,,science  ,,education    ,,essays  ,,by
  ,,thomas ,h4 ,,huxley      ,,preface  
,the apology offered in the ,preface to 
the first volume of this series for the 
occurrence of repetitions1 is even more 
needful here ,i am afraid4 ,but it could
 hardly be otherwise with speeches and  
essays1 on the same topic1 addressed at 
intervals1 during more than thirty      
years1 to widely distant and different  
hearers and readers4 ,the oldest piece1 
that ,on the ,educational ,value of the 
,natural ,history ,sciences1 contains   
some crudities1 which ,i repudiated when
 the lecture was first reprinted1 more  
than twenty years ago2 but it will be   
seen that much of what ,i have had to   
say1 later on in life1 is merely a      
development of the propositions         
enunciated in this early and            
sadly-imperfect piece of work4  ,in view
 of the recent attempt to disturb the   
compromise about the teaching of        
dogmatic theology1 solemnly agreed to by
 the first ,school ,board for ,london1  

the fifteenth ,essay2 and1 more         
particularly1 the note n4 #c1 may be    
found interesting4  ,t4 ,h4 ,h4         
,hodeslea1 ,eastbourne1 ,september #dth1
 #ahic4     ,,contents  ,i  ,,joseph    
,,priestley #ahgd 7,an ,address         
delivered on the occasion of the        
presentation of a statue of ,priestley  
to the town of ,birmingham7   ,,ii ,,on 
,,the ,,educational ,,value ,,of ,,the  
,,natural ,,history ,,sciences #ahed    
7,an ,address delivered in ,s4 ,martin's
 ,hall7   ,,iii ,,emancipation--,,black 
,,and ,,white #ahfe   ,,iv ,a ,,liberal 
,,education2 ,,and ,,where ,,to ,,find  
,,it #ahfh 7,an ,address to the ,south  
,london ,working ,men's ,college7   ,v  
,,scientific ,,education3 ,,notes ,,of  
,,an ,,after-,,dinner ,,speech #ahfi    
7,liverpool ,philomathic ,society7      
,,vi ,,science ,,and ,,culture #ahhj    
7,an ,address delivered at the opening  
of ,sir ,josiah ,mason's ,science       
,college1 ,birmingham7  ,,vii ,,on      
,,science ,,and ,,art ,,in ,,relation   

,,to ,,education #ahhb 7,an ,address to 
the members of the ,liverpool           
,institution7   ,,viii ,,universities3  
,,actual ,,and ,,ideal #ahgd 7,rectorial
 ,address1 ,aberdeen7   ,,ix ,,address  
,,on ,,university ,,education #ahgf     
7,delivered at the opening of the ,johns
 ,hopkins ,university1 ,baltimore7   ,x 
,,on ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,biology #ahgf 
7,a ,lecture in connection with the     
,loan ,collection of ,scientific        
,apparatus1 ,south ,kensington ,museum7 
,,xi ,,on ,,elementary ,,instruction    
,,in ,,physiology #ahgg   ,,xii ,,on    
,,medical ,,education #ahgj 7,an        
,address to the students of the ,faculty
 of ,medicine in ,university ,college1  
,london7   ,,xiii ,,the ,,state ,,and   
,,the ,,medical ,,profession #ahhd      
,,xiv ,,the ,,connection ,,of ,,the     
,,biological ,,sciences ,,with          
,,medicine #ahha 7,an ,address to the   
,international ,medical ,congress7      
,,xv ,,the ,,school ,,boards3 ,,what    
,,they ,,can ,,do1 ,,and ,,what ,,they  

,,may ,,do #ahgj   ,,xvi ,,technical    
,,education #ahgg   ,,xvii ,,address    
,,on ,,behalf ,,of ,,the ,,national     
,,association ,,for ,,the ,,promotion   
,,of ,,technical ,,education #ahhg      
,,collected ,,essays  ,,volume ,,iii    
,i  ,,joseph ,,priestley  #ahgd   ,if   
the man to perpetuate whose memory we   
have this day raised a statue had been  
asked on what part of his busy life's   
work he set the highest value1 he would 
undoubtedly have pointed to his         
voluminous contributions to theology4   
,in season and out of season1 he was the
 steadfast champion of that hypothesis  
respecting the ,divine nature which is  
termed ,unitarianism by its friends and 
,socinianism by its foes4 ,regardless of
 odds1 he was ready to do battle with   
all comers in that cause2 and if no     
adversaries entered the lists1 he would 
sally forth to seek them4  ,to this1 his
 highest ideal of duty1 ,joseph         
,priestley sacrificed the vulgar prizes 
of life1 which1 assuredly1 were within  

easy reach of a man of his singular     
energy and varied abilities4 ,for this  
object he put aside1 as of secondary    
importance1 those scientific            
investigations which he loved so well1  
and in which he showed himself so       
competent to enlarge the boundaries of  
natural knowledge and to win fame4 ,in  
this cause he not only cheerfully       
suffered obloquy from the bigoted and   
the unthinking1 and came within sight of
 martyrdom2 but bore with that which is 
much harder to be borne than all these1 
the unfeigned astonishment and hardly   
disguised contempt of a brilliant       
society1 composed of men whose sympathy 
and esteem must have been most dear to  
him1 and to whom it was simply          
incomprehensible that a philosopher     
should seriously occupy himself with any
 form of ,christianity4  ,it appears to 
me that the man who1 setting before     
himself such an ideal of life1 acted up 
to it consistently1 is worthy of the    
deepest respect1 whatever opinion may be

 entertained as to the real value of the
 tenets which he so zealously propagated
 and defended4  ,but ,i am sure that ,i 
speak not only for myself1 but for all  
this assemblage1 when ,i say that our   
purpose to-day is to do honour1 not to  
,priestley1 the ,unitarian divine1 but  
to ,priestley1 the fearless defender of 
rational freedom in thought and in      
action3 to ,priestley1 the philosophic  
thinker2 to that ,priestley who held a  
foremost place among the swift runners  
who hand over the lamp of life1 #a and  
transmit from one generation to another 
the fire kindled1 in the childhood of   
the world1 at the ,promethean altar of  
,science4  ,the main incidents of       
,priestley's life are so well known that
 ,i need dwell upon them at no great    
length4  ,born in #agcc1 at ,fieldhead1 
near ,leeds1 and brought up among       
,calvinists of the straitest orthodoxy1 
the boy's striking natural ability led  
to his being devoted to the profession  
of a minister of religion2 and1 in      

#ageb1 he was sent to the ,dissenting   
,academy at ,daventry--an institution   
which authority left undisturbed1 though
 its existence contravened the law4 ,the
 teachers under whose instruction and   
influence the young man came at         
,daventry1 carried out to the letter the
 injunction to try all things3 hold fast
 that which is good1 and encouraged the 
discussion of every imaginable          
proposition with complete freedom1 the  
leading professors taking opposite      
sides2 a discipline which1 admirable as 
it may be from a purely scientific point
 of view1 would seem to be calculated to
 make acute1 rather than sound1 divines4
 ,priestley tells us1 in his            
,autobiography1 that he generally found 
himself on the unorthodox side3 and1 as 
he grew older1 and his faculties        
attained their maturity1 this native    
tendency towards heterodoxy grew with   
his growth and strengthened with his    
strength4 ,he passed from ,calvinism to 
,arianism2 and finally1 in middle life1 

landed in that very broad form of       
,unitarianism by which his craving after
 a credible and consistent theory of    
things was satisfied4  ,on leaving      
,daventry ,priestley became minister of 
a congregation1 first at ,needham       
,market1 and secondly at ,nantwich2 but 
whether on account of his heterodox     
opinions1 or of the stuttering which    
impeded his expression of them in the   
pulpit1 little success attended his     
efforts in this capacity4 ,in #agfa1 a  
career much more suited to his abilities
 became open to him4 ,he was appointed  
tutor in the languages in the           
,dissenting ,academy at ,warrington1 in 
which capacity1 besides giving three    
courses of lectures1 he taught ,latin1  
,greek1 ,french1 and ,italian1 and read 
lectures on the theory of language and  
universal grammar1 on oratory1          
philosophical criticism1 and civil law4 
,and it is interesting to observe that1 
as a teacher1 he encouraged and         
cherished in those whom he instructed   

the freedom which he had enjoyed1 in his
 own student days1 at ,daventry4 ,one of
 his pupils tells us that1      ,at the 
conclusion of his lecture1 he always    
encouraged his     students to express  
their sentiments relative to the subject
 of it1     and to urge any objections  
to what he had delivered1 without       
reserve4 ,it pleased him when any one   
commenced such a conversation4     ,in  
order to excite the freest discussion1  
he occasionally invited     the students
 to drink tea with him1 in order to     
canvass the     subjects of his         
lectures4 ,i do not recollect that he   
ever showed     the least displeasure at
 the strongest objections that were made
 to     what he delivered1 but ,i       
distinctly remember the smile of        
approbation with which he usually       
received them3 nor did he fail to       
point out1 in a very encouraging manner1
 the ingenuity or force of     any      
remarks that were made1 when they       
merited these characters4 ,his          

object1 as well as ,dr4 ,aikin's1 was to
 engage the students to     examine and 
decide for themselves1 uninfluenced by  
the sentiments     of any other persons4
 #b  ,it would be difficult to give a   
better description of a model teacher   
than that conveyed in these words4      
,from his earliest days1 ,priestley had 
shown a strong bent towards the study of
 nature2 and his brother ,timothy tells 
us that the boy put spiders into        
bottles1 to see how long they would live
 in the same air--a curious anticipation
 of the investigations of his later     
years4 ,at ,nantwich1 where he set up a 
school1 ,priestley informs us that he   
bought an air pump1 an electrical       
machine1 and other instruments1 in the  
use of which he instructed his scholars4
 ,but he does not seem to have devoted  
himself seriously to physical science   
until #agff1 when he had the great good 
fortune to meet ,benjamin ,franklin1    
whose friendship he ever afterwards     
enjoyed4 ,encouraged by ,franklin1 he   

wrote a ,history of ,electricity1 which 
was published in #agfg1 and appears to  
have met with considerable success4  ,in
 the same year1 ,priestley left         
,warrington to become the minister of a 
congregation at ,leeds2 and1 here1      
happening to live next door to a public 
brewery1 as he says1      ,i1 at first1 
amused myself with making experiments on
 the fixed     air which ,i found       
ready-made in the process of            
fermentation4 ,when ,i     removed from 
that house ,i was under the necessity of
 making fixed     air for myself2 and   
one experiment leading to another1 as ,i
 have     distinctly and faithfully     
noted in my various publications on the 
subject1 ,i by degrees contrived a      
convenient apparatus for the            
purpose1 but of the cheapest kind4      
,when ,i began these experiments ,i knew
 very little of chemistry1     and had1 
in a manner1 no idea on the subject     
before ,i attended a     course of      
chemical lectures1 delivered in the     

,academy at     ,warrington1 by ,dr4    
,turner of ,liverpool4 ,but ,i have     
often thought     that1 upon the whole1 
this circumstance was no disadvantage to
 me2     as1 in this situation1 ,i was  
led to devise an apparatus and          
processes of my own1 adapted to my      
peculiar views2 whereas1 if ,i     had  
been previously accustomed to the usual 
chemical processes1 ,i     should not   
have so easily thought of any other1 and
 without new     modes of operation1 ,i 
should hardly have discovered anything  
materially new4 #c  ,the first outcome  
of ,priestley's chemical work1 published
 in #aggb1 was of a very practical      
character4 ,he discovered the way of    
impregnating water with an excess of    
fixed air1 or carbonic acid1 and thereby
 producing what we now know as soda     
water--a service to naturally1 and still
 more to artificially1 thirsty souls1   
which those whose parched throats and   
hot heads are cooled by morning draughts
 of that beverage1 cannot too gratefully

 acknowledge4 ,in the same year1        
,priestley communicated the extensive   
series of observations which his        
industry and ingenuity had accumulated1 
in the course of four years1 to the     
,royal ,society1 under the title of     
,observations on ,different ,kinds of   
,air--a memoir which was justly regarded
 of so much merit and importance1 that  
the ,society at once conferred upon the 
author the highest distinction in their 
power1 by awarding him the ,copley      
,medal4  ,in #agga a proposal was made  
to ,priestley to accompany ,captain     
,cook in his second voyage to the ,south
 ,seas4 ,he accepted it1 and his        
congregation agreed to pay an assistant 
to supply his place during his absence4 
,but the appointment lay in the hands of
 the ,board of ,longitude1 of which     
certain clergymen were members2 and     
whether these worthy ecclesiastics      
feared that ,priestley's presence among 
the ship's company might expose ,his    
,majesty's sloop ,resolution to the fate

 which aforetime befell a certain ship  
that went from ,joppa to ,tarshish2 or  
whether they were alarmed lest a        
,socinian should undermine that piety   
which1 in the days of ,commodore        
,trunnion1 so strikingly characterised  
sailors1 does not appear2 but1 at any   
rate1 they objected to ,priestley on    
account of his religious principles1 and
 appointed the two ,forsters1 whose     
religious principles1 if they had been  
known to these well-meaning but not     
far-sighted persons1 would probably have
 surprised them4  ,in #aggb another     
proposal was made to ,priestley4 ,lord  
,shelburne1 desiring a literary         
companion1 had been brought into        
communication with ,priestley by the    
good offices of a friend of both1 ,dr4  
,price2 and offered him the nominal post
 of librarian1 with a good house and    
appointments1 and an annuity in case of 
the termination of the engagement4      
,priestley accepted the offer1 and      
remained with ,lord ,shelburne for seven

 years1 sometimes residing at ,calne1   
sometimes travelling abroad with the    
,earl4  ,why the connection terminated  
has never been exactly known2 but it is 
certain that ,lord ,shelburne behaved   
with the utmost consideration and       
kindness towards ,priestley2 that he    
fulfilled his engagements to the letter2
 and that1 at a later period1 he        
expressed a desire that ,priestley      
should return to his old footing in his 
house4 ,probably enough1 the politician1
 aspiring to the highest offices in the 
,state1 may have found the position of  
the protector of a man who was being    
denounced all over the country as an    
infidel and an atheist somewhat         
embarrassing4 ,in fact1 a passage in    
,priestley's ,autobiography on the      
occasion of the publication of his      
,disquisitions relating to ,matter and  
,spirit1 which took place in #aggg1     
indicates pretty clearly the state of   
the case3--      7#abf7 ,it being       
probable that this publication would be 

unpopular1     and might be the means of
 bringing odium on my patron1 several   
attempts were made by his friends1      
though none by himself1 to     dissuade 
me from persisting in it4 ,but being1 as
 ,i thought1 engaged     in the cause of
 important truth1 ,i proceeded without  
regard to any     consequences1 assuring
 them that this publication should not  
be     injurious to his lordship4  ,it  
is not unreasonable to suppose that his 
lordship1 as a keen1 practical man of   
the world1 did not derive much          
satisfaction from this assurance4 ,the  
evident marks of dissatisfaction which  
,priestley says he first perceived in   
his patron in #aggh1 may well have      
arisen from the peer's not unnatural    
uneasiness as to what his domesticated1 
but not tamed1 philosopher might write  
next1 and what storm might thereby he   
brought down on his own head2 and it    
speaks very highly for ,lord            
,shelburne's delicacy that1 in the midst
 of such perplexities1 he made not the  

least attempt to interfere with         
,priestley's freedom of action4 ,in     
#aghj1 however1 he intimated to ,dr4    
,price that he should be glad to        
establish ,priestley on his ,irish      
estates3 the suggestion was interpreted1
 as ,lord ,shelburne probably intended  
it should be1 and ,priestley left him1  
the annuity of #aej a year1 which had   
been promised in view of such a         
contingency1 being punctually paid4     
,after leaving ,calne1 ,priestley spent 
some little time in ,london1 and then1  
having settled in ,birmingham at the    
desire of his brother-in-law1 he was    
soon invited to become the minister of a
 large congregation4 ,this settlement   
,priestley considered1 at the time1 to  
be the happiest event of his life4 ,and 
well he might think so2 for it gave him 
competence and leisure2 placed him      
within reach of the best makers of      
apparatus of the day2 made him a member 
of that remarkable ,lunar ,society1 at  
whose meetings he could exchange        

thoughts with such men as ,watt1        
,wedgwood1 ,darwin1 and ,boulton2 and   
threw open to him the pleasant house of 
the ,galtons of ,barr1 where these men1 
and others of less note1 formed a       
society of exceptional charm and        
intelligence4 #d  ,but these halcyon    
days were ended by a bitter storm4 ,the 
,french ,revolution broke out4 ,an      
electric shock ran through the nations2 
whatever there was of corrupt and       
retrograde1 and1 at the same time1 a    
great deal of what there was of best and
 noblest1 in ,european society shuddered
 at the outburst of long-pent-up social 
fires4 ,men's feelings were excited in a
 way that we1 in this generation1 can   
hardly comprehend4 ,party wrath and     
virulence were expressed in a manner    
unparalleled1 and it is to be hoped     
impossible1 in our times2 and ,priestley
 and his friends were held up to public 
scorn1 even in ,parliament1 as fomenters
 of sedition4 ,a ,church-and-,king cry  
was raised against the ,liberal         

,dissenters2 and1 in ,birmingham1 it was
 intensified and specially directed     
towards ,priestley by a local           
controversy1 in which he had engaged    
with his usual vigour4 ,in #agia1 the   
celebration of the second anniversary of
 the taking of the ,bastille by a public
 dinner1 with which ,priestley had      
nothing whatever to do1 gave the signal 
to the loyal and pious mob1 who1        
unchecked1 and indeed to some extent    
encouraged1 by those who were           
responsible for order1 had the town at  
their mercy for three days4 ,the chapels
 and houses of the leading ,dissenters  
were wrecked1 and ,priestley and his    
family had to fly for their lives1      
leaving library1 apparatus1 papers1 and 
all their possessions1 a prey to the    
flames4  ,priestley never returned to   
,birmingham4 ,he bore the outrages and  
losses inflicted upon him with extreme  
patience and sweetness1 #e and betook   
himself to ,london4 ,but even his       
scientific colleagues gave him a cold   

shoulder2 and though he was elected     
minister of a congregation at ,hackney1 
he felt his position to be insecure1 and
 finally determined on emigrating to the
 ,united ,states4 ,he landed in ,america
 in #agid2 lived quietly with his sons  
at ,northumberland1 in ,pennsylvania1   
where his posterity still flourish2 and1
 clear-headed and busy to the last1 died
 on the #fth of ,february #ahjd4  ,such 
were the conditions under which ,joseph 
,priestley did the work which lay before
 him1 and then1 as the ,norse ,sagas    
say1 went out of the story4 ,the work   
itself was of the most varied kind4 ,no 
human interest was without its          
attraction for ,priestley1 and few men  
have ever had so many irons in the fire 
at once2 but1 though he may have burned 
his fingers a little1 very few who have 
tried that operation have burned their  
fingers so little4 ,he made admirable   
discoveries in science2 his             
philosophical treatises are still well  
worth reading2 his political works are  

full of insight and replete with the    
spirit of freedom2 and while all these  
sparks flew off from his anvil1 the     
controversial hammer rained a hail of   
blows on orthodox priest and bishop4    
,while thus engaged1 the kindly1        
cheerful doctor felt no more wrath or   
uncharitableness towards his opponents  
than a smith does towards his iron4 ,but
 if the iron could only speak6--and the 
priests and bishops took the point of   
view of the iron4  ,no doubt what       
,priestley's friends repeatedly urged   
upon him--that he would have escaped the
 heavier trials of his life and done    
more for the advancement of knowledge1  
if he had confined himself to his       
scientific pursuits and let his         
fellow-men go their way--was true4 ,but 
it seems to have been ,priestley's      
feeling that he was a man and a citizen 
before he was a philosopher1 and that   
the duties of the two former positions  
are at least as imperative as those of  
the latter4 ,moreover1 there are men    

7and ,i think ,priestley was one of     
them7 to whom the satisfaction of       
throwing down a triumphant fallacy is as
 great as that which attends the        
discovery of a new truth2 who feel      
better satisfied with the government of 
the world1 when they have been helping  
,providence by knocking an imposture on 
the head2 and who care even more for    
freedom of thought than for mere advance
 of knowledge4 ,these men are the       
,carnots who organise victory for truth1
 and they are1 at least1 as important as
 the generals who visibly fight her     
battles in the field4  ,priestley's     
reputation as a man of science rests    
upon his numerous and important         
contributions to the chemistry of       
gaseous bodies2 and to form a just      
estimate of the value of his work--of   
the extent to which it advanced the     
knowledge of fact and the development of
 sound theoretical views--we must       
reflect what chemistry was in the first 
half of the eighteenth century4  ,the   

vast science which now passes under that
 name had no existence4 ,air1 water1 and
 fire were still counted among the      
elemental bodies2 and though ,van       
,helmont1 a century before1 had         
distinguished different kinds of air as 
gas ventosum and gas sylvestre1 and     
,boyle and ,hales had experimentally    
defined the physical properties of air1 
and discriminated some of the various   
kinds of ariform bodies1 no one         
suspected the existence of the numerous 
totally distinct gaseous elements which 
are now known1 or dreamed that the air  
we breathe and the water we drink are   
compounds of gaseous elements4  ,but1 in
 #aged1 a young ,scotch physician1 ,dr4 
,black1 made the first clearing in this 
tangled backwood of knowledge4 ,and it  
gives one a wonderful impression of the 
juvenility of scientific chemistry to   
think that ,lord ,brougham1 whom so many
 of us recollect1 attended ,black's     
lectures when he was a student in       
,edinburgh4 ,black's researches gave the

 world the novel and startling          
conception of a gas that was a          
permanently elastic fluid like air1 but 
that differed from common air in being  
much heavier1 very poisonous1 and in    
having the properties of an acid1       
capable of neutralising the strongest   
alkalies2 and it took the world some    
time to become accustomed to the notion4
  ,a dozen years later1 one of the most 
sagacious and accurate investigators who
 has adorned this1 or any other1        
country1 ,henry ,cavendish1 published a 
memoir in the ,philosophical            
,transactions1 in which he deals not    
only with the fixed air 7now called     
carbonic acid or carbonic anhydride7 of 
,black1 but with inflammable air1 or    
what we now term hydrogen4  ,by the     
rigorous application of weight and      
measure to all his processes1 ,cavendish
 implied the belief subsequently        
formulated by ,lavoisier1 that1 in      
chemical processes1 matter is neither   
created nor destroyed1 and indicated the

 path along which all future explorers  
must travel4 ,nor did he himself halt   
until this path led him1 in #aghd1 to   
the brilliant and fundamental discovery 
that water is composed of two gases     
united in fixed and constant            
proportions4  ,it is a trying ordeal for
 any man to be compared with ,black and 
,cavendish1 and ,priestley cannot be    
said to stand on their level4           
,nevertheless his achievements are not  
only great in themselves1 but truly     
wonderful1 if we consider the           
disadvantages under which he laboured4  
,without the careful scientific training
 of ,black1 without the leisure and     
appliances secured by the wealth of     
,cavendish1 he scaled the walls of      
science as so many ,englishmen have done
 before and since his day2 and trusting 
to mother wit to supply the place of    
training1 and to ingenuity to create    
apparatus out of washing tubs1 he       
discovered more new gases than all his  
predecessors put together had done4 ,he 

laid the foundations of gas analysis2 he
 discovered the complementary actions of
 animal and vegetable life upon the     
constituents of the atmosphere2 and1    
finally1 he crowned his work1 this day  
one hundred years ago1 by the discovery 
of that pure dephlogisticated air to    
which the ,french chemists subsequently 
gave the name of oxygen4 ,its           
importance1 as the constituent of the   
atmosphere which disappears in the      
processes of respiration and combustion1
 and is restored by green plants growing
 in sunshine1 was proved somewhat later4
 ,for these brilliant discoveries1 the  
,royal ,society elected ,priestley a    
fellow and gave him their medal1 while  
the ,academies of ,paris and ,st4       
,petersburg conferred their membership  
upon him4 ,edinburgh had made him an    
honorary doctor of laws at an early     
period of his career2 but1 ,i need      
hardly add1 that a man of ,priestley's  
opinions received no recognition from   
the universities of his own country4    

,that ,priestley's contributions to the 
knowledge of chemical fact were of the  
greatest importance1 and that they      
richly deserve all the praise that has  
been awarded to them1 is unquestionable2
 but it must1 at the same time1 be      
admitted that he had no comprehension of
 the deeper significance of his work2   
and1 so far from contributing anything  
to the theory of the facts which he     
discovered1 or assisting in their       
rational explanation1 his influence to  
the end of his life was warmly exerted  
in favour of error4 ,from first to last1
 he was a stiff adherent of the         
phlogiston doctrine which was prevalent 
when his studies commenced2 and1 by a   
curious irony of fate1 the man who by   
the discovery of what he called         
dephlogisticated air furnished the      
essential datum for the true theory of  
combustion1 of respiration1 and of the  
composition of water1 to the end of his 
days fought against the inevitable      
corollaries from his own labours4 ,his  

last scientific work1 published in      
#ahjj1 bears the title1 ,the ,doctrine  
of ,phlogiston established1 and that of 
the ,composition of ,water refuted4     
,when ,priestley commenced his studies1 
the current belief was1 that atmospheric
 air1 freed from accidental impurities1 
is a simple elementary substance1       
indestructible and unalterable1 as water
 was supposed to be4 ,when a combustible
 burned1 or when an animal breathed in  
air1 it was supposed that a substance1  
phlogiston1 the matter of heat and      
light1 passed from the burning or       
breathing body into it1 and destroyed   
its powers of supporting life and       
combustion4 ,thus1 air contained in a   
vessel in which a lighted candle had    
gone out1 or a living animal had        
breathed until it could breathe no      
longer1 was called phlogisticated4 ,the 
same result was supposed to be brought  
about by the addition of what ,priestley
 called nitrous gas to common air4  ,in 
the course of his researches1 ,priestley

 found that the quantity of common air  
which can thus become phlogisticated1   
amounts to about one-fifth the volume of
 the whole quantity submitted to        
experiment4 ,hence it appeared that     
common air consists1 to the extent of   
four-fifths of its volume1 of air which 
is already phlogisticated2 while the    
other fifth is free from phlogiston1 or 
dephlogisticated4 ,on the other hand1   
,priestley found that air phlogisticated
 by combustion or respiration could be  
dephlogisticated1 or have the properties
 of pure common air restored to it1 by  
the action of green plants in sunshine4 
,the question1 therefore1 would         
naturally arise--as common air can be   
wholly phlogisticated by combustion1 and
 converted into a substance which will  
no longer support combustion1 is it     
possible to get air that shall be less  
phlogisticated than common air1 and     
consequently support combustion better  
than common air does8  ,now1 ,priestley 
says that1 in #aggd1 the possibility of 

obtaining air less phlogisticated than  
common air had not occurred to him4 #f  
,but in pursuing his experiments on the 
evolution of air from various bodies by 
means of heat1 it happened that1 on the 
#ast of ,august #aggd1 he threw the heat
 of the sun1 by means of a large burning
 glass which he had recently obtained1  
upon a substance which was then called  
mercurius calcinatus per se1 and which  
is commonly known as red precipitate4   
,i presently found that1 by means of    
this lens1 air was expelled     from it 
very readily4 ,having got about three or
 four times as much     as the bulk of  
my materials1 ,i admitted water to it1  
and found that     it was not imbibed by
 it4 ,but what surprised me more than ,i
 can     well express1 was that a candle
 burned in this air with a              
remarkably vigorous flame1 very much    
like that enlarged flame with     which 
a candle burns in nitrous air1 exposed  
to iron or lime of     sulphur2 but as  
,i had got nothing like this remarkable 

appearance     from any kind of air     
besides this particular modification of 
nitrous air1 and ,i knew no nitrous acid
 was used in the preparation     of     
mercurius calcinatus1 ,i was utterly at 
a loss how to     account for it4       
,in this case also1 though ,i did not   
give sufficient attention to     the    
circumstance at that time1 the flame of 
the candle1 besides     being larger1   
burned with more splendour and heat than
 in that     species of nitrous air2 and
 a piece of red-hot wood sparkled in it1
     exactly like paper dipped in a     
solution of nitre1 and it consumed      
very fast--an experiment which ,i had   
never thought of trying with     nitrous
 air4 #g  ,priestley obtained the same  
sort of air from red lead1 but1 as he   
says himself1 he remained in ignorance  
of the properties of this new kind of   
air for seven months1 or until ,march   
#agge1 when he found that the new air   
behaved with nitrous gas in the same way
 as the dephlogisticated part of common 

air does2 #h but that1 instead of being 
diminished to four-fifths1 it almost    
completely vanished1 and1 therefore1    
showed itself to be between five and six
 times as good as the best common air ,i
 have ever met with4 #i ,as this new air
 thus appeared to be completely free    
from phlogiston1 ,priestley called it   
dephlogisticated air4  ,what was the    
nature of this air8 ,priestley found    
that the same kind of air was to be     
obtained by moistening with the spirit  
of nitre 7which he terms nitrous acid7  
any kind of earth that is free from     
phlogiston1 and applying heat2 and      
consequently he says3 ,there remained no
 doubt on my mind but that the          
atmospherical air1 or the thing that we 
breathe1 consists of the nitrous acid   
and earth1 with so much phlogiston as is
 necessary to its elasticity1 and       
likewise so much more as is required to 
bring it from its state of perfect      
purity to the mean condition in which we
 find it4 #aj  ,priestley's view1 in    

fact1 is that atmospheric air is a kind 
of saltpetre1 in which the potash is    
replaced by some unknown earth4 ,and in 
speculating on the manner in which      
saltpetre is formed1 he enunciates the  
hypothesis1 that nitre is1 formed by a  
real decomposition of the air itself1   
the bases that are presented to it      
having1 in such circumstances1 a nearer 
affinity with the spirit of nitre than  
that kind of earth with which it is     
united in the atmosphere4 #aa  ,it would
 have been hard for the most ingenious  
person to have wandered farther from the
 truth than ,priestley does in this     
hypothesis2 and1 though ,lavoisier      
undoubtedly treated ,priestley very ill1
 and pretended to have discovered       
dephlogisticated air1 or oxygen1 as he  
called it1 independently1 we can almost 
forgive him when we reflect how         
different were the ideas which the great
 ,french chemist attached to the body   
which ,priestley discovered4  ,they are 
like two navigators of whom the first   

sees a new country1 but takes clouds for
 mountains and mirage for lowlands2     
while the second determines its length  
and breadth1 and lays down on a chart   
its exact place1 so that1 thenceforth1  
it serves as a guide to his successors1 
and becomes a secure outpost whence new 
explorations may be pushed4             
,nevertheless1 as ,priestley himself    
somewhere remarks1 the first object of  
physical science is to ascertain facts1 
and the service which he rendered to    
chemistry by the definite establishment 
of a large number of new and            
fundamentally important facts1 is such  
as to entitle him to a very high place  
among the fathers of chemical science4  
,it is difficult to say whether         
,priestley's philosophical1 political1  
or theological views were most          
responsible for the bitter hatred which 
was borne to him by a large body of his 
country-men1 #ab and which found its    
expression in the malignant insinuations
 in which ,burke1 to his everlasting    

shame1 indulged in the ,house of        
,commons4  ,without containing much that
 will be new to the readers of ,hobbs1  
,spinoza1 ,collins1 ,hume1 and ,hartley1
 and1 indeed1 while making no           
pretensions to originality1 ,priestley's
 ,disquisitions relating to ,matter and 
,spirit1 and his ,doctrine of           
,philosophical ,necessity ,illustrated1 
are among the most powerful1 clear1 and 
unflinching expositions of materialism  
and necessarianism which exist in the   
,english language1 and are still well   
worth reading4  ,priestley denied the   
freedom of the will in the sense of its 
self-determination2 he denied the       
existence of a soul distinct from the   
body2 and as a natural consequence1 he  
denied the natural immortality of man4  
,in relation to these matters ,english  
opinion1 a century ago1 was very much   
what it is now4  ,a man may be a        
necessarian without incurring graver    
reproach than that implied in being     
called a gloomy fanatic1 necessarianism1

 though very shocking1 having a note of 
,calvanistic orthodoxy2 but1 if a man is
 a materialist2 or1 if good authorities 
say he is and must be so1 in spite of   
his assertion to the contrary2 or1 if he
 acknowledge himself unable to see good 
reasons for believing in the natural    
immortality of man1 respectable folks   
look upon him as an unsafe neighbour of 
a cash-box1 as an actual or potential   
sensualist1 the more virtuous in outward
 seeming1 the more certainly loaded with
 secret grave personal sins4            
,nevertheless1 it is as certain as      
anything can be1 that ,joseph ,priestley
 was no gloomy fanatic1 but as cheerful 
and kindly a soul as ever breathed1 the 
idol of children2 a man who was hated   
only by those who did not know him1 and 
who charmed away the bitterest          
prejudices in personal intercourse2 a   
man who never lost a friend1 and the    
best testimony to whose worth is the    
generous and tender warmth with which   
his many friends vied with one another  

in rendering him substantial help1 in   
all the crises of his career4  ,the     
unspotted purity of ,priestley's life1  
the strictness of his performance of    
every duty1 his transparent sincerity1  
the unostentatious and deep-seated piety
 which breathes through all his         
correspondence1 are in themselves a     
sufficient refutation of the hypothesis1
 invented by bigots to cover            
uncharitableness1 that such opinions as 
his must arise from moral defects4 ,and 
his statue will do as good service as   
the brazen image that was set upon a    
pole before the ,israelites1 if those   
who have been bitten by the fiery       
serpents of sectarian hatred1 which     
still haunt this wilderness of a world1 
are made whole by looking upon the image
 of a heretic who was yet a saint4      
,though ,priestley did not believe in   
the natural immortality of man1 he held 
with an almost nave realism that man    
would be raised from the dead by a      
direct exertion of the power of ,god1   

and thenceforward be immortal4 ,and it  
may be as well for those who may be     
shocked by this doctrine to know that   
views1 substantially identical with     
,priestley's1 have been advocated1 since
 his time1 by two prelates of the       
,anglican ,church3 by ,dr4 ,whately1    
,archbishop of ,dublin1 in his          
well-known ,essays2 #ac and by ,dr4     
,courtenay1 ,bishop of ,kingston in     
,jamaica1 the first edition of whose    
remarkable book ,on the ,future ,states1
 dedicated to ,archbishop ,whately1 was 
published in #ahdc and the second in    
#aheg4 ,according to ,bishop ,courtenay1
      ,the death of the body will cause 
a cessation of all the activity     of  
the mind by way of natural consequence2 
to continue for ever     ,,unless the   
,creator should interfere4  ,and        
again3--      ,the natural end of human 
existence is the 'first death1 the      
dreamless slumber of the grave1 wherein 
man lies spell-bound1 soul     and body1
 under the dominion of sin and          

death--that whatever modes     of       
conscious existence1 whatever future    
states of 'life' or of     'torment'    
beyond ,hades are reserved for man1 are 
results of our     blessed ,lord's      
victory over sin and death2 that the    
resurrection of     the dead must be    
preliminary to their entrance into      
either of the     future states1 and    
that the nature and even existence of   
these     states1 and even the mere fact
 that there is a futurity of            
consciousness1 can be known only through
 ,god's revelation of     ,himself in   
the ,person and the ,gospel of ,his     
,son4--,p4 #chi4  ,and now hear         
,priestley3--      ,man1 according to   
this system 7of materialism71 is no more
 than we     now see of him4 ,his being 
commences at the time of his conception1
     or perhaps at an earlier period4   
,the corporeal and mental faculties1    
in being in the same substance1 grow1   
ripen1 and decay together2 and          
whenever the system is dissolved it     

continues in a state of     dissolution 
till it shall please that ,almighty     
,being who called it     into existence 
to restore it to life again4--,matter   
and ,spirit1     p4 #di4  ,and again3-- 
,the doctrine of the ,scripture is1 that
 ,god made man of the dust of     the   
ground1 and by simply animating this    
organised matter1 made man     that     
living percipient and intelligent being 
that he is4 ,according     to           
,revelation1 death is a state of rest   
and insensibility1     and our only     
though sure hope of a future life is    
founded on the     doctrine of the      
resurrection of the whole man at some   
distant     period2 this assurance being
 sufficiently confirmed to us both by   
the evident tokens of a ,divine         
commission attending the persons who    
delivered the doctrine1 and especially  
by the actual resurrection of     ,jesus
 ,christ1 which is more authentically   
attested than any other     fact in     
history4--,ibid41 p4 #bdg4  ,we all know

 that a saint in crape is twice a saint 
in lawn2 but it is not yet admitted that
 the views which are consistent with    
such saintliness in lawn1 become        
diabolical when held by a mere          
dissenter4 #ad  ,i am not here either to
 defend or to attack ,priestley's       
philosophical views1 and ,i cannot say  
that ,i am personally disposed to attach
 much value to episcopal authority in   
philosophical questions2 but it seems   
right to call attention to the fact1    
that those of ,priestley's opinions     
which have brought most odium upon him  
have been openly promulgated1 without   
challenge1 by persons occupying the     
highest positions in the ,state ,church4
  ,i must confess that what interests me
 most about ,priestley's materialism1 is
 the evidence that he saw dimly the seed
 of destruction which such materialism  
carries within its own bosom4 ,in the   
course of his reading for his ,history  
of ,discoveries relating to ,vision1    
,light1 and ,colours1 he had come upon  

the speculations of ,boscovich and      
,michell1 and had been led to admit the 
sufficiently obvious truth that our     
knowledge of matter is a knowledge of   
its properties2 and that of its         
substance--if it have a substance--we   
know nothing4 ,and this led to the      
further admission that1 so far as we can
 know1 there may be no difference       
between the substance of matter and the 
substance of spirit 7,disquisitions1 p4 
#af74 ,a step farther would have shown  
,priestley that his materialism was1    
essentially1 very little different from 
the ,idealism of his contemporary1 the  
,bishop of ,cloyne4  ,as ,priestley's   
philosophy is mainly a clear statement  
of the views of the deeper thinkers of  
his day1 so are his political           
conceptions based upon those of ,locke4 
,locke's aphorism that the end of       
government is the good of mankind1 is   
thus expanded by ,priestley3--      ,it 
must necessarily be understood1         
therefore1 whether it be     expressed  

or not1 that all people live in society 
for their mutual     advantage2 so that 
the good and happiness of the members1  
that is1     of the majority of the     
members1 of any state1 is the great     
standard     by which everything        
relating to that state must finally be  
determined4 #ae  ,the little sentence   
here interpolated1 that is1 of the      
majority of the members of any state1   
appears to be that passage which        
suggested to ,bentham1 according to his 
own acknowledgment1 the famous greatest 
happiness formula1 which by substituting
 happiness for good1 has converted a    
noble into an ignoble principle4 ,but ,i
 do not call to mind that there is any  
utterance in ,locke quite so outspoken  
as the following passage in the ,essay  
on the ,first ,principles of            
,government4 ,after laying down as a    
fundamental maxim in all ,governments1  
the proposition that kings1 senators1   
and nobles are the servants of the      
public1 ,priestley goes on to say3--    

,but in the largest states1 if the      
abuses of the government should     at  
any time be great and manifest2 if the  
servants of the people1     forgetting  
their masters and their masters'        
interest1 should pursue     a separate  
one of their own2 if1 instead of        
considering that they     are made for  
the people1 they should consider the    
people as made     for them2 if the     
oppressions and violation of right      
should be     great1 flagrant1 and      
universally resented2 if the tyrannical 
governors should have no friends but a  
few sycophants1 who had long     preyed 
upon the vitals of their                
fellow-citizens1 and who might be       
expected to desert a government whenever
 their interests should be     detached 
from it3 if1 in consequence of these    
circumstances1 it     should become     
manifest that the risk which would be   
run in     attempting a revolution would
 be trifling1 and the evils which       
might be apprehended from it were far   

less than those which     were actually 
suffered and which were daily           
increasing2 in the name     of ,god1 ,i 
ask1 what principles are those which    
ought to restrain an     injured and    
insulted people from asserting their    
natural rights1     and from changing or
 even punishing their governors--that   
is1 their     servants--who had abused  
their trust1 or from altering the whole 
form of their government1 if it appeared
 to be of a structure so     liable to  
abuse8  ,as a ,dissenter1 subject to the
 operation of the ,corporation and ,test
 ,acts1 and as a ,unitarian excluded    
from the benefit of the ,toleration     
,act1 it is not surprising to find that 
,priestley had very definite opinions   
about ,ecclesiastical ,establishments2  
the only wonder is that these opinions  
were so moderate as the following       
passages show them to have been3--      
,ecclesiastical authority may have been 
necessary in the infant     state of    
society1 and1 for the same reason1 it   

may perhaps continue     to be1 in some 
degree1 necessary as long as society is 
imperfect2     and therefore may not be 
entirely abolished till civil           
governments     have arrived at a much  
greater degree of perfection4 ,if1      
therefore1     ,i were asked whether ,i 
should approve of the immediate         
dissolution     of all the              
ecclesiastical establishments in        
,europe1 ,i should     answer1 ,no4444  
,let experiment be first made of        
alterations1     or1 which is the same  
thing1 of better establishments than    
the present4 ,let them be reformed in   
many essential articles1 and     then   
not thrown aside entirely till it be    
found by experience that     no good can
 be made of them4  ,priestley goes on to
 suggest four such reforms of a capital 
nature3--      #a4 ,let the ,articles of
 ,faith to be subscribed by candidates  
for     the ministry be greatly reduced4
 ,in the formulary of the ,church of    
,england1 might not thirty-eight out of 

the thirty-nine be very well     spared8
 ,it is a reproach to any ,christian    
establishment if every     man cannot   
claim the benefit of it who can say that
 he believes     in the religion of     
,jesus ,christ as it is set forth in the
 ,new     ,testament4 ,you say the terms
 are so general that even ,deists would 
quibble and insinuate themselves4 ,i    
answer that all the articles     which  
are subscribed at present by no means   
exclude ,deists who will                
prevaricate2 and upon this scheme you   
would at least exclude fewer     honest 
men4 #af  ,the second reform suggested  
is the equalisation1 in proportion to   
work done1 of the stipends of the       
clergy2 the third1 the exclusion of the 
,bishops from ,parliament2 and the      
fourth1 complete toleration1 so that    
every man may enjoy the rights of a     
citizen1 and be qualified to serve his  
country1 whether he belong to the       
,established ,church or not4  ,opinions 
such as those ,i have quoted1 respecting

 the duties and the responsibilities of 
governors1 are the commonplaces of      
modern ,liberalism2 and ,priestley's    
views on ,ecclesiastical ,establishments
 would1 ,i fear1 meet with but a cool   
reception1 as altogether too            
conservative1 from a large proportion of
 the lineal descendants of the people   
who taught their children to cry ,damn  
,priestley2 and with that love for the  
practical application of science which  
is the source of the greatness of       
,birmingham1 tried to set fire to the   
doctor's house with sparks from his own 
electrical machine2 thereby giving the  
man they called an incendiary and raiser
 of sedition against ,church and ,king1 
an appropriately experimental           
illustration of the nature of arson and 
riot4  ,if ,i have succeeded in putting 
before you the main features of         
,priestley's work1 its value will become
 apparent when we compare the condition 
of the ,english nation1 as he knew it1  
with its present state4  ,the fact that 

,france has been for eighty-five years  
trying1 without much success1 to right  
herself after the great storm of the    
,revolution1 is not unfrequently cited  
among us as an indication of some       
inherent incapacity for self-government 
among the ,french people4 ,i think1     
however1 that ,englishmen who argue     
thus1 forget that1 from the meeting of  
the ,long ,parliament in #afdj1 to the  
last ,stuart rebellion in #agde1 is a   
hundred and five years1 and that1 in the
 middle of the last century1 we had but 
just safely freed ourselves from our    
,bourbons and all that they represented4
 ,the corruption of our state was as bad
 as that of the ,second ,empire4        
,bribery was the instrument of          
government1 and peculation its reward4  
,four-fifths of the seats in the ,house 
of ,commons were more or less openly    
dealt with as property4 ,a minister had 
to consider the state of the vote       
market1 and the sovereign secured a     
sufficiency of king's friends by        

payments allotted with retail1 rather   
than royal1 sagacity4  ,barefaced and   
brutal immorality and intemperance      
pervaded the land1 from the highest to  
the lowest classes of society4 ,the     
,established ,church was torpid1 as far 
as it was not a scandal2 but those who  
dissented from it came within the meshes
 of the ,act of ,uniformity1 the ,test  
,act1 and the ,corporation ,act4 ,by    
law1 such a man as ,priestley1 being a  
,unitarian1 could neither teach nor     
preach1 and was liable to ruinous fines 
and long imprisonment4 #ag ,in those    
days the guns that were pointed by the  
,church against the ,dissenters were    
shotted4 ,the law was a cesspool of     
iniquity and cruelty4 ,adam ,smith was a
 new prophet whom few regarded1 and     
commerce was hampered by idiotic        
impediments1 and ruined by still more   
absurd help1 on the part of government4 
,birmingham1 though already the centre  
of a considerable industry1 was a mere  
village as compared with its present    

extent4 ,people who travelled went about
 armed1 by reason of the abundance of   
highwaymen and the paucity and          
inefficiency of the police4 ,stage      
coaches had not reached ,birmingham1 and
 it took three days to get to ,london4  
,even canals were a recent and much     
opposed invention4  ,newton had laid the
 foundation of a mechanical conception  
of the physical universe3 ,hartley1     
putting a modern face upon ancient      
materialism1 had extended that          
mechanical conception to psychology2    
,linnaeus and ,haller were beginning to 
introduce method and order into the     
chaotic accumulation of biological      
facts4 ,but those parts of physical     
science which deal with heat1           
electricity1 and magnetism1 and above   
all1 chemistry1 in the modern sense1 can
 hardly be said to have had an          
existence4 ,no one knew that two of the 
old elemental bodies1 air and water1 are
 compounds1 and that a third1 fire1 is  
not a substance but a motion4 ,the great

 industries that have grown out of the  
applications of modern scientific       
discoveries had no existence1 and the   
man who should have foretold their      
coming into being in the days of his    
son1 would have been regarded as a mad  
enthusiast4  ,in common with many other 
excellent persons1 ,priestley believed  
that man is capable of reaching1 and    
will eventually attain1 perfection4 ,if 
the temperature of space presented no   
obstacle1 ,i should be glad to entertain
 the same idea2 but judging from the    
past progress of our species1 ,i am     
afraid that the globe will have cooled  
down so far1 before the advent of this  
natural millennium1 that we shall be1 at
 best1 perfected ,esquimaux4 ,for all   
practical purposes1 however1 it is      
enough that man may visibly improve his 
condition in the course of a century or 
so4 ,and1 if the picture of the state of
 things in ,priestley's time1 which ,i  
have just drawn1 have any pretence to   
accuracy1 ,i think it must be admitted  

that there has been a considerable      
change for the better4  ,i need not     
advert to the well-worn topic of        
material advancement1 in a place in     
which the very stones testify to that   
progress--in the town of ,watt and of   
,boulton4 ,i will only remark1 in       
passing1 that material advancement has  
its share in moral and intellectual     
progress4 ,becky ,sharp's acute remark  
that it is not difficult to be virtuous 
on ten thousand a year1 has its         
application to nations2 and it is futile
 to expect a hungry and squalid         
population to be anything but violent   
and gross4 ,but as regards other than   
material welfare1 although perfection is
 not yet in sight--even from the        
mast-head--it is surely true that things
 are much better than they were4  ,take 
the upper and middle classes as a whole1
 and it may be said that open immorality
 and gross intemperance have vanished4  
,four and six bottle men are as extinct 
as the dodo4 ,women of good repute do   

not gamble1 and talk modelled upon ,dean
 ,swift's ,art of ,polite ,conversation 
would be tolerated in no decent kitchen4
  ,members of the legislature are not to
 be bought2 and constituents are        
awakening to the fact that votes must   
not be sold--even for such trifles as   
rabbits and tea and cake4 ,political    
power has passed into the hands of the  
masses of the people4 ,those whom       
,priestley calls their servants have    
recognised their position1 and have     
requested the master to be so good as to
 go to school and fit himself for the   
administration of his property4 ,in     
ordinary life1 no civil disability      
attaches to any one on theological      
grounds1 and high offices of the state  
are open to ,papist1 ,jew1 and          
,secularist4  ,whatever men's opinions  
as to the policy of ,establishment1 no  
one can hesitate to admit that the      
clergy of the ,church are men of pure   
life and conversation1 zealous in the   
discharge of their duties2 and at       

present1 apparently1 more bent on       
prosecuting one another than on meddling
 with ,dissenters4 ,theology itself has 
broadened so much1 that ,anglican       
divines put forward doctrines more      
liberal than those of ,priestley2 and1  
in our state-supported churches1 one    
listener may hear a sermon to which     
,bossuet might have given his           
approbation1 while another may hear a   
discourse in which ,socrates would find 
nothing new4  ,but great as these       
changes may be1 they sink into          
insignificance beside the progress of   
physical science1 whether we consider   
the improvement of methods of           
investigation1 or the increase in bulk  
of solid knowledge4 ,consider that the  
labours of ,laplace1 of ,young1 of      
,davy1 and of ,faraday2 of ,cuvier1 of  
,lamarck1 and of ,robert ,brown2 of ,von
 ,baer1 and of ,schwann2 of ,smith and  
of ,hutton1 have all been carried on    
since ,priestley discovered oxygen2 and 
consider that they are now things of the

 past1 concealed by the industry of     
those who have built upon them1 as the  
first founders of a coral reef are      
hidden beneath the life's work of their 
successors2 consider that the methods of
 physical science are slowly spreading  
into all investigations1 and that proofs
 as valid as those required by her      
canons of investigation are being       
demanded of all doctrines which ask for 
men's assent2 and you will have a faint 
image of the astounding difference in   
this respect between the nineteenth     
century and the eighteenth4  ,if we ask 
what is the deeper meaning of all these 
vast changes1 ,i think there can be but 
one reply4 ,they mean that reason has   
asserted and exercised her primacy over 
all provinces of human activity3 that   
ecclesiastical authority has been       
relegated to its proper place2 that the 
good of the governed has been finally   
recognised as the end of government1 and
 the complete responsibility of         
governors to the people as its means2   

and that the dependence of natural      
phenomena in general on the laws of     
action of what we call matter has become
 an axiom4  ,but it was to bring these  
things about1 and to enforce the        
recognition of these truths1 that       
,joseph ,priestley laboured4 ,if the    
nineteenth century is other and better  
than the eighteenth1 it is1 in great    
measure1 to him1 and to such men as he1 
that we owe the change4 ,if the         
twentieth century is to be better than  
the nineteenth1 it will be because there
 are among us men who walk in           
,priestley's footsteps4  ,such men are  
not those whom their own generation     
delights to honour2 such men1 in fact1  
rarely trouble themselves about honour1 
but ask1 in another spirit than         
,falstaff's1 ,what is honour8 ,who hath 
it8 ,he that died o' ,wednesday4 ,but   
whether ,priestley's lot be theirs1 and 
a future generation1 in justice and in  
gratitude1 set up their statues2 or     
whether their names and fame are blotted

 out from remembrance1 their work will  
live as long as time endures4 ,to all   
eternity1 the sum of truth and right    
will have been increased by their means2
 to all eternity1 falsehood and         
injustice will be the weaker because    
they have lived4         99       99    
99       99       99  ,footnotes3  #a   
,quasi cursores1 vitai lampada          
tradunt4--,,lucr4 ,de ,rerum ,nat4 ii4  
#gh4  #b ,life and ,correspondence of   
,dr4 ,priestley1 by ,j4 ,t4 ,rutt4 ,vol4
 ,i4 p4 #ej4  #c ,autobiography1  #ajj1 
#aja4  #d ,see ,the ,life of ,mary ,anne
 ,schimmelpenninck4 ,mrs4               
,schimmelpenninck 7ne ,galton7          
remembered ,priestley very well1 and her
 description of him is worth            
quotation3--,a man of admirable         
simplicity1 gentleness and kindness of  
heart1 united with great acuteness of   
intellect4 ,i can never forget the      
impression produced on me by the serene 
expression of his countenance4 ,he1     
indeed1 seemed present with ,god by     

recollection1 and with man by           
cheerfulness4 ,i remember that1 in the  
assembly of these distinguished men1    
amongst whom ,mr4 ,boulton1 by his noble
 manner1 his fine countenance 7which    
much resembled that of ,louis ,,xiv471  
and princely munificence1 stood         
pre-eminently as the great ,mecaenas2   
even as a child1 ,i used to feel1 when  
,dr4 ,priestley entered after him1 that 
the glory of the one was terrestrial1   
that of the other celestial2 and utterly
 far as ,i am removed from a belief in  
the sufficiency of ,dr4 ,priestley's    
theological creed1 ,i cannot but here   
record this evidence of the eternal     
power of any portion of the truth held  
in its vitality4  #e ,even ,mrs4        
,priestley1 who might be forgiven for   
regarding the destroyers of her         
household gods with some asperity1      
contents herself1 in writing to ,mrs4   
,barbauld1 with the sarcasm that the    
,birmingham people will scarcely find so
 many respectable characters1 a second  

time1 to make a bonfire of4  #f         
,experiments and ,observations on       
,different ,kinds of ,air1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#ca4  #g ,experiments and ,observations 
on ,different ,kinds of ,air1 vol4 ii4  
pp4 #cd1 #ce4  #h ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #dj4
  #i ,experiments and ,observations on  
,different ,kinds of ,air1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#dh4  #aj ,ibid4 p4 #ee4  #aa ,ibid4 p4 
#fj4 ,the italics are ,priestley's own4 
#ab ,in all the newspapers and most of  
the periodical publications ,i was      
represented as an unbeliever in         
,revelation1 and no better than an      
atheist4--,autobiography1 ,rutt1 vol i4 
p4 #abd4 ,on the walls of houses1 etc41 
and especially where ,i usually went1   
were to be seen1 in large characters1   
',,madan ,,for ,,ever2 ,,damn           
,,priestley2 ,,no ,,presbyterianism2    
,,damn ,,the ,,presbyterians1' etc41    
etc42 and1 at one time1 ,i was followed 
by a number of boys1 who left their     
play1 repeating what they had seen on   
the walls1 and shouting out1 ',damn     

,priestley2 damn him1 damn him1 for     
ever1 for ever1' etc41 etc4 ,this was no
 doubt a lesson which they had been     
taught by their parents1 and what they1 
,i fear1 had learned from their         
superiors4--,appeal to the ,public on   
the ,subject of the ,riots at           
,birmingham4  #ac ,first ,series4 ,on   
,some of the ,peculiarities of the      
,christian ,religion4 ,essay ,i4        
,revelation of a ,future ,state4  #ad   
,not only is ,priestley at one with     
,bishop ,courtenay in this matter1 but  
with ,hartley and ,bonnet1 both of them 
stout champions of ,christianity4       
,moreover1 ,archbishop ,whately's essay 
is little better than an expansion of   
the first paragraph of ,hume's famous   
essay on the ,immortality of the        
,soul3--,by the mere light of reason it 
seems difficult to prove the immortality
 of the soul2 the arguments for it are  
commonly derived either from            
metaphysical topics1 or moral1 or       
physical4 ,but it is in reality the     

,gospel1 and the ,gospel alone1 that has
 brought life and immortality to light4 
,it is impossible to imagine that a man 
of ,whately's tastes and acquirements   
had not read ,hume or ,hartley1 though  
he refers to neither4  #ae ,essay on the
 ,first ,principles of ,government1     
,second edition1 #agga4  #af ,utility of
 ,establishments1 in ,essay on ,first   
,principles of ,government1 #agga4  #ag 
,in #agcb ,doddridge was cited for      
teaching without the ,bishop's leave1 at
 ,northampton4     ,,ii  ,,on ,,the     
,,educational ,,value ,,of ,,the        
,,natural ,,history ,,sciences  #ahed   
,the subject to which ,i have to beg    
your attention during the ensuing hour  
is ,the ,relation of ,physiological     
,science to other branches of           
,knowledge4  ,had circumstances         
permitted of the delivery1 in their     
strict logical order1 of that series of 
discourses of which the present lecture 
is a member1 ,i should have preceded my 
friend and colleague ,mr4 ,henfrey1 who 

addressed you on ,monday last2 but      
while1 for the sake of that order1 ,i   
must beg you to suppose that this       
discussion of the ,educational bearings 
of ,biology in general does precede that
 of ,special ,zoology and ,botany1 ,i am
 rejoiced to be able to take advantage  
of the light thus already thrown upon   
the tendency and methods of             
,physiological ,science4  ,regarding    
,physiological ,science1 then1 in its   
widest sense--as the equivalent of      
,biology--the ,science of ,individual   
,life--we have to consider in           
succession3  #a4 ,its position and scope
 as a branch of knowledge4  #b4 ,its    
value as a means of mental discipline4  
#c4 ,its worth as practical information4
  ,and lastly1  #d4 ,at what period it  
may best be made a branch of ,education4
  ,our conclusions on the first of these
 heads must depend1 of course1 upon the 
nature of the subject-matter of         
,biology2 and ,i think a few preliminary
 considerations will place before you in

 a clear light the vast difference which
 exists between the living bodies with  
which ,physiological science is         
concerned1 and the remainder of the     
universe2--between the phaenomena of    
,number and ,space1 of ,physical and of 
,chemical force1 on the one hand1 and   
those of ,life on the other4  ,the      
mathematician1 the physicist1 and the   
chemist contemplate things in a         
condition of rest2 they look upon a     
state of equilibrium as that to which   
all bodies normally tend4  ,the         
mathematician does not suppose that a   
quantity will alter1 or that a given    
point in space will change its direction
 with regard to another point1          
spontaneously4 ,and it is the same with 
the physicist4 ,when ,newton saw the    
apple fall1 he concluded at once that   
the act of falling was not the result of
 any power inherent in the apple1 but   
that it was the result of the action of 
something else on the apple4 ,in a      
similar manner1 all physical force is   

regarded as the disturbance of an       
equilibrium to which things tended      
before its exertion1--to which they will
 tend again after its cessation4  ,the  
chemist equally regards chemical change 
in a body as the effect of the action of
 something external to the body changed4
 ,a chemical compound once formed would 
persist for ever1 if no alteration took 
place in surrounding conditions4  ,but  
to the student of ,life the aspect of   
,nature is reversed4 ,here1 incessant1  
and1 so far as we know1 spontaneous     
change is the rule1 rest the            
exception--the anomaly to be accounted  
for4 ,living things have no inertia1 and
 tend to no equilibrium4  ,permit me1   
however1 to give more force and         
clearness to these somewhat abstract    
considerations by an illustration or    
two4  ,imagine a vessel full of water1  
at the ordinary temperature1 in an      
atmosphere saturated with vapour4 ,the  
quantity and the figure of that water   
will not change1 so far as we know1 for 

ever4  ,suppose a lump of gold be thrown
 into the vessel--motion and disturbance
 of figure exactly proportional to the  
momentum of the gold will take place4   
,but after a time the effects of this   
disturbance will subside--equilibrium   
will be restored1 and the water will    
return to its passive state4  ,expose   
the water to cold--it will solidify--and
 in so doing its particles will arrange 
themselves in definite crystalline      
shapes4 ,but once formed1 these crystals
 change no further4  ,again1 substitute 
for the lump of gold some substance     
capable of entering into chemical       
relations with the water3--say1 a mass  
of that substance which is called       
protein--the substance of flesh3--a very
 considerable disturbance of equilibrium
 will take place--all sorts of chemical 
compositions and decompositions will    
occur2 but in the end1 as before1 the   
result will be the resumption of a      
condition of rest4  ,instead of such a  
mass of dead protein1 however1 take a   

particle of living protein--one of those
 minute microscopic living things which 
throng our pools1 and are known as      
,infusoria--such a creature1 for        
instance1 as an ,euglena1 and place it  
in our vessel of water4 ,it is a round  
mass provided with a long filament1 and 
except in this peculiarity of shape1    
presents no appreciable physical or     
chemical difference whereby it might be 
distinguished from the particle of dead 
protein4  ,but the difference in the    
phaenomena to which it will give rise is
 immense3 in the first place it will    
develop a vast quantity of physical     
force--cleaving the water in all        
directions with considerable rapidity by
 means of the vibrations of the long    
filament or cilium4  ,nor is the amount 
of chemical energy which the little     
creature possesses less striking4 ,it is
 a perfect laboratory in itself1 and it 
will act and react upon the water and   
the matters contained therein2          
converting them into new compounds      

resembling its own substance1 and at the
 same time giving up portions of its own
 substance which have become effete4    
,furthermore1 the ,euglena will increase
 in size2 but this increase is by no    
means unlimited1 as the increase of a   
crystal might be4 ,after it has grown to
 a certain extent it divides1 and each  
portion assumes the form of the         
original1 and proceeds to repeat the    
process of growth and division4  ,nor is
 this all4 ,for after a series of such  
divisions and subdivisions1 these minute
 points assume a totally new form1 lose 
their long tails--round themselves1 and 
secrete a sort of envelope or box1 in   
which they remain shut up for a time1   
eventually to resume1 directly or       
indirectly1 their primitive mode of     
existence4  ,now1 so far as we know1    
there is no natural limit to the        
existence of the ,euglena1 or of any    
other living germ4 ,a living species    
once launched into existence tends to   
live for ever4  ,consider how widely    

different this living particle is from  
the dead atoms with which the physicist 
and chemist have to do6  ,the particle  
of gold falls to the bottom and         
rests--the particle of dead protein     
decomposes and disappears--it also      
rests3 but the living protein mass      
neither tends to exhaustion of its      
forces nor to any permanency of form1   
but is essentially distinguished as a   
disturber of equilibrium so far as force
 is concerned1--as undergoing continual 
metamorphosis and change1 in point of   
form4  ,tendency to equilibrium of force
 and to permanency of form1 then1 are   
the characters of that portion of the   
universe which does not live--the domain
 of the chemist and physicist4          
,tendency to disturb existing           
equilibrium--to take on forms which     
succeed one another in definite         
cycles--is the character of the living  
world4  ,what is the cause of this      
wonderful difference between the dead   
particle and the living particle of     

matter appearing in other respects      
identical8 that difference to which we  
give the name of ,life8  ,i1 for one1   
cannot tell you4 ,it may be that1 by and
 by1 philosophers will discover some    
higher laws of which the facts of life  
are particular cases--very possibly they
 will find out some bond between        
physico-chemical phaenomena on the one  
hand1 and vital phaenomena on the other4
 ,at present1 however1 we assuredly know
 of none2 and ,i think we shall exercise
 a wise humility in confessing that1 for
 us at least1 this successive assumption
 of different states--7external         
conditions remaining the same7--this    
spontaneity of action--if ,i may use a  
term which implies more than ,i would be
 answerable for--which constitutes so   
vast and plain a practical distinction  
between living bodies and those which do
 not live1 is an ultimate fact2         
indicating as such1 the existence of a  
broad line of demarcation between the   
subject-matter of ,biological and that  

of all other sciences4  ,for ,i would   
have it understood that this simple     
,euglena is the type of all living      
things1 so far as the distinction       
between these and inert matter is       
concerned4 ,that cycle of changes1 which
 is constituted by perhaps not more than
 two or three steps in the ,euglena1 is 
as clearly manifested in the            
multitudinous stages through which the  
germ of an oak or of a man passes4      
,whatever forms the ,living ,being may  
take on1 whether simple or complex1     
production1 growth1 reproduction1 are   
the phaenomena which distinguish it from
 that which does not live4  ,if this be 
true1 it is clear that the student1 in  
passing from the physico-chemical to the
 physiological sciences1 enters upon a  
totally new order of facts2 and it will 
next be for us to consider how far these
 new facts involve new methods1 or      
require a modification of those with    
which he is already acquainted4 ,now a  
great deal is said about the peculiarity

 of the scientific method in general1   
and of the different methods which are  
pursued in the different sciences4 ,the 
,mathematics are said to have one       
special method2 ,physics another1       
,biology a third1 and so forth4 ,for my 
own part1 ,i must confess that ,i do not
 understand this phraseology4  ,so far  
as ,i can arrive at any clear           
comprehension of the matter1 ,science is
 not1 as many would seem to suppose1 a  
modification of the black art1 suited to
 the tastes of the nineteenth century1  
and flourishing mainly in consequence of
 the decay of the ,inquisition4         
,science is1 ,i believe1 nothing but    
trained and organised common sense1     
differing from the latter only as a     
veteran may differ from a raw recruit3  
and its methods differ from those of    
common sense only so far as the         
guardsman's cut and thrust differ from  
the manner in which a savage wields his 
club4 ,the primary power is the same in 
each case1 and perhaps the untutored    

savage has the more brawny arm of the   
two4 ,the real advantage lies in the    
point and polish of the swordsman's     
weapon2 in the trained eye quick to spy 
out the weakness of the adversary2 in   
the ready hand prompt to follow it on   
the instant4 ,but1 after all1 the sword 
exercise is only the hewing and poking  
of the clubman developed and perfected4 
,so1 the vast results obtained by       
,science are won by no mystical         
faculties1 by no mental processes1 other
 than those which are practised by every
 one of us1 in the humblest and meanest 
affairs of life4 ,a detective policeman 
discovers a burglar from the marks made 
by his shoe1 by a mental process        
identical with that by which ,cuvier    
restored the extinct animals of         
,montmartre from fragments of their     
bones4 ,nor does that process of        
induction and deduction by which a lady1
 finding a stain of a peculiar kind upon
 her dress1 concludes that somebody has 
upset the inkstand thereon1 differ in   

any way1 in kind1 from that by which    
,adams and ,leverrier discovered a new  
planet4  ,the man of science1 in fact1  
simply uses with scrupulous exactness   
the methods which we all1 habitually and
 at every moment1 use carelessly2 and   
the man of business must as much avail  
himself of the scientific method--must  
be as truly a man of science--as the    
veriest bookworm of us all2 though ,i   
have no doubt that the man of business  
will find himself out to be a           
philosopher with as much surprise as ,m4
 ,jourdain exhibited vhen he discovered 
that he had been all his life talking   
prose4 ,if1 however1 there be no real   
difference between the methods of       
science and those of common life1 it    
would seem1 on the face of the matter1  
highly improbable that there should be  
any difference between the methods of   
the different sciences2 nevertheless1 it
 is constantly taken for granted that   
there is a very wide difference between 
the ,physiological and other sciences in

 point of method4  ,in the first place  
it is said--and ,i take this point      
first1 because the imputation is too    
frequently admitted by ,physiologists   
themselves--that ,biology differs from  
the ,physico-chemical and ,mathematical 
sciences in being inexact4  ,now1 this  
phrase inexact must refer either to the 
methods or to the results of            
,physiological science4  ,it cannot be  
correct to apply it to the methods2 for1
 as ,i hope to show you by and by1 these
 are identical in all sciences1 and     
whatever is true of ,physiological      
method is true of ,physical and         
,mathematical method4  ,is it then the  
results of ,biological science which are
 inexact8 ,i think not4 ,if ,i say that 
respiration is performed by the lungs2  
that digestion is effected in the       
stomach2 that the eye is the organ of   
sight2 that the jaws of a vertebrated   
animal never open sideways1 but always  
up and down2 while those of an annulose 
animal always open sideways1 and never  

up and down--,i am enumerating          
propositions which are as exact as      
anything in ,euclid4 ,how then has this 
notion of the inexactness of ,biological
 science come about8 ,i believe from two
 causes3 first1 because in consequence  
of the great complexity of the science  
and the multitude of interfering        
conditions1 we are very often only      
enabled to predict approximately what   
will occur under given circumstances2   
and secondly1 because1 on account of the
 comparative youth of the ,physiological
 sciences1 a great many of their laws   
are still imperfectly worked out4 ,but1 
in an educational point of view1 it is  
most important to distinguish between   
the essence of a science and the        
accidents which surround it2 and        
essentially1 the methods and results of 
,physiology are as exact as those of    
,physics or ,mathematics4  ,it is said  
that the ,physiological method is       
especially comparative2 #a and this     
dictum also finds favour in the eyes of 

many4 ,i should be sorry to suggest that
 the speculators on scientific          
classification have been misled by the  
accident of the name of one leading     
branch of ,biology--,comparative        
,anatomy2 but ,i would ask whether      
comparison1 and that classification     
which is the result of comparison1 are  
not the essence of every science        
whatsoever8 ,how is it possible to      
discover a relation of cause and effect 
of any kind without comparing a series  
of cases together in which the supposed 
cause and effect occur singly1 or       
combined8 ,so far from comparison being 
in any way peculiar to ,biological      
science1 it is1 ,i think1 the essence of
 every science4  ,a speculative         
philosopher again tells us that the     
,biological sciences are distinguished  
by being sciences of observation and not
 of experiment6 #b ,of all the strange  
assertions into which speculation       
without practical acquaintance with a   
subject may lead even an able man1 ,i   

think this is the very strangest4       
,physiology not an experimental science8
 ,why1 there is not a function of a     
single organ in the body which has not  
been determined wholly and solely by    
experiment8 ,how did ,harvey determine  
the nature of the circulation1 except by
 experiment8 ,how did ,sir ,charles     
,bell determine the functions of the    
roots of the spinal nerves1 save by     
experiment8 ,how do we know the use of a
 nerve at all1 except by experiment8    
,nay1 how do you know even that your eye
 is your seeing apparatus1 unless you   
make the experiment of shutting it2 or  
that your ear is your hearing apparatus1
 unless you close it up and thereby     
discover that you become deaf8  ,it     
would really be much more true to say   
that ,physiology is the experimental    
science par excellence of all sciences2 
that in which there is least to be      
learnt by mere observation1 and that    
which affords the greatest field for the
 exercise of those faculties which      

characterise the experimental           
philosopher4 ,i confess1 if any one were
 to ask me for a model application of   
the logic of experiment1 ,i should know 
no better work to put into his hands    
than ,bernard's late ,researches on the 
,functions of the ,liver4 #c  ,not to   
give this lecture a too controversial   
tone1 however1 ,i must only advert to   
one more doctrine1 held by a thinker of 
our own age and country1 whose opinions 
are worthy of all respect4 ,it is1 that 
the ,biological sciences differ from all
 others1 inasmuch as in them            
classification takes place by type and  
not by definition4 #d  ,it is said1 in  
short1 that a natural-history class is  
not capable of being defined--that the  
class ,rosaceae1 for instance1 or the   
class of ,fishes1 is not accurately and 
absolutely definable1 inasmuch as its   
members will present exceptions to every
 possible definition2 and that the      
members of the class are united together
 only by the circumstance that they are 

all more like some imaginary average    
rose or average fish1 than they resemble
 anything else4  ,but here1 as before1  
,i think the distinction has arisen     
entirely from confusing a transitory    
imperfection with an essential          
character4 ,so long as our information  
concerning them is imperfect1 we class  
all objects together according to       
resemblances which we feel1 but cannot  
define2 we group them round types1 in   
short4 ,thus if you ask an ordinary     
person what kinds of animals there are1 
he will probably say1 beasts1 birds1    
reptiles1 fishes1 insects1 c4 ,ask him  
to define a beast from a reptile1 and he
 cannot do it2 but he says1 things like 
a cow or a horse are beasts1 and things 
like a frog or a lizard are reptiles4   
,you see he does class by type1 and not 
by definition4 ,but how does this       
classification differ from that of the  
scientific ,zoologist8 ,how does the    
meaning of the scientific class-name of 
,mammalia differ from the unscientific  

of ,beasts8  ,why1 exactly because the  
former depends on a definition1 the     
latter on a type4 ,the class ,mammalia  
is scientifically defined as all animals
 which have a vertebrated skeleton and  
suckle their young4 ,here is no         
reference to type1 but a definition     
rigorous enough for a geometrician4 ,and
 such is the character which every      
scientific naturalist recognises as that
 to which his classes must              
aspire--knowing1 as he does1 that       
classification by type is simply an     
acknowledgment of ignorance and a       
temporary device4  ,so much in the way  
of negative argument as against the     
reputed differences between ,biological 
and other methods4 ,no such differences1
 ,i believe1 really exist4 ,the         
subject-matter of ,biological science is
 different from that of other sciences1 
but the methods of all are identical2   
and these methods are--  #a4            
,observation of facts--including under  
this head that artificial observation   

which is called experiment4  #b4 ,that  
process of tying up similar facts into  
bundles1 ticketed and ready for use1    
which is called ,comparison and         
,classification1--the results of the    
process1 the ticketed bundles1 being    
named ,general propositions4  #c4       
,deduction1 which takes us from the     
general proposition to facts            
again--teaches us1 if ,i may so say1 to 
anticipate from the ticket what is      
inside the bundle4 ,and finally--  #d4  
,verification1 which is the process of  
ascertaining whether1 in point of fact1 
our anticipation is a correct one4      
,such are the methods of all science    
whatsoever2 but perhaps you will permit 
me to give you an illustration of their 
employment in the science of ,life2 and 
,i will take as a special case the      
establishment of the doctrine of the    
,circulation of the ,blood4  ,in this   
case1 simple observation yields us a    
knowledge of the existence of the blood 
from some accidental haemorrhage1 we    

will say2 we may even grant that it     
informs us of the localisation of this  
blood in particular vessels1 the heart1 
c41 from some accidental cut or the     
like4 ,it teaches also the existence of 
a pulse in various parts of the body1   
and acquaints us with the structure of  
the heart and vessels4  ,here1 however1 
simple observation stops1 and we must   
have recourse to experiment4  ,you tie a
 vein1 and you find that the blood      
accumulates on the side of the ligature 
opposite the heart4 ,you tie an artery1 
and you find that the blood accumulates 
on the side near the heart4 ,open the   
chest1 and you see the heart contracting
 with great force4 ,make openings into  
its principal cavities1 and you will    
find that all the blood flows out1 and  
no more pressure is exerted on either   
side of the arterial or venous ligature4
  ,now all these facts1 taken together1 
constitute the evidence that the blood  
is propelled by the heart through the   
arteries1 and returns by the            

veins--that1 in short1 the blood        
circulates4  ,suppose our experiments   
and observations have been made on      
horses1 then we group and ticket them   
into a general proposition1 thus3--all  
horses have a circulation of their      
blood4  ,henceforward a horse is a sort 
of indication or label1 telling us where
 we shall find a peculiar series of     
phaenomena called the circulation of the
 blood4  ,here is our general           
proposition1 then4  ,how1 and when1 are 
we justified in making our next step--a 
deduction from it8  ,suppose our        
physiologist1 whose experience is       
limited to horses1 meets with a zebra   
for the first time1--will he suppose    
that this generalisation holds good for 
zebras also8  ,that depends very much on
 his turn of mind4 ,but we will suppose 
him to be a bold man4 ,he will say1 ,the
 zebra is certainly not a horse1 but it 
is very like one1--so like1 that it must
 be the 'ticket' or mark of a           
blood-circulation also2 and1 ,i conclude

 that the zebra has a circulation4      
,that is a deduction1 a very fair       
deduction1 but by no means to be        
considered scientifically secure4 ,this 
last quality in fact can only be given  
by verification--that is1 by making a   
zebra the subject of all the experiments
 performed on the horse4 ,of course1 in 
the present case1 the deduction would be
 confirmed by this process of           
verification1 and the result would be1  
not merely a positive widening of       
knowledge1 but a fair increase of       
confidence in the truth of one's        
generalisations in other cases4  ,thus1 
having settled the point in the zebra   
and horse1 our philosopher would have   
great confidence in the existence of a  
circulation in the ass4 ,nay1 ,i fancy  
most persons would excuse him1 if in    
this case he did not take the trouble to
 go through the process of verification 
at all2 and it would not be without a   
parallel in the history of the human    
mind1 if our imaginary physiologist now 

maintained that he was acquainted with  
asinine circulation  priori4  ,however1 
if ,i might impress any caution upon    
your minds1 it is1 the utterly          
conditional nature of all our           
knowledge1--the danger of neglecting the
 process of verification under any      
circumstances2 and the film upon which  
we rest1 the moment our deductions carry
 us beyond the reach of this great      
process of verification4 ,there is no   
better instance of this than is afforded
 by the history of our knowledge of the 
circulation of the blood in the animal  
kingdom until the year #ahbd4 ,in every 
animal possessing a circulation at all1 
which had been observed up to that time1
 the current of the blood was known to  
take one definite and invariable        
direction4 ,now1 there is a class of    
animals called ,ascidians1 which possess
 a heart and a circulation1 and up to   
the period of which ,i speak1 no one    
would have dreamt of questioning the    
propriety of the deduction1 that these  

creatures have a circulation in one     
direction2 nor would any one have       
thought it worth while to verify the    
point4 ,but1 in that year1 ,m4 von      
,hasselt1 happening to examine a        
transparent animal of this class1 found1
 to his infinite surprise1 that after   
the heart had beat a certain number of  
times1 it stopped1 and then began       
beating the opposite way--so as to      
reverse the course of the current1 which
 returned by and by to its original     
direction4  ,i have myself timed the    
heart of these little animals4 ,i found 
it as regular as possible in its periods
 of reversal3 and ,i know no spectacle  
in the animal kingdom more wonderful    
than that which it presents--all the    
more wonderful that to this day it      
remains an unique fact1 peculiar to this
 class among the whole animated world4  
,at the same time ,i know of no more    
striking case of the necessity of the   
verification of even those deductions   
which seem founded on the widest and    

safest inductions4  ,such are the       
methods of ,biology--methods which are  
obviously identical with those of all   
other sciences1 and therefore wholly    
incompetent to form the ground of any   
distinction between it and them4 #e     
,but ,i shall be asked at once1 ,do you 
mean to say that there is no difference 
between the habit of mind of a          
mathematician and that of a naturalist8 
,do you imagine that ,laplace might have
 been put into the ,jardin des ,plantes1
 and ,cuvier into the ,observatory1 with
 equal advantage to the progress of the 
sciences they professed8  ,to which ,i  
would reply1 that nothing could be      
further from my thoughts4 ,but different
 habits and various special tendencies  
of two sciences do not imply different  
methods4 ,the mountaineer and the man of
 the plains have very different habits  
of progression1 and each would be at a  
loss in the other's place2 but the      
method of progression1 by putting one   
leg before the other1 is the same in    

each case4 ,every step of each is a     
combination of a lift and a push2 but   
the mountaineer lifts more and the      
lowlander pushes more4 ,and ,i think the
 case of two sciences resembles this4   
,i do not question for a moment1 that   
while the ,mathematician is busy with   
deductions from general propositions1   
the ,biologist is more especially       
occupied with observation1 comparison1  
and those processes which lead to       
general propositions4 ,all ,i wish to   
insist upon is1 that this difference    
depends not on any fundamental          
distinction in the sciences themselves1 
but on the accidents of their           
subject-matter1 of their relative       
complexity1 and consequent relative     
perfection4  ,the ,mathematician deals  
with two properties of objects only1    
number and extension1 and all the       
inductions he wants have been formed and
 finished ages ago4 ,he is occupied now 
with nothing but deduction and          
verification4  ,the ,biologist deals    

with a vast number of properties of     
objects1 and his inductions will not be 
completed1 ,i fear1 for ages to come2   
but when they are1 his science will be  
as deductive and as exact as the        
,mathematics themselves4  ,such is the  
relation of ,biology to those sciences  
which deal with objects having fewer    
properties than itself4 ,but as the     
student1 in reaching ,biology1 looks    
back upon sciences of a less complex and
 therefore more perfect nature2 so1 on  
the other hand1 does he look forward to 
other more complex and less perfect     
branches of knowledge4 ,biology deals   
only with living beings as isolated     
things--treats only of the life of the  
individual3 but there is a higher       
division of science still1 which        
considers living beings as              
aggregates--which deals with the        
relation of living beings one to        
another--the science which observes     
men--whose experiments are made by      
nations one upon another1 in            

battlefields--whose general propositions
 are embodied in history1 morality1 and 
religion--whose deductions lead to our  
happiness or our misery--and whose      
verifications so often come too late1   
and serve only    ,to point a moral1 or 
adorn a tale--  ,i mean the science of  
,society or ,sociology4  ,i think it is 
one of the grandest features of         
,biology1 that it occupies this central 
position in human knowledge4 ,there is  
no side of the human mind which         
physiological study leaves uncultivated4
 ,connected by innumerable ties with    
abstract science1 ,physiology is yet in 
the most intimate relation with         
humanity2 and by teaching us that law   
and order1 and a definite scheme of     
development1 regulate even the strangest
 and wildest manifestations of          
individual life1 she prepares the       
student to look for a goal even amidst  
the erratic wanderings of mankind1 and  
to believe that history offers something
 more than an entertaining chaos--a     

journal of a toilsome1 tragi-comic march
 no-whither4  ,the preceding            
considerations have1 ,i hope1 served to 
indicate the replies which befit the    
first two of the questions which ,i set 
before you at starting1 viz4 ,what is   
the range and position of ,physiological
 ,science as a branch of knowledge1 and 
what is its value as a means of mental  
discipline8  ,its subject-matter is a   
large moiety of the universe--its       
position is midway between the          
physico-chemical and the social         
sciences4 ,its value as a branch of     
discipline is partly that which it has  
in common with all sciences--the        
training and strengthening of common    
sense2 partly that which is more        
peculiar to itself--the great exercise  
which it affords to the faculties of    
observation and comparison2 and1 ,i may 
add1 the exactness of knowledge which it
 requires on the part of those among its
 votaries who desire to extend its      
boundaries4  ,if what has been said as  

to the position and scope of ,biology be
 correct1 our third question--,what is  
the practical value of physiological    
instruction8--might1 one would think1 be
 left to answer itself4  ,on other      
grounds even1 were mankind deserving of 
the title rational1 which they arrogate 
to themselves1 there can be no question 
that they would consider1 as the most   
necessary of all branches of instruction
 for themselves and for their children1 
that which professes to acquaint them   
with the conditions of the existence    
they prize so highly--which teaches them
 how to avoid disease and to cherish    
health1 in themselves and those who are 
dear to them4  ,i am addressing1 ,i     
imagine1 an audience of educated        
persons2 and yet ,i dare venture to     
assert that1 with the exception of those
 of my hearers who may chance to have   
received a medical education1 there is  
not one who could tell me what is the   
meaning and use of an act which he      
performs a score of times every minute1 

and whose suspension would involve his  
immediate death2--,i mean the act of    
breathing--or who could state in precise
 terms why it is that a confined        
atmosphere is injurious to health4  ,the
 practical value of ,physiological      
knowledge6 ,why is it that educated men 
can be found to maintain that a         
slaughter-house in the midst of a great 
city is rather a good thing than        
otherwise8--that mothers persist in     
exposing the largest possible amount of 
surface of their children to the cold1  
by the absurd style of dress they adopt1
 and then marvel at the peculiar        
dispensation of ,providence1 which      
removes their infants by bronchitis and 
gastric fever8 ,why is it that quackery 
rides rampant over the land2 and that   
not long ago1 one of the largest public 
rooms in this great city could be filled
 by an audience gravely listening to the
 reverend expositor of the              
doctrine--that the simple physiological 
phaenomena known as spirit-rapping1     

table-turning1 phreno-magnetism1 and ,i 
know not what other absurd and          
inappropriate names1 are due to the     
direct and personal agency of ,satan8   
,why is all this1 except from the utter 
ignorance as to the simplest laws of    
their own animal life1 which prevails   
among even the most highly educated     
persons in this country8  ,but there are
 other branches of ,biological ,science1
 besides ,physiology proper1 whose      
practical influence1 though less        
obvious1 is not1 as ,i believe1 less    
certain4 ,i have heard educated men     
speak with an ill-disguised contempt of 
the studies of the naturalist1 and ask1 
not without a shrug1 ,what is the use of
 knowing all about these miserable      
animals--what bearing has it on human   
life8  ,i will endeavour to answer that 
question4 ,i take it that all will admit
 there is definite ,government of this  
universe--that its pleasures and pains  
are not scattered at random1 but are    
distributed in accordance with orderly  

and fixed laws1 and that it is only in  
accordance with all we know of the rest 
of the world1 that there should be an   
agreement between one portion of the    
sensitive creation and another in these 
matters4  ,surely then it interests us  
to know the lot of other animal         
creatures--however far below us1 they   
are still the sole created things which 
share with us the capability of pleasure
 and the susceptibility to pain4  ,i    
cannot but think that he who finds a    
certain proportion of pain and evil     
inseparably woven up in the life of the 
very worms1 will bear his own share with
 more courage and submission2 and will1 
at any rate1 view with suspicion those  
weakly amiable theories of the ,divine  
government1 which would have us believe 
pain to be an oversight and a           
mistake1--to be corrected by and by4 ,on
 the other hand1 the predominance of    
happiness among living things--their    
lavish beauty--the secret and wonderful 
harmony which pervades them all1 from   

the highest to the lowest1 are equally  
striking refutations of that modern     
,manichean doctrine1 which exhibits the 
world as a slave-mill1 worked with many 
tears1 for mere utilitarian ends4       
,there is yet another way in which      
natural history may1 ,i am convinced1   
take a profound hold upon practical     
life1--and that is1 by its influence    
over our finer feelings1 as the greatest
 of all sources of that pleasure which  
is derivable from beauty4 ,i do not     
pretend that natural-history knowledge1 
as such1 can increase our sense of the  
beautiful in natural objects4 ,i do not 
suppose that the dead soul of ,peter    
,bell1 of whom the great poet of nature 
says1--    ,a primrose by the river's   
brim1   ,a yellow primrose was to him1--
   ,and it was nothing more1--  would   
have been a whit roused from its apathy 
by the information that the primrose is 
a ,dicotyledonous ,exogen1 with a       
monopetalous corolla and central        
placentation4 ,but ,i advocate          

natural-history knowledge from this     
point of view1 because it would lead us 
to seek the beauties of natural objects1
 instead of trusting to chance to force 
them on our attention4 ,to a person     
uninstructed in natural history1 his    
country or sea-side stroll is a walk    
through a gallery filled with wonderful 
works of art1 nine-tenths of which have 
their faces turned to the wall4 ,teach  
him something of natural history1 and   
you place in his hands a catalogue of   
those which are worth turning round4    
,surely our innocent pleasures are not  
so abundant in this life1 that we can   
afford to despise this or any other     
source of them4 ,we should fear being   
banished for our neglect to that limbo1 
where the great ,florentine tells us are
 those who1 during this life1 wept when 
they might be joyful4  ,but ,i shall be 
trespassing unwarrantably on your       
kindness1 if ,i do not proceed at once  
to my last point--the time at which     
,physiological ,science should first    

form a part of the ,curriculum of       
,education4  ,the distinction between   
the teaching of the facts of a science  
as instruction1 and the teaching it     
systematically as knowledge1 has already
 been placed before you in a previous   
lecture3 and it appears to me that1 as  
with other sciences1 the common facts of
 ,biology--the uses of parts of the     
body--the names and habits of the living
 creatures which surround us--may be    
taught with advantage to the youngest   
child4 ,indeed1 the avidity of children 
for this kind of knowledge1 and the     
comparative ease with which they retain 
it1 is something quite marvellous4 ,i   
doubt whether any toy would be so       
acceptable to young children as a       
vivarium of the same kind as1 but of    
course on a smaller scale than1 those   
admirable devices in the ,zoological    
,gardens4  ,on the other hand1          
systematic teaching in ,biology cannot  
be attempted with success until the     
student has attained to a certain       

knowledge of physics and chemistry3 for 
though the phaenomena of life are       
dependent neither on physical nor on    
chemical1 but on vital forces1 yet they 
result in all sorts of physical and     
chemical changes1 which can only be     
judged by their own laws4  ,and now to  
sum up in a few words the conclusions to
 which ,i hope you see reason to follow 
me4  ,biology needs no apologist when   
she demands a place--and a prominent    
place--in any scheme of education worthy
 of the name4 ,leave out the            
,physiological sciences from your       
curriculum1 and you launch the student  
into the world1 undisciplined in that   
science whose subject-matter would best 
develop his powers of observation2      
ignorant of facts of the deepest        
importance for his own and others'      
welfare2 blind to the richest sources of
 beauty in ,god's creation2 and         
unprovided with that belief in a living 
law1 and an order manifesting itself in 
and through endless change and variety1 

which might serve to check and moderate 
that phase of despair through which1 if 
he take an earnest interest in social   
problems1 he will assuredly sooner or   
later pass4  ,finally1 one word for     
myself4 ,i have not hesitated to speak  
strongly where ,i have felt strongly2   
and ,i am but too conscious that the    
indicative and imperative moods have too
 often taken the place of the more      
becoming subjunctive and conditional4 ,i
 feel1 therefore1 how necessary it is to
 beg you to forget the personality of   
him who has thus ventured to address    
you1 and to consider only the truth or  
error in what has been said4         99 
99       99       99       99           
,footnotes3  #a ,in the third place1 we 
have to review the method of            
,comparison1 which is so specially      
adapted to the study of living bodies1  
and by which1 above all others1 that    
study must be advanced4 ,in ,astronomy1 
this method is necessarily inapplicable2
 and it is not till we arrive at        

,chemistry that this third means of     
investigation can be used1 and then only
 in subordination to the two others4 ,it
 is in the study1 both statical and     
dynamical1 of living bodies that it     
first acquires its full development2 and
 its use elsewhere can be only through  
its application here4--,,comte',s       
,positive ,philosophy1 translated by    
,miss ,martineau4 ,vol4 i4 p4 #cgb4  ,by
 what method does ,m4 ,comte suppose    
that the equality or inequality of      
forces and quantities and the           
dissimilarity or similarity of          
forms--points of some slight importance 
not only in ,astronomy and ,physics1 but
 even in ,mathematics--are ascertained1 
if not by ,comparison8  #b ,proceeding  
to the second class of                  
means1--,experiment cannot but be less  
and less decisive1 in proportion to the 
complexity of the phaenomena to be      
explored2 and therefore we saw this     
resource to be less effectual in        
chemistry than in physics3 and we now   

find that it is eminently useful in     
chemistry in comparison with physiology4
 ,in fact1 the nature of the phenomena  
seems to offer almost insurmountable    
impediments to any extensive and        
prolific application of such a procedure
 in biology4--,,comte1 vol4 i4 p4 #cfg4 
,m4 ,comte1 as his manner is1           
contradicts himself two pages further   
on1 but that will hardly relieve him    
from the responsibility of such a       
paragraph as the above4  #c ,nouvelle   
,fonction du ,foie considr comme organe 
producteur de matire sucre chez l',homme
 et les ,animaux1 par ,m4 ,claude       
,bernard4  #d ,natural ,groups given by 
,type1 not by ,definition4444 ,the class
 is steadily fixed1 though not precisely
 limited2 it is given1 though not       
circumscribed2 it is determined1 not by 
a boundary-line without1 but by a       
central point within2 not by what it    
strictly excludes1 but what it eminently
 includes2 by an example1 not by a      
precept2 in short1 instead of           

,definition we have a ,type for our     
director4 ,a type is an example of any  
class1 for instance1 a species of a     
genus1 which is considered as eminently 
possessing the characters of the class4 
,all the species which have a greater   
affinity with this type-species than    
with any others1 form the genus1 and are
 ranged about about it1 deviating from  
it in various directions and different  
degrees4--,,whewell1 ,the ,philosophy of
 the ,inductive ,sciences1 vol4 i4 pp4  
#dgf1 #dgg4  #e ,save for the pleasure  
of doing so1 ,i need hardly point put my
 obligations to ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's    
,system of ,logic1 in this view of      
scientific method4     ,,iii            
,,emancipation--,,black ,,and ,,white   
#ahfe4   ,quashie's plaintive inquiry1  
,am ,i not a man and a brother8 seems at
 last to have received its final        
reply--the recent decision of the fierce
 trial by battle on the other side of   
the ,atlantic fully concurring with that
 long since delivered here in a more    

peaceful way4  ,the question is settled2
 but even those who are most thoroughly 
convinced that the doom is just1 must   
see good grounds for repudiating half   
the arguments which have been employed  
by the winning side2 and for doubting   
whether its ultimate results will embody
 the hopes of the victors1 though they  
may more than realise the fears of the  
vanquished4 ,it may be quite true that  
some negroes are better than some white 
men2 but no rational man1 cognisant of  
the facts1 believes that the average    
negro is the equal1 still less the      
superior1 of the average white man4     
,and1 if this be true1 it is simply     
incredible that1 when all his           
disabilities are removed1 and our       
prognathous relative has a fair field   
and no favour1 as well as no oppressor1 
he will be able to compete successfully 
with his bigger-brained and             
smaller-jawed rival1 in a contest which 
is to be carried on by thoughts and not 
by bites4 ,the highest places in the    

hierarchy of civilisation will assuredly
 not be within the reach of our dusky   
cousins1 though it is by no means       
necessary that they should be restricted
 to the lowest4 ,but whatever the       
position of stable equilibrium into     
which the laws of social gravitation may
 bring the negro1 all responsibility for
 the result will henceforward lie       
between ,nature and him4 ,the white man 
may wash his hands of it1 and the       
,caucasian conscience be void of        
reproach for evermore4 ,and this1 if we 
look to the bottom of the matter1 is the
 real justification for the abolition   
policy4  ,the doctrine of equal natural 
rights may be an illogical delusion2    
emancipation may convert the slave from 
a well-fed animal into a pauperised man2
 mankind may even have to do without    
cotton shirts2 but all these evils must 
be faced if the moral law1 that no human
 being can arbitrarily dominate over    
another without grievous damage to his  
own nature1 be1 as many think1 as       

readily demonstrable by experiment as   
any physical truth4 ,if this be true1 no
 slavery can be abolished without a     
double emancipation1 and the master will
 benefit by freedom more than the       
freed-man4  ,the like considerations    
apply to all the other questions of     
emancipation which are at present       
stirring the world--the multifarious    
demands that classes of mankind shall be
 relieved from restrictions imposed by  
the artifice of man1 and not by the     
necessities of ,nature4 ,one of the most
 important1 if not the most important1  
of all these1 is that which daily       
threatens to become the irrepressible   
woman question4 ,what social and        
political rights have women8 ,what ought
 they to be allowed1 or not allowed1 to 
do1 be1 and suffer8 ,and1 as involved   
in1 and underlying all these questions1 
how ought they to be educated8  ,there  
are philogynists as fanatical as any    
misogynists who1 reversing our          
antiquated notions1 bid the man look    

upon the woman as the higher type of    
humanity2 who ask us to regard the      
female intellect as the clearer and the 
quicker1 if not the stronger2 who desire
 us to look up to the feminine moral    
sense as the purer and the nobler2 and  
bid man abdicate his usurped sovereignty
 over ,nature in favour of the female   
line4 ,on the other hand1 there are     
persons not to be outdone in all loyalty
 and just respect for womankind1 but by 
nature hard of head and haters of       
delusion1 however charming1 who not only
 repudiate the new woman-worship which  
so many sentimentalists and some        
philosophers are desirous of setting up1
 but1 carrying their audacity further1  
deny even the natural equality of the   
sexes4 ,they assert1 on the contrary1   
that in every excellent character1      
whether mental or physical1 the average 
woman is inferior to the average man1 in
 the sense of having that character less
 in quantity and lower in quality4 ,tell
 these persons of the rapid perceptions 

and the instinctive intellectual insight
 of women1 and they reply that the      
feminine mental peculiarities1 which    
pass under these names1 are merely the  
outcome of a greater impressibility to  
the superficial aspects of things1 and  
of the absence of that restraint upon   
expression which1 in men1 is imposed by 
reflection and a sense of               
responsibility4 ,talk of the passive    
endurance of the weaker sex1 and        
opponents of this kind remind you that  
,job was a man1 and that1 until quite   
recent times1 patience and              
long-suffering were not counted among   
the specially feminine virtues4 ,claim  
passionate tenderness as especially     
feminine1 and the inquiry is made       
whether all the best love-poetry in     
existence 7except1 perhaps1 the ,sonnets
 from the ,portuguese 7 has not been    
written by men2 whether the song which  
embodies the ideal of pure and tender   
passion--,adelaida --was written by     
,frau ,beethoven2 whether it was the    

,fornarina1 or ,raphael1 who painted the
 ,sistine ,madonna4 ,nay1 we have known 
one such heretic go so far as to lay his
 hands upon the ark itself1 so to speak1
 and to defend the startling paradox    
that1 even in physical beauty1 man is   
the superior4 ,he admitted1 indeed1 that
 there was a brief period of early youth
 when it might be hard to say whether   
the prize should be awarded to the      
graceful undulations of the female      
figure1 or the perfect balance and      
supple vigour of the male frame4 ,but   
while our new ,paris might hesitate     
between the youthful ,bacchus and the   
,venus emerging from the foam1 he       
averred that1 when ,venus and ,bacchus  
had reached thirty1 the point no longer 
admitted of a doubt2 the male form      
having then attained its greatest       
nobility1 while the female is far gone  
in decadence2 and that1 at this epoch1  
womanly beauty1 so far as it is         
independent of grace or expression1 is a
 question of drapery and accessories4   

,supposing1 however1 that all these     
arguments have a certain foundation2    
admitting1 for a moment1 that they are  
comparable to those by which the        
inferiority of the negro to the white   
man may be demonstrated1 are they of any
 value as against woman-emancipation8   
,do they afford us the smallest ground  
for refusing to educate women as well as
 men--to give women the same civil and  
political rights as men8 ,no mistake is 
so commonly made by clever people as    
that of assuming a cause to be bad      
because the arguments of its supporters 
are1 to a great extent1 non-sensical4   
,and we conceive that those who may     
laugh at the arguments of the extreme   
philogynists1 may yet feel bound to work
 heart and soul towards the attainment  
of their practical ends4  ,as regards   
education1 for example4 ,granting the   
alleged defects of women1 is it not     
somewhat absurd to sanction and maintain
 a system of education which would seem 
to have been specially contrived to     

exaggerate all these defects8           
,naturally not so firmly strung1 nor so 
well balanced as boys1 girls are in     
great measure debarred from the sports  
and physical exercises which are justly 
thought absolutely necessary for the    
full development of the vigour of the   
more favoured sex4 ,women are1 by       
nature1 more excitable than men--prone  
to be swept by tides of emotion1        
proceeding from hidden and inward1 as   
well as from obvious and external       
causes2 and female education does its   
best to weaken every physical           
counterpoise to this nervous            
mobility--tends in all ways to stimulate
 the emotional part of the mind and     
stunt the rest4 ,we find girls naturally
 timid1 inclined to dependence1 born    
conservatives2 and we teach them that   
independence is unladylike2 that blind  
faith is the right frame of mind2 and   
that whatever we may be permitted1 and  
indeed encouraged1 to do to our brother1
 our sister is to be left to the tyranny

 of authority and tradition4 ,with few  
insignificant exceptions1 girls have    
been educated either to be drudges1 or  
toys1 beneath man2 or a sort of angels  
above him2 the highest ideal aimed at   
oscillating between ,clrchen and        
,beatrice4 ,the possibility that the    
ideal of womanhood lies neither in the  
fair saint1 nor in the fair sinner2 that
 the female type of character is neither
 better nor worse than the male1 but    
only weaker2 that women are meant       
neither to be men's guides nor their    
play-things1 but their comrades1 their  
fellows1 and their equals1 so far as    
,nature puts no bar to that equality1   
does not seem to have entered into the  
minds of those who have had the conduct 
of the education of girls4  ,if the     
present system of female education      
stands self-condemned1 as inherently    
absurd2 and if that which we have just  
indicated is the true position of woman1
 what is the first step towards a better
 state of things8 ,we reply1 emancipate 

girls4 ,recognise the fact that they    
share the senses1 perceptions1 feelings1
 reasoning powers1 emotions1 of boys1   
and that the mind of the average girl is
 less different from that of the average
 boy1 than the mind of one boy is from  
that of another2 so that whatever       
argument justifies a given education for
 all boys1 justifies its application to 
girls as well4 ,so far from imposing    
artificial restrictions upon the        
acquirement of knowledge by women1 throw
 every facility in their way4 ,let our  
,faustinas1 if they will1 toil through  
the whole round of    ,juristerei und   
,medizin1   ,und leider6 auch           
,philosophie4  ,let us have sweet girl  
graduates by all means4 ,they will be   
none the less sweet for a little wisdom2
 and the golden hair will not curl less 
gracefully outside the head by reason of
 there being brains within4 ,nay1 if    
obvious practical difficulties can be   
overcome1 let those women who feel      
inclined to do so descend into the      

gladiatorial arena of life1 not merely  
in the guise of retiariae1 as           
heretofore1 but as bold sicariae1       
breasting the open fray4 ,let them1 if  
they so please1 become merchants1       
barristers1 politicians4 ,let them have 
a fair field1 but let them understand1  
as the necessary correlative1 that they 
are to have no favour4 ,let ,nature     
alone sit high above the lists1 rain    
influence and judge the prize4  ,and the
 result8 ,for our parts1 though loth to 
prophesy1 we believe it will be that of 
other emancipations4 ,women will find   
their place1 and it will neither be that
 in which they have been held1 nor that 
to which some of them aspire4 ,nature's 
old salique law will not be repealed1   
and no change of dynasty will be        
effected4 ,the big chests1 the massive  
brains1 the vigorous muscles and stout  
frames of the best men will carry the   
day1 whenever it is worth their while to
 contest the prizes of life with the    
best women4 ,and the hardship of it is1 

that the very improvement of the women  
will lessen their chances4 ,better      
mothers will bring forth better sons1   
and the impetus gained by the one sex   
will be transmitted1 in the next        
generation1 to the other4 ,the most     
,darwinian of theorists will not venture
 to propound the doctrine1 that the     
physical disabilities under which women 
have hitherto laboured in the struggle  
for existence with men are likely to be 
removed by even the most skilfully      
conducted process of educational        
selection4  ,we are1 indeed1 fully      
prepared to believe that the bearing of 
children may1 and ought1 to become as   
free from danger and long disability to 
the civilised woman as it is to the     
savage2 nor is it improbable that1 as   
society advances towards its right      
organisation1 motherhood will occupy a  
less space of woman's life than it has  
hitherto done4 ,but still1 unless the   
human species is to come to an end      
altogether--a consummation which can    

hardly be desired by even the most      
ardent advocate of women's              
rights--somebody must be good enough to 
take the trouble and responsibility of  
annually adding to the world exactly as 
many people as die out of it4 ,in       
consequence of some domestic            
difficulties1 ,sydney ,smith is said to 
have suggested that it would have been  
good for the human race had the model   
offered by the hive been followed1 and  
had all the working part of the female  
community been neuters4 ,failing any    
thorough-going reform of this kind1 we  
see nothing for it but the old division 
of humanity into men potentially1 or    
actually1 fathers1 and women            
potentially1 if not actually1 mothers4  
,and we fear that so long as this       
potential motherhood is her lot1 woman  
will be found to be fearfully weighted  
in the race of life4  ,the duty of man  
is to see that not a grain is piled upon
 that load beyond what ,nature imposes2 
that injustice is not added to          

inequality4     ,,iv  ,a ,,liberal      
,,education2 ,,and ,,where ,,to ,,find  
,,it  #ahfh4   ,the business which the  
,south ,london ,working ,men's ,college 
has undertaken is a great work2 indeed1 
,i might say1 that ,education1 with     
which that college proposes to grapple1 
is the greatest work of all those which 
lie ready to a man's hand just at       
present4  ,and1 at length1 this fact is 
becoming generally recognised4 ,you     
cannot go anywhere without hearing a    
buzz of more or less confused and       
contradictory talk on this subject--nor 
can you fail to notice that1 in one     
point at any rate1 there is a very      
decided advance upon like discussions in
 former days4 ,nobody outside the       
agricultural interest now dares to say  
that education is a bad thing4 ,if any  
representative of the once large and    
powerful party1 which1 in former days1  
proclaimed this opinion1 still exists in
 a semi-fossil state1 he keeps his      
thoughts to himself4 ,in fact1 there is 

a chorus of voices1 almost distressing  
in their harmony1 raised in favour of   
the doctrine that education is the great
 panacea for human troubles1 and that1  
if the country is not shortly to go to  
the dogs1 everybody must be educated4   
,the politicians tells us1 ,you must    
educate the masses because they are     
going to be masters4 ,the clergy join in
 the cry for education1 for they affirm 
that the people are drifting away from  
church and chapel into the broadest     
infidelity4 ,the manufacturers and the  
capitalists swell the chorus lustily4   
,they declare that ignorance makes bad  
workmen2 that ,england will soon be     
unable to turn out cotton goods1 or     
steam engines1 cheaper than other       
people2 and then1 ,ichabod6 ,ichabod6   
the glory will be departed from us4 ,and
 a few voices are lifted up in favour of
 the doctrine that the masses should be 
educated because they are men and women 
with unlimited capacities of being1     
doing1 and suffering1 and that it is as 

true now1 as ever it was1 that the      
people perish for lack of knowledge4    
,these members of the minority1 with    
whom ,i confess ,i have a good deal of  
sympathy1 are doubtful whether any of   
the other reasons urged in favour of the
 education of the people are of much    
value--whether1 indeed1 some of them are
 based upon either wise or noble grounds
 of action4 ,they question if it be wise
 to tell people that you will do for    
them1 out of fear of their power1 what  
you have left undone1 so long as your   
only motive was compassion for their    
weakness and their sorrows4 ,and1 if    
ignorance of everything which it is     
needful a ruler should know is likely to
 do so much harm in the governing       
classes of the future1 why is it1 they  
ask reasonably enough1 that such        
ignorance in the governing classes of   
the past has not been viewed with equal 
horror8  ,compare the average artisan   
and the average country squire1 and it  
may be doubted if you will find a pin to

 choose between the two in point of     
ignorance1 class feeling1 or prejudice4 
,it is true that the ignorance is of a  
different sort--that the class feeling  
is in favour of a different class--and  
that the prejudice has a distinct savour
 of wrong-headedness in each case--but  
it is questionable if the one is either 
a bit better1 or a bit worse1 than the  
other4 ,the old protectionist theory is 
the doctrine of trades unions as applied
 by the squires1 and the modern trades  
unionism is the doctrine of the squires 
applied by the artisans4 ,why should we 
be worse off under one rgime than under 
the other8  ,again1 this sceptical      
minority asks the clergy to think       
whether it is really want of education  
which keeps the masses away from their  
ministrations--whether the most         
completely educated men are not as open 
to reproach on this score as the        
workmen2 and whether1 perchance1 this   
may not indicate that it is not         
education which lies at the bottom of   

the matter8  ,once more1 these people1  
whom there is no pleasing1 venture to   
doubt whether the glory1 which rests    
upon being able to undersell all the    
rest of the world1 is a very safe kind  
of glory--whether we may not purchase it
 too dear2 especially if we allow       
education1 which ought to be directed to
 the making of men1 to be diverted into 
a process of manufacturing human tools1 
wonderfully adroit in the exercise of   
some technical industry1 but good for   
nothing else4  ,and1 finally1 these     
people inquire whether it is the masses 
alone who need a reformed and improved  
education4 ,they ask whether the richest
 of our public schools might not well be
 made to supply knowledge1 as well as   
gentlemanly habits1 a strong class      
feeling1 and eminent proficiency in     
cricket4 ,they seem to think that the   
noble foundations of our old            
universities are hardly fulfilling their
 functions in their present posture of  
half-clerical seminaries1 half          

racecourses1 where men are trained to   
win a senior wranglership1 or a         
double-first1 as horses are trained to  
win a cup1 with as little reference to  
the needs of after-life in the case of  
the man as in that of the racer4 ,and1  
while as zealous for education as the   
rest1 they affirm that1 if the education
 of the richer classes were such as to  
fit them to be the leaders and the      
governors of the poorer2 and1 if the    
education of the poorer classes were    
such as to enable them to appreciate    
really wise guidance and good           
governance1 the politicians need not    
fear mob-law1 nor the clergy lament     
their want of flocks1 nor the           
capitalists prognosticate the           
annihilation of the prosperity of the   
country4  ,such is the diversity of     
opinion upon the why and the wherefore  
of education4 ,and my hearers will be   
prepared to expect that the practical   
recommendations which are put forward   
are not less discordant4 ,there is a    

loud cry for compulsory education4 ,we  
,english1 in spite of constant          
experience to the contrary1 preserve a  
touching faith in the efficacy of acts  
of ,parliament2 and ,i believe we should
 have compulsory education in the course
 of next session1 if there were the     
least probability that half a dozen     
leading statesmen of different parties  
would agree what that education should  
be4  ,some hold that education without  
theology is worse than none4 ,others    
maintain1 quite as strongly1 that       
education with theology is in the same  
predicament4 ,but this is certain1 that 
those who hold the first opinion can by 
no means agree what theology should be  
taught2 and that those who maintain the 
second are in a small minority4  ,at any
 rate make people learn to read1 write1 
and cipher1 say a great many2 and the   
advice is undoubtedly sensible as far as
 it goes4 ,but1 as has happened to me in
 former days1 those who1 in despair of  
getting anything better1 advocate this  

measure1 are met with the objection that
 it is very like making a child practise
 the use of a knife1 fork1 and spoon1   
without giving it a particle of meat4 ,i
 really don't know what reply is to be  
made to such an objection4  ,but it     
would be unprofitable to spend more time
 in disentangling1 or rather in showing 
up the knots in1 the ravelled skeins of 
our neighbours4 ,much more to the       
purpose is it to ask if we possess any  
clue of our own which may guide us among
 these entanglements4 ,and by way of a  
beginning1 let us ask ourselves--,what  
is education8 ,above all things1 what is
 our ideal of a thoroughly liberal      
education8--of that education which1 if 
we could begin life again1 we would give
 ourselves--of that education which1 if 
we could mould the fates to our own     
will1 we would give our children8 ,well1
 ,i know not what may be your           
conceptions upon this matter1 but ,i    
will tell you mine1 and ,i hope ,i shall
 find that our views are not very       

discrepant4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,suppose it were    
perfectly certain that the life and     
fortune of every one of us would1 one   
day or other1 depend upon his winning or
 losing a game at chess4 ,don't you     
think that we should all consider it to 
be a primary duty to learn at least the 
names and the moves of the pieces2 to   
have a notion of a gambit1 and a keen   
eye for all the means of giving and     
getting out of check8 ,do you not think 
that we should look with a              
disapprobation amounting to scorn1 upon 
the father who allowed his son1 or the  
state which allowed its members1 to grow
 up without knowing a pawn from a       
knight8  ,yet it is a very plain and    
elementary truth1 that the life1 the    
fortune1 and the happiness of every one 
of us1 and1 more or less1 of those who  
are connected with us1 do depend upon   
our knowing something of the rules of a 
game infinitely more difficult and      
complicated than chess4 ,it is a game   

which has been played for untold ages1  
every man and woman of us being one of  
the two players in a game of his or her 
own4 ,the chess-board is the world1 the 
pieces are the phenomena of the         
universe1 the rules of the game are what
 we call the laws of ,nature4 ,the      
player on the other side is hidden from 
us4 ,we know that his play is always    
fair1 just and patient4 ,but also we    
know1 to our cost1 that he never        
overlooks a mistake1 or makes the       
smallest allowance for ignorance4 ,to   
the man who plays well1 the highest     
stakes are paid1 with that sort of      
overflowing generosity with which the   
strong shows delight in strength4 ,and  
one who plays ill is checkmated--without
 haste1 but without remorse4  ,my       
metaphor will remind some of you of the 
famous picture in which ,retzsch has    
depicted ,satan playing at chess with   
man for his soul4 ,substitute for the   
mocking fiend in that picture a calm1   
strong angel who is playing for love1 as

 we say1 and would rather lose than     
win--and ,i should accept it us an image
 of human life4  ,well1 what ,i mean by 
,education is learning the rules of this
 mighty game4 ,in other words1 education
 is the instruction of the intellect in 
the laws of ,nature1 under which name ,i
 include not merely things and their    
forces1 but men and their ways2 and the 
fashioning of the affections and of the 
will into an earnest and loving desire  
to move in harmony with those laws4 ,for
 me1 education means neither more nor   
less than this4 ,anything which         
professes to call itself education must 
be tried by this standard1 and if it    
fails to stand the test1 ,i will not    
call it education1 whatever may be the  
force of authority1 or of numbers1 upon 
the other side4  ,it is important to    
remember that1 in strictness1 there is  
no such thing as an uneducated man4     
,take an extreme case4 ,suppose that an 
adult man1 in the full vigour of his    
faculties1 could be suddenly placed in  

the world1 as ,adam is said to have     
been1 and then left to do as he best    
might4 ,how long would he be left       
uneducated8 ,not five minutes4 ,nature  
would begin to teach him1 through the   
eye1 the ear1 the touch1 the properties 
of objects4 ,pain and pleasure would be 
at his elbow telling him to do this and 
avoid that2 and by slow degrees the man 
would receive an education which1 if    
narrow1 would be thorough1 real1 and    
adequate to his circumstances1 though   
there would be no extras and very few   
accomplishments4  ,and if to this       
solitary man entered a second ,adam1 or1
 better still1 an ,eve1 a new and       
greater world1 that of social and moral 
phenomena1 would be revealed4 ,joys and 
woes1 compared with which all others    
might seem but faint shadows1 would     
spring from the new relations4          
,happiness and sorrow would take the    
place of the coarser monitors1 pleasure 
and pain2 but conduct would still be    
shaped by the observation of the natural

 consequences of actions2 or1 in other  
words1 by the laws of the nature of man4
  ,to every one of us the world was once
 as fresh and new as to ,adam4 ,and     
then1 long before we were susceptible of
 any other mode of instruction1 ,nature 
took us in hand1 and every minute of    
waking life brought its educational     
influence1 shaping our actions into     
rough accordance with ,nature's laws1 so
 that we might not be ended untimely by 
too gross disobedience4 ,nor should ,i  
speak of this process of education as   
past for any one1 be he as old as he    
may4 ,for every man the world is as     
fresh as it was at the first day1 and as
 full of untold novelties for him who   
has the eyes to see them4 ,and ,nature  
is still continuing her patient         
education of us in that great           
university1 the universe1 of which we   
are all members--,nature having no      
,test-,acts4  ,those who take honours in
 ,nature's university1 who learn the    
laws which govern men and things and    

obey them1 are the really great and     
successful men in this world4 ,the great
 mass of mankind are the ,poll1 who pick
 up just enough to get through without  
much discredit4 ,those who won't learn  
at all are plucked2 and then you can't  
come up again4 ,nature's pluck means    
extermination4  ,thus the question of   
compulsory education is settled so far  
as ,nature is concerned4 ,her bill on   
that question was framed and passed long
 ago4 ,but1 like all compulsory         
legislation1 that of ,nature is harsh   
and wasteful in its operation4          
,ignorance is visited as sharply as     
wilful disobedience--incapacity meets   
with the same punishment as crime4      
,nature's discipline is not even a word 
and a blow1 and the blow first2 but the 
blow without the word4 ,it is left to   
you to find out why your ears are boxed4
  ,the object of what we commonly call  
education--that education in which man  
intervenes and which ,i shall           
distinguish as artificial education--is 

to make good these defects in ,nature's 
methods2 to prepare the child to receive
 ,nature's education1 neither incapably 
nor ignorantly1 nor with wilful         
disobedience2 and to understand the     
preliminary symptoms of her pleasure1   
without waiting for the box on the ear4 
,in short1 all artificial education     
ought to be an anticipation of natural  
education4 ,and a liberal education is  
an artificial education which has not   
only prepared a man to escape the great 
evils of disobedience to natural laws1  
but has trained him to appreciate and to
 seize upon the rewards1 which ,nature  
scatters with as free a hand as her     
penalties4  ,that man1 ,i think1 has had
 a liberal education who has been so    
trained in youth that his body is the   
ready servant of his will1 and does with
 ease and pleasure all the work that1 as
 a mechanism1 it is capable of2 whose   
intellect is a clear1 cold1 logic       
engine1 with all its parts of equal     
strength1 and in smooth working order2  

ready1 like a steam engine1 to be turned
 to any kind of work1 and spin the      
gossamers as well as forge the anchors  
of the mind2 whose mind is stored with a
 knowledge of the great and fundamental 
truths of ,nature and of the laws of her
 operations2 one who1 no stunted        
ascetic1 is full of life and fire1 but  
whose passions are trained to come to   
heel by a vigorous will1 the servant of 
a tender conscience2 who has learned to 
love all beauty1 whether of ,nature or  
of art1 to hate all vileness1 and to    
respect others as himself4  ,such an one
 and no other1 ,i conceive1 has had a   
liberal education2 for he is1 as        
completely as a man can be1 in harmony  
with ,nature4 ,he will make the best of 
her1 and she of him4 ,they will get on  
together rarely3 she as his ever        
beneficent mother2 he as her mouthpiece1
 her conscious self1 her minister and   
interpreter4  ,where is such an         
education as this to be had8 ,where is  
there any approximation to it8 ,has any 

one tried to found such an education8   
,looking over the length and breadth of 
these islands1 ,i am afraid that all    
these questions must receive a negative 
answer4 ,consider our primary schools   
and what is taught in them4 ,a child    
learns3--  #a4 ,to read1 write1 and     
cipher1 more or less well2 but in a very
 large proportion of cases not so well  
as to take pleasure in reading1 or to be
 able to write the commonest letter     
properly4  #b4 ,a quantity of dogmatic  
theology1 of which the child1 nine times
 out of ten1 understands next to        
nothing4  #c4 ,mixed up with this1 so as
 to seem to stand or fall with it1 a few
 of the broadest and simplest principles
 of morality4 ,this1 to my mind1 is much
 as if a man of science should make the 
story of the fall of the apple in       
,newton's garden an integral part of the
 doctrine of gravitation1 and teach it  
as of equal authority with the law of   
the inverse squares4  #d4 ,a good deal  
of ,jewish history and ,syrian          

geography1 and perhaps a little         
something about ,english history and the
 geography of the child's own country4  
,but ,i doubt if there is a primary     
school in ,england in which hangs a map 
of the hundred in which the village     
lies1 so that the children may be       
practically taught by it what a map     
means4  #e4 ,a certain amount of        
regularity1 attentive obedience1 respect
 for others3 obtained by fear1 if the   
master be incompetent or foolish2 by    
love and reverence1 if he be wise4  ,so 
far as this school course embraces a    
training in the theory and practice of  
obedience to the moral laws of ,nature1 
,i gladly admit1 not only that it       
contains a valuable educational element1
 but that1 so far1 it deals with the    
most valuable and important part of all 
education4 ,yet1 contrast what is done  
in this direction with what might be    
done2 with the time given to matters of 
comparatively no importance2 with the   
absence of any attention to things of   

the highest moment2 and one is tempted  
to think of ,falstaff's bill and the    
halfpenny worth of bread to all that    
quantity of sack4  ,let us consider what
 a child thus educated knows1 and what  
it does not know4 ,begin with the most  
important topic of all--morality1 as the
 guide of conduct4 ,the child knows well
 enough that some acts meet with        
approbation and some with               
disapprobation4 ,but it has never heard 
that there lies in the nature of things 
a reason for every moral law1 as cogent 
and as well defined as that which       
underlies every physical law2 that      
stealing and lying are just as certain  
to be followed by evil consequences1 as 
putting your hand in the fire1 or       
jumping out of a garret window4 ,again1 
though the scholar may have been made   
acquainted1 in dogmatic fashion1 with   
the broad laws of morality1 he has had  
no training in the application of those 
laws to the difficult problems which    
result from the complex conditions of   

modern civilisation4 ,would it not be   
very hard to expect any one to solve a  
problem in conic sections who had merely
 been taught the axioms and definitions 
of mathematical science8  ,a workman has
 to bear hard labour1 and perhaps       
privation1 while he sees others rolling 
in wealth1 and feeding their dogs with  
what would keep his children from       
starvation4 ,would it not be well to    
have helped that man to calm the natural
 promptings of discontent by showing    
him1 in his youth1 the necessary        
connection of the moral law which       
prohibits stealing with the stability of
 society--by proving to him1 once for   
all1 that it is better for his own      
people1 better for himself1 better for  
future generations1 that he should      
starve than steal8 ,if you have no      
foundation of knowledge1 or habit of    
thought1 to work upon1 what chance have 
you of persuading a hungry man that a   
capitalist is not a thief with a        
circumbendibus8 ,and if he honestly     

believes that1 of what avail is it to   
quote the commandment against stealing1 
when he proposes to make the capitalist 
disgorge8  ,again1 the child learns     
absolutely nothing of the history or the
 political organisation of his own      
country4 ,his general impression is1    
that everything of much importance      
happened a very long while ago2 and that
 the ,queen and the gentlefolks govern  
the country much after the fashion of   
,king ,david and the elders and nobles  
of ,israel--his sole models4 ,will you  
give a man with this much information a 
vote8 ,in easy times he sells it for a  
pot of beer4 ,why should he not8 ,it is 
of about as much use to him as a        
chignon1 and he knows as much what to do
 with it1 for any other purpose4 ,in bad
 times1 on the contrary1 he applies his 
simple theory of government1 and        
believes that his rulers are the cause  
of his sufferings--a belief which       
sometimes bears remarkable practical    
fruits4  ,least of all1 does the child  

gather from this primary education of   
ours a conception of the laws of the    
physical world1 or of the relations of  
cause and effect therein4 ,and this is  
the more to be lamented1 as the poor are
 especially exposed to physical evils1  
and are more interested in removing them
 than any other class of the community4 
,if any one is concerned in knowing the 
ordinary laws of mechanics one would    
think it is the hand-labourer1 whose    
daily toil lies among levers and        
pulleys2 or among the other implements  
of artisan work4 ,and if any one is     
interested in the laws of health1 it is 
the poor workman1 whose strength is     
wasted by ill-prepared food1 whose      
health is sapped by bad ventilation and 
bad drainage1 and half whose children   
are massacred by disorders which might  
be prevented4 ,not only does our present
 primary education carefully abstain    
from hinting to the workman that some of
 his greatest evils are traceable to    
mere physical agencies1 which could be  

removed by energy1 patience1 and        
frugality2 but it does worse--it renders
 him1 so far as it can1 deaf to those   
who could help him1 and tries to        
substitute an ,oriental submission to   
what is falsely declared to be the will 
of ,god1 for his natural tendency to    
strive after a better condition4  ,what 
wonder1 then1 if very recently an appeal
 has been made to statistics for the    
profoundly foolish purpose of showing   
that education is of no good--that it   
diminishes neither misery nor crime     
among the masses of mankind8 ,i reply1  
why should the thing which has been     
called education do either the one or   
the other8 ,if ,i am a knave or a fool1 
teaching me to read and write won't make
 me less of either one or the           
other--unless somebody shows me how to  
put my reading and writing to wise and  
good purposes4  ,suppose any one were to
 argue that medicine is of no use1      
because it could be proved              
statistically1 that the percentage of   

deaths was just the same among people   
who had been taught how to open a       
medicine chest1 and among those who did 
not so much as know the key by sight4   
,the argument is absurd2 but it is not  
more preposterous than that against     
which ,i am contending4 ,the only       
medicine for suffering1 crime1 and all  
the other woes of mankind1 is wisdom4   
,teach a man to read and write1 and you 
have put into his hands the great keys  
of the wisdom box4 ,but it is quite     
another matter whether he ever opens the
 box or not4 ,and he is as likely to    
poison as to cure himself1 if1 without  
guidance1 he swallows the first drug    
that comes to hand4 ,in these times a   
man may as well be purblind1 as unable  
to read--lame1 as unable to write4 ,but 
,i protest that1 if ,i thought the      
alternative were a necessary one1 ,i    
would rather that the children of the   
poor should grow up ignorant of both    
these mighty arts1 than that they should
 remain ignorant of that knowledge to   

which these arts are means4         99  
99       99       99       99  ,it may  
be said that all these animadversions   
may apply to primary schools1 but that  
the higher schools1 at any rate1 must be
 allowed to give a liberal education4   
,in fact they professedly sacrifice     
everything else to this object4  ,let us
 inquire into this matter4 ,what do the 
higher schools1 those to which the great
 middle class of the country sends its  
children1 teach1 over and above the     
instruction given in the primary        
schools8 ,there is a little more reading
 and writing of ,english4 ,but1 for all 
that1 every one knows that it is a rare 
thing to find a boy of the middle or    
upper classes who can read aloud        
decently1 or who can put his thoughts on
 paper in clear and grammatical 7to say 
nothing of good or elegant7 language4   
,the ciphering of the lower schools     
expands into elementary mathematics in  
the higher2 into arithmetic1 with a     
little algebra1 a little ,euclid4 ,but  

,i doubt if one boy in five hundred has 
ever heard the explanation of a rule of 
arithmetic1 or knows his ,euclid        
otherwise than by rote4  ,of theology1  
the middle class schoolboy gets rather  
less than poorer children1 less         
absolutely and less relatively1 because 
there are so many other claims upon his 
attention4 ,i venture to say that1 in   
the great majority of cases1 his ideas  
on this subject when he leaves school   
are of the most shadowy and vague       
description1 and associated with painful
 impressions of the weary hours spent in
 learning collects and catechism by     
heart4  ,modern geography1 modern       
history1 modern literature2 the ,english
 language as a language2 the whole      
circle of the sciences1 physical1 moral 
and social1 are even more completely    
ignored in the higher than in the lower 
schools4 ,up till within a few years    
back1 a boy might have passed through   
any one of the great public schools with
 the greatest distinction and credit1   

and might never so much as have heard of
 one of the subjects ,i have just       
mentioned4 ,he might never have heard   
that the earth goes round the sun2 that 
,england underwent a great revolution in
 #afhh1 and ,france another in #aghi2   
that there once lived certain notable   
men called ,chaucer1 ,shakespeare1      
,milton1 ,voltaire1 ,goethe1 ,schiller4 
,the first might be a ,german and the   
last an ,englishman for anything he     
could tell you to the contrary4 ,and as 
for ,science1 the only idea the word    
would suggest to his mind would be      
dexterity in boxing4  ,i have said that 
this was the state of things a few years
 back1 for the sake of the few righteous
 who are to be found among the          
educational cities of the plain4 ,but ,i
 would not have you too sanguine about  
the result1 if you sound the minds of   
the existing generation of public       
schoolboys1 on such topics as those ,i  
have mentioned4  ,now let us pause to   
consider this wonderful state of        

affairs2 for the time will come when    
,englishmen will quote it as the stock  
example of the stolid stupidity of their
 ancestors in the nineteenth century4   
,the most thoroughly commercial people1 
the greatest voluntary wanderers and    
colonists the world has ever seen1 are  
precisely the middle classes of this    
country4 ,if there be a people which has
 been busy making history on the great  
scale for the last three hundred        
years--and the most profoundly          
interesting history--history which1 if  
it happened to be that of ,greece or    
,rome1 we should study with avidity--it 
is the ,english4 ,if there be a people  
which1 during the same period1 has      
developed a remarkable literature1 it is
 our own4 ,if there be a nation whose   
prosperity depends absolutely and wholly
 upon their mastery over the forces of  
,nature1 upon their intelligent         
apprehension of1 and obedience to the   
laws of the creation and distribution of
 wealth1 and of the stable equilibrium  

of the forces of society1 it is         
precisely this nation4 ,and yet this is 
what these wonderful people tell their  
sons3--,at the cost of from one to two  
thousand pounds of our hard-earned      
money1 we devote twelve of the most     
precious years of your lives to school4 
,there you shall toil1 or be supposed to
 toil2 but there you shall not learn one
 single thing of all those you will most
 want to know directly you leave school 
and enter upon the practical business of
 life4 ,you will in all probability go  
into business1 but you shall not know   
where1 or how1 any article of commerce  
is produced1 or the difference between  
an export or an import1 or the meaning  
of the word capital4 ,you will very     
likely settle in a colony1 but you shall
 not know whether ,tasmania is part of  
,new ,south ,wales1 or vice vers4  ,very
 probably you may become a manufacturer1
 but you shall not be provided with the 
means of understanding the working of   
one of your own steam-engines1 or the   

nature of the raw products you employ2  
and1 when you are asked to buy a patent1
 you shall not have the slightest means 
of judging whether the inventor is an   
impostor who is contravening the        
elementary principles of science1 or a  
man who will make you as rich as        
,croesus4  ,you will very likely get    
into the ,house of ,commons4 ,you will  
have to take your share in making laws  
which may prove a blessing or a curse to
 millions of men4 ,but you shall not    
hear one word respecting the political  
organisation of your country2 the       
meaning of the controversy between      
free-traders and protectionists shall   
never have been mentioned to you2 you   
shall not so much as know that there are
 such things as economical laws4  ,the  
mental power which will be of most      
importance in your daily life will be   
the power of seeing things as they are  
without regard to authority2 and of     
drawing accurate general conclusions    
from particular facts4 ,but at school   

and at college you shall know of no     
source of truth but authority2 nor      
exercise your reasoning faculty upon    
anything but deduction from that which  
is laid down by authority4  ,you will   
have to weary your soul with work1 and  
many a time eat your bread in sorrow and
 in bitterness1 and you shall not have  
learned to take refuge in the great     
source of pleasure without alloy1 the   
serene resting-place for worn human     
nature1--the world of art4  ,said ,i not
 rightly that we are a wonderful people8
 ,i am quite prepared to allow1 that    
education entirely devoted to these     
omitted subjects might not be a         
completely liberal education4 ,but is an
 education which ignores them all a     
liberal education8 ,nay1 is it too much 
to say that the education which should  
embrace these subjects and no others    
would be a real education1 though an    
incomplete one2 while an education which
 omits them is really not an education  
at all1 but a more or less useful course

 of intellectual gymnastics8  ,for what 
does the middle-class school put in the 
place of all these things which are left
 out8 ,it substitutes what is usually   
comprised under the compendious title of
 the classics--that is to say1 the      
languages1 the literature1 and the      
history of the ancient ,greeks and      
,romans1 and the geography of so much of
 the world as was known to these two    
great nations of antiquity4 ,now1 do not
 expect me to depreciate the earnest and
 enlightened pursuit of classical       
learning4 ,i have not the least desire  
to speak ill of such occupations1 nor   
any sympathy with those who run them    
down4 ,on the contrary1 if my           
opportunities had lain in that          
direction1 there is no investigation    
into which ,i could have thrown myself  
with greater delight than that of       
antiquity4  ,what science can present   
greater attractions than philology8 ,how
 can a lover of literary excellence fail
 to rejoice in the ancient masterpieces8

 ,and with what consistency could ,i1   
whose business lies so much in the      
attempt to decipher the past1 and to    
build up intelligible forms out of the  
scattered fragments of long-extinct     
beings1 fail to take a sympathetic1     
though an unlearned1 interest in the    
labours of a ,niebuhr1 a ,gibbon1 or a  
,grote8 ,classical history is a great   
section of the palaeontology of man2 and
 ,i have the same double respect for it 
as for other kinds of                   
palaeontology--that is to say1 a respect
 for the facts which it establishes as  
for all facts1 and a still greater      
respect for it as a preparation for the 
discovery of a law of progress4  ,but if
 the classics were taught as they might 
be taught--if boys and girls were       
instructed in ,greek and ,latin1 not    
merely as languages1 but as             
illustrations of philological science2  
if a vivid picture of life on the shores
 of the ,mediterranean two thousand     
years ago were imprinted on the minds of

 scholars2 if ancient history were      
taught1 not as a weary series of feuds  
and fights1 but traced to its causes in 
such men placed under such conditions2  
if1 lastly1 the study of the classical  
books were followed in such a manner as 
to impress boys with their beauties1 and
 with the grand simplicity of their     
statement of the everlasting problems of
 human life1 instead of with their      
verbal and grammatical peculiarities2 ,i
 still think it as little proper that   
they should form the basis of a liberal 
education for our contemporaries1 as ,i 
should think it fitting to make that    
sort of palaeontology with which ,i am  
familiar the back-bone of modern        
education4  ,it is wonderful how close a
 parallel to classical training could be
 made out of that palaeontology to which
 ,i refer4 ,in the first place ,i could 
get up an osteological primer so arid1  
so pedantic in its terminology1 so      
altogether distasteful to the youthful  
mind1 as to beat the recent famous      

production of the head-masters out of   
the field in all these excellences4     
,next1 ,i could exercise my boys upon   
easy fossils1 and bring out all their   
powers of memory and all their ingenuity
 in the application of my               
osteo-grammatical rules to the          
interpretation1 or construing1 of those 
fragments4 ,to those who had reached the
 higher classes1 ,i might supply odd    
bones to be built up into animals1      
giving great honour and reward to him   
who succeeded in fabricating monsters   
most entirely in accordance with the    
rules4 ,that would answer to            
verse-making and essay-writing in the   
dead languages4  ,to be sure1 if a great
 comparative anatomist were to look at  
these fabrications he might shake his   
head1 or laugh4 ,but what then8 ,would  
such a catastrophe destroy the parallel8
 ,what1 think you1 would ,cicero1 or    
,horace1 say to the production of the   
best sixth form going8 ,and would not   
,terence stop his ears and run out if he

 could be present at an ,english        
performance of his own plays8 ,would    
,hamlet1 in the mouths of a set of      
,french actors1 who should insist on    
pronouncing ,english after the fashion  
of their own tongue1 be more hideously  
ridiculous8  ,but it will be said that  
,i am forgetting the beauty1 and the    
human interest1 which appertain to      
classical studies4 ,to this ,i reply    
that it is only a very strong man who   
can appreciate the charms of a landscape
 as he is toiling up a steep hill1 along
 a bad road4 ,what with                 
short-windedness1 stones1 ruts1 and a   
pervading sense of the wisdom of rest   
and be thankful1 most of us have little 
enough sense of the beautiful under     
these circumstances4 ,the ordinary      
schoolboy is precisely in this case4 ,he
 finds ,parnassus uncommonly steep1 and 
there is no chance of his having much   
time or inclination to look about him   
till he gets to the top4 ,and nine times
 out of ten he does not get to the top4 

,but if this be a fair picture of the   
results of classical teaching at its    
best--and ,i gather from those who have 
authority to speak on such matters that 
it is so--what is to be said of         
classical teaching at its worst1 or in  
other words1 of the classics of our     
ordinary middle-class schools8 #a ,i    
will tell you4 ,it means getting up     
endless forms and rules by heart4 ,it   
means turning ,latin and ,greek into    
,english1 for the mere sake of being    
able to do it1 and without the smallest 
regard to the worth1 or worthlessness1  
of the author read4 ,it means the       
learning of innumerable1 not always     
decent1 fables in such a shape that the 
meaning they once had is dried up into  
utter trash2 and the only impression    
left upon a boy's mind is1 that the     
people who believed such things must    
have been the greatest idiots the world 
ever saw4 ,and it means1 finally1 that  
after a dozen years spent at this kind  
of work1 the sufferer shall be          

incompetent to interpret a passage in an
 author he has not already got up2 that 
he shall loathe the sight of a ,greek or
 ,latin book2 and that he shall never   
open1 or think of1 a classical writer   
again1 until1 wonderful to relate1 he   
insists upon submitting his sons to the 
same process4  ,these be your gods1 ,o  
,israel6 ,for the sake of this net      
result 7and respectability7 the ,british
 father denies his children all the     
knowledge they might turn to account in 
life1 not merely for the achievement of 
vulgar success1 but for guidance in the 
great crises of human existence4 ,this  
is the stone he offers to those whom he 
is bound by the strongest and tenderest 
ties to feed with bread4         99     
99       99       99       99  ,if      
primary and secondary education are in  
this unsatisfactory state1 what is to be
 said to the universities8 ,this is an  
awful subject1 and one ,i almost fear to
 touch with my unhallowed hands2 but ,i 
can tell you what those say who have    

authority to speak4  ,the ,rector of    
,lincoln ,college1 in his lately        
published valuable ,suggestions for     
,academical ,organisation with especial 
reference to ,oxford1 tells us 7p4      
#abg73--  ,the colleges were1 in their  
origin1 endowments1 not for the elements
 of a general liberal education1 but for
 the prolonged study of special and     
professional faculties by men of riper  
age4 ,the universities embraced both    
these objects4 ,the colleges1 while they
 incidentally aided in elementary       
education1 were specially devoted to the
 highest learning4444  ,this was the    
theory of the middle-age university and 
the design of collegiate foundations in 
their origin4 ,time and circumstances   
have brought about a total change4 ,the 
colleges no longer promote the          
researches of science1 or direct        
professional study4 ,here and there     
college walls may shelter an occasional 
student1 but not in larger proportions  
than may be found in private life4      

,elementary teaching of youths under    
twenty is now the only function         
performed by the university1 and almost 
the only object of college endowments4  
,colleges were homes for the life-study 
of the highest and most abstruse parts  
of knowledge4 ,they have become boarding
 schools in which the elements of the   
learned languages are taught to youths4 
,if ,mr4 ,pattison's high position1 and 
his obvious love and respect for his    
university1 be insufficient to convince 
the outside world that language so      
severe is yet no more than just1 the    
authority of the ,commissioners who     
reported on the ,university of ,oxford  
in #ahej is open to no challenge4 ,yet  
they write3--  ,it is generally         
acknowledged that both ,oxford and the  
country at large suffer greatly from the
 absence of a body of learned men       
devoting their lives to the cultivation 
of science1 and to the direction of     
academical education4  ,the fact that so
 few books of profound research emanate 

from the ,university of ,oxford1        
materially impairs its character as a   
seat of learning1 and consequently its  
hold on the respect of the nation4      
,cambridge can claim no exemption from  
the reproaches addressed to ,oxford4    
,and thus there seems no escape from the
 admission that what we fondly call our 
great seats of learning are simply      
boarding schools for bigger boys2 that  
learned men are not more numerous in    
them than out of them2 that the         
advancement of knowledge is not the     
object of fellows of colleges2 that1 in 
the philosophic calm and meditative     
stillness of their greenswarded courts1 
philosophy does not thrive1 and         
meditation bears few fruits4  ,it is my 
great good fortune to reckon amongst my 
friends resident members of both        
universities1 who are men of learning   
and research1 zealous cultivators of    
science1 keeping before their minds a   
noble ideal of a university1 and doing  
their best to make that ideal a reality2

 and1 to me1 they would necessarily     
typify the universities1 did not the    
authoritative statements ,i have quoted 
compel me to believe that they are      
exceptional1 and not representative men4
 ,indeed1 upon calm consideration1      
several circumstances lead me to think  
that the ,rector of ,lincoln ,college   
and the ,commissioners cannot be far    
wrong4  ,i believe there can be no doubt
 that the foreigner who should wish to  
become acquainted with the scientific1  
or the literary1 activity of modern     
,england1 would simply lose his time and
 his pains if he visited our            
universities with that object4  ,and1 as
 for works of profound research on any  
subject1 and1 above all1 in that        
classical lore for which the            
universities profess to sacrifice almost
 everything else1 why1 a third-rate1    
poverty-stricken ,german university     
turns out more produce of that kind in  
one year1 than our vast and wealthy     
foundations elaborate in ten4  ,ask the 

man who is investigating any question1  
profoundly and thoroughly--be it        
historical1 philosophical1 philological1
 physical1 literary1 or theological2 who
 is trying to make himself master of any
 abstract subject 7except1 perhaps1     
political economy and geology1 both of  
which are intensely ,anglican sciences71
 whether he is not compelled to read    
half a dozen times as many ,german as   
,english books8 ,and whether1 of these  
,english books1 more than one in ten is 
the work of a fellow of a college1 or a 
professor of an ,english university8    
,is this from any lack of power in the  
,english as compared with the ,german   
mind8 ,the countrymen of ,grote and of  
,mill1 of ,faraday1 of ,robert ,brown1  
of ,lyell1 and of ,darwin1 to go no     
further back than the contemporaries of 
men of middle age1 can afford to smile  
at such a suggestion4 ,england can show 
now1 as she has been able to show in    
every generation since civilisation     
spread over the ,west1 individual men   

who hold their own against the world1   
and keep alive the old tradition of her 
intellectual eminence4  ,but1 in the    
majority of cases1 these men are what   
they are in virtue of their native      
intellectual force1 and of a strength of
 character which will not recognise     
impediments4 ,they are not trained in   
the courts of the ,temple of ,science1  
but storm the walls of that edifice in  
all sorts of irregular ways1 and with   
much loss of time and power1 in order to
 obtain their legitimate positions4     
,our universities not only do not       
encourage such men2 do not offer them   
positions1 in which it should be their  
highest duty to do1 thoroughly1 that    
which they are most capable of doing2   
but1 as far as possible1 university     
training shuts out of the minds of those
 among them1 who are subjected to it1   
the prospect that there is anything in  
the world for which they are specially  
fitted4 ,imagine the success of the     
attempt to still the intellectual hunger

 of any of the men ,i have mentioned1 by
 putting before him1 as the object of   
existence1 the successful mimicry of the
 measure of a ,greek song1 or the roll  
of ,ciceronian prose6 ,imagine how much 
success would be likely to attend the   
attempt to persuade such men that the   
education which leads to perfection in  
such elegances is alone to be called    
culture2 while the facts of history1 the
 process of thought1 the conditions of  
moral and social existence1 and the laws
 of physical nature are left to be dealt
 with as they may by outside barbarians6
  ,it is not thus that the ,german      
universities1 from being beneath notice 
a century ago1 have become what they are
 now--the most intensely cultivated and 
the most productive intellectual        
corporations the world has ever seen4   
,the student who repairs to them sees in
 the list of classes and of professors a
 fair picture of the world of knowledge4
 ,whatever he needs to know there is    
some one ready to teach him1 some one   

competent to discipline him in the way  
of learning2 whatever his special bent1 
let him but be able and diligent1 and in
 due time he shall find distinction and 
a career4 ,among his professors1 he sees
 men whose names are known and revered  
throughout the civilised world2 and     
their living example infects him with a 
noble ambition1 and a love for the      
spirit of work4  ,the ,germans dominate 
the intellectual world by virtue of the 
same simple secret as that which made   
,napoleon the master of old ,europe4    
,they have declared la carrire ouverte  
aux talents1 and every ,bursch marches  
with a professor's gown in his knapsack4
 ,let him become a great scholar1 or man
 of science1 and ministers will compete 
for his services4 ,in ,germany1 they do 
not leave the chance of his holding the 
office he would render illustrious to   
the tender mercies of a hot canvass1 and
 the final wisdom of a mob of country   
parsons4  ,in short1 in ,germany1 the   
universities are exactly what the       

,rector of ,lincoln and the             
,commissioners tell us the ,english     
universities are not2 that is to say1   
corporations of learned men devoting    
their lives to the cultivation of       
science1 and the direction of academical
 education4 ,they are not boarding      
schools for youths1 nor clerical        
seminaries2 but institutions for the    
higher culture of men1 in which the     
theological faculty is of no more       
importance1 or prominence1 than the     
rest2 and which are truly universities1 
since they strive to represent and      
embody the totality of human knowledge1 
and to find room for all forms of       
intellectual activity4  ,may zealous and
 clear-headed reformers like ,mr4       
,pattison succeed in their noble        
endeavours to shape our universities    
towards some such ideal as this1 without
 losing what is valuable and distinctive
 in their social tone6 ,but until they  
have succeeded1 a liberal education will
 be no more obtainable in our ,oxford   

and ,cambridge ,universities than in our
 public schools4  ,if ,i am justified in
 my conception of the ideal of a liberal
 education2 and if what ,i have said    
about the existing educational          
institutions of the country is also     
true1 it is clear that the two have no  
sort of relation to one another2 that   
the best of our schools and the most    
complete of our university trainings    
give but a narrow1 one-sided1 and       
essentially illiberal education--while  
the worst give what is really next to no
 education at all4 ,the ,south ,london  
,working-,men's ,college could not copy 
any of these institutions if it would2  
,i am bold enough to express the        
conviction that it ought not if it      
could4  ,for what is wanted is the      
reality and not the mere name of a      
liberal education2 and this ,college    
must steadily set before itself the     
ambition to be able to give that        
education sooner or later4 ,at present  
we are but beginning1 sharpening our    

educational tools1 as it were1 and1     
except a modicum of physical science1 we
 are not able to offer much more than is
 to be found in an ordinary school4     
,moral and social science--one of the   
greatest and most fruitful of our future
 classes1 ,i hope--at present lacks only
 one thing in our programme1 and that is
 a teacher4 ,a considerable want1 no    
doubt2 but it must be recollected that  
it is much better to want a teacher than
 to want the desire to learn4  ,further1
 we need what1 for want of a better     
name1 ,i must call ,physical ,geography4
 ,what ,i mean is that which the        
,germans call ,erdkunde4 ,it is a       
description of the earth1 of its place  
and relation to other bodies2 of its    
general structure1 and of its great     
features--winds1 tides1 mountains1      
plains3 of the chief forms of the       
vegetable and animal worlds1 of the     
varieties of man4 ,it is the peg upon   
which the greatest quantity of useful   
and entertaining scientific information 

can be suspended4  ,literature is not   
upon the ,college programme2 but ,i hope
 some day to see it there4 ,for         
literature is the greatest of all       
sources of refined pleasure1 and one of 
the great uses of a liberal education is
 to enable us to enjoy that pleasure4   
,there is scope enough for the purposes 
of liberal education in the study of the
 rich treasures of our own language     
alone4 ,all that is needed is direction1
 and the cultivation of a refined taste 
by attention to sound criticism4 ,but   
there is no reason why ,french and      
,german should not be mastered          
sufficiently to read what is worth      
reading in those languages with pleasure
 and with profit4  ,and finally1 by and 
by1 we must have ,history2 treated not  
as a succession of battles and          
dynasties2 not as a series of           
biographies2 not as evidence that       
,providence has always been on the side 
of either ,whigs or ,tories2 but as the 
development of man in times past1 and in

 other conditions than our own4  ,but1  
as it is one of the principles of our   
,college to be self-supporting1 the     
public must lead1 and we must follow1 in
 these matters4 ,if my hearers take to  
heart what ,i have said about liberal   
education1 they will desire these       
things1 and ,i doubt not we shall be    
able to supply them4 ,but we must wait  
till the demand is made4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,footnotes3  #a ,for a justification of 
what is here said about these schools1  
see that valuable book1 ,essays on a    
,liberal ,education1 passim4     ,v     
,,scientific ,,education3 ,,notes ,,of  
,,an ,,after-,,dinner ,,speech  #ahfi   
,mr4 ,thackeray1 talking of after-dinner
 speeches1 has lamented that     one    
never can recollect the fine things one 
thought of in the     cab1 in going to  
the place of entertainment4 ,i am not   
aware that     there are any fine things
 in the following pages1 but such as    
there are stand to a speech which really

 did get itself spoken1 at     the      
hospitable table of the ,liverpool      
,philomathic ,society1 more or     less 
in the position of what one thought of  
in the cab4   ,the introduction of      
scientific training into the general    
education of the country is a topic upon
 which ,i could not have spoken1 without
 some more or less apologetic           
introduction1 a few years ago4 ,but upon
 this1 as upon other matters1 public    
opinion has of late undergone a rapid   
modification4 ,committees of both       
,houses of the ,legislature have agreed 
that something must be done in this     
direction1 and have even thrown out     
timid and faltering suggestions as to   
what should be done2 while at the       
opposite pole of society1 committees of 
working men have expressed their        
conviction that scientific training is  
the one thing needful for their         
advancement1 whether as men1 or as      
workmen4 ,only the other day1 it was my 
duty to take part in the reception of a 

deputation of ,london working men1 who  
desired to learn from ,sir ,roderick    
,murchison1 the ,director of the ,royal 
,school of ,mines1 whether the          
organisation of the ,institution in     
,jermyn ,street could be made available 
for the supply of that scientific       
instruction the need of which could not 
have been apprehended1 or stated1 more  
clearly than it was by them4  ,the heads
 of colleges in our great universities  
7who have not the reputation of being   
the most mobile of persons7 have1 in    
several cases1 thought it well that1 out
 of the great number of honours and     
rewards at their disposal1 a few should 
hereafter be given to the cultivators of
 the physical sciences4 ,nay1 ,i hear   
that some colleges have even gone so far
 as to appoint one1 or1 maybe1 two      
special tutors for the purpose of       
putting the facts and principles of     
physical science before the             
undergraduate mind4 ,and ,i say it with 
gratitude and great respect for those   

eminent persons1 that the head masters  
of our public schools1 ,eton1 ,harrow1  
,winchester1 have addressed themselves  
to the problem of introducing           
instruction in physical science among   
the studies of those great educational  
bodies1 with much honesty of purpose and
 enlightenment of understanding2 and ,i 
live in hope that1 before long1         
important changes in this direction will
 be carried into effect in those        
strongholds of ancient prescription4 ,in
 fact1 such changes have already been   
made1 and physical science1 even now1   
constitutes a recognised element of the 
school curriculum in ,harrow and ,rugby1
 whilst ,i understand that ample        
preparations for such studies are being 
made at ,eton and elsewhere4  ,looking  
at these facts1 ,i might perhaps spare  
myself the trouble of giving any reasons
 for the introduction of physical       
science into elementary education2 yet  
,i cannot but think that it may be well 
if ,i place before you some             

considerations which1 perhaps1 have     
hardly received full attention4  ,at    
other times1 and in other places1 ,i    
have endeavoured to state the higher and
 more abstract arguments1 by which the  
study of physical science may be shown  
to be indispensable to the complete     
training of the human mind2 but ,i do   
not wish it to be supposed that1 because
 ,i happen to be devoted to more or less
 abstract and unpractical pursuits1 ,i  
am insensible to the weight which ought 
to be attached to that which has been   
said to be the ,english conception of   
,paradise--namely1 getting on4 ,i look  
upon it1 that getting on is a very      
important matter indeed4 ,i do not mean 
merely for the sake of the coarse and   
tangible results of success1 but because
 humanity is so constituted that a vast 
number of us would never be impelled to 
those stretches of exertion which make1 
us wiser and more capable men1 if it    
were not for the absolute necessity of  
putting on our faculties all the strain 

they will bear1 for the purpose of      
getting on in the most practical sense4 
,now the value of a knowledge of        
physical science as a means of getting  
on is indubitable4 ,there are hardly any
 of our trades1 except the merely       
huckstering ones1 in which some         
knowledge of science may not be directly
 profitable to the pursuer of that      
occupation4 ,as industry attains higher 
stages of its development1 as its       
processes become more complicated and   
refined1 and competition more keen1 the 
sciences are dragged in1 one by one1 to 
take their share in the fray2 and he who
 can best avail himself of their help is
 the man who will come out uppermost in 
that struggle for existence1 which goes 
on as fiercely beneath the smooth       
surface of modern society1 as among the 
wild inhabitants of the woods4  ,but in 
addition to the bearing of science on   
ordinary practical life1 let me direct  
your attention to its immense influence 
on several of the professions4 ,i ask   

any one who has adopted the calling of  
an engineer1 how much time he lost when 
he left school1 because he had to devote
 himself to pursuits which were         
absolutely novel and strange1 and of    
which he had not obtained the remotest  
conception from his instructors8 ,he had
 to familiarise himself with ideas of   
the course and powers of ,nature1 to    
which his attention had never been      
directed during his school-life1 and to 
learn1 for the first time1 that a world 
of facts lies outside and beyond the    
world of words4 ,i appeal to those who  
know what engineering is1 to say how far
 ,i am right in respect to that         
profession2 but with regard to another1 
of no less importance1 ,i shall venture 
to speak of my own knowledge4 ,there is 
no one of us who may not at any moment  
be thrown1 bound hand and foot by       
physical incapacity1 into the hands of a
 medical practitioner4 ,the chances of  
life and death for all and each of us   
may1 at any moment1 depend on the skill 

with which that practitioner is able to 
make out what is wrong in our bodily    
frames1 and on his ability to apply the 
proper remedy to the defect4  ,the      
necessities of modern life are such1 and
 the class from which the medical       
profession is chiefly recruited is so   
situated1 that few medical men can hope 
to spend more than three or four1 or it 
may be five1 years in the pursuit of    
those studies which are immediately     
germane to physic4 ,how is that all too 
brief period spent at present8 ,i speak 
as an old examiner1 having served some  
eleven or twelve years in that capacity 
in the ,university of ,london1 and      
therefore having a practical            
acquaintance with the subject2 but ,i   
might fortify myself by the authority of
 the ,president of the ,college of      
,surgeons1 ,mr4 ,quain1 whom ,i heard   
the other day in an admirable address   
7the ,hunterian ,oration7 deal fully and
 wisely with this very topic4 #a  ,a    
young man commencing the study of       

medicine is at once required to         
endeavour to make an acquaintance with a
 number of sciences1 such as ,physics1  
as ,chemistry1 as ,botany1 as           
,physiology1 which are absolutely and   
entirely strange to him1 however        
excellent his so-called education at    
school may have been4 ,not only is he   
devoid of all apprehension of scientific
 conceptions1 not only does he fail to  
attach any meaning to the words matter1 
force1 or law in their scientific       
senses1 but1 worse still1 he has no     
notion of what it is to come into       
contact with ,nature1 or to lay his mind
 alongside of a physical fact1 and try  
to conquer it1 in the way our great     
naval hero told his captains to master  
their enemies4 ,his whole mind has been 
given to books1 and ,i am hardly        
exaggerating if ,i say that they are    
more real to him than ,nature4 ,he      
imagines that all knowledge can be got  
out of books1 and rests upon the        
authority of some master or other2 nor  

does he entertain any misgiving that the
 method of learning which led to        
proficiency in the rules of grammar will
 suffice to lead him to a mastery of the
 laws of ,nature4 ,the youngster1 thus  
unprepared for serious study1 is turned 
loose among his medical studies1 with   
the result1 in nine cases out of ten1   
that the first year of his curriculum is
 spent in learning how to learn4        
,indeed1 he is lucky if1 at the end of  
the first year1 by the exertions of his 
teachers and his own industry1 he has   
acquired even that art of arts4 ,after  
which there remain not more than three1 
or perhaps four1 years for the          
profitable study of such vast sciences  
as ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 ,therapeutics1
 ,medicine1 ,surgery1 ,obstetrics1 and  
the like1 upon his knowledge or         
ignorance of which it depends whether   
the practitioner shall diminish1 or     
increase1 the bills of mortality4 ,now  
what is it but the preposterous         
condition of ordinary school education  

which prevents a young man of seventeen1
 destined for the practice of medicine1 
from being fully prepared for the study 
of ,nature2 and from coming to the      
medical school1 equipped with that      
preliminary knowledge of the principles 
of ,physics1 of ,chemistry and of       
,biology1 upon which he has now to waste
 one of the precious years1 every moment
 of which ought to be given to those    
studies which bear directly upon the    
knowledge of his profession8  ,there is 
another profession1 to the members of   
which1 ,i think1 a certain preliminary  
knowledge of physical science might be  
quite as valuable as to the medical man4
 ,the practitioner of medicine sets     
before himself the noble object of      
taking care of man's bodily welfare2 but
 the members of this other profession   
undertake to minister to minds diseased1
 and1 so far as may be1 to diminish sin 
and soften sorrow4 ,like the medical    
profession1 the clerical1 of which ,i   
now speak1 rests its power to heal upon 

its knowledge of the order of the       
universe--upon certain theories of man's
 relation to that which lies outside    
him4 ,it is not my business to express  
any opinion about these theories4 ,i    
merely wish to point out that1 like all 
other theories1 they are professedly    
based upon matters of fact4 ,thus the   
clerical profession has to deal with the
 facts of ,nature from a certain point  
of view2 and hence it comes into contact
 with that of the man of science1 who   
has to treat the same facts from another
 point of view4 ,you know how often that
 contact is to be described as          
collision1 or violent friction2 and how 
great the heat1 how little the light1   
which commonly results from it4  ,in the
 interests of fair play1 to say nothing 
of those of mankind1 ,i ask1 ,why do not
 the clergy as a body acquire1 as a part
 of their preliminary education1 some   
such tincture of physical science as    
will put them in a position to          
understand the difficulties in the way  

of accepting their theories1 which are  
forced upon the mind of every thoughtful
 and intelligent man1 who has taken the 
trouble to instruct himself in the      
elements of natural knowledge8  ,some   
time ago ,i attended a large meeting of 
the clergy1 for the purpose of          
delivering an address which ,i had been 
invited to give4 ,i spoke of some of the
 most elementary facts in physical      
science1 and of the manner in which they
 directly contradict certain of the     
ordinary teachings of the clergy4 ,the  
result was1 that1 after ,i had finished1
 one section of the assembled           
ecclesiastics attacked me with all the  
intemperance of pious zeal1 for stating 
facts and conclusions which no competent
 judge doubts2 while1 after the first   
speakers had subsided1 amidst the cheers
 of the great majority of their         
colleagues1 the more rational minority  
rose to tell me that ,i had taken wholly
 superfluous pains1 that they already   
knew all about what ,i had told them1   

and perfectly agreed with me4 ,a        
hard-headed friend of mine1 who was     
present1 put the not unnatural question1
 ,then why don't you say so in your     
pulpits8 to which inquiry ,i heard no   
reply4  ,in fact the clergy are at      
present divisible into three sections3  
an immense body who are ignorant and    
speak out2 a small proportion who know  
and are silent2 and a minute minority   
who know and speak according to their   
knowledge4 ,by the clergy1 ,i mean      
especially the ,protestant clergy4 ,our 
great antagonist--,i speak as a man of  
science--the ,roman ,catholic ,church1  
the one great spiritual organisation    
which is able to resist1 and must1 as a 
matter of life and death1 resist1 the   
progress of science and modern          
civilisation1 manages her affairs much  
better4  ,it was my fortune some time   
ago to pay a visit to one of the most   
important of the institutions in which  
the clergy of the ,roman ,catholic      
,church in these islands are trained2   

and it seemed to me that the difference 
between these men and the comfortable   
champions of ,anglicanism and of        
,dissent1 was comparable to the         
difference between our gallant          
,volunteers and the trained veterans of 
,napoleon's ,old ,guard4  ,the ,catholic
 priest is trained to know his business1
 and do it effectually4 ,the professors 
of the college in question1 learned1    
zealous1 and determined men1 permitted  
me to speak frankly with them4 ,we      
talked like outposts of opposed armies  
during a truce--as friendly enemies2 and
 when ,i ventured to point out the      
difficulties their students would have  
to encounter from scientific thought1   
they replied3 ,our ,church has lasted   
many ages1 and has passed safely through
 many storms4 ,the present is but a new 
gust of the old tempest1 and we do not  
turn out our young men less fitted to   
weather it1 than they have been1 in     
former times1 to cope with the          
difficulties of those times4 ,the       

heresies of the day are explained to    
them by their professors of philosophy  
and science1 and they are taught how    
those heresies are to be met4  ,i       
heartily respect an organisation which  
faces its enemies in this way2 and ,i   
wish that all ecclesiastical            
organisations were in as effective a    
condition4 ,i think it would be better1 
not only for them1 but for us4 ,the army
 of liberal thought is1 at present1 in  
very loose order2 and many a spirited   
free-thinker makes use of his freedom   
mainly to vent nonsense4 ,we should be  
the better for a vigorous and watchful  
enemy to hammer us into cohesion and    
discipline2 and ,i1 for one1 lament that
 the bench of ,bishops cannot show a man
 of the calibre of ,butler of the       
,analogy1 who1 if he were alive1 would  
make short work of much of the current  
priori infidelity4  ,i hope you will    
consider that the arguments ,i have now 
stated1 even if there were no better    
ones1 constitute a sufficient apology   

for urging the introduction of science  
into schools4 ,the next question to     
which ,i have to address myself is1     
,what sciences ought to be thus taught8 
,and this is one of the most important  
of questions1 because my side 7,i am    
afraid ,i am a terribly candid friend7  
sometimes spoils its cause by going in  
for too much4 ,there are other forms of 
culture beside physical science2 and ,i 
should be profoundly sorry to see the   
fact forgotten1 or even to observe a    
tendency to starve1 or cripple1         
literary1 or aesthetic1 culture for the 
sake of science4 ,such a narrow view of 
the nature of education has nothing to  
do with my firm conviction that a       
complete and thorough scientific culture
 ought to be introduced into all        
schools4 ,by this1 however1 ,i do not   
mean that every schoolboy should be     
taught everything in science4 ,that     
would be a very absurd thing to         
conceive1 and a very mischievous thing  
to attempt4 ,what ,i mean is1 that no   

boy nor girl should leave school without
 possessing a grasp of the general      
character of science1 and without having
 been disciplined1 more or less1 in the 
methods of all sciences2 so that1 when  
turned into the world to make their own 
way1 they shall be prepared to face     
scientific problems1 not by knowing at  
once the conditions of every problem1 or
 by being able at once to solve it2 but 
by being familiar with the general      
current of scientific thought1 and by   
being able to apply the methods of      
science in the proper way1 when they    
have acquainted themselves with the     
conditions of the special problem4      
,that is what ,i understand by          
scientific education4 ,to furnish a boy 
with such an education1 it is by no     
means necessary that he should devote   
his whole school existence to physical  
science3 in fact1 no one would lament so
 one-sided a proceeding more than ,i4   
,nay more1 it is not necessary for him  
to give up more than a moderate share of

 his time to such studies1 if they be   
properly selected and arranged1 and if  
he be trained in them in a fitting      
manner4  ,i conceive the proper course  
to be somewhat as follows4 ,to begin    
with1 let every child be instructed in  
those general views of the phaenomena of
 ,nature for which we have no exact     
,english name4 ,the nearest             
approximation to a name for what ,i     
mean1 which we possess1 is physical     
geography4 ,the ,germans have a better1 
,erdkunde 7earth knowledge or geology in
 its etymological sense71 that is to    
say1 a general knowledge of the earth1  
and what is on it1 in it1 and about it4 
,if any one who has had experience of   
the ways of young children will call to 
mind their questions1 he will find that 
so far as they can be put into any      
scientific category1 they come under    
this head of ,erdkunde4 ,the child asks1
 ,what is the moon1 and why does it     
shine8 ,what is this water1 and where   
does it run8 ,what is the wind8 ,what   

makes this waves in the sea8 ,where does
 this animal live1 and what is the use  
of that plant8 ,and if not snubbed and  
stunted by being told not to ask foolish
 questions1 there is no limit to the    
intellectual craving of a young child2  
nor any bounds to the slow1 but solid1  
accretion of knowledge and development  
of the thinking faculty in this way4 ,to
 all such questions1 answers which are  
necessarily incomplete1 though true as  
far as they go1 may be given by any     
teacher whose ideas represent real      
knowledge and not mere book learning2   
and a panoramic view of ,nature1        
accompanied by a strong infusion of the 
scientific habit of mind1 may thus be   
placed within the reach of every child  
of nine or ten4  ,after this preliminary
 opening of the eyes to the great       
spectacle of the daily progress of      
,nature1 as the reasoning faculties of  
the child grow1 and he becomes familiar 
with the use of the tools of            
knowledge--reading1 writing1 and        

elementary mathematics--he should pass  
on to what is1 in the more strict sense1
 physical science4 ,now there are two   
kinds of physical science3 the one      
regards form and the relation of forms  
to one another2 the other deals with    
causes and effects4 ,in many of what we 
term sciences1 these two kinds are mixed
 up together2 but systematic botany is a
 pure example of the former kind1 and   
physics of the latter kind1 of science4 
,every educational advantage which      
training in physical science can give is
 obtainable from the proper study of    
these two2 and ,i should be contented1  
for the present1 if they1 added to our  
,erdkunde1 furnished the whole of the   
scientific curriculum of school4        
,indeed1 ,i conceive it would be one of 
the greatest boons which could be       
conferred upon ,england1 if henceforward
 every child in the country were        
instructed in the general knowledge of  
the things about it1 in the elements of 
physics1 and of botany4 ,but ,i should  

be still better pleased if there could  
be added somewhat of chemistry1 and an  
elementary acquaintance with human      
physiology4  ,so far as school education
 is concerned1 ,i want to go no further 
just now2 and ,i believe that such      
instruction would make an excellent     
introduction to that preparatory        
scientific training which1 as ,i have   
indicated1 is so essential for the      
successful pursuit of our most important
 professions4 ,but this modicum of      
instruction must be so given as to      
ensure real knowledge and practical     
discipline4 ,if scientific education is 
to be dealt with as mere bookwork1 it   
will be better not to attempt it1 but to
 stick to the ,latin ,grammar which     
makes no pretence to be anything but    
bookwork4  ,if the great benefits of    
scientific training are sought1 it is   
essential that such training should be  
real3 that is to say1 that the mind of  
the scholar should be brought into      
direct relation with fact1 that he      

should not merely be told a thing1 but  
made to see by the use of his own       
intellect and ability that the thing is 
so and no otherwise4 ,the great         
peculiarity of scientific training1 that
 in virtue of which it cannot be        
replaced by any other discipline        
whatsoever1 is this bringing of the mind
 directly into contact with fact1 and   
practising the intellect in the         
completest form of induction2 that is to
 say1 in drawing conclusions from       
particular facts made known by immediate
 observation of ,nature4  ,the other    
studies which enter into ordinary       
education do not discipline the mind in 
this way4 ,mathematical training is     
almost purely deductive4 ,the           
mathematician starts with a few simple  
propositions1 the proof of which is so  
obvious that they are called            
self-evident1 and the rest of his work  
consists of subtle deductions from them4
 ,the teaching of languages1 at any rate
 as ordinarily practised1 is of the same

 general nature1--authority and         
tradition furnish the data1 and the     
mental operations of the scholar are    
deductive4  ,again3 if history be the   
subject of study1 the facts are still   
taken upon the evidence of tradition and
 authority4 ,you cannot make a boy see  
the battle of ,thermopylae for himself1 
or know1 of his own knowledge1 that     
,cromwell once ruled ,england4 ,there is
 no getting into direct contact with    
natural fact by this road2 there is no  
dispensing with authority1 but rather a 
resting upon it4  ,in all these         
respects1 science differs from other    
educational discipline1 and prepares the
 scholar for common life4 ,what have we 
to do in every-day life8 ,most of the   
business which demands our attention is 
matter of fact1 which needs1 in the     
first place1 to be accurately observed  
or apprehended2 in the second1 to be    
interpreted by inductive and deductive  
reasonings1 which are altogether similar
 in their nature to those employed in   

science4 ,in the one case1 as in the    
other1 whatever is taken for granted is 
so taken at one's own peril2 fact and   
reason are the ultimate arbiters1 and   
patience and honesty are the great      
helpers out of difficulty4  ,but if     
scientific training is to yield its most
 eminent results1 it must1 ,i repeat1 be
 made practical4 ,that is to say1 in    
explaining to a child the general       
phaenomena of ,nature1 you must1 as far 
as possible1 give reality to your       
teaching by object-lessons2 in teaching 
him botany1 he must handle the plants   
and dissect the flowers for himself2 in 
teaching him physics and chemistry1 you 
must not be solicitous to fill him with 
information1 but you must be careful    
that what he learns he knows of his own 
knowledge4 ,don't be satisfied with     
telling him that a magnet attracts iron4
 ,let him see that it does2 let him feel
 the pull of the one upon the other for 
himself4 ,and1 especially1 tell him that
 it is his duty to doubt until he is    

compelled1 by the absolute authority of 
,nature1 to believe that which is       
written in books4 ,pursue this          
discipline carefully and                
conscientiously1 and you may make sure  
that1 however scanty may be the measure 
of information which you have poured    
into the boy's mind1 you have created an
 intellectual habit of priceless value  
in practical life4  ,one is constantly  
asked1 ,when should this scientific     
education be commenced8 ,i should say   
with the dawn of intelligence4 ,as ,i   
have already said1 a child seeks for    
information about matters of physical   
science as soon as it begins to talk4   
,the first teaching it wants is an      
object-lesson of one sort or another2   
and as soon as it is fit for systematic 
instruction of any kind1 it is fit for a
 modicum of science4  ,people talk of   
the difficulty of teaching young        
children such matters1 and in the same  
breath insist upon their learning their 
,catechism1 which contains propositions 

far harder to comprehend than anything  
in the educational course ,i have       
proposed4 ,again3 ,i am incessantly told
 that we1 who advocate the introduction 
of science in schools1 make no allowance
 for the stupidity of the average boy or
 girl2 but1 in my belief1 that          
stupidity1 in nine cases out of ten1    
fit1 non nascitur1 and is developed by a
 long process of parental and pedagogic 
repression of the natural intellectual  
appetites1 accompanied by a persistent  
attempt to create artificial ones for   
food which is not only tasteless1 but   
essentially indigestible4  ,those who   
urge the difficulty of instructing young
 people in science are apt to forget    
another very important condition of     
success--important in all kinds of      
teaching1 but most essential1 ,i am     
disposed to think1 when the scholars are
 very young4 ,this condition is1 that   
the teacher should himself really and   
practically know his subject4 ,if he    
does1 he will be able to speak of it in 

the easy language1 and with the         
completeness of conviction1 with which  
he talks of any ordinary every-day      
matter4 ,if he does not1 he will be     
afraid to wander beyond the limits of   
the technical phraseology which he has  
got up2 and a dead dogmatism1 which     
oppresses1 or raises opposition1 will   
take the place of the lively confidence1
 born of personal conviction1 which     
cheers and encourages the eminently     
sympathetic mind of childhood4  ,i have 
already hinted that such scientific     
training as we seek for may be given    
without making any extravagant claim    
upon the time now devoted to education4 
,we ask only for a most favoured nation 
clause in our treaty with the           
schoolmaster2 we demand no more than    
that science shall have as much time    
given to it as any other single         
subject--say four hours a week in each  
class of an ordinary school4  ,for the  
present1 ,i think men of science would  
be well content with such an arrangement

 as this3 but speaking for myself1 ,i do
 not pretend to believe that such an    
arrangement can be1 or will be1         
permanent4 ,in these times the          
educational tree seems to me to have its
 roots in the air1 its leaves and       
flowers in the ground2 and1 ,i confess1 
,i should very much like to turn it     
upside down1 so that its roots might be 
solidly embedded among the facts of     
,nature1 and draw thence a sound        
nutriment for the foliage and fruit of  
literature and of art4 ,no educational  
system can have a claim to permanence1  
unless it recognises the truth that     
education has two great ends to which   
everything else must be subordinated4   
,the one of these is to increase        
knowledge2 the other is to develop the  
love of right and the hatred of wrong4  
,with wisdom and uprightness a nation   
can make its way worthily1 and beauty   
will follow in the footsteps of the two1
 even if she be not specially invited2  
while there is perhaps no sight in the  

whole world more saddening and revolting
 than is offered by men sunk in         
ignorance of everything but what other  
men have written2 seemingly devoid of   
moral belief or guidance2 but with the  
sense of beauty so keen1 and the power  
of expression so cultivated1 that their 
sensual caterwauling may be almost      
mistaken for the music of the spheres4  
,at present1 education is almost        
entirely devoted to the cultivation of  
the power of expression1 and of the     
sense of literary beauty4 ,the matter of
 having anything to say1 beyond a hash  
of other people's opinions1 or of       
possessing any criterion of beauty1 so  
that we may distinguish between the     
,godlike and the devilish1 is left aside
 as of no moment4 ,i think ,i do not err
 in saying that if science were made a  
foundation of education1 instead of     
being1 at most1 stuck on as cornice to  
the edifice1 this state of things could 
not exist4  ,in advocating the          
introduction of physical science as a   

leading element in education1 ,i by no  
means refer only to the higher schools4 
,on the contrary1 ,i believe that such a
 change is even more imperatively called
 for in those primary schools1 in which 
the children of the poor are expected to
 turn to the best account the little    
time they can devote to the acquisition 
of knowledge4 ,a great step in this     
direction has already been made by the  
establishment of science-classes under  
the ,department of ,science and ,art1--a
 measure which came into existence      
unnoticed1 but which will1 ,i believe1  
turn out to be of more importance to the
 welfare of the people than many        
political changes over which the noise  
of battle has rent the air4  ,under the 
regulations to which ,i refer1 a        
schoolmaster can set up a class in one  
or more branches of science2 his pupils 
will be examined1 and the ,state will   
pay him1 at a certain rate1 for all who 
succeed in passing4 ,i have acted as an 
examiner under this system from the     

beginning of its establishment1 and this
 year ,i expect to have not fewer than a
 couple of thousand sets of answers to  
questions in ,physiology1 mainly from   
young people of the artisan class1 who  
have been taught in the schools which   
are now scattered all over great        
,britain and ,ireland4 ,some of my      
colleagues1 who have to deal with       
subjects such as ,geometry1 for which   
the present teaching power is better    
organised1 ,i understand are likely to  
have three or four times as many papers4
 ,so far as my own subjects are         
concerned1 ,i can undertake to say that 
a great deal of the teaching1 the       
results of which are before me in these 
examinations1 is very sound and good2   
and ,i think it is in the power of the  
examiners1 not only to keep up the      
present standard1 but to cause an almost
 unlimited improvement4 ,now what does  
this mean8 ,it means that by holding out
 a very moderate inducement1 the masters
 of primary schools in many parts of the

 country have been led to convert them  
into little foci of scientific          
instruction2 and that they and their    
pupils have contrived to find1 or to    
make1 time enough to carry out this     
object with a very considerable degree  
of efficiency4 ,that efficiency will1 ,i
 doubt not1 be very much increased as   
the system becomes known and perfected1 
even with the very limited leisure left 
to masters and teachers on week-days4   
,and this leads me to ask1 ,why should  
scientific teaching be limited to       
week-days8  ,ecclesiastically-minded    
persons are in the habit of calling     
things they do not like by very hard    
names1 and ,i should not wonder if they 
brand the proposition ,i am about to    
make as blasphemous1 and worse4 ,but1   
not minding this1 ,i venture to ask1    
,would there really be anything wrong in
 using part of ,sunday for the purpose  
of instructing those who have no other  
leisure1 in a knowledge of the          
phaenomena of ,nature1 and of man's     

relation to ,nature8  ,i should like to 
see a scientific ,sunday-school in every
 parish1 not for the purpose of         
superseding any existing means of       
teaching the people the things that are 
for their good1 but side by side with   
them4 ,i cannot but think that there is 
room for all of us to work in helping to
 bridge over the great abyss of         
ignorance which lies at our feet4  ,and 
if any of the ecclesiastical persons to 
whom ,i have referred1 object that they 
find it derogatory to the honour of the 
,god whom they worship1 to awaken the   
minds of the young to the infinite      
wonder and majesty of the works which   
they proclaim ,his1 and to teach them   
those laws which must needs be ,his     
laws1 and therefore of all things       
needful for man to know--,i can only    
recommend them to be let blood and put  
on low diet4 ,there must be something   
very wrong going on in the instrument of
 logic if it turns out such conclusions 
from such premises4         99       99 

99       99       99  ,footnotes3  #a   
,mr4 ,quam's words 7,medical ,times and 
,gazette1 ,february #bj7 are3--,a few   
words as to our special ,medical course 
of instruction and the influence upon it
 of such changes in the elementary      
schools as ,i have mentioned4 ,the      
student now enters at once upon several 
sciences--physics1 chemistry1 anatomy1  
physiology1 botany1 pharmacy1           
therapeutics--all these1 the facts and  
the language and the laws of each1 to be
 mastered in eighteen months4 ,up to the
 beginning of the ,medical course many  
have learned little4 ,we cannot claim   
anything better than the ,examiner of   
the ,university of ,london and the      
,cambridge ,lecturer have reported for  
their ,universities4 ,supposing that at 
school young people had acquired some   
exact elementary knowledge in physics1  
chemistry1 and a branch of natural      
history--say botany--with the physiology
 connected with it1 they would then have
 gained necessary knowledge1 with some  

practice in inductive reasoning4 ,the   
whole studies are processes of          
observation and induction--the best     
discipline of the mind for the purposes 
of life--for our purposes not less than 
any4 ',by such study 7says ,dr4         
,whewell7 of one or more departments of 
inductive science the mind may escape   
from the thraldom of mere words4' ,by   
that plan the burden of the early       
,medical course would be much lightened1
 and more time devoted to practical     
studies1 including ,sir ,thomas         
,watson's 'final and supreme stage' of  
the knowledge of ,medicine4     ,,vi    
,,science ,,and ,,culture  #ahhj   ,six 
years ago1 as some of my present hearers
 may remember1 ,i had the privilege of  
addressing a large assemblage of the    
inhabitants of this city1 who had       
gathered together to do honour to the   
memory of their famous townsman1 ,joseph
 ,priestley2 #a and1 if any satisfaction
 attaches to posthumous glory1 we may   
hope that the manes of the burnt-out    

philosopher were then finally appeased4 
,no man1 however1 who is endowed with a 
fair share of common sense1 and not more
 than a fair share of vanity1 will      
identify either contemporary or         
posthumous fame with the highest good2  
and ,priestley's life leaves no doubt   
that he1 at any rate1 set a much higher 
value upon the advancement of knowledge1
 and the promotion of that freedom of   
thought which is at once the cause and  
the consequence of intellectual         
progress4  ,hence ,i am disposed to     
think that1 if ,priestley could be      
amongst us to-day1 the occasion of our  
meeting would afford him even greater   
pleasure than the proceedings which     
celebrated the centenary of his chief   
discovery4 ,the kindly heart would be   
moved1 the high sense of social duty    
would be satisfied1 by the spectacle of 
well-earned wealth1 neither squandered  
in tawdry luxury and vainglorious show1 
nor scattered with the careless charity 
which blesses neither him that gives nor

 him that takes1 but expended in the    
execution of a well-considered plan for 
the aid of present and future           
generations of those who are willing to 
help themselves4  ,we shall all be of   
one mind thus far4 ,but it is needful to
 share ,priestley's keen interest in    
physical science2 and to have learned1  
as he had learned1 the value of         
scientific training in fields of inquiry
 apparently far remote from physical    
science2 in order to appreciate1 as he  
would have appreciated1 the value of the
 noble gift which ,sir ,josiah ,mason   
has bestowed upon the inhabitants of the
 ,midland district4  ,for us children of
 the nineteenth century1 however1 the   
establishment of a college under the    
conditions of ,sir ,josiah ,mason's     
,trust1 has a significance apart from   
any which it could have possessed a     
hundred years ago4 ,it appears to be an 
indication that we are reaching the     
crisis of the battle1 or rather of the  
long series of battles1 which have been 

fought over education in a campaign     
which began long before ,priestley's    
time1 and will probably not be finished 
just yet4  ,in the last century1 the    
combatants were the champions of ancient
 literature on the one side1 and those  
of modern literature on the other2 but1 
some thirty years #b ago1 the contest   
became complicated by the appearance of 
a third army1 ranged round the banner of
 ,physical ,science4  ,i am not aware   
that any one has authority to speak in  
the name of this new host4 ,for it must 
be admitted to be somewhat of a guerilla
 force1 composed largely of irregulars1 
each of whom fights pretty much for his 
own hand4 ,but the impressions of a full
 private1 who has seen a good deal of   
service in the ranks1 respecting the    
present position of affairs and the     
conditions of a permanent peace1 may not
 be devoid of interest2 and ,i do not   
know that ,i could make a better use of 
the present opportunity than by laying  
them before you4         99       99    

99       99       99  ,from the time    
that the first suggestion to introduce  
physical science into ordinary education
 was timidly whispered1 until now1 the  
advocates of scientific education have  
met with opposition of two kinds4 ,on   
the one hand1 they have been pooh-poohed
 by the men of business who pride       
themselves on being the representatives 
of practicality2 while1 on the other    
hand1 they have been excommunicated by  
the classical scholars1 in their        
capacity of ,levites in charge of the   
ark of culture and monopolists of       
liberal education4  ,the practical men  
believed that the idol whom they        
worship--rule of thumb--has been the    
source of the past prosperity1 and will 
suffice for the future welfare of the   
arts and manufactures4 ,they were of    
opinion that science is speculative     
rubbish2 that theory and practice have  
nothing to do with one another2 and that
 the scientific habit of mind is an     
impediment1 rather than an aid1 in the  

conduct of ordinary affairs4  ,i have   
used the past tense in speaking of the  
practical men--for although they were   
very formidable thirty years ago1 ,i am 
not sure that the pure species has not  
been extirpated4 ,in fact1 so far as    
mere argument goes1 they have been      
subjected to such a feu d'enfer that it 
is a miracle if any have escaped4 ,but  
,i have remarked that your typical      
practical man has an unexpected         
resemblance to one of ,milton's angels4 
,his spiritual wounds1 such as are      
inflicted by logical weapons1 may be as 
deep as a well and as wide as a church  
door1 but beyond shedding a few drops of
 ichor1 celestial or otherwise1 he is no
 whit the worse4 ,so1 if any of these   
opponents be left1 ,i will not waste    
time in vain repetition of the          
demonstrative evidence of the practical 
value of science2 but knowing that a    
parable will sometimes penetrate where  
syllogisms fail to effect an entrance1  
,i will offer a story for their         

consideration4  ,once upon a time1 a    
boy1 with nothing to depend upon but his
 own vigorous nature1 was thrown into   
the thick of the struggle for existence 
in the midst of a great manufacturing   
population4 ,he seems to have had a hard
 fight1 inasmuch as1 by the time he was 
thirty years of age1 his total          
disposable funds amounted to twenty     
pounds4 ,nevertheless1 middle life found
 him giving proof of his comprehension  
of the practical problems he had been   
roughly called upon to solve1 by a      
career of remarkable prosperity4        
,finally1 having reached old age with   
its well-earned surroundings of honour1 
troops of friends1 the hero of my story 
bethought himself of those who were     
making a like start in life1 and how he 
could stretch out a helping hand to     
them4  ,after long and anxious          
reflection this successful practical man
 of business could devise nothing better
 than to provide them with the means of 
obtaining sound1 extensive1 and         

practical scientific knowledge4 ,and he 
devoted a large part of his wealth and  
five years of incessant work to this    
end4  ,i need not point the moral of a  
tale which1 as the solid and spacious   
fabric of the ,scientific ,college      
assures us1 is no fable1 nor can        
anything which ,i could say intensify   
the force of this practical answer to   
practical objections4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,we may  
take it for granted then1 that1 in the  
opinion of those best qualified to      
judge1 the diffusion of thorough        
scientific education is an absolutely   
essential condition of industrial       
progress2 and that the ,college which   
has been opened to-day will confer an   
inestimable boon upon those whose       
livelihood is to be gained by the       
practise of the arts and manufactures of
 the district4  ,the only question worth
 discussion is1 whether the conditions1 
under which the work of the ,college is 
to be carried out1 are such as to give  

it the best possible chance of achieving
 permanent success4  ,sir ,josiah       
,mason1 without doubt most wisely1 has  
left very large freedom of action to the
 trustees1 to whom he proposes          
ultimately to commit the administration 
of the ,college1 so that they may be    
able to adjust its arrangements in      
accordance with the changing conditions 
of the future4 ,but1 with respect to    
three points1 he has laid most explicit 
injunctions upon both administrators and
 teachers4  ,party politics are         
forbidden to enter into the minds of    
either1 so far as the work of the       
,college is concerned2 theology is as   
stonily banished from its precincts2 and
 finally1 it is especially declared that
 the ,college shall make no provision   
for mere literary instruction and       
education4  ,it does not concern me at  
present to dwell upon the first two     
injunctions any longer than may be      
needful to express my full conviction of
 their wisdom4 ,but the third           

prohibition brings us face to face with 
those other opponents of scientific     
education1 who are by no means in the   
moribund condition of the practical man1
 but alive1 alert1 and formidable4  ,it 
is not impossible that we shall hear    
this express exclusion of literary      
instruction and education from a        
,college which1 nevertheless1 professes 
to give a high and efficient education1 
sharply criticised4 ,certainly the time 
was that the ,levites of culture would  
have sounded their trumpets against its 
walls as against an educational         
,jericho4  ,how often have we not been  
told that the study of physical science 
is incompetent to confer culture2 that  
it touches none of the higher problems  
of life2 and1 what is worse1 that the   
continual devotion to scientific studies
 tends to generate a narrow and bigoted 
belief in the applicability of          
scientific methods to the search after  
truth of all kinds8 ,how frequently one 
has reason to observe that no reply to a

 troublesome argument tells so well as  
calling its author a mere scientific    
specialist4 ,and1 as ,i am afraid it is 
not permissible to speak of this form of
 opposition to scientific education in  
the past tense2 may we not expect to be 
told that this1 not only omission1 but  
prohibition1 of mere literary           
instruction and education is a patent   
example of scientific narrow-mindedness8
  ,i am not acquainted with ,sir ,josiah
 ,mason's reasons for the action which  
he has taken2 but if1 as ,i apprehend is
 the case1 he refers to the ordinary    
classical course of our schools and     
universities by the name of mere        
literary instruction and education1 ,i  
venture to offer sundry reasons of my   
own in support of that action4  ,for ,i 
hold very strongly by two               
convictions--,the first is1 that neither
 the discipline nor the subject-matter  
of classical education is of such direct
 value to the student of physical       
science as to justify the expenditure of

 valuable time upon either2 and the     
second is1 that for the purpose of      
attaining real culture1 an exclusively  
scientific education is at least as     
effectual as an exclusively literary    
education4  ,i need hardly point out to 
you that these opinions1 especially the 
latter1 are diametrically opposed to    
those of the great majority of educated 
,englishmen1 influenced as they are by  
school and university traditions4 ,in   
their belief1 culture is obtainable only
 by a liberal education2 and a liberal  
education is synonymous1 not merely with
 education and instruction in           
literature1 but in one particular form  
of literature1 namely1 that of ,greek   
and ,roman antiquity4 ,they hold that   
the man who has learned ,latin and      
,greek1 however little1 is educated2    
while he who is versed in other branches
 of knowledge1 however deeply1 is a more
 or less respectable specialist1 not    
admissible into the cultured caste4 ,the
 stamp of the educated man1 the         

,university degree1 is not for him4  ,i 
am too well acquainted with the generous
 catholicity of spirit1 the true        
sympathy with scientific thought1 which 
pervades the writings of our chief      
apostle of culture to identify him with 
these opinions2 and yet one may cull    
from one and another of those epistles  
to the ,philistines1 which so much      
delight all who do not answer to that   
name1 sentences which lend them some    
support4  ,mr4 ,arnold tells us that the
 meaning of culture is to know the best 
that has been thought and said in the   
world4 ,it is the criticism of life     
contained in literature4 ,that criticism
 regards ,europe as being1 for          
intellectual and spiritual purposes1 one
 great confederation1 bound to a joint  
action and working to a common result2  
and whose members have1 for their common
 outfit1 a knowledge of ,greek1 ,roman1 
and ,eastern antiquity1 and of one      
another4 ,special1 local1 and temporary 
advantages being put out of account1    

that modern nation will in the          
intellectual and spiritual sphere make  
most progress1 which most thoroughly    
carries out this programme4 ,and what is
 that but saying that we too1 all of us1
 as individuals1 the more thoroughly we 
carry it out1 shall make the more       
progress8 #c  ,we have here to deal with
 two distinct propositions4 ,the first1 
that a criticism of life is the essence 
of culture2 the second1 that literature 
contains the materials which suffice for
 the construction of such a criticism4  
,i think that we must all assent to the 
first proposition4 ,for culture         
certainly means something quite         
different from learning or technical    
skill4 ,it implies the possession of an 
ideal1 and the habit of critically      
estimating the value of things by       
comparison with a theoretic standard4   
,perfect culture should supply a        
complete theory of life1 based upon a   
clear knowledge alike of its            
possibilities and of its limitations4   

,but we may agree to all this1 and yet  
strongly dissent from the assumption    
that literature alone is competent to   
supply this knowledge4 ,after having    
learnt all that ,greek1 ,roman1 and     
,eastern antiquity have thought and     
said1 and all that modern literatures   
have to tell us1 it is not self-evident 
that we have laid a sufficiently broad  
and deep foundation for that criticism  
of life1 which constitutes culture4     
,indeed1 to any one acquainted with the 
scope of physical science1 it is not at 
all evident4 ,considering progress only 
in the intellectual and spiritual       
sphere1 ,i find myself wholly unable to 
admit that either nations or individuals
 will really advance1 if their common   
outfit draws nothing from the stores of 
physical science4 ,i should say that an 
army1 without weapons of precision and  
with no particular base of operations1  
might more hopefully enter upon a       
campaign on the ,rhine1 than a man1     
devoid of a knowledge of what physical  

science has done in the last century1   
upon a criticism of life4         99    
99       99       99       99  ,when a  
biologist meets with an anomaly1 he     
instinctively turns to the study of     
development to clear it up4 ,the        
rationale of contradictory opinions may 
with equal confidence be sought in      
history4  ,it is1 happily1 no new thing 
that ,englishmen should employ their    
wealth in building and endowing         
institutions for educational purposes4  
,but1 five or six hundred years ago1    
deeds of foundation expressed or implied
 conditions as nearly as possible       
contrary to those which have been       
thought expedient by ,sir ,josiah       
,mason4 ,that is to say1 physical       
science was practically ignored1 while a
 certain literary training was enjoined 
as a means to the acquirement of        
knowledge which was essentially         
theological4  ,the reason of this       
singular contradiction between the      
actions of men alike animated by a      

strong and disinterested desire to      
promote the welfare of their fellows1 is
 easily discovered4  ,at that time1 in  
fact1 if any one desired knowledge      
beyond such as could be obtained by his 
own observation1 or by common           
conversation1 his first necessity was to
 learn the ,latin language1 inasmuch as 
all the higher knowledge of the western 
world was contained in works written in 
that language4 ,hence1 ,latin grammar1  
with logic and rhetoric1 studied through
 ,latin1 were the fundamentals of       
education4 ,with respect to the         
substance of the knowledge imparted     
through this channel1 the ,jewish and   
,christian ,scriptures1 as interpreted  
and supplemented by the ,romish ,church1
 were held to contain a complete and    
infallibly true body of information4    
,theological dicta were1 to the thinkers
 of those days1 that which the axioms   
and definitions of ,euclid are to the   
geometers of these4 ,the business of the
 philosophers of the middle ages was to 

deduce from the data furnished by the   
theologians1 conclusions in accordance  
with ecclesiastical decrees4 ,they were 
allowed the high privilege of showing1  
by logical process1 how and why that    
which the ,church said was true1 must be
 true4 ,and if their demonstrations fell
 short of or exceeded this limit1 the   
,church was maternally ready to check   
their aberrations2 if need were by the  
help of the secular arm4  ,between the  
two1 our ancestors were furnished with a
 compact and complete criticism of life4
 ,they were told how the world began and
 how it would end2 they learned that all
 material existence was but a base and  
insignificant blot upon the fair face of
 the spiritual world1 and that nature   
was1 to all intents and purposes1 the   
play-ground of the devil2 they learned  
that the earth is the centre of the     
visible universe1 and that man is the   
cynosure of things terrestrial2 and more
 especially was it inculcated that the  
course of nature had no fixed order1 but

 that it could be1 and constantly was1  
altered by the agency of innumerable    
spiritual beings1 good and bad1         
according as they were moved by the     
deeds and prayers of men4 ,the sum and  
substance of the whole doctrine was to  
produce the conviction that the only    
thing really worth knowing in this world
 was how to secure that place in a      
better which1 under certain conditions1 
the ,church promised4  ,our ancestors   
had a living belief in this theory of   
life1 and acted upon it in their        
dealings with education1 as in all other
 matters4 ,culture meant                
saintliness--after the fashion of the   
saints of those days2 the education that
 led to it was1 of necessity1           
theological2 and the way to theology lay
 through ,latin4  ,that the study of    
nature--further than was requisite for  
the satisfaction of everyday            
wants--should have any bearing on human 
life was far from the thoughts of men   
thus trained4 ,indeed1 as nature had    

been cursed for man's sake1 it was an   
obvious conclusion that those who       
meddled with nature were likely to come 
into pretty close contact with ,satan4  
,and1 if any born scientific            
investigator followed his instincts1 he 
might safely reckon upon earning the    
reputation1 and probably upon suffering 
the fate1 of a sorcerer4  ,had the      
western world been left to itself in    
,chinese isolation1 there is no saying  
how long this state of things might have
 endured4 ,but1 happily1 it was not left
 to itself4 ,even earlier than the      
thirteenth century1 the development of  
,moorish civilisation in ,spain and the 
great movement of the ,crusades had     
introduced the leaven which1 from that  
day to this1 has never ceased to work4  
,at first1 through the intermediation of
 ,arabic translations1 afterwards by the
 study of the originals1 the western    
nations of ,europe became acquainted    
with the writings of the ancient        
philosophers and poets1 and1 in time1   

with the whole of the vast literature of
 antiquity4  ,whatever there was of high
 intellectual aspiration or dominant    
capacity in ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany1  
and ,england1 spent itself for centuries
 in taking possession of the rich       
inheritance left by the dead            
civilisations of ,greece and ,rome4     
,marvellously aided by the invention of 
printing1 classical learning spread and 
flourished4 ,those who possessed it     
prided themselves on having attained the
 highest culture then within the reach  
of mankind4  ,and justly4 ,for1 saving  
,dante on his solitary pinnacle1 there  
was no figure in modern literature at   
the time of the ,renascence to compare  
with the men of antiquity2 there was no 
art to compete with their sculpture2    
there was no physical science but that  
which ,greece had created4 ,above all1  
there was no other example of perfect   
intellectual freedom--of the            
unhesitating acceptance of reason as the
 sole guide to truth and the supreme    

arbiter of conduct4  ,the new learning  
necessarily soon exerted a profound     
influence upon education4 ,the language 
of the monks and schoolmen seemed little
 better than gibberish to scholars fresh
 from ,virgil and ,cicero1 and the study
 of ,latin was placed upon a new        
foundation4 ,moreover1 ,latin itself    
ceased to afford the sole key to        
knowledge4 ,the student who sought the  
highest thought of antiquity1 found only
 a second-hand reflection of it in      
,roman literature1 and turned his face  
to the full light of the ,greeks4 ,and  
after a battle1 not altogether          
dissimilar to that which is at present  
being fought over the teaching of       
physical science1 the study of ,greek   
was recognised as an essential element  
of all higher education4  ,thus the     
,humanists1 as they were called1 won the
 day2 and the great reform which they   
effected was of incalculable service to 
mankind4 ,but the ,nemesis of all       
reformers is finality2 and the reformers

 of education1 like those of religion1  
fell into the profound1 however common1 
error of mistaking the beginning for the
 end of the work of reformation4  ,the  
representatives of the ,humanists1 in   
the nineteenth century1 take their stand
 upon classical education as the sole   
avenue to culture1 as firmly us if we   
were still in the age of ,renascence4   
,yet1 surely1 the present intellectual  
relations of the modern and the ancient 
worlds are profoundly different from    
those which obtained three centuries    
ago4 ,leaving aside the existence of a  
great and characteristically modern     
literature1 of modern painting1 and1    
especially1 of modern music1 there is   
one feature of the present state of the 
civilised world which separates it more 
widely from the ,renascence1 than the   
,renascence was separated from the      
middle ages4  ,this distinctive         
character of our own times lies in the  
vast and constantly increasing part     
which is played by natural knowledge4   

,not only is our daily life shaped by   
it1 not only does the prosperity of     
millions of men depend upon it1 but our 
whole theory of life has long been      
influenced1 consciously or              
unconsciously1 by the general           
conceptions of the universe1 which have 
been forced upon us by physical science4
  ,in fact1 the most elementary         
acquaintance with the results of        
scientific investigation shows us that  
they offer a broad and striking         
contradiction to the opinion so         
implicitly credited and taught in the   
middle ages4  ,the notions of the       
beginning and the end of the world      
entertained by our forefathers are no   
longer credible4 ,it is very certain    
that the earth is not the chief body in 
the material universe1 and that the     
world is not subordinated to man's use4 
,it is even more certain that nature is 
the expression of a definite order with 
which nothing interferes1 and that the  
chief business of mankind is to learn   

that order and govern themselves        
accordingly4 ,moreover this scientific  
criticism of life presents itself to us 
with different credentials from any     
other4 ,it appeals not to authority1 nor
 to what anybody may have thought or    
said1 but to nature4 ,it admits that all
 our interpretations of natural fact are
 more or less imperfect and symbolic1   
and bids the learner seek for truth not 
among words but among things4 ,it warns 
us that the assertion which outstrips   
evidence is not only a blunder but a    
crime4  ,the purely classical education 
advocated by the representatives of the 
,humanists in our day1 gives no inkling 
of all this4 ,a man may be a better     
scholar than ,erasmus1 and know no more 
of the chief causes of the present      
intellectual fermentation than ,erasmus 
did4 ,scholarly and pious persons1      
worthy of all respect1 favour us with   
allocutions upon the sadness of the     
antagonism of science to their mediaeval
 way of thinking1 which betray an       

ignorance of the first principles of    
scientific investigation1 an incapacity 
for understanding what a man of science 
means by veracity1 and an               
unconsciousness of the weight of        
established scientific truths1 which is 
almost comical4  ,there is no great     
force in the tu quoque argument1 or else
 the advocates of scientific education  
might fairly enough retort upon the     
modern ,humanists that they may be      
learned specialists1 but that they      
possess no such sound foundation for a  
criticism of life as deserves the name  
of culture4 ,and1 indeed1 if we were    
disposed to be cruel1 we might urge that
 the ,humanists have brought this       
reproach upon themselves1 not because   
they are too full of the spirit of the  
ancient ,greek1 but because they lack   
it4  ,the period of the ,renascence is  
commonly called that of the ,revival of 
,letters1 as if the influences then     
brought to bear upon the mind of        
,western ,europe had been wholly        

exhausted in the field of literature4 ,i
 think it is very commonly forgotten    
that the revival of science1 effected by
 the same agency1 although less         
conspicuous1 was not less momentous4    
,in fact1 the few and scattered students
 of nature of that day picked up the    
clue to her secrets exactly as it fell  
from the hands of the ,greeks a thousand
 years before4 ,the foundations of      
mathematics were so well laid by them1  
that our children learn their geometry  
from a book written for the schools of  
,alexandria two thousand years ago4     
,modern astronomy is the natural        
continuation and development of the work
 of ,hipparchus and of ,ptolemy2 modern 
physics of that of ,democritus and of   
,archimedes2 it was long before modern  
biological science outgrew the knowledge
 bequeathed to us by ,aristotle1 by     
,theophrastus1 and by ,galen4  ,we      
cannot know all the best thoughts and   
sayings of the ,greeks unless we know   
what they thought about natural         

phaenomena4 ,we cannot fully apprehend  
their criticism of life unless we       
understand the extent to which that     
criticism was affected by scientific    
conceptions4 ,we falsely pretend to be  
the inheritors of their culture1 unless 
we are penetrated1 as the best minds    
among them were1 with an unhesitating   
faith that the free employment of       
reason1 in accordance with scientific   
method1 is the sole method of reaching  
truth4  ,thus ,i venture to think that  
the pretensions of our modern ,humanists
 to the possession of the monopoly of   
culture and to the exclusive inheritance
 of the spirit of antiquity must be     
abated1 if not abandoned4 ,but ,i should
 be very sorry that anything ,i have    
said should be taken to imply a desire  
on my part to depreciate the value of   
classical education1 as it might be and 
as it sometimes is4 ,the native         
capacities of mankind vary no less than 
their opportunities2 and while culture  
is one1 the road by which one man may   

best reach it is widely different from  
that which is most advantageous to      
another4 ,again1 while scientific       
education is yet inchoate and tentative1
 classical education is thoroughly well 
organised upon the practical experience 
of generations of teachers4 ,so that1   
given ample time for learning and       
destination for ordinary life1 or for a 
literary career1 ,i do not think that a 
young ,englishman in search of culture  
can do better than follow the course    
usually marked out for him1             
supplementing its deficiencies by his   
own efforts4  ,but for those who mean to
 make science their serious occupation2 
or who intend to follow the profession  
of medicine2 or who have to enter early 
upon the business of life2 for all      
these1 in my opinion1 classical         
education is a mistake2 and it is for   
this reason that ,i am glad to see mere 
literary education and instruction shut 
out from the curriculum of ,sir ,josiah 
,mason's ,college1 seeing that its      

inclusion would probably lead to the    
introduction of the ordinary smattering 
of ,latin and ,greek4  ,nevertheless1 ,i
 am the last person to question the     
importance of genuine literary          
education1 or to suppose that           
intellectual culture can be complete    
without it4 ,an exclusively scientific  
training will bring about a mental twist
 as surely as an exclusively literary   
training4 ,the value of the cargo does  
not compensate for a ship's being out of
 trim2 and ,i should be very sorry to   
think that the ,scientific ,college     
would turn out none but lop-sided men4  
,there is no need1 however1 that such a 
catastrophe should happen4 ,instruction 
in ,english1 ,french1 and ,german is    
provided1 and thus the three greatest   
literatures of the modern world are made
 accessible to the student4  ,french and
 ,german1 and especially the latter     
language1 are absolutely indispensable  
to those who desire full knowledge in   
any department of science4 ,but even    

supposing that the knowledge of these   
languages acquired is not more than     
sufficient for purely scientific        
purposes1 every ,englishman has1 in his 
native tongue1 an almost perfect        
instrument of literary expression2 and1 
in his own literature1 models of every  
kind of literary excellence4 ,if an     
,englishman cannot get literary culture 
out of his ,bible1 his ,shakespeare1 his
 ,milton1 neither1 in my belief1 will   
the profoundest study of ,homer and     
,sophocles1 ,virgil and ,horace1 give it
 to him4  ,thus1 since the constitution 
of the ,college makes sufficient        
provision for literary as well as for   
scientific education1 and since artistic
 instruction is also contemplated1 it   
seems to me that a fairly complete      
culture is offered to all who are       
willing to take advantage of it4  ,but  
,i am not sure that at this point the   
practical man1 scotched but not slain1  
may ask what all this talk about culture
 has to do with an ,institution1 the    

object of which is defined to be to     
promote the prosperity of the           
manufactures and the industry of the    
country4 ,he may suggest that what is   
wanted for this end is not culture1 nor 
even a purely scientific discipline1 but
 simply a knowledge of applied science4 
,i often wish that this phrase1 applied 
science1 had never been invented4 ,for  
it suggests that there is a sort of     
scientific knowledge of direct practical
 use1 which can be studied apart from   
another sort of scientific knowledge1   
which is of no practical utility1 and   
which is termed pure science4 ,but there
 is no more complete fallacy than this4 
,what people call applied science is    
nothing but the application of pure     
science to particular classes of        
problems4 ,it consists of deductions    
from those general principles1          
established by reasoning and            
observation1 which constitute pure      
science4 ,no one can safely make these  
deductions until he has a firm grasp of 

the principles2 and he can obtain that  
grasp only by personal experience of the
 operations of observation and of       
reasoning on which they are founded4    
,almost all the processes employed in   
the arts and manufactures fall within   
the range either of physics or of       
chemistry4 ,in order to improve them1   
one must thoroughly understand them2 and
 no one has a chance of really          
understanding them1 unless he has       
obtained that mastery of principles and 
that habit of dealing with facts1 which 
is given by long-continued and          
well-directed purely scientific training
 in the physical and the chemical       
laboratory4 ,so that there really is no 
question as to the necessity of purely  
scientific discipline1 even if the work 
of the ,college were limited by the     
narrowest interpretation of its stated  
aims4  ,and1 as to the desirableness of 
a wider culture than that yielded by    
science alone1 it is to be recollected  
that the improvement of manufacturing   

processes is only one of the conditions 
which contribute to the prosperity of   
industry4 ,industry is a means and not  
an end2 and mankind work only to get    
something which they want4 ,what that   
something is depends partly on their    
innate1 and partly on their acquired1   
desires4  ,if the wealth resulting from 
prosperous industry is to be spent upon 
the gratification of unworthy desires1  
if the increasing perfection of         
manufacturing processes is to be        
accompanied by an increasing debasement 
of those who carry them on1 ,i do not   
see the good of industry and prosperity4
  ,now it is perfectly true that men's  
views of what is desirable depend upon  
their characters2 and that the innate   
proclivities to which we give that name 
are not touched by any amount of        
instruction4 ,but it does not follow    
that even mere intellectual education   
may not1 to an indefinite extent1 modify
 the practical manifestation of the     
characters of men in their actions1 by  

supplying them with motives unknown to  
the ignorant4 ,a pleasure-loving        
character will have pleasure of some    
sort2 but1 if you give him the choice1  
he may prefer pleasures which do not    
degrade him to those which do4 ,and this
 choice is offered to every man1 who    
possesses in literary or artistic       
culture a never-failing source of       
pleasures1 which are neither withered by
 age1 nor staled by custom1 nor         
embittered in the recollection by the   
pangs of self-reproach4  ,if the        
,institution opened to-day fulfils the  
intention of its founder1 the picked    
intelligences among all classes of the  
population of this district will pass   
through it4 ,no child born in           
,birmingham1 henceforward1 if he have   
the capacity to profit by the           
opportunities offered to him1 first in  
the primary and other schools1 and      
afterwards in the ,scientific ,college1 
need fail to obtain1 not merely the     
instruction1 but the culture most       

appropriate to the conditions of his    
life4  ,within these walls1 the future  
employer and the future artisan may     
sojourn together for a while1 and carry1
 through all their lives1 the stamp of  
the influences then brought to bear upon
 them4 ,hence1 it is not beside the mark
 to remind you1 that the prosperity of  
industry depends not merely upon the    
improvement of manufacturing processes1 
not merely upon the ennobling of the    
individual character1 but upon a third  
condition1 namely1 a clear understanding
 of the conditions of social life1 on   
the part of both the capitalist and the 
operative1 and their agreement upon     
common principles of social action4     
,they must learn that social phaenomena 
are as much the expression of natural   
laws as any others2 that no social      
arrangements can be permanent unless    
they harmonise with the requirements of 
social statics and dynamics2 and that1  
in the nature of things1 there is an    
arbiter whose decisions execute         

themselves4  ,but this knowledge is only
 to be obtained by the application of   
the methods of investigation adopted in 
physical researches to the investigation
 of the phaenomena of society4 ,hence1  
,i confess1 ,i should like to see one   
addition made to the excellent scheme of
 education propounded for the ,college1 
in the shape of provision for the       
teaching of ,sociology4 ,for though we  
are all agreed that party politics are  
to have no place in the instruction of  
the ,college2 yet in this country1      
practically governed as it is now by    
universal suffrage1 every man who does  
his duty must exercise political        
functions4 ,and1 if the evils which are 
inseparable from the good of political  
liberty are to be checked1 if the       
perpetual oscillation of nations between
 anarchy and despotism is to be replaced
 by the steady march of self-restraining
 freedom2 it will be because men will   
gradually bring themselves to deal with 
political1 as they now deal with        

scientific questions2 to be as ashamed  
of undue haste and partisan prejudice in
 the one case as in the other2 and to   
believe that the machinery of society is
 at least as delicate as that of a      
spinning-jenny1 and as little likely to 
be improved by the meddling of those who
 have not taken the trouble to master   
the principles of its action4  ,in      
conclusion1 ,i am sure that ,i make     
myself the mouthpiece of all present in 
offering to the venerable founder of the
 ,institution1 which now commences its  
beneficent career1 our congratulations  
on the completion of his work2 and in   
expressing the conviction1 that the     
remotest posterity will point to it as a
 crucial instance of the wisdom which   
natural piety leads all men to ascribe  
to their ancestors4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,footnotes3  #a   
,see the first essay in this volume4  #b
 ,the advocacy of the introduction of   
physical science into general education 
by ,george ,combe and others commenced a

 good deal earlier2 but the movement had
 acquired hardly any practical force    
before the time to which ,i refer4  #c  
,essays in ,criticism1 p4 #cg4     ,,vii
  ,,on ,,science ,,and ,,art ,,in       
,,relation ,,to ,,education  #ahhb      
,when a man is honoured by such a       
request as that which reached me from   
the authorities of your institution some
 time ago1 ,i think the first thing that
 occurs to him is that which occurred to
 those who were bidden to the feast in  
the ,gospel--to begin to make an excuse2
 and probably all the excuses suggested 
on that famous occasion crop up in his  
mind one after the other1 including his 
having married a wife1 as reasons for   
not doing what he is asked to do4 ,but1 
in my own case1 and on this particular  
occasion1 there were other difficulties 
of a sort peculiar to the time1 and more
 or less personal to myself2 because ,i 
felt that1 if ,i came amongst you1 ,i   
should be expected1 and1 indeed1 morally
 compelled1 to speak upon the subject of

 ,scientific ,education4 ,and then there
 arose in my mind the recollection of a 
fact1 which probably no one here but    
myself remembers2 namely1 that some     
fourteen years ago ,i was the guest of a
 citizen of yours1 who bears the        
honoured name of ,rathbone1 at a very   
charming and pleasant dinner given by   
the ,philomathic ,society2 and ,i there 
and then1 and in this very city1 made a 
speech upon the topic of ,scientific    
,education4 ,under these circumstances1 
you see1 one runs two dangers--the      
first1 of repeating one's self1 although
 ,i may fairly hope that everybody has  
forgotten the fact ,i have just now     
mentioned1 except myself2 and the       
second1 and even greater difficulty1 is 
the danger of saying something different
 from what one said before1 because     
then1 however forgotten your previous   
speech may be1 somebody finds out its   
existence1 and there goes on that       
process so hateful to members of        
,parliament1 which may be denoted by the

 term ,hansardisation4 ,under these     
circumstances1 ,i came to the conclusion
 that the best thing ,i could do was to 
take the bull by the horns1 and to      
,hansardise myself1--to put before you1 
in the briefest possible way1 the three 
or four propositions which ,i           
endeavoured to support on the occasion  
of the speech to which ,i have referred2
 and then to ask myself1 supposing you  
were asking me1 whether ,i had anything 
to retract1 or to modify1 in them1 in   
virtue of the increased experience1 and1
 let us charitably hope1 the increased  
wisdom of an added fourteen years4      
,now1 the points to which ,i directed   
particular attention on that occasion   
were these3 in the first place1 that    
instruction in physical science supplies
 information of a character of especial 
value1 both in a practical and a        
speculative point of view--information  
which cannot be obtained otherwise2 and1
 in the second place1 that1 as          
educational discipline1 it supplies1 in 

a better form than any other study can  
supply1 exercise in a special form of   
logic1 and a peculiar method of testing 
the validity of our processes of        
inquiry4 ,i said further1 that1 even at 
that time1 a great and increasing       
attention was being paid to physical    
science in our schools and colleges1 and
 that1 most assuredly1 such attention   
must go on growing and increasing1 until
 education in these matters occupied a  
very much larger share of the time which
 is given to teaching and training1 than
 had been the case heretofore4 ,and ,i  
threw all the strength of argumentation 
of which ,i was possessed into the      
support of these propositions4 ,but ,i  
venture to remind you1 also1 of some    
other words ,i used at that time1 and   
which ,i ask permission to read to you4 
,they were these3--,there are other     
forms of culture besides physical       
science1 and ,i should be profoundly    
sorry to see the fact forgotten1 or even
 to observe a tendency to starve or     

cripple literary or aesthetic culture   
for the sake of science4 ,such a narrow 
view of the nature of education has     
nothing to do with my firm conclusion   
that a complete and thorough scientific 
culture ought to be introduced into all 
schools4  ,i say ,i desire1 in          
commenting upon these various points1   
and judging them as fairly as ,i can by 
the light of increased experience1 to   
particularly emphasise this last1       
because ,i am told1 although ,i         
assuredly do not know it of my own      
knowledge--though ,i think if the fact  
were so ,i ought to know it1 being      
tolerably well acquainted with that     
which goes on in the scientific world1  
and which has gone on there for the last
 thirty years--that there is a kind of  
sect1 or horde1 of scientific ,goths and
 ,vandals1 who think it would be proper 
and desirable to sweep away all other   
forms of culture and instruction1 except
 those in physical science1 and to make 
them the universal and exclusive1 or1 at

 any rate1 the dominant training of the 
human mind of the future generation4    
,this is not my view--,i do not believe 
that it is anybody's view1--but it is   
attributed to those who1 like myself1   
advocate scientific education4 ,i       
therefore dwell strongly upon the point1
 and ,i beg you to believe that the     
words ,i have just now read were by no  
means intended by me as a sop to the    
,cerberus of culture4 ,i have not been  
in the habit of offering sops to any    
kind of ,cerberus2 but it was an        
expression of profound conviction on my 
own part--a conviction forced upon me   
not only by my mental constitution1 but 
by the lessons of what is now becoming a
 somewhat long experience of varied     
conditions of life4  ,i am not about to 
trouble you with my autobiography2 the  
omens are hardly favourable1 at present1
 for work of that kind4 ,but ,i should  
like if ,i may do so without appearing1 
what ,i earnestly desire not to be1     
egotistical1--,i should like to make it 

clear to you1 that such notions as      
these1 which are sometimes attributed to
 me1 are1 as ,i have said1 inconsistent 
with my mental constitution1 and still  
more inconsistent with the upshot of the
 teaching of my experience4 ,for ,i can 
certainly claim for myself that sort of 
mental temperament which can say that   
nothing human comes amiss to it4 ,i have
 never yet met with any branch of human 
knowledge which ,i have found           
unattractive--which it would not have   
been pleasant to me to follow1 so far as
 ,i could go2 and ,i have yet to meet   
with any form of art in which it has not
 been possible for me to take as acute a
 pleasure as1 ,i believe1 it is possible
 for men to take4  ,and with respect to 
the circumstances of life1 it so happens
 that it has been my fate to know many  
lands and many climates1 and to be      
familiar1 by personal experience1 with  
almost every form of society1 from the  
uncivilised savage of ,papua and        
,australia and the civilised savages of 

the slums and dens of the               
poverty-stricken parts of great cities1 
to those who perhaps1 are occasionally  
the somewhat over-civilised members of  
our upper ten thousand4 ,and ,i have    
never found1 in any of these conditions 
of life1 a deficiency of something which
 was attractive4 ,savagery has its      
pleasures1 ,i assure you1 as well as    
civilisation1 and ,i may even venture to
 confess--if you will not let a whisper 
of the matter get back to ,london1 where
 ,i am known--,i am even fain to        
confess1 that sometimes in the din and  
throng of what is called a brilliant    
reception the vision crosses my mind of 
waking up from the soft plank which had 
afforded me satisfactory sleep during   
the hours of the night1 in the bright   
dawn of a tropical morning1 when my     
comrades were yet asleep1 when every    
sound was hushed1 except the little     
lap-lap of the ripples against the sides
 of the boat1 and the distant twitter of
 the sea-bird on the reef4 ,and when    

that vision crosses my mind1 ,i am free 
to confess ,i desire to be back in the  
boat again4 ,so that1 if ,i share with  
those strange persons to whose asserted1
 but still hypothetical existence ,i    
have referred1 the want of appreciation 
of forms of culture other than the      
pursuit of physical science1 all ,i can 
say is1 that it is1 in spite of my      
constitution1 and in spite of my        
experience1 that such should be my fate4
  ,but now let me turn to another point1
 or rather to two other points1 with    
which ,i propose to occupy myself4 ,how 
far does the experience of the last     
fourteen years justify the estimate     
which ,i ventured to put forward of the 
value of scientific culture1 and of the 
share--the increasing share--which it   
must take in ordinary education8        
,happily1 in respect to that matter1 you
 need not rely upon my testimony4 ,in   
the last half-dozen numbers of the      
,journal of ,education1 you will find a 
series of very interesting and          

remarkable papers1 by gentlemen who are 
practically engaged in the business of  
education in our great public and other 
schools1 telling us what is doing in    
these schools1 and what is their        
experience of the results of scientific 
education there1 so far as it has gone4 
,i am not going to trouble you with an  
abstract of those papers1 which are well
 worth your study in their fulness and  
completeness1 but ,i have copied out one
 remarkable passage1 because it seems to
 me so entirely to bear out what ,i have
 formerly ventured to say about the     
value of science1 both as to its        
subject-matter and as to the discipline 
which the learning of science involves4 
,it is from a paper by ,mr4             
,worthington--one of the masters at     
,clifton1 the reputation of which school
 you know well1 and at the head of which
 is an old friend of mine1 the ,rev4    
,mr4 ,wilson--to whom much credit is due
 for being one of the first1 as ,i can  
say from my own knowledge1 to take up   

this question and work it into practical
 shape4 ,what ,mr4 ,worthington says is 
this3--      ,it is not easy to         
exaggerate the importance of the        
information     imparted by certain     
branches of science2 it modifies the    
whole criticism of life made in maturer 
years4 ,the study has     often1 on a   
mass of boys1 a certain influence which1
 ,i think1 was     hardly anticipated1  
and to which a good deal of value must  
be     attached--an influence as much   
moral as intellectual1 which is         
shown in the increased and increasing   
respect for precision of     statement1 
and for that form of veracity which     
consists in the     acknowledgment of   
difficulties4 ,it produces a real effect
 to find     that ,nature cannot be     
imposed upon1 and the attention given   
to experimental lectures1 at first      
superficial and curious only1     soon  
becomes minute1 serious1 and practical4 
,ladies and gentlemen1 ,i could not have
 chosen better words to express--in     

fact1 ,i have1 in other words1 expressed
 the same conviction in former          
days--what the influence of scientific  
teaching1 if properly carried out1 must 
be4  ,but now comes the question of     
properly carrying it out1 because1 when 
,i hear the value of school teaching in 
physical science disputed1 my first     
impulse is to ask the disputer1 ,what   
have you known about it8 and he         
generally tells me some lamentable case 
of failure4 ,then ,i ask1 ,what are the 
circumstances of the case1 and how was  
the teaching carried out8 ,i remember1  
some few years ago1 hearing of the head 
master of a large school1 who had       
expressed great dissatisfaction with the
 adoption of the teaching of physical   
science--and that after experiment4 ,but
 the experiment consisted in this--in   
asking one of the junior masters in the 
school to get up science1 in order to   
teach it2 and the young gentleman went  
away for a year and got up science and  
taught it4 ,well1 ,i have no doubt that 

the result was as disappointing as the  
head-master said it was1 and ,i have no 
doubt that it ought to have been as     
disappointing1 and far more             
disappointing too2 for1 if this kind of 
instruction is to be of any good at all1
 if it is not to be less than no good1  
if it is to take the place of that which
 is already of some good1 then there are
 several points which must be attended  
to4  ,and the first of these is the     
proper selection of topics1 the second  
is practical teaching1 the third is     
practical teachers1 and the fourth is   
sufficiency of time4 ,if these four     
points are not carefully attended to by 
anybody who undertakes the teaching of  
physical science in schools1 my advice  
to him is1 to let it alone4 ,i will not 
dwell at any length upon the first      
point1 because there is a general       
consensus of opinion as to the nature of
 the topics which should be chosen4 ,the
 second point--practical teaching--is   
one of great importance1 because it     

requires more capital to set it agoing1 
demands more time1 and1 last1 but by no 
means least1 it requires much more      
personal exertion and trouble on the    
part of those professing to teach1 than 
is the case with other kinds of         
instruction4  ,when ,i accepted the     
invitation to be here this evening1 your
 secretary was good enough to send me   
the addresses which have been given by  
distinguished persons who have          
previously occupied this chair4 ,i don't
 know whether he had a malicious desire 
to alarm me2 but1 however that may be1  
,i read the addresses1 and derived the  
greatest pleasure and profit from some  
of them1 and from none more than from   
the one given by the great historian1   
,mr4 ,freeman1 which delighted me most  
of all2 and1 if ,i had not been ashamed 
of plagiarising1 and if ,i had not been 
sure of being found out1 ,i should have 
been glad to have copied very much of   
what ,mr4 ,freeman said1 simply putting 
in the word science for history4 ,there 

was one notable passage1--,the          
difference between good and bad teaching
 mainly consists in this1 whether the   
words used are really clothed with a    
meaning or not4 ,and ,mr4 ,freeman gives
 a remarkable example of this4 ,he says1
 when a little girl was asked where     
,turkey was1 she answered that it was in
 the yard with the other fowls1 and that
 showed she had a definite idea         
connected with the word ,turkey1 and    
was1 so far1 worthy of praise4 ,i quite 
agree with that commendation2 but what a
 curious thing it is that one should now
 find it necessary to urge that this is 
the be-all and end-all of scientific    
instruction--the sine qu non1 the       
absolutely necessary condition1--and yet
 that it was insisted upon more than two
 hundred years ago by one of the        
greatest men science ever possessed in  
this country1 ,william ,harvey4 ,harvey 
wrote1 or at least published1 only two  
small books1 one of which is the        
well-known treatise on the circulation  

of the blood4 ,the other1 the           
,exercitationes de ,generatione1 is less
 known1 but not less remarkable4 ,and   
not the least valuable part of it is the
 preface1 in which there occurs this    
passage3 ,those who1 reading the words  
of authors1 do not form sensible images 
of the things referred to1 obtain no    
true ideas1 but conceive false          
imaginations and inane phantasms4 ,you  
see1 ,william ,harvey's words are just  
the same in substance as those of ,mr4  
,freeman1 only they happen to be rather 
more than two centuries older4 ,so that 
what ,i am now saying has its           
application elsewhere than in science2  
but assuredly in science the condition  
of knowing1 of your own knowledge1      
things which you talk about1 is         
absolutely imperative4  ,i remember1 in 
my youth1 there were detestable books   
which ought to have been burned by the  
hands of the common hangman1 for they   
contained questions and answers to be   
learned by heart1 of this sort1 ,what is

 a horse8 ,the horse is termed ,equus   
caballus2 belongs to the class          
,mammalia2 order1 ,pachydermata2 family1
 ,solidungula4 ,was any human being     
wiser for learning that magic formula8  
,was he not more foolish1 inasmuch as he
 was deluded into taking words for      
knowledge8 ,it is that kind of teaching 
that one wants to get rid of1 and       
banished out of science4 ,make it as    
little as you like1 but1 unless that    
which is taught is based on actual      
observation and familiarity with facts1 
it is better left alone4  ,there are a  
great many people who imagine that      
elementary teaching might be properly   
carried out by teachers provided with   
only elementary knowledge4 ,let me      
assure you that that is the profoundest 
mistake in the world4 ,there is nothing 
so difficult to do as to write a good   
elementary book1 and there is nobody so 
hard to teach properly and well as      
people who know nothing about a subject1
 and ,i will tell you why4 ,if ,i       

address an audience of persons who are  
occupied in the same line of work as    
myself1 ,i can assume that they know a  
vast deal1 and that they can find out   
the blunders ,i make4 ,if they don't1 it
 is their fault and not mine2 but when  
,i appear before a body of people who   
know nothing about the matter1 who take 
for gospel whatever ,i say1 surely it   
becomes needful that ,i consider what ,i
 say1 make sure that it will bear       
examination1 and that ,i do not impose  
upon the credulity of those who have    
faith in me4 ,in the second place1 it   
involves that difficult process of      
knowing what you know so well that you  
can talk about it as you can talk about 
your ordinary business4 ,a man can      
always talk about his own business4 ,he 
can always make it plain2 but1 if his   
knowledge is hearsay1 he is afraid to go
 beyond what he has recollected1 and put
 it before those that are ignorant in   
such a shape that they shall comprehend 
it4 ,that is why1 to be a good          

elementary teacher1 to teach the        
elements of any subject1 requires most  
careful consideration1 if you are a     
master of the subject2 and1 if you are  
not a master of it1 it is needful you   
should familiarise yourself with so much
 as you are called upon to teach--soak  
yourself in it1 so to speak--until you  
know it as part of your daily life and  
daily knowledge1 and then you will be   
able to teach anybody4 ,that is what ,i 
mean by practical teachers1 and1        
although the deficiency of such teachers
 is being remedied to a large extent1 ,i
 think it is one which has long existed1
 and which has existed from no fault of 
those who undertook to teach1 but       
because1 until the last score of years1 
it absolutely was not possible for any  
one in a great many branches of science1
 whatever his desire might be1 to get   
instruction which would enable him to be
 a good teacher of elementary things4   
,all that is being rapidly altered1 and 
,i hope it will soon become a thing of  

the past4  ,the last point ,i have      
referred to is the question of the      
sufficiency of time4 ,and here comes the
 rub4 ,the teaching of science needs    
time1 as any other subject2 but it needs
 more time proportionally than other    
subjects1 for the amount of work        
obviously done1 if the teaching is to   
be1 as ,i have said1 practical4 ,work   
done in a laboratory involves a good    
deal of expenditure of time without     
always an obvious result1 because we do 
not see anything of that quiet process  
of soaking the facts into the mind1     
which takes place through the organs of 
the senses4 ,on this ground there must  
be ample time given to science teaching4
 ,what that amount of time should be is 
a point which ,i need not discuss now2  
in fact1 it is a point which cannot be  
settled until one has made up one's mind
 about various other questions4  ,all1  
then1 that ,i have to ask for1 on behalf
 of the scientific people1 if ,i may    
venture to speak for more than myself1  

is that you should put scientific       
teaching into what statesmen call the   
condition of the most favoured nation2  
that is to say1 that it shall have as   
large a share of the time given to      
education as any other principal        
subject4 ,you may say that that is a    
very vague statement1 because the value 
of the allotment of time1 under those   
circumstances1 depends upon the number  
of principal subjects4 ,it is x the     
time1 and an unknown quantity of        
principal subjects dividing that1 and   
science taking shares with the rest4    
,that shows that we cannot deal with    
this question fully until we have made  
up our minds as to what the principal   
subjects of education ought to be4  ,i  
know quite well that launching myself   
into this discussion is a very dangerous
 operation2 that it is a very large     
subject1 and one which is difficult to  
deal with1 however much ,i may trespass 
upon your patience in the time allotted 
to me4 ,but the discussion is so        

fundamental1 it is so completely        
impossible to make up one's mind on     
these matters until one has settled the 
question1 that ,i will even venture to  
make the experiment4 ,a great           
lawyer-statesman and philosopher of a   
former age--,i mean ,francis            
,bacon--said that truth came out of     
error much more rapidly than it came out
 of confusion4 ,there is a wonderful    
truth in that saying4 ,next to being    
right in this world1 the best of all    
things is to be clearly and definitely  
wrong1 because you will come out        
somewhere4 ,if you go buzzing about     
between right and wrong1 vibrating and  
fluctuating1 you come out nowhere2 but  
if you are absolutely and thoroughly and
 persistently wrong1 you must1 some of  
these days1 have the extreme good       
fortune of knocking your head against a 
fact1 and that sets you all straight    
again4 ,so ,i will not trouble myself as
 to whether ,i may be right or wrong in 
what ,i am about to say1 but at any rate

 ,i hope to be clear and definite2 and  
then you will be able to judge for      
yourselves whether1 in following out the
 train of thought ,i have to introduce1 
you knock your heads against facts or   
not4  ,i take it that the whole object  
of education is1 in the first place1 to 
train the faculties of the young in such
 a manner as to give their possessors   
the best chance of being happy and      
useful in their generation2 and1 in the 
second place1 to furnish them with the  
most important portions of that immense 
capitalised experience of the human race
 which we call knowledge of various     
kinds4 ,i am using the term knowledge in
 its widest possible sense2 and the     
question is1 what subjects to select by 
training and discipline1 in which the   
object ,i have just defined may be best 
attained4  ,i must call your attention  
further to this fact1 that all the      
subjects of our thoughts--all feelings  
and propositions 7leaving aside our     
sensations as the mere materials and    

occasions of thinking and feeling71 all 
our mental furniture--may be classified 
under one of two heads--as either within
 the province of the intellect1         
something that can be put into          
propositions and affirmed or denied2 or 
as within the province of feeling1 or   
that which1 before the name was defiled1
 was called the aesthetic side of our   
nature1 and which can neither be proved 
nor disproved1 but only felt and known4 
,according to the classification which  
,i have put before you1 then1 the       
subjects of all knowledge are divisible 
into the two groups1 matters of science 
and matters of art2 for all things with 
which the reasoning faculty alone is    
occupied1 come under the province of    
science2 and in the broadest sense1 and 
not in the narrow and technical sense in
 which we are now accustomed to use the 
word art1 all things feelable1 all      
things which stir our emotions1 come    
under the term of art1 in the sense of  
the subject-matter of the aesthetic     

faculty4 ,so that we are shut up to     
this--that the business of education is1
 in the first place1 to provide the     
young with the means and the habit of   
observation2 and1 secondly1 to supply   
the subject-matter of knowledge either  
in the shape of science or of art1 or of
 both combined4  ,now1 it is a very     
remarkable fact--but it is true of most 
things in this world--that there is     
hardly anything one-sided1 or of one    
nature2 and it is not immediately       
obvious what of the things that interest
 us may be regarded as pure science1 and
 what may be regarded as pure art4 ,it  
may be that there are some peculiarly   
constituted persons who1 before they    
have advanced far into the depths of    
geometry1 find artistic beauty about it2
 but1 taking the generality of mankind1 
,i think it may be said that1 when they 
begin to learn mathematics1 their whole 
souls are absorbed in tracing the       
connection between the premisses and the
 conclusion1 and that to them geometry  

is pure science4 ,so ,i think it may be 
said that mechanics and osteology are   
pure science4 ,on the other hand1 melody
 in music is pure art4 ,you cannot      
reason about it2 there is no proposition
 involved in it4 ,so1 again1 in the     
pictorial art1 an arabesque1 or a       
harmony in grey1 touches none but the   
aesthetic faculty4 ,but a great         
mathematician1 and even many persons who
 are not great mathematicians1 will tell
 you that they derive immense pleasure  
from geometrical reasonings4 ,everybody 
knows mathematicians speak of solutions 
and problems as elegant1 and they tell  
you that a certain mass of mystic       
symbols is beautiful1 quite lovely4     
,well1 you do not see it4 ,they do see  
it1 because the intellectual process1   
the process of comprehending the reasons
 symbolised by these figures and these  
signs1 confers upon them a sort of      
pleasure1 such as an artist has in      
visual symmetry4 ,take a science of     
which ,i may speak with more confidence1

 and which is the most attractive of    
those ,i am concerned with4 ,it is what 
we call morphology1 which consists in   
tracing out the unity in variety of the 
infinitely diversified structures of    
animals and plants4 ,i cannot give you  
any example of a thorough aesthetic     
pleasure more intensely real than a     
pleasure of this kind--the pleasure     
which arises in one's mind when a whole 
mass of different structures run into   
one harmony as the expression of a      
central law4 ,that is where the province
 of art overlays and embraces the       
province of intellect4 ,and1 if ,i may  
venture to express an opinion on such a 
subject1 the great majority of forms of 
art are not in the sense what ,i just   
now defined them to be--pure art2 but   
they derive much of their quality from  
simultaneous and even unconscious       
excitement of the intellect4  ,when ,i  
was a boy1 ,i was very fond of music1   
and ,i am so now2 and it so happened    
that ,i had the opportunity of hearing  

much good music4 ,among other things1 ,i
 had abundant opportunities of hearing  
that great old master1 ,sebastian ,bach4
 ,i remember perfectly well--though ,i  
knew nothing about music then1 and1 ,i  
may add1 know nothing whatever about it 
now--the intense satisfaction and       
delight which ,i had in listening1 by   
the hour together1 to ,bach's fugues4   
,it is a pleasure which remains with me1
 ,i am glad to think2 but1 of late      
years1 ,i have tried to find out the why
 and wherefore1 and it has often        
occurred to me that the pleasure derived
 from musical compositions of this kind 
is essentially of the same nature as    
that which is derived from pursuits     
which are commonly regarded as purely   
intellectual4 ,i mean1 that the source  
of pleasure is exactly the same as in   
most of my problems in morphology--that 
you have the theme in one of the old    
master's works followed out in all its  
endless variations1 always appearing and
 always reminding you of unity in       

variety4 ,so in painting2 what is called
 truth to nature is the intellectual    
element coming in1 and truth to nature  
depends entirely upon the intellectual  
culture of the person to whom art is    
addressed4 ,if you are in ,australia1   
you may get credit for being a good     
artist--,i mean among the natives--if   
you can draw a kangaroo after a fashion4
 ,but1 among men of higher civilisation1
 the intellectual knowledge we possess  
brings its criticism into our           
appreciation of works of art1 and we are
 obliged to satisfy it1 as well as the  
mere sense of beauty in colour and in   
outline4 ,and so1 the higher the culture
 and information of those whom art      
addresses1 the more exact and precise   
must be what we call its truth to       
nature4  ,if we turn to literature1 the 
same thing is true1 and you find works  
of literature which may be said to be   
pure art4 ,a little song of ,shakespeare
 or of ,goethe is pure art2 it is       
exquisitely beautiful1 although its     

intellectual content may be nothing4 ,a 
series of pictures is made to pass      
before your mind by the meaning of      
words1 and the effect is a melody of    
ideas4 ,nevertheless1 the great mass of 
the literature we esteem is valued1 not 
merely because of having artistic form1 
but because of its intellectual content2
 and the value is the higher the more   
precise1 distinct1 and true is that     
intellectual content4 ,and1 if you will 
let me for a moment speak of the very   
highest forms of literature1 do we not  
regard them as highest simply because   
the more we know the truer they seem1   
and the more competent we are to        
appreciate beauty the more beautiful    
they are8 ,no man ever understands      
,shakespeare until he is old1 though the
 youngest may admire him1 the reason    
being that he satisfies the artistic    
instinct of the youngest and harmonises 
with the ripest and richest experience  
of the oldest4  ,i have said this much  
to draw your attention to what1 to my   

mind1 lies at the root of all this      
matter1 and at the understanding of one 
another by the men of science on the one
 hand1 and the men of literature1 and   
history1 and art1 on the other4 ,it is  
not a question whether one order of     
study or another should predominate4 ,it
 is a question of what topics of        
education you shall select which will   
combine all the needful elements in such
 due proportion as to give the greatest 
amount of food1 support1 and            
encouragement to those faculties which  
enable us to appreciate truth1 and to   
profit by those sources of innocent     
happiness which are open to us1 and1 at 
the same time1 to avoid that which is   
bad1 and coarse1 and ugly1 and keep     
clear of the multitude of pitfalls and  
dangers which beset those who break     
through the natural or moral laws4  ,i  
address myself1 in this spirit1 to the  
consideration of the question of the    
value of purely literary education4 ,is 
it good and sufficient1 or is it        

insufficient and bad8 ,well1 here ,i    
venture to say that there are literary  
educations and literary educations4 ,if 
,i am to understand by that term the    
education that was current in the great 
majority of middle-class schools1 and   
upper schools too1 in this country when 
,i was a boy1 and which consisted       
absolutely and almost entirely in       
keeping boys for eight or ten years at  
learning the rules of ,latin and ,greek 
grammar1 construing certain ,latin and  
,greek authors1 and possibly making     
verses which1 had they been ,english    
verses1 would have been condemned as    
abominable doggerel1--if that is what   
you mean by liberal education1 then ,i  
say it is scandalously insufficient and 
almost worthless4 ,my reason for saying 
so is not from the point of view of     
science at all1 but from the point of   
view of literature4 ,i say the thing    
professes to be literary education that 
is not a literary education at all4 ,it 
was not literature at all that was      

taught1 but science in a very bad form4 
,it is quite obvious that grammar is    
science and not literature4 ,the        
analysis of a text by the help of the   
rules of grammar is just as much a      
scientific operation as the analysis of 
a chemical compound by the help of the  
rules of chemical analysis4 ,there is   
nothing that appeals to the aesthetic   
faculty in that operation2 and ,i ask   
multitudes of men of my own age1 who    
went through this process1 whether they 
ever had a conception of art or         
literature until they obtained it for   
themselves after leaving school8 ,then  
you may say1 ,if that is so1 if the     
education was scientific1 why cannot you
 be satisfied with it8 ,i say1 because  
although it is a scientific training1 it
 is of the most inadequate and          
inappropriate kind4 ,if there is any    
good at all in scientific education it  
is that men should be trained1 as ,i    
said before1 to know things for         
themselves at first hand1 and that they 

should understand every step of the     
reason of that which they do4  ,i desire
 to speak with the utmost respect of    
that science--philology--of which       
grammar is a part and parcel2 yet       
everybody knows that grammar1 as it is  
usually learned at school1 affords no   
scientific training4 ,it is taught just 
as you would teach the rules of chess or
 draughts4 ,on the other hand1 if ,i am 
to understand by a literary education   
the study of the literatures of either  
ancient or modern nations--but          
especially those of antiquity1 and      
especially that of ancient ,greece2 if  
this literature is studied1 not merely  
from the point of view of philological  
science1 and its practical application  
to the interpretation of texts1 but as  
an exemplification of and commentary    
upon the principles of art2 if you look 
upon the literature of a people as a    
chapter in the development of the human 
mind1 if you work out this in a broad   
spirit1 and with such collateral        

references to morals and politics1 and  
physical geography1 and the like as are 
needful to make you comprehend what the 
meaning of ancient literature and       
civilisation is1--then1 assuredly1 it   
affords a splendid and noble education4 
,but ,i still think it is susceptible of
 improvement1 and that no man will ever 
comprehend the real secret of the       
difference between the ancient world and
 our present time1 unless he has learned
 to see the difference which the late   
development of physical science has made
 between the thought of this day and the
 thought of that1 and he will never see 
that difference1 unless he has some     
practical insight into some branches of 
physical science2 and you must remember 
that a literary education such as that  
which ,i have just referred to1 is out  
of the reach of those whose school life 
is cut short at sixteen or seventeen4   
,but1 you will say1 all this is         
fault-finding2 let us hear what you have
 in the way of positive suggestion4     

,then ,i am bound to tell you that1 if  
,i could make a clean sweep of          
everything--,i am very glad ,i cannot   
because ,i might1 and probably should1  
make mistakes1--but if ,i could make a  
clean sweep of everything and start     
afresh1 ,i should1 in the first place1  
secure that training of the young in    
reading and writing1 and in the habit of
 attention and observation1 both to that
 which is told them1 and that which they
 see1 which everybody agrees to4 ,but in
 addition to that1 ,i should make it    
absolutely necessary for everybody1 for 
a longer or shorter period1 to learn to 
draw4 ,now1 you may say1 there are some 
people who cannot draw1 however much    
they may be taught4 ,i deny that in     
toto1 because ,i never yet met with     
anybody who could not learn to write4   
,writing is a form of drawing2 therefore
 if you give the same attention and     
trouble to drawing as you do to writing1
 depend upon it1 there is nobody who    
cannot be made to draw1 more or less    

well4 ,do not misapprehend me4 ,i do not
 say for one moment you would make an   
artistic draughtsman4 ,artists are not  
made2 they grow4 ,you may improve the   
natural faculty in that direction1 but  
you cannot make it2 but you can teach   
simple drawing1 and you will find it an 
implement of learning of extreme value4 
,i do not think its value can be        
exaggerated1 because it gives you the   
means of training the young in attention
 and accuracy1 which are the two things 
in which all mankind are more deficient 
than in any other mental quality        
whatever4 ,the whole of my life has been
 spent in trying to give my proper      
attention to things and to be accurate1 
and ,i have not succeeded as well as ,i 
could wish2 and other people1 ,i am     
afraid1 are not much more fortunate4    
,you cannot begin this habit too early1 
and ,i consider there is nothing of so  
great a value as the habit of drawing1  
to secure those two desirable ends4     
,then we come to the subject-matter1    

whether scientific or aesthetic1 of     
education1 and ,i should naturally have 
no question at all about teaching the   
elements of physical science of the kind
 ,i have sketched1 in a practical       
manner2 but among scientific topics1    
using the word scientific in the        
broadest sense1 ,i would also include   
the elements of the theory of morals and
 of that of political and social life1  
which1 strangely enough1 it never seems 
to occur to anybody to teach a child4 ,i
 would have the history of our own      
country1 and of all the influences which
 have been brought to bear upon it1 with
 incidental geography1 not as a mere    
chronicle of reigns and battles1 but as 
a chapter in the development of the     
race1 and the history of civilisation4  
,then with respect to aesthetic         
knowledge and discipline1 we have       
happily in the ,english language one of 
the most magnificent storehouses of     
artistic beauty and of models of        
literary excellence which exists in the 

world at the present time4 ,i have said 
before1 and ,i repeat it here1 that if a
 man cannot get literary culture of the 
highest kind out of his ,bible1 and     
,chaucer1 and ,shakespeare1 and ,milton1
 and ,hobbes1 and ,bishop ,berkeley1 to 
mention only a few of our illustrious   
writers--,i say1 if he cannot get it out
 of those writers1 he cannot get it out 
of anything2 and ,i would assuredly     
devote a very large portion of the time 
of every ,english child to the careful  
study of the models of ,english writing 
of such varied and wonderful kind as we 
possess1 and1 what is still more        
important and still more neglected1 the 
habit of using that language with       
precision1 with force1 and with art4 ,i 
fancy we are almost the only nation in  
the world who seem to think that        
composition comes by nature4 ,the       
,french attend to their own language1   
the ,germans study theirs2 but          
,englishmen do not seem to think it is  
worth their while4 ,nor would ,i fail to

 include1 in the course of study ,i am  
sketching1 translations of all the best 
works of antiquity1 or of the modern    
world4 ,it is a very desirable thing to 
read ,homer in ,greek2 but if you don't 
happen to know ,greek1 the next best    
thing we can do is to read as good a    
translation of it as we have recently   
been furnished with in prose4 ,you won't
 get all you would get from the         
original1 but you may get a great deal2 
and to refuse to know this great deal   
because you cannot get all1 seems to be 
as sensible as for a hungry man to      
refuse bread because he cannot get      
partridge4 ,finally1 ,i would add       
instruction in either music or painting1
 or1 if the child should be so unhappy1 
as sometimes happens1 as to have no     
faculty for either of those1 and no     
possibility of doing anything in any    
artistic sense with them1 then ,i would 
see what could be done with literature  
alone2 but ,i would provide1 in the     
fullest sense1 for the development of   

the aesthetic side of the mind4 ,in my  
judgment1 those are all the essentials  
of education for an ,english child4     
,with that outfit1 such as it might be  
made in the time given to education     
which is within the reach of nine-tenths
 of the population--with that outfit1 an
 ,englishman1 within the limits of      
,english life1 is fitted to go anywhere1
 to occupy the highest positions1 to    
fill the highest offices of the ,state1 
and to become distinguished in practical
 pursuits1 in science1 or in art4 ,for1 
if he have the opportunity to learn all 
those things1 and have his mind         
disciplined in the various directions   
the teaching of those topics would have 
necessitated1 then1 assuredly1 he will  
be able to pick up1 on his road through 
life1 all the rest of the intellectual  
baggage he wants4  ,if the educational  
time at our disposition were sufficient1
 there are one or two things ,i would   
add to those ,i have just now called the
 essentials2 and perhaps you will be    

surprised to hear1 though ,i hope you   
will not1 that ,i should add1 not more  
science1 but one1 or1 if possible1 two  
languages4 ,the knowledge of some other 
language than one's own is1 in fact1 of 
singular intellectual value4 ,many of   
the faults and mistakes of the ancient  
philosophers are traceable to the fact  
that they knew no language but their    
own1 and were often led into confusing  
the symbol with the thought which it    
embodied4 ,i think it is ,locke who says
 that one-half of the mistakes of       
philosophers have arisen from questions 
about words2 and one of the safest ways 
of delivering yourself from the bondage 
of words is1 to know how ideas look in  
words to which you are not accustomed4  
,that is one reason for the study of    
language2 another reason is1 that it    
opens new fields in art and in science4 
,another is the practical value of such 
knowledge2 and yet another is this1 that
 if your languages are properly chosen1 
from the time of learning the additional

 languages you will know your own       
language better than ever you did4 ,so1 
,i say1 if the time given to education  
permits1 add ,latin and ,german4 ,latin1
 because it is the key to nearly        
one-half of ,english and to all the     
,romance languages2 and ,german1 because
 it is the key to almost all the        
remainder of ,english1 and helps you to 
understand a race from whom most of us  
have sprung1 and who have a character   
and a literature of a fateful force in  
the history of the world1 such as       
probably has been allotted to those of  
no other people1 except the ,jews1 the  
,greeks1 and ourselves4 ,beyond these1  
the essential and the eminently         
desirable elements of all education1 let
 each man take up his special line--the 
historian devote himself to his history1
 the man of science to his science1 the 
man of letters to his culture of that   
kind1 and the artist to his special     
pursuit4  ,bacon has prefaced some of   
his works with no more than this3       

,franciscus ,bacon sic cogitavit2 let   
sic cogitavi be the epilogue to what ,i 
have ventured to address to you         
to-night4     ,,viii  ,,universities3   
,,actual ,,and ,,ideal  #ahgd   ,elected
 by the suffrages of your four ,nations 
,rector of the ancient ,university of   
which you are scholars1 ,i take the     
earliest opportunity which has presented
 itself since my restoration to health1 
of delivering the ,address which1 by    
long custom1 is expected of the holder  
of my office4  ,my first duty in opening
 that ,address1 is to offer you my most 
hearty thanks for the signal honour you 
have conferred upon me--an honour of    
which1 as a man unconnected with you by 
personal or by national ties1 devoid of 
political distinction1 and a plebeian   
who stands by his order1 ,i could not   
have dreamed4 ,and it was the more      
surprising to me1 as the five-and-twenty
 years which have passed over my head   
since ,i reached intellectual manhood1  
have been largely spent in no           

half-hearted advocacy of doctrines which
 have not yet found favour in the eyes  
of ,academic respectability2 so that1   
when the proposal to nominate me for    
your ,rector came1 ,i was almost as much
 astonished as was ,hal o' the ,wynd1   
who fought for his own hand1 by the     
,black ,douglas's proffer of knighthood4
 ,and ,i fear that my acceptance must be
 taken as evidence that1 less wise than 
the ,armourer of ,perth1 ,i have not yet
 done with soldiering4  ,in fact1 if1   
for a moment1 ,i imagined that your     
intention was simply1 in the kindness of
 your hearts1 to do me honour2 and that 
the ,rector of your ,university1 like   
that of some other ,universities was one
 of those happy beings who sit in glory 
for three years1 with nothing to do for 
it save the making of a speech1 a       
conversation with my distinguished      
predecessor soon dispelled the dream4 ,i
 found that1 by the constitution of the 
,university of ,aberdeen1 the incumbent 
of the ,rectorate is1 if not a power1 at

 any rate a potential energy2 and that1 
whatever may be his chances of success  
or failure1 it is his duty to convert   
that potential energy into a living     
force1 directed towards such ends as may
 seem to him conducive to the welfare of
 the corporation of which he is the     
theoretical head4  ,i need not tell you 
that your late ,lord ,rector took this  
view of his position1 and acted upon it 
with the comprehensive1 far-seeing      
insight into the actual condition and   
tendencies1 not merely of his own1 but  
of other countries1 which is his        
honourable characteristic among         
statesmen4 ,i have already done my best1
 and1 as long as ,i hold my office1 ,i  
shall continue my endeavours1 to follow 
in the path which he trod2 to do what in
 me lies1 to bring this ,university     
nearer to the ideal--alas1 that ,i      
should be obliged to say ideal--of all  
,universities2 which1 as ,i conceive1   
should be places in which thought is    
free from all fetters2 and in which all 

sources of knowledge1 and all aids to   
learning1 should be accessible to all   
comers1 without distinction of creed or 
country1 riches or poverty4  ,do not    
suppose1 however1 that ,i am sanguine   
enough to expect much to come of any    
poor efforts of mine4 ,if your annals   
take any notice of my incumbency1 ,i    
shall probably go down to posterity as  
the ,rector who was always beaten4 ,but 
if they add1 as ,i think they will1 that
 my defeats became victories in the     
hands of my successors1 ,i shall be well
 content4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,the scenes are shifting in
 the great theatre of the world4 ,the   
act which commenced with the ,protestant
 ,reformation is nearly played out1 and 
a wider and deeper change than that     
effected three centuries ago--a         
reformation1 or rather a revolution of  
thought1 the extremes of which are      
represented by the intellectual heirs of
 ,john of ,leyden and of ,ignatius      
,loyola1 rather than by those of ,luther

 and of ,leo--is waiting to come on1    
nay1 visible behind the scenes to those 
who have good eyes4 ,men are beginning1 
once more1 to awake to the fact that    
matters of belief and of speculation are
 of absolutely infinite practical       
importance2 and are drawing off from    
that sunny country where it is always   
afternoon--the sleepy hollow of broad   
indifferentism--to range themselves     
under their natural banners4 ,change is 
in the air4 ,it is whirling             
feather-heads into all sorts of         
eccentric orbits1 and filling the       
steadiest with a sense of insecurity4   
,it insists on reopening all questions  
and asking all institutions1 however    
venerable1 by what right they exist1 and
 whether they are1 or are not1 in       
harmony with the real or supposed wants 
of mankind4 ,and it is remarkable that  
these searching inquiries are not so    
much forced on institutions from        
without1 as developed from within4      
,consummate scholars question the value 

of learning2 priests contemn dogma2 and 
women turn their backs upon man's ideal 
of perfect womanhood1 and seek          
satisfaction in apocalyptic visions of  
some1 as yet1 unrealised epicene        
reality4  ,if there be a type of        
stability in this world1 one would be   
inclined to look for it in the old      
,universities of ,england4 ,but it has  
been my business of late to hear a good 
deal about what is going on in these    
famous corporations2 and ,i have been   
filled with astonishment by the         
evidences of internal fermentation which
 they exhibit4 ,if ,gibbon could revisit
 the ancient seat of learning of which  
he has written so cavalierly1 assuredly 
he would no longer speak of the monks of
 ,oxford sunk in prejudice and port4    
,there1 as elsewhere1 port has gone out 
of fashion1 and so has prejudice--at    
least that particular fine1 old1 crusted
 sort of prejudice to which the great   
historian alludes4  ,indeed1 things are 
moving so fast in ,oxford and           

,cambridge1 that1 for my part1 ,i       
rejoiced when the ,royal ,commission1 of
 which ,i am a member1 had finished and 
presented the ,report which related to  
these ,universities2 for we should have 
looked like mere plagiarists1 if1 in    
consequence of a little longer delay in 
issuing it1 all the measures of reform  
we proposed had been anticipated by the 
spontaneous action of the ,universities 
themselves4  ,a month ago ,i should have
 gone on to say that one might speedily 
expect changes of another kind in       
,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,a ,commission  
has been inquiring into the revenues of 
the many wealthy societies1 in more or  
less direct connection with the         
,universities1 resident in those towns4 
,it is said that the ,commission has    
reported1 and that1 for the first time  
in recorded history1 the nation1 and    
perhaps the ,colleges themselves1 will  
know what they are worth4 ,and it was   
announced that a statesman1 who1        
whatever his other merits or defects1   

has aims above the level of mere party  
fighting1 and a clear vision into the   
most complex practical problems1 meant  
to deal with these revenues4  ,but1 ,bos
 locutus est4 ,that mysterious          
independent variable of political       
calculation1 ,public ,opinion--which    
some whisper is1 in the present case1   
very much the same thing as publican's  
opinion--has willed otherwise4 ,the     
,heads may return to their wonted       
slumbers--at any rate for a space4  ,is 
the spirit of change1 which is working  
thus vigorously in the ,south1 likely to
 affect the ,northern ,universities1 and
 if so1 to what extent8 ,the violence of
 fermentation depends1 not so much on   
the quantity of the yeast1 as on the    
composition of the wort1 and its        
richness in fermentable material2 and1  
as a preliminary to the discussion of   
this question1 ,i venture to call to    
your minds the essential and fundamental
 differences between the ,scottish and  
the ,english type of ,university4  ,do  

not charge me with anything worse than  
official egotism1 if ,i say that these  
differences appear to be largely        
symbolised by my own existence4 ,there  
is no ,rector in an ,english            
,university4 ,now1 the organisation of  
the members of a ,university into       
,nations1 with their elective ,rector1  
is the last relic of the primitive      
constitution of ,universities4 ,the     
,rectorate was the most important of all
 offices in that ,university of ,paris1 
upon the model of which the ,university 
of ,aberdeen was fashioned2 and which   
was certainly a great and flourishing   
institution in the twelfth century4     
,enthusiasts for the antiquity of one of
 the two acknowledged parents of all    
,universities1 indeed1 do not hesitate  
to trace the origin of the ,studium     
,parisiense up to that wonderful king of
 the ,franks and ,lombards1 ,karl1      
surnamed the ,great1 whom we all called 
,charlemagne1 and believed to be a      
,frenchman1 until a learned historian1  

by beneficent iteration1 taught us      
better4 ,karl is said not to have been  
much of a scholar himself1 but he had   
the wisdom of which knowledge is only   
the servitor4 ,and that wisdom enabled  
him to see that ignorance is one of the 
roots of all evil4  ,in the ,capitulary 
which enjoins the foundation of         
monasterial and cathedral schools1 he   
says3 ,right action is better than      
knowledge2 but in order to do what is   
right1 we must know what is right4 #a   
,an irrefragable truth1 ,i fancy4       
,acting upon it1 the king took pretty   
full compulsory powers1 and carried into
 effect a really considerable and       
effectual scheme of elementary education
 through the length and breadth of his  
dominions4  ,no doubt the idolaters out 
by the ,elbe1 in what is now part of    
,prussia1 objected to the ,frankish     
king's measures2 no doubt the priests1  
who had never hesitated about           
sacrificing all unbelievers in their    
fantastic deities and futile            

conjurations1 were the loudest in       
chanting the virtues of toleration2 no  
doubt they denounced as a cruel         
persecutor the man who would not allow  
them1 however sincere they might be1 to 
go on spreading delusions which debased 
the intellect1 as much as they deadened 
the moral sense1 and undermined the     
bonds of civil allegiance2 no doubt1 if 
they had lived in these times1 they     
would have been able to show1 with ease1
 that the king's proceedings were       
totally contrary to the best liberal    
principles4 ,but it may be said1 in     
justification of the ,teutonic ruler1   
first1 that he was born before those    
principles1 and did not suspect that the
 best way of getting disorder into order
 was to let it alone2 and1 secondly1    
that his rough and questionable         
proceedings did1 more or less1 bring    
about the end he had in view4 ,for1 in a
 couple of centuries1 the schools he    
sowed broadcast produced their crop of  
men1 thirsting for knowledge and craving

 for culture4 ,such men gravitating     
towards ,paris1 as a light amidst the   
darkness of evil days1 from ,germany1   
from ,spain1 from ,britain1 and from    
,scandinavia1 came together by natural  
affinity4 ,by degrees they banded       
themselves into a society1 which1 as its
 end was the knowledge of all things    
knowable1 called itself a ,studium      
,generale2 and when it had grown into a 
recognised corporation1 acquired the    
name of ,universitas ,studii ,generalis1
 which1 mark you1 means not a ,useful   
,knowledge ,society1 but a              
,knowledge-of-things-in-general         
,society4  ,and thus the first          
,university1 at any rate on this side of
 the ,alps1 came into being4 ,originally
 it had but one ,faculty1 that of ,arts4
 ,its aim was to be a centre of         
knowledge and culture2 not to be1 in any
 sense1 a technical school4  ,the       
scholars seem to have studied ,grammar1 
,logic1 and ,rhetoric2 ,arithmetic and  
,geometry2 ,astronomy2 ,theology2 and   

,music4 ,thus1 their work1 however      
imperfect and faulty1 judged by modern  
lights1 it may have been1 brought them  
face to face with all the leading       
aspects of the many-sided mind of man4  
,for these studies did really contain1  
at any rate in embryo--sometimes1 it may
 be1 in caricature--what we now call    
,philosophy1 ,mathematical and ,physical
 ,science1 and ,art4 ,and ,i doubt if   
the curriculum of any modern ,university
 shows so clear and generous a          
comprehension of what is meant by       
culture1 as this old ,trivium and       
,quadrivium does4  ,the students who had
 passed through the ,university course1 
and had proved themselves competent to  
teach1 became masters and teachers of   
their younger brethren4 ,whence the     
distinction of ,masters and ,regents on 
the one hand1 and ,scholars on the      
other4  ,rapid growth necessitated      
organisation4 ,the ,masters and         
,scholars of various tongues and        
countries grouped themselves into four  

,nations2 and the ,nations1 by their own
 votes at first1 and subsequently by    
those of their ,procurators1 or         
representatives1 elected their supreme  
head and governor1 the ,rector--at that 
time the sole representative of the     
,university1 and a very real power1 who 
could defy ,provosts interfering from   
without2 or could inflict even corporal 
punishment on disobedient members within
 the ,university4  ,such was the        
primitive constitution of the           
,university of ,paris4 ,it is in        
reference to this original state of     
things that ,i have spoken of the       
,rectorate1 and all that appertains to  
it1 as the sole relic of that           
constitution4  ,but this original       
organisation did not last long4 ,society
 was not then1 any more than it is now1 
patient of culture1 as such4 ,it says to
 everything1 ,be useful to me1 or away  
with you4 ,and to the learned1 the      
unlearned man said then1 as he does now1
 ,what is the use of all your learning1 

unless you can tell me what ,i want to  
know8 ,i am here blindly groping about1 
and constantly damaging myself by       
collision with three mighty powers1 the 
power of the invisible ,god1 the power  
of my fellow ,man1 and the power of     
brute ,nature4 ,let your learning be    
turned to the study of these powers1    
that ,i may know how ,i am to comport   
myself with regard to them4 ,in answer  
to this demand1 some of the ,masters of 
the ,faculty of ,arts devoted themselves
 to the study of ,theology1 some to that
 of ,law1 and some to that of ,medicine2
 and they became ,doctors--men learned  
in those technical1 or1 as we now call  
them1 professional1 branches of         
knowledge4 ,like cleaving to like1 the  
,doctors formed schools1 or ,faculties1 
of ,theology1 ,law1 and ,medicine1 which
 sometimes assumed airs of superiority  
over their parent1 the ,faculty of      
,arts1 though the latter always asserted
 and maintained its fundamental         
supremacy4  ,the ,faculties arose by    

process of natural differentiation out  
of the primitive ,university4 ,other    
constituents1 foreign to its nature1    
were speedily grafted upon it4 ,one of  
these extraneous elements was forced    
into it by the ,roman ,church1 which in 
those days asserted with effect1 that   
which it now asserts1 happily without   
any effect in these realms1 its right of
 censorship and control over all        
teaching4 ,the local habitation of the  
,university lay partly in the lands     
attached to the monastery of ,s4        
,genevive1 partly in the diocese of the 
,bishop of ,paris2 and he who would     
teach must have the licence of the      
,abbot1 or of the ,bishop1 as the       
nearest representative of the ,pope1 so 
to do1 which licence was granted by the 
,chancellors of these ,ecclesiastics4   
,thus1 if ,i am what archaeologists call
 a survival of the primitive head and   
ruler of the ,university1 your          
,chancellor stands in the same relation 
to the ,papacy2 and1 with all respect   

for his ,grace1 ,i think ,i may say that
 we both look terribly shrunken when    
compared with our great originals4  ,not
 so is it with a second foreign element1
 which silently dropped into the soil of
 ,universities1 like the grain of       
mustard-seed in the parable2 and1 like  
that grain1 grew into a tree1 in whose  
branches a whole aviary of fowls took   
shelter4 ,that element is the element of
 ,endowment4 ,it differed from the      
preceding1 in its original design to    
serve as a prop to the young plant1 not 
to be a parasite upon it4 ,the          
charitable and the humane1 blessed with 
wealth1 were very early penetrated by   
the misery of the poor student4 ,and the
 wise saw that intellectual ability is  
not so common or so unimportant a gift  
that it should be allowed to run to     
waste upon mere handicrafts and chares4 
,the man who was a blessing to his      
contemporaries1 but who so often has    
been converted into a curse1 by the     
blind adherence of his posterity to the 

letter1 rather than to the spirit1 of   
his wishes--,i mean the pious           
founder--gave money and lands1 that the 
student1 who was rich in brain and poor 
in all else1 might be taken from the    
plough or from the stithy1 and enabled  
to devote himself to the higher service 
of mankind2 and built colleges and halls
 in which he might be not only housed   
and fed1 but taught4  ,the ,colleges    
were very generally placed in strict    
subordination to the ,university by     
their founders2 but1 in many cases1     
their endowment1 consisting of land1 has
 undergone an unearned increment1 which 
has given these societies a continually 
increasing weight and importance as     
against the unendowed1 or fixedly       
endowed1 ,university4 ,in ,pharaoh's    
dream1 the seven lean kine eat up the   
seven fat ones4 ,in the reality of      
historical fact1 the fat ,colleges have 
eaten up the lean ,universities4  ,even 
here in ,aberdeen1 though the causes at 
work may have been somewhat different1  

the effects have been similar2 and you  
see how much more substantial an entity 
is the ,very ,reverend the ,principal1  
analogue1 if not homologue1 of the      
,principals of ,king's ,college1 than   
the ,rector1 lineal representative of   
the ancient monarchs of the ,university1
 though now1 little more than a king of 
shreds and patches4  ,do not suppose    
that1 in thus briefly tracing the       
process of ,university metamorphosis1 ,i
 have had any intention of quarrelling  
with its results4 ,practically1 it seems
 to me that the broad changes effected  
in #aheh have given the ,scottish       
,universities a very liberal            
constitution1 with as much real         
approximation to the primitive state of 
things as is at all desirable4 ,if your 
fat kine have eaten the lean1 they have 
not lain down to chew the cud ever      
since4 ,the ,scottish ,universities1    
like the ,english1 have diverged widely 
enough from their primitive model2 but  
,i cannot help thinking that the        

northern form has remained more faithful
 to its original1 not only in           
constitution1 but1 what is more to the  
purpose1 in view of the cry for change1 
in the practical application of the     
endowments connected with it4  ,in      
,aberdeen1 these endowments are         
numerous1 but so small that1 taken      
altogether1 they are not equal to the   
revenue of a single third-rate ,english 
college4 ,they are scholarships1 not    
fellowships2 aids to do work--not       
rewards for such work as it lies within 
the reach of an ordinary1 or even an    
extraordinary1 young man to do4 ,you do 
not think that passing a respectable    
examination is a fair equivalent for an 
income1 such as many a grey-headed      
veteran1 or clergyman would envy2 and   
which is larger than the endowment of   
many ,regius chairs4 ,you do not care to
 make your ,university a school of      
manners for the rich2 of sports for the 
athletic2 or a hot-bed of high-fed1     
hypercritical refinement1 more          

destructive to vigour and originality   
than are starvation and oppression4 ,no2
 your little ,bursaries of ten and      
twenty 7,i believe even fifty7 pounds a 
year1 enabled any boy who has shown     
ability in the course of his education  
in those remarkable primary schools1    
which have made ,scotland the power she 
is1 to obtain the highest culture the   
country can give him2 and when he is    
armed and equipped1 his ,spartan ,alma  
,mater tells him that1 so far1 he has   
had his wages for his work1 and that he 
may go and earn the rest4  ,when ,i     
think of the host of pleasant1 moneyed1 
well-bred young gentlemen1 who do a     
little learning and much boating by ,cam
 and ,isis1 the vision is a pleasant    
one2 and1 as a patriot1 ,i rejoice that 
the youth of the upper and richer       
classes of the nation receive a         
wholesome and a manly training1 however 
small may be the modicum of knowledge   
they gather1 in the intervals of this1  
their serious business4 ,i admit1 to the

 full1 the social and political value of
 that training4 ,but1 when ,i proceed to
 consider that these young men may be   
said to represent the great bulk of what
 the ,colleges have to show for their   
enormous wealth1 plus1 at least1 a      
hundred and fifty pounds a year apiece  
which each undergraduate costs his      
parents or guardians1 ,i feel inclined  
to ask1 whether the rate-in-aid of the  
education of the wealthy and            
professional classes1 thus levied on the
 resources of the community1 is not1    
after all1 a little heavy8 ,and1 still  
further1 ,i am tempted to inquire what  
has become of the indigent scholars1 the
 sons of the masses of the people whose 
daily labour just suffices to meet their
 daily wants1 for whose benefit these   
rich foundations were largely1 if not   
mainly1 instituted8 ,it seems as if     
,pharaoh's dream had been rigorously    
carried out1 and that even the fat      
scholar has eaten the lean one4 ,and    
when ,i turn from this picture to the no

 less real vision of many a brave and   
frugal ,scotch boy1 spending his summer 
in hard manual labour1 that he may have 
the privilege of wending his way in     
autumn to this ,university1 with a bag  
of oatmeal1 ten pounds in his pocket1   
and his own stout heart to depend upon  
through the northern winter2 not bent on
 seeking      ,the bubble reputation at 
the cannon's mouth1  but determined to  
wring knowledge from the hard hands of  
penury2 when ,i see him win through all 
such outward obstacles to positions of  
wide usefulness and well-earned fame2 ,i
 cannot but think that1 in essence1     
,aberdeen has departed but little from  
the primitive intention of the founders 
of ,universities1 and that the spirit of
 reform has so much to do on the other  
side of the ,border1 that it may be long
 before he has leisure to look this way4
  ,as compared with other actual        
,universities1 then1 ,aberdeen1 may1    
perhaps1 be well satisfied with itself4 
,but do not think me an impracticable   

dreamer1 if ,i ask you not to rest and  
be thankful in this state of            
satisfaction2 if ,i ask you to consider 
awhile1 how this actual good stands     
related to that ideal better1 towards   
which both men and institutions must    
progress1 if they would not retrograde4 
,in an ideal ,university1 as ,i conceive
 it1 a man should be able to obtain     
instruction in all forms of knowledge1  
and discipline in the use of all the    
methods by which knowledge is obtained4 
,in such a ,university1 the force of    
living example should fire the student  
with a noble ambition to emulate the    
learning of learned men1 and to follow  
in the footsteps of the explorers of new
 fields of knowledge4 ,and the very air 
he breathes should be charged with that 
enthusiasm for truth1 that fanaticism of
 veracity1 which is a greater possession
 than much learning2 a nobler gift than 
the power of increasing knowledge2 by so
 much greater and nobler than these1 as 
the moral nature of man is greater than 

the intellectual2 for veracity is the   
heart of morality4  ,but the man who is 
all morality and intellect1 although he 
may be good and even great1 is1 after   
all1 only half a man4 ,there is beauty  
in the moral world and in the           
intellectual world2 but there is also a 
beauty which is neither moral nor       
intellectual--the beauty of the world of
 ,art4 ,there are men who are devoid of 
the power of seeing it1 as there are men
 who are born deaf and blind1 and the   
loss of those1 as of these1 is simply   
infinite4 ,there are others in whom it  
is an overpowering passion2 happy men1  
born with the productive1 or at lowest1 
the appreciative1 genius of the ,artist4
 ,but1 in the mass of mankind1 the      
,aesthetic faculty1 like the reasoning  
power and the moral sense1 needs to be  
roused1 directed1 and cultivated2 and ,i
 know not why the development of that   
side of his nature1 through which man   
has access to a perennial spring of     
ennobling pleasure1 should be omitted   

from any comprehensive scheme of        
,university education4  ,all            
,universities recognise ,literature in  
the sense of the old ,rhetoric1 which is
 art incarnate in words4 ,some1 to their
 credit1 recognise ,art in its narrower 
sense1 to a certain extent1 and confer  
degrees for proficiency in some of its  
branches4 ,if there are ,doctors of     
,music1 why should there be no ,masters 
of painting1 of ,sculpture1 of          
,architecture8 ,i should like to see    
,professors of the ,fine ,arts in every 
,university2 and instruction in some    
branch of their work made a part of the 
,arts curriculum4  ,i just now expressed
 the opinion that1 in our ideal         
,university1 a man should be able to    
obtain instruction in all forms of      
knowledge4 ,now1 by forms of knowledge  
,i mean the great classes of things     
knowable2 of which the first1 in        
logical1 though not in natural1 order is
 knowledge relating to the scope and    
limits of the mental faculties of man1 a

 form of knowledge which1 in its        
positive aspect1 answers pretty much to 
,logic and part of ,psychology1 while1  
on its negative and critical side1 it   
corresponds with ,metaphysics4  ,a      
second class comprehends all that       
knowledge which relates to man's        
welfare1 so far as it is determined by  
his own acts1 or what we call his       
conduct4 ,it answers to ,moral and      
,religious philosophy4 ,practically1 it 
is the most directly valuable of all    
forms of knowledge1 but speculatively1  
it is limited and criticised by that    
which precedes and by that which follows
 it in my order of enumeration4  ,a     
third class embraces knowledge of the   
phaenomena of the ,universe1 as that    
which lies about the individual man2 and
 of the rules which those phaenomena are
 observed to follow in the order of     
their occurrence1 which we term the laws
 of ,nature4  ,this is what ought to be 
called ,natural ,science1 or            
,physiology1 though those terms are     

hopelessly diverted from such a meaning2
 and it includes all exact knowledge of 
natural fact1 whether ,mathematical1    
,physical1 ,biological1 or ,social4     
,kant has said that the ultimate object 
of all knowledge is to give replies to  
these three questions3 ,what can ,i do8 
,what ought ,i to do8 ,what may ,i hope 
for8 ,the forms of knowledge which ,i   
have enumerated1 should furnish such    
replies as are within human reach1 to   
the first and second of these questions4
 ,while to the third1 perhaps the wisest
 answer is1 ,do what you can to do what 
you ought1 and leave hoping and fearing 
alone4  ,if this be a just and an       
exhaustive classification of the forms  
of knowledge1 no question as to their   
relative importance1 or as to the       
superiority of one to the other1 can be 
seriously raised4  ,on the face of the  
matter1 it is absurd to ask whether it  
is more important to know the limits of 
one's powers2 or the ends for which they
 ought to be exerted2 or the conditions 

under which they must be exerted4 ,one  
may as well inquire which of the terms  
of a ,rule of ,three sum one ought to   
know1 in order to get a trustworthy     
result4 ,practical life is such a sum1  
in which your duty multiplied into your 
capacity1 and divided by your           
circumstances1 gives you the fourth term
 in the proportion1 which is your       
deserts1 with great accuracy4 ,all      
agree1 ,i take it1 that men ought to    
have these three kinds of knowledge4    
,the so-called conflict of studies turns
 upon the question of how they may best 
be obtained4  ,the founders of          
,universities held the theory that the  
,scriptures and ,aristotle taken        
together1 the latter being limited by   
the former1 contained all knowledge     
worth having1 and that the business of  
philosophy was to interpret and         
co-ordinate these two4 ,i imagine that  
in the twelfth century this was a very  
fair conclusion from known facts4       
,nowhere in the world1 in those days1   

was there such an encyclopaedia of      
knowledge of all three classes1 as is to
 be found in those writings4 ,the       
scholastic philosophy is a wonderful    
monument of the patience and ingenuity  
with which the human mind toiled to     
build up a logically consistent theory  
of the ,universe1 out of such materials4
 ,and that philosophy is by no means    
dead and buried1 as many vainly suppose4
 ,on the contrary1 numbers of men of no 
mean learning and accomplishment1 and   
sometimes of rare power and subtlety of 
thought1 hold by it as the best theory  
of things which has yet been stated4    
,and1 what is still more remarkable1 men
 who speak the language of modern       
philosophy1 nevertheless think the      
thoughts of the schoolmen4 ,the voice is
 the voice of ,jacob1 but the hands are 
the hands of ,esau4 ,every day ,i hear  
,cause1 ,law1 ,force1 ,vitality1 spoken 
of as entities1 by people who can enjoy 
,swift's joke about the meat-roasting   
quality of the smoke-jack1 and comfort  

themselves with the reflection that they
 are not even as those benighted        
schoolmen4  ,well1 this great system had
 its day1 and then it was sapped and    
mined by two influences4 ,the first was 
the study of classical literature1 which
 familiarised men with methods of       
philosophising2 with conceptions of the 
highest ,good2 with ideas of the order  
of ,nature2 with notions of ,literary   
and ,historical ,criticism2 and1 above  
all1 with visions of ,art1 of a kind    
which not only would not fit into the   
scholastic scheme1 but showed them a    
pre-,christian1 and indeed altogether   
un-,christian world1 of such grandeur   
and beauty that they ceased to think of 
any other4 ,they were as men who had    
kissed the ,fairy ,queen1 and wandering 
with her in the dim loveliness of the   
under-world1 cared not to return to the 
familiar ways of home and fatherland1   
though they lay1 at arm's length1       
overhead4 ,cardinals were more familiar 
with ,virgil than with ,isaiah2 and     

,popes laboured1 with great success1 to 
re-paganise ,rome4  ,the second         
influence was the slow1 but sure1 growth
 of the physical sciences4 ,it was      
discovered that some results of         
speculative thought1 of immense         
practical and theoretical importance1   
can be verified by observation2 and are 
always true1 however severely they may  
be tested4 ,here1 at any rate1 was      
knowledge1 to the certainty of which no 
authority could add1 or take away1 one  
jot or tittle1 and to which the         
tradition of a thousand years was as    
insignificant as the hearsay of         
yesterday4 ,to the scholastic system1   
the study of classical literature might 
be inconvenient and distracting1 but it 
was possible to hope that it could be   
kept within bounds4 ,physical science1  
on the other hand1 was an irreconcilable
 enemy1 to be excluded at all hazards4  
,the ,college of ,cardinals has not     
distinguished itself in ,physics or     
,physiology2 and no ,pope has1 as yet1  

set up public laboratories in the       
,vatican4  ,people do not always        
formulate the beliefs on which they act4
 ,the instinct of fear and dislike is   
quicker than the reasoning process2 and 
,i suspect that1 taken in conjunction   
with some other causes1 such instinctive
 aversion is at the bottom of the long  
exclusion of any serious discipline in  
the physical sciences from the general  
curriculum of ,universities2 while1 on  
the other hand1 classical literature has
 been gradually made the backbone of the
 ,arts course4  ,i am ashamed to repeat 
here what ,i have said elsewhere1 in    
season and out of season1 respecting the
 value of ,science as knowledge and     
discipline4 ,but the other day ,i met   
with some passages in the ,address to   
another ,scottish ,university1 of a     
great thinker1 recently lost to us1     
which express so fully and yet so       
tersely1 the truth in this matter that  
,i am fain to quote them3--  ,to        
question all things2--never to turn away

 from any difficulty2 to accept no      
doctrine either from ourselves or from  
other people without a rigid scrutiny by
 negative criticism2 letting no fallacy1
 or incoherence1 or confusion of        
thought1 step by unperceived2 above all1
 to insist upon having the meaning of a 
word clearly understood before using it1
 and the meaning of a proposition before
 assenting to it2--these are the lessons
 we learn from workers in ,science4     
,with all this vigorous management of   
the negative element1 they inspire no   
scepticism about the reality of truth or
 indifference to its pursuit4 ,the      
noblest enthusiasm1 both for the search 
after truth and for applying it to its  
highest uses1 pervades those writers4   
,in cultivating1 therefore1 science as  
an essential ingredient in education1 we
 are all the while laying an admirable  
foundation for ethical and philosophical
 culture4 #b  ,the passages ,i have     
quoted were uttered by ,john ,stuart    
,mill2 but you cannot hear inverted     

commas1 and it is therefore right that  
,i should add1 without delay1 that ,i   
have taken the liberty of substituting  
workers in science for ancient          
dialecticians1 and ,science as an       
essential ingredient in education for   
the ancient languages as our best       
literary education4 ,mill did1 in fact1 
deliver a noble panegyric upon classical
 studies4 ,i do not doubt its justice1  
nor presume to question its wisdom4 ,but
 ,i venture to maintain that no wise or 
just judge1 who has a knowledge of the  
facts1 will hesitate to say that it     
applies with equal force to scientific  
training4  ,but it is only fair to the  
,scottish ,universities to point out    
that they have long understood the value
 of ,science as a branch of general     
education4 ,i observe1 with the greatest
 satisfaction1 that candidates for the  
degree of ,master of ,arts in this      
,university are required to have a      
knowledge1 not only of ,mental and      
,moral ,philosophy1 and of ,mathematics 

and ,natural ,philosophy1 but of        
,natural ,history1 in addition to the   
ordinary ,latin and ,greek course2 and  
that a candidate may take honours in    
these subjects and in ,chemistry4  ,i do
 not know what the requirements of your 
examiners may be1 but ,i sincerely trust
 they are not satisfied with a mere book
 knowledge of these matters4 ,for my own
 part ,i would not raise a finger1 if ,i
 could thereby introduce mere book work 
in science into every ,arts curriculum  
in the country4 ,let those who want to  
study books devote themselves to        
,literature1 in which we have the       
perfection of books1 both as to         
substance and as to form4 ,if ,i may    
paraphrase ,hobbes's well-known         
aphorism1 ,i would say that books are   
the money of ,literature1 but only the  
counters of ,science1 ,science 7in the  
sense in which ,i now use the term7     
being the knowledge of fact1 of which   
every verbal description is but an      
incomplete and symbolic expression4 ,and

 be assured that no teaching of science 
is worth anything1 as a mental          
discipline1 which is not based upon     
direct perception of the facts1 and     
practical exercise of the observing and 
logical faculties upon them4 ,even in   
such a simple matter as the mere        
comprehension of form1 ask the most     
practised and widely informed anatomist 
what is the difference between his      
knowledge of a structure which he has   
read about1 and his knowledge of the    
same structure when he has seen it for  
himself2 and he will tell you that the  
two things are not comparable--the      
difference is infinite4 ,thus ,i am very
 strongly inclined to agree with some   
learned schoolmasters who say that1 in  
their experience1 the teaching of       
science is all waste time4 ,as they     
teach it1 ,i have no doubt it is4 ,but  
to teach it otherwise requires an amount
 of personal labour and a development of
 means and appliances1 which must strike
 horror and dismay into a man accustomed

 to mere book work2 and who has been in 
the habit of teaching a class of fifty  
without much strain upon his energies4  
,and this is one of the real            
difficulties in the way of the          
introduction of physical science into   
the ordinary ,university course1 to     
which ,i have alluded4 ,it is a         
difficulty which will not be overcome1  
until years of patient study have       
organised scientific teaching as well   
as1 or ,i hope better than1 classical   
teaching has been organised hitherto4   
,a little while ago1 ,i ventured to hint
 a doubt as to the perfection of some of
 the arrangements in the ancient        
,universities of ,england2 but1 in their
 provision for giving instruction in    
,science as such1 and without direct    
reference to any of its practical       
applications1 they have set a brilliant 
example4 ,within the last twenty years1 
,oxford alone has sunk more than a      
hundred and twenty thousand pounds in   
building and furnishing ,physical1      

,chemical1 and ,physiological           
,laboratories1 and a magnificent        
,museum1 arranged with an almost        
luxurious regard for the needs of the   
student4 ,cambridge1 less rich1 but     
aided by the munificence of her         
,chancellor1 is taking the same course2 
and in a few years1 it will be for no   
lack of the means and appliances of     
sound teaching1 if the mass of ,english 
,university men remain in their present 
state of barbarous ignorance of even the
 rudiments of scientific culture4  ,yet 
another step needs to be made before    
,science can be said to have taken its  
proper place in the ,universities4 ,that
 is its recognition as a ,faculty1 or   
branch of study demanding recognition   
and special organisation1 on account of 
its bearing on the wants of mankind4    
,the ,faculties of ,theology1 ,law1 and 
,medicine1 are technical schools1       
intended to equip men who have received 
general culture1 with the special       
knowledge which is needed for the proper

 performance of the duties of clergymen1
 lawyers1 and medical practitioners4    
,when the material well-being of the    
country depended upon rude pasture and  
agriculture1 and still ruder mining2 in 
the days when all the innumerable       
applications of the principles of       
physical science to practical purposes  
were non-existent even as dreams2 days  
which men living may have heard their   
fathers speak of2 what little physical  
science could be seen to bear directly  
upon human life1 lay within the province
 of ,medicine4 ,medicine was the        
foster-mother of ,chemistry1 because it 
has to do with the preparation of drugs 
and the detection of poisons2 of        
,botany1 because it enabled the         
physician to recognise medicinal herbs2 
of ,comparative ,anatomy and            
,physiology1 because the man who studied
 ,human ,anatomy and ,physiology for    
purely medical purposes was led to      
extend his studies to the rest of the   
animal world4  ,within my recollection1 

the only way in which a student could   
obtain anything like a training in      
,physical ,science1 was by attending the
 lectures of the ,professors of         
,physical and ,natural ,science attached
 to the ,medical ,schools4 ,but1 in the 
course of the last thirty years1 both   
foster-mother and child have grown so   
big1 that they threaten not only to     
crush one another1 but to press the very
 life out of the unhappy student who    
enters the nursery2 to the great        
detriment of all three4  ,i speak in the
 presence of those who know practically 
what medical education is2 for ,i may   
assume that a large proportion of my    
hearers are more or less advanced       
students of medicine4 ,i appeal to the  
most industrious and conscientious among
 you1 to those who are most deeply      
penetrated with a sense of the extremely
 serious responsibilities which attach  
to the calling of a medical             
practitioner1 when ,i ask whether1 out  
of the four years which you devote to   

your studies1 you ought to spare even so
 much as an hour for any work which does
 not tend directly to fit you for your  
duties8  ,consider what that work is4   
,its foundation is a sound and practical
 acquaintance with the structure of the 
human organism1 and with the modes and  
conditions of its action in health4 ,i  
say a sound and practical acquaintance1 
to guard against the supposition that my
 intention is to suggest that you ought 
all to be minute anatomists and         
accomplished physiologists4 ,the        
devotion of your whole four years to    
,anatomy and ,physiology alone1 would be
 totally insufficient to attain that    
end4 ,what ,i mean is1 the sort of      
practical1 familiar1 finger-end         
knowledge which a watchmaker has of a   
watch1 and which you expect that        
craftsman1 as an honest man1 to have1   
when you entrust a watch that goes      
badly1 to him4 ,it is a kind of         
knowledge which is to be acquired1 not  
in the lecture-room1 nor in the library1

 but in the dissecting-room and the     
laboratory4 ,it is to be had not by     
sharing your attention between these and
 sundry other subjects1 but by          
concentrating your minds1 week after    
week1 and month after month1 six or     
seven hours a day1 upon all the         
complexities of organ and function1     
until each of the greater truths of     
anatomy and physiology has become an    
organic part of your minds--until you   
would know them if you were roused and  
questioned in the middle of the night1  
as a man knows the geography of his     
native place and the daily life of his  
home4 ,that is the sort of knowledge    
which1 once obtained1 is a life-long    
possession4 ,other occupations may fill 
your minds--it may grow dim1 and seem to
 be forgotten--but there it is1 like the
 inscription on a battered and defaced  
coin1 which comes out when you warm it4 
,if ,i had the power to remodel ,medical
 ,education1 the first two years of the 
medical curriculum should be devoted to 

nothing but such thorough study of      
,anatomy and ,physiology1 with          
,physiological ,chemistry and ,physics2 
the student should then pass a real1    
practical examination in these subjects2
 and1 having gone through that ordeal   
satisfactorily1 he should be troubled no
 more with them4 ,his whole mind should 
then be given with equal intentness to  
,therapeutics1 in its broadest sense1 to
 ,practical ,medicine and to ,surgery1  
with instruction in ,hygiene and in     
,medical ,jurisprudence2 and of these   
subjects only--surely there are enough  
of them--should he be required to show a
 knowledge in his final examination4  ,i
 cannot claim any special property in   
this theory of what the medical         
curriculum should be1 for ,i find that  
views1 more or less closely             
approximating these1 are held by all who
 have seriously considered the very     
grave and pressing question of ,medical 
,reform2 and have1 indeed1 been carried 
into practice1 to some extent1 by the   

most enlightened ,examining ,boards4 ,i 
have heard but two kinds of objections  
to them4 ,there is first1 the objection 
of vested interests1 which ,i will not  
deal with here1 because ,i want to make 
myself as pleasant as ,i can1 and no    
discussions are so unpleasant as those  
which turn on such points4 ,and there   
is1 secondly1 the much more respectable 
objection1 which takes the general form 
of the reproach that1 in thus limiting  
the curriculum1 we are seeking to narrow
 it4 ,we are told that the medical man  
ought to be a person of good education  
and general information1 if his         
profession is to hold its own among     
other professions2 that he ought to know
 ,botany1 or else1 if he goes abroad1 he
 will not be able to tell poisonous     
fruits from edible ones2 that he ought  
to know drugs1 as a druggist knows them1
 or he will not be able to tell sham    
bark and senna from the real articles2  
that he ought to know ,zoology1         
because--well1 ,i really have never been

 able to learn exactly why he is to be  
expected to know zoology4 ,there is1    
indeed1 a popular superstition1 that    
doctors know all about things that are  
queer or nasty to the general mind1 and 
may1 therefore1 be reasonably expected  
to know the barbarous binomials         
applicable to snakes1 snails1 and slugs2
 an amount of information with which the
 general mind is usually completely     
satisfied4 ,and there is a scientific   
superstition that ,physiology is largely
 aided by ,comparative ,anatomy--a      
superstition which1 like most           
superstitions1 once had a grain of truth
 at bottom2 but the grain has become    
homoeopathic1 since ,physiology took its
 modern experimental development1 and   
became what it is now1 the application  
of the principles of ,physics and       
,chemistry to the elucidation of the    
phaenomena of life4  ,i hold as strongly
 as any one can do1 that the medical    
practitioner ought to be a person of    
education and good general culture2 but 

,i also hold by the old theory of a     
,faculty1 that a man should have his    
general culture before he devotes       
himself to the special studies of that  
,faculty2 and ,i venture to maintain1   
that1 if the general culture obtained in
 the ,faculty of ,arts were what it     
ought to be1 the student would have     
quite as much knowledge of the          
fundamental principles of ,physics1 of  
,chemistry1 and of ,biology1 as he      
needs1 before he commenced his special  
medical studies4  ,moreover1 ,i would   
urge1 that a thorough study of ,human   
,physiology is1 in itself1 an education 
broader and more comprehensive than much
 that passes under that name4 ,there is 
no side of the intellect which it does  
not call into play1 no region of human  
knowledge into which either its roots1  
or its branches1 do not extend2 like the
 ,atlantic between the ,old and the ,new
 ,worlds1 its waves wash the shores of  
the two worlds of matter and of mind2   
its tributary streams flow from both2   

through its waters1 as yet unfurrowed by
 the keel of any ,columbus1 lies the    
road1 if such there be1 from the one to 
the other2 far away from that           
,north-west ,passage of mere            
speculation1 in which so many brave     
souls have been hopelessly frozen up4   
,but whether ,i am right or wrong about 
all this1 the patent fact of the        
limitation of time remains4 ,as the song
 runs3--      ,if a man could be sure   
,that his life would endure   ,for the  
space of a thousand long years------  he
 might do a number of things not        
practicable under present conditions4   
,methuselah might1 with much propriety1 
have taken half a century to get his    
doctor's degree2 and might1 very fairly1
 have been required to pass a practical 
examination upon the contents of the    
,british ,museum1 before commencing     
practice as a promising young fellow of 
two hundred1 or thereabouts4 ,but you   
have four years to do your work in1 and 
are turned loose1 to save or slay1 at   

two or three and twenty4  ,now1 ,i put  
it to you1 whether you think that1 when 
you come down to the realities of       
life--when you stand by the sick-bed1   
racking you brains for the principles   
which shall furnish you with the means  
of interpreting symptoms1 and forming a 
rational theory of the condition of your
 patient1 it will be satisfactory for   
you to find that those principles are   
not there--although1 to use the         
examination slang which is unfortunately
 too familiar to me1 you can quite      
easily give an account of the leading   
peculiarities of the ,marsupialia1 or   
enumerate the chief characters of the   
,compositae1 or state the class and     
order of the animal from which          
,castoreum is obtained4  ,i really do   
not think that state of things will be  
satisfactory to you2 ,i am very sure it 
will not be so to your patient4 ,indeed1
 ,i am so narrow-minded myself1 that if 
,i had to choose between two            
physicians--one who did not know whether

 a whale is a fish or not1 and could not
 tell gentian from ginger1 but did      
understand the applications of the      
institutes of medicine to his art2 while
 the other1 like ,talleyrand's doctor1  
knew everything1 even a little          
physic--with all my love for breadth of 
culture1 ,i should assuredly consult the
 former4  ,it is not pleasant to incur  
the suspicion of an inclination to      
injure or depreciate particular branches
 of knowledge4 ,but the fact that one of
 those which ,i should have no          
hesitation in excluding from the medical
 curriculum1 is that to which my own    
life has been specially devoted1 should1
 at any rate1 defend me from the        
suspicion of being urged to this course 
by any but the very gravest             
considerations of the public welfare4   
,and ,i should like1 further1 to call   
your attention to the important         
circumstance that1 in thus proposing the
 exclusion of the study of such branches
 of knowledge as ,zoology and ,botany1  

from those compulsory upon the medical  
student1 ,i am not1 for a moment1       
suggesting their exclusion from the     
,university4 ,i think that sound and    
practical instruction in the elementary 
facts and broad principles of ,biology  
should form part of the ,arts           
,curriculum3 and here1 happily1 my      
theory is in entire accordance with your
 practice4 ,moreover1 as ,i have already
 said1 ,i have no sort of doubt that1 in
 view of the relation of ,physical      
,science to the practical life of the   
present day1 it has the same right as   
,theology1 ,law1 and ,medicine1 to a    
,faculty of its own in which men shall  
be trained to be professional men of    
science4 ,it may be doubted whether     
,universities are the places for        
technical schools of ,engineering or    
applied ,chemistry1 or ,agriculture4    
,but there can surely be little         
question1 that instruction in the       
branches of ,science which lie at the   
foundation of these ,arts1 of a far more

 advanced and special character than    
could1 with any propriety1 be included  
in the ordinary ,arts ,curriculum1 ought
 to be obtainable by means of a duly    
organised ,faculty of ,science in every 
,university4  ,the establishment of such
 a ,faculty would have the additional   
advantage of providing1 in some measure1
 for one of the greatest wants of our   
time and country4 ,i mean the proper    
support and encouragement of original   
research4  ,the other day1 an emphatic  
friend of mine committed himself to the 
opinion that1 in ,england1 it is better 
for a man's worldly prospects to be a   
drunkard1 than to be smitten with the   
divine dipsomania of the original       
investigator4 ,i am inclined to think he
 was not far wrong4 ,and1 be it         
observed1 that the question is not1     
whether such a man shall be able to make
 as much out of his abilities as his    
brother1 of like ability1 who goes into 
,law1 or ,engineering1 or ,commerce2 it 
is not a question of maintaining a due  

number of saddle horses1 as ,george     
,eliot somewhere puts it--it is a       
question of living or starving4  ,if a  
student of my own subject shows power   
and originality1 ,i dare not advise him 
to adopt a scientific career2 for1      
supposing he is able to maintain himself
 until he has attained distinction1 ,i  
cannot give him the assurance that any  
amount of proficiency in the ,biological
 ,sciences will be convertible into1    
even the most modest1 bread and cheese4 
,and ,i believe that the case is as bad1
 or perhaps worse1 with other branches  
of ,science4 ,in this respect ,britain1 
whose immense wealth and prosperity hang
 upon the thread of ,applied ,science1  
is far behind ,france1 and infinitely   
behind ,germany4  ,and the worst of it  
is1 that it is very difficult to see    
one's way to any immediate remedy for   
this state of affairs which shall be    
free from a tendency to become worse    
than the disease4  ,great schemes for   
the ,endowment of ,research have been   

proposed4 ,it has been suggested1 that  
,laboratories for all branches of       
,physical ,science1 provided with every 
apparatus needed by the investigator1   
shall be established by the ,state3 and 
shall be accessible1 under due          
conditions and regulations1 to all      
properly qualified persons4 ,i see no   
objection to the principle of such a    
proposal4 ,if it be legitimate to spend 
great sums of money on public ,libraries
 and public collections of ,painting and
 ,sculpture1 in aid of the ,man of      
,letters1 or the ,artist1 or for the    
mere sake of affording pleasure to the  
general public4 ,i apprehend that it    
cannot be illegitimate to do as much for
 the promotion of scientific            
investigation4 ,to take the lowest      
ground1 as a mere investment of money1  
the latter is likely to be much more    
immediately profitable4 ,to my mind1 the
 difficulty in the way of such schemes  
is not theoretical1 but practical4      
,given the laboratories1 how are the    

investigators to be maintained8 ,what   
career is open to those who have been   
thus encouraged to leave bread-winning  
pursuits8 ,if they are to be provided   
for by endowment1 we come back to the   
,college ,fellowship system1 the results
 of which1 for ,literature1 have not    
been so brilliant that one would wish to
 see it extended to ,science2 unless    
some much better securities than at     
present exist can be taken that it will 
foster real work4 ,you know that among  
the ,bees1 it depends on the kind of    
cell in which the egg is deposited1 and 
the quantity and quality of food which  
is supplied to the grub1 whether it     
shall turn out a busy little worker or a
 big idle queen4 ,and1 in the human     
hive1 the cells of the endowed larvae   
are always tending to enlarge1 and their
 food to improve1 until we get queens1  
beautiful to behold1 but which gather no
 honey and build no comb4  ,i do not say
 that these difficulties may not be     
overcome1 but their gravity is not to be

 lightly estimated4  ,in the meanwhile1 
there is one step in the direction of   
the endowment of research which is free 
from such objections4 ,it is possible to
 place the scientific enquirer in a     
position in which he shall have ample   
leisure and opportunity for original    
work1 and yet shall give a fair and     
tangible equivalent for those           
privileges4 ,the establishment of a     
,faculty of ,science in every           
,university1 implies that of a          
corresponding number of ,professorial   
chairs1 the incumbents of which need not
 be so burdened with teaching as to     
deprive them of ample leisure for       
original work4 ,i do not think that it  
is any impediment to an original        
investigator to have to devote a        
moderate portion of his time to         
lecturing1 or superintending practical  
instruction4 ,on the contrary1 ,i think 
it may be1 and often is1 a benefit to be
 obliged to take a comprehensive survey 
of your subject2 or to bring your       

results to a point1 and give them1 as it
 were1 a tangible objective existence4  
,the besetting sins of the investigator 
are two3 the one is the desire to put   
aside a subject1 the general bearings of
 which he has mastered himself1 and pass
 on to something which has the          
attraction of novelty2 and the other1   
the desire for too much perfection1     
which leads him to    ,add and alter    
many times1   ,till all be ripe and     
rotten2  to spend the energies which    
should be reserved for action in        
whitening the decks and polishing the   
guns4  ,the obligation to produce       
results for the instruction of others1  
seems to me to be a more effectual check
 on these tendencies than even the love 
of usefulness or the ambition for fame4 
,but supposing the ,professorial forces 
of our ,university to be duly organised1
 there remains an important question1   
relating to the teaching power1 to be   
considered4 ,is the ,professorial       
system--the system1 ,i mean1 of teaching

 in the lecture-room alone1 and leaving 
the student to find his own way when he 
is outside the lecture-room--adequate to
 the wants of learners8 ,in answering   
this question1 ,i confine myself to my  
own province1 and ,i venture to reply   
for ,physical ,science1 assuredly and   
undoubtedly1 ,no4 ,as ,i have already   
intimated1 practical work in the        
,laboratory is absolutely indispensable1
 and that practical work must be guided 
and superintended by a sufficient staff 
of ,demonstrators1 who are for ,science 
what ,tutors are for other branches of  
study4 ,and there must be a good supply 
of such ,demonstrators4 ,i doubt if the 
practical work of more than twenty      
students can be properly superintended  
by one ,demonstrator4 ,if we take the   
working day at six hours1 that is less  
than twenty minutes apiece--not a very  
large allowance of time for helping a   
dull man1 for correcting an inaccurate  
one1 or even for making an intelligent  
student clearly apprehend what he is    

about4 ,and1 no doubt1 the supplying of 
a proper amount of this tutorial1       
practical teaching1 is a difficulty in  
the way of giving proper instruction in 
,physical ,science in such ,universities
 as that of ,aberdeen1 which are devoid 
of endowments2 and1 unlike the ,english 
,universities1 have no moral claim on   
the funds of richly endowed bodies to   
supply their wants4                     
,examination--thorough1 searching       
examination--is an indispensable        
accompaniment of teaching2 but ,i am    
almost inclined to commit myself to the 
very heterodox proposition that it is a 
necessary evil4 ,i am a very old        
,examiner1 having1 for some twenty years
 past1 been occupied with examinations  
on a considerable scale1 of all sorts   
and conditions of men1 and women        
too1--from the boys and girls of        
elementary schools to the candidates for
 ,honours and ,fellowships in the       
,universities4 ,i will not say that1 in 
this case as in so many others1 the     

adage1 that familiarity breeds contempt1
 holds good2 but my admiration for the  
existing system of examination and its  
products1 does not wax warmer as ,i see 
more of it4 ,examination1 like fire1 is 
a good servant1 but a bad master2 and   
there seems to me to be some danger of  
its becoming our master4 ,i by no means 
stand alone in this opinion4            
,experienced friends of mine do not     
hesitate to say that students whose     
career they watch1 appear to them to    
become deteriorated by the constant     
effort to pass this or that examination1
 just as we hear of men's brains        
becoming affected by the daily necessity
 of catching a train4 ,they work to     
pass1 not to know2 and outraged ,science
 takes her revenge4 ,they do pass1 and  
they don't know4 ,i have passed sundry  
examinations in my time1 not without    
credit1 and ,i confess ,i am ashamed to 
think how very little real knowledge    
underlay the torrent of stuff which ,i  
was able to pour out on paper4 ,in fact1

 that which examination1 as ordinarily  
conducted1 tests1 is simply a man's     
power of work under stimulus1 and his   
capacity for rapidly and clearly        
producing that which1 for the time1 he  
has got into his mind4 ,now1 these      
faculties are by no means to be         
despised4 ,they are of great value in   
practical life1 and are the making of   
many an advocate1 and of many a         
so-called statesman4 ,but in the pursuit
 of truth1 scientific or other1 they    
count for very little1 unless they are  
supplemented by that long-continued1    
patient intending of the mind1 as       
,newton phrased it1 which makes very    
little show in ,examinations4 ,i imagine
 that an ,examiner who knows his        
students personally1 must not           
unfrequently have found himself in the  
position of finding ,a's paper better   
than ,b's1 though his own judgment tells
 him1 quite clearly1 that ,b is the man 
who has the larger share of genuine     
capacity4  ,again1 there is a fallacy   

about ,examiners4 ,it is commonly       
supposed that any one who knows a       
subject is competent to teach it2 and no
 one seems to doubt that any one who    
knows a subject is competent to examine 
in it4 ,i believe both these opinions to
 be serious mistakes3 the latter1       
perhaps1 the more serious of the two4   
,in the first place1 ,i do not believe  
that any one who is not1 or has not     
been1 a teacher is really qualified to  
examine advanced students4 ,and in the  
second place1 ,examination is an ,art1  
and a difficult one1 which has to be    
learned like all other arts4  ,beginners
 always set too difficult               
questions--partly because they are      
afraid of being suspected of ignorance  
if they set easy ones1 and partly from  
not understanding their business4       
,suppose that you want to test the      
relative physical strength of a score of
 young men4 ,you do not put a           
hundredweight down before them1 and tell
 each to swing it round4 ,if you do1    

half of them won't be able to lift it at
 all1 and only one or two will be able  
to perform the task4 ,you must give them
 half a hundredweight1 and see how they 
manoeuvre that1 if you want to form any 
estimate of the muscular strength of    
each4 ,so1 a practised ,examiner will   
seek for information respecting the     
mental vigour and training of candidates
 from the way in which they deal with   
questions easy enough to let reason1    
memory1 and method have free play4  ,no 
doubt1 a great deal is to be done by the
 careful selection of ,examiners1 and by
 the copious introduction of practical  
work1 to remove the evils inseparable   
from examination2 but1 under the best of
 circumstances1 ,i believe that         
examination will remain but an imperfect
 test of knowledge1 and a still more    
imperfect test of capacity1 while it    
tells next to nothing about a man's     
power as an investigator4  ,there is    
much to be said in favour of restricting
 the highest degrees in each ,faculty1  

to those who have shown evidence of such
 original power1 by prosecuting a       
research under the eye of the ,professor
 in whose province it lies2 or1 at any  
rate1 under conditions which shall      
afford satisfactory proof that the work 
is theirs4 ,the notion may sound        
revolutionary1 but it is really very    
old2 for1 ,i take it1 that it lies at   
the bottom of that presentation of a    
thesis by the candidate for a doctorate1
 which has now1 too often1 become little
 better than a matter of form4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,thus far1 ,i have endeavoured to lay   
before you1 in a too brief and imperfect
 manner1 my views respecting the        
teaching half--the ,magistri and        
,regentes--of the ,university of the    
,future4 ,now let me turn to the        
learning half--the ,scholares4  ,if the 
,universities are to be the sanctuaries 
of the highest culture of the country1  
those who would enter that sanctuary    
must not come with unwashed hands4 ,if  

the good seed is to yield its           
hundredfold harvest1 it must not be     
scattered amidst the stones of          
ignorance1 or the tares of undisciplined
 indolence and wantonness4 ,on the      
contrary1 the soil must have been       
carefully prepared1 and the ,professor  
should find that the operations of      
clod-crushing1 draining1 and weeding1   
and even a good deal of planting1 have  
been done by the ,schoolmaster4  ,that  
is exactly what the ,professor does not 
find in any ,university in the three    
,kingdoms that ,i can hear of--the      
reason of which state of things lies in 
the extremely faulty organisation of the
 majority of secondary schools4         
,students come to the ,universities     
ill-prepared in classics and            
mathematics1 not at all prepared in     
anything else2 and half their time is   
spent in learning that which they ought 
to have known when they came4  ,i       
sometimes hear it said that the         
,scottish ,universities differ from the 

,english1 in being to a much greater    
extent places of comparatively          
elementary education for a younger class
 of students4 ,but it would seem        
doubtful if any great difference of this
 kind really exists2 for a high         
authority1 himself ,head of an ,english 
,college1 has solemnly affirmed that3   
,elementary teaching of youths under    
twenty is now the only function         
performed by the ,university2 and that  
,colleges are boarding schools in which 
the elements of the learned languages   
are taught to youths4 #c  ,this is not  
the first time that ,i have quoted those
 remarkable assertions4 ,i should like  
to engrave them in public view1 for they
 have not been refuted2 and ,i am       
convinced that if their import is once  
clearly apprehended1 they will play no  
mean part when the question of          
,university reorganisation1 with a view 
to practical measures1 comes on for     
discussion4 ,you are not responsible for
 this anomalous state of affairs now2   

but1 as you pass into active life and   
acquire the political influence to which
 your education and your position should
 entitle you1 you will become           
responsible for it1 unless each in his  
sphere does his best to alter it1 by    
insisting on the improvement of         
secondary schools4  ,your present       
responsibility is of another1 though not
 less serious1 kind4 ,institutions do   
not make men1 any more than organisation
 makes life2 and even the ideal         
,university we have been dreaming about 
will be but a superior piece of         
mechanism1 unless each student strive   
after the ideal of the ,scholar4 ,and   
that ideal1 it seems to me1 has never   
been better embodied than by the great  
,poet1 who1 though lapped in luxury1 the
 favourite of a ,court1 and the idol of 
his countrymen1 remained through all the
 length of his honoured years a ,scholar
 in ,art1 in ,science1 and in ,life4    
,wouldst shape a noble life6 ,then cast 
,no backward glances towards the past3  

,and though somewhat be lost and gone1  
,yet do thou act as one new-born4       
,what each day needs1 that shalt thou   
ask2   ,each day will set its proper    
task4   ,give others' work just share of
 praise2   ,not of thine own the merits 
raise4   ,beware no fellow man thou     
hate3   ,and so in ,god's hands leave   
thy fate4 #d         99       99        
99       99       99  ,footnotes3  #a   
,quamvis enim melius sit bene facere    
quam nosse1 prius tamen est nosse quam  
facere4--,karoli ,magni ,regis          
,constitutio de ,scholis per singula    
,episcopia et ,monasteria instituendis1 
addressed to the ,abbot of ,fulda4      
,baluzius1 ,capitularia ,regum          
,francorum1 ,t4 i41 p4 #bjb4  #b        
,inaugural ,address delivered to the    
,university of ,st4 ,andrew1 ,february  
#a1 #ahfg1 by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,rector of 
the ,university 7pp4 #cb1 #cc74  #c     
,suggestions for ,academical            
,organisation1 with ,especial ,reference
 to ,oxford4 ,by the ,rector of         

,lincoln4  #d ,goethe1 ,zahme ,xenien1  
,vierte ,abtheilung4 ,i should be glad  
to take credit for the close and        
vigorous ,english version2 but it is my 
wife's1 and not mine4     ,,ix          
,,address ,,on ,,university ,,education 
#a  #ahgf   ,the actual work of the     
,university founded in this city by the 
well-considered munificence of ,johns   
,hopkins commences to-morrow1 and among 
the many marks of confidence and        
good-will which have been bestowed upon 
me in the ,united ,states1 there is none
 which ,i value more highly than that   
conferred by the authorities of the     
,university when they invited me to     
deliver an address on such an occasion4 
,for the event which has brought us     
together is1 in many respects1 unique4  
,a vast property is handed over to an   
administrative body1 hampered by no     
conditions save these3--,that the       
principal shall not be employed in      
building3 that the funds shall be       
appropriated1 in equal proportions1 to  

the promotion of natural knowledge and  
to the alleviation of the bodily        
sufferings of mankind2 and1 finally1    
that neither political nor              
ecclesiastical sectarianism shall be    
permitted to disturb the impartial      
distribution of the testator's          
benefactions4  ,in my experience of life
 a truth which sounds very much like a  
paradox has often asserted itself3      
namely1 that a man's worst difficulties 
begin when he is able to do as he likes4
 ,so long as a man is struggling with   
obstacles he has an excuse for failure  
or shortcoming2 but when fortune removes
 them all and gives him the power of    
doing as he thinks best1 then comes the 
time of trial4 ,there is but one right1 
and the possibilities of wrong are      
infinite4 ,i doubt not that the trustees
 of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university felt
 the full force of this truth when they 
entered on the administration of their  
trust a year and a half ago2 and ,i can 
but admire the activity and resolution  

which have enabled them1 aided by the   
able president whom they have selected1 
to lay down the great outlines of their 
plan1 and carry it thus far into        
execution4 ,it is impossible to study   
that plan without perceiving that great 
care1 forethought1 and sagacity1 have   
been bestowed upon it1 and that it      
demands the most respectful             
consideration4 ,i have been endeavouring
 to ascertain how far the principles    
which underlie it are in accordance with
 those which have been established in my
 own mind by much and long-continued    
thought upon educational questions4     
,permit me to place before you the      
result of my reflections4  ,under one   
aspect a university is a particular kind
 of educational institution1 and the    
views which we may take of the proper   
nature of a university are corollaries  
from those which we hold respecting     
education in general4 ,i think it must  
be admitted that the school should      
prepare for the university1 and that the

 university should crown the edifice1   
the foundations of which are laid in the
 school4 ,university education should   
not be something distinct from          
elementary education1 but should be the 
natural outgrowth and development of the
 latter4 ,now ,i have a very clear      
conviction as to what elementary        
education ought to be2 what it really   
may be1 when properly organised2 and    
what ,i think it will be1 before many   
years have passed over our heads1 in    
,england and in ,america4 ,such         
education should enable an average boy  
of fifteen or sixteen to read and write 
his own language with ease and accuracy1
 and with a sense of literary excellence
 derived from the study of our classic  
writers3 to have a general acquaintance 
with the history of his own country and 
with the great laws of social existence2
 to have acquired the rudiments of the  
physical and psychological sciences1 and
 a fair knowledge of elementary         
arithmetic and geometry4 ,he should have

 obtained an acquaintance with logic    
rather by example than by precept2 while
 the acquirement of the elements of     
music and drawing should have been      
pleasure rather than work4  ,it may     
sound strange to many ears if ,i venture
 to maintain the proposition that a     
young person1 educated thus far1 has had
 a liberal1 though perhaps not a full1  
education4 ,but it seems to me that such
 training as that to which ,i have      
referred may be termed liberal1 in both 
the senses in which that word is        
employed1 with perfect accuracy4 ,in the
 first place1 it is liberal in breadth4 
,it extends over the whole ground of    
things to be known and of faculties to  
be trained1 and it gives equal          
importance to the two great sides of    
human activity--art and science4 ,in the
 second place1 it is liberal in the     
sense of being an education fitted for  
free men2 for men to whom every career  
is open1 and from whom their country may
 demand that they should be fitted to   

perform the duties of any career4 ,i    
cannot too strongly impress upon you the
 fact that1 with such a primary         
education as this1 and with no more than
 is to be obtained by building strictly 
upon its lines1 a man of ability may    
become a great writer or speaker1 a     
statesman1 a lawyer1 a man of science1  
painter1 sculptor1 architect1 or        
musician4 ,that even development of all 
a man's faculties1 which is what        
properly constitutes culture1 may be    
effected by such an education1 while it 
opens the way for the indefinite        
strengthening of any special            
capabilities with which he may be       
gifted4  ,in a country like this1 where 
most men have to carve out their own    
fortunes and devote themselves early to 
the practical affairs of life1          
comparatively few can hope to pursue    
their studies up to1 still less beyond1 
the age of manhood4 ,but it is of vital 
importance to the welfare of the        
community that those who are relieved   

from the need of making a livelihood1   
and still more1 those who are stirred by
 the divine impulses of intellectual    
thirst or artistic genius1 should be    
enabled to devote themselves to the     
higher service of their kind1 as centres
 of intelligence1 interpreters of       
,nature1 or creators of new forms of    
beauty4 ,and it is the function of a    
university to furnish such men with the 
means of becoming that which it is their
 privilege and duty to be4 ,to this end 
the university need cover no ground     
foreign to that occupied by the         
elementary school4 ,indeed it cannot2   
for the elementary instruction which ,i 
have referred to embraces all the kinds 
of real knowledge and mental activity   
possible to man4 ,the university can add
 no new departments of knowledge1 can   
offer no new fields of mental activity2 
but what it can do is to intensify and  
specialise the instruction in each      
department4 ,thus literature and        
philology1 represented in the elementary

 school by ,english alone1 in the       
university will extend over the ancient 
and modern languages4 ,history1 which1  
like charity1 best begins at home1 but1 
like charity1 should not end there1 will
 ramify into anthropology1 archaeology1 
political history1 and geography1 with  
the history of the growth of the human  
mind and of its products in the shape of
 philosophy1 science1 and art4 ,and the 
university will present to the student  
libraries1 museums of antiquities1      
collections of coins1 and the like1     
which will efficiently subserve these   
studies4 ,instruction in the elements of
 social economy1 a most essential1 but  
hitherto sadly-neglected part of        
elementary education1 will develop in   
the university into political economy1  
sociology1 and law4 ,physical science   
will have its great divisions of        
physical geography1 with geology and    
astronomy2 physics2 chemistry and       
biology2 represented not merely by      
professors and their lectures1 but by   

laboratories1 in which the students1    
under guidance of demonstrators1 will   
work out facts for themselves and come  
into that direct contact with reality   
which constitutes the fundamental       
distinction of scientific education4    
,mathematics will soar into its highest 
regions2 while the high peaks of        
philosophy may be scaled by those whose 
aptitude for abstract thought has been  
awakened by elementary logic4 ,finally1 
schools of pictorial and plastic art1 of
 architecture1 and of music1 will offer 
a thorough discipline in the principles 
and practice of art to those in whom    
lies nascent the rare faculty of        
aesthetic representation1 or the still  
rarer powers of creative genius4  ,the  
primary school and the university are   
the alpha and omega of education4       
,whether institutions intermediate      
between these 7so-called secondary      
schools7 should exist1 appears to me to 
be a question of practical convenience4 
,if such schools are established1 the   

important thing is that they should be  
true intermediaries between the primary 
school and the university1 keeping on   
the wide track of general culture1 and  
not sacrificing one branch of knowledge 
for another4  ,such appear to me to be  
the broad outlines of the relations     
which the university1 regarded as a     
place of education1 ought to bear to the
 school1 but a number of points of      
detail require some consideration1      
however briefly and imperfectly ,i can  
deal with them4 ,in the first place1    
there is the important question of the  
limitations which should be fixed to the
 entrance into the university2 or1 what 
qualifications should be required of    
those who propose to take advantage of  
the higher training offered by the      
university4 ,on the one hand1 it is     
obviously desirable that the time and   
opportunities of the university should  
not be wasted in conferring such        
elementary instruction as can be        
obtained elsewhere2 while1 on the other 

hand1 it is no less desirable that the  
higher instruction of the university    
should be made accessible to every one  
who can take advantage of it1 although  
he may not have been able to go through 
any very extended course of education4  
,my own feeling is distinctly against   
any absolute and defined preliminary    
examination1 the passing of which shall 
be an essential condition of admission  
to the university4 ,i would admit to the
 university any one who could be        
reasonably expected to profit by the    
instruction offered to him2 and ,i      
should be inclined1 on the whole1 to    
test the fitness of the student1 not by 
examination before he enters the        
university1 but at the end of his first 
term of study4 ,if1 on examination in   
the branches of knowledge to which he   
has devoted himself1 he show himself    
deficient in industry or in capacity1 it
 will be best for the university and    
best for himself1 to prevent him from   
pursuing a vocation for which he is     

obviously unfit4 ,and ,i hardly know of 
any other method than this by which his 
fitness or unfitness can be safely      
ascertained1 though no doubt a good deal
 may be done1 not by formal cut and     
dried examination1 but by judicious     
questioning1 at the outset of his       
career4  ,another very important and    
difficult practical question is1 whether
 a definite course of study shall be    
laid down for those who enter the       
university2 whether a curriculum shall  
be prescribed2 or whether the student   
shall be allowed to range at will among 
the subjects which are open to him4 ,and
 this question is inseparably connected 
with another1 namely1 the conferring of 
degrees4 ,it is obviously impossible    
that any student should pass through the
 whole of the series of courses of      
instruction offered by a university4 ,if
 a degree is to be conferred as a mark  
of proficiency in knowledge1 it must be 
given on the ground that the candidate  
is proficient in a certain fraction of  

those studies2 and then will arise the  
necessity of insuring an equivalency of 
degrees1 so that the course by which a  
degree is obtained shall mark           
approximately an equal amount of labour 
and of acquirements1 in all cases4 ,but 
this equivalency can hardly be secured  
in any other way than by prescribing a  
series of definite lines of study4 ,this
 is a matter which will require grave   
consideration4 ,the important points to 
bear in mind1 ,i think1 are that there  
should not be too many subjects in the  
curriculum1 and that the aim should be  
the attainment of thorough and sound    
knowledge of each4  ,one half of the    
,johns ,hopkins bequest is devoted to   
the establishment of a hospital1 and it 
was the desire of the testator that the 
university and the hospital should      
co-operate in the promotion of medical  
education4 ,the trustees will           
unquestionably take the best advice that
 is to be had as to the construction and
 administration of the hospital4 ,in    

respect to the former point1 they will  
doubtless remember that a hospital may  
be so arranged as to kill more than it  
cures2 and1 in regard to the latter1    
that a hospital may spread the spirit of
 pauperism among the well-to-do1 as well
 as relieve the sufferings of the       
destitute4 ,it is not for me to speak on
 these topics--rather let me confine    
myself to the one matter on which my    
experience as a student of medicine1 and
 an examiner of long standing1 who has  
taken a great interest in the subject of
 medical education1 may entitle me to a 
hearing4 ,i mean the nature of medical  
education itself1 and the co-operation  
of the university in its promotion4     
,what is the object of medical          
education8 ,it is to enable the         
practitioner1 on the one hand1 to       
prevent disease by his knowledge of     
hygiene2 on the other hand1 to divine   
its nature1 and to alleviate or cure it1
 by his knowledge of pathology1         
therapeutics1 and practical medicine4   

,that is his business in life1 and if he
 has not a thorough and practical       
knowledge of the conditions of health1  
of the causes which tend to the         
establishment of disease1 of the meaning
 of symptoms1 and of the uses of        
medicines and operative appliances1 he  
is incompetent1 even if he were the best
 anatomist1 or physiologist1 or chemist1
 that ever took a gold medal or won a   
prize certificate4 ,this is one great   
truth respecting medical education4     
,another is1 that all practice in       
medicine is based upon theory of some   
sort or other2 and therefore1 that it is
 desirable to have such theory in the   
closest possible accordance with fact4  
,the veriest empiric who gives a drug in
 one case because he has seen it do good
 in another of apparently the same sort1
 acts upon the theory that similarity of
 superficial symptoms means similarity  
of lesions2 which1 by the way1 is       
perhaps as wild an hypothesis as could  
be invented4 ,to understand the nature  

of disease we must understand health1   
and the understanding of the healthy    
body means the having a knowledge of its
 structure and of the way in which its  
manifold actions are performed1 which is
 what is technically termed human       
anatomy and human physiology4 ,the      
physiologist again must needs possess an
 acquaintance with physics and          
chemistry1 inasmuch as physiology is1 to
 a great extent1 applied physics and    
chemistry4 ,for ordinary purposes a     
limited amount of such knowledge is all 
that is needful2 but for the pursuit of 
the higher branches of physiology no    
knowledge of these branches of science  
can be too extensive1 or too profound4  
,again1 what we call therapeutics1 which
 has to do with the action of drugs and 
medicines on the living organism1 is1   
strictly speaking1 a branch of          
experimental physiology1 and is daily   
receiving a greater and greater         
experimental development4  ,the third   
great fact which is to be taken into    

consideration in dealing with medical   
education1 is that the practical        
necessities of life do not1 as a rule1  
allow aspirants to medical practice to  
give more than three1 or it may be four 
years to their studies4 ,let us put it  
at four years1 and then reflect that1 in
 the course of this time1 a young man   
fresh from school has to acquaint       
himself with medicine1 surgery1         
obstetrics1 therapeutics1 pathology1    
hygiene1 as well as with the anatomy and
 the physiology of the human body2 and  
that his knowledge should be of such a  
character that it can be relied upon in 
any emergency1 and always ready for     
practical application4 ,consider1 in    
addition1 that the medical practitioner 
may be called upon1 at any moment1 to   
give evidence in a court of justice in a
 criminal case2 and that it is therefore
 well that he should know something of  
the laws of evidence1 and of what we    
call medical jurisprudence4 ,on a       
medical certificate1 a man may be taken 

from his home and from his business and 
confined in a lunatic asylum2 surely1   
therefore1 it is desirable that the     
medical practitioner should have some   
rational and clear conceptions as to the
 nature and symptoms of mental disease4 
,bearing in mind all these requirements 
of medical education1 you will admit    
that the burden on the young aspirant   
for the medical profession is somewhat  
of the heaviest1 and that it needs some 
care to prevent his intellectual back   
from being broken4  ,those who are      
acquainted with the existing systems of 
medical education will observe that1    
long as is the catalogue of studies     
which ,i have enumerated1 ,i have       
omitted to mention several that enter   
into the usual medical curriculum of the
 present day4 ,i have said not a word   
about zoology1 comparative anatomy1     
botany1 or materia medica4 ,assuredly   
this is from no light estimate of the   
value or importance of such studies in  
themselves4 ,it may be taken for granted

 that ,i should be the last person in   
the world to object to the teaching of  
zoology1 or comparative anatomy1 in     
themselves2 but ,i have the strongest   
feeling that1 considering the number and
 the gravity of those studies through   
which a medical man must pass1 if he is 
to be competent to discharge the serious
 duties which devolve upon him1 subjects
 which lie so remote as these do from   
his practical pursuits should be        
rigorously excluded4 ,the young man1 who
 has enough to do in order to acquire   
such familiarity with the structure of  
the human body as will enable him to    
perform the operations of surgery1 ought
 not1 in my judgment1 to be occupied    
with investigations into the anatomy of 
crabs and starfishes4 ,undoubtedly the  
doctor should know the common poisonous 
plants of his own country when he sees  
them2 but that knowledge may be obtained
 by a few hours devoted to the          
examination of specimens of such plants1
 and the desirableness of such knowledge

 is no justification1 to my mind1 for   
spending three months over the study of 
systematic botany4 ,again1 materia      
medica1 so far as it is a knowledge of  
drugs1 is the business of the druggist4 
,in all other callings the necessity of 
the division of labour is fully         
recognised1 and it is absurd to require 
of the medical man that he should not   
avail himself of the special knowledge  
of those whose business it is to deal in
 the drugs which he uses4 ,it is all    
very well that the physician should know
 that castor oil comes from a plant1 and
 castoreum from an animal1 and how they 
are to be prepared2 but for all the     
practical purposes of his profession    
that knowledge is not of one whit more  
value1 has no more relevancy1 than the  
knowledge of how the steel of his       
scalpel is made4  ,all knowledge is     
good4 ,it is impossible to say that any 
fragment of knowledge1 however          
insignificant or remote from one's      
ordinary pursuits1 may not some day be  

turned to account4 ,but in medical      
education1 above all things1 it is to be
 recollected that1 in order to know a   
little well1 one must be content to be  
ignorant of a great deal4  ,let it not  
be supposed that ,i am proposing to     
narrow medical education1 or1 as the cry
 is1 to lower the standard of the       
profession4 ,depend upon it there is    
only one way of really ennobling any    
calling1 and that is to make those who  
pursue it real masters of their craft1  
men who can truly do that which they    
profess to be able to do1 and which they
 are credited with being able to do by  
the public4 ,and there is no position so
 ignoble as that of the so-called       
liberally-educated practitioner1 who may
 be able to read ,galen in the original2
 who knows all the plants1 from the     
cedar of ,lebanon to the hyssop upon the
 wall2 but who finds himself1 with the  
issues of life and death in his hands1  
ignorant1 blundering1 and bewildered1   
because of his ignorance of the         

essential and fundamental truths upon   
which practice must be based4 ,moreover1
 ,i venture to say1 that any man who has
 seriously studied all the essential    
branches of medical knowledge2 who has  
the needful acquaintance with the       
elements of physical science2 who has   
been brought by medical jurisprudence   
into contact with law2 whose study of   
insanity has taken him into the fields  
of psychology2 has ipso facto received a
 liberal education4  ,having lightened  
the medical curriculum by culling out of
 it everything which is unessential1 we 
may next consider whether something may 
not be done to aid the medical student  
toward the acquirement of real knowledge
 by modifying the system of examination4
 ,in ,england1 within my recollection1  
it was the practice to require of the   
medical student attendance on lectures  
upon the most diverse topics during     
three years2 so that it often happened  
that he would have to listen1 in the    
course of a day1 to four or five        

lectures upon totally different         
subjects1 in addition to the hours given
 to dissection and to hospital practice3
 and he was required to keep all the    
knowledge he could pick up1 in this     
distracting fashion1 at examination     
point1 until1 at the end of three years1
 he was set down to a table and         
questioned pell-mell upon all the       
different matters with which he had been
 striving to make acquaintance4 ,a worse
 system and one more calculated to      
obstruct the acquisition of sound       
knowledge and to give full play to the  
crammer and the grinder could hardly    
have been devised by human ingenuity4   
,of late years great reforms have taken 
place4 ,examinations have been divided  
so as to diminish the number of subjects
 among which the attention has to be    
distributed4 ,practical examination has 
been largely introduced2 but there still
 remains1 even under the present system1
 too much of the old evil inseparable   
from the contemporaneous pursuit of a   

multiplicity of diverse studies4        
,proposals have recently been made to   
get rid of general examinations         
altogether1 to permit the student to be 
examined in each subject at the end of  
his attendance on the class2 and then1  
in case of the result being             
satisfactory1 to allow him to have done 
with it2 and ,i may say that this method
 has been pursued for many years in the 
,royal ,school of ,mines in ,london1 and
 has been found to work very well4 ,it  
allows the student to concentrate his   
mind upon what he is about for the time 
being1 and then to dismiss it4 ,those   
who are occupied in intellectual work1  
will1 ,i think1 agree with me that it is
 important1 not so much to know a thing1
 as to have known it1 and known it      
thoroughly4 ,if you have once known a   
thing in this way it is easy to renew   
your knowledge when you have forgotten  
it2 and when you begin to take the      
subject up again1 it slides back upon   
the familiar grooves with great         

facility4  ,lastly comes the question as
 to how the university may co-operate in
 advancing medical education4 ,a medical
 school is strictly a technical         
school--a school in which a practical   
profession is taught--while a university
 ought to be a place in which knowledge 
is obtained without direct reference to 
professional purposes4 ,it is clear1    
therefore1 that a university and its    
antecedent1 the school1 may best        
co-operate with the medical school by   
making due provision for the study of   
those branches of knowledge which lie at
 the foundation of medicine4  ,at       
present1 young men come to the medical  
schools without a conception of even the
 elements of physical science2 they     
learn1 for the first time1 that there   
are such sciences as physics1 chemistry1
 and physiology1 and are introduced to  
anatomy as a new thing4 ,it may be      
safely said that1 with a large          
proportion of medical students1 much of 
the first session is wasted in learning 

how to learn--in familiarising          
themselves with utterly strange         
conceptions1 and in awakening their     
dormant and wholly untrained powers of  
observation and of manipulation4 ,it is 
difficult to over-estimate the magnitude
 of the obstacles which are thrown in   
the way of scientific training by the   
existing system of school education4    
,not only are men trained in mere       
book-work1 ignorant of what observation 
means1 but the habit of learning from   
books alone begets a disgust of         
observation4 ,the book-learned student  
will rather trust to what he sees in a  
book than to the witness of his own     
eyes4  ,there is not the least reason   
why this should be so1 and1 in fact1    
when elementary education becomes that  
which ,i have assumed it ought to be1   
this state of things will no longer     
exist4 ,there is not the slightest      
difficulty in giving sound elementary   
instruction in physics1 in chemistry1   
and in the elements of human physiology1

 in ordinary schools4 ,in other words1  
there is no reason why the student      
should not come to the medical school1  
provided with as much knowledge of these
 several sciences as he ordinarily picks
 up in the course of his first year of  
attendance at the medical school4  ,i am
 not saying this without full practical 
justification for the statement4 ,for   
the last eighteen years we have had in  
,england a system of elementary science 
teaching carried out under the auspices 
of the ,science and ,art ,department1 by
 which elementary scientific instruction
 is made readily accessible to the      
scholars of all the elementary schools  
in the country4 ,commencing with small  
beginnings1 carefully developed and     
improved1 that system now brings up for 
examination as many as seven thousand   
scholars in the subject of human        
physiology alone4 ,i can say that1 out  
of that number1 a large proportion have 
acquired a fair amount of substantial   
knowledge2 and that no inconsiderable   

percentage show as good an acquaintance 
with human physiology as used to be     
exhibited by the average candidates for 
medical degrees in the ,university of   
,london1 when ,i was first an examiner  
there twenty years ago2 and quite as    
much knowledge as is possessed by the   
ordinary student of medicine at the     
present day4 ,i am justified1 therefore1
 in looking forward to the time when the
 student who proposes to devote himself 
to medicine will come1 not absolutely   
raw and inexperienced as he is at       
present1 but in a certain state of      
preparation for further study2 and ,i   
look to the university to help him still
 further forward in that stage of       
preparation1 through the organisation of
 its biological department4 ,here the   
student will find means of acquainting  
himself with the phenomena of life in   
their broadest acceptation4 ,he will    
study not botany and zoology1 which1 as 
,i have said1 would take him too far    
away from his ultimate goal2 but1 by    

duly arranged instruction1 combined with
 work in the laboratory upon the leading
 types of animal and vegetable life1 he 
will lay a broad1 and at the same time  
solid1 foundation of biological         
knowledge2 he will come to his medical  
studies with a comprehension of the     
great truths of morphology and of       
physiology1 with his hands trained to   
dissect and his eyes taught to see4 ,i  
have no hesitation in saying that such  
preparation is worth a full year added  
on to the medical curriculum4 ,in other 
words1 it will set free that much time  
for attention to those studies which    
bear directly upon the student's most   
grave and serious duties as a medical   
practitioner4  ,up to this point ,i have
 considered only the teaching aspect of 
your great foundation1 that function of 
the university in virtue of which it    
plays the part of a reservoir of        
ascertained truth1 so far as our symbols
 can ever interpret nature4 ,all can    
learn2 all can drink of this lake4 ,it  

is given to few to add to the store of  
knowledge1 to strike new springs of     
thought1 or to shape new forms of       
beauty4 ,but so sure as it is that men  
live not by bread1 but by ideas1 so sure
 is it that the future of the world lies
 in the hands of those who are able to  
carry the interpretation of nature a    
step further than their predecessors2 so
 certain is it that the highest function
 of a university is to seek out those   
men1 cherish them1 and give their       
ability to serve their kind full play4  
,i rejoice to observe that the          
encouragement of research occupies so   
prominent a place in your official      
documents1 and in the wise and liberal  
inaugural address of your president4    
,this subject of the encouragement1 or1 
as it is sometimes called1 the endowment
 of research1 has of late years greatly 
exercised the minds of men in ,england4 
,it was one of the main topics of       
discussion by the members of the ,royal 
,commission of whom ,i was one1 and who 

not long since issued their report1     
after five years' labour4 ,many seem to 
think that this question is mainly one  
of money2 that you can go into the      
market and buy research1 and that supply
 will follow demand1 as in the ordinary 
course of commerce4 ,this view does not 
commend itself to my mind4 ,i know of no
 more difficult practical problem than  
the discovery of a method of encouraging
 and supporting the original            
investigator without opening the door to
 nepotism and jobbery4 ,my own          
conviction is admirably summed up in the
 passage of your president's address1   
that the best investigators are usually 
those who have also the responsibilities
 of instruction1 gaining thus the       
incitement of colleagues1 the           
encouragement of pupils1 and the        
observation of the public4  ,at the     
commencement of this address ,i ventured
 to assume that ,i might1 if ,i thought 
fit1 criticise the arrangements which   
have been made by the board of trustees1

 but ,i confess that ,i have little to  
do but to applaud them4 ,most wise and  
sagacious seems to me the determination 
not to build for the present4 ,it has   
been my fate to see great educational   
funds fossilise into mere bricks and    
mortar1 in the petrifying springs of    
architecture1 with nothing left to work 
the institution they were intended to   
support4 ,a great warrior is said to    
have made a desert and called it peace4 
,administrators of educational funds    
have sometimes made a palace and called 
it a university4 ,if ,i may venture to  
give advice in a matter which lies out  
of my proper competency1 ,i would say   
that whenever you do build1 get an      
honest bricklayer1 and make him build   
you just such rooms as you really want1 
leaving ample space for expansion4 ,and 
a century hence1 when the ,baltimore and
 ,ohio shares are at one thousand       
premium1 and you have endowed all the   
professors you need1 and built all the  
laboratories that are wanted1 and have  

the best museum and the finest library  
that can be imagined2 then1 if you have 
a few hundred thousand dollars you don't
 know what to do with1 send for an      
architect and tell him to put up a      
faade4 ,if ,american is similar to      
,english experience1 any other course   
will probably lead you into having some 
stately structure1 good for your        
architect's fame1 but not in the least  
what you want4  ,it appears to me that  
what ,i have ventured to lay down as the
 principles which should govern the     
relations of a university to education  
in general1 are entirely in accordance  
with the measures you have adopted4 ,you
 have set no restrictions upon access to
 the instruction you propose to give2   
you have provided that such instruction1
 either as given by the university or by
 associated institutions1 should cover  
the field of human intellectual         
activity4 ,you have recognised the      
importance of encouraging research4 ,you
 propose to provide means by which young

 men1 who may be full of zeal for a     
literary or for a scientific career1 but
 who also may have mistaken aspiration  
for inspiration1 may bring their        
capacities to a test1 and give their    
powers a fair trial4 ,if such a one     
fail1 his endowment terminates1 and     
there is no harm done4 ,if he succeed1  
you may give power of flight to the     
genius of a ,davy or a ,faraday1 a      
,carlyle or a ,locke1 whose influence on
 the future of his fellow-men shall be  
absolutely incalculable4  ,you have     
enunciated the principle that the glory 
of the university should rest upon the  
character of the teachers and scholars1 
and not upon their numbers or buildings 
constructed for their use4 ,and ,i look 
upon it as an essential and most        
important feature of your plan that the 
income of the professors and teachers   
shall be independent of the number of   
students whom they can attract4 ,in this
 way you provide against the danger1    
patent elsewhere1 of finding attempts at

 improvement obstructed by vested       
interests2 and1 in the department of    
medical education especially1 you are   
free of the temptation to set loose upon
 the world men utterly incompetent to   
perform the serious and responsible     
duties of their profession4  ,it is a   
delicate matter for a stranger to the   
practical working of your institutions1 
like myself1 to pretend to give an      
opinion as to the organisation of your  
governing power4 ,i can conceive nothing
 better than that it should remain as it
 is1 if you can secure a succession of  
wise1 liberal1 honest1 and conscientious
 men to fill the vacancies that occur   
among you4 ,i do not greatly believe in 
the efficacy of any kind of machinery   
for securing such a result2 but ,i would
 venture to suggest that the exclusive  
adoption of the method of co-optation   
for filling the vacancies which must    
occur in your body1 appears to me to be 
somewhat like a tempting of ,providence4
 ,doubtless there are grave practical   

objections to the appointment of persons
 outside of your body and not directly  
interested in the welfare of the        
university2 but might it not be well if 
there were an understanding that your   
academic staff should be officially     
represented on the board1 perhaps even  
the heads of one or two independent     
learned bodies1 so that academic opinion
 and the views of the outside world     
might have a certain influence in that  
most important matter1 the appointment  
of your professors8 ,i throw out these  
suggestions1 as ,i have said1 in        
ignorance of the practical difficulties 
that may lie in the way of carrying them
 into effect1 on the general ground that
 personal and local influences are very 
subtle1 and often unconscious1 while the
 future greatness and efficiency of the 
noble institution which now commences   
its work must largely depend upon its   
freedom from them4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,i constantly hear
 ,americans speak of the charm which our

 old mother country has for them1 of the
 delight with which they wander through 
the streets of ancient towns1 or climb  
the battlements of mediaeval            
strongholds1 the names of which are     
indissolubly associated with the great  
epochs of that noble literature which is
 our common inheritance2 or with the    
blood-stained steps of that secular     
progress1 by which the descendants of   
the savage ,britons and of the wild     
pirates of the ,north ,sea have become  
converted into warriors of order and    
champions of peaceful freedom1          
exhausting what still remains of the old
 ,berserk spirit in subduing nature1 and
 turning the wilderness into a garden4  
,but anticipation has no less charm than
 retrospect1 and to an ,englishman      
landing upon your shores for the first  
time1 travelling for hundreds of miles  
through strings of great and            
well-ordered cities1 seeing your        
enormous actual1 and almost infinite    
potential1 wealth in all commodities1   

and in the energy and ability which turn
 wealth to account1 there is something  
sublime in the vista of the future4 ,do 
not suppose that ,i am pandering to what
 is commonly understood by national     
pride4 ,i cannot say that ,i am in the  
slightest degree impressed by your      
bigness1 or your material resources1 as 
such4 ,size is not grandeur1 and        
territory does not make a nation4 ,the  
great issue1 about which hangs a true   
sublimity1 and the terror of overhanging
 fate1 is what are you going to do with 
all these things8 ,what is to be the end
 to which these are to be the means8    
,you are making a novel experiment in   
politics on the greatest scale which the
 world has yet seen4 ,forty millions at 
your first centenary1 it is reasonably  
to be expected that1 at the second1     
these states will be occupied by two    
hundred millions of ,english-speaking   
people1 spread over an area as large as 
that of ,europe1 and with climates and  
interests as diverse as those of ,spain 

and ,scandinavia1 ,england and ,russia4 
,you and your descendants have to       
ascertain whether this great mass will  
hold together under the forms of a      
republic1 and the despotic reality of   
universal suffrage2 whether state rights
 will hold out against centralisation1  
without separation2 whether             
centralisation will get the better1     
without actual or disguised monarchy2   
whether shifting corruption is better   
than a permanent bureaucracy2 and as    
population thickens in your great       
cities1 and the pressure of want is     
felt1 the gaunt spectre of pauperism    
will stalk among you1 and communism and 
socialism will claim to be heard4 ,truly
 ,america has a great future before her2
 great in toil1 in care1 and in         
responsibility2 great in true glory if  
she be guided in wisdom and             
righteousness2 great in shame if she    
fail4 ,i cannot understand why other    
nations should envy you1 or be blind to 
the fact that it is for the highest     

interest of mankind that you should     
succeed2 but the one condition of       
success1 your sole safeguard1 is the    
moral worth and intellectual clearness  
of the individual citizen4 ,education   
cannot give these1 but it may cherish   
them and bring them to the front in     
whatever station of society they are to 
be found2 and the universities ought to 
be1 and may be1 the fortresses of the   
higher life of the nation4  ,may the    
university which commences its practical
 activity to-morrow abundantly fulfil   
its high purpose2 may its renown as a   
seat of true learning1 a centre of free 
inquiry1 a focus of intellectual light1 
increase year by year1 until men wander 
hither from all parts of the earth1 as  
of old they sought ,bologna1 or ,paris1 
or ,oxford4  ,and it is pleasant to me  
to fancy that1 among the ,english       
students who are drawn to you at that   
time1 there may linger a dim tradition  
that a countryman of theirs was         
permitted to address you as he has done 

to-day1 and to feel as if your hopes    
were his hopes and your success his joy4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,footnotes3  #a ,delivered at the   
formal opening of the ,johns ,hopkins   
,university at ,baltimore1 ,u4,s41      
,september #ab4 ,the total amount       
bequeathed by ,johns ,hopkins is more   
than #g1jjj1jjj dollars4 ,the sum of    
#c1ejj1jjj dollars is appropriated to a 
university1 a like sum to a hospital1   
and the rest to local institutions of   
education and charity4     ,x  ,,on     
,,the ,,study ,,of ,,biology  #ahgf     
,it is my duty to-night to speak about  
the study of ,biology1 and while it may 
be that there are many of my audience   
who are quite familiar with that study1 
yet as a lecturer of some standing1 it  
would1 ,i know by experience1 be very   
bad policy on my part to suppose such to
 be extensively the case4 ,on the       
contrary1 ,i must imagine that there are
 many of you who would like to know what
 ,biology is2 that there are others who 

have that amount of information1 but    
would nevertheless gladly hear why it   
should be worth their while to study    
,biology2 and yet others1 again1 to whom
 these two points are clear1 but who    
desire to learn how they had best study 
it1 and1 finally1 when they had best    
study it4  ,i shall1 therefore1 address 
myself to the endeavour to give you some
 answer to these four questions--what   
,biology is2 why it should be studied2  
how it should be studied2 and when it   
should be studied4  ,in the first place1
 in respect to what ,biology is1 there  
are1 ,i believe1 some persons who       
imagine that the term ,biology is simply
 a new-fangled denomination1 a neologism
 in short1 for what used to be known    
under the title of ,natural ,history2   
but ,i shall try to show you1 on the    
contrary1 that the word is the          
expression of the growth of science     
during the last #bjj years1 and came    
into existence half a century ago4  ,at 
the revival of learning1 knowledge was  

divided into two kinds--the knowledge of
 nature and the knowledge of man2 for it
 was the current idea then 7and a great 
deal of that ancient conception still   
remains7 that there was a sort of       
essential antithesis1 not to say        
antagonism1 between nature and man2 and 
that the two had not very much to do    
with one another1 except that the one   
was oftentimes exceedingly troublesome  
to the other4 ,though it is one of the  
salient merits of our great philosophers
 of the seventeenth century1 that they  
recognised but one scientific method1   
applicable alike to man and to nature1  
we find this notion of the existence of 
a broad distinction between nature and  
man in the writings both of ,bacon and  
of ,hobbes of ,malmesbury2 and ,i have  
brought with me that famous work which  
is now so little known1 greatly as it   
deserves to be studied1 ,the ,leviathan1
 in order that ,i may put to you in the 
wonderfully terse and clear language of 
,thomas ,hobbes1 what was his view of   

the matter4 ,he says3--  ,the register  
of knowledge of fact is called history4 
,whereof there be two sorts1 one called 
natural history2 which is the history of
 such facts or effects of nature as have
 no dependence on man's will2 such as   
are the histories of metals1 plants1    
animals1 regions1 and the like4 ,the    
other is civil history2 which is the    
history of the voluntary actions of men 
in commonwealths4  ,so that all history 
of fact was divided into these two great
 groups of natural and of civil history4
 ,the ,royal ,society was in course of  
foundation about the time that ,hobbes  
was writing this book1 which was        
published in #afea2 and that ,society   
was termed a ,society for the           
,improvement of ,natural ,knowledge1    
which was then nearly the same thing as 
a ,society for the ,improvement of      
,natural ,history4 ,as time went on1 and
 the various branches of human knowledge
 became more distinctly developed and   
separated from one another1 it was found

 that some were much more susceptible of
 precise mathematical treatment than    
others4 ,the publication of the         
,principia of ,newton1 which probably   
gave a greater stimulus to physical     
science than any work ever published    
before1 or which is likely to be        
published hereafter1 showed that precise
 mathematical methods were applicable to
 those branches of science such as      
astronomy1 and what we now call physics1
 which occupy a very large portion of   
the domain of what the older writers    
understood by natural history4 ,and     
inasmuch as the partly deductive and    
partly experimental methods of treatment
 to which ,newton and others subjected  
these branches of human knowledge1      
showed that the phenomena of nature     
which belonged to them were susceptible 
of explanation1 and thereby came within 
the reach of what was called philosophy 
in those days2 so much of this kind of  
knowledge as was not included under     
astronomy came to be spoken of as       

natural philosophy--a term which ,bacon 
had employed in a much wider sense4     
,time went on1 and yet other branches of
 science developed themselves4          
,chemistry took a definite shape2 and   
since all these sciences1 such as       
astronomy1 natural philosophy1 and      
chemistry1 were susceptible either of   
mathematical treatment or of            
experimental treatment1 or of both1 a   
broad distinction was drawn between the 
experimental branches of what had       
previously been called natural history  
and the observational branches--those in
 which experiment was 7or appeared to   
be7 of doubtful use1 and where1 at that 
time1 mathematical methods were         
inapplicable4 ,under these circumstances
 the old name of ,natural ,history stuck
 by the residuum1 by those phenomena    
which were not1 at that time1           
susceptible of mathematical or          
experimental treatment2 that is to say1 
those phenomena of nature which come now
 under the general heads of physical    

geography1 geology1 mineralogy1 the     
history of plants1 and the history of   
animals4 ,it was in this sense that the 
term was understood by the great writers
 of the middle of the last              
century--,buffon and ,linnaeus--by      
,buffon in his great work1 the ,histoire
 ,naturelle ,gnrale1 and by ,linnaeus in
 his splendid achievement1 the ,systema 
,naturae4 ,the subjects they deal with  
are spoken of as ,natural ,history1 and 
they called themselves and were called  
,naturalists4 ,but you will observe that
 this was not the original meaning of   
these terms2 but that they had1 by this 
time1 acquired a signification widely   
different from that which they possessed
 primitively4  ,the sense in which      
,natural ,history was used at the time  
,i am now speaking of has1 to a certain 
extent1 endured to the present day4     
,there are now in existence in some of  
our northern universities1 chairs of    
,civil and ,natural ,history1 in which  
,natural ,history is used to indicate   

exactly what ,hobbes and ,bacon meant by
 that term4 ,the unhappy incumbent of   
the chair of ,natural ,history is1 or   
was1 supposed to cover the whole ground 
of geology1 mineralogy1 and zoology1    
perhaps even botany1 in his lectures4   
,but as science made the marvellous     
progress which it did make at the latter
 end of the last and the beginning of   
the present century1 thinking men began 
to discern that under this title of     
,natural ,history there were included   
very heterogeneous constituents--that1  
for example1 geology and mineralogy     
were1 in many respects1 widely different
 from botany and zoology2 that a man    
might obtain an extensive knowledge of  
the structure and functions of plants   
and animals1 without having need to     
enter upon the study of geology or      
mineralogy1 and vice vers2 and1 further 
as knowledge advanced1 it became clear  
that there was a great analogy1 a very  
close alliance1 between those two       
sciences1 of botany and zoology which   

deal with human beings1 while they are  
much more widely separated from all     
other studies4 ,it is due to ,buffon to 
remark that he clearly recognised this  
great fact4 ,he says3 ,ces deux genres  
d'tres organiss les animaux et les      
vgtaux ont beaucoup plus de proprits    
communes que de diffrences relles4      
,therefore1 it is not wonderful that1 at
 the beginning of the present century1  
in two different countries1 and so far  
as ,i know1 without any                 
intercommunication1 two famous men      
clearly conceived the notion of uniting 
the sciences which deal with living     
matter into one whole1 and of dealing   
with them as one discipline4 ,in fact1  
,i may say there were three men to whom 
this idea occurred contemporaneously1   
although there were but two who carried 
it into effect1 and only one who worked 
it out completely4 ,the persons to whom 
,i refer were the eminent physiologist  
,bichat1 and the great naturalist       
,lamarck1 in ,france2 and a             

distinguished ,german1 ,treviranus4     
,bichat #a assumed the existence of a   
special group of physiological sciences4
 ,lamarck1 in a work published in #ahja1
 #b for the first time made use of the  
name ,biologie1 from the two ,greek     
words which signify a discourse upon    
life and living things4 ,about the same 
time1 it occurred to ,treviranus1 that  
all those sciences which deal with      
living matter are essentially and       
fundamentally one1 and ought to be      
treated as a whole2 and1 in the year    
#ahjb1 he published the first volume of 
what he also called ,biologie4          
,treviranus's great merit lies in this1 
that he worked out his idea1 and wrote  
the very remarkable book to which ,i    
refer4 ,it consists of six volumes1 and 
occupied its author for twenty          
years--from #ahjb to #ahbb4  ,that is   
the origin of the term ,biology2 and    
that is how it has come about that all  
clear thinkers and lovers of consistent 
nomenclature have substituted for the   

old confusing name of ,natural ,history1
 which has conveyed so many meanings1   
the term ,biology which denotes the     
whole of the sciences which deal with   
living things1 whether they be animals  
or whether they be plants4 ,some little 
time ago--in the course of this year1 ,i
 think--,i was favoured by a learned    
classic1 ,dr4 ,field of ,norwich1 with a
 disquisition1 in which he endeavourved 
to prove that1 from a philological point
 of view1 neither ,treviranus nor       
,lamarck had any right to coin this new 
word ,biology for their purpose2 that1  
in fact1 the ,greek word ,bios had      
relation only to human life and human   
affairs1 and that a different word was  
employed by the ,greeks when they wished
 to speak of the life of animals and    
plants4 ,so ,dr4 ,field tells us we are 
all wrong in using the term biology1 and
 that we ought to employ another2 only  
he is not sure about the propriety of   
that which he proposes as a substitute4 
,it is a somewhat hard one--zootocology4

 ,i am sorry we are wrong1 because we   
are likely to continue so4 ,in these    
matters we must have some sort of       
,statute of ,limitations4 ,when a name  
has been employed for half a century1   
persons of authority #c have been using 
it1 and its sense has become well       
understood1 ,i am afraid people will go 
on using it1 whatever the weight of     
philological objection4  ,now that we   
have arrived at the origin of this word 
,biology1 the next point to consider is3
 ,what ground does it cover8 ,i have    
said that in its strict technical sense1
 it denotes all the phenomena which are 
exhibited by living things1 as          
distinguished from those which are not  
living2 but while that is all very well1
 so long as we confine ourselves to the 
lower animals and to plants1 it lands us
 in considerable difficulties when we   
reach the higher forms of living things4
 ,for whatever view we may entertain    
about the nature of man1 one thing is   
perfectly certain1 that he is a living  

creature4 ,hence1 if our definition is  
to be interpreted strictly1 we must     
include man and all his ways and works  
under the head of ,biology2 in which    
case1 we should find that psychology1   
politics1 and political economy would be
 absorbed into the province of ,biology4
 ,in fact1 civil history would be merged
 in natural history4 ,in strict logic it
 may be hard to object to this course1  
because no one can doubt that the       
rudiments and outlines of our own mental
 phenomena are traceable among the lower
 animals4 ,they have their economy and  
their polity1 and if1 as is always      
admitted1 the polity of bees and the    
commonwealth of wolves fall within the  
purview of the biologist proper1 it     
becomes hard to say why we should not   
include therein human affairs1 which1 in
 so many cases1 resemble those of the   
bees in zealous getting1 and are not    
without a certain parity in the         
proceedings of the wolves4 ,the real    
fact is that we biologists are a        

self-sacrificing people2 and inasmuch   
as1 on a moderate estimate1 there are   
about a quarter of a million different  
species of animals and plants to know   
about already1 we feel that we have more
 than sufficient territory4 ,there has  
been a sort of practical convention by  
which we give up to a different branch  
of science what ,bacon and ,hobbes would
 have called ,civil ,history4 ,that     
branch of science has constituted itself
 under the head of ,sociology4 ,i may   
use phraseology which1 at present1 will 
be well understood and say that we have 
allowed that province of ,biology to    
become autonomous2 but ,i should like   
you to recollect that that is a         
sacrifice1 and that you should not be   
surprised if it occasionally happens    
that you see a biologist apparently     
trespassing in the region of philosophy 
or politics2 or meddling with human     
education2 because1 after all1 that is a
 part of his kingdom which he has only  
voluntarily forsaken4  ,having now      

defined the meaning of the word         
,biology1 and having indicated the      
general scope of ,biological ,science1  
,i turn to my second question1 which    
is--,why should we study ,biology8      
,possibly the time may come when that   
will seem a very odd question4 ,that we1
 living creatures1 should not feel a    
certain amount of interest in what it is
 that constitutes our life will         
eventually1 under altered ideas of the  
fittest objects of human inquiry1 appear
 to be a singular phenomenon2 but at    
present1 judging by the practice of     
teachers and educators1 ,biology would  
seem to be a topic that does not concern
 us at all4 ,i propose to put before you
 a few considerations with which ,i dare
 say many will be familiar already1 but 
which will suffice to show--not fully1  
because to demonstrate this point fully 
would take a great many lectures--that  
there are some very good and substantial
 reasons why it may be advisable that we
 should know something about this branch

 of human learning4  ,i myself entirely 
agree with another sentiment of the     
philosopher of ,malmesbury1 that the    
scope of all speculation is the         
performance of some action or thing to  
be done1 and ,i have not any very great 
respect for1 or interest in1 mere       
knowing as such4 ,i judge of the value  
of human pursuits by their bearing upon 
human interests2 in other words1 by     
their utility2 but ,i should like that  
we should quite clearly understand what 
it is that we mean by this word utility4
 ,in an ,englishman's mouth it generally
 means that by which we get pudding or  
praise1 or both4 ,i have no doubt that  
is one meaning of the word utility1 but 
it by no means includes all ,i mean by  
utility4 ,i think that knowledge of     
every kind is useful in proportion as it
 tends to give people right ideas1 which
 are essential to the foundation of     
right practice1 and to remove wrong     
ideas1 which are the no less essential  
foundations and fertile mothers of every

 description of error in practice4 ,and 
inasmuch as1 whatever practical people  
may say1 this world is1 after all1      
absolutely governed by ideas1 and very  
often by the wildest and most           
hypothetical ideas1 it is a matter of   
the very greatest importance that our   
theories of things1 and even of things  
that seem a long way apart from our     
daily lives1 should be as far as        
possible true1 and as far as possible   
removed from error4 ,it is not only in  
the coarser1 practical sense of the word
 utility1 but in this higher and broader
 sense1 that ,i measure the value of the
 study of biology by its utility2 and ,i
 shall try to point out to you that you 
will feel the need of some knowledge of 
biology at a great many turns of this   
present nineteenth century life of ours4
 ,for example1 most of us attach great  
importance to the conception which we   
entertain of the position of man in this
 universe and his relation to the rest  
of nature4 ,we have almost all been     

told1 and most of us hold by the        
tradition1 that man occupies an isolated
 and peculiar position in nature2 that  
though he is in the world he is not of  
the world2 that his relations to things 
about him are of a remote character2    
that his origin is recent1 his duration 
likely to be short1 and that he is the  
great central figure round which other  
things in this world revolve4 ,but this 
is not what the biologist tells us4  ,at
 the present moment you will be kind    
enough to separate me from them1 because
 it is in no way essential to my present
 argument that ,i should advocate their 
views4 ,don't suppose that ,i am saying 
this for the purpose of escaping the    
responsibility of their beliefs2 indeed1
 at other times and in other places1 ,i 
do not think that point has been left   
doubtful2 but ,i want clearly to point  
out to you that for my present argument 
they may all be wrong2 and1             
nevertheless1 my argument will hold     
good4 ,the biologists tell us that all  

this is an entire mistake4 ,they turn to
 the physical organisation of man4 ,they
 examine his whole structure1 his bony  
frame and all that clothes it4 ,they    
resolve him into the finest particles   
into which the microscope will enable   
them to break him up4 ,they consider the
 performance of his various functions   
and activities1 and they look at the    
manner in which he occurs on the surface
 of the world4 ,then they turn to other 
animals1 and taking the first handy     
domestic animal--say a dog--they profess
 to be able to demonstrate that the     
analysis of the dog leads them1 in      
gross1 to precisely the same results as 
the analysis of the man2 that they find 
almost identically the same bones1      
having the same relations2 that they can
 name the muscles of the dog by the     
names of the muscles of the man1 and the
 nerves of the dog by those of the      
nerves of the man1 and that1 such       
structures and organs of sense as we    
find in the man such also we find in the

 dog2 they analyse the brain and spinal 
cord and they find that the nomenclature
 which fits1 the one answers for the    
other4 ,they carry their microscopic    
inquiries in the case of the dog as far 
as they can1 and they find that his body
 is resolvable into the same elements as
 those of the man4 ,moreover1 they trace
 back the dog's and the man's           
development1 and they find that1 at a   
certain stage of their existence1 the   
two creatures are not distinguishable   
the one from the other2 they find that  
the dog and his kind have a certain     
distribution over the surface of the    
world1 comparable in its way to the     
distribution of the human species4 ,what
 is true of the dog they tell us is true
 of all the higher animals2 and they    
assert that they can lay down a common  
plan for the whole of these creatures1  
and regard the man and the dog1 the     
horse and the ox as minor modifications 
of one great fundamental unity4         
,moreover1 the investigations of the    

last three-quarters of a century have   
proved1 they tell us1 that similar      
inquiries1 carried out through all the  
different kinds of animals which are met
 with in nature1 will lead us1 not in   
one straight series1 but by many roads1 
step by step1 gradation by gradation1   
from man1 at the summit1 to specks of   
animated jelly at the bottom of the     
series4 ,so that the idea of ,leibnitz1 
and of ,bonnet1 that animals form a     
great scale of being1 in which there are
 a series of gradations from the most   
complicated form to the lowest and      
simplest2 that idea1 though not exactly 
in the form in which it was propounded  
by those philosophers1 turns out to be  
substantially correct4 ,more than this1 
when biologists pursue their            
investigations into the vegetable world1
 they find that they can1 in the same   
way1 follow out the structure of the    
plant1 from the most gigantic and       
complicated trees down through a similar
 series of gradations1 until they arrive

 at specks of animated jelly1 which they
 are puzzled to distinguish from those  
specks which they reached by the animal 
road4  ,thus1 biologists have arrived at
 the conclusion that a fundamental      
uniformity of structure pervades the    
animal and vegetable worlds1 and that   
plants and animals differ from one      
another simply as diverse modifications 
of the same great general plan4  ,again1
 they tell us the same story in regard  
to the study of function4 ,they admit   
the large and important interval which1 
at the present time1 separates the      
manifestations of the mental faculties  
observable in the higher forms of       
mankind1 and even in the lower forms1   
such as we know them1 from those        
exhibited by other animals2 but1 at the 
same time1 they tell us that the        
foundations1 or rudiments1 of almost all
 the faculties of man are to be met with
 in the lower animals2 that there is a  
unity of mental faculty as well as of   
bodily structure1 and that1 here also1  

the difference is a difference of degree
 and not of kind4 ,i said almost all1   
for a reason4 ,among the many           
distinctions which have been drawn      
between the lower creatures and         
ourselves1 there is one which is hardly 
ever insisted on1 #d but which may be   
very fitly spoken of in a place so      
largely devoted to ,art as that in which
 we are assembled4 ,it is this1 that    
while1 among various kinds of animals1  
it is possible to discover traces of all
 the other faculties of man1 especially 
the faculty of mimicry1 yet that        
particular form of mimicry which shows  
itself in the imitation of form1 either 
by modelling or by drawing1 is not to be
 met with4 ,as far as ,i know1 there is 
no sculpture or modelling1 and decidedly
 no painting or drawing1 of animal      
origin4 ,i mention the fact1 in order   
that such comfort may be derived        
therefrom as artists may feel inclined  
to take4  ,if what the biologists tell  
us is true1 it will be needful to get   

rid of our erroneous conceptions of man1
 and of his place in nature1 and to     
substitute right ones for them4 ,but it 
is impossible to form any judgment as to
 whether the biologists are right or    
wrong1 unless we are able to appreciate 
the nature of the arguments which they  
have to offer4  ,one would almost think 
this to be a self-evident proposition4  
,i wonder what a scholar would say to   
the man who should undertake to         
criticise a difficult passage in a      
,greek play1 but who obviously had not  
acquainted himself with the rudiments of
 ,greek grammar4 ,and yet1 before giving
 positive opinions about these high     
questions of ,biology1 people not only  
do not seem to think it necessary to be 
acquainted with the grammar of the      
subject1 but they have not even mastered
 the alphabet4 ,you find criticism and  
denunciation showered about by persons  
who not only have not attempted to go   
through the discipline necessary to     
enable them to be judges1 but who have  

not even reached that stage of emergence
 from ignorance in which the knowledge  
that such a discipline is necessary     
dawns upon the mind4 ,i have had to     
watch with some attention--in fact ,i   
have been favoured with a good deal of  
it myself--the sort of criticism with   
which biologists and biological         
teachings are visited4 ,i am told every 
now and then that there is a brilliant  
article #e in so-and-so1 in which we are
 all demolished4 ,i used to read these  
things once1 but ,i am getting old now1 
and ,i have ceased to attend very much  
to this cry of wolf4 ,when one does read
 any of these productions1 what one     
finds generally1 on the face of it is1  
that the brilliant critic is devoid of  
even the elements of biological         
knowledge1 and that his brilliancy is   
like the light given out by the         
crackling of thorns under a pot of which
 ,solomon speaks4 ,so far as ,i         
recollect1 ,solomon makes use of the    
image for purposes of comparison2 but ,i

 will not proceed further into that     
matter4  ,two things must be obvious3 in
 the first place1 that every man who has
 the interests of truth at heart must   
earnestly desire that every well-founded
 and just criticism that can be made    
should be made2 but that1 in the second 
place1 it is essential to anybody's     
being able to benefit by criticism1 that
 the critic should know what he is      
talking about1 and be in a position to  
form a mental image of the facts        
symbolised by the words he uses4 ,if    
not1 it is as obvious in the case of a  
biological argument1 as it is in that of
 a historical or philological           
discussion1 that such criticism is a    
mere waste of time on the part of its   
author1 and wholly undeserving of       
attention on the part of those who are  
criticised4 ,take it then as an         
illustration of the importance of       
biological study1 that thereby alone are
 men able to form something like a      
rational conception of what constitutes 

valuable criticism of the teachings of  
biologists4 #f  ,next1 ,i may mention   
another bearing of biological           
knowledge--a more practical one in the  
ordinary sense of the word4 ,consider   
the theory of infectious disease4       
,surely that is of interest to all of   
us4 ,now the theory of infectious       
disease is rapidly being elucidated by  
biological study4 ,it is possible to    
produce1 from among the lower animals1  
examples of devastating diseases which  
spread in the same manner as our        
infectious disorders1 and which are     
certainly and unmistakably caused by    
living organisms4 ,this fact renders it 
possible1 at any rate1 that that        
doctrine of the causation of infectious 
disease which is known under the name of
 the germ theory may be well-founded2   
and1 if so1 it must needs lead to the   
most important practical measures in    
dealing with those terrible visitations4
 ,it may be well that the general1 as   
well as the professional1 public should 

have a sufficient knowledge of          
biological truths to be able to take a  
rational interest in the discussion of  
such problems1 and to see1 what ,i think
 they may hope to see1 that1 to those   
who possess a sufficient elementary     
knowledge of ,biology1 they are not all 
quite open questions4  ,let me mention  
another important practical illustration
 of the value of biological study4      
,within the last forty years the theory 
of agriculture has been revolutionised4 
,the researches of ,liebig1 and those of
 our own ,lawes and ,gilbert1 have had a
 bearing upon that branch of industry   
the importance of which cannot be       
over-estimated2 but the whole of these  
new views have grown out of the better  
explanation of certain processes which  
go on in plants2 and which1 of course1  
form a part of the subject-matter of    
,biology4  ,i might go on multiplying   
these examples1 but ,i see that the     
clock won't wait for me1 and ,i must    
therefore pass to the third question to 

which ,i referred3--,granted that       
,biology is something worth studying1   
what is the best way of studying it8    
,here ,i must point out that1 since     
,biology is a physical science1 the     
method of studying it must needs be     
analogous to that which is followed in  
the other physical sciences4 ,it has now
 long been recognised that1 if a man    
wishes to be a chemist1 it is not only  
necessary that he should read chemical  
books and attend chemical lectures1 but 
that he should actually perform the     
fundamental experiments in the          
laboratory for himself1 and thus learn  
exactly what the words which he finds in
 his books and hears from his teachers1 
mean4 ,if he does not do so1 he may read
 till the crack of doom1 but he will    
never know much about chemistry4 ,that  
is what every chemist will tell you1 and
 the physicist will do the same for his 
branch of science4 ,the great changes   
and improvements in physical and        
chemical scientific education1 which    

have taken place of late1 have all      
resulted from the combination of        
practical teaching with the reading of  
books and with the hearing of lectures4 
,the same thing is true in ,biology4    
,nobody will ever know anything about   
,biology except in a dilettante         
paper-philosopher way1 who contents     
himself with reading books on botany1   
zoology1 and the like2 and the reason of
 this is simple and easy to understand4 
,it is that all language is merely      
symbolical of the things of which it    
treats2 the more complicated the things1
 the more bare is the symbol1 and the   
more its verbal definition requires to  
be supplemented by the information      
derived directly from the handling1 and 
the seeing1 and the touching of the     
thing symbolised3--that is really what  
is at the bottom of the whole matter4   
,it is plain common sense1 as all truth1
 in the long run1 is only common sense  
clarified4 ,if you want a man to be a   
tea merchant1 you don't tell him to read

 books about ,china or about tea1 but   
you put him into a tea-merchant's office
 where he has the handling1 the         
smelling1 and the tasting of tea4       
,without the sort of knowledge which can
 be gained only in this practical way1  
his exploits as a tea merchant will soon
 come to a bankrupt termination4 ,the   
paper-philosophers are under the        
delusion that physical science can be   
mastered as literary accomplishments are
 acquired1 but unfortunately it is not  
so4 ,you may read any quantity of books1
 and you may be almost as ignorant as   
you were at starting1 if you don't have1
 at the back of your minds1 the change  
for words in definite images which can  
only be acquired through the operation  
of your observing faculties on the      
phenomena of nature4  ,it may be        
said3--,that is all very well1 but you  
told us just now that there are probably
 something like a quarter of a million  
different kinds of living and extinct   
animals and plants1 and a human life    

could not suffice for the examination of
 one-fiftieth part of all these4 ,that  
is true1 but then comes the great       
convenience of the way things are       
arranged2 which is1 that although there 
are these immense numbers of different  
kinds of living things in existence1 yet
 they are built up1 after all1 upon     
marvellously few plans4  ,there are     
certainly more than #ajj1jjj species of 
insects1 and yet anybody who knows one  
insect--if a properly chosen one--will  
be able to have a very fair conception  
of the structure of the whole4 ,i do not
 mean to say he will know that structure
 thoroughly1 or as well as it is        
desirable he should know it2 but he will
 have enough real knowledge to enable   
him to understand what he reads1 to have
 genuine images in his mind of those    
structures which become so variously    
modified in all the forms of insects he 
has not seen4 ,in fact1 there are such  
things as types of form among animals   
and vegetables1 and for the purpose of  

getting a definite knowledge of what    
constitutes the leading modifications of
 animal and plant life1 it is not       
needful to examine more than a          
comparatively small number of animals   
and plants4  ,let me tell you what we do
 in the biological laboratory which is  
lodged in a building adjacent to this4  
,there ,i lecture to a class of students
 daily for about four-and-a-half months1
 and my class have1 of course1 their    
text-books2 but the essential part of   
the whole teaching1 and that which ,i   
regard as really the most important part
 of it1 is a laboratory for practical   
work1 which is simply a room with all   
the appliances needed for ordinary      
dissection4 ,we have tables properly    
arranged in regard to light1            
microscopes1 and dissecting instruments1
 and we work through the structure of a 
certain number of animals and plants4   
,as1 for example1 among the plants1 we  
take a yeast plant1 a ,protococcus1 a   
common mould1 a ,chara1 a fern1 and some

 flowering plant2 among animals we      
examine such things as an ,amoeba1 a    
,vorticella1 and a fresh-water polype4  
,we dissect a star-fish1 an earth-worm1 
a snail1 a squid1 and a fresh-water     
mussel4 ,we examine a lobster and a     
cray-fish1 and a black beetle4 ,we go on
 to a common skate1 a cod-fish1 a frog1 
a tortoise1 a pigeon1 and a rabbit1 and 
that takes us about all the time we have
 to give4  ,the purpose of this course  
is not to make skilled dissectors1 but  
to give every student a clear and       
definite conception1 by means of        
sense-images1 of the characteristic     
structure of each of the leading        
modifications of the animal kingdom2 and
 that is perfectly possible1 by going no
 further than the length of that list of
 forms which ,i have enumerated4 ,if a  
man knows the structure of the animals  
,i have mentioned1 he has a clear and   
exact1 however limited1 apprehension of 
the essential features of the           
organisation of all those great         

divisions of the animal and vegetable   
kingdoms to which the forms ,i have     
mentioned severally belong4 ,and it then
 becomes possible for him to read with  
profit2 because every time he meets with
 the name of a structure1 he has a      
definite image in his mind of what the  
name means in the particular creature he
 is reading about1 and therefore the    
reading is not mere reading4 ,it is not 
mere repetition of words2 but every term
 employed in the description1 we will   
say1 of a horse1 or of an elephant1 will
 call up the image of the things he had 
seen in the rabbit1 and he is able to   
form a distinct conception of that which
 he has not seen1 as a modification of  
that which he has seen4  ,i find this   
system to yield excellent results2 and  
,i have no hesitation whatever in       
saying1 that any one who has gone       
through such a course1 attentively1 is  
in a better position to form a          
conception of the great truths of       
,biology1 especially of morphology      

7which is what we chiefly deal with71   
than if he had merely read all the books
 on that topic put together4  ,the      
connection of this discourse with the   
,loan ,collection of ,scientific        
,apparatus arises out of the exhibition 
in that collection of certain aids to   
our laboratory work4  ,such of you as   
have visited that very interesting      
collection may have noticed a series of 
diagrams and of preparations            
illustrating the structure of a frog4   
,those diagrams and preparations have   
been made for the use of the students in
 the biological laboratory4 ,similar    
diagrams and preparations illustrating  
the structure of all the other forms of 
life we examine1 are either made or in  
course of preparation4 ,thus the student
 has before him1 first1 a picture of the
 structure he ought to see2 secondly1   
the structure itself worked out2 and if 
with these aids1 and such needful       
explanations and practical hints as a   
demonstrator can supply1 he cannot make 

out the facts for himself in the        
materials supplied to him1 he had better
 take to some other pursuit than that of
 biological science4  ,i should have    
been glad to have said a few words about
 the use of museums in the study of     
,biology1 but ,i see that my time is    
becoming short1 and ,i have yet another 
question to answer4 ,nevertheless1 ,i   
must1 at the risk of wearying you1 say a
 word or two upon the important subject 
of museums4 ,without doubt there are no 
helps to the study of ,biology1 or      
rather to some branches of it1 which    
are1 or may be1 more important than     
natural history museums2 but1 in order  
to take this place in regard to         
,biology1 they must be museums of the   
future4 ,the museums of the present do  
not1 by any means1 do so much for us as 
they might do4 ,i do not wish to        
particularise1 but ,i dare say many of  
you1 seeking knowledge1 or in the       
laudable desire to employ a holiday     
usefully1 have visited some great       

natural history museum4 ,you have walked
 through a quarter of a mile of animals1
 more or less well stuffed1 with their  
long names written out underneath them2 
and1 unless your experience is very     
different from that of most people1 the 
upshot of it all is that you leave that 
splendid pile with sore feet1 a bad     
headache1 and a general idea that the   
animal kingdom is a mighty maze without 
a plan4 ,i do not think that a museum   
which brings about this result does all 
that may be reasonably expected from    
such an institution4 ,what is needed in 
a collection of natural history is that 
it should be made as accessible and as  
useful as possible1 on the one hand to  
the general public1 and on the other to 
scientific workers4 ,that need is not   
met by constructing a sort of happy     
hunting-ground of miles of glass cases2 
and1 under the pretence of exhibiting   
everything putting the maximum amount of
 obstacle in the way of those who wish  
properly to see anything4  ,what the    

public want is easy and unhindered      
access to such a collection as they can 
understand and appreciate2 and what the 
men of science want is similar access to
 the materials of science4 ,to this end 
the vast mass of objects of natural     
history should be divided into two      
parts--one open to the public1 the other
 to men of science1 every day4 ,the     
former division should exemplify all the
 more important and interesting forms of
 life4 ,explanatory tablets should be   
attached to them1 and catalogues        
containing clearly-written popular      
expositions of the general significance 
of the objects exhibited should be      
provided4 ,the latter should contain1   
packed into a comparatively small space1
 in rooms adapted for working purposes1 
the objects of purely scientific        
interest4 ,for example1 we will say ,i  
am an ornithologist4 ,i go to examine a 
collection of birds4 ,it is a positive  
nuisance to have them stuffed4 ,it is   
not only sheer waste1 but ,i have to    

reckon with the ideas of the            
bird-stuffer1 while1 if ,i have the skin
 and nobody has interfered with it1 ,i  
can form my own judgment as to what the 
bird was like4 ,for ornithological      
purposes1 what is needed is not glass   
cases full of stuffed birds on perches1 
but convenient drawers into each of     
which a great quantity of skins will go4
 ,they occupy no great space and do not 
require any expenditure beyond their    
original cost4 ,but for the edification 
of the public1 who want to learn indeed1
 but do not seek for minute and         
technical knowledge1 the case is        
different4 ,what one of the general     
public walking into a collection of     
birds desires to see is not all the     
birds that can be got together4 ,he does
 not want to compare a hundred species  
of the sparrow tribe side by side2 but  
he wishes to know what a bird is1 and   
what are the great modifications of bird
 structure1 and to be able to get at    
that knowledge easily4 ,what will best  

serve his purpose is a comparatively    
small number of birds carefully         
selected1 and artistically1 as well as  
accurately1 set up2 with their different
 ages1 their nests1 their young1 their  
eggs1 and their skeletons side by side2 
and in accordance with the admirable    
plan which is pursued in this museum1 a 
tablet1 telling the spectator in legible
 characters what they are and what they 
mean4 ,for the instruction and          
recreation of the public such a typical 
collection would be of far greater value
 than any many-acred imitation of       
,noah's ark4  ,lastly comes the question
 as to when biological study may best be
 pursued4 ,i do not see any valid reason
 why it should not be made1 to a certain
 extent1 a part of ordinary school      
training4 ,i have long advocated this   
view1 and ,i am perfectly certain that  
it can be carried out with ease1 and not
 only with ease1 but with very          
considerable profit to those who are    
taught2 but then such instruction must  

be adapted to the minds and needs of the
 scholars4 ,they used to have a very odd
 way of teaching the classical languages
 when ,i was a boy4 ,the first task set 
you was to learn the rules of the ,latin
 grammar in the ,latin language--that   
being the language you were going to    
learn6 ,i thought then that this was an 
odd way of learning a language1 but did 
not venture to rebel against the        
judgment of my superiors4 ,now1 perhaps1
 ,i am not so modest as ,i was then1 and
 ,i allow myself to think that it was a 
very absurd fashion4 ,but it would be no
 less absurd1 if we were to set about   
teaching ,biology by putting into the   
hands of boys a series of definitions of
 the classes and orders of the animal   
kingdom1 and making them repeat them by 
heart4 ,that is so very favourite a     
method of teaching1 that ,i sometimes   
fancy the spirit of the old classical   
system has entered into the new         
scientific system1 in which case ,i     
would much rather that any pretence at  

scientific teaching were abolished      
altogether4 ,what really has to be done 
is to get into the young mind some      
notion of what animal and vegetable life
 is4 ,in this matter1 you have to       
consider practical convenience as well  
as other things4 ,there are difficulties
 in the way of a lot of boys making     
messes with slugs and snails2 it might  
not work in practice4 ,but there is a   
very convenient and handy animal which  
everybody has at hand1 and that is      
himself2 and it is a very easy and      
simple matter to obtain common plants4  
,hence the general truths of anatomy and
 physiology can be taught to young      
people in a very real fashion by dealing
 with the broad facts of human          
structure4 ,such viscera as they cannot 
very well examine in themselves1 such as
 hearts1 lungs1 and livers1 may be      
obtained from the nearest butcher's     
shop4 ,in respect to teaching something 
about the biology of plants1 there is no
 practical difficulty1 because almost   

any of the common plants will do1 and   
plants do not make a mess--at least they
 do not make an unpleasant mess2 so     
that1 in my judgment1 the best form of  
,biology for teaching to very young     
people is elementary human physiology on
 the one hand1 and the elements of      
botany on the other2 beyond that ,i do  
not think it will be feasible to advance
 for some time to come4 ,but then ,i see
 no reason1 why1 in secondary schools1  
and in the ,science ,classes which are  
under the control of the ,science and   
,art ,department--and which ,i may say1 
in passing1 have in my judgment1 done so
 very much for the diffusion of a       
knowledge of science over the           
country--we should not hope to see      
instruction in the elements of ,biology 
carried out1 not perhaps to the same    
extent1 but still upon somewhat the same
 principle as here4 ,there is no        
difficulty1 when you have to deal with  
students of the ages of fifteen or      
sixteen1 in practising a little         

dissection and in getting a notion of1  
at any rate1 the four or five great     
modifications of the animal form2 and   
the like is true in regard to the higher
 anatomy of plants4  ,while1 lastly1 to 
all those who are studying biological   
science with a view to their own        
edification merely1 or with the         
intention of becoming zoologists or     
botanists2 to all those who intend to   
pursue physiology--and especially to    
those who propose to employ the working 
years of their lives in the practice of 
medicine--,i say that there is no       
training so fitted1 or which may be of  
such important service to them1 as the  
discipline in practical biological work 
which ,i have sketched out as being     
pursued in the laboratory hard by4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,i may add that1 beyond all these       
different classes of persons who may    
profit by the study of ,biology1 there  
is yet one other4 ,i remember1 a number 
of years ago1 that a gentleman who was a

 vehement opponent of ,mr4 ,darwin's    
views and had written some terrible     
articles against them1 applied to me to 
know what was the best way in which he  
could acquaint himself with the         
strongest arguments in favour of        
evolution4 ,i wrote back1 in all good   
faith and simplicity1 recommending him  
to go through a course of comparative   
anatomy and physiology1 and then to     
study development4 ,i am sorry to say he
 was very much displeased1 as people    
often are with good advice4             
,notwithstanding this discouraging      
result1 ,i venture1 as a parting word1  
to repeat the suggestion1 and to say to 
all the more or less acute lay and      
clerical paper-philosophers #g who      
venture into the regions of biological  
controversy--,get a little sound1       
thorough1 practical1 elementary         
instruction in biology4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,footnotes3  #a ,see the distinction    
between the sciences physiques and the  

sciences physiologiques in the ,anatomie
 ,gnrale1 #ahja4  #b ,hydrogologie1 an4 
x4 7#ahja74  #c ,the term ,biology1     
which means exactly what we wish to     
express1 the ,science of ,life1 has     
often been used1 and has of late become 
not uncommon1 among good                
writers4--,whewell1 ,philosophy of the  
,inductive ,sciences1 vol4 i4 p4 #edd   
7edition of #ahdg74  #d ,i think that my
 friend1 ,professor ,allman1 was the    
first to draw attention to it4  #e      
,galileo was troubled by a sort of      
people whom he called paper             
philosophers1 because they fancied that 
the true reading of nature was to be    
detected by the collation of texts4 ,the
 race is not extinct1 but1 as of old1   
brings forth its winds of doctrine by   
which the weathercock heads among us are
 much exercised4  #f ,some critics do   
not even take the trouble to read4 ,i   
have recently been adjured with much    
solemnity2 to state publicly why ,i have
 changed my opinion as to the value of  

the palaeontological evidence of the    
occurrence of evolution4  ,to this my   
reply is1 ,why should ,i1 when that     
statement was made seven years ago8 ,an 
address delivered from the ,presidential
 ,chair of the ,geological ,society1 in 
#ahgj1 may be said to be a public       
document1 inasmuch as it not only       
appeared in the ,journal of that learned
 body1 but was re-published1 in #ahgc1  
in a volume of ,critiques and           
,addresses1 to which my name is         
attached4 ,therein will be found a      
pretty full statement of my reasons for 
enunciating two propositions3 7#a7 that 
when we turn to the higher ,vertebrata1 
the results of recent investigations1   
however we may sift and criticise them1 
seem to me to leave a clear balance in  
favour of the evolution of living forms 
one from another2 and 7#b7 that the case
 of the horse is one which will stand   
rigorous criticism4 ,thus ,i do not see 
clearly in what way ,i can be said to   
have changed my opinion1 except in the  

way of intensifying it1 when in         
consequence of the accumulation of      
similar evidence since #ahgj1 ,i        
recently spoke of the denial of         
evolution as not worth serious          
consideration4  #g ,writers of this     
stamp are fond of talking about the     
,baconian method4 ,i beg them therefore 
to lay to heart these two weighty       
sayings of the herald of ,modern        
,science3--  ,syllogismus ex            
propositionibus constat1 propositiones  
ex verbis1 verba notionum tesserae sunt4
 ,itaque si notiones ipsae 7id quod     
basis rei est7 confusae sint et temere a
 rebus abstractae1 nihil in iis quae    
superstruuntur est firmitudinis4--,novum
 ,organon1 ii4 #ad4  ,huic autem        
vanitati nonnulli ex modernis summa     
levitate ita indulserunt1 ut in primo   
capitulo ,geneseos et in libro ,job et  
aliis scripturis sacris1 philosophiam   
naturalem fundare conati sint2 inter    
vivos quaerentes mortua4--,ibid4 #fe4   
,,xi  ,,on ,,elementary ,,instruction   

,,in ,,physiology  #ahgg   ,the chief   
ground upon which ,i venture to         
recommend that the teaching of          
elementary physiology should form an    
essential part of any organised course  
of instruction in matters pertaining to 
domestic economy1 is1 that a knowledge  
of even the elements of this subject    
supplies those conceptions of the       
constitution and mode of action of the  
living body1 and of the nature of health
 and disease1 which prepare the mind to 
receive instruction from sanitary       
science4  ,it is1 ,i think1 eminently   
desirable that the hygienist and the    
physician should find something in the  
public mind to which they can appeal2   
some little stock of universally        
acknowledged truths1 which may serve as 
a foundation for their warnings1 and    
predispose towards an intelligent       
obedience to their recommendations4     
,listening to ordinary talk about       
health1 disease1 and death1 one is often
 led to entertain a doubt whether the   

speakers believe that the course of     
natural causation runs as smoothly in   
the human body as elsewhere4            
,indications are too often obvious of a 
strong1 though perhaps an unavowed and  
half unconscious1 under-current of      
opinion that the phenomena of life are  
not only widely different1 in their     
superficial characters and in their     
practical importance1 from other natural
 events1 but that they do not follow in 
that definite order which characterises 
the succession of all other occurrences1
 and the statement of which we call a   
law of nature4  ,hence1 ,i think1 arises
 the want of heartiness of belief in the
 value of knowledge respecting the laws 
of health and disease1 and of the       
foresight and care to which knowledge is
 the essential preliminary1 which is so 
often noticeable2 and a corresponding   
laxity and carelessness in practice1 the
 results of which are too frequently    
lamentable4  ,it is said that among the 
many religious sects of ,russia1 there  

is one which holds that all disease is  
brought about by the direct and special 
interference of the ,deity1 and which1  
therefore1 looks with repugnance upon   
both preventive and curative measures as
 alike blasphemous interferences with   
the will of ,god4 ,among ourselves1 the 
,peculiar ,people are1 ,i believe1 the  
only persons who hold the like doctrine 
in its integrity1 and carry it out with 
logical rigour4 ,but many of us are old 
enough to recollect that the            
administration of chloroform in         
assuagement of the pangs of child-birth 
was1 at its introduction1 strenuously   
resisted upon similar grounds4  ,i am   
not sure that the feeling1 of which the 
doctrine to which ,i have referred is   
the full expression1 does not lie at the
 bottom of the minds of a great many    
people who yet would vigorously object  
to give a verbal assent to the doctrine 
itself4 ,however this may be1 the main  
point is that sufficient knowledge has  
now been acquired of vital phenomena1 to

 justify the assertion1 that the notion1
 that there is anything exceptional     
about these phenomena1 receives not a   
particle of support from any known fact4
 ,on the contrary1 there is a vast and  
an increasing mass of evidence that     
birth and death1 health and disease1 are
 as much parts of the ordinary stream of
 events as the rising and setting of the
 sun1 or the changes of the moon2 and   
that the living body is a mechanism1 the
 proper working of which we term health2
 its disturbance1 disease2 its stoppage1
 death4 ,the activity of this mechanism 
is dependent upon many and complicated  
conditions1 some of which are hopelessly
 beyond our control1 while others are   
readily accessible1 and are capable of  
being indefinitely modified by our own  
actions4 ,the business of the hygienist 
and of the physician is to know the     
range of these modifiable conditions1   
and how to influence them towards the   
maintenance of health and the           
prolongation of life2 the business of   

the general public is to give an        
intelligent assent1 and a ready         
obedience based upon that assent1 to the
 rules laid down for their guidance by  
such experts4 ,but an intelligent assent
 is an assent based upon knowledge1 and 
the knowledge which is here in question 
means an acquaintance with the elements 
of physiology4  ,it is not difficult to 
acquire such knowledge4 ,what is true1  
to a certain extent1 of all the physical
 sciences1 is eminently characteristic  
of physiology--the difficulty of the    
subject begins beyond the stage of      
elementary knowledge1 and increases with
 every stage of progress4 ,while the    
most highly trained and the best        
furnished intellect may find all its    
resources insufficient1 when it strives 
to reach the heights and penetrate into 
the depths of the problems of           
physiology1 the elementary and          
fundamental truths can be made clear to 
a child4  ,no one can have any          
difficulty in comprehending the         

mechanism of circulation or respiration2
 or the general mode of operation of the
 organ of vision2 though the unravelling
 of all the minutiae of these processes1
 may1 for the present1 baffle the       
conjoined attacks of the most           
accomplished physicists1 chemists1 and  
mathematicians4 ,to know the anatomy of 
the human body1 with even an            
approximation to thoroughness1 is the   
work of a life2 but as much as is needed
 for a sound comprehension of elementary
 physiological truths1 may be learned in
 a week4  ,a knowledge of the elements  
of physiology is not only easy of       
acquirement1 but it may be made a real  
and practical acquaintance with the     
facts1 as far as it goes4 ,the subject  
of study is always at hand1 in one's    
self4 ,the principal constituents of the
 skeleton1 and the changes of form of   
contracting muscles1 may be felt through
 one's own skin4 ,the beating of one's  
heart1 and its connection with the      
pulse1 may be noted2 the influence of   

the valves of one's own veins may be    
shown2 the movements of respiration may 
be observed2 while the wonderful        
phenomena of sensation afford an endless
 field for curious and interesting      
self-study4 ,the prick of a needle will 
yield1 in a drop of one's own blood1    
material for microscopic observation of 
phenomena which lie at the foundation of
 all biological conceptions2 and a cold1
 with its concomitant coughing and      
sneezing1 may prove the sweet uses of   
adversity by helping one to a clear     
conception of what is meant by reflex   
action4  ,of course there is a limit to 
this physiological self-examination4    
,but there is so close a solidarity     
between ourselves and our poor relations
 of the animal world1 that our          
inaccessible inward parts may be        
supplemented by theirs4 ,a comparative  
anatomist knows that a sheep's heart and
 lungs1 or eye1 must not be confounded  
with those of a man2 but1 so far as the 
comprehension of the elementary facts of

 the physiology of circulation1 of      
respiration1 and of vision goes1 the one
 furnishes the needful anatomical data  
as well as the other4  ,thus1 it is     
quite possible to give instruction in   
elementary physiology in such a manner  
as1 not only to confer knowledge1 which1
 for the reason ,i have mentioned1 is   
useful in itself2 but to serve the      
purposes of a training in accurate      
observation1 and in the methods of      
reasoning of physical science4 ,but that
 is an advantage which ,i mention only  
incidentally1 as the present ,conference
 does not deal with education in the    
ordinary sense of the word4  ,it will   
not be suspected that ,i wish to make   
physiologists of all the world4 ,it     
would be as reasonable to accuse an     
advocate of the three ,r's of a desire  
to make an orator1 an author1 and a     
mathematician of everybody4 ,a stumbling
 reader1 a pot-hook writer1 and an      
arithmetician who has not got beyond the
 rule of three1 is not a person of      

brilliant acquirements2 but the         
difference between such a member of     
society and one who can neither read1   
write1 nor cipher is almost             
inexpressible2 and no one nowadays      
doubts the value of instruction1 even if
 it goes no farther4  ,the saying that a
 little knowledge is a dangerous thing  
is1 to my mind1 a very dangerous adage4 
,if knowledge is real and genuine1 ,i do
 not believe that it is other than a    
very valuable possession1 however       
infinitesimal its quantity may be4      
,indeed1 if a little knowledge is       
dangerous1 where is the man who has so  
much as to be out of danger8  ,if       
,william ,harvey's life-long labours had
 revealed to him a tenth part of that   
which may be made sound and real        
knowledge to our boys and girls1 he     
would not only have been what he was1   
the greatest physiologist of his age1   
but he would have loomed upon the       
seventeenth century as a sort of        
intellectual portent4 ,our little       

knowledge would have been to him a      
great1 astounding1 unlooked-for vision  
of scientific truth4  ,i really see no  
harm which can come of giving our       
children a little knowledge of          
physiology4 ,but then1 as ,i have said1 
the instruction must be real1 based upon
 observation1 eked out by good          
explanatory diagrams and models1 and    
conveyed by a teacher whose own         
knowledge has been acquired by a study  
of the facts2 and not the mere          
catechismal parrot-work which too often 
usurps the place of elementary teaching4
  ,it is1 ,i hope1 unnecessary for me to
 give a formal contradiction to the     
silly fiction1 which is assiduously     
circulated by fanatics who not only     
ought to know1 but do know1 that their  
assertions are untrue1 that ,i have     
advocated the introduction of that      
experimental discipline which is        
absolutely indispensable to the         
professed physiologist1 into elementary 
teaching4  ,but while ,i should object  

to any experimentation which can justly 
be called painful1 for the purpose of   
elementary instruction2 and1 while1 as a
 member of a late ,royal ,commission1 ,i
 gladly did my best to prevent the      
infliction of needless pain1 for any    
purpose2 ,i think it is my duty to take 
this opportunity of expressing my regret
 at a condition of the law which permits
 a boy to troll for pike1 or set lines  
with live frog bait1 for idle amusement2
 and1 at the same time1 lays the teacher
 of that boy open to the penalty of fine
 and imprisonment1 if he uses the same  
animal for the purpose of exhibiting one
 of the most beautiful and instructive  
of physiological spectacles1 the        
circulation in the web of the foot4 ,no 
one could undertake to affirm that a    
frog is not inconvenienced by being     
wrapped up in a wet rag1 and having his 
toes tied out2 and it cannot be denied  
that inconvenience is a sort of pain4   
,but you must not inflict the least pain
 on a vertebrated animal for scientific 

purposes 7though you may do a good deal 
in that way for gain or for sport7      
without due licence of the ,secretary of
 ,state for the ,home ,department1      
granted under the authority of the      
,vivisection ,act4  ,so it comes about1 
that1 in this present year of grace     
#ahgg1 two persons may be charged with  
cruelty to animals4 ,one has impaled a  
frog1 and suffered the creature to      
writhe about in that condition for      
hours2 the other has pained the animal  
no more than one of us would be pained  
by tying strings round his fingers1 and 
keeping him in the position of a        
hydropathic patient4 ,the first offender
 says ,i did it because ,i find fishing 
very amusing1 and the magistrate bids   
him depart in peace2 nay1 probably      
wishes him good sport4 ,the second      
pleads1 ,i wanted to impress a          
scientific truth1 with a distinctness   
attainable in no other way1 on the minds
 of my scholars1 and the magistrate     
fines him five pounds4  ,i cannot but   

think that this is an anomalous and not 
wholly creditable state of things4      
,,xii  ,,on ,,medical ,,education  #ahgj
   ,it has given me sincere pleasure to 
be here today1 at the desire of your    
highly respected ,president and the     
,council of the ,college4 ,in looking   
back upon my own past1 ,i am sorry to   
say that ,i have found that it is a     
quarter of a century since ,i took part 
in those hopes and in those fears by    
which you have all recently been        
agitated1 and which now are at an end4  
,but1 although so long a time has       
elapsed since ,i was moved by the same  
feelings1 ,i beg leave to assure you    
that my sympathy with both victors and  
vanquished remains fresh--so fresh1     
indeed1 that ,i could almost try to     
persuade myself that1 after all1 it     
cannot be so very long ago4 ,my business
 during the last hour1 however1 has been
 to show that sympathy with one side    
only1 and ,i assure you ,i have done my 
best to play my part heartily1 and to   

rejoice in the success of those who have
 succeeded4 ,still1 ,i should like to   
remind you at the end of it all1 that   
success on an occasion of this kind1    
valuable and important as it is1 is in  
reality only putting the foot upon one  
rung of the ladder which leads upwards2 
and that the rung of a ladder was never 
meant to rest upon1 but only to hold a  
man's foot long enough to enable him to 
put the other somewhat higher4 ,i trust 
that you will all regard these successes
 as simply reminders that your next     
business is1 having enjoyed the success 
of the day1 no longer to look at that   
success1 but to look forward to the next
 difficulty that is to be conquered4    
,and now1 having had so much to say to  
the successful candidates1 you must     
forgive me if ,i add that a sort of     
under-current of sympathy has been going
 on in my mind all the time for those   
who have not been successful1 for those 
valiant knights who have been overthrown
 in your tourney1 and have not made     

their appearance in public4 ,i trust    
that1 in accordance with old custom1    
they1 wounded and bleeding1 have been   
carried off to their tents1 to be       
carefully tended by the fairest of      
maidens2 and in these days1 when the    
chances are that every one of such      
maidens will be a qualified             
practitioner1 ,i have no doubt that all 
the splinters will have been carefully  
extracted1 and that they are now        
physically healed4 ,but there may remain
 some little fragment of moral or       
intellectual discouragement1 and        
therefore ,i will take the liberty to   
remark that your chairman to-day1 if he 
occupied his proper place1 would be     
among them4 ,your chairman1 in virtue of
 his position1 and for the brief hour   
that he occupies that position1 is a    
person of importance2 and it may be some
 consolation to those who have failed if
 ,i say1 that the quarter of a century  
which ,i have been speaking of1 takes me
 back to the time when ,i was up at the 

,university of ,london1 a candidate for 
honours in anatomy and physiology1 and  
when ,i was exceedingly well beaten by  
my excellent friend1 ,dr4 ,ransom1 of   
,nottingham4 ,there is a person here who
 recollects that circumstance very well4
 ,i refer to your venerated teacher and 
mine1 ,dr4 ,sharpey4 ,he was at that    
time one of the examiners in anatomy and
 physiology1 and you may be quite sure  
that1 as he was one of the examiners1   
there remained not the smallest doubt in
 my mind of the propriety of his        
judgment1 and ,i accepted my defeat with
 the most comfortable assurance that ,i 
had thoroughly well earned it4 ,but1    
gentlemen1 the competitor having been a 
worthy one1 and the examination a fair  
one1 ,i cannot say that ,i found in that
 circumstance anything very             
discouraging4 ,i said to myself1 ,never 
mind2 what's the next thing to be done8 
,and ,i found that policy of never      
minding and going on to the next thing  
to be done1 to be the most important of 

all policies in the conduct of practical
 life4 ,it does not matter how many     
tumbles you have in this life1 so long  
as you do not get dirty when you tumble2
 it is only the people who have to stop 
to be washed and made clean1 who must   
necessarily lose the race4 ,and ,i can  
assure you that there is the greatest   
practical benefit in making a few       
failures early in life4 ,you learn that 
which is of inestimable importance--that
 there are a great many people in the   
world who are just as clever as you are4
 ,you learn to put your trust1 by and   
by1 in an economy and frugality of the  
exercise of your powers1 both moral and 
intellectual2 and you very soon find    
out1 if you have not found it out       
before1 that patience and tenacity of   
purpose are worth more than twice their 
weight of cleverness4 ,in fact1 if ,i   
were to go on discoursing on this       
subject1 ,i should become almost        
eloquent in praise of non-success2 but1 
lest so doing should seem1 in any way1  

to wither well-earned laurels1 ,i will  
turn from that topic1 and ask you to    
accompany me in some considerations     
touching another subject which has a    
very profound interest for me1 and which
 ,i think ought to have an equally      
profound interest for you4  ,i presume  
that the great majority of those whom ,i
 address propose to devote themselves to
 the profession of medicine2 and ,i do  
not doubt1 from the evidences of ability
 which have been given to-day1 that ,i  
have before me a number of men who will 
rise to eminence in that profession1 and
 who will exert a great and deserved    
influence upon its future4 ,that in     
which ,i am interested1 and about which 
,i wish to speak1 is the subject of     
medical education1 and ,i venture to    
speak about it for the purpose1 if ,i   
can1 of influencing you1 who may have   
the power of influencing the medical    
education of the future4 ,you may ask1  
by what authority do ,i venture1 being a
 person not concerned in the practice of

 medicine1 to meddle with that subject8 
,i can only tell you it is a fact1 of   
which a number of you ,i dare say are   
aware by experience 7and ,i trust the   
experience has no painful associations71
 that ,i have been for a considerable   
number of years 7twelve or thirteen     
years to the best of my recollection7   
one of the examiners in the ,university 
of ,london4 ,you are further aware that 
the men who come up to the ,university  
of ,london are the picked men of the    
medical schools of ,london1 and         
therefore such observations as ,i may   
have to make upon the state of knowledge
 of these gentlemen1 if they be         
justified1 in regard to any faults ,i   
may have to find1 cannot be held to     
indicate defects in the capacity1 or in 
the power of application of those       
gentlemen1 but must be laid1 more or    
less1 to the account of the prevalent   
system of medical education4 ,i will    
tell you what has struck me--but in     
speaking in this frank way1 as one      

always does about the defects of one's  
friends1 ,i must beg you to disabuse    
your minds of the notion that ,i am     
alluding to any particular school1 or to
 any particular college1 or to any      
particular person2 and to believe that  
if ,i am silent when ,i should be glad  
to speak with high praise1 it is because
 that praise would come too close to    
this locality4 ,what has struck me1     
then1 in this long experience of the men
 best instructed in physiology from the 
medical schools of ,london is 7with the 
many and brilliant exceptions to which  
,i have referred71 taking it as a whole1
 and broadly1 the singular unreality of 
their knowledge of physiology4 ,now1 ,i 
use that word unreality advisedly4 ,i do
 not say scanty2 on the contrary1 there 
is plenty of it--a great deal too much  
of it--but it is the quality1 the nature
 of the knowledge1 which ,i quarrel     
with4 ,i know ,i used to have--,i don't 
know whether ,i have now1 but ,i had    
once upon a time--a bad reputation among

 students for setting up a very high    
standard of acquirement1 and ,i dare say
 you may think that the standard of this
 old examiner1 who happily is now very  
nearly an extinct examiner1 has been    
pitched too high4 ,nothing of the kind1 
,i assure you4 ,the defects ,i have     
noticed1 and the faults ,i have to find1
 arise entirely from the circumstance   
that my standard is pitched too low4    
,this is no paradox1 gentlemen1 but     
quite simply the fact4 ,the knowledge ,i
 have looked for was a real1 precise1   
thorough1 and practical knowledge of    
fundamentals2 whereas that which the    
best of the candidates1 in a large      
proportion of cases1 have had to give me
 was a large1 extensive1 and inaccurate 
knowledge of superstructure2 and that is
 what ,i mean by saying that my demands 
went too low and not too high4 ,what ,i 
have had to complain of is1 that a large
 proportion of the gentlemen who come up
 for physiology to the ,university of   
,london do not know it as they know     

their anatomy1 and have not been taught 
it as they have been taught their       
anatomy4 ,now1 ,i should not wonder at  
all if ,i heard a great many ,no1 noes  
here2 but ,i am not talking about       
,university ,college2 as ,i have told   
you before1 ,i am talking about the     
average education of medical schools4   
,what ,i have found1 and found so much  
reason to lament1 is1 that while anatomy
 has been taught as a science ought to  
be taught1 as a matter of autopsy1 and  
observation1 and strict discipline2 in a
 very large number of cases1 physiology 
has been taught as if it were a mere    
matter of books and of hearsay4 ,i      
declare to you1 gentlemen1 that ,i have 
often expected to be told1 when ,i have 
asked a question about the circulation  
of the blood1 that ,professor ,breitkopf
 is of opinion that it circulates1 but  
that the whole thing is an open         
question4 ,i assure you that ,i am      
hardly exaggerating the state of mind on
 matters of fundamental importance which

 ,i have found over and over again to   
obtain among gentlemen coming up to that
 picked examination of the ,university  
of ,london4 ,now1 ,i do not think that  
is a desirable state of things4 ,i      
cannot understand why physiology should 
not be taught--in fact1 you have here   
abundant evidence that it can be        
taught--with the same definiteness and  
the same precision as anatomy is taught4
 ,and you may depend upon this1 that the
 only physiology which is to be of any  
good whatever in medical practice1 or in
 its application to the study of        
medicine1 is that physiology which a man
 knows of his own knowledge2 just as the
 only anatomy which would be of any good
 to the surgeon is the anatomy which he 
knows of his own knowledge4 ,another    
peculiarity ,i have found in the        
physiology which has been current1 and  
that is1 that in the minds of a great   
many gentlemen it has been supplanted by
 histology4 ,they have learnt a great   
deal of histology1 and they have fancied

 that histology and physiology are the  
same things4 ,i have asked for some     
knowledge of the physics and the        
mechanics and the chemistry of the human
 body1 and ,i have been met by talk     
about cells4 ,i declare to you ,i       
believe it will take me two years1 at   
least1 of absolute rest from the        
business of an examiner to hear the word
 cell1 germinal matter1 or carmine1     
without a sort of inward shudder4       
,well1 now1 gentlemen1 ,i am sure my    
colleagues in this examination will bear
 me out in saying that ,i have not been 
exaggerating the evils and defects which
 are current--have been current--in a   
large quantity of the physiological     
teaching the results of which come      
before examiners4 ,and it becomes a very
 interesting question to know how all   
this comes about1 and in what way it can
 be remedied4 ,how it comes about will  
be perfectly obvious to any one who has 
considered the growth of medicine4 ,i   
suppose that medicine and surgery first 

began by some savage more intelligent   
than the rest1 discovering that a       
certain herb was good for a certain     
pain1 and that a certain pull1 somehow  
or other1 set a dislocated joint right4 
,i suppose all things had their humble  
beginnings1 and medicine and surgery    
were in the same condition4 ,people who 
wear watches know nothing about         
watchmaking4 ,a watch goes wrong and it 
stops2 you see the owner giving it a    
shake1 or1 if he is very bold1 he opens 
the case1 and gives the balance-wheel a 
push4 ,gentlemen1 that is empirical     
practice1 and you know what are the     
results upon the watch4 ,i should think 
you can divine what are the results of  
analogous operations upon the human     
body4 ,and because men of sense very    
soon found that such were the effects of
 meddling with very complicated         
machinery they did not understand1 ,i   
suppose the first thing1 as being the   
easiest1 was to study the nature of the 
works of the human watch1 and the next  

thing was to study the way the parts    
worked together1 and the way the watch  
worked4 ,thus1 by degrees1 we have had  
growing up our body of anatomists1 or   
knowers of the construction of the human
 watch1 and our physiologists1 who know 
how the machine works4 ,and just as any 
sensible man1 who has a valuable watch1 
does not meddle with it himself1 but    
goes to some one who has studied        
watchmaking1 and understands what the   
effect of doing this or that may be2 so1
 ,i suppose1 the man who1 having charge 
of that valuable machine1 his own body1 
wants to have it kept in good order1    
comes to a professor of the medical art 
for the purpose of having it set right1 
believing that1 by deduction from the   
facts of structure and from the facts of
 function1 the physician will divine    
what may be the matter with his bodily  
watch at that particular time1 and what 
may be the best means of setting it     
right4 ,if that may be taken as a just  
representation of the relation of the   

theoretical branches of medicine--what  
we may call the institutes of medicine1 
to use an old term--to the practical    
branches1 ,i think it will be obvious to
 you that they are of prime and         
fundamental importance4 ,whatever tends 
to affect the teaching of them          
injuriously must tend to destroy and to 
disorganise the whole fabric of the     
medical art4 ,i think every sensible man
 has seen this long ago2 but the        
difficulties in the way of attaining    
good teaching in the different branches 
of the theory1 or institutes1 of        
medicine are very serious4 ,it is a     
comparatively easy matter--pray mark    
that ,i use the word comparatively --it 
is a comparatively easy matter to learn 
anatomy and to teach it2 it is a very   
difficult matter to learn physiology and
 to teach it4 ,it is a very difficult   
matter to know and to teach those       
branches of physics and those branches  
of chemistry which bear directly upon   
physiology2 and hence it is that1 as a  

matter of fact1 the teaching of         
physiology1 and the teaching of the     
physics and the chemistry which bear    
upon it1 must necessarily be in a state 
of relative imperfection2 and there is  
nothing to be grumbled at in the fact   
that this relative imperfection exists4 
,but is the relative imperfection which 
exists only such as is necessary1 or is 
it made worse by our practical          
arrangements8 ,i believe--and if ,i did 
not so believe ,i should not have       
troubled you with these observations--,i
 believe it is made infinitely worse by 
our practical arrangements1 or rather1  
,i ought to say1 our very unpractical   
arrangements4 ,some very wise man long  
ago affirmed that every question1 in the
 long run1 was a question of finance2   
and there is a good deal to be said for 
that view4 ,most assuredly the question 
of medical teaching is1 in a very large 
and broad sense1 a question of finance4 
,what ,i mean is this3 that in ,london  
the arrangements of the medical schools1

 and the number of them1 are such as to 
render it almost impossible that men who
 confine themselves to the teaching of  
the theoretical branches of the         
profession should be able to make their 
bread by that operation2 and1 you know1 
if a man cannot make his bread he cannot
 teach--at least his teaching comes to a
 speedy end4 ,that is a matter of       
physiology4 ,anatomy is fairly well     
taught1 because it lies in the direction
 of practice1 and a man is all the      
better surgeon for being a good         
anatomist4 ,it does not absolutely      
interfere with the pursuits of a        
practical surgeon if he should hold a   
,chair of ,anatomy--though ,i do not for
 one moment say that he would not be a  
better teacher if he did not devote     
himself to practice4 7,applause47 ,yes1 
,i know exactly what that cheer means1  
but ,i am keeping as carefully as       
possible from any sort of allusion to   
,professor ,ellis4 ,but the fact is1    
that even human anatomy has now grown to

 be so large a matter1 that it takes the
 whole devotion of a man's life to put  
the great mass of knowledge upon that   
subject into such a shape that it can be
 teachable to the mind of the ordinary  
student4 ,what the student wants in a   
professor is a man who shall stand      
between him and the infinite diversity  
and variety of human knowledge1 and who 
shall gather all that together1 and     
extract from it that which is capable of
 being assimilated by the mind4 ,that   
function is a vast and an important one1
 and unless1 in such subjects as        
anatomy1 a man is wholly free from other
 cares1 it is almost impossible that he 
can perform it thoroughly and well4 ,but
 if it be hardly possible for a man to  
pursue anatomy without actually breaking
 with his profession1 how is it possible
 for him to pursue physiology8  ,i get  
every year those very elaborate reports 
of ,henle and ,meissner--volumes of1 ,i 
suppose1 #djj pages altogether--and they
 consist merely of abstracts of the     

memoirs and works which have been       
written on ,anatomy and                 
,physiology--only abstracts of them6    
,how is a man to keep up his            
acquaintance with all that is doing in  
the physiological world--in a world     
advancing with enormous strides every   
day and every hour--if he has to be     
distracted with the cares of practice8  
,you know very well it must be          
impracticable to do so4 ,our men of     
ability join our medical schools with an
 eye to the future4 ,they take the      
,chairs of ,anatomy or of ,physiology2  
and by and by they leave those ,chairs  
for the more profitable pursuits into   
which they have drifted by professional 
success1 and so they become clothed1 and
 physiology is bare4 ,the result is1    
that in those schools in which          
physiology is thus left to the          
benevolence1 so to speak1 of those who  
have no time to look to it1 the effect  
of such teaching comes out obviously1   
and is made manifest in what ,i spoke of

 just now--the unreality1 the           
bookishness of the knowledge of the     
taught4 ,and if this is the case in     
physiology1 still more must it be the   
case in those branches of physics which 
are the foundation of physiology2       
although it may be less the case in     
chemistry1 because for an able chemist a
 certain honourable and independent     
career lies in the direction of his     
work1 and he is able1 like the          
anatomist1 to look upon what he may     
teach to the student as not absolutely  
taking him away from his bread-winning  
pursuits4  ,but it is of no use to      
grumble about this state of things      
unless one is prepared to indicate some 
sort of practical remedy4 ,and ,i       
believe--and ,i venture to make the     
statement because ,i am wholly          
independent of all sorts of medical     
schools1 and may1 therefore1 say what ,i
 believe without being supposed to be   
affected by any personal interest--but  
,i say ,i believe that the remedy for   

this state of things1 for that          
imperfection of our theoretical         
knowledge which keeps down the ability  
of ,england at the present time in      
medical matters1 is a mere affair of    
mechanical arrangement2 that so long as 
you have a dozen medical schools        
scattered about in different parts of   
the metropolis1 and dividing the        
students among them1 so long1 in all the
 smaller schools at any rate1 it is     
impossible that any other state of      
things than that which ,i have been     
depicting should obtain4 ,professors    
must live2 to live they must occupy     
themselves with practice1 and if they   
occupy themselves with practice1 the    
pursuit of the abstract branches of     
science must go to the wall4 ,all this  
is a plain and obvious matter of        
common-sense reasoning4 ,i believe you  
will never alter this state of things   
until1 either by consent or by force    
majeure--and ,i should be very sorry to 
see the latter applied--but until there 

is some new arrangement1 and until all  
the theoretical branches of the         
profession1 the institutes of medicine1 
are taught in ,london in not more than  
one or two1 or at the outside three1    
central institutions1 no good will be   
effected4 ,if that large body of men1   
the medical students of ,london1 were   
obliged in the first place to get a     
knowledge of the theoretical branches of
 their profession in two or three       
central schools1 there would be abundant
 means for maintaining able             
professors--not1 indeed1 for enriching  
them1 as they would be able to enrich   
themselves by practice--but for enabling
 them to make that choice which such men
 are so willing to make2 namely1 the    
choice between wealth and a modest      
competency1 when that modest competency 
is to be combined with a scientific     
career1 and the means of advancing      
knowledge4 ,i do not believe that all   
the talking about1 and tinkering of1    
medical education will do the slightest 

good until the fact is clearly          
recognised1 that men must be thoroughly 
grounded in the theoretical branches of 
their profession1 and that to this end  
the teaching of those theoretical       
branches must be confined to two or     
three centres4  ,now let me add one     
other word1 and that is1 that if ,i were
 a despot1 ,i would cut down these      
branches to a very considerable extent4 
,the next thing to be done beyond that  
which ,i mentioned just now1 is to go   
back to primary education4 ,the great   
step towards a thorough medical         
education is to insist upon the teaching
 of the elements of the physical        
sciences in all schools1 so that medical
 students shall not go up to the medical
 colleges utterly ignorant of that with 
which they have to deal2 to insist on   
the elements of chemistry1 the elements 
of botany1 and the elements of physics  
being taught in our ordinary and common 
schools1 so that there shall be some    
preparation for the discipline of       

medical colleges4 ,and1 if this reform  
were once effected1 you might confine   
the ,institutes of ,medicine to physics 
as applied to physiology--to chemistry  
as applied to physiology--to physiology 
itself1 and to anatomy4 ,afterwards1 the
 student1 thoroughly grounded in these  
matters1 might go to any hospital he    
pleased for the purpose of studying the 
practical branches of his profession4   
,the practical teaching might be made as
 local as you like2 and you might use to
 advantage the opportunities afforded by
 all these local institutions for       
acquiring a knowledge of the practice of
 the profession4 ,but you may say3 ,this
 is abolishing a great deal2 you are    
getting rid of botany and zoology to    
begin with4 ,i have not a doubt that    
they ought to be got rid of1 as branches
 of special medical education2 they     
ought to be put back to an earlier      
stage1 and made branches of general     
education4 ,let me say1 by way of       
self-denying ordinance1 for which you   

will1 ,i am sure1 give me credit1 that  
,i believe that comparative anatomy     
ought to be absolutely abolished4 ,i say
 so1 not without a certain fear of the  
,vice-,chancellor of the ,university of 
,london who sits upon my left4 ,but ,i  
do not think the charter gives him very 
much power over me2 moreover1 ,i shall  
soon come to an end of my examinership1 
and therefore ,i am not afraid1 but     
shall go on to say what ,i was going to 
say1 and that is1 that in my belief it  
is a downright cruelty--,i have no other
 word for it--to require from gentlemen 
who are engaged in medical studies1 the 
pretence--for it is nothing else1 and   
can be nothing else1 than a pretence--of
 a knowledge of comparative anatomy as  
part of their medical curriculum4 ,make 
it part of their ,arts teaching if you  
like1 make it part of their general     
education if you like1 make it part of  
their qualification for the scientific  
degree by all means--that is its proper 
place2 but to require that gentlemen    

whose whole faculties should be bent    
upon the acquirement of a real knowledge
 of human physiology should worry       
themselves with getting up hearsay about
 the alternation of generations in the  
,salpae is really monstrous4 ,i cannot  
characterise it in any other way4 ,and  
having sacrificed my own pursuit1 ,i am 
sure ,i may sacrifice other people's2   
and ,i make this remark with all the    
more willingness because ,i discovered1 
on reading the names of your ,professors
 just now1 that the ,professor of       
,materia ,medica is not present4 ,i must
 confess1 if ,i had my way ,i should    
abolish ,materia ,medica #a altogether4 
,i recollect1 when ,i was first under   
examination at the ,university of       
,london1 ,dr4 ,pereira was the examiner1
 and you know that ,pereira's ,materia  
,medica was a book de omnibus rebus4 ,i 
recollect my struggles with that book   
late at night and early in the morning  
7,i worked very hard in those days71 and
 ,i do believe that ,i got that book    

into my head somehow or other1 but then 
,i will undertake to say that ,i forgot 
it all a week afterwards4 ,not one trace
 of a knowledge of drugs has remained in
 my memory from that time to this2 and  
really1 as a matter of common sense1 ,i 
cannot understand the arguments for     
obliging a medical man to know all about
 drugs and where they come from4 ,why   
not make him belong to the ,iron and    
,steel ,institute1 and learn something  
about cutlery1 because he uses knives8  
,but do not suppose that1 after all     
these deductions1 there would not be    
ample room for your activity4 ,let us   
count up what we have left4 ,i suppose  
all the time for medical education that 
can be hoped for is1 at the outside1    
about four years4 ,well1 what have you  
to master in those four years upon my   
supposition8 ,physics applied to        
physiology2 chemistry applied to        
physiology2 physiology2 anatomy2        
surgery2 medicine 7including            
therapeutics72 obstetrics2 hygiene2 and 

medical jurisprudence--nine subjects for
 four years6 ,and when you consider what
 those subjects are1 and that the       
acquisition of anything beyond the      
rudiments of any one of them may tax the
 energies of a lifetime1 ,i think that  
even those energies which you young     
gentlemen have been displaying for the  
last hour or two might be taxed to keep 
you thoroughly up to what is wanted for 
your medical career4  ,i entertain a    
very strong conviction that any one who 
adds to medical education one iota or   
tittle beyond what is absolutely        
necessary1 is guilty of a very grave    
offence4 ,gentlemen1 it will depend upon
 the knowledge that you happen to       
possess1--upon your means of applying it
 within your own field of               
action1--whether the bills of mortality 
of your district are increased or       
diminished2 and that1 gentlemen1 is a   
very serious consideration indeed4 ,and1
 under those circumstances1 the subjects
 with which you have to deal being so   

difficult1 their extent so enormous1 and
 the time at your disposal so limited1  
,i could not feel my conscience easy if 
,i did not1 on such an occasion as this1
 raise a protest against employing your 
energies upon the acquisition of any    
knowledge which may not be absolutely   
needed in your future career4           
99       99       99       99       99  
#a ,it will1 ,i hope1 be understood that
 ,i do not include ,therapeutics under  
this head4     ,,xiii  ,,the ,,state    
,,and ,,the ,,medical ,,profession      
#ahhd   ,at intervals during the last   
quarter of a century committees of the  
,houses of the ,legislature and         
specially appointed commissions have    
occupied themselves with the affairs of 
the medical profession4 ,much evidence  
has been taken1 much wrangling has gone 
on over the reports of these bodies2 and
 sometimes much trouble has been taken  
to get measures based upon all this work
 through ,parliament1 but very little   
has been achieved4  ,the ,bill          

introduced last session was not more    
fortunate than several predecessors4 ,i 
suppose that it is not right to rejoice 
in the misfortunes of anything1 even a  
,bill2 but ,i confess that this event   
afforded me lively satisfaction1 for ,i 
was a member of the ,royal ,commission  
on the report of which the ,bill was    
founded1 and ,i did my best to oppose   
and nullify that report4  ,that the     
question must be taken up again and     
finally dealt with by the ,legislature  
before long cannot be doubted2 but in   
the meanwhile there is time for         
reflection1 and ,i think that the       
non-medical public would be wise if they
 paid a little attention to a subject   
which is really of considerable         
importance to them4  ,the first question
 which a plain man is disposed to ask   
himself is1 ,why should the ,state      
interfere with the profession of        
medicine any more than it does1 say1    
with the profession of engineering8     
,anybody who pleases may call himself an

 engineer1 and may practice as such4    
,the ,state confers no title upon       
engineers1 and does not profess to tell 
the public that one man is a qualified  
engineer and that another is not so4    
,the answers which are given to the     
question are various1 and most of them1 
,i think1 are bad4 ,a large number of   
persons seem to be of opinion that the  
,state is bound no less to take care of 
the general public1 than to see that it 
is protected against incompetent        
persons1 against quacks and medical     
impostors in general4 ,i do not take    
that view of the case4 ,i think it is   
very much wholesomer for the public to  
take care of itself in this as in all   
other matters2 and although ,i am not   
such a fanatic for the liberty of the   
subject as to plead that interfering    
with the way in which a man may choose  
to be killed is a violation of that     
liberty1 yet ,i do think that it is far 
better to let everybody do as he likes4 
,whether that be so or not1 ,i am       

perfectly certain that1 as a matter of  
practice1 it is absolutely impossible to
 prohibit the practice of medicine by   
people who have no special qualification
 for it4 ,consider the terrible         
consequences of attempting to prohibit  
practice by a very large class of       
persons who are certainly not           
technically qualified--,i am far from   
saying a word as to whether they are    
otherwise qualified or not4 ,the number 
of ,ladies ,bountiful--grandmothers1    
aunts1 and mothers-in-law--whose chief  
delight lies in the administration of   
their cherished provision of domestic   
medicine1 is past computation1 and one  
shudders to think of what might happen  
if their energies were turned from this 
innocuous1 if not beneficent channel1 by
 the strong arm of the law4 ,but the    
thing is impracticable4  ,another reason
 for intervention is propounded1 ,i am  
sorry to say1 by some1 though not many1 
members of the medical profession1 and  
is simply an expression of that trades  

unionism which tends to infest          
professions no less than trades4  ,the  
general practitioner trying to make both
 ends meet on a poor practice1 whose    
medical training has cost him a good    
deal of time and money1 finds that many 
potential patients1 whose small fees    
would be welcome as the little that     
helps1 prefer to go and get their       
shilling's worth of doctor's stuff and  
advice from the chemist and druggist    
round the corner1 who has not paid      
sixpence for his medical training1      
because he has never had any4  ,the     
general practitioner thinks this is very
 hard upon him and ought to be stopped4 
,it is perhaps natural that he should   
think so1 though it would be very       
difficult for him to justify his opinion
 on any ground of public policy4 ,but   
the question is really not worth        
discussion1 as it is obvious that it    
would be utterly impracticable to stop  
the practice over the counter even it it
 were desirable4  ,is a man who has a   

sudden attack of pain in tooth or       
stomach not to be permitted to go to the
 nearest druggist's shop and ask for    
something that will relieve him8 ,the   
notion is preposterous4 ,but if this is 
to be legal1 the whole principle of the 
permissibility of counter practice is   
granted4  ,in my judgment the           
intervention of the ,state in the       
affairs of the medical profession can be
 justified not upon any pretence of     
protecting the public1 and still less   
upon that of protecting the medical     
profession1 but simply and solely upon  
the fact that the ,state employs medical
 men for certain purposes1 and1 as      
employer1 has a right to define the     
conditions on which it will accept      
service4 ,it is for the interest of the 
community that no person shall die      
without there being some official       
recognition of the cause of his death4  
,it is a matter of the highest          
importance to the community that1 in    
civil and criminal cases1 the law shall 

be able to have recourse to persons     
whose evidence may be taken as that of  
experts2 and it will not be doubted that
 the ,state has a right to dictate the  
conditions under which it will appoint  
persons to the vast number of naval1    
military1 and civil medical offices held
 directly or indirectly under the       
,government4 ,here1 and here only1 it   
appears to me1 lies the justification   
for the intervention of the ,state in   
medical affairs4 ,it says1 or1 in my    
judgment1 should say1 to the public1    
,practice medicine if you like--go to be
 practised upon by anybody2 and to the  
medical practitioner1 ,have a           
qualification1 or do not have a         
qualification if people don't mind it2  
but if the ,state is to receive your    
certificate of death1 if the ,state is  
to take your evidence as that of an     
expert1 if the ,state is to give you any
 kind of civil1 or military1 or naval   
appointment1 then we can call upon you  
to comply with our conditions1 and to   

produce evidence that you are1 in our   
sense of the word1 qualified4 ,without  
that we will not place you in that      
position4 ,as a matter of fact1 that is 
the relation of the ,state to the       
medical profession in this country4 ,for
 my part1 ,i think it an extremely      
healthy relation2 and it is one that ,i 
should be very sorry to see altered1    
except in so far that it would certainly
 be better if greater facilities were   
given for the swift and sharp punishment
 of those who profess to have the ,state
 qualification when1 in point of fact1  
they do not possess it4 ,they are simply
 cheats and swindlers1 like other people
 who profess to be what they are not1   
and should be punished as such4  ,but   
supposing we are agreed about the       
justification of ,state intervention in 
medical affairs1 new questions arise as 
to the manner in which that intervention
 should take place and the extent to    
which it should go1 on which the        
divergence of opinion is even greater   

than it is on the general question of   
intervention4  ,it is now1 ,i am sorry  
to say1 something over forty years since
 ,i began my medical studies2 and1 at   
that time1 the state of affairs was     
extremely singular4 ,i should think it  
hardly possible that it could have      
obtained anywhere but in such a country 
as ,england1 which cherishes a fine old 
crusted abuse as much as it does its    
port wine4 ,at that time there were     
twenty-one licensing bodies--that is to 
say1 bodies whose certificate was       
received by the ,state as evidence that 
the persons who possessed that          
certificate were medical experts4 ,how  
these bodies came to possess these      
powers is a very curious chapter in     
history1 in which it would be out of    
place to enlarge4 ,they were partly     
universities1 partly medical guilds and 
corporations1 partly the ,archbishop of 
,canterbury4 ,those were the three      
sources from which the licence to       
practice came in that day4 ,there was no

 central authority1 there was nothing to
 prevent any one of those licensing     
authorities from granting a licence to  
any one upon any conditions it thought  
fit4 ,the examination might be a sham1  
the curriculum might be a sham1 the     
certificate might be bought and sold    
like anything in a shop2 or1 on the     
other hand1 the examination might be    
fairly good and the diploma             
correspondingly valuable2 but there was 
not the smallest guarantee1 except the  
personal character of the people who    
composed the administration of each of  
these licensing bodies1 as to what might
 happen4 ,it was possible for a young   
man to come to ,london and to spend two 
years and six months of the time of his 
compulsory three years walking the      
hospitals in idleness or worse2 he could
 then1 by putting himself in the hands  
of a judicious grinder for the remaining
 six months1 pass triumphantly through  
the ordeal of one hour's viv voce       
examination1 which was all that was     

absolutely necessary1 to enable him to  
be turned loose upon the public1 like   
death on the pale horse1 conquering and 
to conquer1 with the full sanction of   
the law1 as a qualified practitioner4   
,it is difficult to imagine1 at present1
 such a state of things1 still more     
difficult to depict the consequences of 
it1 because they would appear like a    
gross and malignant caricature2 but it  
may be said that there was never a      
system1 or want of system1 which was    
better calculated to ruin the students  
who came under it1 or to degrade the    
profession as a whole4 ,my memory goes  
back to a time when models from whom the
 ,bob ,sawyer of the ,pickwick ,papers  
might have been drawn were anything but 
rare4  ,shortly before my student days1 
however1 the dawn of a better state of  
things in ,england began to be visible1 
in consequence of the establishment of  
the ,university of ,london1 and the     
comparatively very high standard which  
it placed before its medical graduates4 

,i say comparatively high standard1 for 
the requirements of the ,university in  
those days1 and even during the twelve  
years at a later period1 when ,i was one
 of the examiners of the medical        
faculty1 were such as would not now be  
thought more than respectable1 and      
indeed were in many respects very       
imperfect4 ,but1 relatively to the means
 of learning1 the standard was high1 and
 none but the more able and ambitious of
 the students dreamed of passing the    
,university4 ,nevertheless1 the fact    
that many men of this stamp did succeed 
in obtaining their degrees1 led others  
to follow in their steps1 and slowly but
 surely reacted upon the standard of    
teaching in the better medical schools4 
,then came the ,medical ,act of #aheh4  
,that ,act introduced two immense       
improvements3 one of them was the       
institution of what is called the       
,medical ,register1 upon which the names
 of all persons recognised by the ,state
 as medical practitioners are entered3  

and the other was the establishment of  
the ,medical ,council1 which is a kind  
of ,medical ,parliament1 composed of    
representatives of the licensing bodies 
and of leading men in the medical       
profession nominated by the ,crown4 ,the
 powers given by the ,legislature to the
 ,medical ,council were found           
practically to be very limited1 but ,i  
think that no fair observer of the work 
will doubt that this much attacked body 
has excited no small influence in       
bringing about the great change for the 
better1 which has been effected in the  
training of men for the medical         
profession within my recollection4      
,another source of improvement must be  
recognised in the ,scottish             
,universities1 and especially in the    
medical faculty of the ,university of   
,edinburgh4 ,the medical education and  
examinations of this body were for many 
years the best of their kind in these   
islands1 and ,i doubt if1 at the present
 moment1 the three kingdoms can show a  

better school of medicine than that of  
,edinburgh4 ,the vast number of medical 
students at that ,university is         
sufficient evidence of the opinion of   
those most interested in this subject4  
,owing to all those influences1 and to  
the revolution which has taken place in 
the course of the last twenty years in  
our conceptions of the proper method of 
teaching physical science1 the training 
of the medical student in a good school1
 and the examination test applied by the
 great majority of the present licensing
 bodies1 reduced now to nineteen1 in    
consequence of the retirement of the    
,archbishop and the fusion of two of the
 other licensing bodies1 are totally    
different from what they were even      
twenty years ago4  ,i was perfectly     
astonished1 upon one of my sons         
commencing his medical career the other 
day1 when ,i contrasted the             
carefully-watched courses of theoretical
 and practical instruction1 which he is 
expected to follow with regularity and  

industry1 and the number and nature of  
the examinations which he will have to  
pass before he can receive his licence1 
not only with the monstrous laxity of my
 own student days1 but even with the    
state of things which obtained when my  
term of office as examiner in the       
,university of ,london expired some     
sixteen years ago4  ,i have no          
hesitation in expressing the opinion1   
which is fully borne out by the evidence
 taken before the late ,royal           
,commission1 that a large proportion of 
the existing licensing bodies grant     
their licence on conditions which ensure
 quite as high a standard as it is      
practicable or advisable to exact under 
present circumstances1 and that they    
show every desire to keep pace with the 
improvements of the times4 ,and ,i think
 there can be no doubt that the great   
majority have so much improved their    
ways1 that their standard is far above  
that of the ordinary qualification      
thirty years ago1 and ,i cannot see what

 excuse there would be for meddling with
 them if it were not for two other      
defects which have to be remedied4      
,unfortunately there remain two or three
 black sheep--licensing bodies which    
simply trade upon their privilege1 and  
sell the cheapest wares they can for    
shame's sake supply to the bidder4      
,another defect in the existing system1 
even where the examination has been so  
greatly improved as to be good of its   
kind1 is that there are certain         
licensing bodies which give a           
qualification for an acquaintance with  
either medicine or surgery alone1 and   
which more or less ignore obstetrics4   
,this is a revival of the archaic       
condition of the profession when        
surgical operations were mostly left to 
the barbers and obstetrics to the       
mid-wives1 and when the physicians      
thought themselves1 and were considered 
by the world1 the superior persons of   
the profession4 ,i remember a story was 
current in my young days of a great     

court physician who was travelling with 
a friend1 like himself1 bound on a visit
 to a country house4 ,the friend fell   
down in an apoplectic fit1 and the      
physician refused to bleed him because  
it was contrary to professional         
etiquette for a physician to perform    
that operation4 ,whether the friend died
 or whether he got better because he was
 not bled ,i do not remember1 but the   
moral of the story is the same4 ,on the 
other hand1 a famous surgeon was asked  
whether he meant to bring up his son to 
his own calling1 ,no1 he said1 he is    
such a fool1 ,i mean to make a physician
 of him4  ,nowadays1 it is happily      
recognised that medicine is one and     
indivisible1 and that no one can        
properly practice one branch who is not 
familiar with at any rate the principles
 of all4 ,thus the two great things that
 are wanted now are1 in the first place1
 some means of enforcing such a degree  
of uniformity upon all the examining    
bodies that none should present a       

disgracefully low minimum or pass       
examination2 and the second point is    
that some body or other shall have the  
power of enforcing upon every candidate 
for the licence to practice the study of
 the three branches1 what is called the 
tripartite qualification4 ,all the      
members of the late commission were     
agreed that these were the main points  
to be attended to in any proposals for  
the further improvement of medical      
training and qualification4  ,but such  
being the ends in view1 our notions as  
to the best way of attaining them were  
singularly divergent2 so that it came   
about that eleven commissioners made    
seven reports4 ,there was one main      
majority report and six minor reports1  
which differed more or less from it1    
chiefly as to the best method of        
attaining these two objects4  ,the      
majority report recommended the adoption
 of what is known as the conjoint       
scheme4 ,according to this plan the     
power of granting a licence to practise 

is to be taken away from all the        
existing bodies1 whether they have done 
well or ill1 and to be placed in the    
hands of a body of delegates 7divisional
 boards71 one for each of the three     
kingdoms4 ,the licence to practise is to
 be conferred by passing the delegate   
examination4 ,the licensee may          
afterwards1 if he pleases1 go before any
 of the existing bodies and indulge in  
the luxury of another examination and   
the payment of another fee in order to  
obtain a title1 which does not legally  
place him in any better position than   
that which he would occupy without it4  
,under these circumstances1 of course1  
the only motive for obtaining the degree
 of a ,university or the licence of a   
medical corporation would be the        
prestige of these bodies4 ,hence the    
black sheep would certainly be deserted1
 while those bodies which have acquired 
a reputation by doing their duty would  
suffer less4  ,but1 as the majority     
report proposes that the existing bodies

 should be compensated for any loss they
 might suffer out of the fees of the    
examiners for the ,state licence1 the   
curious result would be brought about   
that the profession of the future would 
be taxed1 for all time1 for the purpose 
of handing over to wholly irresponsible 
bodies a sum1 the amount of which would 
be large for those who had failed in    
their duty and small for those who had  
done it4  ,the scheme in fact involved a
 perpetual endowment of the black sheep1
 calculated on the maximum of their     
ill-gained profits4 #a ,i confess that  
,i found myself unable to assent to a   
plan which1 in addition to the rewarding
 the evil doers1 proposed to take away  
the privileges of a number of examining 
bodies which confessedly were doing     
their duty well1 for the sake of getting
 rid of a few who had failed4 ,it was   
too much like the ,chinaman's device of 
burning down his house to obtain a poor 
dish of roast pig--uncertain whether in 
the end he might not find a mere mass of

 cinders4 ,what we do know is that the  
great majority of the existing licensing
 bodies have marvellously improved in   
the course of the last twenty years1 and
 are improving4 ,what we do not know is 
that the complicated scheme of the      
divisional boards will ever be got to   
work at all4  ,my own belief is that    
every necessary reform may be effected1 
without any interference with vested    
interests1 without any unjust           
interference with the prestige of       
institutions which have been1 and still 
are1 extremely valuable1 without any    
question of compensation arising1 and by
 an extremely simple operation4 ,it is  
only necessary in fact to add a couple  
of clauses to the ,medical ,act to this 
effect3 7#a7 ,that from and after such a
 date no person shall be placed upon the
 ,medical ,register unless he possesses 
the threefold qualification4 7#b7 ,that 
from and after this date no examination 
shall be accepted as satisfactory from  
any licensing body except such as has   

been carried on in part by examiners    
appointed by the licensing body1 and in 
part by coadjutor-examiners of equal    
authority appointed by the ,medical     
,council or other central authority1 and
 acting under their instructions4  ,in  
laying down a rule of this kind the     
,state confiscates nothing1 and meddles 
with nobody1 but simply acts within its 
undoubted right of laying down the      
conditions under which it will confer   
certain privileges upon medical         
practitioners4 ,no one can say that the 
,state has not the right to do this2 no 
one can say that the ,state interferes  
with any private enterprise or corporate
 interest unjustly1 in laying down its  
own conditions for its own service4 ,the
 plan would have the further advantage  
that all those corporate bodies which   
have obtained 7as many of them have7 a  
great and just prestige by the admirable
 way in which they have done their work1
 would reap their just reward in the    
thronging of students1 thenceforward as 

formerly1 to obtain their               
qualifications2 while those who have    
neglected their duties1 who have in some
 one or two cases1 ,i am sorry to say1  
absolutely disgraced themselves1 would  
sink into oblivion1 and come to a happy 
and natural euthanasia1 in which their  
misdeeds and themselves would be        
entirely forgotten4  ,two of my         
colleagues1 ,professor ,turner and ,mr4 
,bryce1 ,m4,p41 whose practical         
familiarity with examinations gave their
 opinions a high value1 expressed their 
substantial approval of this scheme1 and
 ,i am unable to see the weight of the  
objections urged against it4 ,it is     
urged that the difficulty and expense of
 adequately inspecting so many          
examinations and of guaranteeing their  
efficiency would be great1 and the      
difficulty in the way of a fair         
adjustment of the representation of     
existing interests and of the           
representation of new interests upon the
 general ,medical ,council would be     

almost insuperable4  ,the latter        
objection is unintelligible to me4 ,i am
 not aware that any attempt at such     
adjustment has been fairly discussed1   
and until that has been done it may be  
well not to talk about insuperable      
difficulties4 ,as to the notion that    
there is any difficulty in getting the  
coadjutor-examiners1 or that the expense
 will be overwhelming1 we have the      
experience of ,scotland1 in which every 
,university does1 at the present time1  
appoint its coadjutor-examiners1 who do 
their work just in the way proposed4    
,whether in the way ,i have proposed1 or
 by the ,conjoint ,scheme1 however1 this
 is perfectly certain3 the two things ,i
 refer to have to be done3 you must have
 the threefold qualification2 you must  
have the limitation of the minimum      
qualification also2 and any scheme for  
the improvement of the relations of the 
,state to medicine which does not       
profess to do these two things          
thoroughly and well1 has no chance of   

finality4  ,but when these reforms are  
witnessed1 when there is a ,medical     
,council armed with a more real         
authority than it at present possesses2 
when a license to practice cannot be    
obtained without the threefold          
qualification2 and when an even minimum 
of qualification is exacted for every   
licence1 is there anything else that    
remains that any one seriously          
interested in the welfare of the medical
 profession1 as ,i may most             
conscientiously declare myself to be1   
would like to see done8 ,i think there  
are three things4  ,in the first place1 
even now1 when a four years' curriculum 
is required1 the time allotted for      
medical education is too brief4 ,a young
 man of eighteen beginning to study     
medicine is probably absolutely ignorant
 of the existence of such a thing as    
anatomy1 or physiology1 or indeed of any
 branch of physical science4 ,he comes  
into an entirely new world2 he addresses
 himself to a kind of work of which he  

has not the smallest experience4 ,up to 
that time his work has been with books2 
he rushes suddenly into work with       
things1 which is as different from work 
with books as anything can well be4 ,i  
am quite sure that a very considerable  
number of young men spend a very large  
portion of their first session in simply
 learning how to learn subjects which   
are entirely new to them4 ,and yet      
recollect that in this period of four   
years they have to acquire a knowledge  
of all the branches of a great and      
responsible practical calling of        
medicine1 surgery1 obstetrics1 general  
pathology1 medical jurisprudence1 and so
 forth4 ,anybody who knows what these   
things are1 and who knows what is the   
kind of work which is necessary to give 
a man the confidence which will enable  
him to stand at the bedside and say to  
the satisfaction of his own conscience  
what shall be done1 and what shall not  
be done1 must be aware that if a man has
 only four years to do all that in he   

will not have much time to spare4 ,but  
that is not all4 ,as ,i have said1 the  
young man comes up1 probably ignorant of
 the existence of science2 he has never 
heard a word of chemistry1 he has never 
heard a word of physics1 he has not the 
smallest conception of the outlines of  
biological science2 and all these things
 have to be learned as well and crammed 
into the time which in itself is barely 
sufficient to acquire a fair amount of  
that knowledge which is requisite for   
the satisfactory discharge of his       
professional duties4  ,therefore it is  
quite clear to me that1 somehow or      
other1 the curriculum must be lightened4
 ,it is not that any of the subjects    
which ,i have mentioned need not to be  
studied1 and may be eliminated4 ,the    
only alternative therefore is to        
lengthen the time given to study4       
,everybody will agree with me that the  
practical necessities of life in this   
country are such that1 for the average  
medical practitioner at any rate1 it is 

hopeless to think of extending the      
period of professional study beyond the 
age of twenty-two4 ,so that as the      
period of study cannot be extended      
forwards1 the only thing to be done is  
to extend it backwards4  ,the question  
is how this can be done4 ,my own belief 
is that if the ,medical ,council1       
instead of insisting upon that          
examination in general education which  
,i am sorry to say ,i believe to be     
entirely futile1 were to insist upon a  
knowledge of elementary physics1 and    
chemistry1 and biology1 they would be   
taking one of the greatest steps which  
at present can be made for the          
improvement of medical education4 ,and  
the improvement would be this4 ,the     
great majority of the young men who are 
going into the profession have          
practically completed their general     
education--or they might very well have 
done so--by the age of sixteen or       
seventeen4 ,if the interval between this
 age and that at which they commence    

their purely medical studies were       
employed in obtaining a practical       
acquaintance with elementary physics1   
chemistry1 and biology1 in my judgment  
it would be as good as two years added  
to the course of medical study4 ,and for
 two reasons3 in the first place1       
because the subject-matter of that which
 they would learn is germane to their   
future studies1 and is so much gained2  
in the second place1 because you might  
clear out of the course of their        
professional study a great deal which at
 present occupies time and attention2   
and last1 but not least--probably       
most--they would then come to their     
medical studies prepared for that       
learning from ,nature which is what they
 have to do in the course of becoming   
skilful medical men1 and for which at   
present they are not in the slightest   
degree prepared by their previous       
education4  ,the second wish ,i have to 
express concerns ,london especially1 and
 ,i may speak of it briefly as a more   

economical use of the teaching power in 
the medical schools4 ,at this present   
time every great hospital in            
,london--and there are ten or eleven of 
them--has its complete medical school1  
in which not only are the branches of   
practical medicine taught1 but also     
those studies in general science1 such  
as chemistry1 elementary physics1       
general anatomy1 and a variety of other 
topics which are what used to be called 
7and the term was an extremely useful   
one7 the institutes of medicine4 ,that  
was all very well half a century ago2 it
 is all very ill now1 simply because    
those general branches of science1 such 
as anatomy1 physiology1 chemistry1      
physiological chemistry1 physiological  
physics1 and so forth1 have now become  
so large1 and the mode of teaching them 
is so completely altered1 that it is    
absolutely impossible for any man to be 
a thoroughly competent teacher of them1 
or for any student to be effectually    
taught without the devotion of the whole

 time of the person who is engaged in   
teaching4 ,i undertake to say that it is
 hopelessly impossible for any man at   
the present time to keep abreast with   
the progress of physiology unless he    
gives his whole mind to it2 and the     
bigger the mind is1 the more scope he   
will find for its employment4 ,again1   
teaching has become1 and must become    
still more1 practical1 and that also    
involves a large expenditure of time4   
,but if a man is to give his whole time 
to my business he must live by it1 and  
the resources of the schools do not     
permit them to maintain ten or eleven   
physiological specialists4  ,if the     
students in their first one or two years
 were taught the institutes of medicine1
 in two or three central institutions1  
it would be perfectly easy to have those
 subjects taught thoroughly and         
effectually by persons who gave their   
whole mind and attention to the subject2
 while at the same time the medical     
schools at the hospitals would remain   

what they ought to be--great            
institutions in which the largest       
possible opportunities are laid open for
 acquiring practical acquaintance with  
the phenomena of disease4 ,so that the  
preliminary or earlier half of medical  
education would take place in the       
central institutions1 and the final half
 would be devoted altogether to         
practical studies in the hospitals4  ,i 
happen to know that this conception has 
been entertained1 not only by myself1   
but by a great many of those persons who
 are most interested in the improvement 
of medical study for a considerable     
number of years4 ,i do not know whether 
anything will come of it this           
half-century or not2 but the thing has  
to be done4 ,it is not a speculative    
notion2 it lies patent to everybody who 
is accustomed to teaching1 and knows    
what the necessities of teaching are2   
and ,i should very much like to see the 
first step taken--people making up their
 minds that it has to be done somehow or

 other4  ,the last point to which ,i may
 advert is one which concerns the action
 of the profession itself more than     
anything else4 ,we have arrangements for
 teaching1 we have arrangements for the 
testing of qualifications1 we have      
marvellous aids and appliances for the  
treatment of disease in all sorts of    
ways2 but ,i do not find in ,london at  
the present time1 in this little place  
of four or five million inhabitants     
which supports so many things1 any      
organisation or any arrangement for     
advancing the science of medicine1      
considered as a pure science4 ,i am     
quite aware that there are medical      
societies of various kinds2 ,i am not   
ignorant of the lectureships at the     
,college of ,physicians and the ,college
 of ,surgeons2 there is the ,brown      
,institute2 and there is the ,society   
for the ,advancement of ,medicine by    
,research1 but there is no means1 so far
 as ,i know1 by which any person who has
 the inborn gifts of the investigator   

and discoverer of new truth1 and who    
desires to apply that to the improvement
 of medical science1 can carry out his  
intention4 ,in ,paris there is the      
,university of ,paris1 which gives      
degrees2 but there are also the         
,sorbonne and the ,collge de ,france1   
places in which professoriates are      
established for the express purpose of  
enabling men who have the power of      
investigation1 the power of advancing   
knowledge and thereby reacting on       
practice1 to do that which it is their  
special mission to do4 ,i do not know of
 anything of the kind in ,london2 and if
 it should so happen that a ,claude     
,bernard or a ,ludwig should turn up in 
,london1 ,i really have not the         
slightest notion of what we could do    
with him4 ,we could not turn him to     
account1 and ,i think we should have to 
export him to ,germany or ,france4 ,i   
doubt whether that is a good or a wise  
condition of things4 ,i do not think it 
is a condition of things which can exist

 for any great length of time1 now that 
people are every day becoming more and  
more awake to the importance of         
scientific investigation and to the     
astounding and unexpected manner in     
which it everywhere reacts upon         
practical pursuits4 ,i should look upon 
the establishment of some institution of
 that kind as a recognition on the part 
of the medical profession in general1   
that if their great and beneficent work 
is to be carried on1 they must1 like    
other people who have great and         
beneficent work to do1 contribute to the
 advancement of knowledge in the only   
way in which experience shows that it   
can be advanced4         99       99    
99       99       99  ,footnotes3       
#a,the fees to be paid by candidates for
 admission to the examinations of the   
,divisional ,board should be of such an 
amount as will be sufficient to cover   
the cost of the examinations and the    
other expenses of the ,divisional       
,board1 and also to provide the sum     

required to compensate the medical      
authorities1 or such of them as may be  
entitled to compensation1 for any       
pecuniary losses they may hereafter     
sustain by reason of the abolition of   
their privilege of conferring a licence 
to practise4 ,report #ej1 p4 xii4       
,,xiv  ,,the ,,connection ,,of ,,the    
,,biological ,,sciences ,,with          
,,medicine  #ahha   ,the great body of  
theoretical and practical knowledge     
which has been accumulated by the       
labours of some eighty generations1     
since the dawn of scientific thought in 
,europe1 has no collective ,english name
 to which an objection may not be       
raised2 and ,i use the term medicine as 
that which is least likely to be        
misunderstood2 though1 as every one     
knows1 the name is commonly applied1 in 
a narrower sense1 to one of the chief   
divisions of the totality of medical    
science4  ,taken in this broad sense1   
medicine not merely denotes a kind of   
knowledge1 but it comprehends the       

various applications of that knowledge  
to the alleviation of the sufferings1   
the repair of the injuries1 and the     
conservation of the health1 of living   
beings4 ,in fact1 the practical aspect  
of medicine so far dominates over every 
other1 that the ,healing ,art is one of 
its most widely-received synonyms4 ,it  
is so difficult to think of medicine    
otherwise than as something which is    
necessarily connected with curative     
treatment1 that we are apt to forget    
that there must be1 and is1 such a thing
 as a pure science of medicine--a       
pathology which has no more necessary   
subservience to practical ends than has 
zoology or botany4  ,the logical        
connection between this purely          
scientific doctrine of disease1 or      
pathology1 and ordinary biology1 is     
easily traced4 ,living matter is        
characterised by its innate tendency to 
exhibit a definite series of the        
morphological and physiological         
phenomena which constitute organisation 

and life4 ,given a certain range of     
conditions1 and these phenomena remain  
the same1 within narrow limits1 for each
 kind of living thing4 ,they furnish the
 normal and typical character of the    
species1 and1 as such1 they are the     
subject-matter of ordinary biology4     
,outside the range of these conditions1 
the normal course of the cycle of vital 
phenomena is disturbed2 abnormal        
structure makes its appearance1 or the  
proper character and mutual adjustment  
of the functions cease to be preserved4 
,the extent and the importance of these 
deviations from the typical life may    
vary indefinitely4 ,they may have no    
noticeable influence on the general     
well-being of the economy1 or they may  
favour it4 ,on the other hand1 they may 
be of such a nature as to impede the    
activities of the organism1 or even to  
involve its destruction4  ,in the first 
case1 these perturbations are ranged    
under the wide and somewhat vague       
category of variations2 in the second1  

they are called lesions1 states of      
poisoning1 or diseases2 and1 as morbid  
states1 they lie within the province of 
pathology4 ,no sharp line of demarcation
 can be drawn between the two classes of
 phenomena4 ,no one can say where       
anatomical variations end and tumours   
begin1 nor where modification of        
function1 which may at first promote    
health1 passes into disease4 ,all that  
can be said is1 that whatever change of 
structure or function is hurtful belongs
 to pathology4 ,hence it is obvious that
 pathology is a branch of biology2 it is
 the morphology1 the physiology1 the    
distribution1 the aetiology of abnormal 
life4  ,however obvious this conclusion 
may be now1 it was nowise apparent in   
the infancy of medicine4 ,for it is a   
peculiarity of the physical sciences    
that they are independent in proportion 
as they are imperfect2 and it is only as
 they advance that the bonds which      
really unite them all become apparent4  
,astronomy had no manifest connection   

with terrestrial physics before the     
publication of the ,principia2 that of  
chemistry with physics is of still more 
modern revelation2 that of physics and  
chemistry with physiology1 has been     
stoutly denied within the recollection  
of most of us1 and perhaps still may be4
   ,or1 to take a case which affords a  
closer parallel with that of medicine4  
,agriculture has been cultivated from   
the earliest times1 and1 from a remote  
antiquity1 men have attained            
considerable practical skill in the     
cultivation of the useful plants1 and   
have empirically established many       
scientific truths concerning the        
conditions under which they flourish4   
,but1 it is within the memory of many of
 us1 that chemistry on the one hand1 and
 vegetable physiology on the other1     
attained a stage of development such    
that they were able to furnish a sound  
basis for scientific agriculture4       
,similarly1 medicine took its rise in   
the practical needs of mankind4 ,at     

first1 studied without reference to any 
other branch of knowledge1 it long      
maintained1 indeed still to some extent 
maintains1 that independence4           
,historically1 its connection with the  
biological sciences has been slowly     
established1 and the full extent and    
intimacy of that connection are only now
 beginning to be apparent4 ,i trust ,i  
have not been mistaken in supposing that
 an attempt to give a brief sketch of   
the steps by which a philosophical      
necessity has become an historical      
reality1 may not be devoid of interest1 
possibly of instruction1 to the members 
of this great ,congress1 profoundly     
interested as all are in the scientific 
development of medicine4  ,the history  
of medicine is more complete and fuller 
than that of any other science1 except1 
perhaps1 astronomy2 and1 if we follow   
back the long record as far as clear    
evidence lights us1 we find ourselves   
taken to the early stages of the        
civilisation of ,greece4 ,the oldest    

hospitals were the temples of           
,aesculapius2 to these ,asclepeia1      
always erected on healthy sites1 hard by
 fresh springs and surrounded by shady  
groves1 the sick and the maimed resorted
 to seek the aid of the god of health4  
,votive tablets or inscriptions recorded
 the symptoms1 no less than the         
gratitude1 of those who were healed2    
and1 from these primitive clinical      
records1 the half-priestly1             
half-philosophic caste of the           
,asclepiads compiled the data upon which
 the earliest generalisations of        
medicine1 as an inductive science1 were 
based4  ,in this state1 pathology1 like 
all the inductive sciences at their     
origin1 was merely natural history2 it  
registered the phenomena of disease1    
classified them1 and ventured upon a    
prognosis1 wherever the observation of  
constant co-existences and sequences    
suggested a rational expectation of the 
like recurrence under similar           
circumstances4  ,further than this it   

hardly went4 ,in fact1 in the then state
 of knowledge1 and in the condition of  
philosophical speculation at that time1 
neither the causes of the morbid state1 
nor the rationale of treatment1 were    
likely to be sought for as we seek for  
them now4 ,the anger of a god was a     
sufficient reason for the existence of a
 malady1 and a dream ample warranty for 
therapeutic measures2 that a physical   
phenomenon must needs have a physical   
cause was not the implied or expressed  
axiom that it is to us moderns4  ,the   
great man whose name is inseparably     
connected with the foundation of        
medicine1 ,hippocrates1 certainly knew  
very little1 indeed practically nothing1
 of anatomy or physiology2 and he would1
 probably1 have been perplexed even to  
imagine the possibility of a connection 
between the zoological studies of his   
contemporary ,democritus and medicine4  
,nevertheless1 in so far as he1 and     
those who worked before and after him1  
in the same spirit1 ascertained1 as     

matters of experience1 that a wound1 or 
a luxation1 or a fever1 presented such  
and such symptoms1 and that the return  
of the patient to health was facilitated
 by such and such measures1 they        
established laws of nature1 and began   
the construction of the science of      
pathology4 ,all true science begins with
 empiricism--though all true science is 
such exactly1 in so far as it strives to
 pass out of the empirical stage into   
that of the deduction of empirical from 
more general truths4 ,thus1 it is not   
wonderful1 that the early physicians had
 little or nothing to do with the       
development of biological science2 and1 
on the other hand1 that the early       
biologists did not much concern         
themselves with medicine4 ,there is     
nothing to show that the ,asclepiads    
took any prominent share in the work of 
founding anatomy1 physiology1 zoology1  
and botany4 ,rather do these seem to    
have sprung from the early philosophers1
 who were essentially natural           

philosophers1 animated by the           
characteristically ,greek thirst for    
knowledge as such4 ,pythagoras1         
,alcmeon1 ,democritus1 ,diogenes of     
,apollonia1 are all credited with       
anatomical and physiological            
investigations2 and1 though ,aristotle  
is said to have belonged to an          
,asclepiad family1 and not improbably   
owed his taste for anatomical and       
zoological inquiries to the teachings of
 his father1 the physician ,nicomachus1 
the ,historia ,animalium1 and the       
treatise ,de ,partibus ,animalium1 are  
as free from any allusion to medicine as
 if they had issued from a modern       
biological laboratory4  ,it may be      
added1 that it is not easy to see in    
what way it could have benefited a      
physician of ,alexander's time to know  
all that ,aristotle knew on these       
subjects4 ,his human anatomy was too    
rough to avail much in diagnosis2 his   
physiology was too erroneous to supply  
data for pathological reasoning4 ,but   

when the ,alexandrian school1 with      
,erasistratus and ,herophilus at their  
head1 turned to account the             
opportunities of studying human         
structure1 afforded to them by the      
,ptolemies1 the value of the large      
amount of accurate knowledge thus       
obtained to the surgeon for his         
operations1 and to the physician for his
 diagnosis of internal disorders1 became
 obvious1 and a connection was          
established between anatomy and         
medicine1 which has ever become closer  
and closer4 ,since the revival of       
learning1 surgery1 medical diagnosis1   
and anatomy have gone hand in hand4     
,morgagni called his great work1 ,de    
sedibus et causis morborum per anatomen 
indagatis1 and not only showed the way  
to search out the localities and the    
causes of disease by anatomy1 but       
himself travelled wonderfully far upon  
the road4 ,bichat1 discriminating the   
grosser constituents of the organs and  
parts of the body1 one from another1    

pointed out the direction which modern  
research must take2 until1 at length1   
histology1 a science of yesterday1 as it
 seems to many of us1 has carried the   
work of ,morgagni as far as the         
microscope can take us1 and has extended
 the realm of pathological anatomy to   
the limits of the invisible world4      
,thanks to the intimate alliance of     
morphology with medicine1 the natural   
history of disease has1 at the present  
day1 attained a high degree of          
perfection4 ,accurate regional anatomy  
has rendered practicable the exploration
 of the most hidden parts of the        
organism1 and the determination1 during 
life1 of morbid changes in them2        
anatomical and histological post-mortem 
investigations have supplied physicians 
with a clear basis upon which to rest   
the classification1 of diseases1 and    
with unerring tests of the accuracy or  
inaccuracy of their diagnoses4  ,if men 
could be satisfied with pure knowledge1 
the extreme precision with which1 in    

these days1 a sufferer may be told what 
is happening1 and what is likely to     
happen1 even in the most recondite parts
 of his bodily frame1 should be as      
satisfactory to the patient as it is to 
the scientific pathologist who gives him
 the information4 ,but ,i am afraid it  
is not2 and even the practising         
physician1 while nowise under-estimating
 the regulative value of accurate       
diagnosis1 must often lament that so    
much of his knowledge rather prevents   
him from doing wrong than helps him to  
do right4  ,a scorner of physic once    
said that nature and disease may be     
compared to two men fighting1 the doctor
 to a blind man with a club1 who strikes
 into the mle1 sometimes hitting the    
disease1 and sometimes hitting nature4  
,the matter is not mended if you suppose
 the blind man's hearing to be so acute 
that he can register every stage of the 
struggle1 and pretty clearly predict how
 it will end4 ,he had better not meddle 
at all1 until his eyes are opened1 until

 he can see the exact position of the   
antagonists1 and make sure of the effect
 of his blows4 ,but that which it       
behoves the physician to see1 not1      
indeed1 with his bodily eye1 but with   
clear1 intellectual vision1 is a        
process1 and the chain of causation     
involved in that process4 ,disease1 as  
we have seen1 is a perturbation of the  
normal activities of a living body1 and 
it is1 and must remain1 unintelligible1 
so long as we are ignorant of the nature
 of these normal activities4 ,in other  
words1 there could be no real science of
 pathology until the science of         
physiology had reached a degree of      
perfection unattained1 and indeed       
unattainable1 until quite recent times4 
,so far as medicine is concerned1 ,i am 
not sure that physiology1 such as it was
 down to the time of ,harvey1 might as  
well not have existed4 ,nay1 it is      
perhaps no exaggeration to say that1    
within the memory of living men1 justly 
renowned practitioners of medicine and  

surgery knew less physiology than is now
 to be learned from the most elementary 
text-book2 and1 beyond a few broad      
facts1 regarded what they did know as of
 extremely little practical importance4 
,nor am ,i disposed to blame them for   
this conclusion2 physiology must be     
useless1 or worse than useless1 to      
pathology1 so long as its fundamental   
conceptions are erroneous4  ,harvey is  
often said to be the founder of modern  
physiology2 and there can be no question
 that the elucidations of the function  
of the heart1 of the nature of the      
pulse1 and of the course of the blood1  
put forth in the ever-memorable little  
essay1 ,de motu cordis1 directly worked 
a revolution in men's views of the      
nature and of the concatenation of some 
of the most important physiological     
processes among the higher animals2     
while1 indirectly1 their influence was  
perhaps even more remarkable4  ,but1    
though ,harvey made this signal and     
perennially important contribution to   

the physiology of the moderns1 his      
general conception of vital processes   
was essentially identical with that of  
the ancients2 and1 in the               
,exercitationes de generatione1 and     
notably in the singular chapter ,de     
calido innato1 he shows himself a true  
son of ,galen and of ,aristotle4  ,for  
,harvey1 the blood possesses powers     
superior to those of the elements2 it is
 the seat of a soul which is not only   
vegetative1 but also sensitive and      
motor4 ,the blood maintains and fashions
 all parts of the body1 idque summ cum  
providenti et intellectu in finem certum
 agens1 quasi ratiocinio quodam         
uteretur4  ,here is the doctrine of the 
pneuma1 the product of the philosophical
 mould into which the animism of        
primitive men ran in ,greece1 in full   
force4 ,nor did its strength abate for  
long after ,harvey's time4 ,the same    
ingrained tendency of the human mind to 
suppose that a process is explained when
 it is ascribed to a power of which     

nothing is known except that it is the  
hypothetical agent of the process1 gave 
rise1 in the next century1 to the       
animism of ,stahl2 and1 later1 to the   
doctrine of a vital principle1 that     
asylum ignorantiae of physiologists1    
which has so easily accounted for       
everything and explained nothing1 down  
to our own times4  ,now the essence of  
modern1 as contrasted with ancient1     
physiological science appears to me to  
lie in its antagonism to animistic      
hypotheses and animistic phraseology4   
,it offers physical explanations of     
vital phenomena1 or frankly confesses   
that it has none to offer4 ,and1 so far 
as ,i know1 the first person who gave   
expression to this modern view of       
physiology1 who was bold enough to      
enunciate the proposition that vital    
phenomena1 like all the other phenomena 
of the physical world1 are1 in ultimate 
analysis1 resolvable into matter and    
motion1 was ,ren ,descartes4  ,the      
fifty-four years of life of this most   

original and powerful thinker are widely
 overlapped1 on both sides1 by the      
eighty of ,harvey1 who survived his     
younger contemporary by seven years1 and
 takes pleasure in acknowledging the    
,french philosopher's appreciation of   
his great discovery4  ,in fact1         
,descartes accepted the doctrine of the 
circulation as propounded by ,harvaeus  
mdecin d',angleterre1 and gave a full   
account of it in his first work1 the    
famous ,discours de la ,mthode1 which   
was published in #afcg1 only nine years 
after the exercitation ,de motu cordis2 
and1 though differing from ,harvey on   
some important points 7in which it may  
be noted1 in passing1 ,descartes was    
wrong and ,harvey right71 he always     
speaks of him with great respect4 ,and  
so important does the subject seem to   
,descartes1 that he returns to it in the
 ,trait des ,passions1 and in the ,trait
 de l',homme4  ,it is easy to see that  
,harvey's work must have had a peculiar 
significance for the subtle thinker1 to 

whom we owe both the spiritualistic and 
the materialistic philosophies of modern
 times4 ,it was in the very year of its 
publication1 #afbh1 that ,descartes     
withdrew into that life of solitary     
investigation and meditation of which   
his philosophy was the fruit4 ,and1 as  
the course of his speculations led him  
to establish an absolute distinction of 
nature between the material and the     
mental worlds1 he was logically         
compelled to seek for the explanation of
 the phenomena of the material world    
within itself2 and having allotted the  
realm of thought to the soul1 to see    
nothing but extension and motion in the 
rest of nature4 ,descartes uses thought 
as the equivalent of our modern term    
consciousness4 ,thought is the function 
of the soul1 and its only function4 ,our
 natural heat and all the movements of  
the body1 says he1 do not depend on the 
soul4 ,death does not take place from   
any fault of the soul1 but only because 
some of the principal parts of the body 

become corrupted4 ,the body of a living 
man differs from that of a dead man in  
the same way as a watch or other        
automaton 7that is to say1 a machine    
which moves of itself7 when it is wound 
up and has1 in itself1 the physical     
principle of the movements which the    
mechanism is adapted to perform1 differs
 from the same watch1 or other machine1 
when it is broken1 and the physical     
principle of its movement no longer     
exists4 ,all the actions which are      
common to us and the lower animals      
depend only on the conformation of our  
organs1 and the course which the animal 
spirits take in the brain1 the nerves1  
and the muscles2 in the same way as the 
movement of a watch is produced by      
nothing but the force of its spring and 
the figure of its wheels and other      
parts4  ,descartes' ,treatise on ,man is
 a sketch of human physiology1 in which 
a bold attempt is made to explain all   
the phenomena of life1 except those of  
consciousness1 by physical reasonings4  

,to a mind turned in this direction1    
,harvey's exposition of the heart and   
vessels as a hydraulic mechanism must   
have been supremely welcome4  ,descartes
 was not a mere philosophical theorist1 
but a hardworking dissector and         
experimenter1 and he held the strongest 
opinion respecting the practical value  
of the new conception which he was      
introducing4 ,he speaks of the          
importance of preserving health1 and of 
the dependence of the mind on the body  
being so close that1 perhaps1 the only  
way of making men wiser and better than 
they are1 is to be sought in medical    
science4 ,it is true1 says he1 that as  
medicine is now practised it contains   
little that is very useful2 but without 
any desire to depreciate1 ,i am sure    
that there is no one1 even among        
professional men1 who will not declare  
that all we know is very little as      
compared with that which remains to be  
known2 and that we might escape an      
infinity of diseases of the mind1 no    

less than of the body1 and even perhaps 
from the weakness of old age1 if we had 
sufficient knowledge of their causes1   
and of all the remedies with which      
nature has provided us4 #a ,so strongly 
impressed was ,descartes with this1 that
 he resolved to spend the rest of his   
life in trying to acquire such a        
knowledge of nature as would lead to the
 construction of a better medical       
doctrine4 #b ,the anti-,cartesians found
 material for cheap ridicule in these   
aspirations of the philosopher2 and it  
is almost needless to say that1 in the  
thirteen years which elapsed between the
 publication of the ,discours and the   
death of ,descartes1 he did not         
contribute much to their realisation4   
,but1 for the next century1 all progress
 in physiology took place along the     
lines which ,descartes laid down4  ,the 
greatest physiological and pathological 
work of the seventeenth century1        
,borelli's treatise ,de ,motu           
,animalium1 is1 to all intents and      

purposes1 a development of ,descartes'  
fundamental conception2 and the same may
 be said of the physiology and pathology
 of ,boerhaave1 whose authority         
dominated in the medical world of the   
first half of the eighteenth century4   
,with the origin of modern chemistry1   
and of electrical science1 in the latter
 half of the eighteenth century1 aids in
 the analysis of the phenomena of life1 
of which ,descartes could not have      
dreamed1 were offered to the            
physiologist4 ,and the greater part of  
the gigantic progress which has been    
made in the present century is a        
justification of the prevision of       
,descartes4 ,for it consists1           
essentially1 in a more and more complete
 resolution of the grosser organs of the
 living body into physicochemical       
mechanisms4  ,i shall try to explain our
 whole bodily machinery in such a way1  
that it will be no more necessary for us
 to suppose that the soul produces such 
movements as are not voluntary1 than it 

is to think that there is in a clock a  
soul which causes it to show the hours4 
#c ,these words of ,descartes might be  
appropriately taken as a motto by the   
author of any modern treatise on        
physiology4  ,but though1 as ,i think1  
there is no doubt that ,descartes was   
the first to propound the fundamental   
conception of the living body as a      
physical mechanism1 which is the        
distinctive feature of modern1 as       
contrasted with ancient physiology1 he  
was misled by the natural temptation to 
carry out1 in all its details1 a        
parallel between the machines with which
 he was familiar1 such as clocks and    
pieces of hydraulic apparatus1 and the  
living machine4 ,in all such machines   
there is a central source of power1 and 
the parts of the machine are merely     
passive distributors of that power4 ,the
 ,cartesian school conceived of the     
living body as a machine of this kind2  
and herein they might have learned from 
,galen1 who1 whatever ill use he may    

have made of the doctrine of natural    
faculties1 nevertheless had the great   
merit of perceiving that local forces   
play a great part in physiology4  ,the  
same truth was recognised by ,glisson1  
but it was first prominently brought    
forward in the ,hallerian doctrine of   
the vis insita of muscles4 ,if muscle   
can contract without nerve1 there is an 
end of the ,cartesian mechanical        
explanation of its contraction by the   
influx of animal spirits4  ,the         
discoveries of ,trembley tended in the  
same direction4 ,in the freshwater      
,hydra1 no trace was to be found of that
 complicated machinery upon which the   
performance of the functions in the     
higher animals was supposed to depend4  
,and yet the hydra moved1 fed1 grew1    
multiplied1 and its fragments exhibited 
all the powers of the whole4 ,and1      
finally1 the work of ,caspar ,f4 ,wolff1
 #d by demonstrating the fact that the  
growth and development of both plants   
and animals take place antecedently to  

the existence of their grosser organs1  
and are1 in fact1 the causes and not the
 consequences of organisation 7as then  
understood71 sapped the foundations of  
the ,cartesian physiology as a complete 
expression of vital phenomena4  ,for    
,wolff1 the physical basis of life is a 
fluid1 possessed of a vis essentialis   
and a solidescibilitas1 in virtue of    
which it gives rise to organisation2    
and1 as he points out1 this conclusion  
strikes at the root of the whole        
iatro-mechanical system4  ,in this      
country1 the great authority of ,john   
,hunter exerted a similar influence2    
though it must be admitted that the too 
sibylline utterances which are the      
outcome of ,hunter's struggles to define
 his conceptions are often susceptible  
of more than one interpretation4        
,nevertheless1 on some points ,hunter is
 clear enough4 ,for example1 he is of   
opinion that ,spirit is only a property 
of matter 7,introduction to ,natural    
,history1 p4 #f71 he is prepared to     

renounce animism1 7l4c4 p4 #h71 and his 
conception of life is so completely     
physical that he thinks of it as        
something which can exist in a state of 
combination in the food4 ,the aliment we
 take in has in it1 in a fixed state1   
the real life2 and this does not become 
active until it has got into the lungs2 
for there it is freed from its prison   
7,observations on ,physiology1 p4 #aac74
 ,he also thinks that ,it is more in    
accord with the general principles of   
the animal machine to suppose that none 
of its effects are produced from any    
mechanical principle whatever2 and that 
every effect is produced from an action 
in the part2 which action is produced by
 a stimulus upon the part which acts1 or
 upon some other part with which this   
part sympathises so as to take up the   
whole action 7l4c4 p4 #aeb74  ,and      
,hunter is as clear as ,wolff1 with     
whose work he was probably unacquainted1
 that whatever life is1 it most         
certainly does not depend upon structure

 or organisation 7l4c4 p4 #aad74  ,of   
course it is impossible that ,hunter    
could have intended to deny the         
existence of purely mechanical          
operations in the animal body4 ,but     
while1 with ,borelli and ,boerhaave1 he 
looked upon absorption1 nutrition1 and  
secretion as operations effected by     
means of the small vessels1 he differed 
from the mechanical physiologists1 who  
regarded these operations as the result 
of the mechanical properties of the     
small vessels1 such as the size1 form1  
and disposition of their canals and     
apertures4 ,hunter1 on the contrary1    
considers them to be the effect of      
properties of these vessels which are   
not mechanical but vital4 ,the vessels1 
says he1 have more of the polypus in    
them than any other part of the body1   
and he talks of the living and sensitive
 principles of the arteries1 and even of
 the dispositions or feelings of the    
arteries4 ,when the blood is good and   
genuine the sensations of the arteries1 

or the dispositions for sensation1 are  
agreeable4444 ,it is then they dispose  
of the blood to the best advantage1     
increasing the growth of the whole1     
supplying any losses1 keeping up a due  
succession1 etc4 7l4c4 p4 #acc74  ,if we
 follow ,hunter's conceptions to their  
logical issue1 the life of one of the   
higher animals is essentially the sum of
 the lives of all the vessels1 each of  
which is a sort of physiological unit1  
answering to a polype2 and1 as health is
 the result of the normal action of the 
vessels1 so is disease an effect of     
their abnormal action4 ,hunter thus     
stands in thought1 as in time1 midway   
between ,borelli on the one hand1 and   
,bichat on the other4  ,the acute       
founder of general anatomy1 in fact1    
outdoes ,hunter in his desire to exclude
 physical reasonings from the realm of  
life4 ,except in the interpretation of  
the action of the sense organs1 he will 
not allow physics to have anything to do
 with physiology4  ,to apply the        

physical sciences to physiology is to   
explain the phenomena of living bodies  
by the laws of inert bodies4 ,now this  
is a false principle1 hence all its     
consequences are marked with the same   
stamp4 ,let us leave to chemistry its   
affinity2 to physics1 its elasticity and
 its gravity4 ,let us invoke for        
physiology only sensibility and         
contractility4 #e  ,of all the          
unfortunate dicta of men of eminent     
ability this seems one of the most      
unhappy1 when we think of what the      
application of the methods and the data 
of physics and chemistry has done       
towards bringing physiology into its    
present state4 ,it is not too much to   
say that one-half of a modern text-book 
of physiology consists of applied       
physics and chemistry2 and that it is   
exactly in the exploration of the       
phenomena of sensibility and            
contractility that physics and chemistry
 have exerted the most potent influence4
  ,nevertheless1 ,bichat rendered a     

solid service to physiological progress 
by insisting upon the fact that what we 
call life1 in one of the higher animals1
 is not an indivisible unitary archaeus 
dominating1 from its central seat1 the  
parts of the organism1 but a compound   
result of the synthesis of the separate 
lives of those parts4  ,all animals1    
says he1 are assemblages of different   
organs1 each of which performs its      
function and concurs1 after its fashion1
 in the preservation of the whole4 ,they
 are so many special machines in the    
general machine which constitutes the   
individual4 ,but each of these special  
machines is itself compounded of many   
tissues of very different natures1 which
 in truth constitute the elements of    
those organs 7l4c4 lxxix474 ,the        
conception of a proper vitality is      
applicable only to these simple tissues1
 and not to the organs themselves 7l4c4 
lxxxiv474  ,and ,bichat proceeds to make
 the obvious application of this        
doctrine of synthetic life1 if ,i may so

 call it1 to pathology4 ,since diseases 
are only alterations of vital           
properties1 and the properties of each  
tissue are distinct from those of the   
rest1 it is evident that the diseases of
 each tissue must be different from     
those of the rest4 ,therefore1 in any   
organ composed of different tissues1 one
 may be diseased and the other remain   
healthy2 and this is what happens in    
most cases 7l4c4 lxxxv474  ,in a spirit 
of true prophecy1 ,bichat says1 ,we have
 arrived at an epoch in which           
pathological anatomy should start       
afresh4 ,for1 as the analysis of the    
organs had led him to the tissues as the
 physiological units of the organism2   
so1 in a succeeding generation1 the     
analysis of the tissues led to the cell 
as the physiological element of the     
tissues4 ,the contemporaneous study of  
development brought out the same result2
 and the zoologists and botanists1      
exploring the simplest and the lowest   
forms of animated beings1 confirmed the 

great induction of the cell theory4     
,thus the apparently opposed views1     
which have been battling with one       
another ever since the middle of the    
last century1 have proved to be each    
half the truth4  ,the proposition of    
,descartes that the body of a living man
 is a machine1 the actions of which are 
explicable by the known laws of matter  
and motion1 is unquestionably largely   
true4 ,but it is also true1 that the    
living body is a synthesis of           
innumerable physiological elements1 each
 of which may nearly be described1 in   
,wolff's words1 as a fluid possessed of 
a vis essentialis and a                 
solidescibilitas2 or1 in modern phrase1 
as protoplasm susceptible of structural 
metamorphosis and functional metabolism3
 and that the only machinery1 in the    
precise sense in which the ,cartesian   
school understood mechanism1 is1 that   
which co-ordinates and regulates these  
physiological units into an organic     
whole4  ,in fact1 the body is a machine 

of the nature of an army1 not of that of
 a watch or of a hydraulic apparatus4   
,of this army each cell is a soldier1 an
 organ a brigade1 the central nervous   
system headquarters and field telegraph1
 the alimentary and circulatory system  
the commissariat4 ,losses are made good 
by recruits born in camp1 and the life  
of the individual is a campaign1        
conducted successfully for a number of  
years1 but with certain defeat in the   
long run4  ,the efficacy of an army1 at 
any given moment1 depends on the health 
of the individual soldier1 and on the   
perfection of the machinery by which he 
is led and brought into action at the   
proper time2 and1 therefore1 if the     
analogy holds good1 there can be only   
two kinds of diseases1 the one dependent
 on abnormal states of the physiological
 units1 the other on perturbations of   
their co-ordinating and alimentative    
machinery4  ,hence1 the establishment of
 the cell theory1 in normal biology1 was
 swiftly followed by a cellular         

pathology1 as its logical counterpart4  
,i need not remind you how great an     
instrument of investigation this        
doctrine has proved in the hands of the 
man of genius to whom its development is
 due1 and who would probably be the last
 to forget that abnormal conditions of  
the co-ordinative and distributive      
machinery of the body are no less       
important factors of disease4           
,henceforward1 as it appears to me1 the 
connection of medicine with the         
biological sciences is clearly          
indicated4 ,pure pathology is that      
branch of biology which defines the     
particular perturbation of cell-life1 or
 of the co-ordinating machinery1 or of  
both1 on which the phenomena of disease 
depend4  ,those who are conversant with 
the present state of biology will hardly
 hesitate to admit that the conception  
of the life of one of the higher animals
 as the summation of the lives of a cell
 aggregate1 brought into harmonious     
action by a co-ordinative machinery     

formed by some of these cells1          
constitutes a permanent acquisition of  
physiological science4 ,but the last    
form of the battle between the animistic
 and the physical views of life is seen 
in the contention whether the physical  
analysis of vital phenomena can be      
carried beyond this point or not4       
,there are some to whom living          
protoplasm is a substance1 even such as 
,harvey conceived the blood to be1 summ 
cum providenti et intellectu in finem   
certum agens1 quasi ratiocinio quodam2  
and who look with as little favour as   
,bichat did1 upon any attempt to apply  
the principles and the methods of       
physics and chemistry to the            
investigation of the vital processes of 
growth1 metabolism1 and contractility4  
,they stand upon the ancient ways2 only1
 in accordance with that progress       
towards democracy1 which a great        
political writer has declared to be the 
fatal characteristic of modern times1   
they substitute a republic formed by a  

few billion of animulae for the monarchy
 of the all-pervading anima4  ,others1  
on the contrary1 supported by a robust  
faith in the universal applicability of 
the principles laid down by ,descartes1 
and seeing that the actions called vital
 are1 so far as we have any means of    
knowing1 nothing but changes of place of
 particles of matter1 look to molecular 
physics to achieve the analysis of the  
living protoplasm itself into a         
molecular mechanism4 ,if there is any   
truth in the received doctrines of      
physics1 that contrast between living   
and inert matter1 on which ,bichat lays 
so much stress1 does not exist4 ,in     
nature1 nothing is at rest1 nothing is  
amorphous2 the simplest particle of that
 which men in their blindness are       
pleased to call brute matter is a vast  
aggregate of molecular mechanisms       
performing complicated movements of     
immense rapidity1 and sensitively       
adjusting themselves to every change in 
the surrounding world4 ,living matter   

differs from other matter in degree and 
not in kind2 the microcosm repeats the  
macrocosm2 and one chain of causation   
connects the nebulous original of suns  
and planetary systems with the          
protoplasmic foundation of life and     
organisation4  ,from this point of view1
 pathology is the analogue of the theory
 of perturbations in astronomy2 and     
therapeutics resolves itself into the   
discovery of the means by which a system
 of forces competent to eliminate any   
given perturbation may be introduced    
into the economy4 ,and1 as pathology    
bases itself upon normal physiology1 so 
therapeutics rests upon pharmacology2   
which is1 strictly speaking1 a part of  
the great biological topic of the       
influence of conditions on the living   
organism1 and has no scientific         
foundation apart from physiology4  ,it  
appears to me that there is no more     
hopeful indication of the progress of   
medicine towards the ideal of ,descartes
 than is to be derived from a comparison

 of the state of pharmacology1 at the   
present day1 with that which existed    
forty years ago4 ,if we consider the    
knowledge positively acquired1 in this  
short time1 of the modus operandi of    
urari1 of atropia1 of physostigmin1 of  
veratria1 of casca1 of strychnia1 of    
bromide of potassium1 of phosphorus1    
there can surely be no ground for       
doubting that1 sooner or later1 the     
pharmacologist will supply the physician
 with the means of affecting1 in any    
desired sense1 the functions of any     
physiological element of the body4 ,it  
will1 in short1 become possible to      
introduce into the economy a molecular  
mechanism which1 like a very            
cunningly-contrived torpedo1 shall find 
its way to some particular group of     
living elements1 and cause an explosion 
among them1 leaving the rest untouched4 
,the search for the explanation of      
diseased states in modified cell-life2  
the discovery of the important part     
played by parasitic organisms in the    

aetiology of disease2 the elucidation of
 the action of medicaments by the       
methods and the data of experimental    
physiology2 appear to me to be the      
greatest steps which have ever been made
 towards the establishment of medicine  
on a scientific basis4 ,i need hardly   
say they could not have been made except
 for the advance of normal biology4     
,there can be no question1 then1 as to  
the nature or the value of the          
connection between medicine and the     
biological sciences4 ,there can be no   
doubt that the future of pathology and  
of therapeutics1 and1 therefore1 that of
 practical medicine1 depends upon the   
extent to which those who occupy        
themselves with these subjects are      
trained in the methods and impregnated  
with the fundamental truths of biology4 
,and1 in conclusion1 ,i venture to      
suggest that the collective sagacity of 
this congress could occupy itself with  
no more important question than with    
this3 ,how is medical education to be   

arranged1 so that1 without entangling   
the student in those details of the     
systematist which are valueless to him1 
he may be enabled to obtain a firm grasp
 of the great truths respecting animal  
and vegetable life1 without which1      
notwithstanding all the progress of     
scientific medicine1 he will still find 
himself an empiric8         99       99 
99       99       99  ,footnotes3  #a   
,discours de la ,mthode1 #f;e partie1   
,ed4 ,cousin1 p4 #aic4  #b ,ibid4 pp4   
#aic and #baa4  #c ,de la ,formation du 
,foetus4  #d ,theoria ,generationis1    
#agei4  #e ,anatomie gnrale1 i4 p4 liv4 
,,xv  ,,the ,,school ,,boards3 ,,what   
,,they ,,can ,,do1 ,,and ,,what ,,they  
,,may ,,do4  #ahgj   ,an electioneering 
manifesto would be out of place in the  
pages of this ,review2 but any suspicion
 that may arise in the mind of the      
reader that the following pages partake 
of that nature1 will be dispelled1 if he
 reflect that they cannot be published  
#a until after the day on which the     

ratepayers of the metropolis will have  
decided which candidates for seats upon 
the ,metropolitan ,school ,board they   
will take1 and which they will leave4   
,as one of those candidates1 ,i may be  
permitted to say1 that ,i feel much in  
the frame of mind of the ,irish         
bricklayer's labourer1 who bet another  
that he could not carry him to the top  
of the ladder in his hod4 ,the          
challenged hodman won his wager1 but as 
the stakes were handed over1 the        
challenger wistfully remarked1 ,i'd     
great hopes of falling at the third     
round from the top4 ,and1 in view of the
 work and the worry which awaits the    
members of the ,school ,boards1 ,i must 
confess to an occasional ungrateful hope
 that the friends who are toiling       
upwards with me in their hod1 may1 when 
they reach the third round from the top1
 let me fall back into peace and        
quietness4  ,but whether fortune        
befriend me in this rough method1 or    
not1 ,i should like to submit to those  

of whom ,i am potential1 but of whom ,i 
may not be an actual1 colleague1 and to 
others who may be interested in this    
most important problem--how to get the  
,education ,act to work                 
efficiently--some considerations as to  
what are the duties of the members of   
the ,school ,boards1 and what are the   
limits of their power4  ,i suppose no   
one will be disposed to dispute the     
proposition1 that the prime duty of     
every member of such a ,board is to     
endeavour to administer the ,act        
honestly2 or in accordance1 not only    
with its letter1 but with its spirit4   
,and if so1 it would seem that the first
 step towards this very desirable end   
is1 to obtain a clear notion of what    
that letter signifies1 and what that    
spirit implies2 or1 in other words1 what
 the clauses of the ,act are intended to
 enjoin and to forbid4 ,so that it is   
really not admissible1 except for       
factious and abusive purposes1 to assume
 that any one who endeavours to get at  

this clear meaning is desirous only of  
raising quibbles and making             
difficulties4  ,reading the ,act with   
this desire to understand it1 ,i find   
that its provisions may be classified1  
as might naturally be expected1 under   
two heads3 the one set relating to the  
subject-matter of education2 the other  
to the establishment1 maintenance1 and  
administration of the schools in which  
that education is to be conducted4  ,now
 it is a most important circumstance1   
that all the sections of the ,act1      
except four1 belong to the latter       
division2 that is1 they refer to mere   
matters of administration4 ,the four    
sections in question are the seventh1   
the fourteenth1 the sixteenth1 and the  
ninety-seventh4 ,of these1 the seventh1 
the fourteenth1 and the ninety-seventh  
deal with the subject-matter of         
education1 while the sixteenth defines  
the nature of the relations which are to
 exist between the ,education           
,department 7an euphemism for the future

 ,minister of ,education7 and the       
,school ,boards4 ,it is the sixteenth   
clause which is the most important1 and1
 in some respects1 the most remarkable  
of all4 ,it runs thus3--      ,if the   
,school ,board do1 or permit1 any act in
 contravention of1 or     fail to comply
 with1 the regulations1 according to    
which a school     provided by them is  
required by this ,act to be conducted1  
the     ,education ,department may      
declare the ,school ,board to be1 and   
such     ,board shall accordingly be    
deemed to be1 a ,board in default1 and  
the ,education ,department may proceed  
accordingly2 and every act1 or          
omission1 of any member of the ,school  
,board1 or manager appointed     by     
them1 or any person under the control of
 the ,board1 shall be     deemed to be  
permitted by the ,board1 unless the     
contrary be proved4      ,if any dispute
 arises as to whether the ,school ,board
 have done1 or     permitted1 any act in
 contravention of1 or have failed to    

comply     with1 the said regulations1  
the matter shall be referred to the     
,education ,department1 whose decision  
thereon shall be final4  ,it will be    
observed that this clause gives the     
,minister of ,education absolute power  
over the doings of the ,school ,boards4 
,he is not only the administrator of the
 ,act1 but he is its interpreter4 ,i had
 imagined that on the occurrence of a   
dispute1 not as regards a question of   
pure administration1 but as to the      
meaning of a clause of the ,act1 a case 
might be taken and referred to a court  
of justice4 ,but ,i am led to believe   
that the ,legislature has1 in the       
present instance1 deliberately taken    
this power out of the hands of the      
judges and lodged it in those of the    
,minister of ,education1 who1 in        
accordance with our method of making    
,ministers1 will necessarily be a       
political partisan1 and who may be a    
strong theological sectary into the     
bargain4 ,and ,i am informed by members 

of ,parliament who watched the progress 
of the ,act1 that the responsibility for
 this unusual state of things rests1 not
 with the ,government1 but with the     
,legislature1 which exhibited a singular
 disposition to accumulate power in the 
hands of the future ,minister of        
,education1 and to evade the more       
troublesome difficulties of the         
education question by leaving them to be
 settled between that ,minister and the 
,school ,boards4  ,i express no opinion 
whether it is1 or is not1 desirable that
 such powers of controlling all the     
,school ,boards in the country should be
 possessed by a person who may be1 like 
,mr4 ,forster1 eminently likely to use  
these powers justly and wisely1 but who 
also may be quite the reverse4 ,i merely
 wish to draw attention to the fact that
 such powers are given to the ,minister1
 whether he be fit or unfit4 ,the extent
 of these powers becomes apparent when  
the other sections of the ,act referred 
to are considered4 ,the fourth clause of

 the seventh section says3--      ,the  
school shall be conducted in accordance 
with the conditions     required to be  
fulfilled by an elementary school in    
order to obtain     an annual           
,parliamentary grant4  ,what these      
conditions are appears from the         
following clauses of the ninety-seventh 
section3--      ,the conditions required
 to be fulfilled by an elementary school
 in     order to obtain an annual       
,parliamentary grant shall be those     
contained in the minutes of the         
,education ,department in force for     
the time being4444 ,provided that no    
such minute of the ,education           
,department1 not in force at the time of
 the passing of this ,act1     shall be 
deemed to be in force until it has lain 
for not less than     one month on the  
table of both ,houses of ,parliament4   
,let us consider how this will work in  
practice4 ,a school established by a    
,school ,board may receive support from 
three sources--from the rates1 the      

school fees1 and the ,parliamentary     
grant4 ,the latter may be as great as   
the two former taken together2 and as it
 may be assumed1 without much risk of   
error1 that a constant pressure will be 
exerted by the ratepayers on the members
 who represent them to get as much out  
of the ,government1 and as little out of
 the rates1 as possible1 the ,school    
,boards will have a very strong motive  
for shaping the education they give1 as 
nearly as may be1 on the model which the
 ,education ,minister offers for their  
imitation1 and for the copying of which 
he is prepared to pay4  ,the ,revised   
,code did not compel any schoolmaster to
 leave off teaching anything2 but1 by   
the very simple process of refusing to  
pay for many kinds of teaching1 it has  
practically put an end to them4 ,mr4    
,forster is said to be engaged in       
revising the ,revised ,code2 a successor
 of his may re-revise it--and there will
 be no sort of check upon these         
revisions and counter revisions1 except 

the possibility of a ,parliamentary     
debate1 when the revised1 or added1     
minutes are laid upon the table4 ,what  
chance is there that any such debate    
will take place on a matter of detail   
relating to elementary education--a     
subject with which members of the       
,legislature1 having been1 for the most 
part1 sent to our public schools thirty 
years ago1 have not the least practical 
acquaintance1 and for which they care   
nothing1 unless it derives a political  
value from its connection with sectarian
 politics8  ,i cannot but think1 then1  
that the ,school ,boards will have the  
appearance1 but not the reality1 of     
freedom of action1 in regard to the     
subject-matter of what is commonly      
called secular education4  ,as respects 
what is commonly called religious       
education1 the power of the ,minister of
 ,education is even more despotic4 ,an  
interest1 almost amounting to pathos1   
attaches itself1 in my mind1 to the     
frantic exertions which are at present  

going on in almost every school         
division1 to elect certain candidates   
whose names have never before been heard
 of in connection with education1 and   
who are either sectarian partisans1 or  
nothing4 ,in my own particular division1
 a body organised ad hoc is moving      
heaven and earth to get the seven seats 
filled by seven gentlemen1 four of whom 
are good ,churchmen1 and three no less  
good ,dissenters4 ,but why should this  
seven times heated fiery furnace of     
theological zeal be so desirous to shed 
its genial warmth over the ,london      
,school ,board8 ,can it be that these   
zealous sectaries mean to evade the     
solemn pledge given in the ,act8        
,no religious catechism or religious    
formulary which is distinctive     of   
any particular denomination shall be    
taught in the school4  ,i confess ,i    
should have thought it my duty to reject
 any such suggestion1 as dishonouring to
 a number of worthy persons1 if it had  
not been for a leading article and some 

correspondence which appeared in the    
,guardian of ,november #ith1 #ahgj4     
,the ,guardian is1 as everybody knows1  
one of the best of the religious        
newspapers2 and1 personally1 ,i have    
every reason to speak highly of the     
fairness1 and indeed kindness1 with     
which the editor is good enough to deal 
with a writer who must1 in many ways1 be
 so objectionable to him as myself4 ,i  
quote the following passages from a     
leading article on a letter of mine1    
therefore1 with all respect1 and with a 
genuine conviction that the course of   
conduct advocated by the writer must    
appear to him in a very different light 
from that under which ,i see it3--      
,the first of these points is the       
interpretation which ,professor         
,huxley puts on the ',cowper-,temple    
clause4' ,it is1 in fact1 that     which
 we foretold some time ago as likely to 
be forced upon it by     those who think
 with him4 ,the clause itself was one of
 those     compromises which it is very 

difficult to define or to maintain      
logically4 ,on the one side was the     
simple freedom to ,school ,boards     to
 establish what schools they pleased1   
which ,mr4 ,forster     originally gave1
 but against which the ,nonconformists  
lifted up     their voices1 because they
 conceived it likely to give too much   
power to the ,church4 ,on the other side
 there was the proposition to     make  
the schools secular--intelligible       
enough1 but in the     consideration of 
public opinion simply impossible--and   
there was     the vague impracticable   
idea1 which ,mr4 ,gladstone thoroughly  
tore     to pieces1 of enacting that the
 teaching of all school-masters in      
the new schools should be strictly      
'undenominational4' ,the                
,cowper-,temple clause was1 we repeat1  
proposed simply to tide over     the    
difficulty4 ,it was to satisfy the      
,nonconformists and the                 
'unsectarian1' as distinct from the     
secular party of the ,league1 by        

forbidding all distinctive 'catechisms  
and formularies1' which     might have  
the effect of openly assigning the      
schools to this or     that religious   
body4 ,it refused1 at the same time1 to 
attempt the     impossible task of      
defining what was undenominational2 and 
its     author even contended1 if we    
understood him correctly1 that it       
would in no way1 even indirectly1       
interfere with the substantial          
teaching of any master in any school4   
,this assertion we always     believed  
to be untenable2 we could not see how1  
in the face of this     clause1 a       
distinctly denominational tone could be 
honestly given to     schools nominally 
general4 ,but beyond this mere          
suggestion of     an attempt at a       
general tone of comprehensiveness in    
religious     teaching it was not       
intended to go1 and only because such   
was its     limitation was it accepted  
by the ,government and by the ,house4   
,but now we are told that it is to be   

construed as doing precisely     that   
which it refused to do4 ,a 'formulary1' 
it seems1 is a     collection of        
formulas1 and formulas are simply       
propositions of     whatever kind       
touching religious faith4 ,all such     
propositions1 if     they cannot be     
accepted by all ,christian              
denominations1 are to be     proscribed2
 and it is added significantly that the 
,jews also are a     denomination1 and  
so that any teaching distinctively      
,christian is     perhaps to be         
excluded1 lest it should interfere with 
their freedom     and rights4 ,are we   
then to fall back on the simple reading 
of the     letter of the ,bible8 ,no6   
this1 it is granted1 would be an        
'unworthy     pretence4' ,the teacher is
 to give 'grammatical1 geographical1 or 
historical explanations2' but he is to  
keep clear of 'theology     proper1'    
because1 as ,professor ,huxley takes    
great pains to prove1     there is no   
theological teaching which is not       

opposed by some sect     or other1 from 
,roman ,catholicism on the one hand to  
,unitarianism on     the other4 ,it was 
not1 perhaps1 hard to see that this     
difficulty     would be started2 and to 
those who1 like ,professor ,huxley look 
at     it theoretically1 without much   
practical experience of schools1 it     
may appear serious or unanswerable4 ,but
 there is very little in it             
practically2 when it is faced           
determinately and handled firmly1 it    
will soon shrink into its true          
dimensions4 ,the class who are least    
frightened at it are the school         
teachers1 simply because they know      
most about it4 ,it is quite clear that  
the school managers must be             
cautioned against allowing their schools
 to be made places of     proselytism3  
but when this is done1 the case is      
simple enough4     ,leave the masters   
under this general understanding to     
teach freely2     if there in ground of 
complaint1 let it be made1 but leave the

     onus probandi on the objectors4    
,for extreme peculiarities of     belief
 or unbelief there is the ,conscience   
,clause2 as to the mass     of parents1 
they will be more anxious to have       
religion taught than     afraid of its  
assuming this or that particular shade4 
,they will     trust the school managers
 and teachers till they have reason to  
distrust them1 and experience has shown 
that they may trust them     safely     
enough4 ,any attempt to throw the burden
 of making the     teaching             
undenominational upon the managers must 
be sternly     resisted3 it is simply   
evading the intentions of the ,act in an
     elaborate attempt to carry them    
out4 ,we thank ,professor ,huxley for   
the warning4 ,to be forewarned is to be 
forearmed4  ,a good deal of light seems 
to me to be thrown on the practical     
significance of the opinions expressed  
in the foregoing extract by the         
following interesting letter1 which     
appeared in the same paper3--           

,sir1--,i venture to send to you the    
substance of a correspondence     with  
the ,education ,department upon the     
question of the lawfulness     of       
religious teaching in rate schools under
 section #ad 7#b7 of the     ,act4 ,i   
asked whether the words 'which is       
distinctive1' c41 taken                 
grammatically as limiting the           
prohibition of any religious            
formulary1 might be construed as        
allowing 7subject1 however1 to the      
other provisions of the ,act7 any       
religious formulary common to any       
two denominations anywhere in ,england  
to be taught in such schools2     and if
 practically the limit could not be so  
extended1 but would     have to be fixed
 according to the special circumstances 
of each     district1 then what degree  
of general acceptance in a district     
would exempt such a formulary from the  
prohibition8 ,the answer to     this was
 as follows3--',it was understood1 when 
clause #ad of the     ,education ,act   

was discussed in the ,house of ,commons1
 that1     according to a well-known    
rule of interpreting ,acts of           
,parliament1     denomination must be   
held to include denominations4 ,when any
     dispute is referred to the         
,education ,department under the last   
paragraph of section #af1 it will be    
dealt with according to the             
circumstances of the case4'      ,upon  
my asking further if ,i might hence     
infer that the lawfulness     of        
teaching any religious formulary in a   
rate school would thus     depend       
exclusively on local circumstances1 and 
would     accordingly be so decided by  
the ,education ,department in case of   
dispute1 ,i was informed in explanation 
that 'their lordships''     letter was  
intended to convey to me that no general
 rule1 beyond     that stated in the    
first paragraph of their letter1 could  
at     present be laid down by them2 and
 that their decision in each            
particular case must depend on the      

special circumstances     accompanying  
it4      ,i think it would appear from  
this that it may yet be in many cases   
both lawful and expedient to teach      
religious formularies in rate           
schools4 ,h4 ,i4      ,steyning1        
,november #e1 #ahgj4  ,of course ,i do  
not mean to suggest that the editor of  
the ,guardian is bound by the opinions  
of his correspondent2 but ,i cannot help
 thinking that ,i do not misrepresent   
him1 when ,i say that he also thinks    
that it may yet be1 in many cases1 both 
lawful and expedient to teach religious 
formularies in rate schools under these 
circumstances4  ,it is not uncharitable1
 therefore1 to assume that1 the express 
words of the ,act of ,parliament        
notwithstanding1 all the sectaries who  
are toiling so hard for seats in the    
,london ,school ,board have the lively  
hope of the gentleman from ,steyning1   
that it may be both lawful and expedient
 to teach religious formularies in rate 
schools2 and that they mean to do their 

utmost to bring this happy consummation 
about4 #b  ,now the pathetic emotion to 
which ,i have referred1 as accompanying 
my contemplations of the violent        
struggles of so many excellent persons1 
is caused by the circumstance that1 so  
far as ,i can judge1 their labour is in 
vain4  ,supposing that the ,london      
,school ,board contains1 as it probably 
will do1 a majority of sectaries2 and   
that they carry over the heads of a     
minority1 a resolution that certain     
theological formulas1 about which they  
all happen to agree1--say1 for example1 
the doctrine of the ,trinity1--shall be 
taught in the schools4 ,do they fondly  
imagine that the minority will not at   
once dispute their interpretation of the
 ,act1 and appeal to the ,education     
,department to settle that dispute8 ,and
 if so1 do they suppose that any        
,minister of ,education1 who wants to   
keep his place1 will tighten boundaries 
which the ,legislature has left loose2  
and will give a final decision which    

shall be offensive to every ,unitarian  
and to every ,jew in the ,house of      
,commons1 besides creating a precedent  
which will afterwards be used to the    
injury of every ,nonconformist8 ,the    
editor of the ,guardian tells his       
friends sternly to resist every attempt 
to throw the burden of making the       
teaching undenominational on the        
managers1 and thanks me for the warning 
,i have given him4 ,i return the thanks1
 with interest1 for his warning1 as to  
the course the party he represents      
intends to pursue1 and for enabling me  
thus to draw public attention to a      
perfectly constitutional and effectual  
mode of checkmating them4  ,and1 in     
truth1 it is wonderful to note the      
surprising entanglement into which our  
able editor gets himself in the struggle
 between his native honesty and judgment
 and the necessities of his party4 ,we  
could not see1 says he1 in the face of  
this clause how a distinct              
denominational tone could be honestly   

given to schools nominally general4     
,there speaks the honest and            
clear-headed man4 ,any attempt to throw 
the burden of making the teaching       
undenominational must be sternly        
resisted4 ,there speaks the advocate    
holding a brief for his party4 ,verily1 
as ,trinculo says1 the monster hath two 
mouths3 the one1 the forward mouth1     
tells us very justly that the teaching  
cannot honestly be distinctly           
denominational2 but the other1 the      
backward mouth1 asserts that it must by 
no manner of means be undenominational4 
,putting the two utterances together1 ,i
 can only interpret them to mean that   
the teaching is to be indistinctly      
denominational4 ,if the editor of the   
,guardian had not shown signs of anger  
at my use of the term theological fog1  
,i should have been tempted to suppose  
it must have been what he had in his    
mind1 under the name of indistinct      
denominationalism4 ,but this reading    
being plainly inadmissible1 ,i can only 

imagine that he inculcates the teaching 
of formulas common to a number of       
denominations4  ,but the ,education     
,department has already told the        
gentleman from ,steyning that any such  
proceeding will be illegal4 ,according  
to a well-known rule of interpreting    
,acts of ,parliament1 'denomination'    
would be held to include                
'denominations4' ,in other words1 we    
must read the ,act thus3--  ,no         
religious catechism or religious        
formulary which is distinctive of any   
particular denominations shall be       
taught4  ,thus we are really very much  
indebted to the editor of the ,guardian 
and his correspondent4 ,the one has     
shown us that the sectaries mean to try 
to get as much denominational teaching  
as they can agree upon among themselves1
 forced into the elementary schools2    
while the other has obtained a formal   
declaration from the ,educational       
,department that any such attempt will  
contravene the ,act of ,parliament1 and 

that1 therefore1 the unsectarian1       
law-abiding members of the ,school      
,boards may safely reckon upon bringing 
down upon their opponents the heavy hand
 of the ,minister of ,education4 #c  ,so
 much for the powers of the ,school     
,boards4 ,limited as they seem to be1 it
 by no means follows that such ,boards1 
if they are composed of intelligent and 
practical men1 really more in earnest   
about education than about sectarian    
squabbles1 may not exert a very great   
amount of influence4 ,and1 from many    
circumstances1 this is especially likely
 to be the case with the ,london ,school
 ,board1 which1 if it conducts itself   
wisely1 may become a true educational   
parliaments as subordinate in authority 
to the ,minister of ,education1         
theoretically1 as the ,legislature is to
 the ,crown1 and yet1 like the          
,legislature1 possessed of great        
practical authority4 ,and ,i suppose    
that no ,minister of ,education would be
 other than glad to have the aid of the 

deliberations of such a body1 or fail to
 pay careful attention to its           
recommendations4  ,what1 then1 ought to 
be the nature and scope of the education
 which a ,school ,board should endeavour
 to give to every child under its       
influence1 and for which it should try  
to obtain the aid of the ,parliamentary 
grants8 ,in my judgment it should       
include at least the following kinds of 
instruction and of discipline3--  #a4   
,physical training and drill1 as part of
 the regular business of the school4    
,it is impossible to insist too much on 
the importance of this part of education
 for the children of the poor of great  
towns4 ,all the conditions of their     
lives are unfavourable to their physical
 well-being4 ,they are badly lodged1    
badly housed1 badly fed1 and live from  
one year's end to another in bad air1   
without chance of a change4 ,they have  
no play-grounds2 they amuse themselves  
with marbles and chuck-farthing1 instead
 of cricket or hare-and-hounds2 and if  

it were not for the wonderful instinct  
which leads all poor children of tender 
years to run under the feet of          
cab-horses whenever they can1 ,i know   
not how they would learn to use their   
limbs with agility4  ,now there is no   
real difficulty about teaching drill and
 the simpler kinds of gymnastics4 ,it is
 done admirably well1 for example1 in   
the ,north ,surrey ,union schools2 and a
 year or two ago when ,i had an         
opportunity of inspecting these schools1
 ,i was greatly struck with the effect  
of such training upon the poor little   
waifs and strays of humanity1 mostly    
picked out of the gutter1 who are being 
made into cleanly1 healthy1 and useful  
members of society in that excellent    
institution4  ,whatever doubts people   
may entertain about the efficacy of     
natural selection1 there can be none    
about artificial selection2 and the     
breeder who should attempt to make1 or  
keep up1 a fine stock of pigs1 or sheep1
 under the conditions to which the      

children of the poor are exposed1 would 
be the laughing-stock even of the       
bucolic mind4 ,parliament has already   
done something in this direction by     
declining to be an accomplice in the    
asphyxiation of school children4 ,it    
refuses to make any grant to a school in
 which the cubical contents of the      
school-room are inadequate to allow of  
proper respiration4 ,i should like to   
see it make another step in the same    
direction1 and either refuse to give a  
grant to a school in which physical     
training is not a part of the programme1
 or1 at any rate1 offer to pay upon such
 training4 ,if something of the kind is 
not done1 the ,english physique1 which  
has been1 and is still1 on the whole1 a 
grand one1 will become as extinct as the
 dodo in the great towns4  ,and then the
 moral and intellectual effect of drill1
 as an introduction to1 and aid of1 all 
other sorts of training1 must not be    
overlooked4 ,if you want to break in a  
colt1 surely the first thing to do is to

 catch him and get him quietly to face  
his trainer2 to know his voice and bear 
his hand2 to learn that colts have      
something else to do with their heels   
than to kick them up whenever they feel 
so inclined2 and to discover that the   
dreadful human figure has no desire to  
devour1 or even to beat him1 but that1  
in case of attention and obedience1 he  
may hope for patting and even a sieve of
 oats4  ,but1 your street ,arabs1 and   
other neglected poor children1 are      
rather worse and wilder than colts2 for 
the reason that the horse-colt has only 
his animal instincts in him1 and his    
mother1 the mare1 has been always tender
 over him1 and never came home drunk and
 kicked him in her life2 while the      
man-colt is inspired by that very real  
devil1 perverted manhood1 and his mother
 may have done all that and more4 ,so1  
on the whole1 it may probably be even   
more expedient to begin your attempt to 
get at the higher nature of the child1  
than at that of the colt1 from the      

physical side4  #b4 ,next in order to   
physical training ,i put the instruction
 of children1 and especially of girls1  
in the elements of household work and of
 domestic economy2 in the first place   
for their own sakes1 and in the second  
for that of their future employers4     
,every one who knows anything of the    
life of the ,english poor is aware of   
the misery and waste caused by their    
want of knowledge of domestic economy1  
and by their lack of habits of frugality
 and method4 ,i suppose it is no        
exaggeration to say that a poor         
,frenchwoman would make the money which 
the wife of a poor ,englishman spends in
 food go twice as far1 and at the same  
time turn out twice as palatable a      
dinner4 ,why ,englishmen1 who are so    
notoriously fond of good living1 should 
be so helplessly incompetent in the art 
of cookery1 is one of the great         
mysteries of nature2 but from the varied
 abominations of the railway            
refreshment-rooms to the monotonous     

dinners of the poor1 ,english feeding is
 either wasteful or nasty1 or both4     
,and as to domestic service1 the groans 
of the housewives of ,england ascend to 
heaven6 ,in five cases out of six the   
girl who takes a place has to be trained
 by her mistress in the first rudiments 
of decency and order2 and it is a mercy 
if she does not turn up her nose at     
anything like the mention of an honest  
and proper economy4 ,thousands of young 
girls are said to starve1 or worse1     
yearly in ,london2 and at the same time 
thousands of mistresses of households   
are ready to pay high wages for a decent
 housemaid1 or cook1 or a fair          
workwoman2 and can by no means get what 
they want4  ,surely1 if the elementary  
schools are worth anything1 they may put
 an end to a state of things which is   
demoralising the poor1 while it is      
wasting the lives of those better off in
 small worries and annoyances4  #c4 ,but
 the boys and girls for whose education 
the ,school ,boards have to provide1    

have not merely to discharge domestic   
duties1 but each of them is a member of 
a social and political organisation of  
great complexity1 and has1 in future    
life1 to fit himself into that          
organisation1 or be crushed by it4 ,to  
this end it is surely needful1 not only 
that they should be made acquainted with
 the elementary laws of conduct1 but    
that their affections should be trained1
 so as to love with all their hearts    
that conduct which tends to the         
attainment of the highest good for      
themselves and their fellow men1 and to 
hate with all their hearts that opposite
 course of action which is fraught with 
evil4  ,so far as the laws of conduct   
are determined by the intellect1 ,i     
apprehend that they belong to science1  
and to that part of science which is    
called morality4 ,but the engagement of 
the affections in favour of that        
particular kind of conduct which we call
 good1 seems to me to be something quite
 beyond mere science4 ,and ,i cannot but

 think that it1 together with the awe   
and reverence1 which have no kinship    
with base fear1 but arise whenever one  
tries to pierce below the surface of    
things1 whether they be material or     
spiritual1 constitutes all that has any 
unchangeable reality in religion4  ,and 
just as ,i think it would be a mistake  
to confound the science1 morality1 with 
the affection1 religion2 so do ,i       
conceive it to be a most lamentable and 
mischievous error1 that the science1    
theology1 is so confounded in the minds 
of many--indeed1 ,i might say1 of the   
majority of men4  ,i do not express any 
opinion as to whether theology is a true
 science1 or whether it does not come   
under the apostolic definition of       
science falsely so called2 though ,i may
 be permitted to express the belief that
 if the ,apostle to whom that much      
misapplied phrase is due could make the 
acquaintance of much of modern theology1
 he would not hesitate a moment in      
declaring that it is exactly what he    

meant the words to denote4  ,but it is  
at any rate conceivable1 that the nature
 of the ,deity1 and his relations to the
 universe1 and more especially to       
mankind1 are capable of being           
ascertained1 either inductively or      
deductively1 or by both processes4 ,and1
 if they have been ascertained1 then a  
body of science has been formed which is
 very properly called theology4         
,further1 there can be no doubt that    
affection for the ,being thus defined   
and described by theologic science would
 be properly termed religion2 but it    
would not be the whole of religion4 ,the
 affection for the ethical ideal defined
 by moral science would claim equal if  
not superior rights4 ,for suppose       
theology established the existence of an
 evil deity--and some theologies1 even  
,christian ones1 have come very near    
this1--is the religious affection to be 
transferred from the ethical ideal to   
any such omnipotent demon8 ,i trow not4 
,better a thousand times that the human 

race should perish under his            
thunderbolts than it should say1 ,evil1 
be thou my good4  ,there is nothing new1
 that ,i know of1 in this statement of  
the relations of religion with the      
science of morality on the one hand and 
that of theology on the other4 ,but ,i  
believe it to be altogether true1 and   
very needful1 at this time1 to be       
clearly and emphatically recognised as  
such1 by those who have to deal with the
 education question4  ,we are divided   
into two parties--the advocates of      
so-called religious teaching on the one 
hand1 and those of so-called secular    
teaching on the other4 ,and both parties
 seem to me to be not only hopelessly   
wrong1 but in such a position that if   
either succeeded completely1 it would   
discover1 before many years were over1  
that it had made a great mistake and    
done serious evil to the cause of       
education4  ,for1 leaving aside the more
 far-seeing minority on each side1 what 
the religious party is crying for is    

mere theology1 under the name of        
religion2 while the secularists have    
unwisely and wrongfully admitted the    
assumption of their opponents1 and      
demand the abolition of all religious   
teaching1 when they only want to be free
 of theology--,burning your ship to get 
rid of the cockroaches6  ,but my belief 
is1 that no human being1 and no society 
composed of human beings1 ever did1 or  
ever will1 come to much1 unless their   
conduct was governed and guided by the  
love of some ethical ideal4             
,undoubtedly1 your gutter child may be  
converted by mere intellectual drill    
into the subtlest of all the beasts of  
the field2 but we know what has become  
of the original of that description1 and
 there is no need to increase the number
 of those who imitate him successfully  
without being aided by the rates4 ,and  
if ,i were compelled to choose for one  
of my own children1 between a school in 
which real religious instruction is     
given1 and one without it1 ,i should    

prefer the former1 even though the child
 might have to take a good deal of      
theology with it4 ,nine-tenths of a dose
 of bark is mere half-rotten wood2 but  
one swallows it for the sake of the     
particles of quinine1 the beneficial    
effect of which may be weakened1 but is 
not destroyed1 by the wooden dilution1  
unless in a few cases of exceptionally  
tender stomachs4  ,hence1 when the great
 mass of the ,english people declare    
that they want to have the children in  
the elementary schools taught the       
,bible1 and when it is plain from the   
terms of the ,act1 the debates in and   
out of ,parliament1 and especially the  
emphatic declarations of the            
,vice-,president of the ,council1 that  
it was intended that such ,bible-reading
 should be permitted1 unless good cause 
for prohibiting it could be shown1 ,i do
 not see what reason there is for       
opposing that wish4 ,certainly1 ,i1     
individually1 could with no shadow of   
consistency oppose the teaching of the  

children of other people to do that     
which my own children are taught to do4 
,and1 even if the reading the ,bible    
were not1 as ,i think it is1 consonant  
with political reason and justice1 and  
with a desire to act in the spirit of   
the education measure1 ,i am disposed to
 think it might still be well to read   
that book in the elementary schools4  ,i
 have always been strongly in favour of 
secular education1 in the sense of      
education without theology2 but ,i must 
confess ,i have been no less seriously  
perplexed to know by what practical     
measures the religious feeling1 which is
 the essential basis of conduct1 was to 
be kept up1 in the present utterly      
chaotic state of opinion on these       
matters1 without the use of the ,bible4 
,the ,pagan moralists lack life and     
colour1 and even the noble ,stoic1      
,marcus ,antonius1 is too high and      
refined for an ordinary child4 ,take the
 ,bible as a whole2 make the severest   
deductions which fair criticism can     

dictate for shortcomings and positive   
errors2 eliminate1 as a sensible        
lay-teacher would do1 if left to        
himself1 all that it is not desirable   
for children to occupy themselves with2 
and there still remains in this old     
literature a vast residuum of moral     
beauty and grandeur4 ,and then consider 
the great historical fact that1 for     
three centuries1 this book has been     
woven into the life of all that is best 
and noblest in ,english history2 that it
 has become the national epic of        
,britain1 and is as familiar to noble   
and simple1 from ,john-o'-,groat's      
,house to ,land's ,end1 as ,dante and   
,tasso once were to the ,italians2 that 
it is written in the noblest and purest 
,english1 and abounds in exquisite      
beauties of mere literary form2 and1    
finally1 that it forbids the veriest    
hind who never left his village to be   
ignorant of the existence of other      
countries and other civilisations1 and  
of a great past1 stretching back to the 

furthest limits of the oldest nations in
 the world4 ,by the study of what other 
book could children be so much humanised
 and made to feel that each figure in   
that vast historical procession fills1  
like themselves1 but a momentary space  
in the interval between two eternities2 
and earns the blessings or the curses of
 all time1 according to its effort to do
 good and hate evil1 even as they also  
are earning their payment for their     
work8  ,on the whole1 then1 ,i am in    
favour of reading the ,bible1 with such 
grammatical1 geographical1 and          
historical explanations by a lay-teacher
 as may be needful1 with rigid exclusion
 of any further theological teaching    
than that contained in the ,bible       
itself4 ,and in stating what this is1   
the teacher would do well not to go     
beyond the precise words of the ,bible2 
for if he does1 he will1 in the first   
place1 undertake a task beyond his      
strength1 seeing that all the ,jewish   
and ,christian sects have been at work  

upon that subject for more than two     
thousand years1 and have not yet        
arrived1 and are not in the least likely
 to arrive1 at an agreement2 and1 in the
 second place1 he will certainly begin  
to teach something distinctively        
denominational1 and thereby come into   
violent collision with the ,act of      
,parliament4  #d4 ,the intellectual     
training to be given in the elementary  
schools must of course1 in the first    
place1 consist in learning to use the   
means of acquiring knowledge1 or        
reading1 writing1 and arithmetic2 and it
 will be a great matter to teach reading
 so completely that the act shall have  
become easy and pleasant4 ,if reading   
remains hard1 that accomplishment will  
not be much resorted to for instruction1
 and still less for amusement--which    
last is one of its most valuable uses to
 hard-worked people4 ,but along with a  
due proficiency in the use of the means 
of learning1 a certain amount of        
knowledge1 of intellectual discipline1  

and of artistic training should be      
conveyed in the elementary schools2 and 
in this direction--for reasons which ,i 
am afraid to repeat1 having urged them  
so often--,i can conceive no            
subject-matter of education so          
appropriate and so important as the     
rudiments of physical science1 with     
drawing1 modelling1 and singing4 ,not   
only would such teaching afford the best
 possible preparation for the technical 
schools about which so much is now said1
 but the organisation for carrying it   
into effect already exists4 ,the        
,science and ,art ,department1 the      
operations of which have already        
attained considerable magnitude1 not    
only offers to examine and pay the      
results of such examination in          
elementary science and art1 but it      
provides what is still more important1  
viz4 a means of giving children of high 
natural ability1 who are just as        
abundant among the poor as among the    
rich1 a helping hand4 ,a good old       

proverb tells us that ,one should not   
take a razor to cut a block3 the razor  
is soon spoiled1 and the block is not so
 well cut as it would be with a hatchet4
 ,but it is worse economy to prevent a  
possible ,watt from being anything but a
 stoker1 or to give a possible ,faraday 
no chance of doing anything but to bind 
books4 ,indeed1 the loss in such cases  
of mistaken vocation has no measure2 it 
is absolutely infinite and irreparable4 
,and among the arguments in favour of   
the interference of the ,state in       
education1 none seems to be stronger    
than this--that it is the interest of   
every one that ability should be neither
 wasted1 nor misapplied1 by any one3    
and1 therefore1 that every one's        
representative1 the ,state1 is          
necessarily fulfilling the wishes of its
 constituents when it is helping the    
capacities to reach their proper places4
  ,it may be said that the scheme of    
education here sketched is too large to 
be effected in the time during which the

 children will remain at school2 and1   
secondly1 that even if this objection   
did not exist1 it would cost too much4  
,i attach no importance whatever to the 
first objection until the experiment has
 been fairly tried4 ,considering how    
much catechism1 lists of the kings of   
,israel1 geography of ,palestine1 and   
the like1 children are made to swallow  
now1 ,i cannot believe there will be any
 difficulty in inducing them to go      
through the physical training1 which is 
more than half play2 or the instruction 
in household work1 or in those duties to
 one another and to themselves1 which   
have a daily and hourly practical       
interest4 ,that children take kindly to 
elementary science and art no one can   
doubt who has tried the experiment      
properly4 ,and if ,bible-reading is not 
accompanied by constraint and solemnity1
 as if it were a sacramental operation1 
,i do not believe there is anything in  
which children take more pleasure4 ,at  
least ,i know that some of the          

pleasantest recollections of my         
childhood are connected with the        
voluntary study of an ancient ,bible    
which belonged to my grandmother4 ,there
 were splendid pictures in it1 to be    
sure2 but ,i recollect little or nothing
 about them save a portrait of the high 
priest in his vestments4 ,what come     
vividly back on my mind are remembrances
 of my delight in the histories of      
,joseph and of ,david2 and of my keen   
appreciation of the chivalrous kindness 
of ,abraham in his dealing with ,lot4   
,like a sudden flash there returns back 
upon me1 my utter scorn of the          
pettifogging meanness of ,jacob1 and my 
sympathetic grief over the heartbreaking
 lamentation of the cheated ,esau1 ,hast
 thou not a blessing for me also1 ,o my 
father8 ,and ,i see1 as in a cloud1     
pictures of the grand phantasmagoria of 
the ,book of ,revelation4  ,i enumerate1
 as they issue1 the childish impressions
 which come crowding out of the         
pigeon-holes in my brain1 in which they 

have lain almost undisturbed for forty  
years4 ,i prize them as an evidence that
 a child of five or six years old1 left 
to his own devices1 may be deeply       
interested in the ,bible1 and draw sound
 moral sustenance from it4 ,and ,i      
rejoice that ,i was left to deal with   
the ,bible alone2 for if ,i had had some
 theological explainer at my side1 he   
might have tried1 as such do1 to lessen 
my indignation against ,jacob1 and      
thereby have warped my moral sense for  
ever2 while the great apocalyptic       
spectacle of the ultimate triumph of    
right and justice might have been turned
 to the base purposes of a pious        
lampooner of the ,papacy4  ,and as to   
the second objection--costliness--the   
reply is1 first1 that the rate and the  
,parliamentary grant together ought to  
be enough1 considering that science and 
art teaching is already provided for2   
and1 secondly1 that if they are not1 it 
may be well for the educational         
parliament to consider what has become  

of those endowments which were          
originally intended to be devoted1 more 
or less largely1 to the education of the
 poor4  ,when the monasteries were      
spoiled1 some of their endowments were  
applied to the foundation of cathedrals2
 and in all such cases it was ordered   
that a certain portion of the endowment 
should be applied to the purposes of    
education4 ,how much is so applied8 ,is 
that which may be so applied given to   
help the poor1 who cannot pay for       
education1 or does it virtually         
subsidise the comparatively rich1 who   
can8 ,how are ,christ's ,hospital and   
,alleyn's foundation securing their     
right purposes1 or how far are they     
perverted into contrivances for         
affording relief to the classes who can 
afford to pay for education8 ,how-- ,but
 this paper is already too long1 and1 if
 ,i begin1 ,i may find it hard to stop  
asking questions of this kind1 which    
after all are worthy only of the lowest 
of ,radicals4         99       99       

99       99       99  ,footnotes3  #a   
,notwithstanding ,mr4 ,huxley's         
intentions1 the ,editor took upon       
himself1 in what seemed to him to be the
 public interest1 to send an extract    
from this article to the                
newspapers--before the day of the       
election of the ,school                 
,board4--,,editor of the ,contemporary  
,review4  #b ,a passage in an article on
 the ,working of the ,education ,act1 in
 the ,saturday ,review for ,nov4 #ai1   
#ahgj1 completely justifies this        
anticipation of the line of action which
 the sectaries mean to take4 ,after     
commending the ,liverpool compromise1   
the writer goes on to say3--  ,if this  
plan is fairly adopted in ,liverpool1   
the fourteenth clause of the ,act will  
in effect be restored to its original   
form1 and the majority of the ratepayers
 in each district be permitted to decide
 to what denomination the school shall  
belong4  ,in a previous paragraph the   
writer speaks of a possible mistrust of 

one another by the members of the       
,board1 and seems to anticipate         
accusations of dishonesty4 ,if any of   
the members of the ,board adopt his     
views1 ,i think it highly probable that 
he may turn out to be a true prophet4   
#c ,since this paragraph was written1   
,mr4 ,forster1 in speaking at the       
,birkbeck ,institution1 has removed all 
doubt as to what his final decision will
 be in the case of such disputes being  
referred to him3--,i have the fullest   
confidence that in the reading and      
explaining of the ,bible1 what the      
children will be taught will be the     
great truths of ,christian life and     
conduct1 which all of us desire they    
should know1 and that no effort will be 
made to cram into their poor little     
minds1 theological dogmas which their   
tender age prevents them from           
understanding4     ,,xvi  ,,technical   
,,education  #ahgg   ,any candid        
observer of the phenomena of modern     
society will readily admit that bores   

must be classed among the enemies of the
 human race2 and a little consideration 
will probably lead him to the further   
admission1 that no species of that      
extensive genus of noxious creatures is 
more objectionable than the educational 
bore4 ,convinced as ,i am of the truth  
of this great social generalisation1 it 
is not without a certain trepidation    
that ,i venture to address you on an    
educational topic4 ,for1 in the course  
of the last ten years1 to go back no    
farther1 ,i am afraid to say how often  
,i have ventured to speak of education1 
from that given in the primary schools  
to that which is to be had in the       
universities and medical colleges2      
indeed1 the only part of this wide      
region into which1 as yet1 ,i have not  
adventured is that into which ,i propose
 to intrude to-day4  ,thus1 ,i cannot   
but be aware that ,i am dangerously near
 becoming the thing which all men fear  
and fly4 ,but ,i have deliberately      
elected to run the risk4 ,for when you  

did me the honour to ask me to address  
you1 an unexpected circumstance had led 
me to occupy myself seriously with the  
question of technical education2 and ,i 
had acquired the conviction that there  
are few subjects respecting which it is 
more important for all classes of the   
community to have clear and just ideas  
than this2 while1 certainly1 there is   
none which is more deserving of         
attention by the ,working ,men's ,club  
and ,institute ,union4  ,it is not for  
me to express an opinion whether the    
considerations1 which ,i am about to    
submit to you1 will be proved by        
experience to be just or not1 but ,i    
will do my best to make them clear4     
,among the many good things to be found 
in ,lord ,bacon's works1 none is more   
full of wisdom than the saying that     
truth more easily comes out of error    
than out of confusion4 ,clear and       
consecutive wrong-thinking is the next  
best thing to right-thinking2 so that1  
if ,i succeed in clearing your ideas on 

this topic1 ,i shall have wasted neither
 your time nor my own4  ,technical      
education1 in the sense in which the    
term is ordinarily used1 and in which ,i
 am now employing it1 means that sort of
 education which is specially adapted to
 the needs of men whose business in life
 it is to pursue some kind of           
handicraft2 it is1 in fact1 a fine      
,greco-,latin equivalent for what in    
good vernacular ,english would be called
 the teaching of handicrafts4 ,and      
probably1 at this stage of our progress1
 it may occur to many of you to think of
 the story of the cobbler and his last1 
and to say to yourselves1 though you    
will be too polite to put the question  
openly to me1 ,what does the speaker    
know practically about this matter8     
,what is his handicraft8 ,i think the   
question is a very proper one1 and      
unless ,i were prepared to answer it1 ,i
 hope satisfactorily1 ,i should have    
chosen some other theme4  ,the fact is1 
,i am1 and have been1 any time these    

thirty years1 a man who works with his  
hands--a handicraftsman4 ,i do not say  
this in the broadly metaphorical sense  
in which fine gentlemen1 with all the   
delicacy of ,agag about them1 trip to   
the hustings about election time1 and   
protest that they too are working men4  
,i really mean my words to be taken in  
their direct1 literal1 and              
straightforward sense4 ,in fact1 if the 
most nimble-fingered watchmaker among   
you will come to my workshop1 he may set
 me to put a watch together1 and ,i will
 set him to dissect1 say1 a             
blackbeetle's nerves4 ,i do not wish to 
vaunt1 but ,i am inclined to think that 
,i shall manage my job to his           
satisfaction sooner than he will do his 
piece of work to mine4  ,in truth1      
anatomy1 which is my handicraft1 is one 
of the most difficult kinds of          
mechanical labour1 involving1 as it     
does1 not only lightness and dexterity  
of hand1 but sharp eyes and endless     
patience4 ,and you must not suppose that

 my particular branch of science is     
especially distinguished for the demand 
it makes upon skill in manipulation4 ,a 
similar requirement is made upon all    
students of physical science4 ,the      
astronomer1 the electrician1 the        
chemist1 the mineralogist1 the botanist1
 are constantly called upon to perform  
manual operations of exceeding delicacy4
 ,the progress of all branches of       
physical science depends upon           
observation1 or on that artificial      
observation which is termed experiment1 
of one kind or another2 and1 the farther
 we advance1 the more practical         
difficulties surround the investigation 
of the conditions of the problems       
offered to us2 so that mobile and yet   
steady hands1 guided by clear vision1   
are more and more in request in the     
workshops of science4  ,indeed1 it has  
struck me that one of the grounds of    
that sympathy between the handicraftsmen
 of this country and the men of science1
 by which it has so often been my good  

fortune to profit1 may1 perhaps1 lie    
here4 ,you feel and we feel that1 among 
the so-called learned folks1 we alone   
are brought into contact with tangible  
facts in the way that you are4 ,you know
 well enough that it is one thing to    
write a history of chairs in general1 or
 to address a poem to a throne1 or to   
speculate about the occult powers of the
 chair of ,st4 ,peter2 and quite another
 thing to make with your own hands a    
veritable chair1 that will stand fair   
and square1 and afford a safe and       
satisfactory resting-place to a frame of
 sensitiveness and solidity4  ,so it is 
with us1 when we look out from our      
scientific handicrafts upon the doings  
of our learned brethren1 whose work is  
untrammelled by anything base and       
mechanical1 as handicrafts used to be   
called when the world was younger1 and1 
in some respects1 less wise than now4   
,we take the greatest interest in their 
pursuits2 we are edified by their       
histories and are charmed with their    

poems1 which sometimes illustrate so    
remarkably the powers of man's          
imagination2 some of us admire and even 
humbly try to follow them in their high 
philosophical excursions1 though we know
 the risk of being snubbed by the       
inquiry whether grovelling dissectors of
 monkeys and blackbeetles can hope to   
enter into the empyreal kingdom of      
speculation4 ,but still we feel that our
 business is different2 humbler if you  
will1 though the diminution of dignity  
is1 perhaps1 compensated by the increase
 of reality2 and that we1 like you1 have
 to get our work done in a region where 
little avails1 if the power of dealing  
with practical tangible facts is        
wanting4 ,you know that clever talk     
touching joinery will not make a chair2 
and ,i know that it is of about as much 
value in the physical sciences4 ,mother 
,nature is serenely obdurate to honeyed 
words2 only those who understand the    
ways of things1 and can silently and    
effectually handle them1 get any good   

out of her4  ,and now1 having1 as ,i    
hope1 justified my assumption of a place
 among handicraftsmen1 and put myself   
right with you as to my qualification1  
from practical knowledge1 to speak about
 technical education1 ,i will proceed to
 lay before you the results of my       
experience as a teacher of a handicraft1
 and tell you what sort of education ,i 
should think best adapted for a boy whom
 one wanted to make a professional      
anatomist4  ,i should say1 in the first 
place1 let him have a good ,english     
elementary education4 ,i do not mean    
that he shall be able to pass in such   
and such a standard--that may or may not
 be an equivalent expression--but that  
his teaching shall have been such as to 
have given him command of the common    
implements of learning and to have      
created a desire for the things of the  
understanding4  ,further1 ,i should like
 him to know the elements of physical   
science1 and especially of physics and  
chemistry1 and ,i should take care that 

this elementary knowledge was real4 ,i  
should like my aspirant to be able to   
read a scientific treatise in ,latin1   
,french1 or ,german1 because an enormous
 amount of anatomical knowledge is      
locked up in those languages4 ,and      
especially1 ,i should require some      
ability to draw--,i do not mean         
artistically1 for that is a gift which  
may be cultivated but cannot be learned1
 but with fair accuracy4 ,i will not say
 that everybody can learn1 even this2   
for the negative development of the     
faculty of drawing in some people is    
almost miraculous4 ,still everybody1 or 
almost everybody1 can learn to write2   
and1 as writing is a kind of drawing1 ,i
 suppose that the majority of the people
 who say they cannot draw1 and give     
copious evidence of the accuracy of     
their assertion1 could draw1 after a    
fashion1 if they tried4 ,and that after 
a fashion would be better than nothing  
for my purposes4  ,above all things1 let
 my imaginary pupil have preserved the  

freshness and vigour of youth in his    
mind as well as his body4 ,the          
educational abomination of desolation of
 the present day is the stimulation of  
young people to work at high pressure by
 incessant competitive examinations4    
,some wise man 7who probably was not an 
early riser7 has said of early risers in
 general1 that they are conceited all   
the forenoon and stupid all the         
afternoon4 ,now whether this is true of 
early risers in the common acceptation  
of the word or not1 ,i will not pretend 
to say2 but it is too often true of the 
unhappy children who are forced to rise 
too early in their classes4 ,they are   
conceited all the forenoon of life1 and 
stupid all its afternoon4 ,the vigour   
and freshness1 which should have been   
stored up for the purposes of the hard  
struggle for existence in practical     
life1 have been washed out of them by   
precocious mental debauchery--by book   
gluttony and lesson bibbing4 ,their     
faculties are worn out by the strain put

 upon their callow brains1 and they are 
demoralised by worthless childish       
triumphs before the real work of life   
begins4 ,i have no compassion for sloth1
 but youth has more need for            
intellectual rest than age2 and the     
cheerfulness1 the tenacity of purpose1  
the power of work which make many a     
successful man what he is1 must often be
 placed to the credit1 not of his hours 
of industry1 but to that of his hours of
 idleness1 in boyhood4 ,even the hardest
 worker of us all1 if he has to deal    
with anything above mere details1 will  
do well1 now and again1 to let his brain
 lie fallow for a space4 ,the next crop 
of thought will certainly be all the    
fuller in the ear and the weeds fewer4  
,this is the sort of education which ,i 
should like any one who was going to    
devote himself to my handicraft to      
undergo4 ,as to knowing anything about  
anatomy itself1 on the whole ,i would   
rather he left that alone until he took 
it up seriously in my laboratory4 ,it is

 hard work enough to teach1 and ,i      
should not like to have superadded to   
that the possible need of un-teaching4  
,well1 but1 you will say1 this is       
,hamlet with the ,prince of ,denmark    
left out2 your technical education is   
simply a good education1 with more      
attention to physical science1 to       
drawing1 and to modern languages than is
 common1 and there is nothing specially 
technical about it4  ,exactly so2 that  
remark takes us straight to the heart of
 what ,i have to say2 which is1 that1 in
 my judgment1 the preparatory education 
of the handicraftsman ought to have     
nothing of what is ordinarily understood
 by technical about it4  ,the workshop  
is the only real school for a           
handicraft4 ,the education which        
precedes that of the workshop should be 
entirely devoted to the strengthening of
 the body1 the elevation of the moral   
faculties1 and the cultivation of the   
intelligence2 and1 especially1 to the   
imbuing the mind with a broad and clear 

view of the laws of that natural world  
with the components of which the        
handicraftsman will have to deal4 ,and1 
the earlier the period of life at which 
the handicraftsman has to enter into    
actual practice of his craft1 the more  
important is it that he should devote   
the precious hours of preliminary       
education to things of the mind1 which  
have no direct and immediate bearing on 
his branch of industry1 though they lie 
at the foundation of all realities4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,now let me apply the lessons ,i have   
learned from my handicraft to yours4 ,if
 any of you were obliged to take an     
apprentice1 ,i suppose you would like to
 get a good healthy lad1 ready and      
willing to learn1 handy1 and with his   
fingers not all thumbs1 as the saying   
goes4 ,you would like that he should    
read1 write1 and cipher well2 and1 if   
you were an intelligent master1 and your
 trade involved the application of      
scientific principles1 as so many trades

 do1 you would like him to know enough  
of the elementary principles of science 
to understand what was going on4 ,i     
suppose that1 in nine trades out of ten1
 it would be useful if he could draw2   
and many of you must have lamented your 
inability to find out for yourselves    
what foreigners are doing or have done4 
,so that some knowledge of ,french and  
,german might1 in many cases1 be very   
desirable4  ,so it appears to me that   
what you want is pretty much what ,i    
want2 and the practical question is1    
,how you are to get what you need1 under
 the actual limitations and conditions  
of life of handicraftsmen in this       
country8  ,i think ,i shall have the    
assent both of the employers of labour  
and of the employed as to one of these  
limitations2 which is1 that no scheme of
 technical education is likely to be    
seriously entertained which will delay  
the entrance of boys into working life1 
or prevent them from contributing       
towards their own support1 as early as  

they do at present4 ,not only do ,i     
believe that any such scheme could not  
be carried out1 but ,i doubt its        
desirableness1 even if it were          
practicable4  ,the period between       
childhood and manhood is full of        
difficulties and dangers1 under the most
 favourable circumstances2 and1 even    
among the well-to-do1 who can afford to 
surround their children with the most   
favourable conditions1 examples of a    
career ruined1 before it has well begun1
 are but too frequent4 ,moreover1 those 
who have to live by labour must be      
shaped to labour early4 ,the colt that  
is left at grass too long makes but a   
sorry draught-horse1 though his way of  
life does not bring him within the reach
 of artificial temptations4 ,perhaps the
 most valuable result of all education  
is the ability to make yourself do the  
thing you have to do1 when it ought to  
be done1 whether you like it or not2 it 
is the first lesson that ought to be    
learned2 and1 however early a man's     

training begins1 it is probably the last
 lesson that he learns thoroughly4      
,there is another reason1 to which ,i   
have already adverted1 and which ,i     
would reiterate1 why any extension of   
the time devoted to ordinary schoolwork 
is undesirable4 ,in the newly-awakened  
zeal for education1 we run some risk of 
forgetting the truth that while         
under-instruction is a bad thing1       
over-instruction may possibly be a      
worse4  ,success in any kind of         
practical life is not dependent solely1 
or indeed chiefly1 upon knowledge4 ,even
 in the learned professions1 knowledge  
alone1 is of less consequence than      
people are apt to suppose4 ,and1 if much
 expenditure of bodily energy is        
involved in the day's work1 mere        
knowledge is of still less importance   
when weighed against the probable cost  
of its acquirement4 ,to do a fair day's 
work with his hands1 a man needs1 above 
all things1 health1 strength1 and the   
patience and cheerfulness which1 if they

 do not always accompany these          
blessings1 can hardly in the nature of  
things exist without them2 to which we  
must add honesty of purpose and a pride 
in doing what is done well4  ,a good    
handicraftsman can get on very well     
without genius1 but he will fare badly  
without a reasonable share of that which
 is a more useful possession for        
workaday life1 namely1 mother-wit2 and  
he will be all the better for a real    
knowledge1 however limited1 of the      
ordinary laws of nature1 and especially 
of those which apply to his own         
business4  ,instruction carried so far  
as to help the scholar to turn his store
 of mother-wit to account1 to acquire a 
fair amount of sound elementary         
knowledge1 and to use his hands and     
eyes2 while leaving him fresh1 vigorous1
 and with a sense of the dignity of his 
own calling1 whatever it may be1 if     
fairly and honestly pursued1 cannot fail
 to be of invaluable service to all     
those who come under its influence4     

,but1 on the other hand1 if school      
instruction is carried so far as to     
encourage bookishness2 if the ambition  
of the scholar is directed1 not to the  
gaining of knowledge1 but to the being  
able to pass examinations successfully2 
especially if encouragement is given to 
the mischievous delusion that brainwork 
is1 in itself1 and apart from its       
quality1 a nobler or more respectable   
thing than handiwork--such education may
 be a deadly mischief to the workman1   
and lead to the rapid ruin of the       
industries it is intended to serve4  ,i 
know that ,i am expressing the opinion  
of some of the largest as well as the   
most enlightened employers of labour1   
when ,i say that there is a real danger 
that1 from the extreme of no education1 
we may run to the other extreme of      
over-education of handicraftsmen4 ,and  
,i apprehend that what is true for the  
ordinary hand-worker is true for the    
foreman4 ,activity1 probity1 knowledge  
of men1 ready mother-wit1 supplemented  

by a good knowledge of the general      
principles involved in his business1 are
 the making of a good foreman4 ,if he   
possess these qualities1 no amount of   
learning will fit him better for his    
position2 while the course of life and  
the habit of mind required for the      
attainment of such learning may1 in     
various direct and indirect ways1 act as
 direct disqualifications for it4       
,keeping in mind1 then1 that the two    
things to be avoided are1 the delay of  
the entrance of boys into practical     
life1 and the substitution of exhausted 
bookworms for shrewd1 handy men1 in our 
works and factories1 let us consider    
what may be wisely and safely attempted 
in the way of improving the education of
 the handicraftsman4  ,first1 ,i look to
 the elementary schools now happily     
established all over the country4 ,i am 
not going to criticise or find fault    
with them2 on the contrary1 their       
establishment seems to me to be the most
 important and the most beneficial      

result of the corporate action of the   
people in our day4 ,a great deal is said
 of ,british interests just now1 but1   
depend upon it1 that no ,eastern        
difficulty needs our intervention as a  
nation so seriously1 as the putting down
 both the ,bashi-,bazouks of ignorance  
and the ,cossacks of sectarianism at    
home4 ,what has already been achieved in
 these directions is a great thing2 you 
must have lived some time to know how   
great4 ,an education1 better in its     
processes1 better in its substance1 than
 that which was accessible to the great 
majority of well-to-do ,britons a       
quarter of a century ago1 is now        
obtainable by every child in the land4  
,let any man of my age go into an       
ordinary elementary school1 and unless  
he was unusually fortunate in his youth1
 he will tell you that the educational  
method1 the intelligence1 patience1 and 
good temper on the teacher's part1 which
 are now at the disposal of the veriest 
waifs and wastrels of society1 are      

things of which he had no experience in 
those costly1 middle-class schools1     
which were so ingeniously contrived as  
to combine all the evils and            
shortcomings of the great public schools
 with none of their advantages4 ,many a 
man1 whose so-called education cost a   
good deal of valuable money and occupied
 many a year of invaluable time1 leaves 
the inspection of a well-ordered        
elementary school devoutly wishing that1
 in his young days1 he had had the      
chance of being as well taught as these 
boys and girls are4  ,but while in view 
of such an advance in general education1
 ,i willingly obey the natural impulse  
to be thankful1 ,i am not willing       
altogether to rest4 ,i want to see      
instruction in elementary science and in
 art more thoroughly incorporated in the
 educational system4 ,at present1 it is 
being administered by driblets1 as if it
 were a potent medicine1 a few drops to 
be taken occasionally in a teaspoon4    
,every year ,i notice that that earnest 

and untiring friend of yours and of     
mine1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 stirs up the 
,government of the day in the ,house of 
,commons on this subject2 and also that1
 every year1 he1 and the few members of 
the ,house of ,commons1 such as ,dr4    
,playfair1 who sympathise with him1 are 
met with expressions of warm admiration 
for science in general1 and reasons at  
large for doing nothing in particular4  
,but now that ,mr4 ,forster1 to whom the
 education of the country owes so much1 
has announced his conversion to the     
right faith1 ,i begin to hope that1     
sooner or later1 things will mend4  ,i  
have given what ,i believe to be a good 
reason for the assumption1 that the     
keeping at school of boys1 who are to be
 handicraftsmen1 beyond the age of      
thirteen or fourteen is neither         
practicable nor desirable2 and1 as it is
 quite certain1 that1 with justice to   
other and no less important branches of 
education1 nothing more than the        
rudiments of science and art teaching   

can be introduced into elementary       
schools1 we must seek elsewhere for a   
supplementary training in these         
subjects1 and1 if need be1 in foreign   
languages1 which may go on after the    
workman's life has begun4  ,the means of
 acquiring the scientific and artistic  
part of this training already exists in 
full working order1 in the first place1 
in the classes of the ,science and ,art 
,department1 which are1 for the most    
part1 held in the evening1 so as to be  
accessible to all who choose to avail   
themselves of them after working hours4 
,the great advantage of these classes is
 that they bring the means of           
instruction to the doors of the         
factories and workshops2 that they are  
no artificial creations1 but by their   
very existence prove the desire of the  
people for them2 and finally1 that they 
admit of indefinite development in      
proportion as they are wanted4 ,i have  
often expressed the opinion1 and ,i     
repeat it here1 that1 during the        

eighteen years they have been in        
existence these classes have done       
incalculable good2 and ,i can say1 of my
 own knowledge1 that the ,department    
spares no pains and trouble in trying to
 increase their usefulness and ensure   
the soundness of their work4  ,no one   
knows better than my friend ,colonel    
,donnelly1 to whose clear views and     
great administrative abilities so much  
of the successful working of the science
 classes is due1 that there is much to  
be done before the system can be said to
 be thoroughly satisfactory4 ,the       
instruction given needs to be made more 
systematic and especially more          
practical2 the teachers are of very     
unequal excellence1 and not a few stand 
much in need of instruction themselves1 
not only in the subject which they      
teach1 but in the objects for which they
 teach4 ,i dare say you have heard of   
that proceeding1 reprobated by all true 
sportsmen1 which is called shooting for 
the pot4 ,well1 there is such a thing as

 teaching for the pot--teaching1 that   
is1 not that your scholar may know1 but 
that he may count for payment among     
those who pass the examination2 and     
there are some teachers1 happily not    
many1 who have yet to learn that the    
examiners of the ,department regard them
 as poachers of the worst description4  
,without presuming in any way to speak  
in the name of the ,department1 ,i think
 ,i may say1 as a matter which has come 
under my own observation1 that it is    
doing its best to meet all these        
difficulties4 ,it systematically        
promotes practical instruction in the   
classes2 it affords facilities to       
teachers who desire to learn their      
business thoroughly2 and it is always   
ready to aid in the suppression of      
pot-teaching4  ,all this is1 as you may 
imagine1 highly satisfactory to me4 ,i  
see that spread of scientific education1
 about which ,i have so often permitted 
myself to worry the public1 become1 for 
all practical purposes1 an accomplished 

fact4 ,grateful as ,i am for all that is
 now being done1 in the same direction1 
in our higher schools and universities1 
,i have ceased to have any anxiety about
 the wealthier classes4 ,scientific     
knowledge is spreading by what the      
alchemists called a distillatio per     
ascensum2 and nothing now can prevent it
 from continuing to distil upwards and  
permeate ,english society1 until1 in the
 remote future1 there shall be no member
 of the legislature who does not know as
 much of science as an elementary       
school-boy2 and even the heads of houses
 in our venerable seats of learning     
shall acknowledge that natural science  
is not merely a sort of ,university     
back-door through which inferior men may
 get at their degrees4 ,perhaps this    
apocalyptic vision is a little wild2 and
 ,i feel ,i ought to ask pardon for an  
outbreak of enthusiasm1 which1 ,i assure
 you1 is not my commonest failing4  ,i  
have said that the ,government is       
already doing a great deal in aid of    

that kind of technical education for    
handicraftsmen which1 to my mind1 is    
alone worth seeking4 ,perhaps it is     
doing as much as it ought to do1 even in
 this direction4 ,certainly there is    
another kind of help of the most        
important character1 for which we may   
look elsewhere than to the ,government4 
,the great mass of mankind have neither 
the liking1 nor the aptitude1 for either
 literary1 or scientific1 or artistic   
pursuits2 nor1 indeed1 for excellence of
 any sort4 ,their ambition is to go     
through life with moderate exertion and 
a fair share of ease1 doing common      
things in a common way4 ,and a great    
blessing and comfort it is that the     
majority of men are of this mind2 for   
the majority of things to be done are   
common things1 and are quite well enough
 done when commonly done4 ,the great end
 of life is not knowledge but action4   
,what men need is1 as much knowledge as 
they can assimilate and organise into a 
basis for action2 give them more and it 

may become injurious4 ,one knows people 
who are as heavy and stupid from        
undigested learning as others are from  
over-fulness of meat and drink4 ,but a  
small percentage of the population is   
born with that most excellent quality1 a
 desire for excellence1 or with special 
aptitudes of some sort or another2 ,mr4 
,galton tells us that not more than one 
in four thousand may be expected to     
attain distinction1 and not more than   
one in a million some share of that     
intensity of instinctive aptitude1 that 
burning thirst for excellence1 which is 
called genius4  ,now1 the most important
 object of all educational schemes is to
 catch these exceptional people1 and    
turn them to account for the good of    
society4 ,no man can say where they will
 crop up2 like their opposites1 the     
fools and knaves1 they appear sometimes 
in the palace1 and sometimes in the     
hovel2 but the great thing to be aimed  
at1 ,i was almost going to say the most 
important end of all social             

arrangements1 is to keep these glorious 
sports of ,nature from being either     
corrupted by luxury or starved by       
poverty1 and to put them into the       
position in which they can do the work  
for which they are especially fitted4   
,thus1 if a lad in an elementary school 
showed signs of special capacity1 ,i    
would try to provide him with the means 
of continuing his education after his   
daily working life had begun2 if in the 
evening classes he developed special    
capabilities in the direction of science
 or of drawing1 ,i would try to secure  
him an apprenticeship to some trade in  
which those powers would have           
applicability4 ,or1 if he chose to      
become a teacher1 he should have the    
chance of so doing4 ,finally1 to the lad
 of genius1 the one in a million1 ,i    
would make accessible the highest and   
most complete training the country could
 afford4 ,whatever that might cost1     
depend upon it the investment would be a
 good one4 ,i weigh my words when ,i say

 that if the nation could purchase a    
potential ,watt1 or ,davy1 or ,faraday1 
at the cost of a hundred thousand pounds
 down1 he would be dirt-cheap at the    
money4 ,it is a mere commonplace and    
everyday piece of knowledge1 that what  
these three men did has produced untold 
millions of wealth1 in the narrowest    
economical sense of the word4           
,therefore1 as the sum and crown of what
 is to be done for technical education1 
,i look to the provision of a machinery 
for winnowing out the capacities and    
giving them scope4 ,when ,i was a member
 of the ,london ,school ,board1 ,i said1
 in the course of a speech1 that our    
business was to provide a ladder1       
reaching from the gutter to the         
university1 along which every child in  
the three kingdoms should have the      
chance of climbing as far as he was fit 
to go4 ,this phrase was so much bandied 
about at the time1 that1 to say truth1  
,i am rather tired of it2 but ,i know of
 no other which so fully expresses my   

belief1 not only about education in     
general1 but about technical education  
in particular4  ,the essential          
foundation of all the organisation      
needed for the promotion of education   
among handicraftsmen will1 ,i believe1  
exist in this country1 when every       
working lad can feel that society has   
done as much as lies in its power to    
remove all needless and artificial      
obstacles from his path2 that there is  
no barrier1 except such as exists in the
 nature of things1 between himself and  
whatever place in the social            
organisation he is fitted to fill2 and1 
more than this1 that1 if he has capacity
 and industry1 a hand is held out to    
help him along any path which is wisely 
and honestly chosen4  ,i have           
endeavoured to point out to you that a  
great deal of such an organisation      
already exists2 and ,i am glad to be    
able to add that there is a good        
prospect that what is wanting will1     
before long1 be supplemented4  ,those   

powerful and wealthy societies1 the     
livery companies of the ,city of        
,london1 remembering that they are the  
heirs and representatives of the trade  
guilds of the ,middle ,ages1 are        
interesting themselves in the question4 
,so far back as #ahgb the ,society of   
,arts organised a system of instruction 
in the technology of arts and           
manufactures1 for persons actually      
employed in factories and workshops1 who
 desired to extend and improve their    
knowledge of the theory and practice of 
their particular avocations2 #a and a   
considerable subsidy1 in aid of the     
efforts of the ,society1 was liberally  
granted by the ,clothworkers' ,company4 
,we have here the hopeful commencement  
of a rational organisation for the      
promotion of excellence among           
handicraftsmen4 ,quite recently1 other  
of the livery companies have determined 
upon giving their powerful1 and1 indeed1
 almost boundless1 aid to the           
improvement of the teaching of          

handicrafts4 ,they have already gone so 
far as to appoint a committee to act for
 them2 and ,i betray no confidence in   
adding that1 some time since1 the       
committee sought the advice and         
assistance of several persons1 myself   
among the number4  ,of course ,i cannot 
tell you what may be the result of the  
deliberations of the committee2 but we  
may all fairly hope that1 before long1  
steps which will have a weighty and a   
lasting influence on the growth and     
spread of sound and thorough teaching   
among the handicraftsmen #b of this     
country will be taken by the livery     
companies of ,london4  ,this hope has   
been fully justified by the             
establishment of the ,cowper ,street    
,schools1 and that of the ,central      
,institution of the ,city and ,guilds of
 ,london ,institute1 ,september1 #ahha4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,footnotes3  #a ,see the ,programme for 
#ahgh1 issued by the ,society of ,arts1 
p4 #ad4  #b ,it is perhaps advisable to 

remark that the important question of   
the professional education of managers  
of industrial works is not touched in   
the foregoing remarks4     ,,xvii       
,,address ,,on ,,behalf ,,of ,,the      
,,national ,,association ,,for ,,the    
,,promotion ,,of ,,technical ,,education
  #ahhg4   ,mr4 ,mayor and              
,gentlemen1--,it must be a matter of    
sincere satisfaction to those who1 like 
myself1 have for many years past been   
convinced of the vital importance of    
technical education to this country to  
see that that subject is now being taken
 up by some of the most important of our
 manufacturing towns4 ,the evidence     
which is afforded of the public interest
 in the matter by such meetings as those
 at ,liverpool and ,newcastle1 and1 last
 but not least1 by that at which ,i have
 the honour to be present to-day1 may   
convince us all1 ,i think1 that the     
question has passed out of the region of
 speculation into that of action4 ,i    
need hardly say to any one here that the

 task which our ,association            
contemplates is not only one of primary 
importance--,i may say of vital         
importance--to the welfare of the       
country2 but that it is one of great    
extent and of vast difficulty4 ,there is
 a well-worn adage that those who set   
out upon a great enterprise would do    
well to count the cost4 ,i am not sure  
that this is always true4 ,i think that 
some of the very greatest enterprises in
 this world have been carried out       
successfully simply because the people  
who undertook them did not count the    
cost2 and ,i am much of opinion that1 in
 this very case1 the most instructive   
consideration for us is the cost of     
doing nothing4 ,but there is one thing  
that is perfectly certain1 and it is    
that1 in undertaking all enterprises1   
one of the most important conditions of 
success is to have a perfectly clear    
comprehension of what you want to do--to
 have that before your minds before you 
set out1 and from that point of view to 

consider carefully the measures which   
are best adapted to the end4  ,mr4      
,acland has just given you an excellent 
account of what is properly and strictly
 understood by technical education2 but 
,i venture to think that the purpose of 
this ,association may be stated in      
somewhat broader terms1 and that the    
object we have in view is the           
development of the industrial           
productivity of the country to the      
uttermost limits consistent with social 
welfare4 ,and you will observe that1 in 
thus widening the definition of our     
object1 ,i have gone no further than the
 ,mayor in his speech1 when he not      
obscurely hinted--and most justly       
hinted--that in dealing with this       
question there are other matters than   
technical education1 in the strict      
sense1 to be considered4  ,it would be  
extreme presumption on my part if ,i    
were to attempt to tell an audience of  
gentlemen intimately acquainted with all
 branches of industry and commerce1 such

 as ,i see before me1 in what manner the
 practical details of the operations    
that we propose are to be carried out4  
,i am absolutely ignorant both of trade 
and of commerce1 and upon such matters  
,i cannot venture to say a solitary     
word4 ,but there is one direction in    
which ,i think it possible ,i may be of 
service--not much perhaps1 but still of 
some1--because this matter1 in the first
 place1 involves the consideration of   
methods of education with which it has  
been my business to occupy myself during
 the greater part of my life2 and1 in   
the second place1 it involves attention 
to some of those broad facts and laws of
 nature with which it has been my       
business to acquaint myself to the best 
of my ability4 ,and what ,i think may be
 possible is this1 that if ,i succeed in
 putting before you--as briefly as ,i   
can1 but in clear and connected         
shape--what strikes me as the programme 
that we have eventually to carry out1   
and what are the indispensable          

conditions of success1 that that        
proceeding1 whether the conclusions at  
which ,i arrive be such as you approve  
or as you disapprove1 will nevertheless 
help to clear the course4 ,in this and  
in all complicated matters we must      
remember a saying of ,bacon1 which may  
be freely translated thus3 ,consistent  
error is very often vastly more useful  
than muddle-headed truth4 ,at any rate1 
if there be any error in the conclusions
 ,i shall put before you1 ,i will do my 
best to make the error perfectly clear  
and plain4  ,now1 looking at the        
question of what we want to do in this  
broad and general way1 it appears to me 
that it is necessary for us1 in the     
first place1 to amend and improve our   
system of primary education in such a   
fashion as will make it a proper        
preparation for the business of life4   
,in the second place1 ,i think we have  
to consider what measures may best be   
adopted for the development to its      
uttermost of that which may be called   

technical skill2 and1 in the third      
place1 ,i think we have to consider what
 other matters there are for us to      
attend to1 what other arrangements have 
to be kept carefully in sight in order  
that1 while pursuing these ends1 we do  
not forget that which is the end of     
civil existence1 ,i mean a stable social
 state without which all other measures 
are merely futile1 and1 in effect1 modes
 of going faster to ruin4  ,you are     
aware--no people should know the fact   
better than ,manchester people--that1   
within the last seventeen years1 a vast 
system of primary education has been    
created and extended over the whole     
country4 ,i had some part in the        
original organisation of this system in 
,london1 and ,i am glad to think that1  
after all these years1 ,i can look back 
upon that period of my life as perhaps  
the part of it least wasted4  ,no one   
can doubt that this system of primary   
education has done wonders for our      
population2 but1 from our point of view1

 ,i do not think anybody can doubt that 
it still has very considerable defects4 
,it has the defect which is common to   
all the educational systems which we    
have inherited--it is too bookish1 too  
little practical4 ,the child is brought 
too little into contact with actual     
facts and things1 and as the system     
stands at present it constitutes next to
 no education of those particular       
faculties which are of the utmost       
importance to industrial life--,i mean  
the faculty of observation1 the faculty 
of working accurately1 of dealing with  
things instead of with words4 ,i do not 
propose to enlarge upon this topic1 but 
,i would venture to suggest that there  
are one or two remedial measures which  
are imperatively needed2 indeed1 they   
have already been alluded to by ,mr4    
,acland4 ,those which strike me as of   
the greatest importance are two1 and the
 first of them is the teaching of       
drawing4 ,in my judgment1 there is no   
mode of exercising the faculty of       

observation and the faculty of accurate 
reproduction of that which is observed1 
no discipline which so readily tests    
error in these matters1 as drawing      
properly taught4 ,and by that ,i do not 
mean artistic drawing2 ,i mean figuring 
natural objects3 making plans and       
sections1 approaching geometrical rather
 than artistic drawing4 ,i do not wish  
to exaggerate1 but ,i declare to you    
that1 in my judgment1 the child who has 
been taught to make an accurate         
elevation1 plan and section of a pint   
pot has had an admirable training in    
accuracy of eye and hand4 ,i am not     
talking about artistic education4 ,that 
is not the question4 ,accuracy is the   
foundation of everything else1 and      
instruction in artistic drawing is      
something which may be put off till a   
later stage4 ,nothing has struck me more
 in the course of my life than the loss 
which persons1 who are pursuing         
scientific knowledge of any kind1       
sustain from the difficulties which     

arise because they never have been      
taught elementary drawing2 and ,i am    
glad to say that in ,eton1 a school of  
whose governing body ,i have the honour 
of being a member1 we some years ago    
made drawing imperative on the whole    
school4  ,the other matter in which we  
want some systematic and good teaching  
is what ,i have hardly a name for1 but  
which may best be explained as a sort of
 developed object lessons such as ,mr4  
,acland adverted to4 ,anybody who knows 
his business in science can make        
anything subservient to that purpose4   
,you know it was said of ,dean ,swift   
that he could write an admirable poem   
upon a broomstick1 and the man who has a
 real knowledge of science can make the 
commonest object in the world           
subservient to an introduction to the   
principles and greater truths of natural
 knowledge4 ,it is in that way that your
 science must be taught if it is to be  
of real service4 ,do not suppose any    
amount of book work1 any repetition by  

rote of catechisms and other            
abominations of that kind are of value  
for our object4 ,that is mere wasting of
 time4 ,but take the commonest object   
and lead the child from that foundation 
to such truths of a higher order as may 
be within his grasp4 ,with regard to    
drawing1 ,i do not think there is any   
practical difficulty2 but in respect to 
the scientific object lessons you want  
teachers trained in a manner different  
from that which now prevails4  ,if it is
 found practicable to add further       
training of the hand and eye by         
instruction in modelling or in simple   
carpentry1 well and good4 ,but ,i should
 stop at this point4 ,the elementary    
schools are already charged with quite  
as much as they can do properly2 and ,i 
do not believe that any good can come of
 burdening them with special technical  
instruction4 ,out of that1 ,i think1    
harm would come4  ,now let me pass to my
 second point1 which is the development 
of technical skill4 ,everybody here is  

aware that at this present moment there 
is hardly a branch of trade or of       
commerce which does not depend1 more or 
less directly1 upon some department or  
other of physical science1 which does   
not involve1 for its successful pursuit1
 reasoning from scientific data4 ,our   
machinery1 our chemical processes or    
dyeworks1 and a thousand operations     
which it is not necessary to mention1   
are all directly and immediately        
connected with science4 ,you have to    
look among your workmen and foremen for 
persons who shall intelligently grasp   
the modifications1 based upon science1  
which are constantly being introduced   
into these industrial processes4 ,i do  
not mean that you want professional     
chemists1 or physicists1 or             
mathematicians1 or the like1 but you    
want people sufficiently familiar with  
the broad principles which underlie     
industrial operations to be able to     
adapt themselves to new conditions4     
,such qualifications can only be secured

 by a sort of scientific instruction    
which occupies a midway place between   
those primary notions given in the      
elementary schools and those more       
advanced studies which would be carried 
out in the technical schools4  ,you are 
aware that1 at present1 a very large    
machinery is in operation for the       
purpose of giving this instruction4 ,i  
don't refer merely to such work as is   
being done at ,owens ,college here1 for 
example1 or at other local colleges4 ,i 
allude to the larger operations of the  
,science and ,art ,department1 with     
which ,i have been connected for a great
 many years4 ,i constantly hear a great 
many objections raised to the work of   
the ,science and ,art ,department4 ,if  
you will allow me to say so1 my         
connection with that department--which1 
,i am happy to say1 remains1 and which  
,i am very proud of--is purely honorary2
 and1 if it appeared to me to be right  
to criticise that department with       
merciless severity1 the ,lord           

,president1 if he were inclined to      
resent my proceedings1 could do nothing 
more than dismiss me4 ,therefore you may
 believe that ,i speak with absolute    
impartiality4 ,my impression is this1   
not that it is faultless1 nor that it   
has not various defects1 nor that there 
are not sundry lacunae which want       
filling up2 but that1 if we consider the
 conditions under which the department  
works1 we shall see that certain defects
 are inseparable from those conditions4 
,people talk of the want of flexibility 
of the ,department1 of its being bound  
by strict rules4 ,now1 will any man of  
common sense who has had anything to do 
with the administration of public funds 
or knows the humour of the ,house of    
,commons on these matters--will any man 
who is in the smallest degree acquainted
 with the practical working of ,state   
departments of any kind1 imagine that   
such a department could be other than   
bound by minutely defined regulations8  
,can he imagine that the work of the    

department should go on fairly and in   
such a manner as to be free from just   
criticism1 unless it were bound by      
certain definite and fixed rules8 ,i    
cannot imagine it4  ,the next objection 
of importance that ,i have heard        
commonly repeated is that the teaching  
is too theoretical1 that there is       
insufficient practical teaching4 ,i     
venture to say that there is no one who 
has taken more pains to insist upon the 
comparative uselessness of scientific   
teaching without practical work than ,i 
have2 ,i venture to say that there are  
no persons who are more cognisant of    
these defects in the work of the        
,science and ,art ,department than those
 who administer it4 ,but those who talk 
in this way should acquaint themselves  
with the fact that proper practical     
instruction is a matter of no small     
difficulty in the present scarcity of   
properly taught teachers1 that it is    
very costly1 and that1 in some branches 
of science1 there are other difficulties

 which ,i won't allude to4 ,but it is a 
matter of fact that1 wherever it has    
been possible1 practical teaching has   
been introduced1 and has been made an   
essential element in examination2 and no
 doubt if the ,house of ,commons would  
grant unlimited means1 and if proper    
teachers were to hand1 as thick as      
blackberries1 there would not be much   
difficulty in organising a complete     
system of practical instruction and     
examination ancillary to the present    
science classes4 ,those who quarrel with
 the present state of affairs would be  
better advised if1 instead of groaning  
over the shortcomings of the present    
system1 they would put before themselves
 these two questions--,is it possible   
under the conditions to invent any      
better system8 ,is it possible under the
 conditions to enlarge the work of      
practical teaching and practical        
examination which is the one desire of  
those who administer the department8    
,that is all ,i have to say upon that   

subject4  ,supposing we have this       
teaching of what ,i may call            
intermediate science1 what we want next 
is technical instruction1 in the strict 
sense of the word technical2 ,i mean    
instruction in that kind of knowledge   
which is essential to the successful    
prosecution of the several branches of  
trade and industry4 ,now1 the best way  
of obtaining this end is a matter about 
which the most experienced persons      
entertain very diverse opinions4 ,i do  
not for one moment pretend to dogmatise 
about it2 ,i can only tell you what the 
opinion is that ,i have formed from     
hearing the views of those who are      
certainly best qualified to judge1 from 
those who have tested the various       
methods of conveying this instruction4  
,i think we have before us three        
possibilities4 ,we have1 in the first   
place1 trade schools--,i mean schools in
 which branches of trade are taught4 ,we
 have1 in the next place1 schools       
attached to factories for the purpose of

 instructing young apprentices and      
others who go there1 and who aim at     
becoming intelligent workmen and capable
 foremen4 ,we have1 lastly1 the system  
of day classes and evening classes4     
,with regard to the first there is this 
objection1 that they can be attended    
only by those who are not obliged to    
earn their bread1 and consequently that 
they will reach only a very small       
fraction of the population4 ,moreover1  
the expense of trade schools is         
enormous1 and those who are best able to
 judge assure me that1 inasmuch as the  
work which they do is not done under    
conditions of pecuniary success or      
failure1 it is apt to be too amateurish 
and speculative1 and that it does not   
prepare the worker for the real         
conditions under which he will have to  
carry out his work4 ,in any case1 the   
fact that the schools are very          
expensive1 and the fact that they are   
accessible only to a small portion of   
the population1 seem to me to constitute

 a very serious objection to them4 ,i   
suppose the best of all possible        
organisations is that of a school       
attached to a factory1 where the        
employer has an interest in seeing that 
the instruction given is of a thoroughly
 practical kind1 and where the pupils   
pass gradually by successive stages to  
the position of actual workmen4 ,schools
 of this kind exist in various parts of 
the country1 but it is obvious that they
 are not likely to be reached by any    
large part of the population2 so that it
 appears to me we are shut up           
practically to schools accessible to    
those who are earning their bread1 and  
in such cases they must be essentially  
evening classes4 ,i am strongly of      
opinion that classes of this kind do an 
immense amount of good2 that they have  
this admirable quality1 that they       
involve voluntary attendance1 take no   
man out of his position1 but enable any 
who chooses1 to make the best of the    
position he happens to occupy4  ,suppose

 that all these things are desirable1   
what is the best way of obtaining them8 
,i must confess that ,i have a strong   
prejudice in favour of carrying out     
undertakings of this kind1 which at     
first1 at any rate1 must be to a great  
extent tentative and experimental1 by   
private effort4 ,i don't believe that   
the man lives at this present time who  
is competent to organise a final system 
of technical education4 ,i believe that 
all attempts made in that direction must
 for many years to come be experimental1
 and that we must get to success through
 a series of blunders4 ,now that work is
 far better performed by private        
enterprise than in any other way4 ,but  
there is another method which ,i think  
is permissible1 and not only permissible
 but highly recommendable in this case1 
and that is the method of allowing the  
locality itself in which any branch of  
industry is pursued to be its own judge 
of its own wants1 and to tax itself     
under certain conditions for the purpose

 of carrying out any scheme of technical
 education adapted to its needs4 ,i am  
aware that there are many extreme       
theorists of the individualist school   
who hold that all this is very wicked   
and very wrong1 and that by leaving     
things to themselves they will get      
right4 ,well1 my experience of the world
 is that things left to themselves don't
 get right4 ,i believe it to be sound   
doctrine that a municipality--and the   
,state itself for that matter--is a     
corporation existing for the benefit of 
its members1 and that here1 as in all   
other cases1 it is for the majority to  
determine that which is for the good of 
the whole1 and to act upon that4 ,that  
is the principle which underlies the    
whole theory of government in this      
country1 and if it is wrong we shall    
have to go back a long way4 ,but you may
 ask me1 ,this process of local taxation
 can only be carried out under the      
authority of an ,act of ,parliament1 and
 do you propose to let any municipality 

or any local authority have carte       
blanche in these matters2 is the        
,legislature to allow it to tax the     
whole body of its members to any extent 
it pleases and for any purposes it      
pleases8 ,i should reply1 certainly not4
  ,let me point out to you that at this 
present moment it passes the wit of man1
 so far as ,i know1 to give a legal     
definition of technical education4 ,if  
you expect to have an ,act of           
,parliament with a definition which     
shall include all that ought to be      
included1 and exclude all that ought to 
be excluded1 ,i think you will have to  
wait a very long time4 ,i imagine the   
whole matter is in a tentative state4   
,you don't know what you will be called 
upon to do1 and so you must try and you 
must blunder4 ,under these circumstances
 it is obvious that there are two       
alternatives4 ,one of these is to give a
 free hand to each locality4 ,well1 it  
is within my knowledge that there are a 
good many people with wonderful1        

strange1 and wild notions as to what    
ought to be done in technical education1
 and it is quite possible that in some  
places1 and especially in small places1 
where there are few persons who take an 
interest in these things1 you will have 
very remarkable projects put forth1 and 
in that case the sole court of appeal   
for those taxpayers1 who did not approve
 of such projects1 would be a court of  
law4 ,i suppose the judges would have to
 settle what is technical education4    
,that would not be an edifying process1 
,i think1 and certainly it would be a   
very costly one4 ,the other alternative 
is the principle adopted in the bill of 
last year now abandoned4 ,i don't say   
whether the bill was right or wrong in  
detail4 ,i am dealing now only with the 
principle of the bill1 which appears to 
me to have been very often              
misunderstood4 ,it has been said that it
 gave the whole of technical education  
into the hands of the ,science and ,art 
,department4 ,it appears to me nothing  

could be more unfounded than that       
assertion4 ,all ,i understand the       
,government proposed to do was to       
provide some authority who should have  
power to say in case any scheme was     
proposed1 ,well1 this comes within the  
four corners of the ,act of ,parliament1
 work it as you like2 or if it was an   
obviously questionable project1 should  
take upon itself the responsibility of  
saying1 ,no1 that is not what the       
,legislature intended2 amend your       
scheme4 ,there was no initiative1 no    
control2 there was simply this power of 
giving authority to decide upon the     
meaning of the ,act of ,parliament to a 
particular department of the ,state1    
whichever it might be2 and it seems to  
me that that is a very much simpler and 
better process than relegating the whole
 question to the law courts4 ,i think   
that here1 or anywhere else1 people must
 be extremely sanguine if they suppose  
that the ,house of ,commons and the     
,house of ,lords will ever dream of     

giving any local authority unlimited    
power to tax the inhabitants of a       
district for any object it pleases4 ,i  
should say that was not in the range of 
practical politics4 ,well1 ,i put that  
before you as a matter for your         
consideration4  ,another very important 
point in this connection is the question
 of the supply of teachers4 ,i should   
say that is one of the greatest         
difficulties which beset the whole      
problem before us4 ,i do not wish in the
 slightest degree to criticise the      
existing system of preparing teachers   
for ordinary school work4 ,i have       
nothing to say about it4 ,but what ,i do
 wish to say1 and what ,i trust ,i may  
impress on your minds firmly is this1   
that for the purpose of obtaining       
persons competent to teach science or to
 act as technical teachers1 a different 
system must be adopted4 ,for this       
purpose a man must know what he is about
 thoroughly1 and be able to deal with   
his subject as if it were the business  

of his ordinary life4 ,for this purpose1
 for the obtaining of teachers of       
science and of technical classes1 the   
system of catching a boy or girl young1 
making a pupil teacher of him1          
compelling the poor little mortal to    
pour from his little bucket1 into a     
still smaller bucket1 that which has    
just been poured into it out of a big   
bucket2 and passing him afterwards      
through the training college1 where his 
life is devoted to filling the bucket   
from the pump from morning till night1  
without time for thought or reflection1 
is a system which should not continue4  
,let me assure you that it will not do  
for us1 that you had better give the    
attempt up than try that system4 ,i     
remember somewhere reading of an        
interview between the poet ,southey and 
a good ,quaker4 ,southey was a man of   
marvellous powers of work4 ,he had a    
habit of dividing his time into little  
parts each of which was filled up1 and  
he told the ,quaker what he did in this 

hour and that1 and so on through the day
 until far into the night4 ,the ,quaker 
listened1 and at the close said1 ,well1 
but1 friend ,southey1 when dost thee    
think8 ,the system which ,i am now      
adverting to is arraigned and condemned 
by putting that question to it4 ,when   
does the unhappy pupil teacher1 or      
over-drilled student of a training      
college1 find any time to think8 ,i am  
sure if ,i were in their place ,i could 
not4 ,i repeat1 that kind of thing will 
not do for science teachers4 ,for       
science teachers must have knowledge1   
and knowledge is not to be acquired on  
these terms4 ,the power of repetition   
is1 but that is not knowledge4 ,the     
knowledge which is absolutely requisite 
in dealing with young children is the   
knowledge you possess1 as you would know
 your own business1 and which you can   
just turn about as if you were          
explaining to a boy a matter of everyday
 life4  ,so far as science teaching and 
technical education are concerned1 the  

most important of all things is to      
provide the machinery for training      
proper teachers4 ,the ,department of    
,science and ,art has been at that work 
for years and years1 and though unable  
under present conditions to do so much  
as could be wished1 it has1 ,i believe1 
already begun to leaven the lump to a   
very considerable extent4 ,if technical 
education is to be carried out on the   
scale at present contemplated1 this     
particular necessity must be specially  
and most seriously provided for4 ,and   
there is another difficulty1 namely1    
that when you have got your science or  
technical teacher it may not be easy to 
keep him4 ,you have educated a man--a   
clever fellow very likely--on the       
understanding that he is to be a        
teacher4 ,but the business of teaching  
is not a very lucrative and not a very  
attractive one1 and an able man who has 
had a good training is under extreme    
temptations to carry his knowledge and  
his skill to a better market1 in which  

case you have had all your trouble for  
nothing4 ,it has often occurred to me   
that probably nothing would be of more  
service in this matter than the creation
 of a number of not very large bursaries
 or exhibitions1 to be gained by persons
 nominated by the authorities of the    
various science colleges and schools of 
the country--persons such as they       
thought to be well qualified for the    
teaching business--and to be held for a 
certain term of years1 during which the 
holders should be bound to teach4 ,i    
believe that some measure of this kind  
would do more to secure a good supply of
 teachers than anything else4 ,pray note
 that ,i do not suggest that you should 
try to get hold of good teachers by     
competitive examination4 ,that is not   
the best way of getting men of that     
special qualification4 ,an effectual    
method would be to ask professors and   
teachers of any institution to recommend
 men who1 to their own knowledge1 are   
worthy of such support1 and are likely  

to turn it to good account4  ,i trust ,i
 am not detaining you too long2 but     
there remains yet one other matter which
 ,i think is of profound importance1    
perhaps of more importance than all the 
rest1 on which ,i earnestly beg to be   
permitted to say some few words4 ,it is 
the need1 while doing all these things1 
of keeping an eye1 and an anxious eye1  
upon those measures which are necessary 
for the preservation of that stable and 
sound condition of the whole social     
organism which is the essential         
condition of real progress1 and a chief 
end of all education4 ,you will all     
recollect that some time ago there was a
 scandal and a great outcry about       
certain cutlasses and bayonets which had
 been supplied to our troops and        
sailors4 ,these warlike implements were 
polished as bright as rubbing could make
 them2 they were very well sharpened2   
they looked lovely4 ,but when they were 
applied to the test of the work of war  
they broke and they bent1 and proved    

more likely to hurt the hand of him that
 used them than to do any harm to the   
enemy4 ,let me apply that analogy to the
 effect of education1 which is a        
sharpening and polishing of the mind4   
,you may develop the intellectual side  
of people as far as you like1 and you   
may confer upon them all the skill that 
training and instruction can give2 but1 
if there is not1 underneath all that    
outside form and superficial polish1 the
 firm fibre of healthy manhood and      
earnest desire to do well1 your labour  
is absolutely in vain4  ,let me further 
call your attention to the fact that the
 terrible battle of competition between 
the different nations of the world is no
 transitory phenomenon1 and does not    
depend upon this or that fluctuation of 
the market1 or upon any condition that  
is likely to pass away4 ,it is the      
inevitable result of that which takes   
place throughout nature and affects     
man's part of nature as much as any     
other--namely1 the struggle for         

existence1 arising out of the constant  
tendency of all creatures in the        
animated world to multiply indefinitely4
 ,it is that1 if you look at it1 which  
is at the bottom of all the great       
movements of history4 ,it is that       
inherent tendency of the social organism
 to generate the causes of its own      
destruction1 never yet counteracted1    
which has been at the bottom of half the
 catastrophes which have ruined ,states4
 ,we are at present in the swim of one  
of those vast movements in which1 with a
 population far in excess of that which 
we can feed1 we are saved from a        
catastrophe1 through the impossibility  
of feeding them1 solely by our          
possession of a fair share of the       
markets of the world4 ,and in order that
 that fair share may be retained1 it is 
absolutely necessary that we should be  
able to produce commodities which we can
 exchange with food-growing people1 and 
which they will take1 rather than those 
of our rivals1 on the ground of their   

greater cheapness or of their greater   
excellence4 ,that is the whole story4   
,and our course1 let me say1 is not     
actuated by mere motives of ambition or 
by mere motives of greed4 ,those        
doubtless are visible enough on the     
surface of these great movements1 but   
the movements themselves have far deeper
 sources4 ,if there were no such things 
as ambition and greed in this world1 the
 struggle for existence would arise from
 the same causes4  ,our sole chance of  
succeeding in a competition1 which must 
constantly become more and more severe1 
is that our people shall not only have  
the knowledge and the skill which are   
required1 but that they shall have the  
will and the energy and the honesty1    
without which neither knowledge nor     
skill can be of any permanent avail4    
,this is what ,i mean by a stable social
 condition1 because any other condition 
than this1 any social condition in which
 the development of wealth involves the 
misery1 the physical weakness1 and the  

degradation of the worker1 is absolutely
 and infallibly doomed to collapse4     
,your bayonets and cutlasses will break 
under your hand1 and there will go on   
accumulating in society a mass of       
hopeless1 physically incompetent1 and   
morally degraded people1 who are1 as it 
were1 a sort of dynamite which1 sooner  
or later1 when its accumulation becomes 
sufficient and its tension intolerable1 
will burst the whole fabric4  ,i am     
quite aware that the problem which ,i   
have put before you and which you know  
as much about as ,i do1 and a great deal
 more probably1 is one extremely        
difficult to solve4 ,i am fully aware   
that one great factor in industrial     
success is reasonable cheapness of      
labour4 ,that has been pointed out over 
and over again1 and is in itself an     
axiomatic proposition4 ,and it seems to 
me that of all the social questions     
which face us at this present time1 the 
most serious is how to steer a clear    
course between the two horns of an      

obvious dilemma4 ,one of these is the   
constant tendency of competition to     
lower wages beyond a point at which man 
can remain man--below a point at which  
decency and cleanliness and order and   
habits of morality and justice can      
reasonably be expected to exist4 ,and   
the other horn of the dilemma is the    
difficulty of maintaining wages above   
this point consistently with success in 
industrial competition4 ,i have not the 
remotest conception how this problem    
will eventually work itself out2 but of 
this ,i am perfectly convinced1 that the
 sole course compatible with safety lies
 between the two extremes2 between the  
,scylla of successful industrial        
production with a degraded population1  
on the one side1 and the ,charybdis of a
 population1 maintained in a reasonable 
and decent state1 with failure in       
industrial competition1 on the other    
side4 ,having this strong conviction1   
which1 indeed1 ,i imagine must be that  
of every person who has ever thought    

seriously about these great problems1 ,i
 have ventured to put it before you in  
this bare and almost cynical fashion    
because it will justify the strong      
appeal1 which ,i make to all concerned  
in this work of promoting industrial    
education1 to have a care1 at the same  
time1 that the conditions of industrial 
life remain those in which the physical 
energies of the population may be       
maintained at a proper level2 in which  
their moral state may be cared for2 in  
which there may be some rays of hope and
 pleasure in their lives2 and in which  
the sole prospect of a life of labour   
may not be an old age of penury4  ,these
 are the chief suggestions ,i have to   
offer to you1 though ,i have omitted    
much that ,i should like to have said1  
had time permitted4 ,it may be that some
 of you feel inclined to look upon them 
as the ,utopian dreams of a student4 ,if
 there be such1 let me tell you that    
there are1 to my knowledge1             
manufacturing towns in this country1 not

 one-tenth the size1 or boasting        
one-hundredth part of the wealth1 of    
,manchester1 in which ,i do not say that
 the programme that ,i have put before  
you is completely carried out1 but in   
which1 at any rate1 a wise and          
intelligent effort had been made to     
realise it1 and in which the main parts 
of the programme are in course of being 
worked out4 ,this is not the first time 
that ,i have had the privilege and      
pleasure of addressing a ,manchester    
audience4 ,i have often enough1 before  
now1 thrown myself with entire          
confidence upon the hard-headed         
intelligence and the very soft-hearted  
kindness of ,manchester people1 when ,i 
have had a difficult and complicated    
scientific argument to put before them4 
,if1 after the considerations which ,i  
have put before you--and which1 pray be 
it understood1 ,i by no means claim     
particularly for myself1 for ,i presume 
they must be in the minds of a large    
number of people who have thought about 

this matter--if it be that these ideas  
commend themselves to your mature       
reflection1 then ,i am perfectly certain
 that my appeal to you to carry them    
into practice1 with that abundant energy
 and will which have led you to take a  
foremost part in the great social       
movements of our country many a time    
beforehand1 will not be made in vain4 ,i
 therefore confidently appeal to you to 
let those impulses once more have full  
sway1 and not to rest until you have    
done something better and greater than  
has yet been done in this country in the
 direction in which we are now going4 ,i
 heartily thank you for the attention   
which you have been kind enough to      
bestow upon me4 ,the practice of public 
speaking is one ,i must soon think of   
leaving off1 and ,i count it a special  
and peculiar honour to have had the     
opportunity of speaking to you on this  
subject to-day4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,,the ,,end ,,of  
,,vol4 ,,iii