,! ,anatomy ( ! ,dome/ic ,f[l ,by ,b4 ,f4 ,kaupp1 ,m4 ,s41 ,d4 ,v4 ,m4 ,p\ltry ,inve/igator & ,pa?ologi/ 9 ! ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 ,/ate ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 & ! ,/ate ,college ( ,agriculture2 ,=m]ly ,director ( ,anatomy ,laboratory1 ,kansas ,city ,vet]9>y ,college ,illu/rat$ ,philadelphia & ,london ,w4 ,b4 ,saund]s ,company #aiah ,copyright1 #aiah1 by ,w4 ,b4 ,saund]s ,company ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,am]ica ,to ,,dan ,t4 ,,gray1 ,b4 ,s41 ,a4 ,b41 ,m4 ,s4 ,,*ief1 ,,animal ,,indu/ry ,,division1 ,,nor? ,,c>ol9a ,,exp]im5t ,,/ation ,,z ,a ,,tok5 ,,( ,,respect ,,& ,,gratitude ,,?is ,,volume ,,is ,,d$icat$ ,,by ,,! ,,au?or ,,=eword ,advanc$ "w 9 ! /udy ( p\ltry husb&ry is n[ be+ done 9 ?is c\ntry1 to a great] or less ext5t1 at all ! two score & m ,agricultural & o!r ,colleges & ,exp]im5t ,/ations4 ,f ^! in/itutions comes ! dem& = a text-book on ! ,anatomy ( ! ,dome/ic ,f[l4 ,no complete text-book on ! subject1 up to ! pres5t1 has exi/$4 ,x is ) ! hope ( meet+ ! dem& t ?is book is publi%$4 ,9 supplem5t+ ! in=mation ga!r$ f ! books & articles li/$ 9 ! bibliography1 ! au?or has sp5t mu* "t & ef=t 9 obta9+ ! matt] "h pres5t$4 ,z ?is1 h[ev]1 is ! initial complete text on ! subject necess>ily mu* rema9s to be add$ & correct$4 ,! au?or w\ld welcome sugge/ions & corrections f any "o into ^: h&s ! book may come4 ,b4 ,f4 ,,kaupp4 ,,! ,,nor? ,,c>ol9a ,,/ate ,,college ,,( ,,agriculture1 ,,we/ ,,raleigh1 ,,nor? ,,c>ol9a1 ,septemb]1 #aiah4 ,,cont5ts ,,o/eology ,,page ,,osse\s ,,/ructure #ag ,,classification ,,( ,,bones #bj ,,composition ,,( ,,bone #ba ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,f[l #ba ,axial ,skeleton #bc ,cranium & ,face #bc ,occipital #be ,e?moid #bg ,sph5oid #bh ,frontal #bi ,p>ietal #bi ,temporal #bi ,premaxilla #ca ,maxilla #cb ,nasal #cb ,lacrimal #cb ,palat9e #cc ,pt]ygoid #cc ,zygomatic #cc ,vom] #cc ,jugal & ,quadrato-jugal #cc ,quadrate #cd ,inf]ior ,maxilla #cd ,turb9ate ,bones #cd ,hyoid #ce ,v]tebral ,column #ce ,c]vical ,v]tebr #ce ,atlas #cg ,axis #cg ,dorsal ,v]tebr #ci ,lumbo-sacral ,v]tebr #ci ,coccygeal ,v]tebr #da ,ribs #da ,/]num #db ,app5dicul> ,skeleton #dc ,%\ld] ,girdle #dc ,=e ,limb #dd ,pelvic ,girdle #dh ,h9d ,limb #ej ,,ar?rology ,,k9ds ,,( ,,jo9ts #ef ,,movem5ts ,,( ,,jo9ts #ef ,,ligam5t\s ,,/ructure #eg ,,ligam5ts ,,(3 ,e> #eh ,jaw #eh ,v]tebr #eh ,ribs #ei ,/]num #ei ,%\ld]-jo9t #fa ,elb[-jo9t #fa ,c>pal ,jo9t #fb ,f+] #fd ,pelvis #fe ,hip-jo9t #fe ,knee-jo9t #fe ,tibio-metat>sal ,jo9t #fi ,toes #fi ,,myology ,,k9ds ,,& ,,/ructure ,,( ,,muscles #gj ,,fascia #ga ,,muscul> ,,nom5clature #ga ,true ,d]mal ,muscles #ga ,d]mo-osse\s ,muscles #gc ,muscles ( ! ,head #gf ,muscles ( ! ,tongue #gi ,c]vical ,muscles #ha ,muscles ( ! ,air ,passages #hf ,sup]ior ,l>ynx #hf ,inf]ior ,l>ynx #hf ,/]nal ,muscles #ij ,abdom9al ,muscles #ij ,dorsolumb> ,muscles #ib ,coccygeal ,muscles #ic ,co/al ,muscles #if ,ant]ior ,pectoral ,muscles #ii ,pectoral ,muscles #ajj ,muscles ( ! ,scapul> ,region #aja ,muscles ( ! ,bra*ial ,region #ajd ,muscles ( ! ,=e>m & ,h& #aje ,digital ,muscles #aji ,muscles ( ! ,po/]ior ,limb #aaa ,tibial ,gr\p ( ,muscles #aag ,muscles ( ! ,eye #abd ,muscles ( ! ,e> #abh ,,functions ,,( ,,muscles #abh ,,splan*nology ,,dige/ive ,,app>atus #ace ,m\? #ace ,tongue #aci ,ph>ynx #ada ,gl&s ,adjac5t to ,m\? & ,ph>ynx #ada ,esophagus #adb ,crop #adb ,/oma* #adc ,prov5triculus #adc ,gizz>d #ade ,small ,inte/9e #adg ,l>ge ,inte/9e #aej ,cca #aea ,cloaca #aea ,,c\rse ,,( ,,! ,,food #aeb ,,accessory ,,organs ,,( ,,dige/ion #aeb ,liv] #aec ,pancreas #aee ,sple5 #aee ,,abdom9al ,,& ,,pelvic ,,cavities #aef ,,p]itoneum ,,& ,,mes5t]y #aef ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,visc]al ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,dome/ic ,,f[l #aeh ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,visc]al ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,baby ,,*ick #afe ,,uro-,,g5ital ,,sy/em #afi ,ur9>y ,app>atus #afi ,kidneys #afi ,uret] #agd ,male ,g5]ative ,organs #age ,te/icles #age ,vas ,def]5s #agh ,female ,g5]ative ,organs #agh ,egg #ahj ,oviduct #ahb ,p>ts ( ! ,oviduct #ahc ,ligam5ts ( ! ,oviduct #ahh ,,ductless ,,gl&s #aij ,?yroid ,gl& #aij ,?ymus ,gl& #aij ,adr5al ,gl& #aia ,,respiratory ,,app>atus #aic ,no/rils & ,nasal ,*amb]s #aic ,ph>ynx & ,sup]ior ,l>ynx #aic ,tra*ea #aid ,inf]ior ,l>ynx #aid ,bron*i & ! ,lungs #aie ,air-sacs #aii ,,angiology ,,circulatory ,,app>atus #bjf ,he>t #bjf ,/ructure ( ! ,he>t #bjg ,blood-vessels #bji ,/ructure ( ! ,capill>ies & ,art]ies #bji ,/ructure ( ! ,ve9s #baa ,art]ial ,trunks #baa ,bran*es (3 ,art]ia ,bra*iocephalica #bac ,art]ia ,c>otis ,c]ebralis ,int]na #bad ,art]ia ,c>otis ,ext]na #bad ,art]ia ,c>otis ,facialis #bad ,aorta ,po/]ior #bbd ,v5\s ,trunks #bcc ,bran*es (3 ,v5 ,cav ,ant]iores #bcd ,v5a ,jugul>is #bcg ,v5a ,occipitalis ,ext]na #bci ,v5\s ,s9uses ( ! ,head #bci ,ve9s ( ! ,bra9 ,cavity #bda ,ve9s ( ! ,neck #bdb ,bran*es ( ! ,v5a ,subclavia #bdc ,ve9s ( ! ,dorsal ,region #bdc ,ve9s ( ! ,?orax #bdd ,ve9s ( ! ,=e ,limb #bde ,bran*es ( ! ,iliaca #bdf ,bran*es ( ! ,v5a ,iliaca ,int]na #bdg ,po/]ior ,v5a ,cava #bdg ,ve9s ( ! ,po/]ior ,extremity #bdh ,bran*es ( ! ,v5a ,cava ,po/]ior #bdh ,ve9s ( ! ,caudal ,region & ,pelvic ,cavity #bej ,ve9s ( ! ,truncus ,v5a ,iliaca ,communis #beb ,visc]al ,ve9s ( ! ,po/]ior ,v5a ,cava #beb ,lymphatic ,sy/em #bed ,,blood ,,& ,,its ,,functions #beg ,,fate ,,( ,,! ,,ery?rocyte #bfa ,,neurology ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em #bfd ,cranial ,n]ves #bfe ,olfactorius #bfe ,opticus #bfg ,motoris ,oculi #bfg ,pa!ticus #bfh ,trifacialis #bfh ,abduc5tes #bgj ,facialis & ,ac\/icus #bga ,vagus ,gr\p #bgb ,glosso-ph>yngeus #bgb ,vagus or ,pneumoga/ricus #bgc ,accessorius ,sp9alis #bgd ,hypoglossus #bgd ,sp9al ,cord #bge ,/ructure ( ! ,cord #bge ,/ructure ( ! ,n]ve ,trunks & ,ganglia #bgg ,sp9al ,n]ves #bha ,bra*ial ,plexus #bhb ,lumbo-sacral or ,crural ,plexus #bhe ,bra9 #bhh ,cov]+s ( ! ,bra9 #bhh ,/ructure ( ! ,bra9 #bhi ,divisions ( ! ,bra9 #bij ,sympa!tic ,n]v\s ,sy/em #big ,functions ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em #cjj ,,e/hesiology ,,s5se ,,organs #cjc ,sight #cjc ,he>+ #cje ,smell #cjg ,ta/e #cjg ,t\* #cjg ,,/ructure ,,( ,,app5dages #cji ,,embryology ,,sp]matog5esis #cah ,o,,g5esis #cai ,,f]tilization #cai ,,outl9e ,,= ,,laboratory ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,*ick #ccj ,liv+ ,embryo #ccj ,prep>ation = ,/udy ( ,entire ,embryos & ,sections #ccj ,po9ts to be ,obs]v$ 9 ! ,/udy #ccb ,,d]ivatives ,,( ,,! ,,g]m-,,lay]s #cdb ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,/ructures ,,= ,,/udy #cdc ,directions = ,dissect+ ,muscles #cdc ,directions = ,/udy ( ! ,visc]a #cdd ,directions = ,/udy ( ! ,art]ies #cde ,/udy ( ! ,/ructure ( ,bones #cdf ,special ,te*nic = ,dissection ( ,cranial & ,sp9al ,n]ves #cdg ,directions = ,/udy ( ,s(t ,/ructures #cdg ,to ,/a9 ,sections ( ,liv] = ,/udy ( ,kupff] ,cells #cdi ,to ,prep>e ,anatomical ,specim5s = ,museum #cdi ,to ,make ,specim5s ,transp>5t #cej ,,equipm5t ,,= ,,! ,,dissection ,,laboratory #cea ,,bibliography #cec ,,index #cee ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,dome/ic ,,f[l ,,o/eology ,osse\s ,/ructure4--,bone is /ructurally modifi$ connective tissue :i* has become h>d by be+ impregnat$ ) calcium salts4 ,k9ds ( ,bone ,tissue4--,!re are two k9ds ( bone tissue3 sub/antia compacta1 or compact bone tissue2 & sub/antia spongiosa1 or spongy1 cancell\s bone tissue4 ,compact ,bone ,tissue4--,! compact bone tissue =ms ! h>d out] lay] ( all bones4 ,x is ?icke/ 9 ! %aft & becomes ?9 t[>d ! extremities4 ,?r\gh ! compact bone tissue approximately p>allel ) ! longitud9al axis ( ! bone1 run canals call$ ,hav]sian canals1 ?r\gh :i* pass blood & lymph vessels = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! bone & n]ves4 ,! ,hav]sian canals are surr\nd$ by conc5tric lamell4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! cyl9d]s ?us =m$ are fill$ ) int]/itial lamell2 & bo? ! ext]ior surface ( ! bone & ! int]ior surface surr\nd+ ! m$ull>y canal1 are built up ( p]iph]al1 or circumf]5tial lamell4 ,betwe5 ! lamell1 some:at irregul>ly plac$1 are m9ute res]voirs1 call$ lacun1 :i* conta9 bone corpuscles4 ,f ! lacun radiate m9ute canals1 or canaliculi1 :i* ma9ta9 circulation ?r\gh ! bone sub/ance1 & :i* communicate ) ! ,hav]sian canals4 ,complex ana/omoses exi/ among ! canaliculi4 ,/ill o!r *annels = ! passage ( blood-vessels are ,volkmann's canals :i* pi]ce ! p]iph]al lamell1 ?us all[+ vessels to pass f ! p]io/eum to ! ,hav]sian canals4 ,simil> *annels af=d communication betwe5 ! inn] ,hav]sian canals & ! m$ull>y cavity4 ,! entire /ructure compos$ ( an ,hav]sian canal1 its surr\nd+ lamell1 lacun1 & canaliculi1 ) _! conta9$ vessels1 is call$ an ,hav]sian sy/em4 ,cancell\s ,bone ,tissue4--,! cancell\s bone tissue =ms ! bulk ( ! %ort1 flat1 & irregul> bones & ( ! extremities ( ! long bones4 ,x consi/s ( delicate bony plates & spicules1 :i* int]cross 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! spaces betwe5 ^! plates & spicules1 call$ cancelli1 are occupi$ by m>r[ except 9 ! bones t are pneumatic4 ,! blood-vessels1 lymphatics1 & n]ves c\rse ?r\gh ?is m>r[ b are n arrang$ 9 an ,hav]sian sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,longitud9al section ( compact bone ( ! femur ( ! h54 #a1 ,hav]sian canals4 #b1 ,lacun ) _! canaliculi4 ,! ,p]io/eum4--,cov]+ ! surface ( bone1 except at ! articul> surface :]e x is cov]$ ) c>tilage1 is a membrane1 ! p]io/eum1 :i* consi/s ( two lay]s3 an out]1 fibr\s1 protective lay]1 & an inn]1 cellul>1 o/eog5ic lay]4 ,! out] lay] consi/s pr9cipally ( :ite fibr\s tissue4 ,! inn] lay] conta9s _m m connective-tissue cells1 :i* gradually become m closely aggregat$ z we proce$ t[>d ! osse\s surface2 b !re is no %>ply def9$ l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! two p]io/eal lay]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,transv]se section ( compact bone ( ! femur ( ! h54 #a1 ,! lacun & canaliculi4 #b1 ,! p]io/eum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,transv]se section ( compact bone ( ! femur ( ! h5 %[+ ! lacun & canaliculi "u high magnification4 ,! p]io/eum is firmly atta*$ to ! bone by trabecul ( fibr\s tissue1 call$ ! fib]s ( ,%>pey4 ,^! fib]s ( ,%>pey p5etrate ! bone at "r angles to its surface & c>ry blood-vessels4 ,m>r[4--,!re are two k9ds ( m>r[3 yell[1 or m$ulla ossium flava1 & r$1 or m$ulla ossium rubra4 ,! yell[ m>r[ occurs 9 all bones except ! femur & proximal portion ( ! tibia ( adult f[ls4 ,x is compos$ ( a network ( fibr\s tissue c>ry+ blood-vessels1 fat cells1 & myelocytes1 or m>r[ cells4 ,! r$ m>r[ is f\nd ?r\gh\t ! femur & ! proximal portion ( ! tibia1 & 9 a few ( ! pelvic bones & v]tebr 9 ! adult f[l1 & 9 c]ta9 o!r bones ( ! baby *ick4 ,r$ m>r[ consi/s ( a delicate network ( connective tissue support+ a d5se capill>y plexus1 a small am\nt ( fat1 & num]\s cells4 ,! cellul> elem5ts ( r$ m>r[ consi/ ( m>r[ cells :i* conta9 l>ge nuclei & possess ameboid movem5t1 r$ blood cells1 giant cells conta9+ "o or m nuclei1 & v>i\s k9ds ( leucocytes1 includ+ eos9ophiles1 ma/ cells1 & also o/eocla/s4 ,gr[? ( ,bone4--,9 ! baby *ick1 only ! %aft & a portion ( ! extremities ( ! long bones are ?or\ghly ossifi$1 ! extreme ends1 & ( ! femur mo/ ( ! articul> head1 be+ c>tilag9\s4 ,! bones gr[ 9 l5g? by an increase 9 ! c>tilage1 ! c>tilage gradually becom+ ossifi$4 ,gr[? 9 diamet] is accompli%$ by ! con/ant deposition ( new lay]s ( bone b5ea? ! p]io/eum4 ,dur+ ?is process ! o/eocla/s absorb ! bone f )94 ,! =mation ( ! m>r[ cavity is ?us effect$4 ,classification ( ,bones4--,! bones ( ! f[l are classifi$ z long1 %ort1 flat1 & irregul>4 ,long ,bones4--,! long bones occur 9 ! legs & w+s1 :]e !y s]ve z lev]s to su/a9 weight & make locomotion possible4 ,a long bone consi/s ( a %aft & two extremities4 ,! sup]ior is call$ ! proximal & ! inf]ior ! di/al extremity4 ,! exp&$ articul> surfaces 9 =m+ jo9ts ) adjo9+ bones af=d ample space = ! atta*m5t ( ligam5ts4 ,! %aft is cyl9drical & holl[4 ,%ort ,bones4--,%ort bones occur 9 ! feet & 9 ! w+s4 ,_! /ructure is simil> to t ( ! long bones4 ,flat ,bones4--,! flat bones occur :]e ext5sive protection is ne$$1 z 9 ! cranial region2 or :]e l>ge surface = muscul> atta*m5ts is ne$$1 z 9 ! co/al & pelvic regions4 ,flat bones are made up ( two ?9 lay]s ( compact bone ) a v>iable am\nt ( cancell\s tissue int]pos$4 ,irregul> ,bones4--,! irregul> bones include ! v]tebr1 ! patell1 & ! c>pal bones4 ,composition ( ,bone4--,bone consi/s ( organic & inorganic matt]4 ,organic matt] gives t\ghness & ela/icity to ! bone1 & inorganic matt] h>dness4 ,! organic sub/ance ( bone is call$ osse94 ,:5 boil$ 9 wat] osse9 is resolv$ into gelat94 ,! foll[+ tables#a give ! results ( an analysis ( ! femur1 fre%1 ( a mature h54 ,footnote #a3 ,grateful ackn[l$gm5t is h]eby made to ,dan ,m4 ,mc,carty1 ,*emi/1 ,animal ,indu/ry ,division1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 = ?is analysis4 ,fre% femur3 ,wat] #ah4bc p] c5t4 ,dry matt] #ha4gg p] c5t4 ,dry matt]3 ,organic matt] #fc4ji p>ts ,inorganic matt] #ah4fh p>ts ,salts 9 dry matt]3 ,calcium #f4igj p] c5t4 ,magnesium #j4bhc p] c5t4 ,potassium #j4jjd p] c5t4 ,sodium #j4bgf p] c5t4 ,iron #j4jbj p] c5t4 ,phosphorus #c4baj p] c5t4 ,sulphur #j4jhe p] c5t4 ,*lor9e #j4ebj p] c5t4 ,c>bon dioxid #j4eej p] c5t4 ,! inorganic matt] ( ! femur ( ! h5 consi/s ( #ah4fh p>ts or #bb4hd p] c5t4 ( dry matt]1 & ! organic matt] ( #gg4af p] c5t4 ,/at$ 9 o!r words ! femur1 includ+ its conta9$ m>r[1 consi/s ( organic & inorganic matt] 9 ! ratio ( #c4d1 approximately1 to #a4 ,! ,skeleton ( ! ,f[l4--,! skeleton ( a bird is rem>kable = ! rapidity ( its ossification4 ,x is wor?y ( note t o!r p>ts ( ! bodies ( adult birds also become ossifi$4 ,among su* p>ts are ! t5dons ( ! muscles ( ! legs1 ( ! feet1 & ( ! neck2 ! plates ( ! corneal m>g9 ( ! scl]otic tunic ( ! eye2 & ! /apes ( ! e>4 ,ossification 9 birds at ! atta*m5ts ( ! semi-lun> valves ( ! aorta & ( ! pulmon>y art]y has be5 report$ by ,ow54 ,! bony /ructure is compact1 & ! bones conta9 a great] proportion ( phosphate ( lime ?an d ! osse\s /ructures ( mammals4 ,especially is ?is ! case 9 ^? p>ts ( ! skeleton :i* are p]meat$ by air4 ,,! ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,skeleton 7 ,! ,skull 7 ,cranium 7 7 ,face ,! ,axial skeleton 7 7 ,c]vical region 7 7 ,dorsal region 7 ,ribs 7 ,! ,v]tebral column 7 7 ,/]num 7 ,lumb> region 7 ,sacral region 7 ,coccygeal region 7 ,scapula 7 ,%\ld] girdle 7 ,coracoid 7 7 ,clavicle 7 7 7 ,arm 7 ,hum]us 7 7 7 ,=e limb 7 ,=e>m 7 ,radius 7 7 7 ,ulna 7 7 7 7 7 ,c>pus ,! ,app5dicul> skeleton 7 7 ,h& 7 ,metac>pus 7 7 ,phalanges 7 7 ,pelvic girdle 7 ,ilium 7 7,hip bone7 7 ,is*ium 7 7 ,pubis 7 7 7 ,?igh 7 ,femur 7 ,h9d limb 7 7 ,leg 7 ,tibia 7 7 ,fibula 7 7 ,foot 7 ,metat>sus 7 ,phalanges ,! bodies ( birds conta9 _m air res]voirs to make !m light t fly+ may be m easy4 ,_m bones h _! weight 9 proportion to size & /r5g? ?us greatly r$uc$4 ,9 v "y birds ! cavities ( bones conta91 in/ead ( air spaces1 loosely arrang$ r$ m>r[1 :i* is 9 mo/ bones lat] absorb$4 ,! air res]voirs 9 bones are mo/ capaci\s 9 ! be/ fly]s4 ,9 ! non-fly]s m ( ! bones reta9 _! r$ m>r[4 ,! bones suppli$ ) air spaces are relatively l>g] ?an 9 mammals1 & are provid$ ) small transv]se osse\s columns :i* cross 9 diff]5t directions & f side to side4 ,^! cross beams give /ability to ! ?9 wall ( ! bone4 ,! membranes l9+ ^! cavities are v vascul>4 ,,! ,,axial ,,skeleton ,,! ,,skull ,! skull is divid$ into ! cranial & facial portions4 ,9 ^! p>ts we f9d pres5t #ca bones3 "o occipital1 two p>ietal1 two frontal1 "o e?moid1 "o sph5oid1 & two temporal2 all ( :i* con/itute ! cranial gr\p2 two premaxill>y1 two maxill1 two nasal1 two lacrimal1 two palat9e1 two pt]ygoid1 two zygomatic1 "o vom]al1 ! two jugal1 & two quadrato-jugal1 :i* con/itute ! facial gr\p2 two quadrati & "o inf]ior maxill>y1 :i* con/itute ! inf]ior jaw gr\p4 ,! peculi>ities ( ! skull are ! long os incisivum & ! s+le condyle locat$ on ! occipital bone j bel[ ! =am5 magnum4 ,! condyle articulates ) ! atlas4 ,! head ( ! bird is small 9 proportion to ! size ( ! body1 & 9 front x is conical 9 %ape4 ,,! ,,cranium ,! cranial cavity1 or cavum cranii1 incloses ! bra9 ) its membranes & vessels4 ,! dorsal wall1 or ro(1 is =m$ by ! frontal & ! p>ietal bones4 ,9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! c]ebral portion is ! int]nal p>ietal cre/4 ,! ro( ( ! c]ebell> portion is m>k$ c5trally by a groove4 ,! po/]ior wall ( ! c]ebellum is =m$ by ! occipital bone4 ,! lat]al wall is =m$ *iefly by ! temporal bone4 ,x is m>k$ by a ridge :i* divides ! cavity into ! c]ebral & c]ebell> comp>tm5ts4 ,! c]ebral portion is m>k$ by a depression :i* receives ! optic lobes4 ,a cre/ divides ?is cavity f ! optic portion4 ,! walls are m>k$ by digitations & vascul> grooves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,! skeleton ( ! dome/ic f[l4 #a1 ,os incisivum4 #b1 ,ext]nal nasal op5+4 #c1 ,os nasale4 #d1 ,os la*rymale4 #e1 ,lam9a p]p5dicul>is4 #f1 ,os d5tale4 #g1 ,os palat9e4 #h1 ,os quadrato-jugal4 #i4 ,os pt]ygoideum4 #aj1 ,os quadratum4 #aa1 ,os articul>e4 #ab1 ,ext]nal auditory canal4 #ac1 ,atlas4 #ad1 ,os c>pi radiale4 #ae1 ,radius4 #af1 ,fir/ f+]4 #ag1 ,os metac>pus4 #ah1 ,second f+]4 #ai1 ,?ird f+]4 #bj1 ,os c>pi uln>e4 #ba1 ,ulna4 #bb1 ,hum]us4 #bc1 ,?oracic v]tebr4 #bd1 ,scapula4 #be1 ,os ilium4 #bf1 ,=am5 is*iadicum4 #bg1 ,caudal v]tebr4 #bh1 ,pygo/yle4 #bi1 ,=am5 obturatum4 #cj1 ,os is*ium4 #ca1 ,processus unc9atus4 #cb1 ,v]tebral rib4 #cc1 ,os claviculum or furculum4 #cd1 ,os coracoideum4 #ce1 ,os femoris4 #cf1 ,os pubis4 #cg1 ,body ( /]num4 #ch1 ,lat]al int]nal process ( /]num4 #ci1 ,co/al process ( /]num4 #dj1 ,/]nal cre/1 cri/i /]ni1 or keel ( brea/-bone4 #da1 ,/]nal rib4 #db1 ,lat]al ext]nal process ( /]num4 #dc1 ,os fibula4 #dd1 ,xyphoid process ( /]num4 #de1 ,int]nal not*4 #df1 ,os patella4 #dg1 ,os tibia4 #dh1 ,os metat>sus4 #di1 ,second toe4 #ej1 ,f\r? toe4 #ea1 ,os metat>sale4 #eb1 ,fir/ toe4 #ec1 ,second toe4 #ed1 ,second phalanx ( second f+]4 #ee1 ,os metac>pus4 #ef1 ,air op5+ 9 hum]us4 #eg1 ,hypocl$ium4 #eh1 ,ext]nal not*4 #ei1 ,c]vical v]tebr4 #fj1 ,=am5 oblongum4 ,! v5tral wall1 floor1 or basis cranii int]na1 may be reg>d$ z =m+ five foss4 ,^! are3 "o ant]ior1 "o middle1 "o po/]ior1 & two lat]al4 ,! ant]ior fossa supports ! frontal & olfactory p>ts ( ! c]ebrum4 ,x lies at a high] level ?an ! middle fossa4 ,! middle fossa1 or fossa cranii m$ia1 is circul> 9 outl9e & ext5ds into ! lat]al foss :i* lodge ! olfactory lobes4 ,j back ( ! middle fossa is ! sulla turcica1 ^u :i* re/s ! pituit>y body4 ,! po/]ior fossa1 or fossa cranii po/]ior1 lodges ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,bones ( ! ,cranium 7,figs4 #d1 #f1 #g1 & #h74--,! bones ( ! cranium fuse e>ly 9 ! *ick's life4 ,! sutures unit+ ! bones c usually be se5 9 ! fetus or 9 ! baby *ick soon aft] x em]ges f ! %ell4 ,! major portion ( ! cranial bones become entirely fus$4 ,ea* cranial & ea* facial bone ossifies f a di/9ct c5t] or c5t]s4 ,! cavity = ! c]ebrum is mu* l>g] ?an ! cavity = ! c]ebellum4 ,! cranial cavities 9 birds are relatively l>g] ?an 9 mammals4 ,! bones are designat$ z 9 mammals4 ,!re are ?ree s+le bones1 ! occipital1 ! e?moid1 & ! sph5oid4 ,^? 9 pairs are ! frontal1 ! p>ietal1 & ! temporal4 ,! ,occipital4 ,location4--,! occipital bone or os occipitale1 is situat$ at ! po/]ior "p ( ! cranium1 ( :i* x =ms ! po/]ior wall4 ,?is "p is call$ ! base ( ! cranium4 ,! occipital bone articulates ) or t\*es inf]iorly1 ! sph5oid1 lat]ally1 ! temporal1 & sup]iorly1 ! p>ietal4 ,developm5t4--,! occipital bone is develop$ f f\r c5t]s ( ossification2 ! dorsal1 or os occipitale sup]ius1 two lat]al1 or ossa occipitales lat]ales1 & ! v5tral1 or os occipitale inf]ius1 all ( :i* may be se5 di/9ct 9 ! baby *ick 7,fig4 #e1 ,"p ,,ii1 ,no4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,bones ( ! head & v]tebra4 ,"p ,i4--#a1 ,! cranium4 #b1 ,! skull cap4 #c1 ,! e?moid bone4 #d1 ,! inf]ior maxilla4 #e1 ,! palat9e bone4 #f1 ,! quadrato-jugal4 #g1 ,! jugal4 #h1 ,! sup]ior maxilla4 #i1 ,! premaxilla4 #aj1 ,! horny cov]+ = ! premaxilla4 #aa1 ,! horny cov]+ = ! os d5tale4 #ab1 ,! os quadratum4 #ac1 ,! nasal bone4 #ad1 ,! pt]ygoid4 ,"p ,,ii4--#a1 ,! os occipitale 7#a1 dorsal2 #b1 two lat]al2 #c1 v5tral portions & #d1 =am5 magnum74 #b1 ,! f\rte5 c]vical v]tebr4 7#a1 atlas2 #b1 axis74 #c1 ,! sev5 dorsal v]tebr4 #d1 ,! f\rte5 lumbo-sacral v]tebr4 #e1 ,! sev5 coccygeal v]tebr4 #f1 ,! pelvis 7#a1 ilium2 #b1 is*ium2 #c1 pubis2 #d1 cotyloid cavity or acetabulum74 #g1 ,! v]tebral column complete f ! baby *ick4 #h1 ,! p>ietal bone4 #i1 ,! temporal bone4 #aj1 ,! frontal bone4 ,description4--,9 ! c5t] ( ! occipital bone is ! =am5 magnum4 ,?r\gh ?is =am5 ! sp9al cord ext5ds into ! cranial cavity & connects ) ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,! occipital bone has a s+le condyle1 :i* is locat$ j bel[ ! =am5 magnum & articulates ) ! atlas4 ,at ! base ( ! condyle a small subcondyloid fossa receives ! body ( ! atlas dur+ extreme flexion ( ! head4 ,9 ! c5t] ( ! lat]al w+ ( ! occipital bone !re is a small =am5 ?r\gh :i* passes ! hypoglossal n]ve4 ,some:at lat]ally f ?is =am5 !re is an op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! vagus1 or pneumoga/ric n]ve passes4 ,lat]ally f ^! is ! canalis c>oticus et jugul>is4 ,betwe5 ! os occipitale sup]ius1 or dorsal portion1 & ! ossa p>ietalia is a space to :i* ligam5ts are atta*$1 call$ ! fontanel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,view ( ! frontal region ( ! skull ( a h54 #a1 ,p>ietal4 #b1 ,frontal4 #c1 ,nasal4 #d1 ,premaxilla4 #e1 ,temporal4 #f1 ,inf]ior jaw4 #g1 ,jugal bone4 ,! ,e?moid4 ,location4--,! e?moid1 or os e?moidale1 =ms ! ant]ior wall ( ! cranium1 & ! orbital septum4 ,x is relat$ ant]iorly ) ! vom]al1 sup]iorly ) ! nasal & frontal1 po/]iorly ) ! temporal1 & inf]iorly ) ! sph5oid1 & palat9e4 ,description4--,! e?moid consi/s ( a p]p5dicul> & a horizontal lam9a4 ,! p]p5dicul> lam9a1 locat$ betwe5 ! orbital cavities1 is call$ ! septum int]orbitale4 ,on ea* side ( ! septum int]orbitale & ne> ! sup]ior orbital ro( are two =am9a = ! passage ( ! olfactory n]ves4 ,9 ! horizontal plate1 :i* =ms ! ant]ior cranial wall1 are locat$ ! optic =am9a ?r\gh :i* pass ! optic n]ves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,side view ( ! skull ( a h54 #a1 ,lam9a p]p5dicul>is4 #b1 ,=am5 = ! passage ( ! n]ve ( smell4 #c1 ,=am5 = ! passage ( ! optic n]ve4 #d1 ,nasal bone4 #e1 ,ext]nal nasal op5+4 #f1 ,premaxilla4 #g1 ,os d5tale4 #h1 ,sup]ior maxilla4 #i1 ,os jugal4 #aj1 ,os quadrato-jugal4 #aa1 ,os quadratus4 #ab1 ,pt]ygoideus4 #ac1 ,os articul>e4 #ad1 ,inf]ior maxilla4 #ae1 ,temporal4 #af1 ,ext]nal auditory canal4 #ag1 ,p>ietal4 #ah1 ,frontal4 #ai1 ,palat9e4 #bj1 ,orbital process1 po/]ior to :i* is ! processus zygomaticus4 #ba1 ,int]orbital =am5 & optic =am5 = passage ( optic n]ve4 #bb1 ,atta*m5t = inf]ior oblique2 #bc1 = sup]ior oblique2 #bd1 = levator palpebr sup]ioris2 #be1 = int]nal rectus2 #bf1 = sup]ior rectus2 #bg1 = ext]nal rectus2 #bh1 = inf]ior rectus2 #bh1 = inf]ior rectus2 #bi1 = depressor palpebr inf]ioris2 #cj1 = orbicul>is palpebr>um2 #ca1 = t5sor tympani2 #cb1 = circumcon*a4 ,! ,sph5oid4 ,location4--,! sph5oid1 or os sph5oidale1 =ms ! floor ( ! cranial cavity & articulates ) or t\*es po/]iorly ! occipital1 lat]ally ! temporal1 & ant]iorly ! palat9e1 & e?moid4 ,description4--,! sph5oid bone1 ! l>ge/ "p ( ! cranial floor1 is =m$ by ! fusion ( ! nasal & ! cranial p>ts4 ,x is a ?ree-corn]$ bone ) two1 ?91 broad w+s4 ,^! w+s are divid$ into two portions1 orbital w+s1 or al orbitales1 & temporal w+s1 or al temporales4 ,! temporal w+ =ms a cov] = ! ,eu/a*ian tube trumpet1 & = ! canal com+ f ! sella turcica1 :i* latt] gives passage to ! intracranial c>otid art]y4 ,! orbital w+ =ms ! l[] portion ( ! po/]ior wall ( ! orbital cavity1 & lies directly be=e ! os petrosum or temporal bone :]e ! second & ?ird bran*es ( ! fif? pair ( cranial n]ves em]ge f ! cranial cavity4 ,ant]iorly ! sph5oid has a =am5 = ! passage ( ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 ! tuba auditiva1 & also a %>p-po9t$ projection1 ! nasal portion1 call$ ! ro/rum4 ,! ,frontal4 ,location4--,! frontal bones1 or ossa frontales1 two 9 numb]1 =m ! =ehead1 a portion ( ! nose1 & a portion ( ! ro( ( ! orbital cavities4 ,!y are relat$ po/]iorly ) ! p>ietal1 lat]ally ) ! temporal & zygomatic1 & ant]iorly ) ! nasal & premaxill>y4 ,!y t\* inf]iorly ! e?moid4 ,description4--,ea* ( ^! bones has a processus orbitalis :i* is se5 at ! out] m>g9 ( ! po/]ior & upp] orbital wall & j 9 front ( ! zygomatic process ( ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal4 ,! frontal bone =ms ! ant]ior portion ( ! sup]ior wall ( ! cranial cavity4 ,! two bones are ?91 flat1 & meet at ! m$ian l9e ( ! =ehead4 ,! ext]nal surface is convex4 ,! inn] surface has a ridge locat$ longitud9ally & 9 ! c5t] ! bone becomes n>r[ ant]iorly4 ,! ,p>ietal4 ,location4--,! p>ietal bones1 or ossa p>ietalia1 two 9 numb]1 =m ! po/]ior "p ( ! ro( ( ! cranial cavity4 ,!y meet 9 ! m$ian l9e & are relat$ po/]iorly ) ! occipital1 ant]iorly ) ! frontal1 & lat]ally ) ! temporal bones4 ,description4--,! p>ietal bones are %ort & v broad 7,fig4 #e1 ,"p ,,ii1 ,no4 #h74 ,ea* bone is quadrilat]al 9 outl9e & has two surfaces1 f\r bord]s & f\r angles4 ,! ext]nal p>ietal surface is convex & smoo? & ! int]nal1 c]ebral surface is concave4 ,! ,temporal4 ,location4--,! temporal bones1 or ossa temporales1 two 9 numb]1 are locat$ at ! lat]al portion ( ! cranium1 & aid 9 ! =mation ( ! cranial wall4 ,! temporal bone is relat$ po/]iorly ) ! occipital1 sup]iorly ) ! p>ietal & frontal1 ext]nally ) ! quadratus1 ant]iorly ) ! e?moid1 & inf]iorly ) ! sph5oid4 ,description4--,! temporal bones consi/ ( ! fus$ squam\s & petr\s temporals2 !y conta9 ! ess5tial organs ( he>+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,inf]ior view ( ! skull ( a h54 #a1 ,occipital4 #b1 ,=am5 magnum4 #c1 ,occipital condyle & j bel[ ! basi-occipital4 #d1 ,=am5 = ! passage ( ! hypoglossal n]ve4 #e1 ,=am5 = ! passage ( ! vagus4 #f1 ,canalis c>oticus & jugul>e4 #g1 ,sph5oid4 #h1 ,temporal w+s ( ! sph5oid4 #i1 ,=am5 auditiva4 #aj1 ,os articul>e4 #aa1 ,os angul>e4 #ab1 ,vom]4 #ac1 ,os d5tale4 #ad1 ,pt]ygoid4 ,! squam\s portion ( ! temporal bone possesses ! long ?9 zygomatic process sometimes call$ ! po/]ior orbitalis4 ,x =ms a small flatt5$ tongue1 direct$ =w>d1 sometimes free1 & at o!r times unit$ by its sup]ior bord] to ! summit ( ! orbital process4 ,?is is especially true 9 ! turkey4 ,?is process is se5 ne> ! l[] out] portion ( ! po/]ior orbital wall4 ,! squam\s portion is also provid$ ant]o-lat]ally ) an articul> facet :i* articulates ) ! quadrate bone4 ,! l>ge portion ( ! temporal bone lies on ! side ( ! cranium sup]ior to ! ala sph5oida temporale4 ,x ext5ds outw>d & ant]iorly ov] ! rims ( ! petrosum & ala sph5oida orbitale4 ,! squam\s "p =ms ! upp] ?ree-f\r?s ( ! co*lea1 ! inn] auditory canal1 ! upp] "p ( ! f5e/ra ovalis1 ! ant]ior v]tical & ! out] semicircul> canal1 & ! l[] "p ( ! po/]ior v]tical semicircul> canal4 ,! petr\s portion =ms ! po/]ior wall ( ! =am5 ovale & ! f5e/ra ovalis 9 :i* lies ! columella4 ,! f5e/ra ovalis & ! f5e/ra rotunda are ! only two entrances into ! labyr9?4 ,9 ?is region may be se5 ! fusion l9e betwe5 ! os petrosum & ! os occipitale4 ,sup]iorly & po/]iorly ! petr\s portion t\*es ! ext]nal p>ietalia & occipitalis2 inf]o-lat]ally x unites ) ! basi-sph5oid4 ,! out] rim ( ! =am5 ovale is broad5$ by ! ala sph5oida & mesially by ! basi-sph5oid4 ,?is =am5 gives exit to ! second & ?ird divisions ( ! fif? pair ( cranial n]ves4 ,! lat]al surface ( ! temporal bone pres5ts a %ort tube1 ! ext]nal ac\/ic process1 or processus acu/icus ext]nus1 to :i* is atta*$ ! con*a ( ! e>4 ,! process is direct$ outw>d4 ,its lum51 ! ext]nal ac\/ic meatus1 or meatus acu/icus ext]nus1 conducts to ! cavity ( ! middle e> 9 ! b>e skull1 b is sep>at$ f x by ! tympanic membrane 9 ! natural /ate4 ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,face ,! bones ( ! face1 or ossa faciei1 are ! premaxill>y1 or upp] m&ible1 ! maxill1 ! nasal1 ! lacrimal1 ! palat9e1 ! pt]ygoid1 ! zygomatic1 ! vom]al1 ! jugal & ! quadrato-jugal4 ,! vom] is s+le1 ! o!rs are pair$4 ,9 ! inf]ior maxill>y gr\p !re are ! quadrati1 & ! inf]ior maxill>y1 or l[] m&ible4 ,! turb9at$ & hyoid bones are also discuss$ ) ! bones ( ! face4 ,! beak consi/s ( ! ant]ior portion ( ! upp] & l[] m&ibles :i* are cov]$ ) a horny /ructure4 ,! ,premaxilla4 ,location4--,! premaxill1 or ossa incisiva1 or m&ibul> /ructures1 are locat$ 9 ! extreme ant]ior facial region4 ,description4--,! premaxill are long & ! ant]ior end is po9t$4 ,ea* consi/ ( two lat]al halves :i* become fus$ be=e ! *ick is hat*$4 ,!y p>tly circumscribe ! op5+s into ! nose4 ,?is bone is ! base ( ! upp] portion ( ! beak & det]m9es its =m4 ,x =ms ! ant]ior walls ( ! nasal cavity4 ,x has betwe5 ! nasal bones1 two processes :i* ext5d back to ! ant]ior po9t ( ! c]ebral cavity4 ,! po/]ior "p ( ! incisivum & nasale are flat1 ?91 & ela/ic4 ,! ext5sions !n are ! processus maxill>is1 ! processus palat9us1 & ! processus frontalis1 ! fir/ ( :i* =ms "p ( ! jaw rim1 ! second1 :i* aids 9 =m+ ! gum plate1 & ! la/ :i* rea*es to ! ant]ior portion ( ! cranial wall4 ,! ,maxilla4 ,location4--,! sup]ior maxill>ies1 or ossa maxill>es1 two 9 numb]1 =m ! floor ( ! upp] beak1 a "p ( ! palat9e ro( & nasal walls4 ,ea* maxilla bord]s lat]ally ! premaxilla & ! nasal2 inf]iorly1 ! ant]ior po9t ( ! palat9e2 & po/]iorly1 ! jugale4 ,description4--,! maxill are ?91 flat1 bones4 ,!y h ?ree bord]s & ?ree angles4 ,! palat9e processes ( ! two bones d n meet 9 ! m$ian l9e1 :i* results 9 a cleft 9 ! m$ian palat9e region4 ,! bone-l gums are =m$ p>tly by ! palat9e processes b m l>gely by lat]al w+s ( ! os incisivum4 ,ea* maxilla has po/]iorly a yoke-l ext5sion1 sup]iorly a small ext5sion1 & also a palat9e process4 ,! latt] articulates by a facet ) ! vom]4 ,! ,nasal4 ,location4--,! nasal bones1 or ossa nasalia1 two 9 numb]1 are locat$ 9 ! lat]al facial region4 ,! nasal bone articulates po/]iorly ) ! frontal2 lat]ally1 on ! inn] bord]1 ) ! processus frontalis ( ! premaxilla1 & on ! out] bord] ) ! lacrimal2 & inf]iorly ) ! premaxilla1 maxilla1 jugale1 & vom]4 ,description4--,! nasal bone1 or os nasale1 is broad1 flat1 & ela/ic & =ms ! po/]ior wall ( ! nasal op5+4 ,"u ?is bone is locat$ ! infraorbital s9us4 ,!re are ?ree ext5sions3 fir/1 ! processus int]maxill>is1 :i* =ms ! upp] wall ( ! nasal cavity2 second1 ! processus maxill>is ant]ior1 direct$ d[nw>d & =w>d1 :i* fuses ) ! maxill>y bone & =ms ! po/]ior rim ( ! nasal cavity2 & ?ird1 a po/]ior processus frontalis1 :i* lies p>allel ) ! e?moid4 ,! ,lacrimal4 ,location4--,! lacrimal bones1 or ossa lacrimalia1 two 9 numb]1 are locat$ at ! out] bord] & at ! junction ( ! processus frontalis ( ! nasal1 ) ! frontal bone4 ,description4--,! lacrimal bone is small1 & r fili=m4 ,!y become fus$ ) ! nasal & ! frontal bones1 =m+ "p ( ! m>g9 ( ea*4 ,! ,palat9e4--,location4 ,! palat9e bones1 or ossa palat9a1 two 9 numb]1 ent] into ! =mation ( ! inn] "p ( ! bony gum & h>d palate1 or ro( ( ! m\?4 ,!y =m ! support = ! h>d palate4 ,ea* palat9e articulates po/]iorly ) ! ro/rum1 or nasal portion ( ! sph5oid1 & ) ! pt]ygoid2 & ant]iorly ) ! maxilla4 ,description4--,! palat9e bone is curl$ po/]iorly & is ?9 at ! upp] portion & ?ick at ! l[] bord]4 ,ant]iorly x has a long r fili=m projection4 ,! ,pt]ygoid4 ,location4--,! pt]ygoid bones1 or ossa pt]ygoidea1 two 9 numb]1 are locat$ back ( ! region ( ! po/]ior n>es4 ,!y ext5d diagonally outw>d & backw>d f ! m$ian region ( ! sph5oid ro/rum to ! quadrate bone4 ,!y articulate ant]iorly ) ! sph5oid ro/rum & ! palat9e1 & po/]iorly ) ! quadrate4 ,description4--,! pt]ygoid bones are sl5d] & cyl9drical1 & are exp&$ at ! ends into an articul> facet4 ,! ,zygomatic4 ,location4--,! zygomatic1 or ossa zygomatica1 two 9 numb] are situat$ bel[ ! orbital cavity & ext5d f ! maxilla to ! quadrate bone4 ,description4--,! zygomatic is small1 sl5d]1 rod-%ap$1 & =ms ! lat]al portion ( ! upp] jaw4 ,! ant]ior portion ( ! zygomatic repres5ts ! jugal & is fus$ ) ! maxilla & ) ! ant]ior processus maxill>is ( ! nasal bone1 ! maxilla1 & ! po/]ior portion1 ! quadrato-jugal1 :i* articulates ) ! quadrate bone4 ,! ,vom]4 ,location4--,! vom] is locat$ 9 ! m$ian nasal septum4 ,x articulates ) ! ro/rum ( ! sph5oid1 be+ connect$ to x by a mass ( ligam5ts4 ,x t\*es ant]iorly ! po/]ior portion ( ! maxilla4 ,description4--,! vom] is a m$ian bone & aids 9 ! =mation ( ! septum nasi4 ,x consi/s ( a ?9 plate1 ?icke/ po/]iorly & dim9i%+ t[>d ! ant]ior edge4 ,! ,jugal & ,quadrato-jugal4--,! jugal & quadrato-jugal are unit$ =m+ a long sl5d] cyl9drical bone call$ ! zygomatic1 ly+ at ! out] side ( ! upp] jaw4 ,!y h be5 describ$ "u zygomatic1 :i* see4 ,! ,quadrate4 ,location4--,! quadrate bones1 or ossa quadrata1 two 9 numb]1 are locat$ ant]o-lat]ally to ! temporal bones4 ,ea* articulates inf]iorly ) ! po/]ior articul> portion1 or p>s articul>e1 ( ! inf]ior maxilla & inf]o-lat]ally ) ! quadrato-jugal>e portion ( ! zygomatic4 ,x articulates ant]o-int]nally ) ! pt]ygoid & sup]o-po/]iorly ) ! temporal4 ,description4--,! quadrate bone is anvil-l 9 %ape4 ,x has an ant]ior process1 ! orbital process1 = muscul> atta*m5ts1 & po/]iorly x af=ds atta*m5t to ! e> drum4 ,! ,inf]ior ,maxilla4 ,location4--,! inf]ior maxilla1 l[] jaw1 or os maxill>e inf]ius1 also call$ ! m&ibul> bone1 or p>s d5tis1 is analog\s to ! l[] jaw ( mammals4 ,x articulates po/]iorly ) ! quadrate bone4 ,description4--,! inf]ior maxilla is ! l>ge/ bone ( ! face4 ,x is made up ( a "r & a left limb :i* are sep>ate 9 ! fetus & :i* unite subsequ5tly ant]iorly1 =m+ ! inf]ior portion ( ! beak4 ,ea* limb ( ! jaw is develop$ f five elem5ts3 ! p>s articul>is1 :i* =ms ! jaw-jo9t &1 exp&$1 articulates ) ! quadrate bone2 ! p>s angul>is1 ly+ j 9 front ( ! p>s articul>is2 ! p>s supra-angul>is1 a sl5d] bone ly+ j above ! angul>is2 ! spl5ial1 a ?9 plate ( bone1 ly+ along ! inn] surface ( ! m&ible2 & ! p>s d5talis1 :i* =ms ! ant]ior portion ( ! jaw4 ,! ,turb9ate ,bones4 ,location4--,! turb9ate bones1 or ossa turb9ata1 six 9 numb]1 are atta*$ to ! lat]al walls ( ! nasal cavity 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,a1 #a & #b74 ,9 ea* nasal cavity !re are ?ree turb9ate bones1 "o ant]ior & two po/]ior4 ,( ! two po/]ior ! upp] "o lies sup]o-po/]ior to ! inf]ior "o4 ,! turb9ate bones are atta*$ to ! lat]al nasal walls1 project into ! cavity & ?us greatly dim9i%+ its ext5t4 ,description4--,ea* turb9ate bone is compos$ ( a v ?9 lam9a1 f9ely cribri=m 9 _m places1 & 9 ! fre% /ate1 cov]$ on bo? sides ) muc\s membrane4 ,^! bones are curl$ & p>tly membrano-c>tilag9\s /ructures :i* give great] surface 9 ! nasal passage = muc\s membrane 9 :i* ! olfactory n]ve t]m9al filam5ts are di/ribut$4 ,! ,nasal ,cavity4--,! nasal cavity1 or cavum nasi1 is a longitud9al passage :i* ext5ds ?r\gh ! upp] "p ( ! face4 ,x is divid$ into "r & left halves by a m$ian septum nasi4 ,its walls are made up ( ! premaxilla1 maxilla1 nasal1 vom]1 & palat9e bones4 ,! ,hyoid ,bone4 ,location4--,! hyoid bone1 or os hyoideum1 is situat$ *iefly betwe5 ! rami ( ! m&ible1 b its upp] "p ext5ds ar\nd ! out] m>g9 ( ! base ( ! skull4 ,! hyoid bone does n articulate ) any bones ( ! skull1 b is firmly atta*$ by /rong fibr\s /ructure4 ,description4--,! hyoid bone consi/s ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 ! body1 or basi-hyal1 :i* is subcyl9drical & pres5ts 9 front a tro*le> articul> surface1 convex transv]sely1 & concave v]tically = articulation ) ! ew]-%ap$ portion ( ! glosso-hyal4 ,! ant]ior free portion1 or l+ual process1 is call$ ! glosso-hyal1 or entoglossal bone4 ,! l+ual process gives support to ! muscul> & fibr\s /ructures ( ! tongue4 ,on ei!r side ( ! basi-hyal !re is a limb pass+ po/]iorly along ! side ( ! sup]ior l>ynx1 ext5d+ upw>d along ! out] bord] ( ! occipital bone4 ,?is is ! cornu ( ! os hyoideum & is divid$ into two elem5ts1 fir/1 ! basi-bran*ial :i* is bone & articulates ) ! basi-hyal1 & ! second1 ! c]ato-bran*ial1 c>tilag9\s 9 /ructure4 ,9 ! c5t] & project+ backw>d f ! body ( ! os hyoideum is a spur process call$ ! uro-hyal1 p>tly bony & p>tly c>tilag9\s1 & :i* re/s ^u ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,column ,! v]tebral1 or sp9al column consi/s ( #db bones1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,c]vical region #ad ,dorsal region #g ,lumbo-sacral region #ad ,coccygeal region #g ---- ,total #db ,_m ( ! bones ( ! dorsal & lumbo-sacral regions d n h free articulations4 ,! c]vical & coccygeal alone h free movem5ts4 ,! ,c]vical ,v]tebr 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #ei2 ,fig4 #e1 ,"p ,,ii1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,! c]vical v]tebr =m ! neck ( ! f[l4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,os hyoidum & tongue muscles4 #a1 ,glosso-hyal4 #c1 ,basi-hyal4 #d1 ,basi-bran*ial elem5t ( ! cornua4 #e1 ,c]ato-bran*ial elem5t ( ! cornua4 #f1 ,uro-hyal or spur process4 #g1 ,g5io-hyoideus4 #h1 ,c]ato-hyoideus %[+ ! sl5d] t5don4 #i1 ,hyoideus transv]sus4 #aj1 ,hyoideus transv]sus4 ,description4--,! long c]vical section ( ! sp9al column is ,s-%ap$ & is made up ( f\rte5 v]tebr4 ,! ant]ior segm5ts move freely =w>d1 ! middle ones backw>d & ! po/]ior ones =w>d1 all[+ ! ,s-%ap$ curve ( ! neck4 ,! neck is flexible s t x is possible = ! beak to rea* ! coccygeal oil gl&4 ,! bird is enabl$ to rea* ! fea!rs on all p>ts ( ! body to cleanse & oil !m4 ,! ,atlas4 ,location4--,! fir/ c]vical v]tebra is call$ ! atlas4 ,ant]iorly x articulates ) ! s+le condyle ( ! occipital bone4 ,po/]iorly x articulates ) ! axis1 or second c]vical v]tebra4 ,description4--,! atlas is ! smalle/ ( ! c]vical v]tebr & is r+-%ap$4 ,! ant]ior articul> surface1 half-moon 9 %ape1 =ms a deep articul> cavity4 ,! jo9t1 call$ a ball-&-socket jo9t1 makes possible movem5ts 9 all directions4 ,! condyle ( ! occiput also t\*es an articul> end ( ! odontoid process ( ! axis1 or second c]vical v]tebra4 ,po/]iorly !re projects f ! atlas two small lat]al w+s possess+ articul> facets :i* articulate ) simil> facets on ! lat]al w+s ( ! axis4 ,po/]iorly ! body ( ! atlas is also provid$ ) an articul> surface :i* articulates ) a simil> surface on ! ant]ior portion ( ! body ( ! axis4 ,! ,axis4 ,location4--,! axis is ! second c]vical v]tebra4 ,x articulates ant]iorly ) ! atlas1 & by a facet on ! extreme ant]ior end ( ! odontoid process1 ) ! condyle ( ! occipital bone4 ,po/]iorly x articulates ) ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,description4--,! body ( ! axis is %ort4 ,! upp] ant]ior portion ( ! body ( ! axis is provid$ ) a too?-l process call$ ! odontoid process4 ,!re are two ant]ior lat]al w+s provid$ ) small articul> facets :i* articulate ) simil> facets ( ! atlas4 ,! ant]ior surface ( ! body ( ! axis =ms a true articulation ) ! body ( ! atlas4 ,! axis is provid$ ) a sup]ior & an inf]ior sp9e4 ,!re are two po/]ior articul> processes :i* articulate ) ! prezygapophyses1 or ant]ior articul> processes1 ( ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,! po/]ior "p ( ! body ( ! axis =ms a true articulation ) ! body ( ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,o!r ,c]vical ,v]tebr4--,beg9n+ ) ! axis1 ! body ( :i* is relatively %ort1 ! body ( ea* succe$+ v]tebra is long] ?an t ( ! prec$+4 ,! articulations ( ea* v]tebra ) adjo9+ v]tebr are effect$ by means ( di>?rodial facets1 convex 9 "o direction & concave 9 ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,a4 ,diagram ( ?ree fir/ dorsal v]tebr & scapul> ar*-side view4 ,b4 ,diagram ( section ?r\gh ! hemal ar*4 ,a4 #a1 ,fir/ dorsal segm5t4 #b1 ,second4 #c1 ,?ird4 #d & #e1 ,hemal ar*es4 #f1 ,! pleurapophyses or float+ ribs4 #g1 ,! ?ird pleurapophyses or dorsal v]tebral rib articulat+ ) ! hemapophysis or /]nal rib1 #h1 & ?is 9 turn ) ! w+ ( ! /]num =m a hemal ar*4 #i1 ,! /]num4 #aj1 ,int]v]tebral =am5 ?r\gh :i* ! n]ves pass4 #aa1 ,articulation ) ! body ( v]tebra p>apophyses4 #ab1 ,articulation ) transv]se process or diapophyses4 #ac1 ,oblique process or zygapophysis4 #ad1 ,! epipleural app5dage4 ,b4 #a1 ,hemal or inf]ior sp9e 7hypapophysis74 #b1 ,! neural ar*4 #c1 ,! pleurapophyses or rib4 #d1 ,! sup]ior or neural sp9e or neurapophysis :i* aids 9 ! =mation ( ! anapophyseal ridge4 #e1 ,p>apophyseal surface = head ( rib4 #f1 ,tub]cle ( rib articulat+ ) ! diapophysis4 #g1 ,lam9a ( neurapophysis4 #h1 ,c5trum4 #i1 ,hemal ar*4 ,betwe5 ! bodies ( ! v]tebr are pads ( fibr\s c>tilage4 ,above ^! bodies & inf]ior to ! neural sp9es ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! sp9al column ! l>ge neural canal :i* is occupi$ by ! sp9al cord4 ,betwe5 ! v]tebral segm5ts ! neural canal is expos$ sup]iorly1 s9ce "h ! neural ar*es d n completely bridge ! canal4 ,^! spaces are protect$ by int]v]tebral ligam5ts4 ,9 addition to ! sup]ior neural sp9es & ! inf]ior sp9es1 f ! body ( ! v]tebra project lat]al processes1 & ant]ior & po/]ior oblique processes4 ,all c]vical v]tebr except ! atlas & ! axis are made up ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 a body1 or c5trum1 a neural canal1 a neural ar*1 a sup]ior dorsal1 or neural sp9e1 or neurapophysis1 :i* 9 mo/ c]vical v]tebr is only slightly develop$1 two oblique processes1 or zygapophyses1 two transv]se processes1 or diapophyses 7,fig4 #aj1 ,no4 #ab7 & 9 "s v]tebr two tub]cles1 or anapophyses above ! po/]ior zygapophyses4 ,! prezygapophyses are direct$ upw>d & inw>d2 ! po/zygapophyses are direct$ d[nw>d & outw>d4 ,! inf]ior sp9es are only well develop$ 9 ! la/ two or ?ree c]vical v]tebr4 ,betwe5 v]tebral segm5ts1 except ! c5tral sacral portion1 on ea* side1 !re is an int]v]tebral =am5 7,fig4 #aa1 ,no4 ,a1 #d71 ?r\gh :i* pass ! sp9al n]ves4 ,9 ! c5tral portion ( ! sacrum :]e ! v]tebr h fus$1 !re are two =am9a on ea* side = ea* orig9al v]tebra1 "o locat$ above ! o!r1 ! upp] giv+ passage to ! s5sory bran*1 ! l[] to ! motor bran* ( ! n]ve4 ,! ,dorsal ,v]tebr 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #bc2 ,fig4 #aa1 ,a74 ,location4--,! dorsal1 or ?oracic v]tebr1 or v]tebr ?oracicales1 aid 9 =m+ ! ro( ( ! *e/ cavity4 ,description4--,! dorsal v]tebral section is made up ( sev5 v]tebr1 ) /rong %ort bodies4 ,! fir/ & six? dorsal segm5ts articulate z d ! c]vical1 by ! bodies & oblique processes4 7,fig4 #aa1 ,no4 ,a1 #c1 illu/rates ! oblique processes47 ,! sev5? dorsal is fus$ ) ! fir/ lumbo-sacral v]tebra4 ,! second to ! fif? inclusive ( ! v]tebr are fus$ toge!r1 & ! sup]ior & inf]ior sp9\s processes are fus$ into a prom95t plate-l ridge4 ,! transv]se processes ( ! dorsal v]tebr1 f ! second to ! six?1 are well develop$ & are bridg$ ov] ) a ?9 lay] ( bone4 ,! v5tral sp9es are p>tly fus$ & =m a v prom95t & cont9u\s ridge4 7,fig4 #aa1 ,no4 ,a1 #a1 %[s ! fus$ sup]ior sp9es2 ,no4 #b1 ! fus$ inf]ior sp9es2 & ,no4 #d1 ! int]v]tebral =am9a47 ,! ,lumbo-sacral ,v]tebr 7,fig4 #e1 ,"p ,,ii1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,! fus$ lumbo-sacral section ( ! sp9al column =ms ! ro( ( ! pelvic cavity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,bones f ! scapul> ar*4 ,a4 ,dorsal v]tebra4 #a1 ,sup]ior sp9\s ridge1 #b1 ,inf]ior sp9\s ridge4 #c1 ,oblique processes4 #d1 ,int]v]tebral =am9a4 #e1 ,articul> facette = head ( ! rib4 #f1 ,articul> facette = tub]cle ( ! rib4 #g1 ,articul> portion ( ! body4 ,b4 ,out] surface ( scapula4 ,c4 ,inn] surface ( scapula4 #a1 ,?9 caudal end4 #b1 ,articul> head4 #d1 ,processus furcul>is4 #e1 ,processus hum]alis4 #f1 ,processus coracoideus4 ,d4 ,out] surface ( coracoid4 ,e4 ,inn] surface ( coracoid4 #a1 ,! furcul> tub]osity4 #b1 ,articul> facette = articulation ) ! /]num4 #c1 ,articul> surface = hum]us & scapula4 ,f4 ,out] surface ( hum]us & ,g ! inn] surface ( ! same4 #a1 ,tro*ant]ic fossa4 #b1 ,oval articul> head at proximal end4 #c1 ,%aft4 #d1 ,di/al end %[+ articul> condyles4 #e1 ,tro*ant]4 #f1 ,tro*lea = ulna4 #g1 ,tro*lea = radius4 #h1 ,depression or fossa4 ,h4 ,section ?r\gh ! m$ian plane ( ! hum]us %[+ ! delicate cross p>titions illu/rat+ provisions made = bones provid$ ) air-sac ext5sions4 ,description4--,! lumbo-sacral region consi/s ( f\rte5 v]tebr :i* are di/9ct 9 ! body ( ! newly hat*$ *ick1 b :i* become fus$ soon aft] hat*+4 ,) ^! v]tebral segm5ts !re are fus$ ! la/ dorsal & fir/ coccygeal v]tebral segm5ts4 ,?is fusion is s complete t ! segm5ts are indicat$ only by ! int]v]tebral =am9a on ! sides ?r\gh :i* ! sp9al n]ves pass1 & by transv]se m>k+s on ! inf]ior surface ( ! bodies4 ,! lumbo-sacral v]tebr1 call$ ! sacrum1 & ! ilia are fus$4 ,! dorsal sp9es ( ! v]tebral segm5ts are indicat$ only 9 ! ant]ior portion :]e !y are fus$1 =m+ a plate4 ,!re are no prom95t v5tral sp9es4 ,! ,coccygeal ,v]tebr 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #bg74 ,location4--,! coccygeal or caudal v]tebr1 or v]tebr coccyge1 con/itute ! bones ( ! tail4 ,description4--,!re are sev5 coccygeal v]tebr4 ,! la/ segm5t1 %ap$ l a pl\gh %>e & !re=e call$ ! pygo/yle1 is ! l>ge/ & is suppos$ to h be5 =m$ by ! fusion ( sev]al orig9al di/9ct segm5ts4 ,x supports ! coccygeal oil gl& & ! r[ ( rudd] fea!rs1 or rectrices1 :i* are arrang$ fan-wise4 ,all ( ! coccygeal v]tebr except ! fir/ are freely movable1 ?us all[+ ! tail to be us$ z a rudd] dur+ flight4 ,! lat]al sp9es are long & well develop$1 & ! sup]ior sp9es are bifurcat$1 ?us giv+ increas$ surface = muscul> atta*m5t4 ,! fir/ coccygeal segm5t is fus$ ) ! la/ lumbo-sacral v]tebra4 ,,! ,,?orax ,! dorsal v]tebr sup]iorly1 ! ribs lat]ally1 & ! /]num1 or brea/-bone inf]iorly1 =m ! skeleton ( a l>ge cavity call$ ! ?orax4 ,! dorsal v]tebr h be5 describ$4 ,! ,ribs 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #cb2 ,fig4 #aj1 ,a & ,b74 ,location4--,! ribs =m ! lat]al bony wall ( ! ?orax1 articulat+ sup]iorly ) ! dorsal v]tebr4 ,description4--,! ribs are arrang$ 9 ord] ( l5g?1 ! ultimate rib be+ ! longe/4 ,f ant]ior to po/]ior1 !y approa* m ne>ly a horizontal position4 ,! ribs are divid$ into ! true & ! false4 ,! true ribs articulate ) ! /]num4 ,! false ribs d n t\* ! /]num2 !y are float+4 ,! true ribs are compos$ ( two p>ts1 a v]tebral1 or dorsal1 & a /]nal1 or v5tral4 ,! v]tebral "p1 or extremitas v]tebralis1 is provid$ ) an articul> head1 or caput co/2 a neck1 or collum co/2 & an articul> tub]cle1 or tub]culum co/4 ,! head & tub]cle articulate ) ! dorsal v]tebra4 ,bel[ ! head ( ea* rib is a pneumatic =am54 ,! di/al extremity ( ! dorsal section ( ! rib articulates ) ! proximal end ( ! /]nal section by a di>?rodial articulation4 ,! articulations ( ! true ribs ) ! /]num is di>?rodial & ea* articulate by two small ridges ) a d\ble /]nal facet4 ,! fir/1 ! second1 & ! sev5? ribs are float+1 or false ribs4 ,! fir/ rib articulates ) ! quadrate "p ( ! la/ c]vical v]tebra & also ) ! fir/ dorsal v]tebra4 ,! sev5?1 ! la/ rib1 articulates ) ! "u side ( ! ant]ior al> "p ( ! ilium4 ,?is rib is situat$ simil>ly to ! true ribs2 b1 in/ead ( articulat+ directly ) ! /]num1 ! l[] end lies aga9/ ! /]nal segm5t ( ! rib j ant]ior to x4 ,f ! po/]ior edge ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 & ! fif? ribs1 & ne> ! middle ( ! dorsal segm5t1 are flat1 unc9ate1 bony processes :i* project upw>d & backw>d1 ov]ly+ 9 ea* case1 ! succe$+ rib & giv+ great] surface = muscul> atta*m5ts & great] /ability to ! ?orax4 ,! ,/]num 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #dj2 ,fig4 #aj1 ,no4 ,a1 #i74 ,location4--,! /]num1 or brea/-bone =ms ! inf]ior portion1 or floor ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,description4--,! /]num is a quadrilat]al1 curv$ plate ) processes project+ f ea* angle & f ! middle ( ! ant]ior & po/]ior bord]s4 ,! po/]ior m$ial projection1 or meta/]num1 is ! longe/1 & has a tall1 plate-l ridge--! /]nal cre/1 cri/a /]ni--runn+ along its v5tral surface4 ,! cre/ s]ves ! important function ( increas+ ! bony area = ! atta*m5t ( ! p[]ful muscles :i* move ! w+s4 ,! ant]ior m$ial projection1 or ro/rum1 is %ort1 & pi]c$ at its root by an op5+ f :i* ext5d two elongat$1 saddle-%ap$ depressions into :i* ! end ( ! coracoid bones are receiv$4 ,! plate-l process ( bone1 ! po/]ior lat]al process1 :i* projects f ! caudal angles ( ! /]num soon divides into two p>ts4 ,! %ort] ( ^!1 ! oblique process1 broad5s t[>d its free end & cov]s ! /]nal segm5ts ( ! la/ two ribs4 ,! sides ( ! /]num are ?us provid$ ) an ext]nal & an int]nal process =m+ an ext]nal & an int]nal not*4 ,^! not*es are bridg$ ov] by a broad ligam5t1 to :i* ! muscles are atta*$4 ,9 poor fly]s1 z ! dome/ic f[l1 ^! not*es are l>ge4 ,! po/]ior end ( ! /]num is call$ ! xiphoid process or processus xiphoideus4 ,ant]iorly ! /]num is provid$ ) lat]al ext]nal processes1 ! co/al processes4 ,! lat]al bord]s ( ! /]num are pitt$ by f\r depressions into :i* ! /]nal segm5ts ( ! ribs are receiv$4 ,! dorsal1 or inn] surface ( ! bone is pi]c$ by op5+s by :i* ! air-sacs communicate ) ! int]ior4 ,,! ,,app5dicul> ,,skeleton ,! app5dicul> skeleton consi/s ( ! %\ld] girdle1 ! =e limb1 ! pelvic girdle1 or hip bone1 & ! h9d limb4 ,! %\ld] girdle consi/s ( ! scapula1 ! coracoid1 & ! clavicle4 ,! =e limb consi/s ( ! arm1 =e>m1 & ! h&4 ,! arm consi/s ( ! hum]us1 ! =e>m ( ! radius & ! ulna2 & ! h& consi/s ( ! c>pus1 ! metac>pus1 & ! phalanges4 ,! pelvic girdle consi/s ( ! ilium1 ! is*ium1 & ! pubis4 ,! h9d limb consi/s ( ! ?igh1 ! leg1 & ! foot4 ,! ?igh consi/s ( ! femur1 & ! leg consi/s ( ! tibia & ! fibula4 ,! foot consi/s ( ! metat>sus & ! phalanges4 ,,! ,,%\ld] ,,girdle ,! %\ld] girdle consi/s ( ! scapula1 ! clavicle & ! coracoid4 ,! ,scapula4 ,location4--,! scapula 7,fig4 #aa1 ,a1 ,b7 lies on ! out] & sup]ior rib surface1 ext5d+ p>allel ) ! dorsal v]tebr4 ,description4--,! scapula is a ?91 sword-l bone1 becom+ ?ick] z x approa*es ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,! scapula exp&s & becomes ?9 ne> ! free end1 :i* rea*es ne>ly to ! ant]o-lat]al portion ( ! ilium 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #bd74 ,! scapula articulates ) ! coracoid4 ,a pneumatic =am5 is locat$ at ! base ( ! acromion process4 ,! ant]ior "p ( ! scapula is provid$ ) an articul> head & is provid$ ) an inn] process1 call$ ! processus furcul>is1 :i* lies ne> ! furcula & coracoid4 ,an out] /rong] processus hum]alis =ms ! po/]ior half ( ! gl5oid cavity1 or cavitas gl5oidalis1 9 :i* ! hum]us articulates & ! processus coracoideus4 ,! ,clavicle4 ,location4--,! clavicles1 commonly kn[n z ! wi% bone1 are locat$ 9 ! ant]ior *e/ region4 ,description4--,! clavicles are long1 sl5d] bones unit+ bel[ 9 ! hypocl$ium1 a lat]ally flatt5$ process4 ,!y are jo9$ to ! upp] end ( ! coracoid by fibr\s c>tilage4 ,! hypocl$ium is jo9$ to ! ant]ior po9t ( ! /]num by ! claviculo/]nal ligam5t4 ,! clavicles1 z unit$ by ! hypocl$ium1 =m a v-%ap$ /ructure call$ ! furculum1 or1 popul>ly1 ! wi% bone4 ,! =ks play ! "p ( an ela/ic spr+1 ^: (fice x is to prev5t ! w+s f com+ t[>d ea* o!r dur+ contraction ( ! depressor muscles4 ,! con=mation ( ?is bone is1 !re=e1 l ! /]num1 relat$ to ! ext5t & p[] ( flight2 & = ?is reason x is t1 9 swift fly]s1 ! two bran*es ( ! furculum are ?ick1 solid1 widely sep>at$1 & curv$ l a ,u2 :ile 9 ^? t fly heavily & ) difficulty1 ^! bran*es are ?9 & weak1 & jo9 at an acute angle4 ,! latt] =mation greatly dim9i%es its /r5g?1 & less5s1 9 a s+ul> mann]1 ! reaction>y p[] ( ! bony ar* x repres5ts4 ,! ,coracoid4 ,location4--,! coracoid is locat$ j back ( ! clavicle & at ! side ( ! entrance ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,x is ! /ronge/ bone ( ! %\ld] girdle1 ext5d+ upw>d1 outw>d1 & =w>d4 ,x articulates inf]iorly ) ! /]num & sup]iorly ) ! hum]us & ! scapula1 & is atta*$ to ! sup]ior end ( ! furcul> limb by a fibr\s c>tilage4 ,description4--,x is ?9ne/ 9 ! c5t] or %aft & broad5s t[>d ! inf]ior extremity4 ,! upp] hook-l "p ( ! coracoid =ms ! =e "p ( ! gl5oid cavity1 & toge!r ) ! scapula & furcula =m ! =am5 triosseum ?r\gh :i* passes ! t5don ( ! elevator muscle ( ! w+4 ,! upp] end flatt5s out into ?ree tub]osities1 ! tub]ositas furcul>is :i* is ?ick & to :i* atta*es ! limb ( ! furcula1 ! tub]ositas scapul>is :i* unites to ! scapula1 & ! tub]ositas hum]alis :i* lies betwe5 ^! & articulates ) ! hum]us4 ,,! ,,=e ,,limb ,! bones ( ! =e limb are hum]us1 ulna1 radius1 c>pus1 metac>pus1 & phalanges4 ,! ,hum]us4 ,location4--,! hum]us con/itutes ! arm1 :i*1 :5 at re/1 lies p>allel to ! dorsal v]tebr4 ,x articulates sup]iorly ) ! gl5oid cavity1 a %all[ ball-&-socket jo9t1 =m$ by ! scapula & ! coracoid2 & inf]iorly ) ! ulna & radius4 ,description4--,! proximal extremity ( ! hum]us is provid$ ) a tro*ant] 7,fig4 #aa1 ,g1 ,no4 #e7 & a l>ge oval head or caput hum]i1 :i* articulates 9 ! gl5oid cavity4 ,! head is an elongate1 semi-oval convexity1 ) ! long axis transv]se f ! radial to ! uln> side & ) ! ends cont9u$ into upp] & l[] cre/s4 ,! upp] cre/ ( ! head ( ! hum]us is on ! radial side & ! l[] cre/ on ! "u side4 ,"u ?is latt] cre/ !re is a pneumatic fossa 7,fig4 #aa1 ,f1 ,no4 #a71 at ! upp] end ( :i* !re is an op5+ into ! bone1 ! pneumatic =am51 :i* br+s ! air-sac into communication ) ! air space ( ! bone4 ,! %aft1 or corpus hum]is1 is irregul>ly cyl9drical & slightly ,s-%ap$4 ,! proximal "p ( ! %aft1 :i* is exp&$ on ! palm> side1 is concave across & convex l5g?wise4 ,! di/al "p is slightly flatt5$4 ,! %aft ( ! hum]us is almo/ cyl9drical4 ,! di/al extremity ( ! hum]us is provid$ ) two articul> condyles1 "o ( :i* articulates ) ! ulna & ! o!r ) ! radius4 ,on ! radial side ( ! palm> surface !re is a ridge2 & on ! uln> side ( ! same surface !re is a second ridge div]g+ to ! opposite tub]osity4 ,! radial surface is a n>r[1 subelongate convexity1 ext5d+ f ! middle1 approximately1 ( ! palm> surface1 obliquely to ! l[] "p ( ! radial tub]osity4 ,! two articul> convexities1 or tro*lea1 at ! di/al end ( ! hum]us are b5t t[>d ! palm> aspect1 ! anconal aspect is ! side on :i* ! elb[ is situat$4 ,! inn] convexity is ! l>g] & articulates ) ! ulna4 ,to ! outside is ! processus cubitalis hum]i4 ,! out] articulates ) ! radius & is s arrang$ t ! radius makes a great] flexion ?an ! ulna4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! hum]us !re is a depression :i* receives ! anconeus ( ! ulna dur+ flexion & ext5sion ( ! =e>m4 ,on ! %\ld]- & elb[-jo9t are f\nd grooves ov] :i* ! t5dons glide1 at :i* places %ea?s are provid$4 ,?is arrangem5t also aids 9 keep+ ! capsul> ligam5t 9 place4 ,! ,ulna4 ,location4--,! ulna1 l>g] ?an ! radius1 is b5t & articulates ) ! radius only at ! ends4 ,! two bones are b\nd toge!r by a ligam5t\s b&4 ,x also articulates sup]iorly ) ! di/al end ( ! hum]us1 & inf]iorly ) ! c>pus4 ,:5 ! w+ is fold$ ! radius is sup]ior & a trifle to ! inn] side ( ! ulna4 ,description4--,! proximal end is mo/ exp&$1 & is obliquely truncate = ! articul> excavation adapt$ to ! uln> tub]cle ( ! hum]us4 ,a %ort angul> process beh9d ! cavity repres5ts ! olecranon1 :i* is ! processus olecranalis coracoideus uln to :i* ! ligam5tum capsul>e cubiti atta*es4 ,on ! inn] side ( ! head is ! int]nal tub]cle ( ! ulna & on ! ext]nal side ! ext]nal tub]cle ( ! ulna4 ,an excavation is not$ on ! radial side ( ! proximal end = ! lat]al articulation ( ! head ( ! radius4 ,on ! upp] side ne> ! articul> "p is locat$ ! sigmoid cavity4 ,! %aft1 or corpus uln1 decreases 9 size ne> ! di/al end4 ,x is slightly curv$1 flatt5$ lat]ally ) an int]nal & an ext]nal ridge4 ,! di/al end ( ! ulna is slightly exp&$ into a tro*lea :i* is %>ply convex & articulates ) two free c>pal bones1 ! scapho-lun>1 or os c>pi radiale1 & ! cunei=m1 or os c>pi uln>e4 ,! scapho-lun> is plac$ on ! radial side1 & ! c>piuln>e on ! uln> side4 ,! di/al extremity ( ! ulna is provid$ ) a /yloid process & on ! dorsal side ) a tub]cle4 ,! ,radius4 ,location4--,! radius lies beside ! ulna ) :i* x articulates at ea* extremity4 ,at ! inf]ior extremity ! articulation is rot>y4 ,x also articulates sup]iorly ) ! hum]us & inf]iorly ) ! os c>pi radiale4 ,description4--,! radius1 cyl9drical 9 %ape1 is m sl5d] ?an ! ulna4 ,! proximal end is exp&$1 subelliptical1 ) a concavity = ! oblique tub]cle & a ?ick5$ convex bord] = articulation ) ! ulna4 ,?is end is provid$ ) ! tub]ositas radii4 ,! %aft1 or corpus radii1 is sl5d]1 subcompress$1 & has a slight b5d upw>d f ! ulna4 ,a nutri5t =am5 occurs 9 ?is %aft4 ,! di/al end is exp&$ & r flatt5$ ) two grooves on ! anconal side = passage ( t5dons4 ,= articulation ) ! scapho-lun> ! radius is provid$ ) a t]m9al transv]se convexity produc$ palmad1 :i* also articulates ) ! ulna lat]ally4 ,!re is a tub]osity on ! radial side ( ! expansion & inf]iorly ! inf]ior tub]culum ossis c>pi radialis & sup]iorly a sup]ior tub]culum ossis c>pi radialis4 ,! ,h&4--,! h& is made up ( ! c>pus1 ! metac>pus1 & ! phalanges4 ,! bones ( ! h& are s arrang$ z to all[ abduction & adduction1 or flexion 9 ! ulno-radial plane1 movem5ts :i* are necess>y 9 ! outspread+ & fold+ ( ! w+4 ,?us ! h& ( ! f[l moves 9 a /ate ( pronation1 )\t ! p[] ( rotation4 ,! c>pal bones are s plac$ betwe5 ! ant]ior arm & metac>pus z to r$uce ! abduction :i* is necess>y to hold & ext5d ! w+1 s t ! h& or w+ be 9 a fix$ position4 ,! ,c>pus4--,! c>pus 9 ! dome/ic f[l is repres5t$ by two bones1 ossa c>pi1 call$ ! scapho-lun>1 or os c>pi radiale1 & ! cunei=m1 or os c>pi uln>e4 ,! scapho-lun> is ! small] & is locat$ betwe5 ! radius & metac>pus4 ,! cunei=m is ! l>g] & is locat$ betwe5 ! ulna1 ! radius1 & ! metac>pus4 ,! cunei=m is some:at anvil-l 9 %ape1 be+ provid$ ) a body & two prongs4 ,! ,metac>pus4--,! metac>pal bones1 or ossa metac>pi1 two 9 numb]1 are sep>at$ at _! middle portion1 & consolidat$ at _! extremities4 ,! upp] proximal base ( ! metac>pus is provid$ ) a tub]cle1 ! tub]culum muscul>is1 & ext]nally ! tub]culum uln>e ossis metac>pi4 ,! di/al end ( ! metac>pal bone is provid$ ) a tub]culum articul>e4 ,! ,phalanges4--,! fir/ ?ree f+]s only are repres5t$1 & ^! are rudim5t>y4 ,! fir/ f+] call$ ! pollex or ?umb1 consi/s ( b "o jo9t4 ,x is locat$ on ! proximal & out] end ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,x has on its proximal end a tub]cle1 ! tub]culum articul>e4 ,! second f+]1 ! be/ develop$1 consi/s ( two phalanxes4 ,^! are ! ma9 bones ext5d+ f ! metac>pus4 ,ea* articul> end is provid$ ) a tub]culum articul>e4 ,! ?ird f+]1 small1 cyl9drical 9 %ape1 is locat$ at ! di/al & inn] side ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,,! ,,pelvic ,,girdle 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #be2 ,fig4 #e1 ,"p ,,ii1 #f7 ,! pelvic girdle is made up ( ?ree bones z foll[s3 ! ilium1 ! is*ium1 & ! pubis1 all ( :i* are fus$ 9 adult life4 ,!y are sep>ate 9 ! baby *ick 7,fig4 #e1 ,"p ,,ii1 #f74 ,! pelvis toge!r ) ! lumbo-sacral v]tebr =ms a ?91 irregul>1 %ell-l /ructure ext5d+ sup]iorly f ! tail to ! ?oracic region4 ,! sacrum is broad po/]iorly & toge!r ) ! ilium =ms ! pelvic ro(4 ,! ilium & is*ium are its lat]al walls4 ,! top surface ( ! pelvis %[s ! fovea ilio-lumbalis dorsalis1 :i* is b\nd$ mesially by ! cri/a ilii4 ,betwe5 x & ! sp9a lumbalis !re is a broad furr[1 ! bottom ( :i* is =m$ by ! dorsal surface ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,! sulcus ilio-lumbalis dorsalis is =m$ by ! rims ( ! ilia1 s t a ridge is obs]vable4 ,! cavum ilio-lumbale dorsale is =m$ by ! iliac rims on ei!r side4 ,ant]iorly is ! canalis ilio-lumbalis1 :i* is =m$ by ! ilium & ! lumb> v]tebral sp9es4 ,x is locat$ longitud9ally to ! v]tebr4 ,! ant]ior op5+ ( ?is canal is ! l>g]4 ,po/]ior to ! acetabulum is ! po/-acetabul> ridge4 ,! "u "p ( ! pelvis pres5ts ?ree di/9ct regions4 ,! cavity is divid$ into ! fovea lumbalis1 or ant]ior "p1 ! fovea is*iadica1 or mesial "p1 & ! fovea pud5dalis1 or po/]ior "p4 ,po/]ior to ^! is ! region call$ ! planum coccygeum4 ,! fovea lumbalis conta9s ! ant]ior lobe ( ! kidney1 & is circumscrib$ ant]iorly by ! la/ rib-c>ry+ v]tebra1 & po/]iorly by ! transv]se process ( ! la/ lumb> v]tebra4 ,9 ! fovea is*iadica :i* foll[s1 lie ! n]ve plexus is*iadicus & ! middle lobe ( ! kidney4 ,its po/]ior b\nd>y is ! l9ea arcuata4 ,! l9ea arcuata is a l9e drawn f ! acetabulum ( ! "o side to ! acetabulum ( ! o!r side4 ,! fovea pud5dalis conta9s ! po/]ior lobe ( ! kidney4 ,! po/]ior b\nd>y is ! ant]ior bord] ( ! fir/ coccygeal v]tebra4 ,x gives passage to ! n]ve plexus pud5do-hemorrhoidalis4 ,! ilium1 ! is*ium1 & ! pubis jo9 to =m ! cotyloid cavity1 or acetabulum1 9 :i* articulates ! head ( ! femur4 ,! floor ( ! cavity is p]=at$ by a relatively l>ge r\nd =am54 ,! ,ilium4 ,location4--,! ilium1 toge!r ) ! lumbo-sacral v]tebr1 =ms ! ro( ( ! pelvic cavity4 ,x articulates at its inn] bord] ) ! lumbo-sacral v]tebr1 po/]o-lat]ally ) ! is*ium & at ! cotyloid cavity ) ! pubis4 ,description4--,! ilium is rem>kable = its developm5t 9 ! long axis ( ! v]tebral column4 ,x is long & n>r[2 & mesially1 :]e x is ?icke/ x =ms ! upp] wall ( ! acetabulum4 ,ant]ior to ! acetabulum x is outw>dly concave1 & po/]ior to ! acetabulum x is convex4 ,! ilium fuses ) ! la/ dorsal v]tebra & ) ! lumbo-sacral v]tebr & is excavat$ on its int]nal face4 ,?is surface is irregul> & lodges ! kidneys4 ,?is inn] m>g9 ( ! r5al "p ent]s ) ! squ>e ext5sions ( ! po/]ior excavation pass+ into ! po/]ior iliac sp9e4 ,! ext]nal m>g9 is ! ext5sion ( ! cri/a transv]sa & =ms ! processus is*iadicus4 ,po/]iorw>d ! r5al "p ( ! ilium jo9s ! is*ium4 ,! ilia conv]ge at ! summits ( ! ant]ior sacral sp9es =m+ ! ilio-lumb> sp9es4 ,! ilium is jo9$ to ! squ>e ext5sions ( ! la/ sacral v]tebra by ! symphysis ilio-sacralis1 to ! l>g] "p ( ! lumb> v]tebr by ! sutura ilio-lumbalis1 & to ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ sacral v]tebr by ! symphysis ilio-sacri4 ,! ,is*ium4 ,location4--,! is*ium is locat$ 9 ! po/]o-inf]ior "p ( ! pelvis4 ,x jo9s sup]iorly ) ! ilium1 & inf]iorly ) ! pubis4 ,description4--,! is*ium is small] ?an ! ilium & is a flatt5$1 triangul>-%ap$ bone1 ?icke/ :]e x =ms ! po/]ior "p ( ! acetabulum1 becom+ ?9n] & broad] z x ext5ds backw>d4 ,po/]iorly x =ms ! caudal ext5sion4 ,! inf]ior bord] is turn$ slightly outw>d & is fus$ ) ! pubis4 ,betwe5 ^! bones !re is locat$ ! l>ge oval is*iadic =am51 ?r\gh :i* passes ! is*iadic n]ve4 ,?is bone aids ! ilium 9 ! =mation ( ! obturator =am5 ?r\gh :i* passes ! t5don ( ! int]nal obturator muscle4 ,! l[] "p ( ! is*ium :i* sep>ates ! is*iadic =am5 f ! obturator =am5 is call$ ! ramus asc5d5s ossis is*ii4 ,! ,pubis4 ,location4--,! pubis is locat$ along ! inf]ior m>g9 ( ! is*ium & ext5ds fur!r back ?an ! po/]ior bord] ( ! is*ium4 ,description4--,! pubis is a long1 sl5d]1 rib-l bone4 ,x =ms ! l[] & front portion ( ! acetabulum4 ,! is*iadic =am5 =m$ by ! is*ium & pubis is s+le & ne>ly circul> 9 f[ls1 d\ble 9 pigeons1 & 9 geese & ducks x is elongate4 ,,! ,,h9d ,,limb 7,fig4 #d1 ,nos4 #ce1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 & #ec2 ,fig4 #ab7 ,! pelvic1 or h9d1 limb supports ! body4 ,! bones ( ea* leg are ! femur1 :i* con/itutes ! ?igh1 ! tibia & ! fibula1 :i* repres5ts ! leg1 & ! metat>sus & ! phalanges1 :i* =m ! foot4 ,! ,femur 7,fig4 #ab1 ,a & ,b74 ,location4--,! femur1 or os femoris1 ! fir/ bone ( ! h9d extremity1 ext5ds obliquely d[nw>d & =w>d1 articulat+ ) ! acetabulum above & ! tibia1 ! fibula1 & ! patella bel[4 ,description4--,! femur1 "o ( ! l>ge/1 ?icke/1 & /ronge/ bones ( ! body1 belongs to ! class ( cyl9drical bones1 & pres5ts = exam9ation a %aft & two extremities4 ,! sup]ior1 or proximal extremity1 is provid$ ) a head1 caput femoris2 ! neck1 collum femoris2 & ! tro*ant]4 ,! head is relatively small1 & is m>k$ by a depression above = ! r\nd ligam5t :i* fills ! cavity 9 ! acetabul> wall4 ,its axis is ne>ly at "r angles ) ! %aft4 ,a neck jo9s x to ! body at ! proximal end4 ,ext]nal to ! head ( ! femur is ! tro*ant]4 ,! tro*ant] pres5ts an out] convexity ov] :i* ! t5don ( ! gluteus maximus ext5ds to become ins]t$ bel[4 ,! tro*ant]ic ridge1 :i* is opposite ! articul> head1 pres5ts an out] flatt5$ surface :i* possesses impressions = muscul> atta*m5ts4 ,! tro*ant]ic fossa1 or fossa tro*ant]ica1 is %all[4 ,! %aft1 or corpus femoris1 is %ort] ?an ! tibia1 is 9 g5]al cyl9drical1 b5t =w>d1 & ! l[] half is flatt5$ & exp&$ transv]sely4 ,a nutri5t =am5 is locat$ 9 ! m$ian portion ( ! %aft4 ,! %aft %[s muscul> l9e> ridges4 ,! di/al extremity is l>ge 9 bo? directions & comprises ! tro*lea 9 front & two condyles beh9d1 "o int]nal & "o ext]nal4 ,! condyles are sep>at$ by ! int]condyloid fossa1 or fossa int]condyloidea1 :i* is m>k$ ) pits = ! atta*m5t ( ligam5ts2 & above ?is is ! epitro*le> fossa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,bones ( ! h9d extremity4 ,a4 ,po/]ior view ( femur4 ,b4 ,ant]ior view4 #a1 ,%aft4 #b1 ,proximal extremity4 #c1 ,di/al extremity4 #d1 ,articul> head4 #e1 ,tro*ant] major4 #f1 ,%all[ tro*ant]ic fossa4 #g1 ,convexity ov] :i* ! t5don ( ! gluteus maximus glides4 #h1 ,ext]nal condyle4 #i1 ,int]nal condyle4 #aj1 ,nutri5t =am54 #aa1 ,int]condyloid fossa4 #ab1 ,muscul> l9e> ridges4 #ac1 ,epitro*le> fossa4 ,c4 ,int]nal view ( tibia4 ,d4 ,ext]nal view4 #a1 ,%aft4 #b1 ,articul> head4 #c1 ,di/al end4 #d1 ,! rotul> process4 #e1 ,! fibul> ridge4 #f1 ,ext]nal condyle4 #g1 ,int]nal condyle4 #h1 ,int]condyloid space4 #i1 ,nutri5t =am54 ,e4 ,fibula1 lat]al view4 #a1 ,articul> head4 #b1 ,its att5uat$ portion4 ,f4 ,po/]ior view ( metat>sus4 #a1 ,tro*lea = inn] or second digit4 #b1 ,tro*lea = middle or ?ird toe4 #c1 ,tro*lea = out] digit4 #d1 ,bony core = spur4 #e1 ,bony canal = t5dons4 #f1 ,groove = t5dons4 #g1 ,fossa int]condyloidea4 ,! inn] condyle beg9s ant]iorly z a ridge1 & exp&s into a convexity :i* atta9s its greate/ bread? po/]iorly :]e x becomes m flatt5$4 ,! inn] side ( ! inn] condyle is flatt5$ & is provid$ ) a tub]osity at its mid-"p & a second j above ! po/]ior "p ( ! condyle4 ,! out] condyle is =m$ 9 ! same mann] z ! inn] condyle4 ,x is ind5t$ at its broad1 l[] end by an angul> groove1 :i*1 w9d+ divides ! po/]ior "p ( ! condyle into two convexities4 ,! m ext]nal convex ridge & ! groove divid+ x f ! out] condyle are adapt$ to ! head ( ! fibula4 ,!re is 9 ?is "p a fibul> ridge & above ?is ridge a tub]osity4 ,! ,tibia4 ,location4--,! tibia 7,fig4 #ab1 ,d & ,c7 ext5ds obliquely d[nw>d & backw>d f ! knee-jo9t to ! hock4 ,x articulates above ) ! femur &1 by its procnemial process ) ! patella1 bel[ ) ! metat>sus1 & lat]ally ) ! fibula4 ,description4--,! tibia is ! longe/ bone 9 ! po/]ior limb1 & possesses a %aft & two extremities4 ,x is l>ge/ at ! proximal end & pres5ts ?ree faces4 ,! proximal extremity pres5ts a semi-oval articul> surface1 n q at "r angles ) ! %aft1 :i* articulates ) ! condyles ( ! femur4 ,! m>g9 is rais$ t[>d ! ant]ior ( ! bone4 ,! head ( ! tibia1 or caput tibi1 ext5ds into a rotul> process :i* ext5ds transv]sely1 & is truncate4 ,f ! ant]ior ( ?is process !re desc5ds two v]tical ridges2 "o ne> ! angle ( ! rotul> process1 ! procnemial ridge2 ! o!r f ! out] fibul> angle1 ! ectocnemial ridge4 ,on ! out] side ( ! int]condyl> tub]osity !re is a surface = ! ligam5t\s union ) ! head ( ! fibula2 & a %ort di/ance bel[ ?is !re is a v]tical ridge = ! close atta*m5t1 almo/ a fusion1 ) ! fibula1 call$ ! fibul> ridge4 ,! %aft1 or corpus tibi is /raight & ! upp] two-?irds subtrih$ral2 ! l[] ?ird oval4 ,a nutri5t =am5 occurs ne> ! upp] po/]o-int]nal portion ( ! middle ?ird ( ! bone4 ,! di/al extremity is mu* small] ?an ! proximal "o2 x is quadrangul> 9 =m4 ,! exp&$ inf]ior end ( ! tibia =ms two articul> condyles above :i* po/]iorly !re is ! epicondyloid fossa4 ,! inn] condyle1 ! l>g]1 has a groove ne> ! l[] end ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! %aft1 :i* deep5s t[>d ! int]condyloid space4 ,?is int]condyloid fossa 9 "y birds is cov]$ by a /rong ligam5t1 :i* 9 old] birds1 becomes ossifi$4 ,on ! lat]al side ( ea* condyle1 !re is a depression = ! atta*m5t ( ligam5ts4 ,! ,patella4 ,location4--,! patella1 or knee-cap1 ?9 & wide1 articulates ) ! procnemial process ( ! tibia1 & ) ! deep tro*lea ( ! di/al end ( ! femur4 ,description4--,! patella is irregul> 9 %ape ) ?ree faces & ?ree bord]s4 ,! po/]ior surface is articul>4 ,! o!r two surfaces are r\gh = t5d9\s atta*m5t4 ,! patell> ligam5ts 9 old birds may become ossifi$4 ,9 ord] to turn ! foot 9 & out1 ! tibia n only turns ar\nd ! inn] condyle ( ! femur1 b also ar\nd ! patella1 s t ! po/]ior surface turns outw>d & ?us turns outw>d ! metat>sus & all ! toes4 ,! ,fibula4 ,location4--,! fibula lies at ! out] bord] ( ! tibia4 ,x articulates sup]iorly ) ! out] condyle ( ! femur1 & lat]ally ) ! tibia4 ,description4--,! fibula is rudim5t>y2 x is l>ge/ sup]iorly & tap]s to a sl5d] po9t4 ,! head is compress$ lat]ally1 & furni%es an upp] & an inn] articul> surface4 ,! ,t>sus4--,!re exi/1 dur+ fetal developm5t ( ! *ick1 two r[s ( t>sal bones :i* lat] become fus$4 ,! upp] r[ fuses ) ! tibia & ! l[] ) ! metat>sus4 ,!re=e1 9 ! adult1 !re is no t>sus4 ,! ,metat>sus4 ,location4--,! metat>sal bone ext5ds d[nw>d & =w>d4 ,9 birds x consi/s ( "o bone1 :i* articulates sup]iorly ) ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tibia4 ,on ! di/al end x has a ?reefold tro*le> arrangem5t :i* articulates ) ! ?ree pr9cipal digits4 ,description4--,! proximal extremity po/]iorly has a process :i* may be consid]$ z a consolidation ( orig9ally sep>ate metat>sal bones4 ,! process at ! sup]o-po/]ior "p ( ! metat>sus is call$ ! hypot>sus ( ! t>so-metat>sus1 ?r\gh :i* ext5ds a canal call$ ! hypot>sal canal1 & :i* gives passage to flexor t5dons4 ,! proximal end ( ! metat>sus is ossifi$ f "o c5t] ( ossification =m+ an epiphysis :i* caps ! ends ( ! ?ree orig9al metat>sal bones t coalesce1 fir/ ) "o ano!r1 !n ) ! epiphysis1 ?us =m+ a s+le comp\nd bone4 ,above & j to ! inside ( ! metat>sus !re may occur a small bone :i* is imb$d$ 9 ligam5ts & articulates ) ! inn] proximal surface ( ! metat>sus4 ,?is has be5 call$ by ,gad[ a sesamoid bone4 ,! %aft %[s t5donal grooves :i* are be/ m>k$ on ! po/]ior surface4 ,! %aft is r\nd$ at ! sides & flatt5$ on ! ant]ior & po/]ior surfaces4 ,at ! juncture ( ! middle & inf]ior ?irds ( ! metat>sus !re is a conical process turn$ slightly backw>d1 :i* s]ves z a base = ! spur4 ,! spur is a horny /ructure4 ,at ! di/al extremity occurs ! ?reefold tro*le> arrangem5t m5tion$ above1 :i* incloses ! fossa int]condyloidea4 ,! inn] tro*lea is ! broade/1 & ! out] ! n>r[e/4 ,! inn] tro*lea articulates ) ! proximal end ( ! second1 ! middle ) ! ?ird1 & ! out] ) ! f\r? toe4 ,! ,phalanges4 ,location4--,mo/ dome/ic f[ls are provid$ ) f\r digits1 or toes2 ! ,h\dan & ,dork+ are provid$ ) five4 ,9 f[ls ) f\r toes ! ?ree pr9cipal toes1 ! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r?1 are direct$ =w>d1 & ! fir/1 or hallux1 is direct$ backw>d4 ,description4--,! la/ phalanx ( ea* toe1 call$ ! ungual phalanx1 is slightly curv$ d[nw>d1 is po9t$ ant]iorly1 l ! claw ( ! cat or dog1 & is cov]$ ) a horny %ea?4 ,! articul> ends ( ! jo9ts ( ! phalanges are enl>g$4 ,! base ( ! basal phalanx has two enl>gem5ts1 ! sup]ior-inf]ior tub]cles1 or tub]culum sup]ius et inf]ius1 betwe5 :i* is locat$ ! fossa articul>is transv]sa4 ,lat]ally ! head has two condyles1 condyli lat]ales1 :i* are divid$ by ! sulcus longitud9alis4 ,! bodies ( ! phalanges v>y 9 =m2 !y are sup]iorly r\nd$1 b inf]iorly r\nd$1 flat1 or ev5 some:at concave4 ,! di/al extremity has an articul> tro*lea4 ,! fir/ toe1 or digit1 call$ ! great toe1 or hallux1 is compos$ ( ?ree phalanges1 or segm5ts4 ,! fir/ segm5t1 or basal phalanx is consid]$ a rudim5t>y metac>pal bone2 x is atta*$ by a fibr\s c>tilag9\s tissue to ! inn] po/]ior surface ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! metac>pal bone j bel[ ! spur4 ,! second toe1 likewise compos$ ( ?ree phalanges1 is direct$ =w>d4 ,x articulates ) ! inn] tro*lea locat$ on ! inf]ior metac>pal bone4 ,! ?ird toe1 made up ( f\r phalanges1 is ! middle ( ! ?ree =w>d toes4 ,x articulates ) ! middle tro*lea ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,! f\r? toe1 is compos$ ( five phalanges2 x is1 h[ev]1 ( approximately ! same l5g? z ! ?ird1 ! segm5ts be+ %ort]4 ,! f\r? or out] toe articulates ) ! out] tro*lea ( ! di/al extremity ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,,ar?rology ,k9ds ( ,jo9ts4--,jo9ts may be movable1 immovable1 or mix$4 ,9 movable1 or true jo9ts ! articul> surface ( ea* bone is cov]$ by c>tilage4 ,! bones are held toge!r by ligam5ts1 ! capsul> "o (t5 surr\nd+ ! jo9t & enclos+ ! synovial membrane4 ,9 "s jo9ts !re is a pad ( fibr\s c>tilage int]pos$ betwe5 ! two articul> c>tilages4 ,su* a pad1 call$ a m5iscus1 adds to ! ela/icity & ! free movem5t ( ! jo9t4 ,movable jo9ts =m ! mo/ num]\s class2 !y are = ! mo/ "p f\nd 9 ! limbs4 ,9 an immovable jo9t !re is only a ?9 lay] ( fibr\s or c>tilag9\s mat]ial int]pos$ betwe5 ! bones4 ,! fibr\s lay] ( ! p]io/eum ( bo? bones unite to cov] ! connect+ mat]ial & becomes atta*$ to ! same1 ?us s]v+ z a ligam5t4 ,if ! connect+ mat]ial is fibr\s1 ! jo9t is call$ a suture2 if c>tilag9\s1 a syn*ondrosis4 ,^! jo9ts are f\nd 9 ! skull & 9 ! pelvis4 ,! t]m mix$ is us$ ) ref]5ce1 n to ! motion 9 jo9ts1 b to _! /ructure1 :i* p>takes ( ! nature ( bo? ! movable & immovable4 ,! bones are firmly jo9$ by a /rong int]pos$ pad ( fibr\s c>tilage to :i* also is adh]5t ! ligam5ts ( ! jo9t4 ,!re are no capsul> ligam5ts2 ! c>tilag9\s pad or disc is s(t] t[>d its c5t]1 :]e occasionally !re may be "o1 or ev5 two1 n>r[ cavities4 ,au?orities diff] z to :e!r su* cavities are l9$ by synovial membrane or n4 ,s9ce !re are really no frictional surfaces 9 su* a jo9t1 motion dep5ds ^u ! flexibility ( ! disc4 ,! jo9ts betwe5 ! v]tebral c5tra af=d ! be/ illu/ration ( ! mix$ class4 ,movem5t ( ,jo9ts4--,! movem5ts admissible 9 jo9ts may be divid$ into f\r k9ds3 glid+1 angul> movem5t1 circumduction1 & rotation4 ,^! movem5ts are (t51 h[ev]1 m or less comb9$ 9 ! v>i\s jo9ts4 ,x is seldom t !re occurs only "o k9d ( motion 9 any p>ticul> jo9t4 ,glid+ movem5t is ! mo/ simple k9d ( motion t c take place 9 a jo9t1 "o surface glid+ or mov+ ov] ano!r )\t any angul> or rot>y movem5t4 ,angul> movem5t occurs only betwe5 ! long bones4 ,by x ! angle betwe5 ! two bones is increas$ or dim9i%$4 ,x may take place 9 f\r directions3 =w>d & backw>d1 consi/+ ( flexion & ext5sion2 or inw>d & outw>d f ! m$ial l9e ( ! body1 consi/+ ( adduction & abduction4 ,abduction ( a limb is movem5t away f ! m$ial l9e ( ! body4 ,adduction ( a limb is movem5t t[>d ! m$ial l9e ( ! body4 ,circumduction is t limit$ degree ( motion :i* takes place betwe5 ! head ( a bone & its articul> cavity1 :il/ ! extremity & sides ( ! limb are made to circumscribe a conical space1 ! base ( :i* corresponds ) ! inf]ior extremity ( ! limb1 ! apex ) ! articul> cavity2 ?is k9d ( motion is be/ se5 9 ! %\ld]- & hip-jo9t4 ,rotation is ! movem5t ( a bone ^u an axis1 :i* is ! axis ( ! pivot on :i* ! bone turns1 z 9 ! articulation betwe5 ! atlas & axis1 :5 ! odontoid process s]ves z a pivot ar\nd :i* ! atlas turns2 or else is ! axis ( a pivotlike process :i* turns )9 a r+1 z 9 ! rotation ( ! radius ^u ! hum]us4 ,pronation is a =m ( rotation 9 :i* ! inf]ior extremity ( ! radius passes be=e ! ulna1 & ?us causes ! h& to execute a k9d ( rotation f )\t inw>d4 ,sup9ation is a =m ( rotation 9 :i* ! movem5t ( ! =e>m & h& are c>ri$ outw>d s t ! ant]ior surface ( ! latt] becomes sup]ior4 ,! ,ligam5t\s ,/ructure4--,ligam5ts are d5se1 fibr\s1 connect+ /ructures4 ,!y are made up pr9cipally ( :ite fibr\s tissue & exi/ 9 all true jo9ts4 ,!re are f\r k9ds ( ligam5ts associat$ ) true jo9ts3 ,! fir/ k9d1 ! capsul> ligam5t :i* encloses all true jo9ts1 is ?9 & consi/s ( int]lac$ fib]s atta*$ to ! bone at ! edges ( ! articul> c>tilages4 ,x ei!r p>tly or :olly surr\nds ! jo9t1 enclos+ & protect+ a synovial app>atus1 :i*1 by secret+ a liquid resembl+ s]um1 lubricates ! jo9t to prev5t friction4 ,! second k9d1 ! b9d+ or lat]al ligam5ts1 consi/ ( flatt5$ or r\nd$ cords or b&s ( fibr\s tissue4 ,su* a ligam5t ext5ds f "o bone to ! o!r1 & firmly atta*$ to _! r\gh5$ surfaces1 holds ! bones 9 place & at ! same "t all[s ! requir$ am\nt ( motion4 ,! ?ird k9d1 locat$ betwe5 ! jo9ts1 is call$ int]osse\s ligam5t4 ,! f\r? k9d1 call$ ! annul> ligam5t b9ds d[n & protects ! t5dons4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,e>#b4--,! con*a ( ! e> is provid$ ) a sup]ior & an inf]ior ligam5t4 ,footnote #b3 ,! classification ( ,gad[ is us$4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,jaw4--,! articulations ( ! l[] jaw are complex4 ,! freely movable articulation is betwe5 ! inf]ior maxilla & ! quadrate4 ,less freely movable articulations are =m$ by ! quadrate ) ! temporal1 ! zygomatic & ! pt]ygoid4 ,a lat]al ligam5t ( ! jaw1 ! articulo-jugale ext5ds f ! po/]ior bord] ( ! inn] w+ ( ! os articul>e ( ! inf]ior maxilla 7,fig4 #h1 ,no4 #aj1 & ,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ae7 to ! out] bord] ( ! os quadrato jugul>e4 ,a lat]al temporo-maxill>y ligam5t ext5ds f ! out] surface ( ! temporal bone to ! out] bord] ( ! os articul>e ( ! inf]ior maxilla 7,fig4 #h1 ,no4 #aa1 & ,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ad74 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,v]tebr4--,9 ea* space betwe5 ! bodies ( ! v]tebr !re is a m5iscus int]v]tebralis4 ,?is m5iscus is analog\s to ! annulus fibrosus ( mammals 7,gad[71 :i*1 is possibly =m$ z a protrusion ( ! ant]ior surface ( ! v]tebral body4 ,! m5iscus or disc may develop into a r+-%ap$ /ructure1 ! true m5iscus1 or x may develop to diff]5t degrees z an ext5sion ( ! v]tebral body surface1 & become1 z 9 ! dorsal & lumb> regions1 fus$ ) ! v]tebral segm5ts1 9 :i* case x is call$ ! annulus fibrosus4 ,! v]tebral disc :i* is connect$ ) ! atlas & :i* is fus$ ) t bone1 repres5ts ! fir/ m5iscus1 :i* is call$ ! ligam5tum transv]sum atlantis4 ,?is1 z well z o!r ligam5ts ( ! sp9al column1 may become ossifi$4 ,! ligam5t :i* is locat$ betwe5 ^? v]tebral bodies :i* face ea* o!r & is inside ! jo9t cavity1 is call$ ! ligam5tum susp5sorium corporum v]tebralium4 ,x passes ?r\gh ! c5tral op5+ ( ! m5iscus & lies exactly 9 ! long axis ( ! body ( ! v]tebra4 ,! fir/ ligam5t ( ! neck is ! ligam5tum susp5sorium d5tis epi/rophei4 ,! ligam5tum capsul>e atlantico-occipitale & ! ligam5tum capsul>e atlantico-epi/rophicum odontoideum are two p>ts ( ! jo9t capsule ( ! v]tebral body4 ,o!r ligam5ts ( ?is "p are ! membran obturatori int]v]tebrales po/]iores1 :i* are locat$ betwe5 ! semicircul> rims ( ! neck v]tebr4 ,! ligam5tum transv]sum atlantis surr\nds ! occipital condyle4 ,! ligam5tum nu* is a ?91 membran\s1 ribbon-l /ructure :i* lies betwe5 ! muscles ( ! "r & ^? ( ! left side ( ! middle1 & ! l[] "p on ! po/]ior ( ! neck1 & ends 9 atta*m5ts to ! sup]ior sp9es ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,! ligam5tum ela/icum int]sp9ale pr(undum & ! ligam5tum ela/icum int]sp9ale sup]ficiale & ! ?ree la/ nam$ are ! ligam5ts :i* keep ! neck ( ! f[l 9 ! s-%ape1 )\t ! action ( ! muscles4 ,! ligam5tum capsul>e obliquum connects ! facets ( ! oblique processes4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,ribs4--,! ?ick inf]ior end ( ! /]nal portion ( ! true rib has two small articul> heads1 :i* articulate ) two depressions 9 ! articul> surface ( ! /]num4 ,?is articulation is held firm by a capsul> ligam5t4 ,! upp] end ( ! /]nal rib =ms an almo/ p]fect "r angle ) ! inf]ior end ( ! dorsal rib ) :i* x is connect$ by a jo9t provid$ ) a synovial app>atus & a capsul> ligam5t4 ,?is arrangem5t all[s free movem5t outw>d & inw>d & is ! ma9 jo9t 9 respiration4 ,! upp] end ( ! dorsal portion ( ! rib articulates ) ! dorsal v]tebra4 ,! jo9t =m$ by ! articul> head ) ! body ( ! v]tebra is provid$ ) a capsul> ligam5t4 ,! tub]cle ( ! rib articulates ) ! facet on ! transv]se process ( ! dorsal v]tebra1 & is provid$ ) a transv]se ligam5t1 call$ ! ligam5tum transv]sum ext]num4 ,x is also provid$ ) a capsul> ligam5t4 ,! ligam5tum triangul>e connects ea* processus unc9atus ) ! succe$+ rib4 ,?is ligam5t is 9 ! =m ( a membran\s %eet1 or aponeurosis4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,/]num 7,fig4 #ac74--,! ext]nal & ! int]nal not*es ( ! /]num are bridg$ ov] ) a ?9 membrane :i* gives an ext5sive surface = muscul> atta*m5ts4 ,! /]nal muscles ov]lie ?is portion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,muscles ( ! =e extremity4 ,inside view4 #a1 ,lat]al ext]nal process ( /]num4 #b1 ,lat]al int]nal process ( same4 #c1 ,ligam5t ( ! ext]nal not*4 #d1 ,ligam5t ( ! int]nal not*4 #e1 ,pectoralis major4 #e;a1 ,its fan-%ap$ expansion at %\ld]-jo9t laid back4 #f1 ,pectoralis t]tius4 #g1 ,! coracoid4 #h1 ,biceps4 #h;a1 ,its long head4 #h;b1 ,its %ort head4 #i1 ,pectoralis secundus4 #aj1 ,rectus abdom9is4 #aa1 ,t]es et infrasp9atus4 #ab1 ,deltoid4 #ac1 ,capsul> ligam5t4 #ad1 ,t]es m9or4 #ae1 ,coraco-bra*ialis4 #af1 ,s]ratus magnus anticus4 #ag1 ,ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior4 #ah1 ,pronator brevis4 #ai1 ,flexor c>pi uln>is4 #bj1 ,flexor c>pi uln>is brevior4 #ba1 ,flexor digitorum pr(undus4 #bb1 ,ext5sor indicis longus4 #bc1 ,ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis4 #bd1 ,hum]us4 #be1 ,%\ld]4 #bf1 ,elb[4 #bg1 ,c>pus4 #bh1 ,section ?r\gh v]tebra4 #bi1 ,keel ( /]num4 #bh;a1 ,flexor brevis pollicis4 #bi;a1 ,ext5sor proprius pollicis4 #cj1 ,flexor m9imi digiti brevis4 #ca1 ,int]osse\s palm>is4 #cb1 ,int]osse\s palm>is4 ,! /]num is connect$ by a fibr\s mass ) ! inf]ior portion ( ! clavicle1 or hypocl$ium 7,fig4 #eg71 ! claviculo/]nal ligam5t4 ,! inf]ior n>r[ elongat$ end ( ! coracoid =ms ) ! /]num a true articulation1 :i* is provid$ ) a capsul> ligam5t1 ! ligam5tum capsul>e4 ,capsul> ligam5ts occur at ! articulations betwe5 ! /]num & ribs4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,%\ld]-jo9t 7,fig4 #ac74--,! %\ld]-jo9t is made up ( ! scapula1 ! hum]us1 & ! coracoid4 ,! ends ( ^! ?ree bones =m ! =am5 triosseum 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 ,a1 #g7 ?r\gh :i* passes ! t5don ( ! elevator muscle ( ! w+4 ,! furcula1 indep5d5t ( ! %\ld]-jo9t or girdle1 is atta*$ to ! sup]o-int]nal "p ( ! proximal end ( ! coracoid by fibr\s connective tissue2 x is also connect$ to ! o!r bones ( ! %\ld]-jo9t by ! ligam5tum coraco-furcul>e & ! ligam5tum furculo-scapul>e4 ,! ligam5tum coraco-scapul>e ext5ds f ! tub]osity ( ! furcula to ! coracoid & to ! processus furcul>is ( ! scapula4 ,! ligam5tum coracoido-scapul>e ext]num ext5ds betwe5 ! ext]nal tub]osity ( ! coracoid1 ! tub]osity ( ! scapula1 & ! hum]us4 ,! ligam5tum coracoideo-scapul>e inf]ius ext5ds f ! coracoid to ! inn] tub]cle ( ! scapula4 ,ano!r long1 broad ligam5t belongs to ! epi/]nal app>atus4 ,! %\ld]-jo9t is provid$ ) a wide1 loose1 capsul> ligam5t 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ac74 ,atta*$ to ! hum]us are f\r o!r ligam5ts1 ( :i* ?ree pass f ! ant]ior end ( ! coracoid & ! f\r? f ! scapula4 ,! latt] are z foll[s3 fir/1 ! sup]o-ant]ior ligam5tum hum]o-coracoideum1 :i* ext5ds f ! small tub]cle ( ! hum]us to ! coracoid bone2 second1 ! ant]o-inf]ior ligam5tum hum]o-coracoideum1 :i* ext5ds f ! hum]us to ! coracoid2 ?ird1 ! ligam5tum coraco-hum]ale1 :i* ext5ds f ! coracoid to ! l>ge tub]cle ( ! hum]us2 f\r?1 ! ligam5tum hum]o-scapul>e :i* ext5ds betwe5 ! processus hum]alis ( ! scapula & ! head ( ! hum]us4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,elb[-jo9t 7,fig4 #ad74--,! elb[-jo9t is made up ( ! ulna1 radius & ! hum]us4 ,! ligam5ts ( ! elb[-jo9t are z foll[s3 ! ligam5tum capsul>e cubiti1 or capsul> ligam5t1 :i* ext5ds f ! processus cubitalis ( ! hum]us to ! processus olecranalis coracoideus ( ! ulna & to ! tub]ositas radii ( ! radius 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no #e74 ,! ligam5tum lat]ale cubiti ext]num connects ! out] hum]al di/al extremity ) ! head ( ! radius 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #b74 ,! ligam5tum lat]ale cubiti int]num lies betwe5 ! inn] di/al extremity ( ! hum]us & ! tub]culum int]num ( ! ulna 7,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #i74 ,! ligam5tum annul>e radii orig9ates on ! olecranon1 surr\nds ! head ( ! radius1 & is atta*$ to ! tub]culum int]num ( ! ulna 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #c74 ,! ligam5tum cubiti t]es ext5ds f ! head ( ! radius to ! upp] end ( ! ulna 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,muscles & ligam5ts ( ! arm & =e>m ( a h54 ,a4 ,ext]nal view4 #a1 ,expansor secund>ium4 #b1 ,t5sor patagii longus4 #c1 ,t5sor patagii brevis4 #e1 ,bra*ialis anticus4 #f1 ,pronator longus4 #g1 ,sup9ator brevis4 #h1 ,ext5sor indicis brevis4 #aj1 ,scapulo-hum]alis4 ,b4 ,int]nal view4 #i1 ,ligam5tum lat]ale cubiti int]num4 ,! ligam5tum transv]sum spreads out betwe5 ! head ( ! ulna & ! radius1 ?us unit+ ! two bones1 & limit+ sup9ation 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #a74 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,c>pal ,jo9t4--,! c>pal jo9t is made up ( ! ulna1 radius1 ! two c>pal bones & ! metac>pus4 ,!re are two /rong ligam5ta obliqua c>pi uln>is :i* ext5d f ! processus /yloideus ( ! ulna to ! tub]culum po/]ius c>pi uln>is ( ! os c>pi uln>is4 ,! ligam5tum po/icum uln>e c>pi uln>is ext5ds f ! processus /yloideus ( ! ulna to ! os c>pi uln>is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,ligam5ts ( ! arm & =e>m ( a h54 ,a4 ,! scapulo-coraco-hum]al articulation4 #a1 ,proximal end ( ! hum]us4 #b1 ,articul> head ( hum]us4 #c1 ,! coracoid4 #d1 ,proximal end ( ! clavicle4 #e1 ,t5don ( pectoralis t]tius4 #f1 ,t5don ( pectoralis secundus4 #g1 ,op5+ or =am5 triossium ?r\gh :i* ! t5don ( ! elevator ( ! w+ passes4 7,pectoralis secundus47 #h1 ,brok5 end ( scapula4 ,b4 #a1 ,ligam5tum transv]sum4 #b1 ,ligam5tum lat]ale cubiti ext]num4 #c1 ,ligam5tum annul>e radii4 #d1 ,ligam5tum cubiti t]es4 #e1 ,a portion ( ! ligam5tum capsul>e cubiti4 #f1 ,di/al extremity ( hum]us4 #g1 ,ulna4 #h1 ,radius4 ,c4 ,muscles ( ! outside surface ( ! arm4 #a1 ,t5sor patagii longus4 #b1 ,ext5sor digitorum communis4 #c1 ,t5sor patagii brevis4 #d1 ,anconeus4 #e1 ,flexor c>pi uln>is4 #f1 ,biceps4 #g1 ,triceps4 #h4 ,deltoid4 #i1 ,bra*ialis anticus4 #aj1 ,flexor metac>pi radialis4 #aa1 ,ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis4 #ab1 ,ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior4 #ac1 ,ext5sor indicis longus4 ,! ligam5tum uln>e c>pi radialis is a %ort ribbon-l ligam5t :i* passes ov] ! above-m5tion$ ligam5ts & is atta*$ to ! inn] surface ( ! os c>pus radialis4 ,! ligam5tum uln>e c>pi radialis int]num is a /rong ligam5t :i* orig9ates on ! inn] "p ( ! elb[4 ,x ext5ds to ! upp] rim ( ! base ( ! ma9 digit4 ,! ligam5tum radiale c>pi radialis ext]num orig9ates on ! outside ( ! head ( ! middle digit & ins]ts to ! sup]ior tub]culum c>pi radialis ( ! radius4 ,! ligam5tum c>pi radialis int]num1 a %ort ligam5t1 ext5ds f ! inside ( ! head ( ! ma9 digit to ! inn] rim ( ! c>pi radialis4 ,! ligam5tum c>pi int]osseum is locat$ betwe5 ! c>pal bones4 ,! ligam5tum uln>e metac>pi int]num is spread out betwe5 ! processus /yloideus ( ! ulna & ! tub]ositas muscul>is on ! upp] side ( ! middle f+] base at a po9t :]e ! second & ! ?ird metac>pi sep>ate4 ,! ligam5tum uln>e metac>pi ext]num ext5ds f ! tub]cle ( ! di/al extremity ( ! ulna1 on ! dorsal side1 to ! tub]cle on ! base ( ! metac>pus4 ,ligam5tum radiale metac>pi ext5ds f ! head ( ! inn] digit to a po9t ne> ! tub]culum muscul>is ( ! radius4 ,! ligam5tum transv]sum ossis c>pi radialis et metac>pi is locat$ betwe5 ! inf]ior tub]culum ossis c>pi radialis & ! fir/ metac>pal bone4 ,!re is ano!r ligam5t betwe5 ! tub]culum sup]iorus c>pi radialis & ! fir/ metac>pal bone4 ,! ligam5tum ossis c>pi radialis int]num et metac>pi ext5ds f ! inn] surface ( ! c>pus radialis to ! tub]ositas muscul>is ( ! radius4 ,! ligam5tum ossis c>pi uln>is ext]num et metac>pi ext5ds f ! uln> c>pal bone to ! tub]culum ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,! ligam5tum ossis c>pi uln>is int]num et metac>pi ext5ds f ! processus unc9atus ( ! uln> c>pal bone to ! tub]ositas muscul>is ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,f+]4--,! ligam5tum pollic>e connects ! ?umb ) ! fir/ metac>pal bone4 ,! ligam5tum ant]ius ossis metac>pi et prim phalangis digiti secundi ext5ds f ! tub]culum articul>e metac>pi1 ( ! proximal end ( ! metac>pus1 to ! tub]culum articul>e ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! second or l>ge f+]4 ,simil>ly atta*$1 are also an int]nal & a po/]ior ligam5t1 or ligam5tum int]num & ligam5tum po/]ius4 ,! ?ree phalanges are all provid$ ) capsul> ligam5ts1 or ligam5ta capsul>ia1 :i* b9d toge!r ! sev]al phalanges4 ,! small or ?ird f+] is connect$ to ! metac>pus by a capsul> ligam5t1 ! ligam5tum capsul>e1 & by an int]osse\s ligam5t1 or ligam5tum int]osseum digitorum1 to ! fir/ phalanx ( ! second f+]4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,pelvis4--,! obturator =am51 =m$ by ! ilium & ! is*ium1 is cov]$ by a broad membran\s ligam5t 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #bi74 ,! oblong =am51 or =am5 oblongum1 & ! =am5 is*iadicum1 =m$ by ! is*ium & ! pubis are cov]$ by broad membran\s ligam5ts 7,fig4 #d1 ,nos4 #bi & #fj74 ,p\p>t's ligam5t or ligam5tum ,p\p>tii1 q small 9 f[ls1 ext5ds f ! ant]ior l[] rim ( ! ilium to ! pelvic cavity1 & is ins]t$ at ! bottom ( ! acetabulum4 ,ano!r broad ligam5t orig9ates f ! po/]ior rim ( ! is*ium & is atta*$ to ! squ>e surface ( ! fir/ coccygeal v]tebra4 ,! ilio-pubic ligam5t ext5ds f ! pubic sp9e to ! la/ rudim5t>y rib4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,hip-jo9t 7,fig4 #be1 ,f74--,! hip-jo9t is made up ( ! ilium1 is*ium1 pubis & femur & is a deep ball-&-socket jo9t4 ,! cavity or acetabulum is call$ a cotyloid cavity4 ,! hip-jo9t is provid$ ) ?ree ligam5ts4 ,! ligam5tum capsul>e femoris is atta*$ ar\nd ! rim ( ! cotyloid cavity & ar\nd ! rim ( ! articul> head ( ! femur 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,f1 #d74 ,! ligam5tum t]es1 or r\nd ligam5t1 is a v %ort ligam5t :i* closes ! hole at ! floor ( ! cotyloid cavity1 at :i* po9t x is atta*$4 ,x is also atta*$ to ! head ( ! femur4 ,! ligam5tum ilio-sacrale /r5g!ns ! hip-jo9t capsule4 ,x passes f ! l[] ant]ior rim ( ! os ilii1 ext5d+ ov] ! capsule to ! neck ( ! femur to :i* x is atta*$4 ,! ,ligam5ts ( ! ,knee-jo9t 7,figs4 #af & #ag74--,! knee-jo9t is made up ( ! femur1 patella1 tibia & fibula1 & is provid$ ) ! foll[+ ligam5ts3 ,! ligam5tum ext]o-lat]ale g5u is a /rong ligam5t ext5d+ f ! condylus ext]nus femoris1 or ext]nal femoral condyle to ! out] surface ( ! head ( ! fibula1 or capitulum fibul4 ,f ?is head !re passes inw>d1 a /rong ligam5t to a po9t betwe5 ! femur & fibula 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,d1 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,ligam5ts & muscles ( ! h9d extremity4 ,a4 ,a transv]se section ?r\gh ! tibial or t>sal c>tilage1 front view4 #a1 ,ga/rocnemius t5don4 #b1 ,flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is4 #c1 ,flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus4 #d1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis secundi p$is4 #e1 ,ext5sor longus hallucis4 #f1 ,! articul> surface4 #g1 ,ligam5tum capsul>e ossis t>si4 #h1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is4 #i1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is4 #aj1 ,t5dons ( ! ext5sor muscles4 ,b4 ,knee-jo9t4 ,inside view ( femoro-tibial articulation4 #a1 ,ant]ior ligam5tum cruciatum4 #b1 ,int]nal ligam5tum lat]ale g5u4 #c1 ,ant]ior patell> ligam5t4 #d1 ,patella4 #e1 ,di/al end ( femur4 #f1 ,proximal end ( tibia4 #g1 ,location ( m5iscus or pad ( fibroc>tilage4 ,c4 ,ant]ior view ( tibio-t>sal articulation4 #a1 ,di/al end ( tibia4 #b1 ,its articul> surface4 #c1 ,ligam5tum anticum4 #d1 ,proximal end ( metac>pus4 #f1 ,pad ( fibroc>tilage4 ,d4 ,! dorsal surface ( ! coccyx4 #a1 ,! bilobate oil gl&4 #b1 ,its duct4 #c1 ,levator coccygis4 ,e4 ,inside view ( pelvis & ?igh4 #a1 ,obturator int]nus4 #b1 ,ambi5s4 #c1 ,va/us int]nus4 #d1 ,int]nal ligam5tum lat]ale g5u4 #e1 ,tibialis anticus4 #f1 ,loop ?r\gh :i* ! tibialis anticus passes4 #g1 ,adductors ( ! ?igh4 #h1 ,loop = ! ext5sor t5don4 ,! ligam5tum int]o-lat]ale g5u ext5ds f ! out] surface ( ! int]nal condyle ( ! tibia1 or condylus int]nus tibi4 ,x gives (f a ?9 ligam5t\s slip :i* ent]s ! jo9t & is atta*$ to ! inn] half-moon %ap$ pad ( fibr\s c>tilage1 or m5iscus1 :i* x draws backw>d by ! flexion ( ! knee 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,b1 #b74 ,! ligam5tum popliteum arises f ! fossa poplitea ( ! di/al extremity ( ! femur & ext5ds d[nw>d to ! po/]ior rim ( ! head ( ! tibia4 ,! ant]ior ligam5tum cruciatum g5u orig9ates f ! fossa poplitea & ext5ds outw>d ant]o-lat]ally to ! rim ( ! head ( ! tibia 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #f74 ,! po/]ior ligam5tum cruciatum g5u is a %ort1 /rong ligam5t :i* orig9ates f ! cavity ( ! int]nal condyle ( ! femur1 or condylus int]nus femoris1 & ins]ts into ! int]nal gl5oid cavity ( ! tibia 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #a7 or cavitas gl5oidalis int]na4 ,! m5iscus ( ! femoro-tibial articulation is divid$ into f\r p>ts1 z foll[s3 fir/1 ! int]nal adhesio cornu antici c>tilag9is lunat2 second1 ! po/]ior adhesio cornu antici c>tilag9is lunat2 ?ird1 ! ext]nal cornu c>tilag9is lunat2 f\r?1 ! ant]ior cornu antici c>tilag9is lunat4 ,! latt] orig9ates betwe5 ! condyles & passes ar\nd ! ligam5tum cruciatum g5u po/icum 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,b1 #g74 ,! inn] semi-lun> fibr\s c>tilage is well develop$ & is jo9$ by two ligam5ts betwe5 ! femoral & ! tibial surfaces 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #a74 ,! ext]nal semi-lun> c>tilage lies 9 a cavity betwe5 ! ext]nal femoral condyle & ! head ( ! fibula 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #b74 ,! fibr\s c>tilages are b\nd po/]iorly by a ligam5t1 & by a second ligam5t to ! head ( ! fibula1 or capitulum fibul4 ,bo? pads ( fibr\s c>tilage are connect$ by a transv]se ligam5t call$ ! ligam5tum transv]sale commune 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #e74 ,! patella is provid$ ) sev]al ligam5ts1 z foll[s3 ,! ant]ior patell> ligam5t1 broad1 /rong1 & irregul> 9 ?ickness1 ext5ds f ! inf]ior m>g9 ( ! patella to ! rim ( ! second tibial cre/ 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,b1 #c74 ,! ligam5tum capsul>e capituli fibul is spread out betwe5 ! head ( ! fibula1 or capitulum fibul1 & ! sup]ficies gl5oidalis p]onea tibi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,muscles & t5dons ( ! head & po/]ior extremity4 ,a4 ,section ( neck ) sup]ficial muscles remov$4 #a1 ,obliquo-transv]sales4 #b1 ,int]sp9ales4 #c1 ,int]transv]sales4 #d1 ,int]>ticul>es4 ,b4 ,head %[+ muscles4 #a1 ,beak4 #b1 ,no/ril4 #c1 ,tongue4 #d1 ,subl+ual saliv>y gl&4 #e1 ,pt]ygoideus4 #f1 ,/ylo-hyoideus4 #g1 ,temporal4 #h1 ,flexor capitis inf]ior4 #i1 ,rectus capitis lat]alis4 #aj1 ,rectus capitis po/icus major4 #aa1 ,tra*elo-ma/oideus4 #ab1 ,eye4 #ac1 ,mylo-hyoideus4 #ad1 ,g5io-hyoideus4 #ae1 ,biv5t] maxilla4 #af1 ,diga/ricus4 #ag1 ,rectus capitis ant]ior m9or4 ,c4 ,foot ( h5 %[+ t5dons4 #a1 ,flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus4 #b1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius primus p$is4 #c1 ,%ea? at jo9t ?r\gh :i* t5don passes4 #d1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis primus p$is4 #e1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is4 #f1 ,flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is4 #g1 ,flexor longus hallucis4 ,d4 ,outside view ( leg ( h54 #a1 ,biceps flexor cruris4 #b1 ,semit5d9osus4 #c1 ,loop ?r\gh :i* biceps flexor cruris passes4 #d1 ,tibialis anticus4 #e1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is4 #f1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius primus p$is4 #g1 ,ga/rocnemius4 #h1 ,flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is4 #i1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is4 #aj1 ,ext5sor longus hallucis4 ,! ligam5tum tibio-fibul>e ext5ds f ! head ( ! fibula1 or capitulum fibul1 to ! inn] surface ( ! ext]nal cre/1 or cri/a ext]na tibi1 ( ! tibia 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #c74 ,! ligam5tum int]osseum is a delicate ligam5t locat$ betwe5 ! tibia & fibula 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #d7 :i* v e>ly becomes ossifi$4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,tibio-metat>sal ,jo9t 7,fig4 #af74--,! tibio-t>sal jo9t is made up ( ! tibia & metat>sus4 ,! ligam5tum capsul>e ossis tibio-metat>si connects ! tibia & ! metat>sus & surr\nds ! jo9t 7,fig4 #af1 ,nos4 ,a1 #g & ,c1 #g74 ,! ligam5tum ext]num1 a long /rong ligam5t1 orig9ates on ! upp] & out] surface ( ! ext]nal condyle1 or condylus ext]nus ( ! tibia & is atta*$ to ! upp] rim ( ! os metat>si 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #ae74 ,! ligam5tum anticum is spread out betwe5 ! fossa int]condyloidea ( ! tibia & ! tub]culum ossis metat>si ( ! proximal end ( ! metat>sus 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,c1 #c74 ,j po/]ior to ?is ligam5t1 !re is an int]osse\s ligam5t1 ! ligam5tum int]osseum4 ,a semi-lun> pad ( fibr\s c>tilage1 ! c>tilago semi-lun>is is locat$ betwe5 ! out] di/al extremity ( ! tibia & upp] articul> surface ( ! metat>sus 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,c1 #f74 ,its concave portion is direct$ ant]iorly & receives an ins]tion f ! ligam5tum ext]num1 or ext]nal ligam5t4 ,! t5don ,a*illis 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,a1 #a7 may become ossifi$4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,toes 7,fig4 #af74--;,9 addition to ! capsul> ligam5ts1 :i* all true jo9ts h1 we f9d ! foll[+ 9 connection ) ! toes3 ,! ligam5tum sup]ius & ! ligam5tum inf]ius connect ! second toe ) ! great toe1 or hallux4 ,! ligam5tum lat]ale ext]num & ! ligam5tum lat]ale int]num unite ! bases ( ! second1 ?ird & f\r? toes to ! lat]al faces ( ! tro*leas ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! metat>sus4 ,! bases ( ! toes are held toge!r by ! ligam5ta transv]sa4 ,all ! re/ ( ! toes are held toge!r by ! ligam5ta capsul>ia digitorum p$is & by two lat]al ligam5ts1 namely3 ! ligam5tum lat]ale ext]num & ! ligam5tum lat]ale int]num4 ,,myology ,k9ds & ,/ructure ( ,muscles4--,muscles are highly specializ$ /ructures :i* h ! prop]ty ( contractility :5 /imulat$1 & ?us produce motion4 ,muscul> tissue is sometimes call$ fle%4 ,two k9ds ( muscles are recogniz$2 muscles ( locomotion & visc]al muscles4 ,! muscles ( locomotion may be 9 masses ( diff]5t %ape atta*$ to ! sk91 ! d]mal1 or to ! sk9 & skeletal /ructure1 ! d]mo-osse\s1 or f "o bone to ano!r1 ! skeletal4 ,! visc]al muscles =m %eets & make up a portion ( ! wall ( _m ( ! holl[ organs1 su* z ! inte/9es1 ! /oma*1 ! gizz>d1 ! esophagus1 & ! blood-vessels4 ,a special type ( muscle =ms ! he>t4 ,:5 classifi$ ) ref]5ce to /ructure1 muscul> tissue is divid$ into ?ree types1 z foll[s3 volunt>y-/riat$1 involunt>y1 & involunt>y-/riat$4 ,! microscopic exam9ation ( ea* ( ^! types ( muscle %[s x to be made up ( fib]s1 ^! fib]s to be made up ( muscle cells1 ! muscle cell to be inclos$ 9 a delicate tubul> %ea?1 or membrane1 call$ ! s>colemma4 ,?is membrane1 t\gh & ela/ic1 isolates ea* fib]4 ,! bundles ( fib]s1 call$ fasciculi1 are surr\nd$ by a fibr\s %ea?1 :i* is call$ ! p]imysium int]num2 & ! entire muscle has likewise an inve/+ %ea? ( connective tissue1 call$ ! p]imysium ext]num4 ,! muscul> cells %[ a longitud9al /riation m>k+ ! fibrill1 & !y also %[ a cross /riation4 ,nuclei are f\nd j b5ea? ! cov]+1 or s>colemma1 9 ! /riat$ muscle cell 7,fig4 #gg1 ,no4 #b74 ,9 ! involunt>y & 9 ! involunt>y-/riat$ muscle cell1 ! nuclei are c5trally locat$4 ,! volunt>y-/riat$ muscles consi/ ( cyl9drical fib]s & ) a few exceptions1 are "u ! control ( ! w4 ,a muscle ( ?is type1 ! regul> skeletal =m1 usually has at ea* extremity a fibr\s /ructure1 call$ a t5don1 by means ( :i* x is atta*$ to ! bones4 ,! int]m$iate fle%y portion ( ! muscle1 9 case ( consid]able bulk1 is call$ ! belly ( ! muscle4 ,! involunt>y1 non-/riat$1 or smoo? muscle1 cells are sp9dle-%ap$1 long1 & pale 9 color 7,fig4 #gg1 ,no4 #a74 ,! cells lie end to end =m+ fib]s4 ,^! fib]s d n t]m9ate 9 t5dons1 b are arrang$ 9 %eets & aid 9 =m+ ! walls ( ! dige/ive tract1 to :i* !y give ! p[] ( contraction & expansion4 ,involunt>y-/riat$1 or he>t muscle 7,fig4 #gg1 ,no4 #d71 occupies an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! two muscles j describ$4 ,x is compos$ ( cells :i* bran*1 are some:at rectangul>4 ,!y possess bo? longitud9al & transv]se /riation4 ,among ! fib]s is f\nd a small am\nt ( connective tissue1 z 9 ! =m] types ( muscle1 :i* gives support to ! blood-vessels & n]ves4 ,fascia4--,! t]m fascia is appli$ to membran\s expansions1 diff]+ mat]ially 9 /r5g?1 texture1 & relations4 ,fascia is compos$ ( loosely arrang$ :ite fibr\s connective tissue4 ,at lea/ two lay]s may usually be di/+ui%$1 ! sup]ficial fascia & ! deep fascia4 ,bel[ ! sk9 is ! sup]ficial fascia1 :i* =ms a cont9u\s cov]+ ov] ! :ole body & s]ves to atta* ! sk9 to ! und]ly+ /ructure4 ,! deep fascia m d5sely con/ruct$1 may be atta*$ to ! skeleton1 ligam5ts1 & t5dons4 ,:5 ! fascia spreads out1 becomes d5s]1 & acts z a cont9uation ( a muscle1 x is call$ an aponeurosis4 ,! ,muscul> ,nom5clature4--,9 ! f[l !re are #afb muscles1 s+le or 9 pairs4 ,^! muscles are nam$ f _! location1 z ! l+ualis2 o!rs f _! atta*m5ts1 z ! d]mo-temporalis2 "s f _! =m1 z ! rhomboideus2 o!rs f _! use1 z ! flexor or ext5sor2 & /ill o!rs f _! direction1 z ! transv]sus4 ,,! ,,d]mal ,,muscles ,birds are provid$ ) a sy/em ( delicate muscles divid$ into num]\s fasciculi1 :i* h>moni\sly act ^u ! fea!r quills & collectively agitate ! plumage4 ,^! are ! d]mal muscles4 ,?is gr\p is divid$ into two subgr\ps3 ! true d]mal muscles1 t is1 ^? t h _! orig9 & ins]tion to ! "u surface ( ! sk92 & ! d]mo-osse\s1 ^? t orig9ate on ! surface ( "s bone & ins]t to ! inn] surface ( ! sk94 ,,true ,,d]mal ,,muscles ,d]mo-frontalis ,d]mo-dorsalis ,d]mo-t5sor patagii ,d]mo-hum]alis ,d]mo-pectoralis ,d]mo-frontalis4#c ,location4--,?is muscle is some:at rudim5t>y & may be entirely abs5t4 ,x is locat$ 9 ! frontal region & is ab\t #b or #c c5timet]s long & n s wide4 ,footnote #c3 ,! classification ( ,%ufeldt is us$4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,closely atta*$ to ! sk94 ,%ape4--,flat & r rectangul>4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! sk9 & inf]iorly ) ! frontal bones4 ,action4--,by contraction ! fea!rs on ! top ( ! head lie flat4 ,^? above ! eyes are elevat$4 ,d]mo-dorsalis4 ,location4--,9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! neck & back4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,adh]+ closely to ! sk91 x g5]ally becomes lo/ at ! occiput2 x is mo/ highly develop$ 9 ! mid-c]vical region1 & x gradually disappe>s ov] ! caudal region4 ,%ape4--,delicate & ribbon-%ap$4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly x is atta*$ to ! sk94 ,fat sometimes surr\nds ! muscle4 ,action4--,by contraction x raises ! fea!rs along ! sup]ior "p ( ! neck & dorsal region4 ,d]mo-t5sor ,patagii4 ,location4--,betwe5 ! root ( ! neck & top ( ! %\ld]4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,atta*$ to ! sk9 9 ! region ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! root ( ! neck1 "s fib]s pass+ obliquely upw>d & bl5d ) fib]s ( ! d]mo-temporalis4 ,x bl5ds1 by a sl5d] t5don1 ) t ( ! t5sor patagii longus4 ,%ape4--,a bundle ( muscul> fib]s lat] becomes ?91 delicate1 & triangul> 9 %ape4 ,relations4--,ext]nally to ! sk94 ,action4--,auxili>y to ! t5sor patagii longus4 ,a t5sor ( ?is region4 ,! patagii are associat$ ) ! w+ fold ( sk9 :i* fills ! angle betwe5 ! arm & =e>m4 ,?is fold conta9s ela/ic tissue & muscle4 ,d]mo-hum]alis4 ,location4--,lat]al ?oracic region4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,fan-l delicate fib]s f ! sk9 9 ! abdom9al integum5t1 contract+ into a long n>r[ fasciculus ( fib]s1 aga9 spread+ out 9 fan-%ape to be ins]t$ to ! t5don ( ! pectoralis major1 j bel[ its ins]tion4 ,%ape4--,triangul>1 fan-%ape4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! sk94 ,action4--,controls ! sk9 9 ?is region4 ,! ant]ior end be+ fix$1 ! muscles are rais$2 & ! po/]ior end act+ z ! fix$ po9t1 ! fea!rs are caus$ to lie close to ! body4 ,d]mo-pectoralis4 ,location4--,on ea* side ( ! *e/1 ly+ 9 a longitud9al mann]4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,atta*$ to ! sk9 on ei!r side ( ! ?orax correspond+ to ! d]mo-dorsalis4 ,ant]iorly x disappe>s ov] ! region ( ! orig9 ( ! cleido-tra*ealis1 & po/]iorly j beh9d ! tips ( ! po/-pubic p>ts ( ! pelvis4 ,%ape4--,?91 delicate4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! sk94 ,action4--,! ant]ior "p act+ z ! fix$ po9t1 ! fea!rs ( ! *e/ are rais$2 & ! po/]ior end act+ z ! fix$ po9t1 ! fea!rs are made to lie flat4 ,,! ,,d]mo-,,osse\s ,,muscles ,d]mo-temporalis ,platysma myoides ,d]mo-cleido dorsalis ,cleido-tra*ealis ,d]mo-sp9alis ,d]mo-iliacus ,d]mo-uln>is ,d]mo-temporalis 7,fig4 #ah1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,f ! temporal region d[n ! side ( ! neck to ! ant]ior "p ( ! ?oracic region4 ,orig94--,by a broad t5d9\s atta*m5t f a small depression above & ant]ior to ! temporal fossa4 ,f "h ! fib]s pass upw>d & backw>d & !n d[nw>d4 ,ins]tion4--,a few fib]s bl5d ) ^? ( ! cleido-tra*ealis4 ,! fib]s are !n lo/ ^u ! sk9 9 front & opposite ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,"s ( ! fib]s bl5d ) ^? ( ! d]mo-t5sor patagii4 ,%ape4--,long1 flat1 & ribbon-%ap$4 ,! l[] portion consi/s ( delicate fib]s4 ,relations4--,sup]ior to ! temporal muscle & sph5otic process4 ,sup]ior to ! cleido-tra*ealis & inf]iorly to ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,! sup]ior portion t\*es ! sk9 ?r\gh\t its entire l5g?4 ,action4--,a t5sor ( ! lat]al c]vical integum5t4 ,x is an auxili>y to ! t5sor patagii4 ,platysma ,myoides4 ,location4--,! inf]ior portion ( ! ?roat4 ,orig94--,f ! l[] m>g9 ( ! rami ( ! jaw4 ,j inf]ior to ! atta*m5t ( ! masset]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,muscles ( ! upp] neck region1 #a1 ,d]mo-temporalis4 #b1 ,cornu ( ! os hyoideum4 #c1 ,c>otid art]y4 #d1 ,jugul> ve94 #e1 ,pneumoga/ric n]ve4 #f1 ,esophagus4 #g1 ,tra*ea4 ,ins]tion4--,f ! po9t ( orig9 x spreads out into a ?9 fan-l lay] & meets its fell[ 9 ! m$ian raphe4 ,x is atta*$ to ! sk9 9 ?is region4 ,%ape4--,a v ?9 fan-%ap$ muscle4 ,relations4--,closely adh]5t to ! sk94 ,action4--,assi/s 9 support+ ! l+ual app>atus & sup]ior l>ynx4 ,compresses & elevates ! "p4 ,d]mo-cleido ,dorsalis4 ,location4--,ant]ior %\ld] region4 ,orig94--,f ! upp] mesial "p ( ! clavicul> bone4 ,ins]tion4--,?ree fasciculi =m+ a fan-l arrangem5t atta*$ to ! sk9 9 ! %\ld]-jo9t & scapul> region4 ,! extremities ( ! fasciculi may meet 9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! dorsal region & m]ge ) ! d]mo-dorsalis4 ,%ape4--,?ree fasciculi =m+ a fan-%ap$ radiation4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! sk94 ,inf]iorly ) ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,action4--,contract+ ) ! orig9 z ! fix$ po9t1 !y brace ! sk9 ov] ! =ep>t ( ! back4 ,) ! integum5tal atta*m5t z ! fix$ po9t1 !y aid 9 ! act ( respiration4 ,cleido-tra*ealis4 ,location4--,ext5d+ f ! %\ld] to ! sup]ior l>yngeal region4 ,orig94--,f a small area on ! ant]o-inn] "p ( ! middle ( ! arm ( ! furcula4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass upw>d & become flatt5$ & atta*$ to ! sk9 & d]mo-temporalis muscle4 ,!y t\* ea* o!r on ! ant]ior bord] ( ! sup]ior l>ynx1 ! tra*ea1 & ! sk9 ov] ^! p>ts4 ,%ape4--,a sl5d] bundle ( muscles4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ! sk91 & int]nally ! l>ynx & ! tra*ea4 ,action4--,controls ! sk9 region ( ?is "p ( ! neck4 ,d]mo-sp9alis4 ,location4--,9 ! region ( ! %\ld]4 ,orig94--,9 an att5uat$ fascia f ! cre/ ( ! neural sp9es ( ! fir/1 ! second1 & ! ?ird dorsal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! sk9 9 a broad pale /ratum1 ov] ! scapul> region4 ,%ape4--,?91 pale1 & v delicate4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! sk91 & inf]iorly ) ! %\ld]4 ,action4--,controls ! sk9 ( ! region4 ,d]mo-iliacus4 ,location4--,along ! back on ei!r side ( ! sp9e4 ,orig94--,f ! inn] angle ( ! m>g9al portion ( ! ant]o-dorsal bord] ( ! ilium4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ =w>d z a delicate b& x spreads out & becomes lo/ 9 ! sk9 ( ! %\ld] region4 ,%ape4--,?91 delicate1 & ribbon-%ap$4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! sk94 ,action4--,if ! po/]ior end is fix$1 x w cause ! fea!rs to lie close to ! sk94 ,its action w\ld !n be opposite to ! d]mo-dorsalis4 ,d]mo-uln>is4 ,location4--,out] surface ( ! ant]ior upp] co/al & ! po/]ior hum]al region4 ,orig94--,by a ?9 fascia f ! out] "p ( ! ?ird & ! f\r? true ribs at ! base ( _! ep9eural app5dages4 ,also f ! fascia betwe5 !m4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass =w>d & upw>d z a ?ick muscul> bundle & is loosely atta*$ to ! sk9 at a po9t j back ( ! hum]us4 ,! t5don lat] becomes spread out & atta*$ to ! fascia z f> z ! elb[-jo9t4 ,x cov]s ! olecranon ( ! ulna4 ,%ape4--,at fir/ r ?ick1 fascicul>-l2 lat] becomes t5d9\s2 & at its atta*m5t x becomes spread out ov] ! olecranon4 ,relation4--,inf]iorly ) ! ribs & hum]us1 & ext]nally ) ! sk94 ,action4--,a depressor ( ! hum]al region4 ,,! ,,skeletal ,,muscles ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head ,temporal ,masset] ,biv5t] maxill ,entotympanicus ,pt]ygoideus int]nus ,pt]ygoideus ext]nus ,diga/ricus ,temporal 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,occupies ! temporal fossa4 ,orig94--,f ! mesian l9e ( ! sph5otic process1 & ! adjac5t wall ( ! orbit4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass+ d[nw>d & =w>d bl5d ) ! fib]s ( ! masset]4 ,inf]iorly x ins]ts by a t5don to ! coranoid process ^u ! sup]ior ramal m>g9 ( ! m&ible4 ,%ape4--,fan-%ap$ ) broad portion upp]mo/4 ,relations4--,x occupies ! temporal fossa4 ,x is relat$ sup]iorly ) ! d]mo-temporalis & sk94 ,inf]iorly1 ) ! biv5t] maxill & ! masset]4 ,action4--,x aids 9 clos+ ! jaw4 ,masset] 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,occupies ! sup]o-lat]al portion ( ! surface ( ! l[] jaw4 ,orig94--,9 two portions3 ! fir/1 by a broad & ?9 t5don f ! entire l5g? ( ! bony ridge above ! ext]nal auditory meatus1 f ! squamosal process1 & f ! out] portion ( ! quadrate bone2 ! second1 f ! side & "u bord] ( ! zygoma4 ,ins]tion4--,! fir/ portion3 ,! fib]s pass d[nw>d & =w>d b5ea? ! zygoma2 a few ( ! fib]s bl5d ) ^? ( ! temporal2 "o t5don ins]ts to a small tub]cle on ! upp] bord] ( ! jaw beh9d ! coronoid process1 & by fle%y ins]tion to ! out] side ( ! ramus ( ! l[] jaw1 q z f> =w>d z ! horny portion ( ! beak4 ,! second portion3 by a small t5don to ! m&ible on its upp] bord] imm$iately 9 front ( ! articul> portion4 ,%ape4--,flat1 & elongate4 ,some:at fle%y4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! temporal1 & inf]iorly ) ! biv5t] maxill & /ylo-hyoideus4 ,ext]nally ) ! sk91 & int]nally ) ! jaw bone4 ,action4--,aids 9 clos+ ! jaw4 ,biv5t] ,maxill 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,cov]s ! out] po/]ior portion ( ! m&ible4 ,orig94--,x arises 9 two portions3 ,! fir/1 f a ridge b\nd+ ! po/]ior "p ( ! auditory canal2 ! second1 f a depression ( ! mesial side4 ,^! two p>ts bl5d & ext5d d[nw>d & =w>d4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! po/]ior "p ( ! articul> end ( ! m&ible4 ,%ape4--,a curv$ fle%y mass4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! temporal & /ylo-hyoideus4 ,po/]iorly ) ! diga/ricus & g5io-hyoideus4 ,int]nally ) ! jaw bone1 & ext]nally ) ! sk94 ,action4--,x aids 9 op5+ ! jaw4 ,entotympanic4 ,location4--,po/]ior to ! pt]ygoid4 ,orig94--,f ! side ( ! basi-sph5oid & f ! base ( ! ro/rum imm$iately beyond x4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass d[nw>d & =w>d1 & ins]t by a d\ble t5d9\s slip4 ,"o slip ins]ts to a sp9e-l process on ! upp] side ( ! pt]ygoid1 & ! o!r to ! quadrato-pt]ygoidean articulation4 ,%ape4--,sp9dle-%ap$4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly ) ! pt]ygoid4 ,int]nally & po/]iorly ) ! basi-sph5oid4 ,ext]nally ) ! pt]ygoideus int]nus4 ,action4--,aids 9 rais+ ! upp] m&ible by pull+ =w>d ! quadratus & pt]ygoidean aga9/ ! palat9es4 ,pt]ygoideus ,int]nus 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 ,b1 #e74 7,synonym4--,pt]ygoideus m$ialis4#d7 ,footnote #d3 ,accord+ to int]national vet]9>y nom5clature4 ,location4--,a muscul> mass at ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,orig94--,f ! major "p ( ! surface ( ! palat9e bone & ! di/al head & %aft ( ! pt]ygoid & ! sph5oidal projection4 ,ins]tion4--,by a t5don to ! ant]o-int]nal "p ( ! articul> "p ( ! m&ible4 ,%ape4--,fusi=m ) a ?ick fle%y belly4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! palat9e1 ! pt]ygoid1 & ! sph5oid bones4 ,inf]iorly ) ! sk94 ,action4--,x aids 9 clos+ ! jaw4 ,pt]ygoideus ,ext]nus4 7,synonym4--,pt]ygoideus lat]alis47 ,location4--,sup]o-ext]nal to ! pt]ygoideus int]nus4 ,orig94--,f ! out] "p ( ! extremity ( ! orbital process ( ! quadrate4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass d[nw>d1 outw>d & =w>d & are ins]t$ to ! inn] "p ( ! m&ibul> ramus4 ,%ape4--,a small r\nd bundle4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly ) ! pt]ygoideus int]nus4 ,ext]nally ) ! inf]ior maxilla4 ,action4--,aids 9 clos+ ! jaw4 ,diga/ricus 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 ,b1 #af74 ,location4--,ext5ds f ! basi-temporal to ! side ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,f ! ext]nal lat]al angle ( ! basi-temporal4 ,ins]tion4--,opposite ! angle ( ! jaw ! fib]s spread out 9 fan-l arrangem5t4 ,! muscle meets its fell[ ( ! opposite side2 ext5ds longitud9ally ov] ! sup]ior l>ynx1 = "s di/ance d[n ! neck4 ,%ape4--,?9 & ribbon-%ap$4 ,relations4--,ext]nally to ! platysma myoides4 ,! ant]ior fasciculi bl5d ) ^? ( ! mylo-hyoideus2 int]nally ) ! l>ynx at ! upp] "p4 ,action4--,to raise ! tra*ea & hyoid app>atus aga9/ ! ph>ynx4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,tongue ,mylo-hyoideus ,/ylo-hyoideus ,g5io-hyoideus ,c]ato-hyoideus ,/]no-hyoideus ,depressor-glossus ,c]ato-glossus ,hyoideus transv]sus ,mylo-hyoideus4 ,location4--,! =ep>t ( ! int]-ramal space4 ,orig94--,f ! inn] side ( ! l[] jaw at a po9t j above ! l[] bord] & ! inturn$ edge ( ! horny %ea? ( ! beak4 ,ins]tion4--,by aponeurosis to ! "u side ( ! hyoid1 on ! m$ian l9e betwe5 ! fir/ & ! second basi-bran*ial4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat1 & delicate4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly ) ! sk94 ,?9 & r broad1 x meets its fell[ ( ! opposite side4 ,lat]ally ) ! rami ( ! jaw4 ,sup]iorly ) ! hyoid app>atus4 ,action4--,lifts ! tongue upw>d aga9/ ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,/ylo-hyoideus 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 ,b1 #f74 ,location4--,sup]o-po/]ior to ! hyoid app>atus4 ,orig94--,f ! out] portion ( ! articul> enl>gem5t ( ! l[] jaw4 ,ins]tion4--,by a t5don to ! basi-bran*ial ( ! ?yro-hyal4 ,%ape4--,a long transv]sely flatt5$ fasciculus4 ,relations4--,sup]o-po/]ior "p ( ! hyoid app>atus along side ! g5io-hyoideus & ! c]ato-hyoideus4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! tongue to "o side2 act+ ) its fell[1 pulls ! tongue upw>d4 ,g5io-hyoideus 7,fig4 #i1 ,no4 #g74 ,location4--,sup]o-po/]ior to ! hyoid app>atus4 ,orig94--,f ! ant]ior portion ( ! inn] side ( ! l[] jaw4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! middle ( ! out] side ( ! basi-bran*ial ( ! corn] ( ! os hyoides :i* cornu x completely envelops4 ,%ape4--,a long1 r ?ick fasciculus4 ,relations4--,) ! /ylo-hyoideus & c]ato-hyoideus4 ,action4--,protrudes ! tongue f ! m\?4 ,c]ato-hyoideus 7,fig4 #i1 ,no4 #h74 7,synonym4--,k]ato-hyoideus47 ,location4--,inf]ior to ! hyoid app>atus4 ,orig94--,by a delicate t5d9\s slip f ! "u side ( ! %aft ( ! basi-hyal elem5t ( ! hyoid app>atus4 ,ins]tion4--,to a small elevation on ! "u side ( ! ant]ior end ( ! glosso-hyal4 ,%ape4--,a small r\nd muscul> fasciculus becom+ t5d9\s 9 its ant]ior half4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! hyoid app>atus4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! tongue to "o side2 act+ ) its fell[1 depresses ! tongue4 ,/]no-hyoideus4 ,location4--,inf]ior to ! hyoid app>atus4 ,orig94--,f ! out] ant]ior surface ( ! ?yroid bone ( ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! ant]ior "p ( ! basi-hyal4 ,%ape4--,at fir/ broad & r fle%y1 becomes contract$ & some:at t5d9\s4 ,relations4--,inf]ior to ! hyoid app>atus & sup]ior l>ynx4 ,action4--,:5 ! l>ynx is fix$1 act+ alone deflects ! tongue lat]ally2 act+ ) its fell[1 depresses ! tongue4 ,if ! base ( ! tongue is fix$ ! two pull ! l>ynx =w>d4 ,h5ce muscles ( deglutition4 ,depressor-glossus4 ,location4--,sup]ior to ! basi-hyal4 ,orig94--,f ! "u portion ( ! basi-hyal4 ,ins]tion4--,to "u "p ( ! glosso-hyal4 ,%ape4--,small1 %ort4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! basi-hyal & glosso-hyal bones4 ,action4--,depresses ! tip ( ! tongue & elevates ! base4 ,c]ato-glossus4 ,location4--,on ! upp] portion ( ! cornu ( ! hyoid4 ,orig94--,"o-half ( ! surface ( ! fir/ basi-bran*ial4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! upp] side ( ! %aft ( ! c]ato-bran*ial elem5t ( ! hyoid app>atus4 ,%ape4--,a small muscul> fasciculus4 ,relations4--,sup]o-lat]ally to ! c]ato-bran*ial elem5t4 ,action4--,elevates ! cornua ( ! hyoid ar*es & presses !m aga9/ ! skull4 ,hyoideus ,transv]sus 7,fig4 #i1 ,no4 #i & #aj74 ,location4--,envelops ! spur process ( ! euro-hyal4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,x ext5ds f ! inn] side ( "o cornu to ! spur process4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat4 ,relations4--,po/]ior to ! euro-hyal1 :i* x envelops1 & betwe5 ! cornua ( ! os hyoides4 ,action4--,approximates ! cornua ( ! os hyoides4 ,,! ,,c]vical ,,muscles ,complexus ,rectus capitis anticus m9or ,flexor capitis inf]ior ,rectus capitis po/icus major ,biv5t] c]vicis ,longus colli po/icus ,obliquus colli ,longus colli ant]ior ,rectus capitis lat]alis ,tra*elo-ma/oideus ,int]sp9ales ,int]>ticul>es ,obliquo-transv]sales ,int]transv]sales ,scal5us m$ius ,complexus 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al portion ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,by ?ree t5d9\s slips f ! ant]o-lat]al portion ( ! transv]se process ( ! f\r?1 ! fif?1 & ! six? c]vical v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,! muscul> fib]s pass ar\nd ! neck & meet _! fell[s 9 ! m$ian l9e 9 a fascia =mation4 ,! ?9 t5d9\s %eet ins]ts into ! occiput j above ! occipital ridge4 ,%ape4--,f po9t ( orig9 ?is muscle exp&s into a broad %eet4 ,relations4--,x ov]lies ! muscles ( ! occipital region4 ,action4--,x ext5ds ! head4 ,rectus ,capitis ,anticus ,m9or 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #h74 7,synonym4--,rectus capitis v5tralis m9or47 ,location4--,inf]o-lat]al portion ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,f ! apices ( ! hyapophyses ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? c]vical v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! occiput j bel[ ! complexus4 ,%ape4--,a long & r ?ick fasciculus4 ,relations4--,ext]nally ) ! sk94 ,! t5d9\s slips ( orig9 pass betwe5 ! flexor capitis inf]ior & longus colli ant]ior4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! head4 ,flexor ,capitis ,inf]ior 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #g74 ,location4--,ant]o-inf]ior "p ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,f ! apices ( ! hyapophyses ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? c]vical v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! triangul> area on ! basi-temporal ( ! base ( ! cranium4 ,%ape4--,at fir/ t5d9\s1 becomes some:at fle%y z x passes =w>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,muscles ( ! head & neck4 #a1 ,masset] muscle4 #b1 ,infraorbital s9us4 #c1 ,biv5t] maxilla4 #d1 ,temporalis4 #e1 ,complexus4 #f1 ,rectus capitis po/icus major4 #g1 ,flexor capitis inf]ior4 #h1 ,rectus capitis anticus m9or4 #i1 ,biv5t] c]vicis4 #aj1 ,longus colli po/icus4 #aa1 ,obliquus colli4 #ab1 ,int]transv]sales4 #ac1 ,longus colli ant]ior4 #ad1 ,lat]al temporo-maxill>y ligam5t4 #ae1 ,lat]al ligam5t ( ! jaw4 #af1 ,tra*elo-ma/oideus4 #ag1 ,rectus capitis lat]alis4 #ah1 ,scal5us m$ius4 #ai1 ,rhomboideus4 #bj1 ,trapezius4 #ba1 ,location ( scapula4 #bb1 ,suprasp9atus4 #bc1 ,t]es et ,infrasp9atus4 ,relations4--,ant]o-inf]ior portion ( ! neck close to ! rectus capitis anticus m9or4 ,action4--,flexes ! head ^u ! neck4 ,rectus ,capitis ,po/icus ,major 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #f74 7,synonym4--,rectus capitis dorsalis major47 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al area on ! ant]ior portion ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,f ! m$ian ant]ior aspect ( ! second c]vical v]tebra1 & ! sup]o-ant]ior bord] ( ! neural canal4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! cresc5t-%ap$ area at ! back ( ! skull4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 ?ick1 fle%y bundle4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! complexus2 inf]iorly ) ! tra*elo-ma/oideus & ! v]tebr4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! head to "o side2 act+ ) its fell[1 ext5ds ! head4 ,biv5t] ,c]vicis 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #i74 ,location4--,occupies ! sup]ior "p ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,f ! side ( ! neural sp9e ( ! fir/ dorsal v]tebra1 & f ! adjac5t t5don ( ! longus colli po/icus4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! occiput4 ,%ape4--,t5d9\s 9 ! middle ) a m or less sp9dle-%ap$ belly at ea* end4 ,relations4--,sup]ior to ! longus colli po/icus4 ,x lies next to ! sk94 ,action4--,ext5ds ! head on ! neck & elevates ! neck4 ,longus ,colli ,po/icus 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #aj74 7,synonym4--,longus colli dorsalis47 ,location4--,occupies ! sup]ior "p ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,f ! m>g9al edges ( ! summits ( ! neural sp9es ( ! fir/ two dorsal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! transv]se process ( ! axis1 & sup]ior "p ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,%ape4--,a long1 some:at n>r[1 flatt5$ muscle1 ! inf]ior portion ( :i* is divid$ into five or six fasciculi4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! biv5t] c]vicis & inf]iorly ) ! v]tebr4 ,action4--,raises ! neck upw>d4 ,obliquus ,colli 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #aa74 ,location4--,on ! lat]al side ( ! neck4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,! fir/ ( ! sev5 fasciculi orig9ates f ! diapophysis ( ! elev5? c]vical v]tebra1 w9ds obliquely ov] ! t5?1 & is ins]t$ into ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! po/zygapophysis ( ! n9? v]tebra4 ,9 its passage x receives ! slip f ! longus colli po/icus4 ,! next fasciculus orig9ates f ! transv]se process ( ! t5? c]vical v]tebra1 w9ds obliquely ov] ! n9? v]tebra1 & is ins]t$ to ! po/zygapophysis ( ! eigh? v]tebra4 ,9 its passage x also receives a fasciculus f ! longus colli po/icus4 ,! next ?ree fasciculi orig9ate 9 a simil> mann] be+ atta*$ to simil> po/zygapophyses & h slips ext5d+ =w>d :i* slips are ins]t$ to ! neural sp9es ( ! alt]nate v]tebr4 ,! six? fasciculus orig9ates f ! transv]se process ( ! six? v]tebra1 pass+ obliquely up ! neck is ins]t$ to ! extremity ( ! diapophysis ( ! f\r? v]tebra1 ! out] extremity ( ! transv]se process ( ! ?ird v]tebra4 ,! sev5?1 or ant]ior1 fasciculus orig9ates f ! transv]se process ( ! fif? v]tebra1 & is ins]t$ to ! extremity ( ! diapophysis ( ! ?ird v]tebra4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 ?ick fasciculi4 ,relations4--,lat]ally ) ! v]tebr4 ,inf]iorly ) ! int]transv]sales4 ,sup]iorly ) ! longus colli po/icus1 & ext]nally ) ! sk94 ,action4--,flexes "o v]tebra on ! o!r lat]ally4 ,longus ,colli ,ant]ior 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ac74 7,synonym4--,longus colli v5tralis47 ,location4--,occupies ! ant]ior portion ( ! neck4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,?is muscle is divid$ into a v]tical portion1 & a sup]ior & an inf]ior oblique portion4 ,! v]tical portion orig9ates f ! hypophyses ( ! t5? to ! fifte5? v]tebra & is ins]t$ by a t5don to ! tub]cle on ! inf]ior portion ( ! atlas4 ,small1 sl5d] t5dons are giv5 (f & ins]t to ! apices ( ! p>apophyses ( ! f\r? to ! t5? c]vical v]tebr4 ,!re is m or less atta*m5t to ! bodies ( ! c]vical v]tebr m5tion$4 ,! sup]ior oblique portion orig9ates f ! diapophyses ( ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 ! fif? c]vical v]tebr & becom+ t5d9\s is ins]t$ to ! tub]cle on ! inf]ior portion ( ! body ( ! atlas4 ,! inf]ior oblique portion orig9ates f ! transv]se processes ( ! f\r?1 ! fif?1 & ! six? c]vical v]tebr4 ,x is ins]t$ by a sl5d] t5don to ! apex ( ! p>apophysis ( ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,%ape4--,a long fle%y muscle ext5d+ ! entire l5g? ( ! neck4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly ) ! sk9 & sup]iorly ) ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,action4--,pulls ! neck d[nw>d4 ,rectus ,capitis ,lat]alis 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ag74 ,location4--,! inf]o-lat]al ant]ior portion ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,orig9ates t5d9\s f ! diapophysis ( ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 & ! fif? c]vical v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,passes obliquely upw>d 9 front ( ! sp9al column to ! inn] tub]cle on ! basal ridge ( ! basi-temporal bone1 by a subcompress$ t5don4 ,%ape4--,a some:at ?ick fasciculus4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly ) ! tra*elo-ma/oideus1 inf]iorly ) ! longus colli ant]ior1 & ext]nally ) ! sk94 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! head d[n & to "o side2 act+ ) its fell[1 pulls ! head d[nw>d4 ,tra*elo-ma/oideus 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #af74 7,synonym4--,longissimus capitis et atlantis47 ,location4--,lat]ally on ! ant]ior portion ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,semit5d9\s f ! diapophyses ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 & ! fif? c]vical v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,by subcompress$ t5don to ! base ( ! cranium1 at ! out] tub]cle ( ! basal ridge ( ! basi-temporal4 ,%ape4--,flatt5$ f side to side2 broad at ! po/]ior portion1 becomes angul> at ! ant]ior portion4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! head d[n & to "o side2 act+ ) its fell[1 pulls ! head d[nw>d4 ,int]sp9ales 7,fig4 #ag1 ,a1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,sup]ior to ! v]tebra4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,a s]ies ( muscles connect+ ! sup]ior neural sp9es ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly ! po/]ior bord] ( ! v]tebr 9 front & po/]iorly ! ant]ior bord] ( ! succe$+ v]tebr1 inf]iorly by ! v]tebr4 ,action4--,to approximate ! sp9\s portion ( ! v]tebr4 ,int]>ticul>es 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 ,a1 #d74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]ally to ! v]tebr4 ,betwe5 ! po/zygapophysis4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,f ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! r+ ( ! atlas to ! po/zygapophysis ( ! axis4 ,!n 9 ! succe$+ v]tebr f ! po/zygapophysis ( ! v]tebra to ! same ( ! succe$+ v]tebra4 ,%ape4--,muscul> bundle4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly ) ! v]tebr4 ,sup]o-lat]ally ) ! obliquo-transv]sales4 ,action4--,aids 9 approximat+ ! v]tebr 9 a sup]o-lat]al direction4 ,obliquo-transv]sales 7,fig4 #ag1 ,a1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al to ! v]tebr4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,passes obliquely f ! transv]se process ( "o v]tebra to ! po/zygapophysis ( ! v]tebra beyond4 ,%ape4--,a ?9 fasciculus4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly ) ! int]>ticul>es & lat]ally ) ! int]transv]sales4 ,action4--,aids 9 flex+ ! v]tebr sup]o-lat]ally4 ,int]transv]sales 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ab74 ,location4--,lat]ally to ! v]tebr4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,ext5d betwe5 ! transv]se processes beg9n+ at ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 ?ick4 ,relations4--,lat]ally ! v]tebr4 ,sup]iorly ! obliquo-transv]sales4 ,action4--,aids 9 flex+ ! v]tebr lat]ally4 ,scal5us ,m$ius 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ah74 7,synonym4--,scal5us47 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]ally to ! entrance ( ! ?orax4 ,orig94--,f ! diapophysis & pleurapophysis ( ! elev5? c]vical v]tebra4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! entire bord] ( ! fir/ rib4 ,a few fib]s pass ov] to ! ant]ior free m>g9 ( ! middle ?ird ( ! second rib4 ,%ape4--,r pyramidal 9 %ape ) base upp]mo/4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly ) ! levatores co/>um4 ,int]nally ) ! longus colli4 ,action4--,:5 ! fir/ rib is fix$ s+ly1 turns ! neck to "o side2 act+ ) its fell[1 ext5ds ! neck4 ,:5 ! neck is fix$1 by draw+ ! fir/ rib =w>d1 x acts z an inspiratory muscle4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,air ,,passages ,! ,sup]ior ,l>ynx ,con/rictor glottidis ,?yreo-aryt5oideus ,! ,inf]ior ,l>ynx ,tra*eo-lat]alis ,bron*o-tra*ealis po/icus ,bron*o-tra*ealis anticus ,bron*o-tra*ealis brevis ,bron*ialis po/icus ,bron*ialis anticus ,/]no-tra*ealis ,con/rictor ,glottidis4 ,location4--,sup]o-ant]ior portion ( ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,orig94--,f ! sup]ior & longitud9al l9e ( ! ?yroid plate4 ,ins]tion4--,all along ! inn] m>g9 ( ! aryt5oid bone1 & to ! apex ( ! mid-cricoidal segm5t4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat %eet ext5d+ outw>d & upw>d1 & !n inw>d4 ,relation4--,int]iorly ) ! l>ynx4 ,action4--,! two muscles ( ?is k9d act+ toge!r1 close ! glottis by draw+ ! apices ( ! aryt5oids to ! m$ian l9e4 ,?yreo-aryt5oideus4 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al portion ( ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,orig94--,f ! entire out] m>g9 ( ! ?yroid plate & ! out] m>g9 ( ! cricoid bone4 ,ins]tion4--,all along ! out] m>g9 ( ! aryt5oid bone & ! out] bord] ( ! c5tral cricoid piece4 ,%ape4--,a ?91 flat %eet4 ,relations4--,inf]o-lat]ally ) ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,action4--,! two muscles ( ?is k9d act+ toge!r1 op5 ! glottis by pull+ ! aryt5oid bone outw>d4 ,tra*eo-lat]alis 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,along ! lat]al side ( ! tra*ea4 ,orig94--,by ! union ( ! bron*io-tra*ealis po/icus & bron*io-tra*ealis anticus1 on ! lat]al side ( ! tra*ea1 ab\t #a c5timet]s f ! bifurcation ( ! tra*ea4 ,ins]tion4--,9 delicate fan-l /ructure to ! side ( ! tra*ea1 ne> ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,%ape4--,?91 ribbon-%ap$1 closely atta*$ to ! tra*ea4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! tra*ea1 & ext]nally ) ! sk9 & o!r integum5t4 ,action4--,acts z a brace to ! sides ( ! tra*ea1 & contract+1 approximates ! tra*eal r+s & ?us %ort5s ! tra*ea4 ,bron*o-tra*ealis ,po/icus 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,po/]o-sup]ior portion ( ! tra*ea4 ,! fib]s pass d[nw>d & backw>d4 ,orig94--,f ! inf]ior end ( ! tra*eo-lat]alis4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! end ( ! ?ird half ( ! bron*ial r+ ( ! same side4 ,%ape4--,a small fasciculus4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! tra*ea1 & ext]nally ) ! sk9 & o!r integum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,! ant]ior pectoral region4 #a1 ,/]no-tra*ealis4 #b1 ,tra*eo-lat]alis4 #c1 ,bron*o-tra*ealis brevis4 #d1 ,co/al process ( /]num4 #e1 ,"r & left c>otid conv]g+ & occupy+ same %ea? at #f4 #g1 ,! he>t %[+ bran*es ( coron>y art]y4 #h1 ,c]vical air-sac4 #i1 ,left bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #aj1 ,"r bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #aa1 ,tra*ea4 #ab1 ,inf]ior l>ynx4 #ac4 ,subclavian art]y4 #ad1 ,c>otid trunk4 #ae1 ,int]nal ?oracic art]y4 #af ,?yroid gl&4 #ag1 ,ant]ior v5a cava4 #ah1 ,auricul> app5dage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,! inf]ior tra*eal region4 #a1 ,bron*ialis anticus4 #b1 ,bron*ialis po/icus4 #c1 ,bron*o-tra*ealis po/icus4 #d1 ,bron*o-tra*ealis anticus4 ,action4--,a t5sor ( ! true or inf]ior l>ynx4 ,bron*o-tra*ealis ,anticus 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,ant]ior portion ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tra*ea4 ,orig94--,! ant]ior bran* ( ! bifurcat$ tra*eo-lat]alis4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! ant]ior extremity ( ! ?ird half r+ ( ! bron*us ( ! same side4 ,%ape4--,a small fasciculus4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! tra*ea1 & ext]nally ) ! sk9 & o!r integum5t4 ,action4--,a t5sor ( ! inf]ior l>ynx4 ,bron*o-tra*ealis ,brevis 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,po/]ior "p ( ! inf]ior extremity ( ! tra*ea4 ,orig94--,f j b5ea? ! bron*o-tra*ealis anticus muscle4 ,ins]tion4--,ext5ds obliquely across ! inf]ior l>ynx & is ins]t$ to ! po/]ior end ( ! second bron*ial r+4 ,%ape4--,r %ort1 /rong1 /raight1 subcyl9drical4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! tra*ea1 & lat]ally ) ! bron*o-tra*ealis po/icus4 ,action4--,a t5sor ( ! inf]ior l>ynx4 ,bron*ialis ,po/icus 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al side ( ! ant]ior end ( ! bron*i4 ,orig94--,f ! lat]al inf]ior m>g9 ( ! la/ tra*eal r+4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ obliquely across ! l>ynx x ins]ts to ! po/]ior extremity ( ! second half r+ ( ! bron*us4 ,%ape4--,small1 ?ick1 sp9dle-%ap$4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! tra*ea1 inf]iorly ) ! bron*ialis anticus1 & sup]iorly ) ! bron*o-tra*ealis brevis4 ,action4--,a t5sor ( ! l>ynx4 ,bron*ialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,inf]ior to ! =m] muscle4 ,orig94--,f ! la/ r+ ( ! tra*ea4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass obliquely =w>d & become ins]t$ to ! rim ( ! aryt5oid c>tilage ( ! inf]ior l>ynx1 & ! ant]ior extremities ( ! fir/ & second half r+s ( ! bron*us4 ,%ape4--,?ick1 sp9dle-%ap$2 ab\t twice ! size ( ! bron*ialis po/icus4 ,relations4--,x is cross$ at its orig9 by ! bron*o-tra*ealis anticus & is relat$ int]nally ) ! bron*us & end ( ! tra*ea4 ,action4--,a t5sor ( ! l>ynx4 ,/]no-tra*ealis 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,! inf]ior region ( ! tra*ea above ! above-nam$ muscles4 ,orig94--,f ! side ( ! tra*ea b5ea? ! po/]ior bord] ( ! bron*o-tra*ealis anticus4 ,ins]tion4--,passes d[nw>d & backw>d across ! cavity ( ! *e/ & is ins]t$ to ! inn] "p ( ! co/al process ( ! /]num4 ,%ape4--,a delicate cord ( fib]s4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! bron*o-tra*ealis muscles4 ,action4--,a relaxor ( ! l>ynx1 & h5ce1 ( ! tympanic membrane4 ,,! ,,/]nal ,,gr\p ,triangul>is ,/]ni4 ,location4--,9 ! floor ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,orig94--,f ! entire sup]ior m>g9 ( ! summits ( ! co/al processes4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s ext5d upw>d & backw>d1 divid+ into f\r digitations :i* cov] ! inn] surface ( ! ?ree pr9cipal /]nal ribs1 & are ins]t$ to ! fir/ f\r z high z _! articulations ) ! v]tebral ribs4 ,%ape4--,flat & some:at triangul>4 ,relations4--,int]iorly ) ! floor ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,action4--,a p[]ful muscle ( expiration4 ,9 contract+1 less5s ! cubic cont5t ( ! ?orax4 ,! ,diaphragm 7,fig4 #dg1 ,no4 #aj2 ,fig4 #cc1 ,no4 #i74 ,description4--,! diaphragm 9 ! dome/ic f[l is rudim5t>y4 ,x consi/s ( a ?9 semi-transp>5t membrane1 situat$ betwe5 & sep>at+ ! ?oracic & ! abdom9al cavities4 ,x readily con=ms to ! v>i\s organs press+ ^u x f ea* side4 ,on ea* side are ?ree rudim5t>y muscles :i* ext5d f ! v]tebral heads ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? /]nal ribs4 ,! fib]s ( ^! muscles spread out 9 fan-l ^u ! diaphragm1 & are se5 j above ! digitations ( ! triangul>is /]ni4 ,,! ,,abdom9al ,,muscles ,obliquus abdom9is ext]nus ,obliquus abdom9is int]nus ,rectus abdom9is ,transv]salis abdom9is ,obliquus ,abdom9is ,ext]nus 7,fig4 #bb1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,! out]mo/ muscle ( ! lat]al abdom9al wall4 ,atta*m5ts4--,by a delicate aponeurotic membrane1 f ! sides ( all ! true dorsal ribs1 f ! po/]ior bord] ( ! la/ v]tebral rib & ! adjo9+ m>g9s ( ! pelvis1 & f ! entire po/]ior surface ( ! inf]ior bord] ( ! po/-pubic elem5t ( ! pelvis2 by aponeurosis1 bl5d+ ) ! fascia t[>d ! root ( ! tail & l[] "p ( ! abdom52 & by aponeurosis to ! sides ( ! /]num1 to ! "u "p ( ! pectoralis major muscle1 & to ! zyphoid prolongation4 ,also by aponeurosis x meets its fell[ f ! opposite side1 at ! l9ea alba4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,! abdom9al muscles ( a h54 ,"r side4 #a1 ,obliquus abdom9is ext]nus4 #b1 ,obliquus abdom9is int]nus4 #c1 ,p]itoneum cov]+ inte/9es4 #d1 ,p]itoneum cov]+ ! gizz>d4 #e1 ,! lungs 7note h[ small !y are f a relative /&po9t74 #f1 ,! great sciatic or is*iadic n]ve4 #g1 ,lumb> n]ves4 #h1 ,kidney4 #i1 ,bra*ial plexus4 #aj1 ,p]ic>dium ( ! base ( ! he>t4 #aa1 ,ant]ior v5a cava4 #ab1 ,oil gl&4 #ac1 ,%[+ a sacculation ( ! abdom9al muscles4 ,!re is no tunica abdom9alis 9 ! f[l4 ,obliquus ,abdom9is ,int]nus 7,fig4 #bb1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,j int]nal ) reg>d to ! ext]nal oblique4 ,atta*m5ts4--,by aponeurosis1 f ! po/]ior ?ird ( ! po/-pubic elem5t ( ! pelvis2 by muscul> fib]s1 f ! balance ( ! bone2 & by a few fib]s1 f ! iliac bord] po/]ior to ! acetabulum4 ,ant]iorly1 ^! fib]s are ins]t$ to ! entire po/]ior m>g9 ( ! la/ v]tebral rib1 & into ! pleurapophysial head ( ! la/ co/al rib4 ,rectus ,abdom9is 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #aj & ,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,! inf]ior m$ian abdom9al wall4 ,atta*m5ts4--,by aponeurosis1 f ! di/al extremity ( ! po/-pubic elem5t ( ! pelvis & f ! semit5d9\s ligam5t :i* /ret*es f "o po/-pubic tip to ! o!r4 ,atta*es ant]iorly to ! zyphoid m>g9 ( ! /]num1 & passes1 by a broad aponeurotic membrane1 ov] ! out] surface ( ! ?oracic wall b5ea? ! ext]nal oblique4 ,transv]salis ,abdom9is 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,h1 #a74 ,location4--,inf]o-lat]al portion ( ! abdom9al wall4 ,atta*m5ts4--,by a ?91 t5d9\s atta*m5t f ! entire po/-pubic & iliac m>g9s ( ! pelvis & f ! int]pubic ligam5t4 ,its fib]s cross ! abdom5 betwe5 ! p]itoneum1 ! rectum1 & ! int]nal oblique4 ,x is ins]t$ ov] ! entire pleural "p ( ! la/ two v]tebral ribs1 ! int]co/al muscles betwe5 !m1 & ! same surface ( ! hemapophyses connect$ bel[4 ,ins]ts into ! l9ea alba4 ,action4--,! abdom9al muscles give support to ! abdom9al organs1 aid 9 flex+ ! sp9e1 draw ! la/ rib backw>d1 ?us aid+ 9 respiration1 & compress ! abdom9al organs to aid 9 defecation & expiration4 ,,! ,,dorso-,,lumb> ,,region ,sacro-lumbalis ,longissimus dorsi ,sacro-lumbalis4 ,location4--,! lat]al lumbo-sacral region4 ,orig94--,t5d9\s f ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! ilium1 f ! angles ( ! la/ two v]tebral ribs1 & by t5d9\s slips1 f ! out] ends ( ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ ?ree dorsal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,by a few fle%y fib]s into ! angle ( ! fir/ dorsal rib & to ! correspond+ po9ts ^u ! free c]vical ribs1 & by a /rong semit5d9\s ins]tion into ! out] extremity ( ! diapophysis ( ! twelf? c]vical v]tebra4 ,%ape4--,a close fitt+1 t5do-muscul> %eet ext5d+ betwe5 ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! ilium & ! root ( ! neck4 ,relations4--,intimately bl5d$ ) ! longissimus dorsi ext]nally4 ,action4--,assi/s ! longissimus dorsi4 ,longissimus ,dorsi 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,! sup]ior dorso-lumb> region4 ,orig94--,f ! inn] portion ( ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! ilium1 & f ! v>i\s surfaces af=d$ by its walls & ! walls ( ! ilio-neural canal2 by a s]ies ( %ort & di/9ct t5dons alt]nately f ! ant]ior & po/]ior extremities ( ! summits ( ! neural sp9es ( all ! dorsal v]tebr4 ,f ! diapophyses ( ! dorsal v]tebr1 f ! cre/s ( ! neural sp9es ( ! la/ ?ree dorsal v]tebr1 f ! bodies ( ! dorsal v]tebr1 & f ! fascia betwe5 !m & ! sacro-lumbalis2 & also by a t5d9\s %eet cont9u\s ) ! orig9 ( ! longus colli po/icus4 ,ins]tion4--,by f\r fasciculi into ! free po/]ior m>g9s ( ! oblique processes ( ! elev5?1 ! twelf?1 ! ?irte5?1 & ! f\rte5? c]vical v]tebr4 ,%ape4--,a l>ge flat %eet4 ,relations4--,lat]ally1 ) ! sup]ior sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr1 & ) ! sup]ior surface ( ! ribs4 ,action4--,s+ly1 flexes ! back lat]ally2 ) its fell[1 aids 9 elevat+ ! body upw>d4 ,,! ,,coccygeal ,,muscles ,levator coccygis ,levator caud ,transv]sus p]onei ,depressor caud ,depressor coccygis ,lat]alis caud ,lat]alis coccygis ,infracoccygis ,levator ,coccygis 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,! sup]ior "p ( ! caudal app>atus4 ,orig94--,f a limit$ area ( ! ilium j beyond & to ! side ( ! ant]ior free caudal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,into ! tub]osity ( ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! pygo/yle4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,sup]ior portion ( ! coccygeal v]tebr4 ,action4--,elevates ! tail4 ,levator ,caud 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al side ( ! tail4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]ior surface ( ! po/-acetabul> area ( ! pelvis1 & f ! sup]ior surface ( all ! coccygeal v]tebr except ! pygo/yle4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! f\r inn] quill butts ( ! ma9 tail fea!rs4 ,%ape4--,long1 sp9dle-%ap$4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! levator coccygis & ext]nally1 ) ! lat]alis caud4 ,action4--,p[]fully elevates ! f\r inn] ma9 tail fea!rs4 ,transv]sus ,p]onei 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,! po/]ior abdom9al region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,out] lay] ( muscles ( ! tail & ?igh1 #a1 ,rectus abdom9is4 #b1 ,levator coccygis4 #c1 ,transv]salis p]onie4 #d1 ,levator caud4 #e1 ,lat]alis caud4 #f1 ,depressor caud4 #g1 ,s>torius4 #h & #i1 ,gluteus primus4 #aj1 ,semit5d9osus4 #aa1 ,ga/rocnemius4 #ab1 ,p]oneus longus4 #ac1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is4 #ad1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is4 #ae1 ,lat]al ligam5t ( ! hock4 ,orig94--,f ! entire po/]ior m>g9 ( ! is*ium1 & f ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! po/-pubis ext5d+ beyond x4 ,ins]tion4--,becom+ aponeurotic1 x passes t[>d ! coccyx & is atta*$ to ! entire po/]ior m>g9 ( ! ilium4 ,passes to ! m$ian l9e1 meet+ its fell[ 9 front ( ! anus4 ,%ape4--,?91 %eet-l4 ,relations4--,inf]o-ant]iorly ) ! anus4 ,po/]iorly ) ! edges ( ! ilium & ( ! is*ium4 ,int]nally ) ! depressor caud4 ,action4--,gives support to ! visc]a 9 ! po/-anal region1 & aids 9 atta*+ ! anus to ! /ructures above4 ,depressor ,caud 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #f74 ,location4--,! inf]o-lat]al side ( ! tail4 ,orig94--,f ! l[] half ( ! po/]ior bord] ( ! is*ium1 & f ! entire po/]ior bord] ( ! po/-pubis beyond4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! quill butts ( ! ?ree or f\r out] ma9 tail fea!rs4 ,%ape4--,/rong1 conical4 ,relations4--,ext]nally1 ) ! depressor coccygis4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! tail d[nw>d & outw>d2 ) its fell[1 pulls ! tail d[nw>d4 ,depressor ,coccygis4 ,location4--,! out]mo/ ( ! inf]o-lat]al muscles ( ! tail4 ,orig94--,f ! l[] half ( ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! is*ium & ! ant]ior ?ree-f\r?s ( ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! po/-pubic elem5t ( ! pelvis beyond x4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! ?ick5$ rim ( ! inf]ior & exp&$ portion ( ! pygo/yle4 ,%ape4--,flat1 triangul>4 ,relations4--,int]nally ) ! depressor caud4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! tail d[nw>d & to "o side2 ) its fell[1 pulls ! tail d[nw>d4 ,lat]alis ,caud 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,! lat]al side ( ! tail4 ,orig94--,f ! tip ( ! transv]se process ( ! fir/ free caudal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! out] ?ree quill butts ( ! ma9 tail fea!rs4 ,%ape4--,f\r fasciculi =m+ a fle%y belly4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ) ! levator caud & sup]iorly ) ! depressor caud4 ,action4--,s+ly1 pulls ! tail d[nw>d & outw>d2 ) its fell[1 pulls ! tail d[nw>d4 ,! out]mo/ fasciculus contract+1 spreads ! tail fea!rs4 ,lat]alis ,coccygis 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,e1 #b74 ,location4--,! inf]o-lat]al side ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,orig94--,f ! surface ( ! po/]ior end ( ! ilium & by t5dons f ! "u side ( ! ends ( ! fir/ ?ree or f\r caudal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! side ( ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! exp&$ portion ( ! pygo/yle4 ,%ape4--,subcompress$ mass4 ,relations4--,) ! transv]se processes ( ! caudal v]tebra1 inf]iorly4 ,action4--,controls ! lat]al movem5ts ( ! tail & its fea!rs1 & ! oblique d[nw>d movem5t4 ,infracoccygis 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,e1 #a74 ,location4--,! extreme inf]ior portion ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,orig94--,f ! inf]ior surface ( ! diapophysis ( ! la/ v]tebra :i* an*yloses ) ! pelvic sacrum1 & f all ! free caudal v]tebr4 ,ins]tion4--,into ! l[] side ( ! pygo/yle4 ,%ape4--,flat1 some:at triangul>4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! v]tebr1 lat]ally1 ) ! lat]alis coccygis1 & mesially1 ) its fell[ ( ! opposite side4 ,action4--,depresses ! tail4 ,,! ,,co/al ,,region ,latissimus dorsi ,trapezius ,rhomboideus ,s]ratus magnus anticus ,s]ratus p>vus anticus ,t]es et infrasp9atus ,int]co/ales ,levatores co/>um ,app5dico-co/ales ,latissimus ,dorsi 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #g74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al portion ( ! dorsal region4 ,orig94--,f two portions1 ! ant]ior slip f ! out] edge ( ! sup]ior m>g9s ( ! neural sp9es ( ! second & ! ?ird dorsal v]tebr1 & ! second portion f a simil> po9t on all ! succe$+ dorsal v]tebr4 ,! second portion is fascia-l 9 its atta*m5ts4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s conv]ge t[>d ! hum]us & ent] betwe5 ! deltoid ! scapul> head ( ! triceps & ! rema9+ heads ( ?is muscle & is ins]t$ to ! anconal "p ( ! hum]us1 j )9 9 ! radial cre/4 ,%ape4--,?91 triangul>4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! sk94 ,! mo/ sup]ficial ( ! dorsal muscles4 ,action4--,to elevate ! hum]us & ?us flex ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,an expiratory muscle :5 ! w+ is fix$4 ,trapezius 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #bj74 ,location4--,9 ! %\ld] region1 j bel[ ! longissimus dorsi4 ,orig94--,f ! neural sp9es ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 & ! fif? c]vical v]tebr j bel[ ! latissimus dorsi4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! mesian upp] bord] ( ! scapula4 ,%ape4--,a flat oblong lay] ( fib]s4 ,relations4--,! po/]ior "p ( ! trapezius ov]lies ! ant]ior "p ( ! rhomboideus4 ,! po/]ior two-?irds is cov]$ by ! latissimus dorsi4 ,! ant]ior ?ird is sup]ficial4 ,action4--,draws ! scapula =w>d4 ,rhomboideus 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #ai74 ,location4--,sup]o-po/]ior scapul> region4 ,orig94--,f ! neural sp9es ( ! fir/ f\r dorsal v]tebr b5ea? ! latissimus dorsi & trapezius muscles4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass+ outw>d & backw>d atta* to ! po/]ior ?ird ( ! mesial or upp] bord] ( ! scapula4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat1 delicate4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 by ! latissimus dorsi & ! trapezius4 ,action4--,to draw ! free end ( ! scapula upw>d & =w>d4 ,s]ratus ,magnus ,anticus 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #af74 ,location4--,! sup]o-lat]al side ( ! ?orax4 ,orig94--,by ?ree /rong digitations3 fir/1 f ! out] "p ( ! second true rib j above ! base ( ! ep9eural app5dage2 ! o!r two1 f simil> locations on ! two succe$+ ribs1 j above ! orig9 ( ! d]mo-uln>is4 ,ins]tions4--,! fir/ by t5d9\s atta*m5t to ! int]pleurapophysial membrane4 ,! re/ ( ! fib]s pass upw>d & slightly =w>d1 & are ins]t$ to ! inf]ior surface ( ! apex ( ! scapula4 ,%ape4--,?ree flat1 /rong digitations4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! ribs4 ,action4--,if ! scapula is fix$1 x is a muscle ( inspiration4 ,s]ratus ,p>vus ,anticus4 ,location4--,! out] & upp] surface ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! ?orax4 ,orig94--,by ?ree digitations f ! out] surface ( ! fir/ ?ree ribs above ! orig9 ( ! s]ratus magnus anticus & ! ?oraco-scapul>is4 ,ins]tion4--,! ?9 %eet ( fib]s passes upw>d & backw>d1 & is ins]t$ to ! inf]ior m>g9 ( ! scapula4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! ribs4 ,action4--,if ! scapula is fix$1 x is a muscle ( respiration4 ,t]es et ,infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #aa74 ,location4--,scapul> region4 ,orig94--,f ! sup]ior surface & out] m>g9 ( ! po/]ior two-?irds ( ! scapula4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass =w>d & outw>d1 & ins]t to ! hum]us at ! middle ( ! uln> m>g9 ( ! pneumatic fossa1 betwe5 ! =ks ( ! triceps4 ,%ape4 --,flat1 triangul>-%ap$4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly1 ) ! suprasp9atus4 ,int]nally1 ) ! ribs4 ,action4--,aids 9 keep+ ! hum]us 9 its socket4 ,assi/s 9 clos+ ! w+ by draw+ ! hum]us to ! side ( ! body4 ,int]co/ales 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,betwe5 ! ribs ( ! upp] ?oracic region4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,f ! ant]ior bord] ( "o rib1 ! fib]s1 pass+ obliquely upw>d & =w>d1 & ! l[] portion d[nw>d & =w>d1 are ins]t$ to ! po/]ior bord] ( ! rib j 9 front4 ,%ape4--,!y are be/ develop$ 9 ! ant]ior portion ( ! ?oracic region & ext5d d[n z f> z ! /]nal ribs4 ,relations4--,int]nally ! pleura1 & ant]iorly & po/]iorly ! ribs4 ,action4--,! fir/ rib be+ r5d]$ fix$ by ! scal5us m$ius1 ! muscles draw ! ribs =w>d1 ?us aid+ inspiration4 ,levatores ,co/>um 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al portion ( ! ?orax4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,a s]ies ( muscles1 ! fir/ ( :i* ext5ds f ! extremity ( ! transv]se process ( ! twelf? v]tebra1 ! fib]s pass+ d[nw>d & backw>d to ! ant]ior free m>g9 ( ! upp] ?ird ( ! long po/]ior rib1 & to ! ext]nal surface close to its m>g94 ,! o!rs arise & ins]t 9 a simil> mann] f ! ends ( ! diapophyses ( all ! dorsal v]tebr & atta* to ea* succe$+ rib4 ,^? 9 front are be/ develop$4 ,%ape4--,?9 & triangul>4 ,relations4--,ext]nal to ! int]co/ales4 ,action4--,aids 9 respiration4 ,app5dico-co/ales 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #a74 ,location4--,! lat]al side ( ! ?orax4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,f ! po/]ior edge ( an unc9ate process or ep9eural app5dage1 ! fib]s ext5d+ d[nw>d & backw>d to ! out] surface ( ! succe$+ rib4 ,%ape4--,a s]ies ( ?9 triangul>-%ap$ muscles4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! int]co/ales4 ,action4--,aids 9 respiration4 ,,! ,,ant]ior ,,pectoral ,,gr\p ,t5sor patagii longus ,t5sor patagii brevis ,t5sor ,patagii ,longus 7,fig4 #ae;,c1 ,no4 #a2 ,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,ant]ior %\ld] region1 9 ! triangul> patagium ( ! w+4 ,orig94--,by a flat t5don common to x & ! t5sor patagii brevis f ! sup]o-mesial l9e ( ! head ( ! clavicle4 ,ins]tion4--,by a long sl5d] t5don ext5d+ 9 ! duplicature ( ! patagium1 ) :i* ! fib]s bl5d4 ,pass+ to ! side ( ! ext5sor metac>pi radialis longus1 x ext5ds ov] ! end ( ! radius & is ins]t$ to ! os c>pi radiale1 & to ! fascia :i* b9ds d[n ! o!r t5dons on ! ant]ior "p ( ! wri/-jo9t4 ,%ape4--,cone-%ap$ belly t]m9at+ 9 a long t5don4 ,relations4--,ext]nally1 ) ! sk92 by its t5don1 ) ! bord] ( ! ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior4 ,action4--,t5ses ! s(t "p 9 ! fold ( ! w+1 & aids 9 flex+ ! =e>m4 ,t5sor ,patagii ,brevis 7,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,9 ! triangul> patagium ( ! w+4 ,orig94--,f ! head ( ! clavicle 9 common ) ! prec$+4 ,ins]tion4--,! t5don bifurcates1 "o bran* bl5d+ ) ! fascia ( ! ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior1 ! o!r ins]t+ j bel[ ! tub]cle on ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,%ape4--,fle%y2 some:at broad] & long] ?an ! prec$+4 ,relations4--,int]iorly1 ) ! prec$+4 ,action4--,assi/s ! t5sor patagii longus 9 flex+ ! =e>m4 ,,! ,,pectoral ,,muscles ,pectoralis major ,pectoralis secundus ,pectoralis t]tius ,pectoralis ,major 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,on ! lat]al side ( ! /]num4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]ior portion ( ! lat]al w+ ( ! /]nal body1 f ! out] m>g9al ?ird ( ! keel ( ! /]num1 & f ! entire out] side ( ! limb ( ! furcula or clavicle4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s conv]g+ =m t[>d ! proximal ?ird ( ! hum]us a broad t5don :i* by its ins]tion cov]s ! entire palm> "p ( ! pectoral cre/4 ,a few ( ! t5d9\s fib]s pass ov] ! %\ld]-jo9t & bl5d ) ! long head ( ! biceps4 ,ne> ?is po9t x receives ! ins]tion ( ! d]mo-hum]alis4 ,relations4--,int]iorly1 ) ! sk92 sup]iorly1 9 ! /]nal region1 ) ! pectoralis secundus & ! pectoralis t]tius4 ,%ape4--,fle%y2 l>ge/ ( ! pectorales4 ,action4--,p[]fully depresses ! hum]us4 ,! *ief muscle ( flight4 ,pectoralis ,secundus 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #i2 ,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 ,a1 #f74 ,location4--,! entire lat]al side ( ! /]num4 ,orig94--,f ! ant]ior /]nal extremity ( ! l[] ?ird ( ! coracoid1 f ! keel & /]nal w+1 & by a t5don f a membrane\s expansion betwe5 ! coracoid & ! clavicul> bones & f ! l[] ?ird ( ! coracoid4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s conv]ge into a t5don1 :i* passes upw>d ar\nd ! coracoid to its po/]ior ?r\gh a canal =m$ by ! scapula1 ! coracoid1 & ! clavicle1 ! =am5 triosseum 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 ,a1 #g74 ,?is t5don !n passes outw>d & d[nw>d1 & becom+ flat1 ins]ts to ! hum]us j ant]ior to ! radial cre/ & ne>] to ! hum]al head ?an does ! pectoralis major4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! brea/-bone2 ext]nally1 ) ! pectoralis major2 & sup]iorly1 ) ! pectoralis t]tius4 ,%ape4--,long1 fusi=m1 fle%y4 ,action4--,raises ! w+4 ,pectoralis ,t]tius 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #f2 ,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 ,a1 #e74 ,location4--,on ! ant]o-lat]al side ( ! /]num4 ,orig94--,f ! ant]ior half ( ! ext]ior ( ! body ( ! /]num1 f ! fascia ( ! subclavius on ! out] bord] ( ! co/al process1 & f ! out]1 l[] ?ird ( ! coracoid process4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass upw>d to ! out] side ( ! coracoid1 & becom+ t5d9\s z !y rea* ! hum]us1 by a /rong flatt5$ t5don ins]t to ! uln> cre/ ( ! hum]us on ! proximal m>g9 at ab\t a middle po9t ( ! pneumatic fossa4 ,relations4--,ext]nally1 ) ! pectoralis major2 int]iorly1 ) ! pectoralis secundus2 int]nally1 ) ! fascia ( ! subclavius & ! /]num4 ,%ape4--,fle%y1 fusi=m4 ,action4--,assi/s ! pectoralis secundus 9 elevat+ ! hum]us4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,scapul> ,,region ,coraco-hum]alis ,scapulo-hum]alis ,suprasp9atus ,subclavius ,coraco-bra*ialis ,t]es m9or ,levator scapul ,?oraco-scapul>is ,subscapul>is ,coraco-hum]alis4 ,location4--,! scapulo-hum]al region4 ,orig94--,f ! out] side ( ! head ( ! coracoid1 sup]o-lat]ally to ! long head ( ! biceps4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! palm> "p ( ! head ( ! hum]us j inside ( ! ins]tion ( ! pectoralis major4 ,%ape4--,a delicate subcyl9drical muscle4 ,relations4--,sup]ior to ! head ( ! hum]us4 ,action4--,aids 9 ext5d+ ! hum]us4 ,scapulo-hum]alis 7,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #aj74 ,location4--,! scapulo-hum]al region4 ,orig94--,f ! inn] side ( ! neck ( ! scapula j )9 ! head ( ! deltoid4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ ov] ! top ( ! %\ld]-jo9t x is ins]t$ to ! palm> "p ( ! hum]al head betwe5 ! ins]tion ( ! pectoralis major & ! pectoralis secundus4 ,%ape4--,n>r[1 flat ribbon4 ,relations4--,along ! upp] m>g9 ( ! l>g] portion ( ! deltoid4 ,action4--,aids 9 ext5d+ ! hum]us4 ,suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #bb74 ,location4--,scapul> region4 ,orig94--,f ! sup]ior surface & out] ?ird ( ! scapula4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! l[] bord] ( ! pneumatic fossa ( ! hum]us4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat1 triangul>4 ,relations4--,ext]nally1 ) ! trapezius & po/]iorly1 ) ! t]es et infrasp9atus4 ,action4--,if ! scapula is ! fix$ po9t x w pull ! hum]us upw>d & backw>d4 ,subclavius4 ,location4--,ant]ior /]nal region4 ,orig94--,f ! entire out] surface ( ! /]nal process ( ! /]num & ! adjac5t out] surfaces ( ?ree or f\r ( ! hemapophyses4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! inf]ior m>g9 ( ! coracoid bone1 ! long] fib]s pass+ ov] to ! fossa 9 ! l[] ?ird ( ! po/]ior "p ( ! coracoid4 ,%ape4--,r small1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,ov]lapp$ by ! pectoralis t]tius4 ,action4--,pulls ! coracoid outw>d4 ,also aids 9 keep+ ! coracoid 9 place4 ,coraco-bra*ialis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ae74 ,location4--,along ! coracoid %aft4 ,orig94--,by a delicate t5don f a small circul> po9t on ! po/]o-mesial "p ( ! %aft ( ! coracoid imm$iately above ! atta*m5t ( ! subclavius & ! fossa at t po9t4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! top ( ! uln> tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,?is subcircul> space is common to ! t]es m9or & to ?is muscle4 ,%ape4--,long1 fusi=m4 ,relations4--,) ! %aft ( ! coracoid betwe5 ! t]es m9or & subscapul>is4 ,action4--,to depress ! w+4 ,t]es ,m9or 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ad74 ,location4--,! coraco-scapul> region4 ,orig94--,f "u ! side ( ! ant]ior tip ( ! scapula4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ outw>d beh9d ! coracoid head & b5ea? ! neck ( ! scapula1 x is atta*$ by a small t5don to ! top ( ! uln> tub]osity ( ! hum]us 9 common ) ! coraco-bra*ialis1 ) :i* t5don x fuses4 ,%ape4--,small1 *unky4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly1 ) ! tip ( ! scapula & beh9d ! coracoid head4 ,po/]iorly1 ) ! coraco-bra*ialis4 ,action4--,aids 9 ! d[nw>d /roke ( ! w+4 ,levator ,scapul4 ,location4--,scapul> region4 ,orig94--,by two /rong digitations1 "o f ea* ( ! lat]al processes ( ! fir/ c]vical v]tebra4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! middle ?ird ( ! inf]ior "p ( ! blade ( ! scapula4 ,%ape4--,small & flat4 ,relations4--,inf]ior to ! scapula4 ,action4--,pulls ! scapula =w>d1 & ) x ! entire %\ld] girdle1 :i* articulates l a h+e-jo9t at ! co/o-/]nal juncture4 ,?oraco-scapul>is4 ,location4--,lat]al side ( ! *e/4 ,orig94--,f ! out] "p ( ! l[] half ( ! fir/ free rib1 ! out] side ( ! next succe$+ rib & its ep9eural app5dage1 & f a simil> surface on ! next rib4 ,ins]tion4--,by a broad1 flat t5don :i* passes betwe5 ! two divisions ( ! subscapul>is & ins]ts at a po9t at ! juncture ( ! ant]ior & middle ?ird ( ! out] m>g9 ( ! scapula4 ,%ape4--,broad1 flat4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! ribs & ! scapula4 ,action4--,:5 ! scapula is fix$ x is a muscle ( inspiration4 ,:5 ! ribs are fix$1 x draws ! scapula d[nw>d4 ,subscapul>is4 ,location4--,scapulo-hum]al region4 ,orig94--,f ! ant]ior & out] half ( ! scapula4 ,ins]tion4--,by a /rong & subcyl9drical t5don to ! top ( ! uln> tub]osity ( ! hum]us close to ! comb9$ t5dons ( ! coraco-bra*ialis & t]es m9or4 ,%ape4--,a l>ge & p[]ful muscle4 ,relations4--,! flat t5don ( ! ?oraco-scapul>is divides ! po/]ior portion ( ! belly into two portions4 ,action4--,a p[]ful rot>y muscle ( ! head ( ! hum]us2 aids 9 keep+ ! hum]al head 9 ! gl5oid cavity4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,bra*ial ,,region ,biceps ,triceps ,deltoid ,bra*ialis anticus ,biceps 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #h74 7,synonym4--,biceps bra*ii47 ,location4--,! ant]ior bra*ial region4 ,orig94--,by a broad t5don x cov]s ! top ( ! %\ld]-jo9t1 divid+ into two heads1 giv+ rise to ! long & ! %ort heads4 ,! long is ins]t$ into ! out] "p ( ! head ( ! coracoid j beyond ! gl5oid cavity2 ! %ort head to ! di/al angle ( ! uln> tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! ulna j 9 front ( ! articul> cavity = ! tro*le> surface ( ! di/al extremity ( ! hum]us4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 subfusi=m4 ,relations4--,on "o side by ! triceps & ! o!r ! deltoid & ant]iorly p>tially cov]$ by ! patagii muscles4 ,action4--,a p[]ful flexor ( ! =e>m4 ,deltoid 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ab2 ,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #h74 ,location4--,occupy+ ! lat]al side ( ! hum]us2 ! bra*ial region4 ,orig94--,divid$ into two portions1 ! long n>r[ head ext5ds f ! clavicul> process ( ! scapula & f ! adjac5t surface ( ! same bone4 ,^! fib]s !n ext5d ar\nd ! back ( ! %\ld]-jo9t1 & are jo9$ by ! fib]s t arise f ! entire out] surface ( ! l>ge os hum]o-scapul>e4 ,^! latt] fib]s are ins]t$ ^u an ext5sive area ^u ! anconal "p ( ! bone beyond ! hum]al articul> head1 & to almo/ ! entire %aft bel[ x4 ,ins]tion4--,by a subcyl9drical t5don to ! proximal side ( ! tub]cle ( ! ext]nal condyle1 & above ! ins]tion ( ! ext5sor metac>pi radialis longus4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 fle%y1 ) t5d9\s atta*m5t4 ,relations4--,on "o side by ! biceps & ! o!r by ! triceps also ! patagii4 ,action4--,to ext5d ! arm4 ,triceps 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #g74 7,synonym4--,triceps bra*ii47 ,location4--,! po/]ior hum]al region4 ,orig94--,by ?ree portions3 by ! int]nal & ext]nal heads1 & by ! long scapul> head4 ,! int]nal & ! ext]nal heads are bl5d$ except at _! proximal extremities4 ,ea* head arises f ! anconal surface ( ! %aft ( ! hum]us4 ,! int]nal head be+ locat$ t[>d ! deltoid atta*m5t & ! ext]nal head into ! pneumatic fossa4 ,! long head ext5ds f a circumscrib$ area j po/]ior to ! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula4 ,! fib]s pass ar\nd ! %\ld]-jo9t1 b5ea? ! deltoid4 ,ins]tion4--,! broad t5don passes ov] ! elb[-jo9t & is ins]t$ to ! entire "u surface ( ! olecranon ( ! ulna4 ,%ape4--,long1 l>ge1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,! suprasp9atus passes betwe5 ! int]nal & ! ext]nal heads4 ,x is b\nd$ by ! biceps & ! deltoid4 ,action4--,an ext5sor ( ! antibra*ial region directly antagoniz+ ! biceps4 ,bra*ialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #i2 ,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,9 ! flexure ( ! hum]us & ! ulna4 ,orig94--,x arises fle%y f a circumscrib$ area on ! inn] side ( ! anconal "p ( ! di/al extremity ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass+ directly ov] ! elb[-jo9t become ins]t$ to ! lat]al surface ( ! proximal end ( ! ulna close to ! m>g9 ( ! sigmoid cavity4 ,%ape4--,small1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,) ! jo9t4 ,action4--,assi/s 9 flex+ ! =e>m ^u ! arm4 ,protects ! /ructures 9 ! ant]ior "p ( ! elb[-jo9t4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m ,,& ,,! ,,h& ,ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior ,sup9ator brevis ,ext5sor digitorum communis ,pronator brevis ,flexor metac>pi radialis ,ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis ,pronator longus ,ext5sor indicis longus ,flexor digitorum sublimis ,flexor digitorum pr(undus ,flexor c>pi uln>is ,flexor c>pi uln>is brevior ,ext5sor ,metac>pi ,radialis ,longior 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ag74 ,location4--,sup]ior to ! radius4 ,orig94--,by two /rong t5d9\s heads2 ! out] f ! tub]cle ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us1 j above ! orig9 ( ! t5don ( ! t5sor patagii brevis2 ! inn] & /rong] portion f ! tub]cle f\nd above ! oblique tro*le> facet ( ! di/al end ( ! radius4 ,ins]tion4--,becom+ a flat1 broad1 & /rong t5don at ab\t ! middle ( ! =e>m1 f9ally becomes ins]t$ to ! apex ( ! an*ylos$ fir/ metac>pal ( ! c>po-metac>pus4 ,%ape4--,a ?ick1 fusi=m belly1 t5d9\s at bo? extremities4 ,relations4--,by ! side ( ! pronator brevis4 ,action4--,raises ! h&1 & draws x =w>d t[>d ! radial m>g9 ( ! =e>m & reta9s x on ! same side4 ,ext5sor ,digitorum ,communis 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,! upp] metac>pal region4 ,orig94--,imm$iately bel[ ! tub]cle ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,by a small t5don to ! out] side ( ! base ( ! pollex1 & at a mid-po9t ^u ! ant]ior rim ( ! proximal phalanx ( ! middle f+]4 ,%ape4--,small sp9dle-%ap$1 becom+ t5d9\s at ab\t ! middle ( ! =e>m4 ,relations4--,occupies ! middle ( ! gr\p ( muscles on ! out] side ( ! =e>m4 ,action4--,an ext5sor ( ! digit4 ,sup9ator ,brevis 7,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #g74 ,location4--,! sup]ior "p ( ! radius4 ,orig94--,f ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us bel[ ! orig9 ( ! t5don ( ! ext5sor digitorum communis4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! out] side ( ! %aft ( ! radius1 = ne>ly "o-?ird ( its l5g?4 ,%ape4--,?91 sl5d]4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ) ! bone4 ,action4--,a sup9ator ( ! radial region1 & antagoni/ic to ! pronators4 ,flexor ,metac>pi ,radialis 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #aj74 ,location4--,! l[e/ ( ! gr\p ( ?ree muscles on ! out] "p ( ! =e>m4 ,orig94--,by two t5d9\s heads1 ! long] f ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us1 & ! o!r j beyond ! base ( ! olecranon4 ,ins]tion4--,becomes t5d9\s at ab\t ! middle ( ! %aft ( ! ulna & ins]ts to a prom95t process on ! proximal ?ird ( ! po/]ior "p ( ! %aft ( ! mid-metac>pal4 ,%ape4--,fusi=m4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ! anconeus & sup]iorly1 ! ext5sor digitorum communis4 ,action4--,a p[]ful flexor ( ! h&4 ,pronator ,brevis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ah74 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al side ( ! =e>m4 ,orig94--,f j above ! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,! t5don pass+ obliquely across ! int]osse\s space & is ins]t$ to ! uln> side ( ! %aft ( ! radius1 j beyond ! juncture ( ! proximal & ! middle ?irds4 ,%ape4--,fusi=m4 ,relations4--,sup]ior to ! pronator longus4 ,action4--,pronates ! =e>m1 & flexes ! =e>m ^u ! arm4 ,pronator ,longus 7,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #f74 ,location4--,lat]al side ( ! radio-uln> region4 ,orig94--,f ! middle ( ! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! %aft ( ! radius j b5ea? ! pronator brevis4 ,%ape4--,massive1 ellipsoidal4 ,relations4--,betwe5 ! pronator brevis & flexor digitorum pr(undus4 ,action4--,a pronator4 ,ext5sor ,ossis ,metac>pi ,pollicis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #bc74 ,location4--,slightly int]pos$ betwe5 ! ulna & radius4 ,orig94--,imm$iately 9 front ( ! great] sigmoid cavity ( ! ulna4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! palm> side ( ! base ( ! fir/ metac>pal1 9 common ) ! ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior4 ,%ape4--,delicate1 /raight4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ! ext5sor indicis longus1 & inf]iorly1 ! anconeus & ! flexor digitorum pr(undus4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! h& ^u ! =e>m4 ,anconeus 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,betwe5 ! ulna & ! radius4 ,orig94--,by a %ort1 /rong1 subcyl9drical t5don f ! l[] po/]ior ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! lat]o-radial side ( ! ulna some:at beyond its middle4 ,%ape4--,fusi=m4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ! ext5sor indicis longus1 & inf]iorly1 ! ulna4 ,action4--,a flexor ( ! =e>m4 ,ext5sor ,indicis ,longus 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #bb2 ,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #ac74 ,location4--,inf]o-lat]al to ! radius4 ,orig94--,f ab\t "o-half ! surface ( ! proximal portion ( ! radius4 ,ins]tion4--,possesses a long t5don :i* pass+ ov] a groove at ! di/al end ( ! ulna & receiv+ muscul> fib]s at ! base ( ! metac>pus1 ext5ds d[n ! ant]ior "p ( ! h& & is inclos$ 9 a %ea? 9 front ( ! sup]ior "p ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! index-f+]4 ,?is t5don is ins]t$ into ! ant]ior upp] rim ( ! di/al phalanx4 ,%ape4--,small1 ?94 ,relations4--,sup]o-lat]ally ) ! radius4 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! digit4 ,flexor ,digitorum ,sublimis4 ,location4--,! =e>m4 ,orig94--,f ! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ ov] ! wri/1 x is ins]t$ to ! middle phalanx ( ! h&4 ,%ape4--,a musculo-t5d9\s b&1 r delicate & rudim5t>y4 ,relations4--,closely adh]+ to ! integum5t t /ret*es f ! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us to ! wri/4 ,action4--,assi/s ^! muscles4 ,a flexor4 ,flexor ,digitorum ,pr(undus 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ba74 ,location4--,lat]al side ( ! ulna4 ,orig94--,by two heads f ! proximal extremity ( ! ulna1 betwe5 :i* ! bra*ialis anticus passes4 ,ins]tion4--,! two bellies unit+ are atta*$ to ! "u side ( ! %aft ( ! ulna4 ,x becomes t5d9\s ab\t ! middle ( ! %aft1 & ins]ts to ! uln> side ( ! base ( ! di/al jo9t ( ! index-f+]4 ,%ape4--,a fle%y belly ) long t5don4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ) ! flexor c>pi uln>is1 sup]iorly1 ) ! pronator brevis4 ,action4--,a flexor ( ! digit4 ,flexor ,c>pi ,uln>is 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ai74 ,location4--,inf]ior "p ( ! =e>m4 ,orig94--,by two /rong t5dons2 "o f ! side & po/]ior ( ! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us1 pass+ ?r\gh ! hum]o-uln> pulley at ! side ( ! base ( ! olecranon process2 ! o!r1 to ! po/]ior ( ! int]nal condyle ( ! hum]us4 ,x does n pass ?r\gh a pulley4 ,ins]tion4--,a subcyl9drical t5don ext5ds back ( ! uln>e ossicle ( ! c>pus giv+ (f a t5d9\s slip to ! flexor digitorum pr(undus1 & becomes ins]t$ to ! ant]ior rim ( ! proximal phalanx ( ! index digit4 ,x has an atta*m5t at ! c>pus4 ,%ape4--,a /rong fle%y belly t]m9at+ 9 a long t5don4 ,relations4--,! out]mo/ inf]ior muscle ( ! =e>m4 ,action4--,a p[]ful flexor ( ! h& ^u ! =e>m4 ,flexor ,c>pi ,uln>is ,brevior 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #bj74 ,location4--,inf]ior "p ( ! antibra*ial region4 ,orig94--,f a broad area on ! middle ?ird ( ! upp] side ( ! %aft ( ! ulna4 ,ins]tion4--,ne> ! top ( ! out] edge ( ! an*ylos$ os magnum ( ! c>po-metac>pus4 ,%ape4--,?91 some:at flat4 ,relations4--,to ! inside ( ! flexor digitorum pr(undus4 ,action4--,flexes ! h& ^u ! =e>m & rotates ! h& t[>d ! body4 ,,o!r ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,digits ,ext5sor proprius pollicis ,flexor m9imi digiti ,abductor m9imi digiti ,int]osse\s palm>is ,flexor brevis pollicis ,flexor m9imi digiti brevis ,int]osse\s dorsalis ,flexor metac>pi brevis ,ext5sor ,proprius ,pollicis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #bi;a74 ,location4--,ant]ior to ! radio-c>pal jo9t4 ,orig94--,f ! uln> side ( ! t5don ( ! ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! ant]o-uln> side ( ! pollex4 ,%ape4--,small1 sp9dle-%ap$2 t5d9\s at bo? atta*m5ts4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ) ! proximal & ant]ior "p ( ! metac>pus4 ,action4--,an ext5sor ( ! pollex4 ,flexor ,brevis ,pollicis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #bh;a74 ,location4--,ant]ior to ! pollex4 ,orig94--,f ! %aft ( ! mid-metac>pal bone1 j bel[ ! pollex4 ,ins]tion4--,di/al apex ( ! pollex4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 small1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! inf]ior "p ( ! pollex4 ,action4--,flexes ! pollex4 ,flexor ,m9imi ,digiti4 ,location4--,inf]ior side ( ! metac>pus4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]ior "p ( ! m$ian metac>pal close to ! os c>pi uln>e4 ,a few fib]s ext5d to ! ulna4 ,ins]tion4--,into ! base ( ! m$ian phalanx4 ,%ape4--,small1 sl5d]1 %ort4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! metac>pal bone4 ,action4--,a flexor ( ! digit4 ,flexor ,m9imi ,digiti ,brevis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #cj74 ,location4--,inf]ior to ! ?ird1 or small f+]4 ,orig94--,f ! l[] & po/]ior end ( ! m$ian metac>pal & f ! adjac5t t5don ( ! prec$+4 ,ins]tion4--,ins]t$ to ! apex ( ! small f+]4 ,%ape4--,small & r rudim5t>y4 ,relations4--,inf]ior to ! small f+]4 ,action4--,acts z a po/]ior ligam5t ( ?is jo9t4 ,abductor ,m9imi ,digiti4 ,location4--,sup]o-lat]al side ( ! small f+]4 ,orig94--,f ! proximal extremity ( ! ant]ior aspect ( ! ?ird f+]4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! po/]ior bord] ( ! proximal phalanx ( ! second1 or index-f+] at a po9t j above ! tip ( ! ?ird f+]4 ,%ape4--,a few muscul> fib]s ) "s t5d9\s mat]ial4 ,relations4--,at ! base ( ! m$ian segm5t ( ! index-f+] & to ! side ( ! ?ird4 ,action4--,antagonizes ! p[]ful flexors on ! back ( ! jo9t4 ,int]osseus ,dorsalis 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #ca74 ,location4--,by ! side ( ! metac>pus4 ,orig94--,f ! m>g9 ( ! %aft ( ! m$ian metac>pal4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! ant]ior "p ( ! base ( ! di/al phalanx ( ! index digit4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 delicate1 ) long t5don4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ! metac>pal bone4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! la/ bone ( ! middle f+]4 ,int]osseus ,palm>is 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #cb74 ,location4--,on ! opposite side ( ! bone f ! int]osse\s dorsalis4 ,orig94--,f ! %aft ( ! m$ian metac>pal "u ! prec$+4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! apex ( ! la/ jo9t ( ! second1 or middle f+]4 ,%ape4--,small1 delicate1 ) long sl5d] t5don4 ,relations4--,b5ea? ! prec$+ & along ! metac>pal bone4 ,action4--,flexes ! t]m9al phalanx4 ,flexor ,metac>pi ,brevis4 ,location4--,to ! lat]al side ( ! metac>pal bone4 ,orig94--,f ! out] side ( ! di/al extremity ( ! ulna4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! base1 9 front1 & on ! uln> side ( ! proximal phalanx ( ! index digit4 ,%ape4--,delicate1 ) long sl5d] t5don4 ,relations4--,on ! lat]al side ( ! ulna & ! metac>pal bone4 ,action4--,flexes ! metac>pus4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,limb ,s>torius ,gluteus m$ius ,ext5sor femoris ,biceps flexor cruris ,semit5d9osus accessorius ,femoro-caudal ,obturator int]nus ,abductor longus ,gluteus primus ,gluteus m9imus ,va/us int]nus ,semit5d9osus ,semimembranosus ,obturator ext]nus ,gemellus ,adductor magnus ,s>torius 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #g74 ,location4--,extreme ant]ior portion ( ! ?igh4 ,orig94--,f ! out] two-?irds ( ! sup]ior surface ( ! rais$ em>g9ations ( ! ant]ior bord] ( ! ilium1 & by fascia f ! neural sp9es ( ! f\r? dorsal v]tebra4 ,ins]tion4--,obliquely by a semit5d9\s fascia to ! inn] edge ( ! ligam5tum patella1 & to ! inn] & adjac5t bord] ( ! ant]ior half ( ! summit ( ! tibia4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly1 ) ! gluteus primus & ! va/i4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! leg1 flexes & adducts ! ?igh4 ,gluteus ,primus 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #h & #i74 ,location4--,! out] flat massive muscle ( ! ?igh4 ,orig94--,by a ?9 fascia f ne>ly ! entire l5g? ( ! sup]o-int]nal m>g9 ( ! pre-acetabul> portion ( ! ilium1 above ! antitro*ant]1 & f ! entire l5g? ( ! po/-acetabul> ridge4 ,ins]tion4--,ne> ! patella x jo9s ! t5don ( ! ext5sor femoris1 & by aponeurosis spreads ov] ! knee & is ins]t$ to ! cre/ ( ! upp] bord] ( ! tibia1 ! patella be+ incorporat$ 9 its aponeurotic ligam5t4 ,%ape4--,triangul> 9 %ape1 x is aponeurotic ant]iorly & m fle%y po/]iorly4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly1 cov]s ov] ! po/]ior portion ( ! s>torius & ! body ( ! gluteus m$ius2 po/]iorly1 bord]$ by ! semit5d9osus & ! biceps4 ,action4--,abducts ! ?igh4 ,gluteus ,m$ius 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #aa74 ,location4--,sup]o-ant]ior "p ( ! ilium "u ! gluteus primus4 ,orig94--,f ! entire sup]o-int]nal m>g9 ( ! pre-acetabul> surface ( ! ilium & ! concave surface on ! adjac5t bone4 ,ins]tion4--,by a /rong t5don :i* passes ov] a bursa on ! ant]ior rim ( ! tro*ant] & is ins]t$ obliquely to ?is tro*ant]4 ,%ape4--,a fle%y muscle fill+ ! concavity ( ! pre-acetabul> division ( ! ilium4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! gluteus primus2 inf]iorly1 ) ! gluteus m9imus4 ,action4--,abducts & pulls ! femur =w>d4 ,gluteus ,m9imus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ab74 7,synonym4--,gluteus pr(undus47 ,location4--,b5ea? ! m$ius & ! small] ( ! two4 ,orig94--,to ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! out] bord] ( ! ilium1 & f ! sup]o-ext]nal surface ( ! la/ rib4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s ext5d+ d[nw>d & backw>d & outw>d become t5d9\s & are ins]t$ bel[ ! tro*ant] ( ! out] "p ( ! upp] ?ird ( ! femur4 ,%ape4--,small1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ) ! bone & sup]iorly1 ) ! gluteus m$ius4 ,action4--,abducts & pulls ! ?igh =w>d4 ,ext5sor ,femoris 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ae74 ,location4--,ant]ior femoral region4 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts3 ! va/us ext]nus & ! crureus4 ,orig94--,! va/us extemus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ad7 arises t5d9\s f ! base ( ! tro*ant] ( ! out] "p ( ! femur & f ?is po9t d[n ! bone approximately to ! condyle4 ,! crureus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ac7 orig9ates by a t5don f ! ant]ior upp] prom95t rim ( ! tro*ant]1 f ?is po9t ext5d+ d[n ! ant]o-ext]nal "p ( ! %aft ( ! femur4 ,ins]tion4--,m]ges ) ! gluteus primus1 &1 by a fascia-l arrangem5t1 spreads ov] ! front ( ! knee-jo9t ins]ts to ! patella & is also ins]t$ into ! cre/ ( ! tibia4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly1 ) ! femur & ant]iorly1 ) ! s>torius4 ,action4--,ext5ds /rongly ! leg ^u ! ?igh4 ,va/us ,int]nus 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,int]nal & lat]al side ( ! femur4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]o-int]nal "p ( ! %aft ( ! femur j bel[ ! head1 & 9 a /raight l9e ext5d+ d[n ! femur4 ,ins]tion4--,by a broad t5don along ! ?ick5$ inn] bord] ( ! summit ( ! tibia4 ,%ape4--,?ick1 long4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly1 ) ! bone2 surr\nd$ by ! o!r crural muscles4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! leg ^u ! knee2 a p[]ful assi/ant ( ! ext5sor femoris4 ,biceps ,flexor ,cruris 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 ,d1 #a74 ,location4--,po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,by a t5d9\s fascia f ! po/-acetabul> ridge1 ext5d+ betwe5 ! antitro*ant] & ! ant]ior po9t ( ! ins]tion ( ! semit5d9osus4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! tub]osity on ! ext]nal "p ( ! %aft ( ! fibula a %ort di/ance bel[ ! head4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 r cone-%ap$ ) base direct$ upw>d4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly1 ) ! va/us ext]nus2 po/]iorly1 ) ! semit5d9osus4 ,! inf]ior t5d9\s portion passes ?r\gh a t5d9\s sl+ or pulley call$ ! biceps b&4 ,action4--,flexes ! leg ^u ! ?igh4 ,semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #aj74 ,location4--,po/]ior femoral region4 ,orig94--,by a t\gh1 /rong fascia f ! surface ( ! caudal muscles & f ! po/]ior ?ird ( ! po/-acetabul> ridge4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass d[nw>d & =w>d1 & ins]t to ! t5d9\s raphe along ! po/]ior m>g9 ( ! semit5d9osus accessorius2 l[] d[n x m]ges ) ! m$ian fascia ( ! inn] head ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,%ape4--,fle%y1 broad1 flat & long4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! semimembranosus & ant]iorly1 ) ! biceps flexor cruris4 ,action4--,flexes ! leg4 ,semit5d9osus ,accessorius4 ,location4--,po/]ior femoral region4 ,orig94--,f an oblique l9e j above ! condyle1 on ! po/]ior ( ! %aft ( ! femur4 ,ins]tion4--,its fib]s1 pass+ upw>d & backw>d1 atta* !mselves to ! t5d9\s raphe common to ?is muscle & ! semit5d9osus1 & are f9ally ins]t$ to ! inn] side ( ! %aft ( ! tibia4 ,%ape4--,flat1 oblong4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly to ! %aft ( ! femur1 & ext]nally to ! long adductors ( ! ?igh4 ,action4--,aids ! prec$+ 9 flex+ ! leg4 ,semimembranosus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ag74 ,location4--,po/]o-int]nal to ! semit5d9osus4 ,orig94--,f ! out] surface ( ! is*ium1 beg9n+ at ! l[] m>g9 ( its not* on ! po/]ior pelvic bord]1 ext5ds on a curv$ l9e on ! adjac5t surface beyond4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s1 pass+ d[nw>d & =w>d1 ins]t by a broad1 ?9 t5don to ! %aft ( ! tibia a %ort di/ance bel[ ! head & on a l9e p>allel to ! long axis ( ! tibia4 ,%ape4--,long1 n>r[1 ribbon-%ap$4 ,relations4--,lies adjac5t to ! semit5d9osus & 9 ! same plane4 ,action4--,directly flexes ! leg4 ,femoro-caudal 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #h74 ,location4--,inf]o-lat]al to ! caudal & po/-femoral region4 ,orig94--,by a delicate t5don f ! base ( ! pygo/yle4 ,ins]tion4--,by a ?91 flat t5don ^u ! out] "p ( ! %aft ( ! femur bel[ ! tro*ant] & at ab\t ! juncture ( ! upp] & middle ?ird ( ! bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,second lay] ( muscles ( ! ?igh ( a cock4 ,outside view4 #a1 ,app5dico-co/ales4 #b1 ,levatores co/>um4 #c1 ,sacro-lumbalis4 #d1 ,longissimus dorsi4 #e1 ,int]co/ales4 #f1 ,longissimus dorsi4 #g1 ,latissimus dorsi4 #h1 ,femoro-caudal4 #i1 ,edge ( obturator ext]nus4 #aa1 ,gluteus m$ius4 #ab1 ,gluteus m9imus4 #ac1 ,crureus4 #ad1 ,va/us ext]nus4 #ae1 ,ext5sor femoris4 #af1 ,biceps flexor cruris4 #ag1 ,semimembranosus4 #ah1 ,adductor magnus4 #ai1 ,adductor longus4 #bj1 ,ext]nal abdom9al oblique4 #ba1 ,depressor coccygis4 #bb1 ,tibialis anticus4 #bc1 ,tibialis po/icus4 #bd1 ,flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus4 #be1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is4 #bf1 ,flexor longus hallucis4 ,%ape4--,long1 n>r[1 sp9dle-%ap$1 flatt5$ f side to side4 ,relations4--,int]iorly to ! obturator ext]nus1 & along ! upp] bord] ( ! long adductors ( ! ?igh & ! semimembranosus4 ,action4--,pulls ! tail d[n & to "o side4 ,obturator ,ext]nus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #i74 ,location4--,ext]nal po/]olat]al side ( ! pelvis4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]ior half ( ! p]iph]y ( ! is*iatic =am5 & ! concavity f\nd on ! ext]nal surface ( ! lat]al "p ( ! pelvis4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass across to ! femur & are ins]t$ by a broad1 flat t5don to ! %aft ( ! femur j bel[ ! tro*ant]4 ,%ape4--,?ick1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,lies j above ! femoro-caudal muscle1 ! sciatic n]ve & femoral art]y pass ov] & ext]nal to its t5don4 ,action4--,pulls ! head ( ! femur backw>d4 ,obturator ,int]nus 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 ,e1 #a74 ,location4--,occupies ! space betwe5 ! is*ium & ! pubis4 ,orig94--,f ! v5tral surface ( ! is*ium1 includ+ ! po/]ior bord]1 f ! inn] l9e ( ! correspond+ po/-pubis1 & f ! membrane cov]+ ! space betwe5 ^! two bones4 ,ins]tion4--,becom+ d5se1 subcyl9drical1 & /rong1 x passes ?r\gh ! obturator =am5 & is ins]t$ to ! out] "p ( ! tro*ant] ( ! femur1 9 common ) ! gemellus & opposite to ! ins]tion ( ! gluteus m$ius4 ,%ape4--,subtriangul> & flat ) a c5tral t5don2 bip5ni=m4 ,relations4--,outside ! pelvis ! t5don lies ^u ! gemellus & is ext]nal to x4 ,fills ! obturator =am5 & ! space betwe5 ! is*ium & ! pubis4 ,action4--,acts z a po/]ior /ay to ! head ( ! femur4 ,gemellus 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,po/]ior to ! head ( ! femur4 ,orig94--,f ! fossa betwe5 ! acetabulum & ! obturator =am51 & on ! out] side ( ! pelvis4 ,ins]tion4--,its fib]s are atta*$ by fascia to ! t5don ( ! obturator int]nus1 & pass directly to ! tro*ant] ( ! femur :]e !y ins]t 9 common ) t ( ! obturator int]nus4 ,%ape4--,/rong1 ?ick1 *unky4 ,relations4--,po/]o-ext]nal to ! head ( ! femur4 ,action4--,l ! two prec$+1 :5 ! head ( ! femur is fix$1 x pulls ! pelvis =w>d & /eadies x on ! head ( ! femur4 ,adductor ,longus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ai74 ,location4--,9 ! po/]ior femoral region4 ,orig94--,f a l9e on ! lat]al "p ( ! pelvis4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s1 pass+ d[nw>d & =w>d1 are ins]t$ on a longitud9al l9e along ! po/]ior "p ( ! %aft ( ! femur4 ,%ape4--,broad1 flat1 fle%y4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly to ! femur1 & ant]iorly to ! adductor magnus4 ,action4--,adducts ! ?igh4 ,adductor ,magnus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #ah74 ,location4--,po/]ior femoral region4 ,orig94--,f ! f9e con/itut+ ! l[] b\nd>y ( ! is*iatic fossa on ! out] lat]al "p ( ! pelvis4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s pass d[nw>d & are ins]t$ to ! sup]ior curve ( ! int]nal femoral condyle4 ,! int]nal head ( ! ga/rocnemius bl5ds ) ?is muscle j above its atta*m5t4 ,%ape4--,long1 n>r[4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly to ! adductor magnus & ant]iorly to ! semimembranosus4 ,action4--,/rongly adducts ! ?igh4 ,,! ,,tibial ,,gr\p ,ga/rocnemius ,p]oneus longus ,ext5sor longus digitorum ,tibialis po/icus ,flexor longus hallucis ,flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is ,flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus ,soleus ,tibialis anticus ,ext5sor hallucis brevis ,flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is ,flexor p]=atus m$ius primus p$is ,flexor p]=atus indicis primus p$is ,ext5sor brevis digitorum ,flexor hallucis brevis ,ext5sor annul>is brevis ,ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #aa74 ,location4--,po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,!re are ?ree heads3 ! int]nal1 ! ext]nal1 & ! tibial4 ,! ext]nal head ext5ds by a %ort1 flatt5$1 /rong t5don f ! po/]o-ext]nal "p ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! femur2 ! int]nal head ext5ds f ! out] surface ( ! inn] condyle ( ! femur2 & ! tibial head ext5ds f ! entire inn] rim ( ! tibial summit & f ! free edge ( ! adjac5t cre/4 ,ins]tion4--,at ! l[] f\r? ( ! tibial %aft1 t]m9ates 9 a broad1 flat t5don :i* passes ov] ! %all[1 longitud9al groove ( ! tibial c>tilage1 &1 cross+ ! tibio-t>sal jo9t1 is ins]t$ to ! po/]ior surface ( ! hypot>sus ( ! metat>sal bone1 & f9ally1 bel[ ?is po9t1 m]ges into ! podo!cal %ea? conf9+ ! flexor t5dons4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 fle%y1 some:at cone-%ap$ ) ! base upw>d4 ,relations4--,! po/]ior fle%y muscle ( ! po/-tibial region locat$ ant]ior to ! soleus4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! metat>sus on ! tibia4 ,soleus 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,g1 #a74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]ior "p ( ! head ( ! tibia4 ,ins]tion4--,by a long sl5d] t5don to ! proximal end & t[>d ! inn] angle ( ! tibial c>tilage1 "s ( ! fib]s pass+ to ! t5don ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,%ape4--,small1 flatt5$4 ,relations4--,ant]iorly1 ) ! flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus & po/]iorly1 ) ! ga/rocnemius4 ,action4--,simil> to t ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,p]oneus ,longus 7,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #ab74 ,location4--,ant]o-lat]al tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! rais$ cre/ 9 front ( ! head ( ! tibia1 & f ! fascia t cov]s ! out] side ( ! knee-jo9t4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s1 pass+ d[nw>d1 !n d[nw>d & outw>d1 t]m9ate 9 a small t5don at ! l[] ?ird ( ! tibia4 ,?is t5don bifurcates j above ! tibial condyles at ! out] "p ( ! limb1 ! %ort] & /rong] atta*es to ! fibr\s fascia cov]+ ! tibial c>tilage1 ! o!r m]g+ ) ! t5don ( ! flexor p]=atus m$ius primus p$is ab\t #a c5timet] bel[ ! hypot>sus ( ! t>so-metat>sus4 ,relations4--,cov]s ov] all ! muscles ( ! ant]ior tibial region4 ,%ape4--,a broad muscul> %eet4 ,action4--,assi/s ! flexor p]=atus m$ius primus p$is4 ,tibialis ,anticus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #bb74 ,location4--,9 ! ant]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,! muscul> belly may be easily divid$ into two p>ts4 ,! inn] head ext5ds f ! head ( ! tibia imm$iately b5ea? ! p]oneus longus4 ,! out] head arises by a /rong t5don f a depression on ! ant]o-inf]ior ridge ( ! out] condyle ( ! femur4 ,ins]tion4--,! t5don pass+ ?r\gh ! fibr\s ligam5t\s loop j above ! tibial condyles1 ins]ts to a tub]cle on ! %aft j bel[ ! head ( ! t>so-metat>sus4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 fusi=m4 ,relations4--,b5ea? ! p]oneus longus4 ,action4--,flexes ! metat>sus ^u ! tibia4 ,ext5sor ,longus ,digitorum 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,g1 #f74 ,location4--,ant]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! inf]ior portion ( ! cre/ & a portion ( ! %aft ( ! fibula4 ,ins]tion4--,x becomes t5d9\s at ! l[] ?ird ( ! bone1 pass+ "u ! bony ridge j above ! condyle 9 front1 & ov] ! ankle-jo9t4 ,x is b\nd d[n by firm fascia1 & at ! tro*lea ( ! basal toe jo9ts1 divides into ?ree small t5d9\s slips4 ,^! pass ov] ! sup]ior "p ( ! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? toes1 bifurcat+ 9 _! c\rse1 & are ins]t$ to ! di/al ones4 ,%ape4--,long1 p5ni=m1 ) a long1 sl5d] t5don4 ,relations4--,imm$iately bel[ ! tibialis anticus4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! digits z _! long ext5sor4 ,ext5sor ,hallucis ,brevis 7,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,g1 #d74 ,location4--,! ant]ior metat>sal region1 along ! ant]o-int]nal edge4 ,orig94--,f j bel[ ! summit ( ! ant]o-int]nal "p ( ! head ( ! t>so-metat>sus1 & f ! adjac5t %aft bel[1 & f ! t5don ( ! tibialis anticus4 ,ins]tion4--,into ! process at ! sup]ior "p ( ! bone ( ! bony claw ( ! hallux4 ,%ape4--,sl5d]1 ?9 9 diamet]1 ) a long1 sl5d] t5don4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! ant]o-int]nal edge ( ! metat>sus & int]iorly1 its t5don ) ! top ( ! hallux4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! hallux4 ,ext5sor ,brevis ,digitorum4 ,location4--,on ! ant]ior surface ( ! metat>sus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,inn] lay] ( muscles ( ! ?igh ( a h54 ,outside view4 ,a4 ,pad ( fibroc>tilage or m5iscus ( femoro-tibial articulation4 #a1 ,inn] semi-lun> fibroc>tilage4 #b1 ,ext]nal semi-lun> c>tilage4 #c1 ,ant]ior bord]4 ,b4 ,t>sal m5iscus or pad ( fibroc>tilage4 ,c4 ,articul> surface ( ! t>sal jo9t4 #a1 ,po/]ior ligam5tum cruciatum g5u4 #b1 ,femoral t5d9\s ins]tion ( tibialis anticus4 #c1 ,ligam5tum tibio-fibul>e4 #d1 ,ligam5tum int]osseum4 #e1 ,ligam5tum transv]sum ( ! m5iscus4 #f1 ,ant]ior ligam5tum cruciatum g5u4 ,d4 #a1 ,tibia4 #b1 ,fibula4 #c1 ,femur4 #d1 ,ext]nal ligam5tum lat]ale g5u4 ,e4 ,inf]ior surface ( ! tail ( a h54 #a1 ,infracoccygis4 #b1 ,lat]alis coccygis4 ,f4 ,outside pelvic view4 #a1 ,obturator ligam5t4 #b1 ,t5don ( ! obturator int]nus4 #c1 ,ligam5tum oblongum4 #d1 ,ligam5tum capsul>e4 #e1 ,gemellus4 ,g4 ,outside view ( leg ( a cock4 #a1 ,soleus4 #b1 ,flexor longus hallucis4 #c1 ,flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus4 #d1 ,ext5sor brevis hallucis4 #e1 ,ext5sor brevis annul>is4 #f1 ,ext5sor longus digitorum4 #g1 ,t5don ( ! tibialis po/icus4 ,h4 #a1 ,transv]salis abdom9alis4 #b1 ,cotyloid cavity4 ,orig94--,by a small fle%y belly to ! ant]ior "p ( ! proximal end ( ! metat>sus4 ,ins]tion4--,x becomes t5d9\s ab\t ! middle ?ird ( ! metat>sus4 ,ext5d+ d[n ! ant]ior face ( ! metat>sus x is ins]t$ to ! inn] tub]cle ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! out] or f\r? toe4 ,%ape4--,long1 sl5d]4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly ) ! metat>sus4 ,action4--,pulls ! f\r? toe upw>d & inw>d4 ,flexor ,hallucis ,brevis4 ,location4--,po/]o-int]nal side ( ! metat>sus4 ,orig94--,side & l[] m>g9 ( ! inn] aspect ( ! hypot>sus ( ! t>so-metat>sus & f ! %aft ( ?is bone imm$iately bel[ x4 ,ins]tion4--,w9ds r\nd inn] side ( basal jo9t ( ! hallux & is ins]t$ on its "u side4 ,%ape4--,small flat muscle gradually tap]+ into a t5don4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly ) ! metat>sus4 ,action4--,to flex ! hallux4 ,ext5sor ,annul>is ,brevis4 ,location4--,on po/]o-ext]nal side ( metat>sus4 ,orig94--,ext]nal aspect ( ! hypot>sus & ! %aft bel[4 ,ins]tion4--,sup]o-ext]nal "p ( ! basal phalanx ( ! f\r? toe4 ,%ape4--,small flat muscle4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly ) ! metat>sus4 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! f\r? toe4 ,tibialis ,po/icus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #bc74 ,location4--,9 ! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! :ole %aft ( ! fibula bel[ ! ins]tion ( ! biceps flexor cruris1 & f ! %aft ( ! tibia a %ort di/ance bel[ ?is ins]tion4 ,also f ! int]osse\s membrane1 & ! adjac5t surface ( ! tibial %aft4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ 9 front ( ! ext]nal malleolus1 cross+ ! ankle-jo9t1 f9ally ins]t$ into ! out] edge ( ! summit ( ! t>so-metat>sal bone4 ,%ape4--,long1 subcyl9drical4 ,relations4--,m$ially1 ) ! flexor p]=ans digitorum p$is2 sup]iorly1 ) ! po/]o-ext]nal portion ( ! tibia4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! metat>sus ^u ! tibia4 ,flexor ,p]=atus ,indicis ,secundus ,p$is 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #e74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! ext]nal surface ( ! out] condyle ( ! femur1 j bel[ ! head ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,ins]tion4--,pass+ 9 an oblique mann] along po/]ior to ! tibia1 ext5ds ?r\gh ! sup]ficial "p ( ! tibial c>tilage to ! out] side ( ! leg2 !n cross+ ! tibio-t>sal jo9t1 x passes ?r\gh a special canal ( ! hypot>sus1 d[n ! back ( ! t>so-metat>sus1 "u ! annul> ligam5t ( ! sole ( ! foot & a c>tilag9\s /ructure bel[ ?is ligam5t1 ov] ! tro*lea1 & is ins]t$ to ! middle %aft ( ! second phalanx ( ! second toe4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat1 broadly sp9dle-%ap$4 ,relations4--,po/]iorly1 ) ! flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is1 & ant]iorly1 ) ! flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is4 ,action4--,flexes ! toes4 ,flexor ,longus ,hallucis 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #g2 ,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,by two t5d9\s heads3 "o f ! po/]ior "p ( ! femur1 j bel[ ! two condyles2 ! o!r f ! out] "p ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! femur4 ,! deep flexor passes betwe5 ^! two heads4 ,ins]tion4--,becom+ t5d9\s at ! l[] ?ird ( ! leg1 passes b5ea? ! sup]ficial flexors 9 a special canal on ! out] side ( ! tibial c>tilage1 & ext5ds ?r\gh ! l>ge canal ( ! hypot>sus 7,fig4 #ab1 ,no4 ,f1 #e7 next to ! %aft1 !n d[n to ! apex ( ! accessory metac>pal bone4 ,x is ins]t$ to ! tub]cle on ! inf]ior proximal end ( ! ungual phalanx4 ,%ape4--,l>ge1 fusi=m4 ,relations4--,) ! ext]ior ( ! deep flexors4 ,action4--,flexes ! hallux z its long flexor4 ,flexor ,p]=atus ,annul>is ,primus ,p$is 7,fig4 #ag1 ,nos4 ,d1 #h & ,c1 #f74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! inn] side ( ! belly ( ! flexor longus hallucis4 ,ins]tion4--,becom+ t5d9\s at ! l[] ?ird ( ! tibia1 passes a little to ! out] side & ?r\gh ! tibial c>tilage1 !n ov] ! ankle-jo9t & ?r\gh ! hypot>sal canal 7,fig4 #ab1 ,no4 #e7 to ! "u side ( ! out] toe1 :]e x =ms a %ea? ?r\gh :i* ! deep flexors ext5d4 ,x gives (f on ei!r side a t5d9\s slip :i* atta*es to ! basal phalanx4 ,%ape4--,long1 sl5d]1 compress$ lat]ally4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is1 & ext]nally1 ) ! flexor longus hallucis4 ,action4--,flexes ! toes z _! long flexor4 ,a second flexor ( ! out] toe4 ,flexor ,p]=atus ,m$ius ,secundus ,p$is 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #i74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f a /rong fascia t m]ges ) ! knee-jo9t1 & by a t5don f ! ext]nal condyle ( ! femur 9 common ) ! t5don ( ! flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is4 ,ins]tion4--,cont9u$ z a flatt5$ t5don ext5d+ f ! l[] ?ird ( ! leg1 pass+ obliquely ?r\gh ! tibial c>tilage & !n ?r\gh ! int]no-po/]ior canal ( ! hypot>sus1 7,fig4 #ab1 ,no4 ,f1 #e7 ins]t$ to ! second jo9t ( ! middle toe4 ,%ape4--,long1 fusi=m4 ,relations4--,) ! %aft ( ! fibula1 :i* x cov]s4 ,action4--,flexes ! middle toe4 ,flexor ,p]=atus ,m$ius ,primus ,p$is 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #b74 ,location4--,po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! inn] side ( ! muscul> portion ( ! flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is4 ,ins]tion4--,t]m9at+ 9 a flatt5$ t5don1 passes ?r\gh ! tibial c>tilage & hypot>sus1 & !n ext5ds along ! %aft ( ! basal jo9t ( ! ?ird toe1 &1 divid+ into two slips1 ins]ts to ei!r side ( its %aft4 ,%ape4--,long1 r small4 ,relations4--,) ! flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is on ! inn] side4 ,action4--,flexes ! ?ird toe4 ,flexor ,p]=atus ,indicis ,primus ,p$is 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #d74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f a ?91 broad t5don1 on ! ext]nal condyle ( ! femur1 9 common ) ! flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is4 ,ins]tion4--,becom+ t5d9\s1 passes ?r\gh ! tibial c>tilage & ! hypot>sus ( ! metat>sus 7,fig4 #af1 ,a7 & ins]ts to ! sides ( ! basal jo9t ( ! second toe4 ,%ape4--,long1 sl5d]1 fusi=m2 some:at flatt5$ lat]ally4 ,relations4--,) ! flexor p]=atus m$ius secundis p$is1 po/]iorly4 ,action4--,a flexor ( ! toes4 ,flexor ,p]=ans ,digitorum ,pr(undus 7,fig4 #bd1 ,no4 #bd & ,fig4 #be1 ,no4 ,g1 #c74 ,location4--,! po/]ior tibial region4 ,orig94--,f ! po/]ior "p ( ! ext]nal condyle ( ! femur1 f ! po/]ior "p ( ! tibia j bel[ ! summit1 & f a po9t ne> ! orig9 ( ! soleus4 ,ins]tion4--,its heavy flatt5$ t5don passes ?r\gh ! tibial c>tilage1 ?is t5don divid+1 ! bran*es pass along ! "u side ( ! toes1 p]=at+ ! out] t5dons & become ins]t$ to ! proximal tub]cle at ! base ( ! "u side ( ! ungual phalanxes ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? toes4 ,%ape4--,long1 fle%y1 ) a long t5don4 ,relations4--,closely ) ! tibial bone2 ! deepe/ ( all ! flexors4 ,action4--,flexes ! digits4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,eye ,orbicul>is palpebr>um ,depressor palpebr inf]ioris ,pyramidalis nictitans ,obliquus inf]ior ,rectus inf]ior ,levator palpebr sup]ioris ,quadratus nictitans ,obliquus sup]ior ,rectus sup]ior ,rectus ext]nus ,rectus int]nus ,orbicul>is ,palpebr>um 7,fig4 #g1 ,no4 #cj74 7,synonym4--,orbicul>is oculi47 ,location4--,^u ! lacrimal & maxill>y bones4 ,orig94--,f ! lacrimal & maxill>y bones & ! cili>y m>g94 ,ins]tion4--,to ! l[] free edge ( ! t>sal c>tilage4 ,%ape4--,?91 delicate lay] ( fib]s4 ,relations4--,ext]nally1 ) ! sk92 int]nally1 ) ! lacrimal & ! maxill>y bones4 ,action4--,aids 9 clos+ ! eye4 ,levator ,palpebr ,sup]ioris 7,fig4 #g1 ,no4 #bd74 ,location4--,along ! sup]ior ro( ( ! orbit4 ,orig94--,along a longitud9al l9e f\nd ne> ! middle ( ! ro( ( ! orbit4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! cili>y m>g9 ( ! upp] lid1 ne> ! out] can?us4 ,%ape4--,?91 delicate lay]4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! bony wall1 & inf]iorly1 ) ! eyeball4 ,action4--,raises ! sup]ior eyelid4 ,depressor ,palpebr ,inf]ioris 7,fig4 #g1 ,no4 #bi74 7,synonym4--,mal>is47 ,location4--,along ! inf]ior bord] ( ! eye4 ,orig94--,f ! inf]ior bord] ( ! int]orbital =am54 ,ins]tion4--,to ! l[] lid4 ,%ape4--,?91 flat1 delicate4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! eyeball2 inf]iorly1 ) ! inf]ior orbital wall4 ,action4--,pulls ! l[] lid d[n4 ,quadratus ,nictitans 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #g74 ,location4--,above ! eyeball along ! inf]ior bord] ( ! upp] wall ( ! orbit4 ,orig94--,f ! scl]otic f ! upp] "p ( ! ball4 ,ins]tion4--,to ! upp] "p ( ! %ea? ( ! optic n]ve ne> ! optic =am54 ,%ape4--,broad1 ?91 quadrate4 ,relations4--,inf]iorly1 ) ! eyeball2 sup]iorly1 ) ! orbital wall1 ) ! sup]ior oblique1 & ) ! sup]ior rectus4 ,action4--,aids 9 pull+ ! nictitat+ membrane obliquely outw>d & d[nw>d ov] ! =ep>t ( ! eyeball4 ,pyramidalis ,nictitans 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #h74 ,location4--,inf]opo/]iorly to ! eyeball4 ,orig94--,f ! l[] nasal side ( ! eyeball4 ,ins]tion4--,! fib]s conv]ge t[>d ! upp] "p ( ! optic n]ve1 into a t5don :i* passes ?r\gh a pulley at ! free m>g9 ( ! quadratus4 ,ins]ts to ! l[] "p ( ! m>g9 ( ! ?ird eyelid1 ! nictitans4 ,%ape4--,pyramidal2 ( ?9 lay]s ( fib]s4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! bony orbital wall2 ext]nally1 ) ! eyeball4 ,action4--,aids ! quadratus nictitans4 ,obliquus ,sup]ior 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #e74 7,synonym4--,obliquus dorsalis47 ,location4--,sup]ior to ! eyeball4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,/ructures ( ! eye & nasal passage4 ,a4 #a1 ,! ant]ior turb9at$ bone4 #b1 ,! po/]ior turb9at$ bones4 #c1 ,orbital gl&4 #d1 ,oph?almic division ( ! fif? pair ( cranial n]ves4 #e1 ,section ?r\gh ! c]ebrum4 #f1 ,section ?r\gh ! skull %[+ ! air spaces4 #g1 ,section ?r\gh ! comb4 #h1 ,ant]ior portion ( ! upp] beak4 #i1 ,edge ( ! h>d palate4 ,b4 ,! intr9sic muscles ( ! eyeball4 #a1 ,sup]ior rectus4 #b1 ,int]nal rectus4 #c1 ,inf]ior rectus4 #d1 ,ext]nal rectus4 #e1 ,sup]ior oblique4 #f1 ,inf]ior oblique4 #g1 ,quadratus4 #h1 ,pyramidalis4 #i1 ,optic n]ve4 #aj1 ,edge ( membrana nictitans4 ,c4 ,po/]ior "p ( ! eye %[+ at ! inf]ior portion ( ! ball ! pyramidalis muscle at #a1 & at #b1 ! quadratus4 #c1 ,optic n]ve4 ,d4 ,inn] view ( ! po/]ior "p ( ! vitre\s *amb]4 #a1 ,scl]otic coat4 #b1 ,*oroid coat4 #c1 ,ret9a4 #d1 ,pect54 ,e4 ,longitud9al section ?r\gh ! eye ( a h54 #a1 ,cornea4 #b1 ,ant]ior *amb]4 #c1 ,scl]al r+4 #d1 ,cry/all9e l5se4 #e1 ,iris4 #f1 ,ret9a4 #g1 ,scl]otic4 #h1 ,*oroid4 #i1 ,pect54 #aj1 ,optic n]ve4 #aa1 ,vitre\s *amb]4 ,f4 ,an edge view ( ! cry/all9e l5se ( a h5 %[+ x to be asymmetrical biconvex4 #a1 ,! ant]ior side4 #b1 ,! po/]ior side4 ,g4 ,! upp] section ?r\gh ! ant]ior portion ( ! ant]ior turb9at$ bone %[+ "o complete circle & ! l[] a section ?r\gh ! middle turb9at$ %[+ "o & "o-half turns4 ,orig94--,f ! orbital septum j back ( ! inn] can?us1 ! fib]s pass+ backw>d & =w>d4 ,ins]tion4--,into ! scl]a1 ant]ior to ! scl]otic plates4 ,%ape4--,small1 ?91 fan-%ap$4 ,relations4--,) ! eyeball1 sup]iorly2 at its extremities ) ! sup]ior rectus1 int]iorly4 ,action4--,rotates ! eyeball4 ,obliquus ,inf]ior 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #f74 7,synonym4--,obliquus v5tralis47 ,location4--,inf]ior to ! eyeball4 ,orig94--,f ! int]orbital septum ne> ! inn] can?us ( ! eye4 ,ins]tion4--,by a broad expansion to ! inf]ior portion ( ! eyeball4 ,%ape4--,t5d9\s at its ins]tions2 fan-%ap$ z x passes d[nw>d & outw>d4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! eyeball2 & ext]nally1 ) ! bony orbital wall1 ) ! inf]ior rectus muscle1 inf]iorly4 ,action4--,aids 9 rotat+ ! eye2 opposes ! obliquus sup]ior4 ,rectus ,sup]ior 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #a74 7,synonym4--,rectus dorsalis47 ,location4--,sup]ior to ! eyeball4 ,orig94--,along ! sup]o-po/]ior bord] ( ! optic =am54 ,ins]tion4--,to ! scl]a j )9 ! m>g9 ( ! bony circle ( ! eye4 ,%ape4--,flat1 ?94 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! obliquus sup]ior2 sup]iorly1 ) ! bony wall ( ! orbit4 ,action4--,to pull ! eyeball upw>d4 ,rectus ,inf]ior 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #c74 7,synonym4--,rectus v5tralis47 ,location4--,inf]ior to ! eyeball4 ,orig94--,f ! inf]ior bord] ( ! optic =am54 ,ins]tion4--,to ! l[] portion ( ! eyeball )9 ! m>g9 ( ! bony circle ( ! eye4 ,%ape4--,?91 fan-%ap$4 ,relations4--,sup]iorly1 ) ! eyeball2 inf]iorly1 ) ! bony wall ( ! orbit4 ,action4--,pulls ! eyeball d[nw>d4 ,rectus ,ext]nus 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #d74 7,synonym4--,rectus lat]alis47 ,location4--,ext]nal to ! eyeball4 ,orig94--,by two heads inf]o-lat]ally to ! optic =am54 ,ins]tion4--,to ! po/]o-ext]nal side ( ! eyeball4 ,%ape4--,%ort1 fan-%ap$4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! eyeball2 ext]nally1 ) ! bony wall ( ! orbit4 ,action4--,pulls ! eyeball outw>d4 ,rectus ,int]nus 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #b74 7,synonym4--,rectus m$ialis47 ,location4--,inn] side ( ! eyeball4 ,orig94--,f ! sup]o-ant]ior bord] ( ! optic =am54 ,ins]tion4--,to ! scl]a on ! ant]ior portion ( ! eyeball4 ,%ape4--,?91 fan-%ap$4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! eyeball & ) ! pyramidalis2 ext]nally1 ) ! bony wall ( ! orbit4 ,action4--,pulls ! eyeball inw>d4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,e> ,circumcon*a ,t5sor tympani ,circumcon*a 7,fig4 #g1 ,no4 #cb74 ,location4--,surr\nds ! ext]nal e>4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,! circumcon*a1 surr\nd+ ! p]iph]y ( ! e>1 is adh]5t to ! skull & loosely to ! sk91 & is atta*$ to ! out] t]m9us ( ! supra-occipital cre/4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! skull2 ext]nally1 ) ! sk94 ,action4--,relaxes ! tympanum4 ,t5sor ,tympani 7,fig4 #g1 ,no4 #ca74 ,location4--,ext]nal to ! quadrate & to ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,orig9 & ,ins]tion4--,f ! surface ( ! quadrate & ! inn] end ( ! quadrato-jugal to ! inn] surface ( ! tympanum4 ,%ape4--,a few fib]s4 ,relations4--,int]nally1 ) ! quadrate & ! quadrato-jugal2 ext]nally1 ! integum5tal duplicature4 ,action4--,t5ses ! tympanum4 ,,functions ,,( ,,muscles ,to cause ! fea!rs on ! top ( ! head to lie flat3 ,d]mo-frontalis4 ,to raise ! fea!rs along ! sup]ior "p ( ! neck & along ! dorsal region3 ,d]mo-dorsalis4 ,to t5se ! patagial region3 ,d]mo-t5sor patagii1 ,d]mo-temporalis4 ,to cause ! fea!rs to lie close to ! body3 ,d]mo-hum]alis1 ,d]mo-pectoralis4 ,to t5se ! lat]al c]vical integum5t3 ,d]mo-temporalis4 ,to support ! l+ual app>atus & sup]ior l>ynx3 ,platysma myoides4 ,to manipulate ! fea!rs & sk9 ( ! inf]ior "p ( ! neck3 ,cleido-tra*ealis4 ,to control ! sk9 9 ! %\ld] region3 ,d]mo-sp9alis4 ,to cause ! fea!rs ( ! back to lie close to ! sk93 ,d]mo-iliacus4 ,to depress ! hum]al region3 ,d]mo-uln>is4 ,to close ! jaw3 ,temporalis1 ,pt]ygoideus int]nus1 ,pt]ygoideus ext]nus1 ,masset]4 ,to op5 ! jaw3 ,biv5t] maxilla1 ,entotympanic4 ,to raise ! tra*ea & hyoid app>atus3 ,diga/ricus4 ,to elevate ! tongue3 ,mylo-hyoideus4 ,to pull ! tongue to "o side3 ,s+ly#e-- ,c]ato-hyoideus1 ,/ylo-hyoideus4 ,alone :5 ! l>ynx is fix$-- ,/]no-hyoideus4 ,^? :i* protrude ! tongue f ! m\?3 ,toge!r-- ,c]ato-hyoideus1 ,g5io-hyoideus4 ,to aid 9 deglutition3 ,:5 ! base ( ! tongue is fix$-- ,/]no-hyoideus4 ,to depress ! tongue3 ,toge!r-- ,/]no-hyoideus4 ,to depress ! tip ( ! tongue & elevate ! base3 ,depressor glottis4 ,to elevate ! hyoid ar*es3 ,c]ato-glossus4 ,to ext5d ! head3 ,complexus1 ,rectus capitis anticus m9or4 ,to flex ! head ^u ! neck3 ,flexor capitis inf]ior4 ,to ext5d ! head on ! neck & elevate ! neck3 ,biv5t] c]vicis4 ,to raise ! neck upw>d3 ,longus colli po/icus4 ,to flex ea* v]tebra on ! prec$+ or succe$+ lat]ally3 ,obliquus colli1 ,int]transv]sales4 ,to pull ! neck d[nw>d3 ,longus colli ant]ior4 ,to pull ! head d[nw>d3 ,toge!r-- ,rectus capitis lat]alis1 ,tra*elo-ma/oideus4 ,to pull ! head d[nw>d & to "o side3 ,s+ly-- ,rectus capitis lat]alis1 ,tra*elo-ma/oideus4 ,to approximate ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr3 ,int]sp9ales4 ,to approximate ! v]tebr 9 a sup]o-lat]al direction3 ,int]>ticul>es4 ,to flex ! v]tebr sup]o-lat]ally3 ,obliquo-transv]sales4 ,to ext5d ! neck3 ,toge!r :5 ! fir/ rib is fix$-- ,scal5us m$ius4 ,to close ! glottis3 ,con/rictor glottidis4 ,to op5 ! glottis3 ,?yreo-aryt5oideus4 ,to approximate ! tra*eal r+s3 ,tra*eo-lat]alis4 ,to t5se ! inf]ior l>ynx3 ,bron*o-tra*ealis po/icus1 ,bron*o-tra*ealis anticus1 ,bron*o-tra*ealis brevis1 ,bron*ialis po/icus1 ,bron*ialis anticus4 ,to relax ! inf]ior l>ynx3 ,/]no-tra*ealis4 ,to aid 9 respiration3 ,:5 ! fir/ rib is fix$-- ,int]co/ales4 ,:5 w+ is fix$-- ,latissimus dorsi1 ,d]mo-cleido dorsalis4 ,:5 ! scapula is fix$-- ,s]ratus magnus anticus1 ,s]ratus p>vus anticus1 ,?oraco-scapul>is1 ,levatores co/>um1 ,app5dico-co/ales1 ,triangul>is /]ni4 ,to flex ! %\ld]-jo9t3 ,latissimus dorsi4 ,to elevate ! hum]us3 ,latissimus dorsi4 ,to draw ! scapula =w>d3 ,trapezius1 ,rhomboideus4 ,to close ! w+3 ,t]es et infrasp9atus4 ,to ext5d ! hum]us3 ,coraco-hum]alis1 ,scapulo-hum]alis4 ,to pull ! hum]us upw>d & backw>d3 ,:5 ! scapula is fix$-- ,suprasp9atus4 ,to pull ! coracoid outw>d3 ,subclavius4 ,to depress ! w+3 ,coraco-bra*ialis4 ,to depress ! scapula3 ,:5 ! ribs are fix$-- ,?oraco-scapul>is4 ,to rotate ! hum]us3 ,subscapul>is4 ,to flex ! =e>m3 ,pronator brevis1 ,biceps1 ,bra*ialis anticus1 ,anconeus1 ,t5sor patagii longus1 ,t5sor patagii brevis4 ,to ext5d ! arm3 ,deltoid4 ,to ext5d ! antibra*ial region3 ,triceps4 ,to raise & to draw ! h& =w>d3 ,ext5sor metac>pi radialis longior4 ,to ext5d ! digit3 ,ext5sor indicis longus1 ,ext5sor digitorum communis1 ,ext5sor proprius pollicis1 ,int]osse\s dorsalis4 ,to sup9ate ! radial region3 ,sup9ator brevis4 ,to flex ! h&3 ,flexor metac>pi radialis4 ,to pronate ! =e>m3 ,pronator brevis1 ,pronator longus4 ,to ext5d ! h& on ! =e>m3 ,ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis4 ,to flex ! digit3 ,flexor m9imi digiti1 ,flexor digitorum sublimis1 ,flexor brevis pollicis1 ,flexor digitorum pr(undus1 ,int]osse\s palm>is4 ,to flex ! h& ^u ! =e>m3 ,flexor c>pi uln>is1 ,flexor c>pi uln>is brevior4 ,to rotate ! h& t[>d ! body3 ,flexor c>pi uln>is brevior4 ,to abduct ! digits3 ,abductor m9imi digiti4 ,to flex ! metac>pus3 ,flexor metac>pi brevis4 ,to ext5d ! leg3 ,s>torius4 ,to adduct ! ?igh3 ,s>torius1 ,adductor longus1 ,adductor magnus4 ,to abduct ! ?igh3 ,gluteus primus1 ,gluteus m$ius1 ,gluteus m9imus4 ,to pull ! ?igh =w>d3 ,gluteus m9imus1 ,gluteus m$ius4 ,to ext5d ! leg ^u ! ?igh3 ,ext5sor femoris1 ,va/us int]nus4 ,to ext5d ! leg ^u ! knee3 ,va/us int]nus4 ,to flex ! leg ^u ! ?igh3 ,biceps flexor cruris1 ,semit5d9osus1 ,semit5d9osus accessorius1 ,semimembranosus4 ,to pull ! tail d[n & to "o side3 ,femoro-caudal4 ,to pull ! head ( ! femur backw>d3 ,obturator ext]nus4 ,to act z a po/]ior /ay to ! head ( ! femur3 ,obturator int]nus4 ,to pull ! pelvis =w>d & to /eady x on ! head ( ! femur3 ,gemellus1 ,obturator int]nus1 ,obturator ext]nus4 ,to ext5d ! metat>sus on ! tibia3 ,ga/rocnemius1 ,soleus1 ,tibialis po/icus4 ,to flex ! toes3 ,p]oneus longus1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius primus p$is1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis secundus p$is1 ,flexor p]=atus m$ius secundus p$is1 ,flexor p]=atus indicis primus p$is1 ,flexor p]=ans digitorum pr(undus1 ,flexor longus hallucis1 ,flexor p]=atus annul>is primus p$is4 ,to flex ! metat>sus on ! tibia3 ,tibialis anticus4 ,to ext5d ! toes3 ,ext5sor longus digitorum1 ,ext5sor hallucis brevis4 ,to flex ! back lat]ally & to aid 9 rais+ ! body4 ,sacro-lumbalis1 ,longissimus dorsi4 ,to elevate ! tail3 ,levator coccygis1 ,levator caud4 ,to depress ! tail3 ,depressor caud1 ,infracoccygis4 ,toge!r-- ,depressor coccygis1 ,lat]alis caud4 ,to pull ! tail d[nw>d & to "o side3 ,s+ly-- ,lat]alis coccygis4 ,depressor coccygis1 ,lat]alis caud4 ,to close ! eyelids3 ,orbicul>is palpebr>um4 ,to raise ! sup]ior eyelid3 ,levator palpebr sup]ioris4 ,to pull ! l[] eyelid d[nw>d3 ,depressor palpebr inf]ioris4 ,to pull ! membrana nictitans ov] ! eyeball3 ,quadratus nictitans1 ,pyramidalis nictitans4 ,to rotate ! eyeball3 ,obliquus sup]ior1 ,obliquus inf]ior4 ,to pull ! eyeball upw>d3 ,rectus sup]ior4 ,to pull ! eyeball d[nw>d3 ,rectus inf]ior4 ,to pull ! eyeball outw>d3 ,rectus ext]nus4 ,to pull ! eyeball inw>d3 ,rectus int]nus4 ,to t5se ! e> drum3 ,t5sor tympani4 ,to relax ! e> drum3 ,circumcon*a4 ,to depress ! hum]us3 ,pectoralis major4 ,to raise ! hum]us3 ,pectoralis secundus1 ,pectoralis t]tius4 ,footnote #e3 ,muscles are arrang$ 9 pairs4 ,s+ly means "o muscle act+ alone1 i4e41 )\t its fell[2 toge!r means act+ bo? at ! same "t4 ,,splan*nology ,! ,dige/ive ,app>atus4--,?is app>atus1 app>atus dige/orius1 consi/s ( ! organs directly conc]n$ 9 ! reception ( food1 9 its passage ?r\gh ! body1 & 9 ! expulsion ( ! unabsorb$ portion4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ^! organs are gr\p$ z foll[s3 ! alim5t>y canal & ! accessory organs4 ,! alim5t>y canal is a tube :i* ext5ds f ! m\? to ! anus4 ,x has a complete l9+ ( muc\s membrane1 ext]nal to :i* is an almo/ cont9u\s muscul> coat4 ,! abdom9al portion ( ! tube is l>gely cov]$ ) a s]\s membrane1 ! visc]al p]itoneum4 ,! canal consi/s ( ! foll[+ consecutive segm5ts3 m\?1 ph>ynx1 fir/ portion ( ! esophagus1 crop1 second portion ( ! esophagus1 prov5triculus1 gizz>d1 small inte/9e1 l>ge inte/9e1 & cloaca4 ,! accessory organs are beak1 tongue1 saliv>y gl&s1 liv]1 & pancreas4 ,! ,m\? 7,fig4 #bg74--,! di/9ctive "* ( ! m\? ( ! f[l consi/s1 9 ! abs5ce ( lips & tee? & in/ead ( jaw bones ( o!r animals1 ( a beak4 ,! edge ( ! beak is cov]$ by a horn-l gum4 ,! %ape ( ! beak diff]s 9 ! v>i\s classes ( birds4 ,9 ! *ick5 ! beak is %ort1 /rong1 ?ick1 & po9t$2 9 palmip$s x is flatt5$4 ,! upp] m&ible ext5ds out ov] ! l[] m&ible4 ,! out] portion ( ! upp] & ! l[] beaks is cov]$ by a horny %ea?4 ,!re is no velum1 & ! m\? cavity is ext5d$ r cont9u\sly into ! ph>ynx 7,fig4 #bg1 ,no4 #d74 ,! po/]ior cross b> ( ! h>d palate 7,fig4 #bg1 ,no4 #e71 :i* possesses a r[ ( fili=m papill project+ backw>d1 m>ks ! upp] b\nd>y l9e ( ! m\?2 :ile ! po/]ior end ( ! tongue 7,fig4 #bg1 ,no4 #f71 likewise ) a r[ ( fili=m papill1 m>ks its l[] b\nd>y l9e4 ,p>ts ( ! ,m\?4--,! m\? ( f[ls is divid$ into an upp] & a l[] half4 ,! upp] half is divid$ into an ant]ior & a po/]ior "p4 ,! ant]ior "p ext5ds f ! ant]ior tip ( ! beak to ! po/]ior n>es4 ,x is fur!r divid$ into an out] h>d "p & an inn] s(t "p4 ,! out] "p is cov]$ by epi!lium :i* may be consid]$ z a cont9uation f ! upp] out] portion ( ! beak4 ,a portion ( ?is is cornifi$4 ,! inn] "p is cov]$ by a muc\s membrane conta9+ muc\s gl&s1 n]ves1 & blood-vessels4 ,9 ! po/]ior "p ( ! upp] half ( ! m\?1 are situat$ ! po/]ior n>es 7,fig4 #bg1 ,no4 #aj7 :i* appe> z a longitud9al slit 9 ! c5t] ( ! h>d palate4 ,!re is also f\nd 9 ?is "p a furr[ :i* conta9s ! op5+ ( ! ,eu/a*ian tubes1 or tub auditiv4 ,!re are also two ridges ne> ! same po/]ior "p 9 :i* are r$ & :ite papill1 :i* may appe> 9 r[s1 & :i* conta9 muc\s gl&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,m\? & ph>ynx ( a cock laid op54 #a1 ,eye4 #b1 ,edge ( beak cov]$ ) a horn-l gum4 #c1 ,tongue4 #d1 ,ph>ynx4 #e1 ,po/]ior cross b> ( h>d palate4 #f1 ,po/]ior end ( tongue4 #g1 ,ant]ior end ( esophagus4 #h1 ,phr5um4 #i1 ,palatal papill>ies4 #aj1 ,po/]ior n>es4 ,! l[] half ( ! m\? lies betwe5 ! l[] jaw bones & ! walls ( ! m\? cavity4 ,! tongue is atta*$ "h by means ( ! phr5um 7,fig4 #bg1 ,no4 #h74 ,?is half ( ! m\? =ms a pocket-l /ructure :i* aids 9 tak+ up ! food4 ,! m\? cavity is l9$ ) /ratifi$ squam\s epi!lium1 cont9u\s ) t ( ! ph>ynx & ! esophagus4 ,ta/e buds are locat$ 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! m\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,v>i\s anatomical p>ts ( ! f[l4 ,c4 ,a section ?r\gh ! nasal region ( ! f[l4 #a1 ,nasal passages %[+ ! turb9at$ bones divid+ ! nasal passage into ! sup]ior1 middle & inf]ior meati4 #b1 ,! infraorbital s9us4 #c1 ,! h>d palate4 ,d4 ,h]b/'s t\* corpuscle f ! beak ( a quail4 ,e4 ,a v]tical section ?r\gh ! ductus co*le>is ( a pigeon4 #a1 ,a blood-vessel4 #b1 ,! p]io/eum4 #c1 ,! bony /ructure4 #d1 ,! vascul> integum5t4 #e4 ,! scala ve/ibuli4 #f1 ,! inn] hyal9e cyl9drical cells4 #g1 ,! membrana tectoria4 #h1 ,! papilla acu/ica basil>is4 #i1 ,! membrana basil>is4 #aj1 ,! scala tympani4 #aa1 ,! ganglion ( ! co*le> n]ve 9 ! ramus basil>is4 #ab1 ,! p]io/eum 7,gad[74 ,f4 ,a corpuscle ( ! s(t papilla ( a duck's tongue4 ,j4 ,a transv]se section ?r\gh a fea!r papilla4 #a1 ,! pulp4 #b1 ,! malpighian lay]4 #c1 ,! corium4 #d1 ,! /ratum corneum ( ! papilla4 #e1 ,! malpighian cell gr\p ( ! ma9 %aft4 #f1 ,! horny %ea?4 ,9 _m wat] f[ls1 z geese & ducks1 ! gum edge ( ! m&ible has grooves ext5d+ crosswise1 9 :i* are num]\s t]m9als ( ! trigem9us n]ve arrang$ z ta/e organs 7,fig4 #bi1 ,g & ,fig4 #bh1 ,d & ,f74 ,9 _m birds ( prey & 9 wat] birds1 e4g41 ! goose & ! duck1 !re is f\nd at ! base ( ! beak1 a v ?91 n]v\s or s5sitive sk91 waxy 9 appe>ance1 call$ ! c]oma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,v>i\s anatomical p>ts ( ! f[l4 ,a4 #a1 ,! sup]ior semicircul> canal4 #b1 ,! ve/ibul> n]ve4 #c1 ,! meatus auditorius int]nus--! entrance ( ! auditory n]ve4 #d1 ,! entrance ( ! co*le> n]ve4 #e1 ,po/]ior semicircul> canal4 #f1 ,! ampulla4 ,b4 ,side papilla ( ! tongue4 #a & #b1 ,papill %[+ a fibr\s c5tral core support+ blood-vessels & n]ves4 #c1 ,! basem5t membrane consi/+ ( connective tissue4 ,g4 ,h]b/'s corpuscle ( ! tongue ( a duck1 %[+ ! capsule1 lamella & ar\nd ! n]ve zone1 num]\s r\nd bodies arrang$ 9 two r[s4 ,h4 ,f ! cri/ ac\/ica ( ! ampulla ( ! dove4 ,a1 ,a v]tical section ) isolat$ fib] cells4 #a & #b1 ,! n]ve fib]s4 #c1 ,! hair cells4 ,i4 ,a longitud9al section ?r\gh a fea!r papilla %[+ a "y fea!r4 #a1 ,! develop+ fea!r4 #b1 ,! horny %ea?4 #c1 ,! epi!lium4 #d1 ,/ratum corneum4 #e1 ,/ratum malpighi4 #f1 ,corium4 #g1 ,malpighian cell gr\p ( ! follicle4 ,! ,h>d ,palate4--,! h>d palate1 palatum durum1 =m+ ! ro( ( ! m\? has = its b\nd>ies ! beak ant]iorly1 ! m&ibul> ar*es lat]ally1 & ! ph>ynx po/]iorly4 ,x has f\r or five transv]se b>s1 project+ po/]iorly f ea* ( :i* is a r[ ( fili=m papill 7,figs4 #bg & #bi74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,a section ?r\gh ! wall ( ! crop ( a h54 #a1 ,! out] muscul> lay] %[+ longitud9al fib]s4 #b1 ,! inn] muscul> lay] %[+ ! section$ ends ( ! bundles ( muscle fib]s4 #c1 ,/ratifi$ squam\s epi!lium4 #d1 ,! out] surface or lum5 ( a fold4 #e1 ,! /roma1 muscul>is mucosa1 & submucosa4 ,! beak 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #a7 ) little if any aid f ! tongue1 is ! preh5sile organ4 ,! ,tongue 7,fig4 #bg1 ,no4 #c74 ,location4--,! tongue 7l+ua7 ( ! f[l is situat$ 9 ! floor ( ! m\? betwe5 ! rami ( ! l[] m&ible1 & is slung to ! cranium by ! c]ato-bran*ial elem5t ( ! os hyoideum 7,fig4 #ah1 ,no4 #b74 ,%ape4--,! tongue1 is po9t$ 9 front & wide beh9d1 %ap$ l an ,indian arr[-head1 & is support$ by ! bony & c>tilag9\s hyoid app>atus 7,fig4 #i1 ,a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,! visc]al organs ( ! h54 #a1 ,tongue4 #b1 ,l>ynx4 #c1 ,glottis4 #d1 ,fir/ portion ( ! esophagus4 #e1 ,crop4 #f1 ,second portion ( ! esophagus4 #g1 ,prov5triculus4 #h1 ,duod5um4 #i1 ,free or float+ portion ( ! small inte/9e4 #aj1 ,mes5t]y support+ ! free portion ( ! small inte/9e4 #aa1 ,cca4 #ab1 ,rectum or l>ge inte/9e4 #ac1 ,cloaca4 #ad1 ,anus4 #ae1 ,liv]4 #af1 ,gall-bladd]4 #ag1 ,pancreas4 #ah1 ,gizz>d4 #ai1 ,tra*ea4 #bj1 ,lungs4 #ba1 ,sple54 ,/ructure4--,! free "p ( ! tongue consi/s ( two long tubes :i* are =m$ by ! roll+ 9 ( ! v5tral sides ( its horny cov]+s4 ,! dorsal plate1 :i* con/itutes "o-half ( ! horny %ea?1 does n =m a "p ( ! tubes1 b ends 9 ! region ( ! po9t ( ! entoglossum4 ,! top surface is cov]$ by a ?ick /ratum corneum1 giv+ x a r horny surface4 ,gl&s occur 9 ! po/]ior "p ( ! tongue4 ,:ile n s freely movable z 9 mammals1 ! tongues ( birds are v flexible4 ,! ,ph>ynx 7,fig4 #bg74 ,location4--,! ant]ior "p ( ! ph>ynx jo9s ) ! m\? & ! po/]ior "p ) ! upp] portion ( ! esophagus & ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,! ph>ynx is b\nd$ ant]iorly by ! base ( ! tongue & by ! po/]ior edge ( ! h>d palate4 ,po/]iorly1 x is m>k$ by ! entrance ( ! esophagus & by a ridge ( fili=m papill locat$ on ! sup]o-po/]ior "p ( ! l>ynx1 call$ ! palatal papill>ies4 ,a few fili=m papill /ud ! ro(4 ,! ph>ynx communicates ant]iorly ) ! po/]ior n>es & ! m\?1 &1 po/]iorly1 ) ! esophagus & ! l>ynx4 ,%ape4--,! ph>ynx is a musculo-membran\s sac4 ,/ructure4--,! ph>ynx is l9$ ) a muc\s membrane cov]$ by squam\s epi!lium4 ,! muc\s membrane is ?r[n into irregul> folds4 ,! bird has two ,eu/a*ian tubes4 ,pneumatic ap]tures conduct ! air f ! ,eu/a*ian tubes to ! p]icranial diplo4 ,9 ! po/]ior ph>yngeal ro( is situat$ ! infundibul> crevice4 ,function4--,! function ( ! ph>ynx is to give passage = ! air f ! po/]ior n>es to ! l>ynx1 & to give passage = ! food f ! m\? to ! esophagus4 ,gl&s ,adjac5t to ! ,m\? & to ! ,ph>ynx4--,! muc\s membrane adjac5t to ! glottis & 9 ! ro( ( ! m\? conta9s alveol> gl&s4 ,! angul> gl& ( ! m\?1 locat$ b5ea? ! zygomatic ar*1 by "s anatomi/s is consid]$ ! rudim5t>y p>otid gl&4 ,! subl+ual gl&s1 or gl&ul subl+uales1 are well develop$ 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 ,b1 #d74 ,!y =m conical masses1 ) ! apex direct$ ant]iorly1 & occupy a portion ( ! int]maxill>y space4 ,sev]al ducts f ^! gl&s op5 into ! m\? cavity4 ,9 ! palat9e region !re are also locat$ gl&s call$ ! palat9e gl&s1 :i* op5 by _m /omata ^u ! surface4 ,! ,esophagus 7,fig4 #ah1 ,no4 #f74 ,location & ,%ape4--,! esophagus is a musculo-membran\s tube1 capable ( great di/5sion1 :i* ext5ds f ! ph>ynx to ! prov5triculus 7,fig4 #ce1 ,no4 #a1 & #c74 ,! esophagus communicates ant]iorly ) ! ph>ynx4 ,x ext5ds d[n ! neck1 ly+ sup]o-lat]ally ) reg>d to ! tra*ea & t[>d ! "r side4 ,x ent]s ! ?orax above ! tra*ea1 &1 pass+ ?r\gh betwe5 ! bron*i1 t]m9ates into ! prov5triculus4 ,at ! entrance ( ! ?orax & j to ! "r ( ! m$ian l9e1 x exp&s into ! crop :i* divides x into two portions1 designat$ z ! fir/ & ! second4 ,! fir/ portion ( ! esophagus is ! long]1 ! l5g? dep5d+ ^u ! size & k9d ( f[l4 ,/ructure4--,! wall is compos$ ( f\r coats1 ! muc\s membrane1 ! submucosa1 ! muscul> coats1 & ! fibr\s %ea? or tunic4 ,! muc\s membrane is pale & is cov]$ ) /ratifi$ squam\s epi!lium4 ,! muc\s membrane is loosely atta*$ to ! muscul> coat by ! submucosa4 ,except dur+ deglutition x lies 9 longitud9al folds :i* oblit]ate ! lum54 ,op5+ f ! mucosa are l5ticul> gl&s1 :i* may be se5 on inflat+ an esophagus & look+ ?r\gh its transp>5t walls4 ,! muscul> coat ( ! esophagus is divid$ into two lay]s1 an out] longitud9al & an inn] circul> lay]4 ,! out] fibr\s %ea? connects ! esophagus loosely to ! surr\nd+ /ructures4 ,function4--,! function ( ! esophagus is to give passage way = ! food f ! ph>ynx to ! crop & f ! crop to ! prov5triculus4 ,! ,crop 7,fig4 #ce1 ,no4 #b2 ,figs4 #cj & #ca74 ,location & ,%ape4--,! crop1 or +luvies1 saccul> 9 %ape1 is locat$ at ! entrance ( ! ?orax & j to ! "r ( ! m$ian l9e4 ,! fir/ portion ( ! esophagus empties into ! crop sup]iorly & inf]iorly ! crop op5s into ! second portion ( ! esophagus4 ,l ! esophagus ! crop is capable ( great di/5sion4 ,/ructure4--,! wall ( ! crop is compos$ ( f\r coats1 ! muc\s membrane1 submucosa1 muscul> & ! out] fibr\s4 ,! crop is l9$ ) muc\s membrane conta9+ muc\s gl&s :i* secrete a mucus to keep ! surface moi/4 ,! surface ( ! muc\s membrane is cov]$ by /ratifi$ squam\s epi!lium4 ,! submucosa connects ! muc\s membrane to ! muscul> coat4 ,! wall ( ! crop is provid$ ) /rong muscles4 ,! fibr\s coat1 or tunic1 connects x ) ! surr\nd+ /ructures4 ,function4--,! crop is a /oreh\se = ! food dur+ ! h\rs ( fe$+1 ! food :5 ne$$ by ! /oma* be+ gradually dis*>g$ f ! crop by ! contraction ( its muscul> walls4 ,! subcutane\s c]vical muscles :i* cov] ?is res]voir aid 9 ?is dis*>ge4 ,9 ! act ( deglutition1 ! food1 aft] be+ subject$ to ! fluid suppli$ 9 ! m\? by ! adjac5t gl&s1 is pois$ ^u ! tongue & swall[$ p>tly by a sudd5 j]k ( ! head1 & p>tly by means ( ! pressure ( ! tongue aga9/ ! h>d palate1 ! food !n passes d[n ! esophagus & lodges fir/ 9 ! crop1 till ne$$ by ! /oma*1 :5 x is pass$ ?r\gh ! second portion ( ! esophagus to ! fir/ portion ( ! /oma*1 ! prov5triculus4 ,! "t dur+ :i* food rema9s 9 ! crop dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! food4 ,animal food w1 9 "p1 be reta9$ ab\t eight h\rs & vegetable foods may n all be pass$ on = f sixte5 to eighte5 h\rs4 ,! ,/oma* 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #g2 ,fig4 #cb1 ,b74--,! /oma*1 or v5triculus1 ( f[ls is made up ( two portions1 namely1 ! p>s gl&ul>is1 or prov5triculus1 & ! p>s muscul>is1 or gizz>d4 ,! ,prov5triculus4 ,location4--,! prov5triculus lies 9 ! sup]ior "p ( ! groove =m$ by ! two lobes ( ! liv]1 is inf]ior to ! aorta1 & is direct$ slightly to ! left1 communicat+ ant]iorly ) ! second portion ( ! esophagus & po/]iorly empty+ into ! p>s muscul>is1 ! gizz>d4 ,%ape4--,! prov5triculus is r\nd transv]sely & elongat$1 9 fact1 ne>ly fusi=m4 ,9 ! h5 ( av]age size x measures ab\t #a4fb in*es long & #j4h in* 9 diamet]4 ,/ructure4--,! wall ( ! prov5triculus has f\r coats1 ! muc\s1 submuc\s1 muscul>1 & s]\s4 ,! inn] muc\s coat :i* is rais$ 9 folds1 is l9$ ) column> epi!lial cells4 ,! muc\s membrane conta9s lymphoid tissue4 ,! muc\s coat ?r\gh\t conta9s simple tubul> gl&s :i* secrete a highly acid fluid :i* f9ds its way to ! surface ?r\gh small cyl9drical ducts ly+ at "r angles to ! inn] surface ( ! muc\s membrane 7,fig4 #cb1 ,no4 ,b1 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,gizz>d & /oma* ( ! f[l4 ,a4 #a1 ,alveol> gl&s4 #b1 ,muc\s membrane ( ! inn] surface ( ! prov5triculus %[+ ! tubul> gl&s4 #c1 ,connective tissue betwe5 ! alveol> gl&s4 #d1 ,an art]y4 #e1 ,muscul>is mucosa4 ,b4 ,photograph ( ! prov5triculus & gizz>d4 #a1 ,prov5triculus %[+ /omata ( gl&s4 #b1 ,end ( duod5um4 #c1 ,gizz>d %[+ hornifi$ epi!lium =m$ into grooves4 #d1 ,! heavy muscul> walls4 ,! submucosa1 connects ! muc\s & muscul> coats & ! muscul>is lay] ?r[s ! muc\s membrane into folds4 ,outside ! muscul>is mucosa !re is ano!r lay] 7,fig4 #cb1 ,a71 ( simple tubul> gl&s1 gr\p$ 9 lobules1 & l9$ by cuboidal cells & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by clefts4 ,^! tubul> gl&s conv]ge t[>d ! c5t] & op5 into ! same cavity4 ,! middle muscul> coat c be divid$ into ?ree lay]s3 two ?91 longitud9al lay]s1 & a ?ick1 circul> lay] int]pos$ betwe5 ! o!r two4 ,function4--,! function ( ! prov5triculus appe>s to be to soak ! food ) a secretion4 ,! secretion f ! prov5triculus is simil> to t produc$ by ! fundus gl&s ( ! /oma* ( mammals4 ,x conta9s acid & a f]m5t-peps94 ,! ,gizz>d 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #ah74 ,location4--,! gizz>d1 or muscul> /oma*1 occupies a portion ( ! c5tral "p ( ! abdom9al cavity 7,fig4 #cc1 ,no4 #d74 ,x lies slightly to ! left & j beh9d ! liv]1 ! prov5triculus1 & ! sple51 & re/s ^u a mass ( inte/9es4 ,! gizz>d communicates at its ant]ior portion ) ! prov5triculus & ) ! duod5um4 ,^! op5+s are close toge!r4 ,! gizz>ds ( a l>ge numb] ( h5s ( av]age size av]ag$ 9 weight z foll[s3 full1 #j4bae p\nd2 empty1 #j4abf p\nd4 ,! gizz>d /&s p]p5dicul>ly & some:at obliquely 9 ! abdom9al cavity4 ,%ape4--,9 %ape ! gizz>d is r\ndi%1 flatt5$ lat]ally4 ,/ructure4--,! walls ( ! gizz>d are v ?ick & are made up ( ?ree coats3 muc\s1 muscul>1 & s]\s4 ,! cavity ( ! gizz>d is cov]$ by a ?ick sk9-l /ructure possess+ a heavy /ratifi$ squam\s epi!lial lay] :i* is ?r[n some:at into ridges 7,fig4 #cb1 ,b74 ,?is membrane becomes ?9ne/ ne> ! edges4 ,! muc\s membrane1 be+ cornifi$ & readily deta*able1 is by "s anatomi/s consid]$ z a special membrane 7,fig4 #cg1 ,b74 ,at ! pyloric op5+ !re is a valve =m$ by a fold ( ! muc\s membrane1 :i* prev5ts grit & l>ge p>ticles ( food f pass+ out ( ! gizz>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,view ( visc]a ( ! left side ( a h54 #a1 ,! base ( ! he>t4 #b1 ,prov5triculus4 #c1 ,left lobe ( ! liv]4 #d1 ,gizz>d4 #e1 ,end ( ! duod5al loop4 #f1 ,pancreas4 #g1 ,free portion ( ! small inte/9e4 #h1 ,lungs4 #i1 ,diaphragm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,view ( ! visc]a ( ! "r side ( a h54 #a1 ,base ( ! he>t4 #b1 ,lungs4 #c1 ,"r lobe ( ! liv]4 #d1 ,duod5al loop4 #e1 ,pancreas4 #f1 ,ccum4 #g1 ,l>ge inte/9e or rectum4 #h1 ,free portion ( ! float+ small inte/9e4 #i1 ,gall-bladd]4 #aj1 ,"r kidney4 #aa1 ,! ribs4 ,note ! lungs pu%+ up betwe5 !m4 ,on ea* side x has a p[]ful fle%y muscle1 ! muscul>is lat]alis4 ,^! muscul>es lat]ales are hemisph]ical1 consi/ ( v closely pack$ fib]s ext5d+ transv]sely1 & are atta*$ to /rong ant]ior & po/]ior ligam5t\s t5dons4 ,!y are jo9$ at ! edge ( ! organ by a /rong aponeurosis4 ,! muscul> fib]s are r$ b d n possess cross /riations2 !y are ( ! smoo? type4 ,! muscul>is int]m$ii1 ?9n] & less develop$ ?an ! muscul>es lat]ales1 occurs on ea* ( ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior p>ts ( ! gizz>d4 ,! s]\s coat cov]s ov] ! great] "p ( ! ext]nal surface ( ! gizz>d & closely adh]es to ! muscul> coat4 ,function4--,! h>d call\s pads ( ! gizz>d1 op]at$ by ! p[]ful muscles above describ$1 toge!r ) grit1 act l mill /ones & make r$uction to f95ess v complete4 ,at ! po/]ior "p !re is a sacculat$ portion conta9+ gl&s ( ! long tubul> type :i* secrete a fluid f]m5t simil> to t secret$ by ! gl&s ( ! pyloric portion ( ! /oma* ( mammals4 ,^! gl&s also exi/ 9 a small b& ne> ! entrance ( ! gizz>d4 ,"h ! food is mix$ ) /rongly acid secretion conta9+ peps9 :i* makes ga/ric dige/ion p]fect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,a m$ian ant]o-po/]ior section ?r\gh ! body ( a #a-p\nd pullet4 #a1 ,fir/ portion ( ! esophagus4 #b1 ,crop4 #c1 ,second portion ( ! inte/9e4 #d1 ,prov5triculus4 #e1 ,gizz>d4 #f1 ,sple54 #g1 ,liv]4 #h1 ,he>t4 #i1 ,po9t :]e duod5um 0 sev]$ f gizz>d4 #aj1 ,po9t :]e duod5um 0 sev]$4 #aa1 ,duod5um4 #ab1 ,pancreas4 #ac1 ,ccum4 #ad1 ,float+ small inte/9e4 #ae1 ,ov>y4 #af1 ,oil sac4 ,! ,small ,inte/9e 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #h & #i74--,! small inte/9e1 inte/9um t5ue1 is ! tube :i* connects ! gizz>d ) ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts1 ! duod5um & ! free portion4 ,( ! ?ree p>ts z consid]$ 9 ! mammalian inte/9e1 only ! fir/1 ! duod5um1 c be di/+ui%$4 ,!re is no dem>cation betwe5 ! jejunum & ! ileum4 ,! jejunum & ! ileum or t "p :i* repres5ts ^! sections1 are 9 coils susp5d$ f ! free bord] ( ! mes5t]y ! o!r bord] ( :i* is1 9 turn1 atta*$ to ! dorsal wall 7,fig4 #fd74 ,! l5g? ( ! small inte/9e 9 a h5 ( av]age size is ab\t #fa4g in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,a4 ,section ( ! duod5um ( ! f[l4 #a1 ,villus4 #b1 ,gl&4 #c1 ,mass ( lymphoid tissue4 #d1 ,muscul>is mucosa4 #e1 ,longitud9al lay]4 #f1 ,circul> muscul> lay]4 #g1 ,s]\s lay]4 ,b4 ,a section f ,a at a4 #a1 ,! /riat$ free bord] ( ! cells4 #b1 ,goblet cell4 #c1 ,column> cell4 #d1 ,nucleus ( cell4 ,! wall ( ! small inte/9e is provid$ ) f\r coats1 z foll[s3 a muc\s1 submuc\s1 muscul> coat made up ( two lay]s--! out]1 longitud9al & ! inn] circul> lay]1 & an ext]nal s]\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,hi/ological /udies ( v>i\s anatomical p>ts4 ,a4 ,a transv]se section ( ! fir/ portion ( ! esophagus ( a f[l4 #a1 ,! out] longitud9al muscul> lay]4 #b1 ,! circul> muscul> lay]4 #c1 ,! submucosa4 #d1 ,! muscul>is mucosa4 #e1 ,/roma4 #f1 ,epi!lial lay]4 #g1 ,! l5ticul> gl&s4 #h1 ,! lum54 ,b4 ,a transv]se section ( ! prov5triculus4 #a1 ,! out] longitud9al muscul> lay]4 #b1 ,! middle muscul> lay]4 #c1 ,! inn] longitud9al muscul> lay]4 #d1 ,/roma4 #e1 ,! muscul>is mucosa4 #f1 ,! submucosa4 #g1 ,/roma4 #h1 ,tubul> gl&s4 #i1 ,tubulo-alveol> gl&s4 #aj1 ,a tubulo-alveol> gl& ) ! tubul> gl&s cut transv]sely1 #aa1 ,! lum5 ( ! prov5triculus4 ,c4 ,a section ( ! inn] wall ( ! gizz>d4 #a1 ,! hyal9e muc\s membrane4 #b1 ,bran*$ tubul> gl&s4 #c1 ,submucosa4 #d1 ,muscle4 #e1 ,a connective tissue septum4 ,d4 ,a transv]se section ( ! small inte/9es4 #a1 ,! out] longitud9al muscul> lay]4 #b1 ,! inn] circul> muscul> lay]4 #c1 ,! muscul>is mucosa4 #d1 ,! /roma4 #e1 ,brunn]'s gl&s4 #f1 ,a villus4 #g1 ,mass ( lymphoid tissue4 ,e4 ,a transv]se section ?r\gh ! cecum4 #a1 ,! out] longitud9al muscul> lay]4 #b1 ,! inn] circul> muscul> lay]4 #c1 ,! submucosa4 #d1 ,! muscul>is mucosa4 #e1 ,! /roma4 #f1 ,tubul> gl&s4 #g1 ,! lum54 ,f4 ,! c]ebellum %[+ ! arbo-vit4 #a1 ,:ite1 fib] portion4 #b1 ,! granul> lay]4 #c1 ,! lay] ( ,purk9je cells4 #d1 ,! molecul> lay]4 ,! muc\s membrane :i* l9es ! inte/9e is ?ick1 s(t1 & highly vascul>4 ,x has a velvety appe>ance1 due to num]\s long1 ?9 project+ villi4 ,! villi 7,fig4 #cf1 ,a7 are conc]n$ 9 ! absorption ( ! dige/$ food1 absorb+ pr9cipally ! emulsifi$ fats4 ,ea* villus is cov]$ ) a s+le lay] ( high column> epi!lial cells4 ,"s ( ^!1 ! s-call$ goblet cells1 provide muc9 :i* lubricates ! muc\s surface4 ,^! cells are f\nd 9 all muc\s surfaces & prev5t ! surface f becom+ dry4 ,!re are a few goblet cells ne> ! summits ( ! villi4 ,op5+s ( simple inte/9al tubul> gl&s ! duod5al gl&s1 or ! gl&s =m]ly kn[n z ,brunn]'s gl&s1 are locat$ betwe5 ! villi4 ,^! gl&s secrete ! succus ent]icus1 or inte/9al juice4 ,^! op5+s1 or /omata1 are l9$ ) granul> cells4 ,! reaction ( ! cont5ts ( ! small inte/9e is /rongly acid1 b gradually less s 9 proportion to ! di/ance d[n ! inte/9al tract until ! cca are rea*$1 :]e ! reaction is f\nd to be fa9tly acid1 neutral1 or slightly alkal9e4 ,function4--,! function ( ! small inte/9e is t ( dige/ion & absorption4 ,! ,duod5um4 ,location & ,%ape4--,! duod5um1 a small tube1 orig9ates f ! gizz>d ab\t in* to ! "r ( ! entrance ( ! prov5triculus4 ,ext5d+ f left to "r1 x passes "u & beh9d ! gizz>d along ! inn] side ( ! "r abdom9al wall backw>d to ! po/]ior portion ( ! wall1 & a trifle m ?an half way t[>d ! left side1 :]e ! loop re/s4 ,?is loop1 ! duod5al loop1 is ab\t #e in*es 9 l5g? 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #h74 ,! two bran*es ( ! loop ! fir/ & ! second portions or ! desc5d+ & asc5d+ limbs1 are loosely held by connective tissue1 & h ! pancreas lodg$ betwe5 !m4 ,! ,free ,portion ( ! ,small ,inte/9e4 ,location4--,t section ( ! small inte/9e foll[+ ! duod5um is call$ ! free portion ( ! small inte/9e & occupies ! space betwe5 ! abdom9al air-sac & ! m$ian l9e ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x is dispos$ 9 coils & is susp5d$ f ! dorsal wall ( ! abdom5 by a ?9 membrane1 ! mes5t]y4 ,! bile ducts ent] ! small inte/9e ab\t #ad in*es f its po9t ( orig94 ,! pancreas also p\rs its cont5ts into ! small inte/9e4 ,! ,l>ge ,inte/9e 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #ab74 ,location4--,! l>ge inte/9e ext5ds 9 a /raight l9e along ! inf]ior bord] ( ! v]tebral column communicat+ ant]iorly ) ! small inte/9e1 & ! cca & po/]iorly ) ! cloaca4 ,%ape4--,! diamet] ( ! l>ge inte/9e is approximately twice t ( ! small inte/9e4 ,9 f[ls ( av]age size its mean l5g? is #d4fa in*es4 ,! l>ge inte/9e has sometimes be5 spok5 ( z ! rectum1 or /raight gut4 ,/ructure4--,l ! small inte/9e ! l>ge inte/9e has f\r coats3 an inn] muc\s1 a submuc\s1 a middle muscul> & an out] s]\s4 ,! folds ( muc\s membrane ( ! l>ge inte/9e h tubul> gl&s l9$ ) column> cells 7,fig4 #cg1 ,a1 ,no4 #a74 ,function4--,! l>ge inte/9e is simil> 9 function to t ( ! small inte/9e1 9 t dige/ion & absorption may take place )9 x4 ,! ,cca 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #aa74 ,location4--,! f[l has two cca ext5d+ =w>d f _! po9t ( orig9 at ! juncture ( ! small & l>ge inte/9e4 ,%ape4--,! cca av]age #g4fa in*es 9 l5g?4 ,!y are l>ge 9 calib] t[>d ! bl9d extremity & are con/rict$ ne> _! orig94 ,/ructure4--,! p>ietal coats are cont9u$ f ! small inte/9e4 ,eb>? has describ$ an elevat$ body 9 ! ccum1 :i* is locat$ ab\t #d millimet]s f ! op5+ & is compos$ entirely ( lymphoid tissue4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg;,a4--,photomicrograph ( a transv]se section ( l>ge inte/9e & oviduct j ant]ior to ! cloaca1 %[+ ! tubul> gl&s ( ! l>ge inte/9es1 mucosa ( oviduct ) int]v5+ /ructures4 #a1 ,! tubul> gl&s ( l>ge inte/9e1 or rectum4 #b1 ,muscul> wall ( inte/9e4 #c1 ,wall ( ! oviduct4 #d1 ,mucosa ( ! oviduct4 ,! cca are usually p>tly fill$ ) a s(t pultace\s mat]ial ( a pa/y consi/5cy4 ,! ,cloaca 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #ac74 ,location4--,! rectum op5s by a circul>1 valvul> orifice into ! dilat$ portion j 9 front ( ! anus1 :i* dilatation is call$ ! cloaca4 ,%ape4--,! cloaca is saccul> 9 %ape4 ,/ructure4--,! cloaca is divid$ into two portions1 ! coprodeumal & ! urodeumal4 ,t portion ( ! cloaca into :i* ! inte/9e empties is call$ ! coprodeum2 & ! uret] & oviduct empty into ! urodeum4 ,! sem9if]\s tubules1 c>ry+ ! sem5 f ! te/es 9 ! male empty 9 teatlike projections on ! cloacal muc\s membrane into ! urodeumal portion4 ,! cloacal walls are simil> 9 /ructure to ! l>ge inte/9es4 ,on ! dorsal wall ( ! cloaca betwe5 x & ! sp9e1 is a small sac1 call$ ! bursa ( ,fabricius1 :i* has a duct communicat+ ) ! cloaca4 ,! muc\s membrane ( ?is sac is ?r[n into folds & is /udd$ ) gl&s4 ,! bursa ( ,fabricius is l>g] 9 ! "y ?an 9 ! adult bird4 ,x app>5tly atrophies z ! bird becomes old]4 ,:5 ! bird is f\r mon?s old ?is bursa is be/ develop$1 & at ?is age x may be z l>ge z #b or #c c5timet]s 9 diamet]4 ,function4--,! function ( ! cloaca is to give passage way to ! feces1 ! ur9e1 & ! egg & to act z an organ ( copulation4 ,c\rse ( ! ,food4--,! food fir/ ent]s ! m\?1 aft] be+ pick$ up by aid ( ! beak4 ,f "h x passes ?r\gh ! ph>ynx & fir/ portion ( ! esophagus to ! crop1 )\t ma/ication1 z ! bird is n provid$ ) tee?4 ,! food is pass$ f ! crop by aid ( its muscul> walls z ne$$2 !nce ?r\gh ! second portion ( ! esophagus to ! prov5triculus1 an expansion 9 ! dige/ive tube j be=e x t]m9ates 9 ! gizz>d4 ,! gl&s ( ! prov5triculus produce a secretion 9 :i* ! food is soak$ be=e pass+ into ! gizz>d4 ,! gizz>d is provid$ ) /rong muscul> walls :i*1 by aid ( grit1 ?or\ghly r$uce ! food to f95ess4 ,f ! gizz>d ! food passes ?r\gh ! fir/ portion ( ! small inte/9e1 :]e x is subject$ to ! action ( ! bile f ! liv]1 ! pancreatic juice f ! pancreas1 & ( ! succus ent]icus f ! gl&s ( ! inte/9al wall4 ,! food is !n pass$ into ! cca4 ,! indige/ible portion ( ! food passes f ! cca ?r\gh ! l>ge inte/9e1 or rectum1 to ! cloaca & !nce to ! ext]nal _w4 ,! dige/ive functions ( ! bird are v pot5t & rapid4 ,?is comp5sates = ! wa/e caus$ by _! ext5sive1 frequ5t1 & en]getic motions1 & is 9 accordance ) ! rapidity ( _! circulation & _! high /ate ( irritability4 ,,! ,,accessory ,,organs ,,( ,,dige/ion ,! accessory organs ( dige/ion are ! liv]1 pancreas1 & "s anatomi/s include also ! sple54 ,! fir/ two manufacture fluids conta9+ f]m5ts :i* aid 9 splitt+ or dige/+ ! food4 ,! ,liv] 7,figs4 #ca1 #cc & #cd74 ,location4--,! liv]1 hep>1 lies v5trally & po/]iorly to ! he>t4 ,x is relat$ ant]iorly ) ! diaphragm1 inf]iorly ) ! /]num1 po/]iorly ) ! gizz>d & inte/9e1 & sup]iorly ) ! ov>y1 oviduct & prov5triculus & lat]ally ) ! abdom9al wall4 ,%ape4--,! liv] is a volum9\s deep livid br[n gl&1 s(t & friable 9 texture4 ,x is divid$ into two pr9cipal lobes1 a "r & a left4 ,! "r lobe is l>g] ?an ! left4 ,9 ! h5 ( av]age size ! liv] weighs #ce grams4 ,! p>ietal surface is convex & smoo?4 ,! surface :i* lies aga9/ ! visc]a is irregul>ly concave4 ,! visc]al surface furni%es exit = ! bile duct & passage = ! n]ves & blood-vessels4 ,?is "p is call$ ! porta4 ,! left lobe may be cleft f bel[ s deeply z to =m two lobes on t side4 ,/ructure4--,ea* lobe is cov]$ by a d\ble s]\s membrane1 "o closely adh]5t1 ! o!r surr\nd+ ! /ructure loosely4 ,^! tunics1 :i* are reflections ( ! p]itoneum1 are cont9u$ f ! base ( ! liv]1 ov] bo? ! ant]ior1 & ! po/]ior surface4 ,! loose lay] is =m$ by ! air cells surr\nd+ ! lobes4 ,! ?9 bord] ( ! liv] is usually free4 ,! two lobes ( ! liv] are connect$ by a n>r[ i/hmus ( liv] tissue4 ,occasionally !re is a bird 9 :i* !re occurs a lobus ,spigelii locat$ at ! po/]ior ( ! liv] betwe5 ! two pr9cipal lobes4 ,! apex ( ! he>t sacculates ! diaphragm backw>d1 s t "p ( ?is apex lies betwe5 ! "r & ! left lobes 7,fig4 #dc1 ,no4 #f & #g74 ,a ligam5t1 ! falci=m1 ext5ds f ! apex ( ! p]ic>dial membrane1 & atta*+ x r firmly to ! c5tral connective tissue1 or int]lob> ligam5t4 ,?is ligam5t also has atta*m5ts to ! inn] surface ( ! /]num4 ,! broad ligam5t ( ! liv] is =m$ po/]iorly by a fold ( ! p]itoneum4 ,! int]lob>1 or pr9cipal1 ligam5t ( ! liv] is =m$ by a l>ge & /rong duplicature ( ! p]itoneum1 :i* makes a longitud9al division 9 ! abdom9al cavity simil> to ! lat]al division made by ! ?oracic m$ia/9um 9 mammals4 ,x is reflect$ ^u ! p]ic>dium f ! l9ea alba & ! middle l9e ( ! /]num1 & passes deeply into ! int]space ( ! lobes ( ! liv]4 ,x is atta*$ to ^! lobes ?r\gh\t _! :ole l5g? & connects !m bel[ to "o side ( ! gizz>d4 ,! lat]al & po/]ior "p ( ! liv] atta* to ! adjac5t air cells1 & ! :ole viscus is ?us kept fix$ 9 its position dur+ rapid & viol5t movem5ts ( ! bird4 ,! rema9s ( ! umbilical ve9s are traceable )9 ! duplicature ( ! membranes =m+ ! septum4 ,^! rema9s ?us repres5t ! r\nd ligam5t ( mammals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,cellul> /ructure ( liv]1 pancreas1 & tra*ea4 ,a4 ,liv]4 #a1 ,liv] cells4 #b1 ,s9usoid4 #d1 ,nucleus ( cells4 ,b4 ,pancreas4 #a1 ,isl& ( ,lang]hans4 #b1 ,alveol> cells4 #c1 ,duct4 ,c4 ,tra*ea4 #a1 ,ciliat$ epi!lia4 #b1 ,gl&s4 #c1 ,hyal9e c>tilage4 ,d4 ,section ( wall ( ovum at ,fig4 #eg lett] d4 #a1 ,yolk4 #b1 ,granul> membrane4 #c1 ,!ca4 #d1 ,blood-vessel4 ,a microscopic /udy ( ! liv] ( ! f[l %[s a compact mass ( liv] cells polyh$ral 9 %ape1 ) l>ge nuclei 7,fig4 #ch1 ,a74 ,! liv] tissue diff]s f t ( mammals 9 t !re is no cle>ly outl9$ lobul> arrangem5t2 nei!r is ! outl9e ( ! individual cell s well m>k$4 ,! p>5*ymat\s portion is made up ( columns ( liv] tissue4 ,^! columns ana/omose & %[ n>r[ *annels betwe54 ,!y are be/ se5 9 ! "y *ick4 ,function4--,"o ( ! functions ( ! liv] is to secrete bile4 ,a gall-bladd]1 :i* receives "p ( ! bile secret$ by ! "r lobe ( ! liv]1 is locat$ on ! po/]ior face ( ?is lobe4 ,ext5d+ f ?is gall-bladd] !re is a duct1 ! cy/ic duct1 :i* empties into ! small inte/9e t[>d ! extremity ( ! second bran* ( ! duod5al loop4 ,ano!r duct call$ ! hepatic duct1 proce$s directly f ! two lobes ( ! liv] & empties into ! inte/9e j 9 front ( ! cy/ic duct4 ,! ,pancreas 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #ag74 ,location & ,%ape4--,! pancreas1 an organ ly+ 9 ! duod5al loop is a yell[i%-:ite1 lobulat$ gl&1 elongat$ 9 %ape4 ,its av]age l5g? 9 f[ls ( av]age size is #d4if in*es1 & ! av]age weight ab\t #j4jjh p\nd4 ,! pancreas is divid$ into lobes1 :i* 9 turn are divid$ into lobules4 ,/ructure4--,! pancreas has a support+ connective tissue4 ,! lobules are made up ( small alveol> gl&s1 :i* are l9$ ) column> epi!lial cells4 ,! ducts lead+ f ! alveoli are small2 ^! unite to =m l>g] ducts 9 :i* ! epi!lium is tall]4 ,betwe5 ! alveoli ?r\gh\t ! pancreas !re are clu/]s ( polyh$ral cells :i* =m ! isl&s ( ,lang]hans4 ,^! isl&s are said to produce an int]nal secretion1 or hormone1 :i* is absorb$ by ! blood or lymph capill>ies & ?us ent]s ! circulation 7,fig4 #ch1 ,b74 ,function4--,! function ( ! pancreas is to secrete a fluid conta9+ dige/ive f]m5ts4 ,! ,sple5 7,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #ba74 ,location4--,! sple51 or li51 lies 9 a triangle =m$ by ! prov5triculus1 ! liv]1 & ! gizz>d4 ,%ape4--,x is a r$di%-br[n body %ap$ l a buckeye1 is small 9 size1 weigh+ only ab\t #j4jje p\nd4 ,/ructure4--,! out] surface ( ! sple5 is cov]$ by a reflection ( ! p]itoneum4 ,aft] ?is cov]+ is remov$1 !re is obs]v$ a firm1 :ite1 fibr\s lay]1 ! cortical portion4 ,?is cov]+ s5ds into ! int]ior small & l>ge trabecul1 =m+ a framework & divid+ x into ac9i1 or comp>tm5ts4 ,! spaces are fill$ ) a d>k r$ p>5*ymat\s mat]ial call$ spl5ic pulp4 ,! framework1 9 bo? deep & surface portions1 are f\nd ela/ic fib]s & smoo? muscul> fib]s4 ,! sple5 is ess5tially a lymphatic organ1 its peculi> /ructure dep5d+ l>gely ^u ! arrangem5t ( ! blood-vessels4 ,compact lymphatic tissue occurs 9 ! sple5 9 sph]ical1 oval1 or cyl9drical collections ( closely pack$ lymphoid cells4 ,^! masses are kn[n z ! ,malpighian bodies1 or spl5ic corpuscles4 ,!y are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! spl5ic pulp4 ,ea* spl5ic corpuscle conta9s "o or m small art]ies4 ,^! ext5d ne> ! p]iph]y ( ! corpuscle & m r>ely 9 ! c5t]4 ,! spl5ic art]y passes 9 & ! spl5ic ve9s out at ! hilum :i* is locat$ on ! concave1 or atta*$1 side ( ! sple54 ,! spl5ic art]y1 ^u ent]+ ! organ1 at once bran*es1 ! trabecul =m+ a support = ! vessels4 ,aft] ! art]ies h ent]$ ! hilum1 z /at$ above1 !y divide into _m bran*es :i* foll[ ! septa ( ! connective tissue4 ,at fir/ ! art]ies are accompani$ by bran*es ( ! spl5ic ve9s4 ,soon1 h[ev]1 ! art]ies leave ! ve9s & ! septa1 & p5etrate ! spl5ic pulp4 ,9 ! spl5ic pulp ! adv5titia ( ! small] art]ies assume ! "* ( reticul> tissue1 & become infiltrat$ ) lymphoid cells4 ,?is infiltration =ms masses :i* are call$ ! spl5ic corpuscles1 or ,malpighian bodies4 ,! t]m9al art]ies break up into capill>ies1 :i* /ill reta9 an adv5titia1 & empty into bord] spaces1 or s9uses1 sometimes spok5 ( z ampull4 ,^! s9uses 9 turn empty into cav]n\s s9uses ( ! spl5ic pulp4 ,f ^! are f9ally =m$ ! v5ules2 & ! collections ( v5ules =m ! spl5ic ve9s ?r\gh :i* ! blood ga9s exit f ! sple54 ,! ,abdom9al & ,pelvic ,cavities4--,9 birds ! abdom9al cavity is divid$ into two small] cavities by a fibr\s septum4 ,! ant]ior cavity repres5t+ ! abdom9al conta9s ! liv]1 & ! o!r repres5t+ ! pelvic conta9s ! gizz>d1 inte/9es & oviduct4 ,! ,p]itoneum & ! ,mes5t]y4--,! abdom9al & pelvic cavities are l9$ by ! p]itoneum4 ,l all s]\s membranes ?is is compos$ ( a p>ietal & a visc]al portion1 :i* toge!r =m a complete sac1 ) ! organs x cov]s situat$ on ! out] side4 ,! p]itoneum l o!r s]\s membranes consi/s ( a meso!lial & a submeso!lial portion1 ! cells ( ! =m] be+ arrang$ 9 a s+le lay]4 ,s9ce a s]\s membrane is s arrang$ z to l9e a clos$ cavity1 & at ! same "t to cov] its cont5ts1 x foll[s t ! entire membrane mu/ be a clos$ sac1 ! meso!lial lay] be+ on ! inside2 su* a sac is call$ a s]\s sac1 or cavity4 ,synovial membranes are also reg>d$ z a v>iety ( s]\s membranes4 ,! fold1 or lay]1 ( ! membrane :i* l9es ! cavity is call$ ! p>ietal1 t :i* cov]s ! great] "p ( ! organs conta9$ !re9 is call$ ! visc]al portion2 ! two surfaces contact+1 & glid+ ^u ea* o!r1 are lubricat$ by a fluid secretion conta9$ 9 ! sac2 h5ce "o use ( ^! membranes is to prev5t friction betwe5 ! walls ( cavities & ! organs conta9$ !re94 ,s]\s membranes l9e ! abdom9al cavity1 p]ic>dium1 cavities ( ! he>t & is cont9u\s ?r\gh\t ! vascul> /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a transv]se section ( body ( h5 ?r\gh #ae1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,esophagus4 #c1 ,tra*ea4 #d1 ,sk94 #e1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,! s]\s membrane besides cov]+ ! ext]nal surface ( ! visc]a1 d\ble folds pass f "o organ to ano!r1 or f an organ to ! p>ietes ( ! cavity4 ,^! d\ble folds ( ! p]itoneum are kn[n z ligam5ts1 or z mes5t]ies4 ,9 ligam5ts ! two folds are /r5g!n$ by an int]pos$ lay] ( fibro-ela/ic tissue4 ,a mes5t]y is a broad1 d\ble fold ( p]itoneum1 atta*$ to ! abdom9al p>ietes above1 & conta9+ a portion ( ! inte/9e 9 its free or remote extremity4 ,betwe5 its folds we f9d blood-vessels1 n]ves1 & lymphatics or lacteals1 h5ce x p]mits vascul> & n]v\s communications ) ! organ atta*$ to x4 ,! free portion ( ! small inte/9e is atta*$ to ! free m>g9 ( ! mes5t]y4 ,,! ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,visc]al ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,dome/ic ,,f[l ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 ?r\gh #ad1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,esophagus4 #c1 ,tra*ea ne> inf]ior l>ynx4 #d1 ,lungs4 #e1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,figure #cc %[s a f[l ) ! left abdom9al wall & ! left ?oracic wall remov$4 ,no4 #a 9 ?is figure %[s ! base ( ! he>t 9 front ( ! left lobe ( ! liv]4 ,above ! liv] is ! prov5triculus2 above ?is1 ! diaphragm2 & above ! diaphragm & ! base ( ! he>t ! left lung occupy+ ! sup]ior "p ( ! ?oracic cavity1 & t !re is no di/9ct pleural sac1 z 9 mammals b t ! lung pu%es out betwe5 ! ribs1 ?us press+ aga9/ ! ribs on ! inn] & ! lat]al sides4 ,! gizz>d is back ( ! liv]1 to ! left side ( ! abdom9al cavity1 & b5ea? & 9 front ( ! duod5al loop4 ,! small inte/9e f ?is side is above ! gizz>d4 ,sup]o-ant]ior to ! gizz>d is ! bl9d end ( ! ccum4 ,! pancreas is )9 ! duod5al loop4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 at #ab1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,esophagus4 #c1 ,inf]ior l>ynx4 #d1 ,base ( ! he>t4 #e1 ,aorta4 #f1 ,v5a cava4 #g1 ,lungs4 #h1 ,sk94 #i1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,figure #cd %[s ! visc]a f ! "r side aft] ! removal ( ! "r abdom9al & ! "r ?oracic wall4 ,! base ( ! he>t is 9 front ( ! "r lobe ( ! liv]4 ,above ^! ! "r lung occupies ! upp] "p ( ! ?oracic cavity z 9 ! prec$+ illu/ration4 ,j back ( ?is is ! ant]ior lobe ( ! kidney4 ,! gall-bladd] is obs]v$ at ,no4 #i on ! "r lobe ( ! liv]4 ,j inf]ior to a longitud9al c5tral l9e is ! duod5al loop1 betwe5 ! limbs ( :i* is se5 ! pancreas4 ,above ?is loop ! cca are locat$4 ,! gizz>d is n visible f ! "r side2 on ?is side po/]ior to ! liv] is ! small inte/9e4 ,sup]ior to ?is at ,no4 #g ! rectum4 ,! relative position ( ! visc]al organs 9 ! m$ian l9e is obs]v$ 9 ,fig4 #ce4 ,no4 #a ( ?is figure %[s ! /ump ( ! fir/ portion ( ! esophagus1 & ,no4 #b1 ! left wall ( ! crop4 ,foll[+ ?is1 & locat$ j bel[ ! v]tebr is ! second portion ( ! esophagus4 ,! major portion ( ! crop is locat$ on ! "r side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 at #aa1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,v]tebra4 #c1 ,sp9\s process ( v]tebra4 #d1 ,lungs4 #e1 ,esophagus4 #f1 ,p]ic>dial sac4 #g1 ,section$ surface ( he>t4 #h1 ,auricle ( he>t4 #i1 ,blood clot 9 "r auricle4 #aj1 ,section ( /]num4 #aa1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,x w be not$ t ! second portion ( ! esophagus passes ov] ! base ( ! he>t & ! sup]ior "p ( ! liv]1 & !n t]m9ates 9 ! prov5triculus4 ,! prov5triculus ext5ds d[nw>d & empties into ! gizz>d4 ,?is organ lies ant]o-lat]ally to ! gizz>d1 sup]o-po/]ior to ! liv]1 & to ! left ( ! sple54 ,! sple5 lies 9 a triangle =m$ by ! liv]1 ! prov5triculus1 & ! gizz>d4 ,! he>t is not$ to lie sup]o-ant]ior to ! liv]1 & betwe5 ! ant]ior portion ( ! fissure =m$ by ! "r & ! left lobe4 ,! ov>y is locat$ back ( ! diaphragm at ! ant]ior end ( ! kidney & bel[ ! inf]ior surface ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebr4 ,! bulk ( ! float+ portion ( ! small inte/9e is locat$ above ! gizz>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 at #ac1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,body ( v]tebra4 #c1 ,sup]ior sp9\s process ( v]tebra4 #d1 ,lungs4 #e1 ,esophagus4 #f1 ,he>t4 #g1 ,"r & left lobes ( liv]4 #h1 ,/]num4 #i1 ,sk94 #aj1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,a transv]se ant]ior section ( a normal lay+ h5 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ci1 ! section be+ made at #ae ( ,fig4 #cd4 ,at ?is po9t ! esophagus lies c5trally & above ! tra*ea4 ,figure #dj %[s a transv]se ant]ior section ?r\gh ! ?oracic region at #ad ( ,fig4 #cd4 ,at ?is po9t ! esophagus is slightly to ! "r ( & is sup]ior to ! tra*ea4 ,at ?is level ! apex ( ! lung is section$4 ,?is is 9 ! region ( ! c]vical air-sac4 ,figure #da %[s a po/]ior section at #ab ( ,fig4 #cc4 ,! esophagus "h is above & to ! "r ( ! inf]ior l>ynx1 & directly bel[ & betwe5 ! lungs4 ,! inf]ior l>ynx is above ! base ( ! he>t4 ,figure #db %[s a transv]se ant]ior section made at #aa ( ,fig4 #cc4 ,x %[s t at ?is level ! esophagus is c5trally locat$ & passes ov] ! base ( ! he>t4 ,! he>t occupies ! l[] portion ( ! ?orax & ! lungs ! upp]4 ,figure #dc %[s a photograph ( a transv]se ant]ior section ( ! body made at #ac ( ,fig4 #cd4 ,at ?is level ! apex ( ! he>t lies )9 ! ant]ior fissure ( ! liv]4 ,! section$ portion ( ! he>t %[s ! l[] portion ( ! v5tricle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 at #ab1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,articul> surface ( v]tebral segm5t4 #c1 ,end ( rib4 #d1 ,lungs4 #e1 ,prov5triculus4 #f1 ,liv] %[+ ,glisson's capsule4 #g1 ,/]num4 #h1 ,pectoral muscles4 #i1 ,sk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 at #aj1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,body ( v]tebra4 #c1 ,lungs4 #d1 ,ova4 #e1 ,prov5triculus4 #f1 ,liv]4 #g1 ,/]num4 #h1 ,sk94 #i1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,9 ?is figure ! lungs %[1 on ! section$ surface1 ! ends ( "s ( ! l>g] bron*i4 ,! esophagus is locat$ above ! he>t4 ,%[+ ! relations ( ! visc]al organs back ( ! he>t girdle1 photograph numb] #dd1 gives an ant]ior section made at #ab1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,! lungs are spread out occupy+ ! po/]ior ?oracic region & bel[ at ,no4 #aj is ! diaphragm4 ,! diaphragm does n appe> to h t rigidity & firmness ( position z 9 mammals4 ,x is r rudim5t>y4 ,bel[ ! left lung & above ! left lobe ( ! liv] is ! prov5triculus4 ,note t ! viscus is empty & t ! muc\s membrane is ?r[n into folds4 ,at ?is po9t ! liv] occupies mu* ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,figure #de is a view ( an ant]ior section made at #aj1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,9 ?is section ! lungs are decreas+ 9 calib]4 ,! liv] occupies mu* ( ! space 9 ! l[] "r abdom9al quadrant1 & above & to ! "r is ! ov>y ) _m ( ! ova develop+ yolks4 ,bel[ ,no4 #d :i* is a develop+ yolk1 is ! prov5triculus4 ,figure #df is a view ( an ant]ior section made at #i1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,at ?is level are %[n section$ surfaces ( ! kidneys1 :i* lie on ei!r side ( ! sp9al column4 ,bel[ ! sp9al column & occupy+ ! left upp] quadrant is ! ov>y conta9+ ova 9 ! process ( develop+ yolks4 ,to ! "r is ! section$ surface ( "o ( ! cca & bel[ ?is & on ! "r side is ! section$ ends ( _m ( ! loops ( ! float+ portion ( ! small inte/9e4 ,occupy+ ! left l[] quadrant is ! section$ surface ( ! gizz>d & on ! abdom9al floor & to ! "r ( ! gizz>d1 ! po/]ior end ( ! "r lobe ( ! liv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a h5 at #i1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,v]tebra4 #c1 ,kidneys4 #d1 ,ov>y4 #e1 ,ccum4 #f1 ,small inte/9e4 #g1 ,gizz>d4 #h1 ,"r lobe ( liv]4 #i1 ,sk94 #aj1 ,pectoral muscles4 ,,! ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,visc]al ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,baby ,,*ick ,!re is approximately #dg p] c5t4 ( ! yolk reta9$ 9 ! abdom9al yolk sac ( ! baby *ick at hat*+4 ,figure #dg %[s a photograph ( a longitud9al section ?r\gh a baby *ick4 ,?is figure %[s all ! po/]ior portion ( ! abdom9al cavity occupi$ ) abdom9al yolk4 ,! abdom9al visc]a are pu%$ =w>d1 & z ! yolk is gradually absorb$ ! visc]al organs gradually occupy _! normal position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,an ant]o-po/]ior section ?r\gh ! body ( a baby *ick j hat*$4 #a1 ,abdom9al yolk sac4 #b1 ,gizz>d4 #c1 ,liv]4 #d1 ,he>t4 #e1 ,inte/9es4 #f1 ,sp9al cord4 #g1 ,c]ebrum4 #h1 ,c]ebellum4 #i1 ,fat 9 ! po/-occipital region4 #aj1 ,! ?ymus gl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,transv]se sections ( ! body ( a baby *ick at hat*+4 ,r1 ,"r side4 ,l1 ,left side4 ,a4 ,a transv]se section at ,a1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,esophagus4 #c1 ,entrance to ?orax4 #d1 ,/ubs ( ! w+s4 ,b4 ,a transv]se section at ,b1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,esophagus4 #c1 ,lungs4 #d1 ,he>t4 ,c4 ,a transv]se section ?r\gh ! body at ,c1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,lungs4 #c1 ,esophagus4 #d1 ,liv]4 #e1 ,he>t4 ,d4 ,a transv]se section at ,d1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,prov5triculus4 #c1 ,liv]4 #d1 ,gizz>d4 #e1 ,inte/9e4 #f1 ,kidneys4 #g1 ,gall-bladd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,transv]se section ?r\gh ! body ( a baby *ick4 ,e at ,e1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,kidneys4 #c1 ,gizz>d4 #d1 ,inte/9es4 #e1 ,unabsorb$ yolk4 #f1 ,/ubs ( legs4 ,f4 ,a section at ,f1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,sp9al cord4 #b1 ,kidneys4 #c1 ,inte/9e4 #d1 ,unabsorb$ yolk4 ,g4 ,a section at ,g1 ,fig4 #ej4 #a1 ,anus4 #b1 ,umbilicus4 ,a section ?r\gh ?is body ,fig4 #dg at ,a is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dh1 ,a4 ,at ?is po9t ! esophagus appe>s bel[ ! v]tebral column4 ,figure #dh1 ,b1 a section ?r\gh ! body at ,fig4 #dg1 ,b1 %[s ! apex ( ! lungs4 ,9 a m$ian l9e & bel[ ! lungs is ! esophagus4 ,note ! muc\s membrane ?r[n into folds4 ,"h ! he>t is section$1 %[+ bo? auricles & bo? v5tricles4 ,?is is a view look+ =w>d4 ,figure #dh1 ,c1 is a view ( a po/]ior section made at ,fig4 #dg1 ,c4 ,x %[s ! same relations ( ! esophagus & lungs1 b %[s at ?is level bo? ! "r & ! left lobe ( ! liv]4 ,betwe5 ^! lobes we note ! section$ apex ( ! he>t4 ,figure #dh1 ,d %[s a po/]ior section at ,fig4 #dg1 ,d4 ,at ?is level ! kidneys are above & inf]o-lat]ally to ! sp9al column4 ,! inte/9es are bel[ ! kidneys2 & on ! left side1 betwe5 ! kidneys & left lobe ( ! liv]1 & ne> ! abdom9al wall1 is ! prov5triculus4 ,occupy+ ! major portion ( ! inf]ior abdom9al cavity are ! "r & ! left lobe ( ! liv]1 & betwe5 ^! ! ant]ior bord] ( ! gizz>d4 ,note ! gizz>d sitt+ at an angle incl9+ t[>d ! left side4 ,figure #di1 ,e %[s a section at ,fig4 #dg1 ,e4 ,"h ! gizz>d occupies ! left l[] abdom9al quadrant4 ,to ! "r are ! inte/9es2 & directly above ! gizz>d is a small portion ( ! ant]ior end ( ! abdom9al yolk sac4 ,inf]o-lat]ally are ! kidneys4 ,figure #di1 ,f1 %[s ! kidneys simil>ly locat$ z 9 ! prec$+2 & j bel[ is ! rectum susp5d$ by ! mes5t]y4 ,! re/ ( ! cavity is occupi$ by ! abdom9al yolk4 ,,! ,,uro-,,g5ital ,,sy/em ,! uro-g5ital app>atus1 or app>atus uro-g5italis1 consi/s ( two gr\ps ( organs3 ! ur9>y & ! g5ital4 ,! =m] elaborate & remove ! *ief excretory fluid1 ! ur9e2 & ! latt] s]ve = ! =mation1 developm5t1 & expulsion ( ! products ( ! reproductive gl&s4 ,,! ,,ur9>y ,,app>atus 7,fig4 #ej & ,fig4 #ea74 ,! ur9>y app>atus ( ! bird consi/s ( two kidneys1 f ea* ( :i* a uret] ext5ds & empties into ! cloaca4 ,! ,kidneys4 ,location4--,! kidneys are locat$ 9 excavations 9 ! pelvic ro(4 ,!y are relat$ int]nally ) ! po/]ior aorta & v5a cava1 sup]o-int]nally ) ! lumbo-sacral v]tebr & sup]iorly & sup]o-ext]nally ) ! ilium4 ,! abdom9al visc]al organs lie bel[ ! kidneys4 ,! kidneys are ext]nal to or above ! p]itoneum4 ,%ape4--,9 ! f[l ( av]age size ! kidneys are #b in*es long & are made up ( ?ree irregul> lobes4 ,! ant]ior lobe is usually ! l>ge/ & ! middle ! smalle/4 ,! ant]ior bord] ( ! fir/ lobe is locat$ opposite ! la/ true dorsal articulation4 ,! ant]ior lobe is call$ ! ant]ior pelvic or ilio-lumb> lobe1 ! middle ! middle pelvic or ilio-sacral lobe1 & ! po/]ior ! po/]ior pelvic lobe4 ,/ructure4--,! :ole kidney has a f9e transp>5t cov]+4 ,! d>k1 br[ni%-r$ p>5*yme c be se5 ?r\gh ?is membrane4 ,x has a blood vascul> sy/em & a ur9>y tubul> sy/em4 ,! l>g] art]ies1 ! ve9s1 & ! n]ves pass betwe5 ! lobules1 & ! small] vessels betwe5 ! tubules4 ,^! =m f9e network or plexuses4 ,! lymphatic vessels are v few1 & are ma9ly f\nd on ! surface4 ,! kidneys are pi]c$ 9 _! po/]ior ?ird by ! ext]nal iliac art]y & at ab\t its middle by ! v5\s bran*es =m+ ! po/]ior v5a cava4 ,! lobes are made up ( lobules1 :i* are pla9ly p]ceptible f ! ext]nal surface4 ,ea* lobule is app>5tly a unit )9 itself4 ,x receives its blood supply f small bran*es ( ! r5al art]y & is made up ( a cortical or p]iph]al portion :i* conta9s ! glom]ules 7,fig4 #eb1 ,a7 & a m$ull>y portion1 :i* is made up ( tubules1 or ur9>y canals1 art]ies1 ve9s1 & n]ves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,photograph %[+ sp9al cord & relative positions ( ! kidney1 lung & he>t4 #a1 ,he>t4 #b1 ,lung4 ,note ! ind5tations made by ! ribs4 #c1 ,! ant]ior1 middle & po/]ior lobes ( ! kidney4 ,! lobules are pla9ly visible4 #d1 ,! lumbo-sacral segm5t ( ! sp9al cord4 #e1 ,t]m9al cord filam5t4 #f1 ,! c]vico-dorsal segm5t ( ! sp9al cord4 #g1 ,! bra*ial n]ve plexus4 #h & #i1 ,! lumbo-sacral plexus4 #h1 ,! is*iadic n]ve4 #i1 ,! lumb> n]ves4 ,! ur9>y canals are divid$ into two k9ds1 namely1 ! out] & ! inn] tubul> sy/ems4 ,! out] canals1 call$ ! tubul ur9if]i corticalis1 are v small 9 calib] & are locat$ 9 ! lobules4 ,! r5al art]y 7,fig4 #ec1 ,no4 ,b1 #c7 break+ up into art]ioles 9 ! kidney1 & f9ally rea*+ ! cortical portion ( ! lobules1 =m capill>y plexuses 9 ! %ape ( m9ute sph]es1 :i* are ! glom]ules 7,fig4 #ec1 ,no4 ,c1 #c & ,b1 #e74 ,ar\nd ea* glom]ule !re is =m$ a capsule call$ ,b[man's capsule1 :i* is ! beg9n+ ( ! ur9if]\s tubule4 ,?is entire mass is call$ ! ,malpighian body1 or r5al corpuscle4 ,?is capsule !n ext5ds z ! ur9>y1 or secret+ tubule1 be+ at fir/ con/rict$1 !n convolut$1 & t]m9ates into a second portion1 ! desc5d+ limb ( ,h5le4 ,?is portion ( ! tubule becomes con/rict$4 ,x !n =ms ! loop ( ,h5le & asc5ds z ! second portion1 or second limb ( ,h5le1 :i* is aga9 ( great] diamet]4 ,! top ( ! secret+ tubule is slightly wavy & empties into ! collect+ tubule along ) _m o!rs4 ,^! collect+ tubules 9 turn m]ge into l>ge tubules :i* f9ally empty into ! uret] 7,fig4 #ec1 ,no4 #ad74 ,^! collective bundles correspond to ! pyramids ( ! kidneys ( mammals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,! kidneys4 #a;a1 ,! po/]ior4 #a;b1 ! middle & #a;c1 ! ant]ior lobes ( ! kidney4 #b1 ,! po/]ior aorta4 #c1 ,! ext]nal iliac or crural art]y4 #d1 ,! is*iadic art]y4 #e1 ,! sacralis m$ia art]y4 #f1 ,! uret] :i* empties into ! cloaca at #g4 #h1 ,! ext]nal iliac ve94 #i1 ,! int]nal iliac ve94 #aj1 ,! iliacus communis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,a4 ,photomicrograph ( a section ( a kidney %[+ ?ree lobules4 #a1 ,cortical portion ( lobule %[+ glom]uli4 #b1 ,! c5tral or m$ull>y portion ( ! lobule4 #c1 ,! out] surface ( ! kidney4 ,b4 ,salts f ! ur9e ( a h54 #a1 ,uric acid cry/als4 #b4 ,sodium urate cry/als4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,! r5al /ructure4 ,a4 #a1 ,capill>y blood-vessel4 #b1 ,desc5d+ limb ( ,h5le4 #c1 ,collect+ tubule4 #d1 ,asc5d+ limb ( ,h5le4 ,b4 #a1 ,bran* ( r5al art]y4 #b1 ,! desc5d+ or m$ull>y bran*4 #c1 ,! asc5d+ bran*4 #d1 ,! art]iole tak+ "p 9 ! =mation ( ! glom]ule4 #e1 ,! glom]ule4 #f1 ,b[man's capsule4 #g1 ,blood-vessel ext5d+ f ! glom]ule4 #h1 ,! ve9 ( ! m$ull>y "p ( ! lobule4 #i1 ,! neck4 #aj1 ,! convolut$ tubule4 #aa1 ,! desc5d+ limb ( ,h5le4 #ab1 ,h5le's loop4 #ac1 ,! asc5d+ loop ( ,h5le4 #ad1 ,! collect+ tubule4 ,c4 #a1 ,section ?r\gh a convolut$ tubule4 #b1 ,b[man's capsule4 #c1 ,! glom]ule4 ,! neck ( ! ur9if]\s tubule z x em]ges f ,b[man's capsule is %ort & n>r[ & is l9$ ) a few cuboidal cells4 ,t[>d ! glom]ul> end ! cells are ( a transitional =m gradually m]g+ into ! flat squam\s type peculi> to ,b[man's capsule4 ,! fir/ convolut$ tubule is l9$ ) irregul> cuboidal or pyramidal epi!lial cells4 ,! desc5d+ limb ( ,h5le's loop is n>r[ & is l9$ ) a simple lay] ( flat epi!lial cells4 ,9 ! loop ! epi!lium *anges f ! flat type 9 ! desc5d+ limb to ! cuboidal 9 ! asc5d+ limb4 ,! asc5d+ limb ( ,h5le's loop aga9 becomes broad] & is l9$ ) l[ cuboidal cells4 ,! second convolut$1 or tortu\s1 tubule is l9$ ) l[ cuboidal cells z are also ! collect+ tubules4 ,! collect+ tubules orig9ate f e "p ( ! int]nal sub/ance ( ! lobules1 & ext5d+ to ! gyrations1 unit+ 9 ! p9ni=m /ructure & trav]s+ to ! m>g9 ( ! lobules1 foll[+ along ! unev5 surface1 inf]o-lat]ally & t[>d ! m$ian body l9e1 f9ally empty into ! uret]4 ,!re are _m art]ial bran*es giv5 (f f ! art]ia r5alis4 ,! art]ies :i* supply ! kidneys are giv5 (f f ! po/]ior aorta & is*iadic art]y4 ,z soon z ^! art]ies ent] ! kidney !y break up into two sy/ems4 ,"o sy/em supplies ! kidney sub/ance ) n\ri%m5t 9 ! =m ( nutri5t blood2 ! second sy/em supplies ! glom]ules ) :at may be consid]$ functional blood 7,gad[74 ,! second sy/em ( art]ies bran*es into ! small art]ia int]lobul>is1 :i* pass betwe5 ! lobules ( ! kidneys :]e !y give (f side bran*es :i* p5etrate ! cortical portion ( ! lobules & =m ! capill>y plexus1 ! glom]ule4 ,! art]iole t ent]s into ! /ructure ( ! glom]ule is l9$ ) endo!lial cells & is surr\nd$ by a few muscle fib]s & a f9e network ( connective tissue4 ,! vessel t c>ries ! blood away is simil>ly con/ruct$4 ,function4--,9 ! glom]ules ! liquid portion ( ! ur9e is filt]$ out ( ! blood1 :i* ur9e fl[s ?r\gh ! ur9if]\s tubules & passes f ! kidney ?r\gh ! uret]4 ,9 ! cubical cells are extract$ ! solid portions ( ! ur9e :i* also pass ?r\gh ! tubules ) ! liquid4 ,! ur9>y secretion1 z f\nd 9 ! uret]1 does n conta9 mu* liquid1 b1 on ! contr>y1 is made up ( a pa/y mat]ial consi/+ ( salts :i* are1 = ! mo/ "p1 uric acid cry/als & sodium urate 7,fig4 #eb1 ,b74 ,?is mat]ial becomes h>d1 l cem5t1 soon aft] be+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,?is secretion may be not$ z a :iti% pa/y mat]ial on ! out] p>ts ( ! feces1 or dropp+s1 void$ by ! birds4 ,! ,uret]4 ,location4--,! uret] ext5ds along ! inf]ior surface ( ! kidney4 ,x has its orig9 ne> ! ant]ior extremity ( ! kidney1 & pass+ po/]iorly ! entire l5g? ( ! kidney receives tribut>y collect+ tubules1 & t]m9ates 9 ! upp] wall ( ! cloaca 9 ! urodeumal portion4 ,%ape4--,! uret] gradually enl>ges 9 diamet] until x rea*es ! po/]ior bord] ( ! kidney1 & !n ma9ta9s ab\t ! same calib] ?r\gh\t ! re/ ( its c\rse4 ,/ructure4--,! uret] wall is made up ( ?ree coats z foll[s3 muc\s1 muscul> & fibr\s4 ,function4--,! uret]s s]ve z a passage way = ! ur9e f ! kidneys to ! cloaca4 ,,! ,,male ,,g5]ative ,,organs 7,fig4 #ed7 ,! male g5]ative organs 9 ! f[l consi/ ( two te/icles & an excretory app>atus1 ! vas def]5s1 = ea*4 ,! ,te/icles4 ,location4--,! te/icles are locat$ 9 ! sublumb> region ( ! abdom9al cavity1 beh9d ! lungs1 bel[ ! ant]ior extremity ( ! kidneys1 & opposite ! la/ ?ree ribs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,! pelvic organs ( a cock]el4 ,a1 ,te/es4 ,b1 ,rectum4 ,c1 ,cloaca4 ,d1 ,vas def]5s4 ,e1 ,kidney4 ,f1 ,adr5al gl&4 ,g1 ,lungs4 ,h1 ,uret]4 ,%ape4--,! te/icles are ellipsoid 9 %ape2 _! size v>ies ) ! diff]5t species ( birds4 ,! two 9 ! same bird are usually ( ! same size1 ?\gh "o te/icle may be slightly l>g] ?an ! o!r4 ,9 a summ>y ( a l>ge numb] ( weights ( ! te/icles ( t5 mon?s old cock]els1 ! av]age weight 0 #j4jba p\nd ea*4 ,! av]age measurem5ts 7 #b in*es 9 ! major diamet] & #a in* 9 ! m9or diamet]4 ,9 ! cock]el be=e sexual maturity1 :i* is d5ot$ by ! male bird's cr[+1 ! te/icles are v small4 ,!y resemble1 9 %ape1 a navy bean & are yell[i%-:ite 9 color4 ,/ructure4--,! te/icle is surr\nd$ by a ?9 fibr\s capsule1 :i*1 9 ! mature cock1 is v vascul>4 ,?is capsule s5ds into ! int]ior ( ! gl&1 septa :i* =m ! framework1 or support+ /ructure4 ,?is framework =ms ! spaces 9 :i* are locat$ ! gl&ul> sub/ance4 ,! gl&ul> portion consi/s ( ! tubuli sem9if]i1 :i* are l9$ ) cubical cells4 ,! framework support+ ^! tubules gives passage to art]ial bran*es ( ! sp]matic art]y1 :i* furni% an abundant blood supply2 ! framework also supports ! ve9s return+ ! blood f ! te/icle4 ,! sem9if]\s tubules end 9 bl9d extremities 9 ! epididymus or globus m9or1 & unite 9 ! sem9if]\s canals4 ,all art]ies1 ve9s1 lymphatics1 & sem9if]\s tubules ent] or leave ?r\gh ! globus m9or at ! atta*$ portion ( ! te/icle4 ,! epididymis is made up l>gely ( convolut$ tubules :i* are ! cont9uation ( ! secret+ tubules ( ! globus major4 ,! walls ( ! tubules ( ! globus m9or become ?ick] & are provid$ ) smoo? muscle cells 9 addition to ! connective tissue & endo!lial l9+4 ,! convolut$ tubules empty into ! vas def]5s4 ,! epididymus is cov]$ by ! fibr\s capsule2 :i* corresponds to ! tunica albug9ea ( mammals & may be consid]$ z a reflection or modification ( ! visc]al p]itoneum4 ,! sub/ance ( ! te/icle is v s(t2 9 fact1 x may be said to be ( ! consi/5cy ( encephaloid mat]ial4 ,x is made up ( secret+ tubules 9 :i* are f\nd ! sp]matozoa2 x also conta9s cells :i* produce an int]nal secretion1 or hormone4 ,!re is also produc$ "s fluid 9 :i* ! sp]matozoa float1 ! :ole mat]ial manufactur$ con/itut+ ! sem54 ,! sp]matozoa ( ! f[l are provid$ ) long cyl9drical bodies1 :i* may be /raight or wavy 7,fig4 #ee1 ,a74 ,! body ( ! sp]matozoon is obtuse ant]iorly1 & po/]iorly1 tap]s into a filim5t>y tail1 or flagellum1 ( v>y+ l5g?1 by ! aid ( :i* ! sp]matozoon moves ab\t 9 ! fluid4 ,! hi/ological /ructure ( ! te/icles ( ! baby *ick at hat*+ is approximately "o-half :ite fibr\s connective tissue4 ,! sem9al tubules are small & widely di/ribut$ among ! connective tissue4 ,! cells ( ^! tubules possess r l>ge nuclei1 r\nd 9 %ape1 ) l99 network & *romat9 granules1 typical ( re/+ g]m cells4 ,z ! bird develops ! te/icles gr[1 ! sem9al tubules become l>g]1 & ! am\nt ( connective tissue correspond+ly less4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,a4 ,sp]matozoa ( a cock4 a1 ,! sp]matozoa4 b1 ,! head4 c1 ,! tail4 ,b4 ,! oviduct ( a h5 remov$4 ,a1 ,! oviduct4 ,b1 ,! sup]ior ligam5t4 ,c1 ,! inf]ior ligam5t4 ,note ! oviduct ?r[n 9 folds & ! ana/omos+ blood-vessels4 ,9 addition to ! tubules1 ! sp]matog5ic cells1 & ! connective tissue1 !re is also 9 ! te/icles m or less fat4 ,!re is a small am\nt ( connective tissue betwe5 ! sem9if]\s tubules1 9 :i* locations !re are also clu/]s ( polyh$ral cells1 ) r\nd nuclei1 o!rs are ! int]/itial cells4 ,! ,vas ,def]5s 7,fig4 #ed1 ,d74 ,location & ,%ape4--,ext5d+ f ! epididymus1 is ! vas def]5s :i* runs backw>d on ! inf]o-int]nal surface ( ! kidney & to ! outside ( ! uret]4 ,x is v tortu\s pass+ on ! inf]o-lat]al surface ( ! kidney 9 company ) ! uret] & becom+ some:at exp&$ po/]iorly x t]m9ates 9 ! upp] wall ( ! cloaca 9 a r small papilla locat$ 9 ! uro-g5ital portion ( ! cloaca ant]ior to ! m\? ( ! uret]4 ,?is papilla is ! organ ( copulation & 9 ducks is v l>ge1 & spirally elongat$1 & retractile =m+ a k9d ( p5is4 ,! papilla is trav]s$ by a furr[ on ! upp] surface ?r\gh :i* ! sem5 fl[s4 ,/ructure4--,! vas def]5s is cov]$ & support$ by ! p]itoneum4 ,its wall is made up ( a fibr\s /ructure 9 :i* may be f\nd smoo? muscle fib]s4 ,! wall does n possess gl&s4 ,x is l9$ ) column> epi!lium4 ,! po/]ior end is exp&$ & t]m9ates into a papilla4 ,! base ( ! papilla is surr\nd$ by a plexus ( art]ies & ve9s1 :i* s]ve z an erectile organ dur+ ! v5]eal orgasm1 :5 ! fossa ( ! turgid papilla is ev]t$1 & ! sem5 br\ght into contact ) ! simil>ly ev]t$ orifice ( ! oviduct ( ! female1 along :i* ! sp]matozoa pass by undulatory movem5ts ( _! cili>y app5dage1 or tail4 ,,! ,,female ,,g5]ative ,,organs 7,fig4 #ef7 ,! female g5]ative organs consi/ ( "o ov>y & an oviduct4 ,location4--,! ov>y is locat$ simil>ly to ! te/icles ( ! male bird1 9 ! sublumb> region ( ! abdom9al cavity1 j at ! ant]ior end ( ! kidneys1 po/]ior to ! lungs1 & slightly to ! left ( ! c5t]4 ,%ape4--,9 ! pullet ! ov>ian mass appe>s some:at l a bun* ( grapes1 be+ made up ( f #cejj to #dejj small1 :iti% sph]es1 :i* repres5t ! undevelop$ ova1 & :i* 9 ! active /ate are develop$1 "o by "o1 into yolks ) _! bla/od]ms4 ,f ! bla/od]m ! fetus may lat] be develop$4 ,9 ! active ov>y ( ! lay+ h5 ! ov>ian mass is ( consid]able size1 z x conta9s ova 9 diff]5t /ages ( developm5t4 ,only "o ovum is completely develop$ at a "t1 ?\gh occasionally !re may be only a few h\rs betwe5 ! maturity ( successive ova4 ,! ova receives n\ri%m5t f ! blood-vessels ( ! capsule1 :i* vessels are bran*es ( ! ov>ian art]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,functionat+ female g5]ative organs ( a h54 #a1 ,ova 9 process ( =mation ( yolk4 #b1 ,/igmal l9e at :i* po9t ! capsule ruptures :5 ovum is mature4 #c1 ,! funnel end ( ! oviduct4 #d1 ,! oviduct torn loose & laid to "o side1 ! album9-secret+ portion4 #e1 ,! %ell membrane secret+ portion4 #f1 ,! album94 #g1 ,! yolk4 #h1 ,! %ell-secret+ portion4 #i1 ,! cloaca4 #aj1 ,! rectum4 ,/ructure4--,! ov>y conta9s v vascul> cellul(ibr\s tissue4 ,! ovum z x develops is atta*$ to ! ov>ian body by means ( a delicate :ite fibr\s p$icle4 ,:5 ! yolk is mature x escapes f ! envelop+ fibr\s capsule by a cleavage ( ! capsule4 ,! cleavage l9e is call$ ! /igm5 7,fig4 #ef1 ,no4 #b74 ,! yolk is surr\nd$ by a v delicate membrane call$ ! vitell9e membrane4 ,! empty sac n[ %r9ks & f9ally disappe>s4 ,! ,egg4--,! pr9cipal divisions ( ! egg are ! yolk1 ! album9 outside ( ! yolk cont5t1 ! %ell membranes & ! %ell 7,fig4 #eh74 ,z /at$1 ! yolk is =m$ 9 ! ov>y1 leav+ ! o!r ?ree portions to be =m$ 9 ! oviduct4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,section ?r\gh ! ov>y ( ! h54 a1 ,! ova4 d1 ,an ovum beg9n+ to receive deposits ( yolk mat]ial4 c1 ,ova f>!r advanc$ 9 yolk =mation4 ,! album9 may be subdivid$ into1 fir/1 a ?9 lay] ( album9 ly+ close ar\nd ! yolk2 second1 a ?ick lay] ( album9 ly+ at ! out] p]iph]y2 & ?ird1 a modification ( ! album9 call$ ! *alaz4 ,! *alaz are twi/$1 d5se cord-l /ructures at ei!r pole ( ! yolk1 "o end ( :i* is adh]5t to ! vitell9e membrane & ! o!r to ! inn] membrane surr\nd+ ! album94 ,! *alaz ?us act z /ays to ?is /ructure1 :i* is c>ry+ a delicate burd51 ! bla/od]m4 ,! %ell membrane consi/s ( two lay]s1 an inn] delicate1 & an out] ?ick] lay]4 ,:5 ! egg is j laid ^! two membranes are 9 all p>ts closely adh]5t to ea* o!r1 & ! egg cont5t completely fills ! %ell cavity4 ,z soon z ! cont5t cools !re is a slight contraction2 ! two %ell membranes sep>ate at ! l>ge end ( ! egg1 =m+ an air cell :i* gradually enl>ges z ! evaporation ( liquid ?r\gh ! pores ( ! %ell takes place4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,a diagram ( ! p>ts ( ! egg4 a1 ,! bla/od]m4 b1 ,! %ell4 c1 ,! out] %ell membrane4 d1 ,! inn] %ell membrane4 e1 ,! air-sac at ! l>ge end ( ! egg4 f1 ,! album94 g1 ,! *alaza4 h1 ,! yell[ lay]s ( yolk4 i1 ,! :ite lay]s ( yolk4 k1 ,! flask-%ap$ portion ( :ite yolk4 l1 ,! vitell9e membrane4 ,! %ell consi/s ( sev]al lay]s4 ,?ree are easily di/+ui%able3 fir/1 an inn] mammill>y lay]1 consi/+ ( m9ute conical deposits ( calc>e\s mat]ial2 second1 a middle spongy lay]1 compos$ ( a ?ick network ( fib]s2 ?ird1 an out] delicate1 cuticle-l /ructure4 ,9 c]ta9 bre$s ( p\ltry a pigm5t may be add$2 = example1 9 ducks a pea gre51 9 turkeys a spott$ br[ni% mat]ial1 & 9 f[ls p9k & v>i\s %ades ( br[n4 ,! egg %ell is por\s to admit ! free ex*ange ( air dur+ ! process ( incubation4 ,an av]age siz$ h5 egg weighs ab\t #b ounces1 ( :i* #aa p] c5t4 is %ell1 #cb p] c5t4 yolk1 & #eg p] c5t4 :ite4 ,! pr9cipal *emical con/itu5ts ( ! egg are z foll[s3 a%1 or m9]al matt]1 #i p] c5t42 fat1 or hydroc>bon1 #i4c p] c5t42 proteids1 or nitrog5\s matt]1 #aa4i p] c5t42 & wat]1 #fe4e p] c5t4 ,!re is app>5tly no con/ant proportion ( weight betwe5 ! yolk & album94 ,!re is also a v>iation 9 ! weight ( ! %ell due to its v>iation 9 ?ickness4 ,9 an exam9ation ( t5 eggs ( av]age size1 ! yolk con/itut$ #ca p] c5t4 ( ! total weight ( ! egg4 ,! foll[+ is ! result ( ! analysis ( twelve eggs ( av]age size4 ,?is analysis includ$ ! %ell & all o!r p>ts tak5 toge!r4#f ,footnote #f3 ,! analysis 0 made by ,d4 ,m4 ,mc,carty1 *emi/1 ,animal ,indu/ry ,division1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,exp]im5t ,/ation4 ,moi/ure #fd4be p] c5t4 ,dry matt] #ce4ge p] c5t4 -------------------------------- #ajj4jj p] c5t4 ,p>ts p] hundr$ includ+ %ell ,prote9 #aj4bejj ,fat #aj4fbjj ,phosphorus 4#cjbj ,calcium 4#fjhj ,magnesium 4#jihe ,iron 4#jajc ,sulphur 4#ciej ,*lor9e 4#aejf ,potassium 4#jajc ,sodium 4#bjjj ,! ,oviduct4--,! ?ree sep>ate & di/9ct portions ( ! egg1 album91 %ell membranes1 & ! %ell1 are con/ruct$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! oviduct4 ,location4--,! oviduct ( ! h5 ext5ds along ! left side ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 & ! ro( ( ! pelvic cavity & lies dorsal to ! abdom9al air-sac4 ,x ext5ds f ! po/]ior bord] ( ! ov>y & empties into ! cloaca 7,fig4 #ef1 ,no4 #c & #h7 ?r\gh a transv]se slit4 ,%ape4--,9 a well-develop$ ,plym\? ,rock pullet1 b "o ^: reproductive organs h nev] become active1 ! oviduct is ab\t #d in*es long2 9 ! fully develop$ & active /ate x is f #ah to #bj in*es long1 & 9 a collaps$ /ate ab\t in* 9 diamet]4 ,x is held 9 position by two ligam5ts1 a dorsal & a v5tral 7,fig4 #ee1 ,b7 to be describ$ lat]4 ,! oviduct is tortu\s 9 its c\rse1 =m+ ?ree pr9ciple convolutions be=e rea*+ ! cloaca1 & l ! ov>ian mass1 9 its active /ate1 pu%es ! abdom9al visc]a d[nw>d & t[>d ! "r side4 ,/ructure4--,! oviduct consi/s ( ?ree coats3 fir/1 ! s]\s1 locat$ on ! outside1 :i* is a reflection ( ! p]itoneum2 second1 ! muscul> middle tunic2 ?ird1 ! muc\s coat1 :i* 9 a re/+ /ate is ?r[n into folds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,! active oviduct ( a h5 laid op54 #a1 ,! ov>y4 #b1 ,! funnel4 #c1 ,! album9-secret+ portion4 #d1 ,! i/hmus4 #e1 ,! %ellgl& portion4 #f1 ,! vag9a4 #g1 ,! sup]ior ligam5t4 #h1 ,! inf]ior ligam5t4 ,p>ts ( ! ,oviduct4--,! p>ts ( ! oviduct are z foll[s3 ! funnel1 ! album9-secret+ portion1 ! i/hmus1 ! %ell-gl& portion1 or ut]us1 & ! vag9a 7,fig4 #ei74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,! muc\s l9+ ( ! oviduct4 ,a4 ,transv]se section ( ! oviduct wall 9 ! region ( ! neck ( ! funnel %[+ prim>y & second>y fold+ ( ! epi!lium 7aft] ,surface74 ,b4 ,%[+ ! type ( gl& cells ( ! funnel region4 ,c4 ,transv]se section ?r\gh ! wall ( ! ut]us %[+ ! deep folds4 ,d4 ,section f ! album9-secret+ portion %[+ ! op5+ ( a tubul> gl& & also %[+ ! "* ( ! cells4 ,! funnel is ! trumpet-%ap$ portion1 ! o/ium tub abdom9ale1 ^: m\? or fimbriat$ op5+ faces ! ov>y1 & lies v5trally to receive ! ovum1 or yolk1 z x is dis*>g$ f ! ov>y4 ,its ?9 wall1 exp&$ 9 ! ant]ior portion1 is provid$ ) fimbri-l projections4 ,?is funnel-%ap$ portion soon conv]ges to =m a con/rict$ portion4 ,?is portion ( ! active oviduct is f #c to #d c5timet]s long4 ,! muc\s membrane occurs 9 folds =m+ l[ longitud9al spiral ridges 7,fig4 #fj1 ,a74 ,! fimbri are cont9u\s ) ! dorsal & ! v5tral ligam5t ( ! oviduct2 & f ?is po9t1 :]e ! ridges ( ! muc\s membrane are almo/ nil1 !y gradually increase 9 height z !y ext5d d[n ! tube4 ,^! ridges are cont9u$ 9 ^? ( ! second1 or album9-secret+ portion 7,fig4 #fj1 ,d74 ,at ?is po9t !y increase 9 height v rapidly4 ,"h ! bundles ( muscul> fib]s ( ! middle coat are ?9 & di/ribut$ among bundles ( connective tissue4 ,! muscul> fib]s consi/ ( two lay]s1 an out] longitud9al & an inn] circul>4 ,at places 9 ?is portion ! inn] bundles may be not$ to ext5d longitud9ally4 ,9 embryological developm5t ! epi!lial lay] has an orig9 diff]5t f ! out] lay]s ( ! oviduct4 ,9 ! fetal developm5t ! ,mll]ian duct arises z a ?ick5+ along ! ,wolffian body j v5tral to ! gonad4 ,?is ,mll]ian duct is at fir/ a solid cord ( cells4 ,x lat] develops a lum51 & gr[s po/]iorly until x connects ) ! cloaca4 ,at ! "t ( ?is po/]ior gr[?1 mes5*yme cells migrate 9 f ! surr\nd+ tissue & =m a lay] ab\t ! duct4 ,f ?is lay] ( mes5*yme cells !re are develop$ ! out] lay]s ( ! oviduct1 :i* lay]s lat] develop ! muscul> /ructure & ! connective tissue4 ,! epi!lium & its d]ivatives1 :i* repres5t ! gl&ul> /ructures1 are =m$ f ! walls ( ! old ,mll]ian duct4 ,?us ! two sets ( tissues1 hav+ diff]5t orig9s1 likewise h diff]5t functions4 ,! epi!lium is conc]n$ entirely ) secretion1 & ! d]ivatives ( ! mes5*yme are conc]n$ ) support+ & muscul> function4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,a4--,! muc\s l9+ ( ! oviduct4 ,e4 ,section ( ! epi!lium f ! vag9a %[+ unicellul> gl&s4 ,f4 ,a section f ! i/hmus %[+ op5+ ( a tubule4 ,to summ>ize1 six lay]s ( tissue occur 9 ! funnel region1 namely1 an out] s]\s cov]+1 an out] longitud9al muscul> lay]1 a lay] ( connective tissue1 an inn] circul> lay]1 a second lay] ( connective tissue1 & an inn] muc\s lay]4 ,! muc\s lay] is made up ( gl&s1 z foll[s4 ,! unicellul> gl&s occur betwe5 ! ciliat$ cells ( ! epi!lium4 ,^! gl&s are f\nd only 9 ! po/]ior half ( ?is division ( ! oviduct4 ,! gl&ul> grooves are made up ( an accumulation ( gl& cells at ! bottom ( ! grooves betwe5 ! second>y folds ( ! epi!lium4 ,^! are f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ?is division except ! extreme po/]ior "p4 ,9 ! po/]ior "p we f9d ! ?ird type ( gl&s1 ! tubul> v>iety4 ,! second division ( ! oviduct1 z /at$ above1 is ! album9-secret+ portion4 ,! funnel division gradually m]ges into ! second portion4 ,^! two portions are di/+ui%able f ea* o!r4 ,! walls ( ! album9-secret+ portion are mu* ?ick] & ! longitud9al ridges are high]4 ,?is section is ! longe/ ( ! five divisions1 measur+ f #dj to #db c5timet]s 9 l5g?1 or m ?an half ! l5g? ( ! oviduct4 ,! album9 division t]m9ates r abruptly into ! ?ird division1 ! i/hmus 7,fig4 #ei1 ,a74 ,x is probable t ! secretion ( album9 is n conf9$ to ! cells ( ! second division2 yet we are safe 9 say+ t ! major portion is =m$ "h4 ,! folds ( muc\s membrane 9 ?is division are ?ick] & high] ?an 9 ! funnel1 due to _! conta9+ cells ( ! high column> type1 & to ! full] developm5t ( ! gl&s :i* are ( ! tubul> v>iety4 ,! muscul> lay] is heavi]1 & !re=e ! muscul> p[] to =ce along ! tubes' cont5ts is great]4 ,9 ! =mation ( ! muc\s folds we f9d1 9 transv]se sections1 t ! c5tral core is made up ( connective tissue :i* c>ries blood-vessels & n]ve filam5ts1 z 9 o!r simil> gl&ul> /ructure4 ,! epi!lium conta9s gl&ul> cells ( two v>ieties1 namely1 ! ciliat$1 column> v>iety1 & ! unicellul>1 goblet v>iety 7,fig4 #cf1 ,no4 ,b1 #b74 ,^! two k9ds ( gl&ul> cells are r ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! epi!lium ( ?is section ( ! oviduct4 ,! unicellul> gl& cells are m num]\s at ! m\?s ( ! ducts lead+ f ! tubul> gl&s4 ,! nuclei ( ! ciliat$ cells are oval & lie ne> ! middle ( ! cells or a trifle t[>d ! base f ! middle4 ,! protoplasm ( ! cells is f9ely granul>4 ,/rong cilia 9 consid]able numb] surm\nt ea* cell4 ,9 "s cases ! goblet or muc\s cells h pu%$ ap>t ! ciliat$ cells1 & _! prolongations ext5d f>!r ?an ! surface ( ! ciliat$ cells4 ,! nuclei ( ! goblet cells are r\nd1 & lie ne>] ! proximal end ?an ^? ( ! ciliat$ cells4 ,! ?ird division ( ! oviduct1 ! i/hmus1 cont9ues f ! album9-secret+ portion & t]m9ates 9 ! exp&$ portion call$ by "s anatomi/s1 ! ut]us4 ,t[>d ! po/]ior end ( ! album9-secret+ portion ! longitud9al folds ( muc\s membrane become l[]1 mak+1 at ! juncture ( ?is & ! i/hmus1 a cle> f9e ( dem>cation4 ,= a di/ance ( #b or #c c5timet]s ! folds are l[1 aft] :i* !y gradually become high]1 b nev] rea* ! height or ?ickness ( ^? 9 ! album9-secret+ portion4 ,! cle>-cut l9e betwe5 ! album9-secret+ portion & ! i/hmus is p>tly due to a zone 9 :i* ! long tubul> gl&s are lack+4 ,! core ( ! folds ( muc\s membrane 9 ?is zone conta9 mu* m connective tissue4 ,! cells are bo? ciliat$ & unicellul>4 ,! re/ ( ! hi/ological /ructure ( ! i/hmus is ! same z t ( ! album9-secret+ portion4 ,! function ( ! i/hmus is to secrete1 or to =m1 ! %ell membrane1 ! membrana te/acea4 ,! f\r? division ( ! oviduct is ! ut]us1 or ! %ell-gl& portion 7,fig4 #fj1 ,c74 ,!re is no cle> l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! i/hmus & %ell-gl& portion1 ! walls gradually exp&+4 ,9 ?is region ! folds ( muc\s membrane become leaf-l & ( consid]able l5g?1 ext5d+ into ! lum51 ?us af=d+ a great] cellul> surface4 ,! same coats ( ! duct are pres5t "h z 9 o!r p>ts2 b ! out] longitud9al muscul> lay] is ?ick] & possesses m /r5g?4 ,! quantity ( connective tissue is ab\t ! same4 ,! gl&s are ( a tubul> type & ! same two v>ieties ( epi!lial cells are f\nd "h z else:]e1 namely1 ! ciliat$ high column> & ! unicellul> muc\s v>iety4 ,9 ! active gl&ul> cells ( ! %ell-=m+ region ! nuclei are small1 d>k /a9+1 & lie t[>d ! c5t] ( ! cell4 ,! *romat9 granules & nucleoli take on a comp>atively deep basic /a91 b !y d n %[ ! int5se /a9 f\nd 9 ! album9 & ! i/hmus region4 ,! cytoplasm ( ! ut]9e tubul> gl&s does n pres5t z heavy a granul> appe>ance z t ( ! album9 portion4 ,^! cells are diffusely granul>1 ! granules appe>+ ( "o size & tak+ ! /a9 fa9tly4 ,! function ( ?is portion is to secrete1 or =m1 ! h>d calc>e\s cov]+ :i* has be5 describ$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is section4 ,! fif? division ( ! oviduct is ! vag9a4 ,!re is locat$1 at ! juncture ( ! %ell-gl& portion ) ! vag9a1 a /rong sph9ct] muscle4 ,! vag9a is t con/rict$ portion ( ! oviduct ext5d+ f ?is muscle to ! cloaca4 ,! muc\s membrane =ms l[ n>r[ folds ) second>y folds1 :i* appe> cont9u\s ) ^? ( ! %ell-gl& portion4 ,! core ( ^! folds is compos$ ( connective tissue4 ,! vag9a 9 ! h5 ( av]age size measures f #ab to #ac c5timet]s long 7,surface74 ,! inn] or circul> muscul> lay] is well develop$2 x is mu* ?ick] ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ! oviduct4 ,?is extra developm5t gives ! p[] necess>y to successfully expel ! egg4 ,! out] longitud9al lay] is n s well develop$2 its bundles are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! connective-tissue lay]s4 ,! egg is caus$ to move along 9 ! oviduct by a successive s]ies ( contractions ( ! circul> muscul> fib]s po/]ior to x4 ,!re are no tubul> gl&s 9 ?is portion1 b a simple lay] ( high ciliat$ column> epi!lium1 & "s goblet1 or muc\s cells4 ,! cells on ! surface g5]ally are long & sl5d]2 9 ! grooves betwe5 ! muc\s folds ! cells are %orte/1 rea*+ _! greate/ l5g? at ! tops ( ! folds4 ,! function ( ! vag9a is ! secretion1 or =mation1 ( ! out] %ell cuticle commonly call$ ! bloom1 & also 9 c]ta9 bre$s1 z indicat$ above1 ! t9t4 ,! cloaca furni%es a passage way f ! vag9a to ! ext]nal _w by way ( ! anus4 ,! walls ( ! cloaca conta9 gl&s4 ,! ,ligam5ts ( ! ,oviduct4--,x is held 9 position by two ligam5ts1 "o dorsal & "o v5tral4 ,! dorsal ligam5t ( ! oviduct is =m$ by a d\ble lay] ( p]itoneum ) a v small am\nt ( connective tissue int]pos$4 ,! p]itoneum is also reflect$ ov] ! oviduct4 ,! v5tral ligam5t ( ! oviduct is n>r[] ?an ! dorsal1 b is simil>ly con/ruct$4 ,bo? ligam5ts are r veil-l 9 appe>ance4 ,dur+ ! fir/ f\r or five mon?s ( ! gr[? ( ! "y female f[l ! developm5t ( ! oviduct & its ligam5ts is 9 proportion to t ( ! body4 ,) ! elongation t takes place ab\t ! "t ( functionation1 z describ$ above1 ! ligam5ts enl>ge 9 proportion to ! enl>gem5ts ( ! oviduct4 ,! dorsal ligam5t ma9ta9s a l9e ( atta*m5t to ! body wall f ! caudal end ( ! body cavity to ! f\r? ?oracic rib4 ,! v5tral ligam5t elongates only slightly dur+ ?is develop+ p]iod4 ,x becomes ?ick] & /rong] & e>ly develops a muscul> coat4 ,x also gr[s 9 wid? except at ! caudal end4 ,at ?is po9t ! ligam5t is simply a mass ( muscul> tissue ( ! smoo? or involunt>y type4 ,^! ligam5ts are fan-%ap$4 ,! muscle fib]s ( ! dorsal ligam5t ( ! lay+ h51 h _! orig9 9 a l9e ne> ! m$ial side ( ! dorsal m>g94 ,at ?is po9t ! bundles ( fib]s are q ?ick1 b are spread out ?9ly t[>d ! m>g9 ( ! oviduct4 ,frequ5t ana/omoses are not$4 ,! muscul> fib]s become cont9u\s ) ! circul> ones ( ! oviduct4 ,! v5tral ligam5t ( ! oviduct ( ! lay+ h5 is l>gely a muscul> cord #c to #f c5timet]s 9 diamet]4 ,! caudal end is ?ick]1 becom+ gradually ?9n] t[>d ! ant]ior portion4 ,! bundles ( muscul> fib]s ext5d t[>d ! oviduct bl5d+ ) ! circul> fib]s ( t viscus4 ,! ligam5ts t]m9ate ant]iorly 9 su* a mann] t !y aid 9 =m+ ! s]\s ov>ian pocket1 :i* guides ! yolk into ! fimbriat$ portion1 or funnel1 ( ! oviduct4 ,! walls ( ! ov>ian pocket are =m$ by ! left abdom9al air-sac1 a "p ( ! inte/9e1 & ! mes5t]y4 ,! dorsal portion is =m$ by ! ro( ( ! abdom9al cavity1 & ! v5tral portion is =m$ by ! dorsal wall ( ! air-sac4 ,! m$ial1 ! ant]ior1 & ! lat]al limit ( ! pocket are =m$ by a fusion ( ! wall ( ! air-sac to ! mes5t]y & to ! body wall4 ,po/]iorly1 ! wall consi/s ( ! transv]se "p ( ! small inte/9e & ! caudal portion ( ! left ccum ) _! atta*$ mes5t]y4 ,,! ,,ductless ,,gl&s ,^! gl&s d n possess excretory ducts4 ,!y furni% mat]ials :i* are add$ to ! blood or lymph z x passes ?r\gh !m4 ,! mat]ial f ea* gl& is kn[n z an int]nal secretion1 or hormone4 ,"s ( ^! secretions are p[]ful mat]ials & influ5ce pr(\ndly ! body nutrition4 ,! ductless gl&s are usually giv5 z foll[s3 ! sple51 ! lymph gl&s1 ! p9eal gl&1 ! pituit>y body1 ! ?yroid gl&1 ! ?ymus gl&1 ! adr5al gl&s1 & ! p>a?yroids4 ,! sple51 ! pituit>y1 ! p9eal1 & ! lymph gl&s are describ$ 9 o!r sections4 ,! ,?yroid ,gl& 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #af74 ,location4--,! ?yroid gl& lies on ! v5tral side ( ! c>otis communis at a po9t :]e ! c>otis communis t\*es ! jugul> ve91 :i* is ab\t ! po9t ( orig9 ( ! v]tebral art]y4 ,%ape4--,! ?yroid gl& is small1 oval or some:at r\ndi%1 & r$ or rose-color$4 ,/ructure4--,! ?yroid gl& has a fibr\s capsule1 :i* s5ds into ! int]ior septa :i* divide x into ac9i4 ,^! ac9i are clos$ & conta9 a fluid4 ,! ?yroid is a ductless gl&4 ,%ort art]ies f ! c>otis ent] ?is gl&1 & "s l>ge ve9s connect x ) ! jugul> ve94 ,! lymph vessels :i* lie along ! neck are closely connect$ ) x & receive twigs f ! gl&4 ,! m9ute lymphatic capill>y end+s are f\nd 9 its septa & 9 its capsule4 ,! ac9i are l9$ ) a s+le or a d\ble r[ ( cuboidal secret+ cells4 ,!re are two k9ds ( cells1 namely1 secret+ & re/+ cells4 ,! actively secret+ cells secrete colloid4 ,! p>a?yroids consi/ ( two small bodies atta*$ to ! l[] pole ( ! ?yroid4 ,! ,?ymus ,gl& 7,fig4 #dg1 ,no4 #aj74--,! ?ymus gl& is an organ ( fetal & e>ly baby *ickhood4 ,x soon und]goes retrogressive *anges into fat & connective tissue4 ,x is ( epi!lial orig91 be+ =m$ 9 fetal life f ! entod]mal cells ( ! dorsal end ( ! ?roat fissure4 ,location4--,! ?ymus gl& lies ant]ior to ! ?yroid1 ! latt] ly+ ! deep]4 ,%ape4--,! ?yroid consi/s ( two lobes1 :i* are unit$ by connective tissue1 & appe>s z a loop-l ac9\s gl& ly+ along ! neck & ne> ! region ( ! bron*i & ! jugul> ve9s ) fibr\s ext5sions t[>d ! head4 ,/ructure4--,! gl& lobes are divid$ into lobules1 :i* consi/ ( a cortical & a m$ull>y portion4 ,! cortex consi/s ( nodules ( compact lymphatic tissue simil> to ^? f\nd 9 ! lymph gl&s4 ,^! occupy ! *amb]s =m$ by ! septa ( connective tissue4 ,9 ! m$ulla !re are a numb] ( sph]ical1 or oval bodies compos$ ( conc5trically arrang$ epi!lial cells4 ,^! are kn[n z ,hassall's corpuscles1 & repres5t only ! rema9s ( ! orig9al gl&ul> epi!lium4 ,!y are *>act]i/ic ( ! ?ymus gl&4 ,! ?ymus appe>s to be a type ( lymph organ4 ,lymph vessels are r>e2 a few blood-vessels on ! upp] side =m capill>y nets4 ,! ,adr5al ,gl& 7,fig4 #ed1 ,f74 ,location4--,! adr5al gl&1 (t5 call$ ! supr>5al capsule1 lies j ant]ior to ! front "p ( ! ant]ior lobe ( ! kidney1 adjac5t to ! te/icles 9 ! male & to ! ov>y 9 ! female4 ,x is loosely atta*$ by connective tissue to ! po/]ior aorta & to ! v5a cava4 ,%ape4--,x is yell[i%-br[n or r$di%-p9k 9 color1 small1 & ( irregul> =mation4 ,/ructure4--,! adr5al gl& consi/s ( a cortical & a m$ull>y portion1 al?\gh ^! two p>ts are n di/9ctly m>k$4 ,! cortical portion has columns :i* ext5d deeply into ! gl&1 & ! m$ull>y portion s5ds columns into ! cortical portion4 ,!re=e1 ! two sub/ances1 ly+ side by side1 =m a cord-l /ructure4 ,x is probable t ! cortical portion is d]iv$ f ! +r[?s ( ! p]itoneum1 & ! m$ull>y cords f ! sympa!tic ganglion4 ,! cells are cyl9drical or polygonal 9 %ape1 ) an ecc5tric sub/ance betwe5 ! columns4 ,! cords1 or columns1 =m betwe5 !m1 elongat$ *annels :i* ext5d into ! int]ior ( ! gl& & end z bl9d or ccal extremities4 ,l>ge ganglionic n]ve cells belong+ to ! sympa!tic sy/em occur ne> ! surface ( ! gl&4 ,! blood-vessels are n well develop$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! gl& b are num]\s & ( good size 9 ! out] p>ts4 ,lymph vessels are also pres5t4 ,function4--,! adr5als are ductless gl&s4 ,!y secrete an int]nal secretion1 or hormone1 :i* influ5ces ! tonus ( ! blood-vessels4 ,an extract f ^! gl&s is call$ adr5al94 ,,! ,,respiratory ,,app>atus 7,figs4 #ej & #fa1 ,a7 ,ow5 says3 8,not)/&+ ! ext5t & activities ( ! respiratory function 9 birds1 ! organs subs]vi5t !reto manife/ m ( a reptilian ?an ( ! mammalian type ( =mation40 ,by ! action ( ! respiratory organs c]ta9 *emical & physical *anges take place 9 ! blood4 ,! *ief ( ^! consi/s 9 absorption ( oxyg5 f1 & giv+ (f c>bon dioxide to1 ! atmosph]ic air1 ! =m] *anges be+ necess>y = ! elaboration ( ! fluid1 ! latt] = ! elim9ation ( a sub/ance :i*1 if reta9$1 w\ld prove injuri\s4 ,! organs ( respiration are inv>iably adapt$ to ! wants ( ! animal & ! m$ium 9 :i* x lives4 ,9 ! bird1 :i* brea!s ?r\gh its nose1 ! organs ( respiration are no/rils1 nasal *amb]s1 ph>ynx1 sup]ior l>ynx1 tra*ea1 inf]ior l>ynx1 bron*i1 bron*ial tubes1 lungs1 & air-sacs4 ,! ,no/rils & ! ,nasal ,*amb]s4--,! no/rils ( ! bird op5 ext]nally by two small elliptical op5+s1 :i* pi]ce ! upp] m&ible4 ,)9 ea* nasal *amb] 7,fig4 #bf1 ,a7 are ?ree turb9at$ lam91 or turb9at$ bones4 ,! inf]ior "o is a simple fold adh]+ to ! l[] & ant]ior "p ( ! nasal septum4 ,! middle turb9at$ bone is ! l>ge/4 ,x is ( infundibul> =m1 & adh]es by its base to ! septum & ext]nally to ! side wall ( ! nose4 ,x is convolut$ ) two & a half turns4 ,! sup]ior bone1 ( bell %ape1 adh]es sup]iorly to ! frontal bone4 ,! int]nal turb9at$ bone ext5ds t[>d ! orbit2 ! ext]nal t]m9ates 9 a cul-de-sac beh9d ! middle turb9al 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,a1 #a & #b1 & ,g74 ,! no/rils are sep>at$ by a p>tition :i* is p>tly bony & p>tly c>tilag9\s4 ,! po/]ior n>es is repres5t$ by a long slit 9 ! h>d palate4 ,! ,ph>ynx & ! ,sup]ior ,l>ynx4--,a transv]se r[ ( horny1 fili=m papill m>ks ! ant]ior bord] ( ! ph>ynx1 :]e 9 o!r animals ! s(t palate1 or velum1 is locat$4 7,= fur!r description ( ! ph>ynx see special *apt]47 ,! sup]o-po/]ior bord] ( ! l>ynx1 at ! juncture ( ! l>ynx & ! esophageal m>g91 is m>k$ by a second transv]se r[ ( horny1 fili=m papill1 :i* po9t backw>d4 ,!re is no epiglottis4 ,! sup]ior "p ( ! l>ynx is pi]c$ by an oval1 slit-l op5+1 ! glottis1 :i* is provid$ ) two lips4 ,^! :5 br\ght toge!r1 tightly close ! glottis s t no?+ c fall ?r\gh into ! l>ynx 9 ! act ( deglutition4 ,! m>g91 or rim1 ( ?is op5+ is call$ ! rami glottis4 ,! glottis is controll$ by two pair ( muscles4 ,! sup]ior surface ( ! l>ynx is some:at triangul> ) ! apex direct$ =w>d4 ,a few delicate1 fili=m papill are ^u its surface4 ,! bird has1 z already indicat$1 two l>ynxes1 ! sup]ior l>ynx locat$ at ! upp] end ( ! tra*ea1 & ! inf]ior l>ynx at ! bifurcation ( ! tra*ea4 ,! inn] surface ( ! sup]ior l>ynx is smoo? & does n conta9 vocal cords2 x is 9 ^! animals simply a passage = air4 ,x is jo9$ to ! tra*ea inf]iorly by a ligam5t1 ! crico-tra*ealis1 & lies at ! base ( ! tongue support$ by two cornua ( ! os hyoideum4 ,! c>tilages =m+ ! pr9cipal support ( ! sup]ior l>ynx1 consi/ ( f\r pieces1 z foll[s3 "o unequal v5tral piece1 two side pieces1 & "o unequal dorsal piece4 ,! c>tilag9\s1 flat1 v5tral cricoid1 e>ly 9 ! bird's life1 (t5 becomes bony4 ,! side pieces are sep>at$ f x1 only exceptionally fus+ ) x4 ,! dorsal cricoid piece also (t5 becomes bony4 ,! two aryt5oid c>tilages1 jo9$ ) ! cricoid sup]iorly1 are ?ree-sid$1 & are unit$ to ea* o!r 9 a %>p angle4 ,!y =m ! sup]ior op5+ ( ! sup]ior l>ynx4 ,! ,tra*ea4--,! tra*ea is cyl9drical & v>ies 9 l5g? 9 diff]5t k9ds ( birds 9 accordance ) ! l5g? ( ! neck4 ,x consi/s ( f #ij to #abj c>tilag9\s r+s1 complete ) ! exception ( ! two upp]mo/1 :i* r+s are held toge!r by int]c>tilag9\s ligam5ts4 ,! tra*eal r+s are con/ruct$ ( hyal9e c>tilage & ! ligam5ts ( fibr\s tissue4 ,x is l9$ ) a muc\s membrane cov]$ by column> epi!lium4 ,! tra*ea is a passage = air alone & t]m9ates 9 ! inf]ior l>ynx4 ,! ,inf]ior ,l>ynx4--,! inf]ior l>ynx1 call$ ! true l>ynx because x is ! organ ( voice1 is locat$ at ! inf]ior end ( ! tra*ea & ! sup]ior ends ( ! bron*i4 ,by "s anatomi/s ?is organ has be5 call$ ! l>ynx bron*o-tra*ealis4 ,! l>ynx is flatt5$ lat]ally 9 f[ls4 ,x conta9s two membran\s folds1 :i* 9 ! production ( s\nd are caus$ to vibrate4 ,^! folds are half-moon %ap$ ela/ic /ructures1 locat$ 9 ! bony1 arr[like way1 int]o-inf]iorly4 ,^! /ructures are call$ ! membrana tympana int]na4 ,9 ! duck ?is inf]ior l>ynx is repres5t$ by a drum-l c>tilag9\s & bony /ructure1 call$ ! bulla tympani=mis4 ,?is bulla is a resonant app>atus :i* s]ves to /r5g!n ! voice4 ,9 song birds !re is a d\ble glottis1 usually produc$ by a bony b>1 call$ ! pessulus1 or os transv]sale1 :i* trav]ses ! l[] end ( ! tra*ea f front to re>4 ,x supports a ?9 membrane :i* asc5ds into ! tra*eal area1 &1 t]m9at+ !re by a free concave m>g91 is call$ ! membrana semi-lun>is4 ,?is is mo/ develop$ 9 s++ birds1 & be+ vibratile1 =ms an important "p ( _! trill+ vocal app>atus4 ,! air passes on ea* side ( ! membrana semi-lun>is & its su/a9+ bone to & f ! bron*i & lungs4 ,! la/ r+ ( ! tra*ea usually exp&s z x desc5ds1 ) its =e & po/]ior p>ts produc$1 & ! l[] lat]al bord]s concave2 ! extremities ( ! pessulus1 butts aga9/ ! angle ?us =m$ & exp&s to be atta*$1 also ) ! =e & po/]ior t]m9ations ( ! fir/ half r+ ( ! bron*us1 /r5g!n+ & clamp+ toge!r ! upp] "p ( ! vocal framework4 ,! second bron*ial half r+ is flatt5$ & curv$ ) ! convexity outw>d1 l ! fir/1 b is m movable4 ,! ?ird half r+ is less curv$ & fur!r sep>at$ f ! second1 to ! extremities ( :i* its own are connect$ by a ligam5t1 &1 = ! int]v5+ ext5t1 by a membrane2 its inn] surface supports ! fibr\s cord1 or fold1 :i* =ms ! out] lip ( ! glottis ( t side2 x is capable ( rot>y movem5ts on its axis1 & is an important ag5t 9 ! modulation ( ! voice4 ,all ^! p>ts j describ$ are bony4 ,! ,bron*i & ! ,lungs4--,! bron*i1 two 9 numb]1 are provid$ ) only incomplete c>tilag9\s r+s4 ,!y ent] ! inf]ior face ( ! lungs1 t[>d _! ant]ior & middle ?irds & break up into prim>y bron*i1 :i* give (f at "r angles1 second>y bron*i1 & ^! latt] 9 turn give (f t]ti>y bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,! lung4 ,a4 ,! out] surface ( "o lung4 ,note ! flatt5$ oval %ape4 ,x is n divid$ into lobes4 #a1 ,! bron*us4 #b1 ,prim>y tubules %[+ op5+s lead+ f ! prim>y tubules to ! second>y tubules4 #c1 ,op5+s ( two ( ! l>ge tubes into ! diaphragmatic & abdom9al air-sacs4 ,b4 ,section$ surface ( lung4 #a1 ,second>y tubules4 #b1 ,t]ti>y tubules4 #c1 ,int]lac+ capill>ies & air cells4 ,c4 #a1 ,cavity ( tubule4 #b1 ,its l9+ membrane support+ blood-vessels ) l>ge areol4 #c1 ,p]=ations 9 ! membrane at ! orifices ( ! lobul> passage4 #d1 ,int]lobul> space conta9+ ! t]m9al bran*es ( ! pulmon>y vessels supply+ ! capill>y plexus1 #e1 to ! me%es ( :i* air gets access by ! lobul> passage4 ,! lungs occupy only ab\t "o-sev5? ( ! ?oracic space4 ,!y are long1 flatt5$1 & oval1 ext5d+ along ea* side ( ! sp9e f ! second dorsal v]tebra to ! ant]ior end ( ! kidneys1 & lat]ally to ! juncture ( ! v]tebral ) ! /]nal portions ( ! ribs4 ,!y pres5t two faces1 a sup]ior convex & an inf]ior concave2 two bord]s1 an ext]nal & an int]nal2 & two extremities1 an ant]ior & a po/]ior 7,fig4 #fa74 ,! convex surface is also call$ ! dorsal1 co/al1 or sup]ior face4 ,x is m\ld$ on ! walls ( ! ?orax & occupies a "p ( ! int]co/al space1 pu%+ ! int]co/al muscles outw>d4 ,:5 ! surface ( ! lung is exam9$ x is se5 to be furr[$ :]e ! ribs press$ dur+ life4 ,^! furr[s are z deep z ! ribs are ?ick4 ,! sides ( ! lungs are cov]$ ) connective tissue :i* atta*es !m to ! co/al walls4 ,! concave1 or inf]ior1 face also call$ ! diaphragmatic or visc]al face is direct$ d[nw>d4 ,! diaphragm sep>ates x f ! abdom9al visc]a4 ,! surface is cov]$ by connective tissue :i* closely atta*es x to ! diaphragm4 ,x is p]=at$ by ! five tubules :i* br+ ! po/]ior air-sac into communication ) ! lungs4 ,! bord]s ( ! lungs ext5d p>allel to ! long axis ( ! body4 ,! int]nal bord] is rectil9e>1 ?ick1 & r\nd$4 ,! ext]nal bord] is convex1 ?91 & %>p4 ,! ant]ior extremity t]m9ates 9 a %>p po9t :i* occupies a space =m$ by ! ribs ext]nally & ! inf]ior sp9es int]nally4 ,! po/]ior extremity is some:at r\nd$ & ext5ds z f> back z ! ant]ior bord] ( ! kidneys4 ,z soon z ! bron*i ent] ! lungs !y become broad5$1 ! c>tilag9\s r+s disappe>1 & !y cont9ue z membran\s *annels ^: diamet]s gradually decrease1 z !y ext5d backw>d1 to ! po9t :]e !y t]m9ate 9 ! o/ium caudale1 at :i* po9t !y are surr\nd$ by a c>tilag9\s r+4 ,! o/ium caudale br+s ! tubules into communication ) ! v5tral air-sacs4 ,twelve air tubules h _! orig9 f ea* common bron*us1 or trunk4 ,f\r are giv5 (f f ! int]nal wall ( ! ma9 bron*us by a s]ies ( op5+s arrang$ 9 a r[4 ,sev5 are giv5 (f f ! ext]nal wall by a second s]ies simil> to t ( ! fir/4 ,! twelf? ext5ds f ! inf]ior wall1 & imm$iately takes a c\rse d[nw>d & outw>d & communicates ) ! po/]ior diaphragmatic air-sac4 ,?is may be consid]$ z ! t]m9al bran* ( ! trunk4 ,all ( ^! second>y canals1 except ! la/1 pass t[>d ! p]iph]y ( ! lung4 ,!y divide & subdivide at ! p]iph]y1 cov]+ x ) _! ramifications4 ,! canals ext5d+ f ! inn] wall are di/ribut$ to ! inf]ior face ( ! lung4 ,^? ext5d+ f ! out] wall are di/ribut$ to ! out] face ( ! lung4 ,! fir/ con/itute ! diaphragmatic & ! second ! co/al bron*ial tubes4 ,! f\r diaphragmatic bron*ial tubes are numb]$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are giv5 (f4 ,! fir/ is c>ri$ =w>d horizontally1 ! second transv]sely inw>d1 ! ?ird obliquely inw>d & backw>d1 & ! f\r? directly backw>d4 ,!y h1 by "s anatomi/s1 be5 call$ ! ant]ior1 ! int]nal1 & ! po/]ior diaphragmatic bron*ial tubes4 ,!re are two po/]ior diaphragmatic bron*ial tubes2 ! l>g] call$ ! great po/]ior1 & ! small]1 :i* passes directly backw>d1 ! small po/]ior4 ,! co/al bron*ial tubes1 sev5 9 numb]1 are numb]$ f ! front backw>d 9 ! ord] !y are giv5 (f4 ,p>allel at _! orig91 & side by side1 l pipes ( an organ1 !y soon spread out 9 fan-%ape l ! prec$+4 ,!y ext5d f _! c5tral orig9 to ! p]iph]y4 ,! fir/ ext5ds obliquely upw>d & inw>d to ! ant]ior extremity ( ! lung4 ,all bran*es f ?is bron*us ext5d f its ant]ior wall4 ,! fir/ bran*es are inflect$ to rea* ! ext]nal bord] ( ! lung4 ,! succe$+ bran*es are direct$ =w>d & ! la/ =w>d & inw>d4 ,!y all meet ^? f ! ant]ior diaphragmatic bron*us1 b d n ana/omose ) !m4 ,! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? co/al bron*i ext5d 9 a transv]se mann] & ramify on ! inn] bord] ( ! lung4 ,! fif? & ! six? are direct$ t[>d ! po/]ior extremity ( ! lung4 ,! sev5?1 v small1 rea*es ?is extremity1 :]e x disappe>s4 ,! fir/ co/al bron*us is ! l>ge/2 ^? foll[+ x gradually become small]4 ,at _! po9ts ( orig9 !y adh]e closely to ! ribs4 ,!y are all imp]=ate1 :i* is a di/+ui%+ feature f ^? occupy+ ! opposite face4 ,! canaliculi or t]ti>y tubules giv5 (f by ^! second>y bron*ial tubes d n diff] greatly 9 calib] 9 ! v>i\s p>ts4 ,!y are giv5 (f at "r angles f ! pulmon>y wall ( ea* bron*us1 & ext5d p]p5dicul>ly into ! lung sub/ance4 ,?us we f9d ?ree k9ds ( conduits1 ! prim>y1 ! second>y1 & ! p]iph]al1 or t]ti>y4 ,! fir/ are l ! b>bs ( a fea!r on its %aft2 & ! second & p>5*ymat\s are implant$ on ! pulmon>y walls ( ! fir/1 l ! hairs ( a bru% on _! common base4 ,?us in/ead ( ! bran*+ ( ! bron*i be+ di*rotom\s1 z 9 mammals1 x is p9i=m4 ,! canaliculi1 or f9] tubules1 communicate ) "o ano!r4 ,! inn] microscopic appe>ance ( ! canaliculi indicate t !y are divid$ into areola1 :i* gives !m a cellul> aspect4 ,^! t]ti>y bron*i op5 on a d5se labyr9? ( blood capill>ies 7,fig4 #fa1 ,c74 ,at ?is po9t ! ciliat$ epi!lial cells give way to simple squam\s epi!lium4 ,?us we f9d ?ree k9ds ( bron*i1 or _! ramifications1 z foll[s3 ! prim>y1 ! second>y1 & ! t]ti>y4 ,! ,air-sacs 7,fig4 #fa1 ,a74--,! air-sacs are bladd]-l /ructures consi/+ ( a delicate cellulo-s]\s membrane1 an ext5sion f ! bron*ial tubes1 9 "s places /r5g!n$ by an ext]nal envelope ( ela/ic fibr\s tissue4 ,long ?9 blood-vessels are di/ribut$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ^! walls4 ,!y are bran*es f vessels ( ! g5]al circulation & n ext5sions f ^? ( ! lungs4 ,no lymphatics h be5 f\nd 9 ! air-sacs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa1 ,a4--,diagram ( air-sacs & _! location4 #a1 ,! proximal end ( ! hum]us4 #b1 ,! proximal end ( ! "r clavicle4 #c1 ,! c]vical air cell4 #d1 ,! "r coracoid bone4 #e1 ,! ant]ior ?oracic air cell4 #f1 ,! "r side ( ! /]num4 #g1 ,! "r side ( ! liv]4 #h1 ,! p]itoneum4 #i1 ,! "r abdom9al air cell4 #aj1 ,! coccyx4 #aa1 ,! proximal end ( ! "r femur4 #ab1 ,! "r sup]o-po/]ior air-sac4 #ac1 ,! "r inf]o-po/]ior air-sac4 #ad1 ,! "r lung4 #ae1 ,! axill>y ext5sion ( ! air-sac4 #af1 ,! obturator =am54 #ag4 ,! pelvis4 ,^! sacs d n communicate ) ea* o!r & normally !y are n fully inflat$4 ,9 "s locations !y ext5d into ! bones & are 9 communication ) ! ext5sions ( ! bron*ial tubes4 ,9 fact1 by "s anatomi/s !y h be5 call$ 8bladd]-l1 extra-pulmon>y expansions ( ! bron*ial tubes1 free f c>tilage40 ,! air-sacs make ! bird's body light]1 ?us mak+ long-cont9u$ flight possible4 ,!y are be/ develop$ 9 ^? birds :i* fly mo/4 ,!re are f\r pairs ( cells & "o s+le cell f :i* all o!r expansions & ext5sions are made4 ,^! sacs are z foll[s3 a s+le ant]ior ?oracic1 &1 9 pairs1 c]vical1 ant]ior diaphragmatic1 po/]ior diaphragmatic1 & abdom9al4 ,! ,ant]ior ,?oracic ,air-sac4--,! ant]ior ?oracic air-sac is locat$ above ! clavicles & ! int]clavicul> space1 9 ! cavity ( ! ?orax4 ,x is relat$ sup]iorly ) ! tra*ea & ! esophagus2 lat]ally ) ! lungs & ! c]vical air-sacs2 inf]iorly ) ! /]num1 ! clavicle1 & ! int]clavicul> aponeurosis2 po/]iorly ) ! he>t & ! ant]ior diaphragmatic res]voir2 & ant]iorly ) ! integum5ts ( ! neck4 ,x conta9s ! inf]ior l>ynx & ! two prim>y bron*i1 & l>ge vascul> trunks f :i* are giv5 (f vessels supply+ ! neck & ! w+s4 ,?ree prolongations1 call$ subpectoral1 subscapul>1 & middle1 or hum]al1 arise f ! lat]al walls ( ?is air-sac4 ,^! prolongations cross ! walls ( ! ?orax & pass ar\nd ! articulation ( ! %\ld]4 ,! subpectoral prolongation ext5ds f ! ?oracic res]voir by an orifice situat$ beh9d ! coracoid1 & passes b5ea? ! t5don ( ! great pectoral muscle4 ,:5 ! pectoralis major contracts1 ?is contraction dilates ! subjac5t cell & draws into x a great] quantity ( air4 ,! subscapul> & ! hum]al prolongations communicate ) ! ?oracic air cell by a common op5+ situat$ beh9d ! small adductor muscle ( ! hum]us4 ,! subscapul> prolongation1 aft] leav+ ?is po9t1 spreads "u ! scapul> & ! subscapul> muscle1 :i* x sep>ates f ! ribs & correspond+ int]co/al muscles1 & ext5ds 9 a longitud9al direction4 ,! hum]al prolongation1 small] ?an ! subscapul>1 occupies ! axilla1 & is 9 %ape triangul>4 ,x has f its summit into an infundibul> fossa1 an ext5sion :i* ent]s ! canal ( ! hum]us4 ,! walls ( ?is cell =m ! l9+ ( ! air space 9 ! hum]us4 ,! ?oracic air-sac ?us possesses num]\s membran\s folds :i* divide its cavity4 ,! contigu\s /ructures :i* x ov]lies1 z ! tra*ea1 ! esophagus1 ! muscles ( ! inf]ior l>ynx1 z well z ! art]ies & ve9s1 make its out] walls irregul>4 ,?is orifice is dilat$ dur+ inspiration1 by ! contraction ( ! two fir/ fasciculi ( ! diaphragm4 ,! ,c]vical ,air-sacs4--,! two c]vical air-sacs are locat$ j above ! ?oracic air-sac at ! inf]ior "p ( ! neck & 9 front ( ! lungs4 ,!y are cone-%ap$ ) ! base direct$ =w>d & ! apex backw>d4 ,!y are relat$ sup]iorly ) ! c]vical muscles1 & inf]iorly ) ! ?oracic air-sac f :i* !y are sep>at$ by ! tra*ea1 ! esophagus1 ! pneumoga/ric n]ve1 & ! jugul> ve9s4 ,! walls t\* ea* o!r int]nally1 & =m a m$ian septum :i* includes 9 its sub/ance ! two common c>otid art]ies4 ,ext]nally !y are relat$ to ! orig9 ( ! c]vical n]ves1 to ea* ( :i* !y contribute a small %ea?4 ,!y surr\nd ! v]tebral art]y1 & are connect$ ) ! subcutane\s muscles & ! sk94 ,! summits communicate ) ! ant]ior diaphragmatic bron*us4 ,prolongations ext5d f _! bases :i* conduct ! air into all ! v]tebr ( ! neck & ! back1 into all ! v]tebral ribs1 & into ! sp9al canal4 ,p>allel ) & adjac5t to ! v]tebral art]ies1 & lodg$ 9 ! canals excavat$ 9 ! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr1 are two c]vical prolongations1 "o on ea* side1 :i* ext5d to ! cranium f ! base ( ! c]vical res]voirs4 ,f _! sides1 at ! la/ six c]vical v]tebr1 are six ext5sions 9 ! =m ( div]ticuli1 :i*1 ly+ aga9/ ea* o!r1 pass f ea* side into ! muscles ( ! neck4 ,!y are surr\nd$ by a ?9 fibr\s envelope1 a cont9uation ( ! muc\s l9+ ( ! sac1 & app>5tly =m a canal 9 ! inf]ior "p ( ?is region4 ,^! prolongations are bett] develop$ 9 palmip$es ?an 9 *ick5s4 ,on ! int]nal side ( ^! prolongations1 "o or m =am9a p5etrate ! v]tebral segm5t1 :i* all[ ! ext5sions ( ! prolongations into ! sp9al canal4 ,*auveau /ates t 8z ! m$ull>y tissue is replac$ by air 9 ! bones ( birds1 s is ! sub>a*noid fluid replac$ by air ar\nd ! sp9al cord40 ,! prolongations ext5d+ f ! c]vical air-sacs1 hav+ ent]$ ! ?orax1 t]m9ate by pass+ into ! fir/ dorsal v]tebra4 ,aft] p]meat+ e "p ( ?is v]tebra1 x escapes by a lat]al op5+ & =ms a small sac locat$ betwe5 ! fir/ two ribs1 ne> ! orig9 ( ! fir/ dorsal n]ve4 ,f ?is sac an ext5sion is giv5 (f1 :i* ent]s ! second v]tebral segm5t at ! ant]o-lat]al "p2 f ?is po9t x passes back1 =m+ a new air-sac betwe5 ! second & ?ird ribs4 ,x n[ passes 9 ! same mann] into ! ?ird v]tebra & ext5ds ?r\gh ! ?ird int]co/al sac1 & s on till ! la/ dorsal v]tebra has be5 s]v$4 ,at ! same "t t ^! sacs receive ! air f ! v]tebr prec$+ !m1 & transmit x to ^? :i* foll[1 !y communicate x to all ! v]tebral ribs4 ,! a]ial curr5ts :i* leave ! c]vical air-sacs d n communicate ) ^? ( ! cranium4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t ! cranial bones h app>5tly no communication ) ! respiratory app>atus4 ,! ,ant]ior ,diaphragmatic ,air-sac4--,! two ant]ior diaphragmatic or sup]o-po/]ior air-sacs are relat$ ) ! lungs ant]iorly1 & ) ! abdom9al visc]a po/]iorly4 ,ant]iorly also is ! ?oracic air-sac1 po/]iorly are ! po/]ior diaphragmatic air-sacs1 & lat]ally ! ribs & ! int]co/al muscles & int]nally is ! esophagus4 ,! lungs communicate ) ^! air-sacs ?r\gh circul> op5+s f ! great po/]ior diaphragmatic bron*us & frequ5tly by a second op5+ f ?is same tube4 ,^! are ! only sacs :i* receive air f ! lungs ?r\gh two op5+s4 ,! ,po/]ior ,diaphragmatic ,air-sac4--,! two po/]ior diaphragmatic1 or inf]o-po/]ior air-sacs are oval 9 %ape & locat$ betwe5 ! ?oracic & ! abdom9al cavity4 ,!y are relat$ ant]iorly ) ! ant]ior diaphragmatic air-sacs4 ,^! two sacs =m a v]tical transv]se p>tition4 ,! po/]ior diaphragmatic air-sacs are relat$ po/]iorly ) ! abdom9al air-sacs f :i* !y are sep>at$ by ! diaphragm4 ,!y are relat$ bel[ ) ! lat]al p>ts ( ! /]num & ! /]nal ribs1 & ext]nally ) ! ribs & ! int]co/al muscles4 ,^! air-sacs communicate ) ! lungs ?r\gh op5+s locat$ 9 ! middle "p ( ! ext]nal bord] ( ! lung1 into ! extremity ( volum9\s bron*ial tubes :i* foll[ ! direction ( ! l>ge/ air tubes4 ,! ,abdom9al ,air-sacs4--,! two abdom9al air-sacs locat$ on ea* side ( ! abdom9al cavity1 :5 inflat$ ) air1 =m enorm\s bladd]-l /ructures4 ,!y are relat$ lat]ally ) ! abdom9al wall & int]nally ) ! abdom9al visc]a4 ,! ant]ior extremities are 9 communication ) ! mesobron*i & are some:at inflect$ to pass "u ! fibr\s ar*es ext5d+ f ! sp9e to ! pelvis4 ,ant]iorly ^! sacs adjo9 ! diaphragm1 ! te/es 9 ! male1 & ov>y 9 ! female1 & to ! p>ietes ( ! abdom5 & ^? ( ! pelvis4 ,bel[ & 9 front1 !y re/ on a fibr\s septum1 :i* 9 all birds divides ! abdom9al cavity into two small] cavities3 "o ant]ior1 repres5t+ ! abdom5 & conta9+ ! liv]2 ! o!r po/]ior1 repres5t+ ! pelvis & conta9+ ! gizz>d & ! inte/9es4 ,! ant]ior portion ov]lies ! po/]ior "p ( ! lobes ( ! liv]1 ! prov5triculus1 ! sple51 & ! gizz>d4 ,! kidneys are locat$ above ^! air-sacs4 ,dorsal to ! sacs is also a "p ( ! inte/9es & 9 ! female ! oviduct4 ,! abdom9al air-sacs are atta*$ by a ligam5t-l /ructure 9 _! m$ial1 _! ant]ior1 & _! lat]al m>g94 ,! po/]ior1 ! dorsal1 & ! v5tral m>g9 are free4 ,mesially ?is atta*m5t is to ! mes5t]y1 connect+ ! left ccum to ! dorsal m>g9 ( ! gizz>d1 & also to ! mes5t]y ( ! prov5triculus4 ,! ant]ior atta*m5t is to ! body wall & ext5ds 9 front ( ! end ( ! ov>y & ! adr5al gl&s4 ,at ! ant]o-lat]al "p ( ! body cavity ! atta*m5t ext5ds 9 a wid5+ b& along ! lat]al side ( ! ov>y & ( ! oviduct1 z f> back z ! caudal m>g9 ( ! sac4 ,! lat]al atta*m5t is relat$ to ! kidney1 ! dorsal ligam5t ( ! oviduct1 & ! abdom9al wall4 ,ea* ( ^! abdom9al sacs has ?ree ext5sions3 "o supr>5al & two femoral4 ,! supr>5al ext5sion leaves ! pr9cipal sac at ! po/]o-ext]nal "p ( ! kidney1 ext5ds upw>d1 & =w>d1 & exp&s ov] ! surface ( ! kidney4 ,at ! int]nal bord] ( ! kidney1 ?is prolongation ext5ds betwe5 ! transv]se processes ( ! sacral v]tebr1 rea*es a height ( ! fir/ dorsal v]tebra1 =ms a triangul> canal locat$ above ! sacrum 9 ! sacral *annel1 & is sep>at$ f its fell[ by a s]ies ( correspond+ sp9\s processes4 ,! two femoral ext5sions1 an ant]ior1 small1 & a po/]ior1 l>ge1 ext5d f ! abdom9al air-sac at ! cotyloid cavity1 leave ! pelvis ?r\gh ! bony passage occupi$ by ! crural vessels1 ext5d ar\nd ! coxo-femoral articulation1 & t]m9ate 9 a bl9d extremity4 ,9 "s birds1 p>ticul>ly 9 birds ( prey & o/ri*es1 !re are prolongations ext5d+ into ! femur1 ent]+ ?r\gh a =am5 at ! ant]ior "p ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,summ>y ( ,bones ,suppli$ by ,ea* ,air-sac4--,! ?oracic air-sac communicates on ea* side ( ! ?orax ) twelve bones1 includ+ ! f\r /]nal ribs4 ,x supplies air to ! clavicles1 :i* are p]=at$ at bo? _! extremities1 & to ! coracoids1 :i* are p]=at$ j bel[ _! scapul> extremity4 ,! /]num is suppli$ ?r\gh two s]ies ( op5+s1 ! middle ones t conduct air into ! /]nal ridge & ! lat]al ones1 eight 9 numb] & v small1 correspond to ! int]co/al spaces4 ,! /]nal ribs are p5etrat$ by small =am9a at _! inf]ior extremities4 ,f ! subscapul> ext5sion ! scapul receive air ?r\gh "o or two =am9a at _! ant]ior extremity4 ,! hum]al prolongation supplies ! hum]us ?r\gh a =am5 locat$ at ! upp] edge ( ! hum]al fossa1 at ! inf]o-int]nal "p ( ! articul> head4 ,! c]vical air-sac furni%es air to all ! c]vical v]tebr1 to all ! dorsal v]tebr1 & to all ! v]tebral ribs4 ,! ant]ior p>ts ( ! v]tebr ( ! neck are suppli$ ) air ?r\gh ! passage accommodat+ ! v]tebral art]y4 ,! po/]ior p>ts ( ! v]tebr are suppli$ by ext5sions f ! int]sp9al canal4 ,! fir/ ext5sions obta9 entrance to ! ant]ior segm5ts by "o or m op5+s ( ! inn] wall ( ! int]transv]se canals2 ! m$ian ext5sions p5etrate ! po/]ior segm5ts by two op5+s1 a "r & a left1 situat$ on ! inn] wall ( ^? segm5ts4 ,! fir/ dorsal v]tebra is suppli$ ) air 9 ! same mann]1 by ! middle & ! lat]al canals ( ! neck4 ,?is air1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! fir/ v]tebra1 leaves by a lat]al exit to ent] a small air-sac4 ,f ?is x passes into ! sup]ior "p ( ! second v]tebra1 escapes f ?is ?r\gh its l[] portion1 to be receiv$ into a lat]al sac1 & s on to ! la/ dorsal v]tebra4 ,^! sacs also supply ! v]tebral ribs ) air1 :i* ent]s !m by v small op5+s locat$ on _! sp9al extremities4 ,! diaphragmatic air-sacs d n h communications ) ! bones4 ,! abdom9al air-sacs communicate ) ! sacrum1 ! coccygeal v]tebr1 ! iliac bones1 & ! femurs4 ,! air pass+ ?r\gh ! sacrum1 ! coccyx1 & ! ilium comes directly f ! supr>5al ext5sions2 ! air :i* fills ! femoral cavity comes f ! femoral ext5sions4 ,9 "s birds ^! air spaces are m greatly develop$ ?an 9 o!rs4 ,! bones t are always a]at$ 9 all birds are ! c]vical & ! dorsal v]tebr1 ! /]num1 & ! hum]i4 ,^? a]at$ 9 "s k9ds only are ! furculum1 ! scapul1 ! v]tebral & ! /]nal ribs1 ! sacrum1 ! coccyx1 & ! femurs4 ,^? t are nev] a]at$ are ! bones ( ! =e>m1 ! h&1 ! leg1 & ! foot4 ,! s]vice ( air to ! bones 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! body by ! air-sacs1 z j %[n1 is 9 special cases o!rwise r5d]$4 ,! ,eu/a*ian tubes furni% air to ! bones ( ! cranium & to ! upp] jaw2 :ile ! l[] jaw receives air f ! pneumatic =am5 situat$ ^u ea* ramus beh9d ! tympanic articulation1 & f an air cell :i* surr\nds ! jo9t4 ,! cavities ( ! embryonic bones1 :i* aft]w>d become pneumatic1 are fill$ ) m>r[4 ,sel5ka /ates t ! invasion ( ! bones by ! air is a late developm5t1 & t 9 ! hum]us ?is invasion occurs aft] ! tw5ty-second day 9 ! life ( ! *ick4 ,hunt] & ,comp>1 :o h made ext5sive rese>*es1 consid] ! function ( ! air-sacs z ?reefold4 ,fir/1 ! air-sacs are subsidi>y respiratory organs1 :i* aid 9 ridd+ ! blood ( wa/e products & 9 tak+ 9 oxyg54 ,second1 !y aid me*anically ! actions ( respiration 9 birds4 ,dur+ ! act ( inspiration ! /]num is depress$1 ! angle betwe5 ! v]tebral & ! /]nal ribs is made less acute1 & ! ?oracic cavity proportionately enl>g$2 ! air !n ru%es into ! lungs & into ! ?oracic receptacles1 :ile ^? ( ! abdom5 become flaccid4 ,:5 ! /]num is rais$1 or approximat$ t[>d ! sp9e1 "p ( ! air is expell$ f ! lungs & ! ?oracic air-sac ?r\gh ! tra*ea1 & "p is driv5 into ! abdom9al receptacles1 :i* are ?us alt]nately enl>g$ & dim9i%$ ) ! expansion & ! contraction ( ! ?orax4 ,h5ce ! lungs1 not)/&+ _! fix$ condition1 are subject to due compression ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! contigu\s air receptacles1 & are affect$ equally & regul>ly by e motion ( ! /]num & ( ! ribs4 ,?ird1 !y r$uce decid$ly ! specific gravity ( ! :ole body4 ,?is mu/ necess>ily foll[ f ! l>ge spaces fill$ ) air z well z f ! abs5ce 9 ! bones ( m>r[ & o!r fluids4 ,! air-sacs by _! position also r5d] equilibrium m /able4 ,,angiology ,! ,circulatory ,app>atus4--,! circulatory app>atus consi/s ( two tubul> sy/ems3 ! blood vascul> sy/em & ! lymphatic sy/em4 ,! blood vascul> sy/em consi/s ( ! he>t1 ! art]ies1 ! ve9s1 & ! capill>ies4 ,! he>t is ! c5tral1 propell+ organ4 ,! art]ies =m a s]ies ( eff]5t tubules1 :i*1 by bran*+1 con/antly increase 9 numb] & decrease 9 calib]1 & :i* s]ve to c>ry ! blood f ! he>t to ! tissues4 ,! capill>ies are ext5sions f ^! latt] tubules into :i* ! art]ies empty1 & ?r\gh ! walls ( :i* ! int]*ange ( elem5ts betwe5 ! blood & ! o!r tissues takes place4 ,! ve9s =m a sy/em ( conv]g+ tubules :i* receive ! blood f ! capill>ies1 decrease 9 numb] & increase 9 size z !y approa* ! he>t1 & return ! blood to t organ4 ,! lymphatic sy/em consi/s ( capill>ies & ve9s alone4 ,z 9 ! blood sy/em1 ! lymph capill>ies collect ! effete mat]ial & p\r x into ! lymph ve9s1 & ^! 9 turn1 c>ry x to ! l>ge blood ve9s adjac5t to ! he>t4 ,bo? ^! sy/ems h "o & ! same cont9u\s l9+1 :i* consi/s ( a s+le lay] ( endo!lial cells4 ,9 ! he>t ?is l9+ is call$ ! endoc>dium1 & 9 ! vessels1 ! endo!lium4 ,x =ms a p]fectly smoo? surface4 ,,! ,,he>t 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #g7 ,! he>t ( ! dome/ic f[l is locat$ 9 ! m$ian l9e ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,x is m ant]ior & mesial ?an 9 mammals4 ,its axis is p>allel ) ! axis ( ! trunk4 ,! lungs be+ conf9$ to ! dorsal "p ( ! trunk1 ! l[] "p ( ! he>t is n surr\nd$ by !m1 b ext5ds backw>d1 ! apex re/+ 9 ! ant]ior "p ( ! ant]ior m$ian fissure ( ! liv]4 ,! he>t has ! =m ( an acute cone 7,fig4 #ej1 ,no4 #a71 ! apex ( :i* is bluntly r\nd$4 ,! he>t is surr\nd$ by a s]o-fibr\s sac1 ! p]ic>dium4 ,?is sac adh]es to ! c]vical air res]voirs ant]iorly & to ! diaphragmatic septum po/]iorly4 ,x is compos$ ( two membran\s lay]s3 ! p>ietal1 ext]nal1 d5se1 & fibr\s2 & ! visc]al1 int]nal1 & s]\s4 ,! p]ic>dial sac has no direct atta*m5t to ! he>t1 except at ! upp] extremity :]e x surr\nds ! l>ge vessels em]g+ f x4 ,! s]\s lay] is reflect$ ov] ! out] portion ( ! he>t1 :]e x is call$ ! epic>dium4 ,! function ( ! p]ic>dium is to prev5t friction dur+ ! beat+ ( ! he>t4 ,x conta9s a small am\nt ( s]\s fluid = p]fect lubrication4 ,?is fluid is call$ ! liquor p]ic>dii4 ,int]nally ! he>t has f\r cavities3 two auricles & two v5tricles4 ,! "r v5tricle is m cresc5t-%ap$ ?an 9 solip$es1 & 9 a mann] envelops ! left v5tricle 9 front & to ! "r1 ?\gh x does n rea* ! po9t ( ! he>t4 ,! "r auricle is l>g] ?an ! left4 ,! auriculo-v5tricul> valve is n tricuspid z 9 mammals4 ,?is valve in/ead ( be+ =m$ z usual by a membran\s curta91 ) m>g9s reta9$ by cords fix$ to ! walls ( ! v5tricles1 is compos$ ( a wide muscul> leaf1 :i* appe>s to be a portion ( ! inn] wall ( ! v5tricle deta*$ f ! int]v5tricul> septum4 ,?is septum is convex2 & ! auriculo-v5tricul> orifice is an oblique slit situat$ betwe5 x & ! muscul> valve 9 "q2 s t1 :5 ! he>t wall contracts at ! sy/ole1 ! valve is appli$ aga9/ ?is septum & closes ! passage4 ,! bicuspid1 or auriculo-v5tricul> valve ( ! left side usually has two segm5ts1 ?\gh occasionally !re may be ?ree4 ,! fossa ovalis is a depression beh9d ! po/]ior semi-lun> valve 9 ! septum ( ! he>t4 ,! membran\s septum clos+ ! =am5 ovale is complete & /rong b ?9 & transp>5t4 ,! "r auricle receives ! blood f ! two v5 cav com+ f ! ant]ior extremity1 & f ! po/]ior v5a cava4 ,^! empty into a s9us4 ,! left auricle has two vessels1 ! pulmon>y ve9s :i* br+ blood to x f ! lungs4 ,/ructure ( ! ,he>t4--,! he>t is l9$ by a s]\s membrane1 ! endoc>dium1 :i* is a cont9uation ( ! endo!lium ( ! blood-vessels4 ,!re are a few muscul> pill>s 9 ! inn] wall1 call$ ! column c>n4 ,to give ! he>t its pump+ p[]1 x is made up ( contractile tissue1 a specializ$ k9d ( muscle call$ he>t muscle4 ,x is involunt>y-/riat$ & occupies an int]m$iate position1 bo? morphologically & embryologically1 betwe5 smoo? involunt>y muscle & /riat$ volunt>y muscle 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #d74 ,x1 l /riat$ volunt>y muscle1 is bo? transv]sely & longitud9ally /riat$4 ,he>t muscle cells are %ort1 ?ick cyl9d]s1 :i* are jo9$ end to end to =m long fib]s4 ,by means ( lat]al bran*es ! cells ( "o fib] ana/omoses ) cells ( adjac5t fib]s4 ,ea* cell ( he>t muscle conta9s "o c5trally locat$ nucleus4 ,!re is no di/9ct s>colemma1 b ! s>coplasm is m d5se ne> ! surface ( ! cell1 :i* gives x ! appe>ance ( an envelop+ cell wall4 ,!re is a zone free f fibrill ar\nd ! nucleus4 ,! longitud9al fibrill1 :i* make up ! cell1 are held toge!r by a cem5t-l sub/ance4 ,! ma9 mass ( ! he>t wall1 call$ myoc>dium1 consi/s ( ! specializ$ muscul> tissue j describ$4 ,! myoc>dium diff]s 9 ?ickness 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! he>t wall4 ,x is ?icke/ 9 ! left v5tricle & ?9ne/ 9 ! auricles4 ,! left v5tricle =ces ! blood ?r\gh ! sy/emic circulation & h5ce mu/ be ?ick] to give x m p[] ?an is ne$$ = ! "r v5tricle1 :i* =ces ! blood only ?r\gh ! lungs4 ,! auricles are ?9ne/ ( all2 = !y receive ! blood & pass x only to ! *amb]s bel[4 ,! auricul> app5dages at ! base ( ! he>t 9 f[ls are n s well m>k$ z 9 mammals4 ,! auricul> muscles consi/ ( an out] coat common to bo? auricles1 ! fib]s ( :i* are transv]se & ( an inn] coat1 indep5d5t = ea* auricle1 ! fib]s ( :i* are longitud9al4 ,betwe5 ! two coats1 occur bundles ( muscle ! fib]s ( :i* run 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! disposition ( ! muscle tissue ( ! v5tricles is mu* m complicat$4 ,x is compos$ ( sev]al lay]s ( fib]s intricately int]wov54 ,! endoc>dium1 cov]+ ! inn] surface ( ! myoc>dium1 =ms a s]\s l9+ ( all ! *amb]s ( ! he>t4 ,at ! art]ial & v5\s op5+s x is cont9u\s ) & simil> 9 /ructure to ! intima ( ! vessels4 ,! endoc>dium consi/s ( two lay]s1 an ext]nal lay] closely atta*$ to ! myoc>dium & consi/+ ( mix$ fib]s1 includ+ ^? ( ela/ic tissue & smoo? muscle cells2 & an inn]1 s+le lay] ( endo!lial cells1 spok5 ( above4 ,! he>t is suppli$ ) nutri5t blood by ! two coron>y art]ies1 :i* are giv5 (f f ! common aorta j above ! semi-lun> valves4 ,a "r1 or ant]ior1 & a left1 or po/]ior1 coron>y f _! po9t ( orig91 turn 9 a v5tral direction betwe5 ! root ( ! aorta & ! pulmon>y art]y1 ! "r go+ to ! "r coron>y groove & ! left to ! left coron>y groove 9 ! cr[n furr[4 ,f "h !y s5d bran*es into ! he>t4 ,! ant]ior1 "r1 coron>y1 or coron>ia dextra1 ! l>g]1 is giv5 (f f ! inf]ior wall ( ! aorta4 ,x divides into a ramus sup]ficialis & a ramus pr(undus4 ,! ramus sup]ficialis ent]s ! cr[n furr[ & divides into two or ?ree bran*es on ! "r he>t wall4 ,^! bran*es ext5d to ! apex ( ! he>t4 ,twigs f ?is art]y along its c\rse ext5d into ! muscul> wall rea*+ ! po/]ior ( ! coron>y groove :]e !y ana/omose ) ^? ( ! left coron>y1 ! ramus pr(undus1 & ) o!r bran*es f ! same art]y4 ,! ramus pr(undus1 l>g] ?an ! prec$+1 gives (f f9e bran*es into ! walls ( ! aorta & ( ! pulmon>y art]y1 !n ent]s f beh9d into ! "r wall ( ! septum v5triculorum1 ext5ds into ! apex ( ! he>t1 & supplies ! septum1 or "r inn] *amb] wall ) ! la/ bran*1 ?is break+ ?r\gh ! po/]ior wall ( ! auricul> app5dage4 ,! po/]ior1 left coron>y1 or coron>ia s9i/ra1 orig9ates f ! dorsal wall ( ! aorta1 proce$s z "o bran* on ! upp] surface ( ! left auricul> app5dix1 & !n ext5ds betwe5 ! left app5dix & ! pulmon>y art]y to ! v5tral surface ( ! he>t4 ,on ! left side x supplies ! wall ( ! pulmon>y art]y & gives (f a ramus pr(undus4 ,x sometimes divides into two p>ts & supplies ! v5tral wall ( ! "r *amb] & !n ext5ds to ! left wall ( ! septum m$ium4 ,! re/ ( ! coron>ia s9i/ra ent]s into ! left cr[n furr[ z ! ramus sup]ficialis1 :i* provides ! left & dorsal upp] surface ( ! left *amb] to ! apex4 ,f ?is furr[ x ext5ds into ! left *amb] & ! left app5dage1 & f9ally fuses ) ! ramus sup]ficialis ( ! coron>ia dextra4 ,,! ,,blood-,,vessels ,! blood-vessels consi/ ( art]ies1 ve9s & capill>ies4 ,! ,/ructure ( ! ,capill>ies & ,art]ies4--,! capill>ies are m9ute vessels :i* connect ! art]ioles1 or t]m9al art]ies1 ) ! v5ules1 or t]m9al ve9s4 ,!y are only f #f to #ad microns 9 diamet]4 ,_! walls consi/ ( a s+le lay] ( endo!lial cells1 :i* are some:at elongat$ 9 ! long axis ( ! vessels4 ,_! edges are s]rat$1 & are unit$ by a small am\nt ( int]cellul> cem5t-l sub/ance4 ,capill>ies bran* )\t dim9ution 9 calib]1 & ^! bran*es ana/omose to =m capill>y networks1 ! me%es ( :i* diff] 9 size & %ape 9 diff]5t tissues & organs4 ,! l>ge/ me%$ networks occur 9 ! s]\s membranes & 9 ! muscles2 & ! smalle/ occur 9 ! gl&s1 su* z ! liv]4 ,! walls ( ! art]ies are ?ick & /& op5 :5 empty1 ow+ to ! ela/ic tissue conta9$ 9 _! walls1 :ile ! walls ( ! ve9s collapse :5 empty1 ow+ to _! conta9+ a small] am\nt ( ela/ic tissue4 ,! art]ial wall is provid$ ) ?ree coats3 tunica intima1 or inn] coat2 tunica m$ia1 or m$ian coat2 & tunica adv5titia1 or out] coat4 ,! tunica intima consi/s ( a s+le lay] ( endo!lial cells1 cont9u\s ) & simil> to t =m+ ! walls ( ! capill>ies4 ,9 pass+ f ! capill>ies to ! art]ioles1 !re is fir/ a ?9 coat1 or %ea?-l lay]1 ( connective tissue ar\nd ! outside ( ! endo!lial tubes4 ,fur!r along1 isolat$ smoo? muscle cells arrang$ 9 a circul> mann] occur betwe5 ! endo!lial lay] & ! lay] ( connective tissue1 ?is /ructure =m+ vessels call$ precapill>y art]ies4 ,fur!r along /ill1 ! muscle cells =m a complete lay]2 9 ?is section ! vessels are call$ art]ioles & are made up ( ?ree coats3 ! inn] endo!lial1 ! middle muscul>1 & ! out] fibr\s4 ,9 art]ies ( m$ium size ! intima consi/s ( ! endo!lial lay]1 a lay] ( delicate :ite & ela/ic fib]s1 connective-tissue cells1 & ! membrana ela/ica int]na1 or an out] lay]1 ! ela/ic lay]1 ( ! intima4 ,! m$ia consi/s ( a ?ick coat ( circul>ly arrang$ smoo? muscle cells1 its ?ickness dep5d+ l>gely ^u ! size ( ! vessels4 ,!re is also a small am\nt ( fibrill>y connective tissue1 :i* supports ! muscle cells4 ,ela/ic tissue is pres5t 9 ! m$ia1 ! am\nt dep5d+ on ! size ( ! vessel1 ! l>g] ! vessel ! m ela/ic tissue !re is pres5t4 ,9 ! l>ge art]ies co>se ela/ic fib]s int]m+le ) ! f9] ones4 ,:5 mu* ela/ic tissue is pres5t ! muscle cells are sep>at$ into m or less well-def9$ gr\ps4 ,! adv5titia is compos$ ( loose connective tissue ) "s ela/ic fib]s4 ,a few smoo? muscle cells are pres5t1 :i*1 z are also ! ela/ic fib]s1 are arrang$ longitud9ally4 ,! adv5titia1 bl5d+ ) ! connective tissue surr\nd+ ! art]ies1 s]ves to an*or ! vessels to ! surr\nd+ /ructure4 ,/ructure ( ! ,ve9s4--,9 _m respects ! walls ( ! ve9s resemble ^? ( ! art]ies4 ,! same ?ree coats exi/ & ! same elem5ts ent] into _! /ructure4 ,! transition f capill>y to small ve9s1 & f ^? to l>g] ve9s1 is simil> to ! transition f ! art]ies to capill>ies1 9 inv]se ord]4 ,! walls are n s ?ick z ^? ( art]ies4 ,! ela/ic tissue is mu* less 9 quantity & 9 small] ve9s disappe>s4 ,!re is n a cle> l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! intima & ! m$ia4 ,! ve9s ( birds diff] f ^? ( mammals 9 t !y h few] valves4 ,! valves are also less p]fect1 & (t5 p]mit a backw>d fl[ ( blood4 ,! walls ( ! art]ies & ( ! ve9s are suppli$ ) nutri5t blood-vessels4 ,^! are call$ ! vasa vasorum1 or blood-vessels ( ! blood-vessel wall4 ,!y are mo/ly 9 ! adv5titia4 ,!y may arise f ! vessel to :i* !y are di/ribut$ or take orig9 f an adjac5t vessel4 ,^! small art]ies supply+ ! vessel coat aft] t]m9at+ into capill>ies =m small ve9s ?r\gh :i* ! blood1 f ! /ructure ( ! vessel wall1 is return$4 ,! walls ( ! blood-vessels are suppli$ ) bo? m$ullat$ & non-m$ullat$ n]ves4 ,! non-m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s are axones ( ! sympa!tic neurones & control ! calib] ( ! vessels4 ,^! fib]s are call$ ! vasomotor n]ves4 ,!y =m plexuses 9 ! adv5titia1 f :i* are giv5 (f bran*es :i* p5etrate ! m$ia & t]m9ate on ! muscle cells4 ,! m$ullat$ n]ves are ! axones ( ! sp9al n]ves4 ,! l>g] fib]s are f\nd 9 ! connective tissue outside ! adv5titia & give (f bran*es to ! m$ia :]e !y divide repeat$ly1 lose _! %ea?1 & t]m9ate 9 ! m$ia & at times 9 ! intima4 ,,! ,,art]ial ,,trunks ,! common aorta is %ort2 x orig9ates f ! left v5tricle 7,fig4 #fa;,b1 ,no4 ,k1 #ad71 & is gu>d$ by ?ree semi-lun> valves4 ,! aorta breaks ?r\gh ! p]ic>dium j to ! "r ( ! pulmon>y art]ies 9 a v5tral direction2 x !n turns upw>d dorsally & to ! "r ( ! inf]ior bodies ( ! v]tebr4 ,x is !n direct$ ant]iorly1 & dorsally to ! "r bron*us1 betwe5 ! "r bron*us & ! "r lung4 ,! "r & ! left coron>ies are giv5 (f f ! common aorta2 !y h be5 discuss$4 ,!re is next giv5 (f ! left bra*io-cephalic or bra*io-cephalic s9i/] art]y 7,fig4 #fa;,b1 ,no4 ,k1 #aj71 :i* is j above ! bord] ( ! base ( ! he>t4 ,?is art]y passes upw>d & slightly =w>d1 ov] ! c5t] ( ! inf]ior l>ynx4 ,j beyond ?is po9t ! subclavian art]y is giv5 (f2 ?is art]y lat] becomes ! axill>y & ! axill>y ! bra*ial art]y4 ,!n !re is giv5 (f ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior ?oracic art]ies2 & f9ally1 ! pectoral1 :i* supply ! pectoralis muscles & lat] t]m9ate 9 ! c>otid1 ! v]tebral1 & ! c]vical art]ies4 ,! c>otid art]y gives (f an esophageal art]y4 ,! o!r art]ial trunk giv5 (f f ! common aorta is ! "r bra*io-cephalic or bra*io-cephalic dext] 7,fig4 #fa;,b1 ,no4 ,k1 #ah74 ,! "r bra*io-cephalic art]y gives (f ! subclavian1 :i* cont9ues z ! axill>y1 & cont9ues z ! bra*ial art]y4 ,!re is giv5 (f ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior ?oracic1 ! "r c>otid 7,fig4 #fa;,b1 ,no4 ,k1 #aa71 ! v]tebral1 & ! dorsal4 ,! la/ cont9ues z ! c]vical4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa;,b4 ,k4 ,! art]ial trunks4 #a1 ,! middle sacral art]y4 #b1 ,! hypoga/ric art]y4 #c1 ,! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 #d1 ,! is*iadic art]y4 #e1 ,! femoral art]y4 #f1 ,! r5al art]y4 #g1 ,! left pectoral art]y or ?oracico caudalis4 #h1 ,! left axill>y art]y4 #i1 ,! left c>otid art]y4 #aj1 ,! left bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #aa1 ,! "r c>otid art]y4 #ab1 ,! "r bra*ial art]y4 #ac1 ,! "r pectoral art]y4 #ad1 ,! common c>otid art]y4 #ae1 ,! po/]ior aorta4 #af1 ,! celiac axis4 #ag1 ,! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 #ah1 ,! "r bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #ai1 ,! auricul> portion ( ! he>t4 #bj1 ,! v5tricul> portion ( same4 #ba1 ,/]no-clavicul> art]y4 #bb1 ,ant]ior ?oracic4 ,l4 ,! v5\s trunks4 #a1 ,! caudal ve94 #b1 ,! coccygeo-mes5t]ic ve94 #c1 ,! po/]ior mes5t]ic ve94 #d1 ,! ant]ior mes5t]ic ve94 #e1 ,! ga/ro-duod5al ve94 #f1 ,! portal ve94 #g1 ,! hepatic ve94 #h1 ,! left ant]ior v5a cava4 #i1 ,! left pectoral ve94 #aj1 ,! left bra*ial ve94 #aa1 ,! left jugul> ve94 #ab1 ,! "r jugul> ve94 #ac1 ,! "r bra*ial ve94 #ad1 ,! "r pectoral ve94 #ae1 ,! "r ant]ior v5a cava4 #af1 ,! po/]ior v5a cava4 #ag1 ,! common iliac ve94 #ah1 ,! femoral ve94 #ai1 ,! r5al ve94 #bj1 ,! int]nal iliac ve94 #ba1 ,! hypoga/ric ve94 #bb1 ,! auricul> portion ( ! he>t4 #bc1 ,! v5tricul> portion ( same4 ,! pulmon>y art]ial trunk is giv5 (f f ! conus art]iosus ( ! "r v5tricle4 ,x is gu>d$ at its orig9 by ?ree semi-lun> valves simil> to ^? ( ! aorta4 ,! trunk divides into two pulmon>y art]ies1 :i* are %ort1 "o call$ ! pulmonalis dext] & ! o!r ! pulmonalis s9i/]4 ,! =m] goes to ! "r & ! latt] to ! left lung4 ,ea* bran* p5etrates ! lung ne> ! bron*us4 ,^! art]ies divide1 or bran*1 simil>ly to ! bron*i4 ,foll[+ ! bran*+s ( ! bron*i1 !y f9ally t]m9ate into ! lung capill>ies1 =m+ networks on ! bron*i & ! air-tube t]m9als4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,bra*io-,,cephalic ,,art]y 7 ,?yroidea 7 7 ,c]vicalis inf]ior 7 ,v]tebralis 7 ,v]tebralis ant]ior 7 7 ,v]tebralis po/]ior 7 7 ,art]ia c]vicalis asc5d5s 7 ,bron*iales 7 ,truncus 7 ,inf]ior esophageal 7 c>oticus 7 ,subcutane\s colli 7 7 7 ,c>otis c]ebralis 7 7 ,c>otis 7 ,c]vicalis sup]ior 7 7 communis 7 ,occipitalis 7 7 7 ,c>otis ext]na 7 7 ,sp9alis ant]ior 7 ,basil>is 7 ,c]ebelli inf]ior ,bra*io-cephalic 7 7 7 ,clavicul>is 7 7 ,/]no-clavicul>is 7 ,/]nalis 7 7 7 ,acromialis 7 7 7 7 7 ,subscapul>is 7 7 7 7 ,uln>is 7 ,subclavia 7 ,axill>is 7 ,bra*ialis 7 ,bra*ialis pr(unda 7 7 7 ,radialis 7 7 ,hum]alis 7 ,circumflex hum]alis 7 7 7 ant]ior 7 7 7 ,?oracica ext]na 7 ,?oracalis 7 7 ,art]ia ?oracica 7 ,?oracica inf]ior 7 longa 7 7 ,mamm>ia int]na 7 ,circumflex hum]alis po/]ior ,bra*ialis pr(unda 7 ,collat]al uln>is 7 ,collat]al radialis ,! cord-l remnant ( ! ductus botalli1 or embryonal connection betwe5 ! lung art]ial trunk & ! ant]ior aorta1 has be5 obs]v$ b is r>e 9 gr[n birds4 ,! art]ies1 ! ve9s1 & ! lymphatic vessels ( birds ana/omose f> m frequ5tly ?an ^? ( mammals4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,art]ia ,,c>otis ,,c]ebralis ,,int]na 7 ,occipitalis 7 ,occipitalis sublimis 7 7 ,occipitalis pr(unda 7 ,m5+ea 7 7 ,temporalis 7 7 7 ,rete temporale 7 ,oph?almica 7 ,recurr5t oph?almicum 7 ,rete e?moidalis 7 ext]na 7 ,e?moidalis 7 7 ,plexus palpebralis 7 7 ,plexus alveol>is inf]ior 7 7 ,plexus muscul>is ,c>otis c]ebralis 7 ,plexus temporalis 7 ,plexus lacrimalis 7 7 ,ramus cili>is po/icus 7 7 ,m5+ea m$ia 7 7 7 ,sph5oidea 7 ,e?modalis 7 7 ,sph5o-maxill>is 7 ,e?moidalis 7 ext]na 7 7 7 ,oph?almica 7 7 ,e?moidalis 7 7 7 int]na 7 7 int]na 7 ,c]ebralis 7 7 7 ,ramus 7 ,sylvi 7 ant]ior 7 ,c]ebralis pr(unda 7 ,*oroid plexus 7 ,art]ia c5tralis ret9 7 ,ramus po/]ior ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,art]ia ,,c>otis ,,ext]na 7 ,hyoidea ,c>otis ext]na 7 ,l>yngea sup]ior 7 ,facialis 7 ,l+ualis ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,art]ia ,,c>otis ,,facialis 7 ,auricul>is ,facialis 7 ,facialis int]na 7 ,alveol>is inf]ior 7 ,m5talis 7 ,maxill>is int]na 7 ,facialis ext]na ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,c>otid ,,trunk ,! c>otis communis art]y spr+s f ! c>otid trunk ( ! bra*io-cephalic4 ,x is direct$ horizontally1 asc5d+ to ! v5tral side ( ! neck4 ,x !n ext5ds d[nw>d to ! inf]ior m$ian neck region4 ,j aft] leav+ its orig9 x gives (f sev]al small bran*es to ! bron*i & to ! esophagus1 & ext5ds t[>d ! head4 ,! c>otid lies on ! ?yroid gl& & at ?is po9t t\*es ! jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #ba74 ,at ?is po9t ! ?yroid art]ies are giv5 (f f ! c>otid trunk4 ,! ?yroid gl& also receives blood f ! bron*ialis art]y4 ,dorsalw>d & ne> ! ?yroid gl& ! c>otid art]y gives (f a bran* 7! bron*ialis7 :i* accompanies ! recurr5t l>yngeal n]ve1 along ! inf]ior l>ynx & ! bron*i1 & supplies ! lung sub/ance & t "p ( ! esophagus 9 ?is region4 ,! v]tebral art]y is giv5 (f f ! c>otid trunk1 dorsalw>d to ! ?yroid gl&1 & on ! left side4 ,! "r v]tebral art]y may be giv5 (f f ! bra*ialis dextra or "r bra*ialis4 ,! inf]ior esophageal art]y is giv5 (f f ! v5tral side ( ! c>otid1 supplies ! esophagus1 ext5ds !n to ! sk9 ( ! neck & to ! tra*ea1 is direct$ ant]iorly t[>d ! head & ana/omoses ) ! v]tebral art]y4 ,?is art]y accompanies ! vagus n]ve & =ms a collat]al art]y to ! c>otid & ! v]tebral art]y4 ,! subcutane\s colli spr+s f ! c>otid art]y ne> ! ?yroid gl& & communicates ) ! inf]ior c]vical art]y1 :i*1 9 turn spr+s f ! v]tebral art]y4 ,! ,common ,c>otid4--,ne> ! la/ c]vical v]tebra ! two c>otid art]ies occupy ! same *annel1 to :i* !y are atta*$ by fascia1 &1 ly+ close to ! inf]ior surface ( ! bodies ( ! c]vical v]tebr1 are cov]$ by ! colli muscles4 ,ne> ! ?ird or ! f\r? c]vical v]tebra1 ! two c>otid art]ies sep>ate4 ,ne> ! atlas ea* c>otid divides into ! c>otis c]ebralis & c>otis ext]na4 ,ne> ?is division ! sup]ior c]vical art]y bran*es (f4 ,?is latt] art]y ext5ds d[n ! neck 9 company ) ! pneumoga/ric n]ve & ! jugul> ve91 supplies ! sk9 & ! neck muscles1 & ana/omoses ) ! inf]ior c]vical art]y & ! subcutane\s colli art]y4 ,! occipital art]y orig9ates ei!r f ! c>otis communis or sometimes f ! sup]ior c]vical4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,c>otis ,,c]ebralis ,! bran*es ( ! c>otis c]ebralis are z foll[s3 #a4 ,! occipitalis 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #ah71 :i* 9 turn gives (f1 fir/1 ! occipitalis sublimis4 ,! occipitalis sublimis supplies ! out] & ! middle portion ( ! diga/ricus & ! po/]ior mylo-hyoideus muscle4 ,x also gives (f1 second1 ! occipitalis pr(unda :i* supplies ! inn] portion ( ! diga/ricus muscle & becomes ! m5+eal art]y1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! =am5 vagi1 ent]+ ! bra9 cavity1 :]e x supplies ! cov]+s ( ! bra9 z f> z ! sella turcica4 ,sup]ficial bran*es ( ?is art]y are di/ribut$ to ! muscles 9 ! region ( ! atlas & ana/omose ) ! v]tebral art]y4 #b4 ,! oph?almica ext]na1 :i* passes bel[ ! articulation ( ! quadrate bone1 ar\nd ! tympanic cavity1 ent]s ! canalis c>oticus1 & passes into ! cranial cavity4 ,! ramus occipitalis1 pass+ out ( ! same =am51 aga9 ent]s ! diplo ( ! cranium2 !n aft] pass+ dorsally ov] ! upp] out] semicircul> canal ( ! e>1 passes backw>d ?r\gh ! occipital bone4 ,! oph?almica ext]na 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #i7 =ms a ma9 trunk & gives (f two bran*es3 ! temporal art]y & ! recurr5t oph?almic4 ,! recurr5t oph?almic gives (f ! rete temporalis1 rete e?moidalis1 a bran* to ! orbital gl&1 & f9ally ana/omoses ) its own bran*es & ) ^? ( ! int]nal oph?almic at ! olfactory =am5 & aids 9 =m+ ! e?moidal art]y4 ,^! art]ies supply blood by giv+ (f bran*es to ! muscles ( ! eye1 scl]otic coat1 iris1 *oroid coat1 & ! cili>y bodies4 ,x gives (f ano!r bran* to ,h>d]'s gl&1 & f9ally ana/omoses ) ! e?moidalis4 #c4 ,! plexus temporalis1 rete mirabile oph?almicum1 or wond]ful network 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #h71 is =m$ betwe5 ! second & ! ?ird trunk ( ! trigem9us n]ve & ! rete oph?almicum4 ,inf]ior to ?is is ! alveol> plexus1 :i* plexus accompanies ! ?ird bran* ( ! trigem9us into ! l[] jaw4 ,two ma9 bran*es =m ?is plexus1 "o com+ f ! c>otis facialis1 :i* ana/omoses ) ! alveol> art]y4 ,! palpebral plexus lies betwe5 ! trunks ( ! trigem9us1 & supplies ma9ly ! l[] eyelid4 ,! plexus muscul>is ext5ds to ! fif? portion ( ! temporal muscle4 ,! plexus lacrimalis =ms on ! po/]ior orbital wall on ! ramus e?moidalis & supplies ! lacrimal gl& & ! upp] eyelid4 ,x ana/omoses ) bran*es f ! facial art]y4 ,! ramus cili>is po/icus supplies ! inf]ior rectus & ! ext]nal rectus muscle ( ! eyeball4 ,x ana/omoses ) ! oph?almica ext]na4 ,! m$ian m5+eal art]y passes ?r\gh ! =am5 occupi$ by ! second bran* ( ! trigem9al n]ve4 ,pass+ into ! cranial cavity1 x supplies ! dura mat]4 ,be=e pass+ into ?is =am51 small bran*es are giv5 (f1 :i* supply ! sk9 & ! temporal muscle2 & "s bran*es ana/omose ) ! sup]ior c]vical & ! e?moidal art]ies4 #d4 ,! ,c]ebral ,art]y4--,ea* c]ebral art]y ent]s ! cranial cavity ?r\gh ! canalis c>oticus locat$ 9 ! sph5oid bone1 passes =w>d m$ially f ! co*lea1 dorsally f ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 & passes ?r\gh a small canal :i* op5s on ! inn] surface ( ! sella turcica4 ,orig9at+ 9 ?is =am51 ! sph5oid art]y divides into two bran*es :i* ana/omose ) ! pt]ygoidean & ! pt]ygo-ph>yngeal art]y & :i* supply ! upp] jaw & ! ?roat regions4 ,! sph5o-maxill>is art]y supplies ! gums4 ,! "r & ! left c]ebral art]ies unite at ! sella turcica4 ,aft] ?is union !y divide aga9 imm$iately & pass to ! base ( ! bra91 :]e !y give (f twigs to ! optic n]ve1 to ! optic *iasm1 & :]e also is giv5 (f ! art]ia ret9 c5tralis4 ,pass+ po/]iorly ea* c]ebral art]y gives (f ! ramus po/]ior1 & !n passes to ! side ( ! c]ebellum4 ,! basil> art]y1 a cont9uation ( ! ant]ior sp9al art]y1 is locat$ v5trally & mesially to ! c]ebellum4 ,lat]ally & inf]iorly ! basil> art]y gives (f ! inf]ior c]ebell> art]y4 ,! ramus ant]ior is giv5 (f f ! c]ebralis art]y & cont9ues z ! int]nal oph?almic art]y4 ,! ramus ant]ior also gives (f ! sylvian art]y1 :i* supplies ! sides ( ! c]ebrum & ! middle bra94 ,9 ! fissure betwe5 ! hemisph]es & ! optic ?alamus is locat$ ! art]ia c]ebri pr(unda4 ,?is art]y passes along ! m$ian surface ( ! c]ebrum & 9 its c\rse supplies ! adjac5t p>ts4 ,x ent]s into ! =mation ( ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,! int]nal oph?almic art]y ext5ds out ( ! cranial cavity1 ?r\gh ! optic =am51 into ! orbital cavity4 ,x passes upw>d along ! int]orbital wall & supplies ! optic n]ve1 ! trigem9us n]ve trunk1 & ! eye muscles1 & dorsally ana/omoses ne> ! olfactory n]ve ) ! rete e?moidale & ! ext]nal oph?almic art]y1 & cont9ues z ! e?moidal art]y4 ,! e?moidal art]y supplies ! supra-orbital gl& & ! gl& ( ,h>d]4 ,x gives (f twigs to ! rete oph?almicum & o!r bran*es to ! sk9 ( ! frontal region1 :]e x ana/omoses ) bran*es ( ! ext]nal facial art]y4 ,^! bran*es 9 ! frontal region are r l>ge4 ,l>ge bran*es are giv5 (f to ! comb4 ,! art]ia e?moidalis ext]na orig9ates 9 ! nasal cavity f a division ( ! e?moidal art]y4 ,! ext]nal e?moidal art]y passes bel[ ! lacrimal bone1 ext5ds =w>d1 supplies ! walls ( ! nasal cavity1 & f9ally s5ds a bran* ant]iorly into ! upp] m$ian portion ( ! jaw bone1 & o!r bran*es to ! septum nasi & o!r p>ts ( ! nasal cavity4 ,!re are frequ5t ana/omoses betwe5 ! e?moidalis int]na1 ! facialis1 & ! sph5o-maxill>y art]y4 ,! int]nal e?moidal art]y supplies pr9cipally ! po/]ior turb9at$ bones & septum nasi4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,c>otid ,,art]y ,bran*es f ! ext]nal c>otid & ! facial art]y supply ! tongue & its muscles1 ! l>ynx1 ! l[] jaw bone1 ! gums1 & ! upp] lat]al facial region4 ,! ext]nal c>otid 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,a1 #h7 gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 ,fir/1 ! hyoid art]y 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #ab7 :i* supplies ! inn] portion ( ! depressor m&ibul> & also ! cornua ( ! os hyoideum1 & ext5ds to ! tip ( ! tongue4 ,second1 ! sup]ior l>yngeal art]y 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #af7 :i* supplies ! /]no-bra*ialis & gives (f bran*es :i* ext5d d[nw>d to ! tra*ea & to ! esophagus4 ,! ma9 art]y passes along ! left side ( ! esophagus & ana/omoses ) bran*es ( ! inf]ior esophageal1 =m+ collat]al circulation 9 t region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,a4 ,blood-vessels ( ! head4 #a1 ,! c]ebellum4 #b4 ,! c]ebrum4 #c1 ,! semicircul> canals4 #d1 ,s9us occipitalis sup]ior4 #e1 ,s9us temporalis sph5oideus4 #f1 ,s9us transv]sus dext]4 #g1 ,sup]ior esophageal art]y4 #h1 ,c>otis ext]nus4 #i1 ,l+ual art]y4 #aj1 ,s9us longitud9alis4 ,b4 ,ve9s ( ! ant]o-inf]ior "p ( ! head & neck4 #a1 ,! "r c>otid art]y4 #b1 ,! left c>otid art]y4 #c1 ,v5a jugul>is dext]4 #d1 ,v5a v]tebralis dext]4 #e1 ,transv]se ve94 #f1 ,v5a cephalica dext] ant]ior4 #g1 ,v5a l+ualis4 #h1 ,v5a cephalica po/]ior4 #i1 ,v5a facialis ext]na dext]4 #aj1 ,v5a infrapalat9a4 #aa1 ,po/]ior n>es4 #ab1 ,v5a facialis int]na4 #ac1 ,v5a facialis ext]na s9i/]4 ,c4 ,! bra94 #a1 ,m$ulla oblongata4 #b1 ,c]ebellum4 #c1 ,optic lobe4 #d1 ,c]ebrum4 #e1 ,longitud9al fissure4 #f1 ,transv]se fissure4 #g1 ,olfactory n]ve4 #h1 ,optic n]ve4 #i1 ,optic commissure4 #aj1 ,motor oculi4 #aa1 ,pa!ticus4 #ab1 ,trigem9al1 or trifacialis4 #ac1 ,abduc5s4 #ad1 ,facialis4 #ae1 ,auditory1 or ac\/icus4 #af1 ,glosso-ph>yngeus4 #ag1 ,pneumoga/ric4 #ah1 ,sp9al accessory4 #ai1 ,hypoglossus4 #bj1 ,hypophysis4 #ba1 ,crus c]ebri4 #bb1 ,ganglion on sup]ior n]ve trunk4 #bc1 ,sp9al cord4 #bd1 ,a pair ( sp9al n]ves4 ,?ird1 ! l+ualis art]y 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,a1 #i7 :i* lies betwe5 ! mylo-hyoideus & ! po/]ior "p ( ! hyoid bone4 ,x supplies ! tongue muscles4 ,x passes to ! m$ian surface ( ! l[] jaw bone1 :]e are giv5 (f small bran*es :i* ent] ! jaw & ana/omose ) ! inf]ior alveol> art]y4 ,f\r?1 ! ,facial ,art]y4--,! facial art]y divides into ! foll[+ bran*es3 ,! auricul> art]y is giv5 (f ne> ! articulation ( ! os quadratum ) ! os zygomaticum4 ,x is locat$ at ! out] auditory canal1 & its bran*es are di/ribut$ to ! p>otid region & to ! depressor m&ibul>1 or diga/ricus1 muscle4 ,! ext]nal facial art]y is locat$ betwe5 ! os quadratum & ! masset] muscle4 ,x gives (f a bran* to ! l[] jaw bone & to ! sk9 ( t region1 & !n passes to ! lacrimal bone & supplies bran*es to ! commissure ( ! m\?1 ! auditory canal1 ! masset] muscle1 ! ?ree eyelids 7upp] & l[] eyelids & ! membrana nictitans71 ! nose cavity1 & ! sk9 9 ! frontal region4 ,x communicates on ! o!r side ) ! e?moidal art]y4 ,! int]nal facial art]y passes ov] & ?r\gh ! os pt]ygoideum1 supplies all ! jaw muscles1 & is cont9u$ z ! inf]ior alveol> art]y4 ,! inf]ior alveol> art]y ent]s ! canal ( ! l[] jaw bone along ) ! m&ibul> n]ve4 ,x is f9ally cont9u$ z ! m5tal art]y1 leav+ ! canal1 & pass+ to ! out] jaw surface4 ,! facialis cont9ues z ! int]nal maxill>y art]y4 ,! int]nal maxill>y art]y 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #ae7 supplies ! pt]ygoid muscle1 ! upp] "p ( ! ph>ynx1 ! commissure ( ! m\?1 ! saliv>y gl& region1 ! gums1 & f9ally ana/omoses ) bran*es ( ! sph5o-maxill>is art]y4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,art]y ,! v]tebral art]y is giv5 (f1 dorsally ne> ! ?yroid gl&1 f ! c>otis communis or f ! c>otid trunk4 ,! v]tebral art]y passes horizontally & dorsally into ! canals =m$ 9 ! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,aft] x leaves ! c>otid1 x is divid$ into ant]ior & po/]ior bran*es4 ,! po/]ior v]tebral art]y passes 9 ! canals ( ! transv]se processes ( ! fif? or six? dorsal v]tebra4 ,x s5ds bran*es into ! v]tebr1 into ! sp9al canal1 & into ! int]co/al muscles betwe5 ! ribs & ana/omoses ) ! int]co/al art]ies4 ,! ant]ior v]tebral art]y is l>g] ?an ! po/]ior4 ,x ext5ds lat]ally along ! side ( ! neck 9 ! =am5 ( ! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr1 & lies along ! c\rse ( ! inf]ior v]tebral ve9 & ! deep imb$d$ trunk ( ! sympa!tic n]ve4 ,x cont9ues to ! head4 ,9 its passage x gives (f to ea* v]tebral segm5t a dorsal & a v5tral bran*4 ,twigs f ^! bran*es pass into ! bodies ( ! v]tebr & ! sp9al canal1 giv+ nutrim5t to ! bony /ructure & to ! sp9al cord & its cov]+s4 ,o!r twigs are di/ribut$ to ! muscles ( ! neck & "s f9ally ana/omose ) bran*es ( ! c>otis communis4 ,?is art]y1 rea*+ ! head1 gives (f a long ana/omos+ bran* :i* passes betwe5 ! atlas & po/]ior "p ( ! occipital bone & jo9s ! ramus pr(undus & ! occipital art]y1 ?us aga9 communicat+ ) ! c>otid art]y4 ,! rema9d] ( ! v]tebral art]y is small & passes ?r\gh ! =am5 magnum into ! cranial cavity :]e x ana/omoses ) t]m9al bran*es ( ! c]ebral art]y4 ,at ! base ( ! neck & be=e ! v]tebral art]y ent]s ! canal ( ! c]vical v]tebr1 x gives (f ! art]ia c]vicalis asc5d5s1 sup]ior art]y ( ! crop 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #ah7 :i* bran*es out on ! upp] surface ( ! crop is also di/ribut$ to ! neck muscles1 & lat] subdivides into ! transv]se c]vical art]ies :i* supply ! sk9 & ! muscles ( ! base ( ! neck1 & ! %\ld] region4 ,on ! v5tral side ( ! neck !re are giv5 (f two subv]tebral c>otid art]ial bran*es4 ,!y lie 9 a %all[ furr[ on ! v5tral side ( ! c]vical v]tebr & close to ! m$ian l9e4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,subclavian ,,art]y ,! subclavian art]y 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #ac2 ,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #aa7 gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 #a4 ,/]no-clavicul>is 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #i7 :i* orig9ates on ! upp] "p ( ! subclavia1 betwe5 ! c>otid art]y & ext]nal ?oracic 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #c71 divides into _m bran*es4 ,! /]no-clavicul>is gives (f ! /]nal art]y1 :i* ent]s by ! side ( ! supra-coracoid muscle & ! ant]ior rim ( ! /]num4 ,x is di/ribut$ to ! inn] surface & ov] ! air-sac4 ,ano!r outside bran* passes ! po/]ior end ( ! cri/a /]na & supplies ! l>ge brea/ muscles4 ,! clavicul> art]y 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #h7 accompanies ! clavicle to ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,! acromial art]y is giv5 (f f ! /]no-clavicul>is on ! ligam5t ne> ! %\ld]-jo9t4 #b4 ,! ?oracic art]y bran*es f ! subclavian art]y 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #d74 ,! ?oracic art]y gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 ,! int]nal mamm>y1 or int]nal ?oracic art]y 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #af7 arises on ! inn] side ( ! /]num & ext5ds d[nw>d & backw>d1 giv+ nutri5t bran*es to ! ant]ior v5a cava & to ! diaphragm4 ,at ! po9t ( ! co/o-/]nal muscle x divides into an inn] & an out] bran*4 ,! inn] bran* supplies ! co/o-/]nal muscle & ext5ds along ! ribs & along _! juncture ) ! brea/-bone4 ,x f9ally ext5ds po/]iorly1 giv+ num]\s bran*es to ! abdom9al muscles4 ,! out] bran* is di/ribut$ 9 a simil> mann]1 giv+ (f bran*es to ! diaphragm & to ! abdom9al muscles1 & ana/omoses1 on ! surface ( ! abdom9al muscles1 ) ! epiga/ric art]y4 ,! ext]nal ?oracic art]y 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #c71 ramus sup]ior1 supplies pr9cipally ! l>ge brea/ muscles4 ,! inf]ior ?oracic art]y1 ext]nal ramus inf]ior1 passes along ! outside ( ! pectoralis major muscle1 ext5ds d[nw>d1 & gives (f ! art]ia ?oracica longa 7subcutane\s ?oracic74 ,?is latt] art]y supplies ! sk9 ( ! brea/ region4 ,o!r bran*es are giv5 (f to ! muscles ( ! brea/ & to ! sk9 ( ! region1 & "s f9ally ana/omose ) ! bran*es ( ! /]nal art]y4 #c4 ,! axill>y art]y 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #ab7 ext5ds out ( ! ?oracic cavity along ) ! bra*ial n]ve plexus4 ,x gives (f ! subscapul>is :i* supplies ! muscles ( ! scapul> region4 ,! axill>y art]y t]m9ates z ! bra*ialis :i* passes betwe5 ! biceps bra*ii & anconeus muscles d[nw>d along ! hum]al %aft4 ,x gives (f ! ant]ior hum]al circumflex art]y & ! bra*ialis pr(unda art]y 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #c74 ,x gives (f ne> ! elb[-jo9t ! uln> & radial art]ies4 ,! ant]ior circumflex hum]al art]y passes ?r\gh ! %ort head ( ! biceps & gives (f a bran* to ! biceps muscle1 supply+ ! ins]tional "p ( ! brea/ muscles4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,bra*ialis ,,pr(unda ,! bra*ialis pr(unda art]y 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #c7 cont9ues z ! po/]ior circumflex hum]al art]y4 ,?is art]y supplies ! muscles ( ! po/]ior "p ( ! hum]us1 ! sk9 ( ! w+1 & ! muscles ( ! bra*ial region4 ,! trunk ( ! art]ia bra*ii pr(unda passes d[nw>d along ! anconeus muscle1 supply+ t muscle & giv+ (f ! collat]al uln> art]y4 ,on ! uln> olecranon x ana/omoses ) ! recurr5t uln>1 ?us e/abli%+1 at ?is region1 collat]al circulation4 ,! re/ ( ! bra*ialis s5ds bran*es to ! biceps muscle & to ! sk9 ( ! upp] arm1 & f9ally gives (f ! art]ia collat]alis radialis1 :i* supplies ! condylo-uln>is4 ,x !n ana/omoses ) ! end bran*es ( ! recurr5t radialis art]y4 ,! radial art]y 7,fig4 #fg1 ,no4 #d7 passes d[nw>d on ! out] rim ( ! =e>m4 ,x cont9ues d[n to ! c>pal region1 :]e x supplies ! muscles & ! sk9 ( ! c>pal region x gives (f ! recurr5t radial1 :i* passes on ! middle f+] & f9ally ana/omoses ) ! collat]al radialis art]y4 ,! uln> art]y 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #f & #i7 passes d[nw>d on ! inn] surface ( ! ulna to ! c>pal region :]e x gives (f a bran* to ! w+ plexus & divides into two bran*es1 ! small] bran* supply+ ! ?umb 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #g74 ,?is bran* passes d[n ! radial side ( ! middle f+] to ! la/ jo9t ( ! second f+]4 ,! l>g] 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #h7 lies betwe5 ! second & ! ?ird f+] bones1 & passes ?r\gh a slit betwe5 ^! two bones to ! flexor side ( ! h& & ext5ds to ! la/ f+]-jo9t1 supply+ ! /ructures 9 ! region4 ,! uln> art]y gives (f a small art]ial twig to ! papilla ( ea* l>ge w+ fea!r 7,fig4 #fg1 ,no4 #f74 ,! recurr5t uln> passes backw>d to ! olecranon ( ! ulna & supplies ! muscles1 ! sk91 ! fea!rs1 & o!r /ructures ( ! region1 & t]m9ates 9 end collat]al uln> bran*es 7,fig4 #fg1 ,no4 #e74 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,aorta#g 7 ,esophageal 7 ,int]co/ales 7 ,dorsal 7 ,lumb>s 7 ,sp]matics 7 ,r5als 7 ,ov>ian 7 ,celiac 7 ,recurr5t esophageal 7 axis 7 ,recurr5t inte/9alis 7 ,recurr5t ilio-colicus 7 7 ,po/]ior or recurr5t s9i/] 7 ,r5alis 7 7 ,ant]ior or recurr5t dext] 7 ,spl5ics 7 7 7 ,hepatic 7 7 ,hepatica dextra 7 ,ga/ric 7 ,po/]ior 7 ,sacralis m$ia 7 ,coccyge lat]ales aorta 7 7 ,coccygea m$ia 7 ,coccyge lat]ales 7 7 ,ant]ior mes5t]ic 7 ,recurr5t ilio-celiacus 7 7 ,recurr5t sup]ior hemorrhoidal 7 ,po/]ior mes5t]ic 7 ,m$ian hemorrhoidal 7 7 ,recurr5t r5alis 7 7 ,tibialis po/ica 7 ,is*iadica 7 ,tibialis antica 7 ,p]oneal 7 ,ant]ior tibial plexus 7 7 ,art]ia ov>ialis 7 ,pud5da communis 7 ,r5alis 7 7 ,hemorrhoidalis intima 7 7 ,pud5da ext]na 7 7 ,crural 7 ,int]nal pelvic 7umbilical7 7 7,ext]nal iliac7 7 ,circumflex femoris 7 7 ,femoralis ,footnote #g3 ,nom5clature us$ by ,bronn4 ,! po/]ior aorta 7,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #b7 passes backw>d along ! inf]ior "p ( ! bodies ( ! dorsal & lumbo-sacral v]tebr4 ,9 ! ?oracic cavity x lies dorsal to ! esophagus4 ,x gives bran*es 7esophageal7 only to ! esophagus dur+ its passage z f> z ! sev5? dorsal v]tebra4 ,foll[+ ?is po9t !re are giv5 ( sev]al pairs ( art]ies :i* divide into a sup]ior & an inf]ior bran*4 ,! sup]ior bran* ext5ds upw>d & ana/omoses ) bran*es ( ! v]tebral art]y & o!r twigs com+ f ! int]co/al art]ies4 ,^! latt] art]ies giv5 (f are small dorsal art]ies4 ,! inf]ior bran*es ext5d d[nw>d betwe5 ! ribs & supply ! int]co/al muscles4 ,! int]co/al art]ies d n take _! orig9 f ! aorta 9 num]\s & regul> bran*es z 9 mammals2 !y consi/ orig9ally ( b few vessels1 :i* are multipli$ by ana/omoses ) ea* o!r & ) ! art]ies :i* come out ( ! sp9al canal4 ,an art]ial plexus is ?us =m$ ar\nd ! head ( ea* rib1 f :i* a vessel is s5t to ea* ( ! int]co/al muscles & ribs & are cont9u$ into ! muscles ^u ! outside ( ! body & its integum5ts4 ,! ana/omosis ( ! int]co/al art]ies r\nd ! ribs is simil> to ! plexus1 :i* is produc$ by ! great sympa!tic n]ve 9 ! same location4 ,! lumb> art]ies are giv5 (f f>!r po/]iorly & along ! lumb> region4 ,! lumb>1 l ! dorsal bran*es are giv5 (f 9 pairs4 ,^! art]ial bran*es pass along ! ?igh & ! upp] sacral v]tebral region1 & supply ^? p>ts4 ,v5trally !y are cov]$ by ! kidneys & pass into ! abdom9al muscles4 ,! po/]ior aorta gives (f ! sp]matic art]ies & ! ov>ian art]y4 ,9 ! male ! =m] supply ! te/es4 ,! ov>ian art]y ( ! female gives (f a twig to ea* calyx conta9+ an ovum4 ,ea* calyx is volum9\sly suppli$ ) blood4 ,next ! r5al art]ies are giv5 (f to ! kidneys4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,! vascul> sy/em inject$4 #a1 ,! he>t4 #b1 ,! po/]ior aorta4 #c1 ,! "r bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #d1 ,! left bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #e1 ,! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y %[+ its _m bran*es & ana/omoses ne> & on ! inte/9es4 ,x is accompani$ by bran*es ( ! mes5t]ic ve94 #f1 ,! rectal bran* ( ! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 #g1 ,! duod5al loop & pancreas %[+ ! pancreatic art]y4 #h1 ,! anus4 #i1 ,! cloaca4 #aj1 ,! liv]4 #aa1 ,! lungs4 #ab1 ,! "r subclavian art]y4 #ac1 ,! "r c>otid art]y4 #ad1 ,! "r ant]ior v5a cava4 #ae1 ,! subclavian ve94 #af1 ,! "r jugul> ve94 #ag1 ,! c>otid trunk4 #ah1 ,! po/]ior v5a cava4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,! splan*nic art]ies1 ve9s & n]ves4 #a1 ,a portion ( ! left te/es4 #b1 ,adr5al gl&4 #c1 ,ant]ior lobe ( kidney4 #d1 ,he>t4 #e1 ,liv]4 #f1 ,second portion ( ! esophagus4 #g1 ,prov5triculus4 #h1 ,gizz>d4 #i1 ,sple54 #aj1 ,duod5al loop4 #aa1 ,pancreas4 #ab1 ,bl9d extremity ( ccum4 #ac1 ,float+ portion ( small inte/9e4 #ad1 ,rectum4 #ae1 ,cloaca4 #af1 ,anus4 #ag1 ,celiac axis4 #ah1 ,uret]4 #ai1 ,vas def]5s4 #bj1 ,recurr5t s9i/] art]y4 #ba1 ,ant]ior recurr5t dext] art]y4 #bb1 ,art]ia hepatica dextra4 #bc1 ,recurr5t esophageal art]y4 #bd1 ,recurr5t inte/9alis art]y4 #be1 ,ilio-colicus art]y4 #bf1 ,ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 #bg1 ,recurr5t bran*es ( ! same4 #bh1 ,ilio-cliacus art]y4 #bi1 ,recurr5t sup]ior hemorrhoidal art]y4 #cj1 ,po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 #ca1 ,crural art]ies4 #cb1 ,sacralis m$ia art]y4 #cc1 ,recurr5t r5alis4 #cd1 ,middle r5al lobe4 #ce1 ,po/]ior r5al lobe4 #cf1 ,v5a mes5t]icus communis4 #cg1 ,v5a hemorrhoidalis4 #ch1 ,v5a pancreatico-duod5alis4 #ci1 ,v5a prov5triculo-le9ealis4 #dj1 ,v5a portalis dextra4 #da1 ,is*iadic n]ve4 #db1 ,?oracic sympa!tic trunk4 #dc1 ,ant]ior splan*nic plexus4 #dd1 ,sp9al n]ves4 #de1 ,po/]ior splan*nic n]ve plexus4 #df1 ,inte/9al n]ve trunk4 #dg1 ,v5a r5alis magna4 ,! celiac axis 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #ag7 orig9ates ne> ! sev5? /]nal v]tebra & to ! "r ( ! esophagus1 breaks ?r\gh ! diaphragm1 &1 ne> ?is po9t1 gives (f a recurr5t esophageal 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bc74 ,! celiac axis gives (f ?ree ma9 bran*es3 ,! ant]ior or recurr5t dext]1 ! po/]ior or recurr5t s9i/]1 ! recurr5t inte/9alis1 all ( :i* lie to ! "r ( ! sple51 "u ! left lobe ( ! liv]1 & along ! left side ( ! /oma*4 ,! recurr5t s9i/] 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bj7 gives art]ial bran*es to ! prov5triculus1 ! gizz>d1 ! pyloris1 & ! left lobe ( ! liv]4 ,! ant]ior or recurr5t dext] 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #ba7 gives (f a r5al art]y & f f\r to six spl5ic art]ies4 ,! recurr5t inte/9alis art]y 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bd7 arises on ! po/]ior ( ! /oma* )9 ! duod5al loop1 & supplies ! duod5um & ! pancreas 7,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #g74 ,x gives (f a bran*1 call$ ! recurr5t ilio-colicus 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #be71 :i* supplies ! l>ge inte/9es1 includ+ ! cca4 ,! art]ia hepatica dextra 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bb7 is a bran* f ! celiac axial trunk4 ,x gives sev]al bran*es to ! "r lobe ( ! liv] & to ! gall-bladd]4 ,! ga/ric bran*es pass to ! muscles ( ! /oma*4 ,! ant]ior & po/]ior recurr5t bran*es (t5 ana/omose4 ,! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y 7,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #e2 ,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bf7 orig9ates f ! po/]ior aorta ne> ! g5]ative gl&s4 ,x is direct$ d[nw>d1 & divides into _m bran*es :i* pass 9 ! mes5t]y t[>d ! inte/9es4 ,recurr5t bran*es 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bg7 are giv5 (f1 :i* ana/omose1 =m+ mes5t]ic ar*es4 ,f ^! ar*es are giv5 (f bran*es :i* supply ! inte/9al walls4 ,! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y gives (f ! recurr5t ilio-celiacus 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bh7 :i* is di/ribut$ to ! cca2 o!r ( its bran*es are di/ribut$ to ! small inte/9e4 ,! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y ext5ds along ! small inte/9e & ends 9 ! recurr5t sup]ior hemorrhoidal art]ies 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #bi7 :i* ana/omoses on ! surface ( ! rectum ) a bran* ( ! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 ,bran*es f ! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y also ana/omose ) bran*es ( ! celiac axis4 ,! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #cj7 is giv5 (f f ! po/]ior aorta po/]ior to ! orig9 ( ! ant]ior mes5t]ic & ne> ! art]ies ( ! ?igh & is di/ribut$ to ! less] mes5t]y supply+ ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,bran*es ( ! sup]ior hemorrhoidal art]ies ana/omose ) bran*es ( ! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 ,bran*es f ?is s\rce are call$ ! m$ian hemorrhoidal 7,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #f74 ,! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #cj7 also gives (f a long bran* to ! cca4 ,bran*es ( ! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y ana/omose ) bran*es ( ! ant]ior mes5t]ic4 ,! crural art]ies 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #ca7 are giv5 (f 9 a pair f ! po/]ior aorta4 ,!y pass ?r\gh ! mass ( ! lobes ( ! kidneys1 at ab\t ! m$ian region1 & ext5d out ( ! pelvic cavity 9 front ( ! sp9e & ilio-pubic ligam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! h9d extremity4 ,inside view ( leg4 #a1 ,is*iadic n]ve4 #b1 ,is*iadic art]y4 #c1 ,po/]ior tibial ve94 #d1 ,v5a metat>sa dorsalis int]na4 #e1 ,v5a metat>salis plant>is pr(unda4 #f1 ,v5a cruralis4 #g1 ,v5a metat>salis int]na1 v5a magna4 #h1 ,v5a tibialis po/ica4 #i1 ,v5a metat>sa magna4 #aj1 ,n]ves ( ! toes4 #aa1 ,v5a metat>salis dorsalis pr(unda4 ,! crural1 or ! ext]nal iliac art]y1 is divid$ into ?ree bran*es z foll[s3 ,fir/1 ! int]nal pelvic1 or umbilical art]y1 is giv5 (f j z ! cruralis leaves ! pelvic cavity4 ,x passes1 z a long vessel1 on ! inn] surface ( ! lumbo-sacral bones & supplies ! obturator int]nus muscle & ext5ds into ! umbilical region4 ,x gives (f bran*es to ! abdom9al muscles1 &1 9 ! female1 a bran* is di/ribut$ to ! ligam5t ( ! oviduct4 ,second1 ! art]ia circumflex femoris1 :i* passes betwe5 ! s>torius & va/us int]nus & ext5ds dorsalw>d1 supplies ! s>torius muscle1 ! va/i muscles1 & ! ilio-tro*ant]ic region4 ,?ird1 ! femoral art]y1 :i* passes beside ! v5a cruralis & ext5ds d[n ! po/]ior surface ( ! ?igh to ! knee-jo9t1 supplies ! upp] ?igh muscles ) ! exception ( ! adductor muscles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! po/]ior extremity4 ,outside view4 #a1 ,ant]ior tibial art]y4 #b1 ,metat>sal art]y4 #c1 ,digital art]ies4 #d1 ,v5a cutane\s crurus4 #e1 ,is*iadic art]y4 #f1 ,v5a cruralis4 #g1 ,lat]al cutane\s bran* ( ! is*iadic n]ve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! =e limb4 ,outside view4 #a1 ,m$ian n]ve4 #c1 ,uln> n]ve4 #d1 ,radial art]y4 #e1 ,recurr5t uln>is art]y4 #f1 ,twigs ( uln> art]y to w+ fea!rs4 ,! is*iadic art]y 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #i7 =ms ! ma9 art]y ( ! po/]ior extremity4 ,?is art]y1 ! l>ge/ vessel ( t region1 is giv5 (f f ! po/]ior aorta & passes v5trally ov] & betwe5 two ( ! ma9 lobes ( ! kidney4 ,! cont9uation ( ! po/]ior aorta is call$ ! sacralis m$ia 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #cb74 ,! is*iadic art]y gives (f a recurr5t r5alis on ! po/]ior lobe ( ! kidney 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #cc74 ,on ! left side x gives (f a bran* to ! oviduct & to ! ligam5t ( ! oviduct4 ,! ma9 trunk leaves ! cavity ) ! is*iadic n]ve 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #a7 ?r\gh a =am5 =m$ by ! os ilium & ! os is*ium4 ,x s5ds bran*es into ! adductor muscles ( ! upp] & ! l[] ?igh4 ,x gives (f ana/omotic bran*es :i* unite ) ^? f ! femoral art]y4 ,at ! flexure ( ! knee-jo9t x gives (f two bran*es to t region 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #aj74 ,x gives (f ano!r bran* to ! ga/rocnemius muscle & "o to ! flexor p]=ans digitorum4 ,x t]m9ates 9 ! ant]ior & po/]ior tibial art]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! =e limb4 ,inside view4 #a1 ,v5a hum]i pr(unda4 #b1 ,bra*ialis longus inf]ior4 #c1 ,bra*ialis pr(unda4 #d1 ,radial art]y4 #f1 ,uln> art]y4 #g1 ,uln> art]ial bran* to ?umb4 #h1 ,digital bran* ( uln> art]y4 #i1 ,uln> art]y4 ,! fir/1 ! tibialis po/ica 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #ab7 passes betwe5 ! ga/rocnemius & ! deep flexors giv+ (f bran*es 9 its c\rse to ! sk9 & to o!r p>ts1 & disappe>s %ortly bel[ ! int]t>sal jo9t4 ,! second1 ! tibialis antica 7,fig4 #ff1 ,no4 #a2 ,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #aa71 is (t5 ! l>g] ( ! two art]ies4 ,! ant]ior tibial art]y gives (f bran*es to ! knee-jo9t & to adjac5t /ructures4 ,x gives a l>ge bran* to ! head ( ! ga/rocnemius muscle4 ,x passes to ! po/]ior surface ( ! tibial head & gives (f ! p]oneal art]y1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! membrana int]ossea locat$ betwe5 ! tibia & fibula giv+ bran*es to ! ant]ior side ( ! membrane ( ! patell> region ( ! knee-jo9t4 ,x gives bran*es to ! ant]ior side ( ! l[] ?igh & f9ally t]m9ates subcutane\sly 9 ! ant]ior tibial plexus4 ,! ma9 portion ( ! ant]ior tibial art]y passes d[nw>d along ! po/]ior surface ( ! membrane locat$ betwe5 ! tibia & fibula1 & s5ds bran*es = ! flexor digitorum communis et pr(undus4 ,x !n breaks ?r\gh ! membrane1 rea*es ! ant]ior side & !re communicates ) ! ant]ior tibial plexus4 ,x gives (f bran*es to ! muscles on ! ant]ior side ( ! l[] ?igh & ! sk91 & passes betwe5 ! out] & ! middle malleolus ( ! t>sal bones4 ,x passes to ! plant> surface & divides betwe5 ! toes4 ,9 addition to ! plant> bran*es !re are giv5 (f dorsal bran*es betwe5 ! ?ird & ! f\r? toes4 ,^! bran*es =m ! direct cont9uation ( ! dorsal vessels ( ! ant]ior tibial plexus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! femoro-tibial region4 ,a section ( ! tibia remov$4 ,a4 ,ve9s1 art]ies & n]ves dissect$ z 9 ,b4 ,b4 ,v1 ,ve94 ,a1 ,art]y4 ,n1 ,n]ve4 #a1 ,v5a poplitealis4 #b1 ,! ?ree ve9s =m+ ! v5a poplitealis4 #c1 ,v5a femoris int]na pr(unda4 #d1 ,v5a femoris ant]ior4 #e1 ,v5a cruralis4 #f1 ,v5a cutanea abdom9alis femoralis4 #g1 ,v5a cutane\s cruralis4 #h1 ,deep ve9 ( ! knee-jo9t4 #i1 ,is*iadic art]y4 #aj1 ,bran*es ( is*iadic art]y to flexure ( knee4 #aa1 ,ant]ior tibial art]y4 #ab1 ,po/]ior tibial art]y4 #ac1 ,is*iadic n]ve4 #ad1 ,trunk 7a bran* ( ! is*iadic7 :i* gives (f ! sup]ficialis p]oneus & p]oneus pr(undus4 #ae1 ,m$ian bran* ( is*iadic n]ve4 #af1 ,sup]ficialis p]oneus4 #ag1 ,lat]al bran* ( ! is*iadic n]ve4 ,! art]ia pud5da communis 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bj7 passes to ! depressor coccygeus muscle1 gives (f a bran* to ! caudal "p ( ! kidney1 crosses ! uret]1 provides ! is*io-pubic & pubio-coccygeus1 or depressor coccygis lat]alis1 muscles1 & on ! lat]al rim ( ! latt] muscle x gives (f ! art]ia hemorrhoidalis intima4 ,?is art]y passes to ! bursa ( ,fabricius & to ! end ( ! cloaca4 ,x ent]s into ! is*io-coccygeus muscle1 & divides into ! art]ia pud5da ext]na1 & 9 ducks1 ! art]ia pr(unda p5is4 ,^! bran*es supply ! vas def]5s1 ! uret]1 ! cloaca1 ! p5ile /ructure1 & ! muscles ( ^! p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,blood-vessels ( a ,corni% cock4 #a1 ,! left pulmon>y art]y4 #b1 ,"r pulmon>y art]y4 #c1 ,left bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #d1 ,left subclavian art]y4 #e1 ,left c>otid art]y4 #f1 ,"r bra*io-cephalic art]y4 #g1 ,po/]ior aorta4 #h1 ,po/]ior v5a cava4 #i1 ,left pulmon>y ve94 #aj1 ,"r pulmon>y ve94 #aa1 ,celiac axis4 #ab1 ,ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 #ac1 ,is*iadic art]y4 #ad1 ,crop4 #ae1 ,sup]ior art]y ( ! crop & ve9 ( same "n4 #af1 ,te/icul> or ov>ian art]y4 #ag1 ,ext]nal iliac art]y4 #ah1 ,int]co/al n]ve4 #ai1 ,m$ian sacral art]y4 #bj1 ,art]ia pud5da communis4 #ba1 ,anus4 #bb1 ,v5a hypoga/rica4 #bc1 ,"r v5a hepatica magna4 #bd1 ,left v5a hepatica magna4 #be1 ,v5a iliaca int]na4 #bf1 ,v5a iliaca communis4 #bg1 ,v5a iliaca ext]na4 #bh1 ,v5a coccygo-mes5t]ica4 #bi1 ,v5a umbilicalis4 #cj1 ,v5a supr>5alis4 #ca1 ,orig9 ( ! p>s r5alis4 #cb1 ,lumb> ve9s4 #cc1 ,v5a epiga/rica4 #cd1 ,lumbales 7art]ies74 #ce1 ,ant]ior division ( ! lumbo-sacral plexus4 #cf1 ,po/]ior division ( ! lumbo-sacral plexus4 #cg1 ,left ant]ior v5a cava4 #ch1 ,"r ant]ior v5a cava4 ,! ,sacralis ,m$ia4--,! m$ian coccygeal art]y 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #ai7 =ms ! s+le ext5sion ( ! sacralis m$ia4 ,x gives (f lat]al bran*es betwe5 ! caudal v]tebr :i* supply ! dorsal muscles ( t region & ! sk94 ,! ?ird pair are ! l>ge/4 ,^! are ! art]i coccyge lat]ales1 & are locat$ on ! dorsal side ( ! tail1 !y supply ! tail gl&s & rudd] fea!rs1 ! ma9 tail fea!rs1 or rectrices4 ,a small art]ial twig is giv5 (f to ! papilla ( ea* rectrix4 ,,! ,,v5\s ,,trunks ,! v5\s blood ent]s ! lungs f ! "r v5tricle ?r\gh ! two pulmon>y art]ies 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #a & #b74 ,! two pulmon>y ve9s 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #i & #aj7 collect ! art]ial blood f ! lungs1 & empty x into ! left auricle4 ,!re are ?ree v5 cav :i* collect ! sy/emic blood & empty x into ! "r auricle4 ,^! v5 cav are two ant]ior 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #cg & #ch7 & "o po/]ior 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #h74 ,ea* ant]ior v5a cava is =m$ by ! union ( a v5a jugul>is1 a v5a v]tebralis1 & a v5a subclavicul>is 7,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #ae74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,ve9s ( ! liv] ( a f[l4 #a1 ,v5a mes5t]ica communis4 #b1 ,v5a portalis propria4 #c1 ,ant]ior v5a mes5t]icus4 #d1 ,v5a portalis dext]4 #e1 ,v5a portalis s9i/]4 #f1 ,po/]ior v5a cava4 #g1 ,celiac axis4 #h1 ,base ( ! he>t4 #i1 ,! liv]4 #aj1 ,hepatic ve9s4 ,! jugul> ve9 is =m$ by ! union ( ! v5a cephalica ant]ior1 & ! v5a cephalica po/]ior4 ,! jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #c7 passes along ! side ( ! neck & lies ne> ! tra*ea1 ! esophagus1 & ! pneumoga/ric n]ve4 ,ne> ! base ( ! skull ! two jugul> ve9s1 ! "r & ! left1 are connect$ by a transv]se ve94 ,by ?is ana/omosis "p ( ! blood f ! left jugul> ve9 is s5t into ! "r4 ,!re=e ! "r jugul> ve9 is l>g] ?an ! left4 ,! jugul> ve9s collect ! blood f ! tongue region1 ! ?yroid1 ! esophagus1 ! tra*ea1 ! crop1 & o!r /ructures along its c\rse ?r\gh ! c]vical region4 ,! v]tebral ve9s are divid$ into ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior1 or ! inf]ior & ! sup]ior4 ,! ant]ior v]tebral ve9 is locat$ 9 ! c]vical region & collects ! blood f ! bra9 & ! inn] "p ( ! head4 ,! v]tebral ve9 passes along ! dorsal side ( ! sp9al cord4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5 ,,cav ,,ant]iores 7 ,v5 l+uales 7 ,v5a occipitalis lat]alis 7 ,v5a occipito-collores 7 ,v5a asc5d5es lat]alis 7 ,v5 colli cut9e 7 ,v5 esophageale 7 ,v5 tra*eales 7 ,v5a 7 ,v5a subscapul>is 7 jugul>is 7 ,v5 gl&ul>um ?yroide>um 7 7 7 ,v5a occipitalis 7 ,s9us =am9is 7 7 7 int]na 7 occipitalis 7 7 ,v5a 7 7 7 v]tebralis 7 ,v5a v]tebralis po/]ior 7 ,v5a int]co/ales ,v5a cava 7 7 7 ,v5a v]tebralis ant]ior ant]ior 7 7 ,v5a v]tebralis 7 ,v5a v]tebralis lat]alis dorsalis 7 ,v5 int]co/ales 7 7 ,v5 coron>i 7 ,v5a subclavicul>is 7 ,v5a ?oracica int]na 7 ,v5a int]co/ales 7 ,v5a ph>yngea sup]ior 7 ,v5a muscul>is depressoris m&ibul>is ,v5a facialis 7 ,v5a muscul>is colli ant]ior sup]ioris communis 7 ,v5a l+ualis 7 ,v5a subl+ualis et sph5oidea ,! po/]ior v]tebral ve9 is locat$ 9 ! dorsal region1 passes backw>d & receives ! blood f ! dorsal neck region & f ! int]co/al ve9s & f ! v]tebral segm5ts & adjac5t regions4 ,! ant]ior & ! po/]ior v]tebral ve9 =m "o trunk1 ! v]tebral ve91 & ?is trunk empties into ! v5a jugul>is j be=e ! subclavian & ! jugul> unite4 ,! subclavian ve9 collects ! blood f ! ant]ior extremities4 ,x unites ) ! v5a jugul>is ( ! same side4 ,! left v5a cava receives ! coron>y ve9s f ! he>t4 ,,! ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,facialis ,,int]na ,! v5a facialis int]na 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 #ab7 lies dorsal on ! pt]ygoid bone & receives ! v5a maxill>is1 ! v5a oph?almica1 ! v5a m&ibul>is int]na1 ! v5 ph>ynge sup]iores1 & ! v5a retis mirabilis temporale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! abdom9al cavity & h9d extremity & head4 #a1 ,v5a r5alis4 #b1 ,v5a int]v]tebrales sacrales4 #c1 ,po/]ior aorta4 #d1 ,ext]nal iliac4 #f1 ,is*iadic n]ve4 #g1 ,is*iadic art]y4 #h1 ,art]ial rete 7plexus temporalis74 #i1 ,oph?almic art]y4 #aj1 ,palat9e art]y4 #aa1 ,l+ual art]y4 #ab1 ,hyoid art]y4 #ac1 #ad1 ,ext]nal c>otid art]y4 #ae1 ,int]nal maxill>y art]y4 #af1 ,sup]ior l>yngeal art]y4 #ag1 ,sup]ior esophageal art]y4 #ah1 ,occipital art]y4 #ai1 ,int]nal c>otid art]y4 ,! v5a maxill>is comes out ( ! upp] beak ) ! recurr5t trigem9us n]ve & !n passes backw>d betwe5 ! jugul> & palat9e bones4 ,x lies m$io-v5trally to ! eyeball & communicates at ?is po9t ) ! oph?almic ve94 ,x is cov]$ v5trally ) ! pt]ygoid bone4 ,! maxill>y ve9 collects ! blood f ! gl& ( ,h>d]1 ! upp] beak1 & receives blood f ! v5a supra-palat9a & f ! l[] jaw bone & ! ext]nal m&ibul> ve94 ,x also receives blood f ! ext]nal subl+ual ve91 & ! subl+ual gl&4 ,x foll[s ! inn] rim ( ! jaw bone4 ,! maxill>y ve9 receives an ana/omos+ bran* f ! cutane\s facial ve91 at a po9t ne> ! commissure ( ! m\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,photograph ( blood-vessels & n]ves ( ! ?orax4 #a1 ,v5a /]nalis4 #b1 ,v5a ?oracico-ext]na4 #c1 ,ext]nal ?oracic art]y4 #d1 ,coracoid bone4 #e1 ,/]num4 #f1 ,%\ld]-jo9t4 #g1 ,hum]us4 #h1 ,clavicul>is art]y4 #i1 ,/]no-clavicul>is art]y4 #aj1 ,?oracico-hum]alis art]y4 #aa1 ,subclavian art]y4 #ab1 ,axill>y art]y4 #ac1 ,bra*ialis pr(undus art]y4 #ad1 ,uln> art]y4 #ae1 ,radial art]y4 #af1 ,int]nal mamm>y art]y4 #ag1 ,sup]ior ve9 ( ! crop4 #ah1 ,sup]ior art]y ( ! crop4 #ai1 ,bra*ial n]ve plexus4 #bj1 ,ant]ior division ( bra*ial n]ve plexus4 #ba1 ,po/]ior division ( bra*ial n]ve plexus4 ,! v5a oph?almica lies close to ! po9t :]e ! olfactory n]ve passes out ( ! cranial cavity4 ,! l>ge/ bran* x receives is ! recurr5t oph?almo-temporalis1 :i* accompanies ! lat]al side ( ! optic n]ve4 ,x collects ! blood f ! base ( ! bra91 f ,h>d]'s gl&1 f ! eye muscles1 f ! inn] eye1 ! nose1 ! lacrimal gl&1 ! sk9 ( ! frontal region1 & ! comb4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,jugul>is 7 ,v5a maxill>is 7 ,v5a oph?almica 7 ,v5a facialis 7 ,v5a m&ibul>is int]na 7 int]na 7 ,v5a retis mirabilis temporalis 7 ,v5a cephalica 7 7 ,v5 ph>ynge sup]iores 7 ant]ior or 7 7 facialis 7 7 ,v5a facialis cut9ea 7 communis 7 7 ,v5a temporalis 7 7 ,v5a facialis 7 ,v5a auricul>is ,v5a jugul>is 7 7 ext]na 7 ,v5a palpebralis or cephalica 7 7 ,v5a transv]sus communis 7 7 ,v5a retis mirabilis temporalis 7 ,v5a subclavia 7 ,v5 v]tebrales 7 7 ,s9us cranii et c]ebri 7 7 ,v5a c>otis 7 7 7 7 ,v5a auris 7 ,s9us fove c]ebelli 7 7 7 ,v5a occipitalis ext]na 7 ,v5a cephalica 7 ,v5a jugul>is prima 7 po/]ior 7 ,v5a occipitalis 7 ,v5a l+ualis 7 ,v5a m&ibul>is ext]na ,v5a maxill>is 7 ,v5a subl+ualis ext]na 7 ,v5a supra-palat9a ,v5a oph?almica 7 ,v5a oph?almo-temporalis1 recurr5t ,v5a facialis communis 7 ,v5a cephalica ext]na ,v5a occipitalis ext]na 7 ,v5a occipitalis int]na ,v5a retis mirabilis temporalis 7 ,v5a sph5o-temporalis ,s9us fove c]ebelli 7 ,s9us occipitalis ext]na ,! trunk ( ! int]nal facial ve9 receives ! blood ( ! int]nal m&ibul> ve94 ,! int]nal m&ibul> ve9 em]ges f ! alveol> canal ( ! inf]ior jaw bone & receives bran*es f ! muscles ( ma/ication4 ,! v5a retis mirabilis temporalis passes out ( ! eye cavity & lies betwe5 ! int]nal facial ve9 & ! ext]nal facial ve91 & passes ar\nd ! os quadratum & ! os pt]ygoideum4 ,x receives ve9s f ! out] e> region1 lacrimal gl&1 eyelids1 & ! sph5o-temporalis4 ,! v5 ph>ynge sup]iores are ! ve9s on ! dorsal surface ( ! ph>ynx4 ,^! ve9s =m ! small plexuses :i* unite ) ! two trunks ( ! facial ve9s4 ,?is =ms an ana/omosis betwe5 ! left & ! "r facial ve9s4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,facial ,,ve9 ,! v5a facialis ext]na 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #i7 lies beh9d ! quadrate bone & is p>tly cov]$ v5trally by ! inn] ext5sion ( ! l[] jaw bone4 ,x collects ! blood pr9cipally f ! upp] region ( ! cranium & ! face1 includ+ ! comb4 ,! v5a facialis cut9ea receives bran*es f ! muscles 9 ! region ( ! jaw1 ! l[] jaw bone1 ! muscles ( ! eyelids1 ! frontal region1 & ! ana/omotic bran*es f ! v5a maxill>is4 ,! v5a temporalis is made up ( ve9s f ! sk9 ( ! temporal region1 ! masset] & ! tongue muscles1 & f ! sides ( ! upp] ?roat region4 ,! v5a palpebralis is made up f ve9s f ! ?ree eyelids & ! temporal region ne> ! eye4 ,its trunk passes lat]ally ov] ! temporo-m&ibul>is ligam5t4 ,! v5a palpebralis collects blood f ! lacrimal gl&1 ! eyelids1 & ! out] e> region4 ,! foll[+ ve9s empty into ! trunk ( ! v5a facialis communis3 v5 ph>yngis sup]iores1 v5a muscul>is depressoris m&ibul1 v5a muscul>is colli ant]ior sup]ioris1 v5a l+ualis et hyoidea4 ,! "r t]m9al bran*es ( ! v5a l+ualis empty into ! v5a cephalica po/]ior4 ,! v5 ph>yngis sup]iores & v5a l+ualis et hyoidea collect blood f ! muscles ( ! tongue & po/]ior tongue region4 ,! v5a l+ualis et hyoidea 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #g7 collects ! blood f ! muscles ( ! tongue region1 ! l[] tongue gl&s1 & ! upp] ?roat region4 ,betwe5 ! two trunks ( ! v5a facialis communis & ant]ior to ! entrance ( ! v5a cephalica po/]ior !re is an ana/omosis1 ! v5a transv]sus 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #e74 ,?r\gh ?is ana/omosis :i* lies crosswise ! two jugul> ve9s are influ5c$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,at ?is po9t bo? jugul> ve9s are ( ! same size4 ,! ana/omotic bran* lies crosswise4 ,?r\gh ?is ana/omosis ! "r receives "s blood f ! left head region indicat+ t ! blood fl[s f left to "r4 ,?is1 z /at$ be=e1 makes ! left jugul> ve9 ! small]4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,cephalica ,,po/]ior ,! left v5a cephalica po/]ior 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #h7 communicates ) ! transv]se ve9 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #e74 ,! left receives ! small] ve9s ( ! sk9 region1 ! esophagus1 & ! tra*ea4 ,^! vessels communicate ) _! fell[ ( ! opposite side & ) ! v]tebral ve9 ( ! same side1 :i* causes a gradual r$uction ( ! size ( ! jugul> ve94 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,occipitalis ,,ext]nus 7 7 ,v5 *oroide 7 ,s9us 7 ,v5 cutane et frontales 7 longitud9alis 7 ,v5 nasales ,v5a 7 7 ,v5 oph?almi occipitalis 7 ext]nus 7 7 7 ,s9us occipitalis 7 ,s9us 7 ,s9us 7 ,s9us temporo-sph5oideus 7 semicircul>is 7 transv]sus 7 ,v5 c]ebell>es 7 7 7 ,s9us petrosus sph5oideus ,s9us petrosus sph5oideus 7 ,retis mirabile temporalis ,s9us temporo-sph5oideus 7 ,s9us annul>is v5osus basil>is ,s9us =am9us occipitalis 7 ,v5 m$ull>es 7 ,v5 c]ebrales ,s9us 7 ,v5a c]ebralis basil>is 7 ,s9us v5osus annul>is ant]ior v5osus 7 annul>is 7 basil>is 7 ,v5a oph?almica 7 ,v5a m$ull>is m$iana longitud9alis ,! v5a cephalica po/]ior 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #h7 is =m$ f ! ve9s ( ! s9uses ( ! cranium1 ! bra91 ! v5a auris1 ! v5a jugul>is prima1 ! v5a c>otis1 & ! v5a occipitalis4 ,x collects mo/ ( ! blood f ! cranium & ! po/]ior "p ( ! head & f ! tongue4 ,,! ,,v5\s ,,s9uses ,,( ,,! ,,head ,! s9us longitud9alis 7,fig4 #fb1 ,a1 #aj7 ext5ds f ! dorsal m$ian l9e ( ! int]nal occipital protub]ance to ! olfactory n]ve4 ,x collects ! blood f ! *oroidea ( ! bra9 & f ! sk9 ( ! frontal region4 ,x receives lat]ally ! ve9s ( ! nose1 ! v5a oph?almica1 & ! s9us transv]sus4 ,! s9us occipitalis 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,a1 #d7 =ms ! cont9uation ( ! transv]se s9us4 ,x is locat$ 9 ! po/]ior c]ebral cavity1 & is w+-%ap$1 ext5d+ bo? to ! "r & to ! left4 ,! s9us =am9is occipitalis a cont9uation ( ! s9us occipitalis1 lies transv]sely on ! v5tral side ( ! cranial cavity & receives ! ve9s f ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,"o bran* passes ?r\gh ! os occipitalis basil>e1 & !n ext5ds sidewise to ! =am5 magnum & ana/omoses ) ! v5a occipitalis4 ,! s9us transv]sus 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,a1 #f7 ext5ds 9 a pair f ! int]nal occipital protub]ance betwe5 ! c]ebrum1 c]ebellum1 & ! corpus quadrigem9um4 ,x receives vessels f ! upp] surface ( ! c]ebellum4 ,! s9us has ?ree bran*es1 all ( :i* empty into ! s9us semicircul>is4 ,! s9us semicircul>is ext5ds along ! dorsal petrosal rim1 ant]ior to ! inn] e>1 & f ?is po9t backw>d4 ,ne> ! =am5 magnum x passes ?r\gh ! os occipitale & empties into ! ext]nal occipital ve94 ,! v5a occipitalis ext]nus ext5ds ne> ! =am5 magnum1 surr\nds ! basis occipitalis1 & receives ! semicircul> s9us & ?r\gh ! semicircul> s9us ! blood f ! s9us transv]sus4 ,! s9us petrosus sph5oideus1 pass+ 9 company ) ! occipital s9us1 ext5ds f ! transv]se s9us to ! cavity ne> :i* ! trigem9us lies4 ,! s9us divid+ into two bran*es1 "o ( ^! ext5ds to ! hypophysis & unites ) ! basal ve9s ( ! bra92 ! o!r passes ) ! rete out ( ! cranial cavity along ) a bran* ( ! trigem9us1 & communicates ) ! rete mirabile temporale4 ,! s9us temporo-sph5oideus 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,a1 #e7 ext5ds =w>d & outw>d f ! transv]se s9us1 &1 betwe5 ! corpus quadrigem9um & ! c]ebrum1 unites ) ! s9us v5osus annul>is basil>is4 ,! s9us v5osus annul>is basil>is lies 9 ! region ( ! optic n]ve & surr\nds ! hypophysis1 =m+ a complete circle4 ,x receives small vessels f ! c]ebrum1 ! corpora quadrigem9a1 & ant]iorly ! longitud9al basil> ve9 or v5a basil>is m$ia1 ( ! c]ebrum1 :i* comes out ( ! ant]ior annul> v5\s s9us4 ,! ant]ior annul> v5\s s9us surr\nds ! base ( ! olfactory n]ves4 ,x communicates ) ! s9us petrosus sph5oideus1 :i* em]ges f beh9d ! optic lobe1 ! s9us temporo-sph5oideus1 :i* em]ges f 9 front ( ! optic lobe1 & po/]iorly ! m$ian longitud9al ve9 ( ! m$ulla oblongata or v5a basil>is4 ,lat]ally & ant]ior to ! optic lobe x receives ! v5a basil>is lat]alis1 & also a bran* ( ! v5a oph?almica4 ,! blood receiv$ by ! s9us annul>is basil>is comes f ! bra9 cavity ?r\gh ?ree pairs ( ve9s1 z foll[s3 fir/1 ! two oph?almic ve9s :i* pass ?r\gh ! po/]ior orbital wall betwe5 ! olfactory & ! optic n]ve2 second1 two o!r bran*es ( ! oph?almica :i* pass ) ! optic n]ve2 ?ird1 two ve9s :i* pass ?r\gh a =am5 by ! side ( ! sella turcica to ! hypophysis toge!r ) ! c>otis c]ebralis1 & !n leave ! c]ebral cavity v5trally1 at :i* po9t !y are call$ ! v5 c>otes4 ,^! la/ accompany ! c]ebral art]y backw>d1 & pass ?r\gh a =am5 9 ! base ( ! cranium4 ,ea* "o !n passes ?r\gh ! cranial wall close to ! ext]nal auditory canal1 & empties into ano!r ve9 9 ! po/]ior region ( ! head4 ,! s9us fov hemisph]ii c]ebelli lies 9 ! holl[ betwe5 ! os petrosum & ! semicircul> canals4 ,x receives blood f ! ext]nal occipital s9us & f ! c]ebellum1 & empties into ! v5a auris int]na4 ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 ,,cavity ,! v5a auris int]na passes ?r\gh a bony canal along ! out] rim ( ! po/]ior semicircul> canal & !n along ! ext]nal semicircul> canal4 ,x receives vessels f ! labyr9?1 & ext5ds along ! po/]ior rim ( ! tympanum to ! out] e> canal4 ,! v5a occipitalis int]na1 ext5d+ f ! s9us =am9is occipitalis1 passes ?r\gh ! side ( ! atlas & divides ne> ! condyle into two bran*es4 ,"o ( ^! bran*es ! int]nal occipital1 =ms ! root ( ! v5a v]tebralis1 & ! o!r empties into ! v5a occipitalis ext]na4 ,ne> ! out] & upp] "p ( ! condyle x =ms two l>ge ve9s & collects ! blood f ! v5a occipitalis m$ia4 ,^! ve9s collect ! blood f ! rectus capitis anticus1 & communicate ) ! v5a cephalica ant]ior4 ,! v5a occipitalis ext]na1 sometimes call$ ! v5a occipitalis collat]alis1 ext5ds f ! v5a auris1 & receives vessels f ! neck region4 ,x receives on ! side ( ! occipitoatloid jo9t ! v5a occipitalis int]na4 ,! v5a occipitalis ext]na =ms a junction ) ! v5a v]tebralis empty+ into ! transv]se ve94 ,,! ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,neck ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,jugul>is ,! trunks ( ! v5a jugul>is or v5a cephalica communis pass subcutane\sly on bo? sides ne> ! tra*ea & ! esophagus4 ,ne> ! height ( ! ?yroid gl& !y almo/ t\* ! c>otid art]y4 ,!y !n cross1 dorsalw>d1 ! trunk ( ! subclavian art]y1 & 9 _! c\rse receive ! v]tebral ve9 & unite ) ! subclavian ve9 t[>d ! side ( ! v5a bra*iocephalica4 ,! union on ! "r side lies to ! "r ( ! ant]ior aorta1 & ! union on ! left side lies to ! left ( ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,! jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #ah1 ,no4 #d7 receives 9 its c\rse ! foll[+ ve9s3 ,! v5 l+uales 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,b1 #g71 :i* at times empty into ! v5a cephalica po/]ior4 ,! v5a occipito-coll>es1 :i* arises on ! v5tral side f ! muscles ( ! neck & ! v]tebr2 empties into ! v5a occipitalis lat]alis & also communicates ) ! v5a jugul>is by ana/omoses4 ,! v5 asc5d5tes lat]ales1 :i* collect blood f ! lat]al sides ( ! neck4 ,! v5 colli cut9e1 :i* ent] ! jugul> ve9 lat]ally4 ,! upp] bran*es are direct$ crosswise1 & are %ort] ?an ! l[] ones4 ,! l[] bran*es are locat$ ne> ! ?orax1 are direct$ upw>d1 & ana/omose by f9e t]m9al twigs4 ,plexuses are frequ5tly =m$ 9 ! inn] side ( ! sk9 ( ! neck4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,subclavia 7 ,v5a pr(unda uln>is 7 ,v5a bra*ialis 7 ,v5a pr(unda radialis 7 ,truncus v5 7 7 ,v5a pr(unda hum]i 7 axill>is 7 7 7 ,v5a basilica or cut9ea uln>is 7 7 7 ,v5a cut9ea abdom9o-pectoralis ,truncus v5 7 ,v5a pectoris 7 ,v5a infrascapul>is ant]ior subclavi 7 ext]na 7 ,v5a ?oracica ext]na 7 ,v5a coracoidea 7 ,v5a /]nalis ,! v5 esophage are num]\s small] ve9s =m$ 9 closely wov5 plexuses 9 ! region ( ! esophagus along ! neck4 ,"s pass upw>d & "s d[nw>d4 ,! v5 tra*eales are locat$ on ! sup]o-lat]al side ( ! tra*ea & along ! edge ( ! lat]al tra*eal muscle4 ,!y h num]\s ana/omoses transv]sely ) ! longitud9al ve9 ( ! c]vical region1 ant]iorly ) ! v5a l+ualis1 & on ! left side ) ! left jugul> ve94 ,! v5a subscapul>is passes along ! m$ian l9e ( ! scapula to ! side ( ! jugul> ve91 & ana/omoses ) ! v]tebral ve94 ,! v5 gl&ul>um ?yroide>um are sev]al small1 %ort ve9s com+ f ! ?yroid gl&4 ,! v5a v]tebralis1 orig9at+ ne> ! atlas1 is a cont9uation ( ! int]nal occipital ve94 ,! int]nal occipital ve9 receives ! bulk ( ! blood f ! bra9 & communicates ) ! lat]al ve9s ( ! c]vical region & collects blood f ! c]vical v]tebra4 ,! v]tebral ve9 accompanies ! v]tebral art]y & ! deep sympa!tic n]ve trunk 9 ! v]tebral canal4 ,! ve9 ei!r leaves ?is canal ) ! v]tebral art]y at a po9t ne> ! la/ two v]tebral n]ve trunks ( ! bra*ial plexus1 or x leaves ! canal "o v]tebra 9 front ( ! v]tebral art]y4 ,,! ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,dorsal ,,region ,! v5a v]tebralis lat]alis dorsalis collects blood f ! c]vical v]tebr1 f ! dorsal v]tebr1 & f ! int]co/al region4 ,! blood f ! neural canal1 includ+ ! sp9al cord1 is collect$ 9 "o long ve9 ext5d+ f ! head to ! tail on ! upp] side ( ! cord4 ,?is ve9 has s9us-l expansions4 ,betwe5 ea* two v]tebr x ana/omoses ) ! v]tebral ve9 on ea* side4 ,9 ! lumbo-sacral region ^! ana/omotic bran*es empty into ! hypoga/ric ve9s4 ,! v5a int]co/alis is =m$ 9 ! co/al region & ana/omoses ) ! ve9 ext5d+ longitud9ally betwe5 ! capitulum & ! tub]culum ( ! rib4 ,! v5a v]tebralis po/]ior at ! height ( ! fir/ & ! second dorsal v]tebr1 empties into ! ma9 trunk ( ! v]tebral ve94 ,its l[] roots come out ne> ! side ( ! kidney1 & unite1 =m+ a l>ge asc5d+ trunk unit+ ) ! v5a v]tebralis ant]ior =m+ "o l>ge trunk1 :i* ext5ds into ! *e/ cavity4 ,! po/]ior v]tebral ve9 also receives a l>ge ve9 f ! sk9 ( ! out] t>sal region & a few vessels f ! muscles ( ! out] abdom9al & ! out] co/al region1 f ! sk91 f ! pectoralis muscles1 & f ! %\ld] region4 ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,subclavia ,! v5a ?oracica ext]na 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #b7 is made up ( ve9s ma9ly f ! pectoral gr\p ( muscles4 ,! po/]ior bran* ana/omoses ) ! v5a cut9ea4 ,its ant]ior bran* is made up ma9ly ( bran*es f ! furcul> region4 ,x empties into ! v5a pectoralis ext]na & ! v5a pectoralis ext]na empties into ! v5a subclavia4 ,! v5a coracoidea comes out ( ! region ( ! %\ld]-jo9t1 passes d[nw>d along ! inn] surface ( ! coracoid1 & receives small bran*es f ! walls ( ! art]ia bra*ia cephalica & f ! p]ic>dium4 ,! v5a /]nalis 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #a7 is made up ( two bran*es4 ,! out] bran* comes f ! muscles ( ! subclavian region passes ov] ! cri/i /]ni1 m$ially1 to ! /]no-coracoid jo9t & into ! brea/ cavity1 :]e x receives ! inn] bran*1 :i* dra9s ! inn] surface ( ! brea/-bone4 ,! v5a ?oracica int]na empties into ! v5a cava ant]ior4 ,x ext5ds f ! abdom9al muscles :]e x communicates ) ! epiga/ric ve94 ,x !n passes on ! inn] side ( ! ?oracic cavity close to ! brea/-bone & receives _m int]co/al ve9s4 ,! v5a cava s9i/ra receives fir/1 ! v5a prov5tricul>is communis1 :i* collects ! blood f ! walls ( ! prov5triculus1 & second1 ! v5a coron>ia c>dis magna4 ,?is latt] ve9 orig9ates close to ! apex ( ! he>t & collects blood pr9cipally f ! walls ( ! left v5tricle4 ,x connects 9 ! left sulcus transv]sus ) ! v5a c>dis sup]ior & ends at ! base ( ! left upp] v5a cava4 ,its exit is n gu>d$ by a valve4 ,! ve9s ( ! "r v5tricle are p>tly on ! surface4 ,!y collect blood along ! sulcus transv]sus dext] & ent] directly into ! "r v5tricle4 ,! ve9s ( ! front "p ( ! he>t are small4 ,!y collect beh9d ! sulcus coronalis & end ei!r directly into ! "r auricle or into ! v5a c>dis magna4 ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,=e ,,limb ,! v5a radialis pr(unda accompanies ! radial art]y on ! dorsal ant]ior rim ( ! index-f+] & passes1 on ! dorsal side1 ov] ! c>pal region4 ,x passes ?r\gh ! int]osse\s ligam5t betwe5 ! ulna & ! radius1 & rea*es ! v5tral surface ( ! arm4 ,at ?is po9t x passes upw>d & ana/omoses ) ! v5a uln>is4 ,x collects ! blood f ! sk9 ( ! ant]ior w+ region & ! flexor muscles ( ! ant]ior arm4 ,x empties into ! v5a bra*ialis4 ,! v5a hum]i pr(unda 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #a7 em]ges at ! height ( ! elb[1 & collects blood f ! sk9 ( ! dorsal surface ( ! w+4 ,x also receives ve9s f ! muscles ( ! po/]ior side ( ! upp] arm4 ,x passes subcutane\sly & dorsally ov] ! dorsal portion ( ! hum]us 9 company ) ! ext]nal radial muscle & passes ) x ar\nd ! ext]nal "p ( ! hum]us betwe5 ! long & %ort heads ( ! triceps4 ,x takes a diagonal c\rse to ! %\ld] cavity & at t po9t empties into ! bra*ial trunk4 ,! pr(undus uln>is orig9ates at ! vol> surface ( ! h&1 proce$s 9 company ) ! uln> art]y1 & s5ds on ! base ( ! h& small ana/omotic ve9s to ! v5a cutanea uln>is or basilica4 ,x passes along ! ant]ior arm & betwe5 ! flexor c>pi uln>is & ! pronator pr(undus muscle to ! elb[-jo9t4 ,on ! m$ian surface ( ! biceps x passes upw>d & ana/omoses ) ! radial ve94 ,! uln> ve91 9 ! region ( ! elb[-jo9t1 receives a l>ge lat]al bran* :i* ext5ds ar\nd ! end t5don ( ! biceps & ana/omoses above ) ! v5a basilica4 ,! v5a basilica or cutanea uln>is is a long ve9 :i* orig9ates f ! subcutane\s dorsal surface ( ! index-f+]4 ,ne> ! base ( ! h& x receives an ana/omos+ bran* f ! v5a radialis & ! v5a uln>is1 & !n passes upw>d along ! po/]ior rim ( ! ulna4 ,x receives num]\s bran*es f ! roots ( ! flight fea!rs4 ,x crosses bel[ ! elb[-jo9t & rea*es ! vol> surface ( ! arm4 ,x receives a l>ge bran* f ! uln> ve91 & !n1 pass+ 9 a diagonal & m$ian direction to ! triceps1 ext5ds to ! %\ld] cavity :]e x empties into ! axill>y ve94 ,! out] brea/ ve9s unite =m+ a trunk :i* crosses v5trally to ! subclavian art]y1 & empties into ! subclavian ve94 ,! v5a cutanea abdom9o-pectoralis collects ! blood f a l>ge sk9 area ( ! abdom51 ! upp] ?igh1 ! brea/1 & ! int]co/al region4 ,9 ! sk9 ( ! abdom5 x =ms a network4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,iliacs 7 ,v5a metat>salis 7 ,v5a metat>salis 7 ,v5a 7 int]na or magna 7 plant>is pr(unda 7 tibialis 7 ,v5a tibialis antica 7 po/ica 7 ,v5a metat>salis 7 ,v5 metat>sales 7 7 ext]na 7 7 ,v5a 7 ,v5a metat>salis dorsalis pr(unda 7 ,v5a 7 tibialis 7 ,v5a metat>salis dorsalis int]na 7 poplitealis 7 antica 7 ,v5a p]onealis 7 7 ,v5a cutanea cruralis 7 7 ,v5 surales ,v5a 7 iliaca 7 7 ,v5a cutanea abdom9alis femoralis ext]na 7 ,v5a 7 ,v5a femoralis int]na pr(unda 7 cruralis 7 ,v5a femoralis ant]ior 7 7 ,v5a epiga/rica ,! ma9 trunk passes 9 ! m$ian abdom9al l9e =w>d & !n upw>d1 along ! out] edge ( ! pectoralis major1 ov] ! fir/ /]nal rib2 receives blood f ! infrascapul> ve91 & empties into ! pectoralis ext]na4 ,! v5a bra*ialis is locat$ 9 ! middle ( ! hum]us & ! triceps muscle4 ,x is =m$ by ! v5a uln>is1 & ! v5a radialis4 ,x passes ) ! m$ian n]ve & ! bra*ial art]y ov] ! inn] surface ( ! hum]al jo9t4 ,po/]ior to ! hum]al head x receives ! v5a pr(unda hum]i4 ,at ! %\ld] cavity x receives ! v5a cutanea uln>is or v5a basilica4 ,! trunk ( ! axill>y ve9 is v %ort & is =m$ by ! ve9s ( ! %\ld] & ! w+4 ,! deep] w+ ve9s accompany ! l>ge art]ial & ! n]ve trunks4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,iliaca ,,int]na 7 ,v5a int]v]tebralis lumbalis 7 ,p>s truncalis 7 ,v5a r5alis magna 7 7 7 7 7 ,v5a hypoga/rica caudalis s9i/ra 7 7 ,v5a r5alis 7 ,v5a hypoga/rica caudalis dextra 7 7 7 ,v5a portalis 7 7 ,v5a coccygea 7 ,v5a cutanea et pud5da ,v5a iliaca 7 7 ,v5a coccygea mes5t]ica int]na or 7 7 ,v5a cutanea pubica v5a hypoga/rica 7 ,p>s caudalis 7 ,v5a cutanea caudalis 7 7 ,v5a pud5da 7 ,v5a sp]matica 7 7 ,v5a caudalis muscul>is 7 7 ,v5 sacrales 7 7 ,v5 int]v]tebrales sacralis 7 ,v5 r5ales 7 7 ,v5 r5ales 7 ,p>s r5alis 7 ,v5a is*iadica 7 ,v5a obturatoria 7 ,v5a supr>5alis ext]na 7 ,azygos sacralis ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,v5a ,,cava ,! po/]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #ah2 ,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #h7 has its orig9 9 ! po/]ior half ( ! body ( ! bird1 some:at to ! "r ( ! po/]ior aorta1 ne> ! ant]ior lobe ( ! kidney1 by ! union ( ! "r & ! left v5a iliaca communis4 ,x receives ! blood f all ( ! po/]ior half ( ! body includ+ ! po/]ior limbs1 ( ! visc]al organs1 ( ! abdom9al & ! pelvic cavity4 ,! po/]ior v5a cava passes dorsally ?r\gh ! "r lobe ( ! liv] & ?r\gh ! diaphragm & ends 9 a %ort1 broad trunk on ! po/]ior dorsal side ( ! "r auricle ( ! he>t4 ,its op5+ into ! he>t is gu>d$ by two half-moon %ap$ valves4 ,! basal "p ( ! trunk rea*es f ! "r auricle ( ! he>t to ! upp] ant]ior rim ( ! liv] :]e x receives ?ree l>ge trunks1 fir/1 ! "r & second1 ! left v5a portalis hepatica magna1 & ?ird1 small] vessels f ! liv] sub/ance4 ,,! ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,extremity ,9 ! sk9 region on ! inn] sides ( ! toes ne> _! bases ! small ve9s collect into five metat>sal ve9s4 ,! l>ge/ ve9 collects ! blood f ! fir/1 ! second1 & ! ?ird toe1 passes up ! t>sus & is call$ ! v5a metat>salis int]na1 or v5a magna 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #g74 ,x is locat$ j b5ea? ! sk9 on ! inn] surface ( ! metat>sal bone4 ,x passes 9 a circle1 ar\nd ! condyle ( ! tibia & becomes ! v5a tibialis po/ica 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #c & #h74 ,! v5a tibialis po/ica passes "u ! t5don ,a*illis & ! t5don ( ! flexor digitorum brevis1 lies subcutane\sly ^u ! latt]1 & rea*+ ! knee-jo9t crosses ov] ! upp] surface ( ! is*iadic n]ve & becomes ! v5a poplitealis1 at :i* po9t x receives ! v5a tibialis antica4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,v5a ,,cava ,,po/]ior 7 ,v5a ov>iana 7 ,v5 te/icul 7 ,v5a prov5tricul>is communis 7 ,v5a supr>5alis reveh5tis 7 ,v5a portalis magna s9i/ra 7 ,v5a portalis magna dextra 7 ,v5 innom9at 7 ,v5 hepatic ,v5a cava 7 ,v5a c>dis coron>ia magna po/]ior 7 ,v5a prov5tricul>is inf]ior 7 7 ,v5a iliaca int]na 7 ,v5a hypoga/rica 7 7 ,v5a iliaca ext]na 7 ,v5a r5alis 7 7 ,v5a supr>5alis ext]na 7 ,v5a iliaca 7 ,v5a is*iadica 7 communis 7 ,v5a r5alis 7 7 ,v5a int]v]tebralis lumbalis 7 7 ,v5a r5alis magna 7 ,v5a mes5t]ica communis 7 ,v5a coccygo-mes5t]ica ,v5a 7 7 ,v5a mes5t]ica ant]ior portalis 7 ,v5a pancreatico-duod5alis dextra 7 7 ,v5a prov5tricul>is 7 ,v5a prov5tricul>is li5alis 7 ,v5a spl5ica ,v5a coccygo-mes5t]ica 7 ,v5a hemorrhoidalis ,on ! dorsal side ( ! metat>sus are two ve9s4 ,! v5a metat>salis dorsalis pr(unda 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #aa71 :i* ext5ds "u ! t5don ( ! ext5sors ( ! toes1 along ) ! art]y & ! n]ve4 ,x collects ! blood f ! ?ird & ! f\r? toe & 9 ! middle ( ! metat>sus receives ! v5a metat>salis dorsalis int]na 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #d71 :i* connects ! v5a metat>salis dorsalis pr(unda & ! v5a magna4 ,! two dorsal ve9s ana/omose ) ! v5a magna1 at ! int]t>sal jo9t4 ,!y pass transv]sely "u ! ligam5t & =m ! ma9 trunk ( ! v5a tibialis antica :i* lies close to ! ant]ior surface ( ! tibia4 ,ne> ?is po9t !re is =m$ a plexus ( ve9s :i* aga9 =m a trunk & communicates ) ! v5a p]onealis & ent]s betwe5 ! tibia & fibula ) ! tibialis antica4 ,x ext5ds along ! flexure ( ! knee & ! po/]ior "p ( ! l[] ?igh4 ,! v5a metat>salis ext]na passes subcutane\sly on ! outside ( ! f\r? toe & ! metat>sus1 & above ! int]t>sal po9t jo9s ! tibialis po/ica4 ,! v5a metat>salis plant>is pr(unda 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #e7 lies on ! v5tral side ( ! foot & =ms sev]al ana/omos+ ar*es ) ! o!r ve9s ( ! toes4 ,bel[ ! int]t>sal jo9t x ent]s ! v5a metat>salis magna 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #i74 ,! v5a cutanea cruralis 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #g7 orig9ates at ! height ( ! t>sal region & passes subcutane\sly on ! out] po/]ior surface ( ! l[] ?igh region to ! v5a poplitealis4 ,! v5 surales or inf]ior muscul> bran*es ( ! v5a poplitealis consi/ ( _m ve9s4 ,"o bran* comes f ! region ( ! %ank & f ! ga/rocnemius muscle2 ano!r z a ma9 bran* f ! po/]ior surface ( ! l[] ?igh2 & a ?ird f ! out] surface ( ! muscles & sk9 ( ! upp] ?igh4 ,! ?ree bran*es toge!r ) ! ant]ior & po/]ior tibial 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #b7 unite at ! flexure ( ! knee =m+ ! v5a poplitealis 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #a74 ,9 ! region ( ! upp] ?igh1 betwe5 ! knee & ! abdom9al cavity1 ! foll[+ f\r ve9s =m ! v5a cruralis3 7,fig4 #ff1 ,no4 #f2 ,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #e74 ,fir/1 ! v5a cutanea abdom9alis femoralis 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #f7 :i* comes out ( ! side ( ! abdom9al wall1 dra9+ ! sk9 ( ! inn] surface ( ! upp] portion ( ! ?igh1 ! adductor muscles1 & ! region ( ! abdom9al & ! brea/ bord]4 ,x crosses ! is*iadic art]y 9 a diagonal direction1 & ent]s ! v5a cruralis 9 ! middle ( ! crural region4 ,second1 ! v5a femoralis int]na pr(unda 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #c7 =ms a communication betwe5 ! end ( ! suralis ne> ! knee4 ,x lies on ! m$ian portion ( ! flexor cruris int]nus muscle4 ,?ird1 ! v5a femoralis ant]ior 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #d7 is =m$ f bran*es f ! s>torius & adjac5t /ructures1 & ant]iorly empties into ! crural ve9 ne> :]e ! latt] ent]s ! abdom9al cavity4 ,f\r?1 ! v5a epiga/rica 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #cc7 is =m$ by bran*es f ! abdom9al wall & bran*es f ! walls ( ! abdom9al air-sacs4 ,x passes along ! m$ian surface ( ! os pubis & ends into ! v5a cruralis ne> ! sp9e ( ! ilio-pubica or at a po9t :]e ^! jo9 ) ! v5a hypoga/rica4 ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,caudal ,,region ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,pelvic ,,cavity ,! v5a iliaca int]na or ! v5a hypoga/rica 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bb7 collects mo/ ( ! blood f ! tail4 ,! v5a iliaca int]na collects mo/ ( ! blood f ! pelvic cavity1 & ! adjac5t inte/9es4 ,x unites ) ! v5a iliaca ext]na 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bg7 & receives ! v5a r5alis magna & =ms ! trunk ( ! v5a iliaca communis 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bf74 ,! v5a coccygea orig9ates betwe5 ! coccygeal v]tebr1 & collects ! blood f ! region ( ! tail1 includ+ ! tail fea!rs1 ! tail muscles1 ! tail gl&1 & ! sk9 ( ! region4 ,^! small collect+ vessels =m a trunk on ea* side ( ! coccyx4 ,! "r & ! left pass lat]ally1 ea* "o tak+ up a v5a cutanea et pud5da1 & frequ5tly ana/omos+ ) ! vessels on ! o!r side4 ,^! (t5 unite into "o vessel4 ,bo? trunks are connect$ by a transv]se1 or ana/omotic1 vessel4 ,at ?is ana/omosis !re empty into x ! v5a coccygea mes5t]ica & ! v5a portalis4 ,!re also communicate at ?is po9t ! "r & ! left hypoga/rica caudalis4 ,9 its c\rse x is p>tly imb$d$ 9 ! kidney & passes ant]iorly to ! v5a iliaca communis4 ,?is circle is call$ ! arcus hypoga/ricus4 ,?us ! ve9s ( ! abdom9al cavity h _m ana/omoses =m+ _m arcs1 mak+ possible two outlets = ! blood4 ,! azygos sacralis empties into ! arcus at ab\t its middle4 ,f "h x ext5ds =w>d to ! inside & "u ! kidney & empties into ! v5a supr>5alis ext]na4 ,! v5a cutanea pubica orig9ates on ! l[] portion ( ! abdom51 collects ! blood f ! muscles ( ! di/al "p ( ! is*ium1 & ent]s ! pelvic cavity betwe5 ! is*ium & ! ilium4 ,x jo9s ) ! v5a cutanea caudalis4 ,! v5a cutanea caudalis orig9ates f bran*es :i* dra9 ! sk9 & o!r p>ts ( ! v5tral coccygeal region4 ,! v5a cutanea pubica also communicates ) ! v5a caudalis muscul>is & ) ! v5a pud5da1 ?us =m+ ! caudal trunk ( ! v5a hypoga/rica4 ,! v5a pud5da orig9ates 9 ! walls ( ! cloaca 9 ! region ( ! g5]ative organs4 ,a small v5a sp]matica accompanies ! l[] end ( ! vas def]5s & ! uret]1 & empties m$ially into ! v5a pud5da4 ,! p>s r5alis ( ! v5a hypoga/rica ext5ds f ! middle ( ! arcus to ! union ( ! v5a hypoga/rica & ! v5a cruralis4 ,! v5a hypoga/rica communicates ) ! p>s r5alis4 ,! vessels t empty into ! p>s r5alis are z foll[s3 ,! v5 sacrales collect blood f ! dorsal wall ( ! abdom9al cavity & ent] ! pelvis ?r\gh ! =am5 sacralis4 ,!y pass betwe5 ! pelvic wall & kidney1 & at times pass ?r\gh ! kidney tissue4 ,!y empty into ! p>s r5alis ( ! hypoga/ric ar*4 ,! v5 int]v]tebrales sacrales 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #b7 orig9ate 9 ! region ( ! roots ( ! plexus ( sacral n]ves & pass ?r\gh ! kidney sub/ance or on ! dorsal surface & empty into ! p>s r5alis4 ,! v5 r5ales 7,fig4 #gb1 ,no4 #a7 are v num]\s & orig9ate 9 ! kidney sub/ance1 =m+ two ma9 & sev]al m9or bran*es1 :i* pass po/]iorly1 & empty p>tly into ! v5a hypoga/rica1 p>tly into ! v5a r5alis magna1 & also into ! v5a int]v]tebralis2 o!r bran*es empty into ! trunk ( ! iliaca communis4 ,! v5a supr>5alis ext]na 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #cj7 is locat$ ne> ! ant]ior rim ( ! kidney & is connect$ ) ! v5a hypoga/rica4 ,x also receives on ! m$ial side1 %ort bran*es :i* come out ( ! upp] kidney surface & sacral v]tebr4 ,! v5a is*iatica orig9ates by ! union ( sev]al v5\s bran*es :i* come f ! muscles ( ! pelvis & upp] ?igh region4 ,! is*iatic ve9 ent]s ! pelvic cavity along ) ! is*iatic n]ve & art]y1 & communicates ) ! v5a hypoga/rica at ab\t ! level ( ! ant]ior lobe ( ! kidney4 ,x is always small] ?an ! v5a cruralis4 ,! v5a obturatoria orig9ates ma9ly f vessels f ! obturator muscles4 ,x ent]s ! pelvic cavity ?r\gh ! obturator =am54 ,ano!r bran* is sometimes f\nd :i* comes out ( ! inn] surface ( ! p]itoneum :i* cov]s ! obturator muscles & ! walls ( ! abdom9al air-sacs & empties betwe5 ! v5a is*iatica & ! v5a v]tebralis into ! v5a hypoga/rica4 ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,truncus ,,v5a ,,iliaca ,,communis ,! v5a int]v]tebralis lumbalis1 :i* comes out ( ! lumb> region1 ! sp9al canal1 ! lumbo-sacral n]ve plexus1 & sev]al small v5\s bran*es f ! lobes ( ! kidney4 ,x passes dorsalw>d ?r\gh ! kidney & empties into ! iliac ve94 ,!re are also communications ) ! v5a int]v]tebralis ?oracica4 ,! v5a r5alis magna 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #dg7 =ms ! ma9 desc5d+ ve9 to ! middle & po/]ior lobes ( ! kidney4 ,x lies v5trally & mesially on ! middle lobe & p>tly on ! inn] "p ( ! po/]ior lobe4 ,x sometimes has on ea* side two ma9 trunks4 ,! ve9 receives "s small vessels out ( ! ant]ior kidney lobe1 also o!r small ve9s f t "p ( ! p]itoneum :i* cov]s ! kidney1 f ! rectum & f9ally small ve9s f ! uret]4 ,,visc]al ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,po/]ior ,,v5a ,,cava ,! v5 te/icul1 or ! v5a ov>iana dra9 ! blood f ! te/icles ( ! male & ov>y ( ! female4 ,! size ( ^! ve9s *ange ) ! enl>gem5t ( ! te/es or ( ! ov>y dur+ reproductive activity4 ,! v5 supr>5ales reveh5tes are %ort1 ?ick trunks com+ f ! adr5al gl&s4 ,! left empties into ! left side ( ! po/]ior v5a cava & ! "r into ! "r dorsal side4 ,^! receive ve9s f ! te/icles 9 ! male & f ! ov>y 9 ! female4 ,! v5a prov5tricul>is inf]ior dra9s ! /oma* wall4 ,"o bran* ( ?is ve9 ent]s ! left side ( ! po/]ior v5a cava2 ! o!r ent]s ! v5a prov5tricul>is communis1 :i* 9 turn empties into ! trunk ( ! ant]ior v5a cava s9i/ra4 ,! v5 hepatic consi/ ( "o l>ge & sev]al small ve9s f ea* lobe ( ! liv]1 & empty into ! po/]ior v5a cava4 ,"s small vessels come f ! p]ic>dium & ! p]itoneal cov]+ ( ! liv]1 & pass 9 ! m$ia/9um to ! trunk ( ! po/]ior v5a cava4 ,9 ! region ( ! v5a portalis3 ,! liv] receives almo/ all ! blood f ! /oma*1 ! inte/9es1 ! pancreatic gl&1 ! sple51 p>tly f ! liv] itself1 & p>tly f ! abdom9al air-sacs4 ,?is blood ent]s into ! liv] ?r\gh ! v5a portalis dextra1 ! v5a portalis s9i/ra1 & ! v5a portalis propria4 ,9 bo? lobes ( ! liv] ^! ve9s divide into num]\s small bran*es & collect aga9 into two l>ge %ort trunks1 ! v5a hepatica magna dextra 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bc71 com+ out ( ! "r lobe ( ! liv] & ! v5a hepatica magna s9i/ra 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bd7 com+ out ( ! left lobe4 ,^! two vessels empty inf]iorly into ! po/]ior v5a cava4 ,! v5a portalis dextra receives ! blood f ! v5a mes5t]ica communis4 ,! v5a mes5t]ica communis 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #cf7 receives ! blood f ! v5a coccygo-mes5t]ica 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bh7 :i* comes f ! arcus hypoga/ricus & receives ! v5a hemorrhoidalis 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #cg74 ,?is dra9s ! cloaca & ! bursa ( ,fabricius1 & x also receives ve9s f ! rectum & f ! base ( ! cca4 ,! v5a mes5t]ica ant]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 ,no4 #c7 accompanies ! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y1 & collects ! blood f num]\s vessels f ! small inte/9e4 ,! v5a pancreatico-duod5alis 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #ch7 comes out ( ! duod5um & ! pancreas1 along ! "r side ( ! /oma* & along bo? cca4 ,! v5a prov5triculo-li5alis 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #ci7 comes out ( ! dorsal side ( ! prov5triculus on ! left side ( ! gizz>d1 passes along ! hilus ( ! sple51 & takes up sev]al spl5ic ve9s4 ,! v5a portalis dextra 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #dj2 ,fig4 #ga1 ,no4 #d7 receives a ve9 ne> ! base ( ! gall-bladd]4 ,?is bran* ent]s ! "r lobe ( ! liv] & unites ) ! v5a portalis s9i/ra4 ,! v5a portalis s9i/ra 7,fig4 #ga1 ,no4 #e7 ent]s ! left lobe ( ! liv] & !re =ms a s9us4 ,x receives vessels :i* come f ! muscles ( ! gizz>d1 ! inf]ior v5a prov5tricul>is1 & f ! prov5tricul> wall4 ,! v5a portalis propria receives small ve9s :i* come out ( ! walls ( ! abdom9al air-sacs & f ! fat ( ! abdom9al walls4 ,! v5a umbilicalis orig9ates 9 ! umbilical region & empties into ! v5a hepatica magna s9i/ra at a po9t :]e x comes out ( ! liv] 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #bi74 ,?is is ! rema9s ( an embryonal ve9 :i* collect$ all ! blood ( ! yolk sac1 pass$ on ! left side ( ! l>ge inte/9e to ! body1 took up ! v5a mes5t]ica & end$ z ! v5a umphalo-mes5t]ica4 ,,! ,,lymphatic ,,sy/em ,! peculi>ity ( ! lymph vessels is t !y are associat$ ) organs 9 :i* lymph cells are =m$4 ,! lymphatic sy/em consi/s ( ! lymph vessels & ! cell-=m+ organs4 ,9 "s in/ances ! cell-produc+ organs are lymph follicles & 9 o!rs lymph gl&s4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! gl&s are replac$ by plexuses :i* 9 _m places surr\nd ! blood-vessels4 ,! lymph ( birds is simil> to t ( mammals4 ,! l>g] lymph vessels are simil> to ! ve9s1 al?\gh ! walls are always ?9n]4 ,its tunica intima is ri* 9 ela/ic fib]s & has a lay] ( endo!lial cells on ! inn] side4 ,! tunica m$ia is =m$ ( r+s ( smoo? muscle fib]s4 ,! adv5titia is compos$ ( loose connective tissue4 ,! lymph vessels frequ5tly =m plexuses4 ,! l>ge lymph trunks foll[ ! c\rse ( ! l>g] blood-vessels1 & frequ5tly surr\nd ! art]ies4 ,all ! lymph vessels ( ! body1 exclusive ( ! lymph ( ! caudal region1 =m into a l>ge trunk :i* orig9ates on bo? sides ( ! celiaca communis & passes upw>d along ! side ( ! abdom9al aorta1 rea*+ a po9t ant]ior to ! celiaca4 ,by receiv+ _m vessels 9 ?is region x =ms a plexus ar\nd ! aorta1 & f9ally divides into two vessels1 ! "r & ! left1 ducti ?oracici4 ,! lymph vessels ( ! left side ( ! head1 ! neck1 & ! lung1 & ! left w+1 & also lymph vessels ( ! prov5triculus & ! ?roat ent] into ! left ductus ?oracicus4 ,!y accompany ! jugul> ve9 & are closely associat$ ) ! ?yroid gl&4 ,! "r ?oracic duct receives ! lymph ve9s f ! "r c]vical lymph ve91 & ! "r side ( ! head1 ! neck1 ! lung1 & f ! "r w+4 ,aft] ! "r c]vical lymph ve9 has pass$ ?r\gh ! "r ?yroid gl&1 x divides into two bran*es1 "o bran* empty+ into ! "r ?oracic duct & ! o!r into ! v5a cava dextra4 ,! lymph vessels ( ! liv]1 ! /oma*1 ! pancreas1 & ! duod5um ent] ne> ! root ( ! art]ia celiaca into ! l>ge lymph trunk4 ,! lymph vessels ( ! rema9d] ( ! inte/9es1 ( ! kidney1 & ( ! g5]ative organs empty f>!r caudally4 ,! lymph vessels ( ! inte/9es take up ! emulsifi$ fat4 ,?is emulsion 9 birds is colorless4 ,! vessels pass upw>d along ! mes5t]ic art]ies4 ,!re are no mes5t]ic gl&s4 ,^! vessels =m a plexus ar\nd ! art]ia celiaca4 ,! lymph vessels ( ! po/]ior extremities accompany ! art]y1 especially ! ant]ior iliaca ext]na1 & empty into ! ?oracic duct at ! po9t ( ! ant]ior iliaco-communis4 ,! lymph vessels 9 birds are num]\s4 ,! lymph gl&s are few4 ,!y are only visibly f\nd 9 ! ant]ior brea/ & ! neck region1 & sometimes 9 ! w+s4 ,lymph follicles are num]\s 9 ! inte/9es4 ,! ?9 walls ( ! lacteals1 ( ! lymph vessels1 & ( ! ?oracic duct are made up ( two tunics1 ! inn] be+ ! ?9n] & weak]4 ,! lymphatics ( ! foot unite to =m ! vessels along ! sides ( ea* toe4 ,9 palmip$es !re are ana/omos+ bran*es :i* pass f ! lat]al vessels ( "o toe to ^? ( ! adjo9+ toe1 =m+ ar*es 9 ! unit+ web ( ! foot4 ,^! bran*es =m a small plexus at ! ant]ior "p ( ! digito-metat>sal jo9t1 f :i* pass ?ree or f\r lymph vessels4 ,! ant]ior & int]nal bran*es accompany & =m a network ar\nd ! blood-vessels4 ,! po/]ior & ext]nal bran*es receive ! lymphatic vessels f ! sole ( ! foot4 ,!y !n asc5d along ! metat>sus & =m1 at its proximal articulation1 a close network f :i* vessels pass along ! tibial region1 =m+ a plexus ar\nd x z f> z ! middle ( ! leg4 ,f ?is !re arises two bran*es4 ,! small] passes along ! ant]ior "p ( ! depression betwe5 ! tibia & ! fibula1 z f> z ! knee-jo9t1 :]e x jo9s ! o!r bran*1 :i* accompanies ! blood-vessel4 ,! trunk =m$ by ! union ( ^! two vessels accompanies ! femoral vessels4 ,=m+ plexuses 9 its c\rse1 x receives tribut>y vessels f ! adjac5t muscles4 ,! iliac trunk accompanies ! femoral ve9 into ! abdom9al cavity1 ent]+ j 9 front ( ! ant]ior end ( ! pubis4 ,at ?is po9t x receives bran*es f ! lat]al p>ts ( ! pelvis & !n sep>ates into two bran*es4 ,! po/]ior vessel receives "s lymph f ! ant]ior lobes ( ! kidney1 & f ! ov>y1 or te/is1 & communicates ant]iorly ) a bran* =m$ by ! lymph vessels adjac5t to ! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y1 & po/]iorly ) a l>ge vesicul> plexus surr\nd+ ! aorta & its bran*es4 ,?is plexus receives ! lymph f ! r5al plexus & f ^? accompany+ ! art]ia m$ia4 ,!re are two sacral or pelvic vesicles :i* are situat$ at ! angle betwe5 ! tail & ! ?igh 9 ! po/]ior "p ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,ea* vesicle is a trifle m ?an a half in* long & a qu>t] in* wide1 & is %ap$ some:at l a kidney bean4 ,!y h muscul> coats ) /riat$ fib]s4 ,^! sacs are call$ 8lymph he>ts40 ,! ant]ior division ( ! femoral lymphatic trunk accompanies ! aorta1 on :i* x =ms a plexus ) ! bran*es ( ! opposite side1 & ) ! inte/9al lymph vessels4 ,^! vessels comm5ce f a cont9u\s plexi=m network locat$ betwe5 ! muc\s & ! muscul> coat ( ! inte/9e4 ,!y are l>g] at ?is po9t ?an :]e !y leave ! inte/9e to pass ?r\gh ! mes5t]y4 ,!y accompany ! trunk ( ! ant]ior mes5t]ic art]y & =m a plexus ar\nd x4 ,be=e rea*+ ! region ( ! aorta1 ! inte/9al lymphatic vessels communicate ) ! po/]ior division ( ! femoral trunk & ) ! lymph vessels ( ! ov>y or ( ! te/is4 ,aft] pass+ to ! region ( ! aorta !y receive vessels f ! pancreas & ! duod5um1 & t]m9ate ar\nd ! celiac axis ) ! lymphatics ( ! liv]1 ! prov5triculus1 ! gizz>d1 & ! sple51 =m+ a r volum9\s plexus 7,lau?74 ,! aortic plexus repres5ts ! receptaculum *yli & gives orig9 to two ?oracic ducts1 m5tion$ above1 :i* pass+ on ea* side ( ! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 pass "o "r & "o left1 ov] ! lungs1 f :i* !y receive lymph vessels1 & t]m9ate aft] receiv+ ! lymph vessels ( ! w+1 into ! jugul> ve9 ( _! respective sides4 ,! left ?oracic duct1 be=e empty+ into ! ve91 receives ! trunk ( ! lymphatics ( ! left side ( ! neck1 & ! "r duct t ( ! "r side ( ! neck1 ea* tribut>y collect+ lymph f all ! /ructures ( its side4 ,! lymphatics ( ! w+ foll[ ! c\rse ( ! bra*ial art]y1 =m+ a plexus ar\nd x4 ,^! vessels are well develop$ 9 ! elb[ region4 ,! pr9cipal trunk1 foll[+ ! hum]us1 receives collat]al bran*es 9 its upp] ?ird4 ,?is vessel1 :5 ne>+ ! *e/1 receives two or ?ree l>ge lymph vessels f ! pectoral muscles1 & a bran* :i* accompanies ! bra*ial plexus4 ,! lymph vessels ( ! head accompany ! bran*es ( ! jugul> ve91 collect+ ! lymph f ! /ructures ( ! head & ! neck4 ,! lymphatic vessels communicate at ! ant]ior & po/]ior oblique ana/omos+ vessels4 ,at ! l[] "p ( ! neck ea* trunk receives a vessel1 :i* accompanies ! c>otid art]ies4 ,fur!r on !y are provid$ ) a lymph gl& :i* re/s on ! jugul> ve94 ,,! ,,blood ,,& ,,its ,,functions ,! special function ( ! blood is to n\ri% all ! tissues ( ! body1 & 9 ?is way to aid gr[? & repair4 ,x furni%es mat]ial = ! purpose ( ! elaboration ( body secretions2 x supplies ! organism ) oxyg52 & x c>ries away c>bon dioxid & o!r effete mat]ial4 ,blood is con/antly 9 circulation4 ,blood is r$1 opaque1 & is1 9 ! f[l1 q viscid4 ,! exact t9t ( ! blood dep5ds on :e!r x is drawn f an art]y or f a ve94 ,blood f a ve9 has a purpli% t+e :ile t f an art]y is a bright sc>let4 ,! color ( blood is l>gely due to pigm5t 9 ! ery?rocyte1 call$ hemoglob94 ,! reaction ( ! blood is alkal9e1 due to ! phosphate & ! bic>bonate ( soda4 ,! alkal9ity ( ! blood is r$uc$ by "w4 ,?is is due to ! =mation ( s>colactic acid 9 ! muscle4 ,! odor ( blood is due to volatile fatty acids4 ,ea* k9d ( f[l has its own peculi> odor4 ,! ta/e ( ! blood is salti%1 due to a small am\nt ( sodium *lorid x conta9s4 ,! blood consi/s ( ! foll[+ sub/ances3 ,fir/1 ! unorganiz$ "p1 or fluid1 ! liquor sangu9is or plasma4 ,x conta9s 9 solution proteids1 extractives1 m9]al matt]1 & gases4 ,! gases are held 9 loose *emical union4 ,! liquor sangu9is con/itutes fully #ff p] c5t4 ( ! volume ( ! blood4 ,x is album9\s 9 nature & conta9s a small am\nt ( color+ matt] ( a fatty nature4 ,x holds 9 solution ?ree proteids--fibr9og51 s]um globul91 & s]um album94 ,second1 ! organiz$ p>ts1 or ! cellul> /ructure 7,fig4 #gd1 ,nos4 #a to #ba74 ,! cells float 9 ! plasma & consi/ ( ?ree gr\ps3 ! ery?rocytes1 or r$ blood cells1 ! leucocytes1 or :ite blood cells1 & ! ?rombocytes4 ,ery?rocytes4--,! av]age numb] ( r$ cells 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #ba7 ( ! dome/ic f[l range betwe5 #c1jjj1jjj & #d1jjj1jjj p] cubic millimet]4 ,! r$ blood cells are flatt5$ & elliptical 9 %ape1 & possess an oval elliptical nucleus4 ,! av]age l5g? is in* & ! diamet] in*1 or #g to #h micra 9 diamet] & #ab to #ac micra 9 l5g?4 ,h[ev] ! diamet]s v>y 9 diff]5t k9ds ( birds4 ,! cytoplasm is yell[ & glassy1 & ! nucleus takes basic /a9s & appe>s some:at picnotic4 ,?rombocytes4--,! ?rombocyte 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #ai7 is ( ab\t ! same l5g? z ! ery?rocyte b some:at n>r[]4 ,! nucleus is r\nd1 /a9s purple ) ! ,wright's /a91 & ! *romat9 mat]ial is some:at diffus$4 ,! diamet] ( ! nucleus is ne>ly equal to t ( ! cell4 ,! cytoplasm is pale & may %[ vacuoles ne> ! nucleus4 ,!y may conta9 small circumscrib$ r$ /ructures4 ,!y v>y some:at 9 size & %ape4 ,!re are 9 ! dome/ic f[l betwe5 #de1jjj & #ee1jjj p] cubic millimet]4 ,leucocytes4--,!re are1 9 ! blood ( ! h51 #bh1jjj to #ce1jjj leucocytes p] cubic millimet]4 ,! leucocytes may be divid$ into five di/9ct types4 ,^! are z foll[s3 ,polymorphonucle> leucocytes ) eos9ophilic rods 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #b7 are r\nd & h a diamet] ab\t equal to ! l5g? ( ! ery?rocyte4 ,! nucleus is polymorph\s2 t is1 x has two or m lobes4 ,! nucleus /a9s a pale blue1 & ! *romat9 is diffus$4 ,! cytoplasm is colorless ) bright r$ /a9+ sp9dle-%ap$ rods4 ,!re are #bh to #cb p] c5t4 ( ?is type ( cell 9 ! blood ( ! h54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,blood cells ( ! f[l4 ,wright's /a94 ,f a ,s4 ,c4 ,rhode ,isl& ,r$ cock]el4 #a1 ,basophile 7ma/ cell7 ) lilac /a9+ sph]ical granules4 #b1 ,eos9ophile ) rod-%ap$ acidophile bodies4 #c & #d1 ,eos9ophiles ) acidophile /a9+ r\nd granules4 #e1 ,eos9ophile ruptur$4 #f1 ,mononucle> leucocyte ) vacuoles 9 ! cytoplasm4 #g & #i1 ,transitional leucocytes 7fir/ /age74 #h1 ,mononucle> leucocyte4 #aj1 #aa1 & #ab1 ,small lymphocytes4 #ac & #ad1 ,l>ge lymphocytes4 #ae1 ,a lymphocyte4 #af1 ,lymphocyte 7nucleus c5trally locat$74 #ag & #ah1 ,transitional leucocyte4 #ai1 ,?rombocyte4 #bj1 ,neutrophile 7polymorphonucle>74 #ba1 ,ery?rocytes4 ,polymorphonucle> leucocytes ) eos9ophilic granules 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #c & #d7 are ( ab\t ! same %ape & size z ! prec$+4 ,! nucleus is simil> to ! =m] except t x may appe> slightly picnotic4 ,! cytoplasm /a9s n at all or fa9tly blue2 x conta9s r\nd or sph]ical granules :i* /a9 a dull r$4 ,!re is f #d to #f p] c5t4 ( ?is type ( eos9ophiles f\nd 9 ! dome/ic f[l4 ,lymphocytes are r\nd 9 %ape & ( ab\t ! diamet] ( ! wid? ( a ?rombocyte 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #aa74 ,! nucleus is r\nd1 /a9+ some:at purple1 & conta9s a diffus$ *romat9 mat]ial4 ,! cytoplasm exi/s 9 only small am\nts2 x lies to ! side ( ! nucleus & /a9s a pale blue4 ,?is is ! small lymphocyte4 ,a simil> cell b mu* l>g] also exi/s4 ,?is is ! l>ge lymphocyte 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #ac74 ,!re is f #dj to #dd p] c5t4 ( ! lymphocytes 9 ! blood ( ! f[l4 ,! small lymphocytes are mo/ abundant4 ,l>ge mononucle> cells 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #f7 ei!r r\nd or oval1 9 %ape1 ^: diamet] may be ab\t t ( an ery?rocyte & at times mu* l>g]4 ,! nucleus may be r\nd1 oval1 or irregul>1 & at times r cresc5t or ,u-%ap$ 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #ag74 ,! cytoplasm is abundant & completely surr\nds ! nucleus4 ,! cytoplasm /a9s a pal] blue ?an ! nucleus4 ,bo? tak+ ! basic /a9 z d ! lymphocytes4 ,^! con/itute #ah to #bj p] c5t4 ( ! cells ( ! blood4 ,ma/ cells or basophiles 7,fig4 #gd1 ,no4 #a7 are ( ab\t ! same size & %ape z ! eos9ophiles4 ,! nucleus is r\nd or oval1 & /a9s a v pale blue4 ,! cytoplasm is colorless1 mo/ly to "o side ( ! nucleus1 & conta9s r\nd or sph]ical purple /a9+ granules4 ,?is type ( cell con/itutes f #b to #d p] c5t4 ( ! :ite cells ( ! blood4 ,/ructure ( ! ,r$ ,blood ,cell4--,! r$ blood cell is compos$ ( a spongy /roma hold+ 9 its me%es ! r$ color+ matt]4 ,! /roma1 or framework1 ( ! ery?rocyte consi/s pr9cipally ( nucleo-album92 x conta9s leci?91 *ole/]91 & salts4 ,! r$ matt] consi/s ( an album9\s cry/all9e sub/ance call$ hemoglob91 :i* =ms ab\t #ij p] c5t4 ( ! total solid matt] ( ! dri$ corpuscle4 ,ea* r$ cell (f]s a c]ta9 absorb+ surface = oxyg54 ,z ! blood circulates ?r\gh ! delicate walls ( ! lungs & ! air-sacs1 x takes up oxyg52 ! blood at ! same "t deliv]s to ! air c>bon dioxid :i* has be5 br\ght f ! tissues :]e active cell metabolism has be5 go+ on4 ,?is oxyg5 tak5 up by ! ery?rocyte =ms a loose *emical union & is kn[n z oxy-hemoglob94 ,9 ?is =m x is c>ri$ to ! tissues ( ! body :]e x is giv5 up by ! ery?rocyte to ! tissues :]e oxidation is go+ on4 ,hemoglob9 is a cry/allizable proteid sub/ance conta9+ c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 sulphur1 & iron4 ,=mation ( ! ,cells ( ! ,blood4--,! r$ blood cells are =m$ 9 ! r$ m>r[ ( ! bone4 ,polymorphonucle> leucocytes are =m$ 9 ! r$ m>r[ ( ! bones1 & ! lymphocytes 9 ! lymph gl&s & lymph follicles4 ,! bird c>ries a normal body temp]ature ( #aje to #ajg ,f4 ,! av]age temp]ature ( #ej mature h5s & cocks 0 #ajf4h ,f4 ,! blood is ( a deep r$ color4 ,composition ( ! ,blood4--,! av]age composition ( ! blood ( ! dome/ic f[l z giv5 by ,ow51 is z foll[s3 ,:ole %$ blood3 ,wat] #ghj p>ts ,clot #aeg p>ts ,album9 & salts #fc p>ts ---------- #ajjj p>ts ,moi/ blood cells3 ,av]age total weight #def4fi ,wat] #cdb4eb ,solid matt] #ig4ej ,plasma3 ,total weight #edc4cj p>ts ,wat] #die4gb p>ts ,solid matt] #cj4gb p>ts ,blood :5 drawn & all[$ to /& soon coagulates4 ,9 ! blood ( birds ?is process is v rapid1 ! blood coagulat+1 9 mo/ in/ances1 9 ab\t "o-half m9ute4 ,blood coagulates only 9 ! pres5ce ( calcium salts4 ,dur+ life1 ! liquor sangu9is is t]m$ plasma2 b aft] x has be5 %$ f ! body & coagulation has tak5 place1 ! liquid residue is call$ s]um4 ,s]um is plasma ) its modifications z ! result ( coagulation1 & z ?is latt] process is br\ght ab\t by ! production ( fibr91 we may say t s]um is plasma m9us fibr9-=m+ elem5ts4 ,! proteids ( ! s]um are s]um globul91 s]um album91 & a f]m5t produc$ z ! result ( coagulation4 ,z fibr9og5 is us$ up 9 ! process ( coagulation1 x is n f\nd 9 ! s]um1 b !re is 9 ! s]um a proteid kn[n z fibr9o-globul94 ,?is is produc$ f fibr9og5 dur+ ! process ( fibr9 =mation4 ,! foll[+ tabulation gives a cle> idea ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! proteids ( plasma & ( ^? ( s]um3 ,proteids ( ,plasma ,fibr9og5 ,s]um globul9 ,s]um album9 ,proteids ( ,s]um ,s]um globul9 ,s]um album9 ,fibr9 f]m5t 7nucleoproteid7 ,fibr9o-globul9 ,fibr9og5 is ! precursor ( fibr94 ,! fibr9 ( ! blood clot ( ! bird is s(t & v lac]able4 ,! s]um is usually yell[4 ,,! ,,fate ,,( ,,! ,,ery?rocyte ,,( ,,! ,,f[l ,! p[] ( vascul> endo!lium to +e/ r$ blood corpuscles has be5 /udi$ by ,keys4 ,:5 bact]ia or o!r m9ute =eign bodies are inject$ into ! blood /ream ( pigeons1 !y are rapidly )drawn f ! circulation into ! tissues ( ! liv] & ( ! sple54 ,! =eign bodies are not$ to be conta9$ )9 cells ( a di/9ct type1 :i* is f\nd 9 bo? liv] & sple54 ,?is type ( cell conta9s1 9 addition to ! =eign sub/ances inject$1 mu* yell[ pigm5t1 & :5 te/$ = iron by ,pe>l's me?od gives a positive ,prussian-blue reaction4 ,9 su* specim5s !re is a display ( contra/ to o!r tissues4 ,!re is an ext5sive cont5t ( cells possess+ ! di/9ct tone ( ,prussian-blue iron reaction4 ,^! cells are di/ribut$ r ev5ly ?r\gh\t bo? ! sple5 & ! liv]1 b m num]\sly 9 ! liv]4 ,9 ! liv]1 "u l[-p[] magnification1 ^! cells appe> z blue pat*es1 %>ply diff]5tiat$ f ! r$-/a9$ p>5*yma4 ,^! cells are l>g] 9 _! great] diamet] ?an ! liv] cells4 ,!y v>y mu* 9 size & =m4 ,!y be> a con/ant relation%ip to ! v5\s capill>ies1 & (t5 appe> to occupy ! lum5 ( ! vessels4 ,"u high] magnification x is not$1 h[ev]1 t ea* cell is an integral "p ( ! endo!lial intima l9+ ( ! capill>ies4 ,!y are !re=e fix$ tissue cells1 engag$ by "o ( its surfaces ^u ! reticulum ( ! vessel wall1 ) a free surface bulg+ a great] or less degree into ! lum5 ( ! vessel4 ,! atta*$ surface ( ! cell foll[s exactly ! l9e ( ! vessel wall4 ,^! cells are simil> to ^? describ$ = mammals by ,kupff] & are call$ ,kupff] cells or /ellate cells4 ,9 ! f[l ,keys proposes ! "n hemophages4 ,! nucleus ( ! hemophage /a9s a deep g>net ) ! c>m9e us$ 9 ! above-giv5 te*nic1 & conta9s two or ?ree v di/9ct & int5sely /a9$ nucleoli4 ,9 ! hemophages1 :i* are m ne>ly flat1 ! nucleus appe>s l ^? ( ! typical endo!lial cells2 :]eas 9 ! protrud+ hemophages ( great] bulk1 ! nucleus is m vesicul> & is irregul>ly pyramidal 9 =m4 ,r>ely two nuclei are f\nd 9 "o cell4 ,)9 ?is cell may be se5 vacuoles ( ! cytoplasm :i* conta9 r$ blood corpuscles4 ,^! blood corpuscles h be5 phagocyt$ f ! circulat+ blood /ream4 ,approximately "o-?ird ( ! intimal cells are hemophages4 ,ea* hemophage displays evid5ce t x conta9s1 or has rec5tly conta9$1 "o or m r$ blood cells4 ,! cell body ( ! hemophage has no fix$ morphology1 b *anges f "t to "t accord+ to its phase ( phagocytic activity4 ,9 a /age :i* ! hemophage has rec5tly +e/$ a r$ blood cell1 ! cell body bulges out into ! lum5 ( ! vessel & ! nucleus is cr[d$ to "o side4 ,at ?is "t ! r$ blood cell appe>s z ^? 9 ! blood /ream & possesses ! *>act]i/ic /a9+ reactions4 ,! nucleus ( ! r$ blood cell /a9s deep r$di% br[n & ! cytoplasm an ev5 yell[ bronze4 ,9 ! next /age ! cytoplasm ( ! hemophage gives a diffuse ,prussian-blue reaction4 ,!n 9 hemophages :i* repres5t lat] /ages !re are v>i\s /ages ( dis9tegration & dige/ion ( ! r$ blood cell4 ,! fir/ *anges ( ! phagocyt$ r$ blood cell is hemolysis1 ! hemoglob9 escap+ into vacuoles ( ! cytoplasm ( ! phagocytic cell1 leav+ ! nucleus-conta9+ /roma di/9ctly outl9$4 ,! /roma may reta9 ! orig9al ovoid =m or may become sph]ical2 ! nucleus 9 su* in/ances rema9s ovoid4 ,gradually1 bo? ! /roma & nucleus lose _! /a9+ reaction until f9ally ! vacuoles contract ab\t a small indi/9ct remnant ( ! nucleus1 :i* 9 its turn ultimately disappe>s4 ,dur+ ?is latt] process ! size ( ! hemophage gradually decreases4 ,! hemoglob91 :i* has escap$ into ! cytoplasm ( ! hemophage1 is se5 to und]go a s]ies ( *anges4 ,at fir/ ! great] "p ( ! pigm5t does n give ! iron reaction b reta9s its yell[-bronze tone ) ery?ros9 & occupies vacuoles ( v>i\s sizes4 ,lat] ! cont5ts ( ! vacuoles give ! iron reaction & ) increas+ int5sity4 ,lat] !re is a gradual decrease 9 ! /a9+ reaction indicat+ t ! iron gradually disappe>s f ! cells :i* extract$ x f ! r$ blood cells x dige/s4 ,z a summ>y we f9d1 t ^! cells take c>e ( ! worn out r$ blood cells4 ,!y dev\r !m2 hemolyze !m1 de/roy+ ! /roma & nucleus2 split ! hemoglob9 & free ! iron2 & !n f9ally return to _! normal =m4 ,! sple5 conta9s ! same type cells1 b !y are few] 9 numb]4 ,= ! mo/ "p !y are conf9$ to ! pulp cords & h no su* evid5t relation to ! vessel wall1 or lum51 z 9 ! liv]4 ,! function ( ! cells ( ! sple5 are ess5tially ! same z ^? 9 ! liv]4 ,iron fre$ f ! worn out r$ blood cells is n reta9$ by ! cells free+ x1 nor is x f\nd 9 ! bile4 ,x does n occur else:]e 9 ! tissues ( ! liv] & sple54 ,x is possibly dis*>g$ into ! blood /ream1 & transport$ to ! hemapoietic tissues4 ,cells :i* hemolyze r$ blood cells & lib]ate ! iron are to be s]i\sly ?\ght ( 9 connection ) bile =mation s9ce bilirub9 is approximately1 if n id5tical )1 iron-free hematoidon4 ,,neurology ,! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,! n]v\s sy/em is an app>atus by means ( :i* animals appreciate & become influ5c$ by impressions f ! out] _w4 ,animals react on ^! impressions1 & ?us are enabl$ to adapt !mselves to _! environm5t4 ,?is sy/em is ! organic sub/ratum ( life1 s5sation1 & motion4 ,broadly /at$1 ! n]v\s sy/em connects ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body ) ea* o!r1 & to cord9ate ! p>ts into a h>moni\s :ole 9 ord] to c>ry on ! bodily functions me?odically & to control ! physiological division ( labor ?r\gh\t ! organism4 ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( two p>ts4 ,! fir/ is ! c]ebro-sp9al sy/em1 :i* comprises ! c5tral n]v\s axis1 includ+ ! bra9 & ! sp9al cord1 & ! p]iph]al n]ves1 includ+ ! cranial & ! sp9al n]ves4 ,! second is ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,! two p>ts ( ! sy/em are closely l9k$ toge!r1 & bo? t]m9ate 9 p]iph]al n]ve end+s1 includ+ ^? ( special s5se1 ( s5sation1 & ( motion4 ,! c]ebro-sp9al n]ves especially preside ov] ! special s5ses1 motion & s5sation2 & ! sympa!tic ov] ! dige/ive1 ! pulmon>y1 & ! vascul> app>atus4 ,f a /ructural /&po9t1 ! n]ve sy/em consi/s ( cell elem5ts peculi>ly diff]5tiat$ f all o!r tissue cells 9 t _! protoplasm is ext5d$ 9 ! =m ( processes1 (t5 to great di/ances f ! nucle> region4 ,! cell elem5ts are held 9 place by support+ tissue & receive an abundant blood supply2 !y are p>tly ( ectod]mal & p>tly ( mesod]mal orig94 ,! cell elem5t ( ! n]ve sy/em1 call$ a neurone1 is ! developm5tal1 /ructural1 & functional unit ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x is a s+le cell pres5t+ unusual /ructural modifications4 ,x comprises n only ! n]ve cell body ) its num]\s protoplasmic processes1 or d5drites1 b also ! axone1 :i* may v>y 9 l5g? f a fraction ( a millimet] to fully half ! bird's l5g?4 ,! bulk ( ! axone is _m times ! bulk ( ! cell body4 ,c]ta9 non-m$ullat$ axones are surr\nd$ by a delicate1 homog5e\s1 nucleat$ %ea?1 call$ ! neurilemma1 or %ea? ( ,s*wann4 ,,! ,,cranial ,,n]ves ,! cranial n]ves h _! orig9 9 ! bra9 & leave ! cranial cavity 9 pairs4 ,!y are numb]$ num]ically f be=e backw>d1 !re be+ twelve pairs 9 all4 ,! foll[+ is a tabulation accord+ to _! numb]1 "n1 & function3 ,no4 ,"n ,functional ,nature ,i4 ,olfactory ,smell-s5se ,,ii4 ,optic ,visual-s5se ,,iii4 ,oculomotor ,motor to muscles ( eyeball & orbit ,,iv4 ,pa!tici ,motor to sup]ior oblique muscle ( eyeball ,v4 ,trifacial ,mix$3 ,s5sor to face & tongue4 ,motor to face ,,vi4 ,abduc5tes ,motor to ,ext]nal rectus ( eyeball ,,vii4 ,facial ,motor to muscles ( head & face ,,viii4 ,auditory ,he>+-s5se ,,ix4 ,glosso-ph>yngeal ,mix$3 ,tongue1 ph>ynx & muscles ( ?roat ,x4 ,vagus ,mix$3 ,s5sori-motor to respiratory tract & "p ( alim5t>y tract ,,xi4 ,sp9al accessory ,motor to muscles ( ph>ynx1 neck & he>t ,,xii4 ,hypoglossal ,motor to muscles ( ! tongue ,olfactorius4--,n]vus olfactorius 7,fig4 #ge1 ,c1 #af74 ,?is is ! n]ve ( smell1 "o ( ! n]ves ( special s5se4 ,! organ ( smell consi/s ( five lay]s z foll[s3 ,fir/1 a lay] ( olfactory fib]s ext5d+ 9 diff]5t directions & consi/+ ( a d5se plexi=m arrangem5t ( ! axones ( ! olfactory cells4 ,f ?is lay] ! fib]s pass into ! lay] ( olfactory glom]uli :]e _! t]m9al ramifications m+le ) ! d5dritic t]m9als ( cells ly+ 9 ! m dorsal lay]s1 to =m di/9ctly outl9$ sph]oidal or oval n]ve fib] ne/s1 ! olfactory glom]uli4 ,second1 a f9e granul> lay] ( basic sub/ance conta9+ r\nd cellul> /ructures1 ! /ratum granulosum4 ,?ird1 broad] granul>1 or molecul> lay]1 hav+ on its inn] surface a r[ ( l>ge pyramidal cells :i* are bo? small & l>ge & :i* s5d _! d5drites into ! olfactory glom]uli4 ,_! po9ts are direct$ outw>d4 ,f\r?1 a lay] ( r\nd cells tightly press$ toge!r & measur+ ab\t #e microns 9 diamet]4 ,betwe5 ^! cells are v f9e n]ve fib]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,! bra9 ( a h54 ,photograph4 ,a4 ,upp] surface ( ! bra94 #a1 ,m$ulla oblongata4 #b1 ,calamus scriptorius4 #c1 ,c]ebellum4 #d1 ,optic lobes4 #e1 ,transv]se fissure4 #f1 ,longitud9al fissure4 #g1 ,upp] surface ( ! left c]ebral lobe4 #h1 ,upp] surface ( ! "r c]ebral lobe4 #i1 ,lat]al pill> ( ! c]ebellum4 ,b4 ,! po/]ior surface ( ! eyeball4 #aj1 ,! section$ surface ( ! optic n]ve4 ,c4 ,! inf]ior surface ( ! bra94 #aa1 ,corneo-scl]al juncture4 #ab1 ,! cornea4 #ac1 ,! scl]a4 #ad1 ,! optic n]ve4 #ae1 ,! optic *iasm4 #af1 ,! olfactory lobes4 #ag1 ,! m$ulla oblongata4 #ah1 ,tub] c9]]um et infundibulum4 ,fif?1 a lay] ( epi!lial cells4 ,! p]iph]al fib]s & ! n]ve cell lay]s ne> ! hemisph]es disappe> s t ! basic sub/ance ( ! trabecula ) ! hemisph]es =m ! entire lobe mass4 ,on ! l[] surface ( ! hemisph]es !re is a long bundle ( n]ve fib]s :i* ent] into ! sub/ance ( ! olfactory lobes & !re disappe>s4 ,^! fib]s are m$ullat$4 ,non-m$ullat$ fib]s ent] into ! makeup ( ! olfactory trunk4 ,! orig9al c5t] ( ! olfactory n]ve is n 9 ! hemisph]e1 b 9 ! same location z ! optic n]ve4 ,?is n]ve trunk consi/s ( v f9e non-m$ullat$ fib]s4 ,! n]ves ( smell are !re=e n p]iph]ali/ic n]ves4 ,! n]ve fib]s are di/ribut$ to ! muc\s surface ( ! turb9at$ bones4 ,t[>d ! front !y =m an exp&$ prolongation4 ,! olfactory n]ve1 z x em]ges f ! cone-l ant]ior tip ( ! c]ebrum1 is ( consid]able ?ickness & ext5ds along ) ! m$ian dorsal art]y ( t region above & to ! inside ( ! orbit1 "u ! ?9 bony /ructure4 ,be=e its t]m9ation into ! po/]ior turb9at$ bones1 x is cross$ by ! sup]ior maxill>y division ( ! fif? pair ( cranial n]ves4 ,x ext5ds z f> z ! pituit>y membrane ( ! turb9ate bones ^u :i* its filam5ts are di/ribut$ radially4 ,! ,opticus4--,! n]vus opticus 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 ,c1 #ad7 ! second cranial1 is ! n]ve ( sight4 ,! optic lobe1 or tub]culum bigem9um lies at ! base ( ! bra9 on ea* side ( ! optic tract4 ,f ! optic lobes ! two trunks pass =w>d along ! "u surface ( ! c]ebri1 =m+ ! optic *iasm at ! hypophysis 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 ,c1 #ae71 at :i* po9t ! n]ve fib]s orig9at+ f ! "r side pass to ! left1 & vice v]s4 ,f ! *iasm ! true optic n]ves pass =w>d to ! po/]ior surface ( ! eyeball4 ,!y are compos$ ( a bundle ( v f9e1 m>r[-l n]ves4 ,^! fib]s ent] into ! ganglionic cells ( ! ret9a4 ,by removal ( ! f9ely adh]5t neurilemma1 ! optic n]ve is se5 to be compos$ ( p>allel1 longitud9al lamell1 ! m>g9s ( :i* are mo/ly free on "o side4 ,! ,motor ,oculi4--,! motor oculi 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #aj71 ! ?ird cranial n]ve is a motor n]ve4 ,x orig9ates close to ! base ( ! bra9 beh9d ! position ( ! hippocampus ( mammals on ! inn] side ( ! crus c]ebri1 & also on ! inn] somatic column close bel[ & some:at aside f ! aqu$uct ( ,sylvius4 ,! n]ve leaves ! bra9 cavity ?r\gh a di/9ct =am5 ne> ! =am5 opticum1 & supplies ! foll[+ eye muscles3 fir/1 aft] ent]+ ! orbit1 x s5ds a bran* upw>d to ! inf]ior portion ( ! inf]ior rectus2 !n1 x gives (f ! ?ick ramus cili>is4 ,! trunk !n ext5ds "u ! optic n]ve & passes =w>d to inn]vate ! inf]ior rectus1 ! int]nal rectus1 & ! inf]ior oblique4 ,a cili>y ganglion =ms on ! trunk4 ,! ,pa!ticus4--7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #aa7 is a small motor n]ve1 orig9at+ close to ! sulcus c5tralis1 9 ! circle ( ! c5t] bra9 ov] ! valve ( ,vieuss5s1 betwe5 ! po/]iors ( ! optic lobes4 ,x ext5ds 9 a dorsal direction betwe5 ! c]ebellum & ! lobus opticus1 to ! po/]ior ( ! latt] ( :i* x !n =ms a loop v5trally4 ,ly+ close to ! optic =am5 x passes ?r\gh a f9e op5+ into ! eye cavity & supplies ! sup]ior oblique muscle ( ! eye4 ,dur+ its c\rse x passes dorsally ov] ! optic n]ve1 & !n crosses dorsally ov] ! oph?almic division ( ! fif? pair ( cranial n]ves & ! int]nal rectus muscle4 ,! ,trifacialis4--7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #ab74 ,?is1 ! fif? cranial1 is a mix$ n]ve & is divid$ into two p>ts1 portio major & portio m9or4 ,! portio major orig9ates 9 ! ganglion cells ( ! po/]ior "p ( ! bra94 ,comm5c+ ne> ! m$ulla oblongata x passes ?r\gh ! po/]ior "p ( ! bra91 !n upw>d & outw>d2 & along its r\te x =ms ! ,gass]ian ganglion1 :i* lies p>tly 9 ! cranial cavity or 9 its wall4 ,! portio m9or consi/s ( ! d[nw>d pass+ fib]s conta9+ ! motoric elem5ts :i* are di/ribut$ to ! muscles ( ! jaw & ( ! eye4 ,! roots are f\nd 9 ! ganglion f ! c5t] & back bra91 close bel[ ! pa!tic n]ve orig91 :]e ! pa!tic passes betwe5 ! lobus opticus & ! p>s p$uncul>is2 x !n takes a lat]al c\rse betwe5 ! two4 ,! fib]s ( ! portio m9or d n take "p 9 ! =mation ( ! ,gass]ian ganglion1 b are only p>tly surr\nd$ by x4 ,!re are ?ree n]ve trunks giv5 (f ( ! trifacialis3 ! oph?almic1 ! sup]ior maxill>y1 & ! inf]ior maxill>y4 ,! oph?almic division ( ! fif? n]ve is ! smalle/ ( ! ?ree bran*es4 ,x em]ges directly f ! ,gass]ian ganglion1 & passes ?r\gh a n>r[ bony canal 9 ! base ( ! bra91 bel[ ! pa!tic & ! abduc5s1 & ?r\gh ! =am5 oph?almicum4 ,x !n ent]s ! eye cavity above ! optic n]ve1 & on ! wall ( ! cavity ext5ds d[nw>d1 & ) reg>d to ! eyeball1 dorsally ly+ close to ! rectus int]nus muscle & close to ! surface ( ! eyeball4 ,x passes along ! olfactory n]ve1 ext5ds "u ! sup]ior oblique muscle1 & f9ally rea*es ! inn] angle1 or can?us1 ( ! eye4 ,x "h divides into ! recurr5t ext]na & ! e?moidalis4 ,! e?moidalis bran* is a /raight cont9uation ( ! oph?almic4 ,x ext5ds along close to its fell[ ( ! opposite side1 &1 ov] ! vom]1 splits into two bran*es4 ,! small] ( ^! bran*es breaks ?r\gh ! bone cells ( ! jaw1 cont9ues ^u its v5tral surface 9 a furr[ ext5d+ =w>d1 & t]m9ates 9 ! gum region4 ,x supplies ! gum & po9t ( ! beak4 ,! l>g] bran* ent]s into ! cell sub/ance ext5d+ to ! tip ( ! beak1 9 its c\rse s5d+ out a numb] ( f9e filam5ts1 :i* spread out along ! out] surface4 ,at ?is po9t ^! two bran*es may fuse4 ,! l>g] bran* is end[$ ) ! s5se ( t\*4 ,! recurr5t ext]na divides %ortly aft] leav+ ! ma9 trunk ( ! eye cavity passes ov] ! lacrimal gl&4 ,x gives two bran*es to ?is gl& & "o to ! membrana nictitans1 & inn]vates ! upp] eyelid4 ,x !n em]ges f ! eye cavity1 pass+ ov] ! os lacrimale1 & gives "o or m bran*es to ! integum5t ( ?is region1 includ+ ! comb4 ,?is bran* is l>ge 9 birds ) a l>ge comb4 ,bran*es pass 9 front ( ! lacrimal bone ?r\gh ! out] nasal cavity & into its deep] /ructure4 ,%ortly aft] ! oph?almic bran* has ent]$ into ! eye cavity & be=e x crosses ! optic n]ve1 x gives a f9e bran* to ! motor occuli4 ,! second & ! ?ird bran*es ( ! fif? cranial n]ve are mix$4 ,!y conta9 elem5ts ( bo? ! portio major & ! portio m9or4 ,^! two bran*es come f ! l[] "p ( ! out] region ( ! ganglion1 & pass toge!r ?r\gh a cavity :i* is locat$ betwe5 ! os petrosum & al & basis sph5oid1 & !n bran*4 ,! ramus secundus1 or sup]ior maxill>y division1 ( ! trifacial1 is ! second bran* & passes into ! orbit bel[ ! optic n]ve & ! eyeball4 ,x is call$ ! recurr5t infra-orbitale4 ,x gives an asc5d+ bran* to ! gl& ( ,h>d]1 "o to ! conjunctiva1 "o to ! membrana nictitans1 & "o to ! eyelids4 ,x also gives a bran* to ! sk9 bel[ ! eye & to ! angle ( ! m\?4 ,?is latt] bran* is call$ ! recurr5t subcutane\s4 ,^! two bran*es communicate ) ! recurr5t nasal cili>is ( ! fir/ trigem9us bran*4 ,! second bran* passes bel[ ! nasal op5+1 !n passes on & =ms ! alveol> n]ve on ! side betwe5 ! gums4 ,x s5ds sev]al recurr5t po/]ior bran*es to ! elevations on ! back "p ( ! m\?4 ,x ext5ds =w>d to ! po9t ( ! beak4 ,! inf]ior maxill>y division ( ! fif? is l>g] ?an ! o!r two4 ,x is direct$ d[nw>d & outw>d !n upw>d to ! temporal region4 ,at ! temporal region x divides into five p>ts4 ,x gives a bran* to ! temporalis muscle1 "o to ! pt]ygoid muscle1 & "o to ! mylo-hyoideus4 ,! ma9 bran* gives twigs to ! p>otid gl& region & ent]s into ! d5tal canal ( ! l[] jaw4 ,num]\s filam5ts break ?r\gh ! l[] jaw bone1 & !n spread out on ! sk9 & rim ( t bone4 ,! l>ge/ bran*1 call$ ! recurr5t maxill>is ext]na1 comes out ne> ! coronoid process4 ,! re/ ( ! trunk ext5ds to1 & comes out (1 sev]al =am9a at ! ant]ior po9t ( ! jaw bone4 ,^! filam5ts are conta9$ 9 grooves or cavities ( ! l[] jaw & t]m9ate 9 t\* buds4 ,! trifacialis fuses ) ! o!r cranial n]ves & ) ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,"s ( ^! fusions are z foll[s3 ,! recurr5t oph?almica fuses ) ! orbito-nasalis ganglion4 ,indirect fusion ( ! recurr5t maxill>y division ( ?is n]ve takes place ne> ! ,gass]ian ganglion ?r\gh ! sympa!tic n]ves1 ! temporo-lacrimalis1 ! facial n]ves1 ! l>ge c]vical ganglion1 & indirectly ) ! glosso-ph>yngeal & ! vagus4 ,?is fusion has be5 call$ ! sup]ior recurr5t bran* ( ! trigem9us1 or trifacialis4 ,!re is a direct fusion ( ! sup]ior recurr5t maxill>y division ( ! fif? j be=e ent]+ ! upp] jaw4 ,?is fusion is ) ! sph5o-palat9e ganglion & ! sympa!tic c>otidis cephalica1 & also ) ! l>ge c]vical ganglion4 ,! ,abduc5s 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #ac74--,?is n]ve orig9ates 9 ! somatic & motoric column along ) ! o!r n]ves ( ! eye muscles4 ,its nucleus lies 9 ! circle ( ! p>s commissuralis ( ! c]ebellum4 ,! n]ve !n passes v5trally1 z does ! motoris oculi & leaves ! bra9 along ! m$ian l9e4 ,?is is a comp>atively l>ge n]ve & passes some:at lat]ally & v5trally f ! =am5 opticum ?r\gh a canal 9 ! sph5oid4 ,x !n ent]s ! orbital cavity4 ,"s muscul> twigs are giv5 (f to ! quadratus & to ! pyramidalis muscle4 ,?is n]ve also inn]vates ! ext]nal rectus muscle ( ! eye4 ,! abduc5s ana/omoses ) ! ramus cili>is & ! oph?almic n]ve & gives f9e n]ve twigs to ! ramus cili>is ext]nus ( ! cili>y ganglion4 ,! ,facialis & ! ,acu/icus4--,! facial n]ve orig9ates ) ! auditory 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #ad & #ae7 9 a v vaguely kn[n mann]1 f ! c]ebellum4 ,x divides into ?ree p>ts4 ,! fir/ ( ^! probably comes f ! complex ganglion ) ! po/]ior roots ( ! auditory4 ,?is "p belongs to ! somatic s5sory gr\p ( n]ves4 ,f ?is same gr\p orig9ates ! auditory1 :i* spreads out into ! co*lea & takes ! impressions ( s\nd4 ,?is n]ve is %ort & ?ick1 &1 at ! po9t :]e x loses its m$ull>y cov]+ on ent]+ ! co*lea1 !re is develop$ a ganglion4 ,?is ganglion is simil> to ! sp9al ganglia4 ,! second "p is provid$ ) "o root :i* orig9ates mesially & v5trally1 f ! deep] ganglion cells4 ,"s ( ! fib]s f ?is root con/itute ! ve/ibul> bran*es4 ,!y accompany ! auditory & supply ! ant]ior "p ( ! e> labyr9? & ! semicircul> canals4 ,! l>g] "p ( ! fib]s ( ?is trunk make up ! int]m$iate "p ( ! facial4 ,! g5iculate ganglion is =m$ at _! fusion4 ,! sympa!tic sph5o-palat9e n]ve em]ges f ?is ganglion1 com+ out ( ! aqu$uct ( ,fallopius4 ,! ?ird "p1 call$ ! portio dura1 is ! ma9 facialis4 ,x is locat$ opposite ! auditoria int]m$ia4 ,its roots may be trac$ to ! complex ganglion1 f :i* !y take a direction v5trally f ! m$ian portion4 ,! facialis1 aft] em]g+ f ! aqu$uct ( ,fallopius1 takes a curv$ c\rse & p>tly fuses ) ! sympa!tic temporo-lacrimalis on ! upp] po/]ior wall ( ! e> drum4 ,x is "h accompani$ by ! c>otid & ! cephalic art]ies4 ,x leaves ! e> drum ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! quadrate bone1 giv+ (f a l>ge bran* to ! diga/ricus muscle & a small "o to ! /ap$ius ( ! columella auris4 ,! facialis trunk is q l>ge4 ,x !n passes d[nw>d along ! quadrate bone1 :]e x receives a l>ge bran* f ! glosso-ph>yngeus4 ,?is n]ve also gives bran*es to ! mylo-hyoideus & ! /ylo-hyoideus muscle1 crosses lat]ally ! glosso-ph>yngeus1 & f9ally fuses ) bran*es ( ! subcutane\s & ) ! fir/1 ! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? c]vical n]ves4 ,aft] ?is fusion ! n]ves inn]vate ! sk9 ( ! ant]ior ( ! neck & ! con/rictor colli muscle4 ,! facialis ana/omoses z foll[s3 ) a f9e bran* ( ! sympa!tic temporo-lacrimalis1 indirectly ) ! ramus trigem9us1 ) ! l>ge c]vical n]ve ganglion & ) ! sph5o-palat9e ganglion & n]ve4 ,! ,vagus ,gr\p4--,! n9?1 ! t5?1 & ! elev5? cranial n]ves are by "s anatomi/s call$ ! vagus gr\p1 fir/ s call$ by ,willis4 ,!y are made up ( bo? s5sory & motor n]ves4 ,! ,glosso-ph>yngeus4--,! roots ( ! glosso-ph>yngeus 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #af2 ,fig4 #gf1 ,no4 #ac7 em]ge1 along ) ^? ( ! vagus1 f ! m$ulla oblongata1 & ent]1 z a %ort trunk1 ! =am5 jugul>e et c>oticum4 ,betwe5 ^! two n]ves !re is usually f\nd a ?9 portion ( bone4 ,! trunk ( ! glosso-ph>yngeus =ms a ganglion 9 ! =am5 jugul>e et c>oticum :]e x receives connect+ bran*es f ! ne>-by ganglion radicis & vagus n]ve4 ,! glosso-ph>yngeus passes out ( ! =am5 jugul>e et c>oticum above ! l>ge sup]ior sympa!tic n]ve ganglion1 ) :i* x communicates4 ,! glosso-ph>yngeus passes diagonally ov] ! ramus temporo-lacrimalis ( ! sympa!tic sy/em1 & !n receives a v /rong bran* f ! vagus 7,fig4 #gf1 ,no4 #ab74 ,x s5ds a %ort bran* to ! recurr5t lacrimalis ( ! sympa!tic sy/em4 ,at ?is po9t !re is =m$ a r$di%-yell[ ganglion1 ! petrosal ganglion1 :i* is simil> to ! petrosal ganglion ( mammals4 ,frequ5tly x is f\nd close bel[ ! l>ge sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion4 ,! petrosal ganglion is frequ5tly connect$ by special fib]s ) ! c]vical n]ve ganglion1 ! l>ge sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion & ! ganglion radicis vagi4 ,! glosso-ph>yngeus is divid$ into ! foll[+ bran*es4 ,fir/1 ! recurr5t ph>yngeus :i* gives bran*es to ! upp] "p ( ! ?roat & :i* is tortu\s 9 its c\rse4 ,x receives a bran* f ! sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion & gives (f bran*es to ! saliv>y gl&s & papill ( ! po/]ior tongue region4 ,second1 ! recurr5t l+ualis1 :i* passes ) ! l+ual art]y ov] ! hyoid bone to ! base ( ! tongue & to ! papill4 ,ano!r bran* passes bel[ ! tongue bone & supplies ! tongue & ! ph>ynx4 ,! glosso-ph>yngeal is a mix$ n]ve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,photograph ( sp9al cord ( a h54 #a1 ,c]ebrum4 #b1 ,! olfactory n]ve t]m9at+ at #c1 ! turb9at$ bones4 #d1 ,! sup]ior maxill>y division ( ! fif? n]ve divid+4 #e1 ,! eye ) ! upp] "p laid op54 #f1 ,! c]vical segm5t4 #g1 ,! lumbo-sacral segm5t4 #h1 ,! lungs4 #i1 ,! kidneys ly+ above ! p]itoneum4 #aj1 ,! t]m9al filam5t ( ! sp9al cord4 #aa1 ,! hypoglossal n]ve4 #ab1 ,! vagus n]ve4 #ac1 ,! glosso-ph>yngeal n]ve4 #ad1 ,! bran* f ! vagus4 ,! ,vagus4--,! vagus1 or pneumoga/ricus 7,fig4 #ah1 ,no4 #e2 ,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #ag2 ,fig4 #gf1 ,no4 #ab71 a mix$ n]ve1 =ms a ganglion 9 ! =am5 ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,! =am5 lies betwe5 ! os petrosum & os occipitale1 close to ! =am5 jugul>e1 above & to ! inside ( x4 ,! ganglionic root ( ! vagus communicates ) ! sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion4 ,! vagus1 aft] com+ out ( ! =am51 takes up bran*es ( ! sp9al accessory1 passes to ! sup]ior n]ve ganglion1 crosses ! c>otid art]y1 & !n1 accompani$ by ! int]nal jugul>1 x connects by a bran* ) ! hypoglossal4 ,x !n communicates ) ! petrosal ganglion1 & receives a long bran* f ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion4 ,x !n ext5ds along ! neck ) ! jugul> ve9 & (t5 fuses ) ! sympa!tic ganglionic plexuses4 ,z x passes1 x is int]wov5 ) ! glosso-ph>yngeus1 b ea* n]ve elem5t reta9s its own individuality4 ,ext5d+ d[n ! neck1 on ent]+ ! ?oracic cavity1 x lies betwe5 ! plexus bra*ialis & ! c>otid art]y4 ,!n x passes bel[ ! subclavian art]y1 & betwe5 ! bron*ial tubes1 ! aorta pulmonalis1 & ! subclavian ve94 ,!n v5trally x re/s ^u ! gl&s1 & ! "r & ! left vagi fuse or unite4 ,f "h !y radiate d[n to ! /oma* 9 fan-%ape1 &1 cont9u+1 !y fuse ) ! sympa!tic sy/em4 ,! o!r bran*es ( ! vagus are3 ,! fir/ bran* is ! recurr5t l>yngeus1 :i* supplies ! l[] end ( ! bron*ial tubes1 & ! esophagus1 !n ent]s above ! bron*us ne> ! orig9 ( ! subclavian art]y z ! recurr5t c>diacus4 ,! second are ! recurr5t pulmonale :i* pass into ! lungs1 ea* fus+ ) its fell[ f ! opposite side1 & giv+ (f bran*es inf]ior to ! v5a cava includ+ a bran* to ! he>t4 ,! ?ird are ! recurr5t hepatici :i* pass ?r\gh ! diaphragm & are di/ribut$ to ! liv]4 ,! ,accessorius ,sp9alis4--,?is is a v small motor n]ve 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #ah74 ,x comes out betwe5 ! dorsal & ! v5tral root ( ! ?ird c]vical n]ve4 ,x lies close to ! neck & ext5ds ant]iorly1 receiv+ roots f ! fir/ & ! second c]vical n]ve4 ,x passes ?r\gh ! occipital =am5 into ! bra9 cavity & !n ent]s ! ganglion radicis vagi4 ,x passes out ( ! cranial cavity ?r\gh ! =am5 jugul>e4 ,x !n p>tly fuses ) ! vagus & p>tly1 z a f9e bran*1 ) ! subcutane\s colli4 ,! ,hypoglossus4--,! hypoglossus is a motor n]ve 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #ai74 ,x orig9ates ant]ior to ! elev5? pair ( cranial n]ves1 & f ! same ganglion z ! abduc5s & ! motor oculi4 ,x leaves ! m$ulla oblongata f its v5tral surface1 & passes ) a po/]ior & an ant]ior bran* out ( ! cranial cavity ?r\gh two sep>ate =am9a 9 ! os occipitale lat]ale4 ,! po/]ior bran*1 mu* small] ?an ! ant]ior1 passes betwe5 ! cranial bones & ! c]vical sympa!tic n]ve2 x !n passes at "r angles ?r\gh ! rectus capitis anticus1 &1 :ile closely foll[+ ! c>otid art]y1 x fuses ) ! ant]ior bran*4 ,! l>g]1 ant]ior bran*1 mu* /rong] ?an ! po/]ior1 s5ds a %ort /rong bran* to ! complexus muscle4 ,! re/ ( ?is bran*1 :i* probably has sympa!tic elem5ts1 is dispos$ z is a sp9al n]ve4 ,x crosses ! sympa!tic n]ve1 & at ?is po9t =ms a typical c]vical sympa!tic ganglion4 ,x also =ms a %ort loop ) ! recurr5t v5tralis ( ! fir/ c]vical plexus4 ,f ?is loop1 aft] x has giv5 (f sev]al bran*es to ! muscles ( ! neck1 x gives (f "o or two /rong bran*es1 :i* fuse ) ea* o!r & ) ! po/]ior ?9 bran*1 ?us =m+ ! trunk ( ! hypoglossus4 ,x receives _m elem5ts f ! fir/ c]vical n]ves4 ,! hypoglossus sometimes communicates ) ! vagus1 crosses ov] ! latt]1 & divides itself into two ma9 bran*es1 z foll[s3 ,fir/1 ! recurr5t l>yngo-l+ualis1 :i* passes betwe5 ! cornua ( ! os hyoideum & ! l>ynx to ! ant]ior "p1 & furni%es ! pr9cipal tongue muscles4 ,x ext5ds along ! inf]ior surface ( ! tongue & fuses ) ! "o ( ! o!r side & ext5ds to ! free tip ( ! tongue4 ,?is n]ve probably receives s5sory elem5ts f ! second root & f ! conflu5t ( ! fir/ c]vical n]ve4 ,?is =m ( ana/omosis is well m>k$ 9 birds ) ?ick tongues1 z ducks4 ,second1 ! recurr5t l>yngeus furni%es ! muscles ( ! sup]ior l>ynx & ( ! tongue skeleton4 ,x ext5ds d[nw>d & also furni%es ! muscles ( ! tra*ea4 ,x foll[s ! c\rse ( ! jugul> ve9 & at ! entrance ( ! *e/ supplies ! furcula4 ,! n]ve passes into ! ?orax1 d[nw>d along ! side ( ! bron*ial tubes1 & supplies inn]vation to all ! muscles ( ! inf]ior l>ynx4 ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord ,/ructure ( ! ,cord4--,! sp9al cord is call$ ! myelon or m$ulla sp9alis4 ,x is a comp>atively l>ge1 :ite1 irregul>ly cyl9drical cord1 flatt5$ f above d[nw>d4 ,x ext5ds f ! =am5 magnum at ! base ( ! m$ulla to ! caudal portion ( ! sp9al canal :]e x t]m9ates 9 a f9e filam5t4 ,9 ord] to all[ consid]able motion ( ! sp9al column )\t dang] ( injury to ! sp9al cord1 ! cord is loosely susp5d$ 9 ! canal4 ,! m5+es1 or cov]+s1 are cont9u$ f ! bra94 ,9 addition to ^! !re are to be f\nd art]ies1 ve9s1 & n]ves ent]+ & o!rs mak+ _! exit f ! canal & f ! cord4 ,at ! c]vico-dorsal juncture1 :]e ! bra*ial plexus is giv5 (f1 ! cord is enl>g$4 ,!re is ano!r enl>gem5t at ! po9t :]e ! lumbo-sacral plexus is giv5 (f4 ,at ?is po9t1 sup]iorly1 !re is a longitud9al cavity call$ ! s9us rhomboidalis4 ,?is s9us conta9s a gelat9\s sub/ance4 ,!re is a pair ( n]ves giv5 (f at ea* int]v]tebral =am54 ,?us !re are z _m pairs ( sp9al n]ves z !re are v]tebral segm5ts4 ,! inf]ior root is ! motor root & c>ries ! impulses f ! cord to ! p]iph]y4 ,! sup]ior root is ! s5sory bran* & c>ries ! impulses f ! p]iph]y to ! cord1 & !nce ! impulse is c>ri$ to ! c5t]s 9 ! bra94 ,! s5sory & ! motor roots are ( ab\t equal size4 ,! inf]ior h m num]\s filam5ts4 ,! ganglion on ! sup]ior or s5sory root is relatively l>ge4 ,9 ! sacral region ! s5sory & ! motor bran*es pass ?r\gh _! own bony canal4 ,:ite rami communicantes are giv5 (f at ea* int]v]tebral =am5 to ! sympa!tic sy/em & gray rami are receiv$ f ! sympa!tic ganglia4 ,?us !re is e/abli%$ a direct communication betwe5 ! sympa!tic & ! sp9al sy/em4 ,!re is a ganglion on ! sup]ior root j outside ! sp9al cord4 ,! ganglionic portion1 or gray matt]1 is arrang$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! cord 9 two comma-%ap$ p>ts =m+ an ,x4 ,! :ite matt]1 or ! mat]ial =m+ ! fib]s1 is arrang$ ar\nd ! c5tral ganglionic portion4 ,! sp9al cord may be divid$ into two lat]al symmetrical halves4 ,!re are two longitud9al fissures1 "o on ! upp] & ! o!r on ! l[] half4 ,! upp] call$ ! sup]ior m$ian fissure is n>r[ b deep4 ,! "o on ! inf]ior side1 call$ ! inf]ior m$ian1 is usually m pron\nc$4 ,! sup]ior p>ts ( ! gray matt] are call$ ! sup]ior cornua1 or horns2 ! inf]ior p>ts ! inf]ior cornua1 or horns4 ,! c5t] ( ! cord is pi]c$ by a c5tral canal :i* communicates ) ! f\r? v5tricle at ! calamus scriptorius4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,n]ve ,,trunks ,,& ,,ganglia ,! protoplasmic processes call$ d5drites h a simil> /ructure to ! cell body4 ,! d5drites bran* di*otom\sly1 become rapidly small]1 & usually end at no great di/ance f ! cell body4 ,! axone or axis cyl9d] process1 diff]s f ! cell body & f ! d5drites4 ,x does n conta9 *romophilic granules4 ,x consi/s entirely ( neur(ibrils & p]ifibrill> sub/ance4 ,x em]ges f ! cell at an enl>gem5t kn[n z ! axone hill4 ,?is hill is free f *romophilic bodies4 ,n]ves are divid$ into two k9ds1 m$ullat$ & non-m$ullat$4 ,m$ullat$ n]ves are divid$ into two k9ds3 m$ullat$ n]ves ) a neurolemma1 & m$ullat$ n]ves )\t a neurolemma4 ,m$ullat$ n]ves ) a neurolemma consi/s ( an axone1 a m$ull>y %ea?1 & a neurolemma4 ,a delicate membrane call$ an axolemma1 or p]iaxial %ea? envelops ! axone4 ,! m$ull>y %ea? call$ myel91 is semifluid1 some:at resembl+ fat4 ,! out] cov]+ is ! neurolemma1 or %ea? ( ,s*wann4 ,x is a delicate1 /ructureless membrane :i* incloses ! myel94 ,!re is "u ?is %ea? an occasional oval nucleus4 ,at int]vals !re are con/rictions1 or nodes1 call$ ! con/rictions ( ,ranvi]4 ,! "p betwe5 ! nodes is call$ ! int]node4 ,! m$ullat$ axones )\t a neurolemma are ! m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,! non-m$ullat$ axones1 or non-m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s1 are divid$ into non-m$ullat$ axones ) & ^? )\t1 a neurolemma4 ,! non-m$ullat$ axone )\t a neurolemma is m]ely a nak$ axone4 ,!y are conf9$ to ! gray matt] & to ! beg9n+s & end+s ( %ea? axones1 all ! latt] be+ uncov]$ = a %ort di/ance aft] leav+ ! n]ve cell body & also j be=e rea*+ _! t]m9ations4 ,! long axones s]ve to make connections ) ! p]iph]al1 or di/ant1 n]ve cell1 muscle cell1 or gl& cell2 :ile ! %ort] axones ( c]ta9 neurones divide into t]m9al bran*es 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( its cell body1 presumably to come into relation ) o!r n]ve cells 9 ! same or adjac5t gr\ps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,hi/ological /ructure ( tissues4 #a4 ,non-/riat$ or involunt>y muscle cell4 a4 #a1 ,nucleus2 #b1 ,protoplasm4 b4 ,transv]se section %[+ nuclei 9 ! c5t] ( ! cells t are cut ?r\gh ! nucle> zone4 c4 ,a cross-section ( ! connective tissue :i* b9ds toge!r ! muscle cells4 d4 ,a section %[+ ! s-call$ int]cellul> bridges4 #b4 ,a cross-section ( ! rectus abdom9alis4 #a1 ,! endomysium :i* b9ds ! cells into prim>y fasciculi or bundles4 #b1 ,! p]imysium :i* surr\nd ! bundles ( fasciculi4 #c1 ,! epimysium :i* surr\nds ! muscle4 ,^! b9d+ /ructures are :ite fibr\s connective tissue4 #c4 ,a longitud9al section at ! juncture ( a muscle & t5don4 a1 ,! juncture betwe5 ! muscle & t5don4 ,note ! _m nuclei 9 bo? muscle & t5don4 ,?is is volunt>y or /riat$ muscle :i* make up ! d]mal1 d]mo-osse\s & skeletal muscles4 #d4 ,a longitud9al section ( he>t muscle4 a1 ,connective-tissue cell4 b1 ,nucleus ( a muscle cell4 c1 ,cem5t l9e betwe5 ! muscle discs4 d1 ,! cell or segm5t4 #e4 ,a bipol> ganglionic n]ve cell4 a1 ,! nucleus4 b1 ,! nucleolus4 c1 ,! fibrill> /ructure4 d1 ,! m$ull>y %ea?4 #f4 ,a diagram %[+ ! s*eme ( ! p]iph]al n]ve trunk4 a1 ,! neuraxis ( ! p]iph]al s5sory neurone4 b1 ,! sp9al ganglion ( ! sup]ior or s5sory root4 c1 ,! d5drite or p]iph]al n]ve fib] ( ! s5sory n]ve4 d1 ,! n]ve trunk4 f1 ,! sympa!tic n]ve ganglion connect$ ) ! sp9al cord ?r\gh ! :ite & ! gray ramus communicans4 e1 ,! neuraxis ( ! sympa!tic neurone4 g1 ,neuraxis or trunk ( ! motor neurone or n]ve cell4 h1 ,! ant]ior horn ( ! gray matt] ( ! sp9al cord4 #g4 ,a diagram ( a p]iph]al s5sory neurone4 a1 ,! neuraxis :i* ends 9 ! sp9al cord or bra94 b1 ,! ,t-%ap$ division ( ,ranvi]4 c1 ,! d5drite or s5sory n]ve fib] 9 ! n]ve trunk4 d1 ,! nucleus & nucleolus ( ! cell e41 f4 ! axis cyl9d] process ( ! cell4 g1 ,! telod5drions or t]m9al bran*es ( ! d5drite or axis cyl9d]4 #h4 ,a s*ematic diagram ( ! s5sory motor reflex4 a1 ,! telod5dria4 b1 ,! d5drite4 c1 ,n]ve cell ( ! motor neurone4 d1 ,! motor neurone4 f1 ,! muscle fib]4 g1 ,! neuraxis ( bo? s5sory & motor neurones1 ! upp] be+ ! s5sory4 h1 ,! n]ve cell 9 ! s5sory ganglion4 i1 ,! s5sory neurone or axis cyl9d] 7n]ve fib]74 j1 ,! sk9 ) p]iph]al telod5drion ( s5sory neurone4 ,neurones are devot$ to ! ma9t5ance ( functions4 ,reproductive neurones are s arrang$ z to receive aff]5t n]ve impulses f o!r tissues2 emissive neurones give (f eff]5t n]ve impulses4 ,! =m] are s5sory neurones2 ! latt] are motor neurones if connect$ ) muscles1 & excito-gl&ul> if connect$ ) gl& cells4 ,! basis1 !n1 ( ! n]ve sy/em is a s]ies ( neurones1 ) project+ & association processes1 cord9at$ = ! purpose ( p]=m+ specific actions manife/$ ei!r by motion1 by trophic *anges1 or by ! app]ception ( /imuli ( a *emic1 me*anic 7tactile & auditory71 !rmal1 or photic nature4 ,! :ole ( ! n]ve /ructure is compos$ ( ! n]ve tissue & support+ connective tissue4 ,! neurones con/itute ! n]ve tissue1 :ile ! supportive tissue is compos$ ( neuroglia & ( :ite fibr\s tissue d]iv$ ei!r f ! inve/+ membrane or f ! %ea?s ( its num]\s vascul> *annels4 ,! neurones1 or n]ve cells1 exhibit m>k$ v>iations z to ext]nal *>act]s1 dim5sions1 & =m4 ,! neurone pres5ts a swoll5 cell mass & a nucleus2 x is kn[n z ! ganglion cell4 ,f ?is cell body are giv5 (f a numb] ( processes ( two di/9ct k9ds3 fir/1 protoplasmic processes1 :i* are commonly bran*$1 call$ d5drites2 second1 a s+le1 ?9n]1 & pal] process2 ! axis cyl9d] process4 ,! bodies ( cells v>y 9 size f #d to #ajj microns or m 9 diamet]4 ,! l>ge/ cells occur 9 ! inf]ior horn ( ! sp9al cord1 9 ! sp9al ganglia1 9 ! l>ge pyramidal cell lay] ( ! c]ebral cortex1 9 ! ,purk9jean cell lay] ( ! c]ebellum1 & 9 ,cl>k's column ( ! sp9al cord4 ,v small cells occur 9 ! olfactory bulbs1 9 ! granul> lay] ( ! c]ebral & c]ebell> cortex1 & 9 ! gliosum cornuale ( ! cord4 ,n]ve cells are classifi$ accord+ to ! numb] ( processes aris+ f ! cell body1 & neurones are ref]r$ to z unipol>1 bipol>1 & multipol>4 ,unipol> cells are met ) frequ5tly 9 e>ly /ages ( embryonic developm5t1 b are r>e 9 adults1 occurr+ only 9 ! ret9a1 9 ! olfactory bulb1 & )9 ! baskets ( ! ,purk9jean cells ( ! c]ebellum4 ,! cells ( ! c]ebro-sp9al ganglia1 except ! co*le> & ve/ibul>1 are app>5tly unipol>1 b !y are developm5tally & functionally ( bipol> nature4 ,bipol> cells are f\nd almo/ exclusively 9 ! p]iph]al s5sory sy/em1 z 9 ! olfactory membrane1 9 ! ret9a1 9 ! co*le> & ve/ibul> ganglia1 & 9 ! c]ebro-sp9al ganglia ( ! embryo4 ,multipol> cells are ! mo/ num]\s & =m ! pr9cipal elem5ts ( n]ve c5t]s ?r\gh\t ! sy/em4 ,!y are t]m$ multipol> because ( ! great] or less] numb] ( d5drites giv5 (f 9 addition to ! s+le axone4 ,! body ( ! n]ve cell consi/s ( a mass ( protoplasm surr\nd+ a nucleus4 ,! cytoplasm ( ! n]ve cell consi/s ( two di/9ct sub/ances3 fir/1 neur(ibrils2 second1 p]ifibrill> sub/ance4 ,9 mo/ n]ve cells !re is a ?ird sub/ance call$ *romophilic bodies4 ,! neur(ibrils1 extremely delicate1 are cont9u\s ?r\gh\t ! cell body & all ( its processes4 ,)9 ! body ( ! cell !y cross & int]lace & probably ana/omose4 ,! p]ifibrill> sub/ance is a fluid or a semifluid sub/ance :i* bo? 9 ! cell body & 9 ! processes surr\nds & sep>ates ! neur(ibrils4 ,! *romophilic bodies are granules or gr\ps ( granules :i* occur 9 ! cytoplasm ( all ! l>g] & ( _m ( ! small] n]ve cells4 ,,! ,,sp9al ,,n]ves ,! fir/ pair ( sp9al n]ves come out betwe5 ! atlas & ! occipital bone4 ,ea* n]ve divides into ?ree bran*es4 ,! fir/ is ! ant]ior bran* :i* inn]vates ! dorsalis1 ! biv5t] c]vicis1 ! c]vicales1 & ! caput po/icus muscles4 ,! second is ! recurr5t v5tralis :i* passes mesially & d[nw>d f ! recurr5t communicans4 ,x inn]vates ! rectus capitis anticus muscle & jo9s a bran* ( ! hypoglossal n]ve4 ,!re is giv5 (f a :ite ramus communicans to ! sympa!tic n]ve4 ,! second sp9al n]ve em]ges f ! op5+ betwe5 ! fir/ & ! second c]vical v]tebr & is simil>ly dispos$ z ! fir/ c]vical4 ,x gives (f a bran* call$ ! recurr5t v5tralis :i* fuses ) bran*es ( ! fir/ c]vical & ! hypoglossal n]ve4 ,?is n]ve inn]vates ! complexus muscle4 ,! succe$+ c]vical n]ves em]ge 9 a simil> mann] d[n ! neck & are di/ribut$ to ! muscles & o!r /ructures ( ! c]vical region4 ,! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! f\r? c]vical n]ve gives (f bran*es :i* =m ana/omos+ loops ) ! facial n]ve4 ,accord+ to ,gad[ ! la/ c]vical n]ve passes betwe5 ! la/ c]vical & ! fir/ dorsal segm5t4 ,!re are ?us fifte5 pair ( c]vical n]ves4 ,! fir/ pair ( dorsal n]ves pass out betwe5 ! fir/ two dorsal v]tebr4 ,! fir/ few dorsal n]ve bran*es inn]vate only ! trunk muscles4 ,o!r bran*es supply ! sk9 & ! o!r adjac5t integum5t4 ,! v5tral bran*es ( ! c]vical n]ves (t5 communicate ) ! v5tral bran*es ( ! fir/ dorsal n]ves4 ,^! bran*es are l>g] ?an ! sup]ior bran*es & aid 9 ! =mation ( ! bra*ial plexus4 ,small] inf]ior bran*es are di/ribut$ to ! scal5us & o!r muscles1 & ext5d z f> po/]ior z ! inte/9es4 ,! dorsal bran*es ( ! sp9al n]ves 9 ! lumbo-sacral region are v small1 on acc\nt ( ! lack ( ext5sive developm5t ( ! muscles ( ?is region4 ,! elem5ts ent]+ into ^! n]ve trunks are l>gely vasomotor n]ves4 ,9 addition to ! upp] twigs supply+ ! sk9 & ! o!r integum5t ( ! region1 o!r bran*es desc5d into ! abdom9al cavity4 ,! caudal sp9al n]ves are n well develop$ & disappe> 9 ! region ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,! dorsal bran*es inn]vate ! levator muscles1 & ! v5tral bran*es ! depressor muscles4 ,!re is ?us giv5 (f1 ?r\gh\t ! v]tebral column1 a pair ( n]ves betwe5 ea* two v]tebral segm5ts1 mak+ z _m pairs ( n]ves = ! region z !re are v]tebral segm5ts ( t region4 ,! ,bra*ial ,plexus4--,! bra*ial plexus 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #ai7 arises pr9cipally f ! roots ( ! la/ ?ree c]vical & ! fir/ dorsal sp9al n]ves4 ,^! bran*es ana/omose b5ea? ! deep face ( ! scapulo-hum]al articulation4 ,! bra*ial plexus divides into two di/9ct p>ts4 ,! fir/ 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #bj7 ! dorsal call$ ! sup]ior ?oracic is di/ribut$ to ! s]ratus & ! rhomboideus muscle4 ,! second is ! inf]ior ?oracic 7,fig4 #gc1 ,no4 #ba71 :i* consi/s ( ! ma9 plexus1 & :i* gives (f muscul> bran*es especially to ! /]no-coracoideus & to ! ma9 portion pass+ on z ! n]ve trunk to ! /ructures ( ! w+4 ,f ! sup]ior ?oracic plexus !re are sev]al second>y plexuses =m$4 ,! dorsalis or s]ratus plexus4 ,?is plexus is locat$ adjac5t to ! ant]ior "p ( ! ma9 plexus & is =m$ ( f two to f\r sp9al n]ve bran*es4 ,! rhomboideus is suppli$ by bran*es :i* may be trac$ to ! fir/ root ( ?is plexus4 ,?is n]ve is call$ ! rhomboideus sup]ficialis4 ,ano!r n]ve is giv5 (f f ! middle "p ( ! dorsal side ( ! plexus & is call$ ! rhomboideus pr(undus4 ,a ?ird1 ! sup]ficialis s]ratus1 is ! l>ge/ ( ! bran*es4 ,x breaks up into t]m9al bran*es1 "o go+ to ea* s]ration1 or digitation1 ( ! s]ratus muscle4 ,bran*es f ! ant]ior portion ( ?is plexus are di/ribut$ to ! patagii muscles4 ,! sup]ior bra*ial plexus gives (f ! foll[+ n]ves3 ,! subcoraco-scapul>is1 :i* is purely a motor n]ve1 spr+s f ! ant]ior roots ( ! plexus4 ,x gives (f a bran* to ! foll[+ ?ree muscles3 subcoracoideus1 subcoracoido-scapul>is1 & scapulo-hum]alis4 ,! scapulo-hum]alis is di/ribut$ to ! scapul> hum]al region4 ,! latissimus dorsi is locat$ on ! p]iph]al bord] ( ! scapulo-hum]alis or suprasp9atus4 ,x orig9ates f ! second1 & ! f\r? n]ve roots ( ! plexus4 ,x is locat$ on ! dorsal side ( ! plexus4 ,x divides into two ma9 bran*es1 "o go+ to ! latissimus dorsi & ! o!r to ! scapulo-hum]alis muscle4 ,f ! side are giv5 (f bran*es :i* supply ! patagii muscle & ent] into ! =mation ( ! dorso-cutane\s plexus4 ,! axill>is spr+s f ! second & ! ?ird root ( ! bra*ial plexus1 ext5ds 9 a lat]al direction1 pass+ ! v5tral & di/al rim ( ! ins]tional "p ( ! po/]ior scapulo-hum]alis or t]es et infrasp9atus & ent]s ne> ! capsul> ligam5t ( ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,x gives (f to ?is jo9t a small bran*1 call$ ! recurr5t articul>is1 :i* passes outw>d betwe5 ! triceps bra*ialis & ! hum]us4 ,x lies on ! inn] side ( ! major deltoid1 & patagii muscles1 & also ! sk9 ( ! lat]al %\ld] & ! upp] arm region4 ,! recurr5t axill>is communicates ) ! ma9 bran* ( ! radial n]ve4 ,! cutaneus bra*ii sup]ior is a small n]ve :i* spr+s f ! la/ bra*ial plexus root & passes betwe5 ! sk9 & ! triceps bra*ii muscle on ! dorsal surface ( ! upp] arm1 or bra*ial1 region4 ,x ext5ds d[n ov] ! elb[ region1 :]e x gives (f num]\s bran*es to ! sk9 ( ^! regions1 to ! meta-patagium & to ! ext5sor muscles ( ! upp] arm4 ,! bra*ialis longus sup]ior is a l>ge n]ve trunk :i* spr+s f mo/ ( ! o!r plexus roots4 ,x ext5ds ar\nd to ! dorsal side ( ! upp] arm & supplies ! sk91 ! fea!rs1 & ! muscles ( ! =e>m & ! h&4 ,bran*es f ?is n]ve trunk supply ! triceps bra*ii & o!r muscles ( ! region4 ,! ma9 bran* passes betwe5 ! radius & ! ulna1 &1 pass+ ! elb[-jo9t1 gives (f bran*es to t jo9t4 ,pass+ on1 x divides into two bran*es4 ,"o ( ^! ext5ds sup]ficially ov] ! upp] "p ( ! condylus uln>is & supplies ! ext5sor digitorum communis & ! ext5sor metac>pi uln>is1 or flexor metac>pi radialis muscles1 &1 cont9u+ sup]ficially to ! uln> side1 is di/ribut$ to ! sk9 ( ! region4 ,! second1 a deep bran*1 ext5ds on ! uln> side ( ! radius ov] ! ext5sor indicis longus1 & inn]vates ! latt] muscle1 ! ext5sor pollicis longus1 ! ext5sor pollicis brevis1 ! adductor pollicis1 ! int]osse\s palm>is1 & ! flexor digitorum4 ,! inf]ior bra*ial plexus gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 ,! supra-coracoideus1 a l>ge n]ve :i* spr+s f ! fir/ ma9 root ( ! plexus1 & passes outw>d ?r\gh ! =am5 coracoideum ( ! /]nal ligam5t4 ,! /]no-coracoideus1 a small n]ve :i* ext5ds d[nw>d f ! plexus4 ,! some:at l>ge po/]ior coraco-bra*ialis1 n]ve :i* spr+s f "o or two middle roots ( ! plexus & accompanies ! pectoral n]ve4 ,! ant]ior ?oracic1 a l>ge n]ve :i* spr+s f two or ?ree ( ! po/]ior roots ( ! plexus & ext5ds to ! %\ld] cavity :]e x bran*es4 ,! ant]ior bran* is di/ribut$ to ! patagium & ! front "p ( ! pectoral muscles4 ,! po/]ior bran* supplies muscles along ! side ( ! ?orax & ext5ds into ! abdom9al muscles4 ,! ant]ior coraco-bra*ialis1 a small n]ve :i* spr+s mo/ly f ! inf]ior longus bra*ialis1 passes to ! di/al end ( ! tub]culum hum]alis radii1 !n passes backw>d betwe5 ! front "p ( ! hum]us & ! biceps1 :]e x supplies ! ant]ior coraco-bra*ialis4 ,! cutane\s bra*ialis et inf]ior bra*ialis1 a small n]ve :i* spr+s f ! po/]ior roots ( ! plexus4 ,x is di/ribut$ to ! sk9 ( ! region & bran*es are giv5 (f to ! patagii & ! v5tral w+ surface4 ,a few bran*es ext5d z f> z ! upp] arm4 ,! bra*ialis longus inf]ior 7,fig4 #fh1 ,no4 #b71 a cont9uation ( ! ma9 trunk ( ! inf]ior bra*ial n]ve1 :i* comes out ( all ! plexus roots except ! fir/4 ,x gives (f "s bran*es to ! pectoral region & !n ent]s ! %\ld] cavity4 ,x gives (f ! ant]ior coraco-bra*ialis1 passes d[n ! hum]us 9 an ,s-%ape1 & divides into two bran*es1 ! uln> & ! m$ian4 ,! uln> n]ve 7,fig4 #fg1 ,no4 #c7 divides into num]\s bran*es :i* are di/ribut$ to ! uln> side ( ! =e>m & ! h&4 ,! uln> n]ve passes bel[ ! sk9 ( ! uln> outside rim ( ! =e>m & gives bran*es to ! c>pi uln>is1 f9ally supply+ ! flexor digitorum2 x !n passes ) ! t5don ( ?is muscle d[nw>d to ! int]osse\s dorsalis1 ! abductor indicis1 or flexor m9imi brevis1 ! flexor pollicis1 & ! abductor pollicis1 or ext5sor proprius pollicis4 ,! m$ian n]ve 7,fig4 #fg1 ,no4 #b7 ext5ds d[n ! arm & gives bran*es to ! biceps muscle1 & to ! patagii region4 ,cont9u+1 ! m$ian n]ve supplies ! pronator muscle & ! bra*ialis inf]ior1 or bra*ialis anticus1 & !n divides into two bran*es4 ,! fir/ & l>ge/ bran* passes betwe5 ! two pronator muscles giv+ bran*es to ! pronator pr(undus1 or pronator longus1 & ! flexor digitorum pr(undus muscle4 ,?is n]ve !n passes ant]iorly along ! t5don to ! base ( ! digit1 &1 on ! dorsal side1 jo9s ! o!r bran* ( ! m$ian n]ve4 ,at ?is po9t !re is (t5 a plexus1 & at ! po9t ( fusion ( ! uln> n]ve on ! uln> side !re may also be a small plexus4 ,^! plexuses ma9ly supply ! sk9 ( ^! regions4 ,! second bran*1 passes =w>d1 crosses ! ext5sor c>pi radialis & lies j bel[ ! pronator pr(undus1 or pronator longus1 giv+ bran*es to ! sk94 ,x passes d[nw>d on ! radial side ( ! uln> & supplies ! muscles ( t "p2 x !n cont9ues d[n ! h&4 ,bran*es are giv5 (f to ! ext5sor proprius pollicis1 ! int]osse\s dorsalis1 ! flexor digitorum1 & to ! sk9 betwe5 ! ?umb & ! =ef+]4 ,! int]co/al n]ves 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #ah7 are giv5 (f f ! sp9al cord ( ! dorsal region4 ,! sup]ior bran*es are small & supply ! sup]ior dorsal region4 ,! inf]ior bran*es lie "o beh9d ea* rib1 inn]vate ! int]co/al muscles1 & give a few twigs to ! sup]ficial ?oracic muscles4 ,! ,lumbo-sacral1 or ,crural1 ,n]ve ,plexus4--,! crural plexus 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #ce & #cf7 is made up ( trunks f ! la/ two lumb> & fir/ f\r sacral sp9al n]ves4 ,!re are two portions ( ?is plexus sep>at$ by a consid]able di/ance4 ,! ant]ior portion 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #ce7 consi/s ( ! lumb> n]ves & a portion ( ! fir/ sacral n]ves4 ,! fusion takes place on ! bony ridge t sep>ates ! lumb> f ! sacral region4 ,! po/]ior portion 7,fig4 #gj1 ,no4 #cf7 consi/s ( a "p ( ! fir/ sacral & all ( ! ?ree succe$+ n]ves4 ,! ant]ior n]ve ( ?is plexus is di/ribut$ to ! abdom9al muscles4 ,an ant]ior bran* is giv5 (f to ! s>torius4 ,a l>ge cutane\s bran* ent]s betwe5 ! s>torius & ! ilio-tro*ant]ic em95ce1 & supplies ! out] & ! upp] surface ( ! upp] ?igh region4 ,sev]al %ort bran*es are giv5 (f f ! middle1 or ma91 mass ( ! crural plexus to ! ilio-tro*ant]ic1 or gluteal1 muscle4 ,ano!r n]ve passes ov] ! side ( ! s>torius adjac5t to ! femoro-tibialis1 or ext5sor femoris1 & supplies ! ilio-tibialis1 or gluteus primus4 ,! re/ ( ?is section ( ! crural n]ves pass 9 a di/al direction ov] ! inn] & front side ( ! cutane\s n]ve & ent] ! ilio-femoralis1 or gluteus m$ius1 ! ambi5s & ! femoro-tibialis muscle4 ,! furcalis n]ve comes out betwe5 ! la/ two lumbo-sacral v]tebr4 ,! obturator n]ve spr+s f sev]al roots4 ,! ant]ior root ( ?is n]ve comes f ! ma9 trunk ( ! crural plexus1 & its la/ root f ! furcalis n]ve4 ,! obturator n]ve ext5ds 9 a v5tral direction f ! plexus1 !n horizontally on ! inn] surface ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x gives (f twigs to ! obturator muscle & !n passes ?r\gh ! obturator =am54 ,aft] leav+ ! abdom9al cavity x gives bran*es to ! accessorius1 ! obturator1 &1 ! pubio-femoral1 or adductor longus muscle4 ,! crural plexus gives (f ano!r l>ge n]ve trunk :i* ext5ds d[nw>d4 ,%ortly aft] em]g+ f ! plexus x gives (f a muscul> bran* to ! ilio-femoralis1 or gluteus m$ius muscle4 ,x !n passes betwe5 ?is muscle & ! %aft ( ! femur1 to ! inn] po/]ior surface ( ! ?igh1 & to ! inn] surface ( ! knee4 ,x gives (f a bran* to ! /ructures ( ! knee4 ,at ! knee ?is n]ve t]m9ates 9 sev]al bran*es1 "s ( :i* pass to ! inn] surface ( ! tibial head1 ! int]nal lat]al ligam5t1 ! p]io/eum1 ! int]nal condyle1 & f9ally to ! upp] "p ( ! head ( ! ga/rocnemius muscle4 ,! ma9 "p ( ?is n]ve passes d[nw>d z ! cutane\s n]ve1 along ! inn] surface ( ! l[] ?igh4 ,! is*iadic plexus 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #da7 has five to six roots1 :i* fuse into ! is*iadic trunk4 ,?is ma9 trunk ext5ds out ( ! abdom9al cavity1 ?r\gh ! is*iadic =am51 close beh9d ! ant]ior tro*ant] ( ! ilium 7,fig4 #fe1 ,no4 #a74 ,x gives a bran* to ! ext]nal ilio-femoral or gluteus m$ius1 & a bran* to ! po/-acetabul> portion ( ! ilio-tibialis1 or gluteus primus muscle4 ,! ma9 trunk 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #ac7 passes d[nw>d to ! l[] portion ( ! ?igh4 ,9 ?is c\rse !re are two bran*es :i* run p>allel to ! femoral art]y & ! femoral ve94 ,x gives (f a small muscul> bran* to ! accessorius1 & fur!r d[n gives (f a long sl5d] bran* to ! outside ( ! knee-jo9t4 ,x gives (f a lat]al cutane\s bran* 7,fig4 #ff1 ,no4 #g7 to ! po/]ior out] portion ( ! l[] ?igh4 ,x supplies motor fib]s to ! ext]nal head ( ! ga/rocnemius muscle4 ,at ! knee region ! is*iadica divides into ?ree p>ts4 ,! l>ge/ bran* 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #ad7 passes ) ! t5don ( ! ilio-fibul>is1 or biceps femoris muscle1 ?r\gh a loop1 ! biceps b&1 & lies on ! upp] lat]al surface ( ! fibula4 ,x is cov]$ by ! ext]nal head ( ! ga/rocnemius muscle4 ,x inn]vates ! ?ree po/]ior muscles ( ! l[] ?igh1 & !n divides into two bran*es4 ,"o1 ! sup]ficialis p]oneus 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #af7 passes ) ! pr(undus n]ve1 =m+ a d\ble trunk & occupy+ ! tibio-fibul> groove on ! ant]o-lat]al side4 ,x passes ov] ! transv]se ligam5t & ! tibio-metat>sal jo9t1 & aft] s5d+ small bran*es to ! /ructures ( ! tibial side ( ! metat>sus1 x ends z a cutane\s n]ve on ! upp] side ( ! ?ird & ! f\r? toe4 ,! o!r bran* is ! p]oneus pr(undus1 :i* sep>ates f ! p]oneus sup]ficialis & passes d[nw>d 9 company ) ! t5dons1 "u ! transv]se ligam5t1 & !n along ! ant]ior upp] surface ( ! metat>sus1 :]e x inn]vates ! muscles ( t region4 ,x gives bran*es to ! malleolus1 to ! t5dons ( ! ?ird toe1 & to ! m$ian "p ( ! second toe1 & supplies ! cutane\s /ructures ( ! ?ird & ! f\r? toe4 ,! ?ird bran* ( ! is*iadica1 a long n]ve1 is giv5 (f j aft] ! is*iadica passes ?r\gh ! loop4 ,x passes d[nw>d betwe5 ! two p]oneal n]ves4 ,x is cov]$ by a %ea?4 ,x passes ov] ! po/]ior outside rim ( ! int]t>sal jo9t & inn]vates ! t5don %ea?4 ,! ma9 portion ( ?is n]ve is locat$ on ! ant]ior surface ( ! t5don ,a*illis1 & passes d[n on ! plant> side1 & inn]vates ! p]io/eum & all plant> foot muscles4 ,x f9ally radiates to ! plant> surface ( ! ?ree ant]ior toes4 ,! integum5t ( ! toes is sp>+ly suppli$ ) n]ves4 ,! n]ve trunks t d n pass ?r\gh ! biceps b&1 or loop c be divid$ into a m$ial 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #ae7 & a lat]al 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #ag7 portion4 ,! m$ial portion 7,fig4 #fi1 ,no4 #ae7 soon divides into num]\s bran*es :i* supply ! muscles ( ! po/]ior & ! inn] portion ( ! ?igh4 ,a r l>ge1 long bran* passes d[nw>d along ! t5don ( ! plant> muscle1 :i* lies on ! po/]ior m$ian edge ( ! tibia1 & gives (f twigs to ! m$ian & po/]ior "p ( ! int]t>sal jo9t1 supply+ ! p]io/eum & o!r /ructures & ! adjac5t sk94 ,x passes d[nw>d along ! out] side ( ! m$ial metat>sal ins]tion ( ! t5don ,a*illis4 ,! fif? bran* is giv5 (f f ! second trunk & lies lat]ally4 ,x is cov]$ by ! ext]nal head ( ! ga/rocnemius1 passes along ! v5a saph5a1 & gives (f a %ort ma9 bran* to ! inn] side ( ! int]t>sal jo9t4 ,! ma9 "p passes ! tibial side ( ! jo9t1 becomes subcutane\s1 & f9ally inn]vates ! two plant> muscles4 ,a lat]al asc5d+ inn] bran* inn]vates ! flexor p]=atus digitorum1 &1 9 company ) an out] bran*1 ! ext]nal head ( ! ga/rocnemius1 & also ! flexor p$is p]=atus4 ,! plexus p$undus is =m$ f ! sp9al n]ves com+ out ( ! plexus is*iadicus4 ,^! fib]s em]ge caudalw>d & are direct$ horizontally4 ,!y frequ5tly ana/omose ) ea* o!r1 especially on ! pubic rim & on ! outside ( ! plexus is*iadicus4 ,^! bran*es are deeply imb$d$ 9 ! kidney sub/ance & inn]vate ! pubio-coccygeus1 or depressor coccygis lat]alis1 ! ilio-coccygeus1 ! transv]salis1 ! sph9ct]1 & o!r muscles ( ?is region1 & ! sk9 ( ! anal region4 ,,! ,,bra9 ,! ,bra9 ,cov]+s4--,! c]ebro-sp9al axis ( birds is simil> to t ( mammals4 ,! m5+es ( ! bra9 are ?ree 9 numb]1 dura mat]1 ara*noid1 & pia mat]4 ,! dura mat] is ! ?icke/4 ,x is con/ruct$ ( :ite fibr\s connective tissue1 & l9es ! cranial cavity4 ,?us x s]ves z an int]nal p]io/eum4 ,x is cont9u\s ) ! sp9al dura mat] at ! =am5 magnum1 & is also prolong$ z a %ea? ( ! n]ves4 ,9 birds ( flight :]e ! air-sacs & res]voirs are develop$ to ! highe/ /ate1 ,sappy f9ds t1 8j z ! m$ull>y tissue is replac$ by air 9 ! bones ( birds1 s might x be imag9$ t ! sub>a*noid fluid is also replac$ by air ar\nd ! sp9al cord10 & obs]vations ju/ify ! correctness ( ?is /atem5t4 ,! dura mat] measures exactly ! volume ( ! m>r[ 9 birds2 s t !re does n exi/ betwe5 ! fib]s & ! n]v\s surface any space = an accumulation ( liquid4 ,?is anatomical fact is suffici5t to demon/rate ! abs5ce ( sub>a*noid fluid 9 ! bird4 ,9 d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ?is fluid1 x ought to be add$ t 9 ?is class ( v]tebrates1 ! sp9al prolongation is cov]$ by a triple envelope2 & t betwe5 ! pia mat] & ! dura mat] is a ?9 transp>5t membrane1 :i* is lubricat$ by a s]\s fluid4 ,?is fluid h[ev] does n collect2 x only moi/5s ! ara*noid membrane4 ,! ara*noid is locat$ betwe5 ! dura mat] above & ! pia mat] bel[4 ,! pia mat] adh]es closely to ! n]ve tissue4 ,! falx c]ebri exi/s 9 f[ls & 9 turkeys4 ,x has ! =m ( a segm5t ( a circle1 & ext5ds f ! middle ( ! int]val ( ! op5+s = ! olfactory n]ves to ! t5torium c]ebelli4 ,! falx c]ebelli is abs5t4 ,! t5torium is small & is su/a9$ by a bony plate1 & !re are 9 addition two folds1 "o on ea* side1 t sep>ate ! hemisph]es f ! tub]cula quadrigem9a4 ,ow+ to ! abs5ce ( ! falx c]ebelli1 ! m5+es lie close toge!r4 ,! falx c]ebri is ossifi$ 9 birds4 ,! ,bra9 ,/ructure4--,! bra9 7,fig4 #fb1 ,c & ,fig4 #ge1 ,a & ,c7 is made up ( ?ree pr9cipal p>ts3 ! c]ebrum1 ! c]ebellum & ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,9 a f[l ( m$ium size ! bra9 weighs ab\t #aej gra9s4 ,! pons v>olii is abs5t 9 birds4 ,! crura c]ebelli 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 #i7 are imm$iately connect$ ) ! corpora re/i=mia4 ,! l[] face ( ! i/hmus is convex po/]iorly2 9 front1 ! tub]cula bigem9a 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 #d7 are unit$ to ea* o!r by a comp>atively l>ge transv]se cord1 =m$ by ! optic n]ves int]cross+ 9 ! m$ian l9e4 ,! sup]ior face ( ! m$ulla oblongata is depress$ above to con/itute a f\r? v5tricle2 9 front ( ?is v5tricle are ! tub]cula bigem9a1 or optic lobes4 ,^! two volum9\s tub]cles are sep>at$ f ea* o!r above1 :]e !y embrace ! c]ebellum1 & are sali5t on ! sides ( ! l[] face4 ,!y are holl[ int]nally1 & communicate ) ! aqu$uct ( ,sylvius4 ,! ?alami optici are n well develop$4 ,a l>ge transv]se fissure divides ! c]ebrum f ! c]ebellum 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 #e74 ,! optic *iasm 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 #ae7 beh9d :i* lies ! hypophysis 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #bj7 cov]s ! region ( ! middle bra94 ,! l>ge transv]se fissure is ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! hemisph]es & ! optic lobes4 ,if ! hypophysis be remov$ !re w be obs]v$ a slit surr\nd$ by gray matt] :i* is call$ ! tub] c9]eum et infundibulum 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 #ah74 ,on ! p>s commissuralis & ! aft] bra9 !re are visible ! roots ( ! fif?1 ! n9?1 ! t5?1 & ! twelf? pairs ( cranial n]ves4 ,close beside ! m$ian furr[ :i* ext5ds to ! front "p ( ! long furr[ ( ! sp9al cord !re is obs]v$ ! ?ird pair ( cranial n]ves1 :i* h _! orig9 9 ! middle bra94 ,! f\r? pair ( cranial n]ves ext5d f ! ro( ( ! middle bra9 on bo? sides betwe5 ! middle bra9 & ! optic lobes4 ,^! n]ves f9ally em]ge & become visible on ! v5tral surface4 ,! six? n]ve is visible ne> ! middle furr[ & almo/ 9 ! middle ( ! pyramids1 & ne> ! roots ( ! fif?1 ! sev5?1 ! n9?1 ! t5?1 & ! twelf? pair ( cranial n]ves4 ,,! ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 7,?alamus 7,p9eal body 7,infundibulum 7,hypophysis ,=ebra9 7,optic tract & *iasm 7,c]ebral hemisph]es 7,olfactory lobes 7,?ird v5tricle 7,lat]al v5tricles 7,p$uncles ( ! c]ebrum ,midbra9 7,optic lobes 7,aqu$uct 7,m$ulla oblongata ,h9dbra9 7,c]ebellum 7,f\r? v5tricle ,! m$ulla oblongata 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #a2 ,fig4 #ge1 ,a & ,c7 t]m9ates ant]iorly 9 ! p>s commissuralis & ! p>s p$uncul>is4 ,z ! sp9al cord approa*es ! head !re is a gradual swell+1 or lat]al ?ick5+1 :i* m]ges into ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,! sup]ior & ! inf]ior surface ( ! m$ulla oblongata 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 ,a1 #a & ,c1 #ag7 are flatt5$4 ,!re is a %all[ furr[ & a slight swell+ at ! po9t :]e ! hypoglossal n]ve em]ges4 ,! c5tral canal ( ! sp9al cord gradually comes clos] to ! upp] surface & communicates ) ! f\r? v5tricle1 at :i* po9t ! po/]ior raphe is %ort5$ & ! sulcus longitud9alis po/]ior becomes %all[4 ,at ! po9t :]e ! c5tral canal t]m9ates 9 ! f\r? v5tricle !re is a ,v-%ap$ po9t call$ ! calamus scriptorius 7,fig4 #ge1 ,no4 #b74 ,! f\r? v5tricle is locat$ on ! upp] wall ( ! m$ulla oblongata bel[ ! c]ebellum1 & is b\nd$ lat]ally by ! p$uncles ( ! c]ebellum4 ,x is m>k$ po/]iorly by ! calamus scriptorius & ant]iorly by ! valve ( ,vieuss5s4 ,! valve ( ,vieuss5s is locat$ at ! po/]ior end ( ! aqu$uct ( ,sylvius4 ,! po/]ior "p ( ! f\r? v5tricle is m>k$ by grooves or furr[s4 ,ext5d+ along ! c5tral "p ( ! floor ( ! f\r? v5tricle !re is a sulcus1 or groove1 call$ ! sulcus c5tralis1 :i* divides ! sup]ior pyramids4 ,on ! m$ian lat]al sides !re are two po9ts ( gray sub/ance :i* =m ! al c9]e4 ,! roots ( ! pneumoga/ric1 ! glosso-ph>yngeal1 & ! sp9al accessory may be trac$ to ! al c9] & ! gray matt] ( ! ridges ( ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,! six? pair ( ! cranial n]ves em]ge f ! m$ulla ne> ! sulcus c5tralis & to ! side ( ! auditory n]ve4 ,"p ( ! trigem9us em]ges f ! rim ( ! furr[ next to ! ridge4 ,at ! out] bord] ( ! m$ulla are obs]v$ ! ?ick ends ( ! roots ( ! pneumoga/ric1 ! sp9al accessory1 ! glosso-ph>yngeal1 & ! auditory facialis4 ,on bo? sides ( ! sulcus longitud9alis inf]ior are f\nd ! inf]ior pyramids1 or pyramidal columns4 ,^! pyramids become exp&$ ne> ! orig9 ( ! ?ird pair ( n]ves & m]ge into ! c]ebral p$uncles1 or crura c]ebri4 ,! pyramidal fib]s may also be trac$ to ! optic lobes4 ,! roots ( ! abduc5s are f\nd at a po9t betwe5 ! crura c]ebri & ! optic lobes4 ,! ?ird pair lies to ! side ( ?is1 & ! roots ( ! trigem9us are adjac5t to ^? ( ! ?ird4 ,a bundle ( fib]s f ?is region pass into ! c]ebellum & =m ! crura c]ebelli2 o!rs pass into ! c]ebellum f ! side1 spread+ out 9 fan-%ap$ radiation1 & =m+ ! :ite c5tral sub/ances peculi>ly arrang$1 call$ ! arbor vit1 or tree ( life4 ,a ?ird bundle fuse ) ! crura c]ebelli ant]iorly1 & pass into ! p$uncles ( ! c]ebrum1 or crura c]ebri4 ,! gray ganglionic sub/ance =ms columns :i* ext5d ! :ole l5g? ( ! m$ulla oblongata & into ! c]ebri4 ,! m$ulla oblongata conta9s num]\s c5t]s :i* preside ov] v>i\s visc]al functions z deglutition1 respiration1 !rmotactic1 secretory1 c>diac1 & dige/ion4 ,9 ! m$ulla z 9 ! sp9al cord !re are five ma9 gr\ps ( cells4 ,fir/1 ! po/]ior or upp] horns1 f :i* come ! somatic s5sory n]ves4 ,second1 ,cl>k's cells1 locat$ c5trally1 :i* are ! orig9 ( ! ganglionat$ splan*nic n]ves4 ,?ird1 cell gr\ps ( ! lat]al horns :i* are ! c5t] = ! non-ganglionat$ splan*nic n]ves1 & c]ta9 o!r n]ves = ! visc]a1 includ+ ! ent]ic muscles4 ,f\r?1 cell gr\ps ( ! ant]ior horns1 :i* are ! c5t] ( all somatic volunt>y muscles4 ,fif?1 gr\ps ( s+le cells probably belong+ to ! po/]ior horns :i* are probably c5t]s = o!r splan*nic n]ve fib]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg1 ,a4 ,g1 ,a section ?r\gh ! tub]culum bigem9um4 #a1 ,pia mat]4 #b1 ,n]ve fib]s4 #c1 ,f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 #d1 ,?9 lay] ( small cells4 #e1 ,f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 #f1 ,a second ?9 cell lay]4 #g1 ,f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 #h1 ,?ird ?9 cell lay]4 #i1 ,f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 #aj1 ,f\r? widely ext5d$ cell lay]4 #aa1 ,a f9e granul> lay]4 #ab1 ,a ?ick lay] ( sp9dle cells4 #ac1 ,a lay] ( m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s4 #ad1 ,ep5demal cells4 #ae1 ,! s9us4 ,h1 ,a transv]se section ?r\gh ! m$ulla oblongata1 #a1 #c1 #d & #f are ganglionic c5t]s4 #b1 ,! dorsal groove4 #h1 ,! v5tral fissure4 #e1 ,! c5tral canal4 #g1 ,fib] tracts4 ,i1 ,a transv]se section ?r\gh ! c]vical portion ( ! sp9al cord4 #a1 ,v5tral septum4 #b1 ,dorsal septum4 #c1 ,! c5tral canal4 #d1 ,! dorsal horn4 #e1 ,! v5tral horn4 ,j1 ,a section ?r\gh ! wall ( ! oil gl&1 or rump gl&4 #a1 ,! /roma4 #b1 ,! tubul> gl&s "s ( :i* are bran*$4 ,k1 ,a section ?r\gh a spike ( a comb ( a cock4 #a1 ,! epi!lial lay]4 #b1 ,a d5se fibr\s subepi!lial lay]4 #c1 ,a second fibr\s vascul> lay]4 #f1 ,a d5s] c5tral core support+ ! l>ge art]ies & ve9s4 #d1 ,a ve94 #e1 ,an art]y4 ,l1 ,a section ?r\gh a lobe ( ! wattle ( a h54 #a1 ,! epi!lial lay]4 #b1 ,a d5se vascul> lay]4 #c1 ,a ve94 #d1 ,an art]y4 #e1 ,a loose fibr\s vascul> /ructure4 ,! gray matt] 9 ! cord is 9 ! =m ( two commas plac$ ) _! backs toge!r ) ! c5tral canal pass+ betwe5 !m4 ,! c5tral canal is locat$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! cord4 ,z ! cord ne>s ! m$ulla oblongata ! =m ( ! gray matt] *anges4 ,! second1 ! ?ird1 & ! fif? ganglion c5t]s are arrang$ lat]ally1 & %[ a di/9ct side-horn gr\p4 ,! c5tral canal sep>ates ! two ,cl>k's columns2 lat] ! side-horn gr\p enl>ges & ext5ds v5trally ar\nd ! ant]ior horn gr\p & jo9s on ! o!r side 9 half-moon %ap$ =mation4 ,! c5tral ganglionic mass ( ! sp9al cord1 ! c5t] = ! ent]ic visc]al sy/em1 is divid$ into ?ree complex p>ts4 ,fir/1 !re are cell gr\ps on bo? sides ( ! po/]ior raphe4 ,second1 ! half-moon %ap$ v5tral gr\ps ext5d+ p>allel p]iph]ally describ$ above4 ,?ird1 ly+ betwe5 gr\ps "o & two a complex gr\p1 :i* possesses a l>ge collection ( cells4 ,^! furni% splan*nic n]ve c5t]s1 ! ant]ior supply+ motor n]ves & c>ry+ motor impulses outw>d1 & ! sup]ior s5sory :i* c>ry impulses to ! c5t]s4 ,! cell gr\p ( ! sup]ior horns takes a sidewise p]iph]al position 7,gad[74 ,! c]ebellum 7,fig4 #fb1 ,c1 #b7 is locat$ above ! m$ulla oblongata & po/]ior to ! c]ebrum4 ,! c]ebellum consi/s pr9cipally ( a m$ian lobe call$ ! worm4 ,! lat]al lobes are conical & rudim5t>y4 ,! "u "p ( ! worm =ms ! ro( ( ! f\r? v5tricle4 ,on ! upp] surface ( ! c]ebellum are num]\s transv]se m>k+s 79 ! h5 #ac or #ad7 :i* divide ! lobe into leaves4 ,:5 ! c]ebellum is cut l5g?wise !re is obs]v$ on ! section$ surface ! peculi> arrangem5t ( ! :ite & ! gray matt]1 ! arbor vit1 m5tion$ above4 ,!re is a small cavity 9 ! c]ebellum :i* communicates ) ! f\r? v5tricle4 ,! c]ebell> cortex %[s f\r p>ts1 namely3 ,fir/1 ! c5tral "p compos$ ( :ite m$ullat$ fib]s1 betwe5 :i* are arrang$ neurogle> cells4 ,second1 a r r$di% lay] ( cells ( diff]5t sizes4 ,^! cells are emb$d$ 9 a f9e gr\nd sub/ance & are ab\t #j4jjc mm4 9 diamet]4 ,?ird1 a pla9 lay] ( l>ge pe>-%ap$ ganglion cells1 ! cells ( ,purk9je4 ,f9e bran*es ext5d outw>d f ! apex ( ^! cells4 ,f\r?1 an out] gray lay] :i* consi/s ( small multipol> n]ve cells ) "s neurogle> cells4 ,! color ( ^! ?ree lay]s1 accord+ to ,gad[1 dep5ds ^u ! color ( ! plumage2 t is1 if ! plumage is d>k1 ?is lay] is d>k2 if light1 ! lay]s are light4 ,! m>k$ color+ is said to be mo/ di/9ct 9 ! second lay]4 ,! ant]ior portion ( ! c]ebellum consi/s ( m$ullat$ n]ves ^: fib]s run crosswise4 ,^! are ! ext5sions ( ! true c]ebell> fib]s1 :i* become few] & few] z !y proce$ ant]iorly4 ,f9ally1 a few rema9+ fib]s runn+ crosswise fuse z ! commissura ,sylvii1 & ext5d into ! lobi optici4 ,a lay] ( n]ve cells ext5ds "u ^! m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s4 ,a bundle ( fib]s ext5d+ f ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,^! fib]s ext5d into ! optic lobes1 =m ! crura c]ebri1 or p$uncles ( ! c]ebri1 & also =m ! inf]ior wall1 or floor1 ( ! aqu$uct ( ,sylvius4 ,! crura are sometimes spok5 ( z ! p>tes p$uncul>es4 ,^! conta9 gray matt]4 ,! foll[+ division is made ( ! ganglion ( ?is region4 ,fir/1 a gr\p ( cells ne> ! base ( ! p$uncles1 :i* are divid$ f ! v5tral rim by ! arci=m fib]s4 ,?is ganglionic =mation may be consid]$ an ext5sion f ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,second1 a gr\p ( ! ganglion cells ( ! lobus optici4 ,?ird1 a gr\p ( cells ly+ ne> ! lobus opticus1 :i* give rise to ! asc5d+ roots ( ! trigem9us4 ,f\r?1 a gr\p ( ganglionic cells f :i* spr+ ! roots ( ! motores occuli1 & :i* lies ne> ! middle l9e & "u ! sulcus c5tralis4 ,_m ganglion cells are f\nd to ! "r & to ! left ( ! sulcus c5tralis1 :i* %[ diff]5t arrangem5t ( ! cells at diff]5t levels4 ,fif?1 a gr\p ( irregul> cells :i* ext5ds c5trally on ! sup]ior walls ( ! ?ird v5tricle & to ! sup]ior "p ( ! lobus opticus4 ,! microscopic /ructure ( ! ro( ( ! lobus opticus1 or corpus bigem9um1 %[s t ! lay]s are arrang$ p>allel to ! pia mat] & are divid$ into ! foll[+ p>ts3 ,ext]nally1 ! pia mat]4 ,an out] lay] ( v f9e n]ve fib]s1 :i* lies j bel[ ! pia mat]4 ,a lay] ( f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 ,a ?9 lay] ( small cells ! diamet] ( ea* ( :i* is #j4jch mm4 ,a lay] ( f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 ,a second ?9 cell lay]4 ,a zone ( f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 ,a ?ird ?9 cell lay]4 ,a f9e granul> gr\nd sub/ance4 ,a f\r? widely ext5d$ cell lay]4 ,a f9e granul> lay]4 ,a some:at ?ick lay] ( sp9dle-%ap$ cells4 ,a lay] ( m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s4 ,?is la/ is ! inn] lay] ( n]ve fib]4 ,on ! inn] surface ( ?is lay] we f9d ! ep5dymal cells1 ! cells t l9e ! cavity ( ! optic lobes4 ,! commissura ,sylvii =m ! cov]+ ( ! lobi optici & jo9 ^! two lobes4 ,?is commissure is =m$ f ! upp] & ! l[] lay] ( n]ve fib]s4 ,9 ! commissure ^! fib]s cross ea* o!r4 ,! hypophysis 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 ,c1 #bj7 lies back ( ! *iasm1 or optic commissure1 & bel[ ! middle ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,! infundibulum1 a p$icle-l /ructure1 connects ! hypophysis ) ! ?ird v5tricle ( ! c]ebri4 ,x conta9s a cavity & =ms an ext5sion ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,! hypophysis is divid$ into two lobes1 an ant]ior & a po/]ior4 ,! ?ird v5tricle communicates ant]iorly ) ! lat]al v5tricles ( ! c]ebri ?r\gh ! =am5 ( ,monro1 & po/]iorly ) ! f\r? v5tricle ?r\gh ! aqu$uct ( ,sylvius4 ,! po/]ior walls ( ! ?ird v5tricle are relatively ?ick & =m ! po/]ior bra9 commissure4 ,! wall is ?9 f ! commissure to ! *iasm4 ,)9 x lie two ridges1 :i* connect ! two hemisph]es ) ! corpus callosum1 &1 f>!r ant]iorly1 ) ! ant]ior c]ebral commissure4 ,! space f ! ?ird v5tricle & to ! ant]ior commissure is call$ ! lam9 t]m9ales4 ,! p9eal gl&1 locat$ betwe5 ! c]ebri & ! c]ebellum1 lies aga9/ ! *oroid plexus1 :i* cov]s ! highe/ po9t ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,! c]ebrum is divid$ by a deep longitud9al fissure into two hemisph]es4 ,! c]ebrum is %ap$ some:at l ! he>t on a play+ c>d4 ,! l[] face is some:at flatt5$4 ,! upp] & lat]al sides are n provid$ ) convolutions or sulci1 b are smoo?4 ,! fissure ( ,sylvius is fa9tly m>k$ on ! inf]ior face4 ,! olfactory lobes appe> well develop$ & are relatively l>ge = ! size ( ! bra94 ,!y lie close toge!r on ! extreme ant]ior portion 9 ! m$ian l9e4 ,! olfactory c]ebral crura em]ge f ! cranium at ! upp] angle betwe5 ! po/]ior wall1 ! ro(1 & ! septum ( ! orbit1 & pass ?r\gh ! olfactory =am9a & 9 grooves on ! upp] "p ( ! septum2 !n pass+ =w>d !y p5etrate ! frontal /ructure & are f9ally di/ribut$ ov] ! turb9at$ muc\s membrane4 ,! corpus /riatum is l>ge2 x occupies ne>ly ! entire floor ( ! v5tricles4 ,! ant]ior commissure is f\nd betwe5 ! hemisph]es4 ,its middle "p lies 9 ! lam9a t]m9alis on ! division betwe5 ! ant]ior & ! middle bra91 & close to ! ?alami optici4 ,its side ext5sions are r\nd$ masses call$ ! n]vi amygdales4 ,! corpus callosum1 q rudim5t>y1 lies on ! po/]ior dorsal rim ( ! ant]ior commissure4 ,! corpus /riatum =ms a ?9 broad ridge1 :i* passes v5trally4 ,?is /ructure consi/s ( tw5ty-five l>ge pyramidal cells :i* lie 9 ! po/]ior lat]al dorsal section1 & ( f t5 to fifte5 pyramidal cells :i* are locat$ 9 ! re/ ( ! section4 ,9 addition to ^! two gr\ps !re are _m cells ab\t #e millimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,^! lie1 six or m1 9 a ne/ imb$d$ 9 neuroglia4 ,!re is a ?9 lay] ( sp9dle cells ne> ! v5tral l9e4 ,! out] n]ve ne/1 or n]ves amygdalis1 lies 9 ! po/]ior lat]al v5tral "p4 ,x is cov]$ by a ?9 membran\s lay]4 ,its cells are pyramidal 9 %ape & are f #aj to #ae millimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,! cells t]m9ate 9 sp9dle =m t[>d ! p]iph]y4 ,n]ve fib]s ext5d f ! ant]ior commissure4 ,! out] wall ( ! corpus /riatum consi/s ( ! foll[+ lay]s3 ,an out] :ite lay] consi/+ ( f9e m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s imb$d$ 9 a gr\nd sub/ance conta9+ num]\s n]ve cells4 ,a lay] ( ganglionic cells1 consi/+ ( pyramidal cells f #aj to #ae millimet]s 9 diamet]1 ( o!r r\nd cells #bj millimet]s 9 diamet]1 & f9ally ( cells only #e millimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,?is lay] =ms a r$di% l9e 9 ! dorsal portion ( ! corpus /riatum4 ,^! lay]s =m "p ( ! m$ian & ! po/]ior c]ebral wall ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,! lat]al v5tricle is clos$ except = a slit-l op5+ beh9d ! po/]ior commissure4 ,?is is ! =am5 ( ,monro1 ?r\gh :i* ! lat]al v5tricle communicates ) ! middle1 or ?ird1 v5tricle4 ,! *oroid plexus is f\nd at ! base ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,! wall ( ! lat]al v5tricle becomes ?9n] ne> ! region ( ! transv]se commissure on ! surface t[>d ! middle bra94 ,at ?is po9t ! pia mat] & ! ep5dyma1 or ! l9+ cells ( ! v5tricul> membrane1 =m ! major "p ( ! wall4 ,! dome/ic f[l does n h ! hippocampus4 ,! wall ( ! middle v5tricle consi/s ( an out] :ite lay]1 :i* is arrang$ simil>ly to t ( ! corpus /riatum4 ,! v5tral rim ( ! wall is =m$ by a spiral b& :i* consi/s ( f9e m$ullat$ fib]s1 9 :i* are imb$d$ a few cells4 ,! processus c]ebri mammill>es are also call$ ! tub]cula olfactoria4 ,f ^! /ructures ext5d =w>d ! olfactory n]ves1 ! po/]ior roots ( :i* may be trac$ to ! walls ( ! lat]al v5tricles4 ,! /ructure ( ! processus c]ebri mammill>is is made up ( five lay]s z foll[s3 ,an out] lay]1 :i* consi/s ( colorless olfactory fib]s ext5d+ 9 all directions4 ,a granul> gr\nd sub/ance lay]1 9 :i* are imb$d$ a few cells4 ,a ?ick] granul> lay]1 on ! inn] edge ( :i* are tw5ty l>ge pyramidal cells ) processes po9t+ outw>d4 ,a lay] ( closely pack$ cells1 9 :i* are f9e m$ullat$ n]ve fib]s4 ,^! cells are ab\t #e millimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,an inn]mo/ lay] ( ep5dymal cells4 ,ne> ! hemisph]e ! p]iph]al n]ve fib]s & n]ve cells disappe>1 leav+ only ! gr\nd sub/ance ( ! processus to aid 9 ! =mation ( ! hemisph]e4 ,!re is a long bundle ( fib]s on ! l[] surface ( ! hemisph]e1 :i* bl5ds ) ! sub/ance ( ! olfactory fib]s4 ,! p$uncles ( ! c]ebrum 7,fig4 #fb1 ,no4 #ba7 are ! slightly div]g+ columns ( n]ve tissue1 :i* =m ! ant]ior cont9uation ( ! m$ulla oblongata & disappe> "u ! optic tracts & ! *iasm4 ,,! ,,sympa!tic ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em comm5ces ant]iorly at ! l>ge sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion4 ,?is ganglion1 ant]iorly1 br+s into communication ! glosso-ph>yngeal1 ! pneumoga/ric1 or vagus1 & ! sympa!tic sy/em4 ,! foll[+ n]ve trunks em]ge f ! sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion3 a l>ge trunk fus+ ) ! vagus & direct$ d[nw>d1 accompany+ & surr\nd+ ! c>otid art]y2 a second l>ge trunk fus+ ) ! recurr5t ph>yngeus & ! glosso-ph>yngeus2 a ?ird trunk :i* m]ges ) ! hypoglossal2 f9ally sev]al trunks :i* are di/ribut$ to ! head4 ,! temporo-lacrimalis1 "o ( ! l>ge sympa!tic n]ves ( ! head1 z x ext5ds f ! c]vical n]ve ganglion1 receives bran*es f ! ganglion radicis vagi4 ,?is n]ve1 pass+ betwe5 ^! two ganglions1 ext5ds horizontally =w>d & outw>d ?r\gh a =am51 cross+ ! glosso-ph>yngeus4 ,ne> ! ,fallopian canals x crosses ! facial n]ves1 lies sup]o-lat]ally1 & receives a %ort bran* f ! facial n]ve ^: fib]s are traceable to ! g5iculate ganglion4 ,x also receives a bran* f ! recurr5t maxill>is4 ,?is n]ve accompanies ! ext]nal oph?almic art]y =m+ ar\nd x a network ( fib]s1 call$ ! ext]nal oph?almic plexus4 ,x lies outside & d[nw>d f ! optic n]ve1 s5ds f9e bran*es to ! ext]nal oph?almic art]y & to ! masset] art]y1 & ext5ds along ) a small bran* ( ! sup]ior maxill>y n]ve to ! sk9 ( ! outside rim ( ! eye cavity4 ,! oph?almic plexus1 a second trunk ext5d+ to ! head1 ent]s 9 its c\rse1 ant]iorly1 ! lacrimal plexus4 ,its fib]s also supply ! lacrimal gl&1 & f9ally ana/omose ) ! second recurr5t bran* ( ! trigem9us4 ,! sympa!tic c>oticus cephalicus n]ve1 a ?ird trunk ext5d+ to ! head1 aft] em]g+ f ! l>ge sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion1 receives "s small bran*es f ! glosso-ph>yngeal ganglion1 & !n ent]s1 9 a horizontal mann]1 a =am51 ! canalis c>oticus ext]nus1 locat$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! basi-occipital & ! sph5oid bone4 ,! ant]ior op5+ ( ?is =am51 or canal1 is close to ! po/]ior "p ( ! pt]ygoid bone4 ,inside ?is canal ! sympa!tic c>oticus cephalicus receives a small bran* :i* ext5ds 9 a /raight l9e f ! basal "p ( ! facial n]ve4 ,aft] receiv+ ?is bran*1 ! n]ve trunk1 pass+ to ! e> drum1 lies close to ! petrosum & ! sph5oid4 ,x is cov]$ by ! masset] muscle4 ,! c>otic ganglion is locat$ at ! po9t ( ! fusion ( ! c>oticus cephalicus ) ! ma9 trunk4 ,at ?is po9t ! c>oticus cephalicus divides into two bran*es4 ,! fir/ is ! sup]ior recurr5t n]ve1 :i* lies close to ! upp] surface ( ! al ( ! sph5oid1 passes betwe5 ! obliquus ext]nus & ! orbital wall1 ar\nd ! eyeball1 & f9ally into ! orbital septum & ! int]nal muscles ( ! eye4 ,x communicates ) ! oph?almic n]ve & s5ds twigs to ! lacrimal gl&1 ! gl& ( ,h>d]1 ! upp] eyelid1 & ! nose4 ,! orbito-nasale ganglion is locat$ :]e ^! n]ves communicate ne> ! nasal region4 ,! second bran* ( ! sympa!tic c>oticus cephalicus is ! inf]ior recurr5t n]ve4 ,?is bran* passes =w>d & dorsally f ! pt]ygoid bone to a po9t :]e ! upp] rim ( ! ris+ w+s ( ! jaw bone meets ! sph5oid ro/rum4 ,9 ?is c\rse1 "s bran*es are giv5 (f to ! ph>ynx1 "o bran* ne> ! lacrimal gl&1 & a bran* :i* communicates ) ! sup]ior maxill>y n]ve j be=e ! n]ve ent]s ! jaw bone4 ,! sph5o-palat9e ganglion is at ! po9t ( fusion4 ,! t]m9al bran*es ( ! sph5o-palat9e are di/ribut$ to ! h>d palate1 ! nose1 & ! lacrimal gl&4 ,f ! l>ge c]vical n]ve ganglion & ne> ! roots ( ! c>oticus cephalicus are giv5 (f a few small n]ve fib]s :i* pass alone to ! ph>ynx or accompany ! jugul> n]ve bran*es1 & fuse ) ! ma9 trunk ( ! c>oticus cephalicus n]ve4 ,f ! l>ge sup]ior c]vical n]ve ganglion ! sympa!tic trunk ext5ds d[nw>d t[>d ! ?orax4 ,x is cov]$ deeply ) muscles4 ,?is portion is kn[n z ! c]vical sympa!tic n]ve trunk4 ,a trunk lies on ea* side ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,! l>ge ?oracic n]ve ganglion1 ! inf]ior c]vical1 is locat$ along ?is trunk at ! entrance ( ! ?orax4 ,f ?is ganglion !re is giv5 (f ! recurr5t c>diacus :i* supplies ! he>t4 ,! end bran*es ( ! sympa!tic n]ve trunk bl5d ) ! pneumoga/ric n]ve4 ,! inf]ior n]ve ganglion is ! ganglion c>diacum4 ,ne> ?is ganglion is f\nd a n]ve plexus 9 :i* !re are imb$d$ p]iph]li/ic ganglia4 ,?is ?oracic plexus1 accompany+ ! collica art]y1 passes to ! abdom9al region1 supply+ ! inte/9es & tak+ "p 9 ! =mation ( ! abdom9al plexus4 ,! abdom9al plexus is locat$ ne> ! ant]ior portion ( ! kidneys4 ,its fib]s are direct$ ma9ly d[nw>d to ! visc]al organs4 ,! l>ge inte/9e1 ! rectum & ! copulatory organs receive bran*es4 ,^! latt] bran*es take "p 9 ! =mation ( ! p$unda n]ve plexus4 ,"s bran*es ( ?is plexus1 foll[ ! bran*es ( ! po/]ior mes5t]ic art]y4 ,! ?oracic trunk 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #db7 ( ! sympa!tic is d\ble4 ,! ant]ior portion gives (f an ant]ior splan*nic n]ve1 or plexus 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #dc7 :i* accompanies ! celiac axial art]y to ! gizz>d & liv]1 communicat+ ) ! pneumoga/ric4 ,! po/]ior splan*nic n]ve is intimately comb9$ ) ! adr5al body1 & ! te/es1 or ! ov>y 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #de74 ,inte/9al bran*es accompany ^? ( ! mes5t]ic art]ies 7,fig4 #fd1 ,no4 #df74 ,o!r bran*es supply ! kidneys1 & communicate ) long bran*es ( ! sp9al n]ves de/9$ = ! cloaca & adjac5t p>ts1 & ?us =m a plexus simil> to t f\nd 9 mammals4 ,,functions ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,accord+ to function1 ! n]ves compos+ ! trunks are divid$ into aff]5t & eff]5t4 ,! aff]5t n]ves are ^? t convey ! impulses f ! p]iph]y ( ! body to ! n]ve c5t]1 :i* are locat$ 9 ! bra9 or 9 ! sp9al cord4 ,! impulses convey$ are ^? ( special s5ses1 z sight1 he>+1 ta/e1 t\*1 & smell4 ,impulses produc+ s5sation pleasurable or pa9ful come f ! sk91 ! muscle1 or ! visc]a4 ,! eff]5t n]ves are ^? :i* convey impulses f ! n]ve c5t]s to ! p]iph]y4 ,^! impulses may be motor z ^? go+ to ! muscle cells ( ! skeletal muscles1 ! visc]a1 or ! blood-vessels4 ,^! motor impulses make movem5ts 9 ^! organs possible4 ,9 ! blood-vessel !y result 9 ! control ( ! calib] ( ! vessel4 ,^! impulses may be ( an inhibitory "*1 z 9 sl[+ ! he>t4 ,!y may be secretory impulses /imulat+ ! gl& to activity or regulat+ metabolism4 ,! ganglia are n]ve c5t]s :i* receive & g5]ate impulses2 ! n]ve trunks are filam5ts :i* convey impulses4 ,! gray matt] ( ! cord describ$ above is ! ganglionic portion1 & ! out] :ite matt] is made up ( n]ve fib]s :i* convey impulses f "o "p ( ! cord to ano!r1 or to & f ! bra94 ,! n]ves t h _! roots 9 ! sp9al cord sup]iorly1 are s5sory2 t is1 !y convey ! s5sory impulses f ! p]iph]y to ! cord ganglion & to ! bra94 ,!y h a ganglion j outside ! cord4 ,! n]ves t h _! roots 9 ! sp9al cord inf]iorly2 t is1 !y convey motor impulses f ! n]ve c5t]s to ! p]iph]y4 ,! function ( ! inf]ior roots is to supply all ! volunt>y muscles z well z ! oviduct1 ! inte/9es1 & o!r holl[ visc]a1 includ+ ! blood-vessels ) ! p[] ( movem5t4 ,_m ( ^! fib]s pass to ! sympa!tic ganglion & are di/ribut$ z sympa!tic n]ve fib]s4 ,! cord is divid$ into diff]5t tracts1 t is1 c]ta9 gr\ps ( fib]s convey c]ta9 k9ds ( impulses4 ,! sup]ior column ( ! cord conveys to ! c]ebrum su* impressions z temp]ature1 pressure1 & muscul> t5sion4 ,! fib]s ( ! lat]al columns c>ry s5sations ( pa94 ,! fib]s ( ! direct c]ebell> tract c>ry impulses :i* result 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! equilibrium ( ! body4 ,all ! volunt>y impulses orig9ate 9 ! c]ebrum1 pass ?r\gh ! c]ebellum & travel direct to ! bulb2 !y !n pass ov] to ! opposite side1 & travel by ! cross$ pyramidal tract to ! multipol> cells ( ! inf]ior horn ( ! sp9al cord1 & transmit ! impulse ?r\gh motor fib]s t orig9ate at t po9t 9 ! cord4 ,all s5sory impulses ent] ! bra9 on ! side opposite _! orig91 & all motor impulses leave ! bra9 on ! side opposite t to :i* !y are di/ribut$4 ,injury ( ! motor area ( ! "r side ( ! bra9 leads to p>alysis ( ! left side ( ! body4 ,an impulse ( ! vasomotor n]ve travels 9 ! lat]al column ( ! cord4 ,a n]ve impulse may orig9ate 9 ! bra9 & be modifi$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh a ganglion 9 ! sp9al cord or 9 ! sympa!tic sy/em4 ,! sy/em ( reflex action is z foll[s3 fir/1 an eff]5t n]ve :i* conveys ! impulse f ! p]iph]y to a n]ve c5t]2 second1 a ganglion1 or n]ve c5t]1 to receive ! impulse & g5]ate o!r impulses2 ?ird1 an eff]5t n]ve to convey ! impulse f ! n]ve c5t] to ! p]iph]y4 ,! foll[+ is an example ( reflex action4 ,! foot ( a f[l is pi]c$ ) a p94 ,! s5sory impulse is convey$ by s5sory n]ve fib]s to ! n]ve c5t]s4 ,9 ?is c5t] ! ganglionic n]ve cells g5]ate a motor impulse :i* is s5t back ?r\gh ! motor n]ve fib] to ! muscles controll+ ! "p4 ,! result is t ! muscle contracts & j]ks ! foot4 ,!re are _m functional c5t]s locat$ 9 ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,de/ruction ( ?is "p ( ! sy/em results 9 in/ant dea? ( ! bird4 ,9 addition to furni%+ a pa? = fib]s c>ry+ impulses f ! body to ! c]ebrum1 x furni%es a l>ge numb] ( c5t]s = su* functions z respiration1 swall[+1 secretion1 temp]ature1 & vasomotor & c>diac activity4 ,! function ( ! c]ebellum is pr9cipally t ( cord9ation4 ,x br+s ab\t h>mony & rhy?m 9 muscul> movem5ts4 ,if ! c]ebellum be remov$1 ! bird c no long] walk4 ,x has lo/1 ) ?is removal1 all p[] to cord9ate4 ,! c]ebrum ( ! bird has no convolutions1 & ! gray1 or ganglionic1 portion is ?91 indicat+ l[ p[] ( intellig5ce4 ,!re are c]ta9 areas presid+ ov] o!r functions1 z motor areas1 s5sory areas1 & s on4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! bra9 ( ! f[l %[s u t ! c5t]s presid+ ov] sight & smell are well develop$4 ,! olfactory bulbs are ! c5t]s ( ! s5se ( smell4 ,! optic ?alamus is ! c5t] ( ! s5se ( sight4 ,! sympa!tic n]ve sy/em transmits impulses to ! involunt>y muscul> /ructure ( all organs1 includ+ ^? ( ! inte/9al tract1 ! blood-vessels1 & p]haps also ! gl&s4 ,,e/hesiology ,,! ,,s5se ,,organs ,! five special s5ses are see+1 smell+1 ta/+1 he>+1 & feel+4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,sight ,! s5se ( sight 9 ! bird is well develop$4 ,! eye 7,fig4 #bf1 ,d1 ,e & ,f71 ! organ ( sight1 is relatively l>ge1 r\nd lat]ally1 & r flatt5$ ant]o-po/]iorly4 ,x is locat$ at ! side ( ! head4 ,! eyeball is only slightly movable4 ,! septum int]orbital sep>ates ! two eyeballs lat]ally4 ,z 9 mammals1 ! eyeball has ?ree coats1 :i* are f inside to outside1 ! ret9a1 ! *oroid1 & ! scl]a4 ,! scl]otic coat is complet$ ant]iorly by ! cornea ) :i* x =ms a union call$ ! corneo-scl]al juncture4 ,ar\nd ! cornea ! scl]otic coat conta9s a r+ ( osse\s scales v>y+ 9 numb] f twelve to tw5ty4 ,! scl]a may become ossifi$ po/]iorly1 =m+ an osse\s %ea? ar\nd ! optic n]ve4 ,! pect5 is a vascul> comb-l membrane /ret*+ f ! n]v\s opticus to ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,! *oroid coat is always black4 ,! pupil 9 ! h5 is also black & r\nd4 ,! iris conta9s /riat$ muscul> fib]s4 ,! membrana nictitans1 locat$ at ! inn] angle is well develop$4 ,x is mov$ by two muscles 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 ,b1 #g1 #h1 #aj74 ,! lacrimal gl& & ! gl& ( ,h>d] are pres5t4 ,!re is no meibomian gl&4 ,! te>s are secret$ by ! lacrimal gl& & are dra9$ away f ! =e "p ( ! eyeball by two small canals :i* ext5d into a lacrimal sac4 ,f ?is sac !re ext5ds a tube into ! nasal cavity call$ ! lacrimal duct4 ,! l[] lid is ! l>g] & (t5 incloses a small c>tilag9\s plate4 ,! conjunctiva is a true muc\s membrane :i* cov]s ! ant]ior portion ( ! eye cavity atta*+ to ! cornea-scl]al juncture4 ,! *oroidea is ri* 9 pigm5t4 ,on its inn] surface lies ! d>k pigm5t lay] ( ! ret9a4 ,! corpus cili>e1 t "p ( ! *oroid coat be>+ ! cili>y processes1 consi/ ( num]\s folds4 ,! cili>y muscles are arrang$ obliquely4 ,ea* consi/s ( ?ree digitations4 ,! iris is cov]$ on ! po/]ior side ) pigm5t1 ! color ( :i* det]m9es ! color ( ! eye4 ,! yell[ pigm5t ( ! iris has be5 said to be due to c>ot9 & xan?ophyll & ! black pigm5t to melan94 ,! enl>g+ & ! contract+ ( ! pupil is br\ght ab\t by muscles4 ,! r$uction ( ! pupill>y calib] is due to ! sph9ct] pupill>y muscle4 ,x is said by "s anatomi/s t ! muscles controll+ ! calib] ( ! pupil 9 ! bird furni% volunt>y motion & t ! capability ( accommodation ( ! eyes is great] 9 birds ?an 9 mammals4 ,! ret9a conta9s no blood-vessels2 o!rwise ! /ructure is simil> to t ( mammals4 ,! cry/all9e l5s is flatt5$ on ! corneal side & is convex po/]iorly4 ,! l5s epi!lium develops into fib]s 9 ! p>ts close to ! equator1 & are almo/ p]p5dicul> to ! eye axis4 ,! corneal portion is relatively small4 ,! scl]otic coat is d5se & :ite4 ,x is divid$ into ?ree lay]s4 ,x is ?9 & flexible1 & some:at ela/ic po/]iorly4 ,x has an int]nal lay] ( hyal9e c>tilage4 ,ant]iorly its =m is ma9ta9$ by ! circle ( osse\s plates m5tion$ above4 ,^! plates1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! ext]ior & ! middle lay]1 are locat$ imm$iately beh9d ! cornea4 ,! scales are ?9 & ( oblong quadrate %ape1 be+ elongat$ f be=e backw>d4 ,! *oroid coat is a membrane loosely cellul> & highly vascul>4 ,x is impregnat$ by a black pigm5t4 ,opposite ! bony circle ! *oroid sep>ates into two lay]s4 ,! ext]nal lay] is ! ?9n] & adh]es at fir/ firmly to ! scl]otic2 x passes =w>d to become cont9u\s ) ! iris4 ,! inn] lay] is ?ick] ?an ! ext]nal4 ,! two lay]s are made up ( radiat+ fib]s :i* t]m9ate ant]iorly 9 ! cili>y processes1 ! ends ( :i* are adh]5t to ! capsule ( ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,! iris is delicate 9 /ructure4 ,x is compos$ ( a f9e network ( int]lac+ fib]s4 ,! cili>y n]ves & blood-vessels run 9 ! =m ( s+le trunks betwe5 ! *oroid & ! scl]otic1 & t]m9ate ant]iorly 9 a r+-%ap$ plexus = ! supply ( ! iris & ! muscul> circle ( ! cornea4 ,z /at$ be=e1 ! pupil 9 ! f[l is r\nd1 b 9 ! goose x is elongate transv]sely2 & 9 ! owl1 a v]tical oval4 ,! optic n]ve approa*+ ! scl]otic coat becomes alt]$ into a conical extremity1 :i* ent]s a %ea? & is direct$ d[nw>d & obliquely =w>d4 ,! extremity ( ! optic n]ve 9 ! int]ior ( ! eye pres5ts a :ite n>r[ /reak4 ,bran*es ( ! op?almic art]y ent] ! eye betwe5 ! lam9a ( ! ret9a1 along ! :ole ext5t ( ! oblique slit1 & p5etrate ! fold ( ! pect5 ^u :i* !y =m a delicate ramification4 ,! cry/all9e l5s is ( s(t texture4 ,x is inclos$ 9 a capsule & is ne>ly r\nd4 ,x adh]es v firmly 9 ! depression 9 ! ant]ior "p ( ! vitre\s humor4 ,! capsule is lodg$ betwe5 two lay]s ( hyaloidea1 :i* z !y rec$e f ea* o!r1 leave ar\nd its circumf]5ce ! sacculat$ canal ( ,petit4 ,! cornea is ( horny consi/5cy & is transp>5t4 ,light ?us rapidly passes ?r\gh x to ! po/]ior "p ( ! eye4 ,! vitre\s *amb]1 ly+ back ( ! cry/all9e l5s1 conta9s a cle> jelly-l sub/ance4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,he>+ ,! e>1 ! organ ( he>+1 has 9 ! f[l no con*al c>tilage4 ,! ext]nal auditory meatus1 or canal op5+1 is f\nd on ea* side ( ! head1 & is usually gu>d$ by a few /iff1 %ort fea!rs4 ,9 "s k9ds ( birds ^! fea!rs are capable ( be+ erect$ s z to direct ! waves ( s\nd into ! inn] e>4 ,! out] entrance ( ! e> conta9s gl&s4 ,?is canal is %ort4 ,x leads to ! drum1 :i* is some:at convex f ! outside1 & :i* has a membrane =m+ a complete curta9 /ret*$ ov] ! out] "p4 ,! irregul>ly =m$ drum has connection ) ! air-conta9+ cavity ( ! skull1 & by a ?9 c>tilag9\s canal1 ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 ) ! ph>ynx4 ,! auditory ossicles are repres5t$ by only a s+le bone1 call$ ! columella1 :i* mo/ closely repres5ts ! /apes ( mammals4 ,?is is atta*$ by processes ( c>tilage to ! tympanic membrane4 ,ow5 consid]s ^! c>tilages z repres5t+ ! malleus ( mammals4 ,huxley on ! o!r h& consid]s !m to repres5t ! incus4 ,orig9at+ f ! processes is a small muscle :i* is atta*$ to ! drum4 ,?is is by ,%ufeldt consid]$ ! ,t5sor tympani4 ,! drum cavity ?r\gh ! f5e/ra ve/ibul>is & co*le>is is connect$ ) ! labyr9?4 ,! inn] e> consi/s ( a membran\s labyr9?1 surr\nd$ by a spongy bony /ructure--! bony labyr9?4 ,9 x are recogniz$ ! ve/ibulum1 ! ?ree half-circle %ap$ canals1 & ! co*lea4 ,! sup]ior semicircul> canal is ! l>ge/4 ,! ac\/ic n]ve ent]s at ! end ( ! canals ne> ! ampull4 ,! n]ves are support$ 9 delicate vascul> membranes l9+ ! canals & slightly project+ into ! ampull4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,diagram ( ! inn] e>4 #a1 ,! integum5t4 #b1 ,! sup]ior semicircul> canal4 #c1 ,! ext]nal canal4 #d1 ,! horizontal canal4 #e1 ,! ampulla4 #f1 ,! obtuse osse\s conical co*le> cavity4 #g1 ,! ,eu/a*ian tube4 #h1 ,! tympanum4 #i1 ,filam5ts ( ! auditory n]ve4 ,! ve/ibulum is a small irregul> cavity :i* communicates ) ! arcades & ! co*lea1 & ?r\gh ! f5e/ra ve/ibul>is ) ! drum cavity4 ,! endolymph ( ! ve/ibulum conta9s microscopic cry/als ( calcium c>bonate4 ,! semicircul> canals are relatively l>g] & ?ick] ?an 9 mammals4 ,! ampull 9 ! upp] & back "p are sep>at$ by walls4 ,! co*lea is an obtuse conical tube-l /ructure slightly curv$ at ! bl9d extremity ) ! concavity direct$ backw>d4 ,x conta9s a membran\s l9+4 ,at ?is po9t ! co*lea is broad5$ & accommodates a bran* ( ! auditory n]ve4 ,?is n]ve spreads out 9 f9e filam5ts ^u ! surface ( ! tubes4 ,! holl[ space ( ! co*lea is divid$ by a spiral p>tition1 mak+ two *amb]s1 ! scala ve/ibuli & ! scala tympani4 ,^! walls ext5d f ! beg9n+ ( ! co*lea4 ,! tympanic cavity is =m$ by ! occipital1 ! basi- & alisph5oids1 ! petrosal portion ( ! temporal bone4 ,x repres5ts ! /ap$ial canal lead+ to ! =am5 ovalis & ! pneumatic ap]tures by :i* ! air f ! ,eu/a*ian tube is conduct$ to ! precranial diplo4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,smell ,! nose is ! seat ( ! p]iph]al portion ( ! organ ( ! s5se ( smell4 ,! t]m9als ( ! olfactory n]ves1 :i* receive ! impressions ( odors1 are broad5$ 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! walls ( ! ant]ior n>es4 ,!re are no e?moidal volutes1 or sieve-l /ructure1 9 birds4 ,! n]ve ext5ds f ! ant]ior portion ( ! bra9 9 cone-%ape1 f9ally divid+ into filam5ts :i* are di/ribut$ ov] ! muc\s surface ( ! turb9at$ bones4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,ta/e ,! mo/ important "p ( ! organ ( ta/e is ! tongue4 ,9 birds ! dorsum ( ! tongue is cov]$ by a ?ick /ratum corneum1 a heavy lay] ( /ratifi$ squam\s epi!lium4 ,! tongue1 !re=e is n 9 birds s well adapt$ = ! p]ception ( ta/e z x is 9 mammals4 ,! l+ual bran* ( ! trigem9i is lack+ 9 birds4 ,?is fact makes ! n9? pair1 or ! n]vi glosso-ph>yngei1 ! exclusive n]ves ( ta/e4 ,!re is an op9ion v5tur$ by "o anatomi/ t1 s9ce ! fir/ & ! second bran* ( ! fif? pair1 or trigem9i1 h t]m9al filam5ts 9 ! h>d palate1 !y may furni% fib]s = ! s5se ( ta/e4 ,!re are _m ta/e cells on ! tongue & on ! dorsal palate4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,t\* ,! p]iph]al p>ts ( ! organ ( t\* 9 ! f[l are ! sk9 & ! fea!rs4 ,9 a few birds special t\* & ta/e p]ception c be suppli$ by ! edge & po9t ( ! beak4 ,9 ! sk9 ( birds are f\nd num]\s s5sory n]ve end+s = tactile s5se4 ,! s5sory n]ves1 :i* provide ! s5se ( t\*1 usually t]m9ate 9 "o ( two =ms4 ,! fir/ are ! ,h]b/'s bodies1 :i* 9 _m respects are simil> to ! ,pic9ian bodies4 ,h]b/'s t\* corpuscles are f\nd on all p>ts ( ! sk92 !y are especially num]\s 9 ! region ( ! tail & ( ! w+4 ,9 ! w+ !y are p>ticul>ly num]\s 9 ! region ( ! flight fea!rs4 ,!y occur 9 l>ge numb]s 9 ! p]io/eum ( ! ant]ior tibial region & 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! cloaca & ( ! g5]ative organs4 ,!y are num]\s 9 ! conjunctiva & on ! surface ( ! tongue4 ,!y are also f\nd 9 ! gums & 9 ! beak4 ,h]b/'s corpuscle is made up ( a c5tral fib]-%ap$ "p ) a smoo? ext5sion ( ! axis cyl9d] ( its n]ve 7,fig4 #bi1 ,g74 ,?is c5tral fib] is surr\nd$ by a peculi> protoplasmic body4 ,outside ( ?is !re is a d\ble r[ ( cubical cells :i* surr\nd ! axial "p4 ,^! are close toge!r4 ,outside ( ^! !re occurs a conc5tric lamell> lay]1 :i* conta9s cells4 ,9 ! p]iph]y ^! lamell become m di/9ct & conta9 l>g] b few] cells4 ,! capsule is made up ( v ?9 lay]s1 :i* are cont9u$ into ! p]9eural lay]4 ,ea* body conta9s a ?9 out] zone4 ,! n]ve fib] passes 9 a regul> mann] f ! axis cyl9d]1 ! myelemma1 & ! %ea? ( ,s*wann1 & z a delicate n]ve twig is surr\nd$ by a %ea? consi/+ ( sev]al p]9eural lay]s4 ,z x ent]s ! c5t] ( ! t\* corpuscle1 x loses its myel9e %ea? ne> ! base ( ! body1 & ! t]m9al fib] becomes flatt5$4 ,its rim is direct$ t[>d ! two r[s ( cubical cells1 & x ends 9 a r\nd$ knob4 ,! t\* corpuscles are ! l>ge/ 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! cloaca & smalle/ 9 ! sk94 ,hess has f\nd ^! t\* corpuscles 9 ! l>ge fili=m papill on ! side ( ! tongue & a few on its l[] surface4 ,!y are also f\nd 9 ! s(t sk9 ( ! edges & inn] bord]s ( ! beak4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,app5dages ,! sk9 ( ! f[l is v ?9 & does n conta9 oil gl&s or sweat gl&s4 ,9 ! f[l ! oil is suppli$ by a tail or rump gl&1 ! gl&ula uropygii 7,fig4 #ce1 ,no4 #af74 ,?is gl& is r\nd or oval 9 %ape1 & ab\t ! size ( a pea & consi/s ( two lobes4 ,x is ( ! tubul> v>iety ) a teat1 :i*1 9 mo/ in/ances has two op5+s4 ,a m$ium septum divides ! gl& into two halves4 ,! oil secret$ by ! column> epi!lial cells is collect$ 9 a body cavity locat$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! gl&2 ?is has a duct ext5d+ to ! surface4 ,! bird by squeez+ out a quantity ( ?is oil into its beak oils ! fea!rs1 pass+ ! beak ov] !m1 "o by "o4 ,! oil r5d]s ! fea!rs practically imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,x is necess>y = ! bird to give prop] att5tion to its plumage 9 ord] t ! fea!rs appe> 9 prime condition4 ,%\ld !re be a disease ( ! oil gl&1 or %\ld ! bird become ill & neglect its toilet ! result is an unkempt appe>ance ( ! plumage1 ! fea!rs becom+ r r\gh & m or less injur$ by ! wea!r4 ,! subcutis is well develop$ & furni%es to ! cutis great capability = movem5t1 :i* is necess>y = ! ris+ & fall+ ( ! fea!rs4 ,! corneum is v ?94 ,papill>y bodies are pres5t only 9 a v few places1 su* z ! region ab\t ! eye & on ! toes4 ,:]e ! toes t\* ! gr\nd 9 walk+ !re are l>ge w>t-l ?ick5+s ( ! epi!lium4 ,9 mo/ birds ! %anks are unfea!r$4 ,! epid]mis on ! fea!r$ p>ts ( ! sk9 is ?91 dry on ! surface1 & ab\nds 9 cont9u\s scales4 ,! /ratum corneum is v ?ick on ! horny %ea? ( ! beak1 on ! top ( ! toes1 on ! spurs ( ! cock1 & on ! scale plates t cov] ! sk9 on ! %anks4 ,! fea!rs ( birds s]ve ! same protective purpose z hair on mammals4 ,9 cold wea!r ! sk9 muscles controll+ ! fea!r movem5ts contract2 ?us ! fea!rs become ruffl$ mu* z we obs]ve ! hair /&+ erect on horses "u simil> conditions4 ,by increas+ ! dead air space ar\nd ! body1 ! radiation ( heat is ret>d$1 & ! body kept w>m]4 ,! corneum ( ! sk9 is n usually ri* 9 blood-vessels2 h[ev]1 9 ! dome/ic f[ls !re is 9 ! comb1 9 ! wattles1 & simil> app5dages ( ! head1 a ?ick vascul> network4 ,! beak & ! claws are modifi$ sk92 !y are true horn mat]ial4 ,at ! base ( ! beak !re is (t5 =m$ scales1 :i* surr\nd ! no/rils1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 & h a nak$1 or waxy1 appe>ance1 :i* is kn[n z ! c]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,photomicrograph ( ! section ( sk9 f ! sole ( ! foot ( a h54 #a1 ,horny /ratifi$ squam\s epi!lium4 a1 ,/ratum corneum4 b1 ,/ratum lucidum4 c1 ,/ratum g]m9ativum4 #b1 ,connective tissue support+ membrane1 p>s reticul>is4 #c1 ,blood-vessels4 ,! fea!rs may be consid]$ ( two *ief k9ds1 ! quill fea!rs & ! clo?+ fea!rs4 ,! mo/ rudim5t>y ( ! latt] are kn[n z d[n4 ,a quill fea!r consi/s ( two pr9cipal p>ts3 ! quill1 or calamus1 & ! vane1 or vexillum4 ,! quill is cont9u\s ) ! c5tral %aft1 call$ ! ra*is1 ! two =m+ ! /em ( ! fea!r4 ,project+ outw>d f ! /em on ea* side are a l>ge numb] ( po9t$ & v flexible b>bs4 ,^! b>bs are locat$ ne>ly at "r angles to ! quill & h ext5d+ f !m at "r angles small] processes or b>bules4 ,^! b>bules hook toge!r ! b>bs & give ! web its =m4 ,9 "s fea!rs1 z ! hackle1 & 9 ! w+ b> fea!rs ( ! male ( "s bre$s1 !re is a portion ( ! upp] out] edge ( ! fea!r n provid$ ) b>bules1 :i* fact gives ! fea!r its *>act]i/ic appe>ance4 ,! d[n fea!rs are loose & fluffy4 ,9 ?is k9d ( fea!r ! %aft is weak1 & ! b>bs are n provid$ ) b>bules4 ,! b>bs l ! %aft may be consid]$ weak4 ,^! fea!rs give great w>m? to ! body4 ,!re are fib] fea!rs appe>+ z hair-l filam5ts1 & call$ filo-plum4 ,^! are f\nd scatt]$ ov] ! body2 !y are p>ticul>ly abundant 9 ! region ( ! head & ! neck4 ,at ea* end ( ! quill is a small op5+1 or umbilicus4 ,inside ! b>rel ( ! fea!r !re is pulp1 :i* 9 "y fea!rs is v vascul>2 ! vessels ent]+ by ! proximal umbilicus are buri$1 along ) "p ( ! quill1 9 a papillat$ follicle ( ! sk94 ,f ?is follicle ! fea!r is develop$4 ,at ! base ( ! %aft a second>y rudim5t>y quill is usually =m$1 :i* may be repres5t$ by a m]e tuft ( d[n4 ,on ! same g5]al pr9ciple ! small] fea!rs are con/ruct$4 ,^! cov] ! body1 ! upp] p>ts ( ! legs1 & ! head1 :ile ! l>g] fea!rs & quills are conf9$ to ! w+s & ! tail4 ,! longe/ quill fea!rs are ^? aris+ f ! h&1 call$ ! prim>ies4 ,^? aris+ f ! =e>m are call$ ! second>ies4 ,^? t are develop$ f ! proximal "p ( ! arm are call$ ! t]ti>ies4 ,! rudim5t>y pollux c>ries "s fea!rs :i* =m ! alula1 or ba/>d w+4 ,! scapul>ies are fea!rs cov]+ ! scapula & ! hum]us4 ,cov]+ ! bases ( ! l>g] flight fea!rs are w+ cov]ts consi/+ ( sev]al r[s ( small fea!rs4 ,! quill fea!rs ( ! tail are call$ ! rectrices4 ,! rectrices h consid]able mobility2 _! bases are cov]$ by a r[ ( tail cov]ts4 ,! p$al digits ( ! natatores are jo9$ by a membrane1 cov]$ ) scaly sk91 :i* =ms ! web foot4 ,! fea!rs 9 _m p>ts ( ! body are develop$ 9 r[s1 !re be+ int]vals1 or elongat$ sk9 areas1 betwe5 ^! gr\ps ( sev]al r[s1 :i* are n provid$ ) fea!r papill1 b :i* are cov]$ ov] by ! fea!rs develop$ 9 front ( ^! spaces4 ,! def9ite fea!r l9es1 or areas1 h be5 call$ pt]yl4 ,! int]v5+ tracts devoid ( fea!rs are call$ ! apt]ia4 ,! fir/ out] cov]+ ( ! bird1 or baby *ick1 is a tempor>y "o consi/+ ( fasciculi ( long filam5ts ( d[n4 ,^! fasciculi on _! fir/ appe>ance1 are envelop$ 9 a %ea?1 :i* soon becomes ruptur$ & are entirely ca/ (f by ! "t ! baby *icks are ready to be tak5 f ! ne/ or ! incubator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,photomicrograph ( ! sk9 ( ! neck ( a ,s4 ,c4 ,:ite ,leghorn h54 #a1 ,! sk9 possess+ an out] /ratum1 ! /ratum corneum1 next ! /ratum lucidum1 next ! /ratum granulosum & und]nea? ! /ratum g]m9ativum4 ,b5ea? ! out] d>k b& repres5t+ ! upp] sk9 /rata is ! p>s reticul>is ( ! d]ma4 #b1 ,papilla %[+ f inside to outside ! hyal9e fea!r wall1 ! /ratum corneum1 ! ,malpighian lay] ( ! follicle1 ! corium4 ,inside ! fea!r is not$ ! pulp-l mat]ial4 ,! d[n fasciculi1 ea* em]g+ f its small quill1 are succe$$ by ! fea!rs1 :i* !y app>5tly guide ?r\gh ! sk94 ,fea!rs d n spr+ f all p>ts ( ! body alike2 especially devoid ( fea!rs are ^? p>ts :]e *af+ & friction is greate/1 z "u ! w+s & 9 ! gro94 ,at ! end ( ! quill !re is a small op5+1 ! inf]ior umbilicus1 into :i* projects a papilla ( ! d]mis4 ,:]e ! quill em]ges f ! sk9 !re is ano!r small op5+1 ! sup]ior umbilicus1 f :i* spr+s frequ5tly a small fea!r call$ ! hypora*is4 ,! %aft1 or ra*is1 has a groove ext5d+ along t surface :i* lies next ! body4 ,9 ! newly =m$ *ick ! fir/ indication ( fea!rs is ! =mation ( papill1 :i* is con/itut$ by ! upw>d gr[? ( ! d]mis1 or ! s5sitive & vascul> p>ts ( ! sk94 ,!n ! sk9 imm$iately ar\nd ! papilla s9ks d[nw>d1 s t lat] ! papilla is inclos$ 9 a follicle ( ! sk94 ,! epid]mis ov] ! papilla is ! same z ov] ! re/ ( ! surface4 ,! horny out] lay] ( ! epid]mis =ms = ! gr[+ fea!r a protective %ea? :i* is ca/ (f z ! fea!r is =m$4 ,! fea!r prop] develops f ! und]ly+ g]m9ative lay]1 :i* z ! fea!r develops1 =ms a cyl9d] ( cells4 ,! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d] is 9 t\* ) ! papilla2 ?is lat] becomes ! quill 7,fig4 #hj1 ,no4 #b74 ,! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] develops ! web portion ( ! fea!r4 ,z soon z ! fea!r is fully develop$ ! papilla1 :i* has project$ into ! quill & n\ri%$ x1 is )drawn1 & ! quill becomes fill$ ) a pi?like mat]ial =m+ septa1 :i* ext5d 9 diff]5t directions4 ,once a ye>1 usually 9 ! late summ] or 9 ! fall1 ! entire fea!r coat is *ang$4 ,?is process is call$ molt+4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! bird appe>s 9 a some:at depress$ condition1 ! h5 almo/ always ceases lay+4 ,birds also molt 9 ! spr+1 to a limit$ ext5t4 ,! male at ?is "t takes on ! s-call$ bre$+ plumage1 :i* is ! mo/ beautiful ( ! ye>4 ,x has rec5tly be5 e/abli%$ by ,rice1 t ! "y f[l1 9 rea*+ a /age ( egg production1 molts five times be=e ! lay+ p]iod beg9s4 ,! /ructure ( ! sk9 ( f[ls is simil> to t ( ! sk9 ( mammals4 ,! sk9 consi/s ( two lay]s ! out] portion1 or epid]mis1 & ! inn] true sk91 ! cutis1 corium1 or d]mis4 ,if we /udy a section ( sk9 f ! %ank region ( a f[l we f9d ! out] portion is diff]5tiat$ into two di/9ct regions1 ! rete ,malpighii & ! /ratum corneum4 ,! /ratum corneum is ! out] horny lay]4 ,! cells mak+ up ?is portion are fusi=m1 flatt5$1 & 9 regul> r[s4 ,! nuclei 9 ^! lay]s ( cells are n pron\nc$ly visible1 & ! outl9e ( ! cells n cle> 9 a section su* z us$ 9 our ord9>y me?ods ( /udy4 ,! corneum is a compact mass ( remnant cells :i* h lo/ ! appe>ance & _! texture ( liv+ cells4 ,x ?us becomes modifi$ into scales ^u ! sk9 surface4 ,betwe5 ! /ratum corneum & ! /ratum ,malpighii !re is ano!r zone :i* consi/s ( ! cells und]go+ a transitional /age f a cubical %ape to a m flatt5$ appe>ance1 & gradually becom+ m granul> & hyal9e4 ,! v>i\s p>ts ( ! epid]mis are 9 close g5etic relation%ip to "o ano!r4 ,! upp] lay] ( epi!lium is con/antly be+ desquamat$4 ,?is ca/+ (f is comp5sat$ = by a cont9u\s upw>d pu%+ ( its l[] elem5ts4 ,cell prolif]ation occurs 9 ! basal cells & 9 adjac5t cellul> /rata ( ! /ratum g]m9ativum1 or /ratum ,malpighii1 :]e ! elem5ts are (t5 se5 9 process ( mitosis1 or cell division4 ,! "y cells are gradually pu%$ upw>d4 ,dur+ _! c\rse !y assume ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! elem5ts compos+ ! lay]s ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,?is process is z foll[s3 ea* cell *anges fir/ into a cell ( ! /ratum ,malpighii2 !n1 :5 x comm5ces ! =mation ( k]atohyal91 x *anges into a cell ( ! /ratum granulosum2 lat] /ill1 into a cell ( ! /ratum lucidum2 & f9ally into an elem5t ( ! /ratum corneum1 :]e x gradually loses its nucleus1 cornifies1 & at la/ drops (f4 ,! mesod]mic portion ( ! sk9 consi/s ( loose1 subcutane\s connective tissue conta9+ "s fat4 ,! am\nt ( adipose tissue 9 ! subcutane\s lay] is subject to great v>iation2 !re are a few places 9 :i* !re is little or no fat4 ,! upp] portion ( ?is lay] conta9s a few ela/ic fib]s1 :i* int]lace & run 9 all directions4 ,num]\s r\nd or oval cells are f\nd 9 ! upp] region4 ,! l[] & middle portions ( ! corium are ri*ly suppli$ ) blood-vessels t]m9at+ into capill>ies1 :i* p5etrate ! portions bord]+ ! epid]mis4 ,n]ves giv+ (f t]m9al bran*es also occur4 ,! v>i\s colors ( ! sk9s ( f[ls are due to ! di/ribution ( v>i\s quantities ( two colors1 orange-yell[ & br[ni%-black4 ,! yell[ pigm5t is probably c>ot9 & xan?ophyll1 two pigm5ts conta9$ 9 association ) ! *lorophyll ( plants1 :i* ! bird obta9s 9 its fe$4 ,^! color+ matt]s 7 =m]ly call$ lipo*rome2 b z lipo*rome may be any color+ matt] ( fat1 x is n suffici5tly def9ite4 ,?is yell[ pigm5t1 :5 pres5t1 is diffus$ ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! cell4 ,:5 dilute1 x gives a yell[ hue2 :5 conc5trat$1 orange4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! epid]mis & 9 ! fatty masses ( & b5ea? ! corium1 & is probably id5tical ) ! yell[ color ( fat 9 o!r portions ( ! body & 9 ! yolk ( ! egg4 ,a yell[ %ank1 9 a heavily lay+ h51 soon loses a "p ( its pigm5t2 ?is is also not$ ( ! color+ matt] 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,?is fact indicates t ! color+ matt] ( ! fatty "p ( ! egg yolk is f ! same s\rce z t ( ! fat4 ,! draught ( ?is sub/ance is m ?an normally & ! res]ve is be+ drawn ^u4 ,fe$ ri* 9 zan?ophyll & c>ot9 cause int5se yell[ color$ yolks1 & fe$s poor 9 ^! sub/ances cause ! yolks to be a pale yell[4 ,cotton se$ meal conta9s two pigm5ts1 "o a yell[ cry/all9e sub/ance & ! o!r a br[ni% res9\s sub/ance4 ,bo? ( ^! pigm5ts are probably deposit$ 9 ! egg yolk4 ,! eggs ( "s h5s conta9 a l>ge quantity giv+ a light br[ni%-yell[ color to ! yolk4 ,! br[n or black-br[n pigm5t is c>ri$ 9 microscopic pigm5t granules1 :i* may be scatt]$ ?r\gh ! ord9>y cells or may be conf9$ to special pigm5t cells4 ,! =m] are conf9$ to ! epid]mis2 ! latt] may be f\nd 9 bo? lay]s1 b infrequ5tly 9 ! epid]mis4 ,:5 granules are pres5t 9 ! flatt5$ cells ( ! corium1 !y occupy ! nucle> region4 ,!y lie 9 %ort ?9 l9es :ile ^? ( ! "u portion ( ! ,malpighian lay] occur 9 oval gr\ps4 ,:]e ^! granules occur 9 ! rete lay]1 !y clu/] ar\nd ! nuclei4 ,9 ! color$ sk9 !re are d>k pigm5t granules f\nd 9 ! corium & to a less ext5t 9 ! rete lay]4 ,hanau has describ$ a def9ite cellul> body :i* he f\nd d5sely pack$ among ! black-br[n granules4 ,!re is a c5tral body :i* s5ds out bran*es 9 all directions4 ,9 v d>k sk9n$ %anks ^! ramify+ /r&s int]lace1 & =m a compact network1 :i* 9 _m cases is s ?ick z to give ! impression ( a homog5e\s mass4 ,"h & !re occur r\nd or oval pigm5t$ bodies1 :i* ,hanau conclud$ 7 ! />-%ap$ cells ) _! pseudopod-l app5dages contract$4 ,pigm5t cells commonly lie ar\nd blood-vessels1 cle>ly indicat+ _! c\rse4 ,!y frequ5tly =m a compact tube1 b m (t5 are limit$ to fragm5ts :i* only p>tly enclose ! vessels4 ,pigm5t cells occur 9 sev]al well-def9$ localities3 9 ! upp] portion ( ! cutis among ! closely int]wov5 /r&s ( connective tissue2 9 ! region bord]+ ! blood-vessels2 9 proximity to n]ves1 9 n]ve end+s & 9 surr\nd+ fat masses4 ,isolat$ granules are frequ5tly scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! l[] section ( ! corium4 ,b>r[s concludes t ! l[] bodies ( pigm5t play little or no "p 9 ! color ( ! ext]nal %ank1 z !y lie f> bel[ ! opaque connective tissue4 ,melan9 pigm5t granules are always conta9$ 9 ! pigm5t cells4 ,:5 f\nd 9 ! ,malpighian lay]1 ! pigm5t cells are ( an oval =m4 ,imm$iately bel[ ! epid]mis 9 ! %ank sk91 ext5ds a space less 9 wid? ?an ! r[ ( column> cells1 :i* is devoid ( pigm5t4 ,! br[n pigm5t is melan91 :i* 9 l>ge quantities takes on a black hue4 ,:ite sk9 does n conta9 sup]ficial pigm5t4 ,melan9 has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! /udy ( :ite %ank sk91 b x lay at consid]able dep? or 9 quantities insuffici5t to be noticeable4 ,9 "s bre$s ( f[ls1 z ! ,mottl$ ,h\dan1 !re are areas 9 :i* mu* melan9 is irregul>ly deposit$1 :i* circum/ance gives ! leg its mottl$ appe>ance4 ,! yell[ color is ! result ( a deposit ( ! yell[ pigm5t 9 ! fat ( ! %ank4 ,?is may be deposit$ 9 bo? lay]s ( ! sk91 or 9 ! corium alone4 ,:5 pres5t x is diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! entire cell z well z ?r\gh\t ! int]cellul> sub/ance4 ,9 "y birds ! ,malpighian lay] conta9s mu* yell[ pigm5t4 ,old h5s h only small quantities 9 ! corneum4 ,9 bre$s ) normal yell[ %anks old h5s t h nev] laid eggs %[ a deep orange color 9 bo? ! d]mis & epid]mis4 ,9 blue %ank$ birds melan9 is pres5t only 9 ! corium4 ,! black pigm5t is se5 ?r\gh ! semi-transp>5t ,malpighian /ratum1 mak+ x appe> blui% in/ead ( br[n or black4 ,! black %ank color results :5 melan9 appe>s 9 ! epid]mis4 ,two =ms ( black pigm5t occur 9 ! epid]mis3 granules 9 bo? lay]s & pigm5t cells 9 ! rete ,malpighii4 ,! gre5 %ank is produc$ :]e !re is pigm5t 9 ! epid]mis & num]\s melan9 pigm5t cells 9 ! upp] corium4 ,x is an optical effect due to melan9 ly+ "u ! semi-transp>5t yell[ epid]mis4 ,!re is no melan9 9 ! epid]mis4 ,9 ! beak ! corium ( ! sk9 is repres5t$ by a ?9 lay] locat$ betwe5 ! p]io/eum & ! /ratum ,malpighii4 ,num]\s blood-vessels pass into x1 & 9 ! s(t horn-l sk91 occur s5sory n]ve fib]s4 ,! nails orig9ate f ! epid]mis1 ( :i* !y are a modification4 ,! nails ( ! toes are b5t d[nw>d4 ,!y pres5t a convex dorsal surface & are concave v5trally4 ,! dorsal surface consi/s ( a horny plate1 :i* is set 9 a nail matrix4 ,! v5tral portion m]ges ) ! sides ( ! upp] half1 &1 z ! l[] portion is ! s(t] & we>s fa/]1 ! nail has a %>p po9t & edge4 ,! matrix is =m$ by a gr[? ( ! ,malpighian lay] ( ! cutis4 ,a fold ( sk9 lies ov] its po/]ior "p4 ,! epid]mic cells ( ! dorsal1 or nail1 "p1 & ! base ( ! v5tral "p gr[ fa/4 ,! out] cell lay] gradually becomes horn-l4 ,! spurs are conical ) a flat base4 ,! basal "p re/s ^u an enl>gem5t ( ! %ank bone4 ,s(t /ructure is f\nd betwe5 ! horny spur & ! bone4 ,! upp] cells1 l ^? ( ! nails & ( ! sk91 are con/antly be+ worn or ca/ (f1 & new cells pu% up f ! l[] lay]s ( cells4 ,^! newly =m$ flatt5$ cells soon become cornifi$4 ,! olde/ =mation is f\nd at ! tip & ! y\nge/ at ! base4 ,,embryology ,,( ,,! ,,*ick ,t a new individual may be br\ght into exi/5ce1 !re mu/ be accompli%$ ! union ( ! male elem5t1 or sp]matozoon1 ) ! female elem5t1 ! ovum4 ,?is union is call$ f]tilization4 ,9 ! f[l ?is f]tilization is accompli%$ at ! ant]ior portion ( ! oviduct1 aft] ! calyx has ruptur$ & dis*>g$ its yolk1 & be=e ! album5 has be5 =m$ ar\nd x4 ,! bla/od]m is f\nd on ! surface ( ! yolk4 ,"o sp]matozoon is all t is requir$2 9 fact1 only "o c be us$ 9 ?is union4 ,sp]matog5esis4--,! sp]matozoa are =m$ by ! sem9if]\s tubules ( ! te/is4 ,f ^! cells1 call$ ! sp]matogonia1 are =m$ o!r cells call$ sp]matocytes1 :i* 9 turn =m ! sp]matids1 ! imm$iate =]unn]s ( ! sp]matozoa4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( multiplication ! sp]matogonia divide repeat$ly by mitosis4 ,numb]s ( small cells are ?us produc$1 ea* conta9+ 9 its nucleus ! numb] ( *romosomes typical ( ! somatic cell ( t f[l4 ,9 ! second p]iod ! cells become l>g] & sp]matocytes ( ! fir/ ord] are =m$4 ,!n comes ! p]iod ( maturation1 dur+ :i* two succe$+ divisions rapidly occur4 ,! fir/ division results 9 ! =mation ( two cells exactly alike4 ,^! are sp]matocytes ( ! second ord]4 ,!y diff] f ! somatic cells 9 t !y conta9 only "o-half ! typical numb] ( *romosomes4 ,! second division produces two simil> sp]matids f "o sp]matocyte ( ! second ord]4 ,!re=e f\r sp]matids exactly alike may be =m$ f "o sp]matocyte ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,f ^! sp]matids ! sp]matozoa are =m$ 7,fig4 #ee74 ,! heads ( ! sp]matozoa conta9 ! nuclei d]iv$ f ! sp]matids2 ! necks conta9 ! c5trosomes2 & ! tail1 consi/+ ( ?ree p>ts is probably =m$ f ! protoplasm4 ,?ree p>ts ( ! tail are z foll[s3 fir/1 ! p>s conjunctionis1 :i* unites ! tail to ! neck2 second1 ! p>s pr9cipalis1 :i* con/itutes ! ma9 l5g? ( ! tail2 &1 ?ird1 ! p>s t]m9alis1 :i* consi/s ( an axial filam5t :i* transv]ses ! entire tail & is surr\nd$ by a protoplasmic %ea?4 ,og5esis4--,! ovum dur+ its =mation passes ?r\gh ?ree /ages4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,section ( ovum 9 a h54 #a4 ,nucleolus4 #b4 ,nucleus4 #c4 ,liquor folliculi4 #d4 ,/ratum granulosum4 #e4 ,follicul> cells4 #f4 ,!ca folliculi4 #g4 ,p]iph]al /roma4 ,! fir/ /age1 t ( division1 takes place be=e ! *ick is hat*$1 &1 accord+ to ,bradley1 comes to an end ab\t ! "t ( hat*+4 ,?is /age consi/s ( ! rapid =mation ( ova 9 ! female *ick4 ,9 ! second /age1 :i* beg9s ab\t ! "t ( hat*+1 !re is an increase 9 ! size ( ! units ( ! ov>y1 accompani$ by yolk =mation4 ,at ?is "t ea* ovum is 9 its own follicle 7,fig4 #ha71 & is surr\nd$ by a lay] ( cuboidal cells & a !ca4 ,! !ca is =m$ f ! adjac5t fibr\s /roma4 ,! ?ird /age1 t ( maturation1 comm5ces dur+ ! developm5t ( ! yolk & is complete aft] x has escap$ to ! oviduct4 ,maturation consi/s ( ea* cell's divid+ into two unequal p>ts4 ,9 ea* division ! cell is split into a small cell kn[n z ! pol> body1 :i* is ca/ (f & disappe>s1 & a l>g] cell1 :i* is ! ovum prop]4 ,9 ?is process half ( ! orig9al *romosomes are ca/ (f4 ,f]tilization4--,! sp]m travels rapidly2 exp]im5ts h %[n eggs to be f]tile laid tw5ty-f\r h\rs aft] s]vice by a male4 ,:5 ! ovum is dis*>g$ into ! ov>ian pocket x is surr\nd$ by sp]matozoa4 ,aft] ! male pronucleus has unit$ ) ! female pronucleus 9 ! s+le-cell$ ovum1 !re is a cleavage ( ! cell 9 ! long axis ( ! egg1 mak+ two cells2 & !n a cleavage at "r angles1 :i* progressively cont9ues1 makes ! mulb]ry-l mass4 ,! rema9+ cont5t ( ! egg consi/s ( food = ! developm5t ( ! embryo4 ,f ?is mass ( cells be=e ! egg is laid ! bla/od]m is =m$4 ,! cells ( ! bla/od]m are diff]5tiat$ into two lay]s4 ,! sup]ficial lay] is ! ectod]m & ! l[] lay] is ! entod]m4 ,9 ! newly laid egg ! bla/od]m may be obs]v$4 ,x is ab\t #d millimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,x has a transp>5t c5tral area1 ! zona pellucida1 :i* is locat$ ov] ! subg]m9al region4 ,!re is a p]iph]al1 less transp>5t area call$ ! zona opaca4 ,9 ! f]tile egg1 z soon z x is subject$ to ! prop] temp]ature1 cell multiplication 9 ! bla/od]m beg9s4 ,! fir/ signs ( su* *ange are not$ 9 ! pellucid area ( ! bla/od]m :]e embryonal traces appe> 9 ! =m ( ! p>allel l9es call$ ! plic primitiv1 :i* div]ge to =m ! cephalic dilatation4 ,at ab\t ?is "t takes place ! =mation ( ! myel5cephal\s columns1 9 :i* ! blood lakes exp& 9 ! surr\nd+ halones & 9 ! tracts along :i* pass colorless blood p>ticles4 ,^! tracts ext5d f bel[ ! cephalic expansion to ! p]iph]al s9uses1 z ! proto-v]tebr1 :i* beg9 to appe> at ! sides ( ! myelon4 ,! r$ color is acquir$ by ! blood1 & ! he>t by its movem5ts1 is made m manife/ z ! punctum sali5s4 ,a di/9ct membrane1 ! s]\s lay]1 is =m$ ^u ! g]m & ! bla/od]m4 ,! cephalic end ( ! embryo rises f ! surface ( ! bla/od]m1 & !n1 curv+ d[n1 s9ks into x1 =m+ = itself a k9d ( hood ( ! s]\s lay]4 ,?is hood gradually ext5ds f ! m>g9 ( ! fossa ov] ! body1 &1 meet+ a simil> fold =m$ by ! project+ & incurv$ tail1 closes ov] ! g]m on ! upp] side1 mak+ a circumscrib$ cavity1 :i* is ! amnion4 ,! progress ( diff]5tiation ( lay]s ( ! bla/od]m has1 meantime1 gone on b5ea?4 ,! s]\s lay] is 9 "p reflect$ f ! vascul> & f ! muc\s lay]4 ,! muc\s lay] is conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( ! inte/9al canal2 & beyond ?is "p1 :i* is at fir/ an op5 groove1 ! muc\s lay] exp&s ov] ! yolk1 :i* x ultimately incloses1 ! m>g9s ( ! vitellicle s =m$ contract+ & unit+ at ! side opposite ! embryo at a sort ( cicatrix1 to :i* ! la/ "p ( ! abdom9al yolk adh]es4 ,! vitellicle is ri*ly vascul>1 & ! surface next to ! yolk is augm5t$ by rug4 ,! f[l's egg1 at ab\t ! =tie? h\r1 %[s ! buds f :i* ! limbs are develop$4 ,a vesicle is se5 to protrude ne> ! anal end ( ! inte/9e1 :i*1 rapidly exp&+1 spreads ov] ! embryo1 acquir+ a close adhesion to ! amnion1 b rema9+ di/9ct f ! vitellicle1 ov] :i* x spreads4 ,x f9ally encloses ! album5 & int]poses itself betwe5 ! latt] & ! l9+ membrane ( ! %ell4 ,umbilical vessels are associat$ ) ?is membrane4 ,hunt] call$ ?is membrane ! allantois f its conta9+ ur9e1 & ,ow5 /ates t ! sac :i* surr\nds ! album5 acts z ! *orion or plac5ta2 = x is mo/ probable t f ?is surface ! album5 is absorb$ & ! *ick support$ on its developm5tal food4 ,! ext]nal "p ( ! sac app>5tly acts z lungs z x comes into contact ) ! %ell ( ! egg ?r\gh pores ( :i* !re is an ex*ange ( air4 ,oxyg5 is consum$ & c>bon dioxide is giv5 (f4 ,! blood 9 ! vessels ( ?is membrane is 9 color m l art]ial blood & t 9 ! int]ior m l v5\s blood4 ,! embryonic mass ( ! incubat+ egg always floats to ! top side4 ,z ! embryo gr[s x turns ^u its left side1 exhibit+ a pr(ile view2 x !n ind5ts ! yolk1 & f9ally almo/ divides x into two p>ts4 ,! p]iph]al lay]s ( cells rise f ! m>g9 ( ! g]m mass1 & ext5d & contract t[>d ! opposite pole4 ,?is tract ( g]m sub/ance is ! primitive /reak4 ,along ! m$ian l9e x next =ms a furr[1 :i* /ops %ort ( ! ends ( ! /reak4 ,?is /reak t]m9ates opposite ! po9t f :i* ! g]m beg9s1 & swells into ! head4 ,! m$ian furr[ exp&s ^u x4 ,! cephalic bord]s are next unit$ by a ?9 lay] ( epi!lial cells above ! furr[1 conv]t+ x into a cavity1 or v5tricle4 ,! myelonal furr[ is simil>ly cov]$ by a lay]1 unit+ ! lat]al columns4 ,! embryonal trace becomes long]1 n>r[]1 & b5ds r\nd ! vitellus4 ,a lay] ( epi!lial cells =ms a network ov] ! :ole dorsal surface ( ! embryo4 ,oblique /ri appe> 9 ! broad5+ g]m mass radiat+ f ! primitive /reak4 ,^! indicate divisional segm5ts4 ,^! beg9n+s ( aponeurotic septa probably accompany & support n]v\s productions f ! myelon columns4 ,two transv]se con/rictions beg9 to divide ! cephalic enl>gem5ts into ?ree lobes1 ! second & ! ?ird ( :i* exp& into vesicles4 ,an accumulation ( cells at ! side ( ! middle expansion appe>s to add greatly to its bread?4 ,?is =ms ! basis ( ! eyes4 ,! diff]5tiation & ! conflu5ce ( ! cell con/itu5ts ( ! primitive /reak h l$ to ! =mation ( a pair ( album9\s cords along ! sides ( ! m$ian furr[1 =m+ ! myelon prop]4 ,! cells ext]ior to & above !m are conv]t$ into muscle & fibr\s septa2 & b5ea? ! column is a jelly-fill$ cyl9d]1 ) a transv]sely /riat$ %ea?1 po9t$ at bo? ends1 =m+ ! notocord4 ,its ant]ior po9t passes a little 9 advance ( ! ac\/ic vesicle4 ,b5ea? ! notocord & surr\nd+ ! bla/ema is /ret*$ ! vegetative1 or muc\s1 lay] ( cells1 9 contact ) ! yolk4 ,bo? ! head & ! tail ( ! n[ cyl9drical embryo are lib]at$ f ! surface ( ! yolk4 ,a fold ( ! bla/ema1 reflect$ f ! "u "p ( ! head1 s9ks l a p\* into ! yolk1 & soon includes ! rudim5t ( ! he>t1 l a b5t cord1 :i* beg9s to oscillate ab\t ! sev5? day4 ,f ! midl9e ( ! inf]ior surface ( ! embryo1 or its muc\s lay]1 two longitud9al plates desc5d1 div]g+ into ! yolk-sub/ance1 & =m ! primitive inte/9al groove4 ,! oph?almic vesicle elongates & curves outw>d until ! two ends almo/ come into contact4 ,betwe5 ^! two ends & b5ea? ! delicate tegum5t>y lay] connect+ !m ! cry/all9e l5s is =m$4 ,ab\t ! same "t1 ! otoli?s appe> 9 ! ac\/ic vesicles1 :i* h n[ acquir$ a c>tilag9\s case4 ,! c]ebral lobes beg9 to be =m$ by a small fold1 ris+ lat]ally & ov]lapp+ ! =ep>t ( ! second enl>gem5t1 :i* has exp&$ to great] bread?4 ,! olfactory cavities appe> z small cutane\s follicles4 ,! two myelonal columns1 exp&+ betwe5 ! e> sacs & rec$+ s z to %[ ! notocord b5ea?1 b5d upw>d & inw>d1 & unite1 to be cont9u$ into ! po/]ior ( ! optic lobes1 ?us comm5c+ ! c]ebell> bridge across ! ep5cephalic v5tricle4 ,! encephalic vacuities h begun to be fill$ by ! granul> basis ( ! c]ebell> sub/ance4 ,! inte/9al groove beg9s to be conv]t$ into a canal at its two ends4 ,b5ea? ! ant]ior end1 & beh9d ! he>t1 !re gradually accumulates ! cellul> basis ( ! liv]4 ,! comm5cem5t ( ! developm5t ( ! organ ( he>+ is by a sup]ficial depression ( ! cephalic bla/ema to meet ! process f ! encephalon1 :i* =ms ! ac\/ic n]ve4 ,! l9+ ( ! depression becomes1 on closure ( ! slit1 ! prop] tunic ( ! labyr9?4 ,! vesicle ( ! labyr9? swells into f\r dilatations1 ( :i* ?ree are ampull> & ! f\r? co*le>4 ,! ampull> dilatations ext5d into v sl5d] canals1 at fir/ almo/ 9 ! same plane1 by :i* !y are br\ght into mutual communication4 ,z ! canals exp& & elongate1 !y assume _! *>act]i/ic relative positions z ext]nal1 sup]ior1 & po/]ior1 ! po/]ior end ( ! ext]nal canal be+ ext5d$ b5ea? ! po/]ior canal4 ,! co*le> dilatation curves z x elongates4 ,an inn] lay] becomes di/9ct f ! common membrane & =ms ! ac\/ic lam9a4 ,z 9 ! developm5t ( ! e>1 s 9 ! developm5t ( ! eye1 ! production ( ! n]ve process f ! c]ebral c5t] is ! fir/ /ep2 ! infold+ ( ! sup]ficial bla/ema to meet ! n]ve is ! next4 ,! s-call$ cutane\s follicle becomes a circumscrib$ sac or vesicle1 9 :i* ! *anges & ! developm5t next proce$1 conv]t+ ! vesicle into an ac\/ic labyr9? or into an eyeball4 ,9 ea* case neural elem5ts ( two v]tebr become modifi$ to lodge & to protect ! s5se organs1 =m+ respectively ! recess call$ otocrane & t call$ ! orbit4 ,! "o is locat$ betwe5 ! occipital & ! p>ietal v]tebr1 & ! o!r betwe5 ! frontal & ! nasal v]tebr4 ,! "p ( ! out] bla/emal lay] ( ! head :i* s9ks to meet ! process f ! mes5cephalic dilatation1 rapidly *anges its follicul> into a vesicul> /ate4 ,! vesicle ?us =m$ elongates1 b5d+ ar\nd ! cell mass 9 :i* ! cry/all9e l5s is =m$1 & ! meet+ ( ! two ends results 9 =m+ ! *oroid fissure at ! l[] "p ( ! eyeball4 ,! mes5cephalic process1 or optic n]ve1 exp&s at ! po/]ior ( ! circul> sac1 &1 9 ! c\rse ( mutation into eyeball1 l9es its po/]ior "p ) a lay] :i* becomes ! ret9a4 ,! transp>5t lay] cov]+ ! =ep>t ( t sac & ! inclos$ l5s is =m$ into ! cornea4 ,o!r lay]s ( ! sac are =m$ into ! *oroid1 ! cili>y processes1 ! iris1 & ! pect54 ,( ! app5dages ( ! eye ! membrana nictitans is ! fir/ to develop4 ,!n develop ! l[] lid &1 la/1 ! upp] lid4 ,aft] ! developm5t ( ! ess5tial organs ( s5se1 ! sk9 is develop$4 ,modifications ( ! sk9 =m ! out] e> & ! eyelids4 ,!n are =m$ ! maxill>y ar*1 ! hyoidean ar*1 & ! scapul> ar*4 ,! vessels :i* return ! blood f ! vitellicle are ! transv]se & ! longitud9al vitell9e ve9s4 ,! fir/ are s call$ because ^! trunks pass to ! embryo at "r angles to its axis4 ,!y are ! l>ge/ return+ canals4 ,! longitud9al ve9s ext5d p>allel ) ! axis ( ! embryo2 !y are ( small] size4 ,! "r ant]ior longitud9al ve9 becomes ! "r precaval & receives ! rema9s ( ! "r transv]se vitell9e ve91 z ! "r v5a azygos4 ,! left ant]ior longitud9al vitell9e ve9 is also p]si/5t z ! left precaval1 & ent]s 9 ! mature bird1 z 9 ! embryo1 at ! po/]ior or ! l[] "p ( ! auricle4 ,! left transv]se vitell9e ve9 is also subsequ5tly r$uc$1 by receiv+ only ! v]tebral ve9s ( t side1 to ! condition ( a s-call$ azygos ve94 ,! ma9 trunk ( ! po/-caval is ! result ( ! return+ vessels f ! abdom9al visc]a & ! po/]ior limbs at a lat] /age ( developm5t4 ,!re is b "o pr9cipal po/]ior longitud9al vitell9e ve91 & ?is ana/omoses ) ! left transv]se ve9 z x ent]s ! embryo4 ,! auricle1 :i*1 by its dilatation ( ! left side1 appe>s to be d\ble1 receives ! v5\s blood at its "r division4 ,! left "o1 subsequ5tly receives ! ve9s f ! lungs1 is ultimately sep>at$ f ! left precaval & ! "r auricle to :i* t ve9 is conduct$ & re/rict$4 ,! v5tricul> "p ( ! he>t1 at ! second day ( incubation1 is 9 ! =m ( a b5t tube1 curv+ f beh9d d[nw>d1 =w>d1 to ! "r & upw>d1 cont9u+ ins5sibly into ! "p repres5t+ ! aortic bulb1 9 :i* ! septum fir/ appe>s1 & ultimately divid+ ! v5tricle into two4 ,at ?is /age ! pi]s ( ! maxill>y ar* appe> z buds f b5ea? ! eyeballs4 ,! naso-premaxill>y process is above _! int]space4 ,! pi]s ( ! m&ibul> ar* & ^? ( ! hyoidean ar* foll[ 9 close succession4 ,! bla/emal base ( ! scapul> ar* projects slightly at ! sides ( ! fovea c>diaca2 ! pi]s1 n[ sep>ate1 ultimately meet 9 front ( ! he>t1 & accompany x 9 its retrograde c\rse4 ,! mes5cephalon is ! l>ge/ ( ! segm5ts ( ! bra9 :i* are connect$ ) ! eyeballs4 ,:5 ! he>t has assum$ its =m z su*1 di/9ct f ! great trunks ris+ f x1 ! two art]ies f ! base ( ! v5tricles appe>4 ,! art]y to ! "r bifurcates1 "o division supply+ ! head & ! w+s1 ! o!r w9d+ ov] ! "r bron*us4 ,t to ! left also bifurcates4 ,its left division ar*+ ov] ! left bron*us & ana/omos+ ) ! "r ar* a little bel[ & beh9d ! apex ( ! he>t4 ,its "r division ar*es ov] ! back ( ! he>t1 b5d+ to ! "r & ana/omos+ ) ! "r aortic ar* j above ! out] ductus art]iosus4 ,ea* ( ^! divisions ( ! left prim>y art]ial trunks s5ds (f a bran* to its correspond+ lung4 ,z ! lung exp&s1 & especially at ! beg9n+ ( ! act ( expansion t[>d ! close ( ! p]iod ( incubation1 ! blood is div]t$ into ! pulmon>y vessels1 & ! *annels bel[ !m %r9k & disappe>4 ,! left prim>y art]y is reta9$ z ! trunk ( ! pulmon>ies1 &1 ?r\gh ! *anges 9 ! int]ior ( ! v5tricle1 ?is art]y comes to dis*>ge exclusively ! v5tricle correspond+ to ! "r 9 mammals4 ,! reta9$ aorta rises f ! left v5tricle4 ,! air-sacs beg9 at ! l[] po9t ( ! lung1 appe>+ l small hydatids1 & ext5d fur!r & fur!r into ! abdom51 9 front ( ! kidneys4 ,!y are at fir/ full ( fluid4 ,soon aft] ! developm5t ( ! abdom9al air-sacs o!rs are develop$4 ,! lungs are at fir/ free1 b aft]w>d beg9 to be atta*$ to ! ribs & to ! sp9e4 ,9 ! female embryo we fir/ obs]ve two oviducts1 "o on ea* side ( ! basis1 or /roma ( ! ov>ium1 :i* appe>s 9 a relation to ! primordial kidneys simil> to t ( ! te/es 9 ! male4 ,at ! p]iod :5 ! p]man5t kidneys h s5t _! uret]s to ! cloaca1 ! oviducts h be5 develop$ z prolongations f t "p1 &1 up to a c]ta9 po9t ( developm5t1 !y are ( equal size & l5g?4 ,subsequ5tly ! left oviduct alone cont9ues to gr[2 ! "r rema9+ /ation>y or %rivels2 occasionally x may be disc]n$ z a rudim5t>y 9 ! mature bird1 b usually all trace ( x has disappe>$ be=e hat*+4 ,! left oviduct exp&s above or at its free end into ! infundibul> orifice1 :]e its p>ietes are v ?94 ,z x desc5ds1 ^! increase 9 ?ickness1 & ! eff]5t tube gradually acquires ! texture & =m ( an inte/9e4 ,x is atta*$ & support$ by a duplicature ( ! p]itoneum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,embryological /udies4 ,a4 #a1 ,! *orion & allantois4 #b1 ,! allantoic cavity4 #c1 ,! amnion4 #d1 ,! yolk sac4 #e1 ,a small quantity ( rema9+ album94 ,b4 ,bra9 tube ( a *ick #be h\rs old %[+ p>tly clos$ bra9 tube ) elev5 folds ( neurom]es4 ,c4 ,! developm5t ( ! alim5t>y tract4 #a1 ,tra*ea4 #b1 ,lung4 #c1 ,esophagus4 #d1 ,/oma*4 #e1 ,pancreas4 #f1 ,bile duct4 #g1 ,v-%ap$ loop ( midgut4 #h1 ,cloaca4 #i1 ,vitello-inte/9al duct4 ,d4 #a to #f inclusive1 same z ,c4 #g1 ,cca4 #h1 ,cloaca4 ,e4 ,kidneys1 ,wolffian bodies1 & te/es ( an embryo *ick4 #a1 ,! adr5als4 #b1 ,! g5ital4 #c1 ,primitive oviduct4 #d1 ,p]man5t kidney4 #e1 ,uret]s4 #f1 ,duct ( primitive kidney :i* conducts ! excretion into ! cloaca4 ,f4 ,a transv]se section ( a *icks' head #dh h\rs ( incubation4 #a1 ,=ebra94 #b1 ,pigm5t$ lay] ( ret9a4 #c1 ,ectod]m4 #d1 ,n]v\s "p ( ret9a4 #e1 ,optic /alk4 #f1 ,invag9ation ( ectod]m to =m ! l5s rudim5t4 ,at fir/1 ! "r & ! left ov>ia are simil> 9 size1 b ! symmetry is soon di/urb$ by conc5tration ( developm5t 9 ! left ov>y4 ,! "r ov>y rema9s /ation>y & ultimately1 9 mo/ birds1 completely disappe>s by ! "t ! *ick is ready to em]ge f ! %ell4 ,?ree fetal membranes are develop$1 ! *orion1 ! amnion1 & ! allantois4 ,!re is also develop$ ! yolk sac 7,figs4 #hb & #hc74 ,! amnion is connect$ to ! body wall at ! umbilicus4 ,! amniotic fluid is f\nd 9 ?is sac4 ,! *orion is at fir/ surr\nd$ by ! album51 b z ! album5 is absorb$ ! *orion comes 9 contact ) ! inn] %ell membrane4 ,x is probable t ! *orion consi/s ( ectod]m on ! outside & ( mesobla/ on ! inside4 ,! amnion1 on ! o!r h&1 is =m$ ( mesobla/ on ! outside & ectod]m on ! inn]1 or embryonal1 side4 ,! allantois spr+s f ! embryo soon aft] ! f\r? day1 & develops f ! v5tral wall ( ! primitive gut4 ,by "s embryologi/s1 ! yolk sac is includ$ 9 ! embryonic membranes4 ,x comm5ces z ! splan*no-pleure surr\nd+ ! mass ( yolk4 ,x becomes small] z ! yolk is absorb$4 ,at fir/ its outl9e is r\nd b lat] its walls become fold$ 94 ,! yolk is dissolv$ & absorb$ by ! entod]mic l9+ ( ! sac1 & is c>ri$ to ! embryo by ve9s call$ ! vitell9e ve9s 7,fig4 #hc1 ,no4 ,b1 #d71 :i* ramify on ! walls ( ! sac4 ,"s "t aft] ! f\rte5? day1 ! *ick assumes a position l5g?wise )9 ! egg %ell s t ! head is ne> ! broad end ( ! egg4 ,! head is b5t ^u ! *e/ & ! beak is usually tuck$ "u ! w+4 ,lat] ! head assumes a position1 by a d\ble curve ( ! neck1 s t ! beak is 9 contact ) ! air cell4 ,ab\t ! fifte5? day1 ! coils ( inte/9e1 :i* h]et(ore h be5 outside ! abdom9al cavity1 are )drawn into ! abdom9al cavity1 z is also ! abdom9al yolk sac4 ,z ! *ick pips out ( ! %ell1 ! umbilicus becomes occlud$4 ,! out] upp] "p ( ! tip ( ! beak is provid$ ) a %ort1 /\t1 spike-l arrangem5t1 call$ ! egg too?4 ,on ! tw5tie? day ?is "p ( ! beak is =c$ aga9/ ! wall ( ! egg & gradually breaks ?r\gh ! egg %ell4 ,! brea?+ by ! lungs comm5ces "s "t be=e hat*+2 ?is is evid5c$ by ! *ick )9 ! %ell giv+ *irp+ s\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,a4 ,longitud9al section ( *ick1 #d days incubation4 #a1 ,cephalic fold4 #b1 ,caudal fold4 #c1 ,true amniotic cavity4 #d1 ,epibla/4 #e1 ,somatic mesobla/4 #f1 ,visc]al mesobla/4 #g1 ,hypobla/4 #h1 ,future anua /ill clos$4 #i4 ,! allantoic vessicle4 #aj1 ,! mes5t]y4 #aa1 ,inte/9e4 #ab & #ac1 ,yolk sac4 #ad1 ,cavity ( true amnion4 #ae1 ,! m\?4 #af1 ,pleurop]itoneal cavity4 #ag1 ,=e gut4 ,b4 ,membranes ( ! *ick at ! ?ird day ( incubation4 #a1 ,membrane surr\nd+ album94 #b1 ,amnion4 #c1 ,allantois4 #d1 ,vitellicle4 ,c4 ,! =e "p ( an embryo *ick at ! second day4 #a1 ,mes5cephalon4 #b1 ,! eye4 #c1 ,olfactory organ4 #d1 ,m&ibul> ar*4 #e1 ,maxill>y ar*4 #f1 ,maxill>y ar*4 #g1 ,hyoidean ar*4 #h1 ,scapul> ar*4 #i1 ,depression organ ( he>+4 #aa1 ,process f encephalon = union ) n]ve ( he>+4 ,d4 ,primitive blood-vessels at second day ( incubation 7,ow574 #a1 ,mesocephalon4 #b1 ,! "r ant]ior longitud9al ve94 #c1 ,! eye4 #d1 ,! m&ibul> ar*4 #e1 ,! hyoidean ar*4 #f1 ,scapul> ar*4 #g1 ,! same4 #h1 ,! v5tricul> portion ( ! he>t4 #i1 ,! "r transv]se vitell9e ve94 #aj1 ,po/]ior longitud9al vitell9e ve94 #aa1 ,v]tebral ve94 #ab1 ,tribut>ies ( same4 #ad1 ,! auricle4 #af1 ,aortic bulb4 ,e41 ,a transv]se section ( *ick embryo1 #bi h\rs incubation4 #a1 ,neural canal4 #b1 ,neural cre/4 #c1 ,somatopleure4 #d1 ,splan*nopleure4 #e1 ,omphalomes5t]ic ve94 #f1 ,aorta4 #g1 ,notocord4 #h1 ,pleurop]itoneal cavity4 ,f4 ,*ick embryo at ! n9? day ( incubation4 #a1 ,allantois4 #b1 ,amnion4 #c1 ,air cell at l>ge end ( ! egg4 #d1 ,egg %ell4 #e1 ,out] %ell membrane4 #f1 ,inn] %ell membrane4 #g1 ,yolk sac4 #h1 ,album9 7,bradley74 ,! circulation ( ! blood is some:at l ! circulation 9 ! fetus ( quadrup$s4 ,! primitive tubul> he>t 7,fig4 #hc1 ,no4 ,d1 #h7 is b5t 9 ,s-%ape2 ! two ends are connect$ ) blood-vessels2 & lat]1 by ! developm5t ( ! septa1 ! cavities ( ! adult he>t are def9$4 ,! =am5 ovale is f\nd 9 ! m$ian septum4 ,?is op5+ br+s ! "r & ! left side into communication4 ,! septa betwe5 ! cavities ( ! he>t are complet$ by ! end ( ! six? day4 ,! two vitell9e1 or omphalo-mes5t]ic1 ve9s c>ry ! blood conta9+ ! nutri5ts f ! yolk sac to ! liv]1 :]e x is mix$ ) ! blood dra9$ f ! inte/9es by ! portal ve91 & ?is blood is f9ally c>ri$ by ! po/]ior v5a cava into ! "r auricle ( ! he>t4 ,f "h x passes ?r\gh ! =am5 ovale to ! left auricle2 f ! left auricle x ent]s ! left v5tricle1 f :i* x is =c$ into ! aorta1 & !n out into ! sy/emic circulation4 ,practically all1 if n all1 ( ! blood ( ! pulmon>y art]y is s5t into ! aorta ?r\gh a connection ) ?is vessel call$ ! ductus art]iosus4 ,d[n appe>s ab\t ! ?irte5? day ( incubation4 ,!re are two k9ds ( d[n on ! *ick1 "o long1 :i* comes fir/1 ab\t two or ?ree days be=e hat*+2 a second1 or f9e1 d[n =ms at ! roots ( ! o!r4 ,z ! embryo develops ! air cell1 at ! l>ge end ( ! egg :i* is develop$ betwe5 ! two %ell membranes1 or membran putam91 gradually enl>ges4 ,,outl9e ,,= ,,laboratory ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,*ick ,! objects ( laboratory /udy ( ! embryos are z foll[s3 #a4 ,to /udy ! liv+ embryo4 #b4 ,to /udy ! entire embryo3 ,) ! dissect+ microscope1 z an opaque object4 ,) ! comp\nd microscope aft] kill+1 h>d5+1 cl>ify+1 & m\nt+4 #c4 ,to /udy embryos by dissection1 9 lat] /ages4 #d4 ,to /udy ! s]ial sections ) ! comp\nd microscope4 ,,! ,,liv+ ,,embryo ,! egg is op5$ "u w>m physiological salt solution3 #j4h p] c5t4 sodium *lorid 9 di/ill$ wat] heat$ to a temp]ature ( #ch;,c4 ,gradually pick away ! %ell at ! l>ge end4 ,note t !re are two membranes & an air cell4 ,/rip (f ! membranes4 ,:5 suffici5t %ell & membranes h be5 remov$ f ! l>ge end1 inv]t ! op5 end ( ! egg 9 ! salt solution & all[ ! cont5ts to fl[ out4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 n to break ! yolk4 ,! embryo1 or bla/od]m1 lies ^u ! surface ( ! yolk1 :i* is usually turn$ ) ?is body upp]mo/4 ,sep>ate ! bla/od]m by cutt+ ar\nd ! outside ( ! area vasculosa4 ,9 do+ ?is a small pair ( slightly curv$ scissors is ne$$4 ,aft] ! embryo1 or bla/od]m1 has be5 sep>at$1 g5tly float x into a wat* cry/al ) ! flat bottom subm]g$ 9 ! salt solution4 ,! wat* cry/al ) its cont5ts may n[ be g5tly lift$ out4 ,next remove ! vitell9e membrane4 ,! vitell9e membrane is ! delicate transp>5t membrane cov]+ ! bla/od]m1 ,! embryo is n[ ready = /udy4 ,,! ,,prep>ation ,,= ,,/udy ,,( ,,entire ,,embryos ,,& ,,sections ,! foll[+ processes may be us$ 9 kill+ embryos up to f\r days1 or n9ety-six h\rs1 ( age4 ,aft] remov+ ! embryo z describ$ above1 spread ! bla/od]m out 9 ! wat* cry/al & pipette (f ! salt solution4 ,all[ x to /& till ! edge ( ! tissue beg9 slightly to adh]e4 ,!n sl[ly add ! kill+ fluid by aid ( a pipette1 dropp+ x on ! c5t] ( ! embryo4 ,! pipette mu/ be held l[ or ! me*anical int]f]5ce w dislocate ! p>ts4 ,old] embryos are subm]g$ ) _! membranes intact into ! kill+ fluid4 ,! quantity ( fluid %\ld be sev]al times ! bulk ( ! specim54 ,kle95b]g's picrosulphuric acid may be us$ z a kill+ fluid4 ,?is fluid is a saturat$ solution ( picric acid plus #b p] c5t4 sulphuric acid1 to :i* is add$ twice its volume ( wat]4 ,*ick embryos f "o to two days old %\ld be left 9 ?is fluid f "o & "o-half to six h\rs4 ,embryos f two to f\r days old two & "o-half to six h\rs4 ,remove ! specim5 f ! kill+ fluid1 & place x 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,*ange ! alcohol e tw5ty-f\r h\rs until ! color ceases to come out ( ! embryo4 ,pres]ve 9 #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,if ! specim5 is to be m\nt$ :ole1 transf] x f #hj p] c5t41 !n to #ej p] c5t41 !n to #ce p] c5t41 &1 f9ally to wat]4 ,small embryos %\ld rema9 9 ea* fluid ?irty m9utes & l>ge ones sixty m9utes4 ,! foll[+ me?od may be us$ = /a9+ embryos3 ,dilute ,delafield's hematoxyl9 ) f\r times its volume ( wat]4 ,to e #f cubic c5timet]s ( ?is dilut$ hematoxyl91 add "o drop ( ,kle95b]g's undilut$ picrosulphuric acid1 & leave specim5 9 ! fluid ?us prep>$ until x is /a9$ ?r\gh4 ,?is w require f "o to ?ree h\rs4 ,n[ pass up ?r\gh ! s]ies ( alcohols to #gj p] c5t4 ,next extract ! excessive /a9 ) #a p] c5t4 hydro*loric acid 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,wa% repeat$ly ) #gj p] c5t4 alcohol to free f ! acid2 !n transf] ! specim5 to #hj p] c5t4 alcohol & leave 9 ?is = sev]al h\rs = complete removal ( ! acid2 !n transf] to #ie p] c5t4 alcohol = ?irty m9utes4 ,all[ ! specim5 to rema9 9 absolute alcohol = "o h\r4 ,introduce a lay] ( oil ( cloves or xylol b5ea? ! alcohol4 ,?is may be done by gradually all[+ ! fluid to run d[n ! side ( ! bottle4 ,aft] ! embryos h sunk into ! oil & begun to appe> transp>5t1 remove ! fluid & add fre% oil4 ,aft] ! specim5 is suffici5tly transp>5t1 m\nt 9 balsam1 support+ ! cov] slip s t x w n re/ on ! embryo4 ,9 /a9+ = section1 place ! embryo 9 borax c>m9e f ! #ej p] c5t4 alcohol & leave twelve h\rs4 ,!n wa% 9 #ej p] c5t4 alcohol2 aft] :i* transf] to #gj p] c5t4 alcohol = six h\rs4 ,cl>ify 9 oil ( c$> or oil ( cloves1 & place 9 melt$ p>aff9 = two h\rs4 ,imb$ 9 p>aff91 & section4 ,embryos may be h>d5$1 imb$d$1 & section$ aft] ! usual me?ods1 us+ ei!r p>aff9 or celloid91 & ! sections /a9$ ) hematoxyl9 & eos9 aft] section+4 ,,po9ts ,,to ,,be ,,obs]v$ ,,9 ,,! ,,/udy #a4 ,,! ,,embryo ,,tw5ty-,,n9e ,,to ,,?irty-,,f\r ,,h\rs ,,old ,,) ,,f ,,t5 ,,to ,,f\rte5 ,,somites4 ,a /udy ( ! egg4 ,9 op5+ ! egg1 obs]ve t ! %ell membranes are d\ble4 ,obs]ve t ! %ell is por\s4 ,note ! air cell at ! l>ge end ( ! egg & note t ! space or cell lies betwe5 ! out] & ! inn] %ell membrane4 ,aft] ! egg cont5ts h dropp$ into ! salt solution1 note ext5d+ f ! ends ( ! yolk ! twi/$ d5s] cords ( album54 ,^! are ! *alaz1 :i* act z /ays to ! yolk4 ,note t ! yolk is surr\nd$ by a delicate membrane4 ,?is is ! vitell9e membrane4 ,! yolk is ! true ovum & s]ves z food = ! develop+ embryo4 ,a /udy ( ! liv+ embryo4 ,note ! am\nt ( yolk t is cov]$ by ! bla/od]m4 ,note ! slipp]-%ap$1 transp>5t c5t] ( ! bla/od]m4 ,?is is ! area pellucida4 ,9 ! c5t] ( ?is !re is a n>r[ :ite /reak4 ,! area opaca is ! area ly+ ext]nal to ! area pellucida4 ,9 ?is !re is ! area vasculosa4 ,a /udy ( ! embryo entire1 includ+ ! vascul> area4 ,! blood isl&s %[ z irregul> deeply /a9$ masses 9 ! vascul> area4 ,at ?is /age !y are inclos$ 9 wide ana/omos+ tubes1 ! extra-embryonic blood-vessels1 :i* op5 p]iph]ally into ! b\nd+ s9us t]m9alis4 ,! foll[+ /ructures may be id5tifi$3 ,! neural tube =m+ ! axis ( ! embryo4 ,9 ! ant]ior region may be not$ ! =ebra91 ! optic vesicles1 ! midbra94 ,! h9dbra9 is subdivid$ into ! neurom]es4 ,! cord1 or myelon1 ( ! neural tube back ( ! h9dbra9 is clos$ 9 front b is op5 beh9d4 ,! head projects above ! bla/od]m4 ,! fold :i* unites ! v5tral surface ( ! head ) ! bla/od]m is call$ ! head fold4 ,! div]g+ folds ( ! myelon encloses ! primitive /reak4 ,on ea* side ( ! neural tube are ! mesobla/ic somites4 ,! s]ies is cont9u$ beh9d by ! undivid$ segm5tal plate4 ,! he>t is b5ea? ! h9dbra94 ,! portion ( ! body cavity 9 :i* x lies1 is b\nd$ 9 front by ! head fold & beh9d by ! div]g+ limbs ( ! splan*no-pleure4 ,its po/]ior or v5\s end receives ! vitell9e ve9s f ! vascul> area4 ,! ant]ior or art]ial end is prolong$ into ! v5tral aorta4 ,note t ! axis is some:at b5t4 ,! head fold ( ! amnion is not$ to ext5d ov] ! ant]ior end ( ! head4 ,a /udy ( ! transv]se sections4 ,! sections ab\t #bj micro-millimet]s ?ick %\ld be cut s]ially1 & s m\nt$4 ,kn[+ h[ _m micro-millimet]s ! embryo is 9 l5g? w enable "o to make a diagram ( ! fetal /ructure 9 ! /udy ( ! s]ies ( transv]se sections4 ,! sections %\ld be drawn 9 ! ord] /udi$ s z to obta9 relative /ructural ideas4 ,) ! microscope /udy ! foll[+ regions3 #a4 ,optic vesicle4 #b4 ,midbra94 #c4 ,po/]ior half ( ! he>t4 #d4 ,myelon 9 ! clos$ region4 #e4 ,myelon 9 ! op5 region4 #f4 ,?r\gh ! primitive /reak4 #b4 ,,! ,,embryo ,,tw5ty ,,to ,,tw5ty-,,f\r ,,h\rs ,,old ,,) ,,f ,,two ,,to ,,six ,,somites4 ,comp>e ! p>ts 9 ?is embryo ) ^? ( ! embryos f tw5ty-n9e to ?irty-f\r h\rs old4 ,note & describe ! relations ( ! embryo1 ! area pellucida1 & ! area opaca4 ,note h[ mu* ( ! yolk ! bla/od]m cov]s4 ,9 /udy+ ! entire embryos1 note ! condition ( ! m$ull>y plate4 ,obs]ve if ! tube is =m$ 9 any "p2 h[ f> back ! head plate ext5ds1 if ! he>t c be se52 & if ! primitive /reak is long] or %ort] ?an 9 #a4 ,/udy relations ( /ructures & make draw+s ?r\gh ! po9t ( div]g5ce ( ! walls ( ! =e gut2 also ?r\gh ! somatic region1 & ?r\gh ! primitive /reak4 ,/udy all p>ts1 z ! head fold1 ! he>t1 & ! =e gut4 #c4 ,,! ,,embryo ,,=ty-,,f\r ,,to ,,=ty-,,eight ,,h\rs ,,old ,,) ,,tw5ty-,,f\r ,,to ,,tw5ty-,,n9e ,,somites4 ,remove ! embryo ) ! entire area1 & pres]ve x4 ,note & c>efully describe ! *anges visible to ! nak$ eye s9ce ! ?irty-f\r? h\r4 ,9 mak+ a /udy ( ! entire embryo we note !re has be5 a rapid gr[? ( ! dorsal surface ( ! head1 :i* has become m b5t4 ,?is b5d1 9 ! region ( ! midbra9 is call$ ! cephalic flexure4 ,! =ebra9 & "p ( ! midbra9 =m almo/ a "r angle ) ! re/ ( ! head4 ,! head is compress$ lat]ally & free f ! bla/od]m4 ,! dorsal side ( ! trunk is turn$ up1 & !re is a twi/+ ( ! axis ( ! embryo j back ( ! he>t4 ,! tail fold beg9s at ab\t ?is "t & may or may n be visible4 ,! optic vesicles are relatively small] 9 relation to ! bra9 ?an 9 #a4 ,note ! "p ( ! =ebra9 to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,obs]ve ! inn] & out] lay]s ( ! ret9a1 ! l5s1 ! *oroid fissure1 & ! cavity ( ! vitre\s humor4 ,note ! auditory vesicles & :e!r or n !y are clos$ sacs4 ,note t ! he>t has gr[n 9 l5g? & has become d\bl$ on itself4 ,! two ends are fix$4 ,note ! relation ( ! he>t to ! aff]5t & eff]5t blood-vessels4 ,note t two1 & possibly ?ree1 visc]al p\n*es are visible4 ,note :e!r or n !y are v5tral to ! midbra94 ,! fir/1 ! hyom&ibul> p\*1 is b\nd$ 9 front by ! fir/ visc]al1 or m&ibul>1 & beh9d by ! second visc]al1 ar*4 ,! second p\* is b\nd 9 front by ! hyoid1 & beh9d by ! ?ird visc]al ar*4 ,! ?ird p\* is b\nd$ 9 front by ! ?ird visc]al ar*1 & beh9d by ! f\r?4 ,note ! numb] ( mesobla/ic somites & ! condition ( ! mesobla/ic segm5tal plates4 ,note h[ f> back ! =egut is clos$4 ,locate ! head fold ( ! amnion1 & note h[ f> back x is clos$4 ,note *anges t h tak5 place 9 ! vascul> area4 ,9 /udy+ ! sections x w be f\nd t a section cut transv]sely to ! trunk w pass horizontally ?r\gh ! =ebra9 & ?r\gh ! midbra94 ,/udy a section ?r\gh ! trunk a %ort di/ance beh9d ! he>t4 ,obs]ve ! elevation ( ! axis ( ! body4 ,note ! way 9 :i* ! lat]al folds1 or ! lat]al limit+ sulci1 9 ! somatopleure1 delimit ! embryonic f ! extra-embryonic area4 ,note ! appe>ance ( ! mes5*yme1 ! approximation ( ! two dorsal aort1 ! appe>ance ( ! amniotic folds4 ,obs]ve 9 ! mesod]m ! po/]ior c>diac ve9s1 & ! myotomes1 or muscle plates4 ,! scl]otome is made up ( ! mass ( mes5*yme betwe5 ! myotome1 on ! "o h&1 & ! neural tube & ! noto*ord1 on ! o!r4 ,note ! fold+ ( ! splan*no-pleure1 & note if !re is pres5t ! ,wolffian duct1 or ! nephrotome4 ,/udy sections ?r\gh ! optic vesicles4 ,note if !re is ! beg9n+ ( ! l5s4 ,d y note ! div]ticula ( ! ph>ynx8 ,c y id5tify ! clos$ amnion & ! *orion8 ,/udy sections ?r\gh ! auditory pit4 ,note fusion ( ! gill p\*es ) ! ectod]m4 ,note ! blood-vessels4 ,/udy sections ?r\gh ! region ( ! he>t1 ?r\gh ! roots ( ! vitell9e ve9s1 & ?r\gh ! primitive /reak1 if x is /ill pres5t4 ,= ?is /udy x w appe> t ! ant]ior end has develop$ 9 advance ( ! po/]ior end4 ,! tail fold has probably j begun4 ,write a description ( ! ph>ynx1 & ( ! circulation at ?is /age4 #d4 ,,! ,,embryo ,,sixty-,,eight ,,to ,,sev5ty-,,two ,,h\rs ,,old ,,) ,,c]vical ,,flexures ,,=m$4 ,9 a /udy ( ! liv+ embryo note ! *anges visible to ! nak$ eye s9ce =ty-eight h\rs old4 ,note ! diff]5ce 9 ! blood-vessels ( ! vascul> area4 ,"n ! art]ies & ve9s4 ,note ! beat+ ( ! he>t4 ,9 a /udy ( ! entire m\nt note t a second1 ! c]vical flexure1 has appe>$ 9 ! head4 ,note t ! tail fold is well =m$4 ,note ! position ( ! embryo on ! bla/od]m4 ,det]m9e if ! amnion is completely clos$4 ,note ! olfactory pits on ! v5tral surface ( ! head1 a %ort di/ance 9 front ( ! optic /alks4 ,note ! tel5cephalon1 a rudim5t ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es & an ext5sion ( ! prim>y =ebra94 ,x is bilob$ ant]iorly4 ,! optic /alks are atta*$ to ! floor ne> ! ant]ior end ( ! ?alam5cephalon4 ,note ! infundibul> region1 :i* is ! depress$ region beh9d ! optic /alks4 ,9 ! ro( ( ! ?alam5cephalon !re is a %ort div]ticulum1 ! epiphysis4 ,! mes5cephalon1 or midbra91 =ms ! apex ( ! cranial flexure1 & is unit$ to ! h9dbra9 by a n>r[ i/hmus4 ,! met5cephalon1 or rudim5t>y c]ebellum1 appe>s z a ?ick portion on ! mo/ ant]ior division ( ! h9dbra94 ,! re/ ( ! h9dbra9 is provid$ ) a transp>5t ro( & con/itutes ! myel5cephalon1 or ! rudim5t>y m$ulla oblongata4 ,obs]ve ! inn] & ! out] wall ( ! optic cup1 ! l5s1 ! *oroid fissure1 & ! po/]ior1 or vitre\s1 *amb]4 ,note ! =m ( ! otocy/1 or auditory sac4 ,note above :i* visc]al ar* x lies4 ,note ! numb] ( visc]al clefts4 ,! visc]al ar*es are =m$ by ! ?ick5+ ( ! walls ( ! b\nd+ clefts4 ,! visc]al ar*es are z foll[s3 ! fir/ is ! m&ibul>1 or hyom&ibul>1 ar*1 :i* is 9 front ( ! fir/ cleft4 ,f ?is !re is develop$ ! l[] jaw4 ,note if !re is a maxill>y process aris+ f ! dorsal angle ( ! ar*4 ,! second ar* is ! hyoid ar*1 :i* is locat$ beh9d ! fir/ cleft4 ,!n foll[ 9 ord] ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 & ! fif? visc]al ar*es4 ,note above ! m&ibul> ar* ! rudim5t>y trigem9al ganglion1 & above ! hyoid ar* ! rudim5t>y ac\/ico-facialis4 ,! latt] is 9 contact ) ! ant]ior walls ( ! auditory sac4 ,! rudim5t>y glosso-ph>yngeal ganglion is not$ above ! ?ird visc]al ar*4 ,! vagus1 or pneumoga/ric1 ganglion is locat$ above ! f\r? & ! fif?4 ,note ! =m & ! position ( ! he>t4 ,note ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior limb rudim5t 9 ! trunk4 ,9 a /udy ( ! sections x is f\nd t cuts transv]se to ! trunk pass ab\t horizontally ?r\gh ! =ebra94 ,at ?is age ! foll[+ sections ( ! embryo %\ld be /udi$3 ,fir/1 ?r\gh ! h9dbra91 at :i* level w be not$ ! auditory sacs1 ! neurom]es1 ! trigem9al1 ! ac\/ico-facialis1 & ! glosso-ph>yngeal & ! vagus ganglion4 ,second1 ?r\gh ! upp] "p ( ! ph>ynx1 at :i* level w be obs]v$ ! midbra91 ! h9dbra91 ! visc]al p\*es1 ! n]ves1 & ! blood-vessels4 ,?ird1 ?r\gh ! *oroid fissure ( ! optic cups4 ,note ! p>ts ( ! eye1 &1 on ! o!r side ( ! section1 ! he>t4 ,f\r?1 a /udy ( a section ?r\gh ! olfactory pits4 ,fif?1 a /udy ( a section ?r\gh ! pancreatic & ! hepatic div]ticula4 ,six?1 a /udy at ! beg9n+ ( ! allantois ?r\gh ! h9d-gut4 ,at ?is age x is ( int]e/ to /udy ! sy/ems ( organs4 ,obs]ve ! mann] 9 :i* ! splan*no-pleure folds to =m ! walls ( ! inte/9e4 ,note ! comm5cem5t ( ! mes5t]y4 ,note t ! =emo/ "p ( ! alim5t>y tract is =m$ f ! /omodeal invag9ation ( ! ectod]m4 ,! hypophysis is =m$ f a dorsal outgr[? ( ?is4 ,note its relation to ! bra94 ,! foll[+ /ructures are =m$ f outgr[?s ( ! ectod]m at ?is /age3 ,fir/1 ! visc]al p\*es4 ,second1 ! m$ian rudim5t ( ! ?yroid4 ,?is is an outgr[? f ! ph>ynx betwe5 ! two hyoid ar*es4 ,?ird1 ! rudim5t>y lungs1 :i* develop 9 a pair f a m$ian v5tral div]ticulum ( ! alim5t>y tract1 j beh9d ! la/ visc]al p\*4 ,! esophagus is j po/]ior to ?is4 ,! esophagus1 v %ort at ?is /age1 is cont9u\s ) a slightly wid] "p t develops into ! /oma*4 ,f\r?1 ! fir/ liv] div]ticulum1 &1 at a %ort di/ance po/]ior to ?is1 ! second liv] div]ticulum4 ,fif?1 ! pancreas is at a po9t :]e ! inte/9e op5s v5trally4 ,x fir/ appe>s z a slight ?ick5+ ( ! dorsal angle ( ! inte/9e4 ,six?1 ! v5tral wall ( ! h9d-gut =ms a wide evag9ation4 ,sev5?1 ! beg9n+ ( ! allantois4 ,aft] ! :ole s]ies ( transv]se sections h be5 /udi$ & drawn1 con/ruct a longitud9al section ( ! fetus1 includ+ a recon/ruction ( ! alim5t>y tract4 ,at ?is /age ! he>t is a simple tube4 ,! foll[+ divisions are di/9ctly visible3 ! auricul> portion1 ! v5tricul> portion1 ! s9us v5osus1 & ! bulbus art]iosus4 ,! union ( ! two ductus ,cuvi]i & ! ductus v5osus =m ! s9us v5osus4 ,! two ductus ,cuvi]i are =m$ by ! union ( ! ant]ior & ! po/]ior c>d9al ve9s4 ,! ductus v5osus is =m$ by ! union ( ! small "r & ! l>ge left vitell9e ve94 ,^! latt] ve9s return ! blood f ! yolk sac4 ,! s9us v5osus empties into ! s+le auricle above :i* x is locat$4 ,! s+le auricle is lat] divid$ into two *amb]s1 ! "r & ! left auricle4 ,at ?is /age x is wide/ 9 ! lat]al direction4 ,! auricle empties directly into ! v5tricle4 ,! v5tricle lies v5trally & beh9d ! auricle4 ,?is location is due to ! b5d+ ( ! he>t at ?is /age ( developm5t4 ,its h9dmo/ portion =ms ! future apex ( ! he>t4 ,if ! s]ies ( sections be /udi$ f ! po/]ior =w>d1 ! v5tricle w be fir/ to appe> 9 ! sections4 ,j b5ea? ! auricul> portion ( ! he>t !re is ! bulbus art]iosus4 ,! bulbus art]iosus soon divides into a numb] ( aortic ar*es4 ,!re is an asc5d+ pair 9 ea* ( ! visc]al ar*es4 ,! dorsal aorta is =m$ by ! union ( ! aortic ar*es above ! visc]al ar*es4 ,! aortic ar*es are fir/ cont9u$ a %ort di/ance =w>d z ! c>otid art]ies4 ,! dorsal1 or po/]ior1 aorta passes backw>d "u ! noto*ord4 ,! dorsal aorta divides into two p>allel aort :i* give (f on ea* side ! vitell9e art]ies4 ,note o!r bran*es ( ?is aorta4 ,! ve9s at ?is /age consi/ ( ! ant]ior & po/]ior c>d9al1 ! ductus v5osus1 ! ductus ,cuvi]i1 & ! vitell9e ve9s4 ,make draw+ ( ! circulatory sy/em aft] a completion ( ! /udy ( ! s]ies ( sections4 ,make a /udy ( ! n]v\s sy/em accord+ to h9ts already giv54 ,! dorsal & ! v5tral roots ( ! sp9al n]ves are giv5 (f sep>ately1 & second>ily unite4 ,f ! neurobla/s ( ! cord !re are at regul> int]vals outgr[?s repres5t+ ! v5tral roots4 ,f ! neural cre/ !re develop segm5tal collections ( neurobla/s :i* =m ! sp9al ganglia1 f :i* ! dorsal sp9al n]ve roots develop4 ,9 fact ?is developm5tal /age c be obs]v$ 9 embryos only =ty-eight h\rs old1 fir/ appe>+ z a l9e ( cells spr++ on ea* side f ! angle betwe5 ! neural canal tube & ! ext]nal epibla/4 ,9 ! section f ! embryo sev5ty-two h\rs old !re are obs]v$ ! rudim5ts ( ! developm5t ( ^! sp9al n]ves4 ,f\r prim>y ganglia develop 9 ! neural cre/ ( ! head4 ,^! ganglia are z foll[s3 ! ac\/ico-facialis ganglia1 :i* is locat$ ov] ! hyoid ar*2 ! ganglia ( ! trigem9us1 :i* is locat$ ov] ! m&ibul> ar*2 ! ganglia ( ! glosso-ph>yngeus1 :i* is locat$ ov] ! ?ird visc]al ar*2 & ! ganglia ( ! vagus1 :i* is locat$ ov] ! ?ird & ! f\r? visc]al cleft4 ,9 ?is /age ( developm5t ! trigem9al & ! ac\/ico-facialis are cle>ly visible4 ,on ea* side & dorsal to ! aorta is not$ ! ,wolffian body1 or mesonephros4 ,! ,wolffian body 7,fig4 #hb1 ,e7 consi/s ( a s]ies ( tubules imb$d$ 9 ! mes5*yme4 ,! op5+s into ! ,wolffian duct lie j b5ea? ! c>d9al ve94 ,9 a /udy ( ! ,wolffian duct det]m9e j h[ f> ant]iorly & h[ f> po/]iorly x ext5ds4 ,note :e!r x empties into ! cloaca4 ,ea* tube beg9n+ 9 a bl9d extremity is lat] dilat$4 ,x has a ?9 wall1 & is situat$ ne> ! m$ian portion ( ! ,wolffian body4 ,! tubule prop] pass+ transv]sely1 op5s into ! duct4 ,! upp] wall ( ! ?9 wall$ "p is invag9at$ by a mass ( mes5*yme t receives a small vessel f ! dorsal aorta4 ,! ,malpighian corpuscle1 consi/+ ( a glom]ule & ,b[man's capsule1 is ?us e/abli%$4 ,9 ! /udy ( ! f\r days old *ick note ! fur!r developm5t ( ^! p>ts4 ,9 a /udy ( a *ick f\r days1 or n9ety-six h\rs old1 note to :at ext5t ! yolk is cov]$ by ! bla/od]m4 ,x w be not$ t ! embryo lies 9 ! extra-embryonic cavity4 ,?is cavity is b\nd$ above by ! *orion & bel[ by ! splan*no-pleure4 ,9 remov+ ! amnion f ! embryo1 note ! relation to ! somatic umbilicus4 ,note ! relation ( ! splan*nic umbilicus to ! splan*no-pleure4 ,:at relation has ! allantois to ! above8 ,9 exam9+ ! head1 locate ! c]ebral hemisph]es1 & note _! developm5t4 ,locate ! p9eal gl&4 ,note *anges 9 ! olfactory pit & ! eye4 ,locate ! l5s & ! *oroid fissure4 ,note t ! maxill>y process ( ! m&ibul> ar* lies b5ea? ! eye & beh9d ! olfactory pits4 ,note ! otocy/ & ! relations ( ! o!r ar*es to ! above /ructures4 ,9 a /udy ( ! trunk1 note ! tail1 ! allantois1 ,wolffian ridges1 ! he>t1 & ! condition & ! position ( ! rudim5t>y limbs4 ,make draw+ ( embryo f ! side view4 ,c>efully cut (f ! head imm$iately beh9d ! la/ visc]al ar*1 & /udy & draw ! /ructures obs]v$ on ! v5tral side4 ,note ! maxill>y processes1 ! m&ibul> & ! hyoid ar*1 ! nasal pits1 & ! fronto-nasal process1 :i* is j beg9n+ its developm5t4 ,9 a /udy ( transv]se sections obs]ve f y\r draw+ at :at level ! section is made4 ,/udy & draw a section made ?r\gh ! region ( ! ant]ior limbs4 ,note ! sp9al ganglion1 ! muscle plate1 or myotome1 ! cond5sation ( mes5*yme ar\nd ! noto*ord1 ! pancreas1 ! liv]1 & ! inte/9e2 & note ! di/ribution ( ! mes5*yme4 ,note ! v5tral roots ( ! sp9al n]ves1 & ! neurobla/s 9 ! sp9al cord4 ,9 section+ ! embryo f be=e backw>d1 ! fir/ sections w pass horizontally ?r\gh ! h9dbra9 & ! midbra9 region4 ,note ! p>ts1 includ+ ! auditory vesicle4 ,9 ! fir/ s]ies ( sections also locate ! ganglia ( ! pneumoga/ric1 or vagus1 ! ac\/ico-facialis1 ! trigem9us1 & ! glosso-ph>yngeal n]ves4 ,note ! noto*ord & ! c>d9al ve9s4 ,aft] ! disappe>ance ( ! e>1 we obs]ve ! midbra91 :i*1 is locat$ at "o end ( ! section1 & ! cord at ! o!r end4 ,! region betwe5 lies j above ! ph>ynx4 ,9 ! foll[+ s]ies /udy ! visc]al ar*es4 ,note ! ?ird pair ( cranial1 or motor ocul>1 n]ves4 ,?is latt] n]ve spr+s f ! floor ( ! midbra94 ,f ! v5tral prolongation ( ! floor ( ! ?alam5cephalon !re arises ! infundibulum4 ,! hypophysis is locat$ j b5ea? ! infundibulum4 ,at ?is /age ! hypophysis appe>s z a tube to empty into ! m\?4 ,?is is an +r[? ( ! oral epi!lium4 ,9 a /udy ( a section ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! eye we %\ld obs]ve ! l5s & optic /alk4 ,?is is 9 ! region ( ! optic *iasm4 ,note ! *oroid fissure & ! p9eal gl&1 ! latt] appe>+ j beyond ! eyes4 ,j =w>d lies ! tel5cephalon1 or rudim5ts ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,9 a /udy ( ! alim5t>y tract we note t ! m\? is b\nd$ by ! m&ibul> ar*es4 ,note ! maxill>y processes1 & ! v5tral surface ( ! head4 ,a f+]-l div]ticulum1 ext5d+ f ! ro( ( ! ruptur$ d\ble membrane1 =m]ly sep>at+ ! ph>ynx f ! ar*es1 =ms ! hypophysis4 ,! great developm5t ( ! visc]al p\*es makes ! ph>ynx r complex4 ,9 /udy+ sections horizontally ?r\gh ! ph>yngeal region note ! v>i\s visc]al ar*es & p\*es4 ,note ! art]ies ( ! ?yroid div]ticulum4 ,9 ! s]ies note ! *ang$ developm5t ( ! lung rudim5ts1 ! glottis1 ! esophagus1 ! tra*ea1 & ! bron*i4 ,! bron*i appe> 9 pairs4 ,note t ! liv] has assum$ proportions1 & t x surr\nds ! common trunk ( ! vitell9e ve9s1 :i* x divides into two p>ts4 ,! s9us v5osus lies close to ! he>t4 ,! ductus v5osus is also surr\nd$ by ! liv]4 ,above ! tip ( ! v5tricle we note a dilatation :i* repres5ts ! /oma*4 ,! hepatic1 or bile duct is locat$ imm$iately beh9d ! /oma*4 ,?is duct is =m$ by ! fusion ( ! "r & ! left duct4 ,locate1 draw1 & describe ! pancreas2 trace ! inte/9e2 locate ! splan*nic umbilicus1 or yolk /alk2 locate ! allantois /alk1 & trace its connection ) ! h9d-gut4 ,9 ! s]ies1 locate & /udy ! ,wolffian ducts1 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,mll]ian duct1 ! embryonic kidney1 or mesonephros1 ! p]man5t kidney1 or metanephros4 ,! ur9o-g5ital ridge is made up ( all ! above except ! la/ nam$4 ,! ur9o-g5ital ridge =ms a r\nd$ projection on ea* side ( ! mes5t]y into ! dorsal angles ( ! body cavity4 ,! ,wolffian ducts empty into ! cloaca4 ,!re are two ducts :i* may be trac$ f> =w>d1 & :i* are f\nd to ext5d backw>d along ! lat]al m>g9 ( ! ridge to ! cloaca4 ,along ! great] "p ( _! l5g? we note tubules empty+ into !m4 ,beg9n+ ne> ! ant]ior end ( ! ur9o-g5ital ridge1 we note t ! ,mll]ian ducts arise f a ?ick5$ l9e ( epi!lium4 ,! great] "p ( ! ridge is =m$ by ! mesonephros4 ,?is is made up ( a s]ies ( tubules 9 ea* ( :i* we may di/+ui% two p>ts z foll[s3 a tuft ( capill>ies f ! aorta =m+ ! glom]ules1 surr\nd$ by a ?9 wall$ invag9at$ capsule1 mak+ up ! ,malpighian corpuscle2 & ! tubules prop]4 ,! tubules lead f ! corpuscles1 or glom]ules1 to ! ,wolffian duct4 ,! g]m9al epi!lium con/itutes ! ess5tial portions ( ! gonad1 or ov>y1 or te/is4 ,! g]m9al epi!lium arises f a ?ick5+ ( ! p]itoneum ( ! m$ian wall ( ! ridge4 ,! gonad is f\nd ne> ! ant]ior end ( ! ridge4 ,at ab\t ?is age ( ! embryo !re %\ld appe> ! primitive ov>y or te/is4 ,ne> ! po/]ior t]m9ation ( ! ,wolffian duct & f ! dorsal div]ticulum !re arises ! uret]1 or metanephros duct4 ,9 ^! s]ies !re %\ld be /udi$ ! he>t & circulation1 :i* w be f\nd simil> to ! sections f ! embryo sev5ty-two h\rs old4 ,"w out a summ>y ( ! relations ( ! allantois & ! yolk /alk to ! inte/9es2 ! relations ( ! ,wolffian ducts to ! inte/9es2 ! orig9 ( ! uret]s f ! ,wolffian ducts2 ! relations ( ! lungs1 ! liv]1 & ! ?yroid gl&2 ! relations ( ! blood-vessels2 a /udy ( ! muscle plates2 ! relations ( epiphysis1 hypophysis1 infundibulum1 m\?1 & ph>ynx2 ! relations ( ! vagus1 or pneumoga/ric1 trifacial1 ac\/ico-facialis1 & glosso-ph>yngeal n]ves to ! visc]al ar*es4 ,9 addition to ! /udy ( embryos at ! end ( ea* ( ! fir/ f\r days ( incubation1 a /udy %\ld be made ( pres]v$ museum specim5s ea* ( :i* repres5ts ! developm5t ( a day up to & includ+ ! tw5ty-fir/ day4 ,,! ,,d]ivatives ,,( ,,! ,,g]m-,,lay]s ,f ! ?ree prim>y g]m-lay]s are develop$ ! v>i\s tissues & organs ( ! body by metamorphoses :i* may be ref]r$ to ! two fundam5tal processes ( specialization1 or ! adaptation ( /ructure to function1 & ( unequal gr[?1 :i* latt] results 9 ! =mation ( folds1 ridges1 & con/rictions4 ,f ! ectod]m are produc$3 ,! epid]mis & its app5dages1 includ+ ! nails1 ! epi!lium 9 connection to ! fea!rs & ! fea!rs4 ,! infold+s ( ! epid]mis1 includ+ ! epi!lium ( ! m\?1 epi!lium ( ! saliv>y gl&s & ! ant]ior lobe ( ! pituit>y body1 or hypophysis4 ,! epi!lium ( ! nasal tract ) its gl&s & communicat+ cavities4 ,! epi!lium l9+ ! ext]nal auditory canal1 includ+ ! out] /ratum ( ! membrana tympani4 ,! l9+ ( ! anus4 ,! epi!lium ( ! conjunctiva & ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! cornea1 ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,! sp9al cord1 ! bra9 ) its outgr[?s1 includ+ ! optic n]ve1 ! ret9a1 & ! po/]ior lobe ( ! pituit>y body4 ,! epi!lium ( ! inn] e>4 ,f ! entod]m are produc$3 ,! epi!lium ( ! respiratory tract4 ,! epi!lium ( ! dige/ive tract1 f ! back "p ( ! ph>ynx to ! anus1 includ+ its associat$ gl&s1 ! liv]1 & ! pancreas4 ,! epi!lial p>ts ( ! middle e> & ( ! eu/a*ian tube4 ,! epi!lium ( ! ?ymus & ! ?yroid bodies4 ,f ! mesod]m are develop$3 ,connective tissue 9 all its modifi$ =ms1 su* z bone1 c>tilage1 lymph1 blood1 fibr\s & areol> tissue4 ,muscle tissue4 ,all endo!lial cells1 z ( jo9t-cavities1 bursal sacs1 lymph sacs1 blood-vessels1 p]ic>dium1 & endoc>dium1 pleura1 & p]itoneum4 ,! sple54 ,! kidneys & uret]s4 ,! te/icles & ! sy/em ( excretory ducts4 ,! ov>y & oviduct4 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,/ructures ,,= ,,/udy ,x is hop$ t ! foll[+ sugge/ions w be helpful 9 ! laboratory "w4 ,directions = ,dissect+ ,muscles4--,! muscles t are br\ght into great play 9 movem5ts ( ! bird's limbs are d>k c>m9e 9 color1 :ile ^? :i* are n br\ght greatly into use are pale or :ite 9 color4 ,! t5dons are made up ( :ite fibr\s connective tissue1 are v d5se1 & pe>ly :ite 9 color4 ,9 secur+ a bird = dissection ( muscles x is be/ to select "o 9 r poor fle%1 z ! fat is annoy+4 ,! bird may be *lor(orm$ or kill$ 9 a bell j> by aid ( illum9at+ gas4 ,aft] ! bird is dead pluck all ! fea!rs & imm]se x 9 a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( =maldehyde or ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,x is be/ to puncture ! abdom9al wall s t ! fluid may at once fill ! abdom9al cavity & m readily ga9 access to ! *e/ cavity2 & to puncture ! sk9 at v>i\s po9ts s t ! liquid may m quickly become dissem9at$ among ! muscul> /ructures4 ,po/-mortem *anges quickly take place if ^! precautions are n tak54 ,! liquid surr\nd+ ! c>cass %\ld be at lea/ twice ! quantity ( ! bulk ( ! c>cass4 ,! fir/ dissection %\ld be to lay b>e ! d]mal muscles4 ,! d]mal muscles are ( two k9ds1 true d]mal & d]mo-osse\s4 ,! d]mal muscles h _! orig9 & ins]tion 9 ! sk91 & control ! movem5ts ( ! diff]5t gr\ps ( fea!rs4 ,! d]mo-osse\s h _! orig9 on "s "p ( ! skeleton1 & ins]t to ! integum5ts4 ,! d]mal muscles v>y ) ! *>act]i/ics ( ! bird1 we d n f9d all ! kn[n d]mal muscles 9 any "o specim54 ,a cock ( ! ,corni% bre$ w %[ ^! muscles be/ develop$4 ,birds possess an enorm\s sy/em ( m9ute muscles divid$ up into an inf9ite numb] ( fasciculi1 to act h>moni\sly ^u ! fea!r quills & to agitate collectively ! plumage4 ,by ! aid ( a l[-p[] l5s ! action ( ! fea!r muscles 9 ! l>ge quill butts ( ! w+ or ! tail may be /udi$4 ,! muscles may be /udi$ 9 gr\ps z outl9$ 9 ! text4 ,make an incision ?r\gh ! sk9 d[n to ! bone on ! sup]ior "p ( ! head1 p>allel & close to ! base ( ! upp] m&ible1 & ext5d+ completely across4 ,f ! out] end ( ?is make an incision backw>d & d[n to ! skull & po/]iorly4 ,! muscles ( ! upp] "p ( ! neck w !n be expos$4 ,! /raight incision %\ld ext5d to ab\t a half in* on ! inside ( ! upp] eyelid ( ! same side4 ,reflect ! flap ( sk9 f ! top ( ! skull1 & c>efully exam9e ! "u side ( x 9 ! m$ian l9e1 :]e x ov]lies ! frontal region4 ,! d]mo-frontalis w be obs]v$ if x be pres5t4 ,9 _m birds1 especially 9 females1 x may n be disc]nible1 & may be consid]$ abs5t4 ,to expose ! circumcon*a make an incision completely ar\nd ! e>2 !n c>efully dissect to ! e> base4 ,a d]mal circul> muscle %\ld be obs]v$4 ,to expose ! d]mo-temporalis ext5d ! longitud9al incision d[n ! back ( ! neck to a po9t betwe5 ! clavicul> heads1 c>ry+ x j ?r\gh ! sk9 & ab\t "o-f\r? ( an in* to ! side ( ! m$ian l9e4 ,remove ! sk9 f ! ?roat & ! ant]ior portion ( ! *e/4 ,lay op5 ! al> & p>apatagial duplicatures ( ! sk94 ,?is exposes a numb] ( d]mal muscles4 ,! d]mo-temporalis is n[ obs]v$ to ext5d f a small depression j above & ant]ior to ! temporal fossa4 ,x makes slight atta*m5ts to ! temporal muscle1 :i* x cov]s1 & ext5ds backw>d z a ?9 ribbon-%ap$ muscle1 ! fib]s bl5d+ ) ^? ( ! cleido-tra*ealis1 & becomes lo/ ^u ! sk9 9 front & opposite ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,at times its fib]s bl5d ) ^? ( ! d]mo-t5sor patagii4 ,z ! musculature ( ! f[l is loosely arrang$1 ! re/ ( ! dissection is easily done if c>e be ex]cis$4 ,! ligam5ts may be dissect$ aft] ! completion ( ! /udy ( muscles1 us+ ! same subject or1 a two p\nd broil] be prep>$ by kill+ 9 ! gas *amb]1 pluck+ ! fea!rs & p>boil+ j till ! fle% becomes t5d] & is easily remov$1 x w be obs]v$ t all /ructures c be remov$ f ! po9ts expos+ ! ligam5ts di/9ctly4 ,! ligam5ts appe> swoll5 & m easily obs]v$ = /udy4 ,directions = ! ,/udy ( ! ,visc]a4--,c>efully remove ! "r & ! left abdom9al & ?oracic walls1 all[+ a /rip ( tissue to rema9 9 ! m$ian l9e to hold ! organs 9 _! normal position4 ,to op5 ^! cavities x is necess>y to use ! bone saw & ! scalpel4 ,! organs may n[ be /udi$ f ea* side4 ,to make a longitud9al section ?r\gh ! m$ian l9e1 select a small bird1 "o weigh+ n m ?an #b p\nds1 kill1 & pres]ve 9 a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( =maldehyde = ?ree days4 ,!n ) a %>p1 ?91 long-blad$ knife make an incision at "o sweep ?r\gh ! m$ian l9e ( ! body d[n to ! back bone1 & ) ! bone saw section ?r\gh ! v]tebr4 ,if x is difficult to cut ?r\gh ! brea/-bone1 saw ?r\gh be=e mak+ ! incision4 ,9 small birds ! entire cut may be made )\t ! aid ( ! saw4 ,directions = ! ,/udy ( ,art]ies4--,art]ies %\ld be inject$4 ,ve9s are usually m or less fill$ ) blood s t ! trac+ ( ^! is n s difficult z ! trac+ ( un9ject$ art]ies4 ,n]ves are :ite & no difficulty is usually enc\nt]$ 9 trac+ !m4 ,! c\rses ( art]ies1 ve9s1 & n]ves are side by side1 & _m ( !m1 z 9 mammals1 are arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( ve9s1 art]ies1 n]ves1 ! ve9s be+ 9 front4 ,! injection app>atus consi/s ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 air-compression *amb]1 to :i* is atta*$ a pressure pump4 ,a manomet] made ( glass tub+ #f millimet]s 9 diamet]1 inside measurem5t4 ,?is tube is p>tly fill$ ) m]cury1 & a scale 9 c5timet]s is made f ! top ( ! "r-h& tube 7,fig4 #hd1 ,no4 #h74 ,?is rul+1 or gauge1 %\ld be ab\t #ae c5timet]s long4 ,ext5d+ f ! "r extremity ( ! ,u-tube is a small rubb] tub+ :i* is atta*$ to ! *amb] conta9+ ! injection fluid2 & ext5d+ f ! inf]ior "p ( ?is *amb] is ano!r tub+ :i* has ! injection ne$le atta*$ to ! free end4 ,! injection %\ld be done "u #abj millimet]s pressure4 ,! /op cock ( ! pressure *amb] is releas$ suffici5tly to raise ! m]cury 9 ! ,u-tube six c5timet]s1 :i* multipli$ by #b1 ! am\nt ( "w requir$ to raise two columns1 makes #abj millimet]s pressure4 ,if ?is pressure be ma9ta9$1 all vessels %\ld be inject$ )\t rupture4 ,! same process may be us$ 9 inject+ ! air cells ?r\gh ! tra*ea4 ,! inject+ mat]ial may consi/ ( "o "p f9ely sift$ pla/] ( ,p>is1 f\r p>ts wat]1 & suffici5t g5tian violet to make a violet color4 ,= ! color+1 r$ anil9e may be us$ 9 prep>+ ?is mat]ial4 ,! dye %\ld be dissolv$ 9 ! wat] to be us$ 9 mak+ ! injection liquid4 ,caution mu/ be us$ & ! "w rapidly done1 z ! pla/] soon sets1 or becomes solid1 9 ! ne$le or 9 ! tub+4 ,a small cannula %\ld be us$1 s9ce ! endo!lial l9+ ( ! art]ies are easily injur$ & difficulty may ?us be creat$4 ,select = art]ial dissection an old cock1 z 9 a bird ( ?is k9d ! art]ies are l>g] & ! difficulties are r$uc$4 ,select = ble$+ & injection ! is*iadic art]y 9 ! ?igh region4 ,) ! %>p po9t ( ! ?9 blade ( a knife make an incision l5g?wise ( ! art]y be+ c>eful n to /rip back ! endo!lial l9+ ( ! art]y4 ,all[ z mu* ( ! blood z w escape be=e inject+2 9 fact1 ! art]ies %\ld be ?or\ghly empti$1 s t !re is no long] dang] ( a clot's plugg+ "s vessel & ?us prev5t+ its fill+4 ,s9ce ! blood ( mo/ birds coagulates 9 ab\t ?irty seconds1 ?is "w mu/ be done rapidly1 c>e be+ ex]cis$ to keep ! fl[ runn+ z long z possible4 ,aft] ble$+ is complet$1 ins]t ! cannula & tie ! vessel tightly ar\nd ! cannula to prev5t ! escape ( ! inject+ fluid4 ,see t all connections are suffici5tly tight to prev5t ! escape ( liquid "u pressure4 ,aft] ! injection is complet$1 remove ! cannula & tie ! art]y ) a small tw9e1 pref]ably cotton4 ,quickly remove all inject+ fluid f ! ne$le1 ! tub+1 & ! inject+ *amb]4 ,dur+ ! op]ation ( ble$+ ! cock may be *lor(orm$1 c>e be+ tak5 n to adm9i/] *lor(orm to kill him2 = x is necess>y to ma9ta9 life z long z possible s t ! he>t may be kept beat+ & all blood possible dra9$ f ! art]ies4 ,aft] ! injection is complet$ ! bird may be pluck$ & imm]s$ 9 ! pres]vative fluid 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! prep>ation = dissection = muscles4 ,! art]ies1 ! ve9s1 & ! n]ves may n[ be dissect$ & /udi$ 9 relation to "o ano!r & 9 relation to ! muscles1 ! bones1 & o!r /ructures4 ,! sk9 %\ld n be remov$ f ! %anks till x is desir$ to dissect ^! p>ts1 z ! tissues quickly dry out4 ,9 fact1 ! t5dons ( ! %anks & toes c be/ be dissect$ :ile ! specim5 is fre%4 ,a ,/udy ( ! ,/ructure ( ,bones4--,longitud9al & transv]se sections ( old bone may be made by mak+ ?9 longitud9al & transv]se sections ) ! bone saw1 & !n by mak+ !m v ?9 ) a f9e ?ree-corn]$ file4 ,exam9+ "u ! l[ p[] microscope1 we note ! lacun1 ! canaliculi1 & ! ,hav]sian sy/em4 ,simil> sections 9 gre5 bone may be /udi$ if prep>$ z foll[s4 ,secure specim5 ( bone j remov$ f a f[l & place x = ?ree days 9 a #aj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( hydro*loric acid4 ,te/ by punctur+ ) a ne$le1 &1 if all ! m9]al salts are remov$1 place 9 a wat] ba? & wa% = f\r h\rs4 ,pass x ?r\gh ! fluids usually employ$ 9 prep>+ specim5s = section+ ) ! microtome4 ,/a9 z sections ( o!r tissue = microscopic /udy4 ,see ! description bel[4 ,if ! ends ( ! bone be includ$1 x w enable ! /ud5t to /udy n only compact bone b also cancellat$ bone & articul>1 or hyal9e c>tilage1 & 9 "s ( ! bones1 z ! femur1 ! r$ m>r[4 ,special ,te*nic = ! ,dissection ( ,cranial & ,sp9al ,n]ves4--,x is r difficult to dissect ! cranial & sp9al n]ves ( ! f[l1 ow+ to ! fact t ! /ructures are v small4 ,! bone is r h>d & ! n]ve tissue s delicate t great skill mu/ be atta9$ to a*ieve any degree ( success4 ,a simple te*nic has be5 develop$ z foll[s3 ,place ! head & neck1 or o!r /ructures ( ! sp9al column 9 a #aj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( hydro*loric acid = ?ree or m days1 ! "t dep5d+ on ! size ( ! specim5 & ! am\nt ( s(t /ructures surr\nd+ x4 ,?is solution removes all ! calcium salts f ! bone & makes ! removal ( ! bony /ructures a less difficult task4 ,directions = ! ,/udy ( ,s(t ,/ructures4--,secure a specim5 ( ! tissue to be /udi$--lung1 muscle1 inte/9e1 liv]1 pancreas--f a normal f[l j kill$4 ,! specim5 %\ld be n m ?an in* squ>e4 ,aft] fir/ h>d5+ ?ree days 9 #aj p] c5t4 =maldehyde4 ,pass ?r\gh ! foll[+ fluids3 #a4 ,alcohol1 #ie p] c5t4 #bd h\rs #b4 ,alcohol1 absolute #bd h\rs #c4 ,alcohol & e!r1 equal p>ts #bd h\rs #d4 #a p] c5t4 celloid9 #bd h\rs #e4 #b p] c5t4 celloid9 #bd h\rs #f4 #d p] c5t4 celloid9 #bd h\rs #g4 #f p] c5t4 celloid9 #bd h\rs #h4 #aj p] c5t4 celloid9 #bd h\rs #i4 ,place on block1 & z soon z solid1 place 9 #hj p] c5t4 alcohol until ready to section4 ,hi/oloid or p>lodion w take ! place ( celloid94 ,9 plac+ specim5 on ! block be c>eful t ! specim5 lies conv5i5tly = cutt+ ! sections 9 ! "r direction4 ,z soon z ! surface has h>d5$ a little1 add a few drops ( ?ick celloid91 & repeat until !re is a good body ( celloid94 ,all[ to /& until ! tissues are q firmly fa/5$ to ! block1 b n long en\gh to p]mit %r9k+4 ,!n place 9 #hj p] c5t4 alcohol until ! specim5 is p]fectly firm1 #ab or m h\rs1 be=e cutt+4 ,all tissues1 cut sections1 & m\nt$ blocks are to be plac$ 9 #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,z conta9]s = ?is purpose %ell vials w be mo/ h&y4 ,cut ! sections ) ! microtome z ?9 z possible1 ! ?9n] ! bett]4 ,! foll[+ process ( /a9+ w make ! nucleus blue & ! cytoplasm r$di%4 #a4 ,float section 9 a tumbl] ( tap wat]4 #b4 ,place section on slide1 & imm]se 9 hematoxylon = five to t5 m9utes4 #c4 ,imm]se 9 acid alcohol f two to five seconds4 #e4 ,place on slide1 & imm]se 9 eos9 f "o-half to ?ree m9utes4 #f4 ,wa% ?or\ghly 9 alcohol4 #g4 ,cl>ify 9 oil ( cloves1 oil ( c$>1 or bee*wood creosote1 t5 m9utes4 #h4 ,m\nt 9 balsam4 #i4 ,label & /udy4 ,delafield's hematoxylon is prep>$ z foll[s3 ,hematoxylon cry/als #d grams ,alcohol1 #ie p] c5t #be c4c4 ,saturat$ aque\s solution ( ammonia alum #djj c4c4 ,add ! hematoxylon dissolv$ 9 ! alcohol to ! alum solution1 & expose 9 an un/opp]$ bottle to ! light & air = ?ree or f\r days4 ,filt] & add3 ,glyc]9 #ajj c4c4 ,alcohol1 #ie p] c5t4 #ajj c4c4 ,all[ ! solution to /& 9 ! light until ! color is suffici5tly d>k2 !n filt]1 & keep 9 a tightly /opp]$ bottle4 ,! solution keeps well & is extremely p[]ful4 ,s long z x is good ! solution has a purpli% t+e4 ,if "t p]mits1 x w\ld be wise to comb9e ! alum1 ! hematoxyl91 & ! wat]1 & to rip5 ! solution = two or ?ree weeks be=e add+ ! o!r +r$i5ts1 :i* h a t5d5cy to prev5t oxidation4 ,! acid alcohol is made z foll[s3 ,absolute alcohol #gj c4c4 ,di/ill$ wat] #cj c4c4 ,mix4 ,above solution #ii c4c4 ,hydro*loric acid #a c4c4 ,eos9 is sold 9 two =ms1 t soluble 9 wat] & t soluble 9 alcohol4 ,! eos9 soluble 9 wat] is pref]r$1 because ) x a great] degree ( diffusion 9 /a9 c be obta9$4 ,keep on h& a saturat$ aque\s solution & dilute ) wat] z ne$$4 ,! /r5g? ( ! solution to be us$ v>ies some:at ) ! tissue & ! reag5t 9 :i* x is to be fix$2 b usually ! /r5g? %\ld be betwe5 & p] c5t4 :5 eos9 is us$ aft] hematoxyl94 ,! dilut$ solutions %\ld conta9 #be p] c5t4 ( alcohol1 o!rwise !y w n keep well4 ,:5 eos9 is us$ be=e an anil9e dye1 su* z me?yl5e blue1 a #e p] c5t4 or ev5 a saturat$ solution %\ld be us$4 ,to ,/a9 ,sections ( ,liv] = ! ,/udy ( ,kupff] ,cells4--,to br+ out ?is reaction ,keys sugge/s ! foll[+ te*nic3 ,fix small blocks ( ! fre% tissue ( sple5 or liv] = eighte5 to tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 ,mll]'s fluid plus #e p] c5t4 m]curic sublimate4 ,imb$ 9 p>aff9 & section to #d microns4 ,fix sections to slide1 & /a9 tw5ty to =ty m9utes ) acid c>m9e4 ,wa%1 & transf] to equal p>ts ( a #b p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( potassium f]rocyanid & ( a #b p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( hydro*loric acid4 ,remove aft] ?ree to t5 m9utes1 wa% 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & pass quickly ?r\gh a #j4e p] c5t4 aque\s ery?ros9 solution4 ,dehydrate 9 alcohol1 cl>ify 9 xylol1 & m\nt 9 ,canada balsam4 ,to ,prep>e ,anatomical ,specim5s = a ,museum4--,! ,keis]l+ me?od gives ! be/ results1 s9ce by ?is me?od ! tissues reta9 _! normal color4 ,! ?ree /eps are z foll[s3 #a4 ,place ! specim5 9 ! foll[+ solution & leave f "o to sev5 days1 ! l5g? ( "t dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! specim54 ,=mal9 #bjj c4c4 ,potassium acetate #cj grams ,potassium nitrate #ae grams ,wat] #ajjj c4c4 #b4 ,pass ! specim5 ?r\gh ea* ( ! foll[+ solutions1 leav+ x 9 ea* tw5ty-f\r h\rs or until ! normal color is obta9$4 ,! specim5 %\ld be remov$ f alcohol z soon z color is atta9$4 ,if x is left 9 ! alcohol too long x w aga9 lose "s ( its color4 ,alcohol #dj p] c5t4 ,alcohol #fj p] c5t4 ,alcohol #hj p] c5t4 ,alcohol full /r5g? #c4 ,place ! specim5 9 ! foll[+ p]man5t solution1 label1 & place 9 museum4 ,glyc]9 #dj c4c4 ,potassium acetate #dj grams ,di/ill$ wat] #djj c4c4 ,a small piece ( ?ymol mu/ be plac$ on ! top ( ! liquid 9 ea* j>1 or mold w develop & spoil ! specim54 ,to ,make ,specim5s ,transp>5t4--,specim5s may be r5d]$ transp>5t by ! me?od ( ,spalteholz4 ,! /eps are ess5tially z foll[s3 ,i4 ,prep>ation ( ! fre% tissue4 ,if any p>ts are to be made conspicu\s1 z blood-vessels1 or ! lymphatic sy/em1 !y mu/ be inject$ ) an insoluble1 unblea*able sub/ance4 ,spalteholz recomm5d$ c>m9e or me?yl5e blue1 & c>bon4 ,i h f\nd ,higg9's ord9>y black c>bon ink excell5t = ?is purpose4 ,! sy/em or sy/ems are inject$ ) ?is sub/ance :ile ! tissue is p]fectly fre%4 ,,ii4 ,fixation4 ,! tissues are fix$ pref]ably 9 #aj p] c5t4 =mal94 ,! l5g? ( "t = fixation dep5ds on ! size ( ! tissue4 ,9 =mal9 x requires f eight h\rs upw>d to fix completely4 ,,iii4 ,r9s+4 ,runn+ tap wat] = five or t5 m9utes accompli%es ! r9s+4 ,if x is impracticable to pass directly into ! blea*+ fluid1 ! tissues may be kept tempor>ily 9 #fj p] c5t4 or #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,!y %\ld !n be r9s$ aga9 ?or\ghly 9 wat] :5 ready to blea*4 ,,iv4 ,blea*+4 ,! blea*+ fluid us$ is hydrog5 p]oxid to :i* ammonia is add$ until a :ite precipitate =ms4 ,! proportion is approximately two p>ts ( p]oxid & "o ( ammonia4 ,! mat]ial is blea*$ until all ! color is remov$ & ! tissue looks p]fectly cle> or slightly opaque4 ,x may be q transp>5t z ! prote9 coagulate is some:at :ite1 b all yell[ or r$di% color %\ld be blea*$ away4 ,v4 ,wa%+4 ,r9se ?or\ghly 9 runn+ tap wat] or ?r\gh sev]al *anges ( wat] until ! odor ( ammonia is q gone4 ,,vi4 ,dehydration4 ,pass gradually ?r\gh alcohol solutions1 #cj p] c5t41 #ej p] c5t41 #fj p] c5t41 #gj p] c5t41 #hj p] c5t41 #ie p] c5t41 & la/ ?r\gh absolute alcohol4 ,! "t requir$ = dehydration w v>y ) ! size ( ! mat]ial1 b 9 ei!r #ie p] c5t4 solution or 9 absolute alcohol ! tissue %\ld rema9 until well h>d5$1 tw5ty-f\r h\rs or m4 ,dehydration is complet$ by pass+ f absolute alcohol1 to a fluid "o-half absolute alcohol & "o-half b5zol2 !nce = a few days to pure b5zol4 ,,vii4 ,cl>ify+4 ,f b5zol ! mat]ial is f9ally cl>ifi$ 9 w9t]-gre5 oil or any o!r /&>d cle>]1 & put up 9 its f9al position 9 ! museum j>4 ,9 comm5t+ on ?is me?od ,dr4 ,a4 ,f4 ,contant says3 8,i h f\nd ?is to "w v successfully 9 ! injection ( ! lymphatics ( ! human sk91 :i*1 z y "k1 is a r delicate injection & has be5 difficult ( demon/ration by o!r me?ods4 ,) ?is me?od1 h[ev]1 ,i h prep>$ :ole portions1 z ! side ( ! face1 ! leg1 etc41 ( small animals & embryos :i* %[ cle>ly ! :ole c\rse ( ! lymphatic vessels & nodes1 9 situ1 & _! relations to surr\nd+ p>ts40 ,,equipm5t ,,= ,,! ,,dissection ,,laboratory ,figure #hd illu/rates "s ess5tial equipm5t = ! dissection laboratory4 ,! equipm5t %\ld consi/ ( a pump1 ,no4 #a1 :i* =ces air ?r\gh ! rubb] tube1 ,no4 #b1 into ! pressure tank1 ,no4 #d1 :i* is gu>d$ by ! valve at ,no4 #c4 ,a dial1 ,no4 #e1 indicates ! pressure ( ! air )9 ! tank4 ,! air z ne$$ is releas$ ?r\gh an outlet valve4 ,! air n[ passes ?r\gh ! rubb] tube1 ,no4 #f1 into ! left arm ( ! manomet] at ,no4 #g4 ,! manomet] is simply a glass tub+ fill$ ) m]cury to ! po9t indicat$ at ,no4 #g4 ,by ! side ( ! opposite arm !re is made a scale graduat$ 9 c5timet]s4 ,! tube at ,no4 #i be+ atta*$ to ! ,y-tube1 conveys air "u ! same pressure into ! injection *amb] z t support+ ! column ( m]cury ( ! manomet]4 ,x is necess>y to h a p9* cock1 z indicat$ at ,no4 #aa1 to control ! liquid )9 ! tube4 ,no4 #ab illu/rates ! tube 9 ! end ( :i*1 ,no4 #ac1 !re is ins]t$ a troc> :i* is introduc$ into ! art]y & tightly ti$ ) a cord4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,photograph %[+ injection app>atus1 dissection in/rum5ts1 dissection pan & dea? *amb]4 #a1 ,pump4 #b1 ,rubb] tube lead+ f pump to compression *amb]4 #c1 ,/op cock4 #d1 ,compression air tank4 #e1 ,pressure indicator4 #f1 ,rubb] tube lead+ f pressure tank to manomet]4 #g1 ,top ( m]cury 9 manomet] tube4 #h1 ,op5 end ( glass tube %[+ scale 9 c5timet]s4 #i1 ,tube lead+ f #d to injection *amb]4 #aj1 ,injection *amb] conta9+ injection fluid4 #aa1 ,p9* cock on rubb] tube connect+ injection *amb] ) injection canula4 #ab1 ,! tube4 #ac1 ,injection canula4 #ad1 ,a metal dissection tray4 #ae1 ,dea? *amb]4 #af1 ,base ( same4 #ag1 ,rubb] tube connect+ gas cock ) dea? *amb]4 #ah1 ,bone saw4 #ai1 ,bone cutt]4 #bj1 ,scapula4 #ba1 ,t5aculum4 #bb1 ,=ceps4 #bc1 ,/raight scissors4 #bd1 ,small pair ( curv$ scissors4 ,a conv5i5t dissection tray may be made f galvaniz$ iron4 ,x %\ld be #af in*es squ>e & ab\t #a in* deep 7,fig4 #hd1 ,no4 #ad74 ,a dea? *amb] is made by us+ a bell j> #ab in*es 9 diamet] at ! bottom4 ,?is is us$ on a p]fectly smoo? bo>d #af in*es squ>e4 ,?r\gh ! c5t] ( ?is bo>d is ins]t$ a glass tube in* 9 diamet]4 ,to ?is glass tube is atta*$ a rubb] tube ! o!r end ( :i* is atta*$ to a gas jet4 ,! in/rum5ts ne$$ 9 dissect+ are illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #hd4 ,no4 #ah is a bone saw2 ,no4 #bj is a scalpel2 ,no4 #ba is a t5aculum2 ,no4 #bb is a pair ( =ceps2 ,no4 #bc is a pair ( /raight scissors2 & ,no4 #bd is a small pair ( curv$ scissors4 ,,bibliography ,,baum ,,& ,,ell5b]g]1 ,h&bu* d] ,v]glei*5d5 ,anatomie1 ,b]l91 #aiab4 ,,b>r[s1 ,h4 ,r41 ,me4 ,e4 ,s4 ,bull4 #bcb1 pp4 #af1 plates #f1 #aiad4 ,,bradley1 ,o4 ,,*>nock1 ,! ,/ructure ( ! ,f[l1 pp4 #adf1 illu/rations #gc4 ,,*aveau1 ,a41 ,comp>ative ,anatomy ( ,dome/ic ,animals1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,,curtis1 ,m4 ,r41 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,oviduct ( ! ,f[l1 ,me4 ,e4 ,s4 ,bull4 #bjf1 #aiaj4 ,,duval1 ----1 ,atlas ( ,embryology4 ,,fo/] ,,& ,,balf\r1 ,elem5ts ( ,embryology4 ,,gad[1 ,h41 ,,& ,,sel5ka1 ,e41 ,vgel4 ,i4 ,anatomis*] ,!il 7,dr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,bronn's ,klass5 und ,ordnung5 des ,?i]-,rei*s4 ,se*e/] ,b&1 ,vi]te ,ah!iburg71 ,leipsig1 #ahia4 ,,gray1 ,,h5ry1 ,anatomy ,descriptive & ,surgical1 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,,heisl]1 ,j4 ,c41 ,embryology1 ,philadelphia1 #aija4 ,,kaupp1 ,b4 ,f41 ,male ,reproductive ,organs ( ! ,f[l1 ,am4 ,jr4 ,vet4 ,m$41 vol4 x1 #aa1 #b4 ,,kaupp1 ,b4 ,f41 ,female ,reproductive ,organs ( ! ,f[l1 ,am4 ,vet4 ,rev41 vol4 #di1 #aa1 #d4 ,leis]+ ,atlas ( ,anatomy1 edit$ by ,w4 ,,ell5b]g]1 translat$ by ,a4 ,t4 ,,pet]s1 ,*icago1 #aije4 ,,lillie1 ,f4 ,r41 ,embryology ( ! ,*ick1 ,*icago1 #aijf4 ,,ow51 ,r41 ,comp>ative ,anatomy & ,physiology ( ,v]tebrates1 ,london1 #ahff4 ,,s*meiss]1 ,h4 ,c41 ,a ,/udy ( ! ,blood ( ,f[ls1 ,johns ,hopk9s ,hospital1 #aiae4 ,,%ufeldt1 ,r4 ,w41 ,myology ( ! ,rav51 pp4 #cah1 illu/rations #gf1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,/rangeways' ,vet]9>y ,anatomy1 edit$ by ,i4 ,,vaughan1 ,ed9burgh1 #ahib4 ,,surface1 ,f4 ,m41 ,hi/ology ( ! ,oviduct ( ! ,f[l1 ,me4 ,e4 ,s4 ,bull41 #bjf1 #aiab4 ,,index ,abdom9al air-sac1 #bjb cavity1 #aef ,abduc5s n]ve1 #bgj ,abductor m9imi digiti muscle1 #aaj ,accessorius sp9alis n]ve1 #bgd ,accessory organs ( dige/ion1 #aeb ,acetabulum1 #dh ,a*illis t5don1 #fi ,ac\/ic lam9a1 #cbc n]ve1 #cjf vesicle1 #cbb ,adductor longus muscle1 #aag magnus muscle1 #aag ,adr5al gl&1 #aia ,adv5titia1 #bja ,aff]5t n]ves1 #cjj ,air-sacs1 #aii1 #cbe abdom9al1 #bjb ant]ior diaphragmatic1 #bjb ?oracic1 #bjj c]vical1 #bja femoral ext5sions1 #bjc hum]al ext5sion1 #bjj po/]ior diaphragmatic1 #bjb subpectoral prolongation1 #bjj subscapul> prolongations1 #bjj supr>5al ext5sions1 #bjc ,al c9]e1 #bia orbitale1 #bh temporales1 #bi ,album91 #ahj portion ( oviduct secret+1 #ahe ,allantois1 #cba ,alula1 #caa ,alveol> gl&s1 #ada n]ve1 #bgj ,amnion1 #cbj1 #cbg ,ampull1 #cjf ,ampull> dilatations1 #cbb ,anapophyseal ridge1 #ch ,anatomic specim51 prep>ation (1 #cdi ,anconeus muscle1 #ajg ,angiology1 #bjf ,angul> gl&s1 #ada groove1 #eb ,annul> ligam5t1 #eh ,annulus fibrosus1 #eh ,ant]ior coraco-bra*ialis n]ve1 #bhd diaphragmatic air-sac1 #bjb fossa1 #be ?oracic n]ve1 #bhd ,aortic ar*1 #cbe bulb1 #cbd ,aponeurosis1 #ei ,app>atus1 circulatory1 #bjf dige/orius1 #ace respiratory1 #aic uro-g5italis1 #afi vocal1 #aie ,app5dages1 /ructure (1 #cji ,app5dico-co/ales muscle1 #ii ,app5dicul> skeleton1 #ac ,apt]ia1 #cd ,aqu$uct ( ,sylvius1 #bfh1 #bhi ,ara*noid1 #bhh1 #bhi ,arbor vit1 #bia ,ar*1 hemal1 #ch scapul>1 #dj ,area opaca1 #ccb pellucida1 #ccb vasculosa1 #ccb ,art]ia c]ebri pr(unda1 #bag ,art]y or art]ies1 #bji1 #cbe acromial1 #bbb ant]ior circumflex hum]al1 #bbb v]tebral1 #bba aorta1 #baa auricul>1 #bbj axill>y1 #bbb basil>1 #bag bra*ialis1 #bbb bra*io-cephalic s9i/]1 #bab bron*ialis1 #bae c>otid trunk1 #bae c>otis c]ebralis1 #bae communis1 #bae ext]na1 #bae celiac axis1 #bbf c]ebral1 #bag c]ebri pr(unda1 #bag c]vicalis asc5d5s1 #bba circumflex femoris1 #bbh clavicul>1 #bbb coccygeal lat]ales1 #bcb collat]alis radialis1 #bbc common aorta1 #baa coron>y1 #bji crural1 #bbh esophageal1 #bbd e?moidal1 #bah e?moidales ext]na1 #bah ext]nal facial1 #bbj ?oracic1 #bbb facial1 #bbj femoral #bbh hemorrhoidalis intima1 #bcb hepatica dextra1 #bbg hyoid1 #bah iliac1 #bbi inf]ior c]ebell>1 #bag esophageal1 #bae ?oracic1 #bbb int]co/al1 #bbd int]nal alveol>1 #bbj e?moid1 #bah facial1 #bbj mamm>y1 #bbb maxill>y1 #bbj oph?almic1 #bag pelvic1 #bbh ?oracic1 #bbb lacrimalis1 #bag l+ualis1 #bbj lumb>1 #bbe m$ian coccygeal1 #bcb hemorrhoidal1 #bbg m5+eal1 #baf mes5t]ic1 #bbg muscul>is1 #bjg occipital1 #baf occipitalis pr(unda1 #baf sublimis1 #baf oph?almica ext]na1 #baf ov>ian1 #bbf plexus palpebralis1 #bag temporalis1 #baf po/]ior aorta1 #bbd circumflex hum]al1 #bbc mes5t]ic1 #bbg v]tebral1 #bba pr(unda communis1 #bca p5is1 #bcb pud5da ext]na1 #bcb pulmonalis dext]1 #bac s9i/]1 #bac pulmon>y1 #bac radial1 #bbc ramus ant]ior1 #bag po/]ior1 #bag pr(undus1 #bji sup]ficialis1 #bji recurr5t cili>is po/icus1 #bag ilio-celiacus1 #bbg inte/9alis1 #bbg r5alis1 #bbi s9i/]1 #bbg sup]ior hemorrhoidal1 #bbg uln>1 #bbc r5al1 #bbf ret9 c5tralis1 #bag sacralis m$ia1 #bbi1 #bcb sp]matic1 #bbf sph5oid1 #bag sph5o-maxill>is1 #bag spl5ic1 #bbg /]nal1 #bbb /]no-clavicul>is1 #bba subclavian1 #bab subcutane\s colli1 #bae subscapul>1 #bbb sup]ior c]vical1 #bae l>yngeal1 #bah sylvian1 #bag temporal1 #baf ?oracic1 #bbb ?yroid1 #bae tibialis antica1 #bcj po/ica1 #bcj uln>1 #bbc umbilical1 #bbh v]tebral1 #bae ,ar?rology1 #ef ,articulo-jugale1 #eh ,aryt5oid c>tilage1 #aid ,atlas1 #cg ,auricle1 #cbd ,auricul> app5dage1 #bjh meatus1 #cje ossicles1 #cje v5tricul> valve1 #bjg ,axial skeleton1 #bc ,axill>is n]ve1 #bc ,axis1 #cg cyl9d] process1 #bgg ,axolemma1 #bgg ,axone1 #bgg hill1 #bgg ,b>bes1 #caj ,b>bules1 #caj ,basi-bran*ial bone1 #ce ,basi-hyal bone1 #cc1 #cf ,basil> art]y1 #bag ,beak1 #aci1 #caj1 #caf ,biceps b&1 #aad bra*ii1 #ajd flexor cruris1 #aac ,biv5t] c]vicis muscle1 #gg1 #hc ,bla/ema1 #cbb ,bla/od]m1 #cah ,blood1 #beg coagulation1 #bfj composition1 #bfj =mation1 #bfj function1 #beg plasma1 #bfj reaction1 #beg vascul> sy/em1 #bjf vessels1 #bji ,bloom1 #ahh ,bone or bones1 #ag atlas1 #cg axis1 #cg cancell\s1 #ah c>pus1 #dd1 #dg classification1 #bj compact1 #ag composition1 #ba c]vical v]tebr1 #ce1 #cg coccygeal1 #ce1 #da dorsal v]tebr1 #ce1 #ci entoglossal1 #ce e?moidal1 #bc1 #bg femur1 #ej fibula1 #ec flat1 #ba frontal1 #bc1 #bi furculum1 #bd gr[?1 #bj hum]us1 #dd1 #de hyoid1 #ce1 #cf ilium1 #di inf]ior maxilla1 #bc1 #cd irregul>1 #ba is*ium1 #di jugale1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc lacrimal1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc long1 #bj lumbo-sacral1 #ce1 #ci maxill1 #bc1 #ca1 #cb metac>pus1 #dd1 #dg metat>sus1 #ec nasal1 #bc1 #ca1 #cb occipital1 #bc1 #ce ( cranium1 #bc ( face1 #ca ( =e limb1 #dd ( h9d limb1 #ej ( pelvis1 #dh ( %\ld]1 #dc ( skull1 #bc ( ?orax1 #db ( v]tebr1 #bf palat9e1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc p>ietal1 #bc1 #bi phalanges1 #dd1 #dg premaxilla1 #bc1 #ca pt]ygoid1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc pubis1 #ej pygo/yle1 #bd quadrate1 #bc1 #cd quadrate-jugale1 #bc1 #cc1 #cf radius1 #dd1 #df ribs1 #da scapul> ar*1 #dj sesamoid1 #ed sph5oid1 #be1 #bh suppli$ ) air1 #bjd t>sus1 #ec temporal1 #bc1 #bi tibia1 #eb turb9at$1 #cd1 #aic ulna1 #dd1 #df vom]al1 #bc1 #ca1 #cb zygomatic1 #bc1 #ca1 #cb ,b[man's capsule1 #aga ,bra*ial n]ve plexus1 #bhb ,bra91 #bhh al c9]e1 #bia ant]ior commissure1 #bif aqu$uct ( ,sylvius1 #bhi arbor vit1 #bia calamus scriptorius1 #bij c]ebral p$uncles1 #bia *oroid plexus1 #bif corpora re/i=mia1 #bhi corpus callosum1 #bif /riatum1 #bif cov]+s1 #bhh crura c]ebelli1 #bia c]ebri1 #bhi =e1 #bij f\r? v5tricle1 #bij h9d1 #bij hippocampus1 #big hypophysis1 #bhi inf]ior pyramids1 #bia lam9a t]m9ales1 #bie lat]al v5tricles1 #big m$ulla oblongata1 #bij mid-1 #bij n]vi amygdales1 #bif optic *iasm1 #bhi lobes1 #bhi p>s commissuralis1 #bhi pons v>olii1 #bhi processus c]ebri mammill>es1 #big pyramidal columns1 #bia sulcus c5tralis1 #bia sup]ior pyramids1 #bia ?alami optici1 #bhi tub]cula olfactoria1 #big valve ( ,vieuss5s1 #bij v5tricles1 lat]al1 #big ,bron*i1 #aic1 #aig diaphragmatic1 #aig ,bron*ial art]y1 #bae tubes1 #aig ,bron*ialis anticus1 #hi1 #aje longus inf]ior n]ve1 #bhd sup]ior n]ve1 #bhc po/icus1 #hi ,bron*o-tra*ealis anticus1 #ch brevis1 #hi ,brunn]'s gl&s1 #adi ,bulla tympani=mis1 #aie ,bursa ( ,fabricius1 #aeb ,cca1 #aea ,calamus1 #caj scriptorius1 #bij ,canal or canals1 c>oticus et jugul>e1 #bg ,hav]sian1 #ag hypot>sal1 #ec ilio-lumbalis1 #dh neural1 #ch ( ,petit1 #cje ur9>y1 #agj ,volkmann's1 #ag ,canaliculi1 #ag ,cancelli1 #ag ,capill>ies1 #bji ,capsul> ligam5t1 #eg ,caput co/1 #db ,c>otid trunk1 #bae ,c>ot91 #cad ,c>otis c]ebralis art]y1 #bae communis1 #bae ext]na art]y1 #bae ,c>pi radiale1 #dg uln>e1 #dg ,c>pus1 #dd1 #dg ,c>tilage semi-lun>is1 #fi ,cavity1 cotyloid1 #di gl5oid1 #dd gl5oidalis int]na1 #fg nasal1 #ce sigmoid1 #df ,cavum cranii1 #bc ilio-lumbale dorsales1 #dh ,celiac axis1 #bbf ,c]a1 #caj ,c]ato-bran*ial c>tilage1 #ce ,c]ato-glossus muscle1 #hj ,c]ato-hyoideus muscle1 #hj ,c]ebell> cortex1 #bic ,c]ebellum1 #be1 #bie ,c]ebral lobes1 #cbb p$uncles1 #bia ,c]ebro-sp9al axis1 #bhh n]v\s sy/em1 #bfe ,c]ebrum1 #be ,c]oma1 #cg ,c]vical air-sac1 #bja art]y1 sup]ior1 #bae n]ve ganglion1 #bgj sympa!tic n]ve ganglion1 #bge v]tebr1 #ce1 #cg ,*alaz1 #ahj ,*amb]1 nasal1 #aic ,*orion1 #cba1 #cbg ,*oroid coat1 #cbc ,*oroidea1 #cjc ,*romophilic bodies1 #bhj ,*romosomes1 #cah ,cili>y ganglion1 #bga n]ve1 #cjd process1 #cjd1 #cbc ,circulatory sy/em1 #bjf ,circumcon*a muscle1 #abh ,circumduction1 #eg ,clavicle1 #dd ,clavicul> art]y1 #bbb ,claws1 #caj ,cleido-tra*ealis muscle1 #ge ,cloaca1 #aea ,clo?+ fea!rs1 #caj ,coccyge lat]ales art]ies1 #bcb v]tebr1 #cc1 #da ,co*le>is1 #cje ,collum co/1 #db ,color ( sk91 #cad ,columella1 #ca1 #cje ,column1 v]tebral1 #ce ,column c>n1 #bjg ,complex n]ve ganglion1 #bga ,complexus muscle1 #ha ,composition ( bone1 #ba ( egg1 #aha ,condyle1 ext]nal1 ( femur1 #ej inn]1 ( femur1 #ea ,conjunctiva1 #cjc ,con/rictions ( ,ranvi]1 #bgg ,coprodeum1 #aea ,coraco-bra*ialis muscle1 #ajc ,coraco-hum]alis muscle1 #aja ,coracoid bone1 #aid ,corium1 #cac ,cornea1 #cbc ,corneum1 #cji ,cornu1 hyoid1 #ce ,coron>y art]y1 #bji ,corpora re/i=mia1 #bhi ,corpus cili>e1 #cjc ,co/al bron*ial tubes1 #aig process ( /]num1 #bd ,cotyloid cavity1 #fe ,c\rse ( food1 #aeb ,cranial cavity1 #bc ,cranium1 #bc ,cricoid1 #aid ,crico-tra*ealis ligam5t1 #aid ,cri/iilii1 #dh /]ni1 #db ,crop1 #adb ,crura c]ebelli1 #bia c]ebri1 #bhi ,crural art]y1 #bbh n]ve plexus1 #bhc ,cry/all9e l5s1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cjc1 #cbb1 #cbc ,cunei=m bone1 #df ,cutane\s bra*ii sup]ior n]ve1 #bhc follicle1 #cbc ,cutis1 #cac ,deglutition1 #adc ,deltoid1 #ajd ,d5drites1 #big ,depressor caud muscle1 #ie coccygis muscle1 #ie glossus muscle1 #hj palpebr inf]ioris1 #abe ,d]ivatives ( g]m lay]1 #cdb ,d]mis1 #cac ,d]mo-cleido dorsalis1 #ge ,d]mo-dorsalis1 #gb ,d]mo-frontalis1 #gb ,d]mo-hum]alis1 #gb ,d]mo-iliacus1 #ge ,d]mo-pectoralis1 #gc ,d]mo-sp9alis1 #ge ,d]mo-temporalis1 #gc ,d]mo-t5sor patagii1 #gb ,d]mo-uln>is1 #gf ,diaphragm1 #afe ,diaphragmatic bron*ial tubes1 #aig ,diapophysis1 #ch ,diga/ric muscle1 #gh ,dige/ive app>atus1 #ace ,digits1 #ed ,dissection1 #cdc laboratory1 #cea ( art]ies1 #cde ( bone1 #cdf ( muscles1 #cdc ( n]ves1 #cdg ( visc]a1 #cdd ,division ( skeleton1 #bb ,dorsal ligam5t ( oviduct1 #ahh v]tebr1 #ce ,dorso-cutane\s n]ve plexus1 #bhc ,ductless gl&s1 #adh1 #cbi adr5al1 #aia p>a?yroid1 #aia sple51 #aee ?ymus1 #aij ,ductus art]iosus1 #cbe1 #cbi ,botalli1 #bad ,duod5um1 #adh1 #aej ,dura mat]1 #bhh ,e> labyr9?1 #cje ,ectod]m1 #cbj ,eff]5t n]ves1 #cjj ,egg1 #ahj composition1 #aha too?1 #cbg ,embryology1 #cah ,endoc>dium1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh ,endolymph1 #cjf ,endo!lium1 #bjf ,entod]m1 #cbj ,entoglossal bone1 #ce ,entotympanic1 #gg ,epicondyloid fossa1 #eb ,epid]mis1 #agf1 #bjg1 #cac ,epididymis1 #agf ,ep9eural app5dage1 #ch ,equipm5t1 #cea ,ery?rocytes1 #beh fate (1 #bfa ,esophageal art]y1 #bbd inf]ior1 #bae ,esophagus1 #adb ,e/hesiology1 #cjc ,e?moid bone1 #bg ,eu/a*ian tube1 #bi1 #acf ,ext5sor annul>is brevis muscle1 #aba brevis digitorum muscle1 #abj digitorum communis muscle1 #ajf femoris muscle1 #aac hallucis brevis muscle1 #aai indicis longus muscle1 #ajh longus digitorum muscle1 #aai metac>pi radialis longior muscle1 #aje ossis metac>pi pollicis muscle1 #ajg proprius pollicis muscle1 #aji ,ext]nal facial art]y1 #bbj ?oracic art]y1 #bbb ,extremitas v]tebralis1 #db ,fabricius1 bursa (1 #aeb ,facial art]y1 #bbj ,falx c]ebri1 #bhi ,fasciculi1 #gj1 #ga deep1 #ga sup]ficialis1 #ga ,fea!rs1 #caa alula1 #caa cov]ts1 #caa prim>ies1 #caa rectrices1 #caa rudd]1 #da scapul>ies1 #caa second>ies1 #caa t]ti>ies1 #caa ,female g5]ative organs1 #agh ,femoral art]y1 #bbh ,femoro-caudal1 #aad ,f5e/ra ovalis1 #ca rotunda1 #ca ve/ibul>is1 #aje ,f]tilization1 #cah1 #cai ,fetal circulation1 #cbi ,fib]s ( ,%>pey1 #bj ,fibr9 f]m5t1 #bfa =mation1 #bfa ,fibr9og51 #bfa ,fibr9o-globul91 #bfa ,fibul> bone1 #ec ridge1 #eb ,fif? cranial n]ve1 #bfh inf]ior maxill>y division1 #bfh oph?almic division1 #bfh sup]ior maxill>y division1 #bfh ,fili=m papill1 #da ,filo-plume1 #caa ,fle%1 #gj ,flexor brevis pollicis muscle1 #aji capitis inf]ior muscle1 #hb c>pi uln>is brevior muscle1 #aji muscle1 #ajh digitorum pr(undus muscle1 #ajh sublimis muscle1 #ajh hallucis brevis muscle1 #aba longus muscle1 #abb metac>pi brevis muscle1 #aaa radialis muscle1 #ajf m9imi digiti muscle1 #aaj brevis muscle1 #aaj p]=ans digitorum pr(undus muscle1 #abd p]=atus annul>is primus p$is muscle1 #abb indicis primus p$is1 #abc m$ius primus p$is1 #abc secundus p$is1 #aba1 #abb ,fontanel1 #bg ,=am5 int]v]tebralis1 #ci is*iadic1 #bd1 #di magnum1 #bc ,monro1 #bie nutri5t1 #eb oblongum1 #bd optic1 #bg ovale1 #cjf1 #bjg1 #cbi pneumatic1 #db1 #dc1 #de triossium1 #dd1 #fa ,=e bra91 #bij limb1 #dd ,fossa ant]ior1 #be articul>is transv]sa1 #ed cranii m$ia1 #be po/]ior1 #be epicondyloid1 #eb epitro*le>1 #ea int]condyloid1 #ea middle1 #be ovalis1 #bjg pneumatic1 #de po/]ior1 #be subcondyloid1 #bg tro*ant]ic1 #ej ,f\r? v5tricle1 #bij ,fovea c>diaca1 #cbd is*iadica1 #dh lumbalis1 #dh pud5dalis1 #dh ,f[l skeleton1 #ba ,frontal bone1 #bi ,function1 c5t]s (1 #cja muscles (1 #abh ,funnel portion ( oviduct1 #ahc ,furculum bone1 #bd ,gall-bladd]1 #aed ,ganglion1 #cjj c>diacum1 #bii c]vical1 #bgj sympa!tic1 #bge cili>y1 #bga complex1 #bga ,gass]ian1 #bfh g5iculate1 #bga inf]ior c]vical1 #bii orbito-nasal1 #bgj petrosal1 #bgb sph5o-palat9e1 #bgj sp9al1 #bgf /ructure (1 #bgg sup]ior c]vical1 #bii sympa!tic1 #bgb ?oracic1 #bii vagi radicis1 #bgb ,ga/rocnemius muscle1 #aag ,gemellus muscle1 #aaf ,g5io-hyoideus muscle1 #gi ,g5ital sy/em1 #afi ,g]m lay]1 #cdb ,gl&1 alveol>1 #ada angul>1 #ada ductless1 #aij lacrimal1 #cjc meibomian1 #cjc m\?1 #ada muc\s1 #acf oil1 #da ph>ynx1 #ada subl+ual1 #ada ?ymus1 #aij ?yroid1 #aij uropygii1 #cji ,glosso-hyal elem5t1 #ce ,glottis1 #aid ,gluteus m$ius muscle1 #aab m9imus muscle1 #aab primus muscle1 #aab pr(undus muscle1 #aab ,gray matt] ( cord1 #bib ,groove1 angul>1 #eb t5donal1 #ed ,gr[? ( bone1 #bj ,hallux1 #ed ,h&1 #dg ,h>d palates1 #acf1 #aci ,hav]sian canals1 #ag ,he>t1 #bjf /ructure (1 #bjg v5tricles (1 #cbd ,hemal ar*1 #ch ,hemapophysis1 #ch ,hemophage1 #bfb ,hemorrhoidalis intima art]y1 #bcb ,h5le's limb1 #aga loop1 #aga ,hep>1 #aec ,h]b/'s corpuscles1 #cjg ,h9d bra91 #bij limb1 #ej ,hormone1 #aij ,hum]us1 #dd1 #de ,hyoid1 #bah ar*1 #cbd bone1 #ce ,hyoideus transv]sus muscle1 #hj ,hypapophysis1 #ch ,hypocleidum1 #bd1 #dd ,hypoglossal n]ve1 #bgd ,hypophysis1 #bhi1 #bie ,hypora*is1 #cac ,hypot>sal canal1 #ec ,hypot>sus1 #ec ,ilio-lumbalis dorsalis1 #dh ,ilium bone1 #di ,immovable jo9ts1 #ef ,inf]ior alveol> art]y1 #bbj c]ebell> art]y1 #bag l>ynx1 #aic maxill>y bone1 #cd pyramids1 #bia ?oracic art]y1 #bbb tub]culum ossis c>pi radialis1 #dg ,infracoccygis muscle1 #if ,infraorbital s9us1 #cb ,+luvies1 #adb ,inn] e>1 #cjf ,int]>ticul>es muscles1 #he ,int]co/al art]ies1 #bbd n]ve1 #bhe ,int]co/ales muscles1 #ih ,int]nal adhesio cornu antici c>tilag9is lunat1 #fg e?moidal art]y1 #bah facial art]y1 #bbj mamm>y art]y1 #bbb m&ibul> ve91 #bcg maxill>y art]y1 #bbj oph?almic art]y1 #bag1 #bah pelvic art]y1 #bbh secretion1 #aij ?oracic art]y1 #bbb ,int]osse\s ligam5t1 #eh ,int]osseus dorsalis muscle1 #aaj palm>is muscle1 #aaa ,int]sp9ales muscles1 #he ,int]transv]sales muscles1 #hf ,inte/9e1 free portion1 #aej l>ge1 #aej small1 #adg ,inte/9um t5ue1 #adg ,iris1 #cbc1 #cjc1 #cjd ,is*iadic art]y1 #bbi =am51 #di n]ve1 #bhf ,is*ium1 #di ,i/hmus1 #ahf ,jo9ts1 #ef immovable1 #ef mix$1 #ef movem5ts1 #ef ,jugal bone1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc ,jugul> ve91 #bcc ,k]ato-hyal91 #cad ,k]ato-hyoideus muscle1 #hj ,kidneys1 #afi ,lacrimal bone1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc duct1 #cjc gl&1 #cjc sac1 #cjc ,lacun1 #ag ,lamell1 #ag circumf]5tial1 #ag conc5tric1 #ag int]/itial1 #ag ,lam9a p]p5dicul>is1 #bh ,lam9 t]m9ale1 #bi ,lang]hans1 isl&s (1 #cjc ,l>ge inte/9e1 #aej ,l>ynx1 #ada bron*io-tra*ealis1 #aid false1 #aid inf]ior1 #aic sup]ior1 #aic true1 #aid ,lat]al process1 #ch ,lat]alis caud muscle1 #ie coccygeus muscle1 #ie ,latissimus dorsi muscle1 #if n]ve plexus1 #bhb ,leucocytes1 #beh basophile1 #bei eos9ophile1 #beh lymphocyte1 #bei ma/ cell1 #bei mononucle>1 #bei polymorphonucle>1 #beh ,levator caud muscle1 #ic coccygis muscle1 #ic palpebr sup]ioris muscle1 #abd scapul muscle1 #ajc ,levatores co/>um muscle1 #ih ,li51 #aee ,ligam5t or ligam5ts1 #eg annul>1 #eh annul>e radii1 #fa ant]ior cruciatimi g5u1 #fi ant]ius ossis c>pi metac>pi et prim1 #fi phalangis digiti secundi1 #fd patell>1 #fg ant]o-inf]ior hum]o-coracoideum1 #fa anticum1 #fi articulo-jugale1 #eh capsul>1 #eg capsul>e atlantico-epi/rophicum odontoideum1 #ei atlantico-occipitale1 #eh capituli fibul1 #fh cubiti1 #fa digitorum p$is1 #fi obliquum1 #ei ossis tibio-metat>si1 #fi c>pi int]osseum1 #fd radialis int]num1 #fd claviculo/]nal1 #dd coraco-furcul>e1 #fa coraco-hum]alis1 #fa coraco-scapul>e1 #fa inf]ius1 #fa int]num1 #fa crico-tra*ealis1 #aid cubiti t]es1 #fb ela/icum int]sp9ale pr(undum1 #ei sup]ficiale1 #ei ext]num1 #fi ext]o-lat]ale g5u1 #fe furculo-scapul>e1 #fa hum]o-scapul>e1 #fa ilio-pubic1 #fe ilio-sacrale1 #fe inf]ius1 #fa int]num1 #fd int]o-lat]ale g5u1 #ff int]osse\s1 #eh int]osseum1 #fi int]v]tebral1 #ch lat]ale cubiti ext]num1 #fa int]num1 #fa nu*1 #ei obliquo-c>pi uln>is1 #fb ( c>pal jo9t1 #fa ( e>1 #eh ( elb[-jo9t1 #ei ( f+]1 #fd ( hip-jo9t1 #fe ( jaws1 #eh ( knee-jo9t1 #fe ( liv]1 #aec ( oviduct1 #ahh ( pelvis1 #ef ( ribs1 #ei ( %\ld]-jo9t1 #ei ( /]num1 #ei ( tibio-metat>sal jo9t1 #fi ( toes1 #fi ( v]tebr1 #eh ossis c>pi radialis int]num et metac>pi1 #fd uln>is ext]num et metac>pi1 #fd int]num et metac>pi1 #fd pollic>e1 #fd popliteum1 #fg po/]ior cruciatum g5u1 #fg po/]ius1 #fd po/icum uln>e c>pi uln>is1 #fc ,p\p>tii1 #fe radiale c>pi radialis ext]num1 #fd /ructure1 #eg sup]ius1 #fi susp5sorium corporum v]tebralium1 #eh susp5sorium d5tis epi/rophei1 #eh tibio-fibul>e1 #fh transv]sale commune1 #fg transv]sum1 #ei atlantis1 #eh1 #ei ext]num1 #ei triangul>e1 #ei uln>e c>pi radialis1 #fc int]num1 #fc metac>pi ext]num1 #fd int]num1 #fd ,limb1 =e1 #dd h9d1 #ej ,l+ua1 #aci ,l+uales art]ies1 #bbj ,lipo*rome1 #cad ,liquor p]ic>dii1 #bjg sangu9is1 #beh ,liv]1 #aeb1 #aec ducts1 #aee ,longissimus capitis et atlantis1 #he dorsi1 #ib ,longus colli dorsalis muscle1 #hc muscle1 #hc po/icus muscle1 #hc ,lumb> art]ies1 #bbe ,lumbo-sacral v]tebr1 #ce1 #ci ,lumbo-sacrales n]ves1 #bhe ,lung1 #aie1 #cbe tubules1 #aig1 #aii prim>ies1 #aig second>ies1 #aih t]ti>ies1 #aih ,lymph vascul> sy/em1 #bjf1 #bed ,lymphocytes1 #bei ,mal>is muscle1 #abe ,male g5]ative organs1 #age ,malpighian body1 #aee1 #aef1 #aga ,m&ibul> ar*1 #cbd ,m>r[1 #bj r$1 #bj yell[1 #bj ,masset] muscle1 #gg ,ma/ cells1 #bei ,maxilla1 #bc1 #ca1 #cb ,maxill>y ar*1 #cbd ,m$ian coccygeal art]y1 #cbc hemorrhoidal art]y1 #bbg n]ve1 #bhd ,m$ulla oblongata1 #be1 #bij ossium flava1 #bj rubrum1 #bj ,meibomian gl&s1 #cjc ,melan91 #caf ,membrana nictitans1 #cjc1 #cbd putam91 #cbi semi-lun>is1 #aie te/acea1 #ahg tympana int]na1 #aie ,membran obturator int]v]tebrales po/]iores1 #ei ,m5+eal art]y1 #baf ,m5+es1 #bhh ,m5iscus1 #ef int]v]tebralis1 #eh ,mes5t]y1 #aef1 #aeg ,metac>pus1 #dd1 #dg ,meta/]num1 #db ,mid bra91 #bij ,middle fossa ( cranium1 #be m5+eal art]y1 #bag ,molt+1 #cac ,motor oculi1 #bfg ,m\?1 #ace ,movable jo9ts1 #ef ,muc\s gl&s1 #acf ,mll]ian duct1 #ahd ,muscle or muscles1 #gj abductor m9imi digiti1 #aaj adductor longus1 #aag magnus1 #aag anconeus1 #ajg biceps1 #ajd flexor crurus1 #aac biv5t] c]vicis1 #hc maxill1 #gg bra*ialis anticus1 #aje bron*ialis anticus1 #hi po/icus1 #hi bron*o-tra*ealis anticus1 #hh brevis1 #hi po/icus1 #hi c]ato-glossus1 #hj c]ato-hyoideus1 #hj cili>y1 #cjd cleido-tra*ealis1 #ge complexus1 #ha con/rictor glottidis1 #hg coraco-bra*ialis1 #ajb coraco-hum]alis1 #aja deltoid1 #ajd depressor caud1 #ie coccygis1 #ie glossus1 #hj d]mal1 #gj1 #ga d]mo-cleido-dorsalis1 #ge d]mo-dorsalis1 #gb d]mo-frontalis1 #gb d]mo-hum]alis1 #gb d]mo-iliacus1 #ge d]mo-osse\s1 #gj1 #gc d]mo-pectoralis1 #gc d]mo-sp9alis1 #ge d]mo-temporalis1 #gc d]mo-t5sor patagii1 #gb d]mo-uln>is1 #gf diaphragm1 #ij diga/ricus1 #gh entotympanic1 #gg expansor secund>ium1 #fb ext5sor digitorum communis1 #ajf femoris1 #aac indicis longus1 #ajh metac>pi radialis longior1 #aje ossis metac>pi pollicis1 #ajg proprius pollicis1 #ajg femoro-caudal1 #aad flexor brevis pollicis1 #aji capitis inf]ior1 #hb c>pi uln>is1 #ajh brevior1 #aji digitorum sublimis1 #ajh metac>pi brevis1 #aaa radialis1 #ajf m9imi digiti1 #aaj brevis1 #aaj pr(undus1 #ajh ga/rocnemius1 #aag gemellus1 #aaf g5io-hyoideus1 #gi gluteus maximus1 #ej m$ius1 #aab gluteus m9imus1 #aab primus1 #aab he>t1 #ga hyoideus transv]sus1 #hj infracoccygis1 #if int]>ticul>es1 #he int]nal obturator1 #di int]osseus dorsalis1 #aaj palm>is1 #aaa int]sp9ales1 #he int]transv]sales1 #hf involunt>y1 #gj /riat$1 #ga lat]alis caud1 #ie coccygis1 #ie latissimus dorsi1 #if levator caud1 #ic coccygis1 #ic scapul1 #ajc levatores co/>um1 #ih longissimus dorsi1 #ib longus colli anticus1 #hd po/icus1 #hc masset]1 #gg mylo-hyoides1 #gi nom5clature1 #ga obliquo-transv]sales1 #hb obliquus abdom9is ext]nus1 #ij int]nus1 #ia colli1 #hc obturator ext]nus1 #aaf int]nus1 #aaf ( abdom51 #ij ( air passage1 #hf ( ant]ior pectoral region1 #ii ( bra*ial region1 #ajd ( c]vical region1 #ha ( coccygeal region1 #ic ( co/al region1 #if ( digit1 #aji ( dorso-lumb> region1 #ib ( =e>m & h&1 #aje ( head1 #gf ( inf]ior l>ynx1 #hf ( pectoral region1 #ajj ( po/]ior limb1 #aaa ( scapul> region1 #aja ( /]num1 #ij ( sup]ior l>ynx1 #hf ( tibial region1 #aag ( tongue1 #gi pectoralis major1 #ajj secundus1 #ajj t]tius1 #ajj p]oneus longus1 #aah platysma myoides1 #gd pronator brevis1 #ajg longus1 #ajg pt]ygoideus ext]nus1 #gh int]nus1 #gh lat]alis1 #gh m$ius1 #gd rectus abdom9is1 #ia capitis anticus m9or1 #ha lat]alis1 #hd po/icus major1 #hb rhomboideus1 #ag sacro-lumbalis1 #ib s>torius1 #aaa scal5us m$ius1 #hf scapulo-hum]alis1 #aja semimembranosus1 #aad semit5d9osus1 #aad accessorius1 #aad s]ratus magnus anticus1 #ig p>vus anticus1 #ig skeletal1 #gj1 #gf soleus1 #aah sph9ct]1 pupill>y1 #cjd /]no-tra*ealis1 #hi /ylo-hyoideus1 #gi subclavius1 #ajb subscapul>is1 #ajc suprasp9atus1 #ajb temporal1 #gf t5sor patagii brevis1 #ii longus1 #ii t]es et infrasp9atus1 #ih m9or1 #ajb ?oraco-scapul>is1 #ajc ?yreo-aryt5oideus1 #he tra*elo-ma/oideus1 #he tra*eo-lat]alis1 #hg transv]salis abdom9is1 #ij transv]sus p]onei1 #id trapezius1 #ig triceps1 #ajd true d]mal1 #ga volunt>y-/riat$1 #gj ,myelon1 #cbb ,myeloncephalus columns1 #cbj ,myoc>dium1 #bjh ,nails1 #caf ,nasal bone1 #bc1 #ca1 #cb cavity1 #ce *amb]s1 #aic ,naso-premaxill>y process1 #cbd ,n]ve or n]ves1 #bfd abduc5s1 #gj accessorius sp9alis1 #bgd ac\/ic1 #bga aff]5t1 #cjj alveol>1 #bgj ant]ior coraco-bra*ialis1 #bhd sp9al bran*es1 #bha ?oracic1 #bhd axill>is1 #bhc bra*ial plexus1 #bhb bra*ialis longus inf]ior1 #bhd sup]ior1 #bhc cells1 #bhj c5t]s1 #cj cili>y1 #cjd cranial1 #bfe crural plexus1 #bhe cutane\s bra*ialis et inf]ior bra*ialis1 #bhd bra*ii sup]ior1 #bhc dorsal sp9al1 #bha dorsalis plexus1 #bhb dorso-cutane\s plexus1 #bhc eff]5t1 #cjj e?moidalis1 #bfi facialis1 #bhf function1 #cjj1 #cja furcul>is1 #bhf glosso-ph>yngeal1 #bgb hypoglossal1 #bg1 #cg1 #bgd int]co/al1 #bhe is*iadic1 #di1 #bhf latissimus dorsi1 #bhb lumbo-sacral1 #bhe m$ian1 #bhd m$ullat$1 #bgg motor oculi1 #bfg neurolemma1 #bgg non-m$ullat$1 #bgg obturator1 #bhf olfactorius1 #cd1 #bfe optic1 #bfg pa!ticus1 #bfh p]oneus pr(undus1 #bhg plexus p$undus1 #bhh pneumoga/ric1 #bgc po/]ior coraco-bra*ialis1 #bhd ramus secundus1 #bfi recurr5t c>diacus1 #bgd ext]na1 #bfi hepatici1 #bgd infra-orbitale1 #bfi l>yngeus1 #bgd l+uales1 #bgc ph>yngeus1 #bgb pulmonale1 #bgd subcutane\s1 #bgj v5tralis1 #bha rhomboideus pr(undus1 #bhb sup]ficialis1 #bhb scapulo-hum]alis1 #bhb s]ratus plexus1 #bhb sp9al cord1 #bge /]no-coracoideus1 #bhd subcoraco-scapul>is1 #bhb sup]ficialis p]oneus1 #bhg s]ratus1 #bhb supra-coracoideus1 #bhc trifacial1 #ca1 #bfh uln>1 #bhd vagus1 #bg1 #ca1 #bgc gr\p1 #bgc ,n]ve trunks1 /ructure (1 #bgg ,n]v\s sy/em1 #bfd1 #cjj ,neural ar*1 #ch sp9es1 #ch1 #ci ,neur(ibrils1 #bhj ,neurones1 #bfh1 #bgi ,no/ril1 #aic ,notocord1 #cbb ,oblique process1 #ci ,obliquo-transv]sales muscle1 #hf ,obliquus abdom9is ext]nus muscle1 #ij int]nus muscle1 #ia dorsalis1 #abe inf]ior1 #abg sup]ior1 #abe v5tralis muscle1 #aba ,obturator ext]nus1 #aaf int]nus1 #aaf n]ve1 #bhf ,occipital art]y1 #bae bone1 #bc1 #be ,occipitale lat]ales bone1 #be ,occipitalis inf]ius bone1 #be pr(unda art]y1 #bae sublimis art]y1 #bae sup]ioris bone1 #be ,odontoid process1 #cg ,oil gl&1 #da ,olecranon1 #df ,olfactory cavities1 #cbb c]ebral crura1 #bie glom]uli1 #bfe n]ve1 #bfe ,og5esis1 #cai ,oph?almic vesicle1 #cbb ,oph?almica ext]na1 #baf ,optic *iasm1 #bhi lobes1 #cbb1 #bhi n]ve1 #bfg ,orbicul>is oculi1 #abd palpebr>um muscle1 #abd ,orbit1 #cbc ,orbital process1 #cj ,orbito-nasal ganglion1 #bgj ,organ ( he>+1 #cjd1 #cbb ( sight1 #cjc ( smell1 #cjg ( ta/e1 #cjg ( t\*1 #cjg ,os angul>e1 #cj articul>e1 #cj transv]sale1 #aje ,osse\s /ructure1 #ag tissue1 #ag ,o/ium tub abdom9ale1 #ahc ,otocrane1 #cbc ,otoli?s1 #cbb ,ov>ian art]y1 #bbf pocket1 #ahi ,ov>y1 #cbe ,oviduct1 #ahb1 #cbe ,ovum1 #cah ,palatal papill>ies1 #ada ,palat9e gl&s1 #ada ,palat9us bone1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc ,palatum durum1 #aci ,palpebral plexus1 #bag ,pancreas1 #aeb1 #aee ,papilla1 #ada ,p>apophysis1 #ch ,p>ietal bone1 #bi ,p>s commissuralis1 #bhi gl&ul>is1 #adc muscul>is1 #adc r5alis1 #bea ,p>tes p$uncul>es1 #bid ,patella1 #ec ,pa!ticus1 #bfh ,pect51 #cjc1 #cbc ,pectoralis major1 #ajj secundus1 #ajj t]tius1 #aja ,pelvic cavity1 #aef girdle1 #dh ,p]ic>dium1 #bjg ,p]imysium1 #gj ,p]io/eum1 #ah ,p]itoneum1 #aef ,p]oneus longus1 #aah n]ve1 #bhg ,pessulus1 #aie ,petrosal ganglion1 #bgb ,phalanges1 #dd1 #dg1 #ed ,ph>ynx1 #ed1 #ada ,pia mat]1 #bhh ,p9eal gl&1 #bie ,pituit>y body1 #be1 #bhi1 #bie ,plac5ta1 #cba ,planum coccygeum1 #dh ,plasma1 #bfa ,platysma myoides muscle1 #gd ,pleurapophysis1 #ch ,plexus1 abdom9al1 #bii ant]ior splan*nic1 #cjj ,plexus1 lacrimal1 #bag mes5t]ic1 #bii muscul>is1 #bag p$undus1 #bhh po/]ior splan*nic1 #cjj ?oracic1 #bii ,plica primitiv1 #cbj ,pneumatic =am51 #db1 #dc1 #de ,pons v>olii1 #bhi ,po/-acetabul> ridge1 #dh ,po/]ior aorta1 #bbd circumflex art]y1 #bbc diaphragmatic air-sac1 #bjb fossa1 #be n>es1 #acf orbitalis1 #cj v5a cava1 #bdg v]tebral art]y1 #bba ve91 #bcd ,p\p>t's ligam5t1 #fe ,prezygapophyses1 #ci ,prim>ies1 #caa ,primitive /reak1 #cba ,process1 co/al1 #dc lat]al1 #cg1 #ci oblique1 #cg1 #ci ( /]num1 #db odontoid1 #cg xiphoid1 #dc ,processus acu/icus ext]nus1 #ca cili>is1 #cjd coracoideus1 #dd cubitalis hum]i1 #de frontalis1 #cb ant]ior1 #cb po/]ior1 #cb furcul>is1 #dc hum]alis1 #dc int]maxill>is1 #cb is*iadicus1 #di maxill>is1 #cb ant]ior1 #cb odontoid1 #cg olecranalis coracoideus1 #df orbicul>is1 #bh1 #bi orbitalis1 #bi palat9us1 #cb po/]ior orbitalis1 #cj ,processus unc9atus1 #bd zygomaticus1 #bh1 #cj ,pr(unda p5is1 #bcb ,pronation1 #eg ,pronator brevis muscle1 #ajg longus1 #ajg ,proteids ( plasma1 #bfa ( s]um1 #bfa ,prov5triculus1 #adc ,prov]tebra1 #cbj ,pt]ygoideus ext]nus muscle1 #gh int]nus muscle1 #gh lat]alis muscle1 #gh m$ialis muscle1 #gh ,pt]yl1 #caa ,pubis1 #ej ,pud5da ext]na art]y1 #bcb ,pulmonalis dextra1 #bac s9i/ra1 #bac ,pulmon>y art]y1 #bac ve91 #bcc ,pulp1 #caa ,punctum sali5s1 #cbj ,purk9je cells1 #bic ,pyramidal columns1 #bia ,quadrate1 #cd ,quadrato-jugale1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc ,quadratus nictitans1 #abe ,quill1 #caj fea!rs1 #caj ,ra*is1 #caj1 #cac ,radial art]y1 #bbc ,radius1 #dd1 #df ,rami communicantes1 #bgf glottis1 #aid ,ramus asc5d5s ossis is*ii1 #di cili>is po/icus1 #bag po/]ior art]y1 #bag pr(undus art]y1 #bji sup]ficialis art]y1 #bji ,rectrices1 #da1 #caa ,rectus abdom9alis muscle1 #ia capitis anticus m9or muscle1 #ha dorsalis major muscle1 #hb po/icus major muscle1 #hb ,rectus capitis v5tralis muscle1 #hb dorsalis muscle1 #abg ext]nus muscle1 #abg inf]ior muscle1 #abg int]nus muscle1 #abh lat]alis muscle1 #abg m$ialis muscle1 #abh sup]ior muscle1 #abg v5tralis muscle1 #abg ,recurr5t c>diacus n]ve1 #bgd hepatici n]ve1 #bgd infraorbital n]ve1 #bfi inte/9alis n]ve1 #bbg l>yngeus n]ve1 #bgc l+ualis n]ve1 #bgc ph>yngeus n]ve1 #bgb pulmonale n]ve1 #bgd r5al art]y1 #bbc r5ales n]ves1 #bbi s9i/] art]y1 #bbg subcutane\s n]ve1 #bgj ,r$ blood cells1 #beh %ape1 #beh size1 #bei /ructure1 #bei ,reflex action1 #cja ,r5al art]y1 #bbf corpuscle1 #aga ,respiratory app>atus1 #aic ,rete malpighii1 #cac ,ret9a1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cbc ,rhomboideus muscle1 #ig pr(undus n]ve1 #bhb sup]ficialis n]ve1 #bhb ,ribs1 #da false1 #da true1 #da ,ridge1 ectonemial1 #eb fibrill>1 #eb po/-acetabul>1 #dh procnemial1 #eb tro*ant]ic1 #ej ,rotation1 #eg ,r\nd ligam5t1 #fe ,rudd] fea!rs1 #da ,sacralis m$ia art]y1 #bbi1 #bcb ,sacro-lumbalis muscle1 #ib ,sacs1 air1 #aii ,s>colemma1 #gj ,s>torius muscle1 #aaa ,scala tympani1 #cjf ve/ibuli1 #cjf ,scal5us m$ius muscle1 #hf muscle1 #hf ,scapho-lun> bone1 #dg ,scapula1 #dc ,scapulo-hum]alis muscle1 #aja n]ve plexus1 #bhb ,scl]otic coat1 #cjc1 #cjd ,second>ies1 #caa ,secretion1 int]nal1 #aij ,semilun> c>tilage1 #fg ,semimembranosus muscle1 #aad ,sem9if]\s tubules1 #cah ,semit5d9osus muscle1 #aad accessorius muscle1 #aad ,s5se ( he>+1 #cje ( sight1 #cjc ( smell1 #cjg ( ta/e1 #cjg ( t\*1 #cjg organ1 #cjc ,s5sory n]ves1 #cjj ,septum nasi1 #cc ,s]\s cavity1 #aef membrane1 #aef sac1 #aef ,s]ratus magnus anticus muscle1 #ig n]ve plexus1 #bhb p>vus anticus muscle1 #ig ,s]um1 #bfa album91 #bfa globul91 #bfa ,sesamoid bone1 #ed ,%>pey's fib]s1 #bj ,%ea? ( ,s*wann1 #bgg ,%ell bloom1 #ahh gl&1 #ahg membrane1 #aha /ructure1 #aha t9t1 #aha ,%\ld] girdle1 #dc ,s9us =am9is occipitales1 #bdj fove hemisph]ii c]ebelli1 #bda infraorbitalis1 #cb ,s9us longitud9alis1 #bci occipitalis1 #bdj ext]nus1 #bdj petrosus sph5oideus1 #bdj rhomboideus1 #bgf semicircul>is1 #bdj temporales1 #ccb temporo-sph5oideus1 #bdj transv]sus1 #bdj v5osus annul>is basil>is1 #bdj ,skeleton1 #ba1 #bd app5dicul>1 #dc axial1 #bb division1 #bb ,sk91 #cji1 #cbc ,small inte/9e1 #adg ,smoo? muscle1 #gj ,soleus muscle1 #aah ,somatic cell1 #cah ,sp]matic art]y1 #bbf ,sp]matids1 #cah ,sp]matocyte1 #cah ,sp]matog5esis1 #cah ,sp]matogonia1 #cah ,sp]matozoa1 #agf1 #cah ,sph5oid art]y1 #bag bone1 #bh ro/rum1 #bi ,sph5o-maxill>y art]y1 #bag ,sph5o-palat9e n]ve ganglion1 #bgj ,sp9al cord1 #ch n]ves1 #bha n]v\s sy/em1 #bfd ,splan*nology1 #ace ,splan*nopleure1 #cbg ,sple51 #aeb1 #aee ,spl5ic art]y1 #bbg capsule1 #aee pulp1 #aee ,spur1 #ed1 #cag ,squam\s epi!lium1 #acg ,/]nal art]y1 #bbb ,/]no-clavicul>is art]y1 #bba muscle1 #bhd ,/]no-coracoideus n]ve1 #bhd ,/]no-hyoideus muscle1 #hj ,/]no-tra*ealis muscle1 #hi ,/]num1 #db ,/igm51 #agi ,/oma*1 #adc ,/ratum corneum1 #ada1 #cac1 #cad g]m9ativum1 #cad granulosum1 #cad lucidum1 #cdd ,malpighii1 #cad ,/ylo-hyoideus muscle1 #gi ,/yloid process ( ulna1 #df ,subclavian art]y1 #bcd ,subcondyloid fossa1 #bg ,subcoraco-scapul>is n]ve1 #bhb ,subcutis1 #cji ,subscapul>is art]y1 #bbb ,succus ent]icus1 #aeb ,sulcus ilio-lumbalis dorsalis1 #dh c5tralis1 #bia1 #bid longitud9alis1 #bia ,sup]ficialis p]oneus n]ve1 #bhg s]ratus n]ve1 #bhb ,sup]ior l>yngeal art]y1 #bah l>ynx1 #aic m$ian fissure ( cord1 #bgf pyramidalis1 #bia sympa!tic ganglion1 #bgb tub]culum ossis c>pi radialis1 #dg ,supra-coracoideus n]ve1 #bhc ,sylvian art]y1 #bag ,sympa!tic c>oticus cephalicus1 #bih n]v\s sy/em1 #bfd1 #big oph?almic plexus1 #bih recurr5t c>diacus1 #bii temporo-lacrimalis1 #bih ?oracic trunk1 #bii ,symphysis ilio-sacralis1 #di ilio-sacri1 #di ,synovial app>atus1 #eg1 #aef ,t>so-metat>sus1 #ec ,te>s1 #cjc ,temporal art]ial plexus1 #baf art]y1 #bae bone1 #bi petrosal portion1 #ca squam\s portion1 #cj ,temporalis muscle1 #gf ,t5don ,a*illis1 #fi ,t5donal groove1 #ed ,t5sor patagii brevis1 #ii longus1 #ii tympani1 #abh ,t]es et infrasp9atus muscle1 #ih m9or muscle1 #ajc ,te/icles1 #age ,?alamus optici1 #bhi ,?orax1 #da ,?ymus gl&1 #aij ,?yroid art]y1 #bae gl&1 #aij ,tibialis anticus muscle1 #aai ,tissue1 osse\s1 #ag ,toes1 #ed ,tongue1 #aci1 #adj ,t\* corpuscle1 #cjg ,tra*ea1 #aid ,tra*elo-ma/oideus muscle1 #he ,transp>5t specim5s1 #cej ,transv]sales abdom9is muscle1 #ib ,transv]se fissure1 #bhi ve91 #bcc ,transv]sus p]onei1 #id ,trapezius muscle1 #ig ,triangul>is /]ni muscle1 #ij ,triceps bra*ii1 #ajd muscle1 #ajd ,trifacial n]ve1 #bfh ,tro*ant]1 #ej ,tro*ant]ic fossa1 #ej ridge1 #ej ,tro*lea1 femoral1 #ej ,true jo9ts1 #ef ,tuba auditiva1 #bi1 #acf ,tub] c9]eum et infundibulum1 #bhi ,tub]culum co/1 #db ,tub]ositas furcul>is1 #dd hum]alis1 #dd muscul>is1 #fd radii1 #df scapul>is1 #dd ,tubuli sem9if]i1 #agf1 #cah ur9if]i corticales1 #agj ,tunica adv5titia1 #baj intima1 #baj m$ia1 #baj ,turb9ate bones1 #cd1 #aic ,tympanic membrane1 #ca ,ulna1 #dd1 #df ,uln> n]ve1 #bhd ,umbilical art]y1 #bbh ,umbilicus1 #ca ,uret]1 #agd1 #ahg ,ur9>y app>atus1 #afi canals1 #agj ,urodeum1 #aea ,urog5ital sy/em1 #afi ,uro-hyal process1 #ce ,vag9a1 #ahg ,valve ( ,vieuss5s1 #bij ,valves ( ve9s1 #baa ,vane1 #caj ,vas def]5s1 #age1 #agh ,vasa vasorum1 #baa ,va/us ext]nus muscle1 #aac int]nus muscle1 #aac ,vaxillum1 #caj ,ve9 or ve9s1 #bcc ant]ior v]tebral1 #bcd asc5d5tes lat]ales1 #bdb basilica1 #bdf bra*ialis1 #bdf c>otes1 #bda cava s9i/]1 #bde cav1 #bcc cephalica po/]ior1 #bci coccygea1 #bcj colli cut9e1 #bdb coracoidea1 #bdd cut9ea abdom9is femoralis1 #bej caudalis1 #bea cruralis1 #bdi pubica1 #bea epiga/ric1 #bcj esophageal1 #bdc facialis communis1 #bch cut9ea1 #bch ext]na1 #bce femoralis ant]ior1 #bej int]na pr(unda1 #bcj =am9is occipitalis1 #bdj fov hemisph]ii c]ebelli1 #bda gl&ul>um ?yroide>um1 #bdc hum]i1 #bde hypoga/ric1 #bea int]co/ales1 #bdd int]nal m&ibul>1 #bcg int]v]tebrales lumbalis1 #beb sacrales1 #bdi is*iadic1 #beb jugul>is1 #bcc l+uales1 #bdb l+ualis et hyoides1 #bch longitud9alis1 #bci maxill>is1 #bce metat>salis dorsalis int]na1 #bdi pr(unda1 #bdi ext]na1 #bdi plant>is pr(unda1 #bdi occipitalis1 #bdj ext]na1 #bdb ext]nus1 #bdj ( bra9 cavity1 #bda ( dorsal region1 #bdc ( =e limb1 #bde ( head1 #bce ( h9d limb1 #bdh ( neck1 #bdb ( ?orax1 #bdd ( visc]a1 #beb oph?almica1 #bcf ov>iana1 #beb palpebralis1 #bch petrosus sph5oideus1 #bdj ph>ynge sup]iores1 #bch poplitealis1 #bea po/]ior v5a cava1 #bdg v]tebral1 #bcd pr(undus uln>is1 #bde prov5tricul>is communis1 #bde inf]ior1 #bec pud5da1 #bea pulmon>y1 #bcc radialis pr(unda1 #bde r5ales1 #bdi r5alis magna1 #beb retis mirabilis temporalis1 #bcg sacrales1 #bdi semicircul>is1 #bdj sp]matica1 #bea /]nalis1 #bdd /ructure (1 #baa subclavicul>is1 #bcc subscapul>is1 #bdc supra-palat9a1 #bcf supr>5alis ext]na1 #bea reveh5tes1 #beb surales1 #bdd temporalis1 #bch temporo-sph5oideus1 #bdj te/icul1 #beb ?oracica ext]na1 #bdd int]na1 #bdd tibialis po/ica1 #bdh tra*ealis1 #bdc transv]sus1 #bcc1 #bch v]tebralis lat]alis dorsalis1 #bdc ,v5\s s9uses1 #bci trunks1 #bcc ,v5tral ligam5t ( oviduct1 #ahh ,v5tricles ( he>t1 #cbd ,v5triculus1 #adc ,v]tebr1 #ce c]vical1 #ce coccygeal1 #ce dorsal1 #ce1 #ci lumbo-sacral1 #ce1 #ci ,v]tebral art]y1 #bae column1 #ce ,ve/ibulum1 #cjf ,villi1 #adi ,vitellicle1 #cba ,vitell9e membrane1 #ahj ve9s1 #cbd1 #cbg ,vocal app>atus1 #aie ,wi% bone1 #bdd ,wolffian duct1 #ahd1 #cci ,xan?ophyll1 #cad ,yolk1 #ahj sac1 #cbg ,zona opaca1 #cbj pellucida1 #cbj ,zygapophyses1 #ch1 #ci ,zygomatic bone1 #bc1 #ca1 #cc process1 #cj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,sil5tly correct$ obvi\s typographical errors & v>iations 9 spell+4 #b4 ,reta9$ ar*aic1 non-/&>d1 & unc]ta9 spell+s z pr9t$4 #c4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4 #d4 ,enclos$ bold font 9 equals4