexico1 they embarked upon a series of conflicts with their neighbours1 which ended in the complete subjection of these peoples4 ,the races over whom they exercised a kind of feudal sway were many and diverse1 and only the more important of these can be mentioned here4 ,to the north dwelt the hunting ,chichimecs1 a related people1 and the ,otomi1 a semi-barbarous folk1 probably of aboriginal origin1 and speaking a distinct language4 ,to the west dwelt the ,tarascans1 whose racial affinities are unknown1 or1 at least1 dubious4 ,south of the ,rio de las ,balsas were situated the ,mixtecs and ,zapotecs1 whose language somewhat resembled that of the ,otomi and who possessed a larger measure of civilization4 ,on the ,east ,coast were found the ,huaxtecs and ,totonacs1 races of ,maya origin1 and south-east of these lay the ,olmecs1 ,xicalancas1 and ,nonoualcas1 of older precedence in the land4 ,beyond the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec were found the ,maya1 a people of relatively high civilization1 whose origin is obscure1 and into the question of whose relationship ,i do not propose to enter in this place4 ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,until the beginning of the present century most ,americanists held that ,mexican civilization and consequently ,mexican religion were the outcome of but a few generations of native progress4 ,it is true that the ,nahua people had behind them a relatively brief history of national and tribal life1 but modern research has shown that they were undoubtedly the heirs of a civilization having early foundations and of considerable achievement and complexity1 the religious aspect of which had arrived at a high state of development4 #d ,evidences of the archaic character of this faith are rapidly accumulating1 but many years must yet be dedicated to the examination and comparison of the data concerning it before it is possible to speak with any degree of certainty regarding the causes which contributed to its formation and evolution4 ,although we must necessarily regard ,mexican religion as having had a progressive history spread over many generations1 we are at present almost ignorant of the gradual changes which accompanied its growth4 ,an effort will be made to outline the probable nature of these mutations1 but the endeavour will not receive any great measure of assistance from the abundant but chaotic and unclassified material amassed by ,americanists during the last twenty years1 which in its present condition is not of much value as regards this particular branch of the subject1 but which it is the writer's intention to employ1 so far as it is capable of illustrating the question before us4 ,,the ,,literature ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,it is necessary at this stage to deal briefly with the sources of ,mexican religious history4 ,a literature1 bewildering in its scope and variety1 has grown up around the subject of ,mexican antiquity as a whole1 and it is perhaps well for the student if he approaches it with only a partial realization of the spacious character of the material he must review4 ,i have thought it best in such a work as this to relegate most of the bibliographical matter to an appendix1 where an endeavour has been made to supply the student with a trustworthy catalogue of such manuscripts and works as are essential to the study of ,mexican religion4 ,it is hoped that this may prove of guidance and assistance and spare much initial toil4 ,but for the present ,i will confine my remarks to such general observations upon the sources from which we partly glean our knowledge of the ancient ,mexican faith as will serve the immediate purpose4 ,these sources are four in number3 7,i7 ,the native codices or paintings2 7,,ii7 the native annals2 7,,iii7 native art-forms in architecture1 sculpture1 pottery1 and mural painting1 depicting gods and other divine beings2 and 7,,iv7 the writings of the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico4 7,i7 ,the ,native ,codices4--,these are paintings executed by native ,mexican artists upon agave paper1 leather1 or cotton4 ,through the misguided zeal of the early ,spanish religious authorities1 who regarded them as of diabolic character1 only some twelve of these remain to us1 the greater number of which possess a mythological or religious significance4 ,in their pages we find representations of many of the principal deities of the ,mexican pantheon1 as well as illustrations of several passages in ,mexican myth1 and they frequently depict the tonalamatl or priestly ,book of ,fate1 with its highly complex symbolism4 #e ,close familiarity with these manuscripts is indispensable1 as they constitute one of the few original sources of our knowledge of the aspect1 costume1 and insignia of the ,mexican deities4 ,all of them have been handsomely1 if expensively1 reproduced1 and these are detailed in the bibliography4 ,here it is only necessary to remark upon the several theories which have regard to their place of origin4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,spinden1 in his valuable ,study of ,maya ,art1 objects that 8most of the detailed accounts of religious beliefs and ceremonies that have come down to us refer primarily to the ,valley of ,mexico1 while nearly all the really elaborate codices of a religious nature come from either the ,zapotecan-,mixtecan area or from the ,maya40 #f ,we are not here concerned with the ,maya manuscripts1 and with regard to the ,zapotec and ,mixtec examples we have the assurance of ,seler1 #g which is founded upon critical evidence of value1 that an entire group of these manuscripts--and that by far the most important1 the ,codex ,borgia group--8belongs to a ,mexican-speaking people0 who inhabited the districts of ,teouacan1 ,cozcatlan1 and ,teotitlan del ,camino1 and who1 though separated from the ,nahua of the ,valley of ,anahuac at an early period1 yet in great measure retained the ancient beliefs common to both4 ,nearly all of the deities represented in this group of manuscripts so closely resemble in their aspect1 costume1 and general symbolism the drawings and descriptions of gods known to have been worshipped in the ,mexican area proper1 as to make it positively certain that they represent the same divine beings with merely trifling differences of detail due to local environment4 ,the separation of the ,nahua of the ,plateau of ,mexico and those of the more southerly region was of such duration as to justify the belief that their religious ideas had diverged considerably4 ,but the subsequent conquest of the southern area by the ,northern ,nahua must have resuscitated old common beliefs among their kindred in the south1 and weakened the ideas they had adopted or developed in that environment4 ,this is proved by the considerable variation in type between the oldest southern pottery representing what are presumably divine forms and the pictures of the gods in the later manuscripts of the ,codex ,borgia group4 7,,ii7 ,the ,native ,writings4--,these 8annals10 as they are sometimes called1 the work of natives who wrote in ,spanish1 constitute a mine of aboriginal information of nearly equal value with that contained in the codices1 but considerable discrimination is necessary in using them in view of the tendency of their authors to corrupt traditional material when inspired by patriotic or other motives4 ,this1 however1 manifestly does not apply with equal force to accounts of a mythical or ritual nature and to historical events1 which offer a much greater temptation than the former to scribes manifestly ignorant of the virtues of literary integrity4 ,the ,mexican annals are of two classes3 those which represent the historical or traditional relics of native communities1 such as the ,annals of ,quauhtitlan1 also known as the ,codex ,chimalpopoc2 and those which are the work of educated ,mexicans or half-breeds1 prone to magnify the splendour of the ancient races4 ,ranking almost as a third or separate class are the sacred songs or hymns included in the ,mexican ,,ms4 of ,sahagun's ,historia ,general1 which that most unwearied of workers received at first hand from approved native scribes4 ,the several native writings will be found described in the appendix1 and the hymns1 or rather a translation of them into ,english prose1 will be met with in the descriptions of the several deities to which they apply4 7,,iii7 ,native ,art-forms4--,mexican architectural motifs1 mural paintings1 and especially sculpture and pottery1 frequently afford reliable material upon which to form conclusions regarding the aspect and costume of the gods1 and reproductions of the most important of these illustrate the descriptions of the several ,mexican deities4 7,,iv7 ,writings of the ,spanish ,conquerors of ,mexico4--,if the representatives of the ,church in ,mexico must be condemned for their narrow and illiberal action in destroying all native manuscripts and paintings bearing upon the ancient religion of the country1 certain more enlightened individuals among them laboured strenuously to remove this reproach by their zealous1 if frequently unskilful1 attempts to reconstruct a knowledge of the popular faith by unremitting researches into native tradition4 ,this attitude met with but little countenance from their ecclesiastical superiors1 and at times they laboured under conditions the reverse of favourable for the collection of traditional material4 ,but it would be ungrateful not to pay a meed of respect to the self-sacrifice of those enlightened and resourceful men1 but for whose endeavours our knowledge of ,mexican antiquities would be all the poorer4 ,undoubtedly the most valuable collection of evidence relative to the ,mexican religion compiled by a ,spanish churchman is the ,historia ,general of ,bernardino ,sahagun1 whose work1 composed with scholarly care and an almost prophetic knowledge of the correct methods to be pursued in the collection of traditional material1 was completed about the middle of the sixteenth century1 but remained unpublished until #ahcj4 ,this work has been described so repeatedly as to require no further mention here1 and other notable works are included in the bibliography4 ,some allusion should also be made here to the works known as the ,interpretative ,codices1 compiled by ,pedro de ,rios and other monks1 who retained the services of native painters to execute drawings of ,mexican deities or1 as some believe1 drew these figures themselves1 the symbolism and general meaning of which they endeavoured to make plain and interpret1 only too often in the light of their knowledge of the ,scriptures4 ,,the ,,origins ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,the question of the origin of ,mexican religion1 like that of the civilization of which it was perhaps the most salient characteristic1 has afforded matter for ardent controversy from the period of the discovery and conquest of the country until the present day4 ,but1 even so1 it is still unsafe to dogmatize upon ,mexican religious origins4 ,at the time of the ,conquest we observe ,mexican religion as a highly complex faith1 with a ceremonial of the most elaborate nature1 a priesthood with nicely defined gradations in office1 and a pantheon which had obviously been formed by the collocation of the deities of provincial and dependent tribes and peoples around a nucleus composed of the national and departmental gods of the ,aztec4 ,the great temple-area of ,mexico-,tenochtitlan harboured a bewildering array of gods1 many of which possessed separate shrines and ministrants4 ,an intensive examination of the alien elements represented1 however1 tends to prove the identity of many of them with the gods of the ,aztec1 a similarity which1 in numerous instances1 was manifest to that people themselves and which was the result of tribal affinity or basic resemblance in religious conception4 ,nevertheless a residuum of unrelated deities remained1 which might1 perhaps1 be accounted for by positing the existence of two markedly different cultures or tendencies in ,mexico1 barbarous and civilized4 ,this may imply that the opposing influences which gave rise to these variations were alien to each other racially1 or it may indicate that1 whereas one had remained in an environment of barbarism1 the other had developed and enlarged its theological and even its mythical conceptions in the light of the necessities of an advancing material civilization4 ,whence the seeds of that civilization came is1 as has been said1 matter of controversy4 ,the existence of a system of monachism in ,mexico would seem to indicate a non-,american origin4 ,elements common to both aspects of this interesting faith were sufficiently numerous in ,mexican religion4 ,thus the so-called ,chichimecs1 or rude hunters of the steppes to the north of the ,valley of ,mexico1 retained in their pristine form the simple beliefs and the ungraded pantheon1 which in the case of the more advanced tribes of cognate origin rapidly took shape as a great ,state religion under the influences of a more complex social system1 the stimulus of alien religious conceptions1 and above all1 of a priesthood skilled in the reduction of theological and mythical material to dogma4 ,this cult1 although composed of elements perhaps at first conflicting in aim and character1 had yet arrived at a comparative degree of homogeneity and had evolved an intricate and exacting ritual and a symbolism of great richness and artistic complexity1 the extensive and bewildering nature of which can be verified by a cursory inspection of the native codices4 ,,evidences ,,of ,,early ,,religion ,,in ,,mexico ,the myths which relate to the earliest religious influences in ,mexico are for the most part connected with the pre-,aztec 8,toltec0 civilization and the more ancient and sacred sites of ,tollan and ,teotihuacan4 ,they chiefly refer to a god or culture-hero called ,quetzalcoatl1 whose myths and attributes will be described elsewhere in this work1 and who was regarded as the prototype of the ,mexican priesthood and one of the inventors of the tonalamatl or ,book of ,fate4 ,the type of religion founded by him differs greatly from that practised by the ,mexicans at the period of the ,conquest1 as it eschewed1 or was1 perhaps1 originally innocent of1 human sacrifice or ceremonial cannibalism1 and practised purification and penance by the drawing of blood4 ,in certain myths its founder is described as a native of the country1 in others as the offspring of divine beings1 while still others regard him as a foreigner who introduced his cult from the east4 ,it is noteworthy that this cult is closely connected with monachism #h and that in later times it was1 perhaps1 regarded as more intimately bound up with pietistic and 8civilized0 ritual practice than that of any other ,mexican deity4 ,ultimately1 the myths relate1 ,quetzalcoatl left the country because of the machinations of 8enchanters40 #i ,this may mean that the older and less barbarous cult was forced into a secondary place by the ruder and more popular beliefs of a tribe of lower culture1 but there are evidences that the religion of ,quetzalcoatl assuredly assisted in the building-up of the rain-cult of ,mexico4 ,in any case little information is to be gleaned from the myth of ,quetzalcoatl for our present purpose of illustrating the primitive type of ,mexican religion1 and it must probably be regarded as pointing to the existence of an early monachism and a developed ritual in ancient ,mexico4 #aj ,the myths relating to the great tribal gods1 if faithfully examined1 assist us in forming a definite idea of the character of early religious conceptions in ,anahuac4 ,the hymns to the gods are1 perhaps1 a surer indication of the trend of popular faith and probably date from a more archaic period than do the myths1 which1 as we possess them1 nearly all exhibit signs of priestly alteration4 ,in several of these chants we assuredly arrive at the whole significance of ,mexican religion1 which in its essence1 and as seen at the ,conquest period1 was nothing more than a vastly elaborated rain-cult1 similar in its general tendency to that still prevalent among the ,pueblo tribes of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona1 yet broader in outlook1 of a higher complexity and productive of a theology and an ethical system of greater sophistication and scope4 ,the religion of the ,pueblo peoples is1 indeed1 the poor and degenerate descendant of the bizarre and picturesque ritual of the ,mexicans1 or1 more probably1 had a common origin with it4 ,through the researches and personal exertions of many well-equipped ,americanists the entire ritual of this modern pluvial cult is now well known and deserves the closest study from students of ,mexican religion1 as providing them with comparative and analogical material of the first importance4 #aa ,we shall keep on the trail of a very definite clue if we attempt to descry in such evidences as we possess of archaic ,mexican faith the signs of an incipient rain-cult1 having its origin in a settled agricultural existence4 ,if we glance at the general characteristics of the numerous members of the ,mexican pantheon1 we find that very readily and quite naturally they group themselves into three great classes3 7a7 creative deities1 which may be regarded as the outcome of late theological speculation1 and which may1 accordingly1 be passed over in this place2 7b7 gods of growth2 and 7c7 gods developed from specific objects and deified heavenly bodies1 some of which latter were developed from gods of the chase4 ,the 8original0 deities of ,mexico would seem1 therefore1 to have presided over vegetable growth and conferred on their votaries good luck in the hunt4 ,but as time passed1 these latter also took on the attributes of gods of the cereal and vegetable food-supply1 and1 indeed1 often seriously contested the status of the true growth-gods in the elaborate nature of the symbolic vegetal ceremonial with which their festivals were celebrated4 ,it is not surprising that the ,valley of ,mexico became the centre of a cult of which the appeal for rain was the salient characteristic4 ,a copious supply of rainfall for the purposes of irrigation is1 indeed1 a necessity to the ,mexican agriculturist1 and a dry year in ancient ,anahuac brought with it famine and misery unspeakable4 ,inexpressibly touching are the fervent prayers to ,tlaloc1 god of water1 that he should not visit his displeasure upon the people by withdrawing the pluvial supply4 8,o our most compassionate lord 444 ,i beseech thee to look with eyes of pity upon the people of this city and kingdom1 for the whole world1 down to the very beasts1 is in peril of destruction and disappearance and irremediable end 444 for the ridges of the earth suffer sore need and anguish from lack of water 444 with deep sighing and anguish of heart ,i cry upon all those that are gods of water1 that are in the four quarters of the world 444 to come and console this poor people and to water the earth1 for the eyes of all that inhabit the earth1 animals as well as men1 are turned towards you1 and their hope is set upon you40 #ab ,,deification ,,of ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,growth ,the elements of growth1 in the mind of primitive man1 are four in number1 the earth1 grain1 rain1 and solar heat1 and it is not remarkable that all of these came to be regarded as deified powers1 and were latterly personalized in anthropomorphic form4 ,it does not appear that the sun was at first looked upon as an agency of growth4 ,there is1 indeed1 proof that in early times he was not regarded as of any importance from a calendric point of view1 and that the time and festival-counts were designed upon a lunar basis4 #ac ,it is not unlikely that1 in a region where his torrid heat1 if unaccompanied by rainfall1 resulted in famine1 he was at first regarded1 if not unfavourably1 at least with no special predilection4 ,if this conclusion is correct1 and we can afford to discount solar influence in the primitive ,mexican cultus--or rather that adopted by the aboriginal peoples on embracing a settled agricultural existence--there remain to us the three elements of earth1 grain1 and rain from which to reconstruct the prototypes of the ,mexican pantheon4 ,in ,mexican myth the earth is represented as a monster known as cipactli1 the pictures of which have given rise to the assumption that it is either a crocodile1 a swordfish1 or a dragon4 ,we shall probably not err if we place it in the last category and see in it that great earth-monster common to the mythologies of many races1 and which is most conveniently called the 8earth-dragon40 #ad ,this sign cipactli became the first in the tonalamatl or ,book of ,fate1 where it is connected with the creative deities and the ,earth-mother1 who was known by many names4 ,circumstances exist which seem to lend colour to the assumption that1 as in other countries1 the ,mexican ,earth-mother had at one time been regarded as forming the earth1 the soil4 ,at the terrible and picturesque festival of the ,xalaquia 78,she who is clothed with the sand071 the sacrificed virgin was supposed to enrich and recruit with her blood the frame of the worn-out goddess1 who had been1 says ,seler1 8merged in the popular imagination with the all-nourisher1 the all-begetter1 the earth40 #ae ,perhaps the best evidence that the idea of the ,earth-mother was associated with the conception of the earth-dragon is afforded by the colossal stone figure of ,coatlicue1 one of her manifestations1 which once towered above the entrance to the temple of ,uitzilopochtli in ,mexico and is now housed in the ,museo ,naional in that city4 ,in this figure1 as in a similar if less massive statue from ,tehuacan1 the characteristics of the cipactli earth-animal obtrude themselves in a wealth of scale1 claw1 and tusk1 which although frequently described as serpentine1 is only partially so1 and shows traces that more than one idea was in the mind of the artist who chiselled its symbolic intricacies4 ,in the latter of these sculptures the appearance of ferocity is most marked and is accompanied by the same dragon-like claws on hands and feet4 ,in the mythologies of many lands the ,earth-mother is represented as ferocious1 insatiable1 as slaying those who take part in her amours1 as a riotous and outrageous demon1 unnatural and destructive in her lusts and appetites1 and it would seem that her ,mexican phase throws light upon the reasons for this savage wantonness4 ,in the sculpture first alluded to1 and in the carving on its base1 we can perceive a close resemblance to the earth-monster of the ,maya peoples1 especially as represented in the carvings at ,copan and in the ,temple of the ,cross at ,palenque4 ,these afford almost irrefragable proof of the correctness of the supposition regarding the fusion of the concepts of the earth-beast and the earth-mother which has been outlined4 #af ,the deification of the grain is so universal a phenomenon as to require but little explanation1 especially in regard to a country where it formed the staple alimentary supply4 ,it appears to have received divine honours in many districts in ,mexico and to have been worshipped under a variety of names1 but there was little difference between the characters of these several cults1 and the absence of this is well exemplified by the readiness with which they amalgamated and the fusion of their central figures4 ,the deification of the rain1 as apart from the idea of a mere rain-god1 is perhaps a circumstance of more novelty to the student of ,comparative ,religion4 ,tlaloc1 the god of rain or moisture1 is one of the most striking examples of this process in any mythology4 ,a god of great antiquity1 his pluvial character is obvious and undoubted4 ,but he is also the life-giver1 the nourisher1 who from his home in the green uplands of ,tlalocan sends the vivifying rains to fill the deep fissures in the hard1 cracked soil of the ,valley of ,anahuac4 ,in the courtyard of his dwelling stood four jars of water1 typifying the four different 8kinds0 of rainfall which corresponded to the four quarters of the heavens1 and these were distributed by his progeny1 the ,tlaloqu4 ,there is the best evidence that the aspect of ,tlaloc was evolved from the idea of the rain itself4 ,his face is formed from the interlacings of two serpents1 his face-paint is black and blue1 or dirty yellow like the threatening cloud which holds the thunder-shower4 ,the garments he wears are splashed with ulli rubber-gum1 evidently intended to symbolize rain-spots4 ,indeed1 his robe is called the anachxechilli or 8dripping garment10 and is frequently depicted as set with green gems to represent the sparkling raindrops4 ,few rain-gods1 even the ,vedic ,indra himself1 whom ,tlaloc somewhat resembles1 are so frankly symbolic of the moisture which falls from above4 #ag ,but his serpentine or dragon-like form renders it probable that1 although he was regarded in later times as a personification of the rain1 in earlier times he was looked upon as the 8,water ,provider10 the great serpent or dragon which dwelt among the hills and which must be defeated by a hero or demi-god ere it will disgorge the floods which ensure the growth of vegetation4 ,,evidence ,,of ,,primitive ,,influences ,we may now examine the elements just described for traces of the early constituents of religion4 ,the conception that the earth itself was a monster gifted with life is evidently the outcome of a belief in 8animism0 or 8personalization10 and merits little further notice because of its obvious character4 ,although the grain was also personalized1 there are evidences of its 8fetishtic0 nature in early times4 ,the great stone figure of ,coatlicue already alluded to1 besides affording evidence of the dragon-like character of the ,earth-mother1 exhibits many of the attributes of the primitive fetish manufactured from bundles of maize1 large beans representing the eyes and pumpkin pips the teeth1 while strips of paper form the mouth and labret4 ,true1 these early characteristics have been overlaid by the abounding symbolism of later and more complex ideas--the skin of the sacrificial victim1 the serpent-heads1 representing perhaps the spouting of that victim's blood from the severed trunk and the skirt of serpents with which myth credited the goddess--but in the clumsy amorphousness of this wondrously carven block we can readily perceive the outline of the maize-sheaves from which its idea was drawn4 ,indeed the ears and leaves of the maize-plant descend from underneath the skirt of serpents and decorate the knot which secures it behind4 #ah 8,,fetish0 ,,origin ,,of ,,gods ,more than one of the great gods exhibit the signs of fetishtic origin4 ,uitzilopochtli1 the great tribal patron deity of the ,aztec of ,mexico-,tenochtitlan1 was described in tradition as leading them from the mythical northern country of ,aztlan in the form of 8a little bird40 ,he is usually represented in the pictorial ,,mss41 where his appearance is infrequent1 as wearing a mantle made from humming-birds' feathers4 ,later legend spoke of him as the vindicator of his mother1 a goddess of vegetation1 and as slaying her detractors1 his own half-brothers1 while in historical times the whole business of war was arranged through the instrumentality of his oracular image and was carried out chiefly in view of the necessity for human sacrifice which characterized his especial cult4 ,but if we examine the roots of the beliefs which cluster around him1 we shall find much to convince us that he was1 after the entrance of his people into the ,valley of ,anahuac1 identified with the maguey plant1 which forms so familiar an object in the ,mexican landscape4 ,extended proof of this lowly origin will be found in the section which deals with the god4 ,quite as humble are the beginnings of the god ,tezcatlipoc1 perhaps the most universally dreaded among the ,mexican deities4 ,regarding his precise significance nothing very definite has been arrived at by modern authorities4 ,as will be shown later1 the early significance of ,tezcatlipoc arises out of his connection with obsidian1 which had an especial sanctity for the ,mexicans4 ,,animal ,,gods ,in our gropings for the roots of the ,mexican faith we must not fail to notice those elements which stand apart from agricultural religion and are eloquent of the concepts of a still earlier time4 ,agricultural theology is as old as agriculture1 and no older4 ,the food-supply of the savage prior to that period depends upon the successful conduct of the chase4 ,his gods are therefore often precisely of the species of animal by hunting which he gains a livelihood1 and which he frequently regards as placed at his disposal by a great eponymous beast-god of the same kind4 #ai ,again1 for some reason which has never been satisfactorily explained and for which no solution can be found at present1 in view of the rather dubious nature of what is known as 8totemism10 primitive man adores1 or in some manner exalts1 certain animals on the flesh of which he does not live4 ,but although gods evolved from animal shapes are frequently to be met with in the ,mexican pantheon1 ,i can recall no instance of the taboo of the flesh of any animal as an article of diet in ,anahuac1 or ,mexico proper1 although this may be found in the cultus of several of the tribes of the more outlying regions4 ,uitzilopochtli has the characteristics of a humming-bird1 and1 indeed1 all of the thirteen gods which governed the hours of the day are figured in the tonalamatl of the ,aubin ,collection with bird-disguises1 and one of the thirteen heavens of the ,mexicans is set apart for bird-gods1 while certain other deities appear in animal forms4 ,for example1 ,tepeyollotl is figured as a jaguar1 ,tlaloc and ,quetzalcoatl have serpentine characteristics1 ,itzpapalotl is a butterfly-dragon1 ,tezcatlipoc a spider1 a jaguar1 or a turkey1 ,mixcoatl takes deer shape1 and so on4 ,but some of these forms are probably symbolic rather than 8totemic40 ,the cult of ,nagualism1 #bj a degraded post-,colombian form of the old religion1 was insistent upon the connection of its votaries with an animal spirit or familiar from an early period of their lives--that is1 to each individual a personal 8totem0 was assigned1 precisely as is the case among many ,north ,american tribes at the present time and as among the ,lacandone of ,yucatan4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,rain-,,cult ,enough has been said in view of the restricted nature of the evidence1 to prove that ,mexican religion passed through much the same primitive conditions as other faiths4 ,further evidence on this point will be adduced as the gods are severally described4 ,we may now proceed to examine such proof as we possess of the onward and upward progress of the cult of rain and growth in ,mexico4 ,we may1 perhaps1 imagine the institution of tribal or village rain or grain fetishes1 which in course of time would attain godhead by reason of popularity or supposed auspiciousness4 ,the ministers of these would probably bear a strong resemblance to the medicine-men of ,north ,american ,indian tribes4 ,warfare undoubtedly played a great part in the fortunes of these local cults4 ,thus1 did the people of a certain tribal god triumph in feud or battle1 his worship would almost certainly be enlarged in a territorial sense4 ,but such a triumph would be a small incentive to further conquest when compared with the absolute necessity for war engendered by the holy law that captives must be obtained for purposes of sacrifice to the tribal deities4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,for ,,human ,,sacrifice ,the origins of the institution of human sacrifice in ,mexico are obscure4 ,native mythology attributed its invention to a group of earth-goddesses headed by ,teteo innan or ,tlazolteotl1 who in the ,calendar year 8eight-rabbit0 came to the city of ,tollan or ,tula from the ,huaxtec country and1 summoning the captives whom they had taken in that land1 said to them3 8,we want to couple the earth with you1 we want to hold a feast with you1 for till now no battle-offerings have been made with men40 #ba ,this myth is1 perhaps1 tiological1 but it would seem to have some historical basis4 ,deeply rooted in the ,mexican mind was the idea that unless the gods were abundantly refreshed with human blood they would perish of hunger and old age and would be unable to undertake their hypothetical labours in connection with the growth of the crops4 ,whence came this idea8 ,undoubtedly from that process of barbaric reasoning through which ,mexican man had convinced himself that the amount of rainfall would be in ratio to the amount of blood shed sacrificially4 ,seler #bb has indicated his belief in such a process of reasoning by stating that 8the one was intended to draw down the other1 the blood which was offered was intended to bring down the rain upon the fields40 ,this1 then1 is the precise nature of the compact between ,mexican man and his gods1 ,do ut des1 8,give us rain1 and we shall give you blood40 ,once this is understood the basic nature of ,mexican religion becomes clear1 and all the later additions of theology and priestly invention can be viewed as mere excrescences and ornaments upon the simple architecture of the temple of the rain-cult4 ,,the ,,later ,,elements ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,the evolution of a higher cultus is frequently identified with a more intimate acquaintance with the heavenly bodies1 but it is not generally appreciated or understood by students of ,comparative ,religion that at least two different kinds of conception underlie the general idea4 ,a luminary1 sun1 moon1 or star1 may be deified and achieve godhead by reason of striking natural characteristics1 or1 on the other hand1 it may be identified with some god already known4 ,thus ,mexican myth1 as related to ,sahagun by the natives1 asserted that the gods met at ,teotihuacan and told how two of their number1 ,nanahuatl and ,tecciztecatl1 sacrificed themselves by leaping into a great fire1 becoming the sun and moon respectively4 ,the remaining gods1 sacrificing themselves also1 8conferred life upon the stars10 that is they became identified with the several stellar constellations1 becoming known as the ,centzon ,mimixcoa and ,centzon ,uitznaua1 or 8,four hundred ,northerners0 and 8,four hundred ,southerners10 as they occupied the sky on its northern or southern side4 #bc ,although this myth and a version of it current at ,texcuco and given by ,mendieta in his ,historia ,ecclesiastica #bd both represent ,nanahuatl as the sun-god1 he was not so known in ,mexican popular religion and priestly practice1 and was indeed a form of the god ,xolotl1 a deity of obscure characteristics4 ,tecciztecatl certainly was regarded as the moon-god1 but the solar luminary was known as ,tonatiuh or ,piltzintecutli4 ,as has already been stated1 there are sound reasons for the belief that the solar cult was a relatively late institution in ,mexico1 although in some parts of the country it may have flourished for generations before it became popular in ,tenochtitlan4 ,slightly elaborating our former reasons for this statement1 we may indicate3 7#a7 ,the name ,tonatiuh appears in the myths of the origin of the sun as that of the luminary1 but not of a god4 7#b7 ,the circumstance that ,tonatiuh was regarded by the ,mexicans as a 8heaven10 a ,valhalla1 to which the warriors slain in sacrifice betook themselves after death1 and therefore represented a place of reward1 a class of myth which is nearly always of comparatively late origin1 and is the fruit of mature speculation4 7#c7 ,the fact that ,tonatiuh was closely identified with the warrior caste and therefore with human sacrifice1 which was a late introduction and the paramount reason for the existence of that caste4 7#d7 ,that the original ,calendar was a lunar one4 ,but these and other considerations will be dealt with more fully when we undertake the elucidation of the sun-god's characteristics4 ,the amalgamation of the solar cult and of the ,quetzalcoatl cult 7representing the later and earlier 8civilized0 elements in ,mexican religion7 with the rain-cult is not an isolated phenomenon in the world's religious history4 ,the analogy of the fusion of the ,osirian cult of ,egypt with that of ,ra will occur to everyone in this connection1 and as the theology of the priests of the more aristocratic faith became in the event subsidiary in real importance to that of the far more popular ,osirian worship1 in the same manner the ,quetzalcoatl cult1 and in some measure the solar1 were of much less real significance in ,mexican life generally than the earlier popular belief4 ,the solar worship seems to have successfully and naturally identified itself with the rain-cult1 as also did the ,quetzalcoatl religion4 ,the myth which described ,quetzalcoatl as the founder or inventor of the tonalamatl or ,book of ,fate #be probably records an effort on the part of his priesthood to identify their cult with the popular agricultural religion or to systematize or reduce to symbolic form an idea which until that time had probably existed in an uncertain and chaotic condition in the popular mind4 ,for even if the tonalamatl were introduced from the ,zapotec or ,mixtec country or the ,maya region1 as is generally supposed1 it required skilful arrangement to make it subserve the purposes of ,aztec religion4 ,the priesthood and cultus of ,quetzalcoatl were widespread throughout ,central ,america and ,mexico1 and its ministers appear to have adapted themselves with skill and patience to the conditions of the various regions to which they penetrated1 the result of their labours never being quite the same in any two regions4 ,it is remarkable1 too1 that1 probably by reason of the superior erudition and ability of its priesthood1 the caste of ,quetzalcoatl held chief sway in ,mexican ecclesiastical government4 #bf ,but a partial1 though by no means complete1 hostility to human sacrifice and ceremonial cannibalism1 a grudging acquiescence in what it had1 in all likelihood1 denounced in earlier times1 gave it in later days a somewhat aloof and separate character4 ,,cultural ,,elements ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,we must now glance briefly at such evidences as we possess of the distinct racial or cultural elements which assisted in the development of ,mexican religion4 ,three such elements appear to be indicated4 ,it would seem that from an early period a people of settled and agricultural habits occupied the ,mexican ,plateau4 ,these were probably relatively aboriginal to the ,toltecs and may have been of ,otomi or ,tarascan blood1 and to them ,i would refer the original foundation of a rain-cult having ,tlaloc as its principal deity4 ,tlaloc was unquestionably one of the most venerable gods of ,mexico1 indeed he is the only god who can be identified with certainty in the remains of pre-,nahuan date at ,teotihuacan4 ,tradition spoke of the finding of an ancient idol representing him by the early ,chichimec immigrants4 #bg ,at least five of the yearly festivals were celebrated in his honour1 and ancient sculptured representations of him have been found in ,tarascan territory1 in ,michoacan1 ,teotihuacan1 ,teotitlan1 in the ,zapotec country and in ,guatemala1 thus affording irrefragable testimony to his antiquity4 ,rather later than the culture which probably founded the rain-cult 7a religion necessary and indeed inevitable in ,mexico7 was the ,toltec civilization1 which regarded ,quetzalcoatl as its chiefest divinity1 and which probably was brought from the ,huaxtec country4 ,but the ,toltec are said to have been of ,nahua blood1 and may have been composed of a ,nahua populace and a ,huaxtec or proto-,maya aristocracy4 ,the later hordes of ,nahua 7,chichimecs1 ,aztec1 etc47 found these elements already settled upon the land1 but brought with them a religion which1 if it was destined to have a powerful effect upon the faith of the agricultural folk with whom they came into contact1 was also to be quite as strongly influenced by it4 ,reverting to the conditions prevailing in ,mexico prior to the entry of the ,chichimec ,nahua1 we may regard the rain-cult of the ,tlaloc religion as in some measure resembling that of the ,pueblo ,indians of ,northern ,mexico and ,arizona at the present time4 ,the serpentine character of its principal deity1 the appeal for rain which composes the basis of most of the prayers to him1 provide strong proofs of such a similarity1 and1 as has been said1 the antiquity of the rain religion is proved by the discovery of early sculptured forms and the facts adduced above4 ,the ,tlaloc religion had also been able in some degree to retain its own sacrificial customs1 the drowning of victims being practised in addition to the ,nahua method of slaughter on the stone of sacrifice4 ,the date of the introduction of the religion of ,quetzalcoatl is generally placed at the middle of the eighth century of our era1 so that we are perhaps justified in assuming that the faith of the greater portion of ,anahuac #bh before that time had as its basis the rain-cult1 as represented by ,tlaloc4 ,the religious customs of those peoples who were relatively aboriginal to the ,nahua support the theory of the predominance of the rain-cult in ,mexico from a very early period1 and ,torquemada states that during seasons of drought the ,otomi sought to propitiate the rain-gods by sacrificing a virgin on the top of a hill4 #bi ,espinosa says that the ,tarascans sacrificed snakes rather than human beings--possibly for the same reason as the ,esquimaux beat their dogs during an eclipse1 in order that the ,great ,dog which causes the undesirable phenomenon may desist1 the ,tarascans probably killing the reptiles in question in order that the ,great ,snake might relent and send rain4 #cj ,the towns about ,chapala paid divine honours to the spirit of the adjacent lake4 ,late though these survivals may have been at the era of the ,conquest1 yet they seem to have enshrined the memory of an early rain-cult among the peoples with whom they were found1 and many others could be adduced4 ,,the ,,quetzalcoatl ,,cult ,the appearance of the ,quetzalcoatl cult in ,mexico1 which would seem to have entered the country at some time about the middle of the eighth century1 must have caused very considerable alterations in the simple and probably as yet uninfluenced rain religion which it found in occupancy4 ,from whatever portion of the ,isthmian tract it came1 one thing regarding it is positively certain--that it introduced into ,mexico the rudiments of the calendric computation evolved in ,central ,america4 ,in its phase as imported by the apostles of the ,quetzalcoatl religion1 it seems fairly certain that the tonalamatl was of the nature of a lunar time-count1 and the probabilities are that its protagonists discovered on their arrival in ,anahuac that a count similar in character was in use among the priesthood of the ,tlaloc worshippers1 who as an agricultural people could hardly have been without some such system of computation4 ,the ,quetzalcoatl faith1 however1 was manifestly of a considerably higher status than that which it encountered1 as is obvious not only by the numerous and extraordinary traditions regarding the ,toltec civilization1 but the actual remains it has left4 ,it is clear that1 whether it found a calendar or time-count already existing1 it placated aboriginal opinion by the amalgamation of the several festivals of the rain-god with its own4 ,the fact that the day-signs of the ,mexican calendar or tonalamatl are almost identical with those of the ,maya tonalamatl is good proof that the former was developed from the latter2 and if only a small proportion of ,toltec deities find a place in its monthly festivals1 that would seem to be due to the circumstance that later ,nahua demands for the inclusion of their tribal deities were acceded to4 ,we may1 perhaps1 imagine the early tonalamatl of the ,quetzalcoatl missionaries to have been similar in form to that of the ,maya--that is1 it must have been almost wholly concerned with the festivals of deities of a purely agricultural kind4 ,but the religion of ,quetzalcoatl1 as observed in his ,yucatec form of ,kukulkan and his ,guatemalan variant of ,gucumatz1 bore a close resemblance to that of ,tlaloc4 ,in ,yucatan ,quetzalcoatl was regarded by priests and people as the great rain-making priest1 the god of moisture1 whereas in ,mexico he is merely the sweeper of the ways to the ,tlaloc deities of rain4 ,this is surely eloquent of the fact that the ,tlaloc religion was not only of greater antiquity in ,mexico1 but that its ministers were disinclined to permit the deity of the new religion to adopt a status similar to that of their own god4 ,with true priestly diplomacy1 then1 it would seem that they temporized by affording ,quetzalcoatl a status as the great rain-making priest1 a character which he retained to the last4 ,myth certainly alludes to ,tlaloc as the supplanter of ,quetzalcoatl in the affections of the goddess ,chalchihuitlicue and as robbing the peaceful culture-hero of the maize-plant which he had discovered4 ,this does not necessarily signify the defeat of an older religion by a more novel faith1 but may relate to a successful defence by the more ancient cultus and its absorption of the other4 ,the theory of the amalgamation of the ,tlaloc and ,quetzalcoatl cults appears to me to be in some measure assisted by the circumstance that the devotees of both placed a high value upon minerals of a green colour4 ,the word chalchihuitl 78green stone071 of such common occurrence in the works of the ,spanish authors who wrote on ,mexican affairs1 must be taken as applying with equal force to jadeite1 nephrite1 turquoise1 emerald1 chlormelanite1 green quartz1 precious serpentine1 or1 indeed1 any mineral of a green shade4 ,a tradition existed that ,quetzalcoatl brought the use and manipulation of jadeite into ,mexico1 but green was a salient hue in the insignia of ,tlaloc1 and the name of his consort ,chalchihuitlicue 78greenstone skirt07 is eloquent of his connection with the several kinds of stones which the ,mexicans grouped under the name chalchihuitl4 ,whatever significance attached to the colour of these stones1 apart from their nature as precious stones1 whether or not they were symbolic of water or verdure1 or metal1 or of all of these agencies1 which are regarded as so potent by primitive peoples1 it is apparent that both cults employed them symbolically or pseudo-scientifically1 and it therefore seems probable that each of these religions was originally connected with the worship of water1 and therefore the influence associated with and contained in water1 and that this belief would render their amalgamation a process of little difficulty4 ,if1 however1 such similarities eventually made for the union of the cults1 traditions were not lacking regarding their early differences or hostilities4 ,as has been said1 myths survived into historical times1 which stated that although ,quetzalcoatl had succeeded in discovering maize1 ,tlaloc had stolen it from him and had also succeeded in alienating from him the affection of ,chalchihuitlicue1 who had originally been regarded as the wife of ,quetzalcoatl4 #ca ,but these myths are undeniably of late origin4 ,quetzalcoatl's status as a celibate god or priest would scarcely allow his name to be connected with matrimony1 and it is plain that ,chalchihuitlicue1 the water goddess1 is in a sense merely a personification of the chalchihuitl stone1 which was1 perhaps1 originally one of the symbols of the ,quetzalcoatl cult and which later became personified in female form1 thus giving rise to the myth in question4 ,nor do these tales necessarily prove the priority of the ,quetzalcoatl cult1 which was indeed regarded as responsible for practically all ,mexican civilization and which would naturally be credited with the introduction of the use of the sacred stones4 ,,the ,,cult ,,of ,,obsidian ,but if the later ,nahua immigrants also came to regard these chalchihuitl stones with reverence1 at the period of their entrance to the ,mexican plateau they paid devotion to a mineral of a very different kind4 ,and this it is which helps us to regard their faith as differing entirely from those other faiths which already flourished in the land4 ,the mineral with which their cult was so closely connected was obsidian1 a vitreous natural glass found in the upper volcanic strata of ,mexico and northern ,california1 which flakes readily from the core by pressure and gains by mere fracture a razor-like edge of considerable penetrative power4 ,the principal quarry of this volcanic glass was the mountain known as the ,cerro de las ,navajas 78hill of the knives07 near ,timapan1 and from this centre the itztli1 by which name obsidian was known to the ,mexicans1 was widely distributed by barter over a very considerable area4 ,there would seem to be proof that this mineral1 so suitable for the purposes of the nomadic hunter1 was anciently known far to the north of ,mexico4 ,the observations of ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson #cb in ,british ,columbia satisfied him that trading intercourse was engaged in by the coast tribes with those of the interior along the ,frazer ,river ,valley and far to the south4 ,from the remotest times embraced in their native traditions1 the ,bilqula of ,dean ,inlet have possessed a trade route by way of the ,bella ,coola ,river to the ,tinn country1 along which trail broken implements and chips of obsidian have been found4 ,many of the routes in ,british ,columbia have also yielded chips and flakes of obsidian1 which1 the ,tinn ,indians stated1 was obtained from a mountain near the headwaters of the ,salmon ,river 7about long4 #abe #dj1 lat4 #eb #dj71 formerly resorted to for the purpose of procuring the mineral4 ,the ,indian name of this mountain is ,bece1 which1 ,dr4 ,dawson suggested1 is the same with the 8,mexican0 name for knife1 itztli1 an etymology which may be of ,nahuatlac origin4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,c4 ,weston1 of the ,geological ,survey1 also noted in #ahhc the finding of a flake of obsidian in connection with a layer of buffalo bones occurring in alluvium1 and evidently of considerable antiquity1 near ,fort ,mc,leod1 ,alberta4 ,the nearest source of such a material is the ,yellowstone ,park region4 ,the coast tribes of ,british ,columbia have been traders for untold generations1 exchanging oolactin oil for such material as they could make implements from1 and there seems to be no doubt that the ,mound-builders of ,ohio1 ,wisconsin1 and ,kentucky were also acquainted with obsidian1 which they could only have obtained by the process of barter4 ,it was thus either to be found in the regions from which the ,nahua are thought to have come1 or else obtainable through the channels of trade4 ,if1 then1 it be granted that the ,chichimec ,nahua were acquainted with obsidian and its properties before their entrance upon the ,plateau of ,anahuac 7a hypothesis which is strengthened by the material differences of workmanship between their tools and weapons made of this material and those of the aboriginal peoples of ,mexico71 sufficient time had elapsed for their development of a cult1 which1 at the era of the ,conquest1 exhibited traces of a very considerable antiquity4 ,it was1 naturally1 as a hunting people that they employed weapons of obsidian4 ,the herds of deer on the flesh of which they chiefly lived roamed the steppes1 and proof abounds that the customs of the chase strongly influenced the religious ideas of the early ,nahua4 ,certain of their gods1 indeed1 seem to have been developed from cervine forms1 for among barbarous races the animal worshipped is that which provides the tribe with its staple food1 or1 more correctly1 a great eponymous figure of that animal is adored--for example1 the ,great ,deer1 who sends the smaller deer to keep the savage in life4 ,in like manner barbarous fisherfolk are wont to worship the ,great ,fish1 which sends them its progeny or its subjects to serve as food4 ,these deer gods or hunting gods in some way connected with the deer--,itzpapalotl1 ,itzcuy1 ,mixcoatl1 ,camaxtli--had also stellar or solar attributes4 ,the deer was slain by the obsidian weapon1 which1 therefore1 came to be regarded as the magical weapon1 that by which food was procured4 ,in the course of time it assumed a sacred significance1 the hunting gods themselves came to wield it1 and it was thought of as coming from the stars or the heavens where the gods dwelt1 in precisely the same manner as flint arrowheads were regarded by the peasantry of ,europe as 8elf-arrows0 or 8thunder-stones0--that is1 as something supernatural1 falling from above4 ,but the obsidian itself became deified as ,tezcatlipoc4 ,i have retained the full proof of this assertion for the section which treats of that god1 and must here content myself with a summary of it4 ,the whole cult of obsidian centred in the personality of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,his idol was made of that stone1 and in ,codex ,borbonicus his sandals are painted with the zigzag line of the obsidian snake4 ,in his variant of ,itztli 7obsidian7 he was the god of the sacrificial knife of obsidian1 and in certain codices he is represented as having such a knife in place of a foot4 ,from this stone1 too1 divinatory mirrors were made1 one of which was held by the idols of ,tezcatlipoc and served as the mirror or scrying-stone in which he witnessed the doings of mankind4 ,obsidian1 the great life-giver1 food-getter1 blood-provider1 became identified in the form of this god with the cause or breath of life1 which1 in turn1 was identified with the wind1 and therefore it came to be classed among those magical stones which in some mysterious manner are considered capable of raising a tempest4 ,in this manner ,tezcatlipoc came to be regarded as a god of wind1 and has been identified with the ,hurakan of the ,quiches of ,guatemala1 from whose name the expression 8hurricane0 has been borrowed and who was probably introduced into ,central ,america by the ,nahua4 ,when the nomadic ,chichimec adopted an agricultural condition1 obsidian had doubtless been regarded as sacred for many generations4 ,it was by virtue of this magical stone that the nourishment of the gods was maintained by the sacrifice of deer2 but when the ,chichimec came to embrace a more settled existence within an agricultural community where deer must certainly have been more scarce1 the nourishment of the gods had necessarily to be maintained by other means4 ,the manner in which this was effected is quite clear4 ,slaves and war-captives were sacrificed instead of beasts of the chase1 and at the festival of ,mixcoatl1 the greatest of the ,chichimec gods1 women were sacrificed in the place of deer1 and after being slain were carried down the steps of the teocalli1 their wrists and ankles tied together precisely in the manner in which a deer is trussed by the hunter4 #cc ,the transition from deer-sacrifice to a human holocaust and from the hunting to the agricultural condition is well illustrated by an ancient hymn relating to the goddess ,itzpapalotl 78,obsidian ,butterfly071 who was associated with ,mixcoatl4 8,o1 she has become a goddess of the melon cactus1 ,our ,mother ,itzpapalotl1 the obsidian butterfly4 ,her food is on the ,nine ,plains1 ,she was nurtured on the hearts of deer1 ,our ,mother1 the earth-goddess40 ,the inference in these lines seems to be that whereas ,itzpapalotl was formerly a goddess of the ,chichimec nomads of the steppes1 who sacrificed deer to her1 she has now become the deity of the melon-cactus patch and an agricultural community4 ,her first human victim is also mentioned by ,camargo1 #cd who states that the ,chichimec1 coming to the province of ,tepeueuec1 sacrificed a victim to her by shooting him with arrows4 ,itzpapalotl has more than one cervine attribute4 #ce ,mexican tradition makes it very plain that obsidian1 because of its blood-procuring properties1 came to be regarded as the source of all life1 as the very principle of existence4 ,tonacaciuatl1 the creative goddess1 as we shall see1 gave birth to an obsidian knife from which sprang sixteen hundred demigods who peopled the earth1 #cf and the infant which the goddess ,ciuacoatl leaves in the cradle in the market-place undergoes metamorphosis into an obsidian knife4 #cg ,as the ,codices show1 grain is often pictured in the form of the obsidian knife of sacrifice4 ,just as in many myths1 both in the ,old ,world and the ,new1 flint was regarded as the great fertilizer because of its supposed connection with the lightning1 so was obsidian4 ,thus all the elements which go to make for growth and life were regarded as having a connection with this mineral1 even the sun itself1 as we shall see1 being identified with the ,mirror of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,the idea that the sun could not live without human blood was a purely ,nahua conception1 arising out of an earlier belief that it must be nourished upon the blood of beasts4 ,of the transitional process abundant proof exists4 ,the hunter's obsidian weapon which supplied the necessary pabulum became in turn the weapon of the warrior who procured victims for the holocaust1 and the sacred knife of the priest who sacrificed them to the deity4 ,obsidian was thus chiefly the war weapon and the sacrificial weapon1 but the traditions relating to it refer to practically all the offices of human art1 industry1 and activity generally4 ,lest this hypothesis seem overstrained1 analogies may be indicated4 ,that which is initially sacred in a primitive cult frequently comes to have interrelations with the whole environment of its deities4 ,thus the worship of the oak by the ,druids appears to have given an oak-like virtue to the oracular birds which dwelt in its branches1 to the soil from which it grew1 to the sky above it1 to the priests who ministered to it and to the sacred implements they employed4 ,the same may be said of the oak-cult of ,zeus and the vine-cult of ,dionysos4 ,the numerous traditions which cluster round the ceremonial use of jade in ,china are eloquent of such a tendency4 ,thus trees1 plants1 animals1 and natural objects are all in a manner identified and connected with the beautiful jade stone in its character as an imparter of vitality4 ,thus in the great worship of the gods whose cult was connected with obsidian1 well-nigh everything with which it had interrelations came to partake of the nature of obsidian--grain1 the earth1 the atmosphere1 the sun1 the stars1 the priesthood1 blood1 and rain4 ,the process by which this ,nahua cult became amalgamated with those of ,tlaloc and ,quetzalcoatl seems fairly clear4 ,upon their settlement on the ,plateau of ,anahuac it is plain from the terms of certain myths that the ,nahua did not regard the cult of ,quetzalcoatl in any friendly manner4 ,tezcatlipoc is spoken of as driving him from the country1 and it is probable that to begin with a certain amount of persecution may have been inflicted upon his adherents4 ,but the ,nahua would undoubtedly come to recognize the value of the calendar system connected with his cult1 and it is clear that they did so from the fact that we find included in it certain of their principal gods4 ,the final process of amalgamation probably took place during the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 for1 as seen at the ,conquest period1 the union of the three great cults of ,mexico must have occupied several centuries4 ,such a duration of time was necessary for the development of a homogeneous and involved symbolism1 which was obviously based on a tacit recognition of the unity of the ,mexican faith4 ,initial disparities seem to be indicated principally by ancient traditions1 of which perhaps the most notable was that which spoke of the different heavens of the three original cults1 the ,tlalocan of the worshippers of ,tlaloc1 the ,tlapallan or over-sea paradise of the ,quetzalcoatl cult1 and the ,sun-house or ,valhalla of the ,nahua4 ,a striking proof of the adjustment of the chronology of the three cults may perhaps be found in the myths which speak of the existence of several 8suns0 or ages prior to the historical era1 the 8rulers0 or patrons of which were1 according to the most trustworthy sources1 ,tezcatlipoc1 ,quetzalcoatl1 ,tlaloc1 and ,chalchihuitlicue1 goddess of the ,tlaloc cult4 #ch ,the attribution of higher and abstract qualities to the gods was probably of comparatively late origin4 ,especially is this to be observed in the case of ,tezcatlipoc1 to whom1 at the period of the ,conquest1 we find attributed such a bewildering array of qualities1 both concrete and abstract1 lofty and the reverse1 as would seem to indicate that1 had ,european influences failed to penetrate to ,anahuac1 his worship might have reached the monotheistic stage1 and in time have overshadowed that of the other gods of the ,mexican pantheon4 ,undoubtedly1 too1 the priesthood1 and probably the nobility1 fostered a more esoteric and loftier type of religion than was understood of the people1 and good proof 7which is by no means confined to the rather doubtful circumstance that ,nezahualcoyotl of ,texcuco built a temple to the 8,unknown ,god07 is forthcoming that theological questions of greater or less complexity had begun to exercise the minds of the hierarchy4 ,,unity ,,of ,,religious ,,conception ,,throughout ,,mexico ,at the epoch of the ,conquest it is abundantly clear that the ,aztec had succeeded in establishing their tribal cult1 enriched with the beliefs of the peoples they had conquered1 over a wide area4 ,they had adopted into their pantheon such deities of the surrounding tribes as appealed to their imagination1 or were too powerful to be ignored1 and actually 8imprisoned0 many others of lesser puissance1 whose idols were kept in confinement in a building within the precincts of the great temple at ,mexico-,tenochtitlan4 #ci ,within the historical period but little radical difference existed between the several ,mexican cults1 which all appear to have been affected by a common influence4 ,we observe1 therefore1 the phenomenon of certain early religious forms originating under common influences1 separated for centuries and profoundly altered by immigrant forces1 at length brought together again by the amalgamating powers of conquest under the influence of one central and paramount cult1 only1 when once more united1 to find a common destruction at the hands of the ministers of an alien and invading faith4 ,at the period of the ,conquest1 then1 we find the ,mexican religion relatively homogeneous in character1 with a widespread ascendancy1 its provincial activities exhibiting differences of little more than local kind4 ,even in its most far-flung manifestations1 indeed1 it never showed such variations as permit us to say that the most dissimilar or distant variety of the cult entirely differed from the metropolitan exemplar4 #dj ,this being so1 we are as fully justified in speaking of a ,mexican religion as we are in alluding to an ,italic or a ,hellenic religion1 and perhaps more so than in extending the analogy to ,egypt1 where anything like homogeneity in either theology or popular worship appears never to have been attained4 ,we find1 then1 that the religion of ancient ,mexico1 as known at the ,conquest period1 was the outcome of later religious and ethical impulses brought to bear upon a simple rain-cult1 which1 judging from the atmospheric conditions essential to it1 must have been indigenous to the country4 ,although the cults of its several deities still retained some measure of distinctiveness1 all had long before been amalgamated in what was really a national faith4 ,there are signs1 too1 that a fully developed pantheon had been evolved1 which mirrored an elaborate social system in caste1 rank1 and guild1 but the mythical material from which this might have been reconstructed is only partly available4 ,we find1 too1 that practically every god in the ,mexican hierarchy1 whatever his original status1 was in some manner connected with the rain-cult4 ,indeed1 the rain-cult is the central and coalescing factor in ,mexican religion1 its nucleus and foundation4 ,as might be expected1 most of the deities of agricultural growth appear to be of either ,toltec or alien origin4 ,thus1 ,chicomecoatl was ,toltec1 while ,tlazolteotl1 ,xochiquetzal1 ,xilonen1 ,cinteotl1 and ,xipe were all alien deities of the older settled peoples1 but what their relationship to the three great cults of ,mexico may have been is not apparent4 ,most of these deities appear in the tonalamatl1 so that their worship must have been adopted at a comparatively early date4 ,students of religious phenomena not infrequently show distaste for the deeper consideration of the ,mexican faith1 not only because of the difficulties which beset the fuller study of this interesting phase of human belief in the eternal verities1 but also1 perhaps1 because of the 8diabolic0 reputation which it has achieved1 and the grisly horrors to which it is thought those who examine it must perforce accustom themselves4 ,it is certainly not the most obviously prepossessing of the world's religions4 ,yet if a due allowance be made for the earnestness of its priests and people in the strict observance of a system the hereditary burden of which no one man or generation could hope to remove1 and the religion of the ,aztec be viewed in a liberal and tolerant spirit1 those who are sufficiently painstaking in their scrutiny of it will in time find themselves richly rewarded4 ,not only does it abound in valuable evidences for the enrichment of the study of religious science and tradition1 but by degrees its astonishing beauty of colour and wealth of symbolic variety will appeal to the student with all the enchantment of discovery4 ,the echoes of the sacred drum of serpent-skin reverberating from the lofty pyramid of ,uitzilopochtli1 and passing above the mysterious city of ,tenochtitlan with all the majesty of ,olympic thunder1 will seem not less eloquent of the soul of a vanished faith than do the memories of the choral chants of ,hellas4 ,and if the recollection of the picturesque but terrible rites of this gifted1 imaginative1 and not undistinguished people harrows the feelings1 does it not arouse in us that fatal consciousness of man's helplessness before the gods1 which primitive religion invariably professes and which reason almost seems to uphold8 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,cosmogony ,accounts of the creation of the world and of man1 even as handed down to us by those writers on ,mexican mythology who had the best opportunities for collecting them1 are prone to vagueness1 and differ so materially one from another that we will probably not be in error if we impute their inconsistencies to a variety of local origins4 ,as regards the agencies by whom the creation or reconstruction of the earth was accomplished1 we are not in doubt1 for certain passages in the ,interpretative ,codices find almost exact corroboration in the creation story contained in the ,popol ,vuh1 the mythic book of the ,quiche of ,guatemala 7which was unknown to the interpreters of the ,mexican ,codices71 as well as in similar works of ,maya origin4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis states that the god ,tonacatecutli1 8when it appeared good to him1 breathed and divided the waters of the heavens and the earth1 which at first were all confused together1 and disposed them as they now are40 #da ,further1 8he breathed and begot ,quetzalcoatl1 not by connection with a woman1 but by his breath alone40 #db ,the first of these deities1 and his female counterpart ,tonacaciuatl1 are almost certainly spoken of in the ,popol ,vuh as 8the serpents covered with green feathers10 which1 farther on in the ,quiche work1 are alluded to as ,xpiyacoc and ,xmucane1 gods who are generally admitted to be the same as the ,mexican ,oxomoco and ,cipactonal1 who1 again1 are either identical with or closely connected with ,tonacatecutli and his spouse4 #dc ,quetzalcoatl1 too1 appears in the ,popol ,vuh as ,gucumatz1 a known ,quiche equivalent or translation of his name1 for as 8wind0 or 8breath0 he was also thought of as 8spirit0 or 8life10 and probably his fecundating efficacy as a water-bearing god was also taken into consideration4 ,in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 in the ,academia de la ,historia1 ,madrid1 is a passage which reads when translated3 8,they say that he made1 created1 and formed us whose creatures we are1 ,topiltzin ,quetzalcoatl1 and he made the heaven1 the sun1 the earth40 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan or ,codex ,chimalpopca1 #dd too1 relates how ,quetzalcoatl created the four classes of humanity1 the men of the four 8suns0 or periods of the world1 and how men were made by him on the day 8#g wind10 and1 as we shall see1 the work of creation in detail is alluded to in the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 as effected by him and by ,tezcatlipoc4 ,lastly1 we find in the ,creative ,council of the ,quiche heaven1 ,hurakan1 who is none other than ,tezcatlipoc1 a deity closely connected with ,quetzalcoatl in at least one ,mexican creation myth4 ,,the 8,,ages0 ,,of ,,mexican ,,cosmogony ,having thus satisfied ourselves regarding the creative personnel of the ,mexican pantheon1 and preserving further proof of the constructive character of certain of these deities until we come to discuss them individually1 we may proceed to examine such myths as tell of the formation of the world4 ,in the belief of the ,mexicans the earth was not destined to receive its present inhabitants1 although occupied by man-like beings1 until it had undergone a series of cataclysms or partial destructions1 regarding the precise incidence and even the number of which there is a marked difference of opinion on the part of the older authorities4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus states that 8in the first age0 7or 8,sun10 as these periods were called by the ,nahua of ,mexico7 8water reigned until at last it destroyed the world4444 ,this age1 according to their computation1 lasted #d1jjh years1 and on the occurrence of that great deluge they say that men were changed into fish1 named ,tlacamichin1 which signifies men-fish40 #de ,the second age1 he tells us1 lasted for #d1jaj years and the world was ended by the force of violent winds1 the catastrophe concluding by the transformation of men into apes4 ,the third age endured for #d1hja years and ended in a universal fire1 and in the fourth1 which occupied #e1jdb years1 the human race1 which had never ceased to transmit a few survivors from one of these epochs to the next1 was almost destroyed by famine4 ,in his ,historia ,chichimeca #df ,ixtlilxochitl calls the first of these epochs ,atonatiuh 7,water ,sun71 in which all men perished by a great inundation4 ,the second epoch1 ,tlachitonatiuh 7,earth ,sun71 ended with violent earthquakes4 ,in this age lived gigantic beings called ,quinames4 ,the third epoch was ,ecatonatiuh1 or 8,sun of ,wind10 in which edifices1 trees1 and men were nearly all destroyed by hurricanes1 those who remained being changed into creatures of an intelligence so low as to be almost indistinguishable from monkeys4 #dg ,the ,texcucan chronicler does not furnish us with the name of the present age in his ,historia1 nor in his ,relaciones1 #dh where1 however1 we receive fuller information regarding the first three epochs1 which he succeeds in carelessly transposing1 giving the third the second place4 ,camargo #di would almost appear to have been indebted to ,ixtlilxochitl for his version of the creation myth1 but he seems to have been under the impression that only two of the epochs were ended4 ,that three past cataclysms had taken place and that four ages in all had occurred is1 indeed1 the most generally favoured version of the story1 but some authorities seem to have been of the opinion that a myth was current among the ,mexican people which stated that no less than five epochs had taken place in the history of the world4 ,gama1 ,gomara1 and ,humboldt share this view1 and ,mendieta is of opinion that five 8suns0 existed before the present era1 all of which were of such noxious character that the inhabitants of the earth languished and perished through their baneful influence4 ,but we have more stable authority for the sequence of these 8suns0 or epochs4 ,it is probable that this cataclysmic theory was in vogue among the ,nahua for generations before it received a more or less definite form1 and1 indeed1 ,veytia #ej and ,ixtlilxochitl #ea state that the number of suns was agreed upon at a meeting of native astronomers within traditional memory4 ,we are probably following the official version of the myth if we accept that to which the so-called calendar-stone of ,mexico gives sculptured form and which may be interpreted as follows3 ,while the world was still wrapped in primeval gloom1 the god ,tezcatlipoc transformed himself into the sun4 ,this epoch1 which was known as ,naui ,ocelotl or 8,four ,jaguar10 ended in the destruction of humanity and the race of giants who then inhabited the earth by fierce jaguars4 ,quetzalcoatl became the second sun1 and the age of ,naui ,eecatl or 8,four ,wind0 ended in violent hurricanes1 during which men were transformed into monkeys4 ,tlaloc then took upon himself the task of providing the world with light1 and his epoch of ,naui ,quiauitl or 8,four ,rain0 came to an end by means of a deluge of fire4 ,the goddess ,chalchihuitlicue represented the sun of the age ,naui ,atl1 8,four ,water10 at the end of which there descended a deluge in which men were changed into fishes4 ,later there appeared the present sun1 ,naui ,olin1 which1 it was believed1 would end in earthquakes4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,the second chapter of the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 a prcis of the opening chapters of which is given farther on1 states that the gods 8created a great fish which is called the ,cipactli1 which is like the cayman alligator1 and of this fish they made the earth40 ,the description of the earth-monster1 as it appears in the ,codices1 as an alligator or sword-fish is1 however1 by no means convincing4 ,moreover1 the sculptured representation of the earth-monster in ,maya art1 especially in such examples as that from ,copan1 is essentially dragon-like in form1 and there would seem to be little difficulty in classing the ,cipactli as an earth-dragon1 similar in nature to the cosmic monster of ,chinese art and mythology4 ,the fact1 too1 that in the native paintings we frequently observe the sun-god in the act of being swallowed by the ,cipactli strengthens the analogy with the ,chinese example4 ,,the ,,peopling ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,the precise manner in which the earth was peopled by the gods is also a subject concerning which great variety of opinion is shown by the older writers on ,mexican beliefs1 and1 as in the case of the cosmogonic myth proper1 this is probably to be accounted for by local variation4 ,mendieta #eb is our authority for a conception which appears to have gained wide currency in many parts of ,mexico4 ,there is good evidence that he in turn received it from ,andres de ,olmos1 a friar of great literary integrity and linguistic capability1 whose writings we may regard with credence and confidence4 ,the myth opens in the heavenly abode of the gods ,citlalatonac and ,citlalicue1 who were also known as ,ometecutli and ,omecihuatl or ,tonacatecutli and ,tonacaciuatl1 and whom the ,mexicans regarded as the eventual sources of all human life4 ,the goddess gave birth to a flint knife1 probably such an implement as was employed for the purpose of human sacrifice4 ,the circumstance appeared of bad omen to her sons1 who1 scandalized by it1 cast the flint earthwards4 ,it fell in the vicinity of ,chicomoztoc1 the ,place of ,seven ,caves1 and immediately there sprang from it an army of sixteen hundred gods1 who1 discontented with their condition1 dispatched ,tlotli1 the ,hawk1 as an ambassador to the heavenly sphere to ask as a boon that the power of creating men might be conferred upon them1 as it was not fitting that beings of divine origin should suffer the miseries of earthly toil4 ,their mother1 who also seems to have been perplexed by the manner of their birth1 replied in no very gracious terms4 ,but in order to relieve their wretchedness1 she directed them to seek the good offices of ,mictlantecutli1 ,lord of the ,realm of the ,dead1 from whom1 she suggested1 they might obtain some of the relics of past generations1 which1 if subjected to the magical influence of sacrifice1 might provide the beginnings of a new earth-race4 ,after consultation1 the earth-gods chose ,xolotl #ec as their messenger to the place of the dead1 and after an interview with its terrible ruler1 he succeeded in obtaining a bone of superhuman dimensions4 ,fearful of treachery at the hands of ,mictlantecutli1 ,xolotl turned to flee1 but was pursued and1 falling in his flight1 broke in pieces the precious relic he carried4 ,these he hastily gathered up and succeeded in quitting the subterranean world without mishap4 ,returning to his brothers1 he placed the bone in a vessel1 and each of the earth-gods1 drawing blood from his own body1 dropped it into the receptacle4 ,for three days nothing occurred to justify their hopes2 but on the fourth the gory mass stirred1 and from its depths there emerged a human boy4 ,satisfied with the experiment1 the gods repeated it1 and at the end of another four days a girl arose from the vessel4 ,xolotl was appointed guardian to the children so miraculously created1 #ed and nourished them upon the milk-like juice of the maguey plant4 ,they throve apace1 and in course of time became man and woman1 the progenitors of the entire human race1 who differ in bulk and stature as the pieces of the rescued bone varied in size and shape4 ,thus were born ,iztac ,mixcoatl the first man and ,ilanceuitl or ,ilamatecutli1 his wife4 ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,moon ,these deeds had1 however1 passed in a world of darkness1 for as yet the sun had not risen4 ,a council of the gods was assembled at ,teotihuacan1 a locality of great sanctity1 and seated round a council fire1 it considered the means by which the luminary might be created4 ,it was resolved that he who first cast himself into the fire should be transformed into the sun4 ,the offer was accepted by ,nanahuatzin1 who was afflicted with a painful disease1 had therefore found life intolerable and did not dread the transformation4 ,nothing happened for some time after his self-immolation1 and the waiting gods began to make wagers with one another regarding the place in the heavens where the sun would be likely to show itself4 ,none of them had considered it probable that it would rise in the ,east1 and when at last it became visible in that quarter1 it was as a stationary mass which directed such scorching rays upon them that they dispatched the hawk messenger to request it to depart4 ,whether or not ,nanahuatzin in his rle of ,sun-god was wroth with his brothers for personal reasons1 he replied that it was his intention to destroy them utterly4 ,a great fear seized upon some1 whilst others grew angry and caught up their weapons4 ,among the latter was ,citli1 who fitted an arrow to his bow and fired at the transformed ,nanahuatzin4 ,the sun-god avoided the shaft4 ,he could not1 however1 evade all those which followed1 but seizing one1 cast it back at ,citli1 whom it transfixed and slew4 ,fiercer became the heat1 until at length the gods could tolerate it no longer1 and felt that it behoved them to perish by each other's hands rather than by the ignoble death of suffocation4 ,they agreed that ,xolotl should dispatch them one by one1 cutting open their breasts1 and this holocaust he undertook1 finally slaying himself4 ,before perishing1 the gods left their raiment to their personal servants1 of which each retainer made a bundle1 wrapping his master's clothing round a stick1 placing a small green stone inside to serve as a heart1 and naming it after the god to whom it had belonged4 ,olmos himself encountered such a relic in ,tlalmanalco1 exhibiting evidences of very considerable age4 #ee ,on the death of the gods the sun began to move in the heavens1 and a god1 ,tecciztecatl1 who had hidden himself in a cavern when ,nanahuatzin leaped into the fire1 now emerged from his hiding-place and took the form of the moon4 ,the retainers carried the bundles from place to place1 and one of them1 the servant of ,tezcatlipoc1 coming to the sea-shore1 had a vision of his deceased master1 who commanded him to betake himself to the house of the sun and to bring him singers and players of instruments to assist in the celebration of a festival4 ,to enable the messenger to travel to the ,sun-,house1 the whale1 the siren1 and the tortoise were asked to form themselves into a bridge which might reach the abode of the luminary4 ,the servant crossed it1 singing sweetly as he went1 and his song was heard by the ,sun1 who straitly commanded his retainers not to respond to it on being approached by the singer4 ,this some of them failed to do1 and returning with the messenger1 took with them the necessary instruments wherewith to celebrate the festival of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,the people of ,texcuco1 says ,olmos1 naturally placed the occurrence of these events within their own boundaries1 but they added 7according to a pictorial manuscript which they showed the friar7 that the ,sun shot a dart into the ground and at this spot the first man arose4 ,he was imperfect1 being formed only from the armpits upward4 ,he was followed by a woman4 ,mendieta suppresses the remainder of the myth because of its ,rabelaisian details1 but we may conclude that from these twain humanity was descended4 ,sahagun's account of the creation of the sun and moon #ef differs somewhat from the foregoing and is as follows3 ,the gods met at ,teotihuacan1 and asked one another3 8,who will undertake the task of lighting the world80 to which one god called ,tecciztecatl 7he who was to become the ,moon-god7 replied3 8,that will ,i40 ,they cast about for still another member of the pantheon to undertake the duty4 ,at last they fixed upon one who was afflicted with a terrible disease who at once agreed to the accomplishment of their desires4 ,during four days the gods prepared for the occasion by acts of penitence1 then they kindled a fire on a rock named ,teotexcalli 7high place of the gods74 ,meanwhile ,tecciztecatl made offerings of many precious things1 rich feathers and golden ornaments4 ,the spines with which the gods ceremonially pricked themselves were like the spines of the maguey1 but were made from precious stones1 and the copal they used for incense was of no common sort4 ,the victim1 who was called ,nanahuatl1 offered nine green reeds1 joined three and three1 instead of the ordinary branches and balls of grass and spines of the maguey generally employed for such ceremonies1 and these he saturated with his own blood4 ,in place of copal he offered up the scabs of his sores4 ,the gods built a tower for each of the two divinities who had undertaken the illumination of the world1 and performed penance for four days and four nights4 ,they then strewed the ground with the branches1 flowers1 and other objects of which they had made use during that time4 ,on the night following1 shortly before midnight1 they brought ,tecciztecatl his ornaments4 ,these consisted of a plumage called aztacomitl1 made of herons' feathers1 and a jacket of light stuff1 whilst to ,nanahuatl they gave a crown of paper called amatzontli 7paper hair7 and a stole and cincture1 likewise of paper4 ,midnight having arrived1 all the gods ranged themselves in the place called ,teotexcalli1 where the fire had burned for four days4 ,they arranged themselves into two files1 one on either side of the fire1 and ,tecciztecatl was requested to cast himself into the burning mass4 ,terrified by the intense heat which he experienced as he advanced towards the flames1 the god recoiled2 again and again he essayed to leap into the fire1 but his courage failed him4 ,then the gods called upon ,nanahuatl1 who1 on being summoned1 immediately cast himself into the blazing mass1 where he at once began to crackle 8like meat that roasts40 ,tecciztecatl1 ashamed of his former conduct1 now followed him into the conflagration1 and it was said that the eagle entered the flames at the same time1 which is the reason assigned for its dark plumage4 ,the tiger or ocelot followed1 and was only partly burnt1 as is witnessed by its spots4 ,it is evident that this myth applied in some manner to the ,aztec military brotherhoods of quauhtli and ocelotl1 who wore the eagle and ocelot insignia respectively4 #eg ,the gods had already waited some time to witness the resurrection of ,nanahuatl1 when they beheld the heavens commence to grow red4 ,terrified at the sight1 they fell upon their knees and could not comprehend whence the light had arisen4 ,the glow of sunrise illuminated every point of the compass1 but many fixed their gaze upon the ,east1 feeling that in that direction the luminary would first be sighted4 ,those who gazed thither were ,quetzalcoatl 7also called ,eecatl71 ,totec1 and ,tezcatlipoc4 ,others called ,mimixcoa were innumerable1 and there were also present four goddesses1 ,tiacapan1 ,teicu1 ,tlacoeua1 and ,xocoyotl4 ,when the sun rose at length he appeared very red1 and no one might look upon him without being blinded by his rays4 ,the moon appeared at the same time1 and gave forth light equal to that of the orb of day4 ,but the gods thought it ill that the moon should be as bright as the sun1 and therefore one of them took a rabbit and cast it at the face of the moon1 so that it remained there to dim its splendour4 ,although the sun and moon were raised above the earth1 they remained stationary4 ,they spoke mockingly to their erstwhile companions4 8,how now10 they said1 8do you wish to remain in mortal shame8 ,die all of you and confer life upon the stars40 ,the wind then offered to discharge the function of immolating the gods and slew them one by one4 ,only ,xolotl refused to die1 and begged for life1 weeping so sorely that his eyes dropped out4 ,when those who were to make the sacrifice laid hold of him he fled and concealed himself in a field of maize1 where he changed himself into a stalk of that plant having two feet 7roots7 such as the peasants call xolotl4 ,but having been recognized among the maize1 he took flight a second time and hid himself among some maguey plants1 where he changed himself into the double maguey plant which is called mexolotl 7maguey of ,xolotl74 ,on being discovered a third time he took flight once more and threw himself into the water1 where he took the form of a fish called axolotl4 #eh ,but in this last disguise he was caught and killed4 ,when the gods had been slain the wind commenced to whistle and blow with violence1 so that at length the burning globe of the sun began to drift over the heavens4 ,but the moon still remained at rest1 and in this manner they became separated1 so that their habit is to rise at different hours4 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan1 after the manner of the ,book of ,genesis1 states that the world and all therein were created in seven days4 ,in the sign ,tochtli the earth was created1 the firmament was erected in ,acatl1 animals came into being in ,tecpatl1 and man was made out of dust or ashes on ,ehecatl1 the seventh day1 but completed and perfected by ,quetzalcoatl1 who appears to have played the part of a demiurgos as regards the human race4 ,there can be little doubt that this myth has been sophisticated1 or is a later invention4 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan1 however1 sustains the accounts of ,olmos and ,sahagun regarding the creation of the sun and moon4 ,camargo1 speaking of the ,tlaxcaltec cosmology1 #ei says that the ,indians did not believe that the world had been created1 but that it had been produced by chance4 ,space1 according to their philosophy1 has always existed4 ,veytia #fj states that the ,mexicans believed the world and man to have been created by ,tloque ,nahuague 7,tonacatecutli74 ,boturini credits the creation to the same first cause1 and passages in ,sahagun lead us to believe that both ,tezcatlipoc and ,quetzalcoatl were regarded as sub-creative spirits1 who were either partly or wholly responsible for the existence of the universe4 ,clavigero expressly states that the former was 8the soul of the world1 the creator of heaven and earth and lord of all things40 #fa ,mendieta1 #fb a much older authority1 gives it as his opinion that the making and moulding of the world was the handiwork of several gods1 but especially of ,tezcatlipoc1 ,uitzilopochtli1 and an obscure deity1 ,ocelopuchtli1 who equates with the ocelot alluded to in ,sahagun's account4 ,sahagun1 it will be observed1 disappoints us in his account of the creation1 which he confines to the details of the appearance of the sun and moon and is silent concerning the creation of gods and men4 ,this is strange when the facilities he had for the collection of myths are considered1 but as a priest1 it is evident that he is more interested in points of ritual than in religious narrative1 which1 he evidently agrees with ,curtin's ,french-,canadian1 is to be regarded as 8chose d'absurde40 #fc ,even although we possess the sonorous warning of ,prescott and the objections of others to bias us against ,ixtlilxochitl1 there is little ground for regarding his version of the ,mexican creation story as being other than he received it from sources which would have been unspeakably precious had he made better use of them as regards other subjects4 ,regarding ,ixtlilxochitl's version of the creation myth1 that the creator ,tloque ,nahuague1 the maker of the planets1 brought into being a man and a woman from whom all human beings are descended1 we have no parallel in ,mexican myth1 nor1 indeed1 in ,american myth1 if we accept that of the creation of man current in ancient ,peru1 and it is probable that1 so far as his version of the creation of humanity is concerned1 ,ixtlilxochitl had encountered a myth which was either of relatively late origin1 or had arisen out of the ideas engendered by contact with ,christianity4 ,this is1 however1 by no means to say that ,ixtlilxochitl himself invented the account4 #fd ,,the ,,historia ,,de ,,los ,,mexicanos ,the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas is a manuscript of such importance to the study of ,nahua ,cosmogony that a short prcis of its earlier chapters may1 perhaps1 be found of value in this place4 8,tonacatecutli and his consort ,tonacaciuatl1 who had existed from the beginning1 resolved to undertake the work of creation4 ,they had four sons1 the eldest of whom was ,tlactlauque-,tezcatlipoc1 or ,camaxtli4 ,he was born of a red colour4 ,the second son1 ,yayanque-,tezcatlipoc1 was greater and more powerful than the rest4 ,he was born black4 ,the third was ,quetzalcoatl or ,yacatecutli1 and the fourth ,omitecilt1 and for another name ,magueycoatl1 and the ,mexicans called him ,ochilobi 7,uitzilopochtli71 for he was left-handed and was chief god to those of ,mexico1 and their war-god4 ,of these four1 ,tezcatlipoc was the wisest1 was in all places1 and knew the hearts and thoughts of everyone4 ,and for this he was called ,moyocoya1 8he who is all-powerful1 and who has all those things without which nothing can be40 ,uitzilopochtli was born without flesh1 but with bones1 #fe and in this state he remained for six hundred years1 during which time the gods made nothing4 8,after six hundred years these four god-like brothers were born1 and all came together to order what was to be and the law that they should hold4 ,they made a half-sun in the midst1 the other luminaries great and small1 and a man and woman named ,oxomuco and ,cipactonal1 commanding him to till the earth and her to spin and weave4 ,from these were born the maceguales or labourers4 ,and to ,cipactonal the gods gave certain grains of maize that she might keep them and use them for charms and riddles1 and since that day women have used them for that purpose4 8,the gods then gave this pair the days of the calendar and divided them into months1 twenty days to each month1 and three hundred and sixty days in the year4 ,then they made ,mictlantecutli and ,mictecaciuatl1 man and wife1 to be the gods of the infernal regions4 ,later they made the heavens and space and the water1 and then a great fish like the cayman1 which is called cipactli1 from which they shaped the earth4 ,in order to create the gods of water1 all four gods joined together and made ,tlaloc and his wife ,chalchihuitlicue4 8,these gods of water have their place in the four quarters1 and in the middle of it was a great court1 where there were four tubs of water4 ,one water is very good1 and this rains when they grow grain and wheat4 ,and these gods of water have many dwarfish servants in the said house1 and these have pitchers1 with which they take the water from the tubs1 and sticks in the other hand4 ,when the gods of water wish them to go to the boundaries1 they take the pitchers and sticks and sprinkle the water as they are told4 ,and when it thunders1 they crack the pitchers with the sticks1 and when it lightens they break off a portion of the pitcher4 8,all the aforesaid things had been made and created without taking any account of the years1 and without respect of time4 ,the first man and woman had a son called ,piltzintecutli1 who desired a wife with whom to live4 ,so the gods made of the hairs of ,xochiquetzal a woman1 and thus was the first marriage made4 ,this having been done1 all the four gods saw that the half-sun which had been created gave but little light4 ,and they saw that they must make another half1 because the existing light was not able to illuminate the world4444 ,then ,tezcatlipoc became the sun-bearer4 ,and the gods created the giants1 who were very great men and of much strength4444 ,and they called the age in which ,tezcatlipoc was the sun the age of boasting and of tigers1 for the giants gorged and ate and wanted for nothing4 ,and when thirteen times fifty and two years were passed1 ,quetzalcoatl was the sun4 ,then ,tezcatlipoc took a great stick and struck upon the water1 and turning himself into a tiger1 went out to kill the giants4 ,afterwards he appeared in the sky1 for they said that the ursa major sank in the water1 because it is ,tezcatlipoc4444 ,during the time ,quetzalcoatl was the sun another count went on1 which1 having ended1 ,tezcatlipoc cast out ,quetzalcoatl1 who became the wind1 which1 when it blew on the maceguales1 turned them into monkeys and apes4 ,and there was for sun ,tlaloc1 which lasted three hundred and sixty-four years4444 ,during these years ,quetzalcoatl rained fire on the sun1 and then created as the sun his wife ,chalchihuitlicue4 ,she was the sun for three hundred and twelve years4 8,in the last year in which ,chalchihuitlicue was the sun1 it rained so heavily that all the maceguales were turned into fishes4 ,and when it had ceased to destroy1 the heavens fell upon the earth and the great rain began1 the which year was tochtli4 ,and the gods ordered four roads to be made to the middle of the earth for them1 and raised the heavens1 and to help them in holding them up they created four men1 called ,cotemuc1 ,yzcoadt1 ,yzmali1 and ,tenesuchi1 who were created by ,tezcatlipoc and ,quetzalcoatl4 ,then they made great trees1 ,tezcatlipoc one which was called tazcaquavlt1 which is to say 8tree of the mirror10 and ,quetzalcoatl one which was called quealhuesuch1 and with the help of the men they had made and the trees the gods held up the heavens and the stars and made a road in the sky4 8,after the heavens had been raised1 in the second year after the flood1 which was acatl1 ,tezcatlipoc pronounced his name1 and there appeared the dumb ,mixcoatl1 #8,serpent of the ,clouds4' ,and they paint him as a serpent4 ,and they drew fire from fire-sticks1 which they called heart of the fire4 ,in the seventh year after the flood was born ,cinteotl1 the first son of the first man1 who was a god1 and his wife a goddess1 and he was made of the hairs of the mother goddess1 and it was said that he was not able to die4 ,and in the eighth year after the flood the gods created the maceguales1 like those that were before4 ,when the first three years of this group of years had passed1 in the first of the next group all the four gods came together1 and said that because the earth had no light1 and was dark1 and that because there was no fire1 they would make a sun which would give light to the earth1 and which would eat hearts and drink blood4 ,in order to do this they made war1 by which they were able to procure hearts and blood4 ,in this time ,tezcatlipoc made four hundred men and a hundred women1 and on these the sun lived4 ,in the tenth year1 ,suchicar1 the first wife of ,piltzintecutli1 the son of the first man1 was killed in the war1 and was the first so to die40 ,if we search for a common factor among these conflicting ideas1 we will1 indeed1 find the task one of difficulty4 ,the nature of the sources from which we obtain them does not permit us to arrange them chronologically1 and all that we can found upon in this respect is their subject-matter1 which cannot enlighten us much4 ,as has been said1 we are probably on safe ground if we accept the version of the several ages hypothetically contained in the so-called ,calendar ,stone of ,mexico4 ,the circumstance1 too1 that the sun and moon myth1 as related by ,olmos1 agrees for the most part with the version of ,sahagun1 permits us to regard it as a well-recognized belief4 ,nor can the variant myth regarding the creation of mankind1 which is briefly described in an annotation1 shake our confidence in the credibility of ,olmos1 as it obviously differs more in the names of the actors in the drama of creation than in the circumstances1 which are almost identical4 ,but if it is impossible to verify strictly the place of origin of the ,olmos myth1 although ,texcuco was claimed as its home1 it is permissible to indicate the universal character of that portion of it which deals with the creation of the heavenly bodies1 from its similarity to the analogous passage in ,sahagun's rendering1 which proves that that part of it at least must have been more or less widely disseminated throughout ,mexico4 ,we know that after the collection of data in any district it was his custom to submit them to experts in other and distant parts of the country for comparison and verification4 ,we may thus be justified in classing the ,calendar-stone version of the world's ages and the ,sahagun portion of the creation myth of the luminaries of the last age as among the standard beliefs of ,mexican theology4 ,it follows from ,sahagun's general agreement with the ,olmos-,mendieta account that the portion of that version which he does not treat of must naturally be within reasonable distance of exactitude4 ,the circumstance that both of these accounts relate the self-immolation of the gods by the sacrificial method of having their breasts opened1 seems to prove that the myth was no older than the institution of human sacrifice1 which we are perhaps correct in regarding as of no very great antiquity1 although arguments of sufficient cogency might be brought against this view4 ,,deluge ,,myths ,as ,mexican myths of the creation differ1 so do those concerning the great deluge which at one period was supposed to have overwhelmed the earth4 ,as we have seen1 myths which are concerned with the several ages of the earth dwell upon such an event1 but separate myths exist which also tell of a great flood which is almost certainly to be identified with the 8,water-sun40 ,the goddess ,chalchihuitlicue 7the goddess of water71 says one of the interpreters of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 8saved herself in the deluge40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a4 relates that3 8,most of the old people of ,mexico say that a single man and a single woman escaped from this deluge1 from whom1 in course of time1 mankind multiplied4 ,the tree in which they saved themselves was called ,ahuehuete 7the fir-tree71 and they say that this deluge happened in the tenth sign1 according to their computation1 which they represented by water1 which on account of its clearness they place in their calendar4 ,they say that during the first age men ate no bread1 but only a certain kind of wild maize1 which they called atzitziutli4 ,they name this first age coniztal1 which signifies the white head2 others say that not only did these two who were preserved in the tree escape1 but that seven others remained hidden in a certain cave1 and that the deluge having passed away1 they came forth and restored the population of the earth1 dispersing themselves over it3 and that their descendants in course of time worshipped them as gods1 each in his own nation40 ,a similar myth in the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan or ,codex ,chimalpopoca1 is also worthy of quotation4 8,and this year was that of ,ce-calli1 and on the first day all was lost4 ,the mountain itself was submerged in the water and the water remained tranquil for fifty-two springs4 8,now toward the close of the year1 ,titlacahuan 7,tezcatlipoc7 had forewarned the man named ,nata and his wife ,nena1 saying3 #8,make no more pulque1 but straightway hollow out a large cypress1 and enter it when in the month of ,tozoztli the water shall approach the sky4' ,they entered it1 and when ,titlacahuan had closed the door he said3 #8,thou shalt eat but a single ear of maize and thy wife but one also4' 8,as soon as they had finished eating1 they went forth and the water was tranquil2 for the log did not move any more2 and opening it they saw many fish4 8,then they built a fire1 rubbing together pieces of wood1 and they roasted fish4 ,the gods ,citlallinicuc and ,citlallatonac1 looking below1 exclaimed3 #8,divine ,lord1 what means that fire below8 ,why do they thus smoke the heavens8' 8,straightway descended ,titlacahuan ,tezcatlipoc and commenced to scold1 saying3 #8,what is this fire doing here8' ,and seizing the fishes he moulded their hinder parts and changed their heads1 and they were at once transformed into dogs40 #ff ,,the 8,,coxcox0 ,,fallacy ,it is unnecessary in this place to deal at any length with the quite artificial myth given by ,siguenza and ,clavigero1 based on a mistaken interpretation of certain ,mexican paintings4 ,briefly1 they state that ,coxcox1 8the ,mexican ,noah10 and his spouse ,xochiquetzal escaped from the deluge in a boat which grounded on the peak of ,colhuacan3 8the ,ararat of ,mexico40 ,dumb children were born to them1 who received innumerable languages from a polyglot dove4 ,garcia y ,cubas published in his ,atlas ,geografico a letter from ,ramirez 7,april #aheh7 in which the then conservator of the ,national ,museum of ,mexico showed the fallacy of ,siguenza's interpretation and proved that the pictures in question referred to the wanderings of the ,aztecs in the ,valley of ,mexico4 ,a flood myth which has for its hero one of the giants who were supposed to inhabit the earth in the first age 7or rather the first age according to the version which is supported by the ,calendar-stone71 states that ,xelhua1 the giant in question1 escaped the deluge by ascending the mountain of ,tlaloc in the terrestrial paradise1 and afterwards built the pyramid of ,cholula4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says of this story3 8,in this first age giants existed in that country4444 ,they relate of one of the seven whom they mention as having escaped from the deluge1 that1 the earth becoming populous1 he went to ,chululan and there began to build a tower which is that of which the brick base is still visible4 ,the name of that chief was ,xelhua2 he built it in order that should a deluge come again he might escape to it4 ,its base is #a1hjj feet in circumference4 ,when it had already reached a great height lightning from heaven fell and destroyed it4 ,those ,indians who were under that chief who had escaped from the deluge1 named ,xelhua1 made bricks out of a mountain in ,tlalamanalco called ,cocotle1 and from ,tlalamanalco to ,chulula ,indians were placed to pass the bricks and cement from hand to hand3 and thus they built this tower1 that was named ,tulan ,chulula1 which was so high that it appeared to reach heaven4 ,and being content1 since it seemed to them that they had a place to escape from the deluge if it should again happen1 and from whence they might ascend into heaven--a chalcuitl1 which is a precious stone1 fell from thence and struck it to the ground4 ,others say that the chalcuitl was in the shape of a toad2 and that whilst destroying the tower it reprimanded them1 inquiring of them their reason for wishing to ascend into heaven1 since it was sufficient for them to see what was on the earth4 ,the base of the tower is at the present day still remaining and its circumference is #a1hjj feet40 ,this myth has equivalents in the ,hindoo story of the manner in which ,hanuman1 king of the monkeys1 built a bridge from ,india to ,ceylon1 and in ,scottish legend1 where ,corstorphine ,church1 near ,edinburgh1 is the scene of the building1 the stones being passed on from hand to hand by the 8,picts0 from ,ravelston ,quarry1 some considerable distance away4 ,but it bears a more striking resemblance to the story of the tower of ,babel1 the work of another being of gigantic origin--,nimrod4 ,xelhua was the mythical ancestor of the people of ,tehuacan1 and ,teotitlan del ,camino4 ,it may be that his myth has been sophisticated by the priestly writers who set it down1 and in any case it seems to be tiological or explanatory of the ,pyramid of ,cholula4 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,gods ,in the literature of ancient ,mexican mythology we find persistent vestigial notices of a fall of the gods1 or rather of certain deities from 8heaven40 ,thus in the interpretation of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis we find a divine locality called ,tamoanchan described as the 8mansion0 from which they fell1 and 8where they gathered roses40 ,the same paragraph #fg relates that ,tamoanchan 8is the place where these gods were created whom they feared3 it signifies the ,terrestrial ,paradise1 and accordingly they relate that those gods being in that place transgressed by plucking roses and branches from the trees1 and that on this account ,tonacatecutli and his wife1 ,tonacacigua1 became highly incensed1 and cast them out of that place1 and that some of them came to earth and others went to hell40 ,one of these1 the divinity most frequently associated by the ,codices with this event1 ,ixnextli1 is spoken of in the same work #fh as 8,eve1 always weeping and looking at her husband ,adam4 ,she is called ,ixnextli1 which signifies #8,eyes blind with ashes1' and this refers to the time subsequent to her sinning by plucking the roses40 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis 7,plate ,,vii1 ,kingsborough7 she is associated with a god ,ueuecoyotl and is represented as kneeling on a chair with head averted4 ,there is no doubt that the name given her here1 and which is supplemented by the name ,xochiquetzal1 is that of a variant of the latter1 who is the goddess of flowers4 ,in his interpretation of this goddess in his work on the ,aubin-,goupil tonalamatl 7pp4 #aah-aai7 ,seler gives it as his opinion that the insignia of the goddess ,tonacaciuatl1 consort of the creative deity ,tonacatecutli1 is identical with that of ,xochiquetzal1 and proceeds to say that this strongly suggests 8that the home of the cosmogonic speculations embodied in the names of ,tonacatecutli and ,tonacaciuatl was to be sought in the region where dwelt the goddess ,xochiquetzal1 and this was assuredly not ,mexico proper1 but appears to have been the group which in one place is comprised by ,torquemada under the name ,chalmeca1 ,olmeca1 ,xicalanca1 ,tepaneca1 ,xochimilca1 and ,tlalhuica4 ,here by ,chalmeca are to be understood the dwellers about the volcano1 and by ,olmeca1 ,xicalanca1 the aborigines of the ,tlaxcallan district4444 ,originally the goddess ,xochiquetzal is perhaps nothing more than the deity of one of those mountains from which the life-giving waters flow down from the fields40 ,it is easy to believe that ,xochiquetzal is a variant of ,tonacaciuatl2 but it is not necessary to infer therefrom that the ,olmec-,tlaxcaltec version of the myth relating to her with its cosmogonic speculations was prior in origin to that which found acceptance at ,mexico1 even although the ,olmecs were regarded as an older race4 ,tonacatecutli and his consort were believed to be ,toltec deities1 and had thus a greater antiquity behind them than ,olmec myth could invest them with4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,a tells much the same story regarding ,ixnextli and was probably inspired from the same source4 ,,mexican ,,conceptions ,,of ,,the ,,universe ,no definite account of the ,mexican conception of the universe has come down to us1 but we are probably founding correctly if we accept the ,maya belief as closely approximating to that in general currency in ,mexico4 ,an examination of the central design in the ,maya ,book of ,chilan ,balam of ,mani1 given in ,cogolludo's ,history of ,yucatan 7#afdj71 shows the earth as a cubical block1 by which term it is practically described in the ,popol ,vuh 78the quadrated castle1 four-pointed1 four-sided1 four-bordered074 ,this the ,maya described as tem 78the altar071 that is1 the altar of the gods1 the offering upon which was life4 ,above this cube on four legs is the celestial vase 7cum7 containing the heavenly waters1 rains1 and showers1 upon which all life depends4 ,above it hang the rain-clouds which fill it and from it springs the vax che1 or ,tree of ,life1 with outspread branches4 ,a similar illustration from the ,codex ,cortesiano1 #fi a ,maya ,,ms4 which has been described as the 8,tableau of the ,bacabs0 or heavenly supporters1 shows the ,tree of ,life1 the ,celestial ,vase1 and the cloud masses4 ,beneath the tree are seen the two creative deities1 and the whole design is surrounded by the twenty day-signs4 ,,the ,,five ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,world ,the ,mexicans divided the universe into five regions4 ,the locus classicus for the representatives of the gods who preside over these regions is the first sheet of the ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4 ,the ,fire-god occupies the centre of the picture1 for just as fire occupies a space in the middle of the primitive hut1 so does ,xiuhtecutli maintain the central position in the universal disposition of things4 ,from him four streams of sacrificial blood radiate in the direction of the four cardinal points1 east1 north1 west1 south1 #gj which are situated at each corner of the picture1 for he rules over all as well as over the centre1 which is known as ,tlalxicco4 ,these bands of blood end in the four day-signs--acatl1 tecpatl1 calli1 and tochtli1 from which alone the years of the 8calendar0 or tonalamatl could be named1 and which respectively agree with the cardinal points noted above4 ,the four sides of the square are also associated with the four quarters of the universe4 ,thus the top square in the picture represents ,tlapcopa1 ,region of the ,dawn 7the ,east71 the right-hand side ,uitznauac1 ,place of ,thorns 7the ,south71 the bottom ,ciutlampa1 ,region of ,women 7the ,west71 and the left-hand side ,mictlampa1 ,place of the ,dead 7the ,north74 ,within these squares are seen four species of trees1 belonging to the four points of the compass4 ,they resemble the trees seen in sheet #di of ,codex ,borgia and sheet #ag of ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 from the first of which codices they can be more clearly described4 ,the ,tree of the ,east is represented as a highly conventionalized tree having two boughs1 each with four branches which end in the chalchihuitl 7greenstone7 symbol4 ,round branches are twisted two ropes1 green and blue in colour1 set with golden bells4 ,a quetzal bird perches upon the top and the trunk is decorated with the symbol for war1 for the spirits of the sacrificed warriors were believed to dwell in the eastern heavens1 where the sun rose4 ,the tree springs from the body of the ,earth-goddess1 and the ornaments borne by it are symbolic of the rich and fruitful character of the ,orient4 ,the ,tree of the ,north4--,this tree is painted half-green1 half-blue1 but is set with thorns in every part4 ,bands of blood and darkness issue from the body of the ,earth-goddess1 in which it has its root1 and these wind around its boughs4 ,the eagle stands upon the top1 each of its plumes bristling with a sacrificial stone knife4 ,the ,tree of the ,west4--,this has a yellow star1 and bears the magic bloom at the end of each branch4 ,it is surmounted by the humming-bird1 and its trunk is dotted with the stellar eye1 in this case the evening star4 ,the ,tree of the ,south4--,this1 too1 is thorny1 but painted red1 and the trunk is sprinkled with symbols recalling that of the 8spoken word0 which in the ,codices is frequently seen issuing from the mouths of gods and men4 ,it may symbolize smoke or fire1 thus alluding to the fiery nature of the region to which the tree belongs4 ,a cloud of darkness and a stream of blood wind around the stem4 ,it is surmounted by the arara bird4 ,these four trees have parallels in ,maya mythology1 as1 for example1 on the altar-pieces of the cross from ,palenque 7,temple ,,ii7 and elsewhere4 ,the gods governing the five regions of the universe are #ga3 ,centre--,xiuhtecutli4 ,east--,mixcoatl and ,tlaloc4 ,north--,itztli and ,xochipilli4 ,west--,iztac ,mixcoatl and ,quetzalcoatl4 ,south--,macuilxochitl and ,xipe4 ,we find from an examination of the codices that the ,mexicans believed that the 8world0 or universe was divided into3 ,tlalxicco1 the centre or 8navel0 of the ,earth4 ,tlapcopa1 8the region of the ,dawn0 7the ,east74 ,uitznauac1 8,place of ,thorns0 7the ,south74 ,ciuatlampa1 8,region of ,women0 7the ,west74 ,mictlampa1 8,place of the ,dead0 7the ,north74 ,these several regions demand a brief description4 ,tlalxicco was the dark interior of the earth1 which was supposed to be inhabited by an animal-headed god or demon1 resembling a badger1 to whom no name has as yet been applied1 but who seems to possess affinities with sorcery and the darker arts4 ,a good representation of him is to be found on sheet #i of ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4 ,tlapcopa1 the ,east1 or 8,region of the ,dawn10 was regarded as a region of prosperity1 fertility1 and abundant food-supplies4 ,it was the house of the ,sun1 the region where sacrificed warriors dwelt in bliss1 and will be further described when we come to deal with the subject of 8heaven and hell40 ,uitznauac or ,uitzlampa1 8,region of ,thorns0 7the ,south71 was1 as its name implied1 a place of rather evil omen1 for it was sometimes thought of as inhabited by ,mictlan1 ,lord of the ,dead4 ,the ,mexicans1 dwelling in a plateau country where climatic conditions were temperate1 probably regarded the tropics to the south as a region fatal to health1 and generally insalubrious in character4 ,ciuatlampa1 8,region of ,women0 7the ,west71 was the place to which those women who died in their first childbed 7,civapipiltin or ,ciuatete7 went after death1 and as such falls to be described in the section on 8heaven and hell40 ,but it was also the home of the maize-plant1 and of the deities producing it1 and also of the ,gods of ,procreation4 ,it was the ,region of the ,evening ,star1 ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 the planet ,venus4 ,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheets #dc-df7 we seem to see a subdivision of the ,western region into ,north1 ,south1 and ,west4 ,this region may also be collated with ,tamoanchan1 the paradisaical land of abundant maize1 where the maize goddess ,tlazolteotl gave birth to her son ,centeotl4 ,mictlampa1 8,region of the ,dead10 also falls to be noticed in the section on 8heaven and hell40 ,symbolically it is the region of drought4 ,,the ,,supporters ,,of ,,the ,,heavens ,just as we gain light upon the subject of the ,mexican idea of the universe from ,maya sources1 so do we find a similar correspondence in the beliefs of the two races as regards the conception that the heavens were supported by certain deities4 ,thus the ,maya believed that the heavens were upheld by four gods called ,bacabs1 and we find pictures in the ,mexican ,codices which depict certain deities upholding both the heavens and the earth4 ,on sheets #di-eb of ,codex ,borgia 7upper half7 are seen the gods of the four quarters and the four supporters of the sky1 which last are ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 the ,sun-god1 ,quetzalcoatl1 and ,mictlantecutli4 ,on sheets #ai-bc of ,codex ,vaticanus ,b the four upholders of the heavens are given as ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 ,uitzilopochtli1 ,quetzalcoatl1 and ,mictlantecutli1 and the four terrestrial gods as ,xipe ,totec1 ,mictlantecutli1 ,xochipilli1 and ,centeotl4 ,the first four are shown upholding the starry firmament1 so that we are left in no doubt as regards the existence of such a conception as the support of the heavens by certain gods4 ,the close correspondence between the personnel of the sky-bearers in the two ,,mss4 proves a fairly universal acceptance of the belief1 especially as ,xipe ,totec1 and ,tonatiuh the ,sun-god have much in common4 #gb ,,the ,,aztec ,,heavens ,according to ancient ,mexican belief various destinations awaited the dead4 ,warriors slain in battle repaired to the region of the sun1 where they dwelt in bliss with the deity who presided over that luminary4 ,sacrificed captives also fared thence4 ,these followed the sun in his daily course1 crying aloud and beating upon their shields1 and fighting sham battles4 8,it is also said10 writes ,sahagun in his ,history of the ,affairs of ,new ,spain 7,appendix to bk4 iii1 ch4 #c71 8that in this heaven are trees and forests of divers sorts4 ,the offerings which the living of this world make to the dead duly arrive at their destination1 and are received in this heaven4 ,after four years of sojourn in that place the souls of the dead are changed into divers species of birds having rich plumage of the most brilliant colours40 ,these were known as tzintzonme #gc 78little bird which flies from place to place071 and they flitted from blossom to blossom on earth as well as in heaven1 sucking the rich fragrance from the tropical blooms of the deep ,valleys of ,anahuac4 ,this region is the ,ciutlampa1 and perhaps the ,tamoanchan alluded to above4 ,tlalocan4--,an even more material paradise was presided over by the water-god or deity of moisture1 ,tlaloc4 ,sahagun calls this a 8terrestrial paradise10 8where they feign that there is surfeit of pleasure and refreshment1 void1 for a space1 of torment40 ,in that delectable region there is plenteousness of green maize1 of calabashes1 pepper1 tomatoes1 haricots1 and it is fulfilled with variegated blossoms4 ,there dwell the god ,tlaloc and his followers4 ,the persons who gain admittance to this paradise are those who have been slain by lightning or thunderbolt1 the leprous and the dropsical--those whose deaths have in any way been caused through the agency of water--for ,tlaloc is god of that element4 ,existence there is perpetual4 ,the paradise of ,tlaloc was situated in the east in a climate of eternal summer4 ,homeyoca4--,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a states that the abode of the ,creator of the ,universe1 ,tonacatecutli1 was ,homeyoca or ,homeiocan1 8place of the ,holy ,trinity40 ,the etymology is vague1 but would appear to apply to duality rather than trinity1 a suggestion which is buttressed by the androgynous character of the creative deities4 ,in an accompanying picture he points out the various departments of this heaven as 8the ,red ,heaven10 8the ,yellow ,heaven10 8the ,white ,heaven40 ,young children1 he says1 went to a specific paradise1 but it was thought that they would return to re-people the world after the third destruction4 ,they were nourished by a milk-giving tree round which they were seated1 getting suck from the branches4 ,but we have glimpses here and there in ,aztec literature of a much more elaborate series of heavens1 thirteen in number4 ,the first contained certain planets1 the second was the home of the ,tzitzimim1 who included many of the great gods1 the third that of the ,centzon ,mimixcoa1 or star-warriors1 who were many-coloured--yellow1 black1 white1 red1 blue--and provided the sun with food in the shape of blood4 ,the fourth was inhabited by birds1 the fifth by fire-snakes 7perhaps comets71 the sixth was the home of the winds1 the seventh harboured dust1 and in the eighth dwelt the gods4 ,the remainder were placed at the disposal of the high primal and creative gods ,tonacatecutli and his spouse ,tonacaciuatl1 whose abode proper was in the thirteenth and highest heaven4 #gd ,,mictlampa ,,as ,,hades ,the ,hades of the ,aztec race was ,mictlampa1 presided over by ,mictlantecutli 7,lord of ,mictlampa7 and his spouse 7,mictecaciuatl74 ,the souls of the defunct who fared thither were those who died of disease1 chiefs1 great personages1 or humbler folk4 ,on the day of death the priest harangued the deceased1 telling him that he was about to go to a region 8where there is neither light nor window10 and where all was shadow1 a veritable land of gloom1 the passage to which swarmed with grisly forms inimical to the soul4 ,it was a vast1 trackless1 and gloomy desert1 having nine divisions1 of which the last1 ,chiconahuimictlan1 was the abode of the lord of the place4 ,rank and privilege would appear to have been maintained even in this dark realm1 although all offerings to the dead must first be inspected by ,mictlantecutli himself ere being passed on to their proper owners4 ,sahagun states that four years were occupied in journeying to ,mictlampa1 evidently an error for four days1 as elsewhere he says that the former period was spent within the regions of the dead4 ,the journey thence was replete with terrors4 ,says the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a3 8,in this region of hell they supposed that there existed four gods1 or principal demons1 one of whom was superior1 whom they called ,zitzimatl1 who is the same as ,miquitlamtecotl1 the great god of hell4 ,yzpuzteque1 the lame demon1 was he who appeared in the streets with the feet of a cock4 ,nextepehua was the scatterer of ashes1 ,contemoque signifies he who descends headforemost2 an allusion being made to the etymology which learned men assign to the name of the ,devil1 which signifies deorsum cadens1 which mode of descent after souls they attribute to him from this name and ,zon4 ,yzpuzteque is he whose abode is in the streets1 the same as ,satan1 he who on a sudden appears sideways4 ,it appears that they have been acquainted with the ,holy ,scriptures1 although clearer arguments in proof of this fact are adduced in the course of the following pages4 ,they say that these four gods or demons have goddesses40 ,these and other dread beings1 according to the same ,,ms41 rendered the hellward journey terrible in the extreme1 and an attempt was made to mitigate the terrors of the passage between the two worlds by means of passports of much the same character as the spells in the ,egyptian 8,book of the ,dead10 which franked the soul past the numerous demons and dangers which awaited it4 ,the first paper served to pass him by two mountains which threatened to clash together and crush him4 ,the second saved him from the maw of a huge snake4 ,others helped him to face the lurking terrors of eight deserts and eight hills1 and to avoid the grim crocodile ,xochitonal4 ,a wind of sharp flint knives then attacked him4 ,lastly he came to the river ,chiconahuopan 7,nine ,waters71 which he crossed on the back of a red-coloured dog which accompanied him and which was killed for that purpose by having an arrow thrust down its throat4 ,it is not clear whether this dog acted as a guide to ,mictlampa1 or whether it preceded the soul1 but it would seem that its master found it awaiting him when he came to the banks of the river1 in the passage of which it assisted him4 ,it kept its vigil on the opposite bank1 however1 and had to swim the river ere it could reach him4 ,the deceased then came before ,mictlantecutli1 to whom he made suitable gifts--cotton1 perfumes1 and a mantle4 ,he was told to which sphere he must go4 ,it is obvious that ,mictlampa was not so much a place of punishment as a place of the dead1 a ,hades1 where the souls of the good and evil were alike consigned4 ,its locality is partially fixed1 for it is 8the place where the sun slept10 and1 like the ,egyptian ,amenti1 it was therefore antipodean1 or occupied the centre of the earth4 ,after a four years' sojourn in this dark monarchy the soul was supposed to come to a place where1 according to the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus1 it enjoyed a measure of rest4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,great ,,gods ,,method ,,of ,,treatment ,in the section descriptive of the gods1 each divinity is dealt with separately4 ,the need for system and orderly arrangement in the study of ,mexican ,mythology is clamant4 ,in the hope that future students of the subject may be spared the ,herculean task of separating the mythology of the ,mexican people from their history1 ,i have thought it best to arrange my material in as systematic a fashion as its complex character permits4 ,the plan employed is a simple one4 ,i have prefaced the description of each god with a table containing the following information concerning him3 ,area of ,worship1 ,name1 ,minor ,names1 ,relationship1 ,calendar-place1 ,compass-direction1 ,symbol1 ,festivals4 ,in some cases where1 for example1 a god has no festival or no minor names1 the item relating to such information is1 of course1 absent4 ,the description proper of each deity begins with an account of his ,aspect and ,insignia1 as observed in the several codices and paintings1 manuscripts1 vases1 or statuary4 #ge ,a section is devoted to festivals celebrated in his honour1 another deals with the priesthood specially attendant on him1 and a further paragraph with the temples in which he was worshipped4 ,there follows a prcis of all known myths relating to him4 ,in certain instances1 too1 hymns and prayers offered up to him are quoted4 ,the last section deals with his nature and status1 so far as ,i have been able to elucidate these4 ,,uitzilopochtli 8,,humming-,,bird ,,wizard0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico4 ,minor ,names3 ,tetzateotl--8,terrible ,god40 ,tetzahuitl--8,the ,raging40 ,ilhuicatl ,xoxouhqui--8,the ,blue ,heaven40 ,mexitli--8,hare of the ,maguey40 ,compass ,directions3 ,the ,south2 upper region4 ,festivals3 ,toxcatl1 the fifth month2 first of tlaxochimaco1 the ninth month4 ,panquetzaliztli1 the fifteenth month4 ,movable feast ce tecpatl4 ,relationships3 ,son of ,coatlicue4 ,brother of the ,centzonuitznaua4 ,brother of ,coyolxauhqui4 ,one of the ,tzitzimim4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,face-paint4--,blue and yellow horizontal stripes1 the yellow known as piloechinolli 78face-painting of children07 made of children's excrement1 in allusion1 perhaps1 to his character of a young or new-born god4 ,he occasionally wears the stellar mask1 #gf like ,mixcoatl and ,camaxtli4 ,body-paint4--,blue4 ,dress4--,usually the humming-bird mantle1 pictographic of his name4 ,his head is surmounted by a panache of feathers4 ,on his breast is a white ring made from a mussel-shell1 like those of ,quetzalcoatl1 ,tezcatlipoc1 and ,paynal1 which is called eteocuitlaanauauh 78his golden ring07 or eltezcatl 78his breast mirror074 ,perhaps the best representation of him is in ,codex ,borbonicus 7sheet #cd74 ,weapons4--,shield 7teueuelli71 made of reeds1 with eagle's down adhering to it in five places in the form of a quincunx4 ,he carries spears tipped with tufts of down instead of stone points 7tlauacomalli71 the weapons of those doomed to a gladiatorial death1 the fire-snake xiuhcoatl as an atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 and the bow1 which he was supposed to have invented or introduced into ,mexico4 ,the flag held by him on some occasions represents the panquetzaliztli festival in ,codices ,telleriano-,remensis and ,vaticanus ,a4 ,variations4--,he is frequently to be observed wearing the insignia of the stellar gods of war and hunting 7,mixcoatl1 ,camaxtli74 ,according to ,seler 7,commentary on the ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #ia71 ,uitzilopochtli figures in that ,,ms4 as showing 8in a general way the devices and the dress-badges of the fire-god10 differing1 however1 in colour and painting4 ,when found along with ,tezcatlipoc as ,ruler of the ,southern ,heaven1 in ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer 7sheet #be71 he is seated on a jaguar-skin seat1 enveloped in a long robe of a light blue colour1 with balls of downy feathers4 ,he wears the aztaxelli or forked heron-feather ornament on his head and has the yellow face-paint alluded to above4 ,in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,bib4 del ,palacio7 he is represented as wearing on his back the 8dragon's head0 alluded to in the text4 ,in the ,duran ,,ms4 7#b o1 plate #b a71 drawn by a ,european hand1 the humming-bird headdress forms a helmet-mask1 and in the ,codex ,ramirez 7,juan de ,tobar71 in which the figure is ,europeanized almost out of recognition1 the same is the case1 but the shield-marking is incorrect1 consisting as it does of seven tufts of down instead of five4 ,clavigero 7tom4 ii1 pp4 #ag-ai7 says of ,uitzilopochtli's insignia3 8,upon his head he carried a beautiful crest1 shaped like the beak of a bird1 upon his neck a collar shaped like ten figures of the human heart4 ,his statue was of an enormous size1 in the posture of a man seated on a blue-coloured bench1 from the four corners of which issued four snakes4 ,his forehead was blue1 but his face was covered with a golden mask1 while another of the same kind covered the back of his head4 ,in his hand he carried a large blue1 twisted club1 in his left a shield in which appeared five balls of feathers disposed in the form of a cross1 and from the upper part of the shield rose a golden flag with four arrows1 which the ,mexicans believed to have been sent to them from heaven4 ,his body was girt with a large golden snake1 and adorned with lesser figures of animals made of gold and precious stones1 which ornaments and insignia had each their peculiar meaning40 ,acosta says of his appearance3 8,the chiefest idoll of ,mexico was1 as ,i have sayde1 ,vitziliputzli4 ,it was an image of wood like to a man1 set upon a stoole of the coloure of azure1 in a brankard or litter1 in every corner was a piece of wood in forme of a serpent's head4 ,the stoole signified that he was set in heaven4 ,this idol had all the forehead azure1 and had a band of azure under the nose from one ear to another4 ,upon his head he had a rich plume of feathers like to the beak of a small bird1 the which was covered on the top with gold burnished very brown4 ,he had in his left hand a small target1 with the figures of five pineapples made of white feathers set in a cross4 ,and from above issued forth a crest of gold1 and at his sides hee hadde foure dartes1 which 7the ,mexicaines say7 had been sent from heaven which shall be spoken of4 ,in his right hand he had an azured staff cutte in the fashion of a waving snake4 ,all those ornaments with the rest hee had1 carried his sence as the ,mexicaines doe shew40 #gg ,solis writes of his aspect as follows3 8,opposite 444 sat ,huitzilopochtli1 on a throne supported by a blue globe4 ,from this1 supposed to represent the heavens1 projected four staves with serpents' heads1 by which the priests carried the god when he was brought before the public4 ,the image bore upon its head a bird of wrought plumes1 whose beak and crest were of burnished gold4 ,the feathers expressed horrid cruelty1 and were made still more ghastly by two strips of blue1 one on the brow and the other on the nose4 ,its right hand leaned1 as on a staff1 upon a crooked serpent4 ,upon the left arm was a buckler bearing five white plums1 arranged in the form of a cross1 and the hand grasped four arrows1 venerated as heaven-descended40 #gh ,herrera says that his idol was a gigantic image of stone1 covered with a lawn called nacar1 beset with pearls1 precious stones1 and pieces of gold4 ,it had for a girdle great snakes of gold1 and a counterfeit visor with eyes of glass4 #gi ,torquemada writes3 8,in his right hand a dart or long blue pole1 in the left a shield1 his face barred with lines of blue4 ,his forehead was decorated with a tuft of green feathers1 his left leg was lean and feathered1 and both thighs and arms were barred with blue40 #hj ,the ,sahagun ,,ms4 states that 8he wears a panache of yellow parrot feathers stuck together1 and having a bunch of quetzal-feathers at the tip4 ,his espitzalli is over his forehead4 ,the face or mask is striped in various colours1 and the ear-plug is made of the feathers of the blue cotinga4 ,on his back is the fire-snake dress and on his arm he has a quetzal-feather4 ,at the back he is girded with a blue net cloth1 and his leg is striped with blue4 ,bells and shells decorate his feet1 and he is shod with sandals of the type usually worn by persons of high degree4 ,his shield is the teueuelli with a bundle of arrows without points stuck in it1 and in one hand he holds a serpent-staff40 ,sahagun 7c4 xxii1 bk4 iv7 describes the insignia employed at the god's festival of ce tecpatl4 ,these were the quetzalquemitl1 or mantle of green quetzal-feathers1 the tozquemitl1 the mantle made of the yellow feathers of the toztli1 a bird of the parrot species1 the ,uitzitzilquemitl1 or mantle of humming-bird's feathers1 8and others less rich40 ,,festivals ,the first festival of ,uitzilopochtli was the tlaxochimaco1 of which ,sahagun says3 8,the ninth month was styled tlaxochimaco4 ,a festival was held on the first day of this month in honour of ,huitzilopochtli1 god of war1 when he was offered the first flowers of the year4 ,the night before this festival everybody killed chickens and dogs with which to make tamalli and other things good to eat4 ,very soon after the first glimmerings of dawn on the day of the festival1 the attendants of the idols adorned the statue of ,huitzilopochtli with flowers4 ,the images of the other gods were decked with garlands and wreaths of flowers1 and the same was done to all the other idols of the calpulli #ha and telpochcalli4 #hb ,the calpixque1 #hc the principal people1 and the macehualli #hd covered the statues in their houses with flowers4 ,these preparations being completed1 the viands prepared during the previous night were partaken of1 and shortly after this repast a dance was engaged in1 in which the nobles mingled with the women1 taking them by the hand1 and even going the length of embracing them by placing their arms round their necks4 ,the usual movements of the areyto #he were not performed1 the dancers moving step by step1 to the strains of the musicians and singers1 who stood1 some distance away1 at the foot of a round altar called momoztli4 ,they sang thus until night1 not only in the courts of the temples1 but also in the houses of people of rank and of the macehualli1 while the aged of both sexes indulged deeply in pulque2 but young people were not permitted to touch it1 and anyone allowing them to drink it was severely punished40 ,toxcatl4--,for this festival see under ,tezcatlipoc1 to whom it was also and more especially sacred4 ,panquetzalitztli4--,the following account of this festival is summarized from ,sahagun's pages3 ,for twenty-four days prior to the incidence of the festival the priests did penitence4 ,they hung branches upon the oratories and shrines of the gods of the mountains1 and green reeds and leaves of the maguey-plant4 ,at the end of the quecholli festival everyone took to dancing and singing1 especially to the song or hymn of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,nine days before the sacrifice those doomed to die bathed in the fountain called ,uitzilotl 7humming-bird water7 in the village of ,uitzilopochco4 ,the old men went to seek nine bunches of the leaves of the tree called aueuetl 78old one of the waters0--the ,cupressus distica74 ,the faces of the doomed ones were painted in the colours of the god1 yellow and blue in transverse bands1 and adorned with his insignia4 ,after five days of penitential exercises mingled with dancing and singing1 and on the day before the festival1 the captives rose with dawn and betook themselves to the houses of those who had dedicated them to the slaughter1 preceded by a man carrying a vessel full of black ink or red ochre or blue tincture4 ,on arriving at the houses of those who had devoted them to death1 they dipped their hands in the vessel and pressed them on the gates and the pillars of the dwelling1 so that the imprint remained4 #hf ,they then entered the kitchen of the house and walked several times round the furnace4 ,then they marched in procession to the temple1 accompanied by porters bearing rich attire1 which the captives donned4 ,the hair was then taken from their heads to be kept 8as a relic40 ,they were then given cylindrical cakes to eat1 which must be held on the point of a maguey thorn and not between the fingers4 ,with the dawn of day the god ,paynal1 the herald of ,uitzilopochtli1 descended from the temple of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,four captives were then slain1 two in honour of 8the god ,oappatzan40 ,paynal1 borne by four 8necromancers10 then took the road to ,tlatelolco1 whence he passed to ,nonoalco1 the priest of the temple there receiving him with the representative of the god ,quauitlicac1 8his companion0 7see 8,myths074 ,the images were then carried to ,tlaxotlan and ,popotlan1 where other captives were slain4 ,then the procession took its way to ,chapultepec1 passing the hill of that name and crossing the little river ,izquitlan1 at the temple of which other captives called ,izquiteca 78who eat roasted maize07 were sacrificed4 ,they then crossed to the right under ,coyoacan1 passing by way of ,tepetocan to ,acachinanco4 ,during the time they made this progress the slaves who were about to die engaged in a skirmish4 ,they divided themselves into two parties1 the ,uitznauatl 78,they of the ,thorny ,wizard071 the other unnamed4 ,the former seem to have been professional soldiers armed with mock weapons2 the others slaves1 armed with maquahuitls1 wooden swords set with obsidian flakes4 ,on ,paynal's return those who watched them from the summit of the temple1 seeing the banner of the god 7epaniztli71 cried out1 8,mexicans1 cease your strife1 the lord ,paynal has come40 ,the warriors in the patrol of ,paynal then rushed to the summit of the temple1 where they arrived in a breathless condition4 ,they placed their idol beside the paste image of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,their ears were pierced by the priest4 ,they descended again1 carrying an image of ,uitzilopochtli made of paste1 which they divided1 each bearing his own portion to his own house1 where he made festival with his parents and neighbours4 ,a tour of the temple was then made1 the captives walking in front4 ,a priest then descended from the summit of the temple bearing a sheaf of white papers in his hand1 which he held up to the four cardinal points in turn1 afterwards throwing them into a mortar called quauhxicalco #hg 78cup of the eagles074 ,he was followed by another holding a very long pine-torch called xiuhcoatl 78fire-snake071 shaped like fire4 7,this was the fire-snake weapon with which one of ,uitzilopochtli's followers had killed his rebellious sister ,coyolxauhqui74 ,this was cast burning into the vessel containing the papers1 which were consumed4 ,paynal reappeared1 and the slaves were sacrificed according to rank to the sound of conch-shells4 ,all then returned home1 where octli of special strength was drunk1 festivities engaged in1 and presents of wearing apparel distributed to friends and dependants 7bk4 ii1 c4 #cd74 ,this festival took place at the period of the winter solstice1 when the sun has removed farthest to the south4 ,the burning of the papers by the xiuhcoatl1 and the fact that the fire-festival of the new period of fifty-two years1 the making of the new fire1 was usually postponed to coincide with it1 show it to be a fire-feast2 for in his 8avatar0 of the sun ,uitzilopochtli was a fire-god4 ,torquemada states that the priest of ,quetzalcoatl hurled a dart into the breast of the paste image of ,uitzilopochtli1 which fell4 ,he then pulled the 8heart0 out of it1 giving it to the king4 ,the body was then divided among the men1 no woman being allowed to eat of it4 ,the ceremony was called teoqualo1 i4e4 8god is eaten40 #hh ,,myths ,regarding ,uitzilopochtli1 ,clavigero says3 8,huitzilopochtli1 or ,mexitli1 was the god of war2 the deity the most honoured by the ,mexicans1 and their chief protector4 ,of this god some said he was a pure spirit1 others that he was born of a woman1 but without the assistance of a man1 and described his birth in the following manner3 ,there lived1 said they1 in ,coatepec1 a place near to the ancient city of ,tula1 a woman called ,coatlicue1 mother of the ,centzonhuiznahuas1 who was extremely devoted to the worship of the gods4 ,one day1 as she was employed1 according to her usual custom1 in walking in the temple1 she beheld descending in the air a ball made of various feathers4 ,she seized it and kept it in her bosom1 intending afterwards to employ the feathers in decoration of the altar2 but when she wanted it after her walk was at an end she could not find it1 at which she was extremely surprised1 and her wonder was very greatly increased when she began to perceive from that moment that she was pregnant4 ,her pregnancy advanced till it was discovered by her children1 who1 although they could not themselves suspect their mother's virtue1 yet fearing the disgrace she would suffer upon her delivery1 determined to prevent it by putting her to death4 ,they could not take their resolution so secretly as to conceal it from their mother1 who1 while she was in deep affliction at the thought of dying by the hands of her own children1 heard an unexpected voice issue from her womb1 saying1 #8,be not afraid1 mother1 ,i shall save you with the greatest honour to yourself and glory to me4' 8,her hard-hearted sons1 guided and encouraged by their sister ,cojolxauhqui1 who had been the most keenly bent upon the deed1 were now just upon the point of executing their purpose1 when ,huitzilopochtli was born1 with a shield in his left hand1 a spear in his right1 and a crest of green feathers on his head2 his left leg adorned with feathers1 and his face1 arms1 and thighs streaked with blue lines4 ,as soon as he came into the world he displayed a twisted pine1 and commanded one of his soldiers1 called ,tochchancalqui1 to fell with it ,cojolxauhqui1 as the one who had been the most guilty2 and he himself attacked the rest with so much fury that1 in spite of their efforts1 their arms1 or their entreaties1 he killed them all1 plundered their houses1 and presented the spoils to his mother4 ,mankind were so terrified by this event1 that from that time they called him ,tetzahuitl 7terror7 and ,tetzauhteotl 7terrible god74 8,this was the god who1 as they said1 becoming the protector of the ,mexicans1 conducted them for so many years in their pilgrimage1 and at length settled them where they afterwards founded the great city of ,mexico4 ,they raised to him that superb temple1 so much celebrated1 even by the ,spaniards1 in which were annually holden three solemn festivals in the fifth1 ninth1 and fifteenth months2 besides those kept every four years1 every thirteen years1 and at the beginning of every century4 ,his statue was of gigantic size1 in the posture of a man seated on a blue-coloured bench1 from the four corners of which issued four huge snakes4 ,his forehead was blue1 but his face was covered with a golden mask1 while another of the same kind covered the back of his head4 ,upon his head he carried a beautiful crest1 shaped like the beak of a bird2 upon his neck a collar consisting of ten figures of the human heart2 in his right hand a large blue1 twisted club2 in his left a shield1 on which appeared five balls of feathers disposed in the form of a cross1 and from the upper part of the shield rose a golden flag with four arrows1 which the ,mexicans pretended to have been sent to them from heaven to perform those glorious actions which we have seen in their history4 ,his body was girt with a large golden snake and adorned with lesser figures of animals made of gold and precious stones1 which ornaments and insignia had each their peculiar meaning4 ,they never deliberated upon making war without imploring the protection of this god1 with prayers and sacrifices2 and offered up a greater number of human victims to him than to any other of the gods40 #hi ,boturini says of this god3 8,while the ,mexicans were pushing their conquests and their advance toward the country now occupied by them1 they had a very renowned captain1 or leader1 called ,huitziton4 ,he it was that in these long and perilous journeys through unknown lands1 sparing himself no fatigue1 took care of the ,mexicans4 ,the fable says of him that1 being full of years and wisdom1 he was one night caught up in sight of his army and of all his people1 and presented to the god ,tezauhteotl1 that is to say the ,frightful ,god1 who1 being in the shape of a horrible dragon1 commanded him to be seated at his right hand1 saying3 #8,welcome1 ,o valiant captain2 very grateful am ,i for thy fidelity in my service and in governing my people4 ,it is time that thou shouldest rest1 since thou art already old1 and since thy great deeds raise thee up to the fellowship of the immortal gods4 ,return then to thy sons and tell them not to be afflicted if in future they cannot see thee as a mortal man2 for from the nine heavens thou shalt look down propitious upon them4 ,and not only that1 but also1 when ,i strip the vestments of humanity from thee1 ,i will leave to thine afflicted and orphan people thy bones and thy skull so that they may be comforted in their sorrow1 and may consult thy relics as to the road they have to follow3 and in due time the land shall be shown them that ,i have destined for them1 a land in which they shall hold wide empire1 being respected of the other nations4' 8,huitziton did according to these instructions1 and after a sorrowful interview with his people1 disappeared1 carried away by the gods4 ,the weeping ,mexicans remained with the skull and bones of their beloved captain1 which they carried with them till they arrived in ,new ,spain1 and at the place where they built the great city of ,tenochtitlan1 or ,mexico4 ,all this time the devil spoke to them through this skull of ,huitziton1 often asking for the immolation of men and women1 from which thing originated those bloody sacrifices1 practised afterwards by this nation with so much cruelty on prisoners of war4 ,this deity was called1 in early as well as in later times1 ,huitzilopochtli--for the principal men believed that he was seated at the left hand of ,tezcatlipoc--a name derived from the original name ,huitziton1 and from the word mapoche1 #8left hand4'0 #ij ,sahagun says of ,uitzilopochtli that1 being originally a man1 he was a sort of ,hercules1 of great strength and warlike1 a great destroyer of towns and slayer of men4 ,in war he had been a living fire1 very terrible to his adversaries2 and the device he bore was a dragon's head1 frightful in the extreme1 and casting fire out of its mouth4 ,a great wizard he had been1 and sorcerer1 transforming himself into the shape of divers birds and beasts4 ,while he lived1 the ,mexicans esteemed this man very highly for his strength and dexterity in war1 and when he died they honoured him as a god1 offering slaves1 and sacrificing them in his presence4 ,and they looked to it that those slaves were well fed and well decorated with such ornaments as were in use1 with earrings and visors2 all for the greater honour of the god4 ,in ,tlaxcala also they had a deity called ,camaxtli1 who was similar to this ,huitzilopochtli4 #ia ,the myth of ,uitzilopochtli1 as given by ,sahagun1 may be condensed as follows3 ,under the shadow of the mountain of ,coatepec1 near the ,toltec city of ,tollan1 there dwelt a pious widow called ,coatlicue1 the mother of a tribe of ,indians called ,centzonuitznaua1 who had a daughter called ,coyolxauhqui1 and who daily repaired to a small hill with the intention of offering up prayers to the gods in a penitent spirit of piety4 ,whilst occupied in her devotions one day she was surprised by a small ball of brilliantly coloured feathers falling upon her from on high4 ,she was pleased by the bright variety of its hues and placed it in her bosom1 intending to offer it up to the ,sun-god4 ,some time afterwards she learnt that she was to become the mother of another child4 ,her sons1 hearing of this1 rained abuse upon her1 being incited to humiliate her in every possible way by their sister ,coyolxauhqui4 ,coatlicue went about in fear and anxiety2 but the spirit of her unborn infant came and spoke to her and gave her words of encouragement1 soothing her troubled heart4 ,her sons1 however1 were resolved to wipe out what they considered an insult to their race by the death of their mother1 and took counsel with one another to slay her4 ,they attired themselves in their war-gear1 and arranged their hair after the manner of warriors going to battle4 ,but one of their number1 ,quauitlicac1 relented and confessed the perfidy of his brothers to the still unborn ,uitzilopochtli1 who replied to him3 8,o uncle1 #ib hearken attentively to what ,i have to say to you4 ,i am fully informed of what is going to happen40 ,with the intention of slaying their mother1 the ,indians went in search of her4 ,at their head marched their sister1 ,coyolxauhqui4 ,they were armed to the teeth1 and carried bundles of darts1 with which they intended to kill the luckless ,coatlicue4 ,quauitlicac climbed the mountain to acquaint ,uitzilopochtli with the news that his brothers were approaching to kill their mother4 8,mark well where they are at10 replied the infant god4 8,to what place have they advanced80 8,to ,tzompantitlan10 responded ,quauitlicac4 ,later on ,uitzilopochtli asked3 8,where may they be now80 8,at ,coaxalco10 was the reply4 ,once more ,uitzilopochtli asked to what point his enemies had advanced4 8,they are now at ,petlac10 ,quauitlicac replied4 ,quauitlicac later informed them that his brothers and sister had arrived at the middle of the mountain4 ,at the moment they arrived ,uitzilopochtli was born1 attired in full war panoply4 ,he ordered one named ,tochncalqui 7inhabitant of our house7 to attack his sister with the fire-snake xiuhcoatl1 and with a blow he shattered ,coyolxauhqui in pieces4 ,her head rested upon the mountain of ,coatepec4 ,the infant god then pursued his brethren four times round the mountain4 ,several fell into the lake and were drowned4 ,others he slew1 only a few escaped1 and these were banished to ,uitzlampa in the south4 #ic ,torquemada says of ,uitzilopochtli3 8,huitzilopochtli1 the ancient god and guide of the ,mexicans1 is a name variously derived4 ,some say it is composed of two words3 huitzilin1 #8a humming-bird1' and tlahuipuchtli1 #8a sorcerer that spits fire4' ,others say that the second part of the name comes not from tlahuipuchtli1 but from opuchtli1 that is1 #8the left hand'2 so that the whole name1 ,huitzilopochtli1 would mean #8the shining-feathered left hand4' ,for this idol was decorated with rich and resplendent feathers on the left arm4 ,and this god it was that led out the ,mexicans from their own land and brought them into ,anahuac4 8,some held him to be a purely spiritual being1 others affirmed that he had been born of a woman1 and related his history after the following fashion3 ,near the city of ,tulla there is a mountain called ,coatepec1 that is to say the ,mountain of the ,snake1 where a woman lived1 named ,coatlicue or ,snake-petticoat4 ,she was the mother of many sons called ,centzunhuitznahua1 and of a daughter whose name was ,coyolxauhqui4 ,coatlicue was very devout and careful in the service of the gods1 and she occupied herself ordinarily in sweeping and cleaning the sacred places of that mountain4 ,it happened that one day1 occupied with these duties1 she saw a little ball of feathers floating down to her through the air1 which she taking1 as we have already related1 found herself in a short time pregnant4 8,upon this all her children conspired against her to slay her1 and came armed against her1 the daughter ,coyolxauhqui being the ringleader and most violent of all4 ,then1 immediately1 ,huitzilopochtli was born1 fully armed1 having a shield called teuehueli in his left hand1 in his right a dart1 or long blue pole1 and all his face barred over with lines of the same colour4 ,his forehead was decorated with a great tuft of green feathers1 his left leg was lean and feathered1 and both thighs and the arms barred with blue4 ,he then caused to appear a serpent made of torches1 teas1 called xiuhcoatl2 and he ordered a soldier called ,tochaucalqui to light this serpent1 and taking it with him to embrace ,coyolxauhqui4 ,from this embrace the matricidal daughter immediately died1 and ,huitzilopochtli himself slew all her brethren and took their spoil1 enriching his mother therewith4 ,after this he was surnamed ,tetzahuitl1 that is to say ,fright1 or ,amazement1 and held as a god1 born of a mother without a father--as the great god of battles1 for in these his worshippers found him very favourable to them40 #id 8,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas40 #ie--;,collecting and summarizing the scattered notices regarding ,uitzilopochtli in the above-named work1 we find it stated that he was the fourth and youngest son of ,tonacatecutli and ,tonacaciuatl1 his elder brothers being the ,red ,tezcatlipoc1 the ,black ,tezcatlipoc1 and ,quetzalcoatl4 ,uitzilopochtli is here also called ,omitecatl1 8and for another name ,magueycoatl 7,snake of the ,maguey74 ,he was called ,ochilobos 7the ,spanish rendering of ,uitzilopochtli7 because he was left-handed and was chief god to those of ,mexico and their god of war4 ,he was born without flesh but with bones1 and thus he remained six hundred years1 in which nothing was made1 #8neither the gods nor their father4' ,taking counsel with ,quetzalcoatl1 they fashioned the sun1 then they made a man1 ,oxomoco1 and a woman1 ,cipactonal1 commanding him to till the earth and her to spin and weave1 and created other things40 ,,hymns ,in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 the following hymns or songs relate to ,uitzilopochtli3-- ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,uitzilopochtli ,i ,uitzilopochtli the warrior1 no one is my equal2 ,not in vain have ,i put on the vestment of yellow feathers1 ,for through me the sun has risen 7i4e4 the time of sacrifice appears74 ,,ii ,the man out of the cold land knew 7through him7 a baneful omen4 ,he had taken a foot from the man out of the cold land4 ,,iii ,in the place of ,tlaxotlan1 the feathers were distributed ,with which the war chieftains stuck themselves4 ,my ,god is named ,tepanquizqui 78,he who overcomes the people074 ,,iv ,he makes himself feared1 the god of ,tlaxotlan1 ,dust whirls upon the ,god of ,tlaxotlan1 ,dust whirls upon him4 ,v ,our enemies1 the people from ,amantlan1 assemble2 meet me there4 ,so will in their own house the enemy be4 ,meet me there4 ,,vi ,our enemies the people of ,pipitlan assemble2 meet me there4 ,so will in their own house the enemy be4 ,this song is probably a chant sung before sacrifice to the god4 ,the line 8,he had taken a foot from the man out of the cold land0 seems to allude to the maiming of one of the gods by ,uitzilopochtli1 or is symbolic of the punishment of a human enemy by rendering him unfit for war through the amputation of one of his feet4 ,tezcatlipoc1 one of whose names was ,yaotzin1 8the enemy10 is frequently represented as having but one foot1 and the phrase 8the man from the cold land10 i4e4 the ,north1 applies almost certainly to him4 ,the rest of the song relates to the peoples with whom the ,mexicans were frequently at war4 ,,song ,,of ,,the ,,shield ,i ,in his shield of the young wife the great warrior chieftain was born4 ,in his shield of the young wife 7or maid7 the great warrior chieftain was born4 ,,ii ,he who gained his heroic title on the serpent mountain ,in his 7warrior7 face-painting1 7and with the shield7 teueuelli4 ,no one in truth rises4 ,the earth quakes ,as he put on his 7warrior7 face-painting 7and his shield7 teueuelli4 ,the first couplet is obscure to me1 and seems to refer to a lost myth1 which perhaps stated that the god was born of a virgin4 ,the second strophe1 of course1 relates to the slaughter by ,uitzilopochtli of his brothers the ,centzonuitznaua4 ,,priesthood ,the high priest of ,uitzilopochtli was called ,totec tlamacazque1 who also bore the name of ,quetzalcoatl 7an honorary title1 originating out of the belief that the god of that name was regarded as the prototype of all religious orders71 and who1 along with the ,tlaloc tlamacazque1 occupied the chief religious office in ,mexico4 ,he was selected for his piety and general fitness4 #if ,,temple ,acosta describes ,uitzilopochtli's great temple at ,mexico as follows3 8,there was in ,mexico this ,cu1 the famous ,temple of ,vitziliputzli1 it had a very great circuite1 and within a faire ,court4 ,it was built of great stones1 in fashion of snakes tied one to another1 and the circuite was called ,coatepantli1 which is1 a circuite of snakes3 vppon the toppe of every chamber and oratorie where the ,idolls were1 was a fine piller wrought with small stones1 blacke as ieate1 set in goodly order1 the ground raised vp with white and red1 which below gave a great light4 ,vpon the top of the pillar were battlements very artificially made1 wrought like snailes 7caracoles71 supported by two ,indians of stone1 sitting1 holding candlesticks in their hands1 the which were like ,croisants garnished and enriched at the ends1 with yellow and greene feathers and long fringes of the same4 ,within the circuite of this court there were many chambers of religious men1 and others that were appointed for the service of the ,priests and ,popes1 for so they call the soveraigne ,priests which serve the ,idoll4 8,there were foure gates or entries1 at the east1 west1 north1 and south2 at every one of these gates beganne a fair cawsey of two or three leagues long4 ,there was in the midst of the lake where the citie of ,mexico is built1 four large cawseies in crosse1 which did much to beautify it2 vpon every portall or entry was a ,god or ,idoll having the visage turned to the causey1 right against the ,temple gate of ,vitziliputzli4 ,there were thirtie steppes of thirtie fadome long1 and they divided from the circuit of the court by a streete that went betwixt them2 vpon the toppe of these steppes there was a walke thirtie foote broad1 all plaistered with chalke1 in the midst of which walke was a ,palisado artificially made of very high trees1 planted in order a fadome one from another4 ,these trees were very bigge1 and all pierced with small holes from the foote to the top1 and there were roddes did runne from one tree to another1 to the which were chained or tied many dead mens heades4 ,vpon every rod were twentie sculles1 and these ranckes of sculles continue from the foote to the toppe of the tree4 ,this ,palisado was full of dead mens sculls from one end to the other1 the which was a wonderfull mournefull sight and full of horror4 ,these were the heads of such as had beene sacrificed2 for after they were dead and had eaten the flesh1 the head was delivered to the ,ministers of the ,temple1 which tied them in this sort vntil they fell off by morcells2 and then had they a care to set others in their places4 ,vpon the toppe of the temple were two stones or chappells1 and in them were the two ,idolls which ,i have spoken of1 ,vitziliputzli1 and his companion ,tlaloc4 ,these ,chappells were carved and graven very artificially1 and so high1 that to ascend vp to it1 there was a staire of stone of sixscore steppes4 ,before these ,chambers or ,chappells1 there was a ,court of fortie foot square1 in the midst thereof1 was a high stone of five hand breadth1 poynted in fashion of a ,pyramide1 it was placed there for the sacrificing of men2 for being laid on their backes1 it made their bodies to bend1 and so they did open them and pull out their hearts1 as ,i shall shew heereafter40 #ig ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,prolonged deliberation upon the nature of ,uitzilopochtli has led me to the conclusion that he was originally a personification of the maguey-plant 7,agave americana74 ,the grounds upon which ,i base this hypothesis are as follows3 ,a certain variety of the maguey-plant1 or metl1 was known to the ,aztec of ,mexico-,tenochtitlan as ,uitzitzilteutli1 or 8beak of the humming-bird10 probably because of the resemblance the long spiky thorns 7uitztli7 with which it is covered bear to the sharp beak of that bird 7the uitzitzilin71 which suspends its tiny1 web-like nest from the leaves of the plant in question4 ,the connection of ,uitzilopochtli with the maguey-plant is also proved by at least two of his subsidiary titles4 ,thus in the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas #ih he is alluded to as ,magueycoatl1 8,serpent of the ,maguey10 and he was also known as ,mexitli1 or 8,hare of the ,maguey10 a title from which one of the quarters of ,tenochtitlan1 and later the entire city1 took its name of ,mexico4 ,at the panquetzaliztli festival held in his honour1 the warriors who skirmished on his side in mimicry of his combat with the ,centzonuitznaua were said to take the part of ,uitznauatl1 #ii or 8,thorn that speaks oracularly40 ,in certain of the place-names which are hieroglyphically figured in the codices1 too1 the element of his name is depicted as a maguey-plant4 ,sahagun further states that the proprietors of the maguey plantations and the publicans who sold octli or pulque cut their plants so that they might yield their juice during the sign ce tecpatl1 the movable feast of ,uitzilopochtli1 in the belief that1 were they tapped at this time1 they would yield abundantly4 #ajj ,etymologically1 there is good evidence that ,uitzilopochtli originally represented the maguey4 ,the word uitztli means 8thorn10 and appears in such compounds as ,uitzlampa1 8,place of ,thorns0 7the ,south71 and ,uitznauatl1 8,the ,thorn that speaks10 which1 as we have seen1 was another1 and probably an older1 title of the god4 ,uitzoctli1 too1 as ,seler has indicated1 #aja means 8pricking pulque10 newly fermented octli4 ,it would seem1 then1 that the name ,uitzilopochtli1 until now generally translated as 8,humming-bird-to-the-left10 and rendered by ,seler 8,humming-bird of the ,south10 must possess another significance for us4 ,opochtli certainly means both 8south0 and 8left10 but it also means 8wizard10 as in the compound tlahuipuchtli1 8wizard who spits fire10 instanced by ,torquemada1 #ajb who states that some persons derived the god's name from that word1 combined with uitzilinin1 8a humming-bird40 #ajc ,it is easy to see how the god came to be associated with the humming-bird1 which suspends its nest from the foliage of the maguey4 ,it would appear to the ,mexicans to emerge from the leaves of that plant1 and would come to be regarded as the form which the maguey-spirit took4 ,indeed1 the humming-bird dress or disguise is that in which ,uitzilopochtli is almost invariably represented in the codices4 ,it was in the shape of a humming-bird that the god was said to have led the ,aztec from their ancient home to the ,valley of ,anahuac1 and his flights would probably be considered ominous and suggestive to augurs1 like those of the ,latin ,picus4 ,but it is possible that a certain degree of confusion arose between the elements uitzilinin 7humming-bird7 and uitztli 7thorn71 that this assisted the belief that he took the shape of a humming-bird and that the explanatory myth of the hero-god ,uitziton refers to this bird in an anthropomorphic shape4 ,these facts lead me to infer that the name implies 8,humming-bird ,wizard10 for ,uitzilopochtli was1 as ,sahagun says1 #ajd 8a necromancer and friend of disguises10 and wizards are universally conceived of as 8sinister10 which ,english word means both 8on the left hand0 and 8inauspicious10 and 8malign10 as does the ,latin word from which it is derived4 ,the same holds good of the ,mexican word4 ,the sub-titles of the god1 ,uitznauatl and ,magueycoatl1 show--the first1 that the ideas of sorcery and oracular speech were connected with him2 and the second1 that he was of a serpentine or venomous disposition1 like the liquor distilled from the plant over which he presided1 the intoxicating qualities of which were regarded as inducing prophetic inspiration4 ,that the maguey-plant entered into ,uitzilopochtli's insignia seems probable from the circumstance that at his festival in the month toxcatl his dough image was surmounted by a flint knife half covered with blood4 #aje ,in the codices the sacrificial stone knife is frequently depicted as growing in plant-like bundles out of the ground1 this artistic and conventional form bearing a close resemblance to the maguey plant1 with the spines of which the ,mexican priests pierced their tongues and ears to procure a blood-offering4 ,his primary character notwithstanding1 ,uitzilopochtli in later times came to possess a very different significance for the ,mexicans of ,tenochtitlan--such a significance1 in short1 as the development of their religious conceptions demanded4 ,thus we find him at the period of the ,spanish ,conquest possessing solar characteristics and a place in the ,mexican pantheon which1 if not the most important1 had essentially the greatest local significance in the city of ,tenochtitlan1 of which he was the tutelary god4 ,his status in the days of the second ,motecuhzoma is1 perhaps1 most clearly illustrated by the circumstances of his myth as given by ,sahagun1 which is obviously tiological and exhibits the influences both of priestly contrivance and popular imagination4 ,his mother1 ,coatlicue1 has been elsewhere in this work identified with the earth1 but in the myth is euhemerized as a pious widow4 ,that she was originally one of those mountain goddesses1 like ,xochiquetzal1 from whose sacred heights the rain descended to the parched fields of ,mexico1 seems plain from the name of her abode1 ,coatepetl 78,serpent ,mountain071 the serpents of which her skirt is composed1 being symbolical1 perhaps1 of the numerous streams flowing from the tarns or pools situated on its lower acclivities4 ,that such a mountain actually existed in the vicinity of ,tollan is proved by the statement of ,sahagun4 ,uitzilopochtli is the sun which rises out of the mountain1 #ajf or is born from it1 fully armed with the xiuhcoatl1 or fire-snake 7the red dawn71 with which he slays his sister ,coyolxauhqui1 the moon1 whose lunar attributes are clearly defined in her face-painting1 which comprises half-moons and a shell-motif1 a lunar symbol4 ,her nose-plate is also the half-moon symbol4 ,the ,centzonuitznaua1 or 8,four ,hundred ,southerners10 are the stars of the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,these the new-born god puts to flight with ease4 #ajg ,if further verification of what is obviously a most artificial and operose myth is required1 it is only necessary to indicate that one of the subsidiary names of ,uitzilopochtli1 as recorded by ,sahagun1 was ,ilhuicatl ,xoxouhqui1 8,the ,blue ,heaven10 the expanse of the sky1 showing that1 like many another sun-god1 he typified the blue vault of heaven4 #ajh ,acosta1 too1 states that the azure colour of his throne signified 8that he sat in the heavens40 #aji ,but the myth possesses an allegorical as well as an tiological character4 ,thus ,coatlicue1 the earth1 is fructified by the ball of humming-birds' feathers1 that is1 by the humming-bird itself1 which1 in ,mexico1 is the means of fructifying the plants1 its movements causing the transfer of the pollen from the stamens to the germ-cells4 ,how1 then1 may we reconcile the primitive fetish of the maguey-plant with the later solar deity8 ,in my view the course of development of the concept of ,uitzilopochtli is much the same as that of the ,hellenic god ,apollo1 who1 originally a spirit of the apple-tree1 #aaj came in like manner to be regarded as the god of the sun4 ,but1 to adhere to the ,mexican concept1 the sun was regarded by the peoples of ,anahuac as the great eater of hearts and drinker of blood4 ,these must be obtained for him by war1 or he would perish1 and all creation along with him4 ,uitzilopochtli1 as the spirit of the maguey-plant1 was the tribal fetish of the ,aztec1 and therefore their natural leader in battle4 ,the connection is obvious and does not require to be laboured4 ,because of his tribal leadership in war1 a governance of which ,mexican myth and history bear eloquent testimony1 he became confounded with the luminary which demanded blood and lived by human strife4 ,the solar connection of the octli liquor yielded by his plant is also most clear4 ,says ,duran #aaa3 8,the octli was a favourite offering to the gods1 and especially to the god of fire4 ,sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases2 sometimes it was scattered upon the flames with a brush 7aspergillum872 at other times it was poured out around the fire-place40 ,fire is1 of course1 a surrogate of the sun1 and ,seler has already identified ,uitzilopochtli as a fire-god in virtue of his status as a sun-deity1 #aab showing that the drilling of the solar fire before the beginning of the new cycle of fifty-two years was deferred until the panquetzalitztli1 the great feast of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,jacinto de la ,serna1 too1 says that the octli ritual invoked the 8shining ,rose2 light-giving ,rose1 to receive and rejoice my heart before the god40 ,the 8rose10 of course1 referring to the fire or sun4 ,it would seem1 however1 that before he became confounded or identified with the sun1 ,uitzilopochtli may have possessed a lunar significance1 and this may have obtained in the period while yet the calendar was reckoned upon a lunar basis and its solar connection still remained undefined4 ,the name ,mexitli1 which has already been remarked upon1 and which means 8,hare of the ,maguey0 appears to place ,uitzilopochtli upon a level with the other gods of octli1 if not to class him as one of these4 ,it bears a suspicious resemblance1 too1 to the name of the ,moon-god1 ,metztli4 ,the hare or rabbit in ,mexico was invariably associated both with the moon and the octli-gods1 whose chief characteristic1 perhaps1 is the lunar nose-plate4 ,but among many of the native tribes of ,north ,america the hare or rabbit is the representative of the sun or the dawn1 under the names of ,michabo1 ,manibozho1 ,wabos1 and so forth1 being described in myth as a warrior1 hero-god and culture-bringer4 ,perhaps the ,nahua1 while still in a more northern region where the agave was unknown to them1 worshipped the rabbit of the sun or moon1 and on establishing themselves in a region where the maguey was one of the salient features in the landscape1 fused his myth with that of a newly-acquired fetish1 discarding later the more ancient belief1 or retaining but a confused memory of it4 ,but this train of reasoning lacks evidence to support it4 ,nor need the consideration of ,uitzilopochtli's serpent-form detain us long4 ,i think ,i see in the myth which recounts how the ,aztec1 on settling in ,tenochtitlan1 beheld an eagle perched on a cactus with a serpent in its talons1 some relation to ,uitzilopochtli1 but what it precisely portends is still obscure to me4 ,in any case the symbol of the eagle enters into his insignia1 as does that of the serpent4 ,we will recall that he was known as ,magueycoatl1 #aac 8,serpent of the ,maguey40 ,again the solar character of the serpent in ,america1 as elsewhere1 readily accounts for his later connection with it1 and for the prevalence of serpentine forms in his insignia and temple4 ,but ,i confess that these two points of contact with the serpent do not altogether satisfy me as regards the god's connection with it1 nor does the fact of the serpentine character of his mother commend itself to me as altogether explanatory of this1 and ,i think we must look to ,uitzilopochtli's nature as a wizard or sorcerer to enlighten us upon this point4 ,jacinto de la ,serna #aad states that in his time some of the ,mexican conjurers used a wand around which was fastened a living serpent1 in much the same way as the priests of the ,pueblo ,indians do at the present day2 and as the great invisible medicine man of the tribe1 ,uitzilopochtli may have been thought of as doing the same4 8,who is a manito80 asks the ,meda chant of the ,algonquins4 8,he10 is the reply1 8who walketh with a serpent1 he is a manito40 ,for the connection of the ,indian magicians with the serpent the reader is referred to the pages of ,brinton4 #aae ,in many lands the serpent is the symbol of reproductive power and has a phallic significance4 ,in ,mexico he casts his winter skin near the time of ,uitzilopochtli's first festival1 about the beginning of the rainy season4 ,moreover1 this reptile is connected with soothsaying1 and in this respect resembles the god4 ,his myths1 as well as his status in ,mexico-,tenochtitlan1 of which he was the tutelary deity1 make it plain that ,uitzilopochtli was a tribal god of the ,aztec1 their national god par excellence4 ,the brave ,quauhtemoc1 the last native defender of the city1 imagined himself invincible when armed with the bow and arrows of ,uitzilopochtli1 and we know that the advice of the oracle of that deity was sought by the ,mexicans when hard pressed by the ,conquistadores4 ,nor is there any dubiety regarding his character as a god of war4 ,this may have arisen from the circumstance that he presided over the liquor which was given to the troops when about to engage in battle1 or1 as has been said1 may have followed his promotion to the rank of sun-god1 the deity of human sacrifice1 the god who demanded human hearts and blood4 ,a larger number of captives were devoted to him than to any other divinity1 and as the waging of war was the only means by which so many victims might be procured1 the sun would naturally become the great patron of strife4 ,as the sun is the great central cause of all agricultural success1 so ,uitzilopochtli came to be looked upon as one of the promoters of plant growth1 as is witnessed by his festivals1 which synchronize with the first rainfall of the year1 the growth of plant life1 and the end of the fruitful season1 when1 in the form of a paste image1 the god was slain4 ,he is thus the sun of the season of plenty1 as his 8brother0 ,tezcatlipoc represents that of sereness and drought4 ,he is the 8young warrior0 of the ,south1 who drives away the evil spirits of the dry season and causes the land to rejoice4 ,,tezcatlipoc 8,,fiery ,,mirror0 ,area of ,worship3 ,nahua territory generally1 with extension into ,central ,america 7as ,hurakan74 ,minor ,names3 ,titlacahuan--8,he whose slaves we are40 ,yaotl--8,enemy40 ,yaomauitl--8,dreaded ,enemy40 ,chico ,yaotl--8,enemy on one side40 ,necoc ,yaotl--8,enemy on both sides40 ,moyocoyotzin--8,capricious ,lord40 ,uitznahuac ,yaotl--8,warrior in the ,southern ,house or ,temple40 ,tlacochcalco ,yaotl--8,warrior in the 7,northern7 ,spear ,house40 ,telpochtli--8,the ,youth40 ,neaualpilli--8,fasting ,lord40 ,itztli--8,obsidian40 ,festivals3 ,toxcatl1 teotleco1 and the movable feasts ce miquiztli1 ce malinalli1 and ome coatl4 ,compass ,directions3 ,north and south in different aspects4 ,guardian of the fifth quarter1 8the below and above40 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the #ahth day1 tecpatl2 ruler of the second tonalamatl quarter1 the region of the north2 as ,itztli1 second of the nine lords of the night2 ruler of the #acth day-count acatl4 ,symbol3 ,the smoking or fiery mirror2 the obsidian knife4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,by far the best representation of ,tezcatlipoc in any of the manuscripts is that to be found on page #ag of ,codex ,borgia1 where he is seen in connection with the insignia of the twenty calendric days4 ,the picture on the lower right portion of page #ba is without these symbols1 but is almost identical with the former figure4 ,the god wears the black body-paint of a priest1 and his face-painting is similar to that of ,uitzilopochtli1 that is1 it consists of black horizontal stripes upon a yellow ground1 the latter having the same origin as in the case of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,from his back rises a very large and elaborate bunch of feather plumes1 which arches itself over his head4 ,his hair1 dressed in a manner which resembles the 8night-hair0 of ,mictlantecutli1 is ornamented with feather-balls as indicating his sacrificial character1 and in the picture on page #ba several of these depend from his side-locks4 ,he wears the white ring 7anauatl7 on his breast1 and a short tunic1 seemingly covered with stellar devices4 ,his right foot ends in the smoking mirror symbolic of his name and in which he was supposed to observe the actions of humanity1 and on page #ba he carries the jaguar-skin purse in which the priests placed copal for incense4 ,in his left hand he holds a shield1 the field of which is a tawny yellow in colour1 traversed by two white stripes1 and a paper banner4 ,on page #c the god is shown in a springing attitude4 ,he wears the face and body-paint characteristic of him1 and the warrior's headdress1 with hair tousled on one side1 and the blue nasal rod1 with square plaque1 falling over the mouth4 ,at the side of the head is the fiery mirror which gives him his name4 ,on page #ad he is seen wearing on his breast1 and fastened to two strong red leather straps1 the white ring teocuitlaanauatl1 an ornament resembling a large1 round eye4 ,on his back is a feather device known as the 8quetzal feather-pot40 ,the right foot1 as in other pictures of him1 is replaced by a small fiery mirror and his left by an obsidian knife4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,in this manuscript ,tezcatlipoc is depicted with the yellow-and-black face-painting1 but in his form as a black god4 ,at his forehead is the smoking mirror1 on his back the large quetzal-feather ornament with a banner1 on his breast the anauatl1 and round his loins the hip-cloth1 with a bordering of red eyes4 ,on his feet he wears sandals showing the motif of the obsidian snake1 and his headdress is painted with the stellar symbol1 the round white spots on a black ground1 which typifies the night sky4 ,here also we see two bamboo staves attached to his neck--undoubtedly the collar worn by captives or slaves which rendered flight impossible1 and which ,tezcatlipoc wears to symbolize his enslavement of the ,mexican people and in allusion to his name ,titlacauan1 which means 8,he whose slaves we are40 ,the spear and the net-pouch in this place recall the insignia of ,mixcoatl1 and seem to indicate that ,tezcatlipoc was a god of the ,chichimec or hunting folk of the ,north ,steppes1 or perhaps it may merely symbolize the proneness of all stellar1 lunar and solar deities in ,mexico to the chase4 ,tonalamatl of the ,aubin ,collection4--,in this manuscript ,tezcatlipoc appears as the representative of the ,moon-god and sits opposite the ,sun-god4 ,he is shown with his usual attributes and face-painting1 the smoking mirror in the region of the ear1 the white ring on his breast1 and on his back the quetzalcomitl1 the large quetzal-feather ornament in which a banner is stuck4 ,in his right hand he holds several of the agave-spikes which the priests employed for piercing the tongue4 ,in this manuscript the ,death-god is also depicted as ,tezcatlipoc1 and wears his body-and-face painting and his general insignia1 as well as the rosette at the nape of the neck4 ,in this place1 however1 the snail-shaped shield rises above the forehead1 which is also decorated with a row of feather balls and a single arara plume4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,a good illustration of ,tezcatlipoc will be found on page #hi of this codex4 ,the figure of the god is surrounded by footprints1 symbolic1 probably1 of the circumstance that as the youngest and swiftest of the gods he arrived first at the teotleco festival 7coming of the gods7 and impressed his footprint on the heap of maize arranged by the priests for its reception in order that they might know of his coming4 ,he wears a large panache of green feathers1 consisting of two parts2 that immediately above the face being inserted in a tumbler-shaped ornament painted blue1 with a red rim1 and having six white disks upon its field4 ,to the lower part of this is joined a rainbow-like device in various colours1 from which springs the main part of the feather panache4 ,the upper fore-part of the face is painted yellow1 the rear portion purple or grey1 and the region about the mouth is bright red4 ,he is bearded4 ,the tunic is white1 with a white shoulder-knot1 and a bunch of maize springs from the right shoulder4 ,on the breast is the god's mirror1 and at the waist an ornament or symbol resembling the ,maya ,kin 7sun7 sign1 painted blue4 ,the rest of the body-colour is purple-grey4 ,in the left hand he carries an atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 with a serpent's head having a brown mane1 and bearing a resemblance to some horse-like ornamental motifs found in ,guatemala4 ,in the right hand he bears a shield1 the field of which is divided into two parts1 the right painted blue and bearing what would seem to be the nose-ornament of the pulque-gods1 whilst the left resembles the design found on the skirt of the ,earth-goddess4 ,the shield is crossed behind by four darts and is surmounted by a befeathered banner4 ,in this place ,tezcatlipoc is undoubtedly represented in his variant of 8the young warrior10 as his equipment shows4 ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the god's feather crown is set with obsidian knives4 ,his face is barred with horizontal lines of black1 and on his back he carries a basket filled with quetzal-feathers4 ,his arm-ring is set with obsidian knives1 and one-half of his leg is painted black4 ,on his legs and feet he wears shells and sandals1 the latter the so-called 8obsidian sandals10 painted with a picture of the obsidian snake4 ,his arms are covered with paper fans4 ,his shield is inlaid with feather balls1 and in one of his hands he holds the 8seeing0 or scrying implement tlachialoni4 ,acosta1 describing ,tezcatlipoc1 says #aaf3 8,they called this idol ,tezcallipuca1 he was made of black1 shining stone like to ,jayel1 being attired with some ,gentile devises after their manner4 ,it had ear-rings of gold and silver1 and through the nether lip a small canon of christall1 in length half a foote1 in the which they sometimes put a greene feather1 and sometimes an azure1 which made it resemble sometimes an emerald and sometimes a turquois4 ,it had the haire broided and bound up with a haire-lace of gold burnished1 at the end whereof did hang an eare of gold1 with two fire-brands of smoke painted therein which did signify the praires of the afflicted and sinners that he heard1 when they recommended themselves to him4 ,betwixt the two eares hanged a number of small herons4 ,he had a jewell hanging at his neck so great that it covered all his stomake4 ,upon his armes bracelets of gold1 upon his navill a rich1 green stone1 and in his left hand a fanne of precious feathers1 of greene1 azure and yellow1 which came forth of a looking-glasse of gold1 shining and well-burnished1 and that signified1 that within this looking-glasse he saw whatever was done in the world4 ,they called this glasse or chaston of gold irlacheaya1 #aag which signifies his glass for to look in4 ,in his right hand he held foure darts which signified the chastisement he gave to the wicked for their sins4444 ,they held this idoll ,tescatlipuca for the god of drought1 of famine1 barrenness and pestilence4 ,and therefore they painted him in another form1 being set in great majesty upon a stoole1 compassed in with a red curtin1 painted and wrought with the heads and bones of dead men4 ,in the left hand it had a target with five pines1 like unto pine apples of cotton1 and in the right a little dart with a threatening countenance1 and the arm stretched out as if he would cast it and from the target came foure darts4 ,it had the countenance of an angry man and in choller1 the body all painted blacke and the head full of quailes feathers40 ,bernal ,diaz says of him 7bk4 vi4 c4 #ia73 8,then we saw on the other side on the left hand there stood the other great image the same height as ,huichilobos1 and it had a face like a bear #aah and eyes that shone1 made of their mirrors which they call ,tezcat1 and the body plastered with precious stones like that of ,huichilobos1 for they say that the two are brothers2 and this ,tezcatepuca was the god of ,hell and had charge of the souls of the ,mexicans1 and his body was girt with figures like little devils with snakes' tails40 ,face-mask4--,when ,cortz landed at ,vera ,cruz1 the messengers of ,motecuhzoma tendered him1 along with other presents1 8the ornaments or finery with which ,tezcatlipoc was decorated40 ,the mask belonging to this costume is still in existence1 and is to be seen in the room devoted to ,american antiquities in the ,british ,museum4 ,it consists of a human skull encrusted with mosaic in alternate bands of black and green1 the nasal cavity being set with a red stone and the eyes with pyrites ringed with white4 ,statuette4--,a statuette of ,tezcatlipoc from the ,valley of ,mexico1 and now in the ,uhde collection1 shows the god as nude1 with the exception of a loin-cloth and a flat headdress1 rising in the middle4 ,tezcatlipoc in ,his ,black and ,red ,forms4--,tezcatlipoc was regarded by the ,mexican people as possessing two definite forms1 the ,black and the ,red4 ,in this paragraph we will deal only with the insignia of these and not with their mythological significance1 which we will attempt to explain in its proper place4 ,perhaps the best and most classical examples of these forms we possess are to be observed on sheet #ba of ,codex ,borgia1 on both halves of which we see the two forms represented as parallel figures1 closely resembling one another in nearly every detail4 ,it should at once be stated that the ,red ,tezcatlipoc is merely a variant of ,xipe1 and indeed in one place in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b we observe that his loin-cloth forks in the swallow-tail fashion noticeable in the loin-cloth of that god1 and1 generally speaking1 the red colours he wears are those of the roseate spoon-bill1 the feathers of which are typical of ,xipe's dress4 ,these pictures in the ,codex ,borgia are supplemented by two on sheets #he and #hf of ,vaticanus ,b1 where the swallow-tail ends of the loin-cloth and the nasal rod show distinctly that the ,red ,tezcatlipoc is only a form of ,xipe4 ,the ,black ,tezcatlipoc opposite him is1 however1 represented with the striped body-paint of ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 the arms being entirely black4 ,in the ,borgia paintings the ,black ,tezcatlipoc wears the black body-paint of the priest1 his face-paint is alternately black and yellow1 he has the warrior's tousled hair1 the nasal rod with the square plaque falling over the mouth1 the forked heron-feather adornment in his hair1 and on his temple the smoking mirror4 ,the foot1 too1 is torn off and replaced by a smoking mirror--all symbolical of the 8standard0 character of the god's sable form4 ,the ,red ,tezcatlipoc represented in the upper portion of ,borgia 7sheet #ba7 has a yellow face-painting striped with horizontal bands of red and his body-paint is red4 ,on the red bands crossing the face is seen the stellar eye4 ,a brown fillet encircles a red headdress1 and the torn-off foot is also replaced by the smoking mirror4 ,on his back is seen the bundle of the merchant1 surmounted by the arara bird1 two symbols which indicate his southern character4 ,the representation of the ,red ,tezcatlipoc in the lower portion of sheet #ba is practically similar to this1 save that he wears feather balls and heron plumes in his headdress1 is without the merchant's pack1 and holds in one hand the jaguar-skin copal-bag of the priests and the smoking rubber ball used as incense4 ,these forms of the god have been laid down in myth as distinctly separate deities1 especially in the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas4 #aai ,,festivals ,toxcatl4--,this1 one of the most important of all the ,mexican festivals1 is described by ,sahagun substantially as follows3 ,the fifth month called toxcatl and sometimes tepopochuiliztli1 was begun by the most solemn and famous feast of the year1 in honour of the principal ,mexican god1 a god known by a multitude of names and epithets1 among which were ,tezcatlipoc1 ,titlacaoan1 ,yautl1 ,telpuchtli1 and ,tlamatzincatl4 ,a year before this feast one of the most distinguished of the captives reserved for sacrifice was chosen for his superior grace and personal appearance from among all his fellows1 and given in charge to the priestly functionaries called calpixques4 ,these instructed him with great diligence in all the arts pertaining to good breeding1 such as playing on the flute1 deportment1 conversation1 saluting those he happened to meet1 the use of straight cane tobacco-pipes and of flowers4 ,he was attended upon by eight pages1 who were clad in the livery of the palace1 and had perfect liberty to go where he pleased night and day2 while his food was so rich that1 to guard against his growing too fat1 it was at times necessary to vary the diet by a purge of salt and water4 ,everywhere honoured and adored as the living image and accredited representative of ,tezcatlipoc1 he went about playing on a small shrill clay flute or fife1 and adorned with rich and curious raiment furnished by the king1 while all he met did him reverence1 kissing the earth4 ,all his body and face was painted black1 his long hair flowed to the waist2 his head was covered with white hens' feathers stuck on with resin1 and covered with a garland of the flowers called izquixochitl1 #abj while two strings of the same flowers crossed his body in the fashion of cross-belts4 ,earrings of gold1 a necklace of precious stones1 with a great dependent gem hanging to the breast1 a lip-ornament 7barbote7 of sea-shell1 bracelets of gold above the elbow on each arm1 and strings of gems called macuextlu winding from wrist almost to elbow1 were part of his ornaments4 ,he was covered with a rich1 beautifully fringed mantle of netting1 and bore on his shoulders something like a purse made of white cloth of a span square1 ornamented with tassels and a fringe4 ,a white maxtle of a span broad went about his loins1 the two ends1 curiously wrought1 falling in front almost to the knee4 ,little bells of gold hung upon his feet1 which were shod with painted sandals called ocelunacace4 ,all this was the attire he wore from the beginning of his year of preparation2 but twenty days before the coming of the festival they changed his vestments1 washed away the paint or dye from his skin1 and cut down his long hair to the length1 and arranged it after the fashion1 of the hair of the captains1 tying it up on the crown of the head with feathers and fringe and two gold-buttoned tassels4 ,at the same time they married to him four damsels1 who had been pampered and educated for this purpose1 and who were surnamed respectively after the four goddesses1 ,xochiquetzal1 ,xilonen1 ,atlantonan1 and ,uixtociuatl4 ,five days before the great day of the feast1 the day of the feast being counted one1 all the people1 high and low1 the king it would appear being alone excepted1 went out to celebrate with the man-god a solemn banquet and dance1 in the ward called ,tecanman2 the fourth day before the feast the same was done in the ward in which was guarded the statue of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,the little hill or island called ,tepetzinco1 rising out of the waters of the ,lake of ,mexico1 was the scene of the next day's solemnities2 which were renewed for the last time on the next day1 or that immediately preceding the great day1 on another like island called ,tepelpulco1 or ,tepepulco4 ,there1 with the four women who had been given to him for his consolation1 the honoured victim was put into a covered canoe usually reserved for the sole use of the king1 and he was carried across the lake to a place called ,tlapitzaoayan1 near the road that goes from ,yztapalapan to ,chalco1 at a place where was a little hill called ,acaccuilpan1 or ,cabaltepec4 ,here left him the four beautiful girls whose society for twenty days he had enjoyed1 they returning to the capital with all the people4 ,there accompanied him only those eight attendants who had been with him all the year4 ,almost alone1 done with the joys of beauty1 banquet1 and dance1 bearing a bundle of his flutes1 he walked to a little cu1 some distance from the road mentioned above1 and about a league removed from the city4 ,he marched up the temple steps2 and as he ascended he dashed down and broke on every step one of the flutes that he had been accustomed to play on in the days of his prosperity4 ,he reached the top1 where he was sacrificed4 ,from the sacrificial stone his body was not hurled down the steps1 but was carried by four men down to the tzompantli1 to the place of the spitting of heads4 ,in this feast of toxcatl1 in the cu called ,uitznahuac1 where the image of ,uitzilopochtli was always kept1 the priests made a bust of this god out of tzoalli dough1 with pieces of mizquitl #aba-wood inserted by way of bones4 ,they decorated it with his ornaments2 putting on a jacket wrought over with human bones1 a mantle of very thin nequen1 and another mantle called the ,tlaquaquallo1 covered with rich feathers1 fitting the head below and widening out above2 in the middle of this stood up a little rod1 also decorated with feathers1 and sticking into the top of the rod was a flint knife half covered with blood4 ,the image was set on a platform made of pieces of wood resembling snakes1 and so arranged that heads and tails alternated all the way round2 the whole borne by many captains and men of war4 ,before this image and platform a number of strong youths carried an enormous sheet of paper resembling pasteboard1 twenty fathoms long1 one fathom broad1 and a little less than an inch thick2 it was supported by spear-shafts arranged in pairs of one shaft above and one below the paper1 while persons on either side of the paper held one of these pairs in one hand4 ,when the procession1 with dancing and singing1 reached the cu to be ascended1 the platform was carefully and cautiously hoisted up by cords attached to its four corners1 the image was set on a seat1 and those who carried the paper rolled it up and set down the roll before the bust of the god4 ,it was sunset when the image was so set up2 and the following morning everyone offered food in his own house before the image of ,uitzilopochtli1 incensing also such images of the other gods as he had1 and then went to offer quails' blood before the image set up on the cu4 ,the king began1 wringing off the heads of four quails2 the priests offered next1 then all the people2 the whole multitude carrying clay fire-pans and burning copal incense of every kind1 after which everyone threw his live coals on a great hearth in the temple yard4 ,the virgins painted their faces1 put on their heads garlands of parched maize1 with strings of the same across their breasts1 decorated their arms and legs with red feathers1 and carried black paper flags stuck into split canes4 ,the flags of the daughters of the nobles were not of paper1 but of a thin cloth called canauac1 painted with vertical black stripes4 ,these girls1 joining hands1 danced round the great hearth1 upon or over which1 on an elevated place of some kind1 there danced1 giving the time and step1 two men1 having each a kind of pine cage covered with paper flags on his shoulders1 the strap supporting which passed1 not across the forehead--the usual way for men to carry a burden--but across the chest1 as was the fashion with women4 ,they bore shields of paper1 crumpled up like great flowers1 their heads were adorned with white feathers1 their lips and part of the face were smeared with sugar-cane juice1 which produced a peculiar effect over the black with which their faces were always painted4 ,they carried in their hands pieces of paper called amasmaxtli #abb and sceptres of palm-wood tipped with a black flower and having in the lower part a ball of black feathers4 ,in dancing they used this sceptre like a staff1 and the part by which they grasped it was wrapped round with a paper painted with black lines4 ,the music for the dancers was supplied by a party of unseen musicians1 who occupied one of the temple buildings1 where they sat1 he that played the drum in the centre1 and the performers on the other instruments about him4 ,the men and women danced on till night1 but the strictest order and decency were preserved1 and any lewd word or look brought down swift punishment from the appointed overseers4 ,this feast was closed by the death of a youth who had been during the past year dedicated to and taken care of for ,uitzilopochtli1 resembling in this the victim of ,tezcatlipoc1 whose companion he had indeed been1 but without receiving such high honours4 ,this ,uitzilopochtli youth was entitled ,ixteocalli1 #abc or ,tlacauepan1 or ,teicauhtzin1 #abd and was held to be the image and representative of the god4 ,when the day of his death came the priests decorated him with papers painted over with black circles1 and put a mitre of eagles' feathers on his head1 in the midst of whose plumes was stuck a flint knife1 stained half-way up with blood and adorned with red feathers4 ,tied to his shoulders by strings passing across the breast was a piece of very thin cloth1 about a span square1 and over it hung a little bag4 ,over one of his arms was thrown a wild beast's skin1 arranged somewhat like a maniple2 bells of gold jingled at his legs as he walked or danced4 ,there were two peculiar things connected with the death of this youth3 first1 he had absolute liberty of choice regarding the hour in which he was to die2 and1 second1 he was not extended upon any block or altar1 but when he wished he threw himself into the arms of the priests1 and had his heart so cut out4 ,his head was then hacked off and spitted alongside that of the ,tezcatlipoc youth1 of whom we have spoken already4 ,in this same day the priests made little marks on children1 cutting them1 with thin stone knives1 in the breast1 stomach1 wrists1 and fleshy parts of the arms2 marks1 as the ,spanish priests considered1 by which the devil should know his own sheep4 ,teotleco4--,the movable feasts sacred to ,tezcatlipoc and alluded to in the list of his festivals are only briefly mentioned by ,sahagun1 and do not appear to have been of any particular importance4 ,as regards the ,teotleco ,sahagun says3 8,the twelfth month was called ,teotleco1 which signifies the arrival of the gods4 ,a festival was celebrated in honour of all the gods who were said to have gone to some country1 ,i know not where4 ,on the last day of the month a greater one was held1 because the gods had returned4 8,on the fifteenth day of this month the young boys and the servitors decked all the altars or oratories of the gods with boughs1 as well those which were in the houses as the images which were set up by the wayside and at the cross-roads4 ,this work was paid for in maize4 ,some received a basketful1 and others only a few ears4 8,on the eighteenth day the ever-youthful god ,tlamatzincatl1 or ,titlacauan1 arrived4 ,it was said that he marched better and arrived the first because he was young and strong4 ,food was offered him in his temple on that night4 ,everyone drank1 ate1 and made merry2 the old people especially celebrated the arrival of the god by drinking wine1 and it was alleged that his feet were washed by these rejoicings4 ,the last day of the month was marked by a great festival1 on account of the belief that the whole of the gods arrived at that time4 ,on the preceding night a quantity of flour was kneaded on a carpet into the shape of a cheese1 it being supposed that the gods would leave a footprint thereon as a sign of their return4 ,the chief attendant watched all night1 going to and fro to see if the impression appeared4 ,when he at last saw it he called out1 #8,the master has arrived1' and at once the priests of the temple began to sound the horns1 trumpets1 and other musical instruments used by them4 ,upon hearing this noise everyone ran forthwith to offer food in all the temples or oratories1 and gave themselves up to renewed rejoicings1 to wash the feet of the gods1 as we have already described4 8,the next day the aged gods were said to come last1 because they walked more slowly on account of their age4 ,on that day several captives were doomed to be burnt alive4 ,a great brazier was prepared2 young men disguised as monsters danced round about it1 and while dancing1 hurled the unhappy victims into the fire1 in the manner already explained4 ,other ceremonies took place which will be described in the account of this festival40 ,,myths ,sahagun says of ,tezcatlipoc that he was invisible and was able to penetrate into all places1 heaven1 earth1 and hell4 ,the ,mexicans1 he says1 believed that he wandered over the earth stirring up strife and war1 and setting men against one another4 ,he also remarks that he was the true giver of prosperity1 and extremely capricious4 #abe ,acosta calls him the god of drought1 famine1 barrenness1 and pestilence4 #abf ,clavigero alludes to him as the chief of the gods worshipped in ,mexico1 the god of providence1 the soul of the world1 the creator of heaven and earth and master of all things4 8,they represented him as young1 to denote that no length of years ever diminished his power4 ,they believed that he rewarded with various benefits the just1 and punished the wicked with diseases and other afflictions40 #abg ,the interpreter of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis states that 8,tezcatlipoc is he who appeared to the nation on the mountain of the mirror1 as they say1 and is he who tempted ,quetzalcoatl the penitent40 ,elsewhere he says3 8,they do not here paint ,tezcatlipoc with a foot formed of a serpent1 since they say that this festival panquetzaliztli relates to a time previous to his sinning while still in heaven1 and that hence happened the war in heaven1 from whence wars sprung below40 ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a4 says of him3 8,tezcatlipoc1 here represented1 was one of their most potent gods4 ,they say that he appeared in that country on the top of a mountain called ,tezcatepu1 which signifies the mountain of mirrors40 ,later on he remarks that the god was sometimes painted with the feet of a man and of a cock1 8as they say his name bears allusion to this circumstance4 ,he is clothed with a fowl1 which seems to cry in laughing accents1 and when it crows1 ,oa1 ,oa1 ,oa1 they say that it deceived the 8first woman1 who committed sin1 and accordingly they place him near the goddess of pollution40 ,a report on the ,huaxtec territory1 dated #aegi1 states that3 8,they relate another fable1 that they had two other effigies as gods1 one called ,ometochtli1 who is the god of wine1 the other ,tezcatlipoc1 which is the name of the most exalted idol worshipped by them1 and with these they had painted the figure of a woman named ,hueytonantzin1 that is #8our great mother1' because they said that she was the mother of all these gods or demons4 ,and those four above-mentioned male demons1 they related1 had killed this great mother1 founding with her the institution of human sacrifice1 and taking her heart out of her breast1 and presenting it to the sun4 ,similarly1 they related that the idol ,tezcatlipoc had killed the god of wine with his consent and concurrence1 giving out that in this way he gave eternal life1 and that if he did not die1 all persons drinking wine must die2 but that the death of this ,ometochtli was only the sleep of one drunk1 that he afterwards recovered1 and again became fresh and well40 ,tezcatlipoc1 it will be remembered1 is alluded to in the cosmogonic myths of ,mendieta and ,sahagun1 already related in the chapter on ,cosmogony4 ,the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas refers to him as the creator1 says that 8he made the sun to shine10 and states that he was the constellation ,ursa ,major1 the ,great ,bear1 which 8sank in the water40 ,he also made the ,tazcaquavlt1 or 8tree of the mirror10 fashioned four hundred men and a hundred women as food for the sun1 and1 along with ,quetzalcoatl1 constructed 8the road in the heavens1 the ,milky ,way40 ,sahagun states #abh that after ,tezcatlipoc had succeeded in driving ,quetzalcoatl from the country1 8he proceeded further guilefully to kill many ,toltecs and to ally himself by marriage with ,vemac or ,uemac1 who was the temporal lord of the ,toltecs1 even as ,quetzalcoatl was the spiritual ruler of that people4 ,to accomplish these things ,tezcatlipoc took the appearance of a poor foreigner and presented himself naked1 as was the custom of such people1 in the market-place of ,tulla1 selling green chilli pepper4 ,now the palace of ,vemac1 the great king1 overlooked the market-place1 and he had an only daughter1 and the girl1 looking by chance among the buyers and sellers1 saw the disguised god4 ,she was smitten through with love of him1 and she began to sicken4 ,vemac heard of her sickness1 and he inquired of the women who guarded her as to what ailed his daughter4 ,they told him as best they could1 how for the love of a peddler of pepper1 named ,toveyo1 the princess had lain down to die4 ,the king immediately sent a crier upon the mountain ,tzatzitepec to make this proclamation3 #8,o ,toltecs1 seek me out ,toveyo that goes about selling green pepper1 let him be brought before me4' ,so the people sought everywhere for the pepper vendor1 but he was nowhere to be found4 ,then after they could not find him1 he appeared of his own accord one day1 at his old place and trade in the market4 ,he was brought before the king1 who said to him3 #8,where dost thou belong to8' and ,toveyo answered1 #8,i am a foreigner1 come here to sell my green pepper4' #8,why dost thou delay to cover thyself with breeches and a blanket8' said ,vemac4 ,toveyo answered that in his country such things were not in the fashion4 ,vemac continued3 #8,my daughter longs after thee1 not willing to be comforted by any ,toltec4 ,she is sick of love and thou must heal her4' ,but ,toveyo replied3 #8,this thing can in no wise be2 kill me first2 ,i desire to die1 not being worthy to hear these words1 who get my living by selling green pepper4' #8,i tell thee1' said the king1 #8that thou must heal my daughter of this her sickness2 fear not4' ,then they took the cunning god and washed him1 and cut his hair1 and dyed all his body and put breeches on him and a blanket2 and the king ,vemac said1 #8,get thee in and see my daughter1 there1 where they guard her4' ,then the young man went in and he remained with the princess and she became sound and well2 thus ,toveyo became the son-in-law of the king of ,tulla4 8,then1 behold1 all the ,toltecs1 being filled with jealousy and offended1 spake injurious and insulting words against ,king ,vemac1 saying among themselves1 #8,of all the ,toltecs can there not be found a man1 that this ,vemac marries his daughter to a peddler8' ,now when the king heard all the injurious and insulting words that the people spake against him he was moved1 and he spoke to the people saying1 #8,come hither1 behold ,i have heard all these things that ye say against me in the matter of my son-in-law ,toveyo2 dissimulate then2 take him deceitfully with you to the war of ,cacatepec and ,coatepec1 and let the enemy kill him there4' ,having heard these words1 the ,toltecs armed themselves1 and collected a multitude and went to the war1 bringing ,toveyo along4 ,arrived where the fighting was to take place1 they hid him with the lame and the dwarfs1 charging them1 as the custom was in such cases1 to watch for the enemy1 while the soldiers went on to the attack4 ,the battle began4 ,the ,toltecs at once gave way1 treacherously and guilefully deserting ,toveyo and the cripples4 ,leaving them to be slaughtered at their post1 they returned to ,tulla and told the king how they had left ,toveyo and his companions alone in the hands of the enemy4 ,when the king heard the treason he was glad1 thinking ,toveyo dead1 for he was ashamed of having him for a son-in-law4 ,affairs had gone otherwise1 however1 with ,toveyo from what the plotters supposed4 ,on the approach of the hostile army he consoled his deformed companions1 saying3 #8,fear nothing2 the enemy come against us1 but ,i know that ,i shall kill them all4' ,then he rose up and went forward against them1 against the men of ,coatepec and ,cacatepec4 ,he put them to flight and slew of them without number4 ,when this came to the ears of ,vemac it weighed upon and terrified him exceedingly4 ,he said to his ,toltecs1 #8,let us now go and receive my son-in-law4' ,so they all went out with ,king ,vemac to receive ,toveyo1 bearing the arms and devices called quetzalapanecayutl1 and the shields called xiuhchimali4 #abi ,they gave these things to ,toveyo1 and he and his comrades received them with dancing and the music of flutes1 with triumph and rejoicing4 ,furthermore1 on reaching the palace of the king1 plumes were put upon the heads of the conquerors1 and all the body of each of them was stained yellow1 and all the face red4 ,this was the customary reward of those that came back victorious from war4 ,and ,king ,vemac said to his son-in-law3 #8,i am now satisfied with what thou hast done1 and the ,toltecs are satisfied2 thou hast dealt very well with our enemies1 rest and take thine ease4' ,but ,toveyo held his peace4 8,and after this1 ,toveyo adorned all his body with the rich feathers called tocivitl1 and commanded the ,toltecs to gather together for a festival1 and sent a crier up to the top of the mountain ,tzatzitepec1 to call in the strangers and the people afar off to dance and to feast4 ,a numberless multitude gathered to ,tulla4 ,when they were all gathered1 ,toveyo led them out1 young men and girls1 to a place called ,texcalapa1 where he himself began and led the dancing1 playing on a drum4 ,he sang too1 singing each verse to the dancers1 who sang it after him1 though they knew not the song beforehand4 ,then was to be seen a marvellous and terrible thing4 ,a panic seized the ,toltecs4 ,there was a gorge or ravine there1 with a river rushing through it called the ,texcaltlauhco4 ,a stone bridge led over the river4 ,toveyo broke down this bridge as the people fled4 ,he saw them tread and crush each other down1 under-foot1 and over into the abyss4 ,they that fell were turned into rocks and stones2 as for those that escaped1 they did not see nor think that it was ,toveyo and his sorceries had wrought this great destruction2 they were blinded by the witchcraft of the god1 and out of their senses like drunken men4 8,tezcatlipoc then proceeded to hatch further evil against the ,toltecs4 ,he took the appearance of a certain valiant man called ,teguioa1 and commanded a crier to summon all the inhabitants of ,tulla and its neighbourhood to come and help at a certain piece of work in a certain flower-garden 7said to have been a garden belonging to ,quetzalcoatl74 ,all the people gathered to the work1 whereupon the disguised god fell upon them1 knocking them on the head with a hoe4 ,those that escaped the hoe were trodden down and killed by their fellows in attempting to escape4 ,a countless number was slain4 ,every man that had come to the work was left lying dead among the trodden flowers4 8,and after this ,tezcatlipoc wrought another witchcraft against the ,toltecs4 ,he called himself ,tlacavepan1 or ,acexcoch1 and came and sat down in the midst of the market-place of ,tulla having a little manikin 7said to have been ,uitzilopochtli7 dancing upon his hand4 ,there was an instant uproar of all the buyers and sellers and a rush to see the miracle4 ,the people crushed and trod each other down1 so that many were killed there2 and all this happened many times4 ,at last the god-sorcerer cried out on one such occasion3 #8,what is this8 ,do you not see that you are befooled by us8 ,stone and kill us4' ,so the people took up stones and killed the said sorcerer and his little dancing manikin4 ,but when the body of the sorcerer had lain in the market-place for some time it began to stink and to taint the air1 and the wind of it poisoned many4 ,then the dead sorcerer spake again1 saying3 #8,cast this body outside the town1 for many ,toltecs die because of it4' ,so they prepared to cast out the body1 and fastened ropes thereto and pulled4 ,but the ill-smelling corpse was so heavy that they could not move it4 ,then a crier made a proclamation1 saying3 #8,come1 all ye ,toltecs1 and bring ropes with you1 that we may drag out and get rid of this pestilential carcass4' ,all came accordingly1 bringing ropes1 and the ropes were fastened to the body and all pulled4 ,it was utterly in vain4 ,rope after rope broke with a sudden snap1 and those that dragged on a rope fell and were killed when it broke4 ,then the dead wizard looked up and said2 #8,o ,toltecs1 a verse of song is needed4' ,and he himself gave them a verse4 ,they repeated the verse after him1 and1 singing it1 pulled all together1 so that with shouts they hauled the body out of the city1 though still not without many ropes breaking and many persons being killed as before4 ,all this being over1 those ,toltecs that remained unhurt returned every man to his place1 not remembering anything of what had happened1 for they were all as drunken4 8,other signs and wonders were wrought by ,tezcatlipoc in his rle of sorcerer4 ,a white bird called ,iztac cuixtli was clearly seen flying over ,tulla1 transfixed with a dart4 ,at night also1 the sierra called ,zacatepec burned1 and the flames were seen from afar4 ,all the people were stirred up and affrighted1 saying one to another1 #8,o ,toltecs1 it is all over with us now2 the time of the end of ,tulla is come2 alas for us1 whither shall we go8' 8,then ,tezcatlipoc wrought another evil upon the ,toltecs2 he rained down stones upon them4 ,there fell also1 at the same time1 a great stone from heaven called ,techcatl2 and when it fell the god-sorcerer took the appearance of an old woman1 and went about selling little banners in a place called ,chapultepec ,cuitlapilco1 otherwise named ,uetzinco4 ,many then became mad and bought of these banners and went to the place where was the stone ,techcatl1 and there got themselves killed2 and no one was found to say so much as1 #8,what is this that happens to us8' ,they were all mad4 8,another woe ,tezcatlipoc brought upon the ,toltecs4 ,all their victuals suddenly became sour1 and no one was able to eat of them4 ,the old woman1 above mentioned1 took up then her abode in a place called ,xochitla1 and began to roast maize3 and the odour of the roasted maize reached all the cities round about4 ,the starving people set out immediately1 and with one accord1 to go where the old woman was4 ,they reached her instantly1 for here it may be again said1 that the ,toltecs were exceedingly light of foot1 and arrived always immediately whithersoever they wished to go4 ,as for the ,toltecs that gathered to the mock sorceress1 not one of them escaped4 ,she killed them every one40 ,these feats of ,tezcatlipoc against the ,toltecs seem to have reference to the various species of charm wielded by the enchanter2 the love-charm1 the charm by music1 by disease1 by destruction of victuals4 ,the rain of stone signified barrenness1 drought1 which was implied by the nature of the god1 the deity of obsidian and of tempests4 ,for other myths regarding ,tezcatlipoc see the chapter on ,cosmogony4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,in my opinion the early significance of ,tezcatlipoc arises out of his connection with obsidian4 ,this stone had an especial sanctity for the ,mexicans1 as it provided the sacrificial knives employed by the priests1 and we possess good evidence that stone in its fetish form was worshipped even so late as the eighteenth century by the ,nahuatl-speaking ,chotas1 who comprised it in a trinity with the ,dawn and the ,serpent4 #acj ,from a passage in ,acosta #aca we are justified in assuming that ,tezcatlipoc's idol was of obsidian1 and1 like the ,quiche god ,tohil1 mentioned in the ,popol ,vuh1 he wore sandals of obsidian1 as is witnessed by one of his representations in ,codex ,borbonicus1 where his footgear is painted with the zigzag line of the obsidian snake4 ,tezcatlipoc was unquestionably the god of the itztli 7obsidian7 stone1 and ,seler #acb has identified him with ,iztli1 the stone-knife god1 the second of the lords of the night4 ,in certain codices1 too1 he is represented as having such a knife in place of a foot1 and we know that it was a fairly common practice of the ,mexican artists to indicate the name or race of an individual by drawing one of his feet in a hieroglyphical manner4 #acc ,i believe1 too1 that the net-like garment worn at times by the god above his other attire is an adaptation of the mesh-bag in which ,mexican hunters carried flints for use as spear- and arrow-heads4 ,this1 as well as the fact that he was the god of the sharp-cutting obsidian from which such weapons were made1 caused him to be regarded as patron deity of the wild hunting ,chichimecs of the northern steppes1 a connection which is eloquent of his erstwhile primitive character4 ,it is clear1 too1 that ,chalchiuhtotolin1 the jewelled fowl1 which is ruler of the eighteenth day-sign1 tecpatl 7obsidian knife71 is merely a variant of ,tezcatlipoc4 #acd ,but another important link connects ,tezcatlipoc with obsidian4 ,bernal ,diaz states that they called this 8,tezcat40 ,from it mirrors were manufactured as divinatory media by the wizard4 ,sahagun says #ace that it was known as aitztli 7water obsidian71 probably because of the high polish of which it was capable4 ,another such stone he mentions was called tepochtli1 which ,i would translate 8wizard stone10 and from which ,i think1 by a process of etymological confusion1 ,tezcatlipoc received one of his minor names1 ,telpochtli1 8the youth40 ,the name of the god means 8,smoking ,mirror10 and ,acosta #acf says that the ,mexicans called ,tezcatlipoc's mirror irlacheaya 7an obvious error for tlachialoni7 8his glass to look in10 otherwise the mirror or scrying-stone in which he was able to witness the doings of mankind4 ,it is possible that the 8smoke0 which was said to rise from this mirror symbolized the haziness which is supposed to cloud the surface of a divinatory glass prior to the phenomenon of vision therein4 ,thus from the shape beheld in the seer's mirror1 ,tezcatlipoc came to be regarded as the seer4 ,that into which the wizard gazed became so closely identified with sorcery as to be thought of as wizard-like itself2 for ,tezcatlipoc is1 of all ,mexican deities1 the one most nearly connected with the wizard's art4 ,he is par excellence the nocturnal god who haunts the crossways and appears in a myriad phantom guises to the night-bound wayfarer4 8,these10 says ,sahagun1 8were masks that ,tezcatlipoc assumed to frighten the people40 ,he wears the symbol of night upon his forehead2 he is the moon1 ruler of the night1 the wizard who veils himself behind the clouds2 he bears the severed arm of a woman who has died in childbed1 as a magical instrument1 as did the naualli of old ,mexico4 ,from him all ominous and uncanny sounds proceed3 the howl of the jaguar 7in which we perceive ,tezcatlipoc as the wizard metamorphosed into the wer-animal71 and the foreboding cry of the uactli bird1 the voc1 the bird of ,hurakan in the ,popol ,vuh4 ,tezcatlipoc was undoubtedly connected with the wind1 and this leads me to suspect that in the course of his evolution he came to be thought of as among that class of magical stones which in some mysterious manner is considered capable of raising a tempest under the spell of the sorcerer4 #acg ,of such a belief world-wide examples exist4 ,in the ,irish island of ,fladdahuan such a stone was anointed when the fisher desired a wind #ach and was kept in wool wrappings4 ,a piece of pumice-stone drifted to ,puka-,puka1 says ,lang1 #aci and was regarded as a god of winds and waves1 to which offerings were made during hurricanes4 ,tezcatlipoc is none other than the original 8hurricane10 for he has been identified with the ,hurakan of the ,quiches of ,guatemala alluded to in the ,popol ,vuh1 from whose name the meteorological expression has been borrowed4 ,whether or not he came to be looked upon as the wind of night which ravined through the empty streets and deserted countryside by virtue of the train of thought suggested above1 many aspects of ,tezcatlipoc are eloquent of his boreal attributes4 ,thus1 he is invisible and capricious1 the object of mistrust among the people1 who discerned in tempestuous weather a manifestation of his freakish bad temper4 ,the myth in which he was described as pursuing ,quetzalcoatl in tiger-form will1 in the section which deals with that god1 be indicated as an allegory of the clashing of the hurricane with the rain-bringing trade-wind4 ,lastly1 as patron of war1 of the warrior's club and dance-house1 he is1 as the boisterous storm1 emblematic of strife and discord4 ,seats of stone over-arched with green branches were provided for him throughout the city so that he might rest from his wanderings if he thought good4 ,in the ,aztec mind stone was symbolic of sin4 ,thus ,tezcatlipoc in his variant1 ,itzlacoliuhqui1 is the just avenger1 who punishes evil swiftly and terribly1 for obsidian as the sacrificial knife was the instrument of justice4 #adj ,the coldness of stone1 its hardness and dryness1 seem also to have given rise to the conception of him as god of the ,toxcatl festival in the fifth month of the year1 the dry season1 when the sun stood at the zenith above ,tenochtitlan4 ,thus1 as the prayers to him eloquently affirm1 he was the god of drought1 of sereness1 and barrenness4 ,in common with the majority of the greater ,mexican deities1 ,tezcatlipoc had a stellar connection4 ,he was one of the ,tzitzimim who had fallen from heaven1 and the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas remarks of him1 8the constellation of the ,great ,bear descends to the water because it is ,tezcatlipoc1 who has his seat there10 thus also indicating that he ruled the northern quarter1 out of which1 it was considered1 no good thing might come4 ,his ,tzitzimim shape appears to have been the spider4 ,in ,american-,indian myth the stars are frequently regarded as having spider form1 and especially so in ,mexican myth4 ,in several of the codices1 notably in ,codex ,borbonicus1 the ,tzitzimim or star-demons are represented in insect shape4 ,thus1 ,tezcatlipoc1 when he descended from heaven to harass ,quetzalcoatl1 did so by means of a spider's web1 so that we are justified in regarding the spider as his stellar form4 ,the origin of his conception as the sun of the north and as the setting sun seems reasonably clear and is secondary in character4 ,as the sun sinks in the west its brilliant gold turns to a glassy red1 reminiscent of the dull reflex of light in a surface of polished obsidian4 ,the mirror held by ,tezcatlipoc1 with its fringe of feathers1 obviously represents the sun of evening4 ,but he is also to be thought of as the torrid and blazing orb of the dry season1 scorching and merciless4 ,i regard his several coloured forms as symbolic of various kinds of weather4 ,thus1 in his black form he appears to represent the rainy season2 in his red1 the torrid and dry period of the year2 in his white1 cold and frost2 and in his striped painting1 the embodiment of fair weather4 ,thus ,tezcatlipoc is the atmospheric god par excellence1 ruler of all meteorological conditions4 ,in the prayers offered up to him it is frequently stated that he may1 if he so chooses1 send rain and plenty1 and this aspect of him seems to account for his variously coloured disguises4 ,that these were1 indeed1 regarded as practically separate divine forms is clear from the first chapter of the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 which alludes to the ,black and ,red ,tezcatlipoc as two entirely different gods4 ,tezcatlipoc1 at the period of the ,conquest1 had developed attributes of a more lofty kind than any of those already described4 ,like ,quetzalcoatl1 and because he was a god of the wind or atmosphere1 he came to be regarded as the personification of the breath of life4 ,in the mind of savage man the wind is usually the giver of breath1 the great store-house of respiration1 the source of immediate life4 ,in many mythologies the name of the principal deity is synonymous with that for wind1 and in others the words 8soul0 and 8breath0 have a common origin4 ,it has been suggested that the ,hebrew ,jahveh 7the archaic form of ,jehovah7 is connected with the ,arabic hawah1 to blow or breathe1 and that ,jahveh was originally a wind or tempest god4 ,our word 8spiritual0 is derived from the ,latin spirare1 to blow2 the ,latin animus1 8spirit10 is the same word as the ,greek anemos1 8wind10 and psukhe has a similar origin4 ,all are directly evolved from verbal roots expressing the motion of the wind or the breath4 ,the ,hebrew word ruah is equivalent to both 8wind0 and 8spirit10 as is the ,egyptian kneph4 ,if we turn to the ,american mythologies1 nija in the language of the ,dakota means 8breath10 or 8life02 in ,netela piuts is 8life10 8breath10 and 8soul02 the ,yakuna language of ,oregon has wkrisha1 8wind10 wkrishmit1 8life40 ,the ,creeks applied to their supreme deity the name ,esaugetuh ,emissee1 ,master of ,breath1 #ada and the original name for ,god in ,choctaw was ,hustoli1 the ,storm ,wind4 8,in the identity of wind with breath1 of breath with life1 of life with soul1 of soul with ,god1 lies the far deeper and truer reason10 says ,brinton1 8of the prominence given to wind-gods in many mythologies40 #adb ,but although ,tezcatlipoc was the ,giver of ,life1 he was also regarded as a deity with power to take it away4 ,in fact at times he appeared as an inexorable death-dealer1 and in this guise he was named ,nezahualpilli 78,the ,hungry ,chief07 and ,yaotzin 78,the ,enemy074 ,but he was also known as ,telpochtli 78,the ,youthful ,warrior071 from the fact that his reserve of strength1 his vital force1 never grew less and was boisterously apparent1 as in the tempest4 ,as the wind at night rushes through the roads with more seeming violence than it does by day1 so was ,tezcatlipoc pictured in the ,aztec consciousness as rioting along the highways in search of slaughter4 ,indeed1 seats or benches of stone1 shaped like those used by the chiefs of the ,mexican towns1 were placed at intervals on the roads for his use1 and here he was supposed to lurk1 concealed by the green boughs which surrounded them1 in wait for his victims4 ,should anyone grapple with and overcome him1 he might crave whatsoever boon he desired1 with the surety of its being granted4 ,the worship of ,tezcatlipoc previous to the ,conquest had so advanced1 and so powerful had his cult become1 that it would appear as if the movement would ultimately have led to a monotheism or worship of one god equivalent to that of the cult of ,jahveh1 the ,god of the ,old ,testament among the ancient ,hebrews4 ,to his priestly caste is credited the invention of many of the usages of civilized life1 and it succeeded in making his worship universal4 ,the ,nahua people regarded the other gods as objects of special devotion1 but the worship of ,tezcatlipoc was general4 ,,quetzalcoatl 8,,feathered ,,serpent0 ,area of ,worship3 ,the ,plateau of ,anahuac4 ,minor ,names3 ,chicunaui eecatl--8,nine ,wind40 ,ce acatl--8,one ,reed40 ,relationship3 ,son of ,iztacmixcoatl and ,chimalman or ,xochiquetzal2 one of the ,tzitzimim4 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the second day-count1 eecatl4 ,ruler of the second week1 ce ocelotl4 ,ninth of the thirteen day-lords4 ,festivals3 ,ce acatl 7movable feast74 ,atlacahualco4 ,compass ,direction3 ,east4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,general4--,the insignia of ,quetzalcoatl is fairly constant in its appearance4 ,he usually wears the ,huaxtec cone-shaped hat painted in the design of the jaguar-skin1 which is occasionally divided vertically into a black or blue and a red field1 having an eye in the middle4 ,the hair is bound by a leather strap set with jewels1 which has a conventional bird's head on the front1 and in ,codex ,borgia consistently shows a black1 stepped pattern on a white ground4 ,elsewhere a bow with rounded ends takes the place of this strap1 but in ,borgia 7sheet #fb7 the hair is bound up with two intertwined snakes4 ,at the back of the neck a fan-shaped nape-ornament is usually seen1 consisting of black feathers1 from which rise the red plumes of the quetzal bird1 and it seems1 from the account of the costume sent to ,cortz by ,motecuhzoma1 that this nape-appendage was made from grouse-feathers1 although the ,spanish account states that they belonged to the crow4 ,the god usually wears white ear-pendants of hook-like shape1 which1 ,sahagun states1 were made of gold4 ,the necklace is of spirally voluted snail-shells1 and on the breast is worn a large ornament1 also sliced from a shell4 ,the ends of the loin-cloth are rounded off and are generally painted in two colours--brown1 the colour of the jaguar-skin1 and white or red4 ,the god's atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 is painted with the stellar design of white circles on a black ground1 and in his headdress is stuck the agave-leaf spike and the bone dagger1 the implements of penance and mortification4 ,the body-paint is frequently black1 like that of the priests4 ,most of these insignia are of ,huaxtec origin and show that ,quetzalcoatl was usually associated with this coastal people4 ,the snail-shell ornament on the breast1 the hook-shaped ear-pendant1 the fan-shaped nape-ornament1 and the cone-shaped cap1 were undoubtedly of ,huaxtec origin1 and such objects have been taken from ,huaxtec graves and are found represented on vases and jugs from the ,state of ,hidalgo4 ,in many representations of him the god is seen wearing a long-snouted mask1 usually painted a bright red1 through which he was supposed to expel the wind in his guise of ,eecatl1 the ,wind-god4 ,this mask is frequently fringed with a beard4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ge3 ,quetzalcoatl's body-paint is a dark colour1 and in his hair he wears unspun cotton1 as does ,tlazoltcotl4 ,sheet #gf3 ,here his face is painted black and he wears the fillet with the step-pattern and the two-coloured cap1 and in his hair are stuck the instruments of mortification4 ,he holds in his hand a snake1 which is to be regarded as the agricultural implement with which he tills the ground4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #gc3 ,in this place he is set back to back with the ,death-god and is surrounded by the twenty day-signs4 ,the body-paint is light blue1 and the anterior part of the face has the stellar painting of white circles on a black ground4 ,his conical cap has the parti-coloured painting and the cross1 the symbol of the four winds1 in the middle4 ,on his breast he wears the snail-shell and in his hand a blue staff4 ,his wind-mask is entirely covered with stellar and lunar emblems4 ,his rattle-staff is light blue1 in contradistinction to that of the ,death-god1 which is sprinkled with blood4 ,sheet #ef3 ,here he is equipped with the hoe and wears the body-paint of a priest1 a necklace of jaguar-skin and teeth1 the conical bi-coloured cap1 the stepped fillet with conventional bird's head in front1 and the bearded face-mask4 ,stellar symbols and feather-balls dot his dress and headdress4 ,he stands back to back with the ,death-god1 and it is clear that here he is intended to represent the heavenly ,quetzalcoatl1 the giver of breath and life4 ,on sheet #gb we see him as a priest surrounded by day-signs and implements of mortification4 ,sheet #ai3 ,as represented in this sheet he stands opposite the ,death-god4 ,he wears a dark-coloured garment1 and what can be seen of his face is painted black1 with a spiral pattern4 ,his mantle bears the cross-hatchings indicative of rain or water and is ornamented with feather balls4 ,the red wind-mask protrudes beneath a parti-coloured cap with stellar eyes1 and a fillet with step-pattern and conventional bird's head1 and he wears the snail-shell breast ornament and carries the implements of mortification4 ,sheet #af3 ,on the lower right-hand corner of this sheet he is depicted in a precisely similar manner4 ,quetzalcoatl's ,dress sent to ,cortz4--,when ,cortz landed at ,vera ,cruz1 ,motecuhzoma1 believing him to be the god ,quetzalcoatl returned1 sent him 8the dress that was appropriate to him40 #adc ,this consisted of four costumes1 that of ,quetzalcoatl proper1 and those of ,tezcatlipoc1 ,tlaloc1 and ,xiuhtecutli1 the ,fire-god1 who were regarded as the four deities dominant in the four quarters of the heavens1 and had in the higher theology become fused in the conception of ,quetzalcoatl1 or were regarded as variants of him4 ,the ,quetzalcoatl dress proper is said by ,sahagun to have consisted of the turquoise snake-mask1 now to be seen in the ,british ,museum1 and which can be easily identified by the folds of the snake's body forming the eyebrows1 the quetzal-feather adornment1 and the turquoise throwing-stick1 shaped in the form of a snake4 ,it seems probable1 however1 that this dress1 although it is described as that of ,quetzalcoatl1 was that associated with the ,fire-god4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,sheet #hi3 ,quetzalcoatl is here represented in a dancing attitude4 ,he wears the ,huaxtec hat made of jaguar-skin1 the shield with the snail-shell ornament1 which is also reproduced on his breast1 and the yellow and red face-painting4 ,the bone 8reed0 for piercing the tongue is stuck in his headgear1 and from it depend balls of cotton4 ,he carries an atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 symbolic of rain or wind1 and similar in motif to the nose-ornament of the ,maya ,god ,b4 ,his mantle is cross-hatched to symbolize rain or water and is decorated with red bows4 ,he wears anklets of jaguar-skin1 and a panache of green and yellow feathers4 ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,in the illustration which accompanies his description in this ,,ms4 he wears a pointed cap of jaguar-skin1 surmounted by quetzal-plumes4 ,the face and body are painted black with soot1 and a curved band falls from beneath the hat to the neck4 ,he wears the golden 8water-snake0 collar1 and on his back the wing of the red guacamayo4 ,over the hips is slung a cloth with a red border4 ,he wears white sandals1 and pieces of jaguar-skin are fastened over the foot4 ,on his shield he has the shell which is typical of him1 and in his hand a staff with a motif like that of the nose of the ,maya ,god ,b4 ,sahagun says of him3 8,his image was always in a recumbent position and covered with blankets4 ,the face of it was very ugly1 the head large and furnished with a long beard40 #add ,torquemada states that ,quetzalcoatl was a white man1 large-bodied1 broad-browed1 great-eyed1 with long black hair and a beard heavy and rounded4 #ade ,acosta says of ,quetzalcoatl's image at ,cholula3 8,they called it ,quetzallcoalt4 ,this idoll was in a great place in a temple very high4 ,it had about it gold1 silver1 jewels1 very rich feathers1 and habits of divers colours4 ,it had the forme of a man1 but the visage of a little bird with a red bill1 and above a combe full of warts1 having ranks of teeth and the tongue hanging out4 ,it carried upon the head a pointed myter of painted paper1 a sithe in the hand1 and many toyes of gold on the legs1 with a thousand other foolish inventions1 whereof all had their significations40 #adf ,elsewhere ,acosta says3 8,the greatest idoll of all their gods was called ,quezcalcovately4444 ,he never ware but one garment of cotton1 which was white1 narrow and long1 and upon that a mantle beset with certain red crosses4 ,they have certain green stones which were his1 and those they keep for relickes4 ,one of them is like an ape's head40 ,anales de ,quauhtitlan4--,in this work ,quetzalcoatl is described as wearing the turquoise snake-mask and the quetzal-feather ornament--that is1 the decorations of the ,fire-god3 8,lastly in the year one reed they say1 when he had arrived on the shore of the sea1 then he began to weep and put off the garb with which he was arrayed1 his quetzal-feather ornament1 his turquoise mask40 ,,statuary ,a statuette of the god from the ,valley of ,mexico exhibits him in a high cap1 ornamented round the lower portion with a serpentine motif1 and wearing the sliced snail-shell dress-ornament4 ,a caryatid found in the ,calle de las ,escalerillas1 ,mexico ,city1 on the #afth of ,october #aijj1 represents him with a long1 pointed beard1 which might1 however1 be interpreted as the mouth-mask of the ,wind-god lowered down to show the upper part of the face more clearly1 and it would seem from this statue that the beard with which ,quetzalcoatl is represented in some places in ,mexican art is nothing more or less than the mouth-mask pushed down over the chin and neck1 although it must be admitted that his mask is frequently depicted with what is undoubtedly a beard4 ,a relief excavated at the ,castillo de ,teayo shows ,quetzalcoatl wearing the feathered-serpent helmet-mask1 which in this representation is most elaborate1 and the sliced snail-shell dress-ornament4 ,two figures of ,quetzalcoatl found near ,texcuco exhibit considerable differentiation from other forms4 ,in both he is seated on the top of a teocalli or temple1 and behind him is seen the solar emblem1 represented as a large1 flaming disc4 ,he wears a high cap which reminds one of the crown of ,upper ,egypt1 as seen in ,egyptian representations1 except that it is flanked on either side by two large studs or knobs and is surrounded at the base by the serpent-motif1 as in the specimen from the ,valley of ,mexico4 ,he also wears his usual breast-ornament4 ,in a round sculpture found at ,puebla we perhaps see ,quetzalcoatl as a butterfly1 and can only identify this figure as the god because of the wind-mask it wears4 ,,wall-,,paintings ,in several of the wall-paintings at ,mitla1 and especially in those on the north side of ,palace ,i1 ,quetzalcoatl is depicted as wearing the insignia usually connected with him in ,mexico4 ,in one of these he wears the ,huaxtec cap with jaguar-skin markings1 having the sacrificial implements stuck in it1 and the wind-mouth mask1 with beard4 ,the snail-shell ornament adorns his shield4 ,in another the facial insignia is less easily seen1 but the large nape-fan with which he is frequently adorned is well depicted4 ,immediately behind this is a figure1 which1 though partially destroyed1 is still interesting because of its high degree of conventionality4 ,we have here the cap and panache of ,quetzalcoatl1 together with the strip running from brow to eye and from eye to jaw1 which is part of the face-painting of the ,moon-god4 ,moreover1 in the corner we have the symbol of the moon1 a pot-shaped bone1 so that here1 ,i think1 we have a symbol of ,quetzalcoatl as the ,moon-god4 ,in the preceding figure1 too1 we have also the lunar emblem1 in this place in shape like the nose-plug of the octli-gods1 but containing the stellar eye1 and flanked by balls of feather-down4 ,it would thus seem that the symbol has some reference to ,quetzalcoatl in his variant of the planet ,venus4 ,moreover the eye appears as gouged out4 ,this eye-gouging is seen in the ,maya ,books of ,chilan ,balam1 in the case of the god ,itzamn4 ,these two latter paintings1 ,seler thinks1 are symbolic of the ,uiyatao1 or the high-priests of ,mitla1 who were regarded as incarnations of ,quetzalcoatl4 #adg ,,myths ,the myths concerning ,quetzalcoatl are numerous and conflicting4 ,in the first place ,i shall provide a careful prcis of the more important1 their prolixity rendering full quotation impossible4 ,sahagun's account of ,quetzalcoatl may be summarized as follows3 ,the arts had their inception with ,quetzalcoatl4 ,his houses were made of chalchiuites1 silver1 white1 and red shells1 and rich feathers4 ,his folk were nimble and swift in passage from one place to another1 and were called tlanquacemilhiyme4 #adh ,he gave his commands to the people for a hundred leagues round by means of a crier stationed on the mountain ,tzotzitepetl4 #adi ,he had wealth in abundance1 provision in plenty1 and in his time maize was so large in the head that a man might not carry more than one stalk in his clasped arms4 ,pumpkins were in circumference as great as a man is high1 and the stalks of the wild amaranth grew like trees4 ,cotton grew in all colours--red1 scarlet1 yellow1 violet1 white1 green1 blue1 black1 grey1 orange1 and tawny4 ,in the city of ,tollan1 where ,quetzalcoatl dwelt1 were many birds of rich plumage and sweet song4 ,the servants of ,quetzalcoatl were wealthy and had abundance of all things1 and food was plentiful with them4 ,their master did penance by pricking his legs and drawing blood with the spines of the maguey and by washing at midnight in a fountain4 ,but sorcerers came against ,quetzalcoatl and his people1 the ,toltecs1 and these1 we are told1 were the gods ,tezcatlipoc1 ,uitzilopochtli1 and ,tlacuepan4 ,tezcatlipoc visited the house of ,quetzalcoatl in the guise of an old man1 but was told that he was sick1 and was at first refused entrance4 ,later1 however1 he was admitted1 ,quetzalcoatl observing that he had waited for him for many days4 ,tezcatlipoc then produced a draught of medicine which1 he assured the sick king1 would intoxicate him1 ease his heart1 and carry his thoughts away from the trials and fatigues of death and departure4 #aej ,this latter phrase roused ,quetzalcoatl to ask where he must go1 for that he had a premonition of departure seems clear4 8,to ,tollantlapallan10 replied ,tezcatlipoc1 8where another old man awaits thee4 ,he and you shall speak together1 and on thy return thou shalt be as a youth1 yea as a boy40 ,with little goodwill ,quetzalcoatl quaffed the medicine1 and having once tasted of it he drank more deeply1 so that at last he became intoxicated and maudlin4 ,that which he had drunk was the wine made from the maguey-plant1 called teoncetl 78drink of the gods074 ,and so great a longing to depart came upon him that at length he arose and went from ,tollan4 #aea ,ere departing1 ,quetzalcoatl burned his houses of shells and silver and buried many precious things in the mountains and ravines4 ,he turned the cocoa-trees into mezquites and dispatched all the birds of brilliant plumage in ,anahuac1 three hundred miles away4 ,on his journey to the coast he came to the hill ,quauhtitlan1 where he found a great tree1 under which he rested4 ,gazing into a mirror1 as he reclined under its shade1 he said1 8,i am very old10 named the place ,ueuequauhtitlan after his saying1 #aeb and stoned the tree4 ,the stones he cast at it sank into its trunk1 and were to be seen remaining there for long afterwards4 ,preceded by flute-players1 he recommenced his journey1 but once more became weary1 and rested on a stone by the wayside4 ,looking towards ,tollan1 he wept1 and his tears pitted the stone on which he sat1 and the imprints of his hands and thighs also remained thereon4 ,that place he called ,temacpalco4 ,reaching a great river1 he halted until a stone bridge was built over it1 and having crossed1 he called the place ,tepanaoya4 ,certain sorcerers now met him1 and asked him whither he was bound1 why he had left his city of ,tollan1 and who would now do penance there4 ,quetzalcoatl replied that he must go1 that he was called to ,tlapallan by the ,sun4 ,the sorcerers requested him to leave behind his knowledge of the mechanical arts1 the smelting of silver1 the working of precious stones1 and masonry1 painting1 and feather-work4 ,these he left with them perforce4 ,but his treasure of jewels he cast into the fountain of ,cozcaapan hard by4 ,another magician whom he met insisted upon his drinking a draught which he could give 8to none of the living40 ,intoxicated1 he slept1 and when he awoke1 tore his hair4 ,that place was called ,cachtoca4 ,pursuing his journey1 he passed between a mountain of snow and a volcano1 where his hump-backed and dwarfish servants perished from the excessive cold4 ,bitterly he bewailed their death in song4 ,passing on1 leaving signs of his progress on every hand1 and sliding down the mountains1 he tarried here and there1 building a tlachtli court at one place1 the markings of which were visible in deep gashes on the hills4 ,once he transfixed a tree with a dart or with another tree1 so that it resembled a cross4 ,in other localities he constructed subterranean houses 7mictlancalco71 and elsewhere balanced a great rolling-stone1 and on all these spots he conferred names4 ,at length he came to the sea-shore1 where he commanded that a raft of snakes 7coatapochtli7 should be constructed for him4 ,in this he seated himself as in a canoe1 put out to sea1 and set out for ,tlapallan4 #aec ,torquemada's account of the ,quetzalcoatl myth somewhat resembles that of ,sahagun1 due1 no doubt1 to the circumstance that he had access to the unpublished ,,ms4 of that author1 from which he borrowed in a wholesale manner4 ,the points of difference are these3 ,quetzalcoatl was high-priest of ,tollan1 whence he migrated to ,cholula4 ,the ruler of ,tollan was one ,huemac1 but ,quetzalcoatl was its chief in spiritual and ecclesiastical matters4 ,in drinking the magic potion of ,tezcatlipoc1 ,quetzalcoatl desired to render himself immortal4 ,he left the impress of his body on a stone situated on a mountain near the city of ,tlalnepantla 7or ,temacpalco71 two leagues from ,mexico1 as the natives declared to ,torquemada himself4 ,met by the sorcerers ,tezcatlipoc and the others who tried to hinder his going1 he refused to stay his progress1 and said that he must pass on to the sun-land4 ,father ,sahagun1 remarks ,torquemada1 when at ,xochimilco1 was asked by the natives1 who were keenly desirous of knowledge on the point1 where ,tlapallan was1 and replied that he did not know1 as he had then not been long among them4 ,the fountain in which ,quetzalcoatl cast his jewels was now called ,coaapan1 8in the snake-water40 ,he then passed on to ,cholula1 where he was adored as a god4 ,when he had resided there for twenty years1 he was expelled by ,tezcatlipoc4 ,setting out once more for ,tlapallan1 accompanied by four virtuous youths1 he embarked at ,coatzacoalco4 ,bidding farewell to his disciples1 he assured them that at a future time there would come by way of the sea1 where the sun rises1 certain white men with white beards1 like him1 and that these would be his brothers and would rule the land4 ,these disciples became the rulers of the four provinces of ,cholula4 ,quetzalcoatl was god of the air1 and during his life on earth was devoted to the careful observance of the older forms of worship1 but instituted many new rites1 ceremonies1 and festivals and made the calendar4 ,barren women prayed to him4 ,he swept the road1 so that the ,tlaloque might rain4 ,for a month or so before the rainy season stormy winds blew throughout ,new ,spain4 ,the ,cholulans preserved as relics green stones that had belonged to him1 on one of which was carved a monkey's head4 ,a great temple to him was founded at ,cholula4 #aed ,elsewhere ,torquemada descants on the ,quetzalcoatl myth as follows3 ,a body of men came from the north by way of ,panuco1 dressed in long robes of black linen1 cut low at the neck1 with short sleeves4 ,they came to ,tollan1 but finding the country there too thickly peopled1 passed on to ,cholula1 where they were well received4 ,their chief was ,quetzalcoatl1 a man with ruddy complexion and long beard4 ,these people multiplied and sent colonists to the ,mixtec and ,zapotec countries1 raising the great buildings at ,mitla4 ,they were cunning handicraftsmen1 not so good at masonry as at jewellers' work1 sculpture1 and agriculture4 ,tezcatlipoc and ,huemac conceived an enmity to ,quetzalcoatl1 and as he did not wish to go to war with them1 he and his folk removed to ,onohualco 7,yucatan1 ,tabasco1 and ,campeche74 #aee ,motolinia says of ,quetzalcoatl that when ,iztacmixcoatl1 the ,mexican ,adam1 married his second wife ,chimalmat1 she bore him ,quetzalcoatl1 who grew up chaste and temperate4 ,he instituted fasting and mortification1 and never married4 ,he founded the custom of drawing blood from the ears and tongue in penitence4 ,a certain ,chichemecatl fastened a leather strap to his arm1 near the shoulder1 and from that time this ,chichemecatl was known as ,acolhuatl1 and became the ancestor of the ,colhua4 ,quetzalcoatl was god of the air and many temples were raised to him4 #aef ,mendieta has much to say of ,quetzalcoatl1 but in a synopsis of his account we retain only such circumstances as have not been already alluded to3 ,many different traditions regarding ,quetzalcoatl existed1 some saying that he was the son of ,camacotli 7,camaxtli71 god of hunting and fishing1 and of his wife ,chimialuna2 others that ,chimialuna1 when sweeping one day1 found a chalchihuitl stone1 by virtue of which she became miraculously pregnant and gave birth to ,quetzalcoatl1 who came either from ,tollan or ,yucatan4 ,the people came to love him1 not only because he taught them handicrafts1 and desired no offerings but those of bread1 flowers1 and perfumes4 ,he forbade all war and disturbance4 ,pilgrims came to his shrine at ,cholula from all parts of ,mexico1 even the enemies of ,cholula1 and the lords of distant lands built them chapels and idols there4 ,among all the gods only ,quetzalcoatl was called ,lord1 and men swore by him4 ,the gods thought it well that the people should have some means of writing by which they might direct themselves1 and two of their number1 ,oxomoco and ,cipactonal1 who dwelt in a cave in ,cuernavaca1 especially considered the matter4 ,cipactonal thought that her descendant ,quetzalcoatl should be consulted1 and she called him into counsel4 ,he1 too1 thought the idea of a calendar good1 and the two addressed themselves to the task of making the tonalamatl4 ,to ,cipactonal was given the privilege of choosing and writing the first sign4 ,she painted the cipactli animal1 and called the sign ce cipactli 78one cipactli074 ,oxmoco then wrote ome acatl 78two cane071 and ,quetzalcoatl 8three house10 and so on1 until the thirteen signs were completed4 #aeg ,another form of the ,quetzalcoatl myth given by ,mendieta is in substance as follows3 ,tezcatlipoc let himself down from the upper regions by means of a spider's web1 and coming to ,tollan engaged in a game of tlachtli 7the native ball game7 with ,quetzalcoatl1 in the midst of which he transformed himself into a tiger4 ,those who watched the game were panic-stricken1 and cast themselves pell-mell into a ravine1 and were drowned in a river which flowed therein4 ,tezcatlipoc then harassed ,quetzalcoatl from city to city1 until he drove him to ,cholula1 and latterly to ,tlapallan1 where he died1 and where his followers burnt his body1 thus inaugurating the custom of burning the dead4 #aeh ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis says regarding ,quetzalcoatl3 8,quetcalcoatl they say was he who created the world2 and they bestowed upon him the appellation of ,lord of the ,wind1 because they said that ,tonacatecotli when it appeared good to him breathed and begat ,quecalcoatle4 ,they erected round temples to him without any corners4 ,they said that it was he 7who was also lord of these thirteen signs which are here represented7 who formed the first man4 ,they celebrated a festival on the sign of four earthquakes1 to the destroyer with reference to the fate which again waited the world2 for they said that it had undergone four destructions and would again be destroyed4 ,he alone had a human body like that of men2 the other gods were of an incorporeal nature4 8,after the deluge the custom of sacrificing commenced4 ,topilcin ,quetcalcoatle was born on the day of seven canes2 and they celebrated on this same day of seven canes a great festival in ,cholula1 to which they came from all parts of the country and the cities and brought great presents to the lords and papas of the temple2 and they did the same on the day on which he disappeared or died1 which was the day of ,one ,cane4 ,these festivals happened at the expiration of every period of fifty-two years4 8,they here fasted the last four days to ,quecalcoatl of ,tula1 who is he who was named after the first ,calcoatle2 and now they name him ,one ,cane1 which is the star ,venus1 of which they tell the fable accredited amongst them4 8,tlavizcalpantecutli is the star ,venus the first created light 7,civahteltona7 before the deluge4 ,they say that it was a fire or a star3 it was created before the sun4 ,this star 7,venus7 is ,quecalcoatle4 ,they say this is the star which we call ,lucifer from its light2 and they accordingly paint it with the sign of one ,cane1 which was the day dedicated to it4 ,he took this name on the occasion of his departure or disappearance4 ,tlavizcalpantecutli is the ,god of ,morning when it begins to dawn3 he is also the ,lord of ,twilight on the approach of ,night3 he presided over these thirteen days during the four last of which they fasted4 ,it properly was the first light which appeared in the world2 it here signifies the light which diffuses itself over things1 or the surface of the earth40 ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says3 8,they invented dreams1 the result of their own blindness1 relating that a god of the name of ,citallatonac1 which is the sign seen in heaven called ,st4 ,james's or the ,milky ,way1 sent an ambassador from heaven on an embassy to a virgin of ,tulan called ,chimalman 7a shield7 who had two sisters1 the one named ,tzochitlique and the other ,couatlique2 and that the three being alone in the house1 two of them1 observing the ambassador of heaven1 died of fright1 ,chimalman alone remaining alive1 to whom the ambassador announced that it was the will of this god that she should conceive a son2 and having delivered to her the message1 he rose and left the house1 and as soon as he had left it she conceived a son without connection with man1 who they called ,quetzalcoatle1 who they say is the god of air1 and his temples are round in the manner of churches1 although till that time such was not the fashion of their temples4 ,he was the inventor of temples of this form as we shall show4 ,he it was1 as they say1 who caused hurricanes and in my opinion was the god who was called ,citaladuali and it was he who destroyed the world by winds4 ,this painting is here wanting1 together with another which represented that as soon as the son of this virgin was born he possessed the use of reason4 ,the son of the virgin1 ,topilcin ,quetzalcoatle1 knowing that the vices of men were necessarily the cause of the troubles of the world1 determined on asking the goddess ,chalchiutlicue 7this was the heavenly designation of the virgin ,chimalman7 who is she who remained after the deluge with the man in the tree1 and is the mother of the god ,tlaloque1 whom they have made goddess of water1 that they might obtain rain when they stood in need of and accordingly ,quetzalcoatle commenced offering sacrifices to obtain rain1 as a period of four years had elapsed since it had rained4 8,quetzalcoatltopilzin does penance and makes offerings of prayers1 sacrifice1 gold gems1 incense1 etc41 to appease divine wrath against the people2 draws his own blood with thorns4 ,after the expiration of a long period during which he continued his penance a lizard appeared scratching the ground giving him to understand that the scourge of heaven was past and that the earth would with joy produce its fruits1 which quickly came to pass2 and accordingly they relate that on a sudden such abundance followed that the earth1 which had remained so many years barren1 bore many kinds of fruit and from that even they took four signs4 8,quetzalcoatl's example teaches men to do penance1 make offerings4 ,he founded four temples--the first for the nobles2 second1 for the people2 third1 ,house of ,fear or ,serpent2 fourth1 ,temple of ,shame4 8,of ,quetzalcoatle they relate that1 proceeding on his journey1 he arrived at the ,red ,sea1 which is here painted1 and which they named ,tlapallan2 and that entering into it1 they saw no more of him1 nor knew what became of him1 except that they say that he desired them at the time of his departure to restrain their grief and to expect his return1 which would take place at the appointed time2 and accordingly they expect him even to the present time3 and when the ,spaniards came to this country they believed that it was he1 and when at a later period of #aeej when the apotecas revolted1 they alleged1 as the cause of their insurrection1 the report that their god who had to redeem them had already come4 ,quetzalcoatle was born on the sign ,one ,cane2 and the year of the ,spaniards' arrival commenced on the sign ,one ,cane1 according to their ancient ,computation3 whence the occasion arose of their believing that the ,spaniards were their gods2 because they say that he had foretold that a bearded nation would arrive in those countries who would subject them4 ,they adored him as a god1 as will be seen3 for they believed it certain that he had ascended into heaven and was that star which was visible at the north of the sun before the break of day1 which is the planet ,venus2 and they represented him accordingly as has already been shown4 8,quetzalcoatle was the first inventor of sacrifices of human blood1 amongst the various other things which they offered to the gods2 and this was the manner in which they pierced their tongues1 that the blood might flow 444 and their ears and penis2 till at last1 as we shall presently mention1 the custom of human sacrifices was introduced1 when they tore out the hearts of the victims to present them to the face of the idol which they considered the image of their wretched god4 8,they declare that their supreme deity ,tonacatecotle1 whom we have just mentioned1 who by another name was called ,citinatonali1 when it appeared good to him1 breathed and begot ,quetzalcoatle1 not by connection with woman1 but by his breath alone1 as we have observed above1 when he sent his ambassador1 as they say1 to the virgin of ,tula4 ,they believed him to be the god of the air and he was the first to whom they built temples and churches1 which they formed perfectly round without any angles4 ,they say that it was he who effected the reformation of the world by penance1 since as1 according to his account1 his father had created the world and men had given themselves up to vice1 on which account it had been frequently destroyed1 ,citinatonali sent his son into the world to reform it4444 ,they assigned to him the dominion over the other thirteen signs1 which are here represented1 in the same manner in which they assigned the preceding thirteen to his father4 ,they celebrated a great festival on this sign1 as we shall see on the sign of four earthquakes1 which is the fourth in order here1 because they feared that the world would be destroyed in that sign1 as he had foretold to them when he disappeared in the ,red ,sea1 which event occurred on the same sign4 ,as they considered him their advocate1 they celebrated a solemn festival and fasted during four signs40 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan or ,codex ,chimalpopoc states that ,quetzalcoatl was born in no natural manner1 but was a nine years' child4 ,he created the four classes of men3 the men of the four 8suns0 or periods of the world were made by him on the day chicome ehecatl1 or 8seven wind40 ,the record proceeds to relate the circumstances of his rule at ,tollan1 the manner in which he discovered the value of precious stones1 gold and silver1 red and white shells1 quetzal feathers1 the cotinga and red sparrowbill feathers1 the various species of cocoa and cotton4 ,when he had drunk the octli offered him by ,tezcatlipoc1 he forgot his chastity in the intoxication and indulged in intercourse with ,quetzalpetlatl1 for which sin he was forced to quit ,mexico4 ,when he was driven from ,tollan in the year one reed1 he arrived on the sea-shore1 wept1 and divested himself of his garb and turquoise snake-mask4 ,then he immolated himself by burning1 his ashes became dust and changed into birds and his heart was converted into the morning star4 ,lastly1 it is said of him that when he died he was not visible for four days1 during which period he tarried in the ,underworld4 ,for a subsequent four days 8he was bones40 8,after eight days appeared the great star which they called ,quetzalcoatl4 ,they said that he thus mounted the throne as a god40 ,in its second or historical portion the codex states that ,quetzalcoatl discovered maize which was concealed in the mountain ,tonacatepetl4 ,many of the gods searched for it1 but ,quetzalcoatl1 taking the form of a black ant1 was guided to the spot by a red ant4 ,as he was unable to lift the mountain1 it was split open by the magical prowess of ,xolotl in his manifestation of ,nanahuatl1 and the maize became the spoil of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,but it was stolen from him by ,tlaloc1 the rain-god proper1 perhaps an allegorical manner of alluding to the more direct influence of that deity upon growth4 ,other myths relating to ,quetzalcoatl1 chiefly as a creative agency1 will be found in the prcis of the opening chapters of the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 in the chapter on ,cosmogony4 ,in ,codex ,borgia we find a passage 7sheets #ce-df7 which appears to refer to the progress of ,quetzalcoatl and ,tezcatlipoc through the infernal regions1 and which might be described as the ,mexican 8,harrying of ,hell40 ,on this passage ,seler has briefly commented 7see his ,commentary on ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #aai74 ,,central ,,american ,,myths ,,relating ,,to ,,quetzalcoatl ,quetzalcoatl is1 perhaps1 singular among the deities of ,mexico in that a number of well-authenticated ,central ,american myths cluster around his name in its forms of ,kukulcan1 ,gucumatz1 and ,votan4 ,certain of these must be considered here1 for purposes of comparison and analogy4 ,nuez de la ,vega3 ,a book in the ,quiche tongue1 said to have been written by ,votan1 a local name for ,quetzalcoatl1 was at one time in the possession of ,nuez de la ,vega1 ,bishop of ,chiapas1 who included portions of it in his ,constituciones ,diocesianos de ,chiapas1 but nevertheless destroyed it in his holocaust of ,,mss4 at ,heuheutlan in #afia4 ,ordoez de ,aguilar had1 however1 made a copy of it before its destruction1 and incorporated it in his ,historia de ,cielo ,,ms4 ,in this work ,votan declared himself 8a snake10 a descendant of ,imos1 of the line of ,chan #aei of the race of ,chivim4 ,taking ,aguilar's account along with that of ,nuez de la ,vega1 as both rely upon the same authority1 we find that ,votan proceeded to ,america by divine command1 his mission being to lay the foundation of civilization4 ,with this object in view he departed from ,valum ,chivim1 #afj passing the dwelling of the thirteen snakes1 and arrived in ,valum ,votan1 whence1 with some members of his family1 he set out to form a settlement1 ascending the ,usumacinta ,river and ultimately founding ,palenque4 ,by reason of their peculiar dress the ,tzendal ,indians called them ,tzequitles1 or 8men with shirts10 but consented to amalgamate with them4 ,ordoez states that when ,votan had established himself at ,palenque he made several visits to his original home4 ,on one of these he came to a tower which had been intended to reach the heavens1 a project which had been brought to naught by the linguistic confusion of those who conceived it4 ,finally he was permitted to reach 8the rock of heaven0 by a subterranean passage4 ,returning to ,palenque1 he found that others of his race had arrived there1 and with them he made a friendly pact4 ,he built a temple by the ,heuheutan ,river1 known1 from its subterranean chambers1 as 8the ,house of ,darkness10 and here he deposited the national records under the charge of certain old men called tlapianes1 or guardians1 and an order of priestesses4 ,here also were kept a number of tapirs4 ,a quotation of the passage dealing with this temple may be made from ,nuez de la ,vega3 8,votan is the third heathen in the calendar 7that is the deity who is ascribed to the third division of the calendar71 and in the little history written in the ,indian language all the provinces and cities in which he tarried were mentioned2 and to this day there is always a clan in the city of ,teopisa that they call the ,votans4 ,it is also said that he is the lord of the hollow wooden instrument which they call tepanaguaste 7that is1 the ,mexican teponaztli72 that he saw the great wall1 namely1 the tower of ,babel1 which was built from earth to heaven at the bidding of his grandfather1 ,noah2 and that he was the first man whom ,god sent to divide and apportion this country of ,india1 and that there1 where he saw the great wall1 he gave to every nation its special language4 ,it is related that he tarried in ,huehueta 7which is a city in ,soconusco71 and that there he placed a tapir and a great treasure in a slippery 7damp1 dark1 subterranean7 house1 which he built by the breath of his nostrils1 and he appointed a woman as chieftain1 with tapianes 7that is1 ,mexican tlapiani1 8keepers07 to guard her4 ,this treasure consisted of jars1 which were closed with covers of the same clay1 and of a room in which the picture of the ancient heathens who are in the calendar were engraved in stone1 together with chalchiuites 7which are small1 heavy1 green stones7 and other superstitious images2 and the chieftainess herself and the tapianes1 her guardians1 surrendered all these things1 which were publicly burned in the market place of ,huehueta when we inspected the aforesaid province in #afia4 ,all the ,indians greatly revere this ,votan1 and in a certain province they call him #8heart of the cities' 7,corazon de los pueblos740 ,in his ninth ,pastoral ,letter ,nuez says of ,quetzalcoatl3 8,in most of the ,calendars1 the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake1 which they call ,cuchulchan4 ,the masters have explained it as a snake with feathers which moves in the water4 ,this sign corresponds with ,mexzichaut 7,mixcoatl71 which means ,cloudy ,serpent1 or1 of the clouds4 ,the people also consult them in order to work injury on their enemies1 taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices1 and committing unspeakable atrocities40 ,the ,popol ,vuh4--,the myths relating to ,quetzalcoatl under his name of ,gucumatz in the ,popol ,vuh1 the sacred book of the ,quiche of ,guatemala1 are difficult to summarize4 ,in the first chapter he is alluded to as 8the serpent covered with feathers1 the heart of the lakes1 the heart of the sea1 master of the sky1 master of the blue expanse10 and is connected with the creative gods4 ,along with ,hurakan 7,tezcatlipoc7 he creates the world by uttering the word 8earth40 ,the creation of man having been considered1 the wherewithal for his sustenance is debated4 ,gucumatz1 who is sometimes alluded to in the plural1 like the ,hebrew ,elohim1 succeeds in discovering maize in ,paxil by the aid of the fox1 jackal1 parrot1 and crow1 and obtains the seeds of other alimentary plants 7pt4 iii1 c4 i47 ,gucumatz then created man by a 8miracle0 7c4 ii74 ,in c4 v1 pt4 iii1 ,quetzalcoatl is alluded to as ,tohil1 a parallel for which we have justification in ver4 #ai of c4 x1 where in the song called ,kamucu 78,we see07 the first men sing3 8,truly ,tohil is the name of the god of the ,zaqui nation1 which was called ,yolcuat-quetzalcuat when we separated in the place ,tolan in ,zuiva40 ,but the myths relating to this deity are obviously tribal and local1 and ,i am of opinion that they refer to some tribal deity who possessed some of the characteristics of ,quetzalcoatl and who was identified with him by the ,quiches in rather an arbitrary fashion4 #afa ,,festivals ,atlacahualco4--,the festival of ,atlacahualco or ,quaitl ,eloa was1 says ,sahagun1 sacred to ,quetzalcoatl1 as well as to the ,tlaloque4 ,for an account of it see the section which deals with ,tlaloc4 ,ce ,acatl4--,says ,sahagun3 8,on the first day of the sign ce acatl the great folk made a feast to ,quetzalcoatl1 the god of winds4 ,this was celebrated in the calmecac1 and here they offered rich gifts to his idol1 perfumes and things to eat4 ,they said it was the sign of ,quetzalcoatl40 ,,priesthood ,the order of priests devoted to the service of ,quetzalcoatl #afb was called ,tlamacazcayotl1 and its members ,tlamacazque4 ,of these ,clavigero1 who was well informed regarding the ,mexican priesthood1 says3 8,amongst the different orders or congregation1 both of men and women1 who dedicated themselves to the worship of some particular gods1 that of ,quetzalcoatl is worthy to be mentioned4 ,the life led in the colleges or monasteries of either sex1 which were devoted to this imaginary god1 was uncommonly rigid and austere4 ,the dress of the order was extremely decent2 they bathed regularly at midnight1 and watched until about two hours before day1 singing hymns to their god1 and observing many rules of an austere life4 ,they were at liberty to go to the mountains at any hour of the day or night1 to spill their blood2 this was permitted them from a respect to the virtue which they were all thought to possess4 ,the superiors of the monasteries bore also the name of ,quetzalcoatl1 and were persons of such high authority1 that they visited but the king when it was necessary4 ,the members of this religious order were destined to it from their infancy4 ,the parents of the child invited the superior to an entertainment1 who usually deputed one of his subjects4 ,the deputy brought the child to him1 upon which he took the boy in his arms and offered him with a prayer to ,quetzalcoatl1 and put a collar about his neck1 which was to be worn until he was seven years old4 ,when the boy completed his second year1 the superior made a small incision in his breast1 which1 like the collar1 was another mark of his destination4 ,as soon as the boy attained his seventh year he entered into the monastery1 having first heard a long discourse from his parents1 in which they advertised him of the vow which they had made to ,quetzalcoatl1 and exhorted him to fulfil it1 to behave well1 to submit himself to his prelate1 and to pray to the gods for his parents and the whole nation40 ,the high-priest of ,quetzalcoatl was stationed at ,cholula and was1 perhaps1 the most venerated ecclesiastic in ,mexico4 ,,temples ,the principal temple of the cult of ,quetzalcoatl in ,mexico was the well-known teocalli at ,cholula4 ,he had also a shrine in the great temple court at ,mexico1 built in circular form1 and thus typical of the ,wind-god4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the latest of the myths concerning ,quetzalcoatl are obviously those which regard him as a culture-hero who enters the country as an alien1 and1 his beneficent work performed1 withdraws to the place whence he came1 under pressure of malignant opposition4 ,had the basic outline of his myth been more carefully examined1 fewer unsatisfactory hypotheses concerning ,quetzalcoatl's nature might have been ventured upon4 ,the ,mexicans themselves recognized ,quetzalcoatl as a wind-god1 but ,dr4 ,seler has not seen fit to accept their assurance upon this point in toto1 and at various times has advanced the hypotheses that ,quetzalcoatl represents the wind1 the planet ,venus1 or the moon1 latterly confining his personality almost entirely to the lamp of night4 #afc ,in my view the physical phenomena which occur in connection with the courses of the winds typical of the ,mexican plateau provide by far the most simple and natural explanation of the nature of the god ,quetzalcoatl4 ,from ,april or ,may to the beginning of ,october the trade-wind blows from the east coast over the ,plateau of ,anahuac1 bringing with it abundance of rain1 and accelerating vegetable growth1 thus actually 8sweeping the ways for the rain-gods40 ,its advance is comparatively slow1 the rains beginning three or four weeks earlier in ,vera ,cruz than in ,puebla and ,mexico4 ,at the beginning of ,october1 however1 it is invariably modified by the local monsoon1 which interrupts it over wide areas1 or in certain districts invades it in violent cyclonic storms1 dissipating its energies and altering its course4 ,quetzalcoatl represents the gentle trade-wind1 which ushers in the growth-making rains4 ,his reign of peace1 plenty1 and fertility over1 he comes into opposition with ,tezcatlipoc1 who represents the monsoon and who chases his rival 8from city to city10 ravening at him like a tiger1 says ,mendieta1 and at last hustling him out of the country4 ,that ,tezcatlipoc is also a god of wind is certain1 as is proved by one of his names1 ,yoalli ,ehecatl1 8,wind of ,night10 and that he is the monsoon or hurricane is proved beyond all doubt by the circumstance that he is said to have rushed along the highways at night at extraordinary speed1 and that ,hurakan1 his ,quiche name1 is still employed for the very wind he represented1 and has become a generic name for a tempestuous wind in practically all ,european languages1 which have without question adopted it from the ,american word4 #afd ,if this simple elucidation of the original myth be accepted1 it will be seen how naturally its later modifications arise out of it or adapt themselves to it4 ,but before we examine the manner in which they crystallized around it1 it becomes necessary to disentangle from the whole mass that portion of it which alludes to the advent of a civilizing agency upon the ,mexican plateau4 ,this speaks of the advance of a body of men from the neighbourhood of ,vera ,cruz to the ,mexican plateau1 and precisely in the direction whence the trade-wind comes--that is1 from the east1 the direction of the land of the ,huaxtecs1 a people of proto-,maya stock4 ,quetzalcoatl is dressed in ,huaxtec garb1 and wears the truncated sugar-loaf hat and shell-ornaments of this people4 ,this may signify nothing more than that he was so attired because he represented a wind which blew from the direction of the land of the ,huaxtecs4 ,yet1 it is certain that several of the deities adopted by the ,mexicans had undoubtedly a ,huaxtec origin1 and this is markedly the case with ,tlazoltcotl4 ,there seems to be some ground1 then1 for the hypothesis that ,quetzalcoatl was a god of ,huaxtec origin4 ,but the acceptance of such a theory will entail the acknowledgment of certain hypotheses which are among the most controverted questions in ,mexican archology4 ,in the first place1 it makes ,quetzalcoatl the deity of a people of ,maya stock1 and secondly it would seem to imply a ,huaxtec or ,maya origin for the much-debated ,toltec culture4 ,a discussion of these points must begin with the question1 8,has the myth of ,quetzalcoatl's civilizing mission to the ,mexican plateau any historical justification80 ,regarding the reality of the civilization known as ,toltec there is now no question1 although ,i fully admit that it took me a long time to realize this1 thanks principally to my acceptance of ,brinton's well-known theory on the subject1 to which ,i attached far too much weight4 ,but admitting ,toltec reality1 what proof do we possess that such a civilizing agency as that of ,quetzalcoatl gave an impetus to the 8prehistoric0 culture of ,tollan8 ,but little--that is if we are to regard ,quetzalcoatl as a man4 ,but in his guise as the gentle trade-wind that ushers in the rains1 we have every reason to see in him the founder of the ,toltec civilization4 ,such a culture as the ,toltec must undoubtedly have had its origin in agricultural efficiency4 ,only through agricultural efficiency can the corve system arise and extensive building become possible4 ,the god whose bountiful patronage of growth assisted the arts in this manner seems in time to have been #8humanized4' #afe ,legends of his civilizing prowess clustered around his supposititious memory1 he was thought to have been a culture-hero who actually moved and had his being among the people4 ,kings or rulers were called by his name--a lucky name of happy associations--and the illusion that he actually existed was thereby heightened4 ,these rulers seem to have flourished in ,mexico ere yet the offices of king and priest had become separate1 so that it is not surprising that ,quetzalcoatl was regarded as having been the priest of his own cult1 or that the ,mexican pontiffs of historical times bore his name4 ,from this point of view1 then1 ,quetzalcoatl was certainly the 8founder0 of the ,toltec civilization4 ,if this theory be accepted1 ,i do not see how the myth of ,quetzalcoatl can be regarded as having any basis in actual fact1 unless one can find in the rather vague statements of certain early writers on ,mexico a further basis for discussion as to his reality4 ,to me the meaning of the myth seems very plain4 ,it may be that ,huaxtec influence was brought to bear upon ,toltec civilization1 but my hypothesis does not seem to me to require assistance from such an admission4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,elements ,,of ,,quetzalcoatl',s ,,myth ,in short1 the myth of ,quetzalcoatl as recorded by ,sahagun is obviously developed from a much older one which referred to a season of plenteous rain--the period of the rule of the gentle and beneficent god representing the trade-wind4 ,as it was connected with prosperous conditions in agriculture1 it was naturally brought into connection with the ,toltec time1 the 8good old times of long ago10 when conditions were greatly better1 and no mouth knew want4 ,such a concept was obviously of later origin4 ,the revised myth took on a cultural complexion4 ,in terms of allegory1 it tells how the powers of the rain-making priest-god fail him2 he becomes sick1 and is beguiled and defeated by ,tezcatlipoc1 the rival wind-god1 who tells him that 8another old man0 awaits him in ,tlapallan4 ,and here we seem to find interpolated a reference to the guardian genius of the fountain of perpetual youth1 the reservoir of rain and all refreshment1 which ,quetzalcoatl must visit if he would be cured of the ills of old age1 and he is counselled to speak with its keeper if he would return to ,mexico 8as a boy40 ,the destruction of his treasure by the banished god seems to point to a reminiscence of the downfall of the ,toltec state1 and the concealment of his gold and gems by burial to analogous ,toltec practice on the defeat or decline of that civilized folk4 ,with his departure the reign of plenty ceases1 the trees wither1 the birds migrate1 the season of the trade-wind rains has come to an end4 ,history and myth are perhaps combined in this story of the latter days of the ,toltec rgime and those of the revivifying rains4 ,the priest-god withdraws eastwards to the 8flute-playing0 of the retreating trade-winds4 ,nahua sorcerers detain him in order to learn the ,toltec arts1 perhaps a mythical manner of showing how the ,nahua barbarians forced captive ,toltecs to teach them the mysteries of stone- and metal-craft4 ,he is given the draught of the dead1 8that none of the living can drink10 a mythical episode common in all parts of the world4 ,his dwarfish followers 7the rain-gods1 the ,tlaloque1 with whom ,sahagun associates him elsewhere7 are frozen to death in the cold of the mountains1 otherwise the rain is congealed into snow4 ,torquemada's version of ,quetzalcoatl's myth is eloquent of the pre-eminence of his cult at ,cholula4 ,the priest-god's prophecy of his return bears an extraordinary resemblance to that given in the ,books of ,chilan ,balam1 a ,guatemalan native production1 regarding the coming of white men to ,central ,america4 #aff ,motolinia's story of the fixing of the strap on ,quetzalcoatl's arm is merely a grotesque explanation of the name ,acolhua1 which in reality signifies 8the folk of the great shoulder10 8the pushers10 8the hustling invaders40 ,mendieta1 in dwelling upon ,quetzalcoatl's dislike of war1 merely retains for us a characteristic of the effeminate people of ,cholula4 ,the appearance of ,tezcatlipoc as a spider is typical of the god of the dry season1 or of the dry-rot prevalent in that period of the year4 ,as a tiger he symbolizes the fierceness of the hurricane1 and the tlachtli game which he and ,quetzalcoatl engage in is undoubtedly symbolic of the seasonal strife between the wind-gods4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,quetzalcoatl ,summarizing the myths relating to ,quetzalcoatl we find3 7#a7 ,that all of them have their origin in or refer back to an original nature-myth1 in which ,quetzalcoatl1 the trade-wind1 is1 at the end of the rainy season1 regarded as driven from the ,mexican ,plateau by ,tezcatlipoc 7,hurakan7 in his guise of the monsoon1 or hurricane4 7#b7 ,that this myth in the first place became confounded with traditions of the ,toltec civilization1 naturally enough1 as that civilization was the direct outcome of the agricultural wealth stimulated by the god representing the trade-wind4 7#c7 ,that it seems to have been associated with a myth relating to the fountain of youth1 that is1 the fountain in which the refreshing and revivifying rains were stored1 to which ,quetzalcoatl must return for rejuvenation and a fresh rain-supply4 7#d7 ,that the conception of the god ,quetzalcoatl became humanized in the light of the agricultural and other manifestations of ,toltec culture1 thus bringing about the idea of his existence as a priest-king1 and culminating in the establishment of a line of priestly rulers bearing his name1 which endured as long as ,mexican civilization4 7#e7 ,out of these conceptions there naturally arose other related ideas1 as those of3 7a7 ,quetzalcoatl as inventor of the tonalamatl1 the instrument by which the festal days of the rain-cult were originally noted1 but which on the adoption of the solar calendar as time-count degenerated into what may be regarded as an astrological table4 7b7 ,the lunar basis upon which the tonalamatl was founded connected ,quetzalcoatl with the moon4 #afg 7c7 ,regarded as inventor of the tonalamatl1 he gained a reputation as the possessor of profound hieratic wisdom1 and came to be looked upon as the magician or sage par excellence1 the patron of education1 the rain-maker who knew precisely when the blood shed in penance should be spent in order that it might return to the soil of ,anahuac in an abundant rainfall4 7d7 ,quetzalcoatl as the god of wind was also regarded as the breath of life1 a phenomenon encountered in many mythologies1 and therefore came to be conceived as the agency by which souls were originally placed in human bodies4 ,from this1 too1 we may argue his appearance as a creator1 or cosmic deity1 although it may have been in his character as fertilizer that he came to be regarded in this light4 7e7 ,quetzalcoatl is the great penitent1 the supreme protagonist of the penitential system1 because without the blood spent in penitential exercise no rain might fall4 ,the secondary character of this conception is probable4 7f7 ,quetzalcoatl seems at a later date to have been regarded as the god of the four quarters of the compass1 a conception of him indubitably evolved from his status as a wind-god4 ,i think ,i also perceive signs that from this latter idea was further evolved a conception of him as god of the four elements--fire1 air1 earth1 and water4 ,he is the fire and the flint1 because of the lightning which in ,mexico accompanies the fall of the trade-wind rain4 ,he is the air in his rle of ,wind-god1 and as such is symbolized by the bird1 the natural inhabitant of the air1 the beak of which he uses as a funnel from which to expel the wind4 ,he is earth1 and1 his myth says1 a builder of subterranean houses1 and sometimes bears the earth-staff of agriculture4 #afh ,he is water1 or rain1 in which guise he is typified by the feathered snake4 ,this conception of him1 evidently strongly sophisticated by priestly theological science1 is illustrated in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano1 where he is represented on one sheet along with ,tezcatlipoc1 ,tlaloc1 and ,uitzilopochtli4 ,this group1 in my opinion1 represents the four elements3 ,fire 7,uitzilopochtli71 as possessor of the tlachinalli symbol1 a hieroglyph for water and fire1 and as sun-god2 ,air 7,quetzalcoatl72 ,earth 7,tezcatlipoc71 who as ,tepeyollotl was an earth-deity2 and ,water 7,tlaloc74 ,the picture may also be descriptive of the four points of the compass over which he rules4 ,but above and beyond this1 as ,seler has shown1 it implies that these deities were later embodied in the idea of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,when ,cortz1 coming from the ,east1 landed at ,vera ,cruz1 the ,mexicans naturally believed that ,quetzalcoatl had returned1 and ,motecuhzoma sent him as an offering 8the dress appropriate to him10 four kinds of attire1 the ceremonial costumes of ,uitzilopochtli1 ,tezcatlipoc1 ,tlaloc1 and ,quetzalcoatl4 ,,etymology ,there but remains the etymology of ,quetzalcoatl's name4 ,it is compounded of the element quetzalli and coatl4 ,the first denotes the bright green tail-feathers of the quetzal bird1 and coatl 8snake10 so that the whole implies 8feathered snake40 ,the generally accepted belief is that this name applies to the rain-bearing clouds which accompany the trade-wind1 although others have seen in it a description of the rain itself1 and still others the ripples made by wind on water4 ,but quetzal in a secondary sense means 8precious10 and coatl is capable of being translated 8twin40 ,the ,mexicans themselves1 however1 frequently drew and sculptured the god as a feathered serpent1 although this may easily have possessed a merely pictographic significance4 ,in any case1 after prolonged consideration on the etymology of the name1 ,i do not1 so far1 see any reason to quarrel with the currently accepted rendering of it4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,creative ,,deities ,,tonacatecutli--,,tonacaciuatl 7,,tonacatecutli 8,,lord ,,of ,,our ,,subsistence07 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico2 originally ,atlantic coastlands1 the ,olmeca lands and ,tlaxcallan4 ,anciently ,toltec4 ,minor ,names3 ,ometecutli 8,twofold lord40 ,tlachinale 8,lord of ,creation40 ,tlatecque 8,lord of the ,earthly ,world40 ,teotlale 8,lord of the ,steppe40 ,matlaua 8,lord of the ,net40 ,topeua 8,lord of the ,mountains40 ,tloque ,nahuaque 8,lord of the ,close ,vicinity40 ,relationship3 ,father of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,calendar ,places3 ,ruler of the first day1 ce cipactli1 of the first week and of the fourth day-hour4 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,symbol3 ,the human pair beneath the coverlet4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,a4--,in the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a ,tonacatecutli's body-paint is red and pink4 ,his headdress is bound by a fillet richly encrusted with turquoises1 having in front the conventional bird's head which is so frequently encountered in representations of the ,mexican gods in the codices4 ,he wears the nasal ornament of serpentine shape peculiar to the octli- or drink-gods1 as to some of the deities of fertility1 and his fruitful or life-giving nature is symbolized by a foot-stool composed of maize ears4 ,codex ,borgia4--,in the ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #fa1 lower half7 the lower portion of his face is painted red1 but its upper part1 as well as the rest of his body which is visible1 is coloured yellow4 ,on the cheek is seen a rectangular surface divided into compartments1 each of which is tinted a different colour1 the distinctive painting of the maize-gods1 which1 it is believed1 symbolizes the maize-field with its many hues4 ,a 8gobber0 tooth hangs from his mouth as a sign of great age1 for as creator he was regarded as one of the most venerable among the gods4 ,around his forehead is a head-band enriched with precious stones1 which recalls that frequently worn by the ,sun-god4 ,his necklet consists of a casket of jewels1 with lid and feet1 on which is represented the symbol of the chalchihuitl jewel4 #afi ,on sheet #fj ,tonacaciuatl1 the female form of this deity1 is depicted in the act of handing ,tonacatecutli a flower1 symbolic of life or blood4 ,above this figure is the picture of a red snake1 also symbolizing blood4 ,the god wears a jaguar-skin and the goddess an eagle's1 thus illustrating their patronage of the military orders who wore those dresses4 7,for similar readings1 see ,codex ,laud1 #cd-e ,k74 ,in sheet #eg 7lower right-hand corner7 he is represented as wearing a beard of black eagle-feathers4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b 7sheet #hg7 ,tonacatecutli is represented with ,quetzalcoatl's head and neck ornaments1 combined with the jewelled fillet and bird's head on forehead4 ,he wears a long beard reaching to the feet4 ,,tonacaciuatl 8,,lady ,,of ,,our ,,subsistence0 ,minor ,names3 ,omeciuatl 8,twofold ,lady40 ,citlalinicue 8,starry ,skirt40 ,calendar ,place3 ,same as that of ,tonacatecutli4 ,compass ,direction3 ,same as that of ,tonacatecutli4 ,symbol3 ,same as that of ,tonacatecutli4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,general4--,in ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer 7sheet #aj7 the drawn-in angle of the mouth and the female figure point to the inference that here is depicted ,tonacaciuatl1 who is identified by the interpreters with ,xochiquetzal4 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis and ,codex ,vaticanus ,a we find her standing in front of the male creative god ,tonacatecutli4 ,in the latter ,,ms4 the first interpreter calls her ,tonagacigua1 and the third ,xochiquetzal1 ,oxomoco1 and ,chicomecohuatl4 ,the picture shown under the nineteenth week of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis pictures her with precisely the same dress and emblems as ,xochiquetzal 7q4v474 ,,myths ,these deities were identified by the ,mexicans with the ,creator1 the ,tloque ,nahuaque1 of whom almost every one of the post-,conquest ,spanish writers speaks4 ,indeed the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis expressly identifies them with the creative force4 ,the passage runs3 8,all those epithets 7,god1 ,lord1 ,creator7 they bestowed on their god ,tonacatecutli1 who1 according to their account1 was the god who created the world2 and they painted him alone with a crown as lord of all4 ,they never offered sacrifices to this god1 for they said that he did not regard them40 ,of the female deity the ,codex ,vaticanus says3 8,tonacacigua was the wife of ,tonacatecutle2 for1 as we have observed1 although their gods were not1 as they affirm1 united together for matrimonial purposes1 still they assigned to each a goddess as a companion4 ,they called her by another name1 ,suchiquetzal and ,chicomecoual1 which means ,seven ,serpents1 for they say that she was the cause of sterility1 famine1 and all the miseries of life40 #agj ,in further descriptive passages concerning ,tonacatecutli the same ,codex says3 8,this is the representation of ,tonacatecotle1 which name signifies the ,lord of our ,bodies2 others say that it means the ,first ,man1 or perhaps it means that the first man was so called40 8,these are the figures which have been mentioned2 and the first is that of their greatest god ,tonacatecotle4 ,it represented the first god under whom they affirm was the dominion of the world2 who1 when it appeared good to him1 breathed and divided the waters of the heavens and the earth1 which at first were all confused together1 and disposed of them as they now are2 and accordingly they called him ,lord of our ,bodies2 and also of abundance1 who bestowed everything upon them2 and on this account they paint him alone with a crown4 ,they called him besides ,seven ,flowers1 for they say that he disposes of the principalities of the earth4 ,he had no temple1 nor did they offer sacrifices to him1 for they say that he did not require them1 as if on account of his superior majesty4444 ,they say that ,tonacatecotle presided over the thirteen signs which are here marked 7the day-signs of the tonalamatl1 q4v474 ,those above denote the thirteen causes or influences of the sky which are under subjection to him1 and the others below are the thirteen signs of their superstition and sorcery4 ,this man and woman represent the first pair who existed in the world2 their names are ,huehue 7very old ones74 ,between them is placed a knife or razor and an arrow above each of their heads1 typifying death1 as in them death originated40 8,they called this god ,tonacatecotli and by another name ,citallatonalli #aga2 and they said that he was the constellation which appears by night in the sky1 ,st4 ,james's or the ,milky ,way4 ,they paint these figures and all the others which follow1 each of them in its own manner2 because as they considered them their deities1 each had its peculiar festival4 ,it was necessary to wear in these festivals the habit of the god40 ,the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas regards these deities as appearing at the commencement of creation1 but says nothing of their relations to the precise creative act4 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan says of them3 ,and they say that in the inner heaven he ,quetzalcoatl dedicated a cult and called on them3 her with the star-studded robe1 together with the astral ,sun-god4 the mistress of our flesh1 the lord of our flesh1 who is clothed in charcoal1 clothed in blood1 who giveth food to the earth2 and he cried aloft --as they 7the old people7 were informed-- to the ,omeyocan1 to the heaven lying above the nine that are bound together4 ,and--as they learnt-- those having their abode there1 those he called upon1 those he worshipped4 7,see also chapter on ,cosmogony for further mythical material relating to these deities47 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,in examining the characteristics of these deities we find3 7#a7 ,that they were among the oldest of the ,mexican divinities4 ,tonacatecutli is called1 among other names1 8,lord of the ,steppe10 #agb which does not necessarily indicate that he was a deity of the ,chichimec or hunting tribes1 who from generation to generation raided the ,mexican valley1 but may apply to his stellar or heavenly significance4 ,reference is also made in the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan to the circumstance that he and his female counterpart were gods of the ancient ,toltecs1 and that their cult was founded by ,quetzalcoatl1 the typical ,toltec priest-king4 7#b7 ,that these gods were regarded by the ,mexican priesthood in more modern times at least1 as abstractions1 ideal beings who arose out of philosophic speculation4 ,that they had become rather neglected in the popular ,mexican faith is clear from the circumstance that they had no temples and that no offerings were made them4 ,tonacatecutli represented1 indeed1 that great invisible and intangible figure which at all times and in all religions has loomed behind most pantheons--the great god behind the gods--the principle of causality1 that first cause beyond which the speculations of theology cannot proceed4 7#c7 ,they presided over the food supply4 ,although other deities occupied the positions of maize and vegetable gods1 the creative deities were in the ultimate the great givers of all food4 ,thus they were designated 8,lords of ,food ,supplies0 and 8,lords of ,superabundance40 7#d7 ,they must be regarded as the direct creators of the spirit of man4 ,to the ,mexican man flesh was merely maize in another form4 ,but apart from this conception the pair typified the first human couple1 and as such they are represented in all the ,,mss4 lying side by side and cross-legged under a blanket1 in the attitude of procreation4 ,they are1 indeed1 the great initiators of life1 and must be comprehended as sending the human soul to occupy the body made by human procreation1 giving warmth and breath to the infant before birth4 #agc 7#e7 ,they commence the series of twenty day-signs1 and this alone symbolizes their creative and original nature4 7#f7 ,they represent the sign cipactli1 the animal from which the earth was made4 7#g7 ,they are gods of the ,omeyocan1 the highest or thirteenth heaven1 which fact further illustrates their supreme character4 ,,conclusions ,from these facts we may be justified in concluding3 7#a7 ,that in the most early times ,tonacatecutli and his consort typified the father-sky and mother-earth respectively1 but that this aspect of them had been forgotten and they came to have a purely abstract creative significance for both priests and people4 ,that ,tonacaciuatl originally represented the earth there is no doubt1 and her identification with ,xochiquetzal and ,chicomecoatl alone would show this to be so4 ,again1 the association with the sign cipactli proves the connection of one of the divine pair with the earth1 and from what has been said regarding this sign in the introduction1 and by the constant association of goddesses in the ,mexican mind with the terrestrial sphere1 it is plain that ,tonacatecutli1 her male counterpart1 is not likely to have represented it in early times4 ,the suggestion that he symbolizes the sky is perhaps assisted by the nature of his abode1 the uppermost heaven1 and from his close identification with ,citlallatonac1 the god of the night heaven1 who was supposed to represent the ,milky ,way4 7#b7 ,that in later times the early concepts of these divinities became fused almost into one1 and that in some measure they had come to be regarded as androgynous4 ,this view may be traversed by the circumstance that they are frequently represented separately1 but on the other hand their names appear as one in the form ,tonacatecutli-,tonacaciuatl in many passages4 ,the same may be posited of their counterparts in the ,quiche ,popol ,vuh1 ,xpiyacoc and ,xmucane4 #agd ,tonacatecutli and his spouse are to be regarded as the parents of ,quetzalcoatl1 but this is probably a theogonic myth of late origin1 brought about by the constant association of ,quetzalcoatl with the creative gods as deities of the ancient ,toltecs1 and the frequent references to him as the founder of their cult4 ,ixtlilxochitl states in his fourth ,relacion that ,tonacatecutli and his wife were the chief gods of the ,toltecs1 who represented them as the sun and the moon1 and he goes on to say that at certain seasons of the year criminals were sacrificed to them by a method called ,telimonamiquian1 8which is to say grinding between the stones40 ,two great stones1 he says1 were balanced opposite each other1 and the victim was crushed between them as they fell--the slain man thus representing the corn-spirit1 or1 indeed1 the corn itself in the process of being ground4 ,,chapter ,v ,,deities ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,growth ,,proper ,,introductory ,so numerous were the manifestations and variants of the ,earth-goddess conceived by the ,nahua or adopted into their pantheon1 that this has been the cause of considerable misconception on the part of students of ,mexican religion1 who have confounded them in a manner which in the circumstances is scarcely surprising4 ,an attempt will be made here to provide the reader with a list of the most important of these deities1 briefly and barely outlining their various origins and attributes1 in order that he may be the better able to comprehend what follows when we come to discuss them more fully4 ,chicomecoatl 7,seven ,serpents7--the ,mexican name of the ,earth-goddess and that of the seventh day of the seventh week of the tonalamatl4 ,she was probably of ,toltec origin4 ,the third interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a identifies her with ,xochiquetzal1 and1 perhaps more correctly1 with ,xumoco and ,tonacacigua or ,tonacaciuatl4 ,she had two temples dedicated to her1 the chicome iteopan and the cinteopan1 and seems to have become a variant of ,tonacaciuatl on the adoption of an agricultural basis of existence4 ,tlazolteotl1 ,tlaelquani1 ,teteo innan or ,toci--an earth-goddess whose worship had its origin among the tribes of the ,atlantic seaboard1 where maize grew abundantly4 ,she possessed warlike propensities1 as became a goddess to whom human sacrifice was much in vogue1 and the myth of her impregnation by ,uitzilopochtli was enacted at the ochpaniztli festival in ,august1 typifying1 perhaps1 the impregnation of the 8earth-mother0 by the 8sky-father40 ,as ,ixcuine she represented a plurality of goddesses4 ,seler #age believes that ,chicomecoatl represents the young maize ear1 and ,tlazolteotl1 the ripe ear of the plant4 ,cihuacoatl 7,serpent ,woman7--an earth-goddess of ,xochimilco and ,colhuacan4 ,coatlicue or ,coatlantonan 7,serpent ,skirt7--a ,mexican earth-goddess1 mother of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,xochiquetzal--originally a mountain goddess of the ,tlalhuica4 ,an earth-and-maize goddess as well as a deity of flowers and vegetation4 ,xilonen--originally a maize-goddess of the ,huichol tribes4 ,she represented the young maize-plant4 ,cinteotl 7,maize-god7--son of ,tlazolteotl1 originally a god of the peoples of the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,he is occasionally alluded to as a female deity1 but is always male in the ,,mss4 of the ,borgia group1 executed by a people of ,nahua speech dwelling in the south4 ,he is the equivalent of ,xochipilli and had a separate temple1 the cinteopan4 ,xipe--an earth-god of the ,teotitlan district1 a god of spring vegetation4 ,his temples were called yopico4 ,his great festival was the ,tlacaxipeuliztli1 or 8flaying of men40 ,only three of these deities1 ,tlazolteotl1 ,xipe1 and ,xochiquetzal1 appear as rulers of one or other of the twenty day-signs of the tonalamatl4 ,but ,cinteotl figures in the ochpaniztli feast and appears as one of the 8,lords of the ,night40 ,these criteria are perhaps sufficient to identify these figures as separate divinities4 ,we find in ,sahagun that ,chicomecoatl1 ,cinteotl1 and ,xipe had separate temples of their own4 ,in several of the rituals of the great festivals1 however1 the cults of ,tlazolteotl1 ,chicomecoatl1 and ,cinteotl appear to have been very closely interwoven1 and this leads me to suspect that the worship of the old ,toltec goddess ,chicomecoatl was in process of fusion with that of the 8immigrant0 ,tlazolteotl at the period of the ,conquest4 ,xilonen1 too1 according to ,sahagun1 had a separate festival in her honour1 the uei tecuilhuitl4 ,from all this and from considerations still to be advanced we may1 perhaps1 be justified in assuming3 7#a7 ,that at the period of the ,conquest the cults of ,tlazolteotl1 ,chicomecoatl1 and ,cinteotl were very naturally in process of becoming amalgamated1 the worship of the two goddesses1 ,mexican and alien1 presenting many features in common4 7#b7 ,that ,xochiquetzal1 originally the goddess of the ,tlalhuica1 was regarded more properly as the goddess of flowers and of the spring florescence1 a hypothesis which is upheld by her myths4 ,her equation with ,tonacaciuatl appears to have been a later concept1 due to the connection of both with the earth4 7#c7 ,that the ,huichol goddess ,xilonen came to symbolize for the ,nahua the maize plant in its early stages of growth1 and in that respect resembles ,cinteotl4 7#d7 ,that the cult of the southern god ,xipe1 the grain-deity of a related people1 had made great headway among the ,nahua of ,mexico-,tenochtitlan4 7#e7 ,it follows from these conclusions that only one of these deities of growth--,coatlicue--was of ,nahua origin1 all the others being gods of the aboriginal or settled peoples4 ,the ,chichimec ,nahua1 a hunting people1 possessing no official grain-goddess of their own1 would naturally come to worship these on their adoption of an agricultural mode of life4 ,as most of these forms hailed from districts of considerable cultural antiquity1 ,i believe their worship to have been of long duration in the land1 not much less ancient1 indeed1 than the cult of ,tlaloc4 ,it is not claimed for these conclusions that they are more than approximate4 ,the data relative to these deities is much too complex to permit of any more precise or dogmatic treatment1 in fact at one time or another there was identification between them all2 but with the above attempt at simplification in view we shall now endeavour to present the reader with a detailed account of each of these and other less important divinities who were regarded as in any way connected with the personification of the earth or the growth of the crops1 their festivals and ritual4 ,the earth-deities seem to have been prophetic and divinatory and to have been connected with medicine1 like similar ,european and ,asiatic goddesses4 ,some of them1 like ,itzpapalotl1 share the butterfly symbol with the gods of fire1 with whom they are frequently connected4 ,they are also closely associated with the deer1 a fertility animal1 and the eagle1 the sun-bird1 and their victims were1 like those of the sun and war deities1 decked with eagle-down4 ,,tlazolteotl 8,,goddess ,,of ,,dirt0 ,territory3 ,huaxtec1 ,mixtec1 ,olmec4 ,minor ,names3 ,tlaelquani 8,filth-eater40 ,chicunaui acatl 8,nine ,reed40 ,teteo ,innan 8,mother of the ,gods40 ,chiquacen acatl 8,six ,reed40 ,toci 8,our ,grandmother40 ,naui tecpatl 8,four ,flint ,knife40 ,cocauic ,xochitla 8,yellow ,bloom40 ,tlalli iyallo 8,heart of the ,earth40 ,iztac ,xochitla 8,white ,bloom40 ,ixcuine 8,four ,faces40 ,tonana ,teumechaue 8,our mother1 the goddess of the thigh-skin face-painting40 ,calendar ,places3 ,ruler of the fourteenth day1 ocelotl1 of the thirteenth week1 ce olin4 ,seventh of the nine lords of the night4 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,festivals3 ,ochpaniztli 78,feast of ,brooms07 in the eleventh month4 ,symbols3 ,a man eating excrement 78,dirt-eater072 a broom4 ,relationships3 ,mother of ,centeotl2 one of the ,tzitzimim4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #gd3 ,here ,tlazolteotl is depicted as naked1 and accompanied by a snake4 ,a patch of rubber appears near the mouth1 and her head is bound by a fillet of unspun cotton4 ,behind the neck a feather ornament is seen1 made of the blue plumage of the quail1 and she also wears the golden nasal ,huaxtec ornament usually seen in connection with the octli-gods4 ,in the ,codex ,vaticanus ,b her naked body is painted white1 with yellow longitudinal stripes1 and she has the bifurcated nose-ornament of ,xipe4 ,significantly1 perhaps1 the shape of her eye recalls that of the god of flaying1 whose eye is usually a mere slit in the flayed human skin which he wears1 and through the mask of which he is supposed to be looking4 ,she wears the cotton fillet and ear-plug typical of her4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,in this place she has a disk of liquid rubber on the face1 with which substance her mouth is also painted1 an elaborate cotton headdress1 crowned with feathers1 a tunic of sac shape with a fringe divided into compartments1 a skirt with bands joined by diagonal lines1 and she holds in her right hand the broom symbolic of her feast1 and in her left a shield decorated with four concentric circles4 ,general4--,in the tonalamatl of the ,aubin-,goupil collection1 wherever she is depicted as seventh of the nine lords of the night1 her face is white1 its upper portion being surrounded by a yellow band4 ,in the ,codex ,borbonicus she is occasionally painted all yellow or all white1 and this yellow colour symbolizes that of the ripe maize ear4 ,in the song about her given by ,sahagun1 we observe that she is alluded to as 8the yellow blossom0 and the 8white blossom10 otherwise the yellow or white maize--the maize at different stages of its growth4 ,another of her distinguishing characteristics1 as has been remarked1 is the black colouring in the region of the mouth1 which frequently extends to and includes the tip of the nose and chin and1 as ,sahagun states1 this was effected with liquid rubber1 as in the case of the ,fire-god4 ,the small patch or circle on her cheek is also commented upon by ,sahagun1 who says1 8a hole has she placed on her cheek0--the 8hole0 being probably a disk of rubber with a perforated centre4 ,as an alternative to this we find in ,codex ,borgia two broad horizontal lines and in ,codex ,borbonicus several short1 vertical black lines below the eye1 and it would seem that the concentric circle on the shield of the goddess in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 has the same meaning--that is1 it is probably a symbol of sex4 #agf ,in some representations her skirt is covered with crescent-shaped objects perhaps typical of her symbol--excrement4 ,when ,tlazolteotl appears as ruler of the thirteenth week she often lacks the ripe-maize colour with which she is represented elsewhere4 ,thus in ,telleriano-,remensis she is painted about the mouth with liquid rubber1 and in ,borbonicus her face-paint is in two colours4 ,a black stroke is seen descending from brow to nose1 but she has the yellow skin-colour4 ,in both cases she is1 like ,xipe1 clothed in the skin of a victim4 ,in ,telleriano-,remensis and the ,aubin tonalamatl her arms and legs are powdered with white chalk and small feathers are affixed to them1 probably with ulli gum4 ,in ,telleriano-,remensis these cover part of her costume as well4 ,in this codex1 too1 her ,huaxtec nose-ornament is replaced by one having a stepped motif1 or a butterfly formed of the spotted feathers of the quail4 ,the cotton fillet of the goddess is worthy of further remark4 ,it is made from the unspun produce of the plant1 covers the top of the head and reaches the shoulders on either side of the face4 ,spindles are stuck into the mass1 which is marked upon its surface with acute-angled figures or groups of parallel lines on a white ground1 which may be regarded as hieroglyphic of raw cotton4 ,in certain of the ,,mss41 for example in the ,aubin tonalamatl and in ,telleriano-,remensis1 ,tlazolteotl wears a feather coronal1 which in other codices takes the shape of a fan or nape-ring like that frequently worn by ,quetzalcoatl4 ,occasionally1 too1 it rises from a rubber ball which rests upon the head4 ,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #fh7 the feathers are dark in colour1 but are brightened by the red plumes which spring from them in turn4 ,elsewhere we find white1 brown1 or yellow feathers1 the latter prepared artificially from palm-leaves1 which1 like the fan-shaped ornament itself1 are ,huaxtec in character4 ,in the picture in ,borbonicus of ,tlazolteotl as ruler of the week ce olin 7one reed7 we see the conical ,huaxtec hat1 as worn by ,quetzalcoatl1 peeping above her cotton headdress1 and the palm-leaf plume rising from a feather fan1 which springs from a ball of rubber4 ,in ,telleriano-,remensis ,tlazolteotl is seen wearing a string of snail-shells depending from the waist4 ,this is known as citallicue1 or 8star-skirt10 another ,huaxtec article of dress4 ,in none of the representations alluded to was ,tlazolteotl pictured with the broom characteristic of her and of her feast-day1 ochpanitztli 78when they sweep the ways074 ,this was made from hard1 stiff1 pointed grass1 which was cut with sickles in the mountain-forests of ,popocatepetl4 #agg ,it was bound with a coloured leather strap1 and the paper which held it together was flecked with the ,v-shaped cotton symbol4 ,,myths ,tlazolteotl is described in the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis as 8the woman who sinned before the deluge1 who was the cause of all evil1 of all deceit02 but this would appear to be an error for ,ixnextli or ,xochiquetzal 7q4v474 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan says of her3 8,in the same year 7#h ,rabbit7 came the so-called ,ixcuiname female demons to ,tollan and1 as they say from the reports of the old people1 they came from ,huaxteca4 ,and in the place ,cuextecatl ichocayan 78,where the ,huaxtecs weep07 they summoned these captives whom they had taken in ,huaxteca and explained to them what was about to be done1 saying--#8,we go now to ,tollan4 ,we wish to couple the earth with you1 we desire to hold a feast with you1 for till now no battle offerings have been made with men4 ,we wish to make a beginning of it and shoot you to death with arrows4'0 ,,sacrifice ,,by ,,shooting ,,with ,,arrows ,this indicates that the goddess1 one of the ,ixcuiname1 was regarded as the inventress of that especial mode of sacrifice by which the victim was tied to a framework and shot to death with arrows4 ,we have no classical statement that such a proceeding took place at her festival1 however1 but it is known that it formed part of the ritual at the festival of ,xipe 7q4v474 ,the expression1 8,we wish to couple the earth with you10 when taken along with the straddling attitude of the victim on his frame1 has given rise to the assumption #agh that such a sacrifice was intended to symbolize a sexual connection between the victim and the earth or earth-mother4 ,it appears to me as more probable that its intention was to draw down rain by sympathetic magic1 the dropping blood from the arrow wounds symbolizing the rain1 and the tear which the victim sheds in the representation of this sacrifice in the ,codex ,nuttall and ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 combined with the fact that such sacrifices are supposed to have been made in years of drought1 strengthens my belief in the soundness of this theory4 ,ixcuine means 8four-faced10 and may apply to the circumstance that ancient idols of ,tlazolteotl were1 like those of ,janus1 provided with more than one face1 so that they might look upon every direction whence the rain might come4 ,later1 however1 the ,ixcuiname were regarded as a fourfold manifestation of ,tlazolteotl and as personifying four sisters of different age1 ,tiacapan1 ,teicu1 ,tlaco and ,xocoyotzin1 who 8represented the carnal passions40 #agi ,,hymn ,a song in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 relating to ,tlazolteotl is as follows3 8,the yellow blossom has flowered4 ,she1 our mother1 with the thigh-skin of the goddess painted upon her face1 came out of ,tamoanchan4 ,the white blossom has burst open1 she our mother10 etc4 #ahj ,this of course symbolizes the yellow and white maize4 ,the thigh-skin of the goddess 8is the mask cut from the thigh of the sacrificed girl and worn by the priest0 7see 8,festivals10 infra74 ,the statement that ,tlazolteotl came out of ,tamoanchan is important1 for another song in the same series tells us that in that paradise was born her son ,cinteotl1 the ,maize-god 7q4v474 ,,festivals ,ochpaniztli4--,this1 the great festival of ,tlazolteotl1 was held in the opening of the eleventh ,aztec month1 commencing1 says ,sahagun1 #aha about ,september #adth4 ,fifteen days before the festival began1 those who were to celebrate it danced the sacred dances1 which they continued for eight days4 ,in complete silence they ranged themselves in four lines1 and danced with their hands full of flowers1 keeping time most precisely4 ,at the end of eight days those women who practised medicine1 the mid wives1 leech-women1 and steam-bath keepers probably1 divided themselves into two companies and presented themselves before a female victim who represented the goddess and who was destined for sacrifice4 ,their object was1 says ,sahagun1 to amuse her and to keep her from pondering upon her fate4 ,the victim herself1 accompanied by three old women called her 8mothers10 headed one of these parties1 who pelted each other with the red leaves of the cactus flower4 ,in the whole performance we can see some such concept as survives in a manner in the modern 8battle of flowers10 which in certain towns in ,southern ,france ushers in the season of ,lent4 ,the victim was then led back to the place of detention1 and the ceremony was repeated for several days in succession4 ,then the 8mothers0 who guarded her led her through the public market-place for the last time1 on which occasion she sowed maize on every side1 and on that day she was taken to a place near the teocalli #ahb where she was to be sacrificed4 ,as it was of importance that she should not mourn1 she was informed that she was to become the bride of the king1 and for this imaginary honour she was adorned with the full insignia of the goddess ,tlazolteotl4 ,when midnight had arrived1 in a dead and unbroken silence1 she was led to the summit of the lofty teocalli1 where she was placed on the shoulders of a man1 as was the custom with brides about to be borne to the houses of their lords1 and ere she could be well aware what was about to happen1 she was decapitated and immediately flayed4 ,first of all pieces of skin were removed from the broad portion of the thigh and carried to the temple of ,cinteotl1 the son of ,tlazolteotl4 ,the skin of the upper part of the body formed a jacket1 which a priest of ,tlazolteotl1 chosen for his strength and vigour1 drew over his own body4 ,accompanied by two men vowed to his assistance1 as well as by other priests1 dressed to represent the goddess's ,huaxtec servants1 all of whom carried blood-sprinkled brooms which they brandished in a combative manner1 he pursued a number of nobles and warriors1 who struck their shields and made a threatening display4 ,the priest who personified the goddess rushed upon these with simulated fury1 but they fled before him1 refusing him battle4 ,this part of the proceedings symbolized the warlike nature of the goddess1 and the military significance of her cult4 ,as has been explained1 the people of ,mexico believed that only by the continued offering up of human sacrifice and blood could an adequate rainfall1 and therefore abundant harvests1 be procured1 and this naturally presumed the upkeep of a considerable standing army and many military guilds or brotherhoods dedicated to the task of securing a large supply of sacrificial victims4 ,the warlike character of the ,earth-goddess was assumed as a matter of course4 ,this chase continued until the priest who personated ,tlazolteotl came to the teocalli of ,uitzilopochtli1 the ,war-god4 ,here he lay down and stretched himself out in the female posture for sexual intercourse4 ,says the ,aztec text of ,sahagun3 8,then she broadens herself that is the priest personating the goddess1 expands1 stretches arms and legs out at the feet of ,uitzilopochtli1 her face turned towards him40 ,this ceremony undoubtedly had reference to a supposed impregnation of the goddess by the god ,uitzilopochtli1 and that the myth relating to it was enacted is shown by the symbolic presence of her son1 ,cinteotl1 or a priest dressed to represent that god1 who had placed over his face a mask made from the skin of the thighs of the flayed woman which had been sent to his temple1 and who was now regarded as the son conceived4 #ahc ,in addition to the skin-mask1 the ,cinteotl priest wore a hat or cap1 also made of the skin of the sacrificed victim1 which had a vandyked edging of the crown1 or a crest like the comb of a cock1 symbolic of the stone knife of sacrifice4 ,together1 the priests of ,tlazolteotl and ,cinteotl now proceeded to the temple of the former1 where they awaited the morning4 ,at dawn the chief men of the community1 who had been waiting near the teocalli1 ran up the steps of the temple bearing offerings4 ,the priest of the goddess was then decorated with her insignia in addition to the dreadful trophy he wore4 ,his head and feet were covered with the white down from the eagle's breast1 the particular ornament of the warrior who had captured a victim in battle4 ,his face was painted red1 the colour of the ripe maize1 he was clothed in a short tunic which had woven upon it the semblance of an eagle1 and he was equipped with other garments for the lower part of the body4 ,still richer and more elaborate vestments were then placed on him by the priests1 after which he went to select the captives who must die4 ,he chose four of these1 and placing them upon the stone of sacrifice1 dispatched them by taking out their hearts1 handing over the others to the priests to deal with similarly4 ,this done1 he accompanied the ,cinteotl priest to his temple1 the ,huaxtec servants marching before them1 wearing what would seem to be huge artificial phalluses and tassels of untwisted cotton1 to symbolize the virile strength and richness of the earth4 #ahd ,they were also accompanied by the medical women4 ,coming to the temple of ,cinteotl1 the priest of ,tlazolteotl placed one foot upon the drum there1 and awaited the priest of ,cinteotl1 who later set out alone in a hasty manner1 and accompanied by a large body of warriors1 to a point on the frontiers of ,mexico where a small hut stood1 and at this place he left the mask and cap which he had worn1 made from the thighs of the sacrificed woman4 ,not infrequently the party were attacked or ambushed and fighting ensued4 ,i can form no opinion regarding the significance of this procedure4 ,was the skin left on the frontier as a gage of war1 as would appear to be its most obvious interpretation1 or did it possess a deeper and more symbolical meaning8 ,if it did1 ,i am at a loss to supply the elucidation4 ,i feel that this is one of those acts so often encountered in primitive religion1 when the temptation is to look for a profound meaning where1 perhaps1 none exists4 ,the priest of ,tlazolteotl1 on the departure of his colleague1 proceeded to the temple called ,atempan1 or 8,place of ,death10 a favourite muster-place for children and leprous persons about to be sacrificed1 which was situated in the precincts of the great temple of ,mexico4 ,here the king took his seat on a throne1 his footstool being a nest made of eagles' skin and feathers1 whilst an ocelot-skin was cast over the back of the seat1 these articles symbolizing the 8knighthoods0 of the eagle and ocelot respectively4 ,a military review followed1 and the monarch distributed raiment1 arms1 and insignia to the deserving1 who1 thus distinguished1 were expected to so comport themselves in war that they might eventually die the warrior's death1 the only fitting end for a ,mexican brave4 ,the recipients then repaired to the temple of ,tlazolteotl1 where dancing was engaged in4 ,the scene was picturesque and even magnificent1 for all the dancers held flowers in each hand and wore the dazzling insignia of their various ranks and orders4 ,this spectacle continued for two days1 and on the evening of the second day the priests of the goddess ,chicomecoatl 7q4v471 clothed in the skins of captives slain at the festival of that goddess1 ascended a little teocalli known as the 8,table of ,uitzilopochtli10 and threw broadcast maize and calabash seeds upon the heads of the multitude below1 who scrambled for the grain4 ,the young women in the service of ,chicomecoatl now advanced1 each bearing upon her shoulder seven ears of maize1 rolled in a rich mantle1 and wrapped in white paper1 after being sprinkled with ulli gum4 ,the high-priest of the goddess led the chant1 after which he descended from the teocalli and placed in a little cavity between the temple stairs and the temple itself a large basket filled with powdered chalk and feather-down4 ,the warriors at once rushed upon it and scrambled for the contents1 which were1 of course1 symbolical of the goddess's 8make-up40 ,they were chased by the priests1 whom they pelted with the chalk and feathers1 even the king taking part in the sport4 ,the priest then betook himself to the temple of the goddess1 called ,toctitlan 78,the ,place of our ,grandmother071 where he saw the skin of the sacrificed woman properly disposed4 ,thus ended the ceremonies of the ochpaniztli1 one of the most picturesque and involved1 yet gruesome1 of the festivals of ancient ,mexico4 ,,ritual ,tlazolteotl1 as we shall find when we attempt our elucidation of her characteristics1 was regarded as the goddess of sexual indulgence1 a not inappropriate rle for the wild1 wanton1 and riotous goddess of earth1 so prodigal in her bringing forth and 7naturally in the eyes of a primitive people7 so bountiful in her favours1 for to the barbarian mind productiveness is the outcome of lustfulness4 ,by an easy transition1 then1 she became the goddess of sexual immorality1 the patron of prostitutes1 and the archetype of female wantonness4 ,but1 rather strangely1 although she presided over salacious vice1 she alone could pardon it1 and once in a lifetime the ,mexican adulterer or libertine might approach her to obtain by a full confession remission of his sins4 ,this he generally did late in life1 for absolution could not be obtained on a subsequent occasion4 ,the ritual associated with his cleansing was a prolonged and involved one1 and is described by ,sahagun in the twelfth chapter of his first book4 ,there is no reason to believe that the account of the ritual as furnished by ,sahagun is otherwise than genuine1 and he remarks upon the facility with which the native ,mexicans embraced the ,catholic confession as a proof that the rite was not unknown to them4 ,,temple ,we know from the descriptions of the ochpaniztli festivals in the ,sahagun ,aztec ,,ms41 and the illustrations accompanying them1 that the temple of ,tlazolteotl1 the ,toctitlan1 was a scaffolding of poles on which was set a representation of the goddess4 ,,priesthood ,that ,tlazolteotl possessed a priesthood of her own is obvious from the repeated mention of the adolescent youths known as ,cuecuesteca 78,her ,huaxtecs071 who figured in the festival of ochpaniztli4 ,but that these were only priests ad hoc1 or employed temporarily for that celebration1 is likely1 as ,sahagun states 7,appendix to bk4 ii7 that the ,atempan teohuatzin1 or the ,chief of ,rites connected with the ,atempan1 had the task of assembling them1 as well as charge of the insignia used at the festival4 ,tlazolteotl's priests1 according to ,sahagun 7bk4 i1 c4 xii71 were 8the augurs who possessed the books with the prognostications and the destinies of the new-born and the spells and the omens and the traditions of the ancients1 as they were handed down and came unto them40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,tlazolteotl has been completely identified with the ,teteo innan or ,toci of ,sahagun and other writers1 but though she ranked as the ,earth-mother of ,mexico par excellence1 there is no room for doubt that her worship was originally alien1 and assuredly of ,huaxtec origin4 ,the ,huaxtecs were a people of ,maya origin or affinities1 isolated from the main body of that race1 dwelling on the east coast of ,mexico1 and retaining many of their peculiar customs2 and it is noteworthy that a ,huaxtecan goddess should be alluded to in ,mexican tradition as coming to ,tollan1 the city of the ,toltecs1 the people whom so many writers have tried to identify with the ,maya4 ,as has been observed1 she was accompanied at the ochpaniztli festival by a band of youths dressed to represent ,huaxtecs1 who in the ,codex ,borbonicus picture of the festival are shown as wearing the cone-shaped ,huaxtec cap4 ,she herself wears the ,huaxtec nose-ornament in common with the octli-gods4 ,she is repeatedly stated to have had her 8home0 in ,cuextlan1 the ,huaxtec country1 and there are good grounds for supposing that its inhabitants1 of whose religion we know little1 had brought the cult of the ,earth-mother to such a pitch of complex perfection as rendered its absorption of the allied ,mexican cults merely a matter of time and occasion4 ,that she was originally a personification of the maize is also clear4 ,in her songs she is alluded to as 8the yellow bloom0 and 8the white bloom10 and the references to her dwelling in ,tamoanchan1 the western paradise where the maize was supposed to have had its mythical origin1 and where she gave birth to ,cinteotl1 the young maize-god1 proves her association with this food-plant4 ,but she was also the ,earth1 the insatiable1 lustful mother1 who gives birth to ,cinteotl the young maize-god1 who is also the obsidian knife of sacrifice1 for the ,earth is the mother of stone4 ,as ,sin1 she was also the mother of death1 for ,cinteotl in this guise was undoubtedly a god of fatality or doom4 ,like many other deities of the earth she may have had an almost plutonic significance1 for she is called ,tlalli ,iyallo1 8,heart of the ,earth40 ,but ,i think that ,seler 7,fejrvry-,mayer1 p4 #ade7 has mistaken the true significance of this expression in applying to it the meaning 8interior of the earth40 ,the word 8heart0 in the ,nahua tongue does not necessarily mean 8interior40 ,true1 ,tepeyollotl1 the ,earthquake-god1 possessed a similar designation1 but on the other hand the ,quiche ,popol ,vuh alludes to the god ,hurakan as 8,the ,heart of ,heaven10 and ,i take the expression to mean in general 8soul1 spirit10 rather than 8interior40 ,but1 again1 deities of grain have very frequently a subterranean association1 and1 according to ,duran's description of the feast of the goddess1 we find that she was supposed to make her coming known by an earthquake shock1 and she is ruler of the thirteenth week1 ce olin1 which some authorities translate as 8earthquake0 or 8earth-motion40 ,all this notwithstanding1 in later times it was as the goddess of sensuality and lustfulness that ,tlazolteotl made her strongest appeal to the ,mexican imagination4 ,we have already seen how this transition took place and how this attribute had its inception4 ,in many climes the figure of the fruitful and abundant ,earth-goddess has its bestial1 revolting1 and highly salacious side1 and the ,mexican earth-deity was no exception to the almost general rule4 ,in several pictures her symbol is shown as a man devouring excrement 7sin74 ,she was the patroness of prostitutes1 and by a transition1 the ethical character of which seems to me obscure1 she finally became the great pardoner of sexual misdeeds4 ,probably because they forfeited their lives in the act of bringing forth1 she came to be regarded as the chieftainess of those women who1 dying in childbed1 went to inhabit the ,ciutlampa1 the house of the women in the west4 ,these female spirits were regarded by the ,mexicans as the equal of warriors who had died heroically in battle1 and issued daily from their paradise to accompany the sun in his afternoon course4 ,it is typical of these ,ciuatete1 or deified women1 that in their jealousy of living people and their offspring1 they exerted a noxious influence upon mortals1 especially upon children1 at certain seasons1 and as the interpreter of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis states1 they are identified with ,european witches1 flying through the air and meeting at cross-roads4 ,now the broom is the symbol of the ,european witch1 as it is of ,tlazolteotl1 and in ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer 7sheet #ag7 we have a picture of ,tlazolteotl as representative of the ,ciuatete1 naked and riding upon a broomstick4 ,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #ab7 and ,codex ,vaticanus ,b 7sheet #cj7 beside her is figured a house with an owl standing at the door1 while in front hangs a string of dried medicinal herbs1 the whole representing the dwelling of a sorceress or medicine-witch1 for ,tlazolteotl was also patroness of the medical women1 who danced at her festival1 and ,sahagun 7bk4 i1 c4 viii7 expressly states that she was venerated by the 8physicians10 that is1 the medicine-men and wizards4 ,probably by reason of her fecundity ,tlazolteotl was also regarded as a divinity who presided over human birth4 ,she is frequently portrayed as the great parturient and represents the womb #ahe 7,vaticanus ,b1 sheet #ea74 ,but she does not breathe the spirit into the newly-born child or transport it from the upper regions as does ,quetzalcoatl1 her office being the lower one of presiding over the child-bed1 a task which she shares with other ,mexican deities of vegetation and production4 ,like other goddesses who preside over birth she may also have a lunar connection4 ,it is probable that the ,huaxtec nose-ornament which she wears in common with the octli-gods is a lunar symbol4 #ahf ,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #ee7 she is represented as standing opposite the moon1 but this may only indicate her connection with night and witchcraft4 ,i am of opinion1 however1 that ,seler's assumption that she is a moon-goddess is not altogether capable of proof4 ,on the other hand1 goddesses of vegetation and childbirth are frequently associated with the moon1 and his theory may be perfectly sound4 ,we must remember1 however1 that in his more recent works1 just as the solar school of mythologists was accused of 8seeing sun-gods everywhere10 ,seler has undoubtedly applied a lunar significance to several deities whose characteristics he formerly elucidated in totally different fashion4 ,the warlike nature of ,tlazolteotl has already been dwelt upon and its reason demonstrated in the section dealing with the ochpaniztli festival4 ,,chicomecoatl 8,,seven ,,snake0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico4 ,minor ,name3 ,chicomolotl 8,seven ,maize-ears40 ,relationship3 ,sister of ,tlaloc4 ,symbol3 ,the double maize-ear 7commaitl74 ,festivals3 ,uei tozoztli1 the fourth month2 ochpaniztli1 the eleventh month4 ,calendar ,place3 ,seventh day of the seventh week2 the day chicomecoatl4 7,sahagun states that all days containing a seven in their name were regarded as auspicious on her account47 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,aubin-,goupil ,tonalamatl4--,sheet #g3 ,the goddess is depicted as having a red body and facial painting1 and wears variegated raiment in which red is the preponderating colour4 ,on her head is a large square headdress1 also red in colour and decorated with rosettes at the four corners--such a headdress1 indeed1 as ,tlazolteotl wears at the ochpaniztli festival4 ,she holds in her hand the double maize-ear1 which may be regarded as her peculiar and distinctive emblem4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,in this codex she is seen wearing red paint and the red garment1 holding the double maize-ear1 and carrying other maize-ears in a receptacle on her back4 ,seler thinks that her red colour is that of the granular bunch of the young maize-ear which she represents1 and that ,tlazolteotl or ,teteoinnan1 who is painted yellow and white1 represents the ripe maize-ear4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the ,sahagun ,,ms4 states that ,chicomecoatl's face is coloured red and that she wears a paper crown on her head and a collar of green precious stones round her neck4 ,she has an overdress and skirt of spring flowers and wears bells and shells on her feet4 ,her shield has the emblem of the summer flower painted upon its surface1 and she carries the double maize-ear in her hand4 ,,myths ,the hymn to ,chicomecoatl as given in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 is as follows3 ,goddess of the seven ears1 arise1 awake6 ,for1 our mother1 thou leavest us4 ,thou returnest to ,tlalocan4 ,arise1 awake6 ,mother1 thou leavest us now1 ,thou goest to thy home in ,tlalocan4 ,which may1 perhaps1 be interpreted thus3 ,the expression 8seven ears0 is an allusion to the seven ears of maize1 sprinkled with rubber oil and wrapped in paper and cloth1 which each maiden in a procession of virgins carried to the temple of the goddess1 the cinteopan1 at the festival of uei tozoztli 7,april #bgth74 ,the maize is now full grown and the goddess's labours are over for the time being1 so that she is enabled to return to ,tlalocan1 the paradise of her brother ,tlaloc4 ,,festivals ,the ,uei ,tozoztli4--,the first festival attributed to ,chicomecoatl in the calendar was the uei tozoztli1 or the 8great watch10 so called because of the watch or wake kept in the houses of the people1 accompanied by a general fast4 ,the best accounts of it are those of ,sahagun #ahg and ,torquemada4 #ahh ,in this rite the goddess was associated with ,cinteotl4 ,after a four days' fast1 certain rushes were stained with sacrificial blood and placed upon the images of the gods in both house and temple4 ,branches of laurel and beds or mattresses of hay were placed before the altars1 and maize porridge was distributed to the young men4 ,the people walked in the fields cutting stalks of the young maize1 which they bedecked with flowers1 placing them before the altars of the gods in the calpulli1 or common house of the village1 along with food-offerings of every kind1 baskets of tortillas1 or pancakes of chian flour and toasted maize mixed with beans1 each surmounted by a cooked frog4 ,on the back of the frog offered up with the tortillas they placed a joint cut from a maize-stalk filled with small pieces of every kind of the food offered up4 ,thus laden1 the frog symbolized the earth1 bearing her fruits on her back4 ,all this victual was carried in the afternoon to the temple of ,chicomecoatl1 and eaten in a general scramble4 ,the ears of maize preserved for seed were carried in procession by virgins to the temple of the goddess1 each maiden bearing seven ears of maize1 sprinkled with ulli gum and wrapped in paper and cloth4 ,the legs and arms of these girls were ornamented with red feathers and their faces were smeared with pitch and sprinkled with marcassite4 ,to these the crowd were forbidden to speak1 but much persiflage was1 nevertheless1 engaged in4 ,the people then returned to their houses1 and the sanctified maize was placed in every granary and corn-crib1 was known as the 8heart0 thereof1 and remained there until taken out to be used as seed4 ,it does not appear that human sacrifice accompanied this festival1 which seems to have represented ancient rustic rites1 the ritual of the family and the village1 handed down from very early times4 ,ochpaniztli 78,sweeping of ,temples074--,in this festival1 held about the beginning of ,september1 the goddess played an important although by no means the principal part1 and as it is fully described in the pages dealing with ,tlazolteotl1 it will suffice here to mention that the rites accorded to ,chicomecoatl on this occasion appear to have been almost the same as those rendered at her first festival4 ,the nature of her connection with the other deities of maize is indicated in the introduction to the section dealing with the earth and grain gods1 and her participation in the rites of the ochpaniztli perhaps exhibits the zealous activity of an ancient cult in rivalry with a later and more popular one4 ,it would certainly seem as if ,chicomecoatl had been recognized in the ochpaniztli rites as an afterthought and for the purpose of placating her priesthood1 as much as for the honour of the goddess herself1 or that it was a protest on the part of the ministers of her cult1 who did not desire to see their divinity ignored at a season at which she had probably been worshipped from time immemorial4 ,,priesthood ,that ,chicomecoatl had a priesthood specially consecrated to her is manifest from the accounts of her festivals1 and this must have been in most respects similar in organization and character to those of ,cinteotl 7the ,cinteotzin71 ,tlazolteotl1 and ,xipe4 ,that she had also a corps of priestesses or holy women attached to her worship is equally clear from the same source4 ,but we learn nothing of their precise status or polity from any of the old authorities4 ,,temples ,chicomecoatl appears to have had two temples1 both situated within the precincts of the great temple at ,mexico4 ,the first was the ,chicomecoatl iteopan 78,temple of ,chicomecoatl07 and the other the ,cinteopan 78,maize ,temple071 which1 however1 must not be confounded with that sacred to ,cinteotl4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,chicomecoatl is obviously the ancient and indigenous maize-goddess of the ,mexican ,valley1 whose worship had existed from early times4 ,the statement by the interpreter in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis that she caused famines is most certainly an error and much more applicable to ,ciuacoatl4 ,the identification of her in the same place with ,tonacaciuatl1 the female companion of the creative deity1 is probably correct1 as she seems to have been an agricultural variant of the old earth-mother4 ,chicomecoatl was the patroness of the food supply1 who1 says ,sahagun1 8was the goddess of subsistence10 and 8the original maker of bread and victuals and cookery in general10 and whose sign radiated good fortune and happy influences4 ,in this goddess1 as viewed through the medium of the observances practised at her festival1 we see1 perhaps1 the old and indigenous earth-goddess as the helper and foster-parent of the younger earth-mother1 ,tlazolteotl1 for the grain of the year before was hers and was placed in the granaries to 8help0 or form a nucleus to the new grain4 ,again1 it was perhaps natural that the elder earth-goddess should preside over the old grain used for seed1 and the younger goddess over the grain which had not yet come to fruition4 ,in many countries two grain-spirits1 mother and daughter1 appear in the agricultural pantheon4 ,in ,breton custom the mother-sheaf--a figure made out of the last sheaf--bears within it a lesser bundle1 which is regarded as the unborn daughter2 and in ,prussia1 ,malaysia1 ,scotland1 and ,greece1 this double personification of the corn was or is in vogue4 ,,cinteotl 8,,maize-,,god0 ,territory3 ,totonac2 ,aztec2 ,xochimilco4 ,minor ,names3 ,ce ,xochitl 8,one ,flower0 7date74 ,chicomoltotzin 8,seven ,ears40 ,relationship3 ,son of ,tlazolteotl2 husband of ,xochiquetzal4 ,symbol3 ,the god's head with maize headdress 7as in ,bologna tonalamatl74 ,festivals3 ,uei tozoztli2 ochpaniztli4 ,compass ,directions3 ,north2 ,west4 ,calendar ,place3 ,fourth of the ,nine ,lords of the ,night4 ,seventh of the ,thirteen ,lords of the ,day4 7,codex ,borbonicus1 sheet #bj47 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #eb3 ,in this place ,cinteotl is figured as a male deity of yellow colour and with a peculiar black1 angular1 longitudinal band on the face and bearing a load of maize-ears on his back4 ,in one hand he carries the rain-staff and in the other the throwing-stick4 ,sheet #ad3 ,in this illustration he is clearly recognized as the ,maize-god by the maize-ears and the maize-blooms which he wears in his fillet or on his head4 ,in other respects his insignia resembles that of the ,sun-god in its flame-coloured hair1 the jewelled head-strap with the conventional bird's head on the frontal side1 the large gold disk on his breast1 and on the nape of the neck the rosette painted in the colours of the green jewel chalchihuitl4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #bj3 ,he wears on his head a notched crown like that of the earth1 mountain1 and rain gods1 except that it is painted green and yellow1 the colours of the maize4 ,it is fastened with a tie at the occiput1 which adornment is painted in like colours and resembles the knot worn by these deities4 ,as with the ,rain-god1 it shows the long1 dark hair hanging down below it4 ,on his breast he wears1 attached to a chain of jewelled beads1 an ornament which is painted in the colours of the chalchihuitl and from which hang jewelled thongs4 ,the loin-cloth is in the colours of the maize1 showing alternate yellow and green cross-bands4 ,aubin ,tonalamatl4--,sheet #h3 ,here he is represented opposite ,mayauel4 ,on his back he wears a plumed staff with a heart4 ,in his hand he holds the quetzal feather-flag4 ,,myths ,cinteotl was regarded by the ,mexicans as having been born of the goddess ,tlazolteotl in the sacred western region of ,tamoanchan 7the ,house of ,birth71 which they looked upon as the original home of the maize-plant4 ,a song sung at the atamalqualiztli festival is as follows3 ,born is the ,maize-god ,in the ,house of ,descent1 ,in the place where the flowers are1 ,the god ,one-flower4 ,the ,maize-god is born ,in the place of water and of mist1 ,where the children of men are made4 ,in the jewel ,michoacan4 ,he is also associated with the flower-gods in certain strophes of the song to these divinities3 ,on the ball-ground the quetzalcoxcoxtli sings2 ,the ,maize-god answers him4 ,beautifully sings our friend the quetzal1 ,in the twilight of the red maize god4 ,my song shall be heard by the lord of the twilight1 ,the god with the thigh-skin face-painting4 ,i came to the place where the roads meet1 ,i1 the ,maize-god4 ,where shall ,i now go8 ,which way shall ,i take8 ,this song ,i would interpret as follows3 ,the game of tlachtli1 a description of hockey1 is in some measure associated with the maize-gods4 ,the quetzalcoxcoxtli bird is ,xochipilli1 the ,flower-god1 with whom ,cinteotl is closely associated1 and who is connected with games of all kinds1 stone effigies of him being set up in the tlachtli courts4 ,cinteotl is a god who emanates from the west1 and is associated with the twilight4 ,at his festival a piece of skin was stripped from the thigh of the female victim and made into a mask for his priest4 ,the place where the roads meet is evidently the haunting-place of the ,ciuapipiltin or ,ciuatete1 women who died in childbed1 of whom ,tlazolteotl1 ,cinteotl's mother1 was the patroness4 ,the god complains that he has a difficulty in finding his way at the cross-roads4 ,this was the precise reason for which they were made1 that the ,ciupipiltin or haunting mothers should be puzzled by them1 or 8wandered10 as the ,scottish expression is4 ,witches all the world over are baffled by cross-roads1 and formerly the bodies of suicides were buried beneath them1 so that1 did their spirits arise1 they would be puzzled by the multiplicity of directions and be baffled in their intent to haunt the living4 ,,festivals ,the first festival with which ,cinteotl was associated was the uei tozoztli1 held in ,april4 ,after a four days' fast1 the houses were decked with irises and sprinkled with blood drawn from the ears and the front of the legs1 and the nobles and wealthier folk decorated their houses with the boughs of a plant called axcoyatl4 #ahi ,search was made in the fields for the young stalks of maize1 which were decked with flowers and placed before the gods1 along with food4 ,the goddess ,chicomecoatl was also revered at this festival4 ,at the ochpaniztli festival1 too1 in honour of his mother ,tlazolteotl1 ,cinteotl was peculiarly venerated1 and a full account of the proceedings will be found in the pages referring to ,tlazolteotl4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to refer in passing to one custom1 that in connection with which the thigh-skin of the female victim was stripped off and carried to the temple of ,cinteotl1 where it was made into a mask which the priest of the god placed over his face4 #aij ,he also wore a jacket and hood of feathers1 resembling the naualli or bird-disguise of the god--the coxcoxtli1 which seems to have represented both ,cinteotl and ,xochipilli1 and to have formed a kind of bond between them4 ,the crest of the hood resembled the comb of a cock1 and whilst possibly having the significance of a bird's comb1 was also held to symbolize the sharp-cutting flint knife of sacrifice 7see ,tlazolteotl74 ,lastly1 the horrible relics of the festival were conveyed by the ,cinteotl priest and a picked body-guard to a hut on the frontier1 where they were left1 for what purpose ,i am able to form no definite opinion4 #aia ,,temples ,several temples appear to have been dedicated to the worship of ,cinteotl at ,mexico1 but as the names of these sometimes imply a collective dedication to the maize-gods1 it is somewhat difficult to ascertain precisely which of the edifices was peculiar to ,cinteotl4 ,however1 the ,iztac cinteotl iteopan1 or temple of the deity of white maize1 at ,mexico1 more probably refers to ,cinteotl's place of worship1 as ,sahagun states1 than to that of any other deity4 ,here1 says the friar1 were sacrificed leprous captives1 who were slain during the days of fasting in honour of the sun1 when that luminary was at its greatest height4 #aib ,in the ,cinteopan was to be seen a statue of ,cinteotl1 before which captives were sacrificed on the occasion of his festival4 ,the temple of ,tlatauhqui ,cinteotl 7red maize7 appears to have been the preserve of the maize-gods collectively4 ,,priesthood ,that ,cinteotl had a separate and distinct priesthood is manifest from allusions to it in accounts of his festivals4 ,among the ,totonacs two high-priests were especially dedicated to him4 ,these were widowers over sixty years of age1 who wore jackets made from the skins of jackals1 were not permitted to eat fish1 and whose duty consisted in the preparation of manuscripts and the deliverance of oracular messages4 ,the ,totonacs thought human sacrifices unnecessary to him1 and offered up birds and small animals at his shrine1 regarding him as their protector from the more sanguinary deities1 says ,clavigero4 #aic ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,it would appear from the data at our disposal that ,cinteotl was originally a maize-god of the ,totonacs1 a people allied in race to the ,maya-speaking ,huaxtecs of the east coast4 ,it will be recalled that his mother1 ,tlazolteotl1 was of ,huaxtec origin4 ,cinteotl may originally have been regarded by the ,maya-speaking coast people as her son1 or again the relationship between them may have been symbolic and relatively late in its development4 ,but the myth appears as ancient and well founded1 and the corn-mother who has a son or daughter is noticeable in many mythologies4 ,although ,cinteotl is alluded to as a goddess by ,clavigero and other writers1 it is abundantly clear that his godhead is of the male order1 as the pictures which represent him prove4 ,seler lays stress upon his absolute identification with ,xochipilli and ,macuilxochitl1 but although resemblances certainly exist1 it seems to me that there are as many points of difference between these gods and that the likeness was the outcome of later development4 ,thus it can be shown by ,seler's own conclusions that1 whereas ,xochipilli was the patron of gaming and sport and light-hearted amusement1 ,cinteotl1 on the other hand1 was symbolic of that death which is the offspring of sin4 #aid ,cinteotl's mother1 ,tlazolteotl1 the goddess of lust1 undoubtedly typifies sin1 and her son symbolizes the death which follows it and is its wages1 the sharp knife of sacrifice4 ,the indented cap he wears is typical of this implement1 and was known as itzlacoliuhqui 78frost071 an expression which is also translated as 8death0 and which is occasionally employed of ,tezcatlipoc in his phase of god of justice4 ,but ,cinteotl had another connection with the plutonic1 such as is possessed by many grain-gods1 and must1 like ,hades and ,ishtar1 be regarded as a deity of the ,underworld1 the place of the dead1 the realm in which the seed germinates ere it sprouts above ground4 ,he was the tutelary deity of the goldsmiths of ,xochimilco1 oddly enough1 it seems to us1 until we recall the resemblance between the ripe maize-cob and the work of the native jewellers4 #aie ,it is1 however1 as the young maize-god--the maize in its tender and half-ripened condition--that he must be chiefly regarded1 and that he was looked upon by the ancient ,mexicans4 ,he strongly resembles the ,maya god ,e4 ,,ciuacoatl 8,,serpent ,,woman0 ,area of ,worship3 ,colhuacan and ,xochimilco4 ,minor ,names3 ,quilaztli 8,obsidian ,plant0 7874 ,quauhciuatl 8,woman-eagle40 ,yaociuatl 8,woman-warrior40 ,tonantzin 8,our ,mother40 ,relationship3 ,mother of ,mixcoatl2 sister of the ,centzon ,mimixcoa4 ,symbol3 ,obsidian knife4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,general4--,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #fj7 she appears as one of the two heads1 or faces1 of ,quaxolotl1 a female face framed by long1 streaming hair1 with the fleshless under-jaw and the exposed teeth of a dead person's skull4 ,the ,sahagun ,,ms4 describes her as having a face painted half-red1 half-black1 with a thick smear of indiarubber round the lips4 ,she wears a crown of eagle-feathers and a golden ear-plug4 ,her overdress is 8the colour of spring flowers0 7red71 and she also has an undergarment with a fringe1 and a white enagua1 or skirt4 ,her costume is adorned with shells and she wears sandals4 ,her shield is inset with eagle's feathers4 ,an ancient song to her states that she carries a rattle-stick4 ,she has a shield-device similar to that of ,chantico1 with whom she seems to be a parallel4 ,,myths ,in the 8,song of the ,earth-goddesses10 ,ciuacoatl is alluded to as follows3 ,the eagle ,quilaztli is painted with serpent's blood2 ,her crown is made of eagle-feathers4 ,the high cypresses of the ,chalmec land shelter her4 ,the maize has come2 ,on the fields of the gods ,she leans on the rattle-staff4 ,in my hand rests the agave thorn2 ,on the fields of the gods ,she leans on her rattle-staff4 ,the broom is in my hand2 ,on the fields of the gods ,she leans on the rattle-staff4 ,thirteen eagles is our mother1 goddess of the ,chalmec2 ,the spear of the prickly plant lays me low2 ,it is my son ,mixcoatl4 ,our mother the warrior4 ,the deer from ,colhuacan1 ,she is stuck with feathers4 ,morning has dawned ,the order to the warriors has gone forth4 ,drag the captives hence1 ,the whole land shall be destroyed4 ,the deer from ,colhuacan1 ,she is stuck with feathers4 ,those who fight bravely in war ,are painted with eagle-feathers4 #aif ,this wild song may be interpreted as follows3 ,the aspect of the goddess is described4 ,she rests 7as do ,uitzilopochtli and other gods7 under the shade of the cypress trees4 ,the maize is about to be planted1 and she bears in her hand the rattle-staff or rain-rattle1 carried by all the earth- and rain-gods and their priests1 with which she brings down the rain by dint of sympathetic magic and which implement was also symbolic of fruitfulness or sexual union4 #aig ,the worshipper takes the agave thorn in his hand wherewith to pierce his tongue and other members1 so that the blood thus obtained may produce rain for the growth of the maize4 ,the broom alluded to is a symbol of the earth-goddesses1 and was made of hard1 stiff1 pointed grass1 cut with sickles in the mountainous forests of ,popocatepetl and ,ajusco 7see ,tlazolteotl74 8,thirteen eagles0 is a date in the tonalamatl1 the last day of the division ce calli4 ,it was connected with the ,ciuatete1 the vengeful women who died in childbed1 of whom ,tlazolteotl is the prototype4 ,the 8spear of the prickly plant0 7cactus7 is the weapon of ,mixcoatl1 son of the goddess1 and is here probably alluded to as the lightning which accompanies the rainfall in ,mexico1 for ,mixcoatl is the 8,cloud-,serpent10 8the lightning-god40 ,or the worshipper may complain of weakness from loss of blood shed as an offering by his use of the agave thorn4 ,the warlike nature of ,ciuacoatl is next alluded to4 ,she was evidently identified at ,cuitlauac1 and ,xochimilco1 with the two-headed deer1 an animal frequently connected with the worship of the nomadic ,chichimecs1 as was ,mixcoatl1 her son4 ,she is stuck with eagle feathers or down1 like the successful warrior who had captured an enemy4 ,the warriors must now depart to seek for further victims4 ,the whole song is eloquent of the connection of the earth-cult with war and human sacrifice4 ,ciuacoatl is spoken of by ,duran and ,sahagun as a warrior goddess who gave the ,mexicans victory over their enemies1 and by ,torquemada #aih as the elder sister of the ,mimixcoa1 the stellar gods of the steppe4 ,she it was1 too1 who1 according to another myth1 pounded the human bones brought by ,quetzalcoatl from the ,underworld into a paste1 from which men were formed--an allusion to the belief current in ,mexico that man was made1 or at least 8built up10 from maize4 #aii ,sahagun says of her #bjj that she dispensed adverse fortune1 poverty1 abjectness1 and misery4 ,she was wont to appear to men in the guise of a richly dressed lady1 such as frequented the court4 ,through the night she wandered1 howling and bellowing4 ,occasionally she was seen carrying a cradle1 and when she vanished1 examination showed that the resting-place of what was believed to be an infant contained nothing but an obsidian knife1 such as was used in human sacrifice4 #bja ,there are also indications that she presided over childbirth4 ,,temples ,ciuacoatl had a temple called the ,tlillan ,calmecac1 or 8,black ,college10 where dwelt those priests devoted to her service4 #bjb ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the circumstance that ,ciuacoatl appears with the skull of a dead person leads to the conclusion that1 besides being an earth-deity1 she had phantom or underworld characteristics--a common connection for a grain-goddess4 ,from her hymn we gather that she has a magical influence over the plantation and growth of the maize4 ,she is1 perhaps1 a prototype of the ,ciuatete1 the disappointed and vengeful women who had died in their first childbed1 and the myth of her cradle containing the sacrificial knife is eloquent of the connection of the ,earth-goddess with human sacrifice4 ,her martial character1 also1 is apparent and is a concomitant of her agricultural and sacrificial significance4 ,from her association with ,mixcoatl1 the ,mimixcoa1 the ,chichimec gods1 as from her name1 ,quilaztli1 and her symbol it is evident that she is connected with the ,chichimec or native ,indian cult4 ,her connection with childbed is clear from one of the addresses given by ,sahagun1 who states that the midwife exhorted the woman in childbed to be strong and valiant as was ,ciuacoatl4 8,who first bore children10 in allusion to a myth mentioned by ,gama 7pt4 i1 p4 #ci71 who says that she gave birth to two children1 male and female1 whence sprung the human race--a story ,i have failed to trace elsewhere1 except in ,clavigero4 ,,coatlicue 8,,serpent-,,skirt0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico-,tenochtitlan4 ,minor ,name3 ,coatlantonan 8,our ,serpent ,mother40 ,relationship3 ,mother of ,uitzilopochtli by ,mixcoatl2 mother of ,coyolxauhqui and the ,centzonuitznaua2 wife of ,tezcatzoncatl or ,izquitecatl4 ,festival3 ,feast of the flower-sellers in the second month1 tlacaxipeuliztli4 ,symbol3 ,the eagle's foot4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the face of the goddess is painted with white infusorial earth of the kind known as tiitl4 ,she wears a crown of eagle-feathers and a white overdress4 ,her skirt is formed of serpents1 as her name implies4 ,on her feet she wears white sandals and shells4 ,her shield is inset with eagle-feathers1 and she bears a serpent-staff in her hand4 ,,statues ,much argument has circled around the colossal statue of ,coatlicue 7see ,introduction7 which formerly adorned one of the entrances to the great temple of ,mexico1 and which was evidently supported by upright stones1 so that it formed the key-stone of a gateway where it could be seen by all who passed in and out of the temple4 ,it has been assigned to more than one goddess1 and when it was disinterred amongst other relics in the course of making new drains in the ,plaza ,mayor of ,mexico in ,august #agij1 it was placed in the court of the university and there worshipped by the ,indians1 who decked it with flowers4 ,the ,mexican antiquaries1 relying on a statement by ,boturini #bjc in which he states that ,uitzilopochtli was accompanied by the goddess 8,teoyaomiqui10 regarded the two-faced idol as being bi-sexual and as a composite figure of both gods1 and this notion was perpetuated by ,gama in his ,dos ,piedras4 ,payne1 in his ,history of the ,new ,world1 appends a long and very 8sane0 note to his description of it1 sneers at the conclusions of the ,mexican antiquaries1 and states1 somewhat dogmatically1 that it must be regarded as a representation of ,chicomecoatl4 ,but it is undoubtedly ,coatlicue4 ,in the first place that goddess had a right to a position in the temple of ,uitzilopochtli as his mother1 secondly the idol wears the skirt of serpents which is implied in her name4 ,but this notwithstanding1 the stone figure has obviously a symbolical meaning as illustrating the whole circumstances of human sacrifice4 ,the head is formed by the junction of the heads of two serpents1 which symbolize the two streams of blood welling out from a decapitated body4 ,the flayed skin of the victim is hung in front and is shown knotted behind as in the statue of ,xipe found at the ,castillo de ,teayo4 ,the cups from which octli was drunk are stuck in front of the flayed human skin1 and a skull adorns the serpent-skirt before and behind4 ,through all these attributes1 however1 the personality of the serpent-woman goddess can be sensed as much as observed4 #bjd ,other statues and paintings of ,coatlicue uphold the theory that she is represented by this idol4 ,one found in the ,calle de las ,escalerillas1 and others recovered from the ,calle de ,coliseo in ,mexico ,city1 show her as having the face of a skull4 ,in the latter she wears a peculiar flat headdress with maize-like motifs depending from the back1 and her hair recalls the ruffled 8night-hair0 of ,mictlantecutli4 ,around her body are strange step-motifs which constitute the ends of parallel lines2 and from her ears depend large cotton plugs4 ,she wears a girdle of skulls with serpentine noses4 ,another relief of her found in the ,calle de las ,escalerillas is1 however1 much more enlightening than the foregoing4 ,in this spirited work she wears what is evidently a panache of stone knives or malinalli grass1 the face is that of a skull1 she has the claws of a jaguar1 and the skirt of entwined serpents is noticeable4 ,be all this as it may1 however1 the insignia of the goddess is by no means a fixed quantity1 and considerable research is necessary before anything like certainty can be arrived at4 ,,myth ,sahagun 7bk4 iii1 c4 i7 related of this goddess that near the ancient city of ,tulla or ,tulan rose the mountain of ,coatepec 78,serpent ,mountain071 where lived a woman named ,coatlicue1 mother of certain 8,indians0 called ,cenzonuitznaua4 ,she had a daughter called ,coyolxauhqui4 ,coatlicue1 who was a widow and very devout1 climbed each day to the mountain of ,coatepec to do penance1 and on one occasion1 as she reached its summit1 a little ball of feathers resembling a roll of thread or twine fell upon her4 ,picking it up1 she placed it in her bosom1 and later was unable to find it4 ,shortly afterwards she became enceinte4 ,her children1 observing her condition1 were indignant1 and ,coyolxauhqui advised her brothers to slay their mother for the shame she had put upon them4 ,her unborn infant whispered to her to be of good cheer4 ,but one day her sons armed themselves and prepared to slay her4 ,one of them1 however1 called ,quauitlicac1 whispered to the supernatural child that treason was toward1 and at the moment when1 headed by ,coyolxauhqui1 ,coatlicue's children came to dispatch her1 ,uitzilopochtli was born1 fully armed4 ,falling upon his brothers and sister with his terrible weapon1 the xiuhcoatl1 or fiery serpent1 he speedily dispatched them all4 #bje ,,festival ,tlacaxipeuliztli4--,sahagun 7bk4 ii1 c4 #bb7 relates that on the second day of this month the people of the temple quarter of ,coatlan offered flowers in the temple and made music during the entire day in honour of ,coatlicue4 ,these flowers were the first-fruits of the year1 were offered up by the master florists1 who had a great devotion to the goddess1 and none of the blossoms in their gardens might be smelt until these bouquets had been offered up in the temple of ,coatlicue4 ,they made for this feast tamallis called tzatzapaltamalli 78sharp-tasting herb cakes074 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,coatlicue is1 in one of her aspects1 undoubtedly the flower-covered earth of spring1 from whom1 as it were1 the sun 7,uitzilopochtli7 is reborn4 ,her serpent-skirt is probably symbolic of the circumstance that1 at the season which she represents1 the earth is clothed with the rain as with a garment4 ,the myth which makes her a pious widow is obviously of late1 and probably of hierophantic1 origin4 ,in my view ,uitzilopochtli is chiefly her son in his naualli or disguise of a humming-bird4 ,the humming-bird sucks from the breasts of earth as a child from its mother's4 ,but the myth is highly conglomerate1 and1 as we possess it1 is obviously the result of the fusion of several varying conceptions of the two principal figures4 ,coatlicue's appearance as a serpent in her great statue which has been described above1 and her name of ,coatlantonan1 8,our ,serpent ,mother10 in my view tend to identify her with the earth in its form of dragon1 serpent1 or cipactli1 regarding which hypothesis the reader is referred to my remarks in the ,introduction4 ,it is not improbable that1 like ,xochiquetzal1 ,coatlicue is one of those mountain goddesses from whose sacred heights the rain descended upon the parched fields4 ,this seems likely from the name of her abode1 ,coatepetl 78,serpent ,mountain071 the serpents of which her skirt is composed being symbolical1 perhaps1 of the stream flowing from the tarns or pools situated on its lower acclivities4 ,that such a mountain actually existed in the vicinity of ,tollan is proved by the statement of ,sahagun4 ,uitzilopochtli 7q4v47 is thus the sun which rises out of the mountain1 or is 8born0 from it1 armed with the xiuhcoatl1 or fire-snake1 the red dawn1 with which he slays his sister ,coyolxauhqui1 whose insignia show her to represent the moon1 and puts the stars to flight4 ,,xochiquetzal 8,,flower ,,feather0 ,area of ,worship3 ,plateau of ,anahuac2 ,tlaxcallan2 ,tlalhuica4 ,minor ,names3 ,ce atl 8,one ,water40 ,ce ,mazatl 7,calendar date7 8,one ,deer40 ,mazateotl 8,deer ,goddess40 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the twentieth day 7xochitl7 and of the nineteenth 8week0 7ce quauhtli74 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,festivals3 ,tepeilhuitl 7,tlalhuica74 ,quecholli 7,tlaxcallan74 ,chicome xochitl 7,mexico74 ,relationship3 ,the first woman1 and thus companion of ,piltzintecutli 7the ,sun-god72 otherwise1 wife of ,tlaloc1 abducted by ,tezcatlipoc4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #i3 ,here the goddess is represented as wearing an upper garment of diversified pattern1 finished with a variegated edging4 ,her shawl is painted in the chalchihuitl colours1 and from it depend two strings or ribbons of a dark shade1 completed with a flower4 ,her nose-plate is blue and is formed rather after the fashion of the butterfly design1 while her helmet-mask represents a quetzal-bird4 ,in sheet #eh she is vis--vis with the ,death-god and is garbed like an earth-deity with a many-coloured robe4 ,her hair is dressed like that of the ,zapotec women1 that is1 two tresses are twisted up like horns and secured with parti-coloured bands4 ,on the same sheet 7next picture7 she confronts one of her servitors or priests 7tlamacazque71 and her garments in this place are very similar to those already described4 ,in the next illustration the only addition to her costume is a wreath of flowers1 but under her arm she holds a quetzal-bird and sits opposite a red ,tezcatlipoc4 ,on sheet #ei she is represented in the first place opposite the tlamacazque1 and in the following picture confronts a naked prostitute4 ,between these figures is her servitor1 surprised in the act of pressing the courtesan's breasts4 ,this female is characterized by her wearing of ,xochiquetzal's shawl1 hair-dressing1 and the hieroglyph of the warrior caste 7shield and spears7 shown above her head4 ,in the lowest row of the same sheet the goddess is seen opposite the ,vulture-god1 ,tlacacozcaquauhtli4 ,in the following sheets of the codex her aspect and garb are practically similar to those described above1 with the exception of sheet #fj1 where she appears in the act of parturition1 with the double head and certain of the insignia of ,quaxolotl1 being delivered by ,quetzalcoatl in the character of ,xolotl4 ,in the region of her mouth is an angular line of red4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #db3 ,here ,xochiquetzal is adorned by a wreath of flowers and faces her servant4 ,on sheet #da we observe that her cheek is painted with a round red spot1 like that of the ,sun-god1 whilst her head is adorned with quetzal-feathers1 and the quetzal-bird is held under her arm4 ,she is ensconced on a jaguar skin1 and on her head is the wreath of flowers with two feather tufts1 which is especially characteristic of her4 ,on her face is depicted a red1 angular line4 ,opposite is the figure of her priest1 and between them is a headless woman1 whose head is replaced by a flowering tree4 ,on sheet #ci she is shown as wearing a quetzal-bird mask and a blue1 step-shaped nose-plate1 while her face-paint is elaborately executed4 ,in this picture is seen issuing from her body a quetzal-feather ornament1 symbolic of a newly-born child4 ,in one hand she holds a jewelled ornament1 and in the other an ear of maize1 and she wears the opossum wristlets applied to women in travail4 ,her new-born twins are seated beside her4 ,in another part of this codex she is represented as facing various male deities in characteristic positions1 which are evidently more typical of her personality than any insignia4 ,codex ,laud4--,sheet #ch3 ,she is here represented facing the tlamacazque in a kneeling attitude1 with her hair dressed in a peculiar manner4 ,sheet #ce shows her similarly represented to her picture in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 sheet #ci4 ,her twins are seated one on the instep curve of each foot4 ,pottery ,figures4--,various pottery figures of the goddess found in the ,valley of ,mexico are to be seen in the ,uhde ,collection1 ,berlin4 ,in one of these she is represented holding an infant1 and her general attire agrees with the manuscript representations of her4 ,her hair is dressed in the ,zapotec style1 rising up in two horns and secured with plaited bands4 ,the shawl or tippet with a ,v-shape in front is a constant factor1 and in one example is scalloped1 in another plain1 while in the third it ends in the chalchihuitl ornament and a bead or ball-fringing4 ,in the ,seler collection is a curious little statuette from ,cholula1 in which the goddess is again represented as carrying a child4 ,she wears a flat cap1 almost like that of a cook or chef1 the precise significance of which escapes me1 unless it be a local headdress1 as some other examples in the same collection would seem to prove4 ,in a relief found at ,zanja de la ,piedra ,labrada1 near ,castillo de ,teayo1 she is represented opposite ,tlaloc1 as if to show her connection with rain4 ,her headdress in this place would seem to be a compromise between the ,zapotec hairdressing and a motif representative of florescence4 ,she wears the same ,v-shaped tippet1 which is here adorned with three tassels1 and she has the stepped nose-ornament4 ,in her right hand she carries a sceptre of water-rushes1 the same as that held by ,tlaloc1 and in her left the staff commonly seen in the representation of gods in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio71 and which seems to me to be a development of the chicaunaztli1 or rain-rattle4 ,,myths ,perhaps the most important of these is that found in the ,sahagun collection of songs or hymns 7the ninth item73 ,out of the land of the rain and the mist ,i1 ,xochiquetzal1 come4 ,out of ,tamoanchan4 ,the pious ,piltzintecutli weeps2 ,he seeks ,xochiquetzal4 ,to the land of corruption ,i must go4 ,the goddess here declares that1 like other fertility goddesses1 she comes from the fruitful supernatural country of ,tamaonchan1 the home of the maize4 ,piltzintecutli1 the ,sun-god1 seeks her1 but1 like ,ishtar in ,babylonian myth1 she must betake herself to the ,underworld1 until it is once more time to resume her growth-assisting labours4 ,we have here good grounds for positing the existence of a popular myth which would seem to have recounted how the divine lovers dwelt happily in ,tamoanchan until ,xochiquetzal was forced to quit the blest abode or was carried off1 and was sought for by the ,sun-god1 a myth like that of ,proserpine or ,orpheus4 ,it may refer to the sun seeking the flower1 or may have a bearing upon the myth of ,ixnextli1 a variant of ,xochiquetzal1 who was expelled from ,paradise1 and of whom the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says3 8,ixnextli1 who is the same as ,eve1 is always weeping1 her eyes dim with ashes1 a rose in her hand1 emblematical of her grief1 being in consequence of her having gathered it4 ,and accordingly they celebrate a fast every eight years on account of this calamitous event2 the fast was on bread and water4 ,they fasted on the eight signs preceding the entrance of the rose1 and when that sign arrived1 they prepared themselves for the celebration of the festival4 ,they affirm that every series of five days comprised in this calendar was dedicated to this fall1 because on such a day ,eve sinned4 ,they were accordingly enjoined to bathe themselves on this night in order to escape disease40 ,regarding this myth the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis says3 8,they represented her as ,eve always weeping and looking at her husband1 ,adam4 ,she is called ,ysnextli1 which signifies #8eyes blind with ashes'2 and this refers to the time subsequent to her sinning by plucking the roses4 ,they accordingly declare that they are still unable to look up to heaven1 and in recollection of the happy state which she lost1 they fasted every eight years on account of this fall40 ,it is significant that the goddess pictured beside this statement is called 8,suchiquezal40 ,diego ,muoz ,camargo1 in his ,historia de ,tlaxcala1 equates ,xochiquetzal with ,venus and states that3 8,she dwells above the nine heavens in a very pleasant and delectable place1 accompanied and guarded by many people and waited on by other women of the rank of goddesses1 where are many delights of fountains1 brooks1 flower-gardens1 and without her wanting for anything1 and that where she sojourned she was guarded and sheltered from the gaze of the people1 and that in her retinue she had a great many dwarfs and hunchbacks1 jesters1 and buffoons1 who entertained her with music and dancing and whom she sent as her confidants and messengers to the other gods1 and that their chief occupation was the spinning and weaving of sumptuous artistic fabrics1 and that they were painted so beautifully and elegantly that nothing finer could be found amongst mortals4 ,but the place where she dwelt was called ,tamohuanichan ,xochitl ihcacan1 ,chicuhnauh-nepaniuhcan1 ,itzehecaya1 that is1 #8the house of the descent or of birth1 the place where are the flowers1 the ninefold enchained1 the place of the fresh1 cool winds4' ,and every year she was honoured with a great feast1 to which many people from all parts were gathered in her temple40 ,he continues3 8,they say that she had formerly been the spouse of the ,rain-god1 ,tlaloc1 but that ,tezcatlipoc had abducted her1 and brought her to the nine heavens1 and made her the goddess of love4 ,and then there was another goddess1 ,matlalcuy1 the goddess to whom were attributed witchcraft and soothsaying4 ,her ,tlaloc had made his consort after ,tezcatlipoc had carried off his wife ,xochiquetzal40 #bjf ,another myth1 given by ,boturini1 recounts her temptation of the holy ascetic ,yappan1 who dwelt in a desert place in order to lead a continent and solitary life1 so that he might win the favour of the gods4 ,he took up his abode on a rock called ,tehuehuetl1 but the gods conceived a doubt of his piety1 and sent an enemy of his1 ,yaotl 7enemy71 to watch his movements4 ,even this bitter foe found nothing to cavil at in his conduct1 and women sent by the gods to lead him from the paths of rectitude were sternly repulsed4 ,the divine beings were about to consider his apotheosis1 when ,xochiquetzal1 feeling that her reputation as a tempter of men was at stake1 angrily assured them that she was able to effect his seduction4 ,descending to earth1 she sought out the hermit1 whom she assured of her admiration and esteem1 and asked by what path she might ascend to his rocky seat4 ,all unsuspicious of her intent1 ,yappan descended from his place on the rock and assisted her to climb the rugged eminence4 ,yappan forgot his vow of chastity1 and when the goddess had departed1 found himself deserted by the angry gods to the mercies of his enemy1 ,yaotl1 who slew him out of hand4 ,the gods transformed the slain man into a scorpion1 and ,yaotl having also slain ,yappan's wife1 ,tlahuitzin1 whom he had abandoned for the life ascetic1 she was transformed into an animal of the same species1 and crawling under a stone1 found her husband there4 ,but the gods1 wrathful at ,yaotl's excessive cruelty1 changed him into a locust4 #bjg ,,festivals ,chicomexochitl 78,seven ,flower074--,in the sign ce ocelotl1 on the day chicomexochitl1 the artists united to hold festival to the goddess1 and the laundresses1 says ,sahagun1 #bjh fasted forty days4 8,they joined together1 twenty or more1 to obtain a better quality of pictures and weaves and to this end offered up quails and incense40 ,this was one of the movable feasts4 ,in an illuminating passage in his disquisition upon the ,aubin tonalamatl 7p4 #abc7 ,seler says3 8,as ,i have remarked at the opening of the section1 the goddess ,xochiquetzal is properly the expression of the day-sign xochitl4 ,but owing to the transference of the series of rulers of the day-signs to the weeks in the peculiar way affected by the calendar-makers1 that is1 by a general shifting of one member1 #bji ,xochiquetzal has been brought into association with the sign ce quauhtli 7one eagle74 ,but in ,telleriano-,remensis at this week the hand-mark #baj which indicates the feast-day proper of the ruler of the week stands at the first day itself--the sign ce quauhtli1 that induced the calendar-makers to effect the above-described dislocation in the second half of the list of rulers4 ,for more than one reason the day ce quauhtli must really have seemed to the priestly savants specially appropriate to the goddess ,xochiquetzal1 and above all1 because this day was one of the five which fell at the beginning or western quarter of the tonalamatl disposed in columns of five members4 ,hence these five days were collectively regarded as dedicated to the earth-goddesses1 and as the days in which the ghostly women dwelling in the west1 the ,ciuatete1 swooped down upon earth1 striking the children with epilepsy and beguiling the men to lust and sin40 ,these ,ciuatete were streg1 witches1 succubi1 and their characteristics1 which are touched upon in the section dealing with ,tlazolteotl1 will be more fully outlined elsewhere4 ,quecholli4--,the people of ,tlaxcallan held a festival to ,xochiquetzal in the month quecholli1 when the ,mexicans celebrated the feast of ,mixcoatl4 ,at the ,tlaxcaltec feast numbers of young women were sacrificed to the goddess1 8to the honour of love10 and the prostitutes were also in the habit of offering themselves for immolation1 we are informed by ,torquemada1 #baa first haling the 8honest0 women through the mire and subjecting them to the foulest abuse4 ,the ,tlalhuica1 who lived in the hot lands south of ,mexico1 themselves1 like the ,tlaxcaltecs1 a people of ,nahua race1 held a festival in honour of ,xochiquetzal in the month tepeilhuitl1 which the ,mexicans dedicated to the ,tlaloque1 gods of rain1 as is related by the interpreter of the ,codex ,magliabecchiano4 ,torquemada1 too1 #bab states that the ,tlaxcaltecs sacrificed many children to ,xochiquetzal and to the mountain-gods 7,tlaloque7 evidently at this season4 ,xochiquetzal was also connected with the festival of the atamalqualiztli1 celebrated every eight years4 ,in the picture of that feast in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 we observe her seated at a loom4 ,from these considerations it is manifest that the verdurous and 8watery0 attributes of the goddess connected her with the ,tlaloque1 but that she was not actually of their company4 ,,temples ,in ,tlalhuica1 not far from ,cuernavaca or ,quauhnauac1 stands the pyramid of ,xochicalco1 one of the most perfect specimens extant of ,nahua architectural skill4 ,there is reason to believe that ,xochiquetzal was originally the local deity of one of these mountains the waters from which irrigate the fields below1 #bac and it seems probable that the teocalli of ,xochicalco typified this eminence4 ,we know that the teotlalpan1 or 8,place of ,divine ,earth10 in the sacred precinct at ,mexico1 was sacred to ,mixcoatl1 a deity who was perhaps of ,otomi origin1 and that it was probably symbolic of a mountain in the ,otomi country of which he was the presiding deity1 so that the probability is borne out by analogy4 ,in the country of the ,tlaxcaltecs stood the heights of ,xochtecatl1 8,goddess of the ,flowery ,land10 a mountain1 according to ,torquemada1 about six miles in circumference1 which was the nucleus of a settlement1 and was surrounded by graves hewn out of the solid rock4 ,this1 perhaps1 provides a fuller illustration of the theory advanced above4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the original home of ,xochiquetzal seems to have been among the ,tlalhuica and ,tlaxcaltecs4 ,but as the latter were closely connected with the ,mexicans racially1 there is good reason to believe that she was also an original member of their pantheon4 ,in any case she had a place in the metropolitan calendar1 and the contention of the compilers of both interpretative codices1 as well as of the native author of the picture writings in the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 that she is to be equated with ,tonacaciuatl1 the female member of the creative pair1 seems to have been a later development4 ,but ,xochiquetzal is more especially the goddess of flowers1 the female counterpart of ,xochipilli-,macuilxochitl4 ,as has been mentioned1 she was probably at first the goddess who presided over some lofty mountain whose streams watered the sun-dried plains beneath and clothed them in abundant florescence1 perhaps that very mountain of ,xochtecatl to which allusion has been made1 and which stood in ,tlaxcaltec territory4 ,as the 8feminine0 of ,xochipilli1 however1 she certainly partook of his festive and frivolous character1 and thus presided over the song1 the dance1 and all sportive amusements4 ,by a further slight effort of imagination she came to be regarded as the goddess of illicit love1 or of the sensuous side of intercourse between the sexes1 not so much a goddess of degraded animal passion1 like ,tlazolteotl1 as a figure bearing a close resemblance to the ,apsarasas of ,hindu myth1 lovely and voluptuous1 and1 like them1 addicted to the game of throwing the dice 7patolli74 ,a further step established her as the patron goddess of the prostitutes who existed for the pleasure of the unmarried warriors and who resided with them in the great common house of the bachelors4 ,from this circumstance arose the obscene character of the feast of ,quecholli among the ,tlaxcaltecs and the ,tepeilhuitl festival among the ,tlalhuica4 ,xochiquetzal was also in some measure the patroness of pregnant women1 according to the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a1 and these worshipped and sacrificed to her in order that they should not give birth to girls4 ,she is herself figured in ,codex ,borgia as the great parturient1 and in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b 7sheet #ci7 as has been indicated above4 ,she had also1 like ,xochipilli1 an artistic significance1 as the patroness of weavers and artists4 ,she was revered by the women who practised the former art1 the invention of spinning and weaving was attributed to her1 and many kinds of craftsmen paid her honours4 ,she had1 moreover1 a magical side to her character2 in the ,aubin tonalamatl she is seated opposite the dancing wizard1 and she is furthermore one of the ,tzitzimim1 or deities of the darksome night1 among whom she is symbolized by the spider4 ,,macuilxochitl 8,,five ,,flower10 ,,or ,,xochipilli 8,,flower ,,prince0 ,area of ,worship3 ,tehuacan1 ,cozcatlan1 ,teotitlan del ,camino1 ,oaxaca1 ,mexico4 ,minor ,names3 ,auia teotl 8,god of ,pleasure40 ,mazatl 8,deer40 ,auiatl 8,the ,jovial40 ,symbol3 ,the sign five-flower4 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the eleventh day-sign1 ozomatli4 ,seventh of the thirteen day-lords4 ,ruler of the twentieth day-count1 xochitl4 ,festival3 ,the ,xochilhuitl 78,feast of ,flowers071 one of the movable feasts4 ,compass ,directions3 ,south2 ,west4 ,relationship3 ,brother of ,ixlilton2 son of ,piltzintecutli4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia 7as ,macuilxochitl7 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ae3 ,in this place the god wears as breast-ornament a human lower jaw1 which1 combined with the green band to which it is tied up1 may possibly express the day-count malinalli4 ,he has a large feather nape-ornament4 ,the upper part of his face is white1 with a dark band over the nose and cheek1 and white painting over the mouth1 in the semblance of an outspread hand4 ,he wears a cap with vertically projecting bands painted in the colours of the green jewel chalchihuitl4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,here he is represented with a white hand painted on his mouth and a feather crown surmounted by a crest4 ,general4--,like the other gods of dance and sport1 ,macuilxochitl wears the four balls of the toualli emblem on his shield and sometimes carries the staff with the heart4 ,like ,ixtlilton1 he had probably once a bird's-head mask1 which in the course of his evolution degenerated into a feather crest and a wing on his back4 ,the deterioration of this feature can be observed in the stone effigies of his counterpart ,xochipilli4 ,,statues ,a stone figure of ,macuilxochitl found in ,cuernavaca represents the god seated in a squatting attitude1 and it is evidently intended to show him as an onlooker at the ball-game4 ,he wears a pointed headdress or mitre1 on the top of what would seem to be a cotton head-covering4 ,a head of the god in stone is included in the collection of the ,natural ,history ,museum at ,vienna4 ,in this the nose-plug is prominent and he wears round earrings4 ,the wing-ornament stands well out behind the head and the face seems to look out of a bird helmet-mask1 on both sides of which are large1 circular holes1 through which feathers or cotton ear-plugs fall4 ,the difficulty of working in stone has evidently restrained the sculptor from representing the upper and lower portions of the bird's beak1 and the helmet-mask bears a strong resemblance to that of ,xochipilli in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano1 if the beak in that representation were removed4 ,a statue of the god found in the ,calle de las ,escalerillas in ,mexico ,city on ,december #ac1 #aijj1 is almost identical with the first of those two statues1 and agrees with the second in that here we have the circular holes at the side of the headdress with the dependent feathers or cotton plug4 ,the best known of the representations of this god1 however1 is the clay model found by ,seler at ,teotitlan del ,camino4 ,it represents ,macuilxochitl in a sitting position and is brilliantly coloured4 ,the face of the god looks out of a bird helmet-mask1 highly conventionalized1 and which has practically lost all its birdlike characteristics4 ,the two circular holes below the ear are1 however1 still represented4 ,the upper part of the face is painted yellow1 but under each eye is an oblong patch painted in variegated colours1 such as appears on the faces of the gods of grain4 ,around the mouth is a large white patch1 in which we may see the white hand motif conventionalized4 ,the body-paint is red and the garment white1 except that portion at the neck1 which is blue4 ,small golden bells adorn the necklace and wristlets4 ,in this statuette we have evidently a very late and highly developed figure of the deity1 showing a considerable departure from the earlier drawings and statues of him4 ,in the ,anthropological ,museum at ,berlin is a stone statue of ,macuilxochitl1 also in a squatting attitude1 in which the circular motif above the ear1 with its accompanying plug1 is strongly in evidence4 ,a number of stone statuettes of the god were found at ,tepeaca in the state of ,puebla and are now housed in the ,natural ,history ,museum at ,vienna4 ,these do not differ from the examples already described1 save that in one of them the ,greek fret-pattern takes the place of the circular ear-plug motif4 ,a stone figure of the god was found amid the ruins of the ,castillo de ,teayo1 a teocalli1 or pyramid1 in ,vera ,cruz4 ,in this1 which is also a squatting figure1 the god is covered by a mantle which is surmounted by the bird's comb1 as seen in ,magliabecchiano and elsewhere4 ,around the head are three of the circular holes above mentioned1 one above each ear and one at the back of the head1 from which depend a double strip of cotton or other textile4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia 7as ,xochipilli7 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #bf3 ,in this ,,ms4 the god is painted a light yellow colour4 ,his light hair is bound with a jewelled strap ornamented on the frontal side with a conventional bird's head4 ,round his head he also wears the fillet of the ,sun-god1 ornamented with a feather tuft4 ,as a breast ornament he has a large gold disk suspended from a broad gold chain1 hung with bells4 ,his right hand clasps a bundle of grass1 and in his left he bears a staff embellished with turquoise mosaic and flowers1 probably intended for a rattle-stick4 ,above the twilight symbol of the west in the water are instruments of mortification4 ,on sheet #cb he is represented as of a blue colour with a jewelled chain in front of his mouth4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,the description of the god in this ,,ms4 is similar to that just given4 ,in his hand he supports a dish with ornaments1 a bangle for the upper arm1 a feather tuft and a neck-chain4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ac3 ,in this codex he is seen seated on a royal throne4 ,his body and the lower part of his face are coloured red1 the upper facial region is painted yellow1 but contains a small1 rectangular field1 half-red and half-white1 while round the mouth is executed a butterfly design1 after the manner of ,tonacatecutli and the maize-gods4 ,his blue ear-plug has a jewelled thong dependent from it1 and his nose-plug is reproduced in the colours of the chalchihuitl jewel4 ,on his head he wears the strap decorated by two large jewelled disks4 ,on the frontal side is the stereotyped bird-ornament1 while from the whole1 four ends branch off4 ,surmounting this representation is the symbol of the night-sky1 the dusk-enveloped eye4 ,his nape-ornament consists of red and white feathers blended together4 ,on his breast is a large disk of gold1 secured by strings of greenstone beads4 ,his loin-cloth is adorned with jewelled disks1 and to the back-bow is fastened a coxcoxtli bird's head1 which serves as a 8mirror-tail10 or back-mirror4 ,a portion of the ends of his loin-cloth is coloured like the chalchihuitl jewel4 ,in front of his mouth is a flower from which two jewelled thongs project4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,the mantles worn by ,xochipilli are alluded to in the ,,ms4 which accompanies the paintings in this codex as 8mantas de un selo seor o de ,cinco ,rosas y manta de ,cinco ,rosas0 7see sheets #e and #f74 ,there is also a picture of him on sheet #dg4 ,the figure on the red quemitl which he wears is similar to that worn on sheet #bj of ,codex ,borbonicus by the god ,cinteotl1 and is1 perhaps1 a butterfly motif4 ,,statues ,stone effigies of ,xochipilli were set up in the tlachtli courts4 ,in the ,museo ,naional at ,mexico there is a stone statue of the god which represents him as sitting cross-legged1 as if watching the ball-game4 ,he wears the mask of a player or dancer4 ,by the aid of such statues of ,xochipilli1 which are found in considerable numbers all over the eastern ,mexican slope1 the transition from the bird-helmet to the rudimentary crest may be studied4 #bad ,,myth ,the only mythical matter of importance concerning ,macuilxochitl or ,xochipilli is the nineteenth song in the ,sahagun collection1 which is as follows #bae3 ,,song ,,of ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,music ,,and ,,games ,out of the place of flowers ,i come1 ,priest of the ,sunset1 ,lord of the ,twilight4 ,i come even now1 my granddam1 ,thou of the thigh-skin face-painting1 ,lady of the ,sunset1 ,i1 priest of the ,sunset1 ,lord of the ,twilight4 ,the god of evil omens1 ,the lord ,tezcatlipoc1 ,shall answer to me1 the ,maize-god4 ,in the temple of the octli-god ,the rabbit has come to life again4 ,it runs about4 ,by my god was it created4 ,i will bring down the fire-drill1 fire will ,i twirl ,on the mountain of ,mixcoatl in ,culhuacan4 ,raising my voice1 ,i strike the little mirror2 ,the little mirror has grown weak ,in the temple of the octli-god4 ,the white hair grows moist1 ,ripe has the octli become4 ,i will endeavour to elucidate the above strophes1 the obscurity of which is apparent4 ,the god declares that he comes from ,tamoanchan1 the mythical paradise of flowers and vegetation in the west1 and that he is the priest of the sunset and lord of the twilight1 both of which are characteristic of that region4 ,he invokes his mother1 or grandmother1 ,tlazolteotl1 by names with which her worshippers were familiar4 ,he warns ,tezcatlipoc that he has the power to avert his evil omens1 probably by means of merriment and carousing4 ,the rabbit was the ,mexican symbol of intoxication by octli4 ,this strophe regarding it comes1 as it were1 from the worshipper1 who states that his god ,macuilxochitl or ,xochipilli has created or re-created the rabbit1 or spirit of the octli beverage4 ,sahagun calls ,xochipilli a god of fire1 and we know that he was associated with the sacrificial fire-drill1 which was also the symbol of sexual union and licence4 ,seler thinks that this song shows 8the relation which exists between the pulque 7octli7 gatherings1 the deity of feasts and the fire-drill40 #baf ,,festivals ,xochilhuitl4--,of the feast of flowers over which this god presided ,sahagun says3 8,the great folk made a feast1 dancing and singing in honour of this sign1 decorating themselves with their feathers and all their grandeur for the areyto4 ,at this feast the king bestowed honours upon warriors1 musicians1 and courtiers40 ,he states 7,lib4 ,,ii1 ,appendix c1 xix73 8,they made each year in his honour a feast called xochilhuitl4444 ,during the four days which preceded this feast all those who were to take part in it1 men as well as women1 observed a rigorous fast2 and if during that period a man had commerce with a woman or a woman with a man1 they held that the fast was soiled2 that the god held it for a high offence1 and that he would visit the offenders with maladies in their privy parts4444 ,before the feast everyone deprived himself of the use of chilli pepper4 ,they fed upon a kind of broth called tlalcuilolatolli1 which is to say1 #8broth decorated with a flower in the middle4'444 ,those who fasted without the use of chilli or other savoury things1 ate only once a day at midday40 ,those who did not fast ate fermented bread4 ,the people ornamented themselves with the symbols of the gods 8as if they aspired to represent their images10 and danced and sang to the sound of the drum4 ,at midday they beheaded a great number of quails and made offerings of their blood before the image of the god4 ,they also pierced their ears in his presence4 ,others pierced the tongue with the spines of the maguey1 and passed through it a great number of osier reeds4 ,another ceremony consisted of making five tamalli 7cakes7 of maize1 which they called 8fasting bread40 ,these were placed beneath an arrow called xochimitl 78flower-dart07 and were offered to the idol as from the whole community4 ,those who wished to make a separate offering gave the god five tamalli upon a wooden platter1 and chilmolli soup in a vase4 ,maize in all shapes and forms was also offered up4 ,on the same day all the great folk in ,mexico who lived near the frontiers of an enemy brought the slaves whom they had captured to the capital for sacrifice4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,this god appears to have had a highly developed cult among the peoples of ,tehuacan1 ,cozcatlan1 and ,teotitlan del ,camino4 ,he is primarily a god of flowers and food1 that is of abundance1 and as such he equates with the god ,cinteotl1 with whom some of the sacred hymns even seem to confound him4 ,but there are strong reasons why he should not be wholly identified with ,cinteotl1 as ,seler attempts to do1 and as the ,mexicans certainly did not do1 unless in later times4 7,see ,cinteotl47 ,it may be1 however1 that he was originally a god of vegetation1 who later became more especially a god of flowers1 the cult of which was one particularly favoured by the people of ,mexico4 ,however this may be1 there is no doubt that the joyous and sportive side of the god developed at the expense of all others1 and we find ,sahagun speaking of him under his two names as 8the god of those who served for the amusement or pastime of the great40 #bag ,he is1 indeed1 the god of merriment1 of dance and sport1 of the ball-game1 the jester or buffoon1 and moreover presides over the gambling game of patolli1 which he is seen patronizing in the ,magliabecchiano ,,ms4 ,according to ,jacinto de la ,serna1 he is the god of the great gamblers who frittered away their substance4 ,as the god of sport he is frequently represented by the ape1 the beast of mimicry and diversion4 ,but he had also a more worthy side1 for to artists of all kinds1 painters1 weavers1 and musicians in especial1 he stood as the patron of all artistic effort1 and those engaged in it celebrated their worship of him at the xochilhuitl festival4 ,several of the mantle designs in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano indicate that as a flower-god he was not forgotten by the weavers' caste4 ,he has associations with several other gods besides ,cinteotl1 especially with ,ixtlilton 7q4v471 who is spoken of as his brother1 and with the ,ciuatete1 or deceased warrior women1 probably because as a food-god he was supposed to come from the west1 the place of plenty1 where they resided1 or1 more likely1 because of the hunger for earthly excitement displayed by these pleasure-starved dead women1 debarred from the sensuous delights of earth4 ,his connection with the octli-gods as the god of merriment and abundance of victuals and festive good things is plain2 and he is very naturally the male counterpart of the goddess ,xochiquetzal 7q4v474 ,as hailing from a locality where planetary mythology was in an advanced condition1 and where the worship of the morning star was practised1 he may have had an astronomic significance1 but what this was precisely is by no means clear4 ,we probably assess his nature correctly if we allude to him as a god of pleasure1 feast1 and frivolity4 ,,xipe ,,totec 8,,our ,,lord ,,the ,,flayed0 ,area of ,worship3 ,plateau of ,anahuac1 ,zapotecs1 ,yopis4 ,minor ,names3 ,tlaltecutli 8,lord of the ,earth40 ,anauatl yteuc 8,lord of the ,seaboard40 ,tlatauhqui ,tezcatlipoc 8,the ,red ,tezcatlipoc40 ,itztapaltotec 8,our ,lord of the ,flat ,stone40 ,youallauan 8,night ,drinker40 ,symbol3 ,in ,codex ,borgia a quail with its head torn off seems symbolical of this god4 ,calendar ,place3 ,lord of the fifteenth day1 quauhtli1 and of the fourteenth week1 ce itzcuintli2 with the ,fire-god1 lord of the twentieth tonalamatl division1 ce tochtli4 ,festival3 ,tlacaxipeuliztli4 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ib3 ,xipe is depicted in this codex as clothed in the flayed skin of the sacrificed human victim1 which1 after the dreadful rite1 was drawn over the priest's body and worn for a number of days4 ,the slit eyes of the mask he wears shows that this also is composed of human skin4 ,he wears a nasal rod and plate having the general appearance of the peculiar peaked cap with which he is sometimes represented4 ,the ends of his loin-cloth are slit and coloured white and red4 ,sheet #fb4 ,as ruler of the fourteenth tonalamatl division and god of the fifteenth day-count1 ,xipe is represented on this sheet as a red ,tezcatlipoc4 ,the limbless body is red1 the costume of the same colour1 but with a face-mask of yellow1 tinted to represent dead human flesh1 with the chapfallen jaw of the dead1 narrow slit eyes1 as on sheet #ib1 and a red streak running over the eye1 the full length of the face1 indicative1 perhaps1 of the place where the operation of flaying was commenced4 ,here the nose-cap is also reminiscent of ,xipe's peculiar peaked cap1 its ends especially resembling those of that headdress4 ,two red and white bands1 the colours of the roseate spoonbill1 depend from the ear4 ,the hair is bound by a fillet on which are twin ornaments of dull gold1 and above this rise two rows of quetzal feathers4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,a4--,plate xiv1 ,duc de ,loubat's reproduction3 ,as a back-device he wears the three banners which are also shown of him in the picture in ,duran's collection4 ,as god of the fourteenth tonalamatl division1 he holds a shield1 banner1 and a bundle of spears1 while half of his shield is painted in dark and light red rings4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #di3 ,in the ,codex ,borgia1 ,xipe is shown in his character of the patron god of the warrior's death by combat1 or the stone of sacrifice4 ,he wears a wig made from the downy feathers of the eagle1 which1 however1 does not altogether conceal his flame-coloured hair1 two forelocks of which recall the hairdressing of ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 the god of the planet ,venus4 ,underneath is shown his small petticoat or apron of green zapote leaves4 ,from his mouth protrudes a double-jewelled string1 which1 perhaps1 signifies the fertilizing rain1 for as god of human sacrifice he has a connection with the gods of fertility4 ,he is similarly represented on sheet #be1 where he is also shown as ruler of the fourteenth tonalamatl division1 and the picture indeed bears a close resemblance to that in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 except that his breast-ornament1 carved from a snail-shell1 is attached to his variegated feather necklace4 ,in this place he also wears a feather wig with a red crest made of the plumes of the roseate spoonbill1 alternating with chalchihuitls on leather and the heads of rattle-sticks4 ,image of ,xipe found at ,castillo de ,teayo1 showing him dressed in the skin of the sacrificed victim4 ,codex ,borgia ,group ,generally4--,in this group generally ,xipe stands as the representative of the sign of the day quauhtli4 ,his insignia are the same as those of the red ,tezcatlipoc1 with striped face-painting1 but executed in red and yellow without the human skin1 or other special characteristics1 and decorated only with the warrior's headdress and ,tezcatlipoc's ring-shaped breast-ornament4 ,the head and neck are covered with cloth1 on which are stuck downy feather-balls4 ,he holds in some places a severed arm1 which he appears to be smelling or about to devour4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,in this codex ,xipe is represented as ,tezcatlipoc1 and has the face-painting of the red phase of that god1 with the smoking mirror at his temple1 the characteristic white ring1 and the peculiar form of feather back-ornament1 which is to be seen in some other ,tezcatlipoc pictures of this codex4 ,but he wears on his head-fillet1 instead of jewelled disks1 an ornament of beaten gold1 the crown of roseate spoonbill feathers1 the ends of the bands shaped in swallow-tailed fashion1 and other insignia pertaining to his own regular dress4 ,the quetzalcomitl on his back carries a banner painted in light and dark red1 his especial colours1 and he also bears a shield painted in light and dark red concentric circles4 ,in this codex he holds a fire-pan1 painted with large patches of rubber gum1 in which is inserted the rattle-stick with ,xipe's bands and loops coloured red and white1 or light red and dark red with bifurcated ends4 ,vienna ,codex4--,xipe is represented here in the flayed human skin and designated by the date 8,seven ,rain40 ,codex ,nuttall 7,zouche74--,sheet #hc3 ,in this codex there is a good representation of the god1 especially as regards his headdress4 ,he is depicted as the warrior secured to the stone of combat1 whose eye sheds tears at the thought of approaching death1 and he bears in his hands the btons with which the military victims defended themselves against their adversaries 7see ,festival74 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,this describes him as having a brown face covered with the feathers of the quail1 and with open lips 7chapfallen jaw874 ,his crown has parted ends1 and he wears a wig of curled feathers4 ,he has golden ear-plugs4 ,round the hips he has a woman's short skirt of zapote leaves1 and shells decorate his feet4 ,his shield is red1 with concentric circles1 and he carries a rattle-staff4 ,,masks1 ,,vases1 ,,etc4 ,the well-known mask of ,xipe in the ,british ,museum represents the mask of the sacrificed victim4 ,on the back or inside1 the carving of the god shows him wearing his full insignia1 with the peculiar headdress and rattle-staff4 ,another mask of ,xipe in the ,bauer collection is of a most individual character4 ,it was found near ,tezcuco1 and bears both wind and serpent symbols4 ,on a stone at ,cuernavaca is incised a good representation of the shield1 darts1 and flag of ,xipe1 with date ce ocelotl 78one ocelot074 ,on a cup in the ,aldana collection ,xipe is seen wearing the flayed skin1 with a necklace1 evidently of intestines4 ,his hair is dressed in a manner resembling that affected by the warrior caste1 and he carries the rattle-staff4 ,,statues ,representations of ,xipe in statuary are considerably numerous4 ,several found in the ,valley of ,mexico are housed in the ,uhde collection1 ,berlin4 ,two of these represent the god as wearing the victim's flayed skin and one of them is pitted with marks1 evidently indicative of blood-spots4 ,the crown with feathers of the roseate spoonbill is well exemplified in one of these1 but in the other a mitre-like headdress superimposed upon a circular crown1 from which depend large ribbons or paper ornaments1 is noticeable4 ,in another of these figures the headdress is a sort of barret-cap with knobs or studs4 ,still another figure of the same class shows the god with a very large stepped nose-ornament4 ,all carry a rattle-staff and three bear a shield4 ,a most striking statue of ,xipe was discovered at the ,castillo de ,teayo site1 at ,vera ,cruz4 ,the head1 which is round and bullet-shaped1 bears an extraordinary resemblance to that of the well-known ,egyptian figure of the ,sheik-el-,beled in the ,boulaq ,museum4 ,in this statue the god wears the skin of the victim1 and the manner in which it was tied on to the priest is well illustrated by the knotting at the back4 ,the faces1 of course1 are masks of the sacrificed victim4 ,,elements ,,of ,,xipe',s ,,insignia ,although ,xipe is so frequently portrayed as possessing the outward characteristics of a red ,tezcatlipoc1 few of the ,mexican deities possess insignia so individual1 or so rich in manifold elements4 ,the ,xipe dress was a favourite one with ,mexican kings and military chieftains1 and1 in the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a1 ,king ,motecuhzoma ,,ii is represented as wearing the costume on the occasion of his victory over ,toluca4 ,tezozomoc also states that ,axayacatl wore this dress1 #bah and on the eve of a fierce engagement ,tlacauepan1 brother of ,motecuhzoma1 donned it at the latter's special request4 ,the elements of ,xipe's costume are as follows #bai3 7#a7 ,the painted crown of feathers of the roseate spoonbill1 with bifurcated ends4 7#b7 ,the gilded timbrel4 7#c7 ,the jacket of spoonbill feathers4 7#d7 ,the petticoat or apron of zapote leaves1 overlapping each other like tiles4 7#e7 ,the jaguar or ocelot-skin scabbard4 7#f7 ,the round shield covered with red spoonbill feathers1 showing concentric circles of darker tints1 sometimes noticeably bisected1 one-half of which is again subdivided obliquely into a smaller upper portion containing a chalchihuitl on a blue field1 and a larger lower portion1 covered with jaguar or ocelot-skin4 ,xipe's dress has three forms3 7#a7 ,that of the red god1 of the colour of the roseate spoonbill4 7#b7 ,that of the blue god1 of the colour of the blue cotinga4 7#c7 ,as a jaguar or ocelot4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says of ,xipe3 8,amongst those who began to follow the example of ,quetzalcoatl and his austerities by their own acts of penance1 ,totec is very famous1 who1 on account of his having been a great sinner1 first stood in the house of sorrow called ,tlaxipuchicalco1 where1 having completed his penance1 he ascended the mountain ,catcitepulz 7#8the mountain which speaks'71 which mountain was covered with thorns4 ,there continuing his penance1 he cried from thence very strongly1 reproving his people of ,tulan1 calling to them to come and do penance with him for the enormous guilt which they had incurred in forgetting the services and sacrifices of their gods and having abandoned themselves so much to pleasure4 ,they say that ,totec was accustomed to go about clothed in a human skin and so it has been the custom till those times4 ,in the festivals1 likewise1 which they celebrated to ,totec1 men clothed themselves in the skins of those whom they had slain in war and in this manner danced and celebrated the festival of the sign dedicated to him 7for from him1 they say1 wars originated71 and accordingly they paint him with these insignia1 viz4 a lance1 banner1 and shield4 ,they hold him in the utmost veneration1 for they say that he was the first who opened to them the way to heaven2 for they were under this error amongst others2 they supposed that only those who died in war went to heaven1 as we have already said4 ,whilst ,totec still continued doing penance1 preaching and crying from the top of the mountain which has been named1 they pretend that he dreamed this night that he beheld a horrible figure with its bowels protruding1 which was the cause of the great abomination of his people4 ,on this1 praying to his god to reveal to him what the figure signified1 he answered that it was the sin of his people1 and that he should issue an order to the people1 and cause them all to be assembled1 charging them to bring thick ropes1 and to bind that miserable spectre1 as it was the cause of all their sins1 and that1 dragging it away1 they should remove it from the people1 who1 giving faith to the words of ,totec1 were by him conducted to a certain wild place1 where they found the figure of death1 which1 having bound1 they dragged it to a distance1 and drawing it backwards1 they fell all into a cavity between the two mountains1 which closed together1 and there they have remained buried ever since2 none of them having effected their escape1 with the exception of the innocent children who remained in ,tulan40 ,a few lines farther on the interpreter says3 8,the two masters of penance were ,quetzalcoatle and ,totec1 who was called by another name1 ,chipe2 who1 having taken the children and the innocent people who remained in ,tulan1 proceeded with them1 peopling the world1 and collecting along with them other people whom they chanced to find4 ,they further add that1 journeying in this manner with these people1 they arrived at a certain mountain1 which not being able to pass1 they feign that they bored a subterranean way through it and so passed4 ,others say that they remained shut up and that they were transformed into stones1 and other such fables40 ,the first part of this myth is1 of course1 merely tiological of the practice of making vows to ,xipe to capture and immolate an enemy in his honour1 as1 we shall see in the paragraph dealing with his festivals1 was done on that occasion4 ,but ,i would point out that it possesses some importance as providing further evidence regarding the existence of the ascetic life in ,mexico1 most of the myths dealing with which1 like that under discussion1 are connected with the ,toltecs1 the people of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,xipe1 who plays the part of the ,toltec ,jeremiah1 is here the subject of a tale which is also recounted of ,tezcatlipoc1 with whom he is frequently confounded or identified1 perhaps because both were great gods of the sacrificial stone1 or for the reason that practically all ,mexican cults tended to gravitate towards ,tezcatlipoc in late times4 ,that portion of the story which details the burial en masse of the ,toltecs is1 of course1 the widespread tale of the disappearance of the old hero-race underground--the fate which overtook ,charlemagne and his peers1 ,king ,arthur and 8the auld ,picts0 at ,arthur's ,seat1 near ,edinburgh1 ,barbarossa and his men1 and many another group of paladins4 ,the whole may allude1 in the ultimate1 to mound-burial4 ,it is strange too--or quite natural1 as we believe in1 or doubt1 the penetration of ,america by alien influences--to find in ,mexico an incomplete variant of the legend of the ,pied ,piper of ,hamelin4 ,i should not be surprised to find that ,xipe piped the ,toltec children into the ,underworld1 for ,tezcatlipoc1 with whom he was identified1 or at least the captive who represented that god at the ,toxcatl festival1 and who had a year of merriment in which to prepare himself for his fate1 went through the city at intervals1 playing upon a flute4 ,this almost universal myth may allude to the ancient belief that the souls of the dead travelled with the wind1 and were the cause of its sighing and whistling4 #bbj ,we know1 too1 that the whistling of the night wind through the mountains was regarded by the ,mexicans as of evil omen1 and that ,yoalli ,eecatl 7,the ,wind of ,night7 was one of the names of ,tezcatlipoc4 #bba ,the following song from the ,sahagun ,,ms4 is in celebration of ,xipe3 ,wherefore dost thou disguise thyself1 ,o ,night-drinker8 ,put on thy golden garment4 ,o my god1 thy rich sacrificial water descended2 ,the lofty cypress tree has become a quetzal2 ,that which was a serpent has become a quetzal4 ,the fire-serpent1 the famine1 has left me4 ,it may be that ,i shall go thence to perish1 ,i1 the young maize-plant4 ,my heart is like a chalchihuitl2 ,but ,i shall yet see gold in that place4 ,i shall be satisfied when ,i can say ,the warrior chief is born4 ,let the maize be ready in abundance1 ,o my god4 ,i look towards thy mountain1 ,i1 who worship thee4 ,i will be satisfied ,when the maize ripens1 ,when the warrior chief is born4 ,i believe the god to have been called 8,night-drinker0 from the circumstance that1 in the belief of certain barbarous peoples1 vegetation is more greatly assisted in its growth by night than by day1 that it 8drinks10 or is saturated by1 the mists and vapours of the night season1 which are believed to emanate from the moon4 #bbb ,indeed1 dew is believed to be caused by the moon1 #bbc which is regarded as the great source of all moisture1 as the sun is the great source of all heat4 #bbd ,xipe is here entreated by the young maize-plant to don his golden garment1 the rain1 as1 indeed1 one translation of this song states it to be1 taking a reasonable liberty with the original4 ,when the rain comes the cypress glitters like a quetzal-feather1 a ,mexican euphuism for a glittering gem1 or anything very precious4 ,the xiuhcoatl1 or fire-serpent1 is the terrible weapon of ,uitzilopochtli1 with which he slew his rebellious brothers and sister1 the enemies of his mother ,coatlicue1 as ,indra slew those of his mother1 both of these events occurring immediately after the birth of the gods thus compared4 7,in the case of ,indra the weapon was a thunderbolt47 ,the fire-serpent in this place evidently symbolizes the scorching1 torrid heat which brings about famine4 ,if the rain continues not1 the maize-plant1 the young heart of which is green as jadeite1 and from which the golden maize will emerge later1 may perish4 ,finally the worshipper 787 states that he will remain unsatisfied until the plumed and full-grown plant1 symbolic of the warrior and all that he fights for1 has come to fruition4 ,my reading of this song differs considerably from those of other authorities1 but ,i may1 perhaps1 be pardoned if ,i say that ,i prefer my own elucidation as at least more circumstantial and more in line with the facts of ,mexican belief4 ,,festival ,tlacaxipeuliztli4--,the best description of this festival is that of ,sahagun 7bk4 ii1 c4 xxi7 who tells us that on the last day of the month of that name the ,mexicans celebrated a solemn festival to ,xipe and ,uitzilopochtli4 ,on the afternoon of the day prior to that on which the feast was to take place they held a solemn areyto1 or dance1 and they watched all the night in the temple called calpulco #bbe with those who were to be sacrificed on the morrow4 ,they shaved the hair from the tops of their heads1 at the same time drawing blood from their own ears to offer to the gods4 ,when daybreak had come1 they conducted the captives to the temple of ,uitzilopochtli1 where they were sacrificed and flayed1 from which circumstance the feast took its name4 ,many of the victims were called ,xipeme or ,tototectin 7plurals of the god's name74 ,the masters of the captives1 or those who had captured them in war1 formally handed them over to the priests at the foot of the teocalli1 and these took them by the hair of the head to make them mount the steps more quickly4 ,if they refused to walk to the stone of sacrifice they were dragged thence4 ,when their hearts had been withdrawn they were offered up to the gods1 and the body cast down the steps of the teocalli1 where other priests received it for flaying4 ,the hearts of the unfortunates thus slaughtered were thrown into a tub of wood and took the name of quanochtli1 or 8nopal wood10 of which the tubs were made4 ,the flaying process was undertaken by a caste of elderly and probably inferior priests1 the quaquacuilton4 #bbf ,before the bodies of the sacrificed were so treated they were carried to the temple1 where the 8master0 of the captive had made his vow to capture and consecrate a victim to the god4 ,the body was broken up at this place1 and a leg was dispatched to court for the table of the king1 the remainder being divided among the great1 or the master's parents4 ,the dreadful repast was usually partaken of in the house of him who had taken the captive prisoner in war4 ,they cooked the flesh with maize and gave a little to each in a small porringer4 ,the dish was called tlacatlaolli1 or 8man and maize40 ,after having eaten1 the feasters became intoxicated on octli4 ,on the following day1 having watched all the night1 they went to amuse themselves by examining the other captives1 and in watching them being baited on the stone of combat4 ,these latter were known as uauantin1 8the pierced10 with reference to the wounds they received4 #bbg ,before the sacrificial rites took place the captors of the victims gathered together1 and when the victims had been dispatched the captors1 or certain priests 7it is not clear which71 drew on the skins of the flayed victims1 and took up positions on hillocks of hay or heaps of chalk or rubbish4 ,others approached them1 and defied them to combat by words and pinches4 ,a skirmish ensued1 and those who were captured did not escape scot-free1 being rather roughly handled4 ,this mock combat over1 the real business of the day began in terrible earnest4 ,the wretched captive was secured by one ankle to the temalacatl1 or stone of combat1 and wooden btons on which eagle-down had been stuck1 in imitation of a maquahuitl1 or obsidian-edged sword1 were placed in his hands4 ,four warriors now came against the victim1 two of the ocelotl corps of knights and two of the quauhtli or ,eagle ,corps1 and having raised their shields and weapons to the sun1 one of them attacked the captive tied to the stone4 ,if he defended himself with address1 two or even three of his opponents attacked him1 and if he still made good his resistance1 all four fell upon him1 8intermingling their blows with dances and numerous poses40 ,prior to the combat a solemn procession was formed to the temalacatl4 ,a body of priests1 dressed in the insignia of one or other of the gods in whose honour the festival was held1 issued from the yopico 78in ,yopi land071 the temple of ,xipe1 followed by the tecutlis1 or knights1 already alluded to1 who flourished their weapons and made a martial show4 ,arrived at the temalacatl1 they marched round it1 and seated themselves on carven stools called quecholicpalli 78perch of the strong bird074 ,the priest who took charge of the proceedings was called ,youallauan 7,night-drinker71 one of the names of the god1 and when all were seated1 an orchestra of trumpets1 flutes1 and conch-shells struck up1 mingled with whistling and singing4 ,the performers wore on their shoulders streamers of white feathers mounted on long staves1 which1 as we have seen1 was part of the ,xipe dress1 and sat between the priests and the stone of combat4 ,when the frightful overture had concluded1 a captive was placed on the stone by the person who devoted him to sacrifice1 and a beaker of octli was given him to hearten him to fight well4 ,this he presented to the four points of the compass1 and then sucked its contents through a reed4 ,a priest then took up his stand in front of the doomed man1 and holding a living quail before him as before a god1 tore off its head4 ,another priest clad in a bear-skin secured the captive to the stone and handed him his weapons1 and then his captor danced before him1 as before a divinity4 ,the combat then took place1 and in the unusual event of a victim overcoming the four well-appointed warriors who opposed him1 a fifth1 who must be a left-handed man1 rushed in1 raised the exhausted victor in his arms and threw him to the ground1 where he was dispatched by the ,youallauan4 ,the victim's heart was then thrown into the wooden tub before alluded to1 after it had been held up to the sun4 ,another priest now took a hollow reed and introduced it into the opening from which the heart had been removed4 ,having drawn off a sufficient quantity of blood1 he went to offer it up to the sun4 ,the master of the captive who had been slain then filled a bowl with the blood of his victim1 which vessel was gaily decorated with feathers and which contained a tube1 similarly ornamented4 ,with this he went the round of the temples1 smearing the blood upon the lips of the idols with the feathered tube4 ,he next divested himself of the gay feather cloak he wore for the occasion and carried the flayed corpse of his captive1 or what remained of it1 to his house1 after royal and other requirements had been met4 ,as has been said1 he feasted his family and friends on the body1 but did not himself partake of it1 as he was regarded as the ritual father of the deceased4 8,the skin of a victim also belonged to his captor1 and this he gave to those who dressed themselves in skins 7in consequence of a vow71 and so attired1 paraded the streets of the town4 ,others wore the heads of wolves40 #bbh 8,when the captive had been slain1 all who were present1 priests1 warriors and others1 began to dance the areyto round the temalacatl1 the captors of the victims carrying the heads of the slain4 ,this areyto1 or dance1 was called motzontecomaitotia 7dance with decapitated heads74 ,the cuitlachueue 7old jackal #bbi71 godfather of the captives1 took in his hands the cords which had held them to the temalacatl and raised them to the four cardinal points in sign of adoration4 ,after that #8he groaned1 he wept for the dead4' 8,the foreigners with whom ,motecuhzoma was at war came to assist secretly at the spectacle4 ,these were the men of ,uexotzinco1 ,tlaxcallan and ,nonoualco1 ,cempoallan1 and many other places4 ,the ,mexicans pretended not to see them1 and they were thus able to behold the fate reserved for captives in ,mexico4 ,when all was over1 everyone ate a tortilla called uilocpalli1 or pigeon-seat1 a kind of little pat made with uncooked maize4 ,next day everyone assisted at an areyto of great solemnity1 which was commenced in the royal palace4 ,all were dressed in their best and carried tamallis and tortillas of roasted maize1 called momochtli1 which they wore instead of collars and garlands4 ,they carried also red feathers and stalks of maize4 ,the areyto ceased at midday1 and the nobles ranged themselves three and three in the royal palaces4 ,the king appeared1 having upon his right the ,king of ,tezcuco and on his left the ,lord of ,tacuba4 ,a solemn dance then took place1 which lasted until the sun went down1 after which they commenced another dance1 in which everyone took hands and danced in a serpentine figure4 ,the old soldiers and recruits came to this dance1 bringing with them female partners and even public women4 ,this lasted also on the place where the captives had been slain till nearly midnight1 and they continued to celebrate these feasts for nearly twenty days1 until they had arrived at the kalends of the month which they called tozoztontli40 ,twenty days after the festival those who wore the skins of the slain removed them1 but it would seem1 from what ,sahagun says1 that certain devotees wore these from the festival of tlacaxipeuliztli at the end of that month to the beginning of the following tlacaxipeuliztli4 ,persons afflicted with skin diseases or weak sight frequently made a vow to be present at this ceremony4 ,the devotees then performed ceremonial ablutions in a bath in the temple1 in which water was mixed with maize flour1 or1 more strictly speaking1 they were bathed by others4 ,they then shampooed their heads and did penance for the death of the captive4 ,after this the captor erected a tripod in the court of his house1 on the top of which was a petlatl1 or mat rolled into a ball1 on which he placed all the paper ornaments which the captive had worn at his sacrifice4 8,he then chose a courageous young man who wore those papers1 and who took a shield in one hand and a cudgel in the other1 and went through the streets as if looking for an evil-doer4 ,everyone was afraid1 and cried1 #8,behold the telzompac 7noble one7 comes6' ,if he caught anyone he took his mantle1 and all the spoil he took he brought back to the captor4 ,the captor then placed in the middle of the court of his house a joist in the form of a column1 which indicated that he had made captives in war1 and which was the blazon of his honour4 ,then he took the thigh-bone of the captive1 ornamented it with the papers1 and attached it to the top of the column in his courtyard4 ,he then invited his parents1 friends1 and the men of his quarter1 in presence of whom he hung the bone up1 and then he gave them to eat and drink4 ,family songs were sung4 ,all these things were done in the twenty days before they arrived at the uei tozoztli4 ,the goldsmiths1 of whose caste ,xipe was the patron1 probably because the yellow human skin in which he was represented as being clad typified an overlay of gold-foil1 held a festival during tlacaxipeuliztli in the yopico temple sacred to the god1 sacrificing and burning victims to him1 and covering a human representative of him with ornaments and precious stones1 a crown of feathers1 golden necklaces and earrings1 and scarlet sandals4 ,they then placed him upon a throne and offered him the first fruits and flowers of the season1 together with bunches of maize-seed4 ,the mode of sacrifice by shooting to death with darts or arrows was employed in connection with ,xipe as well as in the case of ,tlazolteotl 7q4v474 ,a captive was secured to a scaffold and shot with darts1 so that his blood might fall upon the ground4 ,this usage may be regarded as of the nature of sympathetic magic to secure rainfall4 ,,temples ,at least three buildings were erected to the honour of ,xipe at ,mexico4 #bcj ,the first of these1 known as yopico 78in ,yopi land071 has already been alluded to1 and was probably the principal place connected with his worship4 ,it was at this temple that the ceremonies of the tlacaxipeuliztli festival took place4 ,the second1 called yopico calmecac1 appears to have been situated in the quarter of ,tlatelolco1 and1 as its name implies1 was evidently a monastery or place of instruction4 ,at another edifice1 the yopoci tzompantli1 the heads of the victims slain at the festival of the god were exhibited4 ,in front of the first of these stood the temalacatl1 the stone to which the captives were secured when they fought with the ,mexican warriors before they were finally sacrificed4 ,,priesthood ,the ,xipe yopico teohua1 or priesthood dedicated to the service of ,xipe1 is enumerated among the various classes of priests charged with the service of the gods1 #bca and held in their keeping ,xipe's insignia and the accessories for his festival4 ,they resided in the yopico calmecac or monastery4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,xipe is pre-eminently a god of seed-time and planting4 #bcb ,he is the ,tlaltecutli1 or 8,lord of the ,earth10 and in a secondary sense1 the god of the warrior's death on the stone of combat1 because of the association between the food-supply and military service for the purpose of gaining captives4 ,there can be no question that ,xipe was of ,zapotec origin2 indeed1 that is manifest from the name of his temple1 ,yopico1 which means the 8land of the ,yopi0 or ,tlappeneca1 a people of ,zapotec affinities1 and his cap was known as yopitzontli1 8the ,yopi head40 ,one of his names was ,anauatl itecu1 or 8,lord of the ,coastland10 and we know from ,herrera #bcc that he was especially worshipped in the district of ,teotitlan1 which commands the road to ,tabasco4 ,both ,sahagun and the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a uphold his alien origin4 ,just as the ,egyptian priests of ,ammon at ,thebes once a year killed a ram1 flayed it1 and clothed the image of their god in the skin1 just as the ,celtic priest wore the skin of a bull at certain festivals1 so the ,mexicans slew and flayed a man1 in whose skin they clothed their priests and those who desired to be closely associated with the god4 ,the idea underlying this practice would appear to be the renewal of the life of the deity4 ,it seems to have some bearing on the phenomena of the system known as 8totemism10 regarding the real significance of which we know so little1 despite the seeming erudition which has of late years been lavished upon its consideration1 for1 as we have seen1 the captor of the slain victim was not permitted to eat of his flesh1 although that may only have been taboo to him because he stood to the doomed man in the relation of a sponsor4 ,xipe represents the earth 8flayed10 that is bare1 and ready for sowing4 ,the flaying of the captive and the dressing of the god's representative in the skin may have been of the nature of sympathetic magic1 as a suggestion to the earth to rehabilitate itself in its covering of yellow maize4 ,it is precisely the agricultural god whom in ,mexico we must expect to find clothed in all the attributes of the warrior1 and truly ,xipe does not disappoint us in this respect4 ,he is armed cap--pie1 and his dress was the favourite harness of ,mexican royalty when it went forth to battle1 as witness the ,spartan suggestion of ,motecuhzoma to his brother on the eve of a great combat4 #bcd ,the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a calls him 8il guerreggiatore attristato40 ,thus at his feast the sacrifice takes the form of a combat4 ,indeed1 he represents the warrior caste1 by the efforts of whom the altars of ,mexico were supplied with human victims1 and the maize-crop was consequently secured4 ,xipe is in some measure associated with that sacred bird the quail1 which has been connected with sacrifice in many lands4 ,this bird frequently takes refuge in the last sheaves of grain in a harvest-field1 and thus1 perhaps1 came to symbolize the corn-spirit driven from its last stronghold4 ,in ,normandy in the harvest-field the reapers pretend to catch a quail and dispatch it4 #bce ,the quail was sacrificed to the ,tyrian ,baal1 #bcf and is associated by ,robertson ,smith with the god ,eshmun-,iolaos4 #bcg ,the bird-like character of ,xipe's dress may assist us in the belief that he was partially evolved from some bird of the quail species commonly found in the maize-field4 ,he bears a strong resemblance to the ,maya god ,f4 ,xipe was probably a maize-god of the ,yopi who came to partake of the character of an ,aztec grain-and-sacrifice deity1 his own type of immolation1 the shooting by arrows1 being partially superseded by the warrior's death upon the temalacatl4 ,it would seem that1 as the god of a people of ,nahua race1 but older in their occupation of the land than the ,aztec and ,chichimecs1 he probably took much the same line of development after his worshippers settled in the ,yopi country as ,tezcatlipoc and ,uitzilopochtli took in a more northern environment1 that the resemblance was recognized by the ,aztec 7as is shown by his affinity with ,tezcatlipoc1 with whom1 indeed1 he is identified as ,tlatlauhqui ,tezcatlipoc1 or 8the ,red ,tezcatlipoc071 and that under their guidance his festival took a similar form to that of the gods in question4 ,his festival is certainly a mytho-dramatic performance explanatory of the preparation of the earth for the sowing of grain1 the soil being rehabilitated by the death of the captive warrior4 ,,xilonen 8,,young ,,maize ,,mother0 ,area of ,worship3 ,originally ,huichol tribes2 later1 ,valley of ,anahuac4 ,festival3 ,uei tecuilhuitl1 in the eighth month4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the face is painted half red1 half yellow1 and the goddess wears a crown of paper decorated with quetzal-feathers4 ,her collar is of green precious stones and her overdress is 8the colour of spring flowers0 7red74 ,her skirt is of the same hue4 ,she wears sandals1 and carries a shield with horizontal lines4 ,in her hand she holds a red rattle-board4 ,,festival ,the ,uei tecuilhuitl4--,the festival to ,xilonen was the uei tecuilhuitl1 or 8great festival of the chiefs10 which lasted eight days and was celebrated when the maize-plant had almost reached maturity4 ,our chief authorities for its events are ,sahagun #bch and ,torquemada4 #bci ,the former states that at this period of the year 7,june-,july7 the women wore their hair unbound1 in order that the maize might be prompted to grow in equal luxuriance4 ,during the days of the festival such persons as visited the temple were permitted to drink abundantly of chian pinolli 7a beverage manufactured from the seed of the chian tree1 mingled with maize-flour and aloe honey7 and as much maize-porridge as could be grasped in the hand1 to symbolize the plenty which would follow the ripening of the grain4 ,the food thus supplied was the gift of the chiefs1 from which circumstance the festival took its name4 ,dancing commenced each night at sunset1 and was accompanied by singing1 the scene being illuminated by the glare from burning pine-torches4 ,the dancer around whom interest chiefly centred was the xalaquia 78she who is clothed with the soil071 a slave girl who represented the goddess1 wearing her red face-paint1 large square headdress and variegated raiment4 ,she was constantly guarded by three old women called her 8mothers10 and was sedulously instructed in the dancing-school for the part she had to play4 ,in all likelihood she was kept in complete ignorance of her impending fate4 ,day after day she danced1 surrounded by the women of the community1 who shook their long hair1 and it was believed that the maize-crop would be vigorous or the reverse as her terpsichorean exertions were spirited or listless4 ,on the last day of the rites1 the priestesses of the ,maize-goddess1 attired in her insignia1 gathered together in the teopan1 or temple-precinct1 and accompanied the victim in a performance which lasted throughout the night4 ,when day broke1 the chief nobles and warriors of ,mexico joined the women and danced a solemn areyto1 the men dancing in front and the women behind them4 ,in this manner they danced to the foot of the teocalli of the goddess1 which they ascended1 the victim being carried on the back of one of the priests1 after the manner of a bride being borne to her husband's house4 ,arrived at the summit1 she was decapitated and her heart offered to the goddess4 ,until she was sacrificed no one might eat of the new maize1 lest it should fail to ripen4 ,,priesthood ,the ,cinteotzin 7,lord of ,maize71 says ,sahagun1 had charge of affairs at the festival of ,xilonen 7see ,cinteotl74 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,xilonen appears to be nothing more than a deification of the young1 tender ear of the maize-plant4 ,her name1 the season at which her rites took place and the youth of the xalaquia who represented her would seem to bear this out4 ,she was originally a goddess of the ,huichol tribes1 and1 by some circumstance of evolution or imagery1 came to symbolize for the ,nahua the maize in the earlier stages of its ripeness1 thus to some extent resembling ,cinteotl4 ,payne and also ,seler in some places seem to confound her festival with that of ,chicomecoatl1 and offer no reasons for thus traversing the statements of the older authorities1 which are definite enough and which in this instance ,i prefer to follow4 ,,itzpapalotl 8,,obsidian ,,knife ,,butterfly0 ,area of ,worship3 ,originally ,chichimec tribes2 ,mexican ,plateau4 ,relationship3 ,associated with ,mixcoatl and the ,centzon ,mimixcoa2 one of the ,tzitzimim4 ,symbols3 ,the butterfly2 ,mixcoatl's stone knife4 ,compass ,direction3 ,earth 7874 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the sixteenth day1 cozcaquauhtli2 of the fifteenth 8week10 ce calli4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ib3 ,in this representation and on the sheet devoted to the fifteenth tonalamatl division and its ruler1 ,itzpapalotl is depicted as furnished with human teeth1 but is predominantly animal in form1 retaining1 however1 certain peculiarities which indicate the intention that she should be regarded as an insect4 ,she displays a kind of butterfly wing1 edged round with stone knives4 ,above her is figured the flowering tree broken in the middle from which blood flows4 ,this symbol denotes the ,tamoanchan1 or ,house of ,descent1 the region of the mythical west1 home of the maize-plant and seat of the primeval gods1 where the wandering tribes were said to have made a long sojourn4 ,in sheet #fc she is represented as standing upon a platform1 which seems to be covered with a symbolic leaf--perhaps that on which butterflies are most usually found4 ,she has a dark body edged with white1 and the claws and face are flecked with ulli rubber gum4 ,the head is an adaptation of that of ,tlaloc1 and a short1 wheel-shaped wing occupies the back from nape to tail-root4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #aa3 ,in this place the goddess is depicted as a woman with jaguar claws on hands and feet4 ,the facial painting is like that of ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 but the features are those of the ,death-god--a skull with a stone-knife nose4 ,she wears a collar with the form and colouring of a butterfly's wing1 and her dress is set with stone knives at prominent points4 ,she is accompanied by an animal of rapacious aspect1 perhaps a jaguar or ocelot4 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4--,a butterfly with antenn and wings acts as a naualli1 or disguise 7a kind of helmet-mask71 to a female figure which has death's-head teeth1 animal claws on the hands and feet1 and a blue-coloured disk on the cheek4 ,as in ,codex ,borgia1 this face has a stone knife on the nose1 a collar studded with stone knives1 and on the head the warrior's forked heron-feather ornament4 ,the crown is of dark feathers1 the sombreness of which is lightened by quetzal plumes and a loin-cloth like that of the ,ciuatete or ,ciuapipiltin1 the dead women who had perished in childbed1 and who were regarded as partaking of the nature of warriors4 ,the end of the loin-cloth and skirt is trimmed with a hem of teeth4 ,as a back-mirror she wears a death's-head1 below which hangs a 8star-skirt10 to the plaited thongs of which rattling snail-shells are attached4 ,aubin-,goupil ,tonalamatl 7#aeth ,division74--,here the goddess looks out of a butterfly helmet-mask4 ,her face is painted a red colour and she is decorated with dark plumage on arms and legs4 ,she has a snail-shell before her face1 and wears a gold disk on the breast4 ,opposite her are a broken tree and a beheaded captive1 whose body spouts two streams of blood in the shape of snakes' heads4 ,she is seated on a throne ornamented with small disks4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,here the goddess is pictured as a demon of darkness1 tzitzimitl1 who descends from heaven in the form of an eagle4 ,bas-relief4--,a bas-relief1 known as the stone of ,aristides ,martel1 represents the goddess as in the act of flight1 and agrees with the representations of her in the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis and the ,codex ,borbonicus4 ,the face is intended to represent that of an insect with round eyes and almost reptilian mouth1 and the headdress is flat and covered with feather balls4 ,the hands and feet are furnished with long claws4 ,in this place the feather-marking of the goddess presents a distinctly serpentine appearance and she is surrounded by serpent motifs1 between the folds of which is seen the cross-hatching symbolical of these reptiles4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis regards ,itzpapalotl as a male deity1 probably because1 like the ,ciuatete or women who died in childbed1 who were regarded as the equals of the warriors1 she wore a male loin-cloth4 ,he says3 8,he was called ,xounco and after he sinned ,yzpapalotle4 ,the sign of this name is a ,knife of ,butterflies1 and accordingly he is surrounded with knives and wings of butterflies2 for they say that he sometimes appears to them1 and that they only see feet resembling those of an eagle4 ,yzpapalotle was one of those who fell from heaven with the rest1 whose names are the following3 ,quealcoatle1 ,ochululuchesi1 ,tezcatlipoca1 ,caleteotle1 and ,hatzcanpantecoatl40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a also labours under a misapprehension regarding ,itzpapalotl's sex4 ,he states3 8,yxpapalotl signifies a knife of butterflies4 ,he was one of those gods who1 as they affirm1 was expelled from heaven2 and on this account they paint him surrounded with knives and wings of butterflies4 ,they represent him with the feet of an eagle1 because they say that he occasionally appears to them1 and they only see the feet of an eagle4 ,they further add that1 being in a garden of great delight1 he pulled some roses1 but that suddenly the tree broke and blood streamed from it2 and that in consequence of this they were deprived of that place of enjoyment and were cast into this world because ,tonacatecutli and his wife became incensed1 and accordingly they came some of them to the earth1 and others went to hell4 ,he presided over these thirteen signs2 the first of which the house 7calli7 they considered unfortunate1 because they said that demons came through the air on that sign in the figure of women such as we call witches1 who usually went to the highways1 where they met in the form of a cross40 ,in the song to ,tlazolteotl1 the fourth of the ,sahagun series1 we find the following strophes relating to ,itzpapalotl3 ,the stone-knife butterfly ,who hovers over the cactus4 ,her food is on the ,nine ,plains1 ,she was nurtured on the hearts of deer1 ,our mother1 the ,earth-goddess4 ,the reference to the ,nine ,plains alludes to the circumstance that ,itzpapalotl is a goddess of the ,chichimec1 or hunting people4 ,the two first lines of this song are translated by ,seler as follows3 8,o1 she has become a goddess of the melon cactus1 ,our mother ,itzpapalotl1 the ,obsidian ,butterfly40 ,the inference in these lines seems to be that whereas ,itzpapalotl was formerly the goddess of a hunting tribe who sacrificed deer to her1 she has now become the deity of the cultivated field and a settled agricultural community4 ,this hypothesis would appear to gain strength from the text of the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan1 where ,itzpapalotl is spoken of as the foundress of the oldest ,chichimec kingdom in ,nequameyocan1 8,place of the ,wild ,agave40 ,camargo states #bdj that the tribes issuing from ,chicomoztoc1 8,the ,seven ,caves10 first came to ,mazatepec1 8,the ,deer ,mountain10 then to the province of ,tepeueuec1 where a victim was sacrificed to ,itzpapalotl by shooting him with arrows1 a circumstance which in itself proves the goddess to have been associated with the earth4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,like ,mixcoatl1 with whom she is closely associated1 ,itzpapalotl appears to have been originally one of the ancient stellar and lightning deities of the ,chichimec or nomadic tribes of the northern plains4 ,later1 on the abandonment of the hunting mode of subsistence and the acceptance of a more settled and agricultural mode of life by the tribes who worshipped her1 ,itzpapalotl would appear 7as the allusion to her in the song to ,tlazolteotl seems to show7 to have become a goddess of the food-supply1 the melon-patch1 and the maize-crop4 ,she was one of the ,tzitzimim1 or demons of darkness1 and as such symbolically took insect shape 7cf4 ,xochiquetzal as a spider71 but beneath her butterfly form there lurks the symbol of the old1 fierce earth-mother with claws and merciless1 protruding teeth1 which were originally evolved from those of the cipactli1 or earth-monster4 ,it seems to me also that she bears about her the marks of the deer1 and at this ,i am not surprised1 as ,i am convinced that in many lands the deer is regarded as a surrogate of the dragon1 and is thus frequently associated with fire and water4 ,indeed1 in places1 ,itzpapalotl is tacitly identified with the mythical deer ,itzcuy1 #bda the captive and wife of ,mixcoatl4 ,that ,itzpapalotl is associated with fire is probable1 and we know from the song that she was nurtured on the hearts of deer4 ,from her association with the obsidian cult and the fact that she is closely connected with ,mixcoatl1 whose obsidian knife is her symbol1 ,i should not be surprised to find further evidence that she is in some manner identified with the lightning1 the heavenly fire1 or the stars4 ,again1 we know that the butterfly was in some measure associated with the ,ciuatete1 the women who died in childbed4 ,we know1 too1 from ,sahagun's account that at the festival of the ,ciuatete the people offered cakes stamped with a butterfly and ,s-shaped cakes to these spirits1 to represent the lightning4 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 ,itzpapalotl wears the male loin-cloth1 like the ,ciuatete1 and in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b 7sheet #ib7 there is represented near her a flowering tree broken in the middle and spouting blood1 the glyph or symbol of ,tamoanchan1 the paradise of the west1 where dwelt the ,ciuatete4 ,in the ,mexican mind the gaudy hues of the butterfly may have become associated with the brilliance of the western sky at sunset1 and this may account for the connection which undoubtedly exists between ,itzpapalotl and the western home of the ,ciuatete4 ,again1 the insect may typify the frivolous nature of these dead women4 #bdb ,however1 the precise significance of this goddess is by no means easy to arrive at1 and in any case is composed of elements of considerable obscurity and diversity4 #bdc ,tezcatlipoc1 it may be recalled1 is 8the obsidian snake40 ,his obsidian sandals in some ,,mss4 bear the zigzag lines of the snake and1 as has already been said1 the footgear is frequently eloquent of the name or character of a person or divinity in ,mexican painting4 ,in ,itzpapalotl we seem to see another deity of the obsidian cult4 ,certain of her pictures as a butterfly are1 as has been indicated1 of dragon-like aspect1 and we know that the butterfly is in some countries a surrogate of the dragon4 ,is obsidian to be regarded as the 8bones0 of the cipactli1 the earth-beast or dragon8 ,,zapotlantenan 8,,mother ,,of ,,zapotlan0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico2 ,zapotlan4 ,symbol3 ,the eagle-feather4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,behind the region of the chin and on the front part of the neck the goddess has a black1 almost beard-like painting4 ,she wears a crown of paper flecked with ulli gum1 and decorated at the top with quetzal-feathers4 ,her collar is of chalchihuitl stones and she wears a plain overdress and skirt edged with horizontal bands1 connected by slanting strips4 ,her feet are sandalled1 and her shield has the insignia of the eagle-feather4 ,in her hand she carries the rattle-staff of the ,rain-god4 ,,priesthood ,sahagun states 7,appendix to bk4 ii7 that ,zapotlantenan had a special high-priest1 the ,zapotlan teohuatzin1 who was charged with making all the necessary arrangements for the festival of that goddess1 such as procuring a supply of paper1 copal1 ulli1 and odoriferous plants for incense4 ,clavigero says that she was annually honoured with the sacrifice of human victims and with particular hymns composed in her praise4 #bdd ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,sahagun states #bde that she was said to have been the inventor or discoverer of turpentine1 which was used in ,mexico for medicinal purposes1 and it seems probable that she may have been revered as a goddess of medicine4 ,clearly she is also an earth-goddess of the people of the populous valley of ,zapotlan1 on the other side of the ,otomi country1 adopted into the ,mexican pantheon1 but having no place in the calendar4 ,,ilamatecutli 8,,the ,,old ,,princess0 ,area of ,worship3 ,tehuacan 7872 ,cozcatlan 7872 ,chichimec4 ,minor ,names3 ,citlallinicue 8,she of the ,starry ,skirt40 ,cozcamiauh 8,necklace of ,maize40 ,calendar ,place3 ,thirteenth of the lords of the day-hours4 ,compass ,direction3 ,the ,middle4 ,festival3 ,tititl 78stretching of limbs07 in the seventeenth month4 ,relationship3 ,spouse of ,iztac ,mixcoatl2 variant of ,tonacaciuatl or ,ciuacoatl4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheets #i1 #aa3 ,in this representation the goddess is shown with hair composed of heron-feathers and wearing a white garment4 ,in the pictures of this codex the contracted corners of her mouth1 due to old age1 are indicated by a ring-shaped ornament worn below the upper lip4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,she has a skeleton's head1 which differs from that of the ,death-god in that it is coloured yellow1 with red lines instead of black1 but shows a similarity to it in the ruffled 8night-hair0 with which it is covered4 ,in most of the pictures of her in this codex her blue dress is dotted with circular white spots which are perhaps intended for stars4 ,this garment is completed with thongs1 from which depend snail-shells1 a decoration also seen in the rattling girdle ornaments 7citlalicue7 characteristic of the ,earth and ,underworld goddesses4 ,,myths ,according to the myth related by ,motolinia1 #bdf ,ilamatecutli or ,ilancuy1 as he designates her1 was the wife of ,iztac ,mixcoatl 7q4v471 with whom she dwelt in ,chicomoztoc1 8the land of the seven canes10 the mythical officina gentium of the ,mexican tribes1 whence the aboriginal ancestors of the several races of ,mexico were supposed to have had their being4 ,by a second wife1 ,chinamatl1 or ,chimalmat1 ,iztac ,mixcoatl became the father of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,,festival ,tititl 78,stretching of ,limbs074--,this festival was held in the ,kalends of the seventeenth month1 probably about ,december #ai4 #bdg ,a female slave was bought by the authorities and dressed as follows3 ,she wore an upper garment or peplum of white stuff and a skirt of the same colour1 beneath which showed the citlalicue1 or star-skirt1 of the goddess1 a dress sprinkled with stars1 cut at the ankles in the shape of many thongs1 from each of which hung a small shell1 so that when she walked these came together and made a rattling sound4 ,her sandals were white and she bore a shield whitened with chalk1 having a design of eagle's feathers in the centre4 ,fringes of heron's feathers terminating in eagle's plumes hung from the lower edge of the shield4 ,in the other hand she carried the tzotozopaztli1 a wooden knife1 used for pressing cloth4 ,her face was painted black and yellow4 ,her hair was dressed in the form known as tzompilinalli1 or 8hair tied at the temples10 and eagle's plumes fell from it behind4 ,before the victim was dispatched they made her dance to the sound of instruments played by old men1 which mingled with the chanting of the priests4 ,the wretched woman wept and sobbed as she danced1 and as evening approached she was taken to the temple of ,uitzilopochtli1 accompanied by all the priests wearing their insignia and the masks of their gods1 one of which was that of ,ilamatecutli4 ,on arriving at the summit of the teocalli1 or pyramid-temple1 she was immediately slain1 her heart was torn out and she was decapitated4 ,the head was given to the priest attired in the insignia of the goddess1 who held it in his right hand by the hair1 and engaged in a dance1 raising and lowering the horrid trophy1 and in this solemn measure he was accompanied by the priests who represented the other divinities4 ,they then descended the steps of the teocalli in procession1 and sought their quarters4 ,the priest of ,ilamatecutli carried a great cane1 the stock of which had three roots4 ,the mask of the goddess which he bore had two faces with 8great mouths1 bulging eyes1 and surmounted by a crown of paper cut into sharp points40 ,the priests1 disguised as gods1 having entered the calpulli1 or priests' quarters1 a priest descended from the teocalli dressed as a young exquisite1 wearing a splendid cloak1 his head decorated with white plumes and wearing in place of sandals the hoofs of a deer4 ,he carried in his hand a leaf of the maguey1 surmounted by a little paper banner4 ,he proceeded to the quauhxicalco1 a place of sacrifice principally associated with human offerings to ,tezcatlipoc1 where there was a small cage made of pine-wood and covered with paper1 and known as 8the granary of ,ilamatecutli40 ,the priest laid the maguey-leaf in this receptacle and then set the whole on fire4 ,seeing this1 the other priests rushed to the summit of the teocalli4 ,this ceremony was known as the xochipayna1 or 8flower-running40 ,placing on high a flower called teoxochitl1 or 8blossom of the god10 the first who gained the eminence seized upon it and cast it upon the quauhxicalco where the 8cage0 burned4 ,upon the following day the men and boys made little sacks1 which they filled with flowers or paper1 and with these they skirmished with one another and beat the young girls who chanced to pass by4 ,the purpose underlying this celebration is obscure4 ,the costume worn by the victim is1 of course1 that of the goddess herself1 and we may1 perhaps1 infer that the wooden knife she carried1 the purpose of which was to press cloth1 was symbolical of one of the domestic duties of the older women1 whom she appears in a measure to have represented4 ,the exercise of dancing to which the victim was subjected seems to bear reference to the name of the festival1 tititl1 the 8stretching of limbs10 and its purpose was probably to ensure vigour and 8liveliness0 in the earth or soil1 for it was about this period that the winter solstice occurred and the labours of the field were renewed4 ,the ,earth-mother must1 therefore1 stretch her limbs ere she once more took up the great task of growth4 #bdh ,the decapitation of the slave girl was probably a dramatic-mythical representation of the reaping of the maize4 ,the 8great cane0 borne by the priest of ,ilamatecutli was1 of course1 the magic rain-rattle1 so prominent an adjunct to many ,mexican religious ceremonies4 ,the 8young exquisite0 we must surely explain as a representative of vegetation1 his deer's-hoofs sandals having1 perhaps1 a pluvial significance1 or else indicating the swift growth of the maize-plant1 which takes but four months to ripen4 ,the burning of the maguey-leaf in the granary would seem to indicate the end of the season of vegetative luxuriance and the commencement of that of domestic fires1 and the casting of the sacred blossom into the flames probably possessed a similar significance4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,ilamatecutli was unquestionably a goddess of the primeval time1 as her aged appearance in the manuscripts1 her association with ,iztac ,mixcoatl1 the old ,chichimec god1 and her connection with fire would lead us to suppose4 ,she is primarily a goddess of the earth and of maize4 ,her stellar connection and her name ,citlallinicue 7,star ,skirt7 are eloquent of her ,chichimec derivation1 and she may represent the starry night sky1 or possibly the ,milky ,way1 just as does her mythical husband1 and in this she connects with ,tonacaciuatl4 ,as an earth-goddess she has also a plutonic significance and can be equated with ,mictecaciuatl1 mistress of ,hades1 in this resembling many other earth-goddesses4 ,again1 she is the 8old goddess0 par excellence1 patroness of old women1 and worker at the metate1 or stone on which the maize cakes were1 and still are1 made by ,mexican women4 ,her connection with fire proves her relative antiquity4 ,the circumstance that her mask is described as being two-faced leads me to believe that her idol or image had been evolved from the 8,kirn-baby10 or doll made at harvests out of the last sheaf of grain and furnished with a face and hands1 frequently with two faces1 in order that it should not prove of bad omen to those following the image in procession4 ,in this respect ,ilamatecutli is similar to ,chicomecoatl 7q4v474 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,rain ,,and ,,moisture ,,introductory ,the gods of rain proper are clearly to be distinguished from the gods of grain and growth1 although they were regarded by the ancient ,mexicans as stimulating vegetable plenteousness4 ,that they were paramount in the practical theology of the rain-cult #bdi is evident1 for1 whereas ,quetzalcoatl was regarded in one of his phases as the deification of the rain-making priest1 ,tlaloc and the ,tlaloqu possessed the entire disposition of the rainfall4 ,sahagun's remarks upon ,quetzalcoatl make it clear that in this connection he was regarded as a wind-god who swept the way clear for the rain-gods1 or ushered in the rains4 ,myth related how ,quetzalcoatl1 the first discoverer of the maize1 was robbed of his find by ,tlaloc1 who afterwards had the governance over its growth and distribution4 ,although the high-priest of the ,mexican hierarchy was called by the name of ,quetzalcoatl1 the prelate next in importance to him bore the name of ,tlaloc4 ,although ,quetzalcoatl was above all regarded by the ,aztec as a god of wind1 evidence is not lacking that to some extent he was looked upon as a rain-god1 or at least a rain-bringing god4 ,but the overwhelming superiority of the ,tlaloqu in this cult is witnessed to by the fact that out of eighteen great seasonal festivals1 no less than five were dedicated to them4 #bej ,those of the ,tlaloqu1 or gods of rain1 whose names are known were3 ,tlaloc1 the father of all1 ,chalchihuitlicue1 his wife and sister1 ,nappatecutli1 god of the mat-makers1 who used aquatic reeds in their work1 ,atlaua1 8,lord of the ,beaches0 or lake shores1 ,uixtociuatl1 goddess of salt1 and ,opochtli1 god of fishers and fowlers1 and inventor of the net4 ,concerning the ,tlaloqu ,sahagun remarks3 8,the ,mexicans take for gods all those high mountains from which the rain comes in the rainy season1 and for each of these they imagine an idol4444 ,they also believe that certain maladies proceeding from cold have their origin in the mountains and that these gods have the power to visit them upon them4 ,those who were attacked by such complaints made a vow to this or that mountain1 whichever chanced to be in the neighbourhood1 or that for which they entertained the most devotion4 ,a similar vow was made by persons on the point of being drowned in the rivers or in the sea4 ,the maladies for which they made these vows were gout in the hands1 feet1 or any other part of the body1 impotence in any member1 or in the entire body1 rheumatism1 the contraction of the members or cramp4 ,those who were visited with these maladies made a vow to raise a statue to the following gods3 to the idols of the volcano called ,popocatepetl in the ,sierra ,nevada1 to a mountain named ,poyauhtecatl1 or any other to which the feeling of devotion inclined them4 ,when they proposed to offer up to the mountain or gods1 they made an image in human form1 a mass called tzoalli40 #bea ,these the people did not make themselves1 but called in the offices of those priests skilled in the making of idols1 who moulded them out of the paste and gave them teeth of calabash pips and eyes of haricot beans4 ,the rest of the process of manufacture is as described in the account of the festival of the atemoztli 7see ,tlaloc74 ,these small figures were known as tepictoton1 and1 like the sacrificial victims to the rain-gods1 their hair was dressed in two horns or whorls4 ,,tlaloc 8,,he ,,who ,,makes ,,things ,,sprout0 ,area of ,worship3 ,plateau of ,anahuac4 ,minor ,names3 ,chicunaui ,ocelotl 8,nine ,jaguar0 7or ocelot74 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the seventh day-count1 mazatl 7deer71 and of the seventh tonalamatl division1 ce quiautl 7one rain74 ,compass ,direction3 ,the four quarters in his several aspects4 ,festivals3 ,atlacahualco1 tozoztontli1 etzalqualiztli1 tepeilhuitl1 atemoztli4 ,symbols3 ,his head1 with serpentine motif and tusks2 the day-sign nine ocelot4 ,relationship3 ,husband 7#a7 of ,xochiquetzal2 7#b7 of ,matlalcuy or ,chalchiuhtlicue4 ,father or brother of the ,tlaloqu4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,the evolution of the familiar and characteristic face of ,tlaloc is perhaps best exemplified in a stone statuette included in the ,uhde collection in the ,royal ,ethnological ,museum1 ,berlin4 ,in this striking example of the ,mexican sculptor's art a representation of the face of the god is skilfully contrived by the arrangement of two snakes or serpents1 the tails of which form eye-orbits and a species of nose1 the reptiles' heads meeting in the region of the mouth1 their fangs thus serving the god for teeth4 ,it is rarely in aboriginal art that a conception so individual and striking is encountered1 and great imaginative ability must be conceded the sculptor who conceived it4 ,it is not known whether the later pictures and carvings of ,tlaloc were evolved from this effigy1 but it is not unreasonable to suppose that either from it or similar representations the later conception of him came into being4 ,we observe in the examples shown in the illustrations that the custom of representing divine beings in profile resulted in his case in the survival of a mere ring about the eye and a spirally convoluted band forming the upper lip and depending from it for some distance4 ,these are painted blue in the ,,mss4 ,more faithfully preserved are the long tusk-like teeth1 which in certain stone effigies1 however1 degenerate into several straight1 downward strokes4 ,this head of the ,rain-god is almost invariably reproduced as the symbol for the day-sign atl 7water74 ,representations of ,tlaloc in the codices of the ,borgia group occasionally show a development of the lip-band1 which rises upwards and includes the nose1 thus1 perhaps1 indicating a transition form4 ,in the ,vatican ,b1 ,fejrvry-,mayer1 and ,laud ,codices the prolongation of the lip-band and its serpentine character are apparent1 the snake's teeth and eye being clearly visible4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ad3 ,in this place the body-paint of ,tlaloc is green1 although1 as a rule1 it is black elsewhere4 ,the face is half-black1 half-yellow4 ,the eye and lip-bands are blue4 ,the head is crowned with white heron-feathers1 such as are worn by the octli gods4 ,a fillet surrounds the forehead1 and from this spring four rosettes1 which may symbolize the four quarters from which the rain falls4 ,the headdress and its accompanying ornaments are painted in alternate stripes1 green and white1 sprinkled with liquid rubber4 ,a paper tie adorns the shoulder1 such as was used for the decoration of offerings1 or in the ceremonial arrangement of the dead4 ,the ear-plug is square1 to indicate1 perhaps1 the four quarters4 ,it is in this codex 7sheet #ab7 that we obtain the best evidence of the reflection of the various points of the compass upon the character of the great god of rain4 ,but the most important pictures in ,codex ,borgia relating to ,tlaloc are those on sheet #bg1 which illustrate the cycle of fifty-two years1 and show in the four corner compartments the four days which form the initial days of the four quarters of the cycle4 ,they do not1 however1 commence with ce acatl1 8one reed10 ce tecpatl1 8one flint10 ce calli1 8one house10 ce tochtli1 8one rabbit10 as might be expected1 #beb but with ce cipactli1 8one earth-beast10 ce miquiztli1 8one death10 ce ozomatli1 8one monkey10 and ce cozcaquauhtli1 8one vulture10 for the reason that the tonalamatl signs here shown are hieroglyphic of the four quarters of the heavens1 rather than allusive to the dates of the grand cycle of fifty-two years4 ,the middle or fifth region1 which is without a hieroglyph1 is ascribed to the central figure4 ,the lower to the right represents the east4 ,to it belongs the first division of the calendar1 as well as the first day of the great cycle4 ,tlaloc in this picture is painted a dark colour1 and wears the cipactli head of the first calendar division as a helmet-mask4 ,the sky above him is figuratively drawn to represent a cloudy firmament holding rain about to fall1 and he stands upon the cipactli1 or earth-beast1 which symbolizes the fruitful earth1 from whose body springs the maize-plant1 represented as a tiny head or mask1 on each side of which sprout leaves4 ,the god empties his jar upon the soil1 and its contents are seen to be a renewed supply of maize-ears1 indicating the bounteous nature of the eastern ,tlaloc4 ,the figure on the upper right shows the deity in his northern aspect4 ,the second division of the tonalamatl and of the cycle are indicated in its dating and on its helmet-mask4 ,the yellow colour of the god in this picture is supplemented by the symbolism of a bright atmosphere sending down sharp rays of light1 shown in conventional form by ,v-shaped emblems stabbing downwards from aloft4 ,beneath the god are shown three vessels filled with the brown-coloured water which falls when the ,rain-god is unpropitious4 ,indeed1 it bears within it the symbols of death1 the death's-head eye and bony nasal spine4 ,the artistic effort is to portray water which has been sucked up by the parched and cracked soil of a ,mexican ,june--water which has been insufficient in quantity1 or has fallen too late4 ,there are present1 too1 in the picture1 the vampire shapes of such insects as devour the maize1 each decorated with the death's-head4 ,but1 more fatal sign than all1 from the pitcher of the god descends the lightning-axe1 wrapped in symbolic fire4 ,the northern ,tlaloc1 then1 is no deity of plenty1 but obviously represents the ,rain-god in his most deadly and terrible aspect4 ,the god in his western complexion is painted blue1 and wears as a helmet-mask the sign of the third calendar division4 ,a cloudy sky flecked with rain shows the partial descent of the serpent-like showers1 and the maize-plants beneath him stand in heavy puddles of water4 ,the southern aspect of ,tlaloc 7that on the lower left7 is painted red1 and the helmet-mask is in vulture form1 as in consonance with the sign of the fourth calendar division4 ,from a cloudless sky dart the conventional sun-rays as described in the second picture1 but beneath the foot of the divinity are representations of the maize-plant run to seed4 ,small animals1 the faces of which bear some resemblance to a death's-head1 devour them4 ,once again the lightning-axe falls from the jar held by the god1 accompanied by its bright1 symbolic flame4 ,the central figure represents the influence of the ,rain-god from the zenith4 ,the ,tlaloc who presides over this situation is striped red and white 7the colours of night and twilight7 and he is represented in the normal insignia of the ,rain-god4 ,he is accompanied by the signs for day and night1 and the earth-goddesses cluster around his feet4 ,from the jar he holds are poured all manner of warlike implements--the atlatl1 javelin1 shield1 and banner4 ,the similar fivefold representation of ,tlaloc on sheet #bh is believed by ,seler to illustrate his connection with the ,venus period4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,a4--,sheet #bj3 ,here ,tlaloc is represented with the body painted black1 the fore-part of the face black and the hinder portion yellow4 ,his chin is bearded and the lip-band is prolonged1 as described above4 ,in front of his mantle is a stone knife1 from which fire issues4 ,his attire is painted in alternate stripes of black and green1 flecked with melted rubber4 ,he wears the fillet of ,tonatiuh1 the ,sun-god1 and the strips of hide which fall from the panache of feathers on his head are also part of the ,sun-god's insignia4 ,he holds a burnt offering of firewood and rubber in his hand1 enveloped in a covering painted black and green1 flecked alternately4 ,the type of the tarns or pools into which such offerings were cast is depicted in front of him1 in the depths of which are seen fishes and snails4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,sheet #ib3 ,here he is represented in female costume and1 as in the ,sahagun ,,mss41 a white circular spot or patch with black dots is visible on the god's cheek1 which1 the text implies1 was made of the crushed seed of the ,mexican prickly poppy 7,argemone ,mexicana74 ,general4--,other details in the costume of the ,rain-god are eloquent of his nature and characteristics4 ,in the ,borgia group of codices his garment and headdress are dark green1 flecked with melted rubber1 whilst in those codices from the ,mexican country proper we find them painted blue1 bespotted with the same unpleasant incense4 ,his robe1 the anachxecilli 78dripping-garment10 8cloud-garment071 is said to be 8set with green gems10 and in his ear is a broad plate with a dependent band on which are worked smaller figures made of chalchihuitl stones4 ,on his breast he wears a wide collar of plaited stuff 7reeds87 also enriched with the precious green stone typical of water1 and a large gold disk4 ,in ,codex ,vaticanus ,a1 the ,codex ,magliabecchiano1 and the ,sahagun ,,mss4 we find him wearing at the nape of his neck a large crescent-shaped loop which projects on each side of the head and is secured in the middle by a rosette1 as well as his crown of heron-feathers4 ,in the ,codex ,vaticanus ,b a large fan-shaped object painted dark green and white projects behind the head of the god4 ,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #ad71 too1 he wears the headdress of ,mayauel1 the goddess of the agave plant1 but the colours in which it is painted 7dark green and white with rubber flecking7 are his own and not the blue and white of the female divinity4 ,in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano 7sheet #gg7 and on a stone relief in the ,trocadero ,museum1 ,tlaloc is represented as holding a jug in one hand and a staff in the other1 the latter of a blue colour and having serpentine bands in its length4 ,in ,codices ,vaticanus ,b and ,a he also holds this serpentine wand and in the other the incense-pouch marked with a cross1 to symbolize the four quarters of the heavens4 ,occasionally he is seen holding the agave thorn or spike and the omitl bone1 the implements of mortification1 as in ,codex ,borbonicus and ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #fg74 ,gama 7,dos ,piedras1 pt4 i1 p4 #aja2 pt4 ii1 pp4 #gf-gi7 states that in ,tlaloc's left hand was a shield ornamented with feathers4 ,in his right were thin1 wavy sheets of gold1 representing his thunderbolts1 or sometimes a golden serpent1 representing either the thunderbolt or moisture4 ,on his feet were a kind of half-boots1 with little bells of gold hanging therefrom4 ,round his neck was a band or collar set with gold and gems1 while from his wrists depended strings of costly stones4 ,his dress was an azure smock1 reaching to the middle of the thigh1 cross-hatched all over with ribbons of silver forming squares1 and in the middle of each square was a circle of silver1 while in the angle thereof were flowers1 pearl-coloured1 with yellow leaves hanging down4 ,his shield was similarly decorated1 with feathers of yellow and green1 flesh-colour and blue1 each colour forming a distinct band4 ,the body was naked from mid-thigh down1 and of a grey tint1 as was also the face4 ,this face had only one eye1 of a somewhat extraordinary character3 there was an exterior circle of blue1 the interior was white with a black line across it1 and a little semicircle below the line4 ,either round the whole eye or round the mouth was a doubled band or ribbon of blue4 ,in the open mouth were three grinders4 ,the front teeth were painted red1 as was also the pendant with its button of gold that hung from his ear4 ,he wore an open crown of white and green feathers1 from which depended red and white plumes4 ,ixtlilxochitl represents him in the month etzalli pictured with a cane of maize in the one hand1 and in the other an instrument with which he is digging the ground1 in which he places maize-leaves and a kind of food1 like fritters1 called etzalli4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,this states that the god's face was entirely black with a few spots of salvia chia4 ,the body was also of a dark colour4 ,he wears a 8mist0 or 8cloud0 shirt without sleeves1 in the ,toltec fashion1 falling to the knee1 and a cloth is rolled round the hips4 ,the crown is of heron-feathers1 and the sandals symbolize the foam of water4 ,the shield is inset with water-flowers or rushes1 and the god carries a white rush staff4 ,,statuary ,,and ,,vases ,as has been said1 the vases in the ,uhde collection and in the ,anthropological ,museum at ,berlin show the ,tlaloc face1 probably in its earlier state of development4 ,in both of these a serpentine motif arches over the eyes and meets in a knot or twist which forms the nose1 while a separate serpent pattern forms the mouth in a moustache-like manner1 the long teeth jutting out from underneath it4 ,another found in the ,calle de las ,escalerillas1 ,mexico ,city1 is identical with these last4 ,a stone slab found at ,cerro de ,zapotitlan1 near ,castillo de ,teayo1 and resembling a tombstone1 shows the face of ,tlaloc very clearly1 the characteristic feather crown and the long tusk-like teeth being especially noticeable4 ,another stone figure found at ,teayo is fully illustrative of the god's facial characteristics1 but the two serpents twining together to form the nose spring upwards and1 after traversing the position of the eyebrow1 end with their tails above this in a flourish4 ,the back-fan is well represented in this figure1 which has also a mantle and a waist-belt4 ,in a relief found at ,teayo in which ,tlaloc is represented along with ,xochiquetzal1 we see once more the manner in which the serpentine motifs around the mouth and eyes have become unified through the exigencies of representation in profile4 ,the usual insignia are represented here1 such as the necklace1 the back-fan1 and the short tunic2 but certain knots or bows on the dress lead me to think that what have been commonly taken for sprinklings of indiarubber gum 7ulli7 may be small ornamental knots of some textile material4 ,vases found at ,tlaxcallan and in the ,mixtec country show precisely the same characteristics4 ,,myths ,the myth explanatory of the ,tlaloqu is found in the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas 7c4 ii71 #bec which tells how the rain-gods lived in four chambers surrounding a great court in which stood four immense water-casks4 ,in one of these good water was stored1 which descended upon the grain when it was in process of growth4 ,bad water stood in the next1 which produced fungus growth1 causing the maize to turn black4 ,when rain and frost came together it was thought that the third cask had been drawn upon1 and the fourth was filled with such rain as was followed by no growth1 or by such growth as grew sere and withered4 ,tlaloc1 we learn from this account1 had created for the purposes of rain-making a number of dwarfs who made their homes in the four chambers of his house1 and who carried sticks in their hands1 and jars into which they drew water from the great casks4 ,when ,tlaloc commanded them to water a certain tract of country they poured water from the jars they held1 and the lightning-flash was supposed to proceed from the cracking or breaking of their vessels4 ,this myth is represented in the ,codex ,borgia1 p4 #bg1 as already described4 ,another piece of mythic information is found in the ,song of the ,rain-god1 the fourth canticle in ,sahagun's collection1 which has been translated as follows3 ,i ,oh1 ,mexico has done service with the gods1 ,the paper flags fly over the four corners of the heavens1 ,it is no more a time of mourning4 ,,ii ,oh1 ,tlaloc 7the ,rain-god7 has been created 7,i4e4 my statue has been set on the temple71 ,my ,god has become a dark red colour from the blood of the sacrifices4 ,the whole day they took1 with the making of rain in the temple court4 ,,iii ,o my ,chieftain1 the maize-prince1 ,in truth it is your produce2 ,you created it first2 ,and yet they only do insult to you4 ,they can have nothing against you2 ,distribute thou no offering4 ,,iv ,but they abuse me 7abstain from sacrifice71 ,i am therefore not satisfied1 ,my father1 my old priest1 ,the ,jaguar-serpent4 ,v ,out of the ,tlalocan the turquoise house 7the blue house7 ,came thy father1 ,acatonal4 ,,vi ,o go1 go down on the mountain ,poyauhtlan ,with the mist rattle-board2 ,water will be sent from ,tlalocan1 ,the country of the rain-gods4 ,,vii ,o my elder brother ,toxcuecuex6 ,i will go2 it is enough to make him weep4 ,,viii ,o send me to the place that no one knows4 ,down came his word2 ,i spoke to him1 ,tetzauhpilli1 ,i will go2 that is enough to make him weep4 ,,ix ,after four years he will be placed over us4 ,of thee it was said1 ,the place of the fallen1 ,the quetzal feather-house1 the place of plenty1 ,and yet he becomes distributer for the ,kingdom4 ,it would be rash to attempt any precise elucidation of this obscure song4 ,briefly and doubtfully1 ,i may say1 it seems to me that its tendency is as follows3 ,the song evidently refers to one of the festivals of the ,rain-god1 probably the atemoztli1 when much time was occupied in 8rain-making0 ceremonies1 as the canticle indicates4 ,the pious maker of the song had evidently in mind the myth which told how ,tlaloc stole the maize from ,quetzalcoatl1 an assertion to which he objects 7verse iii71 and advises the god to withhold his produce4 ,this myth1 which is given in the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan 7,codex ,chimalpopoc71 the second or historical portion1 states that ,quetzalcoatl discovered maize in the mountain ,tonacatepetl4 ,to do so1 he took the form of a black ant and was led to the spot by a red ant4 ,as he was unable to lift the mountain1 it was split open by the magical prowess of ,xolotl in his phase of ,nanahuatl and the maize was secured by ,quetzalcoatl1 but was stolen from him by ,tlaloc4 ,in verse iv of the song under discussion ,tlaloc replies in agreement with his servant1 whom it is1 perhaps1 that he addresses as ,jaguar-serpent1 ,jaguar 7,balam71 being a common designation of priests among the ,maya-,quiche4 #bed ,or it may have reference to the god himself1 one of whose names is 8,nine ,jaguar40 ,the god would seem to refer to some unknown myth relating to his own parentage in verse v4 ,the name ,acatonal 78,reed of the ,sun07 given to his father seems to have a calendric significance4 ,the ceremony of the mist rattle-board1 the rattling of which was supposed to bring rain by sympathetic magic1 was one of the ceremonies connected with rain-making at more than one of the festivals of the ,tlaloqu4 ,poyauhtlan 78,place of ,mugwort07 is a district of ,tlalocan1 as well as the name of his temple1 and ,toxcuecuex is ,uitzilopochtli4 ,the last verse seems to allude to the myth mentioned in the interpretation of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a1 where it is stated that1 as no rain had fallen for a period of four years1 ,quetzalcoatl began to make sacrifices to obtain it1 and1 the worshipper or priest hints1 will receive the consequent honour4 ,according to ,boturini1 quoting ,gemelli ,carreri 7tom4 #f1 p4 #hc71 ,tlaloc was the deity who at the behest of ,tezcatlipoc raised the earth out of the waters of the universal flood1 and who counsels men by his divine messages written in the lightning and the thunderbolt to live wisely and morally4 ,like most of the theories of this writer1 this is pure allegory4 ,following the analogy of the calendar stone1 we seem to see ,tlaloc as the sun during the period of ,naui ,quiauitl1 or 8,four ,rain10 which ended in a universal conflagration4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a alludes to ,tlaloc as feminine1 speaks of him as 8goddess of water10 and explains ,tlaloqu as signifying 8fine weather40 ,farther on he states that 8on the #bast of ,december they celebrated the festival of this god through whose instrumentality they say the earth became again visible after it had been covered with the waters of the deluge2 they therefore kept his festival during the twenty following signs1 in which they performed sacrifices to him40 ,the abode of ,tlaloc was in ,tlalocan1 the heights on the road from ,texcuco to ,huetzotzinca and ,tlaxcallan1 a high and shady place4 #bee ,this locality remained verdant and moist because of its proximity to the snowy peaks above it even when the plains beneath languished in drought under merciless sunshine1 and it seems natural that it should have appealed to the ancient ,mexicans as a fitting abode for the god of rain4 ,of ,tlalocan in its more mythical sense1 ,sahagun 7c4 ii1 ,appendix to bk4 iii7 says that there was abundance of all refreshments1 green maize1 calabashes1 and other vegetables and fruits4 ,here dwelt the ,tlaloqu1 who resembled the priests who ministered to their idols in that they wore their hair long4 ,the folk who went to that paradise were those who had been killed by lightning1 the leprous1 gouty1 and dropsical--any such1 in fact1 who had died from a 8watery0 complaint4 ,in ,tlalocan they enjoyed a perpetual summer4 ,,festivals ,quaitl eloa4--,the first annual festival to the ,tlaloqu was the quaitl eloa1 of which ,sahagun says3 8,in the first days of the first month of the year1 which month was called in some parts of ,mexico quavitleloa1 but generally atlacahualco1 and begins on the second of our ,february1 a great feast was made in honour of the ,tlalocs1 gods of rain and water4 ,for this occasion many children at the breast were purchased from their mothers2 those being chosen that had two whorls in their hair1 and that had been born under a good sign2 it being said that such were the most agreeable sacrifices to the storm-gods1 and most likely to induce them to send rain in due season4 ,some of these infants were butchered for this divine holiday on certain mountains1 and some were drowned in the ,lake of ,mexico4 ,with the beginning of the festival1 in every house1 from the hut to the palace1 certain poles were set up1 and to these were attached strips of the paper of the country1 daubed over with indiarubber gum1 these strips being called amateteuitl2 this was considered an honour to the water-gods4 ,and the first place where children were killed was ,quauhtepetl1 #bef a high mountain in the neighbourhood of ,tlatelulco2 all infants1 boys or girls1 sacrificed there were called by the name of the place1 ,quauhtepetl1 and were decorated with strips of paper1 dyed red4 ,the second place where children were killed was ,yoaltecatl1 #beg a high mountain near ,guadalupe4 ,the victims were decorated with pieces of black paper with red lines on it1 and were named after the place1 ,yoaltecatl4 ,the third death-halt was made at ,tepetzingo1 a well-known hillock that rose up from the waters of the lake opposite ,tlatelulco2 there they killed a little girl1 decking her with blue paper1 and calling her ,quezalxoch1 #beh for so was this hillock called by another name4 ,poiauhtla1 #bei on the boundary of ,tlascala1 was the fourth hill of sacrifice4 ,here they killed children1 named as usual after the locality1 and decorated with paper1 on which were lines of indiarubber oil4 ,the fifth place of sacrifice was the whirlpool or sink of the ,lake of ,mexico1 ,pantitlan4 #bfj ,those drowned here were called ,epcoatl1 #bfa and their adornment epuepaniuhqui4 #bfb ,the sixth hill of death was ,cocotl1 #bfc near ,chalcoatenco2 the infant victims were named after it and decorated with strips of paper1 of which half the number were red and half a tawny colour4 ,the mount ,yiauhqueme1 #bfd near ,atlacuioaia1 was the seventh station2 the victims being named after the place and adorned with a paper of tawny colour4 8,when the procession reached the temple near ,tepetzinco1 on the east1 called ,tozoacab1 the priests rested there all night1 watching and singing songs1 so that the children could not sleep4 ,in the morning the march was again resumed2 if the children wept copiously those around them were very glad1 saying it was a sign that much rain would fall2 while if they met any dropsical person on the road1 it was taken for a bad omen and something that would hinder the rain4 ,if any of the temple ministers1 or of the others called quaquavitli1 or of the old men1 broke off from the procession or turned back to their houses before they came to the place where the sacrifice was done1 they were held infamous and unworthy of any public office2 thenceforward they were called mocauhque1 that is to say1 #8deserters4'0 #bfe ,tozozontli4--,the second festival to ,tlaloc was tozozontli1 of which ,sahagun says3 8,the third month was designated toozontli1 the first day of it being consecrated to the festival of the god ,tlaloc1 who is the divinity of rain4 ,many children were slain on the mountains and offered in sacrifice to this god and his colleagues1 in order to obtain water4 ,the first fruits of the flowers of the year were offered in the temple called ,yopico1 no one daring to smell a flower until this offering had been made4 ,the gardeners1 who were designated xochimanque1 held a festival in honour of their goddess called ,coatlicue1 also known as ,coatlan tonan4 8,it was likewise during this month that those who had been wearing the skins of the dead since the month previous1 now stripped them off and threw them into the basin of the temple styled ,yopico4 ,this was done in procession and with great ceremony4 ,they smelt like rotten dogs2 and after disrobing they performed devotional ablutions4 8,sick people made vows to take part in this procession in the hope of being cured of their infirmities1 and we are assured that many of them were thus restored4 8,the masters of the captives and the people of their houses performed penance for twenty days1 neither bathing nor washing until the skins of their victims had been carried to the basin of the temple above mentioned1 and alleging their penance was in honour of their captives4 8,the period of penance being over1 they bathed and washed1 and invited their neighbours and friends to banquets1 performing elaborate ceremonies with the bones of their dead slaves4 ,these twenty days until the following month were entirely spent in singing in the buildings called cuicacalli1 everyone being always seated1 without dancing1 and incessantly chanting the praises of their deities4 ,other rites were performed1 an account of which will be given in the chapter dealing with them40 #bff ,etzalqualiztli4--,the third festival to the ,tlaloqu generally was the etzalqualiztli4 ,concerning this feast ,sahagun relates3 8,on the first day of this month a festival was held in honour of the gods of rain4 ,the priests of these divinities fasted for four days prior to the festival1 these days consequently being the last four of the previous month4 ,on the occasion of these celebrations the attendant satellites of the idols repaired to ,citlaltepec to pull the rushes which grow very high and very beautifully in a pond called ,temilco4 ,from thence they carried them to ,mexico1 to decorate the temples4 ,no one was to be seen on the road which they traversed2 everyone took care to hide in case they should meet them4 ,but if1 unfortunately1 the priests encountered anyone on the road1 they stripped him of everything1 leaving him naked as a worm1 and should he dare to defend himself1 he was maltreated and left for dead upon the highway4 ,even had he carried the treasure of ,moteuhoma and been robbed of it1 it is quite certain that no punishment would have fallen upon them1 for1 in their capacity as priests of the idols1 they were at liberty to do such things and worse without fear of consequences4 8,on the day of the festival of etzalqualiztli1 everyone prepared cakes or a broth called etzalli1 which was considered as a delicacy among them1 everybody partaking of them at home1 and sharing the repast with visitors4 ,a thousand follies were perpetrated on that day4 8,on the occasion of this festival those priests of the idols who had committed faults in the exercise of their functions were terribly punished on the waters of the lake4 ,they were maltreated to the point of being left for dead on the banks of the lake1 whither their parents or relatives repaired to take them home almost lifeless4 8,death was also inflicted on a great number of captives and slaves dressed in the trappings of the god ,tlaloc1 in whose temples they were slain in their honour2 the hearts of those unfortunates were then thrown into the gaping hole in the middle of the lake1 which was at that time quite visible4 #bfg ,many other rites were performed as well40 #bfh ,tepeilhuitl4--,the fourth festival to the gods of the water-giving mountains was the tepeilhuitl4 ,sahagun says of this3 8,during this month festivals were held in honour of the high mountains which were the point of departure of the clouds1 and which are very numerous in this land of ,new ,spain4 ,to each of these a statue in human form was erected out of a paste called tzoalli1 and offerings were made to these idols in honour of these mountains4 8,serpents were also made in their honour out of wood or the roots of trees1 which were so carved as to terminate in an adder's head4 ,long pieces of wood of the size of a fist were also made1 which were called ecatotontin 78little winds074 ,they were smoothed on the surface with a lump of tzoalli1 and were baptized as mountains1 being placed upon men's heads4 8,images were also made in memory of people who had been drowned1 or of those who had died such a death as entitled their bodies to be buried instead of being burnt4 8,having placed the statues just described upon the altars with great ceremony1 tamalli and many other foods were offered to them2 hymns were chanted1 and wine drunk in their honour4 8,the day of the mountain festival having come round1 four women and a man were slain4 ,one of the women was called ,tepexoch1 the second ,matlalque1 the third ,xochitecatl1 the fourth ,mayauel2 the man bore the name of ,milnauatl4 #bfi ,these women1 as well as the man1 were decked with paper anointed with ulli gum1 and certain females1 richly dressed1 carried them in litters upon their shoulders to the place where they were to be killed4 8,after they were slain and their hearts torn out1 they were taken slowly away1 being dragged down the temple stairs to the bottom1 where their heads were cut off and placed upon wooden pikes1 while their bodies were taken to the calpulli #bgj and there divided for eating4 ,the papers with which the statues were decorated were hung up in the temples1 after the statues had been broken up for food40 #bga ,atemoztli4--,on the sixteenth month1 atemoztli1 the people celebrated the ,rain-god's festival in right good earnest4 ,says ,sahagun #bgb3 8,the sixteenth month was called atemoztli1 that is to say the rain month1 when the thunder and heavy rains began to display themselves4 ,the people said1 #8,now the ,tlaloqu come4' 8,at this time the priests began to pray earnestly for rain1 doing penance the while4 ,taking their censers of serpent-headed brass1 they threw the incense called yiauhtli1 they rang little bells attached to the censer1 and censed all the statues of the gods and all the quarters of the town4 ,as on another occasion1 they made images of the mountains during the time they fasted1 and prepared the paper usually used in these ceremonies4 ,during five days when they bathed themselves they permitted no water to fall upon the head or to go above the neck4 ,they also abstained from women4 ,the night which preceded the atemoztli1 which they celebrated on the twentieth day of the month1 they occupied in cutting the paper1 which they gummed with ulli1 and which was then called teteuitl4 ,these they attached to long poles1 which they planted in the courts of the houses1 where they remained during the day of the feast4 ,the paste images they made represented the mountains surrounding the valley of ,anahuac4 ,these were placed in the oratory of the house1 where they were offered food1 and people sat in front of them1 serving them in tiny vessels full of food1 little pots and vessels of cocoa and food1 which were offered four times a night4 ,nor was an offering of pulque forgotten4 ,they sang all night before these images1 and played on the flute4 ,at daybreak the priests asked the people of the house for a tzotzo paztli1 or weaver's bodkin1 with which they opened the stomachs of the images4 ,they also beheaded them and drew out their hearts1 which they handed to the master of the house in a green porringer4 ,they then stripped them of the paper with which they were decked1 which they burned in the court of the house along with the viands offered to the images40 #bgc ,camargo1 who had witnessed the festivals to ,tlaloc thirty years before writing his book1 states that #bgd when the rain failed and the land was parched with drought1 great processions were made in which a number of the hairless edible dogs of the country were carried on decorated litters to a place of sacrifice and there killed and their hearts cut out1 after which the bodies were eaten with much festivity4 ,this1 of course1 related to a period subsequent to the ,conquest1 when human sacrifice was forbidden4 ,he further states that old ,aztec priests had informed him that the hearts of the human beings sacrificed to ,tlaloc were first held up to the sun1 then to the remaining three cardinal points1 after which they were burned4 ,tlaloc was held in high respect1 and priests alone had the right to enter his temple4 ,whoever dared to blaspheme against him was supposed to die suddenly by a thunderbolt1 no matter how clear the sky may have been4 ,the priests1 he adds1 took good care to retard his festivals until they saw indication of coming rain4 ,,temples ,,and ,,places ,,of ,,worship ,the earliest recorded place of worship of this deity is that spoken of by ,clavigero #bge in one of the few enlightening passages which he permits himself1 as follows3 8,the native historians relate1 that the ,acolhuas having arrived in that country in the time of ,xolotl1 the first ,chichimecan king1 found at the top of the mountain of ,tlaloc1 an image of that god1 made of a white and very light stone1 in the shape of a man sitting upon a square stone1 with a vessel before him1 in which was some elastic gum1 and a variety of seeds4 ,this was their yearly offering by way of rendering up their thanks1 after having had a favourable harvest4 ,that image was reckoned the oldest in the country2 for it had been placed upon that hill by the ancient ,toltecas and remained till the end of the ,x,vth or beginning of the ,x,v,ith century1 when ,nezahualpilli1 ,king of ,acollhuacan1 in order to gain the favour of his subjects1 carried it away and placed another in its stead1 of a very hard1 black stone4 ,the new image1 however1 being defaced by lightning1 and the priests declaring it to be a punishment from heaven1 the ancient statue was restored1 and there continued to be preserved and worshipped1 until the promulgation of the gospel1 when it was thrown down and broken by order of the first ,bishop of ,mexico40 ,the principal seat of the worship of ,tlaloc was the great temple of ,uitzilopochtli at ,mexico1 which is fully described in the section which deals with that god4 ,sahagun speaks 7,appendix to bk4 ii7 of a temple within the sacred precinct of ,mexico which was especially dedicated to the ,tlaloqu4 ,this was the epcoatl 78pearl serpent071 so called1 perhaps1 from the circumstance that the victims immolated therein were known by the same name4 ,it was in this place that the priests fasted and did penance for forty days before the feast in honour of their gods4 ,the ,mexico ,calmecac was a school or junior monastery1 where those who were destined to become priests of the god received their training4 ,at the acatla yiacapan uei calpulli 78chief flowery hall07 the slaves intended for sacrifice to the god were assembled1 and here their bodies were prepared for the horrid banquet which concluded his festival4 ,,priesthood ,the ,tlaloc ,tlamacasque1 the second in rank in the ,mexican priesthood1 stood at the head of the ministers of the god4 ,the acolnauacatl acolmiztli 78he of the puma shoulder0 or 8dress07 made all arrangements for the festivals of the god1 and kept the vestments worn by the king on these occasions4 ,it is also clear from many passages that the priesthood of ,tlaloc composed a large and considerable body4 ,,prayers ,sahagun #bgf gives at great length a most striking prayer to ,tlaloc made in time of drought by the priests in hope of rain4 ,it asks for compassion from the ,tlaloqu1 who1 along with their sister1 ,chalchiuhtlicue1 have withdrawn their faces from mankind4 ,it describes the wretchedness of the people1 tells how they perish of thirst1 and draws a harrowing picture of the sufferings of the children4 ,it requests ,tlaloc to assist the god of earth with rain1 so that the vegetables and plants may grow and not perish4 ,it also asks that the rain may be of the kind which assists growth1 and that it be not accompanied by hail or lightning1 the usual manifestation of the wrath of the ,tlaloqu4 8,you who are gods of the water1 who dwell at the east1 west1 north1 and south of the world1 who inhabit the subterranean places1 the air1 the mountains and the profound caverns1 hasten to the consolation of man40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,there is less doubt concerning the character of ,tlaloc than that of any other ,mexican deity4 ,the representations of him in the manuscripts1 the prayers offered up to him1 the myths which seek to explain him1 all make it clear that he is the god of the rain-cult par excellence1 to whom even ,quetzalcoatl1 the deified rain-maker1 in time becomes merely 8a sweeper of the ways40 ,the etymological derivation of the name has been frequently essayed4 ,tlaloc1 says ,seler1 is a noun derived from the verb tlaloa1 8to hasten10 which in its reflexive sense means 8to shoot up10 8to sprout10 so that the name really conveys the sense of 8,he who makes things sprout10 8,he who hastens growth40 ,he is1 indeed1 the god of rain1 of moisture1 who dwells on the mountain peaks1 and manifests himself in the lightning and the thunder1 both of which are symbolized in the serpentine folds of his countenance and in its darksome hues4 ,his progeny are the ,tlaloqu1 who dwell on every mountain top1 dwarfish servants who pour forth the rain out of the great jars which stand in his courtyard4 8,when they beat these with the sticks they carry1 it thunders1 and when it lightens a piece of the jug falls40 #bgg ,the name ,tlaloc was specially given by the ,mexicans to a mountain to the east of ,tezcuco1 near the pass which led to ,huetzotzinco1 and here it was that his most ancient idol was found by the immigrant tribes4 ,the mountains ,popocatepetl and ,teocuinaui were also especially sacred to him4 ,he possessed1 as will have been observed1 both beneficent and terrible aspects1 and was the striker1 the slayer1 as well as the giver of bounteous food-supplies4 ,that his cult was an ancient one in ,mexico is proved by the numerous finds of his images among remains of pre-,aztec date at ,teotihuacan1 at ,teotitlan in the ,huaxtec country1 at ,quiengola in the ,zapotec district1 and at ,quen ,santo in ,guatemala4 ,tlaloc denotes the four quarters from which the rain comes1 as his symbolism abundantly shows1 and the learned priests of ,mexico undoubtedly regarded him as the personification of the tlequiauitl1 or fire-rain1 the disaster which closed one of the epochs of the prehistoric world4 ,he is further analogous to the ,maya ,chac and ,god ,b4 ,his chief significance for the ancient ,mexicans was as the great god of the rain-cult1 the rain itself1 and the thunderstorm which brings the rain4 ,in his serpentine form we may1 perhaps1 see a reminiscence of the mythical beast of dragon or serpentine form known to many mythologies as the 8water-provider10 which must be slain by the sun-hero ere the rain-flood is released to assist the growth of the crops4 ,none of the myths relating to him serve to assist such a hypothesis2 but certain paintings in the codices appear to relate to some such myth1 and page #gd of the ,maya ,dresden ,codex1 which relates to the deluge caused by the water-sun1 shows a great serpent vomiting water upon the earth1 showing that in ,central ,america the rain was supposed to emanate from a monster of this description4 #bgh ,it is significant that ,tlaloc wears ,toltec dress1 and from this and from his name 8,nine ,jaguar0 we may be justified in concluding that he is in a sense to be regarded1 like ,quetzalcoatl1 as the ,toltec priest4 ,balam1 the ,maya-,quiche word for jaguar1 signifies also 8priest10 and that the title was superadded to the serpentine conception of him is shown by the expression 8,jaguar-serpent10 by which he is alluded to in the hymn quoted above4 ,the ,poyauhtlan was not only his temple1 but a district of ,tlalocan1 where he was supposed to hold sway4 ,this ,i would translate 8,place of the ,mugwort10 or 8,absinthe10 and it is clear that he1 as well as ,chalchihuitlicue1 his spouse1 has some mysterious connection with this plant1 which has been shown by ,dr4 ,rendel ,harris to have been the especial medicine-plant of the ,greek ,artemis4 ,it is strange1 too1 to find both the god and his victims1 like the dragon-gods of ,china1 connected with the pearl4 ,tlaloc is also god of the four quarters or four 8weathers40 ,the seventh day-sign1 mazatl 78deer071 which he takes1 is appropriate1 as the deer symbolizes the quest for water and vegetation4 ,his association with the dog1 the lightning-beast1 is also significant4 ,indeed in ,codex ,bologna ,tlaloc is frequently symbolized by the lightning-flash alone4 ,,chalchihuitlicue 8,,she ,,of ,,the ,,jewelled ,,robe0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico 7worshipped at ,tlaxcallan as ,matlalcuy1 8,she of the ,blue ,robe074 ,minor ,names3 ,acuecueyotl 8,water which makes ,waves40 ,apoonallotl 8,foam of the ,water40 ,ahuic 8,motion of ,water40 ,aiauh 8,fog40 ,atlacamani 8,storm40 ,xixiquipilihui 8,rising and ,falling of the ,waves0 7,clavigero74 ,macuilxochiquetzalli 8,five times ,flower-feather0 7,boturini74 ,calendar ,places3 ,ruler of the fifth day 7coatl74 ,ruler of the fifth week 7ce acatl74 ,lord of the sixth night4 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,festivals3 ,atlcahualco2 ce atl 7movable feast74 ,relationship3 ,wife of ,tlaloc1 sister of the ,tlaloqu2 mother of the ,centzon ,mimixcoa4 ,symbol3 ,the chalchihuitl stone4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,general4--,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #ad7 she is depicted wearing a blue1 stepped nose-ornament and a serpent helmet-mask4 ,in the ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer is seen a jaguar's ear behind the serpent's eye in more than one representation of her helmet-mask4 ,in ,codex ,borgia she wears a large golden disk 7teocuitla-comalli7 suspended by a jewelled band4 ,her robe has a broad hem1 in which the colours of the hieroglyph chalchihuitl1 green and red1 with a white fringe1 are reproduced1 thus forming a kind of pictograph of her name4 ,the same purpose is served by a large blue disk in the middle of the skirt4 #bgi ,in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b she holds the bone-dagger and agave spike for ceremonial blood-letting4 ,she stands on foaming water1 on which floats a burnt-offering of firewood and rubber4 ,in the ,aubin tonalamatl she is pictured as standing in a stream1 down which swirl away a jewel-box1 an armed man1 and a woman4 ,variations4--,the representations of ,chalchihuitlicue in the ,codex ,borgia group1 where she is dressed in the snake-helmet1 are substantially different from her appearance in the ,aubin tonalamatl1 the ,codex ,borbonicus1 and elsewhere4 ,in the ,codex ,borbonicus 7sheet #e7 the insignia of the goddess is heavily spotted1 the significance being by no means plain4 #bhj ,the representation in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio7 also differs1 and in this the goddess is seen holding a rattle and wearing what seems to be an interesting variant of the jewel hieroglyph4 ,in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #eg7 she is represented along with her spouse ,tlaloc1 the chalchihuitl jewel in the form of a two-handed pitcher separating them4 ,the gods hold chains of jewels representing the four kinds of maize--yellow1 blue1 red1 and green--and a naked human being issues from the pitcher1 symbolizing the growth of the maize4 #bha ,other interesting variations in connection with this goddess are those found in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b and ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #ag71 in both of which she is seen suckling a human being4 ,in the former she wears on the head two bunches of quetzal-feathers1 usually part of the insignia of ,xochiquetzal1 and she is only to be recognized by the symbol beside her1 a variant of the element chalchihuitl4 ,sahagun describes her as follows in the ,biblioteca del ,palacio ,,ms43 8,the face is yellow1 with a red pattern superimposed4 ,she wears a collar of green precious stones1 and a crown of paper adorned with a quetzal-feather4 ,the tunic and skirt are painted with water lines1 and she wears shells4 ,her sandals represent the foam of water4 ,on her shield is painted the emblem of a water flower1 and she carries the 8mist rattle-staff40 ,statuettes of ,chalchihuitlicue are fairly common4 ,one found in the ,valley of ,mexico agrees to some extent with her appearance in the ,aubin tonalamatl1 but not with that in ,codex ,borgia4 ,she wears the tasselled shawl and the chalchihuitl emblem adorns her dress4 ,two other stone figures of her in the ,uhde collection at ,berlin and one in the ,christy collection at ,london are eloquent of her insignia4 ,in all of these she wears the tasselled shawl1 and in the ,christy example and one of the ,uhde figures the large back-bow is well exemplified1 as are the two plaits of hair descending at the back4 ,in the other ,uhde specimen the plates are shown as part of a knot of the cotton headdress1 which is in all cases fringed with balls4 ,in all three figures large1 full bands of some material descend over the ear4 ,a stone figure of her1 found at the ,castillo de ,teayo in ,vera ,cruz and now in the ,national ,museum at ,mexico1 depicts her with a square headdress1 from which radiate what are evidently the feathers of aquatic birds4 ,she wears the ,v-shaped shawl or tippet and a skirt1 on each side of which the chalchihuitl emblem is shown and which is fringed with shells4 ,teobert ,maler reproduces another stone figure of her wearing a high headdress of feathers and a necklace and wristlets of chalchihuitls4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis states that 8,chalchiuhtli1 who presided over these thirteen days1 saved herself in the deluge4 ,she is a woman who remained after the deluge4 ,her name signifies the #8,woman who wears a dress adorned with precious stones4' ,they here fasted four days till death4 ,they paint her holding in one hand a spinning-wheel1 and in the other a wooden instrument1 with which they weave2 and in order to show that of the sons which women bring forth some are slaves and others die in war1 and others in poverty1 they paint her with a stream as if carrying them away1 so that whether rich or poor all were finally doomed40 ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says that she is the same as the virgin ,chimalman1 who was the mother of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,the myth to which this passage alludes is dealt with in the section relating to ,quetzalcoatl4 ,sahagun 7bk4 i1 c4 ii7 calls the goddess the sister of the ,tlaloqu4 ,,festivals ,chalchihuitlicue was adored at the etzalqualiztli festival to the ,tlaloqu 7see ,tlaloc7 and at the feast ce atl 78one week071 when1 says ,sahagun1 8her festival was celebrated by all who in any way dealt in water1 or had any connection with it1 water-sellers1 fishers and the like4 ,these dressed and ornamented her image and made adorations in the house named calpulli4 ,the great lords and rich merchants at the birth of one of their children paid the greatest attention to this sign1 and the day and hour at which the child was born4 ,they at once inquired of the astrologers what fortune the child might expect to encounter1 and if the sign was propitious1 they had the infant baptized without delay1 whereas if it were the opposite they waited until the nearest day which had a propitious sign4 ,food and drink were distributed freely to all40 ,,priesthood ,veytia #bhb states that ,king ,nauhyotl instituted a college of priests expressly for the service of this goddess4 ,these were celibate and wore long and ample robes of a sombre colour4 ,they went bare-footed in the sanctuary1 fasted frequently1 and were given to penitence and contemplation4 ,their high-priest was called ,achcauhtli1 #bhc and the entire cult was modelled on that of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,this did not prohibit them1 however1 from the sacrifice of human beings4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,chalchihuitlicue was the female counterpart of ,tlaloc1 and the goddess of water and moisture4 ,sahagun 7bk4 i1 c4 ii7 says of her3 8,she was supposed to have her existence in the sea1 the rivers and lakes1 and had power to take the lives of those who ventured upon them1 and to raise tempests40 ,the name means 8,she whose raiment consists of green gems10 or 8,she of the jewelled robe10 and is allegorical of the brilliant surface of flowing rather than stagnant water4 ,she is1 says ,seler1 8an appropriate representative of the sign #8,snake4' ,for the moving1 flowing water has everywhere and at all times been likened to the serpent4 ,in cultural centres which are dedicated to the ,water-goddess--the ,pilon de ,azucar1 for instance1 which has been explored by ,hermann ,strebel--the ground swarms as well with images of snakes as of frogs40 #bhd ,in ,codex ,borgia she is seen with a bunch of dried herbs above her1 evidently indicating that she had a medicinal side to her character4 ,certain pictures of her--that1 for instance1 in the ,aubin tonalamatl already described--seem to point to her as the goddess of change in human affairs1 of speedy ruin1 and this conception was1 no doubt1 brought about by the ever-changing character of the element she symbolized4 ,she is1 indeed1 the goddess of water in its mutable and kaleidoscopic form4 ,there is1 however1 every reason to believe that she had a still more profound significance in ,mexican theology1 and this is made clear if we examine the prayer to her preserved by ,sahagun in which she seems to represent the purifying and cleansing influence of water as an agency to wipe away the original sin with which it was thought man came into the world4 ,that the goddess had also a lunar significance is plain from the allusion to her as the mother of the ,centzon ,mimixcoa1 or stars of the ,northern ,hemisphere1 and the great importance attached to the prayers offered up to her in connection with child-bearing4 ,as has been hinted1 she had also a medicinal aspect4 ,the child sacrificed to her at the etzalqualiztli festival was slain at the hill known as ,yauhqueme 78covered with mugwort071 and1 as instanced in the case of ,tlaloc1 this plant is the especial medicine-herb of the ,greek ,artemis4 ,in ,codex ,borgia1 indeed1 she is associated with a herb which may possibly be the mugwort or wormwood1 and ,seler thinks she is to be regarded as the giver of 8healing draughts of physic40 ,,uixtociuatl 8,,salt ,,woman0 ,area of ,worship3 ,originally the eastern sea-coast4 ,relationship3 ,elder sister of the ,tlaloqu4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the goddess is painted yellow and wears a crown of paper or cotton1 adorned with quetzal-feathers and a golden ear-plug4 ,her overdress and skirt are painted with wavy lines of water and she wears sandals4 ,her shield is entirely white and she bears a rush staff in her hand1 from which depend strips of cotton or paper4 ,,festivals ,tecuilhuitontli4--8,the seventh month0 7says ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 c4 vii7 8was designated tecuilhuitontli1 the first day of which was dedicated to the goddess of salt1 who was styled ,uixtociuatl4 ,she was termed the elder sister of the god ,tlaloc4 ,a woman was slain in her honour1 robed with the same ornaments as were worn by the images of this divinity4 8,the night preceding this festival1 the women1 old1 young1 and children1 gave themselves up to singing and dancing1 marching in a ring1 linked by cords which they each held by an end1 which they called xochimecatl1 and which were garlanded with the absinthe flowers of the country1 called iztauhyatl4 ,old men led the songs and dances1 while in the midst of the ring stood the poor woman doomed to death1 richly dressed in the manner of the image of the goddess4 ,all the women1 in company with her who was to die1 watched1 sang and danced the whole of the night preceding the festival4 ,day having dawned1 all the priests assumed their ornaments1 and partook in a solemn dance1 all those who assisted carrying in their hands flowers called cempoalxochitl4 ,dancing all the way1 they brought several captives to the temple of ,tlaloc1 in the midst of whom walked the woman who was to die1 dressed as the image of ,uixtociuatl4 ,before she was sacrificed1 the captives were first put to death4 #bhe 8,several other ceremonies were conducted during this festival and there were frequent scenes of debauchery40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the interpreter of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis states that ,yxcuina1 as he names the goddess1 was the protector of adulterers and 8the goddess of salt and of dissolute persons40 ,he further relates that they put adulterers to death before her image4 ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a adds that she was the wife of ,mictlantecutli1 lord of the realm of the dead4 ,one of the women given as consorts to the victim sacrificed at the principal feast of ,tezcatlipoc was called after the goddess4 ,the salt-supply was regarded as an indispensable alimentary feature in ,mexico1 and the relative importance of the worship of ,uixtociuatl can readily be gathered from this circumstance4 ,her connection with lustfulness had probably a physiological basis1 and perhaps owed its existence to the saline odour which emanates from the excretions of the privy parts4 ,there is a distinct resemblance between her name and that of the absinthe plant4 ,,atlaua 8,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,lake ,,beaches0 ,area of ,worship3 ,chinampanecs of ,cuitlauac4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,the lower parts of his extremities are striped blue1 like those of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,palacio7 he wears the domino mask edged round with small white circles 7the 8stellar face-painting07 and the mouth and chin are blackened or reddened4 ,the headdress resembles the flag used as ,uitzilopochtli's symbol for the panquetzaliztli festival4 ,he carries the shield of ,uitzilopochtli1 with the five balls of eagle's down1 one half of the weapon being coloured red1 like blood1 and in his right hand he holds an instrument which1 from comparison with another ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,bib4 ,laurenz47 we know to be a rattle4 ,in this picture symbols expressive of singing flow from his mouth4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,he was a god of the inhabitants of the floating gardens of ,lake ,xochimilco1 the tribe known as the ,chinampanecs1 and from the 8stellar face-painting0 he wore he must at some time have been identified by one of the early hunting tribes with one or other of the stars4 ,his possession of ,uitzilopochtli's shield is perhaps further proof of his stellar association4 ,he may have been one of the ,centzonuitznaua 7see ,uitzilopochtli--8,myths074 ,,napatecutli 8,,four ,,times ,,lord0 ,area of ,worship3 ,shores of ,lake ,texcuco4 ,relationship3 ,one of the ,tlaloqu4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the body-paint is black1 but a plaster of salvia chia is worn on the face underneath the eyes4 ,the god wears a paper crown sprinkled with rubber gum1 and a tuft of paper at the back of the head1 from which quetzal-feathers depend4 ,two long strips of paper hang from under the crown down the back of the neck1 and these are also sprinkled with rubber gum4 ,across the right shoulder is slung a band of paper1 and an underdress of the same material surrounds the hips1 and these are also sprinkled with gum4 ,sandals are worn1 and the shield is decorated with the water-rose motif4 ,a rush staff is carried in the hand1 from which strips of paper hang1 daubed with melted indiarubber4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,sahagun says that ,napatecutli 8was the god of men who make mats out of aquatic reeds1 and was one of the ,tlaloqu4 ,he was the inventor of mat-making1 and was adored by those who made the low chairs called icpalli1 and the hurdles of reeds which are called tolcuextli4 ,he made the reeds to grow and caused the showers that made them spring1 and they prayed him for rain and reeds4 ,when they sacrificed a slave to him they dressed him in the god's garments1 placing in his hands a green vase filled with water1 with which he besprinkled all with the aid of a branch of willow1 as if he were blessing them4 ,then1 in the course of the year1 whenever one of this trade wished to feast this divinity1 he acquainted the priests with his intention1 who chose a priest1 dressed him in the attributes of the god1 like his image1 and conducted him1 asperging him on the way1 with a branch of willow dipped in water4 ,arrived at the house1 they prayed him to extend his favours to the dwelling1 and the feast was celebrated1 the #8god' eating and drinking with the rest4 ,this was done with the desire to recompense the god1 and when they had spent all they had1 they said3 #8,i care not if ,i am without means1 so long as my god is satisfied with this feast4 ,he may grant me more1 he may leave me in misery1 so long as his will is accomplished4' ,so saying1 they covered the representative of the god with a white mantle1 who returned with his companions4 ,the householder then feasted privately with his parents4 ,the mat-makers plenished and ornamented the temple of their god with reeds and plants1 and anything they placed in the temple was of the best workmanship40 ,,matlalcu,y 8,,she ,,of ,,the ,,blue ,,robe0 7,variant of ,chalchihuitlicue7 ,area of ,worship3 ,tlaxcallan4 ,relationship3 ,second consort of ,tlaloc4 ,,appearance ,she is recognized by her tasselled head-band and cape1 and often by a stepped nose-ornament4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,a variant of ,chalchihuitlicue4 ,she was believed to preside over a mountain near ,tlaxcallan4 ,one of the women sacrificed to ,tlaloc at the great festival to the mountain-gods was called after this goddess4 ,,opochtli 8,,the ,,southern10 8,,left-,,handed10 ,,or 8,,the ,,wizard0 ,area of ,worship3 ,the shores of ,lake ,texcuco4 ,relationship3 ,one of the ,tlaloqu4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,the ,sahagun ,,ms4 describes the insignia of this god as follows3 ,he is painted black and has a patch or spot made from crushed seeds on his face4 ,his crown is cut out of paper1 and from it rise plumes of heron-feathers1 mingled with those of the quetzal bird4 ,he has a band made of paper round his shoulders1 a loin-cloth and white sandals4 ,his shield bears the solar emblem and he carries a rattle-staff in his hand4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,sahagun 7bk4 i1 ch4 #ag7 says of ,opochtli1 that he is one of the ,tlaloqu4 ,to him was attributed the invention of fishing-nets and of the minacachalli1 or three-pronged harpoon1 an instrument recalling the classical trident1 which was also used for spearing birds4 ,he it was who originally contrived the nets used by the fowler to ensnare the aquatic birds which frequented the banks of ,lake ,texcuco1 and the paddle was likewise his invention4 ,of all the ,tlaloqu he appears to have been the most practical1 as well as the most closely identified with human pursuits1 and naturally he figured as the patron of the fisher1 the fowler1 and those generally who plied their occupation on the water of the lake or on its shores4 ,upon the occasion of his festival they offered him food and octli1 the ears of maize1 flowers1 and burned tobacco before him as an incense1 as well as copal and the absinthe herb4 ,they also placed before him toasted maize4 ,the older priests chanted his praises and filed before his idol in procession4 ,as we have seen in the case of ,uitzilopochtli1 the word opochtli may signify 8wizard10 and ,i believe that the net1 which would appear to a primitive people an apparatus of the most ingenious kind1 would be regarded by them as the invention of a magician4 ,opochtli would almost inevitably come to be connected with the ,tlaloqu because of the employment of his invention to catch fish and snare the aquatic birds which rested on the shores of ,lake ,texcuco4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,fire-,,gods ,,xiuhtecutli 8,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,year0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico4 ,toltec4 ,minor ,names3 ,tzoncaztli 8,the ,yellow-haired40 ,in ,xiuhtetzaqualco maquitoc 8,he who enters the ,blue ,stone ,pyramid40 ,yei itzcuintli 8,three ,dog40 ,cuezaltzin 8,the ,flame40 ,chicunaui tecutli 8,nine ,lord40 ,ueueteotl 8,the ,old ,god40 ,tlatic paque 8,lord of the ,earth's ,surface40 ,tota 8,our ,father40 ,tloque ,nahuaque 8,lord of the ,close ,vicinity40 ,tlalxictentica 8,dweller in the ,navel of the ,earth40 ,ixcoauhque 8,the ,yellow-faced40 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the ninth day-count1 atl 7water74 ,ruler of the ninth tonalamatl division1 ce coatl4 ,ruler of the twentieth tonalamatl division1 ce tochtli4 ,first of the nine lords of the night4 ,first of the thirteen lords of the day4 ,festivals3 ,xocohuetzi1 in the tenth month4 ,izcalli1 in the eighteenth month4 ,the day ce itzcuintli 78one dog07 7movable feast74 ,compass ,direction3 ,lord of the ,middle and of the four quarters4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ai3 ,in this place he is represented standing before a temple with a bundle of firewood and a rubber ball in his hand4 ,the temple contains implements of war4 ,he is painted red1 with the lower part of the face blackened by melted rubber and a black cross1 the foot of which rests on a level with his eye4 ,the fillet round his head is a strap set with jewelled disks4 ,on the necklace is seen a blue bird 7cotinga1 or humming-bird74 ,that part of his face which is not black1 and which in the ,codex ,borgia is painted a red colour like the rest of the body1 is on sheet #hi painted yellow1 with slender thread-shaped longitudinal stripes of red4 ,on sheet #eg he is seen as in the ninth day-count--red1 and with red and black face-painting and flame-coloured hair1 with the cotinga bird flying down on the frontal side of the fillet1 and with arrow-shaft feathers in the crown4 ,at the nape of the neck can be seen a short crest of red points enclosing three tufts of red feathers1 which1 perhaps1 originate in the xiuhcoatl1 or fire-snake worn in the ,mexican ,,mss4 proper by the ,fire-god on his back as a disguise 7cf4 ,codex ,borbonicus74 ,he has here the scorpion and atltlachinolli 8spear-throwing and fire0 sign1 and is seated on a royal throne1 with an abundance of food before him1 which probably symbolizes wealth4 ,he also wears a breast-ornament of blue turquoise mosaic with golden bells4 ,he sometimes wears the priest's tobacco-calabash as a sign of wealth or abundance4 ,aubin-,goupil ,tonalamatl4--,sheet #bj3 ,he holds the copal bag in one hand and in the other two agave-leaf spikes with flowers 7blood7 at the upper end4 ,before the face of the ,fire-god we see a sea-snail's shell1 which is1 perhaps1 symbolic of fire shut up or enclosed in the house4 ,before him1 too1 is a vessel with offerings or sacrificial balls4 ,below is an agave spike with the flower-emblem of blood4 ,beside it are the symbol of midnight1 the eye enveloped in darkness1 and a tuft of quetzal-feathers--all symbolic of the midnight penance4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ad3 ,in this codex the representation of the ,fire-god is in many respects similar to that in ,vaticanus ,b4 ,the face and body-paint are red4 ,the jewelled fillet is ornamented with the conventional representation of a cotinga bird in the attitude of flying down such as may be observed in the figures allied with the ,fire-god1 and which is also seen in reliefs at ,chichen-,itz1 ,yucatan4 ,in the fillet are placed two arrow-shafts1 which represent the two wooden fire-disks--an ornament that is called 8arrow-wig0 or 8spear-wig40 ,above this is seen a tiara1 which broadens as it rises upwards4 ,xiuhtecutli wears attached to a long pendant necklace a square plate of blue colour1 made of turquoise mosaic4 ,in some places he wields the 8shooting implement10 the throwing-stick1 or the blue throwing-stick1 xiuhatlatl1 fashioned in the form of a snake4 ,the scorpion is frequently placed beside the god1 symbolizing1 perhaps1 the stinging character of fire4 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4--,he holds in one hand the xiuhatlatl1 the throwing-stick painted blue1 decked with turquoise mosaic and having a figure on the top1 probably intended for a snake4 ,in the other hand he has a staff1 which at the upper crutch-like end shows an animal's head1 and the lower a snake's tail-rattles4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,the ,fire-god is here seen in a dancing or fighting attitude4 ,the dragon-mask lies behind the neck1 and he wears a yellow and red hat resembling an inverted cone1 with a serpent motif in front4 ,the face-paint is yellow for the upper part of the face1 the mouth-region red and the lower posterior part black4 ,his tunic is white1 with a blue sash or centre-piece1 and he wears the yellow breast-ornament4 ,in one hand he carries the atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 and in the other a white1 unpainted shield4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,sahagun1 describing ,xiuhtecutli under his minor name of ,ixcoauhque 78,the ,yellow-faced071 says that he is painted red and black1 and is smeared with indiarubber on lips and chin4 ,he wears a headband set with precious stones and a paper crown with a plume of quetzal-feathers4 ,he carries on his back his fire-snake dress and round his shoulders is slung a band of bark paper4 ,on his feet he wears bells and shells4 ,his shield is ornamented with precious stones1 and in one hand he carries an instrument the use of which is apparently divinatory4 ,,myths ,a song given by ,sahagun has reference to the ,fire-god4 ,,song ,,of ,,the ,,yellow-,,faced 7,the ,fire-gods7 ,o1 in ,tzommolco my father shall ,i dishonour ,thee8 7i4e4 withhold the sacrifice72 ,in ,tetemocan shall ,i dishonour ,thee8 #b ,o my master1 in the ,temple of ,mecatlan the yucca ,tree shakes 7the kettle-drum made out of wood from the ,yucca tree72 ,in ,chicueyocan in the house of the masked1 the masked dancers have come4 #c ,in ,tzommolco they have begun to sing1 ,in ,tzommolco they have begun to sing2 ,why do they not come here8 ,why do they not come here8 #d ,in ,tzommolco men shall be given 7sacrificed72 ,the sun has risen1 ,men shall be given4 #e ,in ,tzommolco song now comes to an end4 ,without trouble he has become rich2 ,he has become lord4 ,his mercy is wonderful4 #f ,o1 little woman1 hold speech 7give warning71 ,mistress of the mist house1 from the door hold speech4 ,sahagun says of him #bhf3 8,he had other names--,ixcozauhqui1 #8,yellow-face1' and ,cuezaltzin1 or #8,flame4' ,they called him also ,ueueteotl1 or #8,very ,old ,god1' and they said that the fire was his father4 ,they celebrated his feast at the end of the month called izcalli1 and dressed the idol in his robes and ornaments4 ,he wore the robes of a king40 ,in the ,sahagun ,mexican ,,ms4 he is described as 8the mother of the gods1 the father of the gods1 who dwells in the navel of the earth1 who enters the ,turquoise ,pyramid 444 the ,old ,god1 the ,fire-god40 #bhg ,sahagun #bhh also alludes to the god in the prayer of the merchants1 which says3 8,sit still on thy throne1 noble ,lord1 thou that in the navel of the earth hast thy seat1 ,lord of the ,four ,quarters40 ,in this prayer he is also frequently addressed as 8,lord of the ,with and the ,by0 7the contiguous neighbourhood71 8the ,lord of ,heaven1 the ,lord of the ,surface of the ,earth40 ,sahagun in a prayer to ,tezcatlipoc alludes to ,xiuhtecutli as 8the ancient god1 who is father and mother to thyself1 and is god of fire1 who stands in the midst of flowers1 in the midst of the place bounded by four walls1 who is covered with shining feathers that are as wings0 #bhi2 and in another prayer to ,tezcatlipoc1 speaks of ,xiuhtecutli as 8the ancient god1 the father of all the gods1 the god of fire1 who is in the pond of water among turrets surrounded with stones like roses1 who is called ,xiuhtecutli1 who determines1 examines1 and settles the business and law-suits of the nation and of the common people1 as it were washing them with water40 #bij ,clavigero says of ,xiuhtecutli3 8,xiuhtecutli 7master of the year and of the grass7 was among these nations the god of fire1 to whom they likewise gave the name of ,ixcozauhqui1 which expresses the colour of fire4 ,this god was greatly revered in the ,mexican empire4 ,at their dinner they made an offering to him of the first morsel of their food1 and the first draught of their beverage1 by throwing both into the fire2 and burned incense to him at certain times of the day4 ,in honour of him they held two fixed festivals of the most solemn kind1 one in the tenth1 and another in the eighteenth month2 and one movable feast1 at which they created the usual magistrates and renewed the ceremony of the investiture of the fiefs of the kingdom4 ,he had a temple in ,mexico1 and some other palaces40 ,,festivals ,xocohuetzi4--,sahagun's account of this festival is substantially as follows #bia3 ,a great tree of five and twenty fathoms long was cut down and the branches lopped off except a few at the top4 ,the tree was then dragged by ropes into the city1 great precautions being taken against damaging it4 ,the women met the procession1 giving those who had helped cocoa to drink4 ,the tree1 which was called zocotl1 was received into the court of a teocalli with acclamation1 and there set up in a hole in the ground and allowed to remain for twenty days4 ,on the eve of the festival they lowered the tree gently to the ground by means of ropes and trestles made of beams lashed together4 ,it was dressed until quite smooth1 and where the branches had been left1 near the top1 a cross-beam of five fathoms long was secured by ropes4 ,on the summit of the pole a statue of the god ,xiuhtecutli was set1 made out of the dough of wild amaranth seeds1 and decorated with white papers4 ,to the head of the image were affixed pieces of paper instead of hair1 bands of paper crossed the body from each shoulder1 on the arms were pieces of paper like wings painted over with figures of sparrow-hawks1 a maxtli of paper covered the loins1 and a kind of paper garment covered all4 ,great strips of paper1 half a fathom broad and ten fathoms long1 floated from the feet of the image1 and into his head were stuck three rods with a tamalli1 or small cake1 on the top of each4 ,ten ropes were then attached to the middle of the tree1 and the structure was reared into an upright position and there secured with great uproar4 ,those who had captives to sacrifice came decorated for dancing1 the body painted yellow 7the colour of the god71 and the face vermilion4 ,they wore the red plumes of the parrot arranged to resemble a butterfly1 and carried shields covered with white feathers4 ,each danced side by side with his captive4 ,these had the body painted white1 and the face vermilion1 save the cheeks1 which were black4 ,they were adorned with papers1 and they had white feathers on the head and lip-ornaments of feathers4 ,at set of sun the dancing ceased1 the captives were shut up in the calpulli and watched by their owners1 not being permitted to sleep4 ,about midnight every owner shaved away part of the hair from the scalp of the head of his captive1 which1 being fastened with red thread to a little tuft of feathers1 he put in a small case of cane and attached to the rafters of the house1 that everyone might see that he was a valiant man and had taken a captive4 ,the knife with which this shaving was accomplished was known as the claw of the sparrow-hawk4 ,at daybreak the captives were arranged in order in front of the tzompantli1 where the skulls of the sacrificed were spitted in rows4 ,a priest walked along the row of captives1 taking from them certain little banners that they carried and all their raiment or adornment1 which he burnt in a fire4 ,while they stood naked and waiting for death1 another priest1 carrying in his arms the image of the god ,paynal and his ornaments1 ran up with this idol to the top of the teocalli known as ,tlacacouhcan1 where the victims were to die4 ,he descended1 then returned to the summit1 and as he went up for the second time1 the owners took their slaves by the hair and led them to the place called ,apetlac1 where they left them4 ,the priests who were to perform the sacrifice then descended from the teocalli bearing bags of a narcotic incense called yauhtli 7absinthe1 wormwood1 or mugwort71 which they threw by handfuls into the faces of the victims to mitigate their death-agonies4 ,each captive was then bound hand and foot and carried up to the top of the teocalli4 ,on the summit a great fire burned4 ,upon this the priests cast the captives1 who1 when half-roasted1 were dragged out with the aid of grappling-hooks and sacrificed by having their hearts torn out4 ,the statue of ,paynal was then carried away to its own temple and all returned home4 ,the young men and boys with the women began at midday to dance and to sing in the courtyard of ,xiuhtecutli4 ,suddenly they made in a body for the place where the tree already described had been raised4 ,at a given signal all might attempt to scale the pole to reach the dough image at the top4 ,the first youth at the top seized the idol of dough1 took the shield and the arrows1 the darts and the tamalis from the head of the statue1 then threw the crumbs with the plumes of the image down into the crowd1 who fought and scrambled for them4 ,when the successful youth descended from the pole with the weapons of the god1 he was received with acclamations and carried up to the teocalli ,tlacacouhcan1 to receive jewels and a rich mantle which no one else might wear1 and the honour of being carried to his house by the priests1 amid the music of horns and shells4 ,then the people seized the ropes fastened to the tree and dragged it down4 ,izcalli4--,the following is a digest of ,sahagun's description of this festival #bib3 ,another feast of the god of fire was held in the month yzcalli1 the eighteenth month2 it was called motlaxquiantota1 that is to say1 8our father the fire roasts his food40 ,an image of the god of fire was made1 by tying a frame of hoops and sticks together and covering them with his ornaments4 ,on the head of the image was placed a mask of turquoise mosaic1 banded across with rows of green chalchihuitls4 ,upon the mask was put a crown fitting to the head below1 wide above1 and covered with rich plumage4 ,a wig of reddish hair was attached to this crown so that the locks flowed from below it1 behind and around the mask4 ,a robe of feathers covered the front of the image and fell over the ground before the feet4 ,the back of the image was probably left unadorned and was concealed by a throne covered with a jaguar-skin4 ,before this statue new fire was made at midnight with the fire-stick4 ,the spark obtained was put on the hearth and a fire lit4 ,at break of day boys and youths came with game and fish that they had captured on the previous day4 ,walking round the fire1 they gave it to certain old men that stood there1 who1 taking it1 threw it into the flames before the god1 giving the youths in return certain tamalis made for this purpose by the women4 ,to eat these tamalis it was necessary to strip off the maize-leaves in which they had been wrapped and cooked2 these leaves were not thrown into the fire1 but were all put together and thrown into water4 ,after this all the old men of the quarter in which the fire was drank octli and sang before the image of ,xiuhtecutli till night4 ,this was the tenth day of the month1 and completed that part of the feast which was called vauquitamalqualiztli4 ,on the twentieth and last day of the month was made another statue of the ,fire-god1 on a frame of sticks and hoops4 ,they placed on the head a mask with a ground of mosaic with small pieces of the shell called tapaztli1 composed below the mouth of black stones1 banded across the nostrils with black stones of another sort1 and the cheeks made of a still different stone called tezcapuchtli4 ,as in the previous case1 there was a crown on this mask1 and over all and over the body of the image costly and beautiful decorations of feather-work4 ,before the throne on which this statue sat there was a fire1 and the youths offered game to and received cakes from the old men with various ceremonies1 the day closing with the drinking of octli by the old people1 though not to the point of intoxication4 ,the festivals of this month were usually without human sacrifices1 but every fourth year was an exception to this4 ,in such a year1 on the twentieth and last day of the month1 men and women were slain as images of the god of fire4 ,the women who had to die carried all their apparel and ornaments on their shoulders1 and the men did the same4 ,they were decorated to resemble the god of fire2 they ascended the teocalli1 walked round the sacrificial stone1 and then descended and returned to the place where they were to be kept for the night4 ,each man had a rope tied round the middle of his body1 which was held by his guards4 ,at midnight the hair of the crown of the head of each was shaven off before the fire and kept for a relic1 and the head itself was covered with a mixture of resin and hen's feathers4 ,after this the victims burned their clothing1 or gave it away to their keepers1 and as the morning broke they were decorated with papers and led to the place of sacrifice with singing and dancing4 ,these festivities went on till midday1 when a priest of the temple1 arrayed in the ornaments of the god ,paynal1 came down1 passed before the victims1 and then went up again4 ,they were led up after him in the order in which they had to die4 ,there was then a grand dance of the nobles1 led by the king himself1 each dancer wearing a high-crowned paper coronet1 a kind of false nose of blue paper1 earrings of turquoise mosaic1 or of wood wrought with flowers1 a blue1 flowered jacket1 and a mantle4 ,suspended from the neck of each was the figure of a dog made of paper and painted with flowers4 ,in the right hand was carried a stick shaped like a chopping-knife1 the lower half of which was painted red and the upper half white4 ,in the left hand was carried a little paper bag of copal4 ,the dance was begun on the top of the teocalli1 and finished by the dancers descending and going four times round the courtyard of the temple1 after which all entered the palace with the king4 ,this dance took place only once in four years1 and none but the king and his lords could take part in it4 ,on this day the ears of all children born during the three preceding years were pierced with a bone awl1 and the children themselves passed near or through the flames of a fire4 ,there was a further ceremony of taking the children by the head and lifting them up1 8to make them grow10 and from this the month took its name1 yzcalli1 meaning 8growth40 ,ce itzcuintli4--,of this movable feast ,sahagun says #bic3 8,they said that the sign ce itzcuintli was the sign of fire1 and on it they made a great feast to ,xiuhtecutli1 god of fire1 to whom they offered copal incense and numbers of quails4 ,they decked his image with paper of different kinds and many rich ornaments4 ,then the great made high celebration of the event in their houses4 ,it was under this sign that they made election of the king and the consuls1 which was celebrated in the fourteenth temple by banquets1 dances1 and great liberality4 ,it was at those feasts that war upon enemies was proclaimed40 ,,temple ,sahagun states #bid that the tzommolco was the temple of ,xiuhtecutli4 ,at the foot of the steps of this temple was a terrace to which several steps gave access1 and upon this certain female slaves were occasionally sacrificed4 ,,priesthood ,the ,ixcocauhqui ,tzommolco teohua appear to have been the especial priests of ,xiuhtecutli4 #bie ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,although ,xiuhtecutli undoubtedly appeared to the ,mexicans as the personification of fire1 it was more as that element in its primeval and original form1 its chaotic and elemental shape4 ,he is1 indeed1 the pre-solar fire which existed before the creation of the sun or moon1 and just as the gods of water ruled over moisture wherever it was to be found1 so was ,xiuhtecutli imagined as holding sway over fire1 whether it came from the heavens above or the earth beneath4 ,thus we find him spoken of by ,sahagun as dwelling in the navel of the earth1 where the volcanic fires have their origin1 and as having his place above in what appears to be a species of cloud-castle1 for the ,mexican word for 8embattlement0 is derived from that for 8cloud40 #bif ,he is also called 8,he who entereth the blue stone pyramid10 which is1 of course1 the sky4 ,he corresponds to the hour before sunrise1 which makes it clear that his prehistoric precedence to the sun was insisted upon in the list of the day-hours4 ,the texts dwell upon his antiquity1 for he is1 indeed1 the ,old ,god1 the god who existed before the foundations of the world1 father and mother of the gods1 and in this ,i think ,i see a reference to the shaping nature of fire1 its moulding or creating influence1 as observed in many mythologies4 ,but in most pantheons fire-gods undertake the work of the smith1 and this seems to have given rise to the idea of their creative capacity4 ,that particular craft1 however1 was unknown in ,mexico1 and ,i am therefore at a loss to understand this particular phase of ,xiuhtecutli1 unless it be that as fire was regarded by the ,mexicans as a symbol of renewal or rebirth 7from the fact that fresh fuel was capable of adding renewed life to a dying fire71 and that the idea of creation had no place in their minds except as a renewal of the universe1 it may have been that they regarded that element as a vehicle or a symbol of recreation4 ,out of this conception1 too1 arose the belief that ,xiuhtecutli renewed the year1 from which circumstance he takes his title 8,lord of the ,year40 ,izcalli1 too1 the name of one of his festivals1 means 8growth10 or perhaps 8continuance10 and seems to be connected in some manner with this belief4 ,his rulership of the ninth day and the ninth week1 of which the symbol is atl1 water1 seems directly opposed to all our ideas of his character1 but1 as ,seler points out1 the ,mexicans thought of water 8primarily as a derivative concrete element1 which originally means something like #8the shooting thing1' derived from the verb a1 which was in fact used in the sense of #8to shoot1 to throw the spear4'0 ,it is also connected with the symbol tlachinolli1 which ,seler #big states means 8spear-throwing and firebrand10 that is1 8war40 ,in the ,codex ,borgia group1 too1 where the ,fire-god is pictured as ruler of the ninth day1 we find equivalents to this symbol1 which undoubtedly connect him with the destruction which follows upon war1 and there are also pictorial indications1 such as the throne with the jaguar-skin covering1 which associate him with the idea of justice1 of law-giving1 and1 again1 with that of sustenance4 ,as ,lord of the ,middle1 of the ,centre1 too1 he is undoubtedly ruler of the domestic hearth1 which in the houses of the ,mexicans was situated in the middle of the dwelling4 ,he was also thought of as the 8,lord of ,wealth10 especially that hoarded in the house by careful housekeeping and foresight1 and diligent workmanship in the fields4 #bih ,,chantico 8,,in ,,the ,,house0 ,area of ,worship3 ,xochimilco4 ,minor ,names3 ,quaxolotl 8,two-headed40 ,chicunaui itzcuintli 8,nine ,dog40 ,papaloxaual 8,butterfly ,painting40 ,tlappapalo 8,she of the ,red ,butterfly40 ,yei ,cuetzpalin 8,three ,lizard40 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the eighteenth tonalamatl division1 ce eecatl4 ,compass ,direction3 ,the west4 ,festival3 ,chichunaui itzcuintli1 the day 8nine dog40 ,symbol3 ,the eagle's foot4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the lower half of her face is black1 daubed with rubber1 and the upper half is red4 ,she has a golden ear-plug4 ,she wears a red garment and her hair is bound up in a fillet of cotton rags4 ,on her back she wears the arrow-like device meiotli4 ,her overdress is 8the colour of spring flowers40 ,in one hand she holds a feather staff1 the paper covering of which is painted with the acute-angled figure which denotes cotton1 and in the other she bears the shield with the device of the eagle's foot4 ,sahagun says her priest had to keep in readiness for her festival red and black pigments1 a robe1 white sandals1 and small shells4 ,codex ,borgia4--,in this ,,ms4 she is represented with a yellow face and a yellow body4 ,she wears a red tippet1 white skirt1 and a step-shaped nose-ornament1 while her head is wrapped round with a red cloth edged with white shell disks1 a feather decoration surmounting the cloth4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,here she has a yellow face with two red cross-lines like the narrow black stroke on the face of the ,fire-god4 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4--,her face is painted yellow1 disposed in a number of fields1 each containing a ring in the centre4 ,she has the long tusk of a carnivorous beast4 ,she wears golden pendants in nose and ears1 possibly a symbol of the solar pictograph1 and on her head she wears the water-and-fire symbol tlachinolli4 ,she wears the maxtlatl of the men1 to symbolize her warlike nature1 with a death's-head behind her girdle4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,the lower half of her face is painted black1 and the upper red1 like that of ,xiuhtecutli4 ,she wears a blue nose-plug1 the decoration of the dead warriors4 ,on her head she has the water-and-fire symbol4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis regards ,chantico as a male god1 and states that3 8,chantico or ,cuaxolotle presided over these thirteen signs and was lord of ,chile1 or of the yellow woman4 ,he was the first who offered sacrifice after having eaten a fried fish2 the smoke of which ascended to heaven1 at which ,tonacatecotle became incensed and pronounced a curse against him that he should be turned into a dog1 which accordingly happened1 and they named him on this account ,chantico1 which is another name for ,miquitlantecotle4 ,from this transgression the destruction of the world ensued4 ,he was called ,nine ,dogs from the sign on which he was born40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a deals with ,chantico in almost the same words3 8,chantico1 they say1 was the first who offered sacrifice after having eaten a fried fish1 and that in consequence of the presumption of offering sacrifices without having fasted1 ,tonacatecutli became incensed and pronounced a curse against him that he should be changed into a dog1 which is an animal of a very voracious nature2 and accordingly they named him ,nine ,dogs40 ,this myth should be compared with that of ,nata and ,nena in the chapter on ,cosmogony4 ,,festival ,chicunaui itzcuintli 78,nine ,dog074--,sahagun #bii states that the lapidaries of ,xochimilco who cut precious stones adored1 among others1 this goddess and made a feast to her on the above sign4 ,they attributed to her the articles of feminine toilet1 and ornamented her with golden earrings and a butterfly nose-plug of the same metal4 ,at her festival four captives represented ,chantico1 ,naualpilli1 #cjj ,macuilcalli1 #cja and ,cinteotl1 and were dressed in their insignia4 ,duran 7who confounds ,chantico with ,tlazolteotl7 states that at this feast these captives were cast into a fire exactly as at the xocohuetzi festival to ,xiuhtecutli 7q4v471 and that after the offering the priests mortified themselves by letting the resin from burning copal torches drop on their limbs4 ,,temple ,,and ,,priesthood ,the idol of ,chantico was kept in close confinement in the dark ,tlillan1 and was not visible to the vulgar gaze4 ,sahagun states that she had a temple in ,mexico called ,tetlanman1 and priests who lived in the ,tetlanman ,calmecac1 #cjb and that the office of these priests1 the tecamma teoua1 was the furnishing of paint1 feathers1 and other necessaries for the feast of the goddess4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,like ,xiuhtecutli1 the character of ,chantico is expressed by a watery sign1 that of quiauitl 7rain74 ,this1 however1 is really connected with the old mythic fire-rain at the end of the water-sun age1 when fire fell from heaven and 8the foam-stones foamed up and the rocks became red40 ,the goddess must be regarded as the consuming fire1 as is proved by an account of her image by ,duran1 representing her with open jaws and hungry fangs4 ,it is because of this1 too1 that she came to be connected with the dog1 #cjc the biting animal1 and that her festival is held on the date chicunai itzcuintli1 8nine dog40 ,she is further the volcanic fire which is hidden in the centre of the earth1 and which was symbolically represented by the fire shut up in the tlillan temple or sacred edifice1 and this plutonic significance is perhaps the reason why the interpreters speak of her as having the characteristics of ,mictlantecutli1 the god of ,hades2 but they speak of her as well as the 8,yellow ,woman40 ,her butterfly names also have reference to the flitting shapes seen in flame4 ,she is the patroness of chilli pepper1 which was naturally associated with the fiery element and was therefore connected with the end of a period of fasting1 the ,mexicans regarding abstinence from this condiment as equivalent to a fast4 ,the myth which speaks of her as having been punished for eating fish before a sacrifice is also eloquent of this relationship1 and also by its reference to her transformation into canine form connects her further with the dog and makes her a patroness of the nanualtin1 or wizards1 who on the day itzcuintli 78dog07 had especial power to transform themselves into animals4 ,her name 8,in the ,house0 alludes1 of course1 to her character as a goddess of the domestic hearth4 ,she was also the patroness of the goldsmiths and jewellers of ,xochimilco1 who of all crafts required the assistance of her element4 ,,quaxolotl 8,,split ,,at ,,the ,,top0 7,,flame7 ,relationship3 ,a variant of ,chantico4 ,festival3 ,ce xochitl1 8one flower40 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,she is so called because she wears ,xolotl's decoration on her head4 ,the double face of ,xochiquetzal in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #fj7 is regarded by ,seler as that of ,quaxolotl--the goddess parting into two heads4 ,she is also the goddess who has borne twins4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,quaxolotl is a variant of ,chantico4 ,the name1 which signifies 8split at the top10 seems to signify the kind of flame which bifurcates or splits into two tongues4 ,she is thus connected with things double1 and is the goddess who has borne twins4 ,sahagun1 who calls her ,quaxolotl-,chantico1 #cjd thereby identifies her with that goddess1 and states that she was housed in the twenty-ninth temple in the great court at ,mexico1 the ,tetlanman1 which he distinguishes from that of ,chantico proper1 the ,tetlanman ,calmecac1 the twenty-seventh4 ,he states that slaves were sacrificed here on the sign ce xochitl1 8one flower10 and perhaps this fixes the date of the festival of the goddess4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,octli ,,or ,,pulque 7,,drink7 ,,gods ,,general ,name3 ,centzon ,totochtin 8,four ,hundred ,rabbits40 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico generally4 ,festival3 ,the day ome tochtli 78two rabbit07 in the sign ce mazatl 78one deer071 a movable feast4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,the constituent elements of the insignia of the octli-gods may be generally described as follows3 7#a7 ,a two-coloured face-painting1 the front half of the facial profile 7i4e4 the middle part of the face7 being painted red in its entire length1 both sides at the temples black 7or dark green71 or else black with longish yellow spots4 7#b7 ,a nasal plate1 handle-shaped1 the ends involuted outwardly1 or crescent-shaped1 the golden ,huaxtec nose-ornament1 yaca-metztli4 ,it is usually marked on all articles dedicated to the octli-gods4 7#c7 ,a four-cornered ear-pendant1 which agrees substantially with that of the ,rain-god4 7#d7 ,a neck-ornament falling far down1 loose in texture1 made of malinalli grass fibre4 7#e7 ,a crown of heron-feathers1 such as is worn by the ,rain-god1 but here combined with the cuecaluitoncatl1 ,quetzal's neck-ornament made of dark feathers1 with some projecting arara plumes4 7#f7 ,a stone axe as a weapon4 ,the most striking of these objects are the first two4 ,so characteristic are they of the octli-gods1 that a juxtaposition of red and black lines on a tilmatli is explained in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano as 8manta de dos conejos10 or shoulder-covering of the ,two-rabbit octli-god4 #cje ,,allusions ,,to ,,the ,,octli-,,gods ,,in ,,general ,sahagun1 speaking of the octli-gods1 #cjf says that ,tezcatzoncatl #cjg was the parent or brother of the rest1 who were called ,yiauhtecatl1 ,izquitecatl1 ,acolua1 ,tlilhua1 ,patecatli1 ,toltecatl1 ,papaztac1 ,tlaltecayoua1 ,ome tochtli1 ,tepuztecatl1 ,chimapaleuecatl1 and ,cohuatzincatl4 ,one of the hymns in ,sahagun's collection alludes as follows to the octli-gods3 ,in ,colhuacan in fear ,fear has his home4 ,the ,god in the ,palace1 ,tezcatzonco1 ,he was dealt with1 therefore he wept 7the fire wept874 ,not so1 not so 7shall it be7 7saith he7 ,the ,god was dealt with1 therefore he wept4 ,the ,god in the ,palace ,axalaco1 ,he was dealt with1 therefore he wept4 ,not so1 not so 7shall it be7 7saith he7 ,the ,god was dealt with1 therefore he wept4 ,i have followed ,seler's translation of this hymn1 but1 like him1 can glean little from it4 ,it seems to me to allude vaguely to the cutting of the agave-plant1 and the consequent withdrawal of the sap from which octli is made4 ,a report on the ,huaxtec territory dated #aegi evidently relates to the octli-gods4 ,it states that3 8,they related another fable1 that they had two other effigies as gods1 one called ,ometochtli1 who is the god of wine2 the other ,tezcatlipoc1 which is the name of the most exalted idol worshipped by them1 and with these they had painted the figure of a woman named ,hueytonantzin1 that is1 #8our great mother1' because they said she was the mother of all those gods or demons4 ,and those four above-mentioned male demons1 they related1 had killed this great mother1 founding with her the institution of human sacrifice1 and taking her heart out of her breast and presenting it to the sun4 ,similarly1 they related that the idol ,tezcatlipoc had killed the god of wine with his consent and concurrence1 giving out that in this way he gave him eternal life1 and that if he did not die1 all persons drinking wine must die2 but that the death of this ,ometochtli was only like the sleep of one drunk1 that he afterwards recovered and again became fresh and well40 ,,festival ,the principal festival of the octli-gods was ome tochtli 78two rabbit071 and this calendrical name became in a measure deified as a separate god1 who was the same as ,tepoxtecatl4 #cjh ,sahagun says of this festival3 8,in the sign ce maatl1 on the second day called ome tochtli1 they made a great feast to the god ,izquitecatl1 who is the second god of wine1 and not only to him1 but to all the gods of wine1 who were very numerous4 ,they ornamented his image in the temple1 offered him food1 and made songs and played on instruments in his presence4 ,they placed a great jar of octli in the court of the temple1 and whoever wished drank from it4 ,the duty of replenishing the jar was given to the men who cut the maguey4 ,they carried to the house of the god the first-fruits of the first sap1 which they drew from it40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,,in ,,general ,when a man was intoxicated with the native ,mexican drink of octli1 a liquor made from the juice of the ,agave ,americana1 he was believed to be under the influence of a god or spirit4 ,the commonest form under which the ,drink-god was worshipped was the rabbit1 that animal being considered as utterly devoid of sense4 ,this particular divinity was known as ,ometochtli4 ,the scale of debauchery which it was desired to reach was indicated by the number of rabbits worshipped1 the highest number1 four hundred1 representing the most extreme degree of intoxication4 ,the chief octli-gods apart from these were ,patecatl and ,tequechmecauiani4 ,if the drunkard desired to escape the perils of accidental hanging during intoxication1 it was necessary to sacrifice to the latter1 but if death by drowning was apprehended1 ,teatlahuiani1 the deity who hurried drunkards to a watery grave1 was placated4 ,if the debauchee wished his punishment not to exceed a headache1 ,quatlapanqui 7,the ,head-splitter7 was sacrificed to1 or else ,papaztac 7,the ,nerveless74 ,each trade or profession had its own ,ometochtli1 but for the aristocracy there was one only of these gods1 ,cohuatzincatl1 a name signifying 8,he who has ,grandparents40 ,several of these drink-gods had names which connected them with various localities2 for example1 ,tepoxtecatl was the octli-god of ,tepoztlan4 ,the calendar day ,ometochtli1 which means 8two rabbit10 because of the symbol which accompanied it1 was under the special protection of these gods1 and the ,mexicans believed that anyone born on that day was almost inevitably doomed to become a drunkard4 ,all the octli-gods were closely associated with the soil and with the ,earth-goddess4 ,after the ,indians had harvested their maize they drank to intoxication1 and invoked one or other of these gods4 ,on the whole it is safe to infer that they were originally deities of local husbandry who imparted virtue to the soil as octli imparted strength and courage to the warrior4 ,many of the titles of these deities are derived from place-names1 as ,acolua1 ,calhuatzincatl1 ,chimalpanecatl1 etc41 and this widespread denomination would seem to show that their worship must have been established at an early period1 and that each seems to represent a section of the population of ,mexico4 ,their relation with the moon is plain--a rabbit dwelt therein1 and they were rabbit-gods4 ,they seem to have been connected in a measure with the cult of fire4 ,vetancurt states that the natives in his day1 when they had brewed the new octli1 and it was ready to be drunk1 first built a fire1 walked round it in procession1 and threw some of the new liquor into the flames1 chanting the while an invocation to ,tezcatzoncatl to descend and be present with them4 #cji ,duran says that 8the octli was a favourite offering to the gods1 and especially to the god of fire40 ,sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases1 sometimes it was scattered upon the flames with a brush1 at other times it was poured out around the fireplace4 #caj ,sahagun also states that the liquor was poured on the hearth at four separate points4 #caa ,jacinto de la ,serna describes the same ceremony as current in his day4 #cab ,the invocation ran3 8,shining ,rose1 light-giving ,rose1 receive and rejoice my heart40 ,may not this connection with fire have arisen out of some such train of thought as connected the lightning with the sacred oak of ,zeus8 ,in his ,ascent of ,olympus1 ,dr4 ,rendel ,harris has shown that the oak was regarded as the 8animistic repository of the thunder10 and therefore of the heavenly fire4 ,may not the ubiquitous and overshadowing maguey-plant1 from which the octli sap was taken1 have had a like significance for the ,mexicans8 ,the principal octli-gods may now be examined more particularly4 ,,tezcatzoncatl 8,,mirror ,,covered ,,with ,,straw0 ,area of ,worship3 ,chichimec territory4 ,relationship3 ,husband of ,coatlicue4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,a stone figure of this god from ,tacubaya shows him in the recumbent position often observed in the statues of the octli-gods1 and holding a large octli jar on his stomach4 ,a headdress resembling that of an ,arab covers the head1 and from underneath it descend the strands of what seems to be a wig4 ,what appears to be a serpent motif1 the ends of which are square in form1 encircles the eyes almost like a pair of spectacles1 and he wears the usual lunar nose-plug of the octli deities4 ,an elaborate necklace1 wristlets1 and leg-pieces of precious stones are worn1 and the underside of the statue is incised to represent the ripples of water and is covered with representations of marine animals and shells4 ,,myth ,a passage in a report on the ,huaxtec territory1 dated #aegi1 states that ,tezcatzoncatl was killed and revived by ,tezcatlipoc1 by which act the drunkard's sleep became harmless in the future for men4 ,the passage runs3 8,they related that the idol ,tezcatlipoc had killed the god of wine with his consent and concurrence1 giving out that in this way he gave him eternal life1 and that if he did not die1 all persons drinking wine must die2 but that the death of this ,ometochtli was only like the sleep of one drunk1 that he afterwards recovered and again became fresh and well40 ,,festivals ,allusion is made to ,vetancurt's mention of a special ceremony to ,tezcatzoncatl on the preceding page4 ,,priesthood ,sahagun says #cac that a priest called by the same name as the god was charged with the preparations for the festival of tepeilhuitl1 in which four victims1 one of whom bore the name of ,mayauel1 an octli-goddess1 were slain4 7,see ,tlaloc--,festivals47 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,tezcatzoncatl appears to have been the god of intoxication par excellence1 father of the other octli-gods1 to whom special invocation was made when the new liquor was brewed4 ,,tepoxtecatl 8,,he ,,of ,,the ,,axe0 ,area of ,worship3 ,chichimec quarter of ,amantlan1 ,mexico4 ,tepoxtlan in ,cuernavaca4 ,symbol3 ,the copper axe4 ,,appearance ,,and ,,insignia ,in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano1 ,tepoxtecatl is pictured as wearing the peculiar nose-plug of the octli-gods1 the motif of which reappears on his shield4 ,he is crowned with a panache from which leaves sprout1 and lunar and stellar symbols appear here and there in his insignia4 ,he carries the copper axe symbolical of the octli-gods1 and wears the malinalli herb necklace4 ,,temple ,the best-known temple of ,tepoxtecatl is that at ,tepoxtlan so fully described by ,seler 7see ,bulletin #bh of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #cda ff471 and ,professor ,marshall ,h4 ,saville 7,proc4 of ,amer4 ,assoc4 for the ,advancement of ,sciences1 vol4 viii of the ,bulletins of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,tepoxtecatl was the octli-god of the ,chichimec people of the quarter1 or barrio1 of ,amantlan1 in the city of ,mexico-,tenochtitlan4 ,his idol was placed beside that of others in the holy place of that quarter1 which boasted another octli-god1 ,macuil tochtli4 ,one of the captives slain in the month tepeilhuitli1 at the temple called ,centzon totochtin inteopan1 was named after him4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,magliabecchiano1 speaking of ,tepoxtecatl1 says3 8,this is the representative of a great iniquity which was the custom in a village named ,tepoxtlan2 namely when an ,indian died in a state of intoxication the others of this village made a great feast to him1 holding in their hands copper axes1 which were used to fell wood40 ,the question arises3 in what manner was the axe connected with the octli-god8 ,the axe is1 of course1 the implement of the ,tlaloqu1 or rain-gods1 and of the ,chac1 or rain-gods of ,yucatan4 ,therefore1 ,i take it1 the axe of ,tepoxtecatl gives him a certain pluvial significance1 which the octli-gods as strengtheners of the soil1 the deities who gave 8courage0 to the earth1 undoubtedly possessed4 ,,patecatl 8,,he ,,from ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,medicines0 ,area of ,worship3 ,originally the ,huaxtec country4 ,relationship3 ,husband of ,mayauel4 ,calendar ,place3 ,lord of the twelfth day1 malinalli4 ,lord of the eleventh 8week10 ce ozomatli4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #eg3 ,he sits opposite ,tlazolteotl and wears a crescent-shaped ,huaxtec nasal ornament1 and on his breast a remarkable comma-shaped curved ornament which is1 perhaps1 a piece of a large spiral snail's shell1 and which is peculiar to ,patecatl and ,tlazolteotl4 ,he has the half-black1 half-light face of the octli-gods4 ,he wears ,quetzalcoatl's fan-like nape adornment1 the fillet of unspun cotton distinctive of ,tlazolteotl1 and an ear-plug of the same material4 ,he holds a stone hatchet1 which is the symbol and weapon of the octli-gods1 painted blue to indicate nephrite or some such stone4 ,sheet #ac3 ,he wears a fillet which affects the form of the ,mexican royal crown1 consisting of white fur with an ape's head set on the frontal side1 evidently a barbaric ornament peculiar to the district whence he came4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #ce3 ,here he wears a wedge-shaped ,huaxtec cap1 painted blue and red1 and a disk-shaped shell on his breast4 ,his earring is formed of a trapeze-and-ray motif1 like those on the stone head of ,coyolxauhqui4 ,the ends of his loin-cloth are rounded like ,quetzalcoatl's4 ,sheet #ij3 ,he wears a breast-ornament consisting of a black1 leaf-shaped1 obsidian knife4 ,aubin ,tonalamatl4--,he holds in his left hand some spikes of the agave-leaf1 and in his right hand ,quetzalcoatl's throwing-stick1 which is involuted snail-fashion at the end and painted with a stellar design4 ,an eagle and jaguar stand before him holding paper flags1 these symbols of the warrior signifying the courage-giving nature of octli drink4 ,they are in sacrificial array1 with the sacrificial cord round their necks and the sacrificial flag in their claws4 ,the half-night and half-day symbol is above them1 signifying the time of the octli orgies4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,instead of the stone axe he holds in his hand ,quetzalcoatl's throwing-stick1 and also wears his shell breastplate4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says3 8,patecatl was the husband of ,mayaguil 7,mayauel71 the woman with four hundred breasts1 who was metamorphosed into the maguei plant or vine1 and was properly the root which they put into the water or wine which distils from the maguei in order to make it ferment4 ,and the unhappy man to whose industry the art of making wine by causing fermentation by means of this root was due1 was afterwards worshipped as a god40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis states that3 8,patecatle was the god of these thirteen days1 and of a kind of root which they put into wine 7the opactli or peyote72 since without this root no quantity of wine1 no matter how much they drank1 would produce intoxication4 ,patecatle taught them the art of making wine1 for wine was made according to his instructions2 and as men when under the influence of wine are valiant1 so they supposed that those who were born during this period would be courageous4 ,they considered these thirteen days all as fortunate1 for ,patecatle1 the god of wine1 the husband of ,mayaquel1 who was otherwise called ,cipaquetona1 he who was saved from the deluge1 ruled over them4 ,they placed the eagle and the lion near him as a sign that their sons would be valiant men40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,patecatl was originally a ,huaxtec god4 ,tradition said that the tribal ancestor of this people was the first drunkard4 ,in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 ,patecatl is called 8the finder of the stalks and roots of which octli is made10 that is those roots which were added to the octli to enhance its intoxicating or narcotic strength4 ,motolinia states that those roots were called oc-patli or octli-medicine1 and the interpreter of the ,codex ,magliabecchiano confirms the passage1 as do the interpreters of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a and the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4 ,i fail to find corroboration elsewhere of the interpreter's statement that ,patecatl was 8saved from the deluge40 ,he seems to me to bear a general resemblance to ,apollo1 as recently explained by ,dr4 ,rendel ,harris1 #cad that is1 he seems to have been named in accordance with some conception of him in which he was thought of as coming from a 8,land of ,medicines0 7in his case the ,huaxtec country1 which was also the ,tlillan ,tlapallan1 the 8,land of ,writing0 or of ,civilization74 ,the herbal conception of many ,greek and other deities--that is1 their actual development from plants1 the evolution of the god from the medicinal herb--is now well authenticated1 as can be seen from a perusal of ,dr4 ,harris's remarkable work4 ,nor is the proven development of many deities from mineral substances any less remarkable4 ,,mayauel 8,,she ,,of ,,the ,,maguey-,,plant0 ,minor ,names3 ,ce ,quauhtli 8,one ,eagle40 ,cipactonal 8,cipactli ,sun40 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the eighth day1 tochtli2 of the eighth week1 ce malinalli4 ,symbols3 ,the agave-plant2 the octli jug or vase4 ,compass ,direction3 ,the lower region1 or south4 ,relationship3 ,one of the octli-gods and the ,tzitzimim2 wife of ,patecatl4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ab3 ,she is painted yellow1 the women's colour1 and is seen issuing from an agave-plant4 ,in sheet #af she has the general aspect of ,tlazolteotl1 and her hair is bound up with a band of unspun cotton1 a plug of which also hangs from her ear4 ,about the mouth she is painted with black rubber1 and as a nasal ornament wears the golden crescent4 ,her face is white1 and her tippet and skirt are painted in the semblance of water and both garments have a fringe of snail-shells4 ,she suckles a fish4 ,sheet #fh3 ,in this place she is represented as ruler of the eighth week4 ,she has a two-coloured face-painting1 the upper half yellow1 and the lower green or blue4 ,the octli colour is represented in her garments1 which are white4 ,in the pictures of the ,borgia group generally she is shown wearing the blue indented nose-plate which is assigned to ,xochiquetzal4 ,in ,codex ,borgia generally she wears as a back-device a quemitl after the style of ,tlaloc1 but coloured white and blue or green4 ,on her flame-coloured locks she sometimes wears a jewelled chain with a conventional bird's head decorating the front of it1 while the feather-tuft on her head resembles that worn by the ,sun-god in ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #ae71 and is intended to symbolize the fiery nature of the octli liquor4 ,aubin ,tonalamatl4--,sheet #h3 ,she is painted the colour of the ,maize-goddess and her maidens--red4 ,as a headdress she wears a bandage with a neck-loop formed and coloured like that of the goddess ,chalchihuitlicue1 and connected with a high crown4 ,she bears a copal incense bag4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,a4--,she is shown with the upper half of her face yellow and the lower blue1 thus depicting the typical two-coloured face-painting of the octli-gods4 ,on her head she wears the characteristic octli-god's headdress1 also worn by ,tlaloc1 and holds a drinking-vessel brimming with octli4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,her face is blue with a few oblique lines after the style of the warrior's face-paint4 ,she wears as a headdress a bandage of unspun cotton 7usually the characteristic of ,tlazolteotl71 spindles in her hair1 a quail's wing and long plumes of a yellow colour4 ,in her hand she bears a bunch of octli-wort1 a root which1 if added to the agave liquor1 makes its powers of intoxication more potent4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheets #ca and #hi3 ,she is represented wearing the headdress typical of ,tlaloc and of the octli-gods--a bandage coloured white and blue1 with knots to the right and left1 which leaves these tips or tippets sticking out4 ,two large white and blue rosettes with similarly coloured tassels depend by strings from the right and left of this bandage4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #bh3 ,clothed in a yellow-striped tippet like that of ,chalchihuitlicue1 with a border painted in the colours of the jewel1 she lies in her agave-plant4 ,she is crowned with a wreath of flowers and wears a blue skirt4 ,codex ,laud4--,sheet #i3 ,the agave-plant rises from a turtle resting upon a dragon4 ,adjacent to this lie a copper hatchet and a throwing-weapon1 while in her hand she holds an octli bowl ornamented with gems and flowers4 ,secondary ,aspects4--,she is very often suggested by the octli jug1 which in the ,borgia group is represented as a big two-handed vessel standing on serpentine coils1 while to it are attached votive papers of the type frequently offered to the ,tlaloqu1 and bannerets are placed on the sides1 on which the ,v-shaped point is depicted4 ,the night-and-day symbol surmounts the whole4 ,though she is spoken of as having many breasts1 the goddess is very rarely depicted in this manner4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says of her3 8,they feign that ,mayaguil was a woman with four hundred breasts1 and that the gods on account of her fruitfulness changed her into the maguei1 from which they make wine40 ,he also speaks of her as the mother of ,cinteotl1 remarking that all the gods had their origin from the vine which bears the grape 7the maguey-plant74 ,the third interpreter of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis calls her 8,mayaquel1 who was otherwise called ,cipaquetona0 7,cipactonal71 and wife of ,patecatl4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,mayauel1 as her name implies1 is primarily a deity of the maguey-plant4 ,but evidence is not wanting that she also partakes of the nature of the ,earth-goddess1 as her occasional appearance in the insignia of ,tlazolteotl and her wearing of the colours of the ,maize-goddess would seem to show4 ,as the wife of ,patecatl1 the god 8from the land of medicines10 she bears the ropes which symbolize the octli-wort1 the plant which gave a narcotic quality to the octli drink1 and which was thought of as strangling or choking the drunkard4 ,her bounteousness of fertility was symbolized by the possession of four hundred breasts1 and in this she resembles the old mother-goddess of ,asia ,minor4 ,she has also affinities with ,xochiquetzal and ,cipactonal4 ,,totoltecatl 8,,he ,,of ,,tollan0 ,relationship3 ,one of the octli-gods4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the deity wears a paper crown surmounted by a panache of heron-feathers and a nose-plug like that worn by the other octli-gods4 ,his wig or hair falls over his shoulders4 ,the upper part of his body is nude1 but he wears a red-bordered cloth round the head4 ,his shield is a peculiar one1 and ,sahagun calls it a 8shield of the boat40 ,in shape it is almost like a modern door1 and from it depends what seem to be paper strips4 ,he wears bands of some textile material1 which are tied behind with knots round the leg1 and he is shod with sandals4 ,in his hand he carries the obsidian axe typical of the octli-gods4 ,he seems to have been a drink-god of the ,toltecs4 ,,macuiltochtli 8,,five ,,rabbit0 ,area3 ,mexico4 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,symbol3 ,five tochtli sign4 ,relationship3 ,one of the ,uitznaua4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,general4--,in both ,codex ,vaticanus ,b and ,codex ,borgia he is painted a yellow colour1 but in ,borgia very deep yellow1 almost brown1 to distinguish the rectangularly bordered yellow field which is seen in the neighbourhood of the eye1 and is characteristic of all the gods of the 8,macuil0 series4 ,in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b this process is reversed1 the yellow field being painted a darker1 greyer shade4 ,in this ,,ms41 too1 the god resembles ,macuil ,cozcaquauhtli1 but has a bundle of stone knives before his mouth1 and he wears at the frontal side of the head-fillet a flower1 from which stone knives project4 ,on his breast is seen the eye1 the original form of ,tezcatlipoc's white ring1 and on his upper arm he has a large armlet1 painted a blue colour4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the ,sahagun ,,ms4 describes him as having the hand motif in the region of the mouth4 ,on the head is a feather helmet surmounted by a comb of feathers1 and he wears a necklet of animal claws4 ,a red-bordered cloth is twisted round the hips4 ,the sandals are white4 ,the shield1 which is described as a 8sun-shield10 is red1 and has claw ornaments4 ,the god carries an obsidian axe1 and a staff with a heart inset and painted with quetzal-feathers4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,from his possession of the hand-symbol in the region of the mouth1 ,macuiltochtli1 the 8,five ,rabbit10 seems to me to be in some measure equated with the gods ,macuilxochitl and ,xolotl1 and thus partakes with them of the quality of a deity of pleasure and conviviality4 ,,totochtin ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the face is painted in two different colours1 and the head is surmounted by a crown of feathers4 ,the god wears the half-moon nose-plug of the octli-gods1 and an ear-plug made of paper4 ,on his back he wears the wing of the red guacamayo1 and he has a feather collar4 ,a net cloth decorated with the figures of scorpions is hung round his hips4 ,on his feet he wears bells and shells1 and the sandals peculiar to the octli-gods4 ,the shield common to the octli-gods hangs on his arm1 and he carries in his hand the obsidian or copper axe with which they are usually represented4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,sahagun 7bk4 i1 c4 xii7 alludes to ,totochtin as 8the god of wine40 ,he seems to me to be a personification of the ,centzon ,totochtin 7four hundred or 8innumerable0 octli-gods71 a figure in which the entire body of drink-gods seem to have become merged in the ,aztec mind4 ,,tomiauhtecutli 8,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,maize-,,flower0 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the god is painted black and on his face is a plaster of salvia chia4 ,he wears a crown of paper and another of heron-feathers1 variegated with plumes of the quetzal4 ,around his shoulders is cast a band of paper1 and his loin-cloth is of the same material4 ,on his feet he wears shells and white sandals4 ,his shield is decorated with a water-rose1 and in his hand he bears a rush-staff4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,this god was connected with the flowering of the maize1 on which occasion1 during the month tepeilhuitl1 octli was drunk and his festival celebrated4 7,see ,sahagun1 ,appendix to bk4 ii47 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,stellar ,,and ,,planetary ,,deities ,,tonatiuh 8,,the ,,sun0 ,area of ,worship3 ,plateau of ,anahuac4 ,minor ,names3 ,piltzintecutli 8,young ,prince40 ,totec 8,our ,chief40 ,xipilli 8,the ,turquoise ,prince40 ,calendar ,place3 ,third of the nine lords of the night4 ,ruler of the nineteenth day-count1 quiauitl4 ,ruler of the day-sign ce xochitl4 ,compass ,direction3 ,upper region2 the heavens2 lord of the east4 ,symbol3 ,the sun-disk1 which he usually wears as a back-ornament4 ,festivals3 ,the fourth day1 nauollin1 in the sign ce ocelotl 7movable feast74 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #i3 ,his nose-plug has the colours of the chalchihuitl4 ,the ornament attached to the nape and back is a large rosette or disk painted in the chalchihuitl colours1 as is the wrap which falls over the back4 ,the ends of the loin-cloth also show the elements of this hieroglyph1 and such a loin-cloth painting was usually indicative of the rank of the wearer in ancient ,mexico4 ,on his breast is a large gold disk4 ,from his hollow ear-plug depends a jewelled band1 and his collar consists of a solar disk 7874 ,sheet #gj3 in this picture he is seated on a platform covered with a jaguar-skin4 ,his face-paint and body-paint are yellow1 with a rectangular stripe from the end of the nose-plug and above the eye across the forehead4 ,his hair or wig is yellow1 and is held by a jewelled band ornamented with a bird's head4 ,his headdress is further equipped with eagle's feathers1 and three tasselled cords edged with cotton hang from it4 ,on his breast lies the solar disk4 ,the head of a grey parrot protrudes from his back1 and on the face is a small red disk4 ,sheet #ad3 ,here he is depicted as a red ,tezcatlipoc with the face-paint of the ,sun-god1 but is without the small red disk on the face1 having instead the small1 four-cornered white-and-red patch characteristic of the ,maize-god1 of ,xochipilli and ,tonacatecutli4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #bj3 ,here he is painted with flame-coloured hair1 bound by a fillet1 on the front of which is the usual bird's-head ornament4 ,his panache consists chiefly of two eagle's feathers1 from which hang two long bands1 one side of which is hairy as if formed of skin1 and this may be taken as a characteristic sign of him in the ,,mss4 of the ,codex ,borgia group4 ,his nose-plug has a plate depending from it1 which falls over the mouth1 as in some representations of ,tezcatlipoc1 and on his breast he wears an ornament which recalls that worn by the ,fire-god in this codex4 ,in this ,,ms41 as in ,codex ,borgia1 he is represented as standing before a temple1 with a burnt-offering of wood and rubber in his hand1 and here the temple is painted in the chalchihuitl colour-elements1 and its roof covered by jewelled disks4 ,sheet #id3 ,in this picture he is shown as wearing a long1 flame-like beard1 which strongly resembles that worn by ,quetzalcoatl and ,tonacatecutli in some ,,mss41 save that it is the colour of fire4 ,aubin-,goupil ,tonalamatl4--,sheet #aj3 ,in this manuscript the upper portion of the face is light red1 and the lower a darker red4 ,the outer corner of the eye is encircled by three red lines1 which are rounded4 ,he wears a jewelled fillet1 feathered crown1 collar1 breast-ornament1 butterfly's wing neck-ornament1 the net-pouch of the hunting tribes1 and the sword-fish pattern sword4 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4--,the face is yellow with no lines4 ,he wears the fillet with turquoise jewels1 and a wheel-shaped ornament at the nape of the neck1 probably symbolic of the solar disk4 ,elsewhere in this ,,ms4 he is red1 wears the solar disk on his back1 and holds the cotinga bird in one hand and a shield and a bundle of spears in the other4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,the face is half yellow1 half red1 and is surmounted by a flame-coloured wig bound by the jewelled fillet with its usual ornament4 ,elsewhere in this codex he represents the sun by night1 with the body and upper part of the face dark1 no nasal rod1 but a crescent like that of the ,earth-goddess and the octli-gods4 ,the sea-snail's shell is above him1 and the symbol of the eye in a dark patch4 ,general4--,as second member of the third row in ,codex ,borgia1 ,vaticanus ,b1 and ,fejrvry-,mayer1 he is recognized by his red body and face-painting1 and flame-coloured hair bound up by a jewelled chain or strap1 with the conventional bird figure on the frontal side4 ,,wall-,,paintings ,several lively paintings decorate the friezes executed on the walls of the palaces at ,mitla1 where the insignia of the god are given in the manner familiar throughout ,mexico4 ,the fillet with the bird's-head frontal ornament1 the peculiar disposition of the panache1 and the necklace typical of the deity are all reproduced1 and here serve to prove the widespread character of his worship4 ,,myths ,the myths dealing with the origin of the sun and the several epochs in which he reappeared under different forms have already been given in the chapter on ,cosmogony1 and in the prcis of the opening chapters of the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas4 ,the myths relating to his paradise have also been dealt with in that chapter4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says3 8,it was ,tonatiuh they affirm who conducted to heaven the souls of those alone who died in war2 and on this account they paint him with these arms in his hands4 ,he sits as a conqueror1 exactly opposite to the other who is near him1 who is god of hell4 ,they allege that the cause of winter being so disagreeable is the absence of the sun1 and that summer is delightful on account of its presence2 and that the return of the sun from our zenith is nothing more than the approach of their god to confer his favours on them40 ,,festivals ,nauollin4--,one of the feasts of the ,sun-god was held at the ceremony known as nauollin 7the 8four motions10 alluding to the quivering appearance of the sun's rays7 in the ,quauhquauhtinchan 7,house of the ,eagles71 an armoury set apart for the military order of that name4 ,the warriors gathered in this hall for the purpose of dispatching a messenger to their lord the sun4 ,high up on the wall of the principal court was a great symbolic representation of the orb1 painted upon a brightly coloured cotton hanging4 ,before this copal and other fragrant gums and spices were burned four times a day4 ,the victim1 a war-captive1 was placed at the foot of a long staircase leading up to the stone on which he was to be sacrificed4 ,he was clothed in red striped with white and wore white plumes in his hair--colours symbolical of the sun--while he bore a staff decorated with feathers and a shield covered with tufts of cotton4 ,he also carried a bundle of eagle's feathers and some paint on his shoulders1 to enable the sun1 to whom he was the emissary1 to paint his face4 ,he was then addressed by the officiating priest in the following terms3 8,sir1 we pray you go to our god the sun1 and greet him on our behalf2 tell him that his sons and warriors and chiefs and those who remain here beg of him to remember them and to favour them from that place where he is1 and to receive this small offering which we send him4 ,give him the staff to help him on his journey1 and this shield for his defence1 and all the rest that you have in this bundle40 ,the victim1 having undertaken to carry the message to the ,sun-god1 was then dispatched upon his long journey4 ,ome acatl or ,toxiuhilpilia4--,this great solar festival was celebrated once in fifty-two years only1 and signified the 8binding of the years10 the end of the solar cycle1 when1 it was believed1 the 8old0 sun died and a new luminary would take its place1 or the world would be plunged into darkness4 ,says ,clavigero3 8,the festival1 which was celebrated every fifty-two years1 was by far the most splendid and most solemn1 not only among the ,mexicans1 but likewise among all the nations of that empire1 or who were neighbouring to it4 ,on the last night of their century1 they extinguished the fire of all the temples and houses1 and broke their vessels1 earthen pots1 and other kitchen utensils1 preparing themselves in this manner for the end of the world which at the termination of each century sic they expected with terror4 ,the priests1 clothed in various dresses and ensigns of their gods and accompanied by a vast crowd of people1 issued from the temples out of the city1 directing their way towards the mountain ,huixachtla1 near to the city of ,itztapalapan1 upwards of six miles distant from the capital4 ,they regulated their journey in some measure by observation of the stars1 in order that they might arrive at the mountain a little before midnight1 on the top of which the new fire was to be kindled4 ,in the meantime the people remained in the utmost suspense and solicitude1 hoping on the one hand to find from the new fire a new century granted to mankind1 and fearing on the other hand the total destruction of mankind if the fire by divine interference should not be permitted to kindle4 ,husbands covered the faces of their pregnant wives with the leaves of the aloe1 and shut them up in granaries2 because they were afraid that they would be converted into wild beasts and would devour them4 ,they also covered the faces of children in that way1 and did not allow them to sleep1 to prevent their being transformed into mice4 ,all those who did not go out with the priests mounted upon terraces1 to observe from thence the event of the ceremony4 ,the office of kindling the fire on this occasion belonged exclusively to a priest of ,copolco1 one of the districts of the city4 ,the instruments for this purpose were1 as we have already mentioned1 two pieces of wood1 and the place on which the fire was produced from them was the breast of some brave prisoner whom they sacrificed4 ,as soon as the fire was kindled they all at once exclaimed with joy2 and a great fire was made on the mountain that it might be seen from afar1 in which they afterwards burned the victim whom they had sacrificed4 ,immediately they took up portions of the sacred fire and strove with each other who should carry it most speedily to their houses4 ,the priests carried it to the greater temple of ,mexico1 from whence all the inhabitants of that capital were supplied with it4 ,during the thirteen days which followed the renewal of the fire1 which were the intercalary days1 interposed between the past and ensuing century to adjust the year with the course of the sun1 they employed themselves in repairing and whitening the public and private buildings1 and in furnishing themselves with new dresses and domestic utensils1 in order that everything might be new1 or at least appear to be so1 upon the commencement of the new century4 ,on the first day of that year and of that century1 which1 as we have already mentioned1 corresponded to the #bfth of ,february1 for no person was it lawful to taste water before midday4 ,at that hour the sacrifices began1 the number of which was suited to the grandeur of the festival4 ,every place resounded with the voice of gladness and mutual congratulations on account of the new century which heaven had granted to them4 ,the illuminations made during the first nights were extremely magnificent2 their ornaments of dress1 entertainments1 dances1 and public games were superiorly solemn40 #cae ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,in my view the sun-god ,piltzintecutli is merely a personification of ,tonatiuh1 the sun4 ,as has already been said1 solar worship in ,mexico seems to have been developed at a comparatively late period4 ,in the myths regarding the origin of the sun given by ,olmos and ,sahagun1 it is clear that he is regarded more as a luminary than as a god4 ,the name ,tonatiuh1 indeed1 means nothing more than 8sun10 and although one of the sacrificed gods was believed to have given him life1 and he afterwards acts as a living being1 he does not seem to possess the same qualities of personality as his later form1 ,piltzintecutli4 ,the expression 8,tonatiuh0 seems to have been regarded as a divine place-name1 a paradise to which those warriors fared who died in battle4 ,tonatiuh was known as the ,teotl1 that is as the god par excellence1 but this does not by any means imply that the ,mexicans regarded him as the highest form of deity known to them4 ,i think it rather means that the priests1 having arrived at the conclusion that the tonalamatl and the calendar hinged1 so to speak1 upon the solar periods1 came very naturally to regard the sun as the centre or hub of the intricate system which they had built up through generations4 ,the very name ,teotl1 too1 shows that1 in later times at least1 the sun was regarded as a deity1 perhaps because he occupied the vault of the sky 8where the gods live40 ,but above and beyond this we have to regard ,mexican sun-worship from an entirely different point of view4 ,there is abundant evidence that the hunting tribes of the northern steppes1 the ,chichimec immigrants1 possessed a primitive sun-worship of their own4 ,it may be1 indeed1 that it was from this that the worship of ,tonatiuh sprang1 and not from the consideration of calendric science2 but the criteria we possess regarding this part of the question is at present much too scanty to permit of more precise statement4 ,but if we know that sun-worship obtained among the nomadic tribes of northern ,mexico1 we are somewhat ignorant of the precise form it took4 ,one thing1 however1 seems certain1 and that is that it was founded on the belief that the sun existed on the blood of animals1 preferably deer1 and that when these were scarce1 on the blood of human beings4 ,if blood-offerings to the sun were to cease1 it was thought that the luminary would grow weak1 fail1 and become extinguished1 or else would visit his wrath upon humanity in some such manner as we read of in those myths which recount the recurrent catastrophes of fire1 wind1 deluge1 and earthquakes which the wrathful luminary brought upon mankind4 ,i would1 therefore1 date the introduction of the solar worship proper into ,mexico1 and consequently that of human sacrifice1 from the period of entry of those northern ,chichimec peoples1 who1 entering the ,valley of ,mexico at an epoch shortly after the disintegration of the ,toltec civilization1 adopted an agricultural existence1 and finding the supply of wild animals insufficient to meet the requirements of sacrifice1 instituted the occasional immolation of human beings4 ,this custom seems1 indeed1 to have already obtained in the case of the ritual of some of the native gods1 for example1 ,tlaloc and the ,earth-mother1 and it may be1 indeed1 that the northern nomads drew the inspiration which prompted them to this evil practice from their more civilized neighbours4 ,but it is even more probable that1 as the various ,mexican peoples were for the most part of cognate origin and contiguous civilization1 the practice of human sacrifice had been common to all of them in a more or less modified form for some generations1 and only received an impetus after the ,chichimec immigration4 ,against this view may be quoted the myth which refers the introduction of human sacrifice to a group of ,huaxtec earth-goddesses1 ,tlazolteotl and her sisters4 ,but it seems to me that this ,maya people were by no means so prone to the custom1 and that in this instance ,tlazolteotl has been confounded with some of her ,mexican forms4 ,the process by which blood was thought of as being transformed into rain has already been fully described1 and it but remains here to indicate that ,tonatiuh is1 in places1 closely identified with the sign atl1 water1 and is indeed one of the four rulers of the week beginning with the day 8one rain10 probably because of the early belief that on one occasion the sun 8drank up0 all the water on earth and later disgorged it in floods4 ,for the reason that he was regarded as existing on blood1 the sun was thought of as the great patron of warriors1 and has an intimate connection with both ,uitzilopochtli and ,tezcatlipoc4 ,but if we seek for evidence which would seem to exalt him above the greater gods in ,mexico1 and place him in a central and pre-eminent position in the pantheon1 we will be disappointed4 #caf ,at the same time we must recollect that the two deities just mentioned1 and even ,quetzalcoatl in a measure1 possessed a solar connection1 and in the offering of the hearts of all victims to his glowing face we may probably see a survival or a reminiscence from a period when he was perhaps the central figure in the pantheon of the ,chichimec nomads4 ,there is also plenty of evidence that the sun must be classed with ,xiuhtecutli and the other gods of fire1 as is shown by the great fire festival which took place every fifty-two years4 ,but the lack of data regarding the sun as a personalized deity rather than a divine luminary places us at a disadvantage in attempting to assess his precise nature and status in the ,mexican pantheon1 and considerable research is required before this can be essayed with any degree of confidence4 ,,metztli 8,,the ,,moon10 ,,or ,,tecciztecatl 8,,he ,,from ,,the ,,sea-,,snail0 ,symbol3 ,bone-surrounded disk set in the night-sky1 containing a rabbit4 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the sixth day-count1 miquiztli4 ,ruler of the sixth tonalamatl division1 ce miquiztli4 ,ruler of the fifth night-hour4 ,compass ,direction3 ,south4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,in this codex he is shown as a female1 old1 with the gobber tooth or lip contraction indicative of extreme age4 ,he is painted yellow1 the colour of women4 ,the white of the clothing expresses the relatively dull hue of the luminary when compared with the sun4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,here he is old and white-haired1 and is pictured as a priest with the marine snail's shell on his brow4 ,the body-colour is blue1 as is the face1 on sheet #cj1 but on sheet #hh1 half-blue1 half-red1 as in the ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer picture of ,mixcoatl4 ,on sheet #cj he is figured with a long beard and wears ,xochipilli's ornaments4 ,aubin ,tonalamatl4--,in this place he is represented by ,tezcatlipoc4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #bd3 ,here he is pictured as an old god with a long beard4 ,the body-colour is blue1 and the face half-blue1 half-red1 like that of ,xolotl in the same ,,ms4 ,he wears the sea-snail shell on his fillet4 ,,myths ,the principal myths relating to the origin of the ,moon-god have already been given in the chapter on ,cosmogony4 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a states that3 8,they believed that the moon presided over human generation1 and accordingly they always put it by the side of the sun4 ,they placed on its head a sea-snail1 to denote that in the same way as this marine animal creeps from its integument or shell1 so man comes from his mother's womb40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis says3 8,meztli was otherwise named ,tectziztecatl2 because in the same way that a snail creeps from its shell1 so man proceeds from his mother's womb4 ,they placed the moon opposite to the sun1 because its course continually crosses his2 and they believed it to be the cause of human generation40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,tecciztecatl is 8the ,man in the ,moon10 the spirit who dwells in or animates the luminary of night4 ,he is frequently depicted as an old man or priest1 with staff in hand1 and is the wizard1 or naualli1 who lurks within the moon-cave1 or house1 for so the moon seems to have appeared to the ,mexicans4 ,it seems also to have been regarded or symbolized as a snail-shell1 and it is probable that the curved shape of it in its earliest phase1 no less than its gradual growth1 brought about this conception4 ,this in turn created the train of thought which resulted in its being regarded as the symbol of conception and birth--its growth and gradual rotundity1 as well as its symbolic connection with the snail assisting the idea4 ,as the wizard of night concealed within his cavern1 ,tecciztecatl was identified with ,tezcatlipoc1 the sorcerer par excellence1 the magician who held sway over the dreaded hours of darkness4 ,the moon had also a connection with ,chalchihuitlicue and the octli-gods1 which is dealt with in the sections relating to those deities4 ,,mixcoatl1 ,,iztac ,,mixcoatl1 ,,or ,,camaxtli ,,as ,,mixcoatl 8,,cloud ,,serpent0 ,area of ,worship3 ,chichimec country2 ,mexico-,tenochtitlan2 ,tlaxcallan4 ,minor ,names3 ,iztac ,mixcoatl4 ,camaxtli4 ,relationship3 ,one of the ,tzitzimim2 father of ,uitzilopochtli2 husband of ,itzcuy4 ,festival3 ,quecholli1 the fourteenth month4 ,compass ,direction3 ,north4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #be3 ,in this manuscript ,mixcoatl's almost nude body is striped with white1 as in the case of some of the stellar deities1 and he has the half-mask stellar face-painting about the eye4 ,his hair curls up above the brow1 is covered with downy white feathers1 and he wears a forked heron-feather tuft on the head4 ,on sheet #cg his effigy is accompanied by the symbolical weapons of war4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ej2 right-hand corner1 lower portion3 ,the representation in this place is almost identical with that in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 sheet #be4 ,on sheet #ae the god has the implements of war and a small hand-flag1 and wears a blue metal breast-plate set in gold1 from which depends a chalchihuitl jewel4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #da3 ,mixcoatl is here depicted with body-colour half-blue1 half-red1 the black domino-stellar painting about the eye1 his hair puffed up above the brow and surmounted by the warrior's adornment4 ,the body-painting in this place is merely a variant of the striped colour1 perhaps indicating the twilight4 ,as god of the hunting tribes1 he is naked like the hunter1 and has an ear-plug made from a deer's foot4 ,he is armed with a throwing-stick 7atlatl74 ,,wall-,,paintings ,on the west side of the court of ,palace ,i at ,mitla are certain fragments1 some of which undoubtedly represent ,mixcoatl in his different phases4 ,in the first of these he is represented as wearing a white wig surmounted by tufts of down in which arrows are stuck4 ,on his face he has the familiar 8domino-painting10 he is bearded1 and his nose-plug is of a peculiar character1 somewhat unfamiliar and expressing a serpentine motif4 ,he wears a collar with sharp stellar edges4 ,the fifth figure to the right from this once more represents him in the same guise1 only that in his left hand he holds the atlatl1 or spear-thrower4 ,his peculiarly stellar character has not been lost upon the artist who executed these paintings1 as the stellar eye-motif decorates the top of the frieze on which they appear4 ,not far away is seen the deer usually associated with him4 ,,statuary ,,and ,,paintings ,an interesting stone figure of ,mixcoatl was discovered in the ruins of the ,castillo de ,teayo1 to the west of the pyramid4 ,it is made of sandstone1 and the frontal aspect shows the god wearing a high panache of feathers1 a headdress flanked by tufts or puffings of some textile material from which feathers depend1 and an elaborate necklace4 ,the skirt1 the upper part of which is ,v-shaped1 hangs down to the ankles1 and is tied up behind in a double knot4 ,in his left hand he carries the bag which holds obsidian arrow-heads1 his invariable symbol1 and in the right the ,s-formed lightning symbol1 with which he is often represented1 as in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano4 ,another relief from the same site shows him carrying the same symbols4 ,his hair is decorated with feather-balls1 as in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano and ,duran's illustration4 ,in a painting from ,teopancaxo he wears a peculiar headdress from which falls behind a large panache of feathers1 and which seems to be decorated with down2 a horizontal band crosses the face beneath the eye and covers the whole of the nose4 ,in one hand he carries the lightning symbol1 from which spring serpentine streaks of lightning1 and in the other a small shield like a sunflower and three arrows with blunt ends4 ,,as ,,iztac ,,mixcoatl 8,,white ,,cloud ,,serpent0 ,minor ,names3 ,ce eecatl 8,one ,wind40 ,relationship3 ,husband of ,ilancuy and progenitor of the ,xelhua national ancestors1 ,tenoch1 ,ulmecatl1 ,xicalancatl1 ,mixtecatl1 ,otomitl4 ,husband of a second wife1 ,chimamatl1 by whom he had a son1 ,quetzalcoatl4 ,compass ,direction3 ,upper region4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #cb3 ,he has the head of a deer4 ,he carries for a staff the neck of a long-billed1 white bird1 a heron4 ,before him stands a dish containing an eye and a feather ornament1 reproducing in form and colour the warrior's forked heron-feather adornment4 ,sheet #f3 ,he is painted a yellow colour1 thin and with wrinkled skin1 his face looking out of the open throat of a bird1 which has a feather crest curling up and a variegated rosette on its beak4 ,in one hand he holds a bone dagger1 in the other a staff tied round with a white-fringed cloth4 ,as hieroglyph is shown beside him the day ce eecatl1 8one wind40 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #fj3 ,here he is represented as having heron-feather hair and beard1 and a ring-shaped appendage below the upper lip indicative of age4 ,he is dressed as a priest1 with tobacco-calabash on back and red patch on temple4 ,he holds in one hand a staff bent like a heron's neck1 and in the other a bunch of malinalli grass4 ,sheet #bd3 ,the representation here is almost identical1 except that the staff has a heron's head and that a bone piercer is worn behind the ear4 ,in both pictures he wears a curious back device1 recalling that on the rattle-staff of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,in some places he wears a helmet-mask like the head of a deer4 ,,as ,,camaxtli ,area of ,worship3 ,tlaxcallan and ,huexotzinco4 ,festival3 ,ce tecpatl 7movable feast74 ,relationship3 ,brother of ,uitzilopochtli1 and probably a local variant of him4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,face-paint4--,he wears the domino face-paint1 like ,uitzilopochtli and ,mixcoatl1 and a nose-plug4 ,the body is striped with red and white1 in which circumstance he agrees with ,mixcoatl and ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 the morning star4 ,he wears a headdress seemingly of feathers1 and in ,duran his hair is long and he wears a knitted loin-cloth4 ,a dead rabbit1 or its skin1 is slung across his breast4 ,in the ,humboldt ,,ms4 7,roy4 ,lib4 of ,berlin7 his headdress perhaps represents the symbol of hieroglyphic expression for the phrase atl tlachinolli 7water and fire7 used in the sense of 8war40 ,weapons1 etc4--,he carries the atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 and net-bag of the wild hunting tribes1 bow and arrows1 sometimes tipped with down1 also a bag or pouch1 in which he carries his arrowheads of obsidian4 ,like ,mixcoatl he is sometimes clothed in the device of the two-headed deer1 in which he went to war4 ,,myths ,mixcoatl has already been alluded to in the prcis of the early chapters of the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas given in the chapter on ,cosmogony1 where the circumstances of his birth are touched upon4 ,in chapter x of the same work he is identified with ,amimitl1 another ,chichimec deity1 seemingly without reason4 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan speaks of him as one of the three who 8sought the hearth-stone10 and as one of the priests of the ,fire-god4 ,as ,iztac ,mixcoatl1 according to ,motolinia1 #cag he dwelt with his wife1 ,ilancuy1 in ,chicomoztoc1 the 8,land of the ,seven ,caves10 the primeval land of the tribes1 and from them sprang the forefathers of the natives4 ,by a second wife1 ,chimamatl1 he begot the god ,quetzalcoatl4 ,in the ,tlaxcaltec legend reproduced in the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 #cah mention is made of a two-headed deer which fell from heaven and was honoured as a god by the people of ,cuitlauac1 and it is told how1 clothed in its form or disguise1 ,camaxtli or ,mixcoatl subdued the surrounding tribes4 ,iztac ,mixcoatl was1 indeed1 the ,chichimec ,adam1 the father of the tribe4 ,a hymn to the gods of the hunt1 of whom ,mixcoatl was the chief1 is as follows3 ,,song ,,of ,,the ,,cloud-,,serpents ,i ,out of the seven ,caverns he sprung 7was born74 ,,ii ,out of the land of the prickly plant he sprung4 ,,iii ,i came down 7was born7 ,i came down ,with my spear made of the prickly plant ,i came down ,i came down ,with my spear of the prickly plant4 ,,iv ,i came down ,i came down ,with my net bag4 ,i seize him ,i seize him ,and ,i seize him1 and he is seized4 ,,festival ,the great festival of ,mixcoatl was the hunt-drive in the month quecholli4 ,sahagun says of this observance #cai3 8,quecholli was the name of the fourteenth month1 ,mixcoatl being honoured with festivals4 ,arrows and darts for use in war were made1 and many slaves were slaughtered in honour of this god4 ,during the five days spent in making the arrows1 everyone slit their ears and rubbed their temples with the blood thus drawn4 ,penance was supposed to be thus performed before the deer-hunting commenced4 ,those who did not slit themselves were deprived of their cloaks as tribute4 ,during these days no man cohabited with his wife1 and the aged abstained from the use of pulque1 as penance was being performed4 ,the four days employed in the making of arrows and darts being ended1 smaller arrows were made and tied in bundles of four to which were added four pine torches4 ,these were placed as offerings upon the graves of the dead1 besides two tamalli to each bundle4 ,these remained for a day upon the tombs and were then burned during the night1 other ceremonies being held as well in honour of the dead4 8,on the tenth day of this month the ,mexicans and the ,tlatelulca resorted together to the mountain of ,cacatepec1 which they called their mother4 ,on reaching it they constructed thatched huts1 lighted large fires1 and spent the day in absolute idleness4 ,next morning they breakfasted and went out together into the country4 ,there they spread themselves out in a circular line1 in which were enclosed a large number of animals--deer1 rabbits1 and others2 they gradually approached them so as to enmesh them in a small space1 and the hunt then began1 each one taking what he could4 8,after the hunt1 captives and slaves were slaughtered in the temple called ,tlamatzinco4 ,they were bound hand and foot and were carried up the temple stairs in the same fashion as a deer is carried by its four legs when taken to the butcher4 ,they were put to death with great ceremony4 ,the man and the woman who represented the image of ,mixcoatl and his companion were slain in another temple1 which was called ,mixcoateopan4 ,several other rites were performed40 ,of this festival ,acosta gives a slightly different version3 8,the feast they made was pleasant and in this sort3 ,they sounded a trumpet at break of day1 at the sound whereof they all assembled with their bows1 arrows1 nets1 and other instruments for hunting2 then they went in procession with their idol1 being followed by a great number of people to a high mountain1 upon the top whereof they had made a bower of leaves1 and in the middest thereof an altar richly decked1 whereupon they placed the idol4 ,they marched with a great bruit of trumpets1 cornets1 flutes and drums1 and being come unto the place they environed this mountain on all sides1 putting fire to it on all parts3 by means of which many beasts flew forth1 as stags1 conies1 ,hares1 foxes and ,woolves1 which went to the top flying from the fire4 ,these hunters followed after with great cries and noise of divers instruments1 hunting them to the top before the idol1 whither flew such a great number of beasts1 in so great a press1 that they leaped one upon another1 upon the people1 and upon the altar1 wherein they took great delight4 ,then took they a great number of these beasts1 and sacrificed them before the idol1 as stags and other great beasts1 pulling out their hearts as they use in the sacrifice of men1 and with the like ceremony3 which done they took all their prey upon their shoulders1 and retired with their idol in the same manner as they came1 and entered the city laden with all these things1 very joyfully with great store of music1 trumpets1 and drums until they came to the temple where they placed their idol with great reverence and solemnity4 ,they presently went to prepare their venison wherewith they made a banquet to all the people2 and after dinner they made their plays1 representations and dances before the idol40 ,,temples ,mixcoatl's temples in ,mexico were the ,mixcoapan tzompantli and the ,mixcoateopan4 ,in the first were preserved the heads of the victims sacrificed to the god4 ,the ceremony of quecholli was commenced in the latter4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,mixcoatl was primarily the great god of the ,chichimecs and the ,otomies1 a god of the wild hunting tribes of the plains to the north4 ,numbers of these had settled in ,mexico ,city and elsewhere within ,anahuac1 to which they had carried his worship with them4 ,the tribal legends connected with him seem to imply that he was regarded in one of his phases1 that of ,iztac ,mixcoatl1 as the ,chichimec ,adam or ,abraham1 and he is even alluded to as the 8father0 of ,quetzalcoatl and 8brother0 of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,the probabilities are that he was the god of a section of the ,nahua who entered ,mexico proper before the advent of the worshippers of ,uitzilopochtli1 and as he had similar characteristics to the latter deity1 he became connected with him in the popular imagination4 ,mixcoatl seems to me one of that large class of conceptions which recur so frequently in all mythologies--the rain- and lightning-bearing cloud1 which in the mind of the savage takes the form of a great monster1 a dragon or serpent1 vomiting fire and discharging water4 ,the name ,mixcoatl means 8,cloud-serpent0 and serves to substantiate this conception of him4 ,but in the eyes of a hunting people he came1 like other deities of the kind1 to be regarded as the great hunter who casts the thunderbolt1 the lightning-arrow1 and therefore as the god-like prototype of the savage sportsman4 ,mixcoatl's possession of the obsidian arrow-head1 which became personified in ,itzpapalotl1 gives further weight to this idea4 ,because he partook of the attributes of a sky-god1 ,mixcoatl almost inevitably became identified with the stellar deities dwelling in the heavens above4 ,he is1 indeed1 ,chief of the ,centzon ,mimixcoa1 which has been translated 8,the ,four ,hundred ,northerners10 the host of stars to the north of the ,equator1 in contradistinction to the ,centzon ,uitznaua1 or 8,four ,hundred ,southerners10 who were scattered by ,uitzilopochtli immediately after his birth4 ,but here a question of some difficulty arises4 ,uitznaua may correctly be translated 8southerners10 whereas ,mimixcoa can scarcely be rendered otherwise than as the plural of 8cloud-serpent40 ,the insignia of these latter deities1 however1 are certainly stellar4 ,they wear the stellar face-mask and are in every way to be connected with the stars4 ,it is clear1 too1 that ,mixcoatl in one of his manifestations must be connected with the morning star4 ,but ,i take this connection1 as in the case of ,quetzalcoatl1 to have arisen at a period comparatively late4 ,again1 we frequently find in ,mexican myth that the stars are regarded as serpentine in character1 and indeed1 as in the case of the ,tzitzimim1 partake of insect characteristics4 8,mixcoatl0 is the expression in use at the present time among the natives of ,mexico for the tropical whirlwind #cbj--obviously a much later conception of his nature1 and one more intimately connected with that of ,tezcatlipoc1 as ,i have attempted to show in the passages relating to that god1 and to ,quetzalcoatl4 ,there is1 indeed1 a strong resemblance between ,mixcoatl and ,tezcatlipoc1 both of whom are connected with obsidian1 and carry the hunter's bag of obsidian darts4 ,mixcoatl's festival is obviously one of considerable antiquity4 ,as practised in ,mexico-,tenochtitlan it was obviously a reminiscence of the great communal hunt4 ,its sacrifice of women in the place of deer1 the victims being 8carried up the temple stairs in the same fashion as a deer is carried by its four legs when taken to the butcher10 is obviously a substitution in more civilized times of human for deer sacrifice1 either because the animals of the hunt were not so easily obtained or for the reason that the idea of human sacrifice had so thoroughly interpenetrated ,mexican religious usage as to render the older form unacceptable1 merely retaining its broader characteristics4 ,it has also a strong resemblance to those medicine-hunts until recently practised by the ,indians of ,north ,america1 and in the ,zui mysteries of to-day1 a procuring of magical virtue for the arrows which were made during the first five days of the festival1 and smaller models of which were offered up on the graves of the dead4 ,mixcoatl's wife ,itzcuy is a deer and1 as we have seen1 the deer was the disguise of his surrogate1 ,camaxtli4 ,the deer is the animal connected in the barbarian mind with the quest for water or food4 ,where the deer migrated in search for these the savage must follow4 ,the animals which compose the staple food-supply of savages are frequently regarded as their gods4 ,in ,america1 on the introduction of later anthropomorphic deities1 the animal forms are frequently conceived of as the mates of these--perhaps one explanation of the belief in descent from animal forms4 ,because of his connection with the lightning ,mixcoatl was also god of the fire-twirler1 the apparatus with which fire was made1 and he appears in this character during the fire festival4 ,,tlauizcalpantecutli 8,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,dawn0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico2 ,toltec 7874 ,calendar ,place3 ,with the ,fire-god1 lord of the ninth week1 ce coatl4 ,twelfth of the thirteen lords of the day-hours4 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,relationship3 ,variant of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,general4--,in the ,codex ,borgia 7sheet #be7 he is painted as having a white-and-red-striped body1 and the black face with white-spotted quincunx peculiar to him in his special form as evening star4 ,the hair is yellow1 the locks rising in curls above the brow1 and bound by a red fillet4 ,we can probably recognize him in the figure seen in sheet #ai of ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 which bears a strong resemblance to that found on sheet #eg of the same ,,ms41 confronting the ,fire-god2 but in the first instance he is not shown with the black 8half-mask0 painting about the eye4 ,he has1 however1 the same warlike implements--shield1 spears1 and atlatl--as in ,codex ,borgia1 as well as a pouch for obsidian arrow-heads and a small sacrificial flag4 ,he is1 however1 almost universally represented with a white or white-and-red-striped body and face-painting1 and the deep black 8half-mask0 edged with small white circles which is usually shown in the pictures of ,mixcoatl1 ,paynal1 and ,atlaua1 and which is described as 8the stellar face-painting called darkness40 ,he frequently wears long1 tapering oval ornaments attached to red leather thongs in place of the chalchihuitl jewels which so often depend from the dress of the other gods1 and the band which supports these has four diverging ends terminating in a bunch of feathers1 as with ,tonatiuh1 ,ueuecoyotl1 and ,xochipilli4 ,the crown is generally composed of black feathers having white spots1 alternating with longer yellow or red plumes4 ,on the breast is seen an ornament like that of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,in ,codex ,borbonicus and ,borgia he is accompanied by the insignia of those warriors who died by sacrifice1 the blue crown with the three-cornered frontal plate1 the axe-shaped blue ear-plug1 the blue nose-plug1 the white paper shoulder-tie1 and the small blue dog which accompanied the dead man on his way to the region of ,mictlan4 ,on the five sheets of ,codex ,vaticanus ,b which indicate the periods of the planet ,venus we observe ,tlauizcalpantecutli depicted five times1 and have thus a most favourable opportunity for studying his various attributes4 ,all of these pictures represent him in the form of the evening star1 with the quincunx of white spots on the dark background of his face4 ,he is depicted as half-black1 half-white1 the body1 upper arms1 and knees being black1 but the forearms1 thighs1 and lower part of the legs white and striped with yellow longitudinal lines1 like the striping on ,uitzilopochtli's body4 ,under the eye is a motif which recalls the blue snake-band round the mouth of ,tlaloc1 but it is yellow in colour1 and forms a kind of coil in the middle of the face over the nose4 ,a tassel or other ornament falls from it1 the whole recalling certain ,maya types4 ,the hair is flame-coloured1 curls upward1 and is bound with the usual fillet studded with white slicings from mussel-shells1 and the black1 white-tipped feathers1 previously alluded to1 and intermingled with eagle-plumes1 crown the head4 ,the breast is covered with the white eye-ring1 also described above1 and which is characteristic of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,accompanying the picture is the emblem of the stellar eye1 which in this place is almost certainly intended to depict the planet ,venus4 ,the god holds in one hand the atlatl1 or spear-thrower1 and in the other a bundle of darts1 to symbolize his nature as a shooting god4 ,in those pictures in ,codex ,borgia where the god is represented as casting his spear at various mythological figures1 his insignia is in agreement with that portrayed in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4 ,but of the five figures in which he is shown as the spear-thrower1 in one only is he depicted with white1 red-striped limbs1 the remaining figures being coloured green1 yellow1 brown1 and blue4 ,nor has the face the characteristic painting known as 8stellar0 and frequently described on those pages1 but is skull-shaped1 and represented as swallowing blood and a human heart4 ,he holds1 however1 the usual spear-thrower1 shield1 hand-flag1 and the hunter's net-bag4 ,the ,codex ,borgia pictures show1 too1 the incidence of the god's other attributes1 the oval1 egg-shaped ornaments and the white-tipped black feathers1 which1 however1 are here considerably shorter1 and spread over the crown of the head only4 ,here also the first of the five figures is red-striped1 the others being blue1 red1 and yellow1 and red-striped4 ,like the figures in ,codex ,bologna1 the first has the head of a skull painted with the face-paint of ,tlauizcalpantecutli1 with the quincunx of five disks on a dark ground4 ,the other four figures wear masks1 that part of their faces which is visible being coloured like the body and having the quincunx of five white disks4 ,the second figure wears an owl naual1 or mask1 the third that of a dog1 the fourth a rabbit-mask1 and the fifth1 like the first1 a dead man's skull1 which1 however1 is portrayed in its natural colour and has no face-paint4 ,the owl-mask of the second figure and the skull-mask of the fifth show that they represent the sequence of five periods of the planet ,venus1 five time-counts based on its period of visibility1 and that1 moreover1 these figures are to be referred respectively to the compass directions1 east1 north1 west1 south1 below4 ,the ,codex ,fejrvry figure differs from the other representations1 the face being painted white with yellow stripes1 like the rest of the body and limbs4 ,but that this figure is in reality identical with those of the other manuscripts is proved by the quincunx of white spots disposed in the same manner as in the ,codex ,vaticanus ,b figure1 by the three curly locks on the brow1 and by the star-like eye worn by the god on his breast4 ,in ,codex ,borgia are shown a sacrificial cord and two small paper flags4 ,in ,codex ,fejrvry we see a shield with feather appendage1 and one paper flag1 which is evidently intended to appear in the ritual of the death by sacrifice4 ,tlauizcalpantecutli was for the ,mexicans an indication of the warrior's death1 that is1 sacrificial death4 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis the hair is plastered with white downy feathers1 and round the neck is slung the aztemacatl1 the heron-feather cord1 the whole indicating the insignia of the victim about to be sacrificed after ceremonial combat4 ,he wears a skull as helmet-mask in this ,,ms4 ,in the ,aubin-,goupil tonalamatl ,tlauizcalpantecutli wears a rod-shaped nose-plug and the blue breast-plate of the ,fire-god4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,this god1 as ,seler indicates1 #cba is a variant of the planet ,venus1 the morning star1 who was regarded as the shooting god and who was perhaps identical with ,mixcoatl4 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan says that3 8,when he appears he strikes various classes of people with his rays1 shoots them1 sheds his light on them10 and these several types of people thus shot are clearly to be seen in ,codex ,borgia1 and in the corresponding places of the other manuscripts1 where their sequence is1 however1 varied4 ,that they stand in relation to the quarters of the heavens there can be no doubt1 but these quarters vary with the several codices4 ,thus in ,codex ,borgia we find the jaguar occupying the north1 while in ,vaticanus ,b and ,bologna we find it occupying the fifth or downward direction1 and in this varying arrangement we probably see differences of local conception4 ,the deities or figures at which the god hurled his spear are the jaguar1 or ,tezcatlipoc1 ,chalchihuitlicue1 the black ,tezcatlipoc 7probably as ,tepeyollotl71 ,cinteotl1 the ,tlatouani1 or ,king1 and the ,yayotl1 or the symbol of war2 but these do not agree with the 8classes of people0 shot by the god as given by the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan1 which states 8that in the sign cipactli he shoots old men and women1 in the sign coatl he shoots the rain1 for it will not rain1 in the sign atl1 the universal drought1 in the sign acatl1 kings and rulers1 and in the sign olin1 youths and maidens40 ,this seems to me to indicate not so much that the god was identical with ,mixcoatl1 as ,seler states1 although he may have had connections with this deity1 but that he typifies in some manner the evil influences of the rays of the planet ,venus at certain times of the year4 ,we know that the ,mexicans1 like many other peoples1 believed that the stars emanated influences good and bad1 and as ,seler himself states in his essay on 8,the ,venus ,period in ,picture-,writing10 #cbb 8it is possible that we have on these pages simply an astrological speculation arising from superstitious fear of the influence of the light of this powerful planet4 ,by natural association of ideas the rays of light emitted by the sun or other luminous bodies are imagined to be darts or arrows which are shot in all directions by the luminous body4 ,the more the rays are perceived to be productive of discomfort or injury1 so much the more fittingly does this apply4 ,in this way the abstract noun miotl or meyotli with the meaning #8ray of light' is derived from the ,mexican word mitl1 #8arrow' 444 thus miotli is the arrow which belongs by nature to a body sending forth arrows1 a luminous body4444 ,when the planet appeared anew in the heavens1 smoke-vents and chimneys were stopped up lest the light should penetrate into the house4444 ,it is hardly possible to see anything else in these figures struck by the spear than augural speculations regarding the influence of the light from the planet suggested by the initial signs of the period40 ,seler also points out that we possess the analogy of the periods in which the ,ciuatete1 or 8spectre women10 send down similar baleful influences from above4 ,,coyolxauhqui 8,,painted ,,with ,,bells0 ,relationship3 ,daughter of ,coatlicue1 sister of ,uitzilopochtli and the ,centzonuitznaua4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,stone-head from ,great ,temple of ,mexico4--,this represents her as having on both cheeks the sign for 8gold0 and 8bells10 hence the face of this head is really painted 7xauhqui7 with bells 7coyolli74 ,as a nose-ornament she has a peculiar pendant1 consisting of a trapezoidal figure and a ray1 the motif of which is partially repeated in her earrings4 ,her headdress is a small1 close-fitting cap1 the front of which is embroidered in a downy feather-ball pattern4 ,,myths ,the myth which describes her enmity to her mother1 ,coatlicue1 and her slaughter by her brother ,uitzilopochtli1 has already been recounted in the section dealing with the latter god4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,coyolxauhqui's insignia1 as seen in the stone head of her from the great ,temple of ,mexico1 is unquestionably that of a lunar goddess4 ,moreover1 the terms of the myth referred to above make it plain that she represented the moon1 who is 8slain0 by the first blow of the xiuhcoatl1 or fire-snake 7the dawn74 ,the fact that she was the only sister of the four hundred stars1 ,centzonuitznaua1 probably implies her lunar significance4 ,,tzitzimim 8,,monsters ,,descending ,,from ,,above0 ,minor ,name3 ,petlacotzitzquique 8,upholders of the ,cane ,carpet40 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,certain wall-paintings at ,mitla afford a good representation of the ,tzitzimim1 who are represented as pulling the sun out of his cave by a rope4 ,in this case their character as stellar deities or demons is well exemplified4 ,the face often resembles that of a death's-head and the hair is puffed up in wig fashion4 ,in ,codex ,borgia the ,tzitzimim are represented as female figures with death's-heads and jaguar-claws4 ,the insects pictured in the ,codex ,borbonicus are unquestionably representations of the ,tzitzimim gods in their demon forms4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a equates them with the gods of ,mictlampa1 or ,hades1 but his contemporary who edited the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis says of them3 8,the proper signification of this name is the fall of the demons1 who1 they say1 were stars2 and even still there are stars in heaven called after their names1 which are the following3 ,yzcatecaztli1 ,tlahvezcal pantecuvtli1 ,ceyacatl1 ,achitumetl1 ,xacupancalqui1 ,mixauhmatl1 ,tezcatlipoc1 and ,contemoctli4 ,these were their appellations as gods before they fell from heaven1 but they are now named ,tzitzimitli1 which means something monstrous or dangerous40 ,tezozomoc mentions them in his ,cronica ,mexicana in connection with the building of the great temple at ,mexico4 ,he states that their images were at one period still necessary for the completion of the building1 and alludes to them as 8angels of the air1 holding up the sky10 and 8the gods of the air who draw down the rains1 waters1 clouds1 thunders and lightnings1 and who are placed round ,uitzilopochtli40 ,he further says that these 8gods of the signs and planets0 were brought to the sacred edifice and placed round the idol of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the ,tzitzimim are obviously stellar deities4 ,a myth seems to have existed that they had been cast out of heaven1 and may perhaps be equated with that relating to ,xochiquetzal4 ,i think1 too1 that it had a connection with the myth which told how ,uitzilopochtli routed the ,centzonuitznaua1 his brothers1 who were also stellar deities or demons of darkness4 ,that the ,tzitzimim were so regarded was probably because they were seen during the night1 or perhaps during eclipses4 ,the list of them includes many of the great gods1 especially those who had an uncanny significance1 as ,tepeyollotl1 ,mictlantecutli1 ,tlazolteotl1 ,tezcatlipoc1 and ,itzpapalotl4 ,the ,tzitzimim are equated by ,seler with the ,sky ,supporters4 #cbc ,,chapter ,x ,,gods ,,of ,,death1 ,,earth1 ,,and ,,the ,,underworld ,,mictlantecutli 8,,lord ,,of ,,mictlampa0 7,,region ,,of ,,the ,,dead7 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexican ,plateau4 ,calendar ,places3 ,lord of the tenth day-count1 ce tecpatl1 and of the tenth week4 ,eleventh of the thirteen lords of the day and fifth of the nine lords of the night4 ,symbol3 ,skull1 or bunch of malinalli grass4 ,compass ,direction3 ,north4 ,relationship3 ,husband of ,mictecaciuatl2 one of the ,tzitzimim4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ad3 ,this is one of the most striking representations of the ,death-god which has come down to us4 ,here he is depicted as a skeleton with a skeleton's thorax and a skull for head1 the arms and legs painted white with yellow spots picked with red1 to symbolize the bones of a newly flayed person4 ,he has a large rosette at the occiput and a flag1 both painted in alternate white and red cross-bands1 and this motif is carried out in the ends of the loin-cloth1 and in the extremities of other bands and stripes4 ,he presents a burnt-offering4 ,the symbolic crossways and the owl are figured before him1 the death-bird being surrounded with paper flags1 the decoration of corpses prepared for cremation4 ,sheet #ae3 ,on this sheet he wears the death-symbols4 ,at the nape of the neck he has a paper rosette1 decorated with red and white cross-bands1 the paper flag painted in the same way1 broken in the middle and bent1 and an ear-plug consisting of a human hand4 ,his symbol in this place is a bunch of malinalli grass4 ,sheet #gi3 ,in this representation of the ,death-god we find the invariable skeleton head1 but the body is painted1 like that of the priests1 in black4 ,the nape-ornament is of paper1 and the ear-plug is a human hand4 ,the screech owl's wing also appears4 ,opposite him is a corpse wrapped up in a cloth and corded with strings1 a paper flag1 used in the decoration of corpses prepared for cremation1 and a cross1 apparently made of knotted sheets of cloth or paper4 ,his hair or wig is black and curly1 some of the curls ending in eye-like circles with red centres4 ,in this picture he sits opposite ,tonatiuh1 the ,sun-god1 and thus1 perhaps1 represents night in its black aspect1 the eyes in his wig1 as elsewhere1 symbolizing the stars4 ,sheet #eg3 ,here he is placed opposite the ,death-goddess and wears the usual insignia4 ,the ground on which their seats are placed is not simply yellow1 as in the other sections1 but consists of alternate fields of malinalli grass and fragments of skulls in the style of the hieroglyph of arable land4 ,both present each other with a naked human figure1 symbolic of human sacrifice4 ,between them stands a receptacle painted black and studded with eyes1 with red bands in the middle and yellow border4 ,on the left of this stands a dish filled with blood and smoking hearts1 on which the goddess is pouring fire from a vessel4 ,on the right projects the body and tail of a dragon1 which is seized by the god4 ,in the centre is seen a skull swallowing a man who is falling headforemost into its throat1 and above all is pictured the moon1 without1 however1 the usual rabbit appearing in its circumference4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #cg3 ,here ,mictlantecutli is placed opposite the ,death-goddess4 ,he has the usual insignia1 but wears black garments1 decorated with eyes and crossbones4 ,his seat is made of ribs and a piece of skull1 and he holds a dragon in both hands4 ,between him and his mate a man sinks into the yawning jaws of the earth1 and above it is a dish with a stone sacrificial knife4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ba3 ,he has the usual skeleton head1 but in the arms and legs the bony structure is merely indicated by a yellow colour and a black design4 ,he is clothed with a jacket of green malinalli blades and wears in his ear a strip of unspun cotton4 ,he has as back-device a pot1 in which three flags are stuck4 ,sheet #cd3 ,in this sheet he is represented much as in ,codex ,borgia1 sheet #ae4 ,sheet #eh3 ,here he is pictured as a black god1 with a skull for head and seated on a chair made of blood1 bones1 and malinalli grass4 ,he has the nape-shield and the flag inclining forward1 and a nose like a sacrificial stone knife4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4--,mictlantecutli is represented more than once in this codex1 importantly on pages #gc and #gi4 ,in the first instance he is depicted with blue-grey body and enormous claws on hands and feet1 the head plastered with the yellow patches and bloodstains he frequently shows4 ,the head is that of a skull1 with protruding yellow nasal-bone1 but the ground-colour is blue1 not bone-colour4 ,he wears the 8night-hair0 occasionally associated with him1 and his coiffure is decorated with small1 black1 festal bannerets1 interspersed with what appear to be stellar eye-motifs4 ,his maxtli appears to consist of a rope or twisted piece of cotton1 and he wears wristlets and anklets of bright red cotton4 ,the necklace is reminiscent of that worn by several of the ,maya deities4 ,he sits in the portal of a temple1 and before him squat a number of men and women1 regaling themselves on human flesh from several earthen vessels containing a head1 a leg1 and an arm4 ,the second picture exhibits the penance done before him4 ,in this place he is painted brown1 with the same enormous talons1 the death's-head face1 8night-hair0 and bannerets 7yellow71 without1 however1 the accompaniment of the stellar eye-ornaments4 ,these1 however1 appear to be reproduced upon the wrists1 knees1 and one ankle1 and1 perhaps1 make this phase of the god a parallel to the ,greek ,argus1 the 8eye-spotted0 night4 ,on the breast depends an ornament which is not sufficiently clear to justify its description4 ,on page #hb the god is depicted as wearing a garment covered with crosses1 and on page #hh as standing on the skull-altar 7see ,tezcatlipoc74 ,his wavy hair is surrounded by a red and yellow cotton fillet1 and he is being anointed by a priest from a vessel of blood1 whilst other priests stand before him with pots full of blood and human hearts4 ,he wears a curious blue necklace almost of the 8masonry0 type seen in ,egyptian1 ,greek1 and ,asiatic deific ornaments1 and a cotton garment with red bows4 ,a cotton web depends from his blue ear-plug4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says of ,mictlantecutli3 8,he descends for souls as a spider lowers itself with its head downwards from the web40 ,later on he states that 8he is the great lord of the dead below in hell1 who alone after ,tonacatecutli was painted with a crown4444 ,they painted this demon near the sun1 for in the same way as they believed that the one conducted souls to heaven1 so they supposed that the other carried them to hell4 ,he is here represented that is in the codex with his hands open and stretched towards the sun to seize on any soul that might escape from him40 ,later he states that ,ixcuina1 8the goddess of salt1 dirt1 and immodesty10 was the wife of ,mictlantecutli4 ,the commentator of ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis seems to regard ,mictlantecutli as rescuing souls from the realm of the dead4 ,he says3 8,they place him opposite to the sun to see if he can rescue any of those seized upon by the lord of the dead40 ,the two interpretative codices were almost certainly edited1 if not copied one from the other1 by the same hand1 and it is such passages as this which show the great dubiety existing in the minds of the priestly commentators regarding the precise nature of the ,mexican deities4 ,sahagun in the ,appendix to his third book1 the first chapter of which treats of burial1 gives a prayer or address to the dead which mentions ,mictlantecutli1 and which states that he and his wife ,mictecaciuatl await the deceased1 who goes to dwell among the shadows1 8where there is no light or window40 ,it is further explained that when he arrived in the realm of the god of the dead 7which has already been described in the chapter on ,cosmogony71 he makes him an offering of the papers which he carries1 of faggots or torches of pinewood1 and of perfumed reeds1 cotton1 mantles1 and costly apparel4 ,boturini and ,brasseur give a great deal of matter regarding this god which is absolutely worthless1 as does ,leon y ,gama1 and the deity has been in some manner confounded with a god ,teoyaomiqui1 who seems to be quite supposititious in character and never to have had no other existence in the minds of ,gama and his copyists4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,mictlantecutli1 it would seem1 is neither more nor less than a god of the dead1 that is1 his original conception was probably that of a prince of ,hades1 a ruler of the realm of the departed1 who in time came to possess the terrific aspect and the punitive attributes of a deity whose office it was to torment the souls of the erring4 ,the fact that he presides over the eleventh hour--the hour of sunset--shows that he was in a measure identified with the night1 as certain aspects of his insignia would appear to show4 ,in a manner he must be regarded as the earth1 which in its form of the grave1 yawns or gapes insatiably for the bodies of the dead4 7,see ,mictecaciuatl47 ,he appears to have analogies with the ,lords of ,xibalba1 or the ,place of the ,dead1 alluded to in the ,popol ,vuh1 of the ,quiches of ,guatemala4 #cbd ,,mictecaciuatl 8,,lady ,,of ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,dead0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexican ,plateau4 ,minor ,name3 ,chicunaui cipactli 8,nine ,earth-monster40 ,relationship3 ,wife of ,mictlantecutli4 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the tenth day-count1 itzcuintli4 ,fourth of the four guardians of the ,third ,venus ,period1 denoting the north4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ij3 ,she has a skull for head1 with round eye and marked supraciliary arch1 tousled1 dark hair studded with eyes symbolizing night and stars4 ,the skull and body are painted yellow1 and one breast is showing4 ,her wig has eyes for ornaments1 and she wears the nape-ornament of paper usually placed on corpses4 ,her earring is also fashioned after the eye-motif4 ,the feather balls at her wrists are set with eye-like jewels4 ,she is engaged in thrusting a mummy-pack into the yawning jaws of the earth4 ,codex ,bologna 7,cospi74--,sheet #bg3 ,the date 8nine earth-monster0 7chicunaui cipactli7 stands here beside ,mictecaciuatl as her hieroglyphic name4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #eg3 ,here she is represented opposite ,mictlantecutli4 ,she has a wig decorated with stars4 ,the face is human1 but the fleshless lower jaw resembles the sign malinalli4 ,her nape ornament of paper is painted red and white1 and her costume is red with white cotton borders and an upper border of variegated white and yellow4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,see ,mictlantecutli4 ,,tepeyollotl 8,,heart ,,of ,,the ,,mountains0 ,area of ,worship3 ,tierras ,calientes4 ,relationship3 ,one of the ,tzitzimim4 ,symbols3 ,a cave 7see ,codex ,borgia1 sheet #b74 ,a marine shell 7,codex ,borbonicus74 ,see also ,seler1 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 vol4 i1 p4 #fjf1 for glyph in ,codex ,bologna 7,cospi74 ,calendar ,place3 ,eighth of the lords of the night2 ruler of the third day1 and of the third week1 ce mazatl4 ,compass ,direction3 ,south4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,in ,codices ,fejrvry-,mayer and ,vaticanus ,b the face-paint of this god is red1 and in the latter ,,ms4 has the alternate red and yellow cross-bars of the red ,tezcatlipoc4 ,in ,codex ,borgia the body is painted black1 but in this ,,ms41 as well as in the ,aubin tonalamatl1 the upper part of the face resembles that of ,quetzalcoatl in its decoration1 the profile being of a light colour1 while the temporal region is painted differently1 these colours in the ,aubin tonalamatl being separated by a black line4 ,but whereas the temporal colouring in the ,vienna ,,ms4 is green1 in ,codex ,borgia it shows the alternate black and yellow of ,tezcatlipoc's face-paint4 ,in ,codex ,borgia1 sheet #ad1 a beard is worn and a plug is in the nostrils4 ,the region of the mouth has the painting of a jaguar's skin4 ,the hair is puffed up in two pads1 symbolic1 perhaps1 of the mountainous region with which the god is connected4 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis he wears the broad necktie of the rain-gods1 only painted in green and not in blue1 and in ,codex ,borgia shows ,tlaloc's colours in the loin-cloth1 fillet1 and neck-ornament4 ,in this ,,ms41 too1 he is represented as blowing the conch-shell1 and here1 as well as in ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer1 he stands before a building which has the cone-shaped1 high-pitched straw roof of the houses in the tierras calientes1 crowned with a jagged motif4 ,as ruler of the third day-sign and third week he is represented as a jaguar pure and simple in the ,aubin tonalamatl1 ,telleriano-,remensis and ,borbonicus codices1 which is merely a disguise for the personality of ,tezcatlipoc1 as is shown by the face of that god looking out from the jaguar's head in ,telleriano-,remensis4 ,in ,codex ,borbonicus he is more unmistakably represented as ,tezcatlipoc1 for the hands and feet projecting from underneath the jaguar skin are striped like those of that god1 and one of the feet wears ,tezcatlipoc's sandal1 the itzcoatl 7or obsidian snake71 whilst the other is torn off and replaced by his smoking mirror4 ,the jaguar of ,codex ,borbonicus has other portions of the insignia of ,tezcatlipoc about him1 such as the aztaxelli1 or feather head-ornament1 and the anauatl1 or white mussel-shell ring4 ,in the ,codex ,borbonicus a large marine shell or conch-shell appears to be symbolical of ,tepeyollotl4 ,the god is alluded to by ,sahagun as among the unlucky symbols4 ,he figures as one of the faces of the double-headed ,quaxolotl4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says3 8,they considered ,tepeyolotli the lord of these thirteen signs in which they celebrated his festival1 during the four last of which they fasted1 out of reverence1 on account of the earth's having remained after the deluge4 ,but as its conditions were disordered or filthy1 they did not consider the sacrifices of these signs as good or clean1 but1 on the contrary1 as unclean1 and they applied to them an appellation which in common phraseology we might explain by the term #8sacrifices of filth4' ,these last four signs in which they fasted were likewise out of reverence and in honour of ,suguequezal 7,xochiquetzal71 the wife of ,tonacatecotle1 whose name signifies the lifting up or raising up of the ,roses1 for they say that goddess caused the earth to flourish4 ,this proper name might be written ,tiscuelutli1 which is the ,heart of the ,mountain1 which means the echo40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis says3 8,the name refers to the manner in which the earth was preserved after the deluge4 ,the sacrifices of these thirteen days were not deemed good2 they might be interpreted in ,spanish #8sacrifices of dung4' 8,the sign under which number one is written caused paralysis and evil humours4 ,two was appropriated to drunkards2 and three was applied to the earth4 ,tepeolotlec presided over those thirteen days in which they celebrated a festival2 and during the last four days of which 7where the hands are marked7 they fasted4 ,tepeolotlec means ,lord of ,animals4 8,the four days of the fast were in honour of ,suciquecal1 who was the man who remained in the earth which we now inhabit4 ,tepeolotlec is the same as the echo of the voice when it reverberates in a valley from one mountain to another4 ,they bestowed the appellation of the tiger on the earth because the tiger is a very courageous animal1 and they say that the deluge ceased at the reverberation caused by the echo in the mountains40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the commentators of the ,interpretative ,codices briefly explain ,tepeyollotl as 8echo0 and 8earth40 ,as ,seler states1 #cbe it is most probable that he is a cave-god1 an alien barbaric deity1 perhaps identical with the god whom the ,maya tribes of ,chiapas called ,votan or 8heart40 ,seler also believes him to be ,tezcatlipoc in his form as an apparition4 #cbf ,it is strange that it is only in the works of the interpreters that he is mentioned at all1 and we can discover no precise locality where his worship was celebrated4 ,the interpreters also designate him 8,lord of the ,animals10 and add that the name of jaguar is given to the earth1 because the jaguar is the wildest of beasts4 ,it may be as ,seler declares1 that 8in order to understand and explain this figure we have to start from the jaguar 7ocelotl740 ,the ,indians of the ,vera ,paz district in ,guatemala1 when they met this beast1 instead of attacking him or running away1 knelt down and began to confess their sins1 #cbg and it is probable that some such species of worship was paid ,tepeyollotl1 who by his mouth-painting1 and as ruler of the third day-sign and third week1 in the ,codex ,borgia1 is certainly depicted as a jaguar4 ,but it seems possible1 too1 that this beast1 perhaps because it dwelt in caves1 and because of its terrible nightly roaring1 may have symbolized for the ,mexicans the earth itself in its dangerous aspect of earthquake4 #cbh ,the ,nagualists1 a politico-religious secret society of post-,conquest origin1 paid especial reverence to the jaguar1 whom they regarded as a beast-patron or totemic guardian4 ,it is clear that their conception of him arose out of that of ,tepeyollotl4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,variants ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,gods ,,itztli 8,,stone ,,knife0 7,,obsidian7 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico4 ,calendar ,place3 ,second of the nine lords of the night4 ,compass ,direction3 ,east4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheet #ai3 ,he looks out from the open jaws of a stone knife1 which is designed with teeth and the socket of an eye above them4 ,otherwise he is pictured as a black ,tezcatlipoc with the yellow cross-bands on his face4 ,the smoking mirror1 the badge of ,tezcatlipoc1 is clearly to be discerned4 ,the clouds of incense reach a great height1 and are set with feather-work4 ,he wears the blue nose-rod from which a little plate falls over the mouth1 and he has a white breast-ring4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #ad3 ,in this place he is represented with his hair brushed up on one side1 over the brow1 the warrior's hairdressing1 and the forked heron-feather ornament in his hair1 part of the warrior's dancing attire4 ,the smoking mirror at the temple is given with great clearness4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #b3 ,the one foot exhibited as missing or torn off is stuck in the throat of a stone knife4 ,the body-paint has perhaps been forgotten here1 and the facial painting differs from ,tezcatlipoc's usual adornment1 being perhaps reminiscent of that of ,tezcatlipoc-,itzlacoliuhqui4 ,the head and neck are wrapped in a cloth with a fringed hem1 and which must be regarded as decked with feather balls on the surface as in the picture of the red ,tezcatlipoc in ,borgia 7sheet #aa74 ,he is associated with the crossway in all ,,mss4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,this deity is a surrogate of ,tezcatlipoc in his guise of the obsidian knife of sacrifice1 and as such is1 of course1 representative of the paramount connection of that god with the obsidian cult alluded to in the ,introduction4 ,he is1 indeed1 nothing more or less than a personalization of the obsidian knife2 his name implies this and the picture of him in ,codex ,vaticanus ,b 7sheet #ai71 where he is seen looking out of the jaws of an obsidian knife disguise1 affords absolute proof1 if more were required1 of the identification4 ,,itztlacoliuhqui-,,ixquimilli 8,,the ,,curved ,,obsidian ,,knife10 8,,the ,,blind ,,one0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico-,tenochtitlan4 ,minor ,names3 ,cipactonal4 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the thirteenth day1 acatl2 and of the twelfth week1 ce cuetzpalin4 ,compass ,direction3 ,south4 ,relationship3 ,variant of ,cinteotl3 son of ,tlazolteotl4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,the god is indicated by a bundle having a peculiar object with two black1 longitudinal stripes for a head4 ,at the eye-level a bandage is worn1 and the whole is crowned with a hair wig and bound with a double-jewelled fillet4 ,the crown of the 8head0 is also indicated by two longitudinal stripes which terminate in an involuted peak1 curving backwards4 ,two malinalli 7grass7 stripes are worn as a breast-ornament1 and the lower extremities are draped with a flowing cloth4 ,general4--,the head is more elaborately shown in the ,mexican ,,mss4 proper4 ,through the peak is thrust a carefully inserted arrow and its anterior edge is evenly notched4 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis and ,codex ,borbonicus the face of this personage1 who is called by the interpreters 8the curved sharp stone10 ,itztlacoliuhqui1 is decorated with the gold crescent nasal ornament of ,tlazolteotl and the octli-gods4 ,that this figure is the god of avenging justice is indicated by its bandaged eyes1 which recall the appearance of ,tezcatlipoc-,ixquimilli1 or ,tezcatlipoc as god of the thirteenth day-count4 ,the stone and club were used for punitive purposes1 so the figure symbolic of 8justice0 was thus represented as a hard stone4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,itztlacoliuhqui is shown here as of a blue colour1 and his face is painted with blue and white cross-bands instead of yellow and black1 like ,tezcatlipoc4 ,he wears ,tezcatlipoc's breast-ornament1 while in his hair is the forked adornment of heron-feathers4 ,,myths ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says3 8,ytzlacoliuhqui signifies the lord of sin or of blindness1 and for this reason they paint him with his eyes bandaged4 ,they say that he committed sin in a place of the highest enjoyment and delight1 and that he remained naked2 on which account his first sign is a lizard1 which is an animal of the ground naked and miserable4 ,he presided over these thirteen signs1 which were all unlucky4 ,they said likewise that if false evidence should be adduced on any one of these signs it would be impossible to make the truth manifest4 ,they put to death those who were taken in adultery before his image if the parties were married2 as this not being the case1 it was lawful for them to keep as many women or concubines as they pleased4 ,ytzalcoliuhqui is a star in heaven which as they pretend proceeds in a reverse course2 they considered it a most portentous sign1 both as concerned with nativities and war4 ,this star is situated at the south40 ,the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis says3 8,ytzlacoliuhqui1 the lord of sin4 ,ytzlacoliuhqui was the lord of these thirteen days4 ,they say he was the god of frost4 ,they put to death before his image those who were convicted of adultery during these thirteen days2 this was the punishment of married persons both men and women1 for1 provided the parties were unmarried1 the men were at liberty to keep as many concubines as they pleased4 8,ytzlacoliuhqui was the lord of sin or of blindness1 who committed sin in paradise2 they therefore represented him with his eyes bandaged1 and his day was accordingly the lizard and1 like the lizard1 he is naked4 ,he is a star in heaven which 444 proceeds in a backward course with its eyes bandaged4 ,they considered it a great prognostic4 8,all these thirteen days were bad1 for they affirmed that if evidence should be adduced in these days it would be impossible to arrive at justice1 but they imagined that justice would be perverted in such a manner that unjust condemnations would ensue1 which was not the case in the days immediately following1 when if evidence was adduced they supposed that justice would be made apparent4 ,they believed that those who were born on the sign dedicated to him would be sinners and adulterers40 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,this deity is a variant of ,tezcatlipoc in his character of the obsidian knife1 the god of the stone and therefore of blood1 avenging justice1 of blinding1 of sin1 of cold4 ,the obsidian stone was regarded as the instrument of justice1 as has already been stated in the section on ,tezcatlipoc4 ,the figure became a general symbol of all things hard1 and is therefore explained by the authors of the ,interpretative ,codices as 8the god of cold40 ,frost1 ice1 or low temperature is in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 symbolized by a man wearing the headdress of this deity1 which was also worn by ,uitzilopochtli at the ochpanitztli festival1 when the knife of sacrifice had such free play4 ,the manner in which the god is represented in ,codex ,borbonicus as blindfolded is probably a late conception of him as the god of justice4 ,but he seems also to have had a stellar connection which is a little vague4 ,,paynal 8,,the ,,hasty0 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico1 ,tlaxcallan4 ,relationship3 ,precursor or forerunner of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4--,he has the stellar face-painting1 and wears a many-pointed crown of yellow feathers1 the lower part of which is white4 ,the front of this white portion ends in three small globes or bells4 ,at the back is a bow1 and he is furnished with an ear-plug and nose-plug of turquoise4 ,on the head he wears a shell ring like ,uitzilopochtli and ,quetzalcoatl1 and he holds a narrow striped banner ending in a sort of fleur-de-lis motif4 ,the shield is blue1 inlaid with turquoise mosaic4 ,he has a peculiar skirt with a train marked with cross-hatchings4 ,the banner he carries is a golden one1 and he also bears the fire-drill4 ,on his face is painted a chaffinch1 which composes his face-mask4 ,,festival ,see ,uitzilopochtli4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,seler identifies the god with the morning star4 ,sahagun calls him 8the messenger0 or 8page0 of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,he acted as 8forerunner0 of that god at the panquetzalitztli festival1 thus perhaps signifying the manner in which the morning star precedes the sun4 ,but ,i think the chaffinch painted upon his face and his general birdlike appearance may justify us in concluding that he was developed from some such form4 ,the myth which alludes to ,uitzilopochtli as a 8little bird0 which led the ,aztec into ,mexico may be a confused form of an older story in which a hero of the name of ,uitzilopochtli may have been spoken of as accepting the augury and following the flight of a little bird4 ,,yacatecutli 8,,lord ,,who ,,guides10 ,,or 8,,guidance0 ,area of ,worship3 ,plateau of ,anahuac 7worshipped by ,mexican merchants while at home and when travelling74 ,festival3 ,panquetzalitztli4 ,symbol3 ,the merchant's staff4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the ground of the face-painting is white1 but portions of the face1 especially the forehead1 nose1 and chin1 and the region in front of the ears1 are brilliantly coloured4 ,the hair is puffed up and is bound with bands of quetzal-feathers4 ,the ear-plugs are of gold4 ,the large mantle which almost covers the body is decorated with the cross-hatching symbolic of water and has the red rim of the eye-motif4 ,the shield bears the ,greek key motif1 such as is seen in the tribute-lists of the ,codex ,mendoza4 ,in his hand the god bears the bamboo staff of the merchant or traveller1 which typifies his nature and which was worshipped1 as being symbolic of him1 by all traders4 ,,festival ,panquetzalitztli4--,yacatecutli1 says ,sahagun1 #cbi was the first merchant and prototype of traffickers1 so was chosen by the merchants as their god4 ,they dressed his statue with paper and greatly venerated the staff he carried1 which was of massive wood1 or else of dark cane1 very light1 but strong1 such as the merchants carried on their journeys4 ,he had four brothers and a sister1 also reverenced by traders4 ,he was usually depicted as a man on a journey1 equipped with such a staff as has been mentioned4 ,arrived at the place where they were to pass the night1 the merchants laid their staves in a heap and drew blood from their ears and limbs1 which they offered to it1 burning incense before it1 and praying for protection from the dangers of the road4 ,at the festival of panquetzalitztli1 thousands of members of the powerful ,pochteca1 or merchant guild1 proceeded to the vicinity of ,tochtepec1 where they invited the ,tlatelolcans of that place to a festival in honour of ,yacatecutli4 ,they decorated his temple and spread mats before his image4 ,then they opened the bundles in which they had brought presents and ornaments for the god1 and placed them1 along with their staves1 before his idol4 ,if a merchant laid two staves at the feet of the god1 that signified that it was his intention to sacrifice two slaves1 a man and a woman1 in his honour2 if four1 he would devote two wretched creatures of either sex4 ,these slaves were covered with rich mantles and paper4 ,if the staff represented a male slave1 it was also equipped with the maxtli1 or loin-cloth1 but if a female1 the uipilli1 or chemise1 and the cueitl1 or skirt4 ,the ,mexican merchants then accompanied their ,tlatelolcan confrres to the villages1 where they feasted1 drank cocoa1 and smoked4 ,quails were then decapitated1 their heads thrown into the fire1 and incense was offered to the four cardinal points4 ,an address was delivered by one of their number practised in oratory4 ,the magnificence of this festival1 with its richly jewelled accessories1 was probably unsurpassed in ,mexican ritual1 as on this occasion the ,pochteca employed their entire stock of trinkets and ornaments for the temporary decoration of the victims4 ,yacatecutli was also associated in worship with ,coyotlinauatl1 god of the guild of feather-workers of the quarter of ,amantlan4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,bancroft #ccj connects ,yacatecutli with the ,fire-god1 with whom1 indeed1 ,clavigero would seem to equate him1 and in describing the return of the gods in the twelfth month1 ,sahagun makes both deities arrive together4 ,xiuhtecutli was certainly the god who was believed to settle disputes at law1 but ,i am unable to connect ,yacatecutli with him in any satisfactory manner4 ,yacatecutli1 8the lord who guides10 seems to me a mere deification of the merchant's staff1 an artificial deity invented as the patron of a caste in an environment where it was not difficult to invent gods4 ,by this ,i do not mean to convey the impression that the staff was necessarily his earliest form1 but that1 whatever his primitive shape1 the merchant's stick came to symbolize him4 ,the names of ,yacatecutli's brothers and sister seem to me to allegorize the circumstances of the travelling merchant's career in the same manner as the names of the companions of a folk-tale hero may have a bearing upon his story4 ,thus ,chiconquiauitl 78,seven-rains0 or 8,all-weathers07 may portend the varied climatic conditions which the chapman has to face2 ,xomocuitl 78,caught-drake07 the kind of fare he may expect in an unfrequented country2 ,naxtit 78,four-feet07 may typify endurance in walking2 ,cochimetl1 7,sleeping-maguey7 may apply to the leaves of the maguey-plant which shaded the traveller from the heat during his noonday siesta1 or from the wind if he used them to construct a temporary shelter1 as was often done2 ,yacapitzanac 78,sharp-nose07 needs little explanation in connection with the peddler's calling1 and the name of the one goddess of the series1 ,chalmecaciuatl1 is evidently that of a tribal deity of the ,chalmeca1 with whom the ,mexicans traded4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,minor ,,deities ,,xolotl 8,,double0 ,area of ,worship3 ,plateau of ,anahuac4 ,minor ,names3 ,chicuei ,mazatl 8,eight ,deer40 ,chicunaui ,coatl 8,nine ,serpent40 ,calendar ,place3 ,ruler of the seventeenth day-count1 olin2 of the sixteenth tonalamatl division1 ce cozcaquauhtli4 ,compass ,direction3 ,east4 ,relationship3 ,twin brother or variant of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,in the picture of ,xolotl on the left side of the middle lower part of sheet #ee a resemblance to ,quetzalcoatl is noticeable4 ,on his head is the peculiar wedge-shaped ,huaxtec hat1 painted half-red and half-blue1 which is one of ,quetzalcoatl's characteristics4 ,the bone dagger symbolic of self-torture and penance1 and the snail-shell armlets he wears1 are also reminiscent of ,quetzalcoatl's insignia4 ,his face-painting1 however1 differs from that usually worn by ,quetzalcoatl in ,codex ,borgia1 as the front portion of his face is blue and the part near the ears red4 ,his body-paint is blue4 ,nor does he have a large beard or fan-shaped nape-ornament1 but is shown wearing the ,wind-god's breast-ornament made from a sliced snail-shell4 ,he also shows a likeness to ,quetzalcoatl in the manner in which his loin-cloth and fillet are rounded off4 ,as a travelling god1 ,xolotl is depicted in ,codex ,borgia as holding a fan similar in its three-flapped wedge-shape to that of the other peripatetic deities1 except that it has a handle shaped like a bird's head and is seemingly composed of blue cotinga-feathers4 ,his travelling pack is symbolized by a flowering tree1 which he bears on his back1 while his travelling staff is painted turquoise colour1 is decorated with the chalchihuitl ornament1 and is completed with a flower4 ,in the picture to the right of sheet #cf ,xolotl presents almost a new aspect1 although certain of his attributes bear some resemblance to those which we have already observed as being peculiar to him4 ,he still carries a travelling-staff with a jewelled head1 but in this representation its general character is more that of the rattle-stick4 ,his body-paint remains the same and he retains his blue feather fan4 ,his pack is distinguished by a flower to serve as a connection with the florescent tree carried by him1 as described elsewhere4 ,in this sheet he is represented as wearing a long beard and his face-paint in the region of the mouth is white4 ,his face is altered by a peculiar type of nose1 which gives him a disfigured appearance4 ,the god of monstrosities on sheet #aj of ,codex ,borgia has a similar patch of white about his mouth1 resembling in shape a human hand1 a symbol which also characterizes the face-painting of ,macuil ,xochitl4 ,elsewhere in this ,,ms4 he is represented as crooked-limbed and blear-eyed4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,in this ,,ms4 ,xolotl is represented as having a dog's head and again appears in the garb and ornaments of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,in ,codex ,borgia his ears have a rim of yellow1 evidently intended to represent dead flesh1 while in ,codex ,vaticanus the canine character is indicated by the cropped ears4 ,in the nostrils is a blue plug1 the ornament of the deceased warrior1 denoting that this is the dog which accompanies his master to ,mictlampa1 ,place of the ,dead1 and assists him to swim the river which encircles it4 ,this distinguishing plug is seen in ,codex ,vaticanus1 but not in ,codex ,borgia4 ,the rest of the god's attire is exclusively that worn by ,quetzalcoatl1 as described in the space devoted to that god4 ,aubin ,tonalamatl4--,in this ,,ms4 he again takes on a canine appearance and is clothed in many respects like ,quetzalcoatl4 ,this frequent similarity in dress between the gods may have its origin in the diverse meaning of the word coatl1 which1 besides meaning 8snake10 also denotes 8comrade0 or 8twin40 ,this dog-like creature is usually portrayed as of a dark colour1 black1 with the distinctive cropped ear1 while in ,codex ,borgia he is depicted with jaguar-claws4 ,xolotl has the face-painting of ,quetzalcoatl in the ,mexican ,,mss4 proper1 that is in the middle front it is yellow and black at the sides4 ,he wears the two-coloured white and brown 7jaguar-skin7 head-loop with rounded-off ends1 which latter form is also continued in the loin-cloth4 ,both these articles of dress he has in common with ,quetzalcoatl4 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4--,here he is depicted with ,tlazolteotl's spindles in his hair and an ichcaxochitl of unspun cotton1 as well as the head-loop previously described4 ,only in this ,,ms4 is he so adorned4 ,the instrument of self-mortification1 the bone dagger1 juts out from above his forehead1 whence issues a trickle of blood1 sometimes delineated symbolically as a feather-ball string completed with a flower1 and at others represented as real blood4 ,he grasps an obsidian knife1 which implement also projects from his mouth along with a flower1 while a copal bag is portrayed in front of him4 ,in some ,,mss41 as in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis and ,vaticanus ,a1 he is represented as wearing a mask on his girdle4 ,,wall-,,paintings ,xolotl seems to be represented on one of the wall-paintings at ,mitla1 where he is characterized by the physiognomy of an animal with projecting upper teeth4 ,he wears ,quetzalcoatl's conical cap of jaguar-skin and his necklace of snail-shells4 ,the dog's ears seem in this place to be merged into tufts of feathers4 ,,pottery ,,figures ,two small pottery figures of ,xolotl found in the ,valley of ,mexico insist strongly upon his animal character1 but in neither of these is the precise bestial type ascertainable4 ,the first shows a face ending in a blunt snout and surmounted by a kind of wig1 with ear-pieces rising on either side4 ,what seems to be a collar of feathers surrounds the neck4 ,in the other he is represented as a little bear1 or dog1 without clothing1 but having ,quetzalcoatl's sliced snail-shell breast-ornament4 ,a stone head of him found in the ,calle de las ,escalerillas in ,mexico ,city on #bith ,october #aijj shows a blunt1 almost ape-like animal face with large powerful molar teeth1 dog-like canines1 and large1 sharp fangs1 not unlike those with which ,tlaloc was usually represented4 ,incised lines represent powerful muscular development in the region of the nose and jaws4 ,the type is only generally and not particularly bestial1 and it would seem that it was the aim of the sculptor to represent a ferocious animal countenance without laying stress upon the peculiarities of any one species4 ,,myths ,the most important of the myths relating to ,xolotl are those given by ,sahagun and ,olmos1 which have already been described at length in the chapter on ,cosmogony4 ,the ,codex ,vaticanus ,a says of him3 8,they believe ,xolotle to be the god of monstrous productions and of twins1 which are such things as grow double4 ,he was one of the seven who remained after the deluge1 and he presided over these thirteen signs which they usually considered unlucky40 ,the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis describes him in verbiage almost identical4 ,juan de ,cordova in his ,zapotec ,grammar writes3 8,when a solar eclipse occurred then they said that the world is coming to an end1 and that the ,sun-god wanted war1 and that they would kill one another1 whoever was first able to do this4 ,likewise they said that the dwarfs were created by the sun1 and that at the time 7that is during the eclipse7 the ,sun-god wanted the dwarfs as his property4 ,and therefore wherever dwarfs or undersized persons were found in a house the people fell upon and killed them1 and they hid themselves in order not to be killed1 so that during that time few escaped from their fate40 ,one of the hymns or songs given in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 says of ,xolotl3 ,old ,xolotl plays ball1 plays ball ,on the magic playing-ground4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,the ,mexican game of tlachtli symbolized the movements of the moon 7but more probably of both sun and moon74 ,this1 perhaps the favourite ,mexican amusement1 was a ball-game1 played with a rubber ball by two persons one at each end of a ,t-shaped court1 which in the manuscripts is sometimes represented as painted in dark and light colours1 or in four variegated hues4 ,in several of the ,,mss4 ,xolotl is depicted striving at this game against other gods4 ,for example1 in the ,codex ,mendoza we see him playing with the ,moon-god1 and can recognize him by the sign ollin which accompanies him1 and by the gouged-out eye in which that symbol ends4 ,seler thinks 8that the root of the name olin suggested to the ,mexicans the motion of the rubber ball olli and1 as a consequence1 of ball-playing40 ,it seems to me to have represented both light and darkness1 as is witnessed by its colours4 ,xolotl is1 indeed1 the darkness that accompanies light4 ,hence he is 8the twin0 or shadow1 hence he travels with the sun and the moon1 with one or other of which he 8plays ball10 overcoming them or losing to them4 ,he is the god of eclipse1 and naturally a dog1 the animal of eclipse4 ,peruvians1 ,tupis1 ,creeks1 ,iroquois1 ,algonquins1 and ,eskimos believed him to be so1 thrashing dogs during the phenomenon1 a practice explained by saying that the big dog was swallowing the sun1 and that by whipping the little ones they would make him desist4 ,the dog is the animal of the dead1 and therefore of the ,place of ,shadows4 #cca ,thus also ,xolotl is a monster1 the sun-swallowing monster1 like the ,hindu ,rahu1 who chases the sun and moon4 ,as a shadow he is 8the double0 of everything4 ,the axolotl1 a marine animal found in ,mexico1 was confounded with his name because of its monstrous appearance1 and he was classed along with ,quetzalcoatl merely because that god's name bore the element coatl1 which may be translated either 8twin0 or 8snake40 ,lastly1 as he was 8variable as the shade10 so were the fortunes of the game over which he presided4 ,at the same time he seems to me to have affinities with the ,zapotec and ,maya lightning-dog peche-xolo #ccb and may represent the lightning which descends from the thunder-cloud1 the flash1 the reflection of which arouses in many primitive people the belief that the lightning is 8double10 and leads them to suppose a connection between the lightning and twins1 or other phenomena of a twofold kind4 ,as the dog1 too1 he has a connection with ,hades1 and1 said myth1 was dispatched thence for the bones from which man was created4 ,he is also a travelling god1 for the shadows cast by the clouds seem to travel quickly over plain and mountain4 ,as the monstrous dwarf1 too1 he symbolized the palace-slave1 the deformed jester who catered for the amusement of the great1 and this probably accounts for the symbol of the white hand outspread on his face1 which he has in common with ,xochipilli and the other gods of pleasure4 ,he bears a suspicious resemblance to the mandrake spirits of ,europe and ,asia1 both as regards his duality1 his loud lamentation when as a double-rooted plant he was discovered and pulled up by the roots1 and his symbol1 which may be a reminiscence of the mandrake4 ,,ixtlilton 8,,the ,,little ,,black ,,face0 ,minor ,name3 ,tlaltetecuin 8,he who strikes the ,earth40 ,area of ,worship3 ,mexican ,valley4 ,relationship3 ,brother of ,macuilxochitl4 ,symbol3 ,the toualli1 the four balls or beads1 seen in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 and in the ,codex ,magliabecchiano 7sheet #fc7 as a shield-device4 ,calendar ,place3 ,day ome tochtli4 ,compass ,direction3 ,south4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4--,sheet #bd3 ,here the god is represented opposite ,macuilxochitl4 ,he wears on his head a white-fringed cloth1 such as is worn by ,tezcatlipoc1 having on the top a bunch of downy feathers with a crest of four plumes ending in white tips4 ,he has a collar made of vertebr or animals' claws1 and on the upper arm a ring1 furnished on one of its sides with a projection tapering to a point4 ,the body is white and the face is painted black and white round the mouth4 ,seler in his ,commentary on this ,,ms4 7p4 #abg7 thinks that the white ball or disk covered with a radial design1 and held by the god in his right hand1 is perhaps a symbol for ilhuitl 78day10 8feast071 and should be compared with the parti-coloured1 whorl-like disk which the dancer in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis 7sheet ,l1 verso #a7 holds in his hand1 and which represents the sign of the eighth annual feast1 the ueitecuilhuitl4 ,the crest worn by him1 which is composed of black feathers1 is the crest embellished with quetzal-feathers and stone knives1 as in the ,sahagun ,,ms4 and the ,codex ,magliabecchiano4 ,codex ,borgia4--,sheet #fb3 ,in this representation he faces the goddess ,xochiquetzal4 ,he wears the face- and body-paint of a priest1 with a white angular patch about the mouth1 sprinkled with ulli gum4 ,his crest is similar to that described above4 ,the breast-ring seems to be imbedded in a motif bearing a resemblance to the tlachinalli fire-and-water symbol1 and its significance in this place is hard to define4 ,from the wrists droop elaborate feather ornaments1 depending from a bracelet of stone knives4 ,we seem to see the ,dance-god in this place in his ceremonial condition1 as the ruler of the dance which preceded human sacrifice4 ,sheet #fd shows him similarly attired1 but without the priest's body-paint4 ,he seems about to enter the dance-house of the warriors1 and a courtesan bears him company4 ,codex ,borbonicus4--,sheet #d3 ,here he is shown opposite ,ueuecoytl1 the coyote god1 engaged in the motions of the dance4 ,perhaps this position is more eloquent of motion than any other in the ,mexican ,,mss4 ,in this place he appears to be almost identified with ,macuilxochitl 7q4v471 to whose statuettes in the ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 the figure bears a strong resemblance4 ,sahagun ,,ms4--,the face-paint is black and the god wears a feather comb set with flint knives4 ,he has a collar of animal claws1 most of which are those of the jaguar1 and on his back he wears a wing-fan with the sun-banner fixed on it4 ,round his shoulders is a paper with the sun-signs painted on it4 ,his feet are ornamented with bells and shells1 and he wears 8sun-sandals40 ,on his arm he carries a solar shield and in his hand he bears a staff with a heart4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,practically all that is known regarding this god is recounted by ,sahagun1 who says of him3 8,they made to this god an oratory of painted planks1 a sort of tabernacle1 in which his image was placed4 ,he had in this oratory many jars full of water1 and covered with plates1 and this water was called tilatl1 or black water4 ,when an infant fell ill they took it to the temple of ,ixtlilton and opened one of these jars1 made him drink it1 and the malady left him4 ,if one wished to give a feast to the god he took his image home4 ,this was neither painted nor sculptured1 but was a priest who wore the ornaments of the god4 ,during the passage he was censed with copal4 ,arrived at the house1 he was met with singers and dancers1 which dancing is different in a manner from ours4 8,i speak of that which we call areyto1 and which they call maceualiztli4 ,they assembled in great numbers1 two and two or three and three1 and formed a circle4 ,they carried flowers in the hand1 and were decorated with plumage4 ,they made at the same time a uniform movement with their bodies1 also with their feet and hands1 in perfect combination and very worthy to be seen4 ,all their movements accorded with the music of the drums4 ,they accompanied the instruments with their sonorous voices1 singing in accord the praises of the god to whom they made the festival4 ,they adapted their movements to the nature of their songs1 for their dances and their intonation varied considerably4 8,the dance continued1 and the #8god' himself1 having danced for a long time1 descended to the cave where the octli was stored in jars4 ,he opened one of these1 an operation which was known as tlayacaxapotla 7#8the new opening1' or #8the opening of the new'74 ,then he and those who accompanied him drank of the octli4 ,they then went to the court of the house1 where they found three jars filled with the black water1 which had been covered for four days4 ,he who played the rle of god opened these1 and if he found them full of hairs1 dust1 charcoal1 or any other uncleanness1 it was said that the man of the house was a person of vicious life and bad character4 ,then the god went to the house1 where he was given the stuff called ixquen1 for covering the face1 in allusion to the shame which covered the master of the house40 #ccc ,from the foregoing it is clear that ,ixtlilton was a god of medicinal virtue1 the deity who kept men in good health or who assisted their recovery from sickness1 therefore the brother of ,xochipilli-,macuilxochitl1 god of good luck and merriment4 ,his temple1 composed of painted boards1 would seem to have borne a resemblance to the hut of the tribal medicine-man or shaman4 ,a sacrifice was made to him when the ,mexican child first spoke4 ,,omacatl 8,,two ,,reeds0 ,sahagun ,,ms4 7,biblioteca del ,palacio74--,the regions of the forehead1 nose1 and mouth are 8festively0 painted4 ,he wears a feather helmet and a crown of spear-shafts4 ,his overdress has the cross-hatching which usually indicates water1 and is edged with red1 decorated with the eye-motif4 ,before him is a small shield with a plain1 white surface1 its lower rim edged with white feathers or paper1 and in his hand he carries the 8seeing0 or 8scrying0 implement1 that some of the other gods1 noticeably ,tezcatlipoc1 possess4 #ccd ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,this god appears to have been partly of a convivial nature and presided over banquets and festivities generally4 ,on the occasion of a public or private rejoicing he was borne thither by certain priests4 ,if the banquet was suitable he praised the host1 but otherwise rebuked him1 and it is said that1 if irritated in any way1 he would turn the viands into hair 7as did certain of the fairies of ,brittany1 when annoyed or insulted74 ,the night before a festival a cake like a large bone was made1 and this1 it was feigned1 was a bone of the deity himself4 ,this cake was eaten and octli was drunk1 after which spines of the maguey were thrust into the stomach of the idol4 ,there can be little doubt that1 as ,sahagun states1 #cce ,omacatl was solely and simply a god of festivities4 ,,ciuatete ,,goddesses ,,ciuapipiltin ,,princesses ,area of ,worship3 ,mexico4 ,calendar ,place3 ,supposed to descend to earth on initial days of third tonalamatl quarter4 ,festival3 ,first day of ce mazatl 7movable feast72 ce quiauitl 7movable feast72 ce ozomatli 7movable feast74 ,compass ,direction3 ,west4 ,relationship3 ,frequently associated with the ,uitznaua4 ,,aspect ,,and ,,insignia ,codex ,borgia4--,sheets #dg-dh3 ,five figures here represent the ,ciuatete and are dressed in the style of ,tlazolteotl1 with the fillet and ear-plug of unspun cotton1 and the golden nasal crescent worn by that goddess and the octli-gods4 ,in each case the eye has been gouged out and hangs out of the socket1 as with ,xolotl4 ,they wear on their heads a feather ornament like the heron-feather plume of the warrior caste1 but consisting of five white feathers or strips of paper above a bunch of downy feathers4 ,at the nape of the neck the figures wear a black vessel as their device1 in which lies a bunch of malinalli grass4 ,the upper part of the body is naked1 and round the hips is wrapped a skirt showing cross-bones on its surface and a border painted in the manner of the variegated coral snake4 ,the resemblance between all five figures is close4 ,only the face-1 arm-1 and leg-painting is different4 ,in the case of the first the colour is white striped with red1 in the second blue1 in the third yellow1 in the fourth red1 and in the fifth black4 ,all hold in one hand a broom of malinalli grass1 and in the other a black obsidian sacrificial knife1 a bone dagger1 and an agave-leaf spike1 both furnished with a flower symbolic of blood4 ,they inhale the smoke which ascends from a black incense or fire-vessel standing on the ground before them4 ,a rubber ball lies in the vessel of the first figure2 with the second the vessel is replaced by a cross-way1 and the ascending smoke by a centipede issuing from the mouth of the goddess4 ,with the third a skeleton is seated in the dish1 holding a heart in one hand and a sacrificial knife in the other4 ,the ascending smoke is replaced by two streams of blood passing into the mouth of a skeleton1 one of which comes from the mouth of the figure1 the other from her right breast4 ,with the fourth figure are represented a bunch of malinalli grass and a variegated snake4 ,nothing here enters the mouth of the ,ciuatete1 but from it issues a similar snake1 and another hangs on each of her arms4 ,before the last figure1 in the dish is perched a screech-owl1 and a stream of blood passes from the mouth of the figure to that of the owl4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4--,sheets #gg-gi3 ,five figures are here also depicted which bear a resemblance to ,tlazolteotl1 but are without the golden nasal crescent4 ,with the last four the same curling locks of hair are seen as in the case of the ,codex ,borgia figures1 but the first figure is pictured with the hair bristling up on one side1 as worn by the warrior caste4 ,the eye too is hanging out1 and the headdresses and nape-vessels resemble those in ,codex ,borgia4 ,in the majority of cases the skirt is white with two diagonal red stripes crossing each other4 ,only with the first figure is it painted red with white cross-bones4 ,the last figure has a skirt made of strips of malinalli grass fastened by a girdle made of a skeletal spinal column1 on which is set a dead man's skull as back-mirror4 ,all five wear the men's loin-cloth besides the skirt4 ,they carry the symbols of sacrifice and mortification as in the ,codex ,borgia1 and similar incense-vessels stand before them4 ,,myths ,sahagun says of the ,ciuatete3 8,the ,ciuapipiltin1 the noble women1 were those who had died in childbed4 ,they were supposed to wander through the air1 descending when they wished to the earth to afflict children with paralysis and other maladies4 ,they haunted cross-roads to practise their maleficent deeds1 and they had temples built at these places1 where bread offerings in the shape of butterflies were made to them1 also the thunder-stones which fall from the sky4 ,their faces were white1 and their arms1 hands1 and legs were coloured with a white powder1 ticitl 7chalk74 ,their ears were gilded and their hair done in the manner of the great ladies4 ,their clothes were striped with black1 their skirts barred in different colours1 and their sandals were white40 ,he further relates 7bk4 vi1 c4 xxix7 that1 when a woman who had died in her first childbed was buried in the temple-court of the ,ciuatete1 her husband and his friends watched the body all night in case young braves or magicians should seek to obtain the hair or fingers as protective talismans4 ,,nature ,,and ,,status ,that the witches' sabbath was quite as famous or infamous an institution in ancient ,mexico as in medival ,europe is testified to by the numerous accounts of the missionary chroniclers1 which are further corroborated by the native manuscripts4 ,but in the days prior to the coming of the ,spaniards1 it was thought of as being celebrated by the dead rather than the living4 ,the ,ciuatete1 or haunting mothers1 were those women who had died in their first child-bed1 and who1 out of envy for their more fortunate sisters and their offspring1 continued to haunt the world at certain fixed periods1 wreaking their spite upon all who were so unlucky as to cross their path4 ,they are represented in the ancient paintings as dressed in the garments and insignia of the goddess ,tlazolteotl1 the witch par excellence1 with a fillet and ear-plug of unspun cotton1 a golden crescent-shaped nasal ornament1 empty eye-sockets1 and the heron-feather headdress of the warrior caste1 for the woman who died in child-bed was regarded as equally heroic with the man who perished in battle4 ,the upper parts of their bodies were nude1 and round the hips they wore a skirt on which cross-bones were painted4 ,they carried the witch's broom of malinalli grass1 a symbol of death1 and they are sometimes associated with the snake1 screech-owl1 and other animals of ill-omen4 ,the face was thickly powdered with white chalk1 and the region of the mouth1 in some cases1 decorated with the figure of a butterfly4 ,these furies were supposed to dwell in the region of the west1 and as some compensation for their early detachment from the earth-life1 were permitted to accompany the sun in his course from noon to sunset1 just as the dead warriors did from sunrise to noon4 ,at night they left their occidental abode1 the ,ciutlampa1 or 8,place of ,women10 and revisited the glimpses of the moon in search of the feminine gear they had left behind them--the spindles1 work-baskets1 and other articles used by ,mexican women4 ,the ,ciuatete were especially potent for evil in the third quarter of the astrological year1 and those who were so luckless as to meet them during that season became crippled or epileptic4 ,the fingers and hands of women who had died in bringing forth were believed by magicians1 soldiers1 and thieves to have the property of crippling and paralysing their enemies or those who sought to hinder their nefarious calling1 precisely as ,irish burglars formerly believed that the hand of a corpse grasping a candle1 which they called 8the hand of glory10 could ensure sound sleep in the inmates of any house they might enter4 ,says ,sahagun3 8,it was said that they vented their wrath on people and bewitched them4 ,when anyone is possessed by the demons1 with a wry mouth and disturbed eyes1 with clenched hands and inturned feet1 wringing his hands and foaming at the mouth1 they say that he has linked himself to a demon2 the ,ciuatete1 housed by the crossways1 have taken his form40 ,from this and other passages we may be justified in thinking that these dead women were also regarded as succubi1 haunters of men1 compelling them to dreadful amours1 and that they were credited with the evil eye is evident from the statement that their glances caused helpless terror and brought convulsions upon children1 and that their jealousy of the handsome was proverbial4 ,the divine patroness of these witches 7for 8witches0 they are called by the old friar who interprets the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis71 who flew through the air upon their broomsticks and met at cross-roads1 was ,tlazolteotl1 a divinity who1 like all deities of growth1 possessed a plutonic significance4 ,the broom is her especial symbol1 and in ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer 7sheet #ag7 we have a picture of her which represents her as the traditional witch1 naked1 wearing a peaked hat1 and mounted upon a broomstick4 ,in other places she is seen standing beside a house accompanied by an owl1 the whole representing the witch's dwelling1 with medicinal herbs drying beneath the eaves4 ,thus the evidence that the haunting mothers and their patroness present an exact parallel with the witches of ,europe seems complete1 and should provide those who regard witchcraft as a thing essentially ,european with considerable food for thought4 ,the sorcery cult of the ,mexican ,nagualists of post-,columbian times was also permeated with practices similar to those of ,european witchcraft1 and we read of its adherents smearing themselves with ointment to bring about levitation1 flying through the air1 and engaging in wild and lascivious dances1 precisely as did the adherents of ,vaulderie1 or the worshippers of the ,italian ,aradia4 ,there are not wanting signs that living women of evil reputation desired to associate themselves with the ,ciuatete4 ,says the interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a3 8,the first of the fourteen day-signs1 the house1 they considered unfortunate1 because they said that demons came through the air on that sign in the figures of women1 such as we designate witches1 who usually went to the highways1 where they met in the form of a cross1 and to solitary places1 and that when any bad woman wished to absolve herself of her sins1 she went alone by night to these places1 and took off her garments and sacrificed there with her tongue 7that is1 drew blood from her tongue71 and left the clothes which she had carried and returned naked as the sign of the confession of her sins40 ,the temples or shrines of the ,ciuatete were situated at cross-roads1 the centres of ill-omen throughout the world4 ,that they had a connection with the lightning is shown by the fact that cakes in the shape of butterflies and 8thunder-stones0 were offered them4 ,but they were also connected with baneful astral or astrological influences1 and are several times alluded to in the ,interpretative ,codices in this connection4 ,the seasons at which they were most potent for evil were those connected with the western department of the tonalamatl1 the five days which compose the first column of the third quarter disposed in columns of five members1 ce mazatl1 ce quiauitl1 ce ozomatli1 ce calli1 ce quauhtli4 ,,appendix ,,the ,,tonalamatl ,,and ,,the ,,solar ,,calendar ,,the ,,tonalamatl ,a ,thorough knowledge of the tonalamatl is essential in order to grasp the fundamentals of ,mexican religion1 but its significance has perhaps been heightened by the difficulties which certainly attend its consideration4 ,i have endeavoured to present the subject here as simply as possible1 and to keep all distracting side-issues for later consideration and away from the main proof4 ,most of these1 indeed1 have been created by writers who have too closely identified the tonalamatl with the solar calendar1 and have added to the obscurity of the subject by the introduction of abstruse astronomical hypotheses which have only a problematical connection with it4 #ccf ,the word tonalamatl means 8,book of the ,good and ,bad ,days10 and it is primarily a 8,book of ,fate10 from which the destiny of children born on such and such a day1 or the result of any course to be taken or any venture made on any given day1 was forecasted by divinatory methods1 similar to those which have been employed by astrologers in many parts of the world in all epochs4 ,the tonalamatl was1 therefore1 in no sense a time-count or calendar proper1 to which purpose it was not well suited2 but it was capable of being adapted to the solar calendar4 ,it is equally incorrect to speak of the tonalamatl as a 8ritual calendar40 ,it has nothing to do directly with ritual or religious ceremonial1 and although certain representations on some tonalamatls depict ritual acts1 no details or directions for their operation are supplied4 ,the original tonalamatl was probably a day-count based on a lunar reckoning4 ,the symbols appear to have been those of the gods or other mythological figures4 ,thus cipactli was merely the earth-monster1 quauhtli the eagle1 a surrogate for the ,sun-god1 and so on4 ,later the tonalamatl lost its significance as a time-count when it was superseded as such by the solar calendar4 ,it then took on the complexion of a book of augury1 so that the temporal connection it had with the gods was altered to a purely augural one4 ,the various days thus became significant for good or evil according to the nature of the gods who presided over them1 or over the precise hour in which a subject was born or any act done4 ,as in astrology1 a kind of balance was held between good and evil1 so that if the god presiding over the day was inauspicious1 his influence might1 in some measure1 be counteracted by that of the deity who presided over the hour in which a child first saw the light or an event occurred4 ,,day-,,signs ,the tonalamatl was composed of #bj day-signs or hieroglyphs repeated #ac times1 or #bfj day-signs in all4 ,the origin of these has already been treated of by ,seler in ,bulletin #bh of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 pp4 #ch ff4 ,these #bfj days were usually divided into #bj groups of #ac days each1 sometimes called 8weeks40 ,to effect this division the numbers #a to #ac were added to the #bj day-signs in continuous series as follow3 no4 name4 sign4 #a cipactli crocodile #b eecatl wind #c calli house #d cuetzpallin lizard #e coatl serpent #f miquiztli death's-head #g mazatl deer #h tochtli rabbit #i atl water #aj itzcuintli dog #aa ozomatli monkey #ab malinalli grass #ac acatl reed #a ocelotl ocelot #b quauhtli eagle #c cozcaquauhtli vulture #d ollin motion #e tecpatl flint knife #f quiauitl rain #g xochitl flower and so on4 ,it will be seen from this list that the fourteenth day-sign takes the number #a again4 ,each of the day-signs under this arrangement has a number that does not recur in connection with that sign for a space of #bfj days1 as is proved by the circumstance that the numbers #ccg of the day-signs and figures 7#bj to #ac71 if multiplied together1 give as a product #bfj1 the exact number of days in the tonalamatl4 ,the combination of signs and figures thus provided each day in the tonalamatl with an entirely distinct description4 ,for example3 the first day1 cipactli1 was in its first occurrence #a cipactli2 in its second #h cipactli2 in its third #b cipactli2 in its fourth #i cipactli1 and so on4 ,no day in the tonalamatl was simply described as cipactli1 coatl1 or calli1 and before its name was complete it was necessary to prefix to it one of the numbers from #a to #ac as its incidence chanced to fall4 ,thus it was designated as ce cipactli 7one crocodile7 or ome coatl 7two snake7 as the case might be4 ,each of the #bj groups of #ac days 7which are sometimes called 8weeks07 was known as a division by the name of the first day of the group1 as ce cipactli 7one crocodile71 ce ocelotl 7one ocelot71 ce mazatl 7one deer71 and so on4 ,a model tonalamatl would thus have appeared as follows3 ,ce ,cipactli 7#a7 cipactli 7#b7 eecatl 7#c7 calli 7#d7 cuetzpallin 7#e7 coatl 7#f7 miquiztli 7#g7 mazatl 7#h7 tochtli 7#i7 atl 7#aj7 itzcuintli 7#aa7 ocomatli 7#ab7 malinalli 7#ac7 acatl4 ,ce ,ocelotl 7#a7 ocelotl 7#b7 quauhtli 7#c7 cozcaquauhtli 7#d7 ollin 7#e7 tecpatl 7#f7 quiauitl 7#g7 xochitl 7#h7 cipactli 7#i7 eecatl 7#aj7 calli 7#aa7 cuetzpallin 7#ab7 coatl 7#ac7 miquiztli ,ce ,mazatl 7#a7 mazatl 7#b7 tochtli 7#c7 atl 7#d7 itzcuintli 7#e7 ocomatli 7#f7 malinalli 7#g7 acatl 7#h7 ocelotl 7#i7 quauhtli 7#aj7 cozcaquauhtli 7#aa7 ollin 7#ab7 tecpatl 7#ac7 quiauitl ,ce ,xochitl 7#a7 xochitl 7#b7 cipactli 7#c7 eecatl 7#d7 calli 7#e7 cuetzpallin 7#f7 coatl 7#g7 miquiztli 7#h7 mazatl 7#i7 tochtli 7#aj7 atl 7#aa7 itzcuintli 7#ab7 ocomatli 7#ac7 malinalli ,ce ,acatl 7#a7 acatl 7#b7 ocelotl 7#c7 quauhtli 7#d7 cozcaquauhtli 7#e7 ollin 7#f7 tecpatl 7#g7 quiauitl 7#h7 xochitl 7#i7 cipactli 7#aj7 eecatl 7#aa7 calli 7#ab7 cuetzpallin 7#ac7 coatl ,ce ,miquiztli 7#a7 miquiztli 7#b7 mazatl 7#c7 tochtli 7#d7 atl 7#e7 itzcuintli 7#f7 ocomatli 7#g7 malinalli 7#h7 acatl 7#i7 ocelotl 7#aj7 quauhtli 7#aa7 cozcaquauhtli 7#ab7 ollin 7#ac7 tecpatl ,ce ,quiauitl 7#a7 quiauitl 7#b7 xochitl 7#c7 cipactli 7#d7 eecatl 7#e7 calli 7#f7 cuetzpallin 7#g7 coatl 7#h7 miquiztli 7#i7 mazatl 7#aj7 tochtli 7#aa7 atl 7#ab7 itzcuintli 7#ac7 ocomatli ,ce ,malinalli 7#a7 malinalli 7#b7 acatl 7#c7 ocelotl 7#d7 quauhtli 7#e7 cozcaquauhtli 7#f7 ollin 7#g7 tecpatl 7#h7 quiauitl 7#i7 xochitl 7#aj7 cipactli 7#aa7 eecatl 7#ab7 calli 7#ac7 cuetzpallin ,ce ,coatl 7#a7 coatl 7#b7 miquiztli 7#c7 mazatl 7#d7 tochtli 7#e7 atl 7#f7 itzcuintli 7#g7 ocomatli 7#h7 malinalli 7#i7 acatl 7#aj7 ocelotl 7#aa7 quauhtli 7#ab7 cozcaquauhtli 7#ac7 ollin ,ce ,tecpatl 7#a7 tecpatl 7#b7 quiauitl 7#c7 xochitl 7#d7 cipactli 7#e7 eecatl 7#f7 calli 7#g7 cuetzpallin 7#h7 coatl 7#i7 miquiztli 7#aj7 mazatl 7#aa7 tochtli 7#ab7 atl 7#ac7 itzcuintli ,ce ,ozomatli 7#a7 ozomatli 7#b7 malinalli 7#c7 acatl 7#d7 ocelotl 7#e7 quauhtli 7#f7 cozcaquauhtli 7#g7 ollin 7#h7 tecpatl 7#i7 quiauitl 7#aj7 xochitl 7#aa7 cipactli 7#ab7 eecatl 7#ac7 calli ,ce ,cuetzpallin 7#a7 cuetzpallin 7#b7 coatl 7#c7 miquiztli 7#d7 mazatl 7#f7 tochtli 7#f7 atl 7#g7 itzcuintli 7#h7 ocomatli 7#i7 malinalli 7#aj7 acatl 7#aa7 ocelotl 7#ab7 quauhtli 7#ac7 cozcaquauhtli ,ce ,ollin 7#a7 ollin 7#b7 tecpatl 7#c7 quiauitl 7#d7 xochitl 7#e7 cipactli 7#f7 eecatl 7#g7 calli 7#h7 cuetzpallin 7#i7 coatl 7#aj7 miquiztli 7#aa7 mazatl 7#ab7 tochtli 7#ac7 atl ,ce ,itzcuintli 7#a7 itzcuintli 7#b7 ocomatli 7#c7 malinalli 7#d7 acatl 7#e7 ocelotl 7#f7 quauhtli 7#g7 cozcaquauhtli 7#h7 ollin 7#i7 tecpatl 7#aj7 quiauitl 7#aa7 xochitl 7#ab7 cipactli 7#ac7 eecatl ,ce ,calli 7#a7 calli 7#b7 cuetzpallin 7#c7 coatl 7#d7 miquiztli 7#e7 mazatl 7#f7 tochtli 7#g7 atl 7#h7 itzcuintli 7#i7 ocomatli 7#aj7 malinalli 7#aa7 acatl 7#ab7 ocelotl 7#ac7 quauhtli ,ce ,cozcaquauhtli 7#a7 cozcaquauhtli 7#b7 ollin 7#c7 tecpatl 7#d7 quiauitl 7#e7 xochitl 7#f7 cipactli 7#g7 eecatl 7#h7 calli 7#i7 cuetzpallin 7#aj7 coatl 7#aa7 miquiztli 7#ab7 mazatl 7#ac7 tochtli ,ce ,atl 7#a7 atl 7#b7 itzcuintli 7#c7 ocomatli 7#d7 malinalli 7#e7 acatl 7#f7 ocelotl 7#g7 quauhtli 7#h7 cozcaquauhtli 7#i7 ollin 7#aj7 tecpatl 7#aa7 quiauitl 7#ab7 xochitl 7#ac7 cipactli ,ce ,eecatl 7#a7 eecatl 7#b7 calli 7#c7 cuetzpallin 7#d7 coatl 7#e7 miquiztli 7#f7 mazatl 7#g7 tochtli 7#h7 atl 7#i7 itzcuintli 7#aj7 ocomatli 7#aa7 malinalli 7#ab7 acatl 7#ac7 ocelotl ,ce ,quauhtli 7#a7 quauhtli 7#b7 cozcaquauhtli 7#c7 ollin 7#d7 tecpatl 7#e7 quiauitl 7#f7 xochitl 7#g7 cipactli 7#h7 eecatl 7#i7 calli 7#aj7 cuetzpallin 7#aa7 coatl 7#ab7 miquiztli 7#ac7 mazatl ,ce ,tochtli 7#a7 tochtli 7#b7 atl 7#c7 itzcuintli 7#d7 ocomatl 7#e7 malinalli 7#f7 acatl 7#g7 ocelotl 7#h7 quauhtli 7#i7 cozcaquauhtli 7#aj7 ollin 7#aa7 tecpatl 7#ab7 quiauitl 7#ac7 xochitl ,,the ,,day-,,gods ,each of the day-signs of the tonalamatl was presided over by a god who was supposed to exercise a special influence over it4 ,these patron gods were as follow3 ,day-sign ,patron ,god ,cipactli ,tonacatecutli ,eecatl ,quetzalcoatl ,calli ,tepeyollotl ,cuetzpallin ,ueuecoyotl ,coatl ,chalchihuitlicue ,miquiztli ,tecciztecatl ,mazatl ,tlaloc ,tochtli ,mayauel ,atl ,xiuhtecutli ,itzcuintli ,mictlantecutli ,ozomatli ,xochipilli ,malinalli ,patecatl ,acatl ,tezcatlipoc 7or variant7 ,ocelotl ,tlazolteotl ,quauhtli ,xipe ,cozcaquauhtli ,itzpapalotl ,olin ,xolotl ,tecpatl ,tezcatlipoc 7or variant7 ,quiauitl ,chantico ,xochitl ,xochiquetzal ,there are slight divergencies from the standard list in some of the codices1 but such are usually accounted for by the interpolation of variant phases of the deities given4 ,illustrations of these signs will be found in the several codices4 ,,gods ,,of ,,the 8,,weeks0 ,each of the #bj tonalamatl divisions1 or 8weeks0 of #ac days each1 as they are sometimes erroneously but usefully designated1 had also a patron god of its own which ruled over its fortunes4 ,the initial days of these 8weeks0 gave the name to the entire 8week10 therefore the designation of the #bj weeks was the same as that of the #bj day-signs2 but the 8weeks10 or rather the week-names1 did not follow each other in the same incidence as the days1 as will be seen from the foregoing table4 ,the patron gods of the #bj weeks were1 however1 the same as those of the #bj days1 with this exception1 that whereas the gods of the first #aj day-signs were taken also as the rulers of the first ten weeks1 #cch the god of the eleventh day1 ,xochipilli1 was allowed to drop out1 the god of the twelfth day1 ,patecatl1 taking his place1 the god of the thirteenth day taking the twelfth place1 and so on1 the deficiency in the twentieth place being made up by adopting ,itztli and ,xiuhtecutli as joint gods of the twentieth 8week40 ,the list of gods of the 8weeks0 would thus be as follows3 #a ,ce cipactli ,tonacatecutli #b ,ce ocelotl ,quetzalcoatl #c ,ce mazatl ,tepeyollotl #d ,ce xochitl ,ueuecoyotl #e ,ce acatl ,chalchihuitlicue #f ,ce miquiztli ,tecciztecatl #g ,ce quiauitl ,tlaloc #h ,ce malinalli ,mayauel #i ,ce coatl ,xiuhtecutli #aj ,ce tecpatl ,mictlantecutli #aa ,ce ozomatli ,patecatl #ab ,ce quetzpallin ,itzlacoliuhqui #ac ,ce ollin ,tlazolteotl #ad ,ce itzcuintli ,xipe ,totec #ae ,ce calli ,itzpapalotl #af ,ce cozcaquauhtli ,xolotl #ag ,ce atl ,chalchiuhtotolin #ah ,ce eecatl ,chantico #ai ,ce quauhtli ,xochiquetzal #bj ,ce tochtli ,xiuhtecutli and ,itztli 8,,lords ,,of ,,the ,,night0 ,besides the patron gods of the days and the weeks there were nine 8,lords of the ,night10 which1 ,i am inclined to think with ,seler1 were not 8lords0 or governors of nine consecutive nights1 but of nine hours of each night4 ,perhaps the best example of these is in the tonalamatl of the ,aubin collection1 where they are displayed in continuous and unbroken squares in the same small1 square compartments as the day-signs and ciphers1 and occupy the third and second last vertical row of the upper and the third cross-row of the lower half4 ,in ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis and ,codex ,vaticanus ,a they form a special series above or else facing the day-signs4 ,we also find them displayed on sheet #ad of ,codex ,borgia1 on sheets #ai-bc of ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 and on sheets #b-d of ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4 ,we know the names of these gods from the first interpreter of ,codex ,vaticanus ,a1 who gives them as follows1 with their influences3 #a ,xiuhtecutli ,good #b ,itztli ,bad #c ,piltzintecutli ,good #d ,centeotl ,indifferent #e ,mictlantecutli ,bad #f ,chalchihuitlicue ,indifferent #g ,tlazolteotl ,bad #h ,tepeyollotl ,good #i ,tlaloc ,indifferent ,gama describes these nine gods as ,acompaados 7,companions7 and as ,seores de la ,noche 7,lords of the ,night71 and from his obscure rendering of ,cristoval de ,castillo1 as well as from the ,manuel de ,ministros de ,indios of ,jacinto de la ,serna1 we gather that they held sway over the night from sunset to sunrise4 ,the ,mexicans divided the night into nine hours1 and it is obvious from the astrological point of view that the ,mexican soothsayers who used the tonalamatl must have found it necessary to estimate not only the 8fate0 of the several days1 but also that of the several hours and times of the day and night4 #cci ,,the ,,lords ,,of ,,the ,,day-,,hours ,this of course applies with equal force to the thirteen so-called 8,lords of the ,day10 who almost certainly acted as gods of the thirteen hours of the day4 ,they were #cdj3 #a ,xiuhtecutli #b ,tlaltecutli #c ,chalchihuitlicue #d ,tonatiuh #e ,tlazolteotl #f ,teoyaomiqui #g ,xochipilli #h ,tlaloc #i ,quetzalcoatl #aj ,tezcatlipoc #aa ,mictlantecutli #ab ,tlauizcalpantecutli #ac ,ilamatecutli ,seler1 in his ,commentary on the ,aubin ,tonalamatl1 gives the following table of the gods of the night and day hours3 7,noon7 #g4 ,xochipilli-,cinteotl #f4 ,teoyaomiqui #h4 ,tlaloc #e4 ,tlacolteotl #i4 ,quetzalcoatl #d4 ,tonatiuh #aj4 ,tezcatlipoc #c4 ,chalchiuhtlicue 7,day7 #aa4 ,mictlantecutli #b4 ,tlaltecutli #ab4 ,tlauizcalpantecutli #a4 ,xiuhtecutli #ac4 ,ilamatecutli ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,ix4 ,tlaloc ,i4 ,xiuhtecutli ,,viii4 ,tepeyollotl 7,night7 ,,ii4 ,itztli ,,vii4 ,tlacolteotl ,,iii4 ,piltzintecutli-,tonatiuh ,,vi4 ,chalchihuitlicue ,,iv4 ,cinteotl ,v4 ,mictlantecutli 7,midnight7 ,this casts light on the method of augury of the priests4 ,thus the hour of noon was auspicious because it was connected with the mystic number #g1 and #i was a number of good augury with sorcerers because it gave the number of the underworlds and of the night-hours4 #cda ,,tonalamatl ,,festivals ,although the tonalamatl has been called the 8ritual calendar10 most of the feast-days theoretically vested in the 8months0 of the solar calendar and were called after them2 but certain of the festivals appear to have been connected with the tonalamatl1 to have vested in it1 so to speak4 ,we know these by their names1 as they are called after the several tonalamatl dates on which they fall4 ,thus a festival taking the name of a day-sign theoretically belongs to the tonalamatl1 and one called after a month-name to the solar calendar proper4 ,moreover1 the former were known as 8movable10 the latter as 8fixed10 feasts4 ,occasionally these clashed1 as ,sahagun states1 with the result that the tonalamatl feasts usurped the place of the calendar celebrations4 #cdb ,,recapitulation ,recapitulating1 we find3 #a4 ,that the tonalamatl was a 8,book of ,fate10 and not in itself a calendar or time-count4 #b4 ,that it was composed of #bj day-signs1 repeated #ac times1 or #bfj day-signs in all4 #c4 ,that these were usually divided into #bj groups of #ac days each1 erroneously but usefully called 8weeks40 ,the initial days of these 8weeks0 gave the name to the entire 8week40 #d4 ,to effect this division the numbers #a to #ac were added to the #bj day-signs in continuous series4 #e4 ,that by this arrangement each day-sign had a number that did not recur in connection with that sign for a space of #bfj days4 #f4 ,that the name of a day-sign in the tonalamatl was not complete without its accompanying number4 #g4 ,each of the day-signs of the tonalamatl was presided over by a god who was supposed to exercise a special influence over it4 7,see list47 ,each of the #bj tonalamatl divisions or 8weeks0 had also a patron god of its own4 7,see list47 #h4 ,besides the patron gods of the days and 8weeks0 there were3 7a7 ,nine 8lords0 or patron gods of the night-hours4 7b7 ,thirteen 8lords0 of the day-hours4 ,,the ,,tonalamatl ,,and ,,the ,,solar ,,calendar ,it will be asked3 8,in what manner did the soothsayers reconcile the days of the tonalamatl with those of the calendar80 ,by what method did they find such and such a day in the tonalamatl in the tonalpohualli1 or solar calendar8 ,how was the one adjusted to the other8 ,in order to reply clearly to this question1 it will first be necessary to describe briefly the nature of the ,mexican solar calendar or time-count proper4 ,the ,mexican solar year consisted of #cfe days1 divided into #ah periods of #bj days each1 called cempohualli1 or 8months10 and one period of #e days1 known as nemontemi1 or 8useless0 or 8unlucky0 days4 ,the ,cempohualli4--,the names of the #ah cempohualli1 or 8months10 were #cdc3 ,month ,seasonal ,character ,presiding ,god ,atlacahualco ,ceasing of rain ,tlaloqu ,tlacaxipeuliztli ,seed time ,xipe ,tozoztontli ,rain desired ,tlaloqu ,ueitozoztli ,worship of new maize ,chicomecoatl ,toxcatl ,commencement of rainy ,uitzilopochtli and season ,tezcatlipoc ,etzalqualiztli ,rain desired ,tlaloc ,tecuilhuitontli ,rain desired ,uixtociuatl ,ueitecuilhuitl ,adoration of the ripening ,xilonen maize ,tlaxochimaco ,first-flowering ,uitzilopochtli ,xocohuetzi ,heat for ripening ,xiuhtecutli ,ochpaniztli ,refreshment of the ,tlazolteotl ,earth-mother ,teotleco ,return of the gods from ,tezcatlipoc rest ,tepeilhuitl ,rain ,tlaloc ,quecholli ,rain ,mixcoatl ,panquetzaliztli ,winter solstice ,uitzilopochtli ,atemoztli ,rain ,tlaloqu ,tititl ,the season of sereness ,ilamatecutli ,izcalli ,toasting of the corn supply ,xiuhtecutli ,eight out of eighteen of these festivals are thus connected with the appeal for rain1 or the celebration of its appearance4 ,the remainder celebrate the growth of the maize in its various stages1 rejoice at the appearance of these blossoms which were so dear to the ,mexican heart1 are held in honour of the ,earth-mother1 or mark the solstices4 ,to the combination of the tonalamatl and the solar calendar the tonalamatl contributed the names of the days1 and the solar calendar the divisions of the year in which the days found positions4 ,the tonalamatl and the solar year thus went side by side1 each recommencing whenever it reached its own limits4 ,the days in the solar year were known by the names of the days in the tonalamatl which were affixed to them4 ,thus it is plain that #aje of the #bfj tonalamatl day-names had to be repeated in the solar year of #cfe days4 ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,years ,the year was known by the tonalamatl sign of the day with which it began4 ,as there were #bj day-signs1 and #e1 the least common multiple of #cfe and #bj1 goes into #bj exactly #d times1 the year could begin with one of the four signs only4 ,these were ,acatl1 ,tecpatl1 ,calli1 ,tochtli4 ,each month of a given year began with the same tonalamatl day-sign4 ,the #bj day-signs always occupied the same position in all the months of a given year1 as there were #bj days in a ,mexican month4 ,but since the last month was followed by the #e nemontemi1 or 8unlucky0 days1 it follows that each year began with a day-sign five days later than the last4 ,also1 since #cfe1 the number of days in a year1 is divisible by #ac with #a as remainder1 it follows that each year began with a day-number one in advance of the last4 ,the commencement of the year coincided with the commencement of the tonalamatl once in four years4 ,,the ,,calendar ,,round ,fifty-two years made up what has been called by modern students the ,calendar ,round1 and by the ,mexicans was known as xiuhmolpilli or toxiuhmolpio1 8year bundle0 or 8our years will be bound40 ,the ,mexicans1 differing in this from the ,maya1 never progressed beyond the ,calendar ,round in the development of their chronological system1 as is proved by the fact that dates of precisely the same designation occurred at intervals of every #eb years4 ,the four signs which alone might commence the year--acatl 7reed71 tecpatl 7flint71 calli 7house71 tochtli 7rabbit71 took the numbers #a to #ac continuously4 ,the numbering of the years thus provided that every one of the #eb years of the xiuhmolpilli 7or ,calendar ,round7 was distinguished from every other4 ,the whole cycle of #eb years was thus divided into four quarters of #ac years each4 ,these year-names were each referred to a particular quarter of the heavens1 the acatl years to the east1 tecpatl to the north1 calli to the west1 and tochtli to the south4 ,the computation began in the east with the acatl years1 strangely enough with #b acatl1 the cycle thus closing with #a tochtli4 ,the ,aztecs believed that the current epoch had begun with the year #a tochtli1 for it was in this period that the world had undergone reconstruction4 ,not until this was completed could the first cycle of #eb years be begun4 ,therefore #b acatl is the opening year of the first and of all following cycles1 and is usually represented by the picture of a fire-drill4 ,the years had also colours and patron gods of their own as follows3 acatl--yellow 7gods ,tonatiuh and ,itztli72 tecpatl--red 7god ,mictlantecutli72 calli--blue 7earth-goddesses72 tochtli--white 7,tlaloc74 ,arranged in tabular form1 this would appear as follows3 ,year-name ,direction ,colour ,patron ,god ,acatl ,east ,yellow ,tonatiuh and ,itztli ,tecpatl ,north ,red ,mictlantecutli ,calli ,west ,blue ,earth-goddesses ,tochtli ,south ,white ,tlaloc ,,the ,,nemontemi ,the five nemontemi1 or 8useless0 days1 were evidently a later interpolation1 introduced at a period when it was discovered that an original time-count of #cfj days did not fulfil the solar round4 ,they were counted and distinguished1 however1 in precisely the same manner as the other days1 that is the numerals and hieroglyphs of the tonalamatl were adjusted to them as well as to the rest1 except that they had no 8lords0 or rulers of day or night4 ,they were regarded as most unlucky and no business of any kind was transacted upon them1 only the most necessary offices of life being undertaken whilst they lasted4 ,they are in no sense to be regarded as intercalary days1 for1 despite classical statements to the contrary1 the ,mexicans were ignorant of the methods of chronological intercalation1 and a study of the tonalamatl will show that the introduction of any intercalary period would render it nugatory and destroy that ability to return into itself which is one of its chief characteristics4 ,these nemontemi did not always fall in the same period of the solar year1 but were sometimes placed before ,quaitleloa1 now before ,tititl1 now before ,atemoztli1 or elsewhere1 as the priestly authorities decided4 ,for the ,mexican year of #cfe days was short of the true solar year by six hours and some minutes1 therefore in the course of years the festivals became displaced and their chronological revision and balance became necessary and could be effected by the shifting of the nemontemi4 ,,the ,,venus ,,period ,to ,frstemann and ,seler is due the discovery that the ,mexicans possessed a system of computing time based upon the synodic revolution of the planet ,venus4 ,the ,venus period or 8year0 comprised #ehd days4 ,it would seem as if the ,maya and ,mexicans had striven to discover a common measure for the numbers #ehd1 #cfe1 and #bfj4 ,five synodical revolutions of ,venus are equivalent to eight solar years 7#e #ehd7 #b1ibj 7#h #cfe71 but the number #b1ibj is not divisible by #bfj1 the number of days in the tonalamatl4 ,any accord between the two periods is not possible until the sum of #ajd years is reached1 that is to say1 #fe ,venus periods are equal to #adf tonalamatl periods both of which contain #cg1ifj days4 ,like the tonalamatl1 the ,venus period was productive of sacerdotal speculation1 commencing with the day cipactli4 ,at the end of six periods the ,venus 8year0 recommenced with the same sign affected by a different figure4 ,at the end of thirteen periods the sign differed1 but the figure was the same4 ,the question has been learnedly discussed in its entirety by ,seler1 to whose work the reader is referred4 #cdd ,,short ,,bibliography ,,of ,,works ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,tonalamatl ,bulletin #bh of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology has several papers by ,seler and ,frstemann on the tonalamatl4 ,morley1 8,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,maya ,hieroglyphs0 7,bulletin #eg of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology74 7,washington1 #aiae47 ,bowditch1 ,maya ,numeration1 ,calendar and ,astronomy4 7,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aiaj47 ,payne1 ,history of the ,new ,world1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #caj-ccb4 ,the beginner is strongly advised to peruse these works before approaching the subject in the pages of the older ,spanish writers1 most of whom possessed very hazy notions regarding it4 ,by far the best textbook is that of ,morley1 who1 although dealing with the ,maya calendar at much greater length1 writes with great clarity upon the ,mexican system1 which is indeed identical with the ,maya tonalamatl in its simpler manifestations4 ,bowditch's book is more for advanced students of the ,maya hieroglyphical system1 the senior wranglers of the subject1 so to speak4 ,but in places he dwells upon the ,mexican tonalamatl in an illuminating and suggestive manner4 ,the papers of ,seler and other ,german writers on the tonalamatl1 although most valuable1 by no means possess the admirable clarity and simplicity of ,morley's invaluable essay4 ,a good short article on the calendar is that of ,dr4 ,preuss in ,dr4 ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #abd ff4 ,a useful essay on the tonalamatl is that of de ,jonghe1 8,der alt-mexikanische ,kalendar10 in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #aijf2 and in the ,journal des ,amricanistes de ,paris1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii 7,paris1 #aijf71 pp4 #aig-bbh4 ,a ,,bibliography ,,of ,,mexican ,,religion ,the works contained in this bibliography are included because they refer to the religion of ancient ,mexico4 ,it must be distinctly understood that it does not aim at providing a comprehensive list of works on ,mexican history or archology or on the religion of the ,maya4 ,it is believed that no work of importance1 old or new1 which deals with ,mexican religion has been omitted4 ,the books contained in the first part are arranged in accordance with an estimate of their degree of importance to the student4 ,those in the second part are alphabetically arranged4 ,the bibliography at the end of the appendix on the ,tonalamatl should also be consulted4 ,,part ,i 7,works written by the earlier ,spanish authors7 ,bernardino de ,sahagun1 ,historia ,universal de ,nueva-,espaa4 7,mexico1 #ahbi2 ,london1 #ahcj--;in vol4 vi of ,lord ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico47 ,french translation by ,jourdanet and ,simon 7,paris1 #ahhj74 ,j4 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana4 7,madrid1 #agbc47 ,torribio de ,benavente 7,motolinia71 ,historia de los ,indios de ,nueva-,espaa4 ,in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico1 vol4 ix1 pp4 #dfi ff42 see also ,l4 ,g4 ,pimentel1 ,memoriales de ,fray ,torribio de ,motolinia 7,paris1 #aijc71 which contains materials not in the ,historia4 ,see also ,icazbalceta4 ,fernando de ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones1 in vol4 ix of ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico 7,london1 #ahcj-ahdh74 ,edited by ,alfredo ,chavero 7,mexico1 #ahia72 ,historia ,chichimeca1 in vol4 ix of ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico4 ,edited by ,chavero 7,mexico1 #ahib74 ,diego ,muoz ,camargo1 ,historia de ,tlascala4 ,edited by ,a4 ,chavero4 7,mexico1 #ahib47 ,francesco ,saverio ,clavigero1 ,storia ,antico del ,mexico4 7,cesena1 #aghj47 ,english translation by ,charles ,cullen1 #b vols4 7,london1 #aghg47 ,lorenzo ,boturini ,benaduci1 ,idea de una ,nueva ,historia ,general de la ,america ,septentrional4 7,madrid1 #agdf47 ,antonio de ,herrera1 ,historia ,general de los ,indios ,occidentales 7#afja-afae1 #e vols4 folio2 ,madrid1 #agbh-agcj74 ,english translation by ,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf--;considerably abridged74 ,jos de ,acosta1 ,historia ,natural y ,moral de ,las ,yndias4 7,seville1 #aehj47 ,english translation in ,purchas his ,pilgrimes4 ,francisco ,lopez de ,gomara1 ,cronica de la ,nueva-,espaa4 7,medina1 #aeec2 ,antwerp1 #aeed2 ,mexico1 #ahcf47 ,english translation1 ,the ,pleasant ,history of the ,conquest of the ,west ,indies4 7,london1 #aegh47 ,antonio ,leon y ,gama1 ,descripcion de las ,dos ,piedros4 7,mexico1 #agib47 ,gonzalo ,hernandez de ,oviedo y ,valdes1 ,historia ,general y ,natural de las ,indias ,occidentales4 7#aece1 vol4 i only47 7,madrid1 #ahea-ahee1 #d vols47 ,jacinto de la ,serna1 ,manuel de ,ministros de ,indios para el ,conocimiento de sus ,idolatrias1 y ,extirpacion de ,ellas4 7,madrid1 #ahib47 ,augustin ,vetancurt1 ,teatro ,mexicana4 7,mexico1 #afig2 #ahgj-ahga47 ,m4 ,f4 de ,e41 ,veytia1 ,historia ,antigua de ,mejico4 7,mexico1 #ahcf47 7,partly in ,kingsborough1 vol4 viii47 ,there may also be consulted3 ,b4 de ,las ,casas1 ,historia de las ,indias4 ,the best edition is that of ,madrid 7#e vols41 #ahge-ahgf74 ,bernal ,diaz del ,castillo1 ,historia ,verdadera de la ,conquista de ,nueva-,espaa4 ,translated by ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay as ,the ,true ,history of the ,conquest of ,mexico4 7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #aijh47 ,it gives but little information regarding ,mexican religion4 ,hernan ,cortz1 ,cartas de ,relacion4 ,english translation by ,f4 ,a4 ,mac,nutt under the title of ,the ,five ,letters of ,cortz to the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 7,new ,york1 #aijh47 ,a4 ,tezozomoc1 ,cronica ,mexicana1 in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico1 vol4 vii1 contains much valuable mythical material2 also edited by ,orozco y ,berra4 7,mexico1 #ahgh47 ,duran1 ,historia de las ,indias 7ed4 ,ramirez1 #b vols41 ,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj74 ,it is full1 valuable1 and sometimes indispensable4 ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 in ,annals of the ,mexican ,museum1 vol4 ii4 ,translated by ,t4 ,phillips1 ,proc4 ,am4 ,phil4 ,soc41 vol4 xxi4 ,annales de ,san ,anton1 ,muon ,chimalpahin4 7,paris1 #ahhi1 translated by ,r4 ,simon47 ,of considerable use as regards myth4 ,anales de ,quauhtitlan 7or ,codex ,chimalpopoc7 in ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 end of tom4 iii4 ,thevet1 8,histoire de ,mechyque0 7in ,journ4 ,soc4 ,amer4 de ,paris1 #aije1 pp4 #a-da74 ,g4 de ,mendieta1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica ,indiana4 7,icazbalceta1 ,mexico1 #ahgj47 ,g4 ,icazbalceta1 ,nueva ,coleccion de documentos para la historia de ,mexico 7,mexico1 series i1 vol4 i1 #aheh2 vol4 ii1 #ahff2 series ii1 ,mexico1 #ahhf-ahib74 ,the first volume of series i contains ,motolinia's ,hist4 de los ,indios1 and the third volume of the second series the work of ,pomar y ,zurita4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,voyages1 ,relations et ,mmoires originaux pour servir l'histoire de la dcouverte de l',amrique4 7,paris1 #ahcg-ahda1 #bj vols47 ,this contains ,mendieta1 ,tezozomoc1 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,camargo1 etc4 ,navarrete1 ,coleccion de los ,viages y descubrimientos4 7,madrid1 #ahbe-ahcg1 #e vols47 ,many texts and rare works are also to be found in ,lord ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico 7,london1 #ahcj-ahdh71 especially ,dupaix1 ,monuments of ,new ,spain 7in vols4 iv and vi72 translation of the text of the interpretative codices 7see ,appendix of this work71 ,sahagun 7in vol4 viii71 ,veytia1 ,historia del origen de las ,gentes que ,poblaron ,la ,america ,septentrional 7in vol4 viii74 ,tezozomoc1 ,cronica ,mexicana 7in vol4 ix71 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,hist4 ,chichimeca 7in vol4 ix71 ,pimentel1 ,ritos1 ,antiguos1 ,sacrificios1 etc4 7in vol4 x74 ,,part ,,ii 7,works written from #ahjj-aibj7 ,alexander1 ,hartley ,burr1 ,latin-,american ,mythology4 7,boston1 #aibj47 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico4 ,tom4 i1 ,mexico1 #ahgg4 7,in progress47 ,bancroft1 ,hubert ,howe1 ,the ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 #e vols4 7,new ,york and ,london1 #ahge-ahgf47 ,this great compilation is admirable as a painstaking prcis of the extensive sources relating to ,mexican and ,mayan history and religion1 but its author and his assistants confined themselves to collection and compilation alone1 and ventured upon no critical treatment of the subject1 for which task1 they admit1 they were not equipped4 ,batres1 ,l41 ,archological ,explorations in ,escalerillas ,street1 ,city of ,mexico1 ,year #aijj4 7,mexico1 #aijb47 ,beuchat1 ,h41 ,manuel d',archologie ,amricaine 7,amrique ,prhistorique--,civilisations disparues74 7,paris1 #aiab47 ,a useful if somewhat condensed review of ,american archology4 ,chapitre iv1 livre ii1 gives a short and not very thorough account of the gods1 rites1 priesthood1 and magic of the ancient ,mexicans4 ,chapitre v deals with the ,calendar1 and chapitre vi is useful for reference regarding the manuscripts and writing4 ,there is a good bibliography4 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,e4 ,c41 ,histoire des nations civilises du ,mexique et de l',amrique ,centrale durant les sicles antrieurs ,christophe ,colomb4 #d vols4 7,paris1 #aheg-ahei47 ,the ,abb ,brasseur's idea was to explain ,american mythology as the apotheosis of history4 ,but he unearthed many priceless materials1 some of which are included in this work4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,garrison1 ,american ,hero ,myths 7,philadelphia1 #ahhb72 8,were the ,toltecs an ,historic ,nationality80 7,proc4 ,am4 ,phil4 ,soc41 xxiv1 pp4 #bbi-bda1 #ahhg72 ,essays of an ,americanist 7,philadelphia1 #ahij72 ,the ,myths of the ,new ,world 7#crd edition1 revised7 7,philadelphia1 #aije74 ,brinton's books are all well written1 but his ideas regarding mythology generally are now a little out-of-date4 ,his works1 however1 will repay perusal4 ,the student must be on his guard against ,brinton's etymologies1 as his knowledge of the native languages1 though extensive1 was not exact4 ,charency1 ,h4 de1 ,le ,mythe de ,votan1 tude sur les origines ,asiatiques de la ,civilisation ,amricaine4 7,alenon1 #ahga47 ,charnay1 ,dsir1 ,les anciennes ,villes du nouveau monde4 7,paris1 #ahhe47 ,english translation as ,ancient ,cities of the ,new ,world4 7,london1 #ahhg47 ,charnay's acquaintance with ,mexican archology and mythology was elementary4 ,chavero1 ,alfredo1 ,mexico a traves de los siglos1 tom4 i2 ,historia antigua y de la ,conquista4 7,barcelona1 #ahhd47 ,this enthusiastic and painstaking antiquary did much for the elucidation of all subjects relating to ancient ,mexico1 especially as regards the discovery and criticism of ancient works and manuscripts4 ,but his zeal frequently betrayed him into somewhat fanciful explanations4 ,chevalier1 ,m41 ,le ,mexique ,ancien et ,moderne4 7,paris1 #ahhf47 ,congrs international des ,amricanistes--comptes rendus4 7,biennially1 #ahgh ff47 ,dieseldorff1 ,e4 ,p41 8,cuculcan0 7,zeit4 fr ,ethnol41 xxvii1 ,verhand41 pp4 #ghj-hgc74 ,gamio1 ,manuel1 8,investigaciones ,arqueologicas en ,mexico1 #aiad-aiae0 7,proc4 ,nineteenth ,int4 ,cong4 of ,amer41 ,washington1 #aiae74 7,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aiag47 ,haebler1 ,k41 ,die ,religion der ,mittleren ,amerika4 7,mnster1 #ahii47 ,hamy1 ,galerie ,amricaine du ,muse d'ethnographie au ,trocadro4 7,paris1 #ahig47 ,humboldt1 ,alexander von1 ,vues des ,cordillres4 7,paris1 #ahaf47 ,english translation by ,helen ,williams1 #ahae4 ,joyce1 ,thomas ,athol1 ,mexican ,archology3 an ,introduction to the ,archology of the ,mexican and ,mayan ,civilizations of pre-,spanish ,america4 7,london1 #aiad47 ,chapters ii1 iii1 and iv give a useful summary of ,mexican ,mythology1 the ,calendar and ,calendrical ,feasts1 and ,writing1 ,priesthood1 ,medicine1 and ,burial4 ,journal de la ,socit des ,amricanistes de ,paris 7passim71 tom4 i4 7,paris1 #ahif47 7,in progress47 ,mller1 ,j4 ,g41 ,geschichte der ,amerikanischen ,urreligion4 7,berlin1 #ahfg47 ,an industrious compilation1 which must be used with caution4 ,its quotations are nearly all at second-hand and its hypotheses are not a little strained4 ,nadaillac1 ,marquis de1 ,prehistoric ,america 7trans474 7,london1 #ahhe47 ,very much in the nature of a popular presentation of the subject4 ,nuttall1 ,zelia1 ,the ,fundamental ,principles of ,old and ,new ,world ,civilizations4 7,papers1 ,peabody ,mus41 ii1 #aija47 ,orozco y ,berra1 ,historia antigua y de la ,conquista de ,mexico4 #d vols4 7,mexico1 #ahhj47 ,payne1 ,edward ,james1 ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america4 7,london1 #ahib-ahii47 ,this exhaustive work1 which deals with the evolution of culture on the ,american continent1 is admirably conceived1 and is obviously the result of much thought and research4 ,as regards mythology1 however1 the author1 although well versed in the early writings relating to ,mexico1 seems to have been unacquainted with those of modern specialists on the subject1 and this1 of course1 limits his outlook4 ,nor does he display any acquaintance with the ,mexican native codices4 ,peafiel1 ,a41 ,monumentos del arte ,mexicano antiguo1 #c vols4 7,berlin1 #ahij47 ,destruccion del templo mayor de ,mexico y los monumentos encontrados en la ciudad en la excavaciones de #ahig y #aijb4 7,mexico1 #aiaj47 ,prescott1 ,w4 ,h41 ,history of the ,conquest of ,mexico4 7,new ,york1 #ahdc47 ,the few pages in which ,prescott describes the religion of ancient ,mexico are now quite useless for the purposes of the serious student4 ,rville1 ,a41 ,les ,religions du ,mexique1 de l',amrique ,centrale et du ,prou4 7,paris1 #ahhe47 ,english translation as ,origin and ,growth of ,religion as ,illustrated by the ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru 7,hibbert ,lectures71 #ahhd4 ,a sketchy and inaccurate account1 showing only a second-hand acquaintance with the subject4 ,robelo1 ,c4 ,a41 ,diccionario de mitologia ,nahoa in ,annals of the ,mexican ,museum1 vols4 ii-v1 ,second ,series4 7,mexico1 #aije47 ,saville1 ,m4 ,h41 8,the ,plumed ,serpent in ,northern ,mexico40 7,the ,archologist1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bia-bic47 ,seler1 ,eduard1 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen zur ,amerikanischen ,sprach- und ,altertumskunde1 #e vols4 7,berlin1 #aijb-aiae47 ,this monumental work1 comprising almost the entire output of its learned author1 is indispensable for the study of ,mexican archology and religion4 ,spence1 ,lewis1 ,the ,civilization of ,ancient ,mexico 7,cambridge ,manuals of ,science and ,letters74 7,london1 #aiaa47 ,the ,myths of ,mexico and ,peru4 7,london1 #aiac47 ,the former work is a digest of the strictly verifiable material of ,mexican history and religion2 the latter a sketch of the subject on popular lines4 ,spinden1 ,herbert ,j41 ,a ,study of ,maya ,art 7,memoirs of the ,peabody ,museum1 ,harvard1 vol4 vi74 7,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aiac47 ,this admirable work1 which is chiefly concerned with the subject-matter and development of ,maya art1 touches in places upon the forms and insignia of the ,mexican deities4 ,strebel1 ,h41 ,alt-,mexico1 ,archologische ,beitrge1 #b vols4 7,hamburg and ,leipzig47 ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 ,anahuac or ,mexico and the ,mexicans4 7,london1 #ahfa47 ,veytia1 ,m41 ,historia antigua de ,mexico4 7,mexico1 #ahcf47 ,wesselhoeft1 ,selma1 and ,parker1 ,a4 ,m41 ,mexican and ,central ,american ,antiquities1 ,calendar ,systems and ,history4 ,twenty-four papers by ,eduard ,seler1 ,e4 ,frstemann1 ,paul ,schellhas1 ,carl ,sapper1 and ,e4 ,p4 ,dieseldorff1 translated from the ,german1 under the supervision of ,charles ,p4 ,bowditch4 ,bulletin #bh of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,washington1 #aijd4 ,,bibliography ,,of ,,the ,,codices ,,relating ,,to ,,mexican ,,mythology ,i4 ,,interpretative ,,codices ,codex ,vaticanus ,a 7#cgch7 or ,codex ,rios4 7,a7 ,reproduced in vol4 ii of ,kingsborough's ,antiquities of ,mexico1 #ahcj4 ,translation of the ,interpretation in vol4 vi1 pp4 #aee-dbj4 7,b7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat4 7,rome1 #aijj47 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4 7,a7 ,reproduced in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 i4 ,translation of the ,interpretation in vol4 vi1 pp4 #ie-aec4 7,b7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat 7,paris1 #ahii71 with commentary by ,e4 ,t4 ,hamy4 ,codex ,magliabecchiano4 7,a7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat4 7,rome1 #aijd47 7,b7 ,reproduced by ,zelia ,nuttall as ,the ,book of the ,life of the ,ancient ,mexicans4 7,berkeley1 ,california1 #aijc47 7,this codex is accompanied by a contemporary gloss in ,spanish47 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,codex ,,borgia ,,group ,codex ,borgia4 7,a7 ,reproduced in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 iii4 7,b7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat4 7,rome1 #aijh47 7,c7 ,commentary in ,german by ,dr4 ,e4 ,seler1 ,eine altmexikanische ,bilderschrift1 with plan4 7,berlin1 #aijd47 7,d7 ,reproduced in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 vol4 v1 pp4 #a-bfj1 with ,spanish translation of ,seler's essay by ,t4 ,lares4 ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer4 7,a7 ,reproduced in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 iii4 7,b7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat4 7,rome1 #aija47 7,c7 ,commentary 7,der ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer7 by ,dr4 ,e4 ,seler1 with plan4 7,berlin1 #aija47 7,d7 ,english translation of above by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane4 7,berlin and ,london1 #aija-aijb47 ,codex ,bologna or ,cospi4 7,a7 ,reproduction in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 ii4 7,b7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat4 7,rome1 #ahii47 7,c7 ,commentary by ,seler 7,die ,mexikanischen ,bildenhandschrift von ,bologna7 in his ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 vol4 i1 pp4 #cda-cea4 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b4 7,a7 ,reproduced in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 iii4 7,b7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat 7,rome1 #ahif71 with commentary by ,seor ,f4 ,paso y ,troncoso4 7,c7 ,commentary in ,german 7,der ,codex ,vaticanus ,b7 by ,dr4 ,e4 ,seler1 with plan4 7,berlin1 #aijb47 7,d7 ,english translation of above by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane4 7,berlin and ,london1 #aijb-aijc47 ,codex ,laud4 ,reproduction in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 ii4 ,,iii4 ,,unclassified ,,codices ,the ,aubin-,goupil ,tonalamatl4 7,a7 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat1 with commentary by ,e4 ,seler4 7,paris1 #aijj47 7,b7 ,english translation of above by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 with reproduction4 7,berlin and ,london1 #aija47 ,codex ,vienna1 ,vindobonensis1 or ,indi ,meridionalis4 7,a7 ,first reproduced in part by ,olaus ,wormius1 ,museum ,wormianum4 7,leyden1 #afee1 p4 #chc47 7,b7 ,reproduced in ,kingsborough's ,antiquities1 vol4 ii4 7,c7 ,commentary in ,e4 ,seler's ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen4 ,codex ,zouche or ,nuttall4 ,reproduced with commentary by ,zelia ,nuttall4 7,peabody ,museum publication47 7,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aijb47 ,codex ,borbonicus4 ,reproduced by the ,duc de ,loubat1 with commentary by ,e4 ,t4 ,hamy4 7,paris1 #ahii47 ,see also on the subject of the codices generally3 ,aubin1 ,mmoire sur la peinture didactique des anciens ,mexicains 7,revue ,orientale et ,amricaine74 7,paris1 #ahfj1 pp4 #bbd-bee47 ,boban1 ,catalogue raisonn de la ,collection ,aubin-,goupil4 7,paris1 #ahhi47 7,with an atlas in which many ,,mss4 are reproduced in phototype47 ,lehmann1 ,w41 8,les peintures ,mixteco-zapotques0 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,amer4 de ,paris1 ,n4,s41 tom4 ii74 7,paris1 #aije1 pp4 #bda-bhj47 ,antigedades mexicanas1 publicadas por la junta ,colombina de ,mexico4 7,mexico1 #ahib47 ,atlas with plates4 ,paso y ,troncoso1 ,catalogo de ,mexico en la ,exposicion de ,madrid4 7,mexico1 #ahib47 ,peafiel1 ,monumentos del arte mexicana antigua4 7,berlin1 #ahij47 ,chavero1 ,pinturas jeroglificas1 #b parts4 7,mexico1 #aijj-aija47 ,,glossary ,for the convenience of readers a glossary of the ,mexican words most frequently employed in this work is appended3 anauatl ,ring of white mussel-shell4 areyto ,sacred dance2 a word of ,antillean origin1 introduced by the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico4 atlatl ,spear-thrower4 aztaxelli ,forked heron-feather plume4 calpulli ,augmentative of calli1 house1 signifying 8quarter10 8district40 chalchihuitl ,green stone--jadeite1 turquoise1 emerald--and precious or semi-precious stones of a green colour4 chicauaztli ,the rattle-staff1 associated with the water and fertility deities4 cueitl ,skirt1 petticoat4 maxtli ,loin-cloth4 naualli ,disguise1 magical form or shape4 nequen ,robe4 octli ,the fermented juice of the ,agave americana4 ,the modern term is pulque1 a word of ,argentine origin4 piloechmilli 8,face-painting of children40 quauhxicalli 8,cup of eagles02 stone vase in which the hearts of sacrificed victims were placed4 quetzalli ,feather-plumes of the quetzaltototl or ,trogon pavoninus1 a bird indigenous to ,mexico1 the plumes of which were greatly prized by the natives4 tamalli ,maize-cake 7same as ,spanish corrupted form tamale74 tecutli ,noble1 lord1 person of quality4 teocalli ,pyramid-temple4 teopan ,temple precinct4 teotl ,god4 telpochcalli ,house of the youths1 the place of instruction for boys in training for the priesthood4 teueuelli ,shield with eagle's-down feathers4 tilmatli ,mantle or cloak4 tlachtli ,a ball-game1 a kind of hockey4 tlachinolli ,fire-and-water symbol4 tonalamatl ,book of ,days3 an arrangement of signs indicating lucky and unlucky days1 adapted to the calendar4 toualli ,four balls or beads as a shield device4 ulli ,indiarubber4 xiuhcoatl ,fire-snake4 ,,notes #a ,see ,bibliography for description of this and all other works alluded to throughout the work4 #b ,motecuhzoma described his faith to ,cortz in almost precisely similar terms4 ,see ,bernal ,diaz1 ,true ,history of the ,conquest of ,mexico1 ,maudslay's translation4 ,london1 #aijh4 #c ,especially in ,the ,civilization of ,ancient ,mexico1 #aiaa4 #d ,see ,seler1 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 passim4 #e ,see ,appendix1 ,the ,tonalamatl and the ,solar ,calendar4 #f ,a ,study of ,maya ,art1 #aiac1 p4 #bbe4 #g ,see his commentaries on the several codices1 passim4 #h ,see ,torquemada1 bk4 vi1 c4 #bd4 #i ,sahagun1 ,,iii1 c4 #d2 ,anales de ,quauhtitlan4 #aj ,on ,quetzalcoatl generally see ,sahagun1 passim2 ,torquemada1 vol4 i1 p4 #bed2 ,motolinia1 tom4 i1 pp4 #aj-aa2 and ,mendieta1 passim4 #aa ,consult bibliography to chapter ix of ,h4 ,b4 ,alexander's ,north ,american ,mythology4 ,boston1 #aiaf4 #ab ,sahagun1 bk4 vi1 c4 viii4 #ac ,see appendix on ,tonalamatl4 #ad ,see chapter on ,cosmogony4 #ae ,seler1 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 #aijb-c1 p4 #agd4 #af ,in many cosmogonies--,hindu1 ,babylonian1 ,chinese1 ,scandinavian1 for example--the earth is formed from the remains of a slain monster or living being4 #ag ,see section on ,tlaloc4 #ah ,payne in his ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america1 vol4 i1 #ahib1 pp4 #dbd ff41 was the first to indicate the 8fetishtic0 nature of this statue1 which he identifies as that of ,chicomecoatl4 ,he pours the vials of scorn upon 8the ,italian dilettante ,boturini0 for his identification of the block as ,uitzilopochtli-,teoyaomiqui4 ,he further states that it 8has no limbs10 but its large1 scaly dragon-legs are at least as obvious as his lack of success in giving the sculpture its proper name4 #ai ,see my article 8,cherokees0 in ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ejd4 #bj ,see ,brinton1 ,nagualism4 #ba ,anales de ,quauhtitlan 7,brasseur1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,civ4 de ,mex41 vol4 i1 pp4 #djj ff474 #bb ,codex ,vaticanus1 #aijb-c1 p4 #ge4 #bc ,for much ,mexican star-lore of value see ,seler's ,venus ,period in the ,picture-,writings of the ,borgia ,codex ,group1 translated into ,english in ,bulletin #bh of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 pp4 #cee ff4 ,for the myth see section on ,cosmogony4 #bd ,bk4 ii1 c4 #d4 #be ,see ,appendix on ,tonalamatl4 #bf ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #bg ,clavigero1 ,storia del ,messico1 vol4 i1 bk4 vi1 p4 #beg 7,english translation74 #bh ,the native name for ,mexico1 signifying 8,place upon the water40 #bi ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 ii1 p4 #ebe4 #cj ,hist4 ,mex41 tom4 i1 pp4 #bia-b4 #ca ,see the section on ,tlaloc4 #cb ,notes on the ,shushwap ,people of ,british ,columbia1 8,proceedings and ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada10 #ahia1 vol4 ix1 sect4 ii4 ,montreal1 #ahib4 #cc ,sahagun1 ,hist4 ,gen41 bk4 ii1 c4 xiv4 #cd ,hist4 de ,tlaxcallan1 c4 v4 #ce ,see ,section on ,itzpapalotl4 #cf ,see chapter on ,cosmogony4 #cg ,see ,sahagun1 bk4 i1 c4 #f4 #ch ,see chapter on ,cosmogony4 #ci ,torquemada1 bk4 viii1 c4 #ac4 #dj ,although some of the old authors1 ,bernal ,diaz for instance1 say explicitly that the gods of one city were not recognized in another1 in effect they were1 only under other names4 #da ,translation in ,kingsborough1 vol4 vi1 p4 #aih4 #db ,op4 cit41 p4 #bjg4 #dc ,l4 ,spence1 ,the ,popol ,vuh 7#aijh71 description of bk4 i2 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,le ,vuh ,popol1 ,paris1 #ahfa4 #dd ,an important work republished with a ,latin translation by ,dr4 ,w4 ,lehmann under the title of ,traditions des anciens ,mexicains 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,amer4 ,paris1 n4s41 vol4 iii4 ,paris1 #aijf4 pp4 #bci-bih74 #de ,kingsborough's translation1 vol4 vi1 p4 #aga4 #df ,chavero's edition1 ,mexico1 #ahib1 p4 #ba4 #dg ,see the ,popol ,vuh1 bk4 i41 for a ,quiche analogy to this tale of human degradation4 #dh ,chavero's edition1 ,mexico1 #ahia1 pp4 ii ff4 #di ,hist4 de ,tlaxcala1 in ,ternaux-,compan's ,voyages1 tom4 lxxxvi1 p4 #e2 also edition by ,a4 ,chavero1 ,mexico1 #ahib4 #ej ,hist4 ,antigua de ,mexico1 bk4 i1 c4 #d4 #ea ,first ,relacion4 #eb ,historia ,eccles4 #ec ,a variant myth makes ,quetzalcoatl the god who seeks bones in the underworld from which to make the human race4 ,as he returns1 the bones drop to earth and quails gnaw them4 ,ciuacoatl pounds them into a paste from which men are formed4 ,the ,anales de ,quauhtitlan makes the gods create man from the cinders of the worlds destroyed in the four epochs4 #ed ,probably because of his status as god of twins and of duplicates of all kinds4 #ee ,obviously this sacred bundle is in the same category with the 8medicine-bundle0 of the ,north ,american ,indian tribes1 and it would seem that from such a form certain of the ,mexican gods were evolved4 #ef ,bk4 vii1 c4 #b4 #eg ,for further information regarding this incident see ,boturini1 ,idea1 section iii1 #ad1 8,tlatocaocelotl40 #eh ,these metamorphoses1 or at least the first two1 are obviously founded upon ,xolotl's dual characteristic as a twin4 ,the resemblance between his name and that of the little amphibious animal axolotl is due to the monstrous character of both4 #ei ,hist4 du ,tlaxcallan in ,ternaux-,compan's ,nouvelles ,annales des ,voyages 7tom4 xcix1 p4 #abi74 #fj ,hist4 ,antig4 de ,mexico1 tom4 i1 p4 #g4 #fa ,storia ,antica del ,messico1 tom4 ii1 p4 #g4 #fb ,hist4 ,eccles1 p4 #ha4 #fc ,curtin1 ,creation ,myths of ,primitive ,america1 ,intro41 p4 #ce4 #fd ,relaciones 7,chavero's edition2 ,mexico1 #ahia71 p4 #aa4 ,hist4 ,chichimeca 7,chavero's edition2 ,mexico1 #ahib71 p4 #ba4 #fe ,among the ,american races the soul was thought of as residing in the bones4 ,see ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #bie ff41 #bii1 #cba4 #ff ,anales de ,quauhtitlan4 #fg ,translation of interpretation in ,kingsborough1 vol4 vi1 p4 #abg4 #fh ,p4 #abj4 #fi ,see ,rady y ,delgado's reproduction of this ,codex1 ,madrid1 #ahib4 #gj ,the colours associated with the points of the compass were3 ,east1 yellow2 north1 red2 west1 blue2 south1 white4 #ga ,for the further relation of the gods to time and space see the appendix on the tonalamatl4 #gb ,see myth of the creation of the four supporters1 supra4 #gc ,humming-birds4 ,the warriors seem to have been metamorphosed into the naualli or bird-disguise of ,uitzilopochtli1 the humming-bird god of war4 #gd ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas4 ,i believe these different heavens to have resulted from the clashing and mingling of rival cults4 #ge ,as it has been found impossible to include every illustration from the codices which is mentioned in the text1 those pictures not supplied may be consulted in the reproductions of the codices themselves4 ,a full bibliography of the codices will be found at the end4 ,when the letter ,k appears with reference to a codex1 its reproduction in ,kingsborough's 8,mexican0 antiquities is implied4 #gf ,this stellar mask is so called from being worn by the stellar deities4 ,it is usually connected with the red-and-white striped painting of the body4 ,the ,sahagun ,aztec ,,ms4 calls it 8face-cage marking0 and 8face-star marking which is called darkness10 the former referring to stripes over the face1 the latter to the mask design1 which seems to me to symbolize night surrounded by the 8eyes0 of the stars4 #gg ,hist4 ,nat4 ,ind41 pp4 #ceb ff41 ,english translation in ,purchas his ,pilgrimes1 bk4 v1 c4 #i4 ,maclehoses' edition4 #gh ,hist4 ,conq4 ,mex41 tom4 i1 pp4 #cif-cih4 #gi ,gage's trans4 of ,herrera1 in ,new ,survey1 pp4 #aaf-aag2 for ,spanish text1 see ,hist4 ,gen41 tom4 i1 dec4 ii1 bk4 vii1 c4 xvii4 #hj ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 i1 p4 #bic4 #ha ,quarter1 district4 #hb ,house of the youths1 where the acolytes or junior priests resided4 #hc ,governors4 #hd ,vassals1 burghers4 #he ,dance4 #hf ,this custom was in vogue among certain prehistoric races1 and is still practised on the death of a relative by ,african bushmen1 who first remove a finger-joint4 #hg ,more correctly quauhxicalli1 a stone vase for the reception of the hearts of victims1 from quauh 7tli7 8eagle10 and xicalli1 8cup40 #hh ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 ii1 p4 #gc4 #hi ,hist4 ,mex41 ,english translation by ,c4 ,cullen 7,london1 #aghg71 vol4 i1 bk4 vi4 #ij ,idea de una ,hist41 pp4 #fj-fa4 #ia ,bk4 i1 c4 i4 #ib ,so ,uitzilopochtli addresses his half-brother4 8,uncle0 among the ancient ,mexicans was an honorific title4 #ic ,bk4 iii1 c1 i1 par4 i4 #id ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 i1 p4 #bid4 #ie ,see chapter on ,cosmogony4 #if ,sahagun1 ,appendix to bk4 iii1 c4 ix4 #ig ,hist4 ,nat4 ,ind4 in ,purchas his ,pilgrimes1 bk4 v1 c4 xiii4 ,see also ,manuel ,gamio1 ,proc4 #aith ,cong4 ,amer41 ,washington1 #aiae1 for account of discoveries when the foundations of this temple were partly laid bare in #aiac4 #ih ,c4 i4 #ii ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 c4 xxxiv2 ,uitzilopochtli himself1 as we shall see1 was oracular4 ,in this case ,i take it that the octli distilled from the plant conferred the boon of oracular speech4 #ajj ,the first pulque or octli1 which was called uitztli1 was offered at this festival as first-fruits to ,uitzilopochtli4 ,the spirit distilled from the pulque is still known as mexcal or mescal1 and is probably identical with the fiery fluid given to the braves in the service of the god before going into battle4 #aja ,bull4 of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,no4 #bh1 p4 #baj4 #ajb ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 ii1 p4 #da4 #ajc ,the ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas calls ,uitzilopochtli omitecilt4 ,i think this should be read ome tecitl1 8twice-wizard10 but it may read ome tecutli1 8twice-lord40 ,but the latter is certainly a title of ,tonacatecutli1 the creative deity4 #ajd ,bk4 i1 c4 i4 #aje ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 c4 xxiv4 #ajf ,as does an ,egyptian sun-god4 #ajg ,the ,centzonuitznaua appear to be the same as the ,tzitzimim1 whom ,tezozomoc calls the 8gods of the air who bring the rains1 floods1 thunderclaps1 and thunders and lightnings and had to be placed round ,uitzilopochtli0 in order to complete the construction of the great teocalli of ,mexico4 ,these 8gods of the signs and planets10 in other words the stars1 were regarded as demons of darkness1 thinks ,seler1 8only because during a solar eclipse the stars became visible in the day sky40 ,i think it much more probable that they were looked upon as demons of darkness because they peopled the darkness every night4 8,these10 says the interpreter of the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 8are the sons of ,citlalicue40 ,now1 ,citlalicue means 8,starry-skirt10 and ,i think that here we are not very far from ,coatlicue1 8,serpent-skirt40 ,we know1 too1 that ,citlalicue1 like ,coatlicue1 was connected with the cipactli1 the earth-beast1 and with ,chicomecoatl 78,seven ,serpents074 ,the later fusion of ,citlalicue with her husband ,citlaltonac or ,tonacatecutli1 lord of the heavenly vault1 as has been shown in the remarks on these gods1 would give her stellar attributes2 hence the seeming discrepancy between her and ,coatlicue4 #ajh ,appendix to bk4 ii4 #aji ,hist4 de los ,indios de la ,nueva ,espaa1 tom4 ii1 p4 #bdj4 #aaj ,see ,rendel ,harris1 ,the ,ascent of ,olympus1 passim4 ,in his ,ascent of ,olympus ,dr4 ,rendel ,harris has shown that the sacred oak of ,zeus was regarded as 8the animistic repository of the thunder1 and in that sense the dwelling-place of ,zeus 444 that the woodpecker who nested in it 444 was none other than ,zeus himself1 and it may turn out that ,athena1 who sprang from the head of the thunder-oak1 was the owl that lived in one of its hollows0 7p4 #eg74 ,in the same way1 it may be that the maguey plant may have been regarded by the ,mexicans as a repository of thunder and the heavenly fire4 ,octli1 its sap1 was connected with fire 7see octli gods1 8,nature and ,status071 and ,uitzilopochtli was the humming-bird who dwelt among its leaves4 ,he springs from his mother's body fully armed1 as does ,athena from the head of ,zeus4 ,a similar train of thought appears to be present in both ideas4 #aaa ,manuel de ,ministros1 p4 #ce4 #aab ,commentary on ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #ia4 #aac ,maguey is an ,antillean word imported into ,mexico by the ,spaniards1 but the use of a post-,columbian word does not exclude the possibility of a synonymous pre-,columbian form4 #aad ,manuel de ,ministros1 p4 #cg4 #aae ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #abi ff4 #aaf ,hist4 ,nat4 ,ind41 c4 ix1 bk4 v 7,english translation from ,purchas his ,pilgrimes74 #aag ,obviously an error for tlachialoni4 #aah ,more probably like a jaguar1 one of the forms of the god4 #aai ,see prcis in chapter on ,cosmogony4 #abj ,the ,morelosia huaita of the family ,styracies4 #aba ,inga circinalis4 #abb ,paper hand4 #abc ,face of the temple4 #abd ,young brother4 #abe ,hist4 ,gen41 bk4 i4 c4 iii4 #abf ,hist4 ,nat4 y ,moral1 c4 ix4 #abg ,hist4 ,mex41 ,english translation1 vol4 i1 bk4 vi1 p4 #bdc4 #abh ,hist4 ,gen41 bk4 iii1 c4 vi-ix4 #abi ,these both mean the same thing1 8shield of precious stones40 #acj ,diccionario ,universal1 ,appendix1 s4v4 #aca ,see ante1 ,aspect and ,insignia4 #acb ,commentary ,c4 ,fejrvry-,mayer1 p4 #cd4 #acc ,see the ,stone of ,tizoc for examples of this practice4 #acd ,this figure conventionally represents the turkey and strikingly exhibits the large red wattles and lobe of that bird4 ,in most of the ,,mss4 it wears ,tezcatlipoc's smoking mirror at the temple1 the warrior's headdress of heron-feathers1 and in ,codex ,borbonicus it appears as a naualli or disguise of the god1 having his crown painted with stars and his anauatl or ring of mussel-shell4 ,on sheet #f of ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer the bird appears as an image of ,tezcatlipoc and is represented along with the signs of mortification and blood-letting1 as it is on sheet #ag of the ,aubin tonalamatl1 where it wears the bone-piercer in its ears and a red robe edged with blue and brown4 ,indeed1 it represents the blood-offering connected with the worship of ,tezcatlipoc4 ,the turkey-cock's foot1 too1 is sometimes symbolic of the god1 and the interpretative codices tell us that 8of the demons we often see nothing more than a cock's or eagle's foot40 ,the turkey-cock is to be conceived as representative of rain1 which was believed by the ,nahua to be nothing else than the magically altered blood he shed in penitence or sacrifice4 ,it may be that the red wattles and lobe of the turkey suggested the idea of blood1 and that the shades in his plumage were equally suggestive of water4 ,thus it would come to be regarded as the blood shed by the stone knife of sacrifice4 ,it is also obvious that ,tezcatlipoc's patronage of slaves1 who were strictly regarded as his property1 arose out of the idea that those unfortunates1 whenever used for the purposes of sacrificial ritual1 constituted the 8food0 of the obsidian knife4 #ace ,bk4 xi1 c4 #h1 #e4 #acf ,bernal ,diaz also states that the eyes of ,tezcatlipoc's idol were 8mirrors40 ,see ante1 8,aspect and ,insignia40 #acg ,in the myth which recounts his discomfiture of the ,toltecs it will be recalled that he rained stones upon them4 ,see also ,introduction for identification of obsidian with wind and breath4 #ach ,gomme1 ,ethnology in ,folklore4 #aci ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 vol4 i1 p4 #bff4 #adj ,see ,itzlacoliuhqui1 pp4 #cda ff4 #ada ,see my article on 8,cherokee ,religion0 in vol4 iii1 ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics4 #adb ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world4 #adc ,sahagun1 bk4 xii1 c4 iv4 #add ,bk4 iii1 c4 ii4 #ade ,bk4 xi1 c4 xlvii4 #adf ,bk4 v1 c4 ix4 #adg ,seler1 ,the ,wall-paintings of ,mitla1 ,bull4 #bh1 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology4 #adh 8,the swift ones who serrate the teeth40 #adi 8,mount of the crier40 #aej ,sahagun's statement that the draught would make ,quetzalcoatl remember those evils is obviously a slip which even his copyist ,torquemada is capable of avoiding4 #aea ,bk4 iii1 c4 #c and #d4 #aeb ,the names throughout the myth merely describe the incident which took place at the locality alluded to4 #aec ,sahagun1 bk4 iii1 c4 xii1 xiii1 xiv4 #aed ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 ii1 pp4 #dh-eb4 #aee ,monarq4 ,ind41 tom4 i1 pp4 #bed-bef4 #aef ,hist4 de los ,indios4 #aeg ,hist4 ,ecles41 pp4 #hb1 #hf1 #ib-ic1 #ig-ih4 #aeh ,hist4 ,ecles41 p4 #hb4 #aei ,a ,lacandone ,indian tribe near ,palenque4 #afj ,land of ,chivim4 #afa ,the myths relating to him under the name of ,tohil appear to me to identify ,tohil more with ,tezcatlipoc4 ,see ,brassuer1 ,le ,vuh ,popol1 passim4 #afb ,the circumstance that the two high-priests of ,mexico1 the pontiffs of the cults of ,uitzilopochtli and ,tlaloc1 had the name ,quetzalcoatl prefixed to their official descriptions merely indicates that it had passed into a sacerdotal title4 ,they were in no special sense attached to the worship of the god4 #afc ,he was1 of course1 all of these1 but as regards the two latter1 in a subsidiary sense only4 #afd ,spanish1 hurican2 ,french1 ouragan2 ,english1 hurricane4 #afe ,sahagun reverses the process by calling ,quetzalcoatl 8a man who became a god10 bk4 i1 c4 v4 #aff ,see my article on these books in vol4 iii of ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics4 #afg ,this1 too1 accounts for his identification with the planet ,venus1 which also had a calendric connection1 and therefore as the herald of the dawn1 and the child of the virgin goddess ,chimalman or ,chalchihuitlicue in her guise as ,moon-goddess4 #afh ,votan was likewise a builder of subterranean houses and was worshipped in caves4 ,the god of the rain-cult is1 indeed1 regarded as master of the streams which flow under the earth4 ,see ,brinton1 ,nagualism1 p4 #da4 #afi ,a generic name for green precious or semi-precious stones--turquoise1 jadeite1 nephrite1 emerald1 etc4 #agj ,in ,kingsborough1 ,antiquities of ,mexico1 vol4 vi4 #aga ,on this identification see also ,torquemada1 bk4 vi1 c4 xix4 #agb ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4 #agc ,seler1 ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #acb4 #agd ,spence1 ,popol ,vuh4 ,london1 #aijh4 #age ,tonalamatl of the ,aubin-,goupil ,collection1 #aijj-aija4 #agf ,this circular patch with the centre punched out is worn by the women of more than one ,asiatic country4 #agg ,sahagun1 ,bks4 viii and x4 #agh ,by ,seler1 in ,commentary on ,aubin ,tonalamatl1 p4 #ic4 #agi ,sahagun1 bk4 i1 c4 xii4 #ahj ,as regards these translations of hymns throughout the work1 some have been translated by me from the ,mexican originals1 others have been translated from the ,german of ,seler4 ,like that authority ,i have not received any enlightenment from ,brinton's 8translations0 in his ,sacred ,chants of the ,ancient ,mexicans4 #aha ,bk4 ii1 c4 xxx2 see also ,torquemada1 bk4 x1 c4 xxxv4 #ahb ,pyramid temple4 #ahc ,seler1 ,commentary on ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #bfb1 believes the ceremony to refer to the parturition of the goddess1 who gives birth to ,cinteotl1 although he at first elucidated the ceremony as here indicated4 ,seler confounds the postures of sexual intercourse and parturition4 #ahd ,see picture in ,codex ,borbonicus4 #ahe ,as do ,aphrodite1 and other goddesses of love4 #ahf ,it is equally the symbol of the fertility-pot4 #ahg ,bk4 ii1 c4 xxiii4 #ahh ,lib4 x1 c4 xiii4 #ahi ,a species of wild laurel4 #aij ,the custom of wearing a mask of the deity worshipped 7in this case the slain woman represented the goddess7 is widespread4 #aia ,sahagun1 bk4 ii4 #aib ,appendix to bk4 ii4 #aic ,who1 like several of the older ,spanish authorities1 regarded ,cinteotl as a goddess1 a belief now exploded4 ,see vol4 i1 bk4 vi 7,english translation74 #aid ,it might be quoted against this view that the lewd life of pleasure of which ,xochipilli and ,macuilxochitl are the representatives results in that death which is the child of sin1 and that these gods are therefore 8brothers0 to ,cinteotl in this especial connection4 ,seler1 ,comm4 ,codex ,fej4-,mayer1 p4 #ff2 ,comm4 ,codex ,vat4 ,b1 pp4 #bjg-bjh4 #aie ,sahagun1 bk4 ix1 c4 xvii4 #aif ,sahagun ,,ms4 #aig ,at the festival of ,demeter1 with whose worship the serpent was connected1 the earth was struck with rods by the priest who called upon the goddess4 ,this is also done during the act of divination among the ,zulus1 when they call upon spirits4 ,see ,callaway1 ,izinyanga ,zokubula1 p4 #cfb4 #aih ,lib4 ii1 c4 ii4 #aii ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,civ4 du ,mex4 7quoting a ,cakchiquel ,,ms471 vol4 i1 p4 #bdh4 #bjj ,bk4 i1 c4 vi4 #bja ,sahagun1 bk4 i1 c4 vi4 #bjb ,idem1 bk4 #b1 ,appendix4 #bjc ,idea1 p4 #bg2 vol4 i1 pp4 #dai ff4 #bjd ,see ,introduction1 pp4 #ad1 #af4 #bje ,see ,uitzilopochtli1 pp4 #gc ff4 #bjf ,bk4 i1 c4 xix4 #bjg ,idea1 pp4 #fc-ff4 ,this myth seems to me to show vestiges of a belief in the theory of the transmigration of souls1 and to indicate that the ascetic1 almost on the borders of what is known in ,buddhistic belief as 8arahatship10 or promotion to a higher life1 was condemned for his lapse to recommence existence once more under a low form of life4 #bjh ,bk4 i1 c4 xix1 appendix4 #bji ,see ,appendix in the ,tonalamatl1 8,day-signs40 #baj ,a diacritical point4 #baa ,bk4 x1 c4 xxxv4 #bab ,bk4 x1 c4 xxxi4 #bac ,seler1 ,commentary on ,aubin ,tonalamatl1 p4 #aai4 #bad ,seler1 ,commentary on ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #afa4 #bae ,but see the song to ,cinteotl in the portion dealing with that god1 which in a manner refers to ,xochipilli4 #baf ,commentary on ,aubin ,tonalamatl1 p4 #hg4 #bag ,bk4 i1 c4 xiv4 #bah ,cronica ,mexicana4 ,see picture of ,axayacatl in ,boban's catalogue of the ,goupil collection1 ,paris1 #ahia1 pp4 #ad1 #ae4 #bai ,the best authority on ,xipe's costume is ,sahagun 7,mexican ,,ms474 #bbj ,baring-,gould1 ,curious ,myths of the ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #dag ff4 #bba ,sahagun1 bk4 v1 c4 xiii4 #bbb ,werenfels1 ,dissertation upon ,superstition1 p4 #f 7,london1 #agdh74 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #gai ff4 #bbc ,roscher1 ber ,selene und verwandtes 7,leipzig1 #ahij71 pp4 #di ff4 #bbd ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 ii1 p4 #bbc2 ,payne1 ,hist4 ,new ,world1 vol4 i1 p4 #die4 #bbe ,or calpulli1 a muster-place at several festivals4 #bbf 8,they who seize the head10 alluding to the custom of taking the victims by the hair4 #bbg ,sahagun states that the 8hair0 of the uauantin was kept as a trophy4 ,this seems to me analogous to the ,north ,american ,indian custom of scalping1 which is sometimes spoken of as 8losing one's hair10 a phrase which1 through its use among ,american border fighters1 has passed into slang4 #bbh ,tezcatlipoc took the form of a coyote and lay in wait for travellers4 ,sahagun1 bk4 v1 c4 xiii4 #bbi ,or coyote4 #bcj ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #bca ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #bcb ,seler1 ,commentary on ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #age4 #bcc ,decade iii1 lib4 iii1 c4 xv4 #bcd ,tezozomac1 ,cronica ,mexicana1 c4 xci4 #bce ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage ,normand1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bdj4 #bcf ,athenus1 vol4 ix1 #dg1 p4 #cib d4 #bcg ,religion of the ,semites1 new edition1 #aiad1 p4 #dfi4 #bch ,bk4 ii4 c4 viii4 #bci ,bk4 x1 c4 xix4 #bdj ,hist4 de ,tlaxcallan1 c4 v4 #bda ,this deer is two-headed2 so is ,quaxolotl a variant of ,chantico1 the ,fire-goddess1 with whom ,itzpapalotl seems to have many points of resemblance4 #bdb ,see ,xochipilli4 #bdc ,in some myths of the ,old ,world the butterfly is the soul or ghost4 ,this would explain her connection with the ,ciuatete1 or dead women4 #bdd ,vol4 i1 bk4 vi 7,english translation74 #bde ,bk4 i1 c4 ix4 #bdf ,hist4 de los ,indios de la ,nueva ,espaa 7,epistola ,proemial74 #bdg ,sahagun1 bk4 ii41 c4 xxxvi2 ,torquemada1 bk4 x1 c4 xxix4 #bdh ,it occurred to the writer that the expression tititl may have had reference to the act of sexual impregnation1 as in the case of ,tlazolteotl 7q4v471 who 8widens herself1 stretches herself out0 at the foot of the teocalli of ,uitzilopochtli1 when she is impregnated by that deity4 ,this consideration scarcely seems to apply to the present instance1 however1 and that indicated above appears preferable4 #bdi ,see remarks upon the ,tlaloc cult in the ,introduction4 #bej ,see my remarks upon ,quetzalcoatl in the section which deals with him1 and where he is identified with the trade-wind which brings the rain4 #bea ,bk4 i1 c4 xxi4 #beb ,see ,appendix1 the ,tonalamatl and the ,solar ,calendar4 #bec ,see digest of the passage in chapter on ,cosmogony1 p4 #di4 #bed ,see ,spence1 ,the ,popol ,vuh4 ,london1 #aijh4 #bee ,sahagun 7bk4 x1 c4 xxviii1 #aj7 states that ,tlalocan was in the ,olmec or ,mixtec country2 but ,camargo 7,hist4 de ,tlaxcallan1 ,nouvelles annales des ,voyages1 #ahdc1 tom4 #ii1 pp4 #ace-acg7 is a better authority on this particular subject4 #bef ,wood-mountain4 #beg ,place of ,might4 #beh ,flower-feather4 #bei ,place of ,darkness4 #bfj ,beside the stalle 7or banner74 #bfa ,pearl-serpent4 #bfb ,rows of pearls4 #bfc ,servant4 #bfd ,covered with mugwort4 #bfe ,bk4 ii1 c4 xx4 #bff ,bk4 ii1 c4 iii4 #bfg ,the ,pantitlan 8,near the ,stake40 #bfh ,bk4 ii1 c4 vi4 #bfi ,all of the deities known by these names were octli-gods4 #bgj ,temple precinct4 #bga ,bk4 i1 c4 xiii4 #bgb ,bk4 ii1 c4 xxxv4 #bgc ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones1 p4 #da1 states that girls were sacrificed by the ,toltecs to ,tlaloc and buried4 #bgd ,hist4 de ,tlaxcallan1 in ,ternaux-,compan's ,nouvelles annales de ,voyages1 #ahdc1 tom4 #ii1 pp4 #acc1 #ace-g4 #bge ,vol4 i1 bk4 vi1 p4 #bea 7,english translation74 ,see also ,torquemada1 bk4 vi1 c4 xxiii2 ,veytia1 vol4 i1 p4 #bg2 ,velasquez de ,leon1 ,nevadade ,toluca1 ,bd4 ,inst4 ,nac4 ,geog4 ,estad4 ,mex41 #ahej4 #bgf ,bk4 vi1 c4 vii4 #bgg ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 c4 ii4 #bgh ,frstemann1 ,die ,maya-,handschrift-zu ,dresden1 ,leipzig1 #ahhj4 ,second edition1 #ahib4 #bgi ,codex ,borgia1 sheet #ad1 and ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer1 sheets #a and #c4 #bhj ,unless the costume be spotted like that of her spouse ,tlaloc1 with ulli rubber-gum1 to represent rain4 #bha ,this picture of ,tlaloc and ,chalchihuitlicue is reminiscent of the ,japanese myth of ,susa-no-o and his sister ,ama-terasu1 the ,sun-goddess1 who1 desirous of progeny1 stood one on either side of a 8river0 7the ,milky ,way71 dipped jewels into the 8river10 crushed them into dust and 8blew them away02 gods were born from the dust so breathed upon4 ,see ,kojiki1 translated by ,basil ,hill ,chamberlain1 in supplement to vol4 x of ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan1 #ahhb1 pp4 #dg-di4 ,the ,mexican picture has probably a similar generative significance4 #bhb ,hist4 ,antig4 de ,mej41 tom4 i1 c4 xxviii4 #bhc 8,chief ,eagle40 #bhd ,commentary on the ,aubin ,tonalamatl1 p4 #ef4 #bhe ,the resemblance of this festival to the uei teciulhuitl1 the feast of ,xilonen1 is obvious4 7,for a fuller description1 see ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 c4 xxvii47 #bhf ,bk4 i1 c4 xiii4 #bhg ,bk4 vi1 c4 xvii4 #bhh ,bk4 ix1 c4 iii4 #bhi ,bk4 vi1 c4 iv4 #bij ,bk4 vi1 c4 ix4 #bia ,bk4 ii1 c4 xxix4 #bib ,bk4 ii1 c4 xxxvii4 #bic ,bk4 ii1 c4 xix4 #bid ,bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #bie ,see ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #bif ,seler1 ,commentary on ,tonalamatl of the ,aubin ,goupil ,collection1 p4 #gc4 #big ,commentary on the ,tonalamatl of the ,aubin ,collection1 p4 #ga4 #bih ,see also ,t4 ,l4 ,preuss1 ,die ,feuergtter als ,ausgangspunkt zum ,verstndnis der ,mexikanischen ,religion 78,mittheilungen der ,anthropologische ,gesellschaft in ,wien10 vol4 xxxiii1 ,vienna1 #aijc1 pp4 #abi-bcc74 #bii ,bk4 ix1 c4 xvii4 #cjj 8,wizard-prince10 evidently a patron of sorcerers and cunning workmanship4 #cja 8,five ,house40 #cjb ,bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #cjc ,sahagun states that the dog is the symbol of fire 7bk4 iv1 c4 xxii74 #cjd ,bk4 ii1 ,appendix4 #cje ,the locus classicus for representations of the octli-gods is the ,codex ,magliabecchiano1 which presents a most valuable series of them1 pp4 #di-ei4 #cjf ,bk4 i1 c4 xxii4 #cjg 8,mirror covered with ,straw40 #cjh ,see ,seler1 8,temple-pyramid of ,tepoxtlan10 ,bulletin #bh1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #cdi4 #cji ,teatro ,mexicana1 tom4 i4 #caj ,hist4 de los ,indios1 tom4 ii1 p4 #bdj4 #caa ,bk4 i1 c4 xiii4 #cab ,manuel de los ,ministros1 p4 #ce4 #cac ,bk4 i1 ,appendix4 #cad ,in ,the ,ascent of ,olympus4 #cae ,see ,sahagun1 bk4 vii1 cs4 x-xiii1 for a much more detailed description4 #caf ,see ,sahagun1 bk4 iii1 ,appendix1 c4 iv4 #cag ,historia de los ,indios de la ,nueva ,espaa1 ,preface1 in ,izcazbalceta1 vol4 i1 #aheh1 pp4 #g1 #aj4 #cah ,izcazbalceta1 vol4 iii1 #ahia1 p4 #bcg4 #cai ,appendix to bk4 i1 c4 xiv4 #cbj ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #aij4 #cba ,commentary on ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #bhg4 #cbb ,bulletin #bh of ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #cee ff4 #cbc ,see ,commentary on the ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #ij4 ,it seems to me that1 as ,tezozomoc says1 these were gods of the 8signs and planets10 i4e4 of the tonalamatl in its augural or astrological sense4 ,if so1 the definitely astrological nature of the tonalamatl might be argued therefrom4 #cbd ,see ,l4 ,spence1 ,the ,popol ,vuh4 ,london1 #aijh4 #cbe ,commentary on ,codex ,fejrvry-,mayer1 p4 #dc4 #cbf ,see ,section on ,tezcatlipoc4 #cbg ,las ,casas1 ,apologetica1 c4 cxcix2 ,herrera1 #d1 #aj1 c4 xiii4 #cbh ,seler 7,commentary on ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 p4 #ajb7 sees in a passage in ,sahagun 7bk4 v1 c4 #a7 an association between the omen of a jaguar roaring in the mountains by night and the echo thereof and ,tepeyollotl4 #cbi ,bk4 i1 c4 xix2 bk4 ix1 passim4 #ccj ,nat4 ,rac4 ,pac4 ,states1 vol4 iii1 p4 #dag1 note4 #cca ,bradford1 ,american ,antiquities1 p4 #ccc2 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 vol4 i1 p4 #bga2 ,von ,tschudi1 ,beitrge1 p4 #bi4 #ccb ,see ,seler1 ,bull4 #bh1 ,american ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #id4 #ccc ,bk4 i1 c4 xvi4 #ccd ,see also ,sahagun1 bk4 i1 c4 xv4 #cce ,bk4 i1 c4 xv4 #ccf ,the most convincing modern writers on the tonalamatl are ,morley1 ,bowditch1 ,de ,jonghe1 and ,seler4 ,a bibliography of works on the subject will be found at the end of this appendix4 #ccg ,we speak of 8numbers40 ,more accurately1 the numbers employed by the ,mexicans were merely simple dots4 ,thus a single dot represented our numeral #a1 and thirteen dots our numeral #ac4 #cch ,it will be seen that1 although the first ten day-gods take the first ten week-signs1 these signs are1 naturally1 not in the same order as the day-signs1 as has been pointed out1 therefore these gods could not take precisely the same sign as in the day-signs1 but only the same place4 #cci ,for ,seler's point of view on this question see his ,commentary on the ,aubin ,tonalamatl1 ,london and ,berlin1 #aijj-a1 pp4 #aig-bbh4 ,de ,jonghe1 ,le ,calendrier ,mexicain 7,journal of the ,americanist ,society of ,paris1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii1 #aijf1 pp4 #aig-bbh71 believes that the 8,lords of the ,night0 are connected with the days of the tonalamatl4 ,he states that the combination of these 8,lords of the ,night0 with the day-names sufficed to distinguish the days of the year which by the tonalamatl reckoning would take the same numeral and sign4 ,thus if the year began with #a acatl1 the #bfast day would also be #a acatl1 but would have a different 8,lord of the ,night40 ,this is denied by ,seler4 #cdj ,these are depicted in the ,aubin tonalamatl along with their thirteen bird-disguises in the second and first vertical rows of the upper and the second1 and first cross-rows of the lower half of the sheets1 and are displayed in a similar manner in ,codex ,borbonicus4 ,there are discrepancies between the two ,,mss41 but these are by no means irreconcilable4 ,thus in the seventh place ,codex ,borbonicus has the ,maize-god ,cinteotl and the ,aubin tonalamatl ,macuilxochitl or ,xochipilli1 who1 however1 in one of the songs to the gods1 is addressed as 8,cinteotl10 and so forth4 #cda ,this1 however1 clashes with ,seler's enumeration of the day and night hours elsewhere4 #cdb ,sahagun1 bk4 ii1 c4 xix4 #cdc ,these month-names bear a striking resemblance to those of certain ,north ,american ,indian tribes1 and are certainly seasonal in their origin4 #cdd ,the ,venus ,period in the ,borgian ,codex ,groups1 ,english translation in ,bull4 #bh of the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,ethnology4