,,ukraine ,,the ,,land ,,and ,,its ,,people ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,its ,,geography ,,by ,,stephen ,,rudnitsky1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,privatdozent ,,of ,,geography ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,lemberg ,,new ,,york ,,city #aiah ,,publisher',s ,,preface ,the first appearance of this book1 which is from the pen of ,stephen ,rudnitsky1 the famous geographer of the ,university of ,lemberg1 was in the ,russian ,ukraine4 ,the book was printed in ,ukrainian1 at ,kieff1 and the date under the publisher's imprint was #aiaj4 ,the first translation into a foreign language was into ,german4 ,this translation appeared at ,vienna in #aiae1 with many improvements and additions4 ,the ,english translation which appears in this volume is an authorized translation of the ,german edition above-mentioned4 ,the reader is respectfully requested to note that the few unpleasant references to ,russia are of course meant to apply to the ,russia of the ,czars1 as the book was written during the ,czarist rgime4 ,ukrainian ,alliance of ,america ,new ,york ,city #aiah ,,contents ,book ,i4 ,physical ,geography ,,page ,ukraine as a ,geographic ,unit #c ,location and ,size #ab ,the ,black ,sea and its ,coasts #ae ,general ,survey of the ,topography of ,ukraine ,the ,ukrainian ,mountain ,country #bc ,the ,ukrainian ,plateau ,country #cg ,the ,ukrainian ,plain ,country #ec ,streams and ,rivers of ,ukraine #fc ,the ,ukrainian ,climate #he ,flora and ,fauna of ,ukraine #ii ,book ,,ii4 ,anthropogeography ,ethnographic-,boundaries of ,ukraine4 ,number and ,geographical ,distribution of the ,ukrainians #aah ,the ,ukrainian ,nation as an ,anthropogeographical ,unit ,general ,survey #adh ,anthropological ,characteristics of the ,ukrainians #aei ,the ,ukrainian ,language #afg ,historico-,political ,traditions and ,aspirations of the ,ukrainians #agf ,ukrainian ,culture #aij ,relations between the ,soil and the ,people of ,ukraine #baa ,economic-,geographical ,survey of ,ukraine #bdf ,hunting and ,fishing #bdf ,forestry #bea ,agriculture #bee ,fruit and ,vegetable ,raising #bfg ,cattle ,raising #bga ,mineral ,production #bge ,industry #bhb ,trade and ,commerce #bib ,districts and ,settlements of ,ukraine #cjg ,bibliography #cda ,index #cdf ,maps3 ,general ,physical ,chart of ,ukraine ,general ,ethnographic ,map of ,eastern ,europe ,geological ,map of ,ukraine ,general ,climatic ,map of ,ukraine ,map of the ,flora of ,ukraine ,structural-,morphological ,map of ,ukraine ,,book ,i4 ,,physical ,,geography ,,ukraine ,,as ,a ,,geographic ,,unit ,there are few lands upon the whole globe so imperfectly known to geographic science as the one which we shall try to describe in this little work4 ,the geographic concept of the ,ukraine does not exist in the geography of today4 ,even the name has been almost forgotten in ,europe in the course of the last century and a half4 ,only occasionally on some maps of ,eastern ,europe the name 8,ukraine0 shows timidly along the middle of the ,dnieper4 ,and yet it is an old name of the country1 originating in the #aath ,century1 generally known thruout ,europe from the #afth to the end of the #ahth century1 and then1 after the abrogation of the autonomy of the second ,ukrainian state1 gradually fallen into oblivion4 ,the ,russian ,government has determined to erase the old name of the land and the nation from the map of ,europe4 ,little ,russia1 ,west ,russia1 ,south ,russia1 ,new ,russia1 were officially introduced in place of the old name ,ukraine1 the ,austrian part of the ,ukraine receiving the name of ,east ,galicia4 ,the people were named ,little ,russians1 ,south ,russians1 ,ruthenians1 and all remembrance of the old name seemed to have been blotted out4 ,but1 in the speech of the people and in the magnificent unwritten popular literature of the nation1 the name of the land could not be destroyed1 and1 with the unexpected rise of ,ukrainian literature1 culture1 and a feeling of national political independence in the #aith ,century1 the name ,ukraine came into its own again4 ,today there is not an intelligent patriotic ,ukrainian who would use another name for his country and nation than ,ukraine and ,ukrainian1 and1 slowly1 these designations are penetrating foreign lands as well4 ,the ,ukraine is the land in which the ,ukrainian nation dwells--a great solid national territory embracing all the southern part of ,russia in ,europe1 besides ,east ,galicia1 ,northwest ,bukowina and ,northeast ,hungary4 ,this district is a definite geographic unit4 ,a discussion of its exact boundaries shall be reserved for the anthropogeographical part of this book4 ,a division of ,europe into natural regions almost invariably stops at ,eastern ,europe4 ,while all the other portions of our globe have long been the object of the most detailed classification1 ,eastern ,europe remains1 as before1 an undivided whole4 ,to be sure1 there have been many attempts at classification1 but they are all based upon a non-geographical point of view4 ,only the ,baltic provinces and ,poland are1 in their present political extent1 regarded as possible geographic units4 ,these deficiencies in the geographic material relating to ,eastern ,europe are due1 above all1 to our imperfect knowledge of this great region4 ,russian science is devoting far more intensive study to the ,asiatic borderlands of the immense empire than to the ,european home country4 ,for this reason1 our literary aids in this direction are few and unreliable4 ,the latter criticism applies even to the twenty-volume ,geography of ,russia by ,semyonoff and the ,geography of ,krassnoff4 ,apart from the consideration that it is relatively out of date1 the fifth volume of ,reclus' 8,gographie universelle0 still offers the best insight into this unique region of ,eastern ,europe4 ,if we glance at the map of ,eastern ,europe1 we perceive at once that the great uniformity of this immense region makes it quite impossible to apply to ,eastern ,europe as a criterion the division of ,western or ,central ,europe4 ,it is not seas and mountains that separate the natural regions and anthropogeographical units of ,eastern ,europe1 but imperceptible morphological transitions1 hydrographic and climatic boundaries1 petrologic and floral conditions4 ,the ,ukraine is an ,eastern ,european country4 ,its situation1 its decidedly continental character1 its geologic history1 tectonic construction and morphologic conditions1 its climate1 plant and animal life1 its anthropogeography--all are characteristic of ,eastern ,europe4 ,but within ,eastern ,europe the ,ukraine occupies a unique position1 which fully warrants our conceiving of this great land as a geographic unit standing on an equal basis with the other natural units1 as ,great ,russia1 ,north ,russia1 the ,ural1 ,white ,russia1 the ,baltic ,provinces4 ,but it also forms a characteristic transition country from ,eastern to ,central and ,southern ,europe on the one side1 and to ,western ,asia on the other4 ,the location of the ,ukraine causes us necessarily to consider it as the easternmost of the ,mediterranean countries of ,europe4 ,the ,ukraine differs from these other ,mediterranean countries in that it is not hemmed in on the north by mountains4 ,the back-country of the ,black ,sea1 which the ,ukraine really is1 therefore merges gradually into the lands lying further to the north--,great ,russia and ,white ,russia4 ,of all the regions of ,eastern ,europe1 the ,ukraine alone has access to the ,mediterranean4 ,the geological history of the ,ukraine is entirely different from that of the rest of ,europe4 ,the pre-,cambrian core of gneiss-granite of the ,ukraine1 unlike other parts of ,eastern ,europe1 was not flooded by the sea either in the ,cambrian period or the lower ,silurian1 while in the upper ,silurian the sea covered only a slight part of ,western ,podolia and ,northern ,bessarabia4 ,the ,devonian sea crossed the boundaries of the ,ukraine only in the farthest east 7,donetz ,plateau7 and west 7,western ,podolia74 ,the carbon deposits and ,permian formations1 so widely distributed in ,eastern ,europe1 are found in the ,ukraine only on the ,donetz2 triassic rock hardly at all4 ,the ,jurassic ,sea confined its action almost wholly to the plicated borderlands of the ,ukraine1 altho it actually flooded great stretches of ,eastern ,europe4 ,only the extension of the chalk seas thru ,eastern ,europe affected ,ukrainian territory1 especially the northern and western borderlands4 ,the old tertiary sea1 on the other hand1 confined itself for the most part to the ,ukraine1 with the result that a goodly section of the northeastern boundary of the old tertiary deposits coincides exactly with the anthropogeographical boundaries of the ,ukraine4 ,the inland seas of the lower green-sand formation of ,eastern ,europe1 too1 are confined almost entirely to ,ukrainian territory4 ,the geologic history of the ,ukraine in the diluvian period was also decidedly different from that of the other districts of ,eastern ,europe4 ,the ,northern ,european inland ice covered the northwestern borderlands of the ,ukraine only in the main ice period1 for the boundary set for the glaciation of the north1 on the basis of the investigations of ,russian scholars1 applies in great measure only to the limits of the distribution of northern glacial boulders1 which were carried to their present site not by ice but by flowing water4 ,the two indentations of the glaciation-boundary in the ,don and ,dnieper district merely mark the sphere of action of two glacial river systems4 ,the absence of a one-time inland-ice-cap differentiates the ,ukrainian district very markedly from the other parts of ,eastern ,europe4 ,as we perceive1 even from this short description1 the ,ukraine has had an entirely different geologic history from the rest of ,eastern ,europe4 ,more plainly still1 the independence of the ,ukraine as a natural unit is revealed in its contour-line and surface-relief4 ,the ,ukraine is the only portion of the ,eastern ,european plain which has access to the mountainous region1 for it rests upon the ,carpathians1 the ,yaila ,mountains and the ,caucasus4 ,important individual districts of the ,ukraine lie in these mountains and lessen the ,eastern ,european uniformity of the country4 ,the formation of the ,yaila and the ,caucasus began at the end of the ,jurassic period--its completion and the building up of the ,carpathians occur in the late tertiary period4 ,the plains and plateau of the ,ukraine1 while at first glance quite similar to those of ,central ,russia1 are in reality very different from these as to structure and surface-relief4 ,the nucleus of the ,ukrainian plateau group1 which is surrounded by the two plain districts of the ,ukraine1 consists of the so-called ,azof ,horst 7so named by ,e4 ,suess71 which stretches from the banks of the ,sea of ,azof in a northwesterly direction as far as ,volhynia and ,austrian ,podolia4 ,this primeval rock surface1 composed of granite gneiss1 is bounded by quarries and edged with declivities1 which are hidden by more recent sediment deposits4 ,since this extended ,horst stretches thru practically the whole length of the ,ukraine1 we shall call it 8the ,ukrainian ,horst40 ,this ,ukrainian ,horst is of great importance for the entire process of folding1 all over the earth4 ,to the west of this ,horst is the immense fold-system of the ,altai1 folded far into ,north ,america toward the north and northeast1 in direct opposition to the main parts of the enormous system which lie to the east of it4 ,in the east of the ,horst we see the straight line of the mountain system of the ,caucasus2 in the west the winding guide-lines of ,central ,europe4 ,the region of the ,ukrainian ,horst has influenced not only the formation of the plicated country4 ,in connection with it we find1 arranged on a grand scale1 but not very intensive1 disintegrating lines1 which traverse the entire ,ukrainian country from ,n4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,e4 ,these tectonic disturbances have led to strong folding and dislocation of the more recent sedimentary layers which lie close to the ,horst4 ,this folding district can be observed only in the trunk range on the ,donetz and in a few isolated places to the northwest2 beyond this it is buried under the huge cover of the tertiary layers4 ,the folding process took place in the ,donetz ,mountains1 continuing with long interruptions from the end of the paleozoic era to the beginning of the tertiary period4 ,as pre-tertiary disturbances of this kind we consider the disturbance of ,isatchky1 ,trekhtimiriv1 etc41 as well as some dividing lines at the northwestern extremity of the ,ukrainian ,horst4 ,there is no doubt that the ,ukrainian ,horst was also the origin of more recent tectonic disturbances--tertiary and post-tertiary4 ,the two main lines of ,karpinsky 7the northern--,volga1 bend of the ,don1 source of the ,donetz1 delta of the ,desna1 ,south ,polissye1 ,warsaw2 the southern--delta of the ,don1 end of the ,porohy of the ,dnieper1 source of the ,boh1 ,western ,podolia7 for the most part go back to these more recent post-cretaceous disturbances4 ,besides1 we are already able1 despite our insufficient morphological data on the ,ukraine1 to establish the fact that the entire ,ukrainian plateau-group is the scene of a significant post-glacial elevation4 ,the strikingly parallel courses of the main streams1 the ,dniester1 the ,boh1 the ,dnieper as far as ,katerinoslav1 the ,donetz and the ,don1 together with the precipices frequently accompanying them1 lead us to infer the existence of tectonic influences4 ,that the precipices of ,podolia are very recent we may now confidently maintain1 and that the precipitous bank of the ,dnieper is quite as recent is shown by the familiar dislocation near ,kaniv1 where the tertiary is affected4 ,seismic movements of the most recent past and morphological observations show us that the tectonic disturbances of the ,ukraine are continuing into our own day4 ,from this tectonic characterization of the ,ukraine we perceive that this country occupies an independent position in relation to the rest of ,eastern ,europe4 ,the much more intensive tectonic disturbances of the ,ukrainian region have produced a greater variety of plateau and plain country here than in ,white1 ,great or ,north ,russia4 ,the ,ukrainian plateaus attain the contour-lines of #djj and even #ejj meters and reveal precipices of tectonic origin1 which for a long time were considered proof of ,baer's law and have recently been explained as ,davis ,cuestas4 ,the extensive working out of valleys in the ,ukrainian plateau regions1 the characteristic caon-like type of the valleys1 the frequent occurrence of hills formed by erosion1 lack of glacial formations and deposits1 but evidences of great erosive and flattening action--these are the chief elements of difference between the plateau lands of the ,ukraine and other ,eastern ,european plateau lands4 ,the plains of the ,ukraine possess similarities to neighboring ,central ,europe only in the ,northwest4 ,beyond this1 they are all more or less decided steppes1 the like of which are not met with in ,central ,europe1 ,hungary not excepted4 ,at the same time the character of the steppes of the ,ukraine is different from that of the steppe-region of ,eastern ,russia as well1 chiefly because of the detail of the country and the peculiarities of vegetation1 which are occasioned by differences of climate4 ,hydrographically the ,ukraine is distinguished by a web of rivers concentrating in the ,pontus4 ,the ,ukraine embraces the river systems of the ,dniester1 ,boh1 ,dnieper1 ,don and ,kuban--not entirely1 to be sure1 yet by far the greater part1 leaving only the sources of the two greatest rivers to the ,white and ,great ,russians4 ,only the most western borderlands of the ,ukraine lie within the watersheds of the ,baltic ,rivers 7the ,vistula district72 only the most eastern mountain-spurs in the water-shed of the ,caspian ,sea 7,terek and ,kuma74 ,we may therefore1 without hesitation1 conceive of the ,ukraine hydrographically as the northern part of the ,eastern ,european water-shed4 ,in respect to climate1 the ,ukraine occupies an independent position in ,eastern ,europe4 ,in fact1 de ,martonne recently declared 8the ,ukrainian climate to be one of the main types of climate of the earth40 ,we shall not go so far as this1 but we must emphasize the fact that the climate of the ,ukraine differs no less from that of ,poland1 ,white ,russia and ,great ,russia than does ,germany's climate from that of ,england or ,france4 ,an important wind-partition crosses the ,ukraine in winter from ,east to ,west1 subjecting the entire southern part to the sway of the east wind4 ,winter in the ,ukraine is strictly continental1 with a coldness of #cj degrees1 but not with the semi-polar character of the ,russian or the ,central ,european character of the ,polish winter4 ,the east and southeast winds by day prevent the snow-blankets1 produced by the moist south winds of the ,pontus1 from ever becoming too heavy1 especially in the ,southern ,ukraine1 and cause them to disappear quickly in the spring4 ,in the spring the temperature rises very rapidly4 ,the summer of the ,ukraine is the hot continental summer1 and despite the predominant ,atlantic west winds and the abundant precipitation1 it is not sultry4 ,autumn is pleasant and dry4 ,the climate of the ,ukraine1 then1 is the continental climate of the ,pontus4 ,toward the west it merges into the ,central ,european climatic zone at the border of ,poland1 into the ,eastern ,european continental climate at the border of ,white and ,great ,russia1 into the ,aralo-,caspian dry climate at the eastern border4 ,the southern borderlands of the ,ukraine1 like those of ,france1 constitute a transition to the ,mediterranean climate4 ,in respect to its flora1 the unique position of the ,ukraine depends upon the fact that it embraces almost the entire region of the prairie-steppes of the ,pontus1 with their regions of transition to the ,northern and ,central ,european forest zone4 ,right east of the ,don begin the steppes and desert-steppes of the ,caspian region4 ,consequently1 the ,ukraine is the only country in ,europe which has the prevailing character of the steppes4 ,here1 again1 this circumstance is of geographical importance and makes the ,ukraine1 in this respect also1 a geographic unit4 ,the most important signs of independence as a geographic unit1 however1 are imparted to the ,ukraine by its anthropogeographical conditions1 to which we shall turn our attention in ,book ,,ii of this little work4 ,we have now become acquainted with the natural foundations of the ,ukraine as a geographic unit4 ,one important characteristic of this geographic entity must especially attract our attention4 ,the name of the country is ,ukraine1 which means border-country1 march-land4 ,it is an old historical name which originated in the course of the centuries and has become customary4 ,and yet it is significant as hardly another name of a land or people could well be4 ,for the ,ukraine is a true borderland ,europe1 between ,eastern ,europe1 and ,western ,asia4 ,it lies on the borders of the ,european plicated mountain-girdle and of the ,eastern ,european table-land4 ,the ,ukrainian ,horst constitutes a tectonic border-post for the development of the entire ,european folded area4 ,in the morphological sense as well1 the ,ukraine constitutes a decided borderland4 ,here the glacial formations give way to the erosive and flattening formation4 ,climatologically1 too1 the ,ukraine is a decided borderland4 ,yet1 most of all1 does the character of the ,ukraine as a land of boundaries and transitions appear in its biogeographical and anthropogeographical conditions4 ,in the ,ukraine are merged the boundaries of two ,european forest regions--of the sub-steppes1 transition-steppe1 prairie-steppe zone1 and of the ,mediterranean region4 ,the ,ukraine is situated upon the boundaries of the ,european family of peoples--of ,slavdom1 of ,european culture--and1 at the same time1 upon the boundaries of that anthropogeographical structure which is so remarkable and so little known--the body social of ,eastern ,europe4 ,,location ,,and ,,size ,the ,ukraine lies between #dc and #ed north latitude and between #ba and #dg east longitude from ,greenwich4 ,if we look for our country on a map we will find that it lies as the northern hinterland of the ,black ,sea1 in the southern part of ,eastern ,europe1 just on the threshold of ,asia4 ,from the foot of the ,tatra ,mountains1 from the sunny ,hegyalia and cloud-wreathed ,chornohora1 from the silver-rippled ,san1 from the dark virgin forest of ,biloveza and the immense swamps of ,polissye1 to the delta of the ,danube--so often sung in the lore of the ,ukrainian folk--to the ,black ,sea1 to the gigantic ,caucasians and the ,caspian1 surrounded by brown desert steppes1 extends our fatherland1 the ,ukraine4 ,from the beginnings of the historical life of ,eastern ,europe1 for one thousand two hundred years1 the ,ukrainian race has resided in this region1 and has been able1 not only to preserve its boundaries1 but1 after heavy losses1 to regain and even to pass beyond them4 ,and this continued thru centuries of stress1 thru bloody wars1 after the loss of the first and second national governments1 and under the merciless pressure of neighboring states and peoples4 ,that other nations1 as the ,french1 the ,italians1 the ,spaniards1 should have preserved their original seats1 is not surprising2 they were protected on all sides by high mountains and deep seas4 ,all the more1 therefore1 must we admire the great vitality of the ,ukrainian nation1 which has been able to retain in its possession a mother-country lying open1 almost without any protection1 to mighty enemies4 ,for the ,ukraine lies at the southeastern edge of ,europe1 on the threshold of ,asia1 at the point where the easiest overland route connects the two continents4 ,for an entire period of a thousand years1 this border position was most disadvantageous and dangerous for the ,ukraine2 for ,nature and ,history did not bring the ,ukraine1 placed as it is1 into the proximity of that part of ,asia which for thousands of years past had been inhabited by the rich civilizations of that continent4 ,the ,ukraine has always been the nearest ,european neighbor of the steppe-country of ,central ,asia4 ,there1 from the earliest beginnings of history1 dwelt pillaging hordes of ,nomads1 who would flood ,europe from this point4 ,the ,pontian steppes of the ,southern ,ukraine were1 for these steppe-people1 the natural military road to the ,west and ,southwest1 where the rich1 civilized lands of the ,mediterranean region lay invitingly open4 ,for more than a thousand years1 from the beginnings of the history of the ,ukraine1 these nomadic ,asiatic tribes traversed the ,south ,ukrainian steppes1 covering the entire ,ukraine with war and unspeakable misery4 ,huns1 ,avars1 ,khazars1 ,magyars1 ,pechenegs1 ,torks1 ,berendians1 ,polovs1 ,tatars1 ,kalmucks1 infested the ,ukraine in succession4 ,of all the ,european peoples1 the ,ukrainians always had to be the first to oppose these steppe-plunderers4 ,the nomads always had first to force their way thru the ,ukraine4 ,many of them were annihilated by the ancient ,ukrainians2 thus1 the ,khazars1 ,pechenegs1 ,torks and ,berendians2 others were held off1 as the ,polovs or the ,kalmucks4 ,but the ,ukraine exhausted its strength in this eternal warfare1 and1 in the terrible stress occasioned by the ,tatars1 lost their ancient culture and their mighty state4 ,if1 therefore1 any one of the ,european nations may claim the credit of having been ,europe's shield against ,asiatic barbarism1 it is the half-forgotten ,ukrainian nation4 ,the border position of the ,ukraine was fatal also1 for the reason that the country lay1 and lies1 so far distant from the cultural centers of ,europe4 ,as long as the ,byzantine ,empire1 with its cultural wealth1 remained firm1 a strong stream of culture flowed from the ,pontus into the ,ukraine4 ,the decline and fall of the ,byzantine ,empire suddenly transferred the ,ukraine to the furthest 7in respect to culture7 corner of ,europe1 close to the ,ottoman ,empire1 which was at that time hostile to culture4 ,the western neighbors of the ,ukraine1 the ,magyars and ,poles1 acquired little of the culture of ,western ,europe in the time of their independence1 and allowed still less to slip thru into the ,ukraine4 ,the ,russians entered the circle of ,european culture only two centuries ago1 and have made only superficial cultural progress since4 ,and yet the geographical location of the ,ukraine is not without favorable features4 ,the ,ukraine embraces the entire northern coast of the ,black ,sea and the ,sea of ,azof1 and holds considerable possibilities for oversea commerce4 ,the proximity of ,asia is no longer dangerous1 but1 on the contrary1 very advantageous4 ,a century and a half has passed since the power of the steppe-races was finally broken4 ,their heritage has been taken possession of1 altho in a different manner1 by the ,ukrainian peasant1 who has thickly settled the ,pontian steppes4 ,with plow in hand1 he has reconquered the lands which his ancestors tried in vain to defend with the sword4 ,ukrainian colonization is still advancing irresistibly in the ,crimea and in the fore-country of the ,caucasus1 and will1 no doubt1 within a very short time1 flood these countries completely4 ,a further advantage of location lies in the circumstance that the ,ukraine is situated on the shortest land-route from ,central ,europe to the southern part of ,central ,asia and ,india1 and commands a good portion of this route4 ,this fact may1 in the very near future1 be of the greatest political and economic importance4 ,at the same time1 the ,ukraine is the only one of all the ,east ,european countries which1 thru its location1 stands in the closest relations to the ,mediterranean countries4 ,reserving the detailed discussion of the ,ukraine's geographical location for the anthropogeographical part of my little book1 let us now consider the size of the ,ukraine4 ,the area of the ,ukrainian territory is #hej1jjj square kilometers4 ,we see before us1 therefore1 a ,european country which is surpassed in area only by present-day ,russia in ,europe4 ,no ,european people1 with the solitary exception of the ,russians1 possesses so large a compact national territory as the ,ukrainians4 ,this characteristically ,eastern ,european spaciousness of the territory1 combined with the natural wealth of the region would1 if coupled with ,western ,european culture1 make a fit dwelling-place for a world-power4 ,on such ground as this1 the possibilities for the development of a material and intellectual culture are almost unlimited4 ,but alas6 ,the greatest poet of the ,ukraine1 ,taras ,shevchenko1 has characterized his fatherland all too fittingly as 8,our ,land1 but not belonging to us40 ,upon its large and rich territory the ,ukrainian nation has had to endure so many hard buffets of fate1 that it must be considered1 along with the ,jews1 the most sorely tried civilized race on earth4 ,even down to the present moment the ,ukrainians are a helot race1 which is forced to unearth the treasures of its fatherland for its hostile neighbors4 ,,the ,,black ,,sea ,,and ,,its ,,coasts ,altho for many centuries separated from the ,pontus by the nomad-haunted steppe-border1 the ,ukrainian nation is closely identified with this sea4 ,an enormous number of legends and songs of the ,ukrainian people deal with it2 even in fanciful love-songs it is mentioned4 ,and the intimacy of this ,east ,european nation with the ,sea need not surprise us4 ,the ,black ,sea1 with which so much in ,ukrainian song and story is connected1 has had a significance in the history of the ,ukraine which has not been forgotten in the unwritten traditions of the people4 ,how many cultural and warlike memories are connected with the ,black ,sea6 ,how much ,ukrainian blood has mingled with its waters6 ,the ,black ,sea is not large 7#dej1jjj square kilometers74 ,it is a landlocked sea1 situated between ,europe and ,asia1 and connected with the ,mediterranean ,sea by the narrow ,straits of the ,bosphorus and the ,dardanelles and the ,sea of ,marmora1 which1 geologically speaking1 is a basin formed by subsidence4 ,great subsidences of the earth's surface created the deep basin of the ,pontus4 ,the ,pontus was a part of the extensive upper ,miocene and ,sarmatian inland sea1 which slightly flooded large districts of the present ,european continent as far as the ,vienna basin4 ,toward the end of the tertiary period1 this inland sea shrank and separated into single sea basins4 ,the ,pontian basin became connected with the ,mediterranean ,sea later1 in the latter part of the diluvial period1 by means of great subsidences of recent date4 ,the present morphology of the ,pontus is in full accord with this genesis4 ,the northern part1 as far as the line of communication between the ,balkan and ,yaila ,mountains1 is a shallow sea of a depth of less than #bjj meters2 the so-called bay of ,odessa is barely #ej meters deep2 the ,sea of ,azof1 projecting to the northeast1 barely #ae meters4 ,but just on the southern border of the line of plicated mountains1 which is broken at this point1 the bottom of the ,black ,sea declines rapidly to greater depths 7#aejj meters7 until1 declining more gradually now1 it attains the depth of #bbde meters in the center of the oval-shaped main basin of the ,pontus4 ,the salt content of the ,black ,sea is much smaller than that of the ocean1 or even of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,sea is comparatively small1 and receives a great deal of fresh water from the many and large rivers of the region which it drains1 while the influx of salt water from the ,mediterranean thru the shallow straits cannot be great4 ,the salt content is on the average #a4h2 only at great depths does it reach #b4b4 ,the diluted surface layer shows barely #a4e salt content2 the ,sea of ,azof hardly #a4 ,the surface water1 containing little salt but a great deal of air1 cannot1 because of the greater density of the lower layers of water1 sink far1 and this low degree of ventilation accounts for the fact that the waters of the ,black ,sea below a depth of #bcj meters are saturated with sulphide of hydrogen1 and thus preclude any possibility of organic deep-sea life4 ,nevertheless1 the ,black ,sea is notable for its beautiful blue-green color and the great transparency of its waters4 ,a white disc1 on being submerged1 disappeared only at a depth of #gg meters4 ,the surface temperature of the ,black ,sea is subject to many fluctuations2 from #bg ,c in midsummer to #e ,c in winter4 ,in severe winters the ,sea is frozen over in the bay of ,odessa for a short time2 the ,limans and the ,sea of ,azof regularly for from two to three months4 ,the ,black ,sea has been known since hoary antiquity as a dangerous1 stormy sea4 ,the waves1 running as high as #aj meters1 the short cross-waves caused by the proximity of the shores1 the difficult approaches to the land1 are still a great hindrance to navigation1 especially in the winter time4 ,not without cause did the ,greeks originally call it 8the inhospitable sea10 until the great number of flourishing ,greek settlements on its shores led them to change its name to 8hospitable sea40 ,despite this euphemistic name1 however1 8,pontus ,euxeinos10 the ,black ,sea has devoured many goods and lives1 many ,greek and ,roman ships1 many ,turkish and ,genoese galleys1 many ,english and ,russian steamers4 ,and many a little ,zaporog vessel sank in the dark waves of its native sea1 8on white cliffs dashed to pieces10 as is related in the old folk-epics2 many a one was driven to far-off hostile ,turkish shores1 to the destruction of its crews4 ,being a closed interior sea1 the ,pontus has no noticeable tides4 ,marked changes of level are caused by the action of the wind4 ,in the liman of the ,boh1 for example1 they produce #bj centimeters difference of level in a day1 sometimes even #dj centimeters2 in the bay of ,yahrlik as much as #df centimeters4 ,the ,sea of ,azof becomes #de to #ij centimeters deeper when there is a west wind1 up to #a meter deeper in the case of south winds1 and shallower by an equal amount when the winds are in the opposite direction4 ,slight changes of level are dependent also on the seasons4 ,the ,black ,sea has its lowest water level in ,february1 when the region which it drains is covered with snow2 the highest in ,may and ,june1 as a result of the melting of the snows and the early summer rains4 ,these fluctuations1 however1 amount to only #be cm4 ,the currents of the ,black ,sea1 too1 are inconsiderable1 because of its isolation4 ,outside of local currents which are caused by winds1 we know of only one greater current1 weak in itself1 which encircles the ,pontian ,basin in a counter clock-wise direction and may be traced to the cyclonal motion of the air4 ,the same conditions obtain on a smaller scale on the ,sea of ,azof and are reflected in the direction of the tongues of land along the coasts4 ,despite the fact that the deep-sea region of the ,black ,sea is poisoned with sulphide of hydrogen1 it possesses a rich flora and fauna in its surface layers4 ,enormous shoals of all kinds of fish--sturgeon1 hausen1 sterlet1 8kephal10 8bichok10 8balmut10 come to the coast and into the limans of the river deltas4 ,for this reason the ,pontian fishing industry has been considerable for thousands of years4 ,the extraction of salt from the limans and salt lakes is also important4 ,before the age of the railroad the abundance of fish and salt of the ,black ,sea created a special trucking trade in the ,ukraine1 the so-called ,chumaki1 who came to the ,pontian strand in whole caravans of oxcarts to take dried fish and salt in exchange for grain4 ,the ,ukrainian coast of the ,black ,sea begins at the delta of the ,danube and ends at the western spurs of the ,caucasus4 ,the greater part is flat coast1 the smaller1 steep coast4 ,at the northern ,kilian arm of the ,danube delta1 where now the descendants of the ,zaporog ,cossacks gain a scanty living thru fishing1 begins the coast of the ,ukraine4 ,the steppe approaches the sea with a steep declivity1 which is bordered by a narrow strand of sand and pebbles4 ,the coast runs evenly as far as the ,dnieper delta1 without any indentations4 ,even the famous port of ,odessa is an artificial harbor4 ,only at a point where a river1 a streamlet1 even a balka 7step-glen1 ravine7 opens into the sea1 is the steep incline of the steppe-plateau broken4 ,we then see before us an enormous pond as it were1 at the upper end of which the water-course enters and the lower end of which is locked from the sea side by a land-tongue or bar 7,koss1 ,peresip7 as by a flat dam4 ,this sea-water lake is called liman in ,ukrainian4 ,wherever a stream of great volume empties into a liman1 the bar is severed at one or more places4 ,these liman deltas are called1 in ,ukrainian1 hirl4 ,limans which have such connections with the sea are broken4 ,of such a kind are the limans of the ,kunduk1 ,dniester1 ,boh and ,dnieper4 ,where a little streamlet discharges which has not a sufficient volume of water to cover the loss from evaporation of the liman surface and still retain an excess for keeping open the outlet1 then the bar of the liman is without an opening and the water contains a great deal of salt4 ,of this kind are1 above all1 the limans of ,kuyalnik and ,khadshib near ,odessa1 the large1 deep ,tilihl and many smaller ones4 ,the water and the mud of such limans possess healing powers1 and every summer thousands of patients travel to the hot shores of the limans to regain their health4 ,the limans are simply submerged eroded valleys of steppe rivers which are now being filled in by alluvial deposits4 ,therefore1 the limans of all larger rivers are too shallow to serve as good harbors for the larger sea-going vessels4 ,the liman of the ,dniester allows entrance only to small ships drawing two meters of water2 the gigantic ,dnieper liman is only #f m4 deep1 and only the ,boh liman is accessible to larger sea-going ships4 ,systematic dredging1 however1 could1 without a doubt1 bring relief1 and would change a number of the limans into profitable harbors4 ,beginning at the liman of the ,dnieper1 the coast is strongly indented as far as the bay of ,karkinit1 but these indentations 7,yahrlik1 ,tendra1 ,kharilgach7 are closed off by long tongues of land and the undersea extension of the bar of ,bakalsk4 ,the west coast of ,crimea is also a uniform liman coast1 increasing constantly in height1 however1 toward the south4 ,at the ,alma delta the coast becomes steep and has two excellent harbors1 ,sevastopol and ,balaklava1 which are submerged deep valleys4 ,the southeast coast of the ,crimean peninsula is a strongly marked acclivitous shore4 ,the steep descent of the ,yaila ,mountains has been transformed here1 thru the abrasive action of the sea1 into a beautiful coastline4 ,eruptive rock1 capable of offering great resistance1 is found here in places1 forming picturesque capes1 jetties and crags1 between which lie pretty little bays and coves4 ,the agreeable climate1 the clear sky1 the good sea-baths and the beautiful country annually lure to this ,ukrainian ,riviera thousands of consumptives and health-seekers4 ,there are rows and rows of cottage-colonies and mansions4 ,beginning at the crescent-shaped bay of ,feodosia1 the coast again becomes lower and also has a number of salty lagoons and bars4 ,of the same description are the coasts of the ,strait of ,kerch1 leading into the ,sea of ,azof1 which is #ce1jjj sq4 km4 in area4 ,this extremely flat sea is often compared to a liman4 ,numerous tongues of land 7,biriucha1 ,obitochna1 ,berdianska1 ,kossa1 etc47 jut out here into the sea1 showing very clearly in their direction the effect of the cyclonal motion of the air4 ,the low coast has an enormous number of limans and lagoons1 e4g41 ,utluk1 ,mius1 ,molochni1 ,yeski1 ,akhtirski1 ,tamanski1 ,kisiltash1 etc4 ,the most remarkable part of the ,sea of ,azof1 however1 is the ,sivash4 ,a bar #aaa km4 in length shuts the ,sivash off from the ,sea of ,azof1 leaving only a connecting passage of #aej m41 near ,henichesk4 ,the curiously ragged banks of red-clay1 the salt swamps1 lagoons and islands1 the bracken1 ill-smelling water1 which is salty in summer1 and in a few spots at other times as well1 have given the ,sivash the name of ,foul ,sea 7,hnile ,more74 ,the eastern part of the ,ukraine's ,black ,sea coast is a mountainous cliff-coast again4 ,the plications of the western ,caucasus1 which approach the sea obliquely1 are here so quickly destroyed by the powerful abrasive action of the surf1 that the erosive action of the rivers and mountain streams cannot keep pace4 ,therefore1 the crest is difficult of access and only the two harbors of ,novorossiysk and ,gelendshik offer shelter for ships along this part of the coast4 ,but even this shelter is doubtful1 because of the bora-like winds4 ,as we perceive from this description of the ,ukrainian coast1 it is not one which would promote navigation among the inhabitants4 ,lack of harbors1 isolation1 remoteness from the main lines of the world's traffic1 never could have an encouraging effect upon the development of navigation among the ,ukrainians4 ,despite all this1 however1 they developed very high seafaring qualities in the time of the old ,kingdom of ,kiev and later on in the ,cossack period1 and the present age1 too1 has brought a revival of the nautical skill of the ,ukrainian coast population4 ,,general ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,physical ,,geography ,,of ,,ukraine ,,the ,,ukrainian ,,mountain ,,country ,glancing at the map of the ,ukraine1 we perceive at once that in this country we should seek in vain for such a variety of surface configuration as is peculiar to ,central or ,western ,europe4 ,in ,germany or ,france there appear in a comparatively small space the most varied landscape--chains of high mountains1 central chains of mountains1 terrace and hill country1 plateaus and plains4 ,it is different here in our wide ,ukraine4 ,one can travel hundreds of miles in any direction without seeing a change in the character of the scenery4 ,the uniformity which is typical for ,eastern ,europe is peculiar also to the ,ukraine4 ,but not to the extent that it is to ,great ,russia1 where the endlessness of the flat country wearies the eye of the traveler4 ,for there are in the ,ukraine landscapes of high and central chains of mountains1 picturesque hill districts and richly cut plateaus1 marshy plains and steppes strewn with barrows4 ,there is1 then1 in the ,ukraine1 a variety of surface configuration1 but on a large scale1 not as in ,western or ,central ,europe1 confined in a small space4 ,the morphological nucleus of the ,ukraine is the closed group of plateaus1 which extends from the country at the foot of the ,carpathians and the ,polish part of the ,vistula region to the ,sea of ,azof4 ,pontian ,plateau or ,avratinian ,ridge are the commonly used but incorrect names of this plateau group4 ,the first designation might do1 but the second transfers the name of a little destitute hamlet at the source of the ,sbruch to a territory of hundreds of thousands of square miles4 ,we shall1 therefore1 select for this plateau group the name ,ukrainian ,plateau ,group4 ,it forms a compact whole between the ,carpathians and the ,dnieper and is divided into the following individual sections3 ,the ,rostoch1 between the ,san and ,buh ,rivers2 ,volin1 between the ,boh and the ,teterev2 ,podolia1 between the ,dniester and the ,boh2 the ,pocutian--,bessarabian ,plateau1 between the ,dniester and the ,prut2 the ,dnieper ,plateau1 between the ,boh and the ,dnieper4 ,the plateau character continues at the rapids section of this river on the left bank1 where1 at some distance1 the last member of the ,ukrainian ,plateau ,group lies--the ,donetz ,plateau4 ,the plateau group of the ,ukraine is bordered on the north and south by two plain districts4 ,the northern district consists of adjoining lowlands--,pidlassye1 ,polissye1 and the ,dnieper plain--and their extensions along the ,donetz2 the southern district is made up of the long stretch of the ,pontian steppe-plain1 which1 in the country at the foot of the ,caucasus1 merges into the ,caspian desert-steppe4 ,beyond the northern plain district1 ,ukrainian territory does not extend1 except in the ,don region1 where it embraces the southern spurs of the ,central ,russian ,plateau4 ,besides these plateau and plain regions the ,ukraine takes in also parts of three mountain systems of the ,european continent4 ,the ,ukraine is the only country of ,eastern ,europe which extends over into the region of the ,european mountains of plication4 ,parts of the ,carpathians1 the little ,yaila chain of ,crimea1 and the western parts of the ,caucasus lie1 together with their environs1 in ,ukrainian territory4 ,from this general survey of the surface configuration of the ,ukraine1 we can easily see that more than nine-tenths of the surface of this land is taken up by plains and plateaus4 ,nine-tenths of the ,ukrainians have certainly never seen a mountain and do not even know what one looks like4 ,expressive of this circumstance is the fact that in the wide plateau and plain region of the ,ukraine the most insignificant hills bear the high-sounding name of 8mountain40 ,but1 despite this1 the ,ukraine also has its share in the three mountain systems of ,europe--the ,carpathians1 the ,yaila1 and the ,caucasus4 ,all three were formed thru plication of the rock-layers4 ,the vast plication-formed mountain range of the ,caucasus1 even in the small part belonging to ,ukrainian territory1 attains an alpine height2 the scenery of the ,yaila along the ,crimean ,riviera is wonderful1 but the ,carpathians1 altho not as lofty as the ,caucasus and not of such scenic beauty as the ,yaila1 are the dearest to the heart of the ,ukrainian4 ,for the ,ukrainian nation expanded in the ,caucasus only a century ago and has but just reached the ,yaila4 ,and the ,eastern ,carpathians have for more than a thousand years been a ,ukrainian mountain range4 ,still1 hardly one-third of the #acjj km4 curve of the ,carpathians belongs to ,ukrainian national territory4 ,toward the west the ,carpathians are inhabited by ,poles and ,slovaks2 in the east and south by the ,roumanians4 ,the boundary-posts of the ,ukrainian territory extend in the west beyond the famous defile of ,poprad4 ,from the rounded peaks of the mountain country where the last ,ukrainian villages lie1 one sees rising at a very short distance the imposing range of the ,tatra2 still nearer lie the cliffs of the ,pienini1 famous geologically as well as for their scenery4 ,in the eastern part of the ,carpathian chain1 ,ukrainian territory reaches the ,prislop pass1 which connects the valleys of the ,golden ,bistritz and the ,visheva 7,visso74 ,to the ,ukraine1 then1 belongs the sandstone district of the ,carpathians at that point where it is highest and most developed4 ,it is called simply the 8wooded ,carpathians40 ,the western part of the sandstone ,carpathians which lies within ,ukrainian territory is called the ,low ,beskid4 ,it is also known as ,lemkivski ,beskid because it is inhabited by the ,ukrainian mountain tribe of the ,lemkes4 ,the ,low ,beskyd extends from the defile of ,poprad to the valleys of the ,strviazh ,river1 the ,oslava 7,lupkiv pass71 and the ,laboretz4 ,it is a broad-backed but not a high mountain country4 ,in long chains1 gently undulating mountain ridges stretch from west to east and southeast4 ,their slopes are gentle2 one can easily walk or even ride up1 and numerous wagon-roads and highways lead straight over the crest or even along the edge of the crest4 ,the peaks are rounded and of uniform height1 except where an occasional gently vaulted mountain top rises above the low-hill country4 ,between gently sloping ranges there extend1 in a longitudinal direction1 valleys with watersheds and communicating passes4 ,broad1 well-developed defiles separate the range into different sections4 ,the ,galician-,hungarian dividing-ridge has only slight gorges of genuine mountain passes4 ,the peaks and high passes of the ,lower ,beskid are insignificant4 ,only in the extreme west1 on the ,poprad and the ,torissa1 do the peaks reach a height of #ajjj and #aajj m42 further toward the east hardly #gjj to #hjj m4 ,the important ,dukla ,pass is hardly #ejj m4 above sea-level4 ,in the middle of the ,beskid mountain country we even see a great longish strip of lower country 78the ,sianok ,lowlands07 whose low hills are less than #cjj m4 high4 ,there is a connection between the insignificant height and soft landscape forms of the ,low ,beskid and the geological construction and evolution of the mountain range4 ,this mountain country1 like the whole sandstone-region of the ,carpathians1 is built up of strongly plicate and compressed ,flysch--a series of sandstones1 slates1 conglomerates1 clays1 etc41 of the cretacian and tertiary ages4 ,all these species of rock occur in this region in thin layers and have little power of resistance2 everywhere the basic mountain ridge is covered with a thick coat of weathering loam2 rock piles are found very seldom4 ,there is added the fact that all the sandstone ,carpathians of the ,ukrainian territory have been evened out by the destructive action of water and air into a more or less perfect plain4 ,not until the quaternary was the 8obliterated0 range raised anew and transformed into a mountain district by the action of the rivers which were cutting in again4 ,the ,low ,beskid was once covered with great1 mixed forests4 ,now the once splendid virgin forests are completely thinned and all the ill effects of forest destruction have visited the poor mountain country4 ,the fertile soil was washed away on the mountain-sides and heaped up with rubble and mud in the valley bottoms4 ,the tribe of the ,lemkos is therefore1 perhaps1 the poorest of all the ,ukrainians and is compelled to seek an existence in distant lands4 ,in the southern part of the ,low ,beskid the boundaries of the ,ukrainian nation in ,hungary reach the northern part of the ,hegyalia-,sovari ,ridge1 which1 at this point1 is #aajj m4 high1 and is composed of extinct trachyte volcanoes4 ,to the east of the ,lupkiv ,pass begins the second section of the ,ukrainian ,carpathians--the ,high ,beskid4 ,it stretches to the southeast as far as the valleys of the ,stri1 ,opir and ,latoritzia ,rivers 7,pass of ,verezki74 ,the ,high ,beskid like the ,low is composed of a number of parallel1 weakly joined mountain ranges1 which run northwest and southeast4 ,the type of the ,rost ,mountains is1 therefore1 even more clearly marked in this part of the sandstone ,carpathians than in the preceding4 ,the mountain crests are gently sloped1 the edge of the crests slightly curled1 the height of the peaks constant1 the passes only walled passes4 ,toward the southeast1 tho1 the ridge steadily increases in height4 ,the highest peaks are ,halich 7#acce m471 the beautifully pyramid-shaped rocky ,piku 7#adje m47 and the massive ,polonina ruvna 7#adhj m47 ,in the ,flysch of the ,high ,beskid1 two species of sandstone attain greater power of forming layers and of resisting pressure--the chiefly upper cretacian ,yamna sandstone and the oligocene ,magura sandstone4 ,the former forms beautiful groups of rocks on peaks and precipices4 ,the cliffs of ,noich1 with its traces of a rock castle1 are the most famous4 ,the longitudinal valleys are much less developed in the ,high ,beskid than in the ,low4 ,they are traversed only by smaller brooks4 ,all larger streams like the ,strviazh1 ,dniester and ,opir1 flow thru well-formed passes4 ,expansions of valleys 7in regions of soft slate7 alternate with contractions of valleys 7in regions of hard sandstone74 ,most remarkable are the deeply cut out winding valleys 7,san1 ,striy71 which offer the best proof of the former smoothing down and the later raising of the mountains4 ,beautiful beech and evergreen forests still cover large parts of the ,high ,beskid4 ,above the tree-line 7#abjj-acjjm7 we meet for the first time with the characteristic plant-formation of the ,polonini 7mountain pastures7 which yield excellent pasturage for large and small cattle during the summer and create the foundation for a primitive dairy industry4 ,along the southern foot of the ,high ,beskid1 and separated from it by a chain of longitudinal valleys1 a long chain of mountains rises above the neighboring ,hungarian plain1 bearing the name of ,vihorlat 7the ,burnt ,out74 ,the ,rivers ,uz 7,ungh71 ,latoritzia and ,bershava1 have cut the ,vihorlat into four sections4 ,the range is lower than the ,beskyd1 since it is less than #aajj m4 high1 but it is strongly cut up by deep-gorged valleys1 and has steep1 rocky precipices1 bold rocky summits and pretty little mountain lakes4 ,the range1 which is covered with thick oak forests1 owes its scenic character to its geological composition4 ,the ,vyhorlat is a line of extinct volcanoes1 in the old craters of which the mountain lakes of the region lie4 ,the firm trachyte lava forms picturesque rock walls and peaks4 ,east of the ,verezki ,pass begins a new mountain section1 perhaps the most characteristic one in the sandstone ,carpathians4 ,it extends toward the east as far as the passes of the ,prut and the ,black ,tyssa 7,theiss7 and the ,yablonitza ,pass4 ,this part of the sandstone ,carpathians bears the name of ,gorgani4 ,the uniform mountain walls of the ,beskid give way here to shorter mountain ridges1 strongly cut up by cross valleys4 ,the main streams of the northern slope1 ,opir1 ,limnitzia--the two ,bistritzas--flow thru deep1 picturesque passes2 still deeper are the valleys of the mountain streams which flow into the ,theiss1 as the ,torez1 ,talabor1 etc4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that the dividing border ridge is lower than the ridges facing it on the north and south1 which are broken thru by magnificent passes4 ,the edge of the ,gorgani ridge also shows traces of the old leveling-surface and has only small gorges1 yet it is much more curled than in the ,beskid4 ,the ridge often becomes a sharp edge and the cone-shaped peaks further break its monotony4 ,the height of the peaks is much greater than in the ,beskyd4 ,on the ,galician side the ,popadia attains a height of #agdj m42 ,doboshanka1 #agfj m42 ,visoka1 #ahaj m42 ,sivula1 #ahbj m42 in ,hungarian territory the ,stoh in the picturesque ,bershavi group is #afhj m42 the ,blisnitza1 in the ,svidovez ,range1 #ahij m41 etc4 ,the ridges and peaks of the ,gorgani are covered with seas of sandstone boulders and are1 therefore1 difficult of access4 ,the light gray ,yamna sandstone1 of great resisting power1 appears in this mountain section in very thick layers1 and is the cause of the greater height and the bolder forms which1 in places1 are suggestive of high mountain ranges4 ,the energetic weathering process1 aided by the cover of winter snow1 breaks up the mighty sandstone layers into great rocks1 boulders1 fragments and rubble4 ,deep fissures yawn between moss and lichen-covered boulders1 many boulders rock under the foot of the wanderer1 and many of them1 thru caving-in and thru accumulation1 have formed natural chambers and hollows4 ,the rocky ridges1 covered with seas of boulders1 are ,arshizia1 the ,gorgan peaks1 whence comes the name of the entire mountain range4 ,the seas of boulders and rubble-stone are called ,zekit or ,grekhit4 ,in the highest groups of the ,gorgani ,range 7especially in the ,svidovez7 are found also distinct traces of the glacial age1 glacial excavations with small lakes or with swamps that have taken the place of lakes4 ,a splendid1 only slightly thinned dress of virgin forest covers the ,gorgani ,chain4 ,the lower forest section is composed of beech1 ash and fir trees1 the upper part of pines and stone-pines4 ,the tree limit is very irregular and vascillates between #aajj and #afjj m4 ,mountain pastures are very rare1 because of the seas of boulders and rubble-stone1 but there are large and beautiful1 tho not easily accessible1 stocks of mountain pines4 ,the last section of the ,ukrainian ,carpathians is called ,chornohora 7,black ,mountains74 ,it extends from the ,prut and the ,black ,theiss to the ,prislop ,pass2 to the valley of the ,visheva and of the ,golden ,bistritza4 ,in this wide and long mountain district we find greater morphological variety than in the mountain sections hitherto discussed4 ,in the wide zone of the northern foothills1 which separate with a distinct edge from the sub-,carpathian hills and continue into the ,bukowina1 we find low ridges and rounded peaks1 as in the ,high ,beskid4 ,only in places on peaks and valley sides piles of rock are seen4 ,then toward the interior of the range follows the wide vale of ,zabie1 imbedded in soft slate1 and above it rises the mighty chain of the ,chornohora1 the only part of the sandstone region of the ,carpathians which has high mountain formations4 ,the chain is composed of the hard magura sandstone1 rich in mica4 ,a whole stretch of peaks here attains a height of #bjjj m41 the highest being the ,hoverla 7#bjeh m474 ,well-formed1 partly rocky ribs branch off from the main ridge on either side4 ,the rock piles of the ,shpitzi1 ,kisli and ,kisi ,ulohy1 are some of the most imposing rock formations of the ,carpathian sandstone region4 ,between the rocky ribs1 finely developed glens lie on both sides of the main ridge of the ,chornohora1 the beds of the ancient glaciers4 ,waterfalls dash down the steep rock walls in silver streams--of particular interest is the cascade of the ,prut under the ,hoverla--and down below lie little crater lakes reflecting the patches of summer snow on the crater walls4 ,almost three-fourths of the year the ,chornohoras are covered with snow4 ,in summer the snow almost wholly disappears1 and the beautiful carpet of flowers of the mountain pastures1 only occasionally interrupted by dark green reserves of mountain-pine1 spreads out over the ridges and peaks of the ,chornohora4 ,every summer innumerable herds of cattle1 small ,hutzul horses and sheep are seen here4 ,then an intensive dairy industry enlivens the peak regions of the range for three months4 ,the lower regions are still covered with extensive forests2 in lower locations we find mixed forests here2 in higher altitudes1 almost pure stocks of pines4 ,standing on one of the ,chornohora peaks1 on the ,hoverla for instance1 or the ,petros or ,pip ,ivan1 we see1 in the near southwest1 a new and strange mountain world4 ,it is the third zone of the ,chornohora ,mountains1 the mountain land of ,marmarosh4 ,situated in the region of the headwaters of the ,theiss and orographically related to the ,chornohora1 the mountains of the ,marmarosh are of entirely different geological composition and have a different morphological appearance4 ,gneiss and other kinds of crystalline slate1 permotriassic and jurassic conglomerates and limestones1 as well as eruptive rock of older and of more recent date1 lend great geological and morphological variety to the ,marmarosh ,mountains4 ,the high mountain character here is even more marked than in the ,chornohoras4 ,rocky peaks1 ridges1 mountain walls1 numerous craters1 with small glacial lakes1 adorn the ,marmarosh mountains1 which rise higher than #aijj m43 ,pip ,ivan1 ,farko1 ,mikhalek1 ,petros1 ,troiaga4 ,toward the southeast the range wanders over into ,south ,bukowina1 where its last boundary-posts1 the rocky peaks of ,yumalen and ,rareu really stand on ,roumanian ground4 ,and in the south1 beyond the ,visheva ,valley1 which divides the settlements of the ,ukrainian ,hutzuls from those of the ,roumanians1 rises the magnificent lofty rampart of the ,rodna ,mountains1 with its two peaks of #bcjj m41 ,pietrosu and ,ineu4 ,on the outside of the ,carpathian curve stretches a hill country of varying breath1 the sub-,carpathian hill-country1 in ,ukrainian3 ,pidhirye or ,pidkarpatye4 ,the mountain-edge of the ,carpathian1 which is at all points very distinct1 rises steeply over the low-hill country at the foot1 along an extended line in the neighborhood of the cities of ,peremishl1 ,sambir1 ,drohobich1 ,striy1 ,kolomia4 ,the ,carpathian rivers leave the mountains by way of funnel-shaped valleys1 bordered by boulder terraces1 and spread their alluvial mounds over the low hill country4 ,wide stretches of meadow accompany the river courses2 fields and woodland lie at a distance4 ,the sub-,carpathian hill-country is built up of miocene gray clays which1 along the edge of the ,carpathians1 contain an enormous treasure of petroleum1 ozokerite1 kitchen salt and potash salts4 ,boulders lie on the clay1 not only along the rivers1 but also on the hilltops--traces of old watercourses1 which transported ,carpathian and northern rubble-stone toward the east in the direction of the ,dniester4 ,the yellowish cover of loam and loess lies over the whole1 and its surface-layer1 abounding in vegetable soil1 is1 in places1 very fertile4 ,the sub-,carpathian hill country reaches to the two sub-,carpathian plains in the north--the ,vistula and the ,dniester ,plain4 ,only along the ,european main divide a tongue of hill-country projects in the direction of ,lemberg4 ,in the glacial period1 watercourses of great volume flowed directly across this hill-country divide1 which1 as might be expected1 is now completely cleft by the bifurcation of the ,vishnia1 depositing considerable masses of rubble-stone and sand4 ,thru destruction of forests1 the sands have become subject to wind action and dreary landscapes of sand-dunes have been formed4 ,only the southeastern reaches of the ,vistula ,plain1 extending along the ,san ,river to ,peremishl are part of ,ukrainian territory4 ,the low loam bags1 which lie between sandy and swampy valleys of the ,san1 form the only rises of ground in this plain1 which borders in the northeast on the spurs of the ,rostoch4 ,the ,dniester ,plain extends in a broad ribbon along the river from the place where it leaves the mountains to the delta of the ,striy4 ,its western part is a single great swamp region1 a one-time large lake4 ,the rivers flow on flat dams1 and when the melting snows come and the rains of early summer1 they overflow their banks and flood the swampy plains far and near4 ,in some years the swamp region changes into a lake for days and weeks4 ,in the dry season only a few swamp lakes remain1 but the entire region remains a swamp and produces only a poor sour hay4 ,settlements lie only on the high banks of the rivers4 ,the eastern part of the ,dniester ,plain extends beyond the great alluvial mounds of the ,striy ,river1 and then reaches over into the broad valley of the ,dniester1 which ends in the ,podolian ,plateau at the point where the river enters4 ,the eastern ,dniester ,plain is not very swampy1 and only in places do ravines1 swamps1 and old river beds accompany the river course4 ,for the most part pretty meadows1 fields and woods lie on the thick sub-layer of rubble-stone and river-loam4 ,if the ,carpathians represent a primeval section of ,ukrainian ground1 the mountain ranges of ,crimea and the ,caucasus were entirely strange to the ,ukrainians not so very long ago4 ,how many ,ukrainian slaves1 in the time of ,tartar oppression1 cursed the rocky-wall of the ,yaila which separated them from their beloved home4 ,how discontented was the enslaved remainder of the ,zaporogs when transported to the ,western ,caucasus4 ,now the conditions are quite changed4 ,the great colonizing movement of the ,ukrainians touched the ,yaila as much as twenty years ago1 and has extended the frontiers of the ,ukrainian settlements along the outer mountains of the ,caucasus to the ,caspian ,sea4 ,and the once strange1 hostile mountain-worlds have opened their doors to ,ukrainian colonization4 ,the ,yaila ,mountains of ,crimea are1 in comparison with the ,carpathians1 a small mountain system hardly #aej km4 long and #ce km4 wide4 ,they lie in three parallel ranges1 separated by longitudinal valleys1 along the southeast shores of the peninsula4 ,the northern declivities of all the ridges are gently sloping1 the southern ones steep4 ,the southern main range exceeds a height of #aejj m4 with its peaks1 ,chatirdagh1 ,roman-chosh1 and ,demir ,kapu4 ,this main ridge1 which declines toward the sea in steep precipices1 is flat and rocky on top1 strewn with rock-craters2 it bears the name ,yaila and serves as a lean mountain pasture4 ,deep gorges cut the rough surface of the summit and divide it into single table mountains4 ,the mountains of ,crimea1 like the ,carpathians1 are mountains of plication4 ,they are composed of ,jurassic1 chalk1 and miocene-layers4 ,the large blocks of lime of the ,jurassic1 which rest on softer slates and clays1 form the main ridge of the mountains4 ,besides craters1 we find1 in the limestone mountains of the ,yaila1 impassable furrows 7,german ,karrenbildungen7 and numerous hollows4 ,very picturesque is the magnificent precipitous decline of the main range of the ,yaila to the sea4 ,here the entire southern part of the range has sunk in great ravines and the resisting power of the eruptive rocks which appear here has created a coastal mountain landscape of great beauty4 ,protected by the mountain wall from northerly winds1 a ,mediterranean flora has been able to develop here at the southern foot of the range1 while beautiful leafy forests partly cover the declines of the mountains4 ,on the peninsula of ,kerch1 which forms the eastern extreme of ,crimea1 a low steppe-like hill-country extends seemingly as a prolongation of the ,yaila ,range4 ,the new tertiary clays are here laid in flat folds1 which are more closely related to the ,caucasus4 ,here1 and on the quite similarly formed ,taman peninsula1 we find many small cone-shaped mud volcanoes which emit gases1 smoke1 and thinly flowing blue-gray mud from their miniature craters4 ,the magnificent lofty range of the ,caucasus forms the boundary-post of the ,ukraine on the east4 ,only the western part of the mountain system lies within ,ukrainian territory4 ,we shall1 therefore1 discuss it quite briefly4 ,the ,caucasian ,mountain system1 which is #aajj km4 in length1 lies like a huge wall of rock between ,europe and ,asia4 ,most geographers consider the ,caucasus as part of the latter continent1 which is correct in so far as these mountains show many characteristics of ,asiatic mountain ranges4 ,first of all they are hard to cross1 much harder than the highest mountains of ,europe1 the ,alps4 ,along a stretch of #gjj km41 the ridge of the ,caucasus descends only twice to a level of #cjjj m4 ,on the other hand1 the ,caucasus is not wide--on the average only #aej km4--and at the point where the ,grusinian army road crosses the range1 barely #fj km4 ,then1 the ,caucasus1 like many mountain ranges of ,asia1 stretches in a straight line from the peninsula of ,taman to the peninsula of ,apsheron1 famous for its abundance of petroleum4 ,the ,caucasus is a plication-formed mountain range composed of folded crystalline and sedimentary rock of varying ages4 ,along huge ravines1 the entire southern part of the range has sunk down1 so that the highest crystalline central zone of the range declines directly and very steeply toward the south4 ,the highest ,caucasus peaks are old extinct volcanoes1 set over the basic mountains2 the ,elbrus 7#efcj m471 at the source of the ,kuban and the ,kasbek 7#ejdj m471 at the source of the ,terek4 ,proof that the subterranean powers are still active are the numerous tectonic earthquakes of ,transcaucasia4 ,the main chain of the ,caucasus possesses1 besides the volcano peaks1 many rocky granite peaks #djjj-ejjj m4 in height1 and1 besides these1 hundreds of lower peaks1 all of which find their counterparts in the ,alps4 ,the present glaciation of the ,caucasus is very considerable1 while that of the glacial period was also very extensive and determined the present mountain forms of the ,caucasus4 ,only the most beautiful ornament of the one-time glacial landscape is lacking in the ,caucasus--the lakes1 which are so abundant in the ,alps4 ,all the larger ,caucasus rivers rise as milky glacial brooks in the main range4 ,then1 by way of deep cross-valleys1 they break thru the lower ranges1 which face the main ridge in several rows1 and are composed of sedimentary rock formations of jurassic1 cretaceous1 and old-tertiary age4 ,their crests and peaks become constantly lower and more rounded toward the north4 ,beautiful mountain pastures and thick virgin forests1 full of animals that may be hunted1 cover the mountains4 ,in the country at the foot of the ,caucasus1 a low hill-region is spread1 which consists mainly of new-tertiary layers abounding in petroleum4 ,at the ,ponto-,caspian divide1 the hill-district and plateau of ,piatihorsk and ,stavropol1 which is composed of recent lime formations1 projects from the ,caucasus4 ,from a height of #fjj m4 this structure declines slowly in flat hills toward the west1 north and east to the ,ponto-,caspian steppe-plain1 in which lies the famous ,manich ,furrow4 ,the ,manich1 or rather ,calaus ,river rises like the ,kuma in the ,plateau of ,stavropol and separates1 in the ,furrow1 into two branches4 ,the one flows thru extended ,manich lakes toward the northeast into the ,don ,river1 and1 incidentally1 into the ,sea of ,azof2 the other turns toward the south to the ,kuma ,river and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,but its waters reach this goal very rarely2 the burning sun and the sandy soil of the ,caspian steppe rob the little river of its small supply of water4 ,,the ,,ukrainian ,,plateau ,,country ,the ,carpathians1 the ,yaila and the ,caucasus1 are immovable boundary-walls1 marking the southern borders of the ,ukraine4 ,on its wide surface there are only these narrow zones of mountain country4 ,all the remaining territory of our fatherland is occupied by plateaus and plains4 ,upon these the ,ukrainian nation has lived since the dawn of history4 ,not cloud-capped highlands1 but level1 lightly undulating plateaus1 furrowed by picturesque river valleys and immeasurable plains1 are characteristic of the ,ukraine4 ,between the ,carpathians and the ,ural ,mountains there extends an immense space which once bore the name of ,sarmatian ,plain and is now generally called the ,russian ,tableland1 tho the name ,east ,european ,lowland would be geographically the most fitting4 ,in this space1 which embraces half the surface of ,europe1 only one group of hills in the ,pokutia rises above #ejj m41 and only one small part of the ,podolia above #djj m4 ,the entire remaining space of ,eastern ,europe1 with slight exceptions1 keeps below the #cjj or even #bjj m4 level4 ,in the northern part of ,eastern ,europe1 the lands over #bjj m4 high take up very little room4 ,like great flat islands1 they rise gently from the spacious cool lowlands4 ,in ,central ,europe the surface of the high part of the flat country is relatively the greatest1 but these rises of ground are so insignificant and the transitions to the low plain so imperceptible1 that the main features of the surface of this part of ,europe were only discovered in the second half of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,in the ,ukrainian south of ,eastern ,europe the character of the ground elevations is different4 ,they are the highest of all in ,eastern ,europe and separate very distinctly1 largely by means of steep edges1 from the surrounding plains4 ,the genuine plateau landscape is the type of landscape peculiar to the ,ukraine4 ,the ,ukrainian plateau group1 the real morphological nucleus of the land about which its borderlands are gathered1 extends from the sub-,carpathian country and the ,polish ,vistula-region to the ,sea of ,azof and the ,donetz ,river4 ,it consists of the following plateaus3 ,rostoche1 ,podolia1 ,pokutye 7,bessarabia71 ,volhynia1 ,dnieper ,plateau and ,donetz ,plateau4 ,we shall begin our survey of the ,ukrainian plateaus with the ,podolia4 ,the ,podolian ,plateau is the most massive of all the plateaus in the ,ukraine1 the highest1 and the one possessing the most distinctive features of a heavily cut high plain4 ,if1 leaving the ,carpathians1 we overlook the surrounding country from the edge of the mountain range1 we observe behind the wide stretch of the sub-,carpathian hills and plains1 just on the horizon1 wide1 flat elevations1 which obstruct the horizon in the north4 ,these are the edges of the ,podolian ,plateau4 ,the western boundary of ,podolia is formed by the wide valley of the little ,vereshitza ,river1 a valley covered with swampy meadows and large ponds4 ,on the south and southeast1 ,podolia is bounded by the valley of the ,dniester ,river1 which is first wide and then narrows down to a caon4 ,between the lower course of the ,dniester and the ,boh1 the ,podolian ,plateau gradually leads into the ,pontian ,steppe-plain4 ,on the north and northeast1 ,podolia is bounded by the rocky valley of the ,boh and then by the river divide1 which extends toward the west1 between the basins of the ,dniester and ,dnieper ,rivers4 ,near its limit begins the well-known steep edge which forms the decline of the ,podolian ,plateau to the plain of the ,buh4 ,from ,brody to ,lemberg1 the northern boundary of ,podolia is very clearly marked by this steep edge4 ,despite its distinct plateau character1 ,podolia is by no means lacking in beautiful landscapes4 ,the northern1 steep1 border of the ,plateau occasionally rises for #bjj m4 above the swampy ,buh plain1 and its height above sea level is in some places #dgj m4 ,the whitish-gray chalk-marl which forms the basis of this land grade glitters from a distance1 exposed thru the action of the water1 which flows down the steep side4 ,the miocene sandstone lying above shows fantastic rock piles and ravines4 ,beautiful beech forests are to a great extent still maintaining themselves on the steep edge4 ,from a distance1 everything produces the illusion of a high forest-covered chain of hills4 ,on climbing it1 however1 we see in the south only an unbounded lightly undulating elevated plain1 with flat valleys filling the entire view4 ,toward the southwest1 too1 ,podolia declines with a similar steep border1 but this one is neither so uniform nor so high and picturesque4 ,these steep borders owe their origin to a recent uprising1 which has affected the ,podolian ,plateau1 especially in the west1 since the glacial period4 ,to the same cause the picturesque1 beautifully wooded1 eroded hill-country of the ,opilye owes its origin1 a section which extends southeast from ,lemberg in the regions of ,rohatin and ,berezani to the ,dniester1 and which1 with its peaks1 reaches a height of #ddj m4 ,most remarkable1 however1 is the long chain of rocky hills which extends from ,brody to the southeast toward ,kamenetz ,podilski4 ,this chain of hills1 which bears the name of ,toutri1 is marked on all maps by the wilfully chosen name of ,medobori4 ,the limestone rock1 which contains a great amount of fossils1 forms fantastic crags on the more than #djj m4 peaks of the hill-chain1 which look down upon the land like old fortresses4 ,the entire chain of hills is a new-tertiary coral and briozone reef which1 after the withdrawal of the sea1 remained behind as a long rock dyke4 ,beyond this hilly region the entire ,podolian ,plateau has a flat1 undulating surface4 ,beginning as far back as the upper ,sereth and ,sbruch we find typical steppe-plains4 ,the farther southwest1 the more flat1 undulating and steppe-like sections do we meet1 until finally the ,podolian elevation gradually merges in the ,pontian steppe-plain4 ,much variety and beauty is given to the appearance of the ,podolian landscape by the valleys of the ,dniester tributaries on the left4 ,in their upper parts they are wide and have flat1 swampy ground1 many ponds and bogs and gentle valley declines4 ,in its further course the river begins to cut in more and more deeply1 the valley becomes constantly narrower and deeper and winds on in regular bends1 the valley-sides become higher and steeper1 bare walls of rock take the place of the soft green slopes4 ,we are in a ,podolian 8yar10 in a miniature caon4 ,in the sides of the yars the geologic history of the ,podolia is engraved in imperishable letters4 ,the river has sawed the plateau thru as tho with a gigantic saw1 and has exposed the various layers of stone4 ,as a rule they lie nearly horizontally above one another4 ,the oldest rock species of ,podolia are the granite-gneisses1 which were folded and disturbed in pre-cambrian times4 ,the lines of the folds and breaks stretch principally north to south4 ,granite composes the rocks of the ,dniester rapids near ,yampol and the numerous rapids of the ,boh ,river1 in whose rocky vale this primitive rock formation appears distinctively4 ,on the granite base1 almost horizontally1 slightly turned toward the southwest1 lie dark slate and limestone1 upper silurian at first in ,west ,podolia1 then the devonic layers1 of which the old red sandstone attracts the eye most of all1 because of the dark red coloring which it gives to the steep walls of the ,podolian caons4 ,these are followed by chalk layers1 and1 last of all1 by recent tertiary formation whose gypsums form picturesque groups of rocks on the heights of the ,yari walls4 ,in the mighty gypsum stores of ,podolia may be found many a large1 beautiful cave1 with wonderful alabaster stalactites4 ,all tributaries on the left side of the ,dniester1 beginning at the ,zolota ,lipa1 flow into yari-caons of this sort4 ,the most beautiful and magnificent is the caon of the ,dniester1 whose walls often exceed a height of #bjj m4 ,it cuts thru the high plateau in adventurous windings1 every curve revealing new1 beautiful prospects over the high1 concave1 steep edge1 torn by ravines1 and the gently rising convex banks4 ,in deep gorges the yari of the tributaries open into the yar of the main stream4 ,between the defiles stretches the flat1 hardly undulating plain4 ,in the summer only endless waving grain-steppes present themselves to the view of the traveler1 only here and there a little wood appears on the horizon1 or a lone farm4 ,suddenly the wood seems to end1 the traveler is confronted by a deep1 steppe-walled valley1 down the sides of which climbs the road4 ,and below1 on the silvery river1 amid the green of the orchards1 lies village after village4 ,the further to the east1 the more frequent do the yari become1 and the balkas 7gorges7 similar to them but smaller2 yet these are not so deep and picturesque4 ,in the regions of ,tiraspol ,ananiv the entire plateau surface is very profusely cut by these defiles4 ,in the district of ,ananiv the balkas take up one-seventh of the entire surface4 ,the plateau is cut up by these water crevasses into innumerable narrow fens4 ,the balka1 like the yar1 owes its existence to the erosive activity of flowing waters4 ,on the ,dniester we see1 on both sides of its deep yars1 great masses of old river boulders1 which lie on the summit of the plateau beneath the thick cover of loam4 ,they are boulder deposits of the pre-glacial ,dniester4 ,later1 when the recent raising of the ,ukrainian plateau group began1 and it occurred with particular force in the ,podolian ,plateau1 the rivers cut in1 and in the course of thousands of years formed their present picturesque defiles4 ,the entire surface of the ,podolian ,plateau is covered with a thick mantle of loess1 which was formed in the desert and steppe period following the glacial age4 ,in the manner in which the loess is heaped up1 in the symmetry of the river valleys1 whose western declivities are regularly steeper1 in the general arrangement and formation of the valleys of ,podolia1 the great influence of winds may be distinctly recognized4 ,the uppermost loess layer has been transformed thruout ,podolia into the famous black earth 7,chornozem74 ,hence ,podolia has for ages been famous for its fertility4 8,in ,podolia10 says an old ,ukrainian proverb1 8bread grows on the hedgeposts and the hedges are of plashed sausages40 ,on the other hand1 ,podolia suffers greatly from lack of forests4 ,the large areas of forest which still existed in the #afth and #agth ,centuries have now divided to small woods4 ,the effects of forest destruction were not slow4 ,many springs and brooks have dried up1 the rivers have languished1 so that in particularly dry summers there is often a dearth of water4 ,on the other hand1 after the cutting down of the forests1 began the destructive activity of the gorges1 which extend after every strong rain and are able in a short time to transform a rich agricultural district into a maze of ravines4 ,between the ,podolian ,plateau and the hilly sub-,carpathian country lies the ,pocutian-,bessarabian ,plateau4 ,the far-stretching narrow plateau section which lies between the valleys of the ,dniester and the ,prut is called ,pokutye 7land in the corner7 in the west1 while in the east the name ,bessarabia 7properly ,bassarabia7 is commonly used4 ,in the west the plateau country reaches the valleys of the ,bistritza and ,vorona in the sub-,carpathian region2 in the southeast it passes over into ,pontian steppe-plain4 ,on the ,dniester one sees almost no difference between the character of ,podolia on the left bank and of ,pocutia or ,bessarabia on the right4 ,on both sides the same valley slopes1 composed of the same rock layers--except that the one on the right bank is more compact1 because the ,dniester receives only few and small tributaries on this side4 ,only at some distance from the course of the ,dniester do the peculiarities of the ,pokutian-,bessarabian ,plateau appear to the view4 ,the western part of the plateau1 which bears the name of ,pokutye and extends to the east as far as the hill-group of ,berdo-,horodishche1 has a level1 very flat1 undulating surface4 ,and yet it is a typical karstenite country1 affected by the existence of great strata of gypsum4 ,the region has a very great number of funnel-shaped depressions which are called ,vertep and are altogether analogous to the ,carso dolomites4 ,they originated thru the dissolving action of the subterranean water in the gypsum strata4 ,the funnel walls are always steep on one side1 gray gypsum rocks rise like walls over the bottom of the funnel1 which is often occupied by a small lake4 ,many brooks disappear in the karstenite funnels1 to continue their course as subterranean streams4 ,nor does ,pokutye lack other marks of a karstenite region4 ,the action of the subterranean waters has1 by dissolving the gypsum masses1 formed large caves1 which are famous for their beautiful stalactites of white alabaster4 ,the best known are the cave of ,lokitki1 near ,tovmach1 and in the neighboring ,south ,podolia1 the caves of ,bilche ,zolote and the recently discovered magnificent caves of ,crivche4 ,however1 the karstenite country of the ,pokutye cannot bear comparison with the karstenite regions of ,krain1 ,istria and ,croatia4 ,gypsum is not limestone1 and its strength is insignificant as compared with strength of the lime-stone in genuine karstenite regions4 ,a genuine karstenite formation therefore does not exist in ,pokutye1 and a thick cover of clay is only in exceptional cases broken by gypsum rocks4 ,the ,pokutian ,plateau is much lower than the ,podolian4 ,only in isolated places does it attain a height of #cgj-chj m4 and becomes constantly lower toward the east4 ,but north of ,chernivtzi 7,czernowitz7 it rises to a height which we look for in vain in all the rest of the ,ukrainian plateau group4 ,the wooded hill-group of the ,berdo ,horodishche here reaches #eae m41 the greatest height above sea level to be found between the ,carpathians and the ,ural4 ,in the east1 ,berdo ,horodishche passes over into the chain of hills of ,khotin1 which attains a height of #dfj m4 and marks the eastern end of the ,pocutia4 ,the southeastern long and wide ,bessarabian section of the plateau is divided into far-reaching narrow marshes by the flat valleys of the ,prut and ,reut ,rivers4 ,the ,prut-,dniester river divide attains a height of #dbj m4 7,megura hill7 in the headwater region of the ,reut south of the city of ,bilzi4 ,the southeastern part of the ,bessarabian plateau consists of very numerous low marshes1 which lie between flat valleys4 ,the plateau becomes constantly lower and flatter and passes imperceptibly over into the ,pontian ,steppe-plain4 ,the third member of the ,ukrainian plateau group is the ,rostoche4 ,looking from the summit of the castle mountain of ,lemberg1 famous for its beautiful prospect1 we see1 just behind the broad valley of the ,poltva ,river1 a chain of high wooded hills which stretch toward the northeast4 ,they form the spurs of the ,rostoche4 ,the ,rostoche1 called also the ,lemberg-,lublin ,ridge1 lies1 a profusely cut1 hilly1 narrow plateau1 which is bounded on the one side by the ,san and ,vistula ,plain1 on the other side by the low country of the ,buh4 ,toward the southwest the ,rostoche has a steep rim1 which1 as a matter of fact1 is rather insignificant-looking2 toward the east it resolves itself into parallel hill-ridges1 which gradually become lower and between which lie marshy valleys4 ,the southern part of the ,rostoche1 which merges with the ,podolian ,plateau near ,lemberg and extends to the broad1 sandy and marshy glacial river valley of ,tanva toward the northwest1 is a plateau transformed into an erosive hill-country4 ,the highest hills attain a height of #djj m4 ,the river valleys are in general flat2 only along the steep borders of the plateau are they cut deep4 ,the steep western border is very picturesque1 with its deep gorges and loess walls4 ,many vigorous springs appear here1 among them the well-known ,parashka spring1 from which a heavy column of water rises from time to time4 ,the oldest rock layer of the ,rostoche is the chalk-marl4 ,above it lie1 in almost undisturbed horizontal layers1 miocene limestone1 sandstone1 clay1 sand1 ,diluvial loam1 while sand and broken stone with many boulders1 which are of unmistakable northern origin and were transported by glaciers and streams of the ice period as far as the southern part of the ,rostoche1 form a heavy cover everywhere4 ,the ground is not very fertile1 sand and marl soil being particularly wide-spread4 ,the northern part of the ,rostoche1 beyond the ,tanva valley1 is a broad1 slightly undulating plateau1 which1 in its highest part1 reaches a height of only #cdj m4 ,the western edge of the plateau is distinct and steep and declines in places #ajj m4 to the low country of the ,vistula4 ,toward the north the plateau surface declines very gradually and merges almost imperceptibly into the plain of the ,pidlassye4 ,the river valleys1 as those of the ,buh1 ,vepr1 are broad1 flat and marshy4 ,the geological constitution of the northern ,rostoche is almost entirely similar to that of the southern part4 ,its soil cover1 too1 is not very fertile1 and only great woods have survived1 especially in the districts of the old morainic sand and loam4 ,only in the neighborhood of the ,pidlassye does the soil become more fertile4 ,for the configuration of surface of the ,rostoche1 the recent post-glacial raising of the ground has also been of great significance1 altho here it was not nearly so intensive as in ,podolia4 ,the ,volhynian ,plateau extends over a broad space between the ,buh in the west and the ,teterev in the east1 between the swampy plain of the ,polissye in the north and the ,dniester-,dnieper watershed and the upper ,boh valley in the south4 ,the ,volhynian ,plateau does not possess the compactness of the ,podolian or ,rostoche ,plateau4 ,the swampy lowland of the ,polissye extends along the rivers into the heart of ,volhynia1 thereby dividing its plateau country into several sections of different size4 ,likewise1 the inner structure and geological constitution of ,volhynia is variable4 ,western ,volhynia1 situated between the ,buh and ,horin ,rivers1 has a sub-layer of chalk marl1 which is capped in places by layers of clay and sandstone and limestone of recent tertiary date4 ,eastern ,volhynia lies entirely in the region of the primeval ,ukrainian ,horst1 whose plicate granite-gneiss sub-layer is covered by old tertiary deposits4 ,in this tectonically disturbed region we meet with traces of early volcanic action4 ,near ,berestovetz1 ,horoshki1 etc41 species of eruptive rock appear as signs of radical disturbances of the earth's surface4 ,the surface soil of ,volhynia is black soil only in the south4 ,beyond that we find here sandy soil1 white earth and loamy soil1 as signs of a one-time glacial covering and the action of fluvio-glacial waters4 ,many regions of loamy ground are rich in vegetable soil and not without considerable fertility4 ,the lowest part of the ,volhynian ,plateau is the western part1 which lies between the broad1 marshy1 flat valleys of the ,buh and the ,stir4 ,the slightly undulating1 almost level plateau surface1 which declines imperceptibly toward the ,polissye1 here just attains a height of #bjj m41 while the next section1 between the ,stir and the ,horin is the highest part of ,volhynia4 ,as an extension of the above-mentioned northern edge of ,podolia1 the ,kremianetz-,ostroh hill-country intrudes between the two rivers4 ,over #djj m4 high1 near the city of ,kremianetz1 it declines toward the north1 a steep section torn by gorges and ravines4 ,near ,dubno1 the plateau is cut into a picturesque hill country with a maximum height of #cdj m4 ,the hills of ,volhynia have steep1 often rocky declines and flattened rocky peaks4 ,north of ,rivne and ,lutzk they finally begin to be lower and more rounded1 then they dwindle to a flat billowy tract of land1 until1 at the borders of the ,polissye1 we see only an almost perfect plain4 ,between the ,horin and ,sluch ,rivers1 the ,volhynian ,plateau becomes more uniform4 ,its surface is flat1 and broad valleys of the rivers which flow toward the east1 forming numerous ponds1 part it slightly4 ,only in the south is a height of more than #cjj m4 reached2 in the north1 where the granite sub-layer appears everywhere1 especially in river valleys1 barely #bjj m4 ,the eastern part of the ,volhynian ,plateau extends1 at first1 as a narrow plateau zone between the valleys of the ,boh and the ,teterev on one side and of the ,sluch on the other4 ,then the plateau spreads out like a fan toward the north4 ,at the source of the ,boh and the ,sluch1 the plateau reaches a height of #cgj m42 at the sources of the ,teterev1 #cdj m4 ,here the surface is level1 except that here and there low1 gently-rounded hills arise4 ,in the broad1 northern part1 the ,volhynian ,plateau becomes much lower and finally separates into individual plateau islands1 as1 for example1 near ,novhorod-,volinsky1 ,zitomir1 ,ovruch1 which rise gently from the marshy lowlands4 ,the valleys of the ,volhynian rivers1 broad1 flat1 with gentle slopes and marshy bottoms1 differentiate the ,volhynian landscape most strongly from the ,podolian4 ,the ,volhynian landscape presents a view of flat1 wooded hills1 slowly flowing streams between flat banks1 marshes and marshy meadows1 sandy ground--all signs of the proximity of the ,polissye4 ,the ,dnieper ,plateau has the outlines of a longish1 irregular polygon4 ,on the northwest it is bounded by the rocky valley of the ,teterev1 on the southwest by the ,boh ,river1 on the south and southwest by the ,pontian steppe-plain1 on the northeast by the ,dnieper ,river4 ,this great space1 however1 does not constitute a uniform plateau4 ,the broad river valleys and broad depressions which traverse the plateau have parted it into several sections4 ,only the uniform sub-layer and the geologic character1 as well as the uniform appearance of the landscape1 determine the natural unity of the region4 ,the sub-layer of the ,dnieper ,plateau is made up of the primitive granite-gneiss clod of the ,ukrainian horst4 ,the granite-gneiss formations were folded in the pre-cambrian period4 ,the folds and quarries stretch principally from north to south1 and appear very distinctly near ,zitomir and ,korsun1 and at the rapids of the ,dnieper4 ,the mesozoic layers also1 which lie close to the granite-horst1 are folded at ,trekhtimiriv4 ,the tertiary layers1 which form a thin cover over the granite1 lie mostly in undisturbed horizontal lines4 ,only along the right1 steep bank of the ,dnieper we see them folded and broken thru by quarries4 ,in the neighborhood of the ,shevchenko barrow they appear most distinctly4 ,the occurrence of eruptive rock in the south of the plateau1 appearing in mound-shaped flat hills1 is1 however1 connected only with the old disturbances in the horst4 ,this species of rock of the ,dnieper ,plateau appears almost solely in the declivities of the valleys and balkas4 ,otherwise it is covered everywhere by an immense mantle of loam1 loess1 and chornozyom4 ,the glacial deposits1 whose southern boundary passes through ,zhitomir1 ,tarashcha1 ,chihirin1 and ,kreminchuk1 present1 in the territory of the ,dnieper ,plateau1 examples of genuine fluvio-glacial moraine1 as well as sands of no great depth1 and in rather erratic distribution4 ,the configuration of surface of the ,dnieper ,plateau is varied enough4 ,the greatest height 7#cjj m47 is reached south of ,berdichiv4 ,toward the east and southeast the plateau becomes constantly lower4 ,this lowering1 however1 does not proceed regularly1 different sections of the plateau presenting different conditions in this respect4 ,the section projecting furthest toward the west to the ,sob and ,ross ,rivers is a level1 slightly divided plateau1 with a maximum height of #cjj m4 ,the tributaries of the ,teterev1 ,irpen and ,ross flow slowly in flat valleys thru whole rows of ponds4 ,where they enter the plain they finally have steep granite banks and rocky beds4 ,the plateau section between the ,sob and ,ross ,rivers in the west and the ,siniukha and ,huili ,tikich in the east has more valleys4 ,the river valleys and balkas are deeper1 their sides rockier1 and thru them the plateau is transformed in places into chains and groups of flat hills4 ,but this plateau section is lower than the preceding one1 attaining only #bfj m4 ,still lower is the section between the ,siniukha and the ,inhuletz4 ,it attains a height of only #bdj m4 and is very even4 ,the granite sub-layer appears here even in the level steppe2 the valleys and balkas are cut deep with rocky bottoms and rocky slopes4 ,besides these three sections1 the ,dnieper plateau embraces two long strips of plateau which stretch along the right bank of the ,dnieper4 ,the one is surrounded by the ,dnieper1 ,irpen1 and ,ross ,rivers1 the other stretches from the source of the ,tiasmin to the rapids of the ,dnieper4 ,the height of these strips of plateau is negligible1 the highest points attaining just #aij m4 near ,kiev1 #bdj m4 between ,trekhtimiriv and ,kaniv1 #bej m4 near ,chihirin1 and barely #ahj m4 at the first of the rapids4 ,the steep declivity with which the plateau strips descend to the ,dnieper plain emphasize the antithesis between plateau and plain in this region very markedly4 ,the difference in level surpasses #ajj m4 near ,kiev and ,katerinoslav and #aej m4 near the ,shevchenko barrow1 not far from ,kaniv4 ,the declivity of the right bank of the ,dnieper is much torn by gorges1 and everywhere we see picturesque rock piles4 ,the steep bank appears1 especially to a plain-dweller1 like a chain of mountains and is even called 8the mountains of the ,dnieper40 ,the idea of a 8mountain bank0 of the ,dnieper1 therefore1 need not be rejected outright4 ,the aspect of ,kiev and the ,shevchenko barrow is one of the most beautiful in the entire ,ukraine4 ,on ascending this 8mountain chain10 however1 which appears so imposing from the left bank of the river1 and looking toward the west1 we find before us only a slightly undulating plateau surface1 with rounded dome-shaped hills and deep valleys1 belonging to the right-hand tributaries of the ,dnieper4 ,the nature of the landscape of the ,dnieper ,plateau is1 consequently1 different from that of the ,volhynian or ,podolian4 ,the lightly undulating plateau1 gradually becoming flatter toward the east and south and broken up only near the river valleys into flat dome-shaped hills2 the valleys of the rivers1 wide1 not deep1 and yet with rocky river beds and rocky slopes1 with loess gorges and walls2 the mighty ,dnieper with its picturesque mountain shores2 the never-ending grain steppes crossed by little woods1 mohilas and long1 extended old walls of rock--this is the landscape view of the old ,kiev country1 the heart of the ,ukraine4 ,the ,dnieper ,plateau becomes constantly lower toward the southeast1 without1 however1 losing its original landscape nature in the least4 ,near the ,dnieper rapids we see1 quite distinctly1 that the miocene-covered sub-layer of granite of the ,ukrainian plateau group stretches straight across the river and is the cause of its rapids4 ,but the differences in level at that point are no longer different from the variations in a plain4 ,in the region of the source of the ,samara and along the ,donetz the land finally rises above the #bjj m4 level again4 ,we are now in the ,donetz ,plateau4 ,as near as ,isium we confront the first boundary post of the plateau in the steep chalk rocks of ,mt4 ,kremianetz on the ,donetz ,river4 ,further down we see the picturesque rocks of the famous monastery of 8the ,holy ,hills40 ,all these are parts of the northern verge of the plateau1 which is its limit on the north4 ,near ,slavianoserbsk and ,luhansk this picturesque border reaches a height of #gj m4 ,the course of the ,donetz also forms the eastern boundary2 the southern boundary is formed by the small strip of the ,pontian ,plain on the shore of the ,sea of ,azof2 the western border is denoted by the plain on the left bank of the ,dnieper4 ,the ,donetz ,plateau stretches in a long flat ridge from ,n4 ,w4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,e4 ,e41 and extends a flat side-ridge to either side4 ,the longer one goes southward1 almost as far as ,mariupol1 the other northward to ,bakhmut4 ,the surface of the plateau is very level and declines very flatly toward all sides4 ,only light billows of land traverse the steppe surface1 which is strewn with countless tumuli4 ,in the south these hills often have a core of granite4 ,the river valleys have steep1 altho not high slopes4 ,they divide the uniform surface of the heights but slightly4 ,from the surface configuration one could never guess that at this point there was once a mountain range which fell victim to the exogenous forces of the earth's water and air blanket4 ,only an insignificant part of the surface of the ,donetz ,plateau lies more than #cjj m4 high2 the highest point1 ,tovsta ,mohila1 barely reaching #cgj m4 ,in its inner structure it is entirely different from all other parts of the ,ukrainian group of plateaus4 ,the entire south and west of the plateau is composed of folded granite-gneiss1 of the ,azof part of the horst1 capped by a thin tertiary layer1 and in many places 7especially between ,volnovakha and ,kalmius7 broken thru by eruptive rock formations4 ,next to these1 in the north and south of the plateau1 lie limestone1 slate1 clay and sandstone formations of devonian1 carbonic1 permian1 jurassic and cretaceous age1 folded and broken thru by ravines4 ,over this leveled basic range lie the horizontal tertiary layers4 ,the great development of the coal-containing carbon layers gives to the monotonous1 only recently bared steppe elevation of the ,donetz ,plateau1 great significance for the industrial life of all ,eastern ,europe4 ,the coal-fields of the ,donetz ,plateau1 #bc1jjj km4 in size1 are the richest and most important coal region of the present ,russian ,empire4 ,thanks to these 8black diamonds10 a forest of factory chimneys 7sparsely sown as yet1 to be sure7 has sprung up within the most recent past in the black steppe1 where the anthracite and pit-coal collieries furnish the desired nourishment4 ,besides this1 the permian layers of the ,donetz ,plateau hold great deposits of rock-salt4 ,here1 too1 lie the only quicksilver mines of the ,russian ,empire in ,europe4 ,rich copper deposits are being exploited here1 besides which we must mention the occurrence of zinc1 silver1 lead1 and even gold in this ,donetz region1 which has not yet been sufficiently explored by the mining prospector4 ,the ,donetz ,plateau forms the easternmost member of the ,ukrainian plateau group1 which constantly narrows toward the east4 ,outside of this1 the group rises only at the southernmost spurs of the ,central ,russian ,plateau above the #bjj m4 level4 ,these regions of the ,ukraine1 however1 we may safely discuss in our description of the ,dnieper ,plain1 for the transition from this plain to the ,central ,russian elevation is so imperceptible and gradual1 the plateau character so undecided1 that even from the scientific morphological point of view1 one can hardly find any difference between the plain landscape and the neighboring combined elevated surfaces4 ,,the ,,ukrainian ,,plain ,,country ,the ,ukrainian plateau group1 which passes thru the ,ukraine in its entire length is hemmed in on both sides by two plain regions4 ,without a break they accompany the extended plateau groups in the north and south1 uniting finally on the left bank of the ,don and the country below the ,caucasus4 ,the northern plain district accompanies the northern decline of the ,ukrainian horst1 concealing a tectonically disturbed substratum2 the southern district accompanies the northern border of the ,black ,sea and parts the broken chain of plicate mountains from the plateau group of the ,ukraine4 ,the northern plain district of the ,ukraine joins directly on to the ,polish lowlands1 and1 indirectly1 to the ,north ,german lowland4 ,the first section of the northern plain district is called ,pidlassye 7,podlakhia1 land on the ,polish border74 ,its northern boundary consists of the southern limits of the ,white ,russian ,plateau2 the western boundary of the flat elevations near ,sidlez and ,bilsk2 on the south the plain borders on the spurs of the ,rostoche2 in the east the boundary is the ,buh-,pripet divide1 which is only #agj m4 high4 ,the surface of the ,pidlassye is very even1 only slightly undulating in places on the north and south borders4 ,the river valleys are very broad and flat4 ,only the great forest 7the well-known ,biloveza forest lies here7 and the water-courses bring variety into the monotonous country4 ,the main stream of the ,pidlassye1 the ,buh1 as well as its tributaries have the character of genuine lowland rivers4 ,they flow thru their over-great valleys in great turns1 divide into many arms1 and form innumerable old river beds4 ,besides these we find1 in southern ,pidlassye1 a large number of lakes and many swamps and moors which mark the sites of former lakes4 ,the chalk and tertiary substratum appears only in very few places1 the rest being covered everywhere by sand and loam1 which include boulders and rubble of ,finnic-,scandinavian origin4 ,these are traces of the great 7second7 glacial period of ,northern ,europe1 which covered the entire region of the ,pidlassye with glacial ice4 ,the lakes are morain-lakes4 ,the ice of the glacial period did not reach ,pidlassye4 ,at that time a broad primeval river valley formed here as an extension of the primeval ,vistula river valley4 ,in this valley the water from the melting glacier flowed off to the east toward the lowland of the ,polissye4 ,the ,polissye 7woodland7 is one of the most remarkable lands of ,eastern ,europe4 ,only a low 7#agj m47 and very flat divide1 which is crossed without difficulty by the ,dnieper-,buh ship canal1 separates the ,polissye from the ,pidlassye4 ,in the north the ,white ,russian ,plateau approaches1 in the south the ,volhynian1 in the east the ,polissye extends beyond the ,dnieper to the spurs of the ,central ,russian ,plateau4 ,the region thus bounded forms an immense flat trough1 in the vertical axis of which the ,pripet ,river flows4 ,the bottom of this trough is very flat and lies at a height of #abj-aej m4 ,only in places do we find almost imperceptible rises of ground4 ,the substratum of the ,polissye is composed of chalk marl with numerous holes made by springs 7vikno window71 while in the east oligocene formations also appear4 ,but this substratum is seen very seldom1 all the rest of the ,polissye being covered with diluvial sands and great swamps4 ,the sands take in all the elevated places and form wandering or wood-covered dunes4 ,these sandy rises of ground1 together with the elevated banks of some of the rivers1 afford the only sites for human abodes4 ,all the remaining land is marshy wood1 genuine forest swamps1 bog or moor4 ,the ,pripet with its tributaries1 the ,stokhod1 ,stir1 ,hornin1 ,ubort1 ,uz 7on the right7 and the ,pina1 ,yassiolda1 ,sluch1 and ,ptich 7on the left71 comprises the water system of the ,polissye4 ,all these rivers flow very slowly and deposit the mud which they bring from the plateau regions surrounding the ,polissye along their courses4 ,by this means they raise their beds and their banks more and more1 so that all these ,polissian rivers flow upon flat dams4 ,at the time of high water the rivers overflow their banks and flood the entire lowland far and near4 ,at the time of the melting of snows in the spring1 or of the strong showers in the early summer1 the entire ,polissye is transformed into an immense lake1 above whose surface only the flooded forests and the settled sandy elevations of ground are visible4 ,the spring flood lasts from two to three months1 the summer floods the same length of time1 for the water flows off very slowly because of the slight decline4 ,on the highways and railroads all traffic is blocked and certain places in the ,polissye may be reached only by water4 ,during the flood period the rivers have often sought new beds1 and this explains the frequency of old river beds and river branches1 which are peculiar to all the ,polissian river courses4 ,and1 as reminders of the floods1 innumerable pools and marsh lakes remain behind4 ,these periodic floods are the main cause of the continuance of the ,polissian swamps4 ,we can find two main types of marshes in the ,polissye4 ,in the west and north of the region1 great peat moors1 with pine woods1 predominate2 in the south and east treeless marsh meadows1 overgrown with willow brush4 ,these are called hala4 ,many fictions are told by the inhabitants of the ,polissye about the swamps and small marsh lakes being bottomless4 ,for a long time it was even believed that the swamps lay lower than the normal surface of the rivers4 ,but exact measurements have proved these 8fairy tales0 to be false and have shown that the swamps of the ,polissye are not deep and lie at a higher level than the rivers4 ,since #ahgc the ,russian government has been working to drain the swamps and reclaim them for civilization4 ,up to #ahih1 #fjjj kilometers of canals are supposed to have been dug and #cb1jjj square kilometers of ground made usable4 ,the glacial period was of great importance for the surface configuration of the ,polissye4 ,apart from the traces of the main glacial period1 which are met with frequently in southern ,polissye1 it was the third glacial period that was of marked significance4 ,the water from the ,baltic glacier flowed off thru the region of the present ,polissye and formed a large lake with the ,dnieper as its outlet4 ,the deposits of this lake are to be found especially in the south of the ,polissye basin4 ,the lake was then gradually filled in1 the northern and western tributaries bringing more sand1 the southern ones mud4 ,at the same time the ,pripet ,river cut in more deeply1 and was1 therefore1 constantly more able to carry the waters of the ,polissye to the ,dnieper ,river4 ,swamps have taken the place of the lake and have gradually covered the entire land4 ,the many smaller lakes of the region 7the largest of them are ,vihonivske ,ozero and ,knias7 are the only remains and proofs of the one-time great lake4 ,only at the time of high water does the ,polissye recall the memory of former times4 ,dreary is the ,polissian landscape4 ,the dark forest in the deep-bottomed swamps alternate with the open marsh-meadow covered with pools2 with gliding flow the many-armed rivers traverse the gloomy country4 ,on yellow-white sand-dunes stand a few log-houses amid wretched little fields and poor meadows1 corduroy and brush roads stretching for miles connect small1 very sparsely scattered human settlements4 ,the ,polissye ,plain also extends to the left bank of the ,dnieper1 and there imperceptibly passes over into a comparatively narrow lowland district which stretches along the main river of the ,ukraine4 ,this is the third member of the series of plains of the ,ukraine--the ,dnieper ,plain4 ,it extends toward the southeast as far as the region of the rapids 7porohi7 of the ,dnieper and rises slowly toward the northeast1 passing over into the ,central ,russian ,plateau4 ,the transition takes place so imperceptibly that the difference in the nature of the country only becomes apparent at the furthest bounds of ,ukrainian territory1 which practically lie in the southern spurs of the ,central ,russian ,plateau4 ,the ,dnieper ,plain is quite level only along the river itself4 ,every year a strip of the plain1 in places #aj km4 wide1 is flooded by the ,dnieper ,river1 wherefore it is full of old river beds and swamps1 on the ,desna and near ,cherkassy1 where the lowland1 too1 enters upon the right ,dnieper bank1 and also of sand-dunes4 ,near ,chernihiv and ,uizin the landscape is quite ,polissian and the name ,polissye1 too1 is often used here to denote the region4 ,toward the southeast the ,polissian character begins to gradually disappear4 ,black earth takes the place of the sandy soil1 the forest mantle becomes constantly thinner1 and the flat1 undulating steppe-plain1 with its innumerable barrows and plate-shaped depressions of ground1 where1 in springtime1 small steppe lakes glisten in the sunlight1 increases very rapidly4 ,the river valleys1 along which the ,dnieper ,plain intrudes far into the ,central ,russian ,plateau1 are very wide valley slopes on the right1 and flat slopes on the left side4 ,sand1 swamps and forest terraces cover the flat valley bottoms1 which are flooded every spring4 ,at the porohs of the ,dnieper the country rises much higher than at ,pereyaslav or ,kreminchuk1 where the ,dnieper ,plain rises barely #ej m4 above sea-level4 ,at the porohs the landscape on both sides is that of a low rock-plateau4 ,the picturesque rocks of the ,dnieper banks1 the rapids and ledges of rock in the river bed1 everywhere remind us that here the ,ukrainian ,horst is crossed by the main stream of the ,ukraine4 ,not until we get down to the ,zaporoze 7land below the rapids7 do we find the genuine lowland character again--in the ,pontian ,steppe-plain4 ,the transition of the ,dnieper ,plain to the southern spurs of the ,central ,russian ,plateau is marked only by the rising of the valley slopes of the tributaries of the ,dnieper in this region4 ,beyond that1 the surface of the high bog1 lying between the rivers1 remains as flat and level as on the ,dnieper and below the #bjj m4 level4 ,moreover1 the spurs of the ,central ,russian elevation nowhere within ,ukrainian territory attain the level of #cjj m4 ,the spur between the ,dnieper and the ,desna barely reaches a height of #bcj-bdj m42 near the high ,desna bank1 the spur between the ,desna and the ,sem barely #bfj m4 ,about the sources of the ,sem1 ,psiol and ,donetz1 the country attains a summit height of #bhj m42 between the upper ,donetz and ,don only #bej-bfj m4 ,from these highest regions the country declines imperceptibly but steadily toward the southwest1 south and southeast4 ,the general nature of the land in the region of the southern spur of the ,central ,russian ,plateau is entirely analogous to that of the neighboring ,dnieper ,plain1 except that the river valleys are more deeply cut4 ,the right valley-side descends to the river in a steep slope1 furrowed by water rifts4 ,the broad1 flat valley bottom is occupied by river branches and old river beds1 marshes and marsh meadows1 sand areas or dunes4 ,the left bank rises very gently1 and we at last come upon the level1 or at most slightly undulating surface of the water-shed1 between two rivers4 ,it1 in turn1 declines suddenly to the neighboring river and the succession of land-forms begins anew4 ,this monotony of landscape reminds one of the neighboring ,great ,russia4 ,the only variety is afforded here by the details of landscape1 which appear most numerous in this region of the ,ukraine4 ,these are rain water-rifts 7in ,ukrainian balka1 provallia1 yaruha74 ,in this1 and often in other plateau and plain lands of the ,ukraine1 they become a terrible scourge4 ,the heavy mantle of black soil1 loess and loam favors the formation of water-rifts as well as the loose chalk and old tertiary strata 7marl1 sand1 clay74 ,the strenuous cutting down of forest in the past century has given the final impulse to the formation of such water clefts4 ,in the loose soil1 no longer held together by the forests1 the water-rifts grow and spread after every heavy rain with terrible speed1 and may1 in a few years1 reduce a wealthy farmer to the beggar's staff by transforming his most profitable black-soil fields into a maze of deep1 dry ravines4 ,only a national re-stocking of the forests could bring the land relief4 ,especially in the neighborhood of the high precipitous banks of the rivers1 the water-rifts work their mischief4 ,the glacial age had no particular significance for the surface configuration of the ,dnieper ,plain and the adjacent plateau spurs4 ,only in the north ,chernihov country we find real traces of the glacier4 ,the large peninsulas which the southern limit of the glacial boulders forms along the course of the ,dnieper and the ,don are by no means to be regarded as traces of two great glacial tongues4 ,the sand and loam masses1 with enclosed glacial boulders1 which are found in the region of these peninsulas1 are of fluvio-glacial origin1 and were deposited by melted ice from the glacier on its way to the ,black ,sea4 ,the northern limit of the black soil region is not in the least affected by these problematic glacial peninsulas4 ,after the glacial period1 however1 movements of the earth took place in the entire ,ukrainian plateau group4 ,it rose considerably1 and the erosive action of the rivers began4 ,at the point where the axis of the ,ukrainian horst cuts the ,dnieper1 we find this rise of ground also in the ,dnieper ,plateau4 ,the rapids of the ,dnieper were formed at that time1 and1 up to the present1 the giant river has not succeeded in leveling its falls4 ,that tectonic disturbances are not unknown to the ,dnieper ,plain we learn from the occurrence of volcanic rock and displacement of the strata near ,isachki1 not far from the city of ,lokhvitzia1 and on ,mount ,pivikha1 north of ,kreminchuk4 ,it seems that along the northeast border of the ,ukrainian horst a greatly disturbed area is hidden beneath more recent flat-piled rock layers4 ,great disturbances of the magnetic force of the earth seem to indicate the same4 ,the ,dnieper ,plain forms the last member in the northern plain district of the ,ukraine4 ,the southern plain district which extends along the northern banks of the ,black ,sea1 from the delta of the ,danube into the ,kuban region1 has since ancient times borne the accepted name of the ,pontian ,steppe-plain4 ,its old ,ukrainian name is simply nis 7lowland7 or dike pole 7wild field74 ,the steppe-land and the river district1 to this day1 bear the famous name of ,zaporoze 7land below the rapids74 ,the ,pontian steppe-plain is bounded on the north by the spurs of the ,bessarabian1 ,podolian1 ,dnieper and ,donetz ,plateaus4 ,on the south1 by the sea-shore and the country at the foot of the ,yaila ,mountains1 in ,crimea4 ,past the ,danube deltas the steppe-plain merges into the exactly similar steppe-plain on the ,kuban4 ,the surface of the steppe-plain is exceptionally flat1 slightly undulating only at the northern border1 where the transition to the southern spurs of the ,ukrainian plateau group proceeds imperceptibly4 ,innumerable barrows 7mohyla7 are as characteristic of the landscape of the ,pontian ,steppe-plain as the flat plate-shaped depressions of the ground1 with small temporary lakes1 the swampy flat valleys and the small salt marshes with their peculiar vegetation4 ,the many balkas1 which divide the steppe-plain into innumerable low plateaus1 do not affect the grand uniformity of the steppe landscape very much4 ,as in the neighboring plateaus1 they are cut in deep1 but do not become visible to the traveler until he comes directly upon them4 ,the pliocene steppe-lime which predominates in the entire steppe-plain1 covers the sarmatian and ,mediterranean strata1 and reveals the crystalline substratum only in the west of the ,dnieper in the neighborhood of the ,dnieper ,plateau1 and forms rocky cornices on the slopes of the balkas4 ,lesser tectonic disturbances1 in the shape of anticlinals and synclinals1 have affected these youngest tertiary formations also4 ,they are covered by a mantle of loess and black earth1 which becomes constantly thinner toward the south4 ,the typical chornozyom gives way1 south of the parallel of ,kherson1 to the brown1 also very fertile steppe-soil1 which is accompanied in long stretches1 however1 by the saline earth4 ,to the east of the ,dnieper1 at the southern spurs of the ,donetz ,plateau1 the crystalline substratum also appears to a great extent1 in banks of rock1 in the midst of the steppe-plain4 ,only along the large streams of the steppe country does the nature of the land change4 ,their valleys are broad and swampy1 covered by the so-called plavni4 ,interminable thickets of sedge and seeds1 marsh forest and meadows1 together with innumerable river branches1 old river beds1 and small lakes1 make up a beautiful1 fresh1 verdant country in the midst of the boundless steppe1 whose vernal dress1 resplendent with blossoms1 turns yellow and blackish-brown in summer and fall1 from the fierce glow of the sun4 ,,streams ,,and ,,rivers ,,of ,,the ,,ukraine ,the ,ukrainian rivers are genuinely typical of ,eastern ,europe4 ,the great uniformity of the surface configuration of the ,ukraine is responsible for the lack of that variety in its own river system which characterizes the waters of ,western and ,central ,europe4 ,but the great extent of the land does cause the ,ukraine to have mountain1 plateau and lowland streams1 so that it does not attain the degree of uniformity in hydrographic conditions of ,russia proper4 ,the ,ukrainian river system concentrates in the ,black ,sea4 ,from northwest1 north and east1 the rivers of the ,ukraine tend toward its sea4 ,besides1 the western boundary lines of the ,ukraine lie on the ,baltic slope4 ,there1 in ,podlakhia1 in the ,kholmshchina1 on the ,san ,river and in the ,lemko country1 the ,ukrainian people has had its seats since the dawn of its history4 ,in most recent times ,ukrainian colonization has gained also parts of the ,caspian slope on the ,kuma and ,terek ,rivers4 ,but the region drained by the ,black ,sea surpasses both the other regions so much in extent and in the size of its rivers1 that the ,baltic and ,caspian region of the ,ukraine dwindle in comparison4 ,nature has1 therefore1 turned the ,ukrainian nation toward the south and southeast to the ,black ,sea4 ,but1 at the same time1 she has not denied the ,ukraine a convenient connection with the north and south of the globe4 ,the main ,european river divide is1 perhaps1 nowhere so flat and so easy to cross as in ,ukrainian territory4 ,from the ,dniester to the ,san 7bifurcation of the ,vishnia creek near ,rudki71 from the ,pripet to the ,buh and ,niemen the passages are easy4 ,since ancient times portages have existed here1 and in modern times the ,pripet has been connected with the ,buh and the ,niemen by means of canals 7,king's ,canal and ,oginski ,canal7 which1 however1 are at present entirely antiquated and almost useless4 ,besides1 the widely branched water system of the ,dnieper outside the ,ukraine affords easy passage to the ,dvina 7,beresina ,canal71 ,volga and ,neva1 in ,white ,russian territory4 ,over these waterways and the portages lying between them the old path of the ,northmen led from ,scandinavia to ,constantinople4 ,this most important aspect of the ,ukrainian water system promises at some future time to bear rich fruit1 if the recently-formed plan to build a waterway for navigation on a large scale1 from the ,baltic to the ,black ,sea1 utilizing the course of the ,dnieper1 should become a reality4 ,the ,baltic watercourses of the ,ukraine flow into the ,vistula4 ,several large ,carpathian tributaries originate in ,ukrainian territory4 ,here the rapid ,poprad carries the melted snow of the ,tatra to the ,dunayetz4 ,the source of the ,visloka also lies in the ,ukrainian ,lemko country4 ,the last and largest ,carpathian tributary of the ,vistula belongs1 in three-fourths of its extent1 to ,ukrainian territory1 namely1 the navigable ,san4 ,it receives from the ,carpathians the ,vislok on the left and the ,vihor on the right4 ,the other tributaries of the ,san on the left side1 the ,vishnia1 ,sklo1 ,lubachivka and ,tanva1 come from the sub-,carpathian country and the ,rostoche ,plateau4 ,all the ,carpathian tributaries of the ,vistula have only at their sources the character of mountain streams1 with swift currents1 in rocky river beds1 lined by banks of water-worn material4 ,even in the mountains their valleys become wide1 covered with banks of pebbles1 sand and loam1 and overgrown with willow-brush1 and their falls insignificant4 ,in the sub-,carpathian country the banks become low and sandy1 the stream slow1 and the water-level is very unsteady1 owing to the cutting down of forests in the country of the source4 ,in spring1 when the snow melts in the mountains1 and at the time of the early summer rains1 there are terrible floods2 in dry summers the rivers dwindle to almost insignificant proportions4 ,from the ,rostoche the ,vepr1 navigable from ,krasnostav down1 flows thru a broad1 marshy valley1 into the ,vistula4 ,the northern declivity of the ,podolian ,plateau sends its largest river1 the ,buh1 navigable from ,sokal on1 down to the ,vistula4 ,this river is really a genuine lowland river4 ,its valley is wide and flat1 the river winds with its muddy bed thru forest marshes1 thickets of reeds and willow brush1 now parting into a dozen branches1 now flowing in a wide bed1 past fresh1 green meadows and dark forests4 ,the same lowland character is a common quality of the left-hand tributaries of the ,buh1 the ,poltva1 ,rata1 ,solokia1 ,krna and of the ,luha on the right hand4 ,the ,mukhavetz1 ,lisna1 ,nurez and ,narva1 on the other hand1 are typical woodland streams1 which roll their great mass of water thru the forests of ,podlakhia4 ,the ,pontian ,rivers of the ,ukraine belong to the six great regions drained respectively by the ,danube1 ,dniester1 ,boh1 ,don and ,kuban4 ,of the great region drained by the ,danube1 only the ,carpathian country of the sources of the ,theiss1 ,sereth1 and ,prut lie within ,ukrainian boundaries4 ,the ,theiss is formed by the junction of two source-rivers near the ,svidovez and the ,chornohora1 and collects all the rivers of the ,ukrainian country belonging to ,hungary--the ,visheva and ,isa on the left1 the ,torez1 ,talabor1 ,velika ,rika1 ,bershava and ,bodrochka1 which consists of five source-rivers 7the ,latoritzia1 ,uz1 ,laboretz1 ,tepla and ,ondava74 ,all these rivers of the ,hungarian-,ukrainian mountain country break their difficult way in deep1 picturesque passes1 thru forest-covered mountain chains4 ,innumerable rafts carry the trunks of the fallen ,carpathian giants into the treeless plains of ,hungary4 ,here1 too1 the rivers suddenly lose their mountain character2 their currents become sluggish1 their waters turbid1 their banks swampy4 ,of the ,sereth and its tributaries1 the ,sochava and ,moldava1 only the sources belong to ,ukrainian national territory4 ,on the other hand1 a considerable part of the ,prut country lies within it4 ,the ,prut ,river rises at the ,hoverla1 where it forms a beautiful waterfall along the crater walls4 ,then it flows in a picturesque defile toward the north1 forms another waterfall at ,yaremche1 then immediately leaves the mountains1 uniting in the sub-,carpathian hill-country with the roaring ,cheremosh1 which also rises in two source-rivers on the slopes of the ,black ,mountains and flows in a deeply-cut meandering valley thru the beautiful ,hutzul country4 ,in the sub-,carpathian country the ,prut has a wide1 flat valley1 taken up in places by marsh meadows4 ,the river winds down the wide valley in countless twists1 forms side branches and old river beds1 and reaches the ,danube in the midst of liman-like lakes and bogs1 not far from the swampy delta4 ,outside of the mountains1 the ,prut receives only insignificant tributaries of small volume4 ,between the ,danube and the ,dniester we see only a few miserable little steppe rivers1 emptying into salty or bracken liman lakes 7e4g41 the ,yalpukh and the ,kunduk ,rivers74 ,the important ,dniester ,river attains a length of over #acjj km41 and possesses the greatest variety of distinct sections of river of all the ,ukrainian streams4 ,it originates in the ,high ,beskid1 near the village of ,vovche1 as a very energetic1 wild creek4 ,in a defile it advances into the sub-,carpathian hill-country1 where it has deposited great masses of rubble4 ,the mountain stream changes rapidly into a lowland stream and forms great swamps in the ,dniester ,plain1 which1 in high-water time1 are converted into large river lakes4 ,from the left bank1 the ,dniester here receives the muddy ,vereshitza 7from the ,rostoche71 which forms many ponds1 from ,western ,podolia1 the ,hnila ,lipa4 ,all the remaining tributaries of this section of the ,dnieper come from the ,carpathians1 on the left the ,strviazh 7,strivihor71 on the right the ,bistritza1 the mighty meandering river ,striy with the ,opir1 and the ,svicha 7with the ,misunka74 ,all these rivers are mountain streams1 flow in beautiful defiles1 and deposit great masses of rubble on the verge of the ,carpathians4 ,beginning at the delta of the ,svicha1 the ,dniester ,plain becomes a wide1 flat-bottomed valley1 in which the river flows along in great bends and receives the ,limnitzia and both the ,bistritzas from the ,carpathians4 ,near ,nizniv the banks approach each other very closely and the ,dniester enters a yar 7caon71 not leaving its steep sides until near ,tiraspol4 ,the ,podolian tributaries of the ,dniester on the left side1 the ,zolota ,lipa1 ,stripa1 ,sereth1 ,zbruch1 ,smotrich1 ,ushitza1 ,murakhva1 ,yahorlik1 roll their turbid waters in similar caons toward the ,dniester4 ,the ,bessarabian tributaries1 on the contrary1 have wide1 swampy valleys4 ,all these plateau rivers are slight in volume of water1 altho some of them attain considerable length4 ,only in the spring1 when the snow-blanket melts1 do their waters overflow the banks4 ,in summer the water-level becomes very low1 and the water of the early summer showers is stored up in the many ponds1 which are found in large numbers1 in the country about the sources of these rivers4 ,all these plateau rivers are not even navigable for rafts2 even the little fishers' boat can hardly find its way along the muddy shoals4 ,in its caons the ,dniester ,river assumes all the characteristics of a plateau river4 ,its waters generally take up the entire bottom of the caon1 leaving very little space for the abodes of men4 ,the incline of the river is not uniform1 but constitutes a series of slight steps4 ,sections with rapid currents alternate with quiet depths4 ,the small brooks which come down the short lateral gorges of the ,dniester caons bring great masses of loose stones and rubble into the river bed1 as a result of the reckless destruction of forests1 and build constantly growing cones of rubble1 which the river must remove slowly and laboriously4 ,they also form dangerous shoals and hinder the development of navigation on the ,dniester4 ,the river also forms regular rapids1 near ,yampil1 where a layer of granite stretches clear across the river4 ,for this reason the ,dniester1 tho navigable along a stretch of almost #hjj km41 has not become an important waterway4 ,the navigation of the ,dniester1 which becomes more active from ,khotin on1 is now on the wane4 ,eight hundred years ago sea vessels were still able to reach the old ,ukrainian royal city of ,halich4 ,the floods of the ,dniester are famous4 ,in the spring1 when the snows melt in the ,carpathians1 the ,dniester ,plain is converted into a great river-lake4 ,the ,carpathian tributaries bring the main stream so much water1 that it cannot easily flow off thru the narrow caon1 and so1 floods the whole wide ,dniester ,valley for weeks4 ,then there is high water even in the caon of the ,dniester1 but it has little scope4 ,near ,tiraspol1 the ,dniester ,valley widens out again4 ,swampy plavni wilds extend on both sides of the river4 ,in a beautiful1 rapidly growing delta1 the ,dniester empties into its liman1 which it is slowly filling in with its precipitates4 ,two narrow outlets 7hirl7 break thru the bar of the liman and connect it with the sea4 ,between the ,dniester and the ,boh1 not one river finally empties into the sea4 ,even the largest rivers of the region1 the ,little and ,big ,kuyalnik and the ,tilihul end their courses in limans1 which are entirely closed off by bars4 ,the valleys of these coastal rivers are narrow1 becoming wider at last1 when they are about to enter the limans4 ,the current is always slow and the water often evaporates completely in the summer4 ,the ,boh1 falsely named the ,southern ,bug1 is a real plateau river4 ,it rises in the village of ,kupil1 near the source of the ,sbruch1 on the ,austrian border1 and flows as a typical ,podolian mud-streamlet1 in a flat valley1 covered with ponds and swamps4 ,but1 beginning at ,mezibiz1 its bed becomes rocky1 the valley slopes become high and keep approaching each other4 ,the ,boh ,valley gradually becomes a caon-like 8yar10 altho it is at no point so deep as the ,dniester ,valley4 ,the granite-gneiss formations of the ,ukrainian horst appear here as picturesque shore rocks and slopes along the river and form innumerable rapids 7as1 for example1 ,constantinivka7 in the river bed4 ,stony beds and narrow1 rocky valleys are also found in the most important tributaries of the ,boh--the ,sob1 ,siniukha1 ,inhul on the left2 the ,kodima and ,chichiclea on the right4 ,all of them have little water1 and in dry summers only a chain of ponds marks the valley road of the river4 ,the main stream1 too1 has not much water1 being unfit for navigation even in the time of the spring floods4 ,only the last #acj kilometers of its course1 from ,vosnesensk down1 are navigable4 ,at the entrance of the ,inhul the ,boh begins to widen considerably1 the current becomes slow1 and the depth at ,mikolaiv sufficiently great to enable smaller sea vessels to reach its harbor4 ,slowly widening1 the river gradually turns into the ,buh liman1 which has the winding outline of a river and unites with the great liman of the ,dnieper4 ,the entire length of the ,boh is over #gej kilometers4 ,we now come to the main river of the ,ukraine1 the majestic ,dnieper4 ,to the ,ukrainian people the ,dnieper bears the same significance as the 8,matushka ,volga0 to the ,russians1 the ,vistula to the ,poles1 and the ,rhine to the ,germans4 ,the ,dnieper is the sacred river of the ,ukraine4 ,like a divinity it was honored by the old ,polans1 the founders of the ancient ,ukrainian state of ,kiev2 ,slavutitza was the name given it by the ,ukrainians of the monarchy4 ,it was esteemed as a father and provider by the brave ,zaporog ,cossacks1 the champions of ,ukrainian liberty4 ,for many centuries the ,dnieper has played an important part in the folk-lore and literature of the ,ukraine1 in traditions and fairy-stories and folk-tales and in thousands of folk-songs2 since ancient times it has been sung by all ,ukrainian poets1 from the unknown bard of the epic of ,ihor1 to the greatest of all ,ukrainian poets1 ,taras ,shevchenko1 and so on1 down to the youngest generation of the poets of the ,ukraine4 ,to them all1 the ,dnieper is the symbol of the ,ukraine1 of its life1 and of its past4 ,not without cause did ,shevchenko ask to be buried on the mountain shore of the ,dnieper1 8that ,i may see the endless plains and the ,dnieper and the crags of its banks and hear the rushing of the ,rushing ,one40 ,for no one is able to repeat the impressions which fill the soul of every ,ukrainian when he looks down from this beautiful observation point of ,shevchenko's grave upon the majestic river below4 ,how many thoughts1 then1 arise about the glorious1 and yet so unspeakably sad1 past of the ,ukraine1 about its miserable present and the great future toward which the nation tends1 amid great difficulties1 as does the ,dnieper toward the ,black ,sea over the porohs4 ,and we do not wonder that the ,dnieper has become the national sanctuary of the ,ukraine4 ,with this river are connected all the important events of the historical life of the ,ukraine4 ,the ,dnieper was the father of the ancient ,ukrainian empire of ,kiev2 by way of the ,dnieper a higher culture made its way into the ,ukraine2 on the ,dnieper the ,ukrainian ,cossack element developed1 which1 after centuries of subjugation1 gave the ,ukrainians a new government4 ,the ,dnieper ,river has1 since hoary antiquity1 been the most important channel of intercourse between the ,north and the ,south of ,eastern ,europe2 it has been the means of connecting the ,ukraine with the sea and the cultural realm of ,southern ,europe4 ,its present importance1 despite the low grade of culture in ,eastern ,europe1 and despite ,russian mismanagement1 is great1 and is growing rapidly4 ,and if in the future the river is made accessible to sea-going vessels and becomes a road for large-scale navigation1 its significance may become almost incalculable4 ,the ,dnieper is the third largest river in ,europe1 after the ,volga and the ,danube4 ,the length of its course is more than #bajj km4 ,the region it drains includes #ebg1jjj sq4 km41 not much less than the whole of ,france4 ,among the streams of the globe the ,dnieper ranks thirty-second4 ,if the ,dniester possesses some of the properties of a ,central ,european river1 namely1 mountainous country at its source and many mountain tributaries2 if the ,boh is a genuine plateau river2 the ,dnieper1 on the other hand1 is the real type of a river in ,eastern ,europe4 ,it rises in ,white ,russia near the village of ,clozove4 ,a little swamp1 which was formerly a small lake1 situated at a height of #bef m41 forms the source of the river4 ,because of this small height of the source1 the ,dnieper has1 as1 in fact1 all the ,eastern ,european rivers have1 a very insignificant incline and an average speed of current of #j4d m4 per second4 ,the source of the ,dnieper lies near the sources of the ,dvina and the ,volga1 as well as the source streams of the ,neva4 ,near its source the ,dnieper is a small1 muddy streamlet1 which seeks its way southward in a flat valley1 three miles wide1 between swamps and moors4 ,but quickly its volume increases1 and1 as near the source as ,dorogobuz1 the river becomes navigable for smaller vessels4 ,here it suddenly turns to the west1 both valley slopes1 but especially the left one1 become higher and steeper1 the valley narrows down to km4 ,but after a short stretch it becomes wide and swampy again at ,smolensk4 ,the depth of the river is very irregular1 the pools 7plessa7 attaining a depth of #e meters1 the rapids often less than meter4 ,from ,smolensk to ,orsha the ,dnieper ,valley again becomes hardly #a kilometer wide1 between high banks4 ,on the left bank picturesque1 rocky precipices appear4 ,at ,orsha the ,dnieper turns to the south1 retaining this direction as far as ,kiev4 ,down to ,shclov the ,dnieper ,valley remains narrow1 with steep slopes1 then it widens slowly but steadily4 ,the depth of the river reaches #aj meters1 but many shoals1 great morain boulders and broken sandstone make navigation difficult4 ,below ,mogilev the spurs of the ,white ,russian and ,central ,russian plateaus withdraw from the ,dnieper and show only on the left side4 ,the river reaches the low plain of the ,polissye and flows in majestic turns thru swamps and meadows which are dotted with old river beds4 ,in this section of its course the ,dnieper receives the ,druch and the voluminous1 navigable ,beresina on the right1 and the navigable ,soz on the left4 ,the ,dnieper receives an especially great amount of water from the ,beresina4 ,river navigation is doubled below its entrance1 mainly because of innumerable rafts which are traveling to the treeless ,south ,ukraine and the ,black ,sea from the forests of ,white ,russia4 ,from the mouth of the ,soz numerous low islands appear in the bed of the ,dnieper4 ,the river divides into numerous branches4 ,the entire trough lying between the ,dnieper and the ,pripet is a labyrinth of river branches1 lakes1 old river beds1 swamps and fens4 ,thru the ,pripet the volume of the ,dnieper ,river increases twofold1 and very seldom flows along in a single bed4 ,the tributaries on the right side1 the ,teterev and the ,irpen1 bring the ,dnieper the first remembrances of the ,ukrainian plateau country1 and soon its spurs appear on the right river bank4 ,the ,dnieper presses against this bank and forms the picturesque precipices above which glisten the gilded domes of the ancient churches of ,kiev4 ,here the ,dnieper receives the largest of its tributaries on the left1 the navigable ,desna4 ,thus the formation of the ,dnieper ,river is completed1 its source-rivers1 the ,pripet1 ,beresina1 the upper ,dnieper1 the ,desna and the ,soz have united to build a majestic stream4 ,its normal average width is #fjj-hej meters near ,kiev4 ,during the spring floods1 however1 the width of the river exceeds #aj km42 from the high1 right bank one can barely see the woods of the left4 ,all the islands1 sand-banks1 swamps1 meadows1 river branches and old river beds disappear beneath an interminable mass of yellowish water1 rolling slowly toward the south4 ,deep into the valleys of the tributary streams the high-water enters1 and receding1 leaves behind a layer of fertile river mud4 ,not without reason did ,herodotus compare the ,dnieper with the ,nile4 ,the floods generally occur but once a year--in the spring1 when the snows melt4 ,in this respect the ,dnieper differs from the ,dniester and is similar to all the other rivers of ,eastern ,europe4 ,in the early summer1 at the time of the greatest precipitation in the ,dnieper country1 small floods occur only occasionally1 because the rain-water is stored up in the many swamps and moors of the upper ,dnieper country4 ,the spring high-water originates in the great masses of snow1 which remain lying all thru winter1 melting and flowing off all at once in the spring4 ,after an ice-drift lasting #e-ab days1 the high-water comes and lasts a month and a half4 ,it attains its highest level in the middle of ,april2 at this time the water stands at #c4b meters above normal at ,mogilev1 #b4b4 meters at ,kiev1 #b4f meters at ,kreminchuk1 #b meters at ,kherson1 #j4c meters at the delta4 ,the spring floods are at present becoming greater and more irregular1 consequently more dangerous1 too1 than they have been previously4 ,the progressive destruction of forests has contributed most to this condition4 ,from ,kiev down1 the ,dnieper ,river turns in a flat curve to the southeast and retains this direction as far as ,katerinoslav4 ,the right bank remains steadily high1 torn by gorges and crowned with rock formations1 with numerous niches1 which betray former places of contact of the river bends4 ,the view1 defended especially by ,russian scholars1 that the mountain bank of the ,dnieper1 like that of all other ,eastern ,european rivers1 originated thru the influence of the rotation of the earth 7,baer's ,law71 notably does not apply to the ,dnieper1 for the plain on the left very distinctly crosses over to the right shore at three places2 at the mouth of the ,stuhna below ,kiev1 between the mouth of the ,ross and ,cherkassi1 and north of ,chihirin4 ,recent movements of the crust of the earth1 by elevating the ,dnieper ,plateau in huge sections1 prepared the ground for the mountainous shores2 the resulting steep declivities were attacked and transformed by the river current1 aided by an effective simultaneous action of the winds4 ,the left bank of the river is very flat1 taken up by swamps1 lakes1 old river beds and wooded fens4 ,great wildernesses of reeds cover the swampy banks of the numerous river arms4 ,great masses of sand brought by the tributaries on the left side are thrown up by the steppe winds and from dune landscapes in various places4 ,the tributaries of the ,dnieper ,river in this section are of far less importance than the above mentioned northern ones4 ,from the right side the river receives the plateau streams ,stuhna1 ,ross and ,tiasmin1 from the left the ,trubez1 the ,supo1 the ,sula with the ,udai1 the ,psiol with the ,khorol1 and ,holtva1 ,vorskla and ,orel4 ,all these rivers increase the volume of the main stream only to a slight degree4 ,the width of the river at the point where it flows along in a single bed is regularly #a km4 on the average2 at the narrowest part1 to be sure1 only #aej meters4 ,where the river branches off into several forks1 however1 the complete width1 even at the time of low-water1 is more than #d km41 at high-water over #h km4 ,the depth of the river1 too1 is very changeable4 ,the tributaries on the left side bring great masses of sand to the main river bed1 forming great banks of sand1 which slowly move downward and cause great changeability of the depth4 ,over such banks of sand the depth of the river is hardly #a meters1 but attains a depth of #ab meters where the river flows in a narrow bed4 ,between ,kiev and ,kreminchuk1 the majestic character of the ,dnieper ,river is most apparent4 ,the slight incline here causes a current of only one-third the speed of the current of the ,volga4 ,with an impressive calm the waters of the ,dnieper flow along2 it seems as tho the mirror-like mass of water were motionless4 ,but soon1 above the mouth of the ,psiol1 the speed of the current is suddenly tripled1 so that the steamboats must exert their entire force in the up-stream trip4 ,the low left bank begins slowly to rise2 the river valley1 up to this point1 wide almost beyond reach of the eye1 becomes narrow1 the river forks and islands gradually disappear1 and at the mouth of the ,samara both banks approach the stream with steep precipices4 ,the direction of the river becomes southerly and the section begins where the ,dnieper breaks thru the granite ledge of the ,ukrainian horst1 the famous section of its rapids4 ,here the ,dnieper assumes all the characteristics of a plateau river4 ,the river valley becomes so narrow that at high-water the river spreads over the entire valley bottom4 ,the settlements take refuge on the heights of the steep bank4 ,the granite-gneiss sub-layer appears in steep precipices and high picturesque rock formations on the valley slopes4 ,we are confronted with the same caon-like valley on the ,dnieper1 then1 as on the ,dniester in the ,podolian ,plateau4 ,yet there are certain fundamental differences4 ,the river valley is at most #ajj meters deep1 and the granite slopes do not form compact valley sides such as we see in the yars of the ,dniester4 ,at every moment the steep decline is broken by numerous gorges1 picturesque foothills2 and jutting cliffs lend to the river landscape of the ,dnieper ,valley1 at this point1 a variety unknown in the yar of the ,dniester4 ,the section of the ,dnieper ,river from the mouth of the ,samara to ,veliki ,luh1 at the mouth of the ,konca1 forms a river country which is the only one of its kind in ,eastern ,europe4 ,it is the section of the ,dnieper rapids4 ,the post-tertiary elevation of the ,ukrainian horst1 at this point1 has forced the river to dig its bed into the hard granite and gneiss rocks4 ,despite great masses of water1 the river has not succeeded in equalizing its incline4 ,for this reason1 we find in its bed innumerable rocky islands1 ledges of rock1 separate cliffs and great boulders4 ,in a wild1 roaring torrent1 the current beats against these obstacles1 creating deep pools and dangerous vortices4 ,but not at all places was the river destined to saw thru the obstacles in its way4 ,at many points solid ledges of rock lie right across the river4 ,its mass of water falls down over these granite steps in immense foam-wreathed billows and seethes about innumerable boulders1 remains of already parted ledges4 ,the dull roaring and rumbling can be heard1 even by day1 for several miles4 ,these are the rapids of the ,dnieper--the 8porohi0 and 8zabori40 ,the porohi are not real waterfalls or cataracts2 the incline of the river in this section is #ce meters for a stretch of #ge km41 and is1 therefore1 too slight for regular falls4 ,the greatest incline attained within this stretch of river is #f4 ,therefore1 only the individual branches of water between boulders form small falls1 while the main channel only shoots along down-stream in a long1 foam-covered streak1 over the inclined surface of the ledges4 ,in summer1 the depth above the rock ledges is barely #a meters1 while in the spring even the highest reefs of the rapids disappear beneath the masses of the high-water4 ,still1 the rapids of the ,dnieper are even now a great hindrance to navigation4 ,within the porohi section1 steamboat navigation is altogether impossible1 and the smaller rowboats or sailboats can risk it only during the spring floods1 and then only the down-trip4 ,only the rafts can pass thru the porohi at low-water time1 altho with great danger4 ,the up-stream trip is almost impossible1 even in the smallest vessel1 altho1 at one time1 everyone who desired to join the ,zaporog ,cossacks was required to undertake this daring enterprise4 ,the ,russian government has attempted1 indeed1 to make the rapids of the river navigable1 and has caused a navigable canal to be formed at each fall1 thru blasting of the rock ledges4 ,but these canals have been planned in so impractical and even faulty a manner that the river pilots 7lotzmani7 still use the old 8,cossack paths0 to a great extent 7the ,cosachi khody7 to bring river boats and rafts thru the porohi4 ,the width of the river in the rapids section remains unchanged--#a to #a kilometers4 ,only at its exit from the porohi1 at the so-called ,wolf's ,throat 7,vovche horlo71 the river narrows down to #afj meters4 ,the quiet sections between separate rapids are usually very wide and as much as #cj meters deep4 ,of genuine rapids 7porohi71 according to the pilots1 who are direct descendants of the ,zaporog ,cossacks1 there are nine2 of the larger sabori 7ledges of rock which do not obstruct the entire width of the river71 six4 ,the first rapids below ,katerinoslav are the ,kaidac rapids 7,kaidazki porih71 with four ledges of rock4 ,then follow the ,yazeva ,sebora1 the ,little ,sursky porih1 with two ledges1 the dangerous ,lokhanski porih with three ledges1 and the ,strilcha ,sabora1 with the great rocks of ,strilcha skela and ,kamin ,bohatir4 ,the next rapids1 ,svonez and the far-sounding ,tiahinska ,sabora1 allow vessels easy passage1 but after passing thru the ,dnieper the pilot must exert all his strength4 ,even from the ,svonez rapids on1 one can hear the terrible roaring and rumbling of the largest of the porohi1 the ,did 7grandfather7 or ,nenassitetz 7insatiable74 ,masses of white foam cover it completely1 the water shoots down over the twelve ledges of rock with the speed of an arrow4 ,the vessel groans and creaks1 but flies thru the porih in three minutes1 if it can only escape the dangerous rock of ,krutko or the terrible whirlpool of ,peklo 7the ,hell74 ,or it may happen that the ship is dashed to pieces in the ,voronova ,sabora1 which is full of dangerous reefs4 ,after the ,did and the insignificant ,kriva ,sabora1 comes the ,vnuk 7grandchild7 or ,vovnih1 whose four ledges1 covered with great billows and masses of foam1 holds many hidden dangers for the sailor4 ,but 8after overcoming the ,grandfather and the ,grandchild1 don't go to sleep1 for the ,awakener will wake you0--meaning the next following ,porih ,budilo 7,awakener7 which also is dangerous for ships4 ,we then come past the ,tavolzanska ,sabora1 where the beautiful crag 7,snieva skela7 rises1 to the next to the last porih1 ,lishni 7the ,dispensable71 with two insignificant edges of rock1 which offer but slight dangers4 ,the last porih1 however1 which bears the name of ,vilni 7free7 or ,hadiuchi 7serpent falls71 is very dangerous for ships and rafts1 for the channel winds in serpentine twists thru the six ledges1 and the pilot must exercise all his skill in order to steer the ship entrusted to him safely thru the dangerous channel4 ,after this follows the narrow 7#afj m47 8,wolf's-,throat0 7,vovche horlo71 with three great rocks2 the small ,javlena ,sabora1 three dangerous 8,robber ,rocks0 7,kameni ,rosbiyniki71 and two granite precipices1 ,stovli 7,pillars71 and we come into the ,zaporog country 7,zaporoze74 ,here the ,dnieper valley widens and numerous islands appear in the stream4 ,the upper ones1 for example1 ,khortizia and ,tomakivka1 which were once the site of the first ,zaporog ,sich1 are high1 rocky1 and overgrown with forest4 ,further south the steep left-hand valley slope recedes far from the river and the so-called ,veliki ,luh begins4 ,it is a labyrinth of flat forest and reed-covered alluvial islands1 river branches1 old river beds1 lakes and swamps4 ,here were located the hunting and fishing grounds of the ,zaporog ,cossacks2 here was their dwelling place1 wonderfully fortified by nature and surrounded by an inaccessible wilderness of forests and waters1 and the center of their military state2 of the century-old oaks of the ,veliki ,luh1 the ,zaporogs built their ships1 in order to pay their daring visits to the lord of ,islam in his own capital4 ,but the glorious days are past1 the warlike life and activity has disappeared1 and strange colonists1 whom the ,russian ,government has sent here to settle1 now occupy the ground on which the second ,ukrainian state originated4 ,from the many-branched mouth of the ,konka 7also named ,kinska voda7 the ,dnieper ,river turns toward the southwest1 which direction it retains until it disembogues into the sea4 ,from this point on1 the river nowhere flows in a single bed2 an enormous number of side arms branch off from the main arm or unite with it4 ,the broad river valley1 whose right bank continues to be high and rocky for a time1 is taken up by the plavni formation and winds like a broad band of freshly growing verdure thru the steppe1 which stretches out dry and golden-brown in the hot midsummer4 ,after receiving1 as its last tributary1 the steppe-river ,inhuletz1 it empties with nine arms into its liman1 below ,kherson4 ,of these arms only two are navigable for larger vessels1 and the immense ,dnieper liman is at most only #f meters deep4 ,the river brings down great masses of sand and mud1 and fills up its liman so rapidly that strenuous dredging is necessary1 in order to make it possible for small sea-vessels to reach the harbor of ,kherson4 ,the ,dnieper ,river brings the ,black ,sea1 on the average1 #bjjj cu4 m4 of water per second4 ,it is navigable1 even for large river boats1 along a stretch of #aijj km4 ,the ice-cover lasts #ajj days at ,kiev2 #hj days in the lower part of its course4 ,the tributaries of the ,dnieper are very numerous and important2 their total length is over #ac1jjj km4 ,of those on the right1 the ,pripet ,river is the most important4 ,it gathers in all the waters of the ,polissye and is the typical river of that district4 ,its length exceeds #fej km4 ,rising in the northern spurs of the ,volhynian ,plateau1 very close to the course of the ,buh1 it immediately reaches the ,polissian ,plain and becomes a navigable river over #ej m4 wide and about #f m4 deep4 ,in the main axis of the ,polissian basin the ,pripet turns eastward and becomes about #ajj m4 wide4 ,the incline of the river is very slight1 the number of turns and river arms enormous4 ,between swampy woods and moors the river forms labyrinths of delicate1 intricate waterways and stagnant pools4 ,near ,mosir1 where the river turns to the southeast1 its width reaches #dej m41 its depth #aj m4 ,of quite the same type are the tributaries of the ,pripet3 the ,turia1 ,stokhod1 ,stir with the ,ikva1 the ,horin with the ,sluch1 the ,ubort and the ,uz on the right2 the ,pina1 ,yassiolda1 ,sluch and ,ptich on the left4 ,all of them are navigable along great stretches4 ,the remaining right-hand tributaries of the ,dnieper1 the ,teterev and the ,irpen1 have the ,polissian character only near their mouth1 otherwise they are purely plateau rivers with rocky beds4 ,the ,teterev is able to transport rafts of logs1 while the other rivers of the ,dnieper ,plateau1 as for example1 the ,ross 7altho greater than the ,teterev7 and the ,tiasmin1 are entirely unfit for navigation1 as a result of their rocky beds and their small volume in summer4 ,the last large ,dnieper tributary1 the steppe-river ,inhuletz1 altho barely #ajj km4 shorter than the ,pripet1 is1 for the same reasons1 only capable of carrying logs in the last #aej km4 of its much-twisted course4 ,of the left-hand tributaries of the ,dnieper only the northern ones possess a sufficient volume of water to be navigable4 ,the ,soz1 which is #eej kilometers in length1 becomes as wide as #aej meters1 and is navigable for a stretch of nearly #cfj kilometers4 ,the ,desna is the longest of all the ,dnieper tributaries 7#ajjj km474 ,it rises near ,yelnia1 on the ,central ,russian ,plateau1 and flows in a broad symmetrical valley1 which it floods in places every spring to the extent of #aj kilometers4 ,the normal width of the river at low-water is #afj meters2 the depth is #f meters4 ,despite many shallows and sand-banks1 the ,desna is capable of bearing rafts along a stretch of #bej kilometers1 and is navigable for #gjj kilometers even for the larger river boats4 ,of the ,ukrainian tributaries of the ,desna1 the most important is the ,sem1 which is #fej km4 long and navigable for #ejj kilometers4 ,all the other left-hand tributaries of the ,dnieper flow in broad valleys1 with high right slopes and low left slopes1 covered with stagnant waters1 marshy meadows and areas of sand4 ,but1 altho they all look very imposing at the time of the spring floods1 yet1 neither the ,sula with its high wooded banks1 nor the ,psiol with its #fgj km4 of length1 neither the ,vorscla flowing along between sandbanks and dunes1 nor the ,orel sliding slowly along with its twisted course--none of these have any significance for navigation4 ,only the steppe-river ,samara1 flowing between granite banks1 is capable of floating rafts along a short stretch4 ,there was a time1 however1 in which all these rivers were navigable1 even for ships of considerable size4 ,great old anchors and wreckage of ships1 which are found in the beds and banks of these rivers1 are sufficient proof of this fact4 ,the cause of the present condition may be sought in the destruction of forest in the drainage country4 ,the spring floods1 increased from this cause1 develop considerable destructive activity1 filling up the river bed with masses of sand and mud1 floating brushes and stumps of trees4 ,the decreased volume of water in the dry season1 due to the drying up of the swamps and springs1 can not transport these deposits further1 and the river becomes unfit for any sort of navigation4 ,the ,don 7,din7 is the fourth in the series of rivers of ,europe4 ,it is over #ahjj kilometers long1 but the country it drains is smaller in area by #ajj1jjj square kilometers than that of the ,dnieper4 ,hardly one-fourth of the ,don country belongs to the ,ukraine1 and even less of its course4 ,for this reason it was long considered as a border stream of the ,ukraine on the east1 until the past century extended the boundaries of ,ukrainian territory into the ,kuban region and to the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the ,don rises in ,lake ,ivan-,ozero1 which has also an outlet to the ,aka on the ,central ,russian elevation of ground4 ,its valley is at first deeply cut1 its bed rocky4 ,then the valley widens and becomes symmetrical1 the left bank becomes flat and swampy1 covered in places by wide areas of sand4 ,in the source region the direction of the river is south as far as ,korotniak1 then the river turns to the southeast1 forms a sharp bend at the mouth of the ,ilovla1 approaching to within #fj km4 of the ,volga4 ,then the ,don repeats on a small scale the direction of the course of the ,dnieper1 turns toward the southwest1 and disembogues in thirty arms1 of which only three are navigable and only one accessible to sea-vessels1 into the ,sea of ,azof4 ,its delta region is very rich in fish and is growing very rapidly4 ,the general volume of the ,don is twice as small as that of the ,dnieper and is subject to many vacillations4 ,during the spring floods the water-level reaches #f-g m4 above the normal and the river becomes as much as #aj km4 wide4 ,at the time of low-water1 on the other hand1 the river1 despite its width 7in the lower part of its course7 of #bjj to #djj m4 and depths of #b-af m41 is full of sandbanks and shallows1 so that navigation on the ,don is but slightly developed1 altho more than #acjj km4 of its course may be considered fit for floating rafts of logs and #cjj km4 for ships4 ,the freezing-time lasts on the average #ajj days4 ,of the left-hand tributaries of the ,don1 the ,voronizh1 ,bitiuh1 ,khoper1 ,medveditza1 and the ,manich 7famous1 because of its bifurcation7 are the most important4 ,of the right-hand tributaries only one1 the ,donetz1 is important4 ,its entire course belongs to ,ukrainian national territory4 ,it is #ajjj km4 long1 and1 in its southerly and then south-easterly direction1 entirely analogous to the ,dnieper and the ,don4 ,the ,donetz flows in a broad valley and washes beautiful white cliffs along the steep right bank1 crowned with dark forests4 ,the ,donetz is capable of floating rafts along a stretch of over #cjj km41 and is navigable for #bjj km4 more4 ,of the steppe-rivers which tend toward the ,sea of ,azof from the east1 only the ,yeia reaches its goal4 ,all the rest end their courses in lagoons4 ,the last great river of the ,ukraine is the ,kuban1 #hjj km4 long4 ,it rises in the glaciers of the ,elbrus and flows1 a roaring mountain stream1 in a narrow and deep rocky defile4 ,a great number of the mountain streams of the northern ,caucasus slope empty into the ,kuban and make it a stream of considerable volume4 ,in the ,stavropol hill country the ,kuban turns in a widely-drawn curve toward the west4 ,its valley becomes broad and flat1 covered with bogs1 swampy forests and wildernesses of reeds4 ,from the left side it receives a number of tributaries from the ,caucasus1 the most important being the ,laba and the ,bila4 ,in the midst of immense plavni1 lakes and limans1 the ,kuban forms its many-armed delta1 which carries its waters partly to the ,black ,sea1 partly to the ,sea of ,azof1 and embraces the peninsula of ,taman4 ,the ,kuban always has a large volume1 the floods coming in the early summer1 when the snow blanket of the ,caucasus melts4 ,navigation is greatly injured because of banks of sand and rubble1 brush and tree-stumps1 but is1 nevertheless1 possible for a distance of over #cej km4 ,,the ,,ukrainian ,,climate ,the great uniformity of ,eastern ,europe1 in respect to its morphology1 we find repeated in its climatic conditions4 ,but1 to the same extent that the attentive investigator1 upon close observation1 finds several independent morphological individualities within the ,eastern ,european low country1 he will also observe important climatic differences in this great half-continent4 ,the ,central ,european climatic zone stops at the western borders of the ,ukraine4 ,similarly1 the cool ,eastern ,european continental climate1 which rules over all of ,white and ,great ,russia1 embraces only insignificant borderlands in the north of ,ukrainian territory4 ,the ,ukrainian climate assumes an entirely independent position4 ,it is more continental than that of ,central ,europe and differs from that of ,great ,russia in its greater mildness4 ,the ,ukraine shares with ,france the advantage that in its territory the direct transition from the temperate climate of ,eastern ,europe to the ,mediterranean climate of ,southern ,europe takes place4 ,the thermal conditions of the ,ukraine1 despite its great size1 are very uniform4 ,the yearly averages fluctuate between #f and #i ,c4 ,ternopil1 in ,podolia1 and ,vovchansk1 in the ,kharkov country1 have the same yearly temperature of #f4c1 ,pinsk #f4g1 ,kiev and ,kharkiv #f4h1 ,lviv 7,lemberg7 and ,poltava #f4i4 ,the differences are confined within a space of #a;,c4 ,chernivtzi 7,czernowitz7 in the ,bukowina1 ,yelisavet in the ,kherson region1 and ,luhan in the ,donetz region have an annual temperature of #g4f or #g4g1 ,katerinoslav on the ,dnieper1 ,tahanroh on the ,sea of ,azof1 and ,stavropol in the sub-,caucasus country #h4c or #h4b4 ,this great coincidence of yearly averages in so widely separated places is all the more surprising1 since the mean temperature falls considerably directly behind the borders of the ,ukraine4 ,thus1 ,kursk has only #e4b1 ,voroniz #e4d4 ,not until we reach the southern borders of the ,ukraine does the mean temperature rise considerably4 ,odessa and ,kishiniv have #i4h1 ,mikolaiv #i4g1 ,simferopol #aj4a1 ,sevastopol #ab4b1 ,katerinodar #ab4a1 ,novorossiysk #ab1 ,yalta #ac4d mean annual temperature4 ,the last-named place actually lies in the narrow belt of the ,mediterranean climate1 on the southern slope of the ,yaila ,mountains4 ,comparing the annual averages of the ,ukraine with those of different places in ,western and ,central ,europe1 the latter appear relatively much higher4 ,london1 situated in the same geographical latitude as ,kursk has an annual temperature almost twice as high 7#aj4c74 ,london is on the average even a little warmer than ,simferopol1 which actually lies #fej km4 nearer the equator4 ,brussels lies a little more north than ,kiev1 yet it is in the mean warmer than ,odessa4 ,the cause of this unfavorable relation is the severe winter of the ,ukraine4 ,the mean temperature of ,january is #c4e in ,london1 #b in ,brussels1 #a4b in ,frankfort a m41 -#a4b in ,prague1 -#c4c in ,cracow4 ,in the ,ukraine the ,january means are much lower4 ,lemberg has -#d4f1 ,kiev has -#f4b1 ,kharkiv -#h4c1 ,luhan -#h1 ,vovchansk -#g4g1 ,katerinoslav -#g4d1 etc4 ,to be sure this is not remarkable when compared with the ,january temperatures of even the south of ,great ,russia1 where the winter suggests polar conditions1 but the antithesis to the winter climate of ,western and ,central ,europe is striking4 ,hammerfest1 the northernmost city of the earth1 is one degree warmer than ,kiev in ,january and even a little warmer than ,lemberg4 ,on the other hand1 the summer of the ,ukraine is even warmer than that of ,western and ,central ,europe4 ,the ,july mean of ,london is #ag4i ,c41 of ,brussels #ah1 ,lemberg the same1 but ,kiev has as much as #ai4b1 ,kharkiv #bj4i4 ,the differences in the summer temperatures are much smaller1 however1 than the differences in the winter temperatures--hence the comparatively low annual mean in the ,ukraine4 ,these figures clearly show the continental character of the ,ukrainian climate4 ,the influences of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 which still strongly dominate the climate of ,central ,europe1 become slight in the ,ukraine4 ,particularly1 the southern part of the ,ukraine is almost unaffected by the mitigating influence of a nearby ocean1 and the necessary result is the low winter-temperatures4 ,but the continental character of the ,ukrainian climate is1 nevertheless1 not so strongly marked as that of the ,russian or ,siberian climate4 ,kamishin1 ,semipalatinsk1 ,blagovieshchensk1 situated on the same degree of latitude as ,kiev1 have a ,january mean of -#aa4f1 #ag4e and -#be4d1 and a ,july mean of #bd4a1 #bb4b and #ba4c1 respectively4 ,the influences of the ,black ,sea1 altho in general not great1 are at least unmistakable in the coastal region of the ,ukraine4 ,the difference between the mean of the coldest and that of the warmest month is slighter in the ,ukraine than in ,russia or ,siberia1 to be sure1 but it is1 at any rate1 considerable4 ,only in the ,mediterranean climate of ,southern ,crimea does the difference amount to as little as #bj4 ,the rest of ,crimea1 the sub-,caucasian country and the northwestern part of the ,ukraine as far as ,kiev and ,uman have a difference of #bj-be1 ,lemberg1 for example1 #bb4f1 ,pinsk #bd1 ,chernivtzi #be4a1 ,kiev #be4b4 ,on the other hand1 the southern and the entire eastern part of the ,ukraine1 especially east of the ,dnieper1 shows a considerable difference1 from #be to #cj1 as for example1 ,kiev #be4d1 ,odessa and ,mikolaiv #bf4c1 ,poltava #bg4c1 ,kharkiv and ,tahanroh over #bi1 ,luhan and ,katerinoslav #cj4d4 ,the winter appears severe in the entire ,ukraine1 with the exception of ,crimea and the sub-,caucasian country4 ,the ,january mean temperature of -#d to -#h then obtains in the entire wide territory4 ,lemberg has -#d4c1 ,tarnopol -#e4e1 ,chernivtzi -#e4a1 ,kiev -#f4b1 ,vovchansk -#g4g1 ,katerinoslav -#g4d1 ,mikolaiv -#d4c1 ,tahanroh -#f4g1 ,luhan -#h4 ,even the southern lands of the ,ukraine have a low mean for ,january1 for example1 ,odessa -#c4g 7,kishiniv -#c4e71 while ,kamenetz owes its exceptionally high mean1 -#c4c1 to its sheltered location in a 8yar40 ,the ,january isotherms run from northwest to southeast in ,ukrainian territory1 in a wide curve1 which becomes increasingly flat toward the southeast4 ,for this reason the cold in the ,ukraine grows in intensity not in a northern but in a northeastern direction4 ,the mean annual minimum almost everywhere exceeds -#bj 7,lemberg -#ai4b1 ,chernivtzi -#ba4a1 ,tarnopol -#bc4d1 ,kiev -#bc4b1 ,mikolaiv -#ba4d1 ,luhan -#bh4d74 ,the absolute extremes attain very high values4 ,the absolute minimum amounts to -#cj in ,mikolaiv and ,odessa1 -#cc4a in ,kiev1 -#cd in ,ternopil1 -#ce in ,lemberg and ,czernowitz1 -#dj4h in ,luhan4 ,the ,ukrainian winter is far less variable than the ,central ,european or even the ,russian4 ,only in the northwestern borderlands of the ,ukraine does a thaw1 brought by the ,atlantic winds1 frequently appear4 ,the duration of the frost on the ,pontian shore is at most two months1 in the ,pontian steppe-plain and the southern spurs of the plateau groups three months1 in all the rest of the ,ukraine three and a half4 ,only in the northeastern borderlands of the ,ukraine1 located on the spurs of the ,central ,russian elevation and the ,donetz1 does the frost period extend over four months4 ,in ,southern ,ukraine the winter is followed directly by a sunny spring1 with dry east winds1 which partly degenerate into sand-storms 7sukhovi74 ,everywhere else in the ,ukraine wet1 sloppy weather follows the steps of the receding winter4 ,toward the northwest it continues longer and longer4 ,the sloppy weather of spring consists of a constantly varying succession of frost1 thaw1 snowstorm1 rain and sunshine1 ending in the southern part of the ,ukraine usually in the middle of ,april1 in the northern and northwestern part at the end of ,april or even at the beginning of ,may4 ,the actual spring following thereon is very short thruout the ,ukraine and usually lasts three weeks1 except in the northwest1 where it continues thru the entire month of ,may4 ,the mean ,april temperature is everywhere higher than the annual mean 7,lemberg #g4h1 ,tarnopol and ,kiev #f4i1 ,czernowitz and ,odessa #h4f1 ,luhan -#h4a74 ,but the month of ,may is quite as warm as ,july in ,england4 ,on the other hand1 we find ,may frosts in the entire ,ukraine as far as the shores of the ,black ,sea1 altho they do not appear so destructive here as in ,russia proper4 ,the ,ukrainian summer is everywhere marked by considerable heat4 ,only in the northwest corner of the ,ukraine 7,rostoche1 ,pidlassye1 ,polissye1 ,volhynia7 is the summer moderately warm 7,lemberg #ai4a1 ,ternopil #ah4g1 ,pinsk #ah74 ,the ,july temperature of all the rest of the ,ukraine is much higher than this4 ,the ,july isotherm of #bj1 like all the ,july isotherms of the ,ukraine1 runs in a northeast direction past the source of the ,sbruch and the mouth of the ,pripet1 and the further we advance from this line towards the southeast1 the hotter the summers we find4 ,on the lower ,dniester and ,dnieper the mean ,july temperature exceeds #bc4 ,following are a number of ,july means3 ,czernowitz #bj4a1 ,kiev #ai4b1 ,vovchansk #bj4c1 ,odessa #bb4f1 ,katerinoslav and ,mikolaiv #bc1 ,luhan #bb4d1 ,tahanroh #bb4h4 ,the strongest degrees of heat are #cg to #dc1 and the mean annual maxima are #cj4c for ,ternopil1 #ca4a for ,lemberg1 #cb4g for ,czernowitz1 #cb4a for ,kiev1 #ce4b for ,mikolaiv1 #ce4e for ,luhan4 ,the duration of the heat period with temperatures of #bj and over is two months southeast of a line which runs near ,kishiniv1 ,poltava and ,kharkiv1 one month southeast of the line of ,mohiliv1 ,kaniv and ,kursk4 ,the total duration of the summer is only in the northwest of the ,ukraine as short as three months2 otherwise it is four1 and on the ,black ,sea even four and a half4 ,the autumn of the ,ukraine is regularly very beautiful and comparatively warm4 ,the month of ,october has a mean of temperature higher than the annual 7,lemberg #h4e1 ,ternopil #g4g1 ,czernowitz #i1 ,kiev #g4e1 ,vovchansk #g1 ,katerinoslav #i4g1 ,luhan #h4d1 ,odessa #aa1 ,mikolaiv #i4g1 ,tahanroh #i4a74 ,but even in ,october the warm sunny days are followed by night frosts4 ,the moist autumnal weather which begins the transition to winter lasts as much as two months in the northwest2 beyond that1 one to one and a half months4 ,the mean date of the earliest frost is ,october #aith for ,kiev1 ,october #aath for ,luhan1 ,october #bhth for ,micolaiv1 and ,november #ajth for ,odessa4 ,a different position1 climatically1 is that of ,crimea1 the sub-,caucasian country1 as well as the mountain islands of the ,carpathians1 the ,yaila and the ,caucasus4 ,in the temperature conditions of ,crimea and the sub-,caucasus country1 the influence of their southerly location and the proximity of the sea is everywhere apparent4 ,the mean temperature is everywhere higher than #aj 7,simferopol #aj4a1 ,sevastopol #ab4b1 ,katerinodar #ab4a74 ,the winter is short and comparatively mild 7,january mean of ,simferopol #j4h1 ,sevastopol #a4h1 ,katerinodar #b4a1 ,stavropol -#d4g71 but very variable4 ,the degrees of frost are sometimes quite high 7,sevastopol -#af4i1 ,stavropol -#be4f as absolute minima71 but the frost period is short 7one to two months74 ,the spring begins in ,march with full force2 in ,may follows the five-months' summer4 ,the ,july means are very high1 especially in the sub-,caucasus country1 the heat period lasting everywhere more than two months4 7,july mean of ,simferopol #bh1 ,sevastopol #cc4a1 ,stavropol #bj1 ,katerinodar #be4c74 ,the long autumn also is very mild4 ,south of the ,yaila and ,caucasus ,mountains1 on the shore of the ,black ,sea1 lies a narrow strip of land which actually shows ,mediterranean climatic characteristics4 ,the winter lasts less than a month and is very mild 7,january mean of ,yalta #c4e1 altho the absolute minimum is -#ac71 and1 as in ,novorossiysk1 cold1 bora-like gusts of wind are common in times of heavy cold4 ,after a long spring follows a six-months' summer1 which passes imperceptibly into a mild autumn4 ,the climate of the mountains of the ,ukraine has been but little investigated4 ,in the entire ,ukrainian territory there is not a single meteorological observatory4 ,the general characteristics of mountain climate1 its greater uniformity1 the smaller difference between the warmest and coldest months1 the belated beginning of all the seasons1 etc41 may be found in all the mountains of the ,ukraine4 ,only the climate of the ,ukrainian ,carpathians is somewhat better known4 ,the dreariest climate is that of the ,beskyds and the ,gorgani4 ,the five-months' winter and long periods of sloppy weather in the spring and in the fall encroach upon the short summer4 ,the ,chornohora chain1 despite the greater height of its peaks1 upon which the snow in sheltered places remains lying thru the entire summer1 has a much milder and pleasanter climate4 ,the influence of the warm summer of the adjacent plain regions limits the duration of the sloppy weather in spring and autumn4 ,for this reason1 the mountain valleys have a short but very beautiful spring1 a warm summer1 and a wonderful mild autumn4 ,the mountain pastures have in place of the summer only a three months' spring4 ,in the ,yaila ,mountains1 as a result of their small size and height1 the characteristics of typical mountain climate are lacking1 but in the ,caucasus we find them in their highest development4 ,the analogy to the ,alps is perfect1 but the influence of the continental steppe climate of the surrounding country is unmistakable1 expressing itself in the position of the various climatic regions1 in the height of the snow limit1 in the development of the glacial covering1 etc41 very distinctly and very differently than in the ,alps1 which are surrounded by countries with a climate of a different kind4 ,we now come to the second group of climatic phenomena1 pressure and wind conditions4 ,the ,ukraine may1 in this respect1 be divided into two great regions4 ,the line of high pressure which separates these parts1 called by ,voiekoff the great axis of ,europe1 extends from the bend of the ,volga1 near ,tsaritsin1 over the porohi section of the ,dnieper at ,katerinoslav to ,kishinev4 ,north of this line1 west winds prevail1 bringing ,atlantic air into ,northern ,ukraine4 ,in the south1 east winds prevail1 bearing the influences of the ,asiatic steppe climate4 ,this wind divide is most distinct in winter4 ,in the northern part of the ,ukraine we find chiefly west and southwest winds1 which mitigate the frosts and cause precipitations of rainfall2 in the southern part dry1 cold east winds prevail1 increasing the cold4 ,sometimes the east wind increases to a snowstorm 7metelitzia1 fuga7 which whirls up terrible masses of snow1 filling the air with snowflakes until absolutely nothing can be seen1 and causes terrific destruction4 ,herds of a thousand head fall victim to its icy breath1 even in the steppes of ,crimea1 and woe to the traveler who is caught in a snowstorm in the steppe4 ,in ,november and ,december1 in ,southern ,ukraine1 moist1 warm south winds frequently come up from the ,pontus4 ,but the absolute balance is on the side of the freezing east winds1 to which is to be ascribed the severe winter climate of ,southern ,ukraine4 ,the northern half of the ,ukraine as a rule1 is seldom reached by the east winds1 the northwestern corner very seldom4 ,their occasional appearance is accompanied by heavy frosts with fair weather4 ,in the spring1 east and south winds blow1 especially over ,southern ,ukraine4 ,they often change to heavy sand-storms 7sukhovi7 very harmful to the crops1 which carry clouds of sand1 with which they form miniature dunes as high as #cj cm4 ,the east and south winds1 at such times1 penetrate even into ,northern ,ukraine1 altho with the exception of the northwest corner4 ,in the summer1 on the other hand1 the west1 northwest1 and southwest winds hold a decided balance over the east winds1 even in ,southern ,ukraine4 ,they bring moist ,atlantic air and rain into the entire land and mitigate the heat4 ,the occasional east winds increase the heat and bring periods of drought1 but usually not until ,august1 when they are rather frequent4 ,in ,september all the winds are weak thruout the ,ukraine1 with high pressure4 ,that is why the fall is so beautiful too4 ,then1 in ,october and ,november1 follows the gradual transition to the winter wind conditions4 ,the third group of atmospheric phenomena1 humidity and precipitation1 possesses the same great uniformity in ,ukrainian territory as the other two elements of the climate4 ,the humidity of the air in the ,ukraine is in general slight4 ,it is greatest in the forest-covered partly swampy ,west and ,northwest4 ,toward the southeast the humidity in the ,ukraine constantly decreases4 ,fogs appear seldom and are only light1 so that the antithesis to ,western and ,central ,europe1 as well as ,russia1 is striking4 ,the light night and morning fogs which appear1 especially in the latter part of summer and in the fall1 only contribute to the beautification of the landscape1 by flooding the depressions of land like a sea4 ,cloud-formation is much slighter in the ,ukraine than in ,western or ,central ,europe1 or in ,russia proper1 the dreary ,muscovite country4 ,the greatest number of clouded days occurs in the western and northwestern part of the ,ukraine2 toward the southeast and east the number of such days dwindles continuously4 ,the least amount of cloudy weather occurs in the month of ,august4 ,in ,september and ,october the increase is very slight4 ,november and ,december are much cloudier and ,january is most cloudy all over the ,ukraine4 ,after that the cloudy weather lessens considerably at first1 then slowly1 until ,august4 ,the atmospheric precipitations in the ,ukraine are in general insignificant1 except in the ,carpathian and ,caucasus regions4 ,the ,ukraine has less rainfall than ,central or ,western ,europe4 ,the ,atlantic ,ocean1 the most important source of the precipitations in ,europe1 lies far distant1 and the cyclonal systems on their way east drop their collected moisture upon ,western and ,central ,europe4 ,for the ,ukraine1 and particularly for the eastern part of it1 there is1 therefore1 very little left4 ,in this connection the ,black ,sea has only a local significance1 and the evaporation of water from the rivers1 lakes and swamps1 from the plants and the ground1 is hardly worth considering1 except as it happens in the summer4 ,the great amounts of precipitation are to be found in the mountains of the ,ukraine1 where rising currents of air help along the condensation of the water vapor4 ,even in the ,low ,beskid the precipitation exceeds #ajjj mm4 7,yasliska #aagj mm471 in the ,gorgani and ,chornohora we find in large areas1 especially on the southern slope1 a precipitation of over #abjj mm41 in a few places #adjj mm4 7,kobiletzka ,polana #acgg mm41 ,bradula #adai mm474 ,the amount of precipitation is still large in the entire ,pidhirye1 but at only a short distance it decreases considerably4 ,lemberg has only #gce mm4 of rainfall1 the southern part of the ,rostoche as much as #ijj mm4 in places1 since the western edges act like chains of mountains to the west winds4 ,but ,czernowitz1 near as it is1 has only #fai mm4 and the ,podolia on the ,dniester still less4 ,the ,khotin lying in the yar of this river has only #cjj mm41 which best illustrates the significance of local conditions4 ,at a greater distance from the curve of the ,carpathians the amount of precipitation shows a slow but regular decrease toward the southeast4 ,only in the northern part of the ,rostoche and the northwestern part of ,podolia does the amount of precipitation attain #fjj mm41 while further toward the south and east a wide zone stretches out with only #ejj-fjj mm4 7,pinsk #eha mm41 ,kiev #ecd mm41 ,uman #edf mm41 ,poltava #ecb mm474 ,another wide zone1 which extends from the mouth of the ,dniester to the bend of the ,don1 has a precipitation of between #djj and #ejj mm4 7,kharkiv #dfe mm41 ,katerinoslav #dge mm41 ,kishinev #dga mm41 ,yelisavet #ddd mm41 ,odessa #djh mm474 ,the next narrow zone of the ,pontian and ,crimean steppe has a precipitation of less than #djj mm4 7,mikolaiv #cfj mm41 ,sevastopol #chf mm41 ,luhan #cgi mm471 a corner of ,crimea on the peninsula of ,tarkhankut has even barely more than #bjj mm4 ,the ,yaila ,mountain ,range is too small to have any marked influence on the increase in the amount of precipitation4 ,yalta has only #ejh mm4 precipitation4 ,on the other hand1 the influence of the ,caucasus is very great4 ,the sub-,caucasus ,kuban region1 to be sure1 has only #djj-ejj mm4 precipitation1 ,stavropol #gbj mm41 ,novorossysk #fia mm4 ,however1 the amount of precipitation on the southwestern side of the ,caucasus ,mountains increases uncommonly4 ,at the borders of ,ukrainian territory1 ,sochi has not less than #bjga mm4 ,from this account we see clearly enough that1 in comparison with ,central and ,western ,europe1 the ,ukraine is rather poor in rainfall1 especially in the southeast4 ,but the distribution of the precipitations among the seasons is so favorable that most of them fall at the time they are most needed1 namely1 in the early part of summer4 ,the entire ,ukraine lies within the area of the summer rains1 only the narrow strip of the south coast of ,crimea and the ,caucasus are within the area of the winter rains4 ,the reason of the preponderance of the summer rains lies in the western and northwestern ,atlantic winds1 which1 in that season1 have easy access far into the southeastern part of the ,ukraine4 ,these winds bring so much moisture into the ,ukraine that almost two-thirds of the annual rainfall belongs to ,may1 ,june and ,july4 ,the month with the greatest amount of precipitation for the entire ,ukraine is ,june4 ,only the ,polissye1 ,northwestern ,volhynia and the western part of the ,kiev territory show the heaviest precipitation in ,july1 since1 in these regions of forests and swamps1 evaporation is heaviest at this time of greatest heat4 ,the summer rains of the ,ukraine differ from those of ,central or ,western ,europe in their heaviness4 ,only in the ,western ,ukraine are the summer rains of the type of gentle rains that are uniform for an entire country2 in the south and east they appear as cloudbursts in heavy showers4 ,in ,samashcani1 in ,bessarabia1 there have been times when #bjj mm4 of rain fell in a single day1 in ,korovintzi in the ,poltava region1 #e mm4 in one minute4 ,in the ,pontian steppes all rain falls in the form of heavy showers4 ,the water flows off quickly and evaporates rapidly1 before it is able to thoroughly saturate the ground4 ,electric discharges and hailstorms occur in close connection with the summer rains1 most frequently in ,june1 less so in ,july and in ,may4 ,they usually come from the southwest in the afternoon hours4 ,most of these storms originate in the ,carpathian ,mountains and reach ,volhynia and ,kiev1 but do not cross the ,dnieper4 ,the ,caucasus1 too1 has very many storms4 ,hailstorms are most frequent in ,galicia and ,volhynia and the western part of the ,kiev regions2 very rare in the southeast4 ,in ,august the amount of rainfall slowly decreases2 in ,september and ,october still more1 and so it continues until ,december4 ,january is the month of least rainfall for the entire ,ukraine 7only one-fourth of the ,june figure71 and this circumstance is of particularly great significance for the southern and eastern parts of the ,ukraine4 ,for this reason the cover of snow in the ,ukraine is much less than in ,central ,europe or ,muscovy1 besides which1 it is often disturbed by snowstorms4 ,the slight snow-cover melts down quickly in the spring1 without saturating the soil well1 and without requiring much warmth4 ,this explains the rapid rise of heat in the ,ukrainian spring4 ,from ,january until the end of ,april the amount of rainfall again grows slowly but steadily1 reaching its maximum in ,june4 ,the southern part of ,crimea and the ,caucasian shore have just the opposite annual distribution of the precipitations4 ,under the influence of the moist ,pontian winds1 the greatest amount of rain falls in ,december and ,january1 while the spring and summer have very little rain4 ,these characteristics of the ,mediterranean climate1 the rainy winter after the dry summer1 are all the more striking1 since the opposite condition prevails on the other side of the ,yaila and ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,from this account of the ,ukrainian climate we see that this climate retains an entirely independent position as against that of ,central ,europe or ,russia4 ,the ,ukrainian climate is characterized by an annual amplitude of #bj to #cj1 a mean annual temperature of from #f to #ab1 a ,july mean of from #ai to #bd1 and a ,january mean of from #j to #h1 with predominant summer rains and a generally insignificant cover of snow4 ,the difference from the ,russian climate is1 consequently1 quite considerable4 ,the ,russian climate forms the transition to the polar1 that of the ,ukraine to the ,mediterranean climate4 ,nature has provided the ,ukraine with a pleasant1 very wholesome climate4 ,on the whole temperate1 it does not lack heavy frosts and considerable degrees of heat1 which harden the ,ukrainian to any inclemencies of the weather4 ,the differences of the seasons cause a pleasant variety1 strong winds clear the atmosphere and bring motion into nature1 the rains are everywhere sufficient for the growth of vegetation and the carrying on of the most important occupation of the ,ukraine--agriculture4 ,the great uniformity of this ,ukrainian climate has recently caused the ,french geographer1 de ,martonne1 to set it up as one of the types of climate of the globe4 ,,flora ,,and ,,fauna ,,of ,,ukraine ,eastern ,european bigness characterizes also the organic life of the ,ukraine4 ,but it follows1 from the location of the country1 that the ,ukraine has a much more varied plant and animal geography than the proper ,russian territory1 despite the latter's much greater extent4 ,in the ,ukraine1 the borders of three main divisions of plant-geography of ,europe meet--the ,mediterranean division1 the steppe region1 and the forest region1 with their transition regions4 ,besides1 we meet in the ,ukraine three mountain regions--the ,carpathian1 the ,crimean1 and the ,caucasian4 ,in respect to flora1 the ,ukraine possesses only a few endemic species4 ,to be sure the great ice period covered only comparatively small areas of the ,ukraine with its glacier1 but the polar flora undoubtedly prevailed in the entire country at that time4 ,after the withdrawal of the glacier1 steppes first appeared in its place1 which then1 especially in the ,northwest1 were forced to make room for a forest flora that had immigrated from ,central ,europe and ,siberia4 ,hence1 despite the considerable area of the ,ukraine1 so few endemic species4 ,since those primeval days1 only a very few natural changes have occurred in the vegetation of the ,ukraine4 ,however1 man1 thru his cultural activity1 has wrought many changes in the plant-world of the country4 ,the forest region occupies barely one-fifth of the ,ukrainian territory1 only the northwestern and northern borderlands4 ,the southeastern border of the forest region extends from the ,prut and ,dniester on the western boundary of ,pokutye and ,podolia in a curve to the source of the ,buh1 then near the northern boundary of the ,dnieper ,plateau east as far as ,kiev1 and thence toward the northeast as far as the source of the ,aka4 ,this boundary1 however1 is not sharp4 ,in numerous peninsulas the compact forest penetrates the adjacent transition region toward the southeast4 ,on the other hand1 this forest boundary coincides almost exactly with the northern boundary of the black soil4 ,the soil of the forest region is in general poor4 ,only in higher places we find fertile turf2 beyond that sandy soil and the podsol1 rich in quartz1 predominate4 ,the prevailing plant formation in this region is the forest4 ,it once covered the entire region and was thinned to any great extent only within the last two centuries4 ,what these primeval forests were like we can now tell in only a few districts of the ,polissye and in the famous virgin forest of ,biloveza1 which lies in the extreme northwest corner of the ,ukrainian territory4 ,here we see the primeval forest in its mighty size and beauty4 ,in wind-fallen woods1 several meters high1 rotten1 decaying stumps cover the ground4 ,their roots stand up high into the air above swampy holes and vast masses of rotting remains of plants4 ,above this swampy fen rise1 like a vast mass of pillars1 the knotty trunks of century-old oaks and lindens1 ash and aspen1 and the slender pine and fir4 ,high above the ground their branches intertwine4 ,all strive up toward the sun1 for a continuous semi-darkness reigns below4 ,shrub and herb vegetation thrives only in clearings2 beyond that only last year's leaves1 needles1 and a mysteriously glowing decay cover the ground4 ,dead silence1 only occasionally broken by the hammering of a woodpecker or by the timid voice of a bird1 reigns everywhere1 making all the more impressive the mighty roaring of the lofty crowns in the storm4 ,as to their composition1 the woods of the ,ukrainian forest region are mixed1 altho local conditions cause one or the other species of tree to predominate4 ,the ,ukrainian forest region may be divided into two regions by a line running thru ,lublin southeast toward ,lutzk4 ,southwest of this line extends the ,central ,european forest zone1 northeast of it the ,northern ,european forest zone4 ,the ,central ,european forest zone embraces the entire ,pidhirye in the ,ukraine1 the southern part of the ,rostoche1 and the western spurs of ,volhynia and ,podolia4 ,it is distinguished by a greater variety of tree species4 ,here1 upon damp1 loamy hills1 entire forests of beech are found1 on the ,carpathian foothills the pine1 and singly or in small groups1 the larch1 the yew1 the maple1 etc4 ,in the ,northern ,european zone all these trees disappear1 due to the increasing continentality of the climate4 ,the predominating species of tree here is the pine1 which forms large woods everywhere on sandy soil1 then the birch1 which always accompanies the pine1 the fir on sandy soil1 the oak and white beech on loamy soil4 ,there is an admixture of a considerable number of alders on swampy ground1 aspens1 lindens1 elms1 maples1 ash and wild apple1 pear and cherry trees4 ,hazel bushes1 willow 7salix caprea71 mountain ash1 raspberry and blackberry bushes comprise the thick underbrush in these mixed forests1 and contribute a great deal to the beauty of the woods1 together with grass and herb vegetation1 especially in numerous clearings4 ,in truer evergreen forests the underbrush usually is very poor4 ,there are a great many swamp forests in the ,ukrainian forest region4 ,in the ,carpathian foothills they are called lasi1 and are quite common there1 but in the ,polissye they are most widely developed4 ,there they are usually composed of pines1 with which1 however1 the swampy ground does not agree very well4 ,the alders and willows1 however1 grow all the better4 ,the second important formation of the forest region are the luhi4 ,they usually stretch thru the wide1 flat river valleys of the region4 ,these are luxurious meadows with a beautiful growth of grass and herbs set with single trees and clusters of trees4 ,in dry places the oak usually grows1 in damp places the alder4 ,the third typical plant formation is that of the swamps4 ,they are widely developed in the forest region of the ,ukraine1 especially in the flat river valleys of the ,rostoche and ,volhynia4 ,polissye is the greatest swamp country in ,europe4 ,regular moors1 made up of peat mosses1 alternate even in the ,polissye region with meadow moors1 in which swamp grass and herb vegetation predominates4 ,the forest region has played a significant part in the history of the ,ukraine4 ,when the ,turkish nomad tribes1 using the steppe district of the ,ukraine as a convenient military road1 destroyed the work of ,ukrainian civilization in the steppe region1 the ,ukrainian people retreated into the forests and swamps of the north and west1 advancing toward the southeast again1 at the proper moment1 to reinhabit the ravaged and desolated lands4 ,this circle of events repeated itself frequently in the history of the ,ukraine4 ,today the woods of the ,ukraine forest region are greatly thinned1 so that they take up more than one-third of the total surface only in the ,polissye4 ,cutting down and rooting up of the woods some centuries ago was1 without a doubt1 an important part of the work of civilization4 ,but now things are different4 ,now the forest is considered a very important part of a well organized cultural section1 and is1 therefore1 carefully preserved in the truly civilized lands of ,europe4 ,in the beautiful forests of the ,ukraine1 however1 a reckless exploitation is going on1 and the evil results are already apparent1 especially in the sparsely wooded borders of the forest region1 as well as in the entire country surrounding the steppe4 ,the rivers have become small in volume of water1 the sources dried up1 and the ravines annually transform thousands of hectares into desert land4 ,and this is happening in the granary of ,europe1 which some #cjj years ago made foreign travelers marvel at its incredible fertility4 ,all the rest of the ,ukraine1 as far as the foothills of the ,yaila and the ,caucasus1 is occupied by the steppe region4 ,the limits of this region1 as we have said1 are not distinct4 ,in peninsula and island formations the forest penetrates toward the southeast4 ,in this direction the forest islands become constantly rarer and smaller1 so that the ,russian plant-geographers have felt called upon to insert two transition zones between the real forest and the real steppe--the zone of the exterior steppe and the zone of the transitional steppe4 ,the actual steppe region is supposed to begin at the line which extends thru ,kishinev and ,katerinoslav to the bend of the ,don4 ,this division may be criticized1 however1 since it at most1 fits present conditions brought about in the last #bjj years by the destruction of forests on the part of men4 ,the historical sources of the ,ukraine tell of large woodlands1 which1 in the #afth1 #agth and #ahth ,centuries1 still extended along the sources of the ,inhul and ,inhuletz1 along the ,tasmin1 on the river divides between the left-hand tributaries of the ,dnieper1 etc4 ,they were not forest terraces1 not mere strips of woods confined to river valleys2 they covered the divides far and wide1 as well as the broad tableau sheds lying between rivers4 ,for this reason care must be taken in sketching the boundaries of the steppe4 ,we therefore comprehend both the above mentioned transition zones into one1 for which we would suggest the name luhi zone1 because the luh1 a meadow studded with scattered groups of trees and little groves1 must have been the predominating plant formation of this transition country4 ,the typical soil of the transition country1 as well as of the steppe region1 is the black earth 7,ukr4 chornozem1 ,russ4 chernozyom74 ,every ,ukrainian is familiar with this blackish1 ever fertile soil1 which cannot be duplicated the world over and which makes the ,ukraine the granary of ,russia4 ,the black earth is a product of the transformation of loess1 with a strong admixture of the products of decomposition of plants4 ,in places it attains a depth of #b m4 and over4 ,the black-earth region extends longitudinally thru the ,ukraine1 embracing over three-fourths of its territory4 ,the northern boundary of the black-earth region passes from ,lemberg along the north border of the ,podolian and ,dnieper ,plateau as far as ,kiev1 and then northeast to the bend of the ,aka1 south of ,kaluga4 ,the southern boundary describes a line drawn thru the ,boh and ,dnieper deltas to their limans and the city of ,mariupol4 ,the entire ,kuban plain and the plateau of ,stavropol also belong to the region of black earth4 ,along the northern border of the black-earth region extends a transition zone of about #ajj kilometers width1 whose black earth contains #d to #f decaying plant matter4 ,south of this lies the wide main area of the black earth with #f to #aj decaying matter4 ,on the sea and along the lower ,dnieper the region ends with another transition zone1 whose brownish black earth contains #d to #f of decaying matter4 ,on the ,sea of ,azof and in ,southern ,crimea the brown dry steppe soil1 with numerous islands of saline soil 7solonchaki7 and a peculiar vegetation1 inclined to absorb salt1 prevails4 ,these are present also in the remaining black earth region1 and there are also islands and strips of saline earth along the rivers and the seashore4 ,in the steppe region1 the steppe is not the only plant formation4 ,above all we must differentiate between the meadow-steppe of the transition zone and the real steppe of the south1 as well as the desert steppe in some districts of ,crimea and the ,caucasus4 ,besides this shrub formation1 meadow-woods 7luhi7 and real forests are found in the steppe region4 ,in the vegetation of the meadow-steppe1 grasses and herbs take the first place4 ,of the grasses the stippa species are the most characteristic 7tirsa1 kovil72 of the herbs1 the lily-like growths4 ,the growth of grass in the northern part of the steppe region is very luxuriant and thick1 and attains great heights1 altho the times in which a rider and his horse might disappear in the grass belong to the past4 ,high weeds and thistles 7buriani1 bodiaki7 form thickets of great luxuriance4 ,in the spring1 when the fresh young grass begins to sprout up and the blossoming herbs convert the steppe into a carpet of flowers1 when everything is resplendent with the fulness of life and beauty1 then the ,ukrainian steppe presents a wonderful picture4 ,but this picture is not lasting4 ,the heat and the drought transform the fresh1 green1 primitive color into yellow and brown4 ,grasses and herbs wither and die away1 and only the roots and seeds preserve the living power of the plant1 surviving the autumnal drought and the severe cold of winter1 once more to wrap the steppe in its bridal gown in the spring4 ,in the southern part of the steppe region the plant covering is not so luxurious as in the north1 and the grasses and herbs grow in isolated little bushes1 between which the bare ground of the steppe remains visible4 ,the saline earth appears much oftener1 with its gray-green vegetation of salt plants1 and we often find sand areas1 which begin to suggest the desert steppes of the ,caspian steppe country4 ,a characteristic plant formation in the entire steppe region is comprised by the bushes 7bairaki1 chahari71 which generally consist of heavily tangled thickets of wild cherry 7prunus chamaecerasus1 vishennik71 spiral 7tavolha71 snowball 7calina71 almond shrub 7amygdalus nana1 bobovnik71 etc4 ,they generally grow in the steppe balkas1 or near them1 and cover extended areas4 ,the ,ukrainian steppe1 despite contrary current opinion1 does not lack tree growth4 ,in the region of the real steppe1 to be sure1 we meet only forest terraces1 which extend along the river courses1 but in the transition zone we still find woods and groves1 which not only appear in river valleys1 but also cover the plateaus between these4 ,the oak1 the white beech1 the maple1 the poplar1 the wild apple and pear trees1 are the chief representatives of the tree species of the woods of this section4 ,even the pine ventures as far as the district of ,kharkiv4 ,besides the forest terraces1 the rivers of the steppe region are accompanied by the formation of the so-called plavni4 ,they are thickets of sedge and reeds1 with luxuriant willow and alder growth2 in drier places1 which are flooded only during high-water time1 real oak forests are added4 ,with pleasure the eye of the traveler1 wearied by the uniformity of the steppe1 rests upon them4 ,as to the origin of the steppes of the ,ukraine1 scholars differ4 ,every one of them thinks he has found the only correct explanation4 ,in reality1 the origin and preservation of the ,ukrainian steppes can be traced to the combined action of various causes4 ,in the first place there is the continental dry climate4 ,the amount of rainfall is too slight for the development of forest-flora2 the drought of the summer and fall too long4 ,a minor cause is the salt content of the steppe-soil1 which1 however1 is apparent only in places4 ,on the other hand1 the shape of the ground is very important4 ,where the land is level1 where the dry steppe winds have free play and the rainwater cannot easily dissolve and wash away the salt of the soil1 the steppe prevails4 ,where the land is cut by river valleys and balkas1 however1 there is more shelter from wind1 more moisture1 and no salt in the soil1 so that conditions are given which are favorable for the development of tree vegetation4 ,for this reason not only the valleys of the rivers1 but also the balkas1 which but seldom carry water1 have always had tree growth1 and even woods and groves4 ,the trees which are planted there thrive very well1 while attempts at cultivation in the real level steppe almost regularly fail4 ,the most important foundation for the existence of steppes1 however1 is their character as remains of the old post-glacial steppe formation4 ,since the beginnings of the alluvial epoch1 its territory is being won by the forest1 which is constantly pushing forward toward the south and southeast1 using the river valleys as the main lines of advance4 ,in this advance toward the south1 the forest has now been stopped by man before it was able to reach the shore of the ,black ,sea and the ,sea of ,azof4 ,man has wrought many changes in the steppe region4 ,in the first place he has entered into the struggle between the woods and the steppe in opposition to the woods4 ,the ancient ,ukrainians of the ,kiev state rooted out great areas of forest and reclaimed them for civilization4 ,on the other hand1 the nomad tribes1 roaming the steppes ever since man can remember1 repeatedly destroyed forests with fire1 in order to obtain good pasture for their herds and to break down the best defense of the agricultural ,ukrainian population4 ,in the #afth ,century began the deforestation of the transition zone thru the progressing colonization movement of the ,ukrainians1 under the protection of the ,cossack organization4 ,but even in the #ahth ,century there were still great forests in the transition zone1 which have since entirely disappeared4 ,the intensive colonization movement of the #aith ,century put an end to them4 ,at the same time the hand of man attacked the steppe formation4 ,today only very small parcels of steppe are in their original condition4 ,the steppe grasses have yielded place to an increasingly intensive cultivation of grain grasses2 the place of the natural steppe has been usurped by the cultivated steppe1 with its waving fields of grain and inevitable dreary stubble fields4 ,with the progressive destruction of forests this cultivated steppe of man's fields constantly moves toward the north and west of the ,ukraine1 favoring the accompanying migration of the steppe-plants and steppe animals into ,central ,europe4 ,entirely independent is the position of the ,ukrainian flora in the southern slope of the ,yaila and the ,caucasus4 ,they belong really to the ,mediterranean ,sea region4 ,the mild climate here has matured a flora of an entirely southern type1 with many evergreen trees and shrubs peculiar to the ,mediterranean region4 ,yet the vegetation of this district can only be considered as the advance guard of the real ,mediterranean vegetation1 for the representatives of the northern flora by far predominate over the southern species of plants1 particularly in the forests which develop in higher altitudes4 ,besides the just discussed plant-geographical regions and zones of the plain1 the ,ukraine has three mountain regions--the ,carpathian1 the ,crimean and the ,caucasian4 ,the foot of the ,carpathians is covered by mixed and leafy forests4 ,white beech1 birch1 linden1 aspen and pine comprise these forests4 ,at one time the oak predominated here1 as it still does on the southern slope of the mountain range4 ,on higher ridges of the ,low and ,high ,beskid1 mixed forests of beech and fir are found4 ,at the upper tree limit of the ,high ,beskid the beech appears almost exclusively in forest formation4 ,the trees become constantly smaller and more gnarled1 and at a height of #ajjj m4 we meet only beech brush4 ,on the southern side of the mountain range pure beech woods prevail4 ,in the ,gorgani we soon distinguish two forest zones4 ,the lower one has principally beech woods1 with an admixture of firs and maples2 the upper one consists almost entirely of fir woods4 ,their upper limit usually lies at a height of from #aejj to #afjj m41 but the zekoti 7seas of sandstone boulders71 which cover all the higher peaks and ridges1 reduce the upper tree limit a great deal in some places4 ,in the ,chornohory1 a similar division of the forest zone prevails4 ,oak forests1 with thick underbrush1 cover the foot of the range on both slopes4 ,above the oak woods lies the zone of mixed forests1 in which white and red beech1 birch1 ash1 maple and firs predominate4 ,above the height of #acjj m4 lies the upper tree zone1 which is made up of stocks of fir entirely4 ,the upper tree limit lies at a height of #agjj m4 ,the milder climate of the ,chornohory matures a much more luxurious and a richer vegetation than in other parts of the ,ukrainian ,carpathians4 ,in the forest zones of the ,carpathians1 great complex primeval forests have survived to a great extent4 ,they lie in inaccessible places1 which the bandit axe of the professional forest destroyer has not yet penetrated4 ,the ,carpathian virgin forest is1 perhaps1 the most beautiful plant formation of the ,ukraine4 ,giant firs1 as much as #fj m4 in height and six feet thick1 raise their dark green slender pyramids above rocky slopes and immense wind-fallen woods1 in which the modern firs lie in piles4 ,thick shrubbery covers the clearings1 while in the eternal semi-darkness of the thickets1 on rocky ground covered with needles1 just an occasional pillow of moss may be found4 ,a second plant-formation of the ,carpathians is that of the dwarf-shrubs4 ,they develop above the forest limit and cover wide areas in the ,gorgani and ,chornohori4 ,mountain fir 7zerep71 accompanied by juniper 7in the ,beskyds and ,gorgani7 and by dwarf-alder bushes 7lelich1 in the ,chornohory71 in thickets which are impassible in places4 ,the formerly widely distributed stone pine has become rare1 since its fragrant wood is preferred by the mountain-dwellers for all sorts of woodwork4 ,the third plant formation of the ,carpathians are their mountain meadows 7polonini74 ,they lie above the forest limit and begin to appear at the source of the ,san4 ,toward the southeast they become constantly more luxuriant and more frequent4 ,the grass and herb growth of the polonini is very varied and rich1 especially in the so-called zarinki1 that is1 parts of the mountain meadows where hay is made4 ,the polonini are of great importance to the inhabitants of the mountains4 ,great herds of horses1 cattle and sheep remain here all summer4 ,the polonini are peopled1 and a life of great privation--a hard life but free--develops in primitive dairy huts1 with never dying camp-fires4 ,in the mountains of ,crimea we find1 in the main1 the same arrangement of plant zones4 ,at some height above sea-level the forest zone begins4 ,white and red beech1 oak1 and two species of pine appear here in forests4 ,only on the broad peak surfaces we find poor mountain meadows with thick but short grasses4 ,the name of these mountain pastures 7yaila7 has been transferred to the entire mountain chain4 ,in the ,caucasus we find1 within ,ukrainian territory1 only the forest zone of this mountain system4 ,the forests often attain a height of #bejj m41 and consist of various kinds of oak1 beech1 elms1 linden1 maple and ash4 ,above the forest limit we meet with a low shrub formation and the beautiful1 wonderfully rich grass and herb growth which cover the mountain meadows of the ,caucasus1 rising1 at a height of #bijj-cejj m41 to the snow border4 ,the animal-geographical conditions of the ,ukraine are much simpler than the plant-geographical4 ,the ,ukraine1 like the rest of ,europe1 belongs to the holarctic region1 and despite the extent of the land1 only slight differences in the fauna are found1 these being due to the floral and morphological differences of the mountains1 forests and steppes of the ,ukraine4 ,since the ice age1 the animal world of the ,ukraine has experienced no lesser changes than the plant world4 ,in the ice period many mighty beasts of prey 7cave bear1 cave lion1 cave hyena1 etc47 lived here1 besides thick-skinned animals 7mammoth1 rhinoceros71 together with the ancestors of the present animal world and various polar forms4 ,all these animals are either altogether extinct1 or they followed the receding glacier to the north4 ,on the other hand1 together with the post glacial steppe1 a steppe-fauna spread out from south and east1 which then gradually had to make way for the forest fauna advancing southward with the forests4 ,from this time on1 the ,ukrainian fauna suffered only very slight natural changes4 ,on the other hand1 the artificial changes produced by the hand of man have been all the greater4 ,many species which were dangerous as beasts of prey or useful for food or skins1 have either been entirely exterminated by man or greatly limited in their spread4 ,in destroying the forests and putting cultivated steppes and fields in their place1 he has1 to a great extent1 beaten the way to the heart of ,central ,europe for the animals of the steppe4 ,but his activity has been rather to exterminate than to change1 and he has destroyed the once wonderful animal life of the ,ukraine4 ,of the higher animal life of the ,ukraine on the middle and lower ,dnieper1 we are told1 in a historical source1 almost incredible facts prevailing about the middle of the #afth ,century4 8,the ,ukraine is so rich in game that bisons1 wild horses and deer are hunted merely for the sake of their skins4 ,of their meat only the choicest cuts of chine and loin are used1 all other parts thrown away4 ,hinds and young boars are not hunted at all4 ,roes and wild boars wander in great herds from the steppes into the woods in winter1 returning to the steppes in summer4 ,during this season they are killed by the thousands4 ,on all the rivers1 streamlets1 brooks1 live innumerable beaver colonies4 ,the bird world is so remarkably rich that enormous quantities of wild goose1 wild duck1 crane and swan eggs and young ones are gathered4 ,in the rivers1 such great shoals of fish swarm in the spring that the fishing spear thrown in stands upright40 ,another chronicler1 of the #agth ,century1 tells that he was present when a single throw of the net at the mouth of the ,orel brought #bjjj fish to light1 of which the smallest was one foot long4 ,of the cat family1 the lynx and the wildcat have become very rare and are met with only in the ,carpathians and the ,caucasus2 the lynx also in the ,polissye country4 ,the bear1 formerly very frequent thruout the ,ukraine1 is now also confined to these three regions4 ,on the other hand1 wolves1 foxes1 badgers1 martens1 polecats and all sorts of small animals of prey have survived1 altho in very much smaller numbers4 ,of the large plant-eating animals the bison 7thanks only to the unusual care on the part of the government7 has survived in the primeval forest of ,biloveza1 the moose-deer only in the ,polissye1 the stag only in the ,carpathians and the ,caucasus4 ,on the other hand1 there are still a great many roes and wild boars in the woods4 ,of the rodents the hare is still common everywhere1 while the beaver1 which at one time inhabited all the rivers of the ,ukraine1 is now confined to the most inaccessible swamps of the ,polissye and the ,caucasian tributaries of the ,kuban4 ,the bird kingdom1 too1 has become much poorer in species4 ,large birds of prey1 like eagles and hawks1 nest only in the ,carpathians and in the ,caucasus--very seldom in the woods of the plain4 ,the heath fowl and grouse seek the most inaccessible thickets1 and even the number of small insect and grain-feeders has been greatly reduced4 ,of the waterfowl1 wild ducks1 wild geese1 coot1 diving birds1 etc41 are still very numerous4 ,cranes and herons are rare4 ,the former wealth of fish is ruined and no one takes care of the artificial raising of fish4 ,to be sure1 much fish is still caught1 especially in the ,dnieper and ,don systems1 mainly pike1 tench1 carp1 crucian1 shad1 etc41 and trout in the mountain streams2 but of the abundance of even the comparatively recent past1 there is no trace4 ,sturgeon1 sterlet and other sea fish1 which formerly came in great swarms up the ,dniester1 ,boh and ,dnieper1 are only seldom found today4 ,the steppe region has lost even more of its animal wealth4 ,above all1 the rich higher animal life of the transition zones1 which as late as the #ahth ,century provided food for the populous ,zaporog ,sich1 has quite disappeared4 ,the tarpani 7wild horses71 which still inhabited the steppe in great herds in the #agth ,century1 are now completely exterminated4 ,saiga antelopes 7saihaki71 once generally distributed thruout the steppe region of the ,ukraine1 have retreated to the ,caspian steppe4 ,the smaller game and the bird world have suffered far less1 but the activity of man1 who has changed the steppes into fields and pastures1 has been fatal to them too4 ,the bustard1 sandpiper1 partridge and grouse1 which formerly inhabited the steppe brush in great numbers have become rare4 ,the same may be said of the bird-world of the watercourses and swamps which once inhabited the river districts of the steppe in immense swarms4 ,the insectivorous birds1 too1 have decreased1 and the harmful insects are increasing at a terrible rate4 ,only the locust pest1 which formerly caused great damage in agriculture1 is now almost gone4 ,but1 in spite of the war of extermination which man is waging against the animal world of the steppe1 animal species are found which were well able to adapt themselves to the new circumstances1 have become accustomed to man and have found plenty of food in the fields of the cultivated steppe 7field-mice1 marmot1 ground squirrels1 etc474 ,they have increased greatly and have migrated toward the west and north1 causing great damage to farming4 ,as we must dispense with a scientific discussion of the flora and fauna of the ,ukraine1 we shall only report a few essential facts about the useful plants and domestic animals4 ,the ,ukraine1 according to its soil and its climate1 is the richest grain country of ,europe4 ,for wheat the conditions in the ,ukraine are the most favorable1 especially in the southern half of the black-earth region4 ,rye is raised more widely in the north and northwest2 barley everywhere1 but on a large scale only in the south2 oats in the north and in the ,carpathians1 where it is often used to make bread4 ,buckwheat is distributed chiefly on the northern edge of the black-earth region2 millet thrives well in the entire ,chornozyom region4 ,corn is raised on a large scale only in the southwest and in the sub-,caucasus country4 ,of pod plants1 peas and beans are especially imported2 they are raised not only in vegetable gardens but also in fields4 ,of the tuberous plants1 the potato is generally distributed only in the western part of the ,ukraine and increases in importance but slowly in the rest of the country4 ,sugar beets are cultivated on great areas of the ,volhynian1 ,podolian and ,dnieper ,plateaus4 ,vegetable culture embraces all the vegetables of ,central ,europe1 but is not especially developed4 ,on the other hand1 water melons1 cantaloupe1 cucumbers 7particularly in the ,southern ,ukraine7 are raised in special plantations 7bashtani74 ,hemp1 flax1 rape-seed1 sunflower1 are generally distributed1 and poppy is cultivated not only in gardens but also in fields4 ,tobacco culture is very important in the ,ukraine1 particularly in the ,dnieper ,plain4 ,thanks to the warm summer and fall1 the ,ukrainian climate is well fitted for fruit culture4 ,the orchard is a necessity to the ,ukrainian farmer and is planted and cared for even under difficult conditions4 ,fruit culture flourishes particularly in ,pokutye1 ,podolia 7where the more tender species of apple and pear1 as well as apricots1 thrive in the ,dniester valley71 in ,bessarabia1 in ,crimea and the sub-,caucasus country1 where even peaches and grapes are added4 ,the northern limit of the vine extends along the ,dniester1 then thru ,kamenetz and ,katerinoslav to the bend of the ,don4 ,wine-culture has its main regions in ,bessarabia1 in ,crimea and in the sub-,caucasus country1 altho ,south ,podolia and the ,dnieper valley in the old ,zaporog country do not lack vineyards4 ,the domestic animals are the same in the ,ukraine as in ,central ,europe4 ,only in the extreme south camels and buffaloes are added4 ,the horned cattle belong chiefly to the so-called ,ukrainian breed1 which is distinguished by its gray color and its size1 and is bony and strong-limbed4 ,it is very well fitted for work and is rich in milk4 ,on the southwest borders of the ,ukraine the ,hungarian great-horned breed is widely distributed4 ,in recent times the pure ,holland1 ,tirol and ,swiss breeds are continually spreading4 ,the horses of the ,ukraine belong to various mixed breeds4 ,the most beautiful breed of horses1 the ,ukrainian1 has been raised by the ,zaporog ,cossacks4 ,it is of medium size1 very strong and fleet1 very enduring and useful for any sort of work4 ,the ,chornomoric variety is now being raised by the ,kuban ,cossacks and is rightfully famed thruout ,eastern ,europe for its high qualities4 ,very efficient1 too1 is the ,hutzulian breed of mountain horses1 small of stature but very strong1 unsurpassed for mountain roads and foot-ways4 ,the peasant horses of ,galicia1 ,volhynia1 etc41 are1 despite their unseemly outward appearance1 really created for the rough roads of their land4 ,donkeys and mules are rarities in the ,ukraine1 also very few goats are kept4 ,in sheep1 however1 the ,ukraine is the richest country in ,europe4 ,not only native breeds 7among them the justly famous reshetilivka1 as it is called71 but also foreign merino sheep are raised1 especially in the steppes of the ,ukraine4 ,hog raising is very highly developed4 ,usually ,polish hogs are raised in ,western ,ukraine1 ,russian short-eared hogs in the eastern part1 and in ,southern ,ukraine1 southern crinkled hogs4 ,in barnyard fowl the ,ukraine is the richest land in ,eastern ,europe4 ,also bee culture is very important1 especially in the ,dnieper ,plain4 ,silkworm culture1 however1 is not very important1 altho the mulberry trees find favorable climatic conditions thruout the ,ukraine4 ,,book ,,ii ,,anthropogeography ,,ethnographic ,,boundaries ,,of ,,ukraine ,,number ,,and ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,ukrainians ,to give the ethnographic boundaries of a ,western or ,central ,european nation is very easy1 for they have long since been determined and investigated1 and it would be hard to find anyone who might try to efface or disregard them1 least of all to falsify them4 ,but with the ,ukrainians it is quite different4 ,they possess neither political independence1 as for example1 the ,germans1 ,french1 ,italians1 etc41 nor political influence1 as for instance1 the ,poles and ,czechs in ,austria4 ,the ,ukrainians inhabit parts of two states1 ,austria-,hungary and ,russia1 and have some political significance in the former1 while in the latter they are not even recognized as a racial entity4 ,accordingly1 the real boundaries of the ,national territory of the ,ukraine are insufficiently known4 ,they are best known within ,austrian territory1 altho the statistics1 especially those of ,galicia1 are very poor4 ,even less exact in respect to the distribution of the ,ukrainians are the ,hungarian statistics4 ,in ,russia the condition is worst of all4 ,the first real census here was taken on ,january #bh1 #ahig4 ,all earlier calculations and estimates are of very questionable worth4 ,for instance1 all the ,pinchuks1 the ,ukrainian inhabitants of the ,polissye1 have been erroneously counted with the ,white ,russians1 the ,ukrainians in the vicinity of ,mhilin and ,starodub with the ,great ,russians4 ,besides1 very many ,ukrainians were registered under the general heading of 8,russians40 ,for this reason1 it is impossible at the present time to give the boundaries of the ,ukrainian racial territory as exactly as those of the ,western and ,central ,european countries4 ,the boundaries here given1 however1 are drawn from official statistical sources1 and only very conspicuous and generally acknowledged errors have been corrected4 ,the western boundary of the compact ,ukrainian national territory begins on the shores of the ,black ,sea at the delta of the ,danube1 where part of the descendants of the ,zaporogs are still devoted to their traditional vocation of fishing4 ,here the neighbors of the ,ukrainians are the ,roumanians and ,bulgarians4 ,the ,ukrainian-,roumanian boundary line then goes thru ,bessarabia1 ,bukowina1 and ,northeastern ,hungary4 ,in ,bessarabia the border passes thru ,ismail1 ,bilhorod1 the mouth of the ,dniester at its liman1 then up the ,dniester to ,dubosari1 running in adventurous windings past ,orhiev and ,bilzi until it reaches the ,prut-,dniester divide1 and leaving this province near ,novoselitza4 ,innumerable ethnographic islands lie on both sides of this boundary2 ,roumanians on ,ukrainian territory and ,ukrainians on ,roumanian territory4 ,only within the past centuries has the land been settled more thickly and the main body of ,roumanians has been so dotted with this medley of races as to form a veritable ethnographic mosaic4 ,in the ,bukowina1 the boundary of the ,ukrainian territory1 running along the national border at first1 reaches the cities of ,sereth and ,radivtzi4 ,then it turns with a sharp bend to ,chernivtzi and passes in a wide curve toward the southwest and west1 thru ,storozhinetz1 ,vikiv1 ,moldavitsia and ,kirlibaba to the ,white ,cheremosh1 where it extends over into ,hungary4 ,in the ,bukowina1 too1 the ethnographic boundary of the ,ukrainians is not of great antiquity 7the ,cheremosh region excluded74 ,the boundary is all the older in ,hungary1 for the ,ukrainian people have had a place here since the early middle ages4 ,this boundary extends along the ,visheva1 and then the ,tissa1 past ,sihot to ,vishkiv4 ,at this place the border crosses to the left bank of the river and1 passing along the ,gutin ,mountain ,ridge1 reaches the river ,tur near ,polad4 ,here the ,roumanian-,ukrainian boundary ends and the neighboring country of the ,magyars begins4 ,the boundary of ,ukrainian territory here runs in a generally northeast direction1 touching ,uylak1 ,beregszasz1 ,mukachiv 7,munkacs71 ,uzhorod 7,unghvar71 ,bardiiv 7,bartfa71 ,sabiniv 7,kis ,szeben71 ,kesmark4 ,at ,lublau the boundary crosses the ,poprad ,river and reaches ,galicia4 ,between ,unghvar and ,bartfeld1 the ,slovaks become the neighbors of the ,ukrainians4 ,the boundary between ,slovaks and ,ukrainians is very indistinct1 and only the investigations of ,hnatik and ,tomashivsky have succeeded in determining it and in proving that thru the centuries the borders of ,ukrainian territory have been subject to comparatively slight changes4 ,in ,galicia1 the ,ukrainians are neighbors to the ,poles4 ,the ,polish rule of over #ejj years' duration1 has forced the ,ukrainian element eastward to a great extent into the hill country and the plain4 ,only in the mountains has the ,ukrainian element preserved itself and the ,ukrainian territory here forms a peninsula extending far to the west4 ,the ,ukrainian-,polish boundary in ,galicia begins at the village of ,shlakhtova1 west of the ,poprad ,pass1 and extends eastward1 touching the small towns of ,pivnichna1 ,hribov1 ,horlitzi1 ,zmigrod1 ,dukla1 ,rimanov1 ,zarshin1 as far as ,sianik1 whence it follows the general direction of the ,san as far as ,dubetzco4 ,here it turns toward the northeast1 reaches the ,san ,river again near ,radimno1 and runs along the left shore past ,yaroslav1 ,siniava1 ,lezaisk1 reaching ,russian-,poland at ,tarnogrod4 ,in ,russian ,poland1 the ,ukrainians inhabit the newly-created ,government of ,kholm1 and for five centuries they have had to ward off the eastward expansion of the ,poles4 ,nevertheless1 the ,polonizing of the country began to progress under ,russian rule1 as a result of the inconsiderate ,russification policy of the authorities and the sympathy of the ,ukrainian population with the ,greek-,catholic faith1 ruthlessly suppressed by the ,russians1 to which the ,ukrainians of the ,kholm country still belonged half a century ago1 a sympathy which is not yet extinct4 ,the boundary line between ,poles and ,ukrainians in the ,kholm country has1 on both sides1 a more or less wide zone of a mixed population and numerous ethnographic islands4 ,it passes thru ,tarnogrod1 ,bilhoray1 ,shteshebreshin1 ,zamostye1 ,krasnostav1 ,lubartiv1 ,radin1 ,lukiv1 ,sokoliv1 ,dorohichin and ,bilsk1 reaching the ,narev ,river in the ,government of ,grodno4 ,here the borders of the ,ukrainian and the ,polish national territory meet the ,white ,russian border and the northern border of the ,ukraine begins4 ,the ,ukrainian-,white ,russian boundary extends thru the ,governments of ,grodno and ,minsk1 at first along the ,narev ,river1 up to its source in the ,biloveza ,forest4 ,then the line passes ,pruzani over to the ,yassiolda ,river1 turning off near ,poriche toward the northeast and reaching the lake of ,vihonivske ,ozero4 ,from here it turns toward the southeast and reaches the ,pripet ,river at the mouth of the ,zna4 ,then this river forms the boundary up to where it joins with the ,dnieper4 ,only below ,mosir the ,white ,russians push forward in an obtuse salient to the right bank of the ,pripet4 ,it should be observed that the ,white ,russians along the boundary described form a transition in respect to language and ethnology between the real ,white ,russians and the real ,ukrainians1 who1 in this region1 are called ,pinchuki4 ,the transition zone is #cj to #ej kilometers in width4 ,the ,dnieper forms the boundary of the ,ukraine only along a short stretch in the ,government of ,chernihiv1 from the mouth of the ,pripet to the mouth of the ,sol near ,lov4 ,then the border runs northeast past ,novosibkiv1 ,nove misto and ,suraz1 as far as ,mhlin1 where the ,white ,russian country ceases and the ,russian begins4 ,to sketch accurately the boundary of the ,ukraine toward ,muscovy is not easy1 even tho there is by no means a gradual transition here1 as there is on the ,white ,russian border4 ,the boundary of the ,ukraine is even much more sharply defined here than in the region where it separates the ,ukrainians from the ,poles1 ,roumanians and ,magyars4 ,but it is hard to determine without detailed investigation on the spot1 for the official ,russian statistics have been compiled very much in favor of the ruling race4 ,in addition1 it must be observed that the districts along this border were not thickly settled until the #agth and #ahth ,centuries4 ,the settlers came from the ,ukraine on the one side and from ,muscovy on the other1 and established themselves in separate settlements4 ,to this day a purely ,ukrainian village or small town often borders on one made up entirely of ,russians1 and the number of ethnographic islands is rather large on both sides4 ,the boundary of the compact ,ukrainian territory in the ,governments of ,kursk and ,voronizh passes thru ,putivil1 ,rilsk1 ,sudza1 ,miropilia1 ,oboian1 the sources of the ,psiol1 and ,vorskla1 ,bilhorod1 ,korocha1 ,stari ,oskol1 ,novi ,oskol1 and ,biriuch1 and reaches the ,don ,river near ,ostrohosk4 ,the ,don forms a smaller part of the border of the ,ukraine than the ,dnieper4 ,the boundary line leaves the river at the mouth of the ,icorez1 cuts the ,bitiuh ,river and1 passing ,baturlinivka and ,novokhopersk1 reaches the ,khoper ,river in the country of the ,don ,cossacks4 ,here begins the eastern boundary of the ,ukrainian country4 ,it extends first along the ,khoper ,river southward1 crosses the ,don perpendicularly at the mouth of the ,khoper1 passes along the ,kalitva and the ,donetz1 crossing the ,don for the third time near ,novocherkask1 and1 pursuing a wide curve along the ,sal ,river1 reaches ,lake ,manich4 ,right opposite1 on the left bank of the ,don1 the ,ukrainians confront the ,kalmucks1 the advance guard of the sub-,caucasian and ,caucasian medley of races4 ,among these thinly scattered and culturally inferior tribes1 a strong flood of ,ukrainian and ,russian colonization has been pouring in the course of the past century4 ,the ,ukrainian element is gradually predominating in the entire region of ,ciscaucasia and is constantly pushing forward toward the east and southeast4 ,new islands of ,ukrainian-speaking people are forming and are growing constantly and uniting to form larger complexes4 ,from ,lake ,manich1 the border of the ,ukraine country runs southward thru the district of ,medveza of the ,government of ,stavropol1 as far as the sources of the great ,yahorlik4 ,then it turns eastward past ,stavropol1 ,alexandrivsk and ,novohrihoryvsk4 ,in a narrow strip the ,ukrainians here reach the ,caspian ,sea4 ,it was only suggested in the census of #ahig1 but proved beyond doubt by the reports of the new settlements of the ,ukrainian element in these regions1 that the ,ukrainian area here shows a great increase4 ,the southern boundary of the ,ukraine in the ,caucasian lands passes thru the ,terek1 ,kuban and ,black ,sea ,governments by way of ,nalchic1 ,piatihorsk1 ,labinsk and ,maikop1 reaching the shore of the ,black ,sea between ,tuapse and ,sochi4 ,in this region the ,ukrainians have as neighbors besides the ,russians1 the ,kalmucks1 ,kirgizians1 ,norgaians1 ,chechenians1 ,cabardines1 ,circassians1 ,abkhasians and ,caucasian ,tartars4 ,the further course of the southern border of the ,ukraine1 as far as the delta of the ,danube1 is indicated on the whole by the coasts of the ,black ,sea and the ,sea of ,azof4 ,only ,crimea has1 until recently1 remained outside the ethnographic confines of the ,ukraine4 ,to the extent that the ,crimean ,tartars have begun to emigrate to ,turkey1 however1 the ,ukrainian element has gained strength thru constant reinforcements from the ,central ,ukrainian districts1 so that today only the mountain region and the south coast of ,crimea are considered ,tartar country4 ,these boundaries enclose the compact country which is inhabited by the ,ukrainians4 ,this country includes ,north and ,west ,bukowina1 ,northeastern ,hungary1 ,east ,galicia and the southwestern part of ,west ,galicia1 the newly-created ,government of ,kholm 7the eastern districts of the ,governments of ,lublin and ,sidlez in ,russian ,poland71 the southern part of ,grodno and ,minsk1 all of ,volhynia1 ,podolia1 ,kiev and ,kherson1 besides the southeastern and northwestern districts of ,bessarabia4 ,to the left of the ,dnieper1 the borders of the ,ukraine include the ,governments of ,chernihiv1 ,poltava1 ,kharkiv1 ,katerinoslav1 ,tauria 7with the exception of the ,yaila7 and the entire ,kuban region1 the chains of high mountains excepted4 ,in addition1 the following belong to the territory of ,ukraine3 ,the southern third of the ,government of ,kursk1 the southern half of ,voroniz1 the western third of the ,don ,cossack country1 the southern half of ,stavropol1 the northern border of the ,terek region1 and1 finally1 the northwestern part of the ,government of the ,black ,sea4 ,for ,europe it is a very spacious territory1 being second in size only to the ,russian 7,muscovite7 national territory4 ,the area of the ,ukrainian national territory is #hej1jjj square kilometers1 of which only #ge1jjj square kilometers lie within the borders of the ,austro-,hungarian monarchy1 the remaining country of #gge1jjj square kilometers being subject to ,russian rule4 ,beyond this compact ,ukrainian national territory1 the ,ukrainians live in numerous great homogeneous patches1 scattered over wide areas of the ,old and ,new ,worlds4 ,in ,bessarabia we meet with a whole series of these ,ukrainian language areas or islands along the ,prut ,river and the ,russian-,roumanian boundary1 in the ,roumanian ,dobrudja1 and in the delta of the ,danube4 ,in the ,bukowina there are ,ukrainian language islands at ,suchava and ,kimpolung1 in ,hungary in the ,backza1 at ,nyregihatza1 ,nagi-,caroli1 ,gllnitz1 etc41 in the ,kholm country between ,lukov and ,zelekhov1 between ,sidletz and ,kaluszin1 and near ,sokolov4 ,along the ,white ,russian border1 where the transition is gradual1 no real language islands are found in the intervening zone before mentioned4 ,we find all the more of them in ,ukrainian-,russian borderlands1 where the two nationalities are very sharply separated and there are no transitions4 ,in the ,government of ,kursk we find a whole chain of well-defined ,ukrainian language islands in the midst of the ,russian territory2 at ,fatiez1 between ,dmitriev and ,oboian1 and also at the sources of the ,sem4 ,in the ,government of ,voroniz there are several language islands at ,siemlansk and ,borisoglebsk4 ,a few scattered ,ukrainian settlements extend to the district of ,tambov and ,yelez4 ,the ,don country1 for a long time practically closed to settlers because of its ,cossack organization1 was a valuable thoroughfare for the ,ukrainian colonization movement in its expansion in the central ,volga district4 ,here there lived 7#aiaj7 over #fjj1jjj ,ukrainians in the ,governments of ,saratov1 ,samara and ,astrakhan4 ,here lie1 in closest proximity to numerous ,german colonies1 great ,ukrainian language islands1 near ,balashov1 ,atkarsk1 ,balanda1 on the ,eman and ,medveditza1 at ,nikolaievsk1 ,khvalinsk1 ,samara and ,boguruslan4 ,from ,khvalinsk on1 the ,ukrainian colonies on the left bank of the ,volga take up as much space as the ,russian4 ,we find the ,ukrainian colonies here opposite ,saratov1 ,kamishin1 ,dubivka1 ,chorni ,yar1 and at ,zarev4 ,besides these there are1 at a greater distance from the ,volga1 ,ukrainian language islands in the country around the source of the ,yeruslan and the ,great ,usen1 on ,lakes ,elton and ,baskunchak1 on the ,ilovla and the ,yergeni hills4 ,in the ,orenburg ,government1 on the ,ural ,river1 more than #ej1jjj ,ukrainian colonists now dwell4 ,in general1 the ,ukrainians in the year of #ahig comprised #ac of the population of the ,government of ,astrakhan 7,district of ,zarev #ch1 ,chornoyar #dc71 more than #g in the ,government of ,saratov1 nearly #e in ,samara4 ,at present1 considering the active ,ukrainian colonization of the past decades1 these percentages must be much greater4 ,in the ,caucasus lands we likewise find a goodly number of ,ukrainian ,colonies4 ,according to the results of the census of #ahig the ,ukrainians comprised #ag to #ai of the 8,russian0 population in the ,governments of ,erivan1 ,kutais1 ,daghestan and ,kars1 #g1e in ,tiflis and #e in ,yelisavetpol and in ,baku each4 ,thru the ,volga and ,caucasus lands1 the tide of ,ukrainian emigrants reached ,russian ,central ,asia4 ,the establishment of ,ukrainian settlements in this region only began toward the end of the past century and has continued to this day4 ,in the year #ahig the ,ukrainians already comprised #bi of the 8,russian0 population in the province of ,sir ,daria and #bc in the province of ,akmolinsk4 ,in the ,provinces of ,transkaspia1 ,siemiriechensk1 ,turgai1 ,samarkand and ,ferghana1 the ,ukrainians comprised #aj to #bj of the 8,russian0 population2 in the ,province of ,siemipalatinsk1 #e4 ,but ,ukrainian colonization in ,siberia appears on the largest scale of all4 ,in a long line of thousands of kilometers1 ,ukrainian language islands and detached colonies stretch along the southern border of this land of tomorrow4 ,the highest percentages of ,ukrainians are found among the 8,russian0 population of the coast province near ,vladivostok 7over #bi7 and the ,province of ,amur 7over #bj71 the greatest absolute numbers in the southern districts of the ,governments of ,tomsk1 ,tobolsk and ,yeniseysk4 ,besides these colonies and language islands in ,eurasia1 we find settlements of considerable size in ,america4 ,more than half a million ,ukrainians are scattered in small groups over the spacious area of the ,united ,states4 ,they are1 for the most part1 mine and factory workers1 who usually return1 with the earnings they have saved1 to their fatherland4 ,pennsylvania is especially rich in ,ukrainian emigrants1 who sometimes take root here1 but usually lose their nationality in the second generation4 ,agricultural colonies have been established by the ,ukrainians in ,canada4 ,here we find ,ukrainian language islands of some size in ,manitoba1 ,saskatchewan and ,alberta1 and smaller groups of settlements in ,ontario1 ,quebec and ,british ,columbia4 ,the number of the ,ukrainians in ,canada exceeds #bjj1jjj1 and the steady character and compactness of the settlements preserve the ,ukrainian element from rapid denationalization4 ,the same kind of agricultural colonies have been established by the ,ukrainian peasants in ,brazil4 ,they are located chiefly in the ,state of ,parana1 also in detached groups in ,rio ,grande do ,sul1 ,santa ,catarina and ,so ,paulo1 as well as in the adjacent lands of ,argentina4 ,these rapidly increasing settlers1 about #fj1jjj in number1 form an important cultural element here among the indolent ,luso-,brazilians4 ,but we do not desire1 in this small work1 to write a geography of the ,ukrainian colonies4 ,all are branches severed from the mother-tree1 which1 considering the low grade of culture of the settlers1 must sooner or later be assimilated by the foreign race4 ,only the ,asiatic colonies have some 7though rather slight7 prospects of preserving their national individuality into the remote future4 ,the constant addition of new arrivals from the home country1 as well as the higher culture of the ,ukrainian people as opposed to the ,russian masses1 will preserve the ,ukrainian colonists in ,asia from rapid denationalization4 ,what is the total number of ,ukrainians1 and how many of them live in the compact ,ukrainian national territory8 ,the answer to this question is not easy--for the same reasons which do not permit us to draw accurately the boundaries of the ,ukrainian country4 ,the political subjugation of the ,ukraine on the one hand1 and the size of the nation and its territory on the other1 cause the ruling governments to falsify the statistics1 thus concealing the true state of affairs4 ,to a great extent1 also1 the ignorance of the organs performing the census bear the blame for the unreliability of the statistics collected in ,ukrainian territory4 ,the ,ukrainians are either simply registered as members of another 7usually the ruling7 nationality1 or forced1 by various means1 to deny their inherited nationality4 ,in ,hungary entire villages are sometimes set down as ,magyar1 ,slovak or ,roumanian1 altho their population is wholly1 or for the most part1 ,ukrainian4 ,in the ,bukowina1 too1 a great many ,ukrainians are registered as ,roumanians4 ,in ,galicia1 all ,roman-,catholic ,ukrainians are regularly entered as ,poles1 altho1 as a rule1 they have not even a mastery of the ,polish language4 ,nevertheless1 the ,austro-,hungarian statistics allow the possibility of determining very closely the true condition4 ,the ,russian census of #ahig1 which gives us the sole materials for statistics on a racial basis in the ,ukraine1 was carried out greatly to the disadvantage of the ,ukrainian element4 ,in the cities1 only the smallest minority of the ,ukrainians are registered as such1 all the rest being counted as ,russians4 ,the same has been the case in all the ,ukrainian colonies and language islands scattered thru the great space of the gigantic ,russian ,empire4 ,even so1 we are omitting from consideration those ,ukrainians who1 because of lack of national consciousness or for fear of persecution1 have denied their nationality4 ,despite all these shortcomings of the official statistics1 we shall make their statements the basis of our calculations4 ,only the most marked falsifications or errors can be considered and corrected4 ,as the basis of our calculations1 we shall take the figures of the census in ,austria and ,hungary of the year #aiaj1 as well as the ,russian calculations of the same year4 ,as the latter lack any statement as to the relative proportions or percentages of the nationalities1 we must apply the percentages of the enumeration of #ahig to the totals of #aiaj4 ,this process1 of course1 gives us only approximate values1 but it is the only available method4 ,we shall begin our statistical view of the ,ukrainian lands with ,northeastern ,hungary4 ,here the ,ukrainians inhabit a compact territory of over #ad1jjj square kilometers4 ,the greatest part of it lies in the ,carpathian ,mountains and includes the northern three-quarters of the ,county of ,marmarosh1 the northeastern half of the ,county of ,ungh1 the northern borderlands of the ,counties of ,semplen and ,sharosh1 and the northeastern borderlands of the ,county of ,zips4 ,the total number of ,ukrainians in ,hungary was #dgj1jjj in #aiaj1 a number which1 because of the insufficient ,hungarian statistics1 may be confidently raised to a half a million1 if we consider the fact that even the doctored ,greek-,catholic figures of the eighties gave approximately the latter number4 ,the percentages of the ,ukrainians in different counties1 according to official reckoning1 are as follows3 ,in ,marmorosh #df1 ,uhocha #ci1 ,bereg #df1 ,ungh #cf1 ,sharosh #bj1 ,semplen #aa1 ,zips #h4 ,in the east the ,roumanians form small scattered language islands1 in the west the ,slovaks4 ,amid the ,ukrainian population1 scattered1 but in considerable numbers1 live ,jews2 in the cities1 ,magyars and ,germans besides4 ,the ,ukrainians inhabit all the mountainous1 sparsely settled parts of the counties1 hence the percentage of them is small1 despite the extent of the country they inhabit4 ,the ,ukrainian people in ,upper ,hungary consist almost exclusively of peasants and petty bourgeois4 ,the lack of national schools causes illiteracy to grow rampant4 ,the upper strata of the people are three-fourths denationalized2 the common people are stifled in ignorance1 and in the consequent poor economic conditions1 which the ,hungarian ,government is vainly trying to relieve4 ,in the ,bukowina the ,ukrainians1 over #cjj1jjj in number 7#ch of the total population of the land71 inhabit a region of #ejjj square kilometers1 situated mostly in the mountainous parts of the country4 ,the ,ukrainians inhabit the following districts3 ,zastavna 7#hj71 ,vashkivtzi 7#hc71 ,viznitza 7#gh71 ,kitzman 7#hg71 and ,chernivtzi 7#ee71 half the ,district of ,sereth 7#db71 a third of the ,district of ,storozhinetz 7#bf71 besides parts of the ,districts of ,kimpolung1 ,radautz and ,suchava4 ,amid the ,ukrainian population a great many ,jews are settled1 scattered1 and in the cities many ,germans1 ,roumanians1 ,armenians and ,poles besides4 ,the degree of education and the economic state of the ,bukowina ,ukrainians are incomparably better than those of the ,ukrainians of ,hungary4 ,from the rural population a numerous educated class has sprung1 which has taken the lead of the masses in the economic and political struggle4 ,in ,galicia 7#gh1ejj square kilometers1 #h million inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians1 #c1baj1jjj1 that is #dj of the total population 7with #ei of ,poles and #a of ,germans7 occupy a compact space of #ef1jjj square kilometers1 in which they comprise #ei of the population4 ,these figures are taken from the census of the year #aiaj1 which1 because of its partisan compilation1 is perhaps unique among the civilized states of ,europe4 ,for not only are all the ,jews 7who speak a ,german jargon7 listed as ,poles1 but also all the ,ukrainians of ,roman-,catholic faith1 of whom there is more than half a million1 and #agj1jjj pure ,ukrainians of ,greek-,catholic 7united7 faith4 ,basing our calculations1 not on these statistics of the vernacular1 but on the statistics of faith1 which1 too1 are not unobjectionable1 we obtain the following results3 ,for the ,greek-,catholic ,ukrainians #c1chj1jjj 7#db71 for the ,roman-,catholic ,poles #c1gcj1jjj 7#dg71 and for the ,jews #hgj1jjj 7#aa74 ,according to religious convictions1 then1 ,ukrainian ,east ,galicia would contain #fb of ,ukrainians1 over #be 7#a1cej1jjj7 ,poles1 and over #ab 7#ffj1jjj7 ,jews4 ,as a matter of fact1 the number of ,ukrainians in ,galicia1 according to the investigations of ,dr4 ,okhrimovich1 should be raised to at least #c1ejj1jjj1 and1 adding the ,roman-,catholic ,ukrainians of ,east ,galicia1 the number is #d1jjj1jjj4 ,we shall retain the figure #c1chj1jjj1 however1 but for the following view of the districts1 the percentages will be taken from the much more justly compiled census of the year #aijj4 ,the greatest percentage of the ,ukrainian population1 that is #ge-ij1 is found in the ,carpathian ,districts of ,turka1 ,stari ,sambir1 ,kossiv1 ,pechenizin2 the sub-,carpathian ,districts of ,bohorodchani1 ,kalush1 ,zidachiv2 the ,pocutian ,districts of ,sniatin and ,horodenka1 besides the ,district of ,yavoriv in the ,rostoche4 ,the percentage of ,ukrainians vacillates between #fg and #ge in the ,districts of ,lisko1 ,dobromil1 ,striy1 ,dolina1 ,nadvirna1 ,tovmach1 ,salishchiki1 ,borshchiv1 ,rohatin1 ,bibrka1 ,zovkva and ,rava4 ,more than three-fifths of the population 7#fj-ff7 is made up of ,ukrainians in the ,districts of ,drohobich1 ,sambir1 ,rudki1 ,mostiska1 ,horodok1 ,kolomiya1 ,sokal1 ,kaminka1 ,brody1 ,sbaraz ,zolochiv1 ,peremishlani1 ,berezani1 ,pidhaytzi1 ,chorytkiv1 and ,husiatin2 #ej-fj ,ukrainians are found in the ,districts of ,chesaniv1 ,peremishl1 ,sianik1 ,ternopil1 ,skalat1 ,terebovla1 ,buchach and ,stanislaviv4 ,in only two districts the percentage of ,ukrainians falls below #ej3 in the districts of ,lemberg 7#di7 and ,yaroslav 7#da74 ,in the city of ,lemberg the ,ukrainians comprise only one-fifth of the population1 and in other larger cities of ,east ,galicia1 too1 their percentage is not great4 ,consequently1 the total percentages of the ,ukrainians in the districts are influenced very unfavorably thru the addition of the city population4 ,besides1 the ,east ,galician cities1 inhabited chiefly by ,jews and ,poles1 are the chief centers of the ,polonizing efforts4 ,only in the most recent times is the percentage of ,ukrainians in the larger cities of ,east ,galicia becoming greater1 as a result of the continued flocking in of the ,ukrainian rural population4 ,in the fifty smaller cities of ,east ,galicia1 on the other hand1 the ,ukrainians comprise absolute majorities1 e4g41 ,yavoriv1 ,horodenka1 ,tismenitza4 ,in ,west ,galicia only the ,district of ,horlitzi 7,gorlice7 has more than #be ,ukrainians1 the remaining four 7,yaslo1 ,new ,sandetz1 ,krosno1 ,hribov7 only #aj-bj4 ,the ,ukrainian population of ,galicia consists nine-tenths of peasants and petty bourgeois4 ,from them a numerous educated class has sprung in the past century1 which has taken the political and cultural leadership of the masses4 ,for this reason1 too1 national consciousness has advanced most among the ,ukrainians of ,galicia4 ,in the compass of the ,russian ,state the ,ukrainians occupy a compact national territory of almost #gge1jjj square kilometers4 ,the actual size of this territory will be accurately determined only when we possess an accurate ethnographic map of the ,ukraine4 ,until then the size of the various ,ukrainian sections can only be estimated4 ,the following statistical information is taken from the calculation of #aiaj1 the percentage of ,ukrainians from the ,russian census of #ahig4 ,but the ,pinchuks1 in the ,government of ,minsk1 were counted as belonging to the ,ukrainians by the common opinion of all ,russian and non-,russian ethnographers1 altho the official statistics have designated them as ,white ,russian4 ,we shall begin at the western border region1 at the ,kholmshchina 7,kholm land71 which was recently organized by the ,russian ,government as an independent ,government apart from ,russian ,poland1 and includes the eastern areas of the ,governments of ,lublin and ,sidletz4 ,in the ,government of ,lublin 7#af1hjj square kilometers1 #a1ejj1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians comprise #ag of the population 7#bej1jjj71 in the ,government of ,sidletz #ad 7#adj1jjj74 ,the region inhabited by the ,ukrainians in both ,governments together1 amounts to #aj1jjj square kilometers4 ,poles and ,jews inhabit not only the cities in the ,kholm country1 but to a great extent villages as well1 and comprise a considerable percentage of the population near the western border of the ,ukraine4 ,the percentage figures of the ,ukrainians and ,poles 7in parentheses7 are in the various districts of the ,government of ,lublin3 ,hrubeshiv #ff 7#bd71 ,tomashiv #eb 7#cg71 ,kholm #ch 7#ch71 ,bilhoray #bb 7#fh71 ,zamostye #i 7#hc71 ,krasnostav #f 7#hc72 in the districts of the ,government of ,sidletz3 ,vlodava #fd 7#bj71 ,bila #dh 7#ch71 ,konstantiniv #bb 7#ee71 ,radin #e 7#hg74 ,in these districts the ,jews comprise #e-ac of the population1 the ,germans #ad in the ,district of ,kholm4 ,the number of ,ukrainians in the generally ,polish-,jewish cities is not insignificant1 even comprising the absolute majority in ,hrubeshiv4 ,in the ,government of ,grodno 7#ch1fjj square kilometers #a1iej1jjj inhabitants71 the ,ukrainians comprise #bc of the population and inhabit the districts of ,berestia 7#ha ,ukrainians71 ,kobrin 7#hc71 ,bilsk 7#db relative majority71 and the border of ,pruzani 7#g71 altogether #ad1jjj square kilometers1 with a ,ukrainian population of #ddj1jjj4 ,the ,poles and ,white ,russians comprise #b-c in the first two of these districts1 the ,poles #cg in the ,district of ,bilsk1 the ,white ,russians #gi in ,pruzani1 the ,jews #i-aa in all districts4 ,in the ,government of ,minsk 7#ia1jjj square kilometers1 #b1hjj1jjj inhabitants71 the ,ukrainians 7,pinchuks7 comprise #ad of the population4 ,they inhabit the entire ,district of ,pinsk and the half of the ,district of ,mosiv1 situated on the right bank of the ,pripet ,river1 altogether #ag1jjj square kilometers1 with a ,ukrainian population of #cij1jjj4 ,the ,government of ,volhynia 7#ga1gjj square kilometers1 #c1hej1jjj inhabitants7 is a central ,ukrainian region4 ,the ,ukrainians 7#b1gjj1jjj7 here comprise over #gj of the population1 the ,jews #ac1 the ,poles over #f1 the ,germans about #f1 the ,russians #c1 the ,czechs #a4 ,these foreign peoples live scattered1 or as colonists1 and chiefly in the cities of ,volhynia1 in all of which 7,kremianetz excepted7 they are more numerous than the ,ukrainians4 ,in the country it is different4 ,the percentages of ,ukrainians in the districts of ,volhynia are very high3 ,kovel #hf1 ,ovruch #hg1 ,ostroh #he1 ,zaslav #hb1 ,kremianetz #hd1 ,starokonstantiniv #hj4 ,somewhat smaller are the percentages in the following districts3 ,zitomir #gc1 ,dubno #gc1 ,volodimir ,volinsky #fh1 ,rivne #fe1 ,lutzk #fb4 ,in the ,government of ,kiev 7#ea1jjj square kilometers1 #d1egj1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians comprise over #gi 7#c1fbj1jjj7 of the population4 ,this percentage takes into account the city population1 of which the majority are ,jews and 8,russians40 ,in the districts1 as ,chihirin1 ,svenihorodka1 ,uman1 ,tarashcha1 the percentage of ,ukrainians exceeds #ij1 in ,radomishl #hj4 ,the chief foreign element are the ,jews 7#ab71 then the ,russians 7over #f71 and the ,poles 7#b74 ,in the city of ,kiev the ,ukrainians comprise more than one-fifth of the population1 as much as the ,jews and ,poles together4 ,an absolute ,ukrainian majority exists in the cities of ,vassilkiv1 ,kaniv1 ,tarashcha1 ,zvenihorodka and ,chihirin4 ,in ,berdichiv1 ,cherkassi1 ,uman1 ,lipovetz1 ,skvira and ,radomishl the ,jews predominate4 ,the ,government of ,podolia 7#db1jjj square kilometers1 #c1gdj1jjj inhabitants7 has over #ha of its population ,ukrainian 7#c1jcj1jjj74 ,in some districts the percentage is much higher1 as for example in the ,district of ,mohiliv1 #hi4 ,the ,jews are the largest foreign element 7#ab7 then the ,russians 7#c71 and the ,poles 7#b71 who live principally in the cities4 ,only the smaller ,podolian cities1 e4g41 ,olhopol1 ,yampol1 ,stara ,ushitza1 ,khmelnik1 have a ,ukrainian majority4 ,in ,haisin1 ,vinnitza1 ,litin and ,bar the number of ,ukrainians equals the number of ,jews2 in ,kamenetz1 ,balta1 ,bratzlav1 ,letichiv1 ,mohiliv and ,proskuriv the ,jews predominate4 ,the ,government of ,kherson 7#ga1jjj square kilometers1 #c1ejj1jjj inhabitants71 just as the three last discussed1 is part of the compact ,ukrainian national territory1 altho the population of this region appears much more mixed4 ,the ,ukrainians 7#a1fdj1jjj7 here comprise barely #ed of the population4 ,the chief cause of this is the fact that in the large cities of this ,government1 ,jews and ,russians predominate1 and then there are a great many ,roumanian1 ,german and ,bulgarian colonies4 ,despite this1 however1 the ,ukrainians constitute an absolute majority in most of the districts 7e4g41 the ,district of ,alexandria #hh of ,ukrainians1 ,yelisavet #gc1 ,kherson #gj1 ,ananiiv #fc71 a relative majority in the rest 7,odessa #dg1 ,tiraspol #ch74 ,the ,russians comprise more than #ba of the population1 the ,jews #ab1 the ,roumanians over #e 7,district of ,tiraspol #bg71 the ,germans nearly #e1 the ,bulgarians and ,poles #a each4 ,odessa is a city of many languages4 ,russians and ,jews predominate2 the ,ukrainians comprise barely one-eleventh of the population1 besides which there are ,germans1 ,roumanians1 ,bulgarians1 ,poles1 ,greeks1 ,french1 ,english1 ,albanians1 etc4 ,in ,mikolaiv the ,ukrainians are only one-thirteenth of the population1 in ,kherson one-fifth1 in ,yelisavet one-fourth4 ,in the following cities the ,ukrainians possess an absolute majority over the ,russians3 ,alexandria1 ,ananiiv1 ,bobrinetz1 ,vosnesensk1 ,olviopol1 ,ochakiv1 ,berislav1 ,dubosari4 ,the ,government of ,bessarabia 7#df1jjj square kilometers1 #b1ddj1jjj inhabitants7 has only its northwest tip and its coastal region within ,ukrainian national territory4 ,the ,ukrainians 7#dfj1jjj7 comprise barely #bj of the population of this ,government1 which consists principally of ,roumanians4 ,the territory inhabited by the ,ukrainians amounts to #aj1jjj square kilometers4 ,the ,ukrainians comprise an absolute majority only in the ,district of ,khotin 7#ef71 along with #be ,roumanians and #ac ,jews4 ,in the ,district of ,akerman the ,ukrainians make up #bd of the population1 the ,bulgarians the same1 the ,germans and the ,roumanians #ah each1 the ,turks #d4 ,the ,ukrainians settle on the sea-coast and the ,dniester4 ,in the ,district of ,ismail there are #ag ,ukrainians1 #dg ,roumanians1 #aa ,bulgarians1 #i ,turks1 #c ,germans2 in the ,district of ,soroki #ag ,ukrainians1 #fg ,roumanians1 #aa ,jews4 ,in other districts of ,bessarabia there are much fewer ,ukrainians2 in the district of ,biltzi #ab1 ,benderi #i1 ,orhiiv #f1 ,kishinev only #b4 ,in the cities ,jews1 ,russians and ,roumanians predominate4 ,the ,ukrainians possess an absolute majority only in ,akerman1 a relative majority in ,ismail and ,kilia4 ,in our survey of the ,ukraine on the left ,dnieper bank we shall begin with the border regions1 coming gradually to the central parts4 ,in the ,government of ,kursk the ,ukrainians 7#fgj1jjj7 comprise over #bb of the population and inhabit the following districts3 ,putivl 7#ee ,ukrainians71 ,hraivoron 7#fa71 ,novo ,oskol 7#ef71 and the southern parts of ,sudga 7#dd71 ,rilsk 7#cc71 ,korocha 7#ce71 ,bilhorod 7#bd74 ,besides that1 the ,ukrainians are scattered in large and small language islands over the ,districts of ,oboian 7#ab71 ,stari ,oskol 7#i71 and ,lhov 7#e74 ,the area of the compact ,ukrainian territory in the ,government of ,kursk may be estimated at #ab1jjj square kilometers4 ,the only neighbors and co-inhabitants of the ,ukrainians here are the ,russians1 who1 even in many cities of the purely ,ukrainian territory1 comprise majorities4 ,however1 there are a number of ,ukrainian cities in the ,kursk country4 ,miropilia has #ih1 ,sudza #fe ,ukrainians1 ,hraivoron and ,korocha are half ,ukrainian4 ,in the next following border region1 the ,government of ,voroniz 7#fe1jjj square kilometers1 #c1cfj1jjj inhabitants71 the ,ukrainians inhabit the ,districts of ,ostrohosh 7#id ,ukrainians71 ,bohucha 7#hc71 ,biriuch 7#gj71 ,valuiki 7#ec71 and the southern parts of ,pavlovsk 7#dc71 ,bobrovsk 7#ag71 ,korotoiak 7#ag71 ,novokhopersk 7#af74 ,ukrainian language islands are found chiefly in the ,district of ,semliansk 7#d74 ,the total percentage of ,ukrainians in the ,government of ,voroniz is #cf1 their number over #a1baj1jjj1 the surface they inhabit #bi1jjj square kilometers4 ,the only neighbors of the ,ukrainians here are the ,russians1 who also comprise the majority in all cities4 ,only in ,biriuch1 ,bohuchar1 ,ostrohosh1 do the ,ukrainians predominate4 ,in the ,government of the ,don ,cossack army 7#afd1jjj square kilometers1 #c1ejj1jjj inhabitants7 the relation of the ,ukrainians to the population is similar to that in the ,governments of ,kursk and ,voroniz4 ,just as the ,ukrainian districts there border on the adjacent central ,ukrainian lands of ,poltava and ,kharkiv1 so the ,ukrainian parts of the ,don country touch the central ,ukrainian lands of ,kharkiv and ,katerinoslav4 ,the ,ukrainians 7#ihj1jjj7 comprise #bh of the population of the ,don country and inhabit #de1jjj square kilometers4 ,most thickly populated by ,ukrainians are the southern districts3 ,tahanroh 7#fi71 ,rostiv 7#eb71 the western half of the ,donetz ,district 7#dj74 ,the statistics show far less ,ukrainians in the ,districts of ,cherkask 7#bc7 and ,sal 7#ca74 ,in the ,districts of ,don ,i 7#ab71 ,don ,,ii 7#d71 ,ust ,medvedinsk 7#aa71 ,khoper 7#g71 the ,ukrainians form language islands in the midst of a ,russian population4 ,in the ,district of ,sal the relative majority is credited to the ,kalmucks 7#ci71 but beyond that only ,russians are the neighbors of the ,ukrainians4 ,but all this data is not unobjectionable4 ,it has long been an established fact that the lower 8,don ,cossacks0 are for the most part of ,ukrainian nationality4 ,at the same time we see1 from the official census of #ahig1 that none of the ,don ,cossacks were counted as members of the ,ukrainian nation4 ,in the cities of the ,don country the number of ,ukrainians is very small1 e4g41 in ,rostiv hardly greater than one-fifth4 ,only the city of ,osiv 7,azof7 is predominantly ,ukrainian4 ,the ,kuban country 7#ib1jjj square kilometers1 #b1fcj1jjj inhabitants7 has a relative ,ukrainian majority 7over #dg #a1bej1jjj71 along with #dd ,russians and #i ,caucasus races4 ,in this land the purely ,ukrainian country embraces over #ef1jjj square kilometers4 ,three of the districts have an absolute ,ukrainian majority3 ,yask 7#ha71 ,temriuk 7#gi71 and ,katerinodar 7#eg ,ukrainians1 #bg ,russians1 #aa ,circassians74 ,in the ,caucasian ,district there are #dg of ,ukrainians and as many ,russians1 in the ,district of ,maikop #ca ,ukrainians1 #eh ,russians1 #f ,circassians1 #b ,kabardines1 in the ,labinsk ,district #bh ,ukrainians1 #gg ,russians1 in the ,district of ,batalpashinsk #bh ,ukrainians1 #ci ,russians1 #ac ,karachaians1 #e ,abkhasians1 #d ,kabardines1 #c ,nogaians1 #b ,circassians4 ,it should be observed1 however1 that perhaps nowhere have so many ,ukrainians been entered as ,russians in the census as in these very ,caucasian lands4 ,for this reason the entire ,kuban country may be considered ,ukrainian territory1 except the chains of high mountains4 ,in the ,government of ,stavropol 7#fj1jjj square kilometers1 #a1bcj1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians comprise #cg 7#dej1jjj74 ,they inhabit a region of nearly #bb1jjj square kilometers in the west and south of the ,government1 where the border of the ,ukrainian settlements1 which reaches the ,caspian ,sea1 begins4 ,the ,district of ,medveza has #dh ,ukrainians 7in the west71 the ,district of ,stavropol #ac 7in the extreme south71 the ,district of ,olexandrivsk #dj1 ,novotvihoriiosk #ed 7chiefly in their southern halves74 ,the neighbors here are ,russians and ,nogaians4 ,in the ,terek region 7#fi1jjj square kilometers1 #a1ahc1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians officially comprise only #e of the population 7#ej1jjj71 altho it is generally known that an appreciable part of the ,terek ,cossacks belongs to the ,ukrainian nation4 ,a large percentage of ,ukrainians 7#ad7 is found only in the ,district of ,piatihorsk2 outside of that the ,ukrainians are united in a narrow seam of settlements extending to the ,caspian ,sea4 #bi of the population in the ,terek region is ,russian2 the absolute majority is made up by various ,caucasian races 7,kabardines1 ,tatars1 ,ossetians1 ,ingushians1 ,chechenians1 ,avaro-andians1 ,kumikians1 ,nogaians74 ,the small ,government of the ,black ,sea 7#gjjj square kilometers1 #acj1jjj inhabitants7 has only #af ,ukrainians who live1 #aj1jjj in number1 in the northwestern part of the extended coast region4 ,in the ,district of ,tuapse there are #bg ,ukrainians2 in the ,district of ,sochi #h4 ,their neighbors are ,russians1 who do not form an absolute majority at any place1 then ,armenians1 ,circassians1 ,greeks1 ,turks1 etc4 ,the most important border country in the south1 however1 is1 without doubt1 the ,government of ,tauria 7#fj1jjj square kilometers1 #a1hjj1jjj inhabitants74 ,the ,ukrainians here comprise the relative majority of the population 7#db--gij1jjj71 with #bh ,russians1 #ac ,crimean ,tatars1 over #e ,germans1 about #e ,jews1 about #c ,bulgarians1 about #a ,armenians1 etc4 ,the ,ukrainians comprise an absolute majority in the ,districts of ,dniprovsk 7#gf71 ,berdiansk 7#fd71 and ,melitopol 7#eg71 and large minorities in the ,districts of ,eupatoria 7#bg7 and ,perekop 7#bd71 the northern parts of which they inhabit4 ,the entire mainland part of the ,government and the northern part of the ,crimean peninsula1 consequently belong1 without doubt1 to the compact ,ukrainian national territory1 while the number of ,ukrainians in the southern regions of ,crimea appears much smaller 7,district of ,feodosia #ac1 ,simferopol #aj1 ,yalta #b74 ,the chief foreign element in ,tauria is composed of ,russians 7,dniprovsk #af1 ,melitopol #cb1 ,berdiansk #ah1 ,perekop #bd1 ,eupatoria #ag71 and ,tatars 7,yalta #ga1 ,simferopol #ea1 ,feodosia #de1 ,eupatoria #dj1 ,perekop #bd74 ,to the extent that the ,tatars emigrate to ,turkey1 however1 the settled area and the number of the ,ukrainians of ,tauria constantly increase1 so that the time does not seem far off when the ,ukrainian element will have gained the entire ,crimean peninsula for its national territory4 ,besides1 one must entertain strong doubts concerning the actual number of the ,russians mentioned in the statistics1 for the ,rittich map of #ahgh gives almost no ,ukrainians in ,tauria1 and calls even the mainland parts of ,tauria ,russian4 ,and twenty years later came the just-mentioned figures of the official statistics4 ,we may then1 confidently consider the entire ,government of ,tauria a ,ukrainian district1 with considerable colonization by foreign-speaking people4 ,the most important of the foreign settlers are without a doubt the ,germans4 ,they are #bd of the population in the ,district of ,perekop1 #ab in ,eupatoria1 #h in ,berdiansk1 #e in ,melitopol2 the ,bulgarians make up #aj of the population in ,berdiansk4 ,next to be considered1 after these borderlands1 are the four central regions of the ,ukraine which lie on the left bank of the ,dnieper4 ,in the ,government of ,katerinoslav 7#fc1jjj square kilometers1 #c1jfj1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians #b1aaj1jjj in number1 comprise #fi of the total population1 with #ag ,russians1 #e ,jews1 #d ,germans1 #b ,greeks1 #a each of ,tatars1 ,white ,russians and ,poles4 ,detached districts of the land have very high percentages of ,ukrainians1 e4g41 ,district of ,novomoskovsk #id1 ,verkhnodniprovsk #ia1 ,olexandrivsk #hf1 ,pavlohrad #hc4 ,in the large cities the number of the foreign elements is very great1 hence1 the ,district of ,katerinoslav has #gd ,ukrainians1 and when the city is counted in1 only #ef ,ukrainians1 with #ba ,russians1 #ac ,jews1 #f ,germans1 #b ,poles4 ,the smallest percentage of ,ukrainians is found in the southeastern districts of the region1 where populous settlements of foreign elements exist4 ,the ,district of ,bakhmut1 for instance1 has #eh ,ukrainians with #cb ,russians1 the ,district of ,slavianoserbsk #ee ,ukrainians besides #db ,russians1 the ,district of ,mariupol #ea ,ukrainians besides #bj ,greeks4 ,in the ,city of ,katerinoslav the ,ukrainians comprise barely one-seventh of the population1 while in ,olexandrivsk1 ,verkhnodniprovsk1 ,novomoskovsk and ,bakhmut1 they predominate over the ,russians1 and are equal to them in ,slaviansk and ,pavlohrad4 ,in the ,government of ,kharkiv 7#ed1jjj square kilometers1 #c1bej1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians make up #gj of the total population1 or #b1bge1jjj4 ,as a result of considerable ,russian colonization 7#bh71 forming several language islands in the midst of ,ukrainian territory1 the percentage of ,ukrainians in several districts varies appreciably 7e4g41 ,smiiv #ff1 ,vovchansk #ge1 ,starobilsk #hd1 ,kupiansk #hg74 ,but we note for the first time1 here1 the remarkable fact that in all the district cities the ,ukrainians are much more numerous than the ,russians4 ,only in the capital city1 ,kharkiv1 are they in the minority1 and comprise little more than one-fourth the population4 ,the ,government of ,poltava 7#ej1jjj square kilometers1 #c1ehj1jjj inhabitants7 may be considered the heart of the ,ukraine4 ,the ,ukrainians here comprise #ie of the population1 or #c1daj1jjj1 beside #d ,jews and #a ,russians4 ,the percentage in detached districts varies between #hh 7,district of ,konstantinohrad7 and #ii 7,district of ,sinkiv74 ,the ,russians and ,jews live principally in the cities1 where they are always second to the ,ukrainians1 however1 except in the city of ,kreminchuk1 where the ,jews comprise the majority4 ,in the ,government of ,chernihiv 7#be1jjj square kilometers1 #b1ihj1jjj inhabitants7 the ,ukrainians comprise #hf of the population 7#b1dej1jjj71 beside #e ,white ,russians1 #e ,jews1 and #d ,russians4 ,with the exception of the northern districts1 ,suraz 7,ukrainians #ai1 ,white ,russians #fg1 ,russians #aa71 ,novosibkiv 7,ukrainians #ff1 ,russians #cj1 ,white ,russians #b71 and ,starodub 7,ukrainians #ge1 ,russians #bb71 all the districts of the region have from #hh 7,horodnia7 to #ii 7,krolevetz7 of ,ukrainians4 ,all the district cities1 except ,novosibkiv1 ,starodub1 ,suraz and ,mhlin1 have an absolute ,ukrainian majority2 the capital1 ,chernihiv1 only a relative one4 ,the number of ,ukrainians within the compact national territory in ,russia1 then1 amounts to almost #bh millions4 ,excluded in this estimate are the ,ukrainians of the ,government of ,astrakhan 7#aij1jjj71 ,saratov 7#bbj1jjj71 ,samara 7#aej1jjj71 ,orenburg 7#ej1jjj71 as well as the ,ukrainians of all ,asiatic-,russian lands1 whose number is not placed too high at #ejj1jjj4 ,we may therefore estimate the number of ,ukrainians in the entire ,russian ,empire as #bi millions4 ,this figure1 which was gained thru a critical survey of the statistical material of the individual administrative units of ,russia1 is approached with remarkable closeness by the figure which may be gotten in another1 more general way4 ,in the year of #ahig the number of ,ukrainians in the ,russian ,empire was #bb1djj1jjj2 that is1 #ag4d of the total population of #abi1jjj1jjj4 ,applying the same percentage to the numerical estimate of #aiaj1 we get #bh1ijj1jjj ,ukrainians in a total ,russian population of #aff1jjj1jjj4 ,adding the ,pinchuks 7#cij1jjj7 who1 in the official statistics were erroneously counted as ,white ,russians1 we receive for the number of ,ukrainians of ,russia 7#aiaj7 #bi1cjj1jjj4 ,now1 adding up all the ,ukrainians of the globe1 we receive 7for #aiaj7 an amount of #cd millions2 #cb1gjj1jjj of it in the compact ,ukrainian country4 ,this figure is a minimum value1 for in calculating it the intentional errors of the official statistics were taken into the bargain4 ,nevertheless1 this figure shows us that the ,ukrainians occupy the sixth place1 numerically1 among the nations of ,europe1 the five above them being the ,germans1 ,russians1 ,french1 ,english and ,italians4 ,among the ,slavic races they stand in the second place4 ,how this great numerical strength of the ,ukrainian nation can be brought into harmony with its political and economic weakness we shall try to show in the sections following4 ,now let us turn briefly to the density of population of the ,ukraine4 ,the #hej1jjj square kilometers of solid ,ukrainian national territory are inhabited by approximately forty-five million people 7#aiaj71 of whom1 according to official estimates1 #gc are ,ukrainians4 ,the general density of the ,ukraine1 consequently1 amounts to #ec inhabitants to the square kilometer4 ,the ,ukraine is also the transition from the thickly populated countries of ,central ,europe to the thinly-peopled northeast and east of the globe4 ,this transition may easily be followed out within the ,ukraine also4 ,the western border regions are the most thickly settled4 ,galicia has a density of #ajb1 the ,government of ,lublin #ij1 the ,government of ,kiev #ij1 ,podolia #hi1 ,bukowina #gg1 ,poltava #gb4 ,we see a wide zone of dense population1 then1 extending along the #ejth parallel of latitude1 from the ,carpathians to the ,dnieper4 ,to the north of it1 the first more thinly peopled zone extends3 ,sidletz #fi1 ,grodno #ea1 ,minsk #ci1 ,volhynia #ed1 ,chernihiv #eg1 ,kursk #fe1 ,voroniz #ea4 ,on the south of the thickly peopled zone lies the second more sparsely settled zone3 ,bessarabia #ec1 ,kherson #di1 ,tauria #ca1 ,katerinoslav #dh4 ,most thinly settled1 however1 are the eastern borderlands of the ,ukraine3 ,kuban #bh1 ,don and ,stavropol each #ba1 ,chornomoria and the ,terek region each #ag4 ,within these extensive regions1 too1 the density of population varies greatly4 ,sometimes districts very close together have a widely different density4 ,these differences1 however1 are largely only seeming differences and are caused by the city populations4 ,thus1 for example1 the marked density of the ,districts of ,stanislaviv 7#ahd71 ,ternopil 7#afa71 ,peremishl 7#afj71 ,kolomia 7#aef71 is caused by the presence of the populous cities of the same names4 ,therefore the ,pokutian ,district of ,sniatin 7#adg7 seems very thickly settled1 because of the smallness of the district cities4 ,the average density of ,ukrainian ,east ,galicia is only #ih2 in the mountainous ,districts of ,dolina and ,kossiv it only attains #de4 ,the same conditions exist in ,russian ,ukraine4 ,the ,district of ,kharkiv has a density of #afd inhabitants to the square verst2 the ,district of ,kiev #aeb4 ,considering only the rural population1 however1 these figures sink to #ha and #ge respectively4 ,therefore1 the ,district of ,kaniv with its #aag inhabitants to the square verst1 7#aac1 or not reckoning in the inhabitants of the cities71 appears to be the best-populated district of the ,russian ,ukraine4 ,many districts besides1 in ,podolia1 ,kiev1 ,poltava1 ,kharkiv and ,south ,volhynia 7without counting the cities71 have a density of #ge and #ajj1 while other districts of the same region vary between #ej and #ge4 ,in the forest swamp regions of ,northern ,ukraine the density figure falls a great deal4 ,the ,district of ,ovruch1 in ,northern ,volhynia1 attains a density of only #bi2 the ,polissian ,districts of ,pinsk and ,mosir #bf and #ag respectively4 ,the steppe country of ,southern ,ukraine is likewise very thinly settled in places4 ,the density of population of most of the districts of ,southern ,ukraine varies between #cj and #ej1 but the ,districts of ,eupatoria and ,perekop1 for example1 have only #aa inhabitants per square verst1 the second ,don ,district #ab1 the ,sal only #f1 the ,district of ,batalpashinsk in the sub-,caucasian country only #ag4 ,from these figures we see that the ,ukraine1 as regards its density1 is a genuine ,eastern ,european land4 ,but in comparing its density of population with that of the ,russian ,empire1 or even of ,russia in ,europe1 we perceive that the ,ukraine is the most thickly settled part of the giant ,russian ,empire1 after ,poland4 ,even the most thinly settled southeastern border regions have a greater population to the square kilometer than ,russia's average 7#be per square kilometer74 ,almost one-fourth of the enormous human reservoirs of ,russia are found on ,ukrainian territory4 ,and yet the ,ukraine1 despite its great size1 is only one-twenty-ninth of the giant ,russian ,empire4 ,from these figures we see1 furthermore1 that trade1 industry and commerce have1 to this day1 been unable to influence the density of population of the ,ukraine4 ,the ,ukraine has remained in the original stage of development1 in which only the age of settlement and the fertility of the soil form the basis for increase in the density of population4 ,the history of the ,ukraine has1 to this day1 influenced the country's density of population4 ,the former central districts of the old ,ukrainian state of ,kiev and ,halich are still the most thickly settled2 the southern and eastern border regions1 which have suffered most from the #ejj years of the ,tartar scourge1 the most thinly settled4 ,this is the reason that ,galicia1 one of the poorest regions of the ,ukraine in natural resources1 where industry and trade are so little developed1 is at the same time the most thickly populated region4 ,similarly primitive1 and betraying a low grade of culture1 is the relation between the city and country population of the ,ukraine4 ,only a very insignificant fraction of the population inhabits the cities and towns of the ,ukraine4 ,in ,galicia 7#aiaj7 only #ad of the population lives in places whose population is more than #e1jjj2 only #i in cities of over #aj1jjj4 ,similar conditions prevail in ,russian ,ukraine4 ,very rarely does the city population exceed #aj of the total number of people1 usually keeping below this percentage1 which is typical for all of ,russia4 ,podolia has only #g city population1 ,volhynia #h1 ,chernihiv #i1 ,poltava #aj1 ,kuban #aa1 ,katerinoslav #ab1 ,kiev #ac1 and ,kharkiv #ad4 ,only the regions colonized within the last century in ,southern ,ukraine1 with their large cities1 have a large percentage of city population 7,tauria #bj1 ,kherson #bi74 ,more glaringly still does the low grade of culture of the ,ukraine stand out when we give the percentage of the ,ukrainian population in the cities of the ,ukraine4 ,only in ,galicia do #ad of the ,ukrainian people of the country live in the cities4 ,in the ,government of ,kharkiv only #aj of the ,ukrainians of the district belong to the city population1 in ,kherson only #i1 in ,kuban #h1 in ,chernihiv #g1 ,poltava #f1 ,tauria #e1 ,kiev and ,katerinoslav each #d1 in ,podolia #c1 and in ,volhynia actually only #b4 ,it is true that1 especially in the cities1 the official estimates were 8made0 very unfavorably to the ,ukrainian element1 but1 nevertheless1 they show clearly enough that the ,ukrainian people1 clinging to their agrarian state1 have left the cities1 those centers of cultural and economic life1 in the hands of foreign elements4 ,only within very recent years have these conditions begun to improve4 ,the foreign-speaking cities are gradually coming to be ,ukraine-ized1 and the very rapidly growing percentage of ,ukrainians in ,galicia and the ,russian ,ukraine justify us in hoping that the ,ukrainian element1 in its continuous stream from the surrounding country1 will1 in time1 absorb the foreign-speaking elements which now command the cities of the ,ukraine4 ,,the ,,ukrainian ,,nation ,,as ,,an ,,anthropogeographic ,,unit ,,general ,,survey ,in the first chapter of our little book we mentioned the reasons which compel us to regard the ,ukraine as a physico-geographic whole4 ,we emphasized the fact that the geographic units of the great uniform country of ,eastern ,europe could not1 for obvious natural reasons1 appear so well-defined and individualized as the different sections of ,western and ,central ,europe4 ,the same is true of the anthropogeographic conditions of ,eastern ,europe as well4 ,the anthropogeography of ,eastern ,europe is so unfamiliar a part of geographic science that even such pioneer geographers as ,ratzel1 ,kirchhoff and ,hettner entirely misunderstood and misrepresented the anthropogeographic conditions of ,russia1 and especially the racial conditions of this giant empire4 ,there are two reasons for the universal ignorance of the anthropogeographic conditions of ,russia which exists even in the ranks of renowned scholars4 ,the first cause lies in the sources from which scholars1 and subsequently publicists1 draw their knowledge of the subject4 ,now the official ,russian sources on the basis of which an anthropogeography of ,eastern ,europe would have to be written are not immune from serious criticism4 ,the ranks of ,russian scholars have always worked in the interests of the ,russian political idea1 and latterly1 caught by the mighty wave of ,pan-,slavic-,russian nationalism1 they are doing their best to represent as actual fact whatever ,russian governmental politics would desire to be fact4 ,russian geography1 ethnography1 statistics1 history1 have always worked in accordance with approved 8unifying0 designs4 ,hence1 ,european learning involuntarily sees all that exists and is coming into existence in ,russia thru the spectacles put on it by official ,russia4 ,the same official ,russia comes to meet the ,european traveler upon every step of his journey1 and guides him in such a way that he may be sure not to see below the general official ,russian varnish what is actual and true4 ,besides1 there is the ,russian censorship1 which even now1 after the introduction of the constitution1 takes very good care to veil everything from the view of the outside world1 which1 in the interest of the ,russian political idea1 should remain hidden4 ,the second cause of ignorance as to the anthropogeography of ,russia lies in the subject itself4 ,the ,eastern ,european family of races inhabiting ,russia is so different from that of ,western and ,central ,europe in its evolution and composition1 that the anthropogeographical laws and methods which 7as far as civilized peoples are concerned7 are based upon ,western ,european conditions1 do not apply in the least in ,eastern ,europe4 ,a difficulty confronts anthropogeography here1 analogous to the difficulty which confronted geologic science when1 fitted out with ,european stratigraphy1 it sought to explore ,south ,africa or ,india4 ,the geologists1 as representatives of a natural science1 were readily able to find the way out1 but the anthropogeographers1 whose field is more that of a psychic science1 have lost themselves in false assumptions and in commonplaces4 ,we must not wonder1 therefore1 if every critical reader of the preceding chapter is assailed by a host of questions3 ,why in the world are the ,ukrainians1 this second largest ,slavic nation of the whole world1 so utterly unknown8 ,perhaps ,ukraine is only an ethnographic conception1 and the ,ukrainians only a branch of the ,russian race1 just as the ,bavarians or ,saxons are branches of the ,german people8 ,or are the terms 8,ukraine10 8,ukrainian01 only outgrowths of the idle imagination of a few belated enthusiasts1 who rave about a glorious past and a brilliant future1 and represent what they are striving after as a fait accompli1 and so forth4 ,such questions1 based upon deep ignorance of the anthropogeography and history of ,eastern ,europe1 come up in this very #bjth ,century1 even in the learned circles of scholars1 publicists and politicians4 ,to answer these and similar questions correctly1 this little book has been written4 ,the ,ukrainians are quite as independent a ,slavic nation as the ,czechs1 ,poles1 ,white ,russians1 ,russians1 ,serbs or ,bulgarians4 ,the historic roots of the ,ukrainian nation extend just as far back into the early middle ages as the roots of the ,german1 ,french or ,english nations4 ,the old ,ukrainian ,empire of ,kiev is of the same age as the ,holy ,roman ,empire of the ,german ,nation4 ,but1 while the evolution of the great ,european nations was steady and uninterrupted1 the ,ukrainian ,nation was hindered in its development by reason of its geographical position on the threshold of ,asia4 ,the ,mongolian attack in the #acth ,century shattered the state of ,kiev and introduced the #ejj years' ,tartar scourge4 ,weakened by the continual expeditions and slave-hunts of the ,crimean ,tatars1 the ,ukraine fell under the rule of ,lithuania and ,poland1 who not only could not relieve the land of the ,tatar menace but even added national1 social and religious pressure4 ,the instinct of self-preservation led the ,ukrainian nation1 in that troubled time1 to create the splendid military organization of the ,ukrainian ,cossacks1 and about the middle of the #agth ,century1 in a victorious war1 to shake off the ,polish yoke4 ,thus1 the second ,ukrainian state1 the ,cossack ,republic1 came into existence4 ,by the ,treaty of ,pereyaslav 7#afed7 it was ceded as a vassal state to ,russia1 which was related to it in religious faith4 ,but ,russia broke the treaties of suzerainty1 shared the desolated ,ukrainian land with ,poland1 and1 after a century and a half1 changed the autonomy of the ,ukraine into abject serfdom4 ,after ,russia1 in the partitions of ,poland1 had united almost the entire ,ukrainian territory under its rule 7with the exception of ,eastern ,galicia1 ,northwestern ,bukowina1 and ,northeastern ,hungary71 it set all forces to work to destroy the national independence of the ,ukrainians as well4 ,in the #agth and #ahth ,centuries the ,ukrainian ,nation lost its upper classes--the aristocracy1 the lesser nobility1 the wealthy burghers--first thru ,polonization1 then thru ,russification4 ,it had left only its minor clergy1 its lower middle class1 and a completely downtrodden peasantry4 ,thus1 at the end of the #ahth ,century1 it seemed as if the last hour of the ,ukrainian people had struck4 ,it is therefore easy to explain that in the #aith ,century1 when the national question became one of the most important problems of humanity1 the two neighbor nations of the ,ukraine1 the ,poles and the ,russians1 believed they had solved the 8,ukrainian question40 ,the views of ,poles and ,russians coincide absolutely in emphasizing one statement3 8,there is no such country as the ,ukraine2 no such people as the ,ukrainians2 there are only ,poland and ,russia2 a ,polish nation and a ,russian nation40 ,this complete agreement of both nations1 whose giant states fought for two centuries for domination in ,eastern ,europe1 may be easily understood4 ,the ,ukraine has always been the richest region of ,eastern ,europe in natural resources1 the ,ukrainians the second largest nation1 the ,ukrainian question the most important problem in every state commanding ,eastern ,europe4 ,now the ,ukrainian nation was completely exhausted by half a thousand years of ,tatar oppression and an equally long period of serfdom4 ,so that it seemed an easy matter to the mighty neighbor nations to even deny the existence of the ,ukrainian nation1 to hold up its development1 and gradually to absorb it4 ,the ,poles1 since their country lost its independence1 have made heroic attempts to win back their freedom by armed uprisings4 ,despite all defeats1 they have never given up their hopes of re-establishing the ,polish ,kingdom4 ,but these hopes were never confined to the ethnographic territory of the ,polish nation4 ,the future ,polish ,kingdom was to have the old boundaries of the historic ,poland--the ,baltic and the ,black ,sea4 ,hence1 the geographical conception of ,poland1 even to the scientific ,polish geographers1 still includes1 besides the entire ,polish ethnographic territory1 ,lithuania1 ,white ,russia and all of the ,ukraine1 as far as the ,dnieper ,river and the ,black ,sea4 ,how could this historico-geographical conception of ,poland be made to harmonize with the ethnographic conception of the ,ukraine8 ,the solution of this question seemed very easy to the ,polish scholars and politicians4 ,they simply proved that the ,ukrainians constituted a part of the ,polish nation1 that their language was a provincial dialect of the ,polish language1 and that only the religious faith1 a number of manners and customs1 songs1 etc41 were slightly different from those of the ,poles2 these slight differences the common country folk might retain1 likewise the educated ,ukrainian might be permitted to keep his language and customs in private life1 but in his political sentiments1 in his culture1 in his literary language1 he must be and remain a ,pole4 ,this ,polish solution of the ,ukrainian question is derived from the ,polish 8state-idea0 of a ,polish ,empire extending from the ,baltic to the ,black ,sea4 ,despite the fact that the history of the national relations of ,eastern ,europe clearly proved this solution false in the second half of the #aith ,century1 the opinion prevails in all important ,polish circles1 that the ,ukrainian people merely constitutes an ethnographic mass which shall make a good foundation for the expansion of ,polish culture and power4 ,this ,polish theory in the ,ukrainian question has not been detrimental to the development of the ,ukrainian nation4 ,that the ,ukrainians are not a ,polish people was quite clear to every ,ukrainian at the very beginning of the relations of the two nations 7#aath ,century74 ,among the masses the feeling of independence was always lively and strong1 and only those of the educated ,ukrainians credited ,polonophile theories1 who were the few members of ,polish secret societies1 plots1 uprisings 7#ahca1 #ahfc71 etc4 ,polonization1 in former centuries1 demanded many victims from among the educated ,ukrainians2 in the past half a century it has only very slight successes to show1 altho the ,ukrainians of ,galicia still continue to be under the political and cultural influence of the ,poles4 ,much more dangerous for the ,ukrainians was the other solution of the ,ukrainian question4 ,it1 too1 is derived from a state-idea1 namely1 from the idea of a ,russian state which should unite all ,slavdom1 or at least1 all of the one-time ,empire of ,vladimir the ,great1 under its scepter4 ,in order to attain this end the 8,theory of the ,unity of the ,russian ,nation0 was formed1 as far back as the times of ,peter the ,great1 who transformed the old ,muscovite ,czar state into an imperial ,russian government1 and later this doctrine was further developed4 ,according to this theory the ,russian nation consists of three tribes3 the ,great ,russians1 the ,little ,russians1 and the ,white ,russians1 whose tongues differ from one another only dialectically4 ,a common literary language1 ,russian1 connects all the tribes2 race1 customs1 history1 political aspirations are the same for all three4 ,ukraine1 ,ukrainian1 are only local names1 which1 however1 bear a strong taint of separatism1 and must1 therefore1 appear dangerous and inadmissible4 ,in the spirit of this theory of the unity of the ,russian nation1 the politics of the ,russian state have1 for more than two centuries1 aimed incessantly to hinder the development of the ,ukrainian nation1 by means of the most ruthless oppression1 and to degrade it to an ethnographic mass which1 thru its increasing denationalization1 should strengthen the ,russian state and support its political expansion4 ,in a later section we shall be able to follow the individual phases of ,russian state politics in regard to the ,ukraine4 ,we shall turn1 now1 to consider the great injury which the ,russian unity theory has done to the progress of the ,ukrainians as a nation4 ,the internal injury of the ,russian unity theory to the ,ukrainian peasantry is comparatively slight4 ,the ,ukrainian peasant in ,russia is much more highly conscious of his national individuality as opposed to the ,russian than as opposed to the ,pole4 ,the ethnologic culture of the ,ukrainian peasantry is so much higher than that of the ,russian1 that the ,ukrainian looks down with contempt upon the 8rough ,katzap40 ,this1 as it were1 ethnologic feeling of independence has protected the ,ukrainian peasantry from ,russification1 not only within its national territory1 but even in its distant ,siberian or ,turkestan colonies4 ,only a small part of the so-called village aristocracy1 e4g41 pensioned soldiers1 village mayors1 notaries1 former city workmen who have learnt some ,russian1 try to murder the ,russian language and to pass for ,russians4 ,the same is true of a part of the city proletariat4 ,but the great mass is opposed to the ,russian language and customs1 and preserves its national individuality unchanged4 ,far more serious injuries has the ,russian unity theory caused among the upper classes of the ,ukrainian nation4 ,for the sake of office1 honors and gifts of land1 the ,ukrainian nobility has1 in the last two centuries1 permitted itself to be ,russified for the most part2 likewise a host of government officials1 military men1 clergymen1 etc4 ,in the second half of the #aith ,century the ,russification of the educated ,ukrainian circles has slackened its pace1 altho1 even now1 there are in ,russia a great many of the educated ,ukrainians by birth who are completely ,russified and the worst enemies of their own nation4 ,the ,russian unity theory1 in the sixties of the #aith ,century1 found its way into ,austria-,hungary too1 and founded the so-called 8,russophile ,party40 ,its educated retainers1 with few exceptions1 do not even command the ,russian language4 ,nevertheless1 they call themselves ,russians1 propagate 8the unity of the ,russian ,people from the ,carpathians to the ,kamchatka10 and call their ,ukrainian mother-tongue 8a dialect of the ,carpathian herdsmen and swineherds40 ,they speak and write a remarkable jargon consisting of ,ukrainian1 ,russian and ,church-,slavic words 7the so-called ,yazichiye72 only in very recent years have they begun to use a bad ,russian4 ,supported by considerable subsidies of money from ,russia1 the educated ,russophiles are developing an active agitation among the peasants of ,eastern ,galicia1 the ,bukowina and ,northeastern ,hungary4 ,the ,russophile peasants of these countries1 whose number is insignificant1 to be sure1 constitute a remarkable type of a seduced mass4 ,they also try to speak the ,yazichiye1 use the old-fashioned 8thousand-year-old0 orthography1 which is entirely analogous to the ,russian and1 at least1 partly hides the differences between the ,ukrainian and ,russian languages1 live in the illusion that the ,czar speaks the same language that they speak1 use the ,russian national colors1 and hate everything ,ukrainian with the passion of the renegade4 ,these internal injuries of the ,russian unity theory and the ,russophile tide it has created are becoming slighter year by year4 ,ukrainian national consciousness is continually growing in the masses of the ,ukrainian nation1 and the ,russophile wave would long since have disappeared if it were not for the ,russian subsidies1 and if certain ,polish circles1 frightened by the rapid advance of the ,ukrainian national idea1 were not working with all their might to prevent the fall of ,russophilism4 ,much more important are the external injuries done to the ,ukrainian national idea by the ,russian unity theory4 ,they may be expressed in a single sentence3 ,as a result of the absolutism of the ,russian unity theory in the history1 geography and statistics of ,eastern ,europe1 the civilized world does not know that there exists in ,europe a large country which is called 8,ukraina10 and that in this country there lives a nation with a separate individuality1 a nation of over thirty million souls1 which bears the name 8,ukrainians40 ,it is true that1 from time to time1 since the beginning of the present century1 magazine articles and pamphlets in various leading languages have appeared1 which aim to inform the world about the ,ukraine and the ,ukrainian people4 ,but these journalistic efforts have only an ephemeral value4 ,politicians only occasionally interest themselves in the ,ukrainian question when it is brought to their notice4 ,and scholars1 however well-disposed1 can not give such publications preference over the official ,russian sources4 ,the young ,ukrainian learning has thus far been unable to spread true information on the ,ukrainian nation1 and to establish the ,ukrainian nation in the scientific world as an independent unit among the ,slavic nations4 ,only in the historical field the independent position of the ,ukrainians among the nations of ,eastern ,europe has been demonstrated1 thanks to the compositions of a ,kostomariv1 ,antonovich1 ,drahomaniv1 ,hrushevsky4 ,in the fields of philology1 anthropology1 ethnology1 ethnography and folk-lore1 there are many treatises relating to these sciences1 but there is no systematic exposition of the ,ukrainian nation as a uniform whole in relation to these branches of science4 ,in the anthropogeographic field the present lines constitute the first effort4 ,in addition1 all these treatises have appeared only in ,ukrainian or ,russian1 and1 consequently1 remain inaccessible to the overwhelming majority of the ,european world of scholarship4 ,for these reasons science must depend upon the official statements4 ,the official ,russian geography considers the ,ukrainians only as one of the three tribes of the unified ,russian people4 ,the official ,russian statistics report this to the world4 ,hence1 ,german1 ,french and ,english geographic science1 too1 usually accounts for the ,ukrainians as ,russians4 ,the names ,kleinrussen1 ,petits ,russes1 ,little ,russians1 do not mean an independent nation1 but a tribe of the ,russian nation4 ,such erroneous views may be found in all the general encyclopedias and lexicons1 in all handbooks of geography and statistics4 ,the ,austro-,hungarian ,ukrainians1 who are mentioned in the official statistics as ,ruthenians1 are also to a great extent taken for a part of the ,russian people which differs from the mass of ,russians only in its ,catholic faith1 or more remarkably still1 for an entirely independent little nation called ,ruthenia1 and differing both from the ,little ,russians and the ,russians4 ,the results of such ignorance of the ,ukrainian ,nation in the scientific world are disastrous for the ,ukrainians4 ,every appearance of the ,ukrainians in the political and cultural arena remains enigmatic to the whole world4 ,enigmatic remains the struggle of the ,ukrainians against ,russia and particularly against its ,russification policy4 ,in case after case it is explained by far-fetched political1 social and economic causes1 but never by national-cultural reasons4 ,for almost no one in ,europe knows that in the ,ukraine a great independent nation is struggling for its national life1 and not a political or social party for its significance in the state4 ,the struggle of the ,austrian ,ukrainians against the predominance of the ,poles in ,galicia seems hardly more reasonable to the foreigner than the striving of the ,russian ,ukrainians4 ,most incomprehensible here appears the struggle of the ,ukrainians against the ,russophile movements4 ,for a long time it was regarded as insincere1 or even as non-existing1 and this circumstance has brought the ,ukrainians innumerable political injuries4 ,from these briefly stated observations we see what obstacles are impeding the ,ukrainians in their efforts to bring their ,ukrainian nation to a point where it will be respected as an element of equal worth with the other nations of ,europe4 ,the two neighboring nations1 the ,polish and the ,russian1 politically and culturally stronger1 are trying to divide the ,ukrainians between themselves1 and are refusing them the right to exist as an independent nation4 ,against these appetites for conquest the comparatively small army of educated ,ukrainians is fighting with might and main1 supported semi-consciously by the mass of the ,ukrainian ,people4 ,the ,ukrainian peasantry has for centuries defied all attacks upon its ethnographic-national independence4 ,it refuses1 even in its most distant ,eastern ,siberian colonies1 to be assimilated by the ,russians4 ,this characteristic has made the ,ukrainians the subject of a proverb with their ,russian neighbors3 8,khakhol vsyegda khakhol0--the ,ukrainian remains a ,ukrainian everywhere4 ,in the following sections we shall discuss briefly all the foundations of the independence of the ,ukrainians as a nation4 ,the chief foundations of an independent nation are1 proceeding from the less important to the most important3 ,independent anthropological characteristics1 a distinct1 independent language1 uniform historico-political traditions and aspirations for the future1 an independent culture1 and1 especially1 a compact geographical territory4 ,,anthropological ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,ukrainians ,anthropology is a comparatively recent science4 ,barely a century has elapsed since the beginning of its serious work4 ,the material thus far collected by anthropological science1 while it might seem immense to some1 is1 nevertheless1 still small1 and what is even more important1 irregular4 ,concerning some races and peoples the science has many thousands of measurements at its command1 while other races and peoples are known from very few measurements4 ,for this reason the science of anthropology is still a long way removed from an exact knowledge and perfect description of different races and peoples4 ,even in ,europe1 where anthropological investigations have been based on a study of the greatest number of human individuals1 the distribution of various anthropological racial characteristics in different peoples and tribes of the continent were1 until recently1 very hard to interpret and to understand4 ,it is the pioneer work of investigation of ,deniker1 ,hamy and others1 that has made it possible to divide the population of ,europe into so-called anthropological races4 ,pure-blooded peoples1 all of whose individuals possess the same anthropological characteristics1 exist nowhere4 ,hardly in the most inaccessible corners of the globe1 are small primitive peoples found who approach the ideal of pure-bloodedness4 ,the great civilized peoples of the earth are all of them more or less heterogeneous peoples1 and show no uniform anthropological type4 ,this is true especially of the ,western and ,central ,european cultured peoples3 ,french1 ,english1 ,spanish1 ,italians1 even ,germans4 ,continued commixtures1 which can certainly be proved historically1 have entirely eradicated the original anthropological characteristics of these civilized nations4 ,no wonder1 then1 that anthropogeography1 in view of these most apparent examples1 has almost given up designating anthropological characteristics as the characteristics of nations4 ,but1 in considering an ,eastern ,european nation1 such misgivings of anthropogeographical science cannot be justified4 ,just as the physico-geographic conditions of ,western and ,central ,europe are measured by other standards than those of ,eastern ,europe1 so the anthropogeographical problems of this region1 too1 must be approached differently4 ,just as the physico-geographical variety of ,western and ,central ,europe gives way to ,eastern ,european uniformity in ,ukrainian territory1 so the anthropological variety gives place to greater unity4 ,vast areas of the ,ukraine1 even without any great natural hindrance1 were always unfavorable to separation into classes1 and did not encourage the development of physical differences4 ,and foreign admixtures are almost out of the question4 ,for the foreign peoples which1 since the earliest beginnings of history1 traversed or even dominated the region of the ,ukraine1 were first of all too small in number to make any noticeable impression on the anthropological type of the ,ukrainians4 ,and1 besides that1 the foreign races--almost all nomad peoples--came into the land as fierce enemies1 with whom there existed no voluntary peaceful relations4 ,for these reasons the ,ukrainian nation reveals a much greater uniformity in its anthropological aspect than the nations of ,western and ,central ,europe1 which1 in the course of history1 were visited by innumerable peoples of the most varied anthropological types1 who stayed there and were assimilated4 ,if1 therefore1 in these peoples1 anthropological characteristics can have no particular significance1 the matter is quite different with the ,ukrainians and many other ,eastern ,european nations4 ,here1 anthropological peculiarities still have considerable weight as distinguishing characteristics of nations4 ,investigations concerning the anthropology of the ,ukrainians began more than half a century ago4 ,but they were made1 without any system1 in different regions of the great national territory selected1 quite without a plan1 and for a long time gave no acceptable results4 ,not until the #bjth ,century was enough material gathered to at least make it possible to determine the main anthropological type of the ,ukrainians4 ,the most important investigators in this field are3 ,hopernitsky1 ,protzenko1 ,welker1 ,popov1 ,hilchenko1 ,krasnov1 ,petrov1 ,erckert1 ,emme1 ,talko ,hrincewich1 ,diebold1 ,biloyid1 ,anuchin1 ,ivanovsky1 ,vovk and ,rakovsky4 ,to be sure1 according to these investigations1 the ,ukrainians1 too1 are anthropologically a mixed race1 just as the other nations of ,europe4 ,but the formation of this mixed race took place in a very distant prehistoric past and later admixtures have been too insignificant to visibly change the original racial type of the ,ukrainians4 ,from the ,vislok to the ,kuban1 from the ,pripet to the ,black ,sea1 the ,ukrainian people constitute a uniform anthropological type4 ,this type has preserved itself in its purest state in one wide zone which embraces the ,ukrainian ,carpathian ,mountain lands1 ,pokutye1 ,podolia1 ,dnieper ,plateau and ,dnieper ,plain1 the ,donetz ,plateau and the ,kuban sub-,caucasus country4 ,tall stature1 with long legs and broad shoulders1 strongly pigmented complexion1 dark1 rich1 curly hair1 rounded head and long face with a high and broad brow1 dark eyes1 straight nose1 strongly developed elongated lower part of the face1 medium mouth and small ears2 that is the type4 ,outside the described main zone of distribution of the ,ukrainian racial type1 these characteristics become less and less sharply defined1 altho at all parts of the ethnographic boundary the anthropological differences of the ,ukrainians from their neighbors1 especially from the ,poles1 ,white ,russians and ,russians1 are very clearly marked4 ,the mean stature of the ,ukrainians is #afgj mm4 ,consequently the ,ukrainians are among the tallest peoples of ,europe1 and in this respect they surpass their neighboring nations by a great deal4 ,the average height of the ,white ,russians is only #afea mm41 the ,poles #afed mm41 the ,russian #afeg mm41 of #ajj individuals among the ,ukrainians1 #ec are taller than the average1 #dg shorter2 among the ,poles and ,russians #ea taller and #di shorter4 ,right here we see a great difference between the ,ukrainians and their neighbors1 as well as a great similarity of these three peoples4 ,the tall stature of the pure ,ukrainian racial type is pretty regular in the above-mentioned main zone4 ,the tallest stature is that of the ,kuban ,ukrainians of the sub-,caucasus country 7#agja mm474 ,it is due to the fact that the ,ukrainians of that region are1 to a great extent1 descendants of the ,zaporog ,cossacks1 who for centuries represented the flower of the physical power of the ,ukrainian people4 ,barely below that is the stature of the ,hutzuls 7#afic mm471 of the ,podolians1 ,volhynians and ,dnieper dwellers4 ,in ,central ,galicia1 ,podlakhia1 ,polissye1 in the ,don country1 that is in direct proximity to the ,poles1 ,white ,russians and ,russians1 the stature of the ,ukrainians decreases appreciably4 ,but1 even in these border countries1 the ,ukrainian people form a strong contrast1 with their higher stature1 to their neighbors1 especially to the ,russians1 with their heavy mixture of the small grown ,finnish-,mongolian elements4 ,anuchin emphasizes expressly that in those parts in any ,russian 8,government0 into which the smallest tip of ,ukrainian territory extends1 the average height of the recruits is noticeably increased4 ,because of their fine stature many ,ukrainians in ,russia are stationed in the regiments of the guard4 ,in the ,ukrainians1 the tall slender form is coupled with breadth of shoulders and great chest-measurement4 ,from the material gathered by ,ivanosky1 it is evident that in this respect the ,ukrainians surpass all their neighbors4 ,the average chest-measurement of the ,ukrainians is #ee4jd of the length of the body1 of the ,poles #ed4aa1 of the ,white ,russians #ec4hd1 of the ,russians only #eb4ah4 ,in respect of length of arms and legs1 the ,ukrainians again occupy an independent position among the nations of ,eastern ,europe4 ,in the ,white ,russians1 the length of the arms is #de4a of the length of the body1 in the ,poles and ,ukrainians #de4g1 in the ,russians #df4j4 ,the length of the legs is greatest in the ,ukrainians 7#ec4f71 much less in the ,poles 7#eb4a7 and ,white ,russians 7#ea4g71 and least in the ,russians 7#ej4e71 which again indicates considerable mixture of ,finnish-,mongolian blood4 7,the length of leg of the ,mordvines is only #di1 that of the ,altaic ,tartars #dh4f74 ,the most important anthropological characteristic was for a long time thought to be the shape of the skull4 ,the ,ukrainians belong 7as do all ,slavs1 for that matter7 to the class of ,brachicephalites 7short heads74 ,the average skull index in the ,ukrainians amounts to #hc4b4 ,among the neighboring peoples1 the ,poles 7#hb4a7 are least short-headed1 then follow the ,russians1 almost the same as the ,poles 7namely #hb4c71 and then further away the ,ukrainians 7#hc4b74 ,the greatest ,brachicephalousness appears in the ,white ,russians 7#he4a74 ,the height of the skull is greatest in the ,ukrainians 7#gj4c71 smaller in the ,russians 7#gj4a71 smallest in the ,white ,russians 7#ff4a74 ,the skull index of the ,ukrainians shows a similar territorial distribution as the stature4 ,the greatest brachicephalousness is found in the ,hutzuls2 it decreases continually as we go northeast and east1 so that in the ,don and ,kuban region the skull index is smallest4 ,besides1 the shortness of head of the ,ukrainians decreases regularly on the ,polish and ,russian borders1 as a result of centuries of proximity4 ,in the ,russians the shortness of head is much less marked than in the ,ukrainians1 because of the ,finnish strain1 in the ,poles because of the commixture with ,finns and a primeval ,european long-headed and light-haired race4 ,just as in the shape of the skull1 so also in the form of the nose1 the ,ukrainians reveal distinct differences from their neighbors4 ,in the ,ukrainians the nose is usually straight and thin4 ,the nasal index is #fg4g1 and consequently somewhat greater than in the ,poles 7#ff4b74 ,then follow the ,russians 7#fh4e7 and the ,white ,russians 7#fi4b74 ,the width of the face in the ,ukrainians is on the average #ahj1 that of the ,poles #aha1 of the ,russians #ahb1 of the ,white ,russians #ahf2 the facial index in the ,ukrainians #gh4a1 in the ,white ,russians #gf4b1 in the ,poles #gf4c1 in the ,russians #gf4g4 ,here1 too1 we note the great difference of the ,ukrainians from their neighbors and the similarity of these to one another4 ,the color of hair and eyes is by far not so sure an anthropological characteristic as the above-mentioned1 yet constitutes an important complement4 ,in this respect1 too1 the position of the ,ukrainians among their neighbor nations is just as independent as in regard to the above discussed characteristics4 ,among the ,ukrainians dark shades predominate1 so that out of #ajj individuals only #bi4e have light hair and eyes1 #ce medium color1 and #ce dark4 ,in the ,russians the percentages run #cg light1 #da medium1 #bb dark2 in the ,poles #ce light1 #df medium and only #ai dark4 ,thus the light type is much more common in the neighboring races than in the ,ukrainians4 ,in the distribution of color of eyes and hair in the ,ukrainians the same territorial law holds as in the distribution of stature and shape of skull4 ,in the main zone of the ,ukrainian racial type1 but especially in the southwest1 the color of hair and eyes is most characteristically represented4 ,near the ,polish1 ,white ,russian and ,russian borders1 the ,ukrainian type loses much of its peculiarity4 ,this short anthropological sketch of the ,ukrainians1 despite its scanty and general character1 enables us to perceive very clearly that the ,ukrainians show extremely little anthropological similarity to the ,poles1 ,white ,russians and ,russians4 ,on the other hand1 all of these neighboring races of the ,ukrainians are very similar1 and closely related to each other4 ,the ,pole1 the ,white ,russian and the ,russian1 stand very close to one another1 while the ,ukrainian is very different from all his neighbors and1 from an anthropological point of view1 holds an entirely independent position4 ,the vanity of the impression that the ,ukrainians are ,polonized ,russians or ,russified ,poles1 therefore1 becomes apparent at once4 ,the 8unity theories10 ,polish and ,russian1 which are based on perverted historical and philological phrases1 are here opposed by a natural science1 with its exact results of investigations4 ,but anthropology discredits not only these theories which are still dominating ,european science4 ,several ,polish historians have recently evolved a new theory of the origin of the ,ukrainians and spread it thru ,europe4 ,according to this theory the ,ukrainians are a mixture of ,slavs and the ,mongolian-,turkish nomad tribes which traversed and commanded the ,ukrainian steppes for centuries2 they are a semi-nomadic steppe people1 incapable of culture1 whose development might bring with it the greatest dangers for ,european civilization4 ,the science of anthropology1 however1 robs this theory of its very foundation4 ,the ,mongolian-,turkish nomad tribes were almost all distinguished by low stature1 short legs1 long arms and round heads4 ,the same characteristics should therefore appear very distinctly in the ,ukrainian racial type4 ,but the ,ukrainians have a higher stature than any of the neighboring peoples1 the longest legs1 and arms of medium length4 ,and the brachicephalousness of the ,ukrainians is least just in the east1 where mixing with the ,mongolian tribes could proceed most easily4 ,the anthropological type of the ,ukrainians1 then1 reveals complete individuality as opposed to the ,polish1 ,white ,russian and ,russian type1 and betrays no noticeable trace of a ,mongolian admixture4 ,the difference of the ,ukrainian type from the types of other ,eastern ,slavs caught the attention of the great geographer1 ,reclus1 in the eighties of the past century4 ,at that time he noticed the closer relationship of the ,ukrainians to the ,southern ,slavs4 ,toward the end of the #aith ,century1 ,hamy divided all the ,slavs into two large groups1 a tall brachicephalous group with dark hair1 and a short1 less brachicephalous group with light hair4 ,in the first group he included the ,serbians1 ,croatians1 ,slovenes1 ,czechs and ,ukrainians2 in the second the ,polabians1 ,poles1 ,white ,russians and ,russians4 ,a similar division was accepted also by ,deniker4 ,according to his view the ,ukrainians belong to the so-called ,adriatic 7,dinaric7 ,race1 while the ,poles and the ,russians belong to the two closely related races1 the ,vistula ,race and the ,oriental ,race1 respectively4 ,the ,adriatic ,race has recently come to be considered by many the specifically ,slavic ,race4 ,however1 it has remained comparatively pure only in the case of the ,southern ,slavs and the ,ukrainians1 while the ,northern ,slavic races reveal strong foreign admixtures4 ,anthropology shows us1 in the ,ukrainians1 a finely grown1 physically sturdy race of men4 ,another characteristic of the ,ukrainian ,people is its great fecundity4 ,wherever the ,ukrainian ,people has not yet degenerated thru social pressure and the spread of pauperism1 it shows remarkably high birth figures1 which1 despite the high infant mortality resulting from the low grade of culture1 occasion a very rapid increase in population4 ,the birth rate and rate of increase 7#aijj-aijd7 for the central districts of the ,ukraine in ,european ,russia are on the average yearly3 ,volhynia #d4e and #b1 ,podolia #d4c and #a4h1 ,kiev #d and #a4d1 ,kherson #d4e and #b1 ,tauria #d4b and #a4i1 ,katerinoslav #e4f and #b4h1 ,chernihiv #d4f and #b1 ,poltava #d4c and #a4i1 ,kharkiv #d4i and #b4 ,galicia1 in the early years of the century1 has had a yearly increase in population of #a4f to #a4h4 ,these figures1 which are much higher than the corresponding figures in ,polish or ,russian national territory1 constitute one of the less agreeable facts which enable us to look with confidence toward the future of the ,ukrainian nation4 ,for the greater increase of the ,ukrainians is not due to a higher state of culture of the neighbor nations4 ,the ,polish and ,russian peasantry is not only not superior to the ,ukrainian in respect to culture1 but1 on the contrary1 inferior4 ,the greater increase of the ,ukrainians is connected only with their superior racial qualities4 ,,the ,,ukrainian ,,language ,language is not an absolutely necessary distinguishing characteristic of a nation1 as is shown by the examples of the ,swiss1 the ,north ,americans1 and the ,spanish and ,portuguese daughter-nations in ,america4 ,if the ,ukrainians1 determining to be considered an independent nation1 had the remaining characteristics of an independent nation1 they would certainly be one even if their language were identical with the ,russian1 ,white ,russian or ,polish4 ,but1 in this regard1 the ,ukrainians are in the favorable position of really calling an independent language their own4 ,to be sure1 the opinion has been to a great extent spread thruout ,europe that the ,ukrainian language is a rural dialect of the ,polish language1 and official ,russia is still encouraging the view that there is only a 8,little ,russian dialect0 of the ,russian language2 ,european science and publicism opened the doors to both the above-mentioned unity theories1 and the ,russian unity theory has become the solely dominating one even in ,german science4 ,slavic philology passes a different judgment4 ,with the exception of a few ,pan-,russian philologists 7,florinsky1 etc471 who1 as a matter of fact1 are not capable philologists at all1 the entire philological profession is decided on the point that the ,ukrainian language is related to the ,russian and the ,polish only to the extent that the ,serbian and ,bulgarian are1 for instance1 or the ,polish and ,czechic4 ,the investigations of ,miklosich1 ,malinovsky1 ,dahl1 ,maksimovich1 ,potebnia1 ,zitetsky1 ,ohonovsky1 ,shakhmatov1 ,broch1 ,baudouin de ,courtenay1 ,fortunatov1 ,korsh1 ,krimsky1 ,satotsky1 and others1 have proved beyond a doubt that the ,ukrainian language is not a dialect of the ,russian language1 but an independent language of equal rank with the ,russian4 ,the same opinion has been expressed most forcibly by the ,st4 ,petersburg ,academy of ,sciences in its famous official decision1 8,concerning the ,removal of the ,restrictions on ,little ,russian ,publications1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #aije40 ,the ,academy emphasized expressly that the ,russian and ,ukrainian languages are two independent languages of equal rank4 ,the ,russian written language is not built up on a general ,east ,slavic1 but only on a ,great ,russian foundation4 ,hence1 it cannot be forced upon the ,ukrainians1 since they have a completely developed written language at their command4 ,it is very likely that1 in a far distant prehistoric time1 all ,eastern ,slavic tribes1 the ancestors of the present ,ukrainians1 ,white ,russians and ,russians1 spoke a common tongue4 ,but soon after the beginnings of historical life in ,eastern ,europe we see these ,slavic races divided lingually into three groups4 ,in the #aath ,century1 the differences between the language spoken in ,kiev or ,halich on the one hand1 and ,vladimir on the ,klasma or ,sugdal on the other1 were already distinct4 ,the political unification of all the ,eastern ,slavic tribes in the ,kiev ,empire could not eradicate these differences between ,north and ,south1 and they are very evident in the literary monuments of that time4 ,the disruption of the ,empire of ,kiev into loosely connected principalities1 the formation of the ,muscovite political center1 the decline of ,kiev--all went to strengthen the lingual antitheses between the ancestors of the ,ukrainians and those of the ,russians4 ,the ,tatar oppression finally separated the ,muscovite group permanently from the ,ukrainian1 forcing each to lead a separate historical life4 ,the ,ukraine fell under ,lithuanian1 then ,polish rule2 ,muscovy gradually developed into the ,russian ,empire4 ,the differences in language1 which in the #adth ,century were already appreciable1 increased so strongly thru the independent development of each language that in the #ahth ,century1 when ,russia received the greatest part of the ,ukraine beneath her dominion1 the ,russian and ,ukrainian languages confronted one another as entirely independent languages4 ,according to the investigations of ,stotzky and ,gartner1 the ,ukrainian language1 from a philological point of view1 is related to the ,russian only to about the same extent that it is related to the ,polish or ,czechic4 ,of all ,slavic languages the nearest to the ,ukrainian is the ,serbo-,croatian4 ,from this it follows that the ,ukrainians must at one time have had a much closer community with the ,serbo-,croations than with the ,russians4 ,we see here a fine example of how relationship of languages goes hand in hand with anthropological relationship4 7,incidentally1 proof is herewith presented that the anthropological characteristics in the peoples of ,eastern ,europe have an entirely different significance from the same in ,western and ,central ,europe74 ,this coincidence of two sciences1 entirely independent of one another1 causes the ,ukrainians to appear to us a very peculiar independent unit in the ,slavic family of races4 ,only the restriction of the knowledge of ,ukrainian among ,slavists1 the interpretation of ,eastern ,european history always from the ,russian point of view1 the common church language1 which1 for a long time1 was the basis of the written language as well1 the unfortunate confusion due to the name ,russ1 ,russki1 which as ancient state designations for the ,empire of ,kiev were usurped by the ,muscovite ,empire and applied to all ,eastern ,slavic nations2 these things have made it possible to conceal the real state of affairs from the eyes of ,european science and have helped establish the ,russian unity theory4 ,that the ,ukrainian language is independent and entirely different from ,russian or ,polish is known to every illiterate peasant from one end of the ,ukraine to the other4 ,he does not understand the ,pole and the ,russian2 likewise his language is unintelligible to a ,pole or ,russian4 ,polish is the more easily understood by the uneducated ,ukrainian1 since the living together of the ,poles and ,ukrainians for centuries in the ,polish-,lithuanian state resulted in important influences in both directions1 especially in the vocabulary4 ,but ,russian1 with its strange vocabulary and phonetic character1 different manner of word-building1 declension and conjugation1 is for a ,ukrainian a difficult foreign language4 ,how much trouble must the ,ukrainian peasantry endure at every step because the unintelligible ,russian language is used exclusively in administration1 court1 school and church6 ,the educated ,ukrainian who has been trained in ,russian schools has had much trouble to learn his ,russian1 and he never has so complete a command of it that a ,russian could not immediately recognize 8the ,khakhol in him40 ,for an educated ,ukrainian trained outside of ,russia1 ,russian is as hard to learn1 if not more so1 than the ,polish1 ,czechic or ,serbian4 ,such obvious facts convince us of the independence of the ,ukrainian language1 perhaps1 more forcibly than the arguments of learned philologists4 ,the ,ukrainian language1 like every other great ,european language1 is not uniform4 ,because of the great extent of the ,ukrainian territory and the great population1 favorable conditions have always been present for the formation of dialects and idioms4 ,the ,ukrainian language has four dialects1--the ,south ,ukrainian1 the ,north ,ukrainian1 the ,galician 7,red ,ruthenian71 and the ,carpathian mountain dialect4 ,the ,south ,ukrainian dialect embraces the south of the region of ,kiev1 ,kursk1 ,voroniz1 the entire regions of ,poltava1 ,kharkiv1 ,kherson1 ,katerinoslav1 ,tauria1 ,don and ,kuban4 ,it possesses three idioms2--the northern1 which constitutes the basis of the present ,ukrainian literary language1 the central1 and the southern or steppe idiom4 ,the ,north ,ukrainian dialect includes the ,chernihov country1 the northern part of the ,kiev district1 ,northern ,volhynia1 the ,polissye along the ,pripet1 and the northern part of the ,pidlassye4 ,its idioms are the ,chernihov1 the ,north ,ukrainian proper1 the ,polissian1 and the ,black ,ruthenian4 ,the ,galician or ,ruthenian dialect takes in3 ,galicia 7outside of the mountains71 the ,kholm region1 ,southern ,volhynia and ,western ,podolia1 and possesses two idioms1--the ,podolian-,volhynian and the ,galician 7,dniester7 idiom4 ,the ,carpathian ,mountain dialect includes the entire ,ukrainian ,carpathian country and has four idioms1--the ,hutzulian1 the ,boikish1 the ,lemko idiom1 and the ,slovak-,ruthenian border-idiom4 ,the ,ukrainian dialects and idioms differ very little from one another1 as indeed is the case with all the dialects and idioms of all the ,slavic languages4 ,a comparison of the ,ukrainian dialects and idioms with the ,german1 for instance1 is entirely impossible4 ,the ,kuban ,cossack or the ,boiko1 an ,ukrainian inhabitant of ,polissye or of ,bessarabia1 understand one another without the slightest difficulty4 ,only the ,lemko idiom and ,ruthenian-,slovak border-idiom show greater differences than other ,ukrainian idioms4 ,beyond that1 a great uniformity of language prevails thruout the wide areas of the ,ukraine4 ,a popular tale taken on a phonograph in the ,kuban sub-,caucasus country is heard with the same understanding in a peasants' reading society in the neighborhood of ,peremishl1 as if it came from a neighboring village1 instead of a border country of the ,ukraine thousands of kilometers distant4 ,the same folk-songs1 proverbs and fairy tales are found in ,pidlassye and along the ,manich1 at ,chernihiv and ,odessa1 on the ,don and on the ,dniester4 ,the ,ukrainian language is distinguished by advantages which insure it a high place among ,slavic languages4 ,the great wealth of vowels1 the full tone1 the softness and flexibility1 the transition of many vowels to the i-sound1 the absence of the massing of several consonants in one syllable1 make ,ukrainian the most melodious ,slavic language4 ,after the ,italian language the ,ukrainian is best adapted for singing4 ,most important1 however1 is the great richness of the ,ukrainian language4 ,this richness is all the more remarkable in that it did not come about thru centuries of development of the language in literature and science4 ,the common people have collected and preserved the treasures of the ,ukrainian language4 ,while the vocabulary of an ,english farmer1 according to ,ratzel1 does not include more than three hundred words1 the ,ukrainian peasant uses as many thousands4 ,and1 incidentally1 the purity of the language is remarkable4 ,barely a few borrowed words have been introduced into the language of the people thru the centuries of contact with neighboring peoples4 ,they disappear entirely amid the wealth of pure ,ukrainian words4 ,what interests us geographers and natural scientists most of all is the wonderful wealth of the colloquial language in very striking names for surface forms1 natural phenomena1 plants and animals4 ,the construction and codification of the ,ukrainian terminology of natural sciences and geography was1 therefore1 very easy4 ,the infant science of the ,ukraine possesses a terminology which1 for example1 far surpasses the ,russian4 ,the most important proofs of the independence of the ,ukrainian language are ,ukrainian literature and ,ukrainian science4 ,the ,ukrainian language has given proof1 thru its development of a thousand years1 that it is capable of giving expression to the loftiest products of human feeling and human intellect4 ,ukrainian national literature cannot possibly be compared with the literature of a ,provenal or ,low ,german dialect1 which represents the daily life of a small group of people4 ,ukrainian ,literature is the versatile literature of a great nation2 a literature which looks back upon a history of a thousand years and continues to develop in spite of all obstacles4 ,a strong foundation is furnished it in the remarkably rich1 popular poetry1 which has not a counterpart in the entire civilized world4 ,ukrainian ,literature holds a high place among ,slavic literatures4 ,only ,russian and ,polish ,literature surpass it in the number and greatness of their works4 ,the history of almost a thousand years of ,ukrainian ,literature begins at the time of the fullest development of the ,kiev ,empire1 when the so-called ,chronicle of ,nestor originated1 the ,galician-,volhynian ,chronicle1 the powerful ,epic of ,igor and other important monuments of ,ukrainian ,literature 7the works of ,ilarion1 ,serapion1 ,kirilo ,turivsky1 etc474 ,their language is built up upon the ,church-,slavonic dialect1 but presents great linguistic departures1 as early as the #aath ,century1 from the literary works simultaneously produced in the ,russian territory to the north4 ,this promising beginning of the old ,ukrainian ,literature was almost completely crushed by five centuries of ,tatar barbarism4 ,the continuous state of war1 the loss of their independent political organization1 the crushing foreign yoke1 permitted only a weak vegetating of ,ukrainian ,literature for five centuries4 ,legal1 theological1 philosophical and polemic literary monuments and the beginnings of the drama1 written in a ,macaronic language made up of a mixture of ,ukrainian and ,church-,slavonic1 can at the most be considered proof that the educated ,ukrainians of that time had too little leisure and opportunity to devote themselves to artistic literature4 ,but these times of decline of the written literature are at once the times of the greatest flourishing of the unwritten literature of the people4 ,the old pre-christian religious and secular songs and tales were not forgotten1 and the active1 warlike life of the nation created an immense mass of epic folk-lore dumy1 which was sung by by wandering minstrels 7kobzar1 bandurist74 ,toward the end of the #ahth ,century1 when the political and national destruction of the ,ukrainian nation seemed inevitable1 the ,ukrainian popular literature reached such a high stage of development that it awoke the educated classes of the nation to new literary life4 ,through the introduction of the pure popular speech into ,ukrainian ,literature 7by ,kotlarevsky1 in #agih71 and thru the great influence of the popular literature1 the foundation was laid for an unanticipated rise of ,ukrainian ,literature4 ,in the course of the #aith ,century the history of ,ukrainian ,literature has a number of great poets and prose writers to show1 who would be a credit even to the greatest literatures of the world 7,shevchenko1 ,vovchok1 ,kulish1 ,fedkovich1 ,franko1 ,mirni1 ,kotsiubinsky1 ,vinnichenko and others71 as well as a considerable number of lesser poets4 ,great versatility characterizes the works of ,ukrainian ,literature in the #aith ,century1 and in the #bjth ,century its development in all directions is making giant strides4 ,the second half of the #aith ,century was also marked by a very active study of the sciences1 leading to the founding of two learned bodies very much along the plan of the so-called 8,academies0 7in ,lemberg and ,kiev74 ,in every branch of human knowledge the ,ukrainians can already point to publications1 books and dissertations in their own language4 ,the versatility and richness of ,ukrainian ,literature assure it a prominent place among ,slavonic literatures1 thus furnishing proof1 if any is needed1 that the ,ukrainian language is not a mere dialect1 but a civilized language in every sense of the word2 and the testimony of ,ukrainian scholarship strengthens the case beyond a doubt4 ,for surely nobody could discuss problems of higher mathematics1 biology or geomorphology in a dialect analogous to the ,provenal or ,low ,german4 ,the rise of the ,ukrainian literary language from the speech of the common people makes clear that it will be an admirable means of educating the race1 in view of its well-known intelligence1 into an enlightened and progressive nation4 ,but the ,russian government has been thoroughly aware of this1 and for fear of national separatism1 has left no stone unturned in its efforts to stop the development of ,ukrainian ,literature and1 finally1 by the famous ukase of the ,czar of the year #ahgf has forbidden absolutely the publication of any writings in the ,ukrainian language4 ,none but a really living and significant literature could have survived these thirty years 7#ahgf-aije7 of repression1 and ,ukrainian ,literature has stood the test6 ,,historico-,,political ,,traditions ,,and ,,aspirations ,,of ,,the ,,ukrainians ,anthropological and lingual distinguishing characteristics are not sufficient to make a race into a nation4 ,an individual nation1 whether it be a ,staatsnation or a ,kulturnation1 must have its own historical tradition1 its own sacrifices and heroes1 its own historical griefs and joys4 ,these are the basis of the united aspiration to an ideal of the future1 of that constant plebiscite which ,e4 ,renan regards as the thing which makes a race into a nation4 ,now it is really the historico-political traditions which are very strongly developed in the ,ukrainians4 ,the story of his fatherland1 full of the most terrible catastrophes1 with the frightful ,tatar menace and the oppression enduring for centuries1 still lives in the consciousness of even the most uneducated ,ukrainian4 ,how few happy moments does the history of the ,ukraine present1 and yet no people in the world so dearly loves its past and so piously honors its national heroes as the ,ukrainian ,people4 ,and in this connection ,i do not mean the educated ,ukrainians who know the history of their country1 but the illiterate peasant1 who recalls in his songs the naval expeditions to ,constantinople1 the old princes of the ,kiev dynasty1 the hetmans1 and the great commanders of the ,cossack period4 ,it is the historico-political tradition1 living even in the lowest ranks of the nation1 that gives the ,ukrainians their most important indications of separate national existence4 ,and1 had it not been for the dense ignorance that prevails in ,western ,europe regarding the history of the eastern half of the continent1 and for the advertising carried on to this very day by ,russian scholars in behalf of their propaganda for 8,russian0 history1 which has worked its way into all the history books1 this real condition of affairs could never have been obscured so long4 ,we shall now attempt to determine the main lines of the ,ukrainian historical tradition1 basing our exposition on the works of ,kostomariv1 ,antonovich1 ,drahomaniv1 ,hrushevsky and others4 ,the historical life of the ,ukrainian ,nation has been of an entirely different type from that of the ,poles or ,russians4 ,hence1 the historical traditions and1 consequently1 the present political aspirations of the three nations1 are entirely different4 ,the ,ukrainian historical tradition has its roots in the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev4 ,altho the historians of ,eastern ,europe are still undecided as to whether the so-called ,old ,russian ,kingdom was founded by the ,varangians in the present ,northern ,russia1 or by the ,eastern ,slavic tribes of the south in ,kiev1 ,i have no doubt that the latter view should be approved4 ,anthropogeography knows no instance of a pirate band1 at most a few thousand strong1 which1 within a few decades1 could constitute a kingdom embracing half a continent4 ,the ,normans1 to be sure1 were able to found governments in ,normandy1 ,naples and ,sicily2 they were even able to conquer the ,england of their day and to settle there1 because everywhere they could take advantage of already existing state organizations and modify them to suit their purpose4 ,whenever the state organization was just in its beginnings1 as for instance1 in their own country1 the ,normans exhibited no particular capacity for state-organization4 ,the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev1 which is called 8,old ,russian0 in all historical works1 was a state organized by the southern group of the ,eastern ,slavic races1 particularly the ,polan race around ,kiev4 ,the tribal chiefs1 who had grown rich thru commercial relations with ,byzantium1 founded the ,state of ,kiev4 ,this government was already in existence in the beginning of the #ith ,century4 ,with the aid of mercenaries from ,scandinavia 7,varangians7 who1 since the middle of the #ith ,century1 had been serving in the armies of the princes of ,kiev1 the ,kingdom during the #ajth ,century gave remarkable evidences of a very unusual activity of expansion4 ,the ,northern ,slavic tribes1 the forbears of the ,russians of today1 were subjugated1 the nomadic tribes of the steppes were driven back1 commercial and cultural relations were established with the ,byzantine ,empire4 ,in the year #ihh the ,great ,prince of ,kiev 7,vladimir the ,great71 together with all his peoples accepted ,greek ,christianity--with ,slavic rites4 ,there ensued1 especially under his successor1 ,yaroslav the wise1 a great advance in the material and spiritual civilization of the ancient ,ukrainians4 ,the fact that the ancient state of ,kiev1 as well as its civilization1 was produced by the ancient ,ukrainians1 is evident1 not only from the fact that the most ancient literary monuments of ,kiev already show specifically ,ukrainian peculiarities of language4 ,a still more important piece of evidence is the constitution of the ,kingdom of ,kiev1 which originated thru the amalgamation of the newly organized royal power with the original republican constitution of the ,ukrainians4 ,the ancient clan constitution has been of as fundamental importance for the historico-political tradition of the ,ukraine as the ,kingdom of ,kiev itself4 ,all the power of government rested originally in the hands of the general assembly of all freemen1 whose decrees were executed by elected officials1 consisting in part of the war-chieftains 7probably the later princes74 ,in the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev there was constant opposition between the power of the princes1 which originated later and rested on military might1 and the power of the clan assembly1 sanctioned by long tradition4 ,the ,prince1 his retainers1 and the ,boyar nobility1 which gradually developed out of the body of retainers1 were never liked by the people4 ,the ,kingdom of ,kiev grew out of the union of trade1 and was a union which at that time was necessary4 ,the governmental system established by the princes of the ,kiev dynasty1 on foreign models1 was inherently alien to the original social-political system of the ,ukrainian ,people1 so that the amalgamation of these two elements was difficult1 in fact1 almost impossible4 ,altho1 as time passed1 the ,general ,assembly 7viche--a name that is applied to all political assemblies of the ,ukrainians to this day7 partly regained their former power1 and1 altho at the same time various provisions of the original constitution sifted into the new governmental organization1 monarchy1 nevertheless1 always remained something extraneous and unpleasant to the people4 ,there is no wonder1 therefore1 that the ,state of ,kiev never attained a power in keeping with its great territory and population4 ,the people ostensibly supported everything which tended to weaken the power of the government4 ,thru the entire existence of the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev1 its ,great ,princes were forced to wrestle with the ,boyar nobility and the people for absolute power4 ,this limitation of the monarchic power turned out to be a disaster for the ,kingdom of ,kiev4 ,by applying the practice of succession to the throne1 in accordance with a principle known as that of 8seniority10 there resulted the formation of numerous petty principalities1 all rather loosely1 perhaps only nominally1 subject to the authority of the ,great ,prince of ,kiev4 ,the ,boyar caste and the people were very persistent in their labors to aid in the formation and maintenance of these petty principalities thruout the southern portion of the ,kingdom of ,kiev4 ,at the same time1 it is very probable that if the ancient ,state of ,kiev had survived a longer time1 the ,ukrainian ,people would gradually have become accustomed to a constitution founded on caste and privilege4 ,it would also have been possible1 as early as the ,middle ,ages1 for the ,ukrainian ,people to attain a constitutional monarchy4 ,but things happened differently4 ,the ,kingdom1 weakened by partitions1 was soon confronted by a powerful enemy in the young ,muscovite ,state which was formed by the northern petty principalities of the ,kingdom4 ,in a series of bloody wars with the ,muscovite ,state1 ,kiev was so permanently weakened that the headquarters of ,ukrainian political life had to be shifted southward1 in the #acth ,century1 to ,halich on the ,dniester4 ,then1 the situation of this ,kiev country was such as to expose it to continuous invasion on the part of the nomadic warlike tribes which infested the steppes of the ,ukraine4 ,but the nation managed to hold them in check during this weary term of warfare4 ,when1 however1 the hosts of the ,mongol potentate1 ,djingis ,khan1 appeared in the ,pontian steppes1 the resources of ,kiev and ,halich were no longer equal to the pressure4 ,in the three days' battle on the ,kalka 7#abbd7 their army was annihilated1 and in #abdj the city of ,kiev was razed to the ground4 ,the principality 7later kingdom7 of ,halich survived it by almost a century1 but could not withstand the continued aggressions of the ,tatars on the one side and of the ,poles and ,lithuanians on the other2 in #acdj it was incorporated with ,poland by right of succession1 and thus ended the first national organization of the ,ukrainian ,people4 ,all the ,ukraine1 excepting the forest regions in the northwest1 had been completely devastated4 ,the ,polish-,lithuanian state treated the ,ukraine as conquered territory4 ,being now dissenters in the midst of a ,catholic state1 the ,ukrainian nobles were limited in their prerogatives1 and deserted their faith and their nationality1 in order to have a share in the golden freedom of ,poland4 ,the burgher class was tyrannized 7as was the practice all over ,poland72 the peasant became a serf4 ,the splendid task of an ecclesiastical union with ,rome was solved 7,florence1 #adci2 ,brest #aeif7 in an unsatisfactory manner and bore little fruit at the time4 ,every ,ukrainian was made to feel the iron hand of the ,polish government1 and their dissatisfaction expressed itself in numerous rebellions4 ,and yet the ,polish-,lithuanian ,state was far too weak to protect the ,ukraine against the onslaughts of the ,tatars4 ,every year these hordes of riders sallied forth from the ,crimea1 pushing their invasions even as far as ,galicia and ,volhynia1 devastating the country and depopulating it by seizures of slaves1 conducted according to a systematic plan4 ,the victims of this slave trade filled the markets of the ,orient for centuries4 ,it was inevitable that this sorely-tried nation should take steps to defend itself4 ,and its efforts were successful in that they led to the formation of a new independent state1 but unsuccessful in that they exhausted its resources and later had a tragical outcome4 ,the constant state of warfare on the ,tatar border forced the ,ukrainian population in those parts to adopt a policy of continual 8,preparedness40 ,these fighting people of the marshes led a precarious life1 but they had access to the virgin lands of the borders with all their natural treasures1 and the exploiting ,polish officials did not dare venture forth into these dangerous districts4 ,these armed farmers1 hunters and fishermen led an independent life and called themselves ,cossacks1 i4e41 8free warriors40 ,in the #afth ,century there arose among these ,ukrainian ,cossacks a military state organization1 the center of which was a strongly fortified position below the rapids of the ,dnieper 7the ,zaporog ,sich74 ,the ,zaporog warrior state1 compared by some to a religious order of knights 7because of their compulsory celibacy and their wars against unbelievers71 by others to a communistic republic1 shows us most clearly what has always been the goal of the ,ukrainian 8political idea40 ,in the ,zaporog organization1 absolute equality of all citizens in all political and social rights prevailed above all else4 ,all authority was vested in the ,general ,assembly of all the ,zaporogs1 and their decisions were enforced by elective officers who were1 at the same time1 officers of the army4 ,the liberty of the individual was very great1 but had to yield to the will of the whole4 ,and when1 in time of war1 the ,general ,assembly delegated unlimited dictatorial power to the highest official1 the ,hetman1 it gave him a degree of authority with which the power of any one of the absolute rulers of ,europe at the time could not be compared4 ,in the aristocratic state organization of ,poland there was no room for such a lawless democratic state as that of the ,zaporogs was in ,polish eyes4 ,the entire ,ukrainian nation regarded the ,zaporog ,cossacks as their natural defenders against the terrible ,tatar peril1 and likewise as their sole hope as opposed to the oppression practiced by the ,poles4 ,an ominous discontent prevailed thruout the ,ukraine1 and after the ,poles had naturally taken severe measures1 a number of ,cossack revolts occurred in rapid succession1 beginning toward the end of the #afth ,century and filling the first half of the #agth4 ,in these revolts the ,cossacks were supported by the oppressed peasantry4 ,but the ,polish ,kingdom was rather deficient1 always1 as far as its standing army was concerned1 and was obliged to appeal to the ,ukrainian ,cossack organization1 which it could not possibly destroy1 to aid in its wars against the ,turks1 the ,russians and the ,swedes4 ,finally1 in #afdh1 the ,ukrainian ,cossacks1 aided by the entire people1 from the ,dnieper to the ,san1 raised the standard of rebellion1 and under the leadership of ,bohdan ,khmelnitsky1 succeeded in annihilating the ,polish armies4 ,thus the ,ukrainian ,nation fought for and won its independence again after three hundred years of a foreign yoke4 ,khmelnitsky1 after his victory over the ,poles1 extended the ,cossack organization beyond the narrow bounds of the ,zaporoze1 over the entire huge area of the ,ukraine4 ,surrounded by enemies on all sides1 the new state needed calm and quiet to enable it to achieve the necessary internal organization4 ,much time was needed to organize the new order completely in so enormous a country1 to bring to a successful conclusion the fight against the ,polish social-political order1 which had prevailed here so long and was so different from the ,ukrainian4 ,it required much time to work out new constitutional forms1 which were inevitable1 now that the ,zaporog organization was extended over great areas4 ,khmelnitsky negotiated with all the surrounding governments and peoples1 with the ,poles1 the ,transylvanians1 the ,swedes1 the ,turks1 and finally1 in #afed1 concluded the treaty of ,pereyaslav with ,russia1 with which they were related by ties of religion4 ,this treaty provided that the ,ukraine should retain a complete autonomy1 as well as their ,cossack organization1 the latter under the suzerainty of the ,czar4 ,the ,hetman1 who was to be elected by the votes of the ,general ,assembly1 was even to retain the right of conducting an independent foreign policy4 ,but ,russia had no mind to respect the treaty that bound it in dual alliance with the warlike ,ukrainian nation4 ,the democratic form of government in the ,ukraine was an abomination to ,russia1 just as it was to aristocratic ,poland4 ,once the ,cossack republic was under the control of ,moscow1 the ,russian government felt that not a stone must be left unturned to destroy this dangerous national organism4 ,taking advantage of the untimely death of ,khmelnitsky 7#afeg71 and the incompetence of his immediate successors1 ,russia began her political machinations in the ,ukraine4 ,the ,cossack generals were inspired with prejudice against the ,hetman1 the common ,cossacks against their superior officers1 and the common people against all who were wealthy and in authority2 huge sums of money were spent1 successfully1 and vast tracts of land granted as fiefs2 and ,russia thus fished in troubled waters to very good advantage4 ,at every successive election of a new ,hetman the autonomy of the ,ukraine was cut down1 and in the ,peace of ,andrussovo 7#affg7 with ,poland1 the country was partitioned4 ,of the two sections1 one1 that nearest to ,poland1 which had been dreadfully devastated and depopulated1 was ceded to that country1 and this section very soon lost its ,ukrainian form of government and its ,cossack organization4 ,the section on the other side1 the left side1 east of the ,dnieper1 under its dashing ,hetman1 ,mazeppa1 made an effort1 during the ,scandinavian ,war1 to throw off the ,russian yoke4 ,mazeppa made an alliance with ,charles ,,xii of ,sweden4 ,but the ,battle of ,poltava 7#agji7 buried all his hopes4 ,he had to flee to ,turkey with ,charles ,,xii1 and the ,ukrainian rebellion was put down by ,peter the ,great with the most frightful atrocities1 and finally the guaranteed autonomy of the ,ukraine was abolished4 ,to be sure1 the title of ,hetman was again introduced after the death of ,peter the ,great1 but it had only a wretched semblance of life4 ,even this shadow of autonomy was destroyed in #agfd2 in #agge the last bulwark of the ,ukraine1 the ,zaporog ,sich1 fell into the hands of the ,russians thru treachery1 and was destroyed by them4 ,the peasants became serfs4 ,russia thus succeeded1 in the course of about a century and a half1 in completely wiping out the later1 second ,ukrainian state4 ,the devious policy ,russia was simultaneously carrying on in ,poland1 led also to the latter's downfall4 ,in the successive partitions of ,poland 7#aggb-agie71 the entire part of that nation which was inhabited by ,ukrainians1 with the exception of ,eastern ,galicia and the ,bukowina1 which fell to ,austria1 became the property of ,russia4 ,but ,russia was not satisfied with political domination alone4 ,russia already understood1 in the #agth ,century1 that the ,ukrainians differed entirely from the ,russians in language1 customs and views of life4 ,the ,russian government1 therefore1 inaugurated a policy of rigid repression of all these points of difference4 ,as early as #afhj it prohibited any use of the ,ukrainian language in ecclesiastical literature4 ,in #agbj1 the printing of any ,ukrainian books at all was forbidden4 ,all ,ukrainian schools were closed4 ,in the middle of the #ahth ,century there were1 in the province of ,chernihov1 #hff schools that had been founded during the period of ,ukrainian autonomy2 sixty years later not one of these was in existence4 ,this1 together with the attempt to introduce the ,russian language1 which none of them understands1 is the cause of the overwhelming percentage of analphabets among the ,ukrainians4 ,the ,ukrainian orthodox church1 which enjoyed absolute autonomy1 with a sort of loose subordination to the ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 was made subject to the ,patriarch of ,moscow 7later to the ,holy ,synod7 and became completely ,russified4 ,the ,greek-,united faith1 which had many adherents in the ,western ,ukraine1 was completely suppressed by the ,russian government1 and all who confessed it were obliged1 by the most terrible persecutions1 to 8return to the orthodox belief40 ,the ,ukrainian people became completely estranged from their former national church1 which now is a tool wielded for purposes of ,russification4 ,the bloody wars for independence which the ,ukrainian nation waged against ,poland and ,russia consequently brought no realization of its political ideals of liberty1 equality1 and a constitutional1 democratic form of government4 ,instead came a terrible political1 social and national oppression1 which threatened to bring about the downfall of the tortured nation4 ,but the ,russification of the ,ukraine seemed to be making very little headway4 ,to be sure1 many educated ,ukrainians1 for the sake of personal advantage or for other considerations1 did renounce their nationality1 and some in fact1 like ,gogol1 became great lights of ,russian ,literature4 ,yet there always remained the feeling of national independence1 together with a living historical tradition1 which continued to groan despite all obstacles4 ,the rise of ,ukrainian ,literature did most to aid this great movement4 ,the idea of working for national independence was revived first in the ,russian ,ukraine1 and found its logical starting point in the tradition of the one-time autonomy of the country4 ,as early as the forties of the #aith ,century1 the national ideology of the modern ,ukrainian movement was complete in all essential respects4 ,it then made its way very rapidly to the ,austrian ,ukraine1 and ,galicia1 particularly1 soon became a national ,piedmont to the ,ukrainian people1 who were so ruthlessly oppressed in ,russia4 ,the present-day political efforts of the ,ukrainian nation are a direct continuation of the former efforts1 and a logical result of the historical tradition of the ,ukraine4 ,the ideal of these efforts was1 and is1 liberty and equality and the participation of all in government and legislation4 ,not until the present time has this ideal ceased to be an anachronism2 only the present has opened to the ,ukrainian nation a field of political activity2 only in the present have these forms of political life1 which the ,ukrainian nation strove for1 without success1 so many centuries1 become the common possession of the entire civilized world4 ,hence1 we may look with confidence toward the future4 ,now1 at last1 the times have come in which the ,ukrainian nation may freely develop its political life2 the times in which the political ideals which have been sacred to this nation for centuries1 have become the common goal of civilized humanity4 ,the idea of the revival of the ,ukrainian state developed gradually from a movement with modest aims to one of larger aims4 ,it was generally recognized that the free development of the ,ukrainian ,nation could take place only outside of ,russia4 ,hence1 in the #bjth ,century1 an independent democratic ,ukraine1 enclosed in its ethnographic boundaries1 became the highest national ideal4 ,toward this goal all political parties of the ,ukraine are striving today4 ,the path leading to this goal is the fight for the autonomy of the ,ukrainian territory in the frame of the states dominating it4 ,in ,russia1 the efforts of the ,ukrainians are almost hopeless4 ,on the other hand1 the ,ukrainians place much hope in ,austria1 who has afforded her ,ukrainians opportunities for political and cultural development4 ,the historico-political traditions of the ,ukrainians are entirely different from those of the nations adjacent to them4 ,the ,polish tradition is a tradition of a one-time great kingdom1 which was probably built up upon a local constitution similar to that of the oldest ,ukrainian ,state4 ,but fate permitted ,poland to live thru the sorrowful period of partitions and civil wars1 while1 at the same time1 the old ,kingdom of ,kiev was destroyed by the ,mongols4 ,poland consolidated into a strong united kingdom1 western influences destroyed the old local constitution entirely1 the common people became serfs1 and the classes of the aristocracy1 nobility and bourgeoisie were formed4 ,thru wars1 and particularly thru its union with ,lithuania1 ,poland increased considerably in size1 for a time including almost the entire bridge of land between the ,baltic and the ,black ,seas1 and1 in the #aeth ,century1 became the most powerful state of ,eastern ,europe4 ,at that time the ,poles became the dominant race over the ,lithuanians1 ,white ,russians1 and ,ukrainians4 ,the entire ideology of the dominant caste became a characteristic of the ,poles4 ,in this very property of a ruling people lies the basis of the aristocratic nature of the historico-political tradition of the ,poles4 ,this aristocratic quality has a more important foundation in the historical development of ,polish society4 ,the middle class in ,poland declined very rapidly1 and the nobility and the magnates dominated the entire political1 social and intellectual life of the country1 so that ,polish society1 in the last centuries of the existence of the ,polish kingdom1 was purely aristocratic1 and was supported on the backs of the completely submerged peasant and middle classes4 ,even tho1 in the patrician republic1 when the power of the kings was extremely limited1 mobocracy or even anarchy very often prevailed1 these forms also were aristocratic4 ,this aristocratic tradition is responsible for the fact that democratic currents still find little encouragement among the ,poles4 ,even the social democrats are obsessed with the ,great-,polish state-idea4 ,from these facts1 we perceive that the historico-political traditions of the ,poles are entirely different from those of the ,ukrainians4 ,just as great is the difference in their present aspirations4 ,the ,poles1 with an endurance that is worthy of admiration1 and awakens universal sympathy1 are striving for the reorganization of their independent state4 ,but not with ethnographic boundaries like the ,ukrainians1 but with ancient historical boundaries from the ,baltic to the ,dnieper and the ,black ,sea4 ,to attain this goal1 the ,poles are trying1 above all1 to hinder the adjacent peoples1 the ,lithuanians1 ,white ,russians and ,ukrainians1 in their national progress1 and1 whenever possible1 to assimilate them4 ,these efforts are responsible for the very sharp conflicts of the present day between the one-time rulers and their one-time subjects4 ,the ,russian historico-political traditions are quite as different from and as opposed to those of the ,ukrainians as the ,polish1 but in another direction4 ,the ,muscovite ,state was created out of the petty principalities which the ancient ,kiev dynasty had founded among the ,eastern ,slavic races and the ,finnish tribes of the north4 ,from the blending of the ,slavs and the ,finns came the foundation of the present ,russian or ,great ,russian 7,muscovite7 ,nation4 ,the name 8,russian0 was derived from the name of the dynasty4 ,but the state was in reality simply ,muscovite1 for the ,muscovite people gave this state a substance which was entirely different from the substance of the old ,kingdom of ,kiev4 ,as early as the #abth ,century we observe the ,muscovite people striving for centralization and absolute power for the princes in their state4 ,it was to the advantage of the prince to undermine the influence of the ,boyar nobility and the clergy1 and to attain absolute or even despotic power in the state4 ,not equal rights and liberty for all citizens as with the ,ukrainians1 or for certain classes as with the ,poles1 but the despotic authority of the ,great ,prince 7later ,czar71 is the basis of the historico-political tradition of the ,russian people4 ,the absolute power of the ruler1 that everlasting bugbear of the ,poles and ,ukrainians1 becomes a sacred object to the ,russian nation1 and makes it possible for them to establish a ,russian ,empire which devours ,poland and the ,ukraine4 ,for a comparison of the three adjacent states1 the second half of the #afth ,century affords the best illustration4 ,at the same time that the radical-democratic ,cossack republic originated in the ,ukraine1 and ,poland was a paradise of golden freedom for the aristocrats and the nobility1 with a powerless kingship and a suppressed people1 we witness in ,russia the bloody orgies of the despotism of ,ivan the ,terrible4 ,the historico-political tradition of the ,russian people places the ,czar only slightly below ,god4 ,the entire people1 without class distinction1 are slaves 7kholopi7 of the ,czar1 his property4 ,the individual counts for nothing2 everything must be sacrificed to the general good1 which is embodied in the ,czar4 ,the reforms of ,peter the ,great1 altho they gave ,russia the external appearance of a civilized state1 had no significance for the historico-political tradition of ,russia4 ,at most1 they even strengthened the prestige of the absolute rule of the ,czar1 thru arguments repeated after the ,western ,european absolutism4 ,even the ,russian revolution of #aije could not weaken this historico-political tradition4 ,at best the revolution undermined its significance in some spheres of the ,russian intelligenzia 7numerically small74 ,and1 even in these spheres1 it meant only the modification of the authority for which the ,russian national spirit retains an immutable respect4 ,the present-day aspirations of the ,russian ,nation are hardly definite in their outlines4 ,nevertheless1 it can already be clearly seen that they will follow the beaten path of the century-old tradition4 ,the greatest possible expansion and strengthening of the ,empire and the assimilation of all foreign peoples 7including the ,ukrainians too71 will constitute the main substance of these aspirations4 ,the ,muscovite world has always been extremely intolerant of divergencies in faith1 language and customs4 ,this intolerance has always existed1 and always will exist1 even tho it may sometimes conceal itself behind a very cleverly adjusted mantle of commonplaces4 ,,ukrainian ,,culture ,when we speak of culture as a distinguishing mark of a specific nation1 we mean1 of course1 not culture in the widest sense of the word1 but those well-known cultural peculiarities which characterise every ,european nation4 ,the ,ukraine lies wholly within the confines of the greater ,european cultural community4 ,but its distance from the great culture-centers of ,western and ,central ,europe has1 of course1 not been without profound effect4 ,the ,ukraine is at a low stage of culture1 and must be measured by ,eastern ,european standards4 ,the ,ukraine1 which in the #aath ,century caused great astonishment among travelers from ,western ,europe1 because of its comparatively high culture1 can now be counted only as one of the semi-cultural countries of ,europe4 ,the very low stage of material culture1 to which the economic conditions of the country bear the best witness1 is characteristic of the ,ukraine in its entire extent4 ,the intellectual culture of the people appears frightfully low4 ,the number who know how to read are #agb out of a thousand in ,volhynia1 #aee in ,podolia1 #aha in ,kiev1 #bei in ,kherson1 #ahd in ,chernihiv1 #afi in ,poltava1 #afh in ,kharkiv1 #bae in ,katerinoslav1 #bgi in ,tauria1 and #afh in ,kuban4 ,these hopeless figures1 to be sure1 are only a result of the exclusive use of the ,russian language1 which is unintelligible to the ,ukrainians1 in all the schools4 ,even in the first school-year1 it is not permitted to explain the most unintelligible words of the foreign language in ,ukrainian4 ,this frightfully low grade of education of the people permits of no progress in the economic life of the country4 ,even the most well-meaning efforts of the government or the ,zemstvo1 break on the brazen wall of illiteracy and ignorance of the ,russian language4 ,and ,ukrainian books of instruction and information are forbidden as dangerous to the state4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the ,ukrainian farmer tills his field1 raises his cattle1 carries on his home industries1 cures his ills1 etc41 just as his forefathers used to do4 ,there is a small number of the educated who are still cultivating literature and art1 feebly enough for the size of the nation--but how could one speak of a distinct1 independent culture here8 ,and yet it exists4 ,for the low stage of culture which every foreign tourist1 who only knows the railroads and cities1 immediately notices1 applies only to the culture created in the ,ukraine by the ruling foreign peoples1 together with the small mass of ,ukrainian intelligenzia4 7,the intellectual culture of the ,ukrainian educated classes will be discussed later74 ,in the same way1 every hasty observer would consider the ,ukrainian peasant as a semi-,european1 standing on a very low level of culture4 ,and yet this illiterate peasant possesses an individual popular culture1 far exceeding the popular cultures of the ,poles1 ,russians and ,white ,russians4 ,the settlements1 buildings1 costumes1 the nourishment and mode of life of the ,ukrainian peasant stand much higher than those of the ,russian1 ,white ,russian and ,polish peasant4 ,hence1 the ,ukrainian peasant easily and completely assimilates all peasant settlers in his own land4 ,the rich ethnological life1 the unwritten popular literature and popular music which1 perhaps1 have no counterpart in ,europe1 the highly developed popular art and standard of living1 preserve the ,ukrainian peasant from denationalization1 even in his most distant colonies4 ,the power of opposition to ,russification is particularly great4 ,the ,ukrainian peasant never enters into mixed marriages with the ,russian muzhik1 and hardly ever lives in the same village with him4 ,the ethnological culture of the ,ukrainian people is1 by all means1 original and peculiar2 entirely different from the popular cultures of all the neighboring peoples4 ,even in prehistoric times1 ,ukrainian territory was the seat of a very high culture1 the remains of which1 now brought to light1 astonish the investigator thru their loftiness and beauty4 ,in ancient times the early ,greek cultural influences flourished in the ,southern ,ukraine1 then the ,roman1 and in the ,middle ,ages the ,byzantine4 ,byzantine culture had a great influence upon ancient ,ukrainian culture1 and its traces may still be seen in the popular costume and in ornamentation4 ,the most important element in ,ukrainian culture1 however1 is entirely peculiar1 and independent of these influences4 ,the entire view of life of the common man1 to this day1 has its roots in the pre-,christian culture of the ancient ,ukraine4 ,the entire creative faculty of the spirit of the nation has its source there2 all the customs and manners and very many of the songs and sayings4 ,christianity did not destroy the old view of life in the ,ukraine1 but was adapted to it4 ,this accommodation was all the easier1 because the character of the ancient faith and philosophy of life of the ,ukrainian people were not so gloomy and cruel as was the case with many of the other peoples of ,europe4 ,outside of the prehistoric1 ,byzantine and ,christian body of culture1 we observe extremely few foreign influences in the popular culture of the ,ukraine4 ,it is highly independent and individualized4 ,the ,polish and ,muscovite influences are very insignificant1 and appear only here and there in the borderlands of the ,ukraine4 ,it would require the giving of a detailed ethnological description of the ,ukrainian people if we wished to draw a complete picture of its peculiar culture4 ,such a description has no place in geography1 and certainly none in a book of such general nature as this4 ,therefore1 ,i shall discuss but briefly the various phases of the popular culture of the ,ukraine1 so that in this respect1 too1 the independent position of the ,ukrainians among the peoples of ,eastern ,europe may appear in the proper light4 ,the ,ukrainian villages 7with the exception of the mountain villages1 which consist of a long irregular line of farms7 are always built picturesquely1 in pretty places4 ,the huts of a typical ,ukrainian village are always surrounded by orchards1 which is hardly ever the case among the ,russians and ,white ,russians1 and very rarely so among the ,poles4 ,these neighbors of the ,ukrainians plant orchards only in the few regions where professional fruit-growing has developed4 ,in a ,ukrainian village1 the green of the orchards is considered absolutely necessary4 ,the ,russian will not endure trees in the neighborhood of his hut2 they obstruct his view4 ,in the ,ukraine an orchard is an indispensable constituent part of even the poorest peasant homestead4 ,and the separate farms1 in which very much of the spirit of the glorious national past still lives1 are hidden in the fresh green of fruit orchards and apiaries4 ,the ,ukrainian house is built of wood only in the mountains and other wooded areas4 ,in all other regions it is made of clay and covered with straw4 ,the front windows are always built facing the south4 ,in this way1 different sides of the houses face the street1 and in general1 too1 street life does not play so important a part in a ,ukrainian village as it does in ,polish1 ,white ,russian or ,russian villages4 ,the ,ukrainian houses are always well fenced in1 altho not so strongly and so high as the ,russian houses in the forest zone1 or as the ,white ,russian houses4 ,they usually stand 7except in ,western ,podolia7 rather far apart4 ,thus1 the danger of fire is less than in the ,russian villages of the ,chornozyom region1 where the huts lie very close together4 ,as a result1 the insurance companies1 for instance1 charge smaller premiums in the ,governments of ,kursk and ,voroniz for insuring ,ukrainian village properties than for ,russian4 ,the general external appearance of the ,ukrainian huts1 which are always well whitewashed and have flower gardens before the windows1 is very picturesque1 and contrasts to advantage with the dwellings of the neighboring races1 especially the miserable and dirty ,russian 8izbas40 ,all the houses of the ,ukrainians1 excepting1 of course1 the poorest huts1 are divided by a vestibule into two parts4 ,the division into two we do not find in the typical huts of the ,poles and ,white ,russians4 ,a further characteristic in which the ,ukrainian house differs from the houses of the neighboring peoples1 is its comparative cleanliness4 ,particularly does it differ in this respect from the ,russian izbas1 which are regularly full of various insects and parasites1 where sheep and pigs1 and1 in winter1 even the large cattle1 live comfortably together with the human inhabitants4 ,the well-known authority on the ,russian village1 ,novikov1 relates a very characteristic little story in this connection4 ,several ,russian families settled in a ,ukrainian village4 ,naturally1 cattle were kept in the living room4 ,and when the ,ukrainian village elders expressly forbade the keeping of cattle in the huts1 the ,russians moved out1 because they could not become accustomed to the ,ukrainian orderliness4 ,it happens very seldom that the ,russians live together with the ,ukrainians in one and the same village4 ,in such a case1 the ,russian part of the village lies separate1 on the other side of a ravine1 a creek1 or a rivulet4 ,in the regions of mixed nationality we see1 adjoining one another1 purely ,ukrainian and purely ,russian villages4 ,the interior arrangement of the houses and the arrangement of the barnyard differentiate the ,ukrainian very sharply from his neighbor4 ,still more decidedly does he show his individuality in his dress4 ,the mode of dress is quite varied thruout the great area of the ,ukraine1 and yet we observe everywhere a distinctness of type and individuality as opposed to the dress of neighboring peoples4 ,only the dress of the ,polissye people bears some trace of ,white ,russian influence1 on the western border of ,polish influence1 in ,kuban of ,caucasian influence 7,russian influence appears nowhere74 ,but all these influences are slight4 ,ukrainian dress is always original and esthetic4 ,no one can wonder1 therefore1 that the ,ukrainian costume is surviving longer than the ,polish1 ,white ,russian and ,russian1 and is giving way very slowly to the costume of the cities4 ,the description of even the main types of ,ukrainian costume would take us too far afield2 similarly1 we cannot discuss the diet of the people in detail1 altho in this respect1 too1 the ,ukrainian race retains its definite individuality1 those cases excepted1 of course1 in which economic strain forces the people to be satisfied with 8international0 potatoes and bread4 ,we now come to the intellectual culture of the ,ukrainian people4 ,if the material culture of the ,ukrainians1 despite its originality and independence is not at a strikingly higher level than that of the neighboring peoples1 the intellectual culture of the ,ukrainian people certainly far outstrips all the others4 ,the ,ukrainian peasant is distinguished1 above all1 by his earnest and sedate appearance4 ,beside the lively ,pole and the active ,russian1 the ,ukrainian seems slow1 even lazy4 ,this characteristic1 which is in part only superficial1 comes from the general view of life of the ,ukrainians4 ,according to the view of the ,ukrainian1 life is not merely a terrible struggle for existence1 opposing man to hard necessity at every turn2 life1 in itself1 is the object of contemplation1 life affords possibilities for pleasure and feeling1 life is beautiful1 and its esthetic aspect must1 at all times and in all places1 be highly respected4 ,we find a similar view among the peoples of antiquity4 ,in the present time1 this view is very unpractical for nations with wide spheres of activity4 ,at all events this characteristic of the ,ukrainian people is the sign of an old1 lofty1 individual culture1 and here1 too1 is the origin of the noted 8aristocratic democracy0 of the ,ukrainians4 ,other foundations of the individuality of the ,ukrainian are the results of the gloomy historical past of the nation4 ,it is the origin1 first of all1 of the generally melancholy individuality1 taciturnity1 suspicion1 scepticism1 and even a certain indifference to daily life4 ,the ultimate foundations of the individualism of the ,ukrainian are derived from his historico-political traditions2 preference for extreme individualism1 liberty1 equality and popular government4 ,proceeding from these fundamentals1 all the typical characteristics of the ,ukrainians may be logically explained with ease4 ,the family relations reflect the peculiarity of the ,ukrainian people very clearly4 ,the comparatively high ancient culture1 coupled with individualism and a love of liberty1 does not permit the development of absolute power in the head of the family 7as is the case among the ,poles and ,russians74 ,likewise the position of woman is much higher in the ,ukrainian people than in the ,polish or ,russian4 ,in innumerable cases the woman is the real head of the household4 ,far less often does this state of affairs occur among the ,poles1 and only by exception among the ,russians4 ,a daughter is never married off against her will among the ,ukrainians2 she has human rights in the matter4 ,among the ,russians1 this business is in the hands of the father1 who takes the so-called kladka for his daughter1 that is1 he sells her to whomever he pleases4 ,grown sons among the ,ukrainians1 as soon as they are married1 are presented by their fathers with a house and an independent farm4 ,the dwelling under one roof of a composite family 7a family clan71 as is usual among the ,russians1 is almost impossible among the ,ukrainians1 and is of exceedingly rare occurrence4 ,the father has no absolute power in this case 7as among the ,russians7 to prevent discord in the family4 ,it is part of the peculiarity of the ,ukrainians that they seldom form friendships1 but these are all the more lasting1 altho reserved and rarely intimate4 ,the ,russians make friends among one another very easily1 but they separate very easily1 too1 and become violent enemies4 ,the ,poles form close friendships easily and are true friends1 too4 ,enmity is terrible among the ,russians2 among the ,poles and ,ukrainians it is less bitter1 and is1 moreover1 less lasting4 ,the capacity for association is very considerable in the ,ukrainians4 ,all such association is based on complete equality in the division of labor and profit4 ,a foreman is elected and his orders are obeyed1 but he receives an equal share of the profits and works together with the rest4 ,among the ,russians1 the bolshak selects his workmen himself1 does not work1 and is simply an overseer4 ,still he receives the greatest part of the profits1 ,among the ,poles the capacity for association is but slightly developed4 ,at this juncture we may also discuss the relation of the ,ukrainians to their communities4 ,the ,ukrainian community 7hromada7 is a voluntary union of freemen for the sake of common safety and the general good4 ,beyond this purpose the ,ukrainian hromada possesses no power1 for it might limit the individual desires of some one of the hromada members4 ,for this reason1 for example1 common ownership of land which has been introduced1 following the ,russian model1 chiefly in the left half of the ,ukraine1 is an abomination in the eyes of the ,ukrainian people1 and is ruining them1 economically1 to a much greater extent than the division of the land in the case of individual ownership4 ,the ,russian 8mir0 is something entirely different4 ,it is a miniature absolute state1 altho it appears in the garb of a communistic republic4 ,the mir is completely a part of the ,russian national spirit1 and the ,russian muzhik obeys the will of the mir unquestioningly1 altho its will enslaves his own4 ,the general relation to other people has become a matter of fixed form to the ,ukrainians2 a form developed in the course of centuries4 ,the ancient culture and the individualistic cult have produced social forms among the ,ukrainian peasantry which sometimes remind one of ancient court-forms4 ,the proximity and influence of cities and other centers of 8culture0 have1 to a great extent1 spoiled this peasant ceremonial4 ,but in certain large areas of the ,ukraine it may still be observed in its full development4 ,great delicacy1 courtesy and attention to others1 coupled with unselfish hospitality1 these are the general substance of the social forms of our peasants4 ,these social forms are entirely different from the rough manners of the ,polish or ,muscovite peasants1 which1 in addition1 have been spoiled by the demoralizing influence of the cities4 ,the relation of the ,ukrainian people to religion is also original and entirely different from that of all the adjacent nations4 ,to the ,ukrainian1 the essence of his faith1 its ethical substance1 is the important factor4 ,this he feels deeply and respects in himself and others4 ,dogmas and rites are less significant in the ,ukrainian's conception of religion4 ,hence1 despite differences in faith1 not the slightest disharmony exists between the great mass of the orthodox ,ukrainians of ,russia and the ,bukowina1 and the #d1jjj1jjj ,greek-,catholic ,ukrainians of ,galicia and ,hungary4 ,from the ancient culture and consideration of the individual comes1 also1 the great tolerance of the ,ukrainians toward other religions1 a tolerance which we do not find among the ,poles and ,russians4 ,the spirit of the ,ukrainians has1 likewise1 been very indifferent toward all sects and roskols4 ,among the ,poles1 sects flourished very luxuriantly in the #afth ,century2 among the ,russians1 there are to this day any number of sects1 often very curious ones1 and more are constantly arising4 ,among the ,ukrainians1 a single sect has been formed1 the so-called stunda 7a sort of ,baptist creed74 ,this sect is not the result of rite formalism1 however1 but merely an effect of the ,russification of the ,ukrainian national church4 ,in order to be able to pray to ,god in their mother-tongue1 more than a million of the ,ukrainian peasantry is persevering in this faith1 which came over from adjacent ,german colonies1 despite harsh persecution on the part of the ,russian clergy and government4 ,the worth of ,ukrainian culture appears1 in its most beautiful and its highest form1 in the unwritten literature of the people4 ,the philosophical feeling of the ,ukrainian people finds expression in thousands and thousands of pregnant proverbs and parables1 the like of which we do not find even in the most advanced nations of ,europe4 ,they reflect the great soul of the ,ukrainian people and its worldly wisdom4 ,but the national genius of the ,ukrainians has risen to the greatest height in their popular poetry4 ,neither the ,russian nor the ,polish popular poetry can bear comparison with the ,ukrainian4 ,beginning with the historical epics 7dumy7 and the extremely ancient and yet living songs of worship1 as for example1 ,christmas songs 7kolady71 ,new ,years' songs 7shchedrivki71 spring songs 7vessilni71 harvest songs 7obzinkovi71 down to the little songs for particular occasions 7e4g4 shumki1 kozachki1 kolomiyki71 we find in all the productions of ,ukrainian popular epic and lyric poetry1 a rich content and a great perfection of form4 ,in all of it the sympathy for nature1 spiritualization of nature1 and a lively comprehension of her moods1 is superb2 in all of it we find a fantastic but warm dreaminess2 in all of it we find the glorification of the loftiest and purest feelings of the human soul4 ,a glowing love of country reveals itself to us everywhere1 but particularly in innumerable ,cossack songs1 a heartrending longing for a glorious past1 a glorification1 altho not without criticism1 of their heroes4 ,in their love-songs we find not a trace of sexuality2 not the physical1 but the spiritual beauty of woman is glorified above all4 ,even in jesting songs1 and further1 even in ribald songs1 there is a great deal of anacreontic grace4 ,and1 at the same time1 what beauty of diction1 what wonderful agreement of content and form6 ,no one would believe that this neglected1 and for so many centuries1 suppressed and tormented people could scatter so many pearls of true poetic inspiration thru its unhappy land4 ,this peculiarity of the poetical creative spirit enables us1 just as do the other elements of culture1 to recognize the vast difference between the ,ukrainian and the ,russian people4 ,the ,russian folk songs are smaller in number and variety1 form and content4 ,sympathetic appreciation of nature is scant4 ,the imagination either rises to supernatural heights or sinks to mere trifling4 ,criminal monstrosities and the spirit of destruction are glorified as objects of national worship4 ,the conception of love is sensual1 the jesting and ribald songs disgusting4 ,like their popular poetry1 the popular music of the ,ukrainians far surpasses the popular music of the neighboring peoples1 and differs from them very noticeably4 ,polish popular music is just as poor as ,polish popular poetry1 and almost thruout possesses a cheerful major character4 ,russian popular music has many minor elements in addition to the major elements4 ,but the ,russian popular melodies are quite different from the ,ukrainian4 ,they are either boisterously joyous or hopelessly sad4 ,the differences in the character of the melodies are so great that one need not be a specialist to be able to tell at once whether a melody is ,ukrainian or ,russian4 ,popular art1 in our people1 is entirely original and much more highly advanced than in the neighboring peoples4 ,the remains of the ancient popular painting are still in existence in the left half of the ,ukraine4 ,wood carving has developed to a highly artistic form among the ,hutzuls 7there are the well-known peasant-artists ,shkriblak1 ,mehedinyuk1 and others74 ,the chief field of ,ukrainian popular art1 however1 is decoration4 ,two fundamental types are used2 a geometric pattern with the crossing of straight and broken lines1 and a natural pattern1 which is modelled after parts of plants 7as leaves1 flowers1 etc474 ,in the embroideries1 cloths and glass bead-work1 we find such an esthetic play of colors1 that even tho each individual color is glaring1 the whole has a very picturesque and harmonious effect4 ,the decorative art of the ,russians is much lower4 ,it is based on animal motifs or entire objects1 e4g41 whole plants1 houses1 etc41 and evinces an outspoken preference for glaring colors1 which are so combined1 however1 as to shock the eye4 ,among the ,poles1 the art of ornamentation is very slightly developed4 ,as for colors1 they prefer the gaudy1 not many at a time2 usually1 blue is combined with bright red4 ,for the sake of completeness1 we must still say something about ,ukrainian manners and customs4 ,in this aspect1 too1 the ,ukrainian peasantry is richer than its neighbors4 ,only the ,white ,russians are not far behind them4 ,the entire life of a ,ukrainian peasant1 in itself full of need and poverty1 is1 nevertheless1 full of poetic and deeply significant usages and customs1 from the cradle to the grave4 ,birth1 christening1 marriage1 death1 all are combined with various symbolic usages1 particularly the wedding1 so rich in ceremonies and songs1 so different in its entire substance from the ,russian or ,polish4 ,the entire year of the ,ukrainian constitutes one great cycle of holidays1 with which a host of ceremonies are connected1 most of which have come down from pre-,christian times4 ,we find similar ceremonies among the ,white ,russians1 some also among the ,poles1 e4g41 ,christmas songs1 songs of the seasons1 but among the ,russians1 on the other hand1 we find no parallel to the ,ukrainian conditions4 ,among the ,russians1 neither the ,christmas songs 7kolady7 are customary1 nor the ceremonies of ,christmas eve 7bohata kutya71 neither the midwinter festival 7shchedri vechir71 with its songs 7shchedrivki71 nor the spring holidays 7yur russalchin velikden7 and spring songs 7vesnianki71 nor the feast of the solstice 7kupalo71 nor the autumn ceremonies on the feast-days of ,st4 ,andrew or ,st4 ,katherine1 etc4 ,the entire essence of the popular metaphysics of the ,ukrainians is quite foreign to the ,russians1 and almost entirely so to the ,poles4 ,only the ,white ,russians form a certain analogy1 but1 among them1 pure superstition outweighs customs and ceremonies in importance4 ,sufficient facts have been given to make clear to the reader the complete originality and independence of ,ukrainian popular culture4 ,we now come to a brief survey of the cultural efforts of the educated ,ukrainians4 ,the number of educated ,ukrainians is comparatively small4 ,hardly a century has passed since the intelligence of the nation awoke to new life1 yet1 in its hands lies the development of the national culture in the widest sense of the word4 ,the disproportion between the magnitude of the task and the small number of the workers for culture1 is at once apparent4 ,and yet the results of the work1 in spite of obstacles on every side1 have grown in volume4 ,the ,ukraine lies within the sphere of influence of ,european culture4 ,this culture has spread from ,central and ,western ,europe over the territory of the ,ukraine and its neighboring peoples1 the ,poles1 ,russians1 ,white ,russians1 ,magyars and ,roumanians4 ,each one of these nations has accepted the material culture of ,western ,europe to a greater or less degree1 and adjusted the spiritual culture to its national peculiarities4 ,the ,ukrainians1 for a long time after the loss of their first state and the decline of their ancient culture1 found no line along which they could develop their national culture independently4 ,for centuries they vacillated between the cultures of ,poland and ,russia4 ,to this day1 now that the conditions are much better1 one may still find among the ,ukrainians individuals who1 culturally1 are ,poles or ,russians1 and only speak and feel as ,ukrainians4 ,such a condition is very sad1 and causes the ,ukraine untold injury--most of all in the field of material culture1 which1 in both these neighboring nations1 is very incomplete4 ,agriculture1 mining1 trade and commerce1 are on a much lower plane among the ,poles than in ,western ,europe4 ,and what is to be said of the ,russians1 who are a mere parody of a cultured nation in almost every field1 altho they possess so great a political organization8 ,no one need be surprised that material culture is of so low a grade in the ,ukraine4 ,on the other hand1 it has become clear to every intelligent ,ukrainian1 that the development of material culture is possible only thru ,western ,european influence1 by sending ,ukrainian engineers1 manufacturing specialists1 merchants and farmers1 to ,western and ,central ,europe to learn their business4 ,in the field of ,ukrainian mental culture1 the chief influences to be considered are ,polish and ,russian4 ,in this field1 ,polish culture is comparatively very high4 ,it possesses a very rich literature1 considerable science and art1 and very definite principles of life4 ,the influence of ,polish culture is limited almost exclusively to ,galicia at the present time4 ,but it was very strong until very recent years1 when it began to decrease4 ,at one time1 however1 the entire ,ukraine1 particularly the right half1 was emphatically under the influence of ,polish culture for centuries 7#afth to the #ahth ,century74 ,there is one element in the spiritual culture of the ,poles which certainly deserves to be1 and is1 imitated by the ,ukrainians4 ,it is the tone of national patriotism1 the love for the nation1 its present and its past1 which is everywhere evident4 ,hence1 modern ,polish literature must be a model for ,ukrainian literature in its tendencies and its sentiments4 ,but1 beyond its patriotic tone1 ,polish culture is not appropriate for the ,ukrainian people4 ,it is aristocratic1 by reason of its descent and its philosophy of the universe4 ,it is far removed from the mass of the people it should represent4 ,in spite of all efforts1 the ,polish culture of the educated classes has been unable to establish an organic connection with the common people of ,poland4 ,it has been built up above the masses and has not grown out of them4 ,to build up ,ukrainian culture entirely after the model of ,polish culture1 would mean to tear it from its life-giving roots in the soul of the people4 ,that it would be deadly to ,ukrainian culture1 the ,ukrainians have perceived for a long time4 ,russian culture is much more dangerous to the ,ukrainian people than ,polish4 ,in its material aspect it is of a very low grade4 ,in the spiritual field it possesses a very rich literature and a noteworthy science and art4 ,the spiritual culture of ,russia now dominates all of the ,russian ,ukraine1 and has1 to a great extent1 become prevalent even among those educated ,ukrainians in ,russia who possess real national consciousness4 ,this very circumstance constitutes a great danger for the development of ,ukrainian culture4 ,for1 let the ,muscovite conquest extend over the ,ukrainians1 even in the cultural field1 and there is an end of all the independence of the ,ukrainian element1 and its beautiful language will be1 in fact1 degraded to a peasant dialect4 ,but a still greater danger lies in the quality of the ,russian cultural influence4 ,the first evil characteristic of ,russian culture is the complete lack of national and patriotic sentiment1 which is absolutely necessary for an aspiring culture like the ,ukrainian4 ,russian culture is infecting the ,ukrainians with an ominous national indifference4 ,another unfavorable characteristic of all ,russian culture1 is the fact that it is undemocratic thru and thru1 and very far removed from the ,russian people4 ,the ,russian people did not create this culture2 the educated1 in producing it1 took nothing from the people4 ,an intelligent man1 brought up in the atmosphere of ,russian culture1 is unspeakably distant from the ,russian people1 so that it is impossible for him to work at the task of enlightening them4 ,the views of the ,russian 8lovers of the people0 7narodniki71 or of a ,tolstoy1 concerning the common people and its soul1 simply offend us thru their unexampled ignorance of the peculiarities and customs of the common people4 ,a culture so far removed from the people as the ,russian can bring no benefit to the ,ukrainians4 ,we observe this1 best of all1 in the condition of the muzhik1 to whom the educated ,russian has never been able to find an approach1 and now the latter looks on indifferently1 while the masses sink deeper and deeper down into the abyss of intellectual and spiritual darkness4 ,to guide the common people along the path of organic social-political and economic progress1 is a task which an intellect permeated with ,russian culture can never perform4 ,the last ,russian revolution1 and the beginning of the era of constitutional government for ,russia1 have furnished the best proof for the truth of this assertion4 ,the other chief characteristic of ,russian culture is its manifest superficiality4 ,hidden beneath a thin veneer of ,western ,european amenities lies coarse barbarism4 ,the external manners of the educated ,russian very often strike one by the coarseness1 lack of restraint and brutal recklessness accompanying them4 ,we see1 then1 that even the external forms of ,european culture have only been outwardly assumed by the ,russians4 ,still poorer is their condition with respect to the things of the spirit4 ,we have observed to what a slight degree the ,russians have been able to assimilate the material culture of ,europe4 ,the same holds for spiritual culture4 ,russian literature1 particularly the latest1 has brought ethical elements of the most questionable worth into the world's literature4 7,artzibashev and others74 ,russian science1 altho it can point to some great names and has unlimited means at its disposal1 stands far behind ,german1 ,english or ,french science4 ,in ,russian science1 everything is done for the sake of effect1 without thoroness1 without method1 hence fatal gaps appear4 ,let us consider1 for example1 our science of geography4 ,hardly a year passes in which the ,russian government does not send one or more great scientific expeditions to ,asia or to the ,north ,pole4 ,each expedition hands in volumes of scientific results1 and1 at the same time1 the surface configuration of the most populous and culturally most advanced regions of ,european ,russia1 for example1 is barely known in its main aspects4 ,the best geography of ,russia was written by the ,frenchman ,reclus4 ,a modern1 really scientific geography of ,russia does not exist4 ,even more emphatically does the superficiality of ,russian culture appear in social and political questions4 ,these two directions of human thought have1 in most recent times1 become very popular in all ,russian society4 ,but what an abyss separates a ,european from a ,russian in this field6 ,in ,europe the theses of the social sciences or of politics are the result of life4 ,they are adjusted to life conditions and treated critically4 ,in ,russia they are lifeless dogmas1 about which ,russian scholars of the #bjth ,century dispute with the same heat and in the same manner as their ancestors1 a few hundred years ago1 disputed as to whether the ,hallelujah should be sung twice or three times1 whether the confession of faith should read 8born1 not created0 or 8born and not created10 whether one should say1 8,god have mercy upon us0 or 8,oh ,god1 have mercy upon us10 whether one should use two fingers in crossing oneself or three1 and so on4 ,naturally1 at that time religious questions were the fashion4 ,today it is social questions4 ,and what does it amount to8 ,rampant doctrinism1 the eternal use of banal commonplaces1 an immature setting up of principles4 ,and the result is--extreme unwieldiness of ,russian society in internal politics and in parliamentarism1 in social and national work1 together with a deep scorn of the depraved ,west 7gnili zapad74 ,with this superficiality of ,russian culture1 its most evil characteristic is connected2 the decline of family life and a certain moral perverseness4 ,this phenomenon is commonly met with in all peoples who have but recently come in contact with ,western ,european culture4 ,the bad qualities of a high civilization are always assumed first1 the good qualities slowly4 ,in this field the ,russians have far outstripped their ,european models4 ,the above facts suffice to prove that ,russian cultural influences are dangerous for the ,ukrainian people4 ,the severe1 rigid materialistic character of the ,russian people will1 without any doubt1 enable it to outlast the storm and stress period of the present ,russian culture1 and guide it to a splendid future4 ,but for the ,ukrainian people1 with its sentimental1 gentle character1 the assuming of ,russian culture would be a deadly poison4 ,even supposing that the ,ukrainian people might survive such an experiment1 a thing which is not likely1 it would forever remain a miserable appendage of the ,russian nation4 ,and besides1 such an experiment is entirely unnecessary4 ,either we say1 8,we are ,ukrainians1 an independent race and different from the ,russians10 and build up our culture quite independently1 or we say1 8,we are #8,little ,russians1' one of the three tribes of ,great ,russia and of its high culture10 and1 in that case1 we may calmly lie down on the world renowned ,ukrainian stove4 ,for then it does not pay even to work at the development of our language4 ,a third alternative does not exist4 ,at present1 however1 the former view is generally predominant among the intelligenzia of the land1 and the fact that many intelligent ,ukrainians are permeated with ,russian culture is due1 not to an ideal conviction1 but only to the powerful influence of the ,russian schools and the ,russian cities4 ,how do these educated people stand beneath the ,ukrainian peasant who1 even on the shores of the ,pacific ,ocean1 does not exchange his individual ,ukrainian popular culture for the ,russian1 and deserves the scornful1 but in our eyes very commendable saying of the ,russians1 8,khakhol vyesdie kharkhol60 ,if1 then1 we are to remain a really independent nation1 there is only one avenue open to ,ukrainian culture1 and that is to follow the culture of ,western ,europe step by step1 to seek its models among the ,germans1 ,scandinavians1 ,english and ,french4 ,and this entire development we must base upon the broad foundation of our high popular culture4 ,let us consider with what piety the really cultural nations of ,europe preserve the little remains of their popular culture4 ,their few usages or superstitions1 their little body of folk-songs6 ,how much richer than they are we in all our misery6 ,the ,ukrainian people spoke a mighty first word thru ,kotlarevsky a century ago2 it then found the first diamond upon its path1 the pure language of the people4 ,unfortunately1 no ,ukrainian has yet arisen who could speak just as mighty a second word by finding ways and means of lifting the treasures of the home culture of the land1 and enabling the entire nation to work at the task of using them to advantage4 ,this 8apostle of truth and science10 as he is called by ,shevchenko1 has not appeared1 altho he has had several ancestors1 like ,drahomaniv4 ,but there are already very many ,ukrainians who would place their seal upon the declaration3 8that the ,ukraine possesses so rich a popular culture1 that by developing all its hidden possibilities and supplementing them by elements drawn from the untainted sources of ,western ,european culture1 the ,ukrainian nation could attain a complete culture just as peculiar to itself1 and just as exalted among the great ,european cultures1 as ,ukrainian popular culture is among the popular cultures of other peoples40 ,hence1 the way lay clearly indicated for the ,ukrainians of the #aith and #bjth ,century4 ,ethnological investigations and the scientific study of folk-lore have been taken up very eagerly by ,ukrainian scholars1 so that in this particular field1 recent ,ukrainian science1 perhaps1 ranks highest in all ,slavic science4 ,in no other cultured nation of ,europe is the life of the educated elements so permeated with the influences of the nation's own popular culture4 ,the ,ukrainian cultural movement is hardly a century old1 and yet it has results to show which1 even today1 guarantee the cultural independence of the ,ukrainian nation4 ,active relations with ,central and ,western ,european cultures have been established1 which may become of incalculable effect in the further development of ,ukrainian culture4 ,,relations ,,between ,,the ,,soil ,,and ,,the ,,people ,,of ,,ukraine ,the geographical situation of the ,ukraine is the same today as it was a thousand years ago4 ,if the theories which call the present ,ukrainian territory the original home of the ,aryans are true1 the ,ukrainians must be considered the primeval autochthones4 ,the limits of the ,ukrainian nation1 too1 are almost the same today as they were a thousand years ago1 altho1 in the meantime1 great shifts have taken place4 ,only in the west1 the ,ukrainians have lost a strip about #cj kilometers wide to the ,poles1 thru the ,polonization movement1 which has been advancing eastward since #acdj4 ,in this section the ,ukrainian element has survived only in the mountains4 ,the northern border1 next to the ,white ,russians1 which1 since primitive times1 has consisted of great forests and swamps1 has always remained without changes of any kind4 ,on the other hand1 the part of the northern border east of the ,dnieper1 and still more the eastern and southern borders1 have been subject to radical changes in the course of ,ukrainian history4 ,the old ,ukrainian state of ,kiev rapidly developed a far-flung expansive movement1 and soon covered almost all of ,eastern ,europe4 ,in the south1 the old ,kingdom of ,kiev1 and together with it the southern tribes of ,east ,slavs 7the ancestors of the present ,ukrainians7 reached the delta of the ,danube and the ,black ,sea and the foothills of the ,caucasus1 where1 in the present ,kuban district1 the old province and petty principality of ,tmutorokan was situated4 ,how far to the north the southern ,east ,slavic tribes then extended we can not tell exactly4 ,but it is very improbable that they extended beyond the woods and swamps of the ,polissye4 ,even at that time1 a thousand years ago1 the geographical position of the ,ukraine1 on the edge of ,europe and the steppe-country of ,central ,asia1 proved itself dangerous4 ,from the beginning of the ,middle ,ages on1 innumerable tribes of ,turkish-,tatar origin1 came crowding out of the ,central ,asiatic steppes westward1 thru the steppes of ,southern ,ukraine4 ,the ,ukraine had to be the first of all the countries of ,europe to withstand the attack of these hordes4 ,the first ,ukrainian conqueror1 ,sviatoslav1 who destroyed the state of the ,khazars and ,bulgars and defeated other weak hordes1 was killed in the struggle with the ,pechenegs4 ,volodimir the ,great was forced to fight these nomads under the very walls of his capital4 ,these wars with nomad tribes1 which began before the ,ukraine appeared in the arena of history1 lasted from this time until the end of the #ahth ,century1 with varying fortunes4 ,at times the balance of power was on the side of the ,ukraine1 and then ,ukrainian colonization advanced victoriously to the south and east as far as the ,black ,sea4 ,at other times the nomads were victorious1 and the eastern and southern boundaries of the ,ukraine receded north and west4 ,the great chains of fortifications and border walls erected by the ,great ,princes of ,kiev1 on the southeast borders of the ,ukraine1 were of no avail4 ,at the time of the greatest extent of the ,tatar attacks 7#aeth to #afth ,century7 almost all the left half of the ,ukraine was a wilderness1 and in the right half ,kiev was a border fortress4 ,all the southern ,dnieper country1 the ,boh country and ,eastern ,podolia1 was at that time a sparsely-peopled borderland1 and constantly exposed to the dangers of ,tatar attacks4 ,at that time ,ukrainian territory was confined to the ,polissye1 the northern part of ,chernihiv1 ,volhynia1 ,western ,podolia1 ,eastern ,galicia and ,podlakhia1 and only small1 very thinly populated border strips of the adjacent regions4 ,these fluctuations in the boundaries of the ,ukraine have no parallel in the history of ,europe1 and show most clearly in what difficult straits the ,ukrainian nation was forced to live for centuries4 ,the proximity of nomadic ,asia for a time greatly weakened the influences of the proximity of another neighbor--the ,black ,sea4 ,the ,black ,sea was1 for the ,ukraine1 the means of intercourse with ,byzantium1 the greatest cultural center of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,ukraine1 because of its waterways1 was nearest to ,byzantium of all the ,european countries4 ,this comparatively short period in which the ,ukraine was able to maintain intercourse with ,byzantium1 without obstacles1 brought the ,ukraine splendid cultural advantages4 ,in a wide stream the ,byzantine material and spiritual culture flowed into the ,ukraine1 so that the country from the #aath to the #acth ,century stood highest1 culturally1 among all the ,slavic states and almost equalled the ,western ,european states4 ,in some respects the ,ukraine of those days was even superior to ,western ,europe4 ,in those days ,kiev or ,halich surpassed ,london or ,paris in wealth and commercial importance4 ,the relations with the sea and with ,byzantium kept growing ever more difficult for the ,ukraine to maintain1 however1 as a result of the ever growing pressure of the nomad hordes4 ,finally1 in the #acth ,century1 came the ,tatar invasions4 ,these have best demonstrated the significance of the geographical situation of the ,ukraine4 ,the ancient ,ukrainian state had to be the first to withstand the ,mongol attack4 ,after the defeat1 the ,ukraine was the first of all the countries of ,europe to be desolated by fire and sword4 ,it is true that the strong resistance of the ,ukraine effectively stopped the ,tatar pressure1 and ,europe has this circumstance to thank for its escape from the fate of ,asia in the #acth ,century1 three-fourths of which was conquered by the ,mongols of ,djingis ,khan4 ,the ,ukrainian state fought a whole century longer with the ,tatars1 but could not hold their own after that4 ,the ,ukraine was systematically devastated by the ,tatars1 and in the struggle with them the entire military power of the ,ukraine was spent4 ,at the same time the neighbors on the north and west--the ,poles and ,lithuanians--were able to develop freely behind the protecting back of the ,ukraine1 and to increase their powers4 ,finally the ,poles annexed ,eastern ,galicia1 and the rest of the ,ukrainians faced the choice of either joining themselves to the ,lithuanians1 whose upper classes were at that time1 culturally1 entirely ,ukrainian1 or to place themselves beneath the ,muscovite yoke4 ,they chose the first4 ,in #aefi the ,lublin ,union joined the ,ukraine to ,poland4 ,all these things are the unhappy results of the geographical situation of the land on the threshold of ,europe and ,asia4 ,a long time following the loss of ,ukrainian political independence1 the sad results of the geographical situation of the country continued4 ,the constant attacks of ,tatars and ,turks1 the millions of ,ukrainian slaves in the slave-markets of the ,orient1 had to continue for many centuries to be the source of the oriental world1 which was fast hurrying toward its fall4 ,but soon the geographical situation of the ,ukraine began to work positively too4 ,the geographical situation1 together with other natural factors1 became one of the main causes for the formation of the ,ukrainian ,cossack organization4 ,this is not the place to discuss at length the significance of the ,cossack organization for the ,ukraine2 we are only emphasizing the fact that the ,cossack organization alone has preserved the ,ukraine from complete downfall4 ,the ,cossack organization1 as a product of geographical situation1 has a parallel only in the familiar ,north ,american backwoodsmen1 prairie hunters and pioneers who constituted the advance guard of ,european civilization on their continent4 ,yet this analogy is a very weak and incomplete one4 ,the ,zaporog ,cossacks can in no way be compared either with the ,volga1 ,don or ,ural ,cossacks1 who were chiefly brigands1 or with the ,austro-,hungarian border-soldiers1 who were a state organization4 ,the ,ukrainian ,cossack organization represented the efforts for liberty and independence of the entire ,ukrainian people1 and1 finally1 led up to the revival of ,ukrainian political life in the form of an independent hetman state4 ,to be sure1 the territory of this hetman state embraced barely one-half of the ,ukraine1 but it constituted a region about which a ,piedmont of independence for the entire ,ukraine might grow up4 ,since the last decades of the #ahth ,century1 the geographical situation of the ,ukraine on the threshold of two continents has been growing from an unfavorable position to one that may be described as very favorable4 ,it was for the most part with ,ukrainian forces that ,russia finally destroyed the nomads of the ,ukrainian steppes4 ,this fact has been of great significance for the ,ukraine4 ,since that time the vast1 tho almost imperceptible1 colonization movement of the ,ukrainian people to the east1 southeast and south1 has been in progress4 ,this movement extended the ,ukrainian boundaries twice within a single century4 ,for the second time1 and in a peaceful way1 the ,ukraine reached the delta of the ,danube1 the ,black ,sea1 the ,caucasus and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,all this is only an outcome of its geographical situation4 ,in another situation the ,ukrainians could not so easily dispose of unsettled lands4 ,this expansion of the ,ukrainian people has by no means reached its maximum1 but it has surely passed its climax4 ,to be sure1 the migration of the ,ukrainian element to the east and south is still very large1 but there are no longer so many uninhabited districts open to settlement as in former times1 and the emigration in masses has had to stop4 ,nevertheless1 the geographical situation opens a very fine prospect for later ,ukrainian colonial expansion4 ,ciscaucasia and many regions on the lower ,volga and ,ural are1 culturally considered1 really a bonum nullius4 ,russian colonization is directed to other regions1 chiefly for climatic reasons1 and other competing races need hardly be considered because of their smallness4 ,even at present the ,ukrainians constitute a very noteworthy minority2 in the sub-,caucasian country most probably an absolute majority4 ,in the course of a few decades of rather unsystematic colonization1 extensive regions of the sub-,caucasian country1 with their wealth of natural resources1 will become ,ukrainian2 the entire ,kuban region already is part of the compact national territory of the ,ukrainians1 and the ,ukrainian language has become an international language for the small mountain races of the ,western ,caucasus4 ,the geographical situation of the ,ukraine on the threshold of ,asia is distinctly favorable to the immigration of ,ukrainians into ,central ,asia and ,southern ,siberia4 ,in a strip of thousands of kilometers1 chains of ,ukrainian settlements extend along the southern border of ,siberia to the ,japan ,sea4 ,along this immeasurable strip the number of ,ukrainian settlements is continually growing4 ,this colonization1 which leads tens of thousands of ,ukrainian peasant-settlers to the far east every year1 has attracted the attention of wider circles only within the last two decades4 ,in reality it is much older1 for as early as the seventies of the past century1 ,german explorers found ,ukrainian colonies at the northern base of the ,altai and on the ,chinese border1 etc4 ,the establishment of these old and new colonies of the ,ukrainians in ,asia is proceeding in all quietude1 and is quite analogous to that splendid colonization movement of the ,ukrainians at the beginning of the #aith ,century1 which1 at one time1 quite imperceptibly doubled the national territory of the ,ukrainians4 ,yet the colonial expansion of the last century brought the ,ukrainian nation many disadvantages along with the advantages4 ,for more than a century it drained the entire energy of the nation and deprived it of tens of thousands of the most active and energetic individuals every year4 ,all the strength of the nation was turned to the one task of settling new lands and cultivating them according to ancient usage4 ,from this cause1 the political idea and the cultural efforts of the ,ukrainians have suffered very keenly4 ,after the ,ukrainian territory had again reached the ,black ,sea1 as a result of colonial expansion1 the ,black ,sea regained its ancient significance to the ,ukrainians4 ,of course1 there is no longer any such cultural center on the ,pontus as ,byzantium once was1 and ,turkish domination has deprived the formerly highly cultured districts on the shores of the ,black ,sea of all their ancient civilization4 ,but the sea has retained its capacity for promoting culture1 and1 after many centuries1 once more gave the ,ukrainians direct connection with the wide world4 ,to be sure1 the ,black ,sea is closed by nature and by international treaties1 and the ,russian ,government1 intentionally or unintentionally1 has never particularly encouraged the development of ,pontian navigation2 and1 to be sure1 the ,black ,sea lies far distant from the main commercial thorofares of the world4 ,but all these disadvantages of the ,black ,sea may lose much of their weight in a short time4 ,the materialization of the splendid project to connect the ,baltic and the ,black ,sea by means of a canal1 including the ,dvina and the ,dnieper1 navigable by large vessels1 can not be far off4 ,after the carrying out of this project the isolation of the ,black ,sea will be lessened1 and an important channel of sea-navigation will run across the entire ,ukraine4 ,pontian navigation must sooner or later experience a great advance1 for it is a natural necessity for the productive hinterland and for the entire ,ukrainian shore people1 who have always exhibited considerable skill as seamen4 ,the ,ukrainians already constitute more than two-thirds of the crews of all ,russian trade and warships on the ,black ,sea4 ,with the strengthening of the constitutional regime in ,russia1 the obstacles which have been placed in the way of ,pontian navigation by the ,russian government in favor of ,baltic navigation must disappear of themselves4 ,finally1 the great commercial thorofares of the world are beginning to move nearer to ,ukrainian territory as the cultural development of the ,orient advances4 ,as the ,european influences in the ,iran1 in ,syria and ,mesopotamia begin to grow1 new projects for an overland connection of ,europe with ,india continually arise4 ,at present the ,bagdad ,railroad is the center of interest1 and soon the ,persian railroad projects will claim attention4 ,but the shortest and easiest overland route from ,europe to ,india must cross the length of the ,ukraine1 touching ,kiev and ,kharkiv1 going past the deltas of the ,volga and ,ural and the ,aral ,sea1 along the ,amu1 and thru ,afghanistan and the ,punjab4 ,when this route is once established the ,ukraine will attain a great commercial significance as the right of way of one of the world's most important commercial highways4 ,then1 only1 will the importance of the ,dnieper and ,don1 the ,black ,sea1 the ,sea of ,azof and the ,caspian ,sea1 as bearers of the main commercial road1 be indeed realized4 ,everyone can readily understand that in this case the political significance of the ,ukraine would also be very great4 ,even now this land is an invaluable possession to ,russia4 ,only the possession of the ,ukraine makes possible for ,russia access to the ,black ,sea and permits her to gravitate toward the straits1 to win influence on the ,balkan peninsula1 to threaten ,turkey and the ,mediterranean1 to dominate the ,caucasus country1 to oppress ,persia and seek the nearest way to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,and when once the overland route to ,india goes thru ,ukrainian territory1 the ,ukraine will command over a thousand kilometers of this important road and begin to be a prime factor in world politics4 ,the possession of the ,ukraine will then be the costliest treasure and a life-problem to the state which will dominate this territory4 ,or1 if the ,ukraine1 in all its ethnographic extent1 should win its political independence1 it may in time become one of the largest and most powerful states of ,europe4 ,another element of the geographical situation of the ,ukraine1 which should not be underestimated1 is the fact that the ,ukraine is so remote from all the cultural centers of ,europe4 ,we indicated briefly1 above1 of what great importance was the short1 direct connection of the ,ukraine with the ,byzantine cultural center4 ,only during this short period did the historical fate of the ,ukraine permit the land to have direct relations with an important culture center4 ,the wall of barbarian nomad attack separated the ,ukraine very quickly from this culture center1 and when it died the ,ukraine suddenly fell into a situation in which it was far removed from all the cultural centers of ,europe4 ,only ,poland allowed a few elements of ,western ,european culture to sift thru into the ,ukraine4 ,but the lack of ,polish political and social organization did not allow ,western ,european culture to take firm root in ,poland4 ,the ,ukraine could1 therefore1 receive only a little of the ,western ,european wealth of culture thru this channel4 ,until well into the #ahth ,century1 ,russia stood upon a much lower grade of culture than the ,ukraine4 ,and altho ,russia very soon reached and surpassed her rival1 the ,ukraine has1 to this day1 received nothing worth while from ,russia4 ,the ,ukraine even suffered great loss1 culturally1 from its union with ,russia4 ,the ,white ,russians1 the ,roumanians1 the ,slovaks1 the ,magyars1 were never so far advanced1 culturally1 as to be able to teach the ,ukrainians anything4 ,the centers of ,western and ,central ,european culture--,germany1 ,scandinavia1 ,france and ,england--are so far distant from the ,ukraine that they can exert only slight and indirect influence upon its cultural progress4 ,the low state of culture of the ,ukraine1 consequently1 springs chiefly from its geographical situation4 ,the second geographical element1 surface formation1 has had as strong an influence upon the ,ukrainian people as the geographical situation4 ,the chief factor in the surface configuration of the ,ukraine is the great preponderance of plains and plateaus4 ,these take up nine-tenths of the area of the ,ukraine4 ,the difference in level of the ground is from #bjj to #cjj meters4 ,such slight variations in height are of great significance as far as anthropogeographical conditions are concerned4 ,the most important characteristic of level countries such as this1 is the complete lack of such obstacles as might make good natural boundaries4 ,and the lack of good natural boundaries is very strongly felt in the history of all lowland peoples4 ,this lack the ,ukrainians have always felt very deeply4 ,with the exception of the ,black ,sea1 which was once the boundary of the ancient ,ukrainian ,kingdom of ,kiev and now forms the southern boundary of the ,ukraine1 and1 with the exception1 also1 of the forest swamps of the ,polissye1 the ,ukraine never possessed1 and does not now possess1 any good natural boundaries4 ,neither the ,carpathians nor the ,caucasus have provided the ,ukraine with a distinct natural boundary line4 ,the borders and borderlands of the ,ukraine lie open1 were always easily accessible to all conquerors1 and made the defense of their political independence much harder for the ,ukrainians than it has been for any other nation of ,europe4 ,to be sure1 the lack of obstacles on the borders made it very easy for the ,ukrainian ,kingdom to extend its limits1 as the rapid and appreciable growth of the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev best proves4 ,but later1 unfortunately1 this favorable surface formation was taken advantage of with much greater gain by the ,tatars1 ,lithuanians1 ,poles and ,russians1 to the ruin of the ,ukraine4 ,the facility of military campaigns and of territorial conquests1 two favorable foundations for the development of great land-conquering nations1 and at the same time typical anthropogeographical characteristics of low countries1 have played an active part in the history of the ,ukraine4 ,the pressure of various races1 which is a characteristic of plain countries1 is another condition the ,ukraine had to face4 ,from the ,cimmerians to the ,turks1 how many races have inhabited the steppes of the ,ukraine6 ,in the present times of highly developed intercourse1 natural obstacles are losing much of their value1 and1 for the same reason1 the disadvantages of low countries are becoming less serious4 ,it is true that the ,ukraine is hard to defend strategically1 and an enemy wishing to attack ,russia in the ,ukraine would place her in a very precarious position4 ,but the lack of pronounced natural lines of defense is also peculiar to the eastern border of ,germany1 for example1 or the northern border of ,france4 ,apart from these strategic elements1 the ,ukrainian plain country and plateau country has nothing but advantages4 ,the migration of the ,ukrainian people has always been very easy1 and the growth of ,ukrainian territory has been unhindered because of the openness of the borders4 ,the lowland character of the ,ukraine is important not merely in respect to borders4 ,the lack of obstacles within the country in the way of highlands always favored easy travel in all directions4 ,the building of the roads met with no obstacles1 and was able to proceed in straight lines4 ,in the present days of high-roads and railways1 this is a very important characteristic of the land4 ,unfortunately it has never been taken advantage of4 ,the railroads of the ,ukraine tend toward unknown ,russian centers1 without consideration of the natural centers of the country4 ,hence its insufficient importance for traffic4 ,another characteristic of all plain countries1 and therefore of the ,ukraine1 is great homogeneity4 ,it produces a great uniformity of living conditions1 and gives the ,ukraine great unity of language1 customs and standard of living4 ,the types of buildings1 national costume1 etc41 so varied in the small area of ,germany1 extend over hundreds of thousands of square miles in the ,ukraine1 with only minor changes4 ,the uniform lowland character of the ,ukraine favored1 to a certain degree1 the constant preservation of the old customs and the gradual development of culture4 ,the lack of natural differences within the country has brought with it the lack of differences among the inhabitants1 and it is well known that such differences enrich the ability and the character of the entire nation considerably4 ,hence1 the lack of those necessary conditions of development and progress has always had a profound influence in the ,ukraine1 while we meet such favorable conditions at every step in the small areas of ,central ,europe1 with their smaller supply of natural wealth4 ,melancholy and indifference1 these typical marks of the lowland peoples1 have always been characteristic of the ,ukrainians also4 ,and these types are not favorable to the development of culture4 ,only the present time of easy communications are capable of weakening the bad influence of the uniformity of surface of the ,ukraine to any marked degree4 ,yet1 not all the typical characteristics of a lowland country are common to the ,ukrainians4 ,above all1 they lack1 and always have lacked1 the capacity for the development of great political strength1 the capacity for centralization2 in a word1 the capacity for state organizing4 ,this characteristic of the lowland peoples1 which is very strongly developed among the ,russians1 more weakly in the ,poles1 has always been very poorly bred in the ,ukrainians4 ,the ,ukrainians have possessed the tendency1 peculiar to all lowland peoples1 to level its aspirations1 to divert them to one side1 but never to the subordination of their individuality to the interests of the state4 ,only when the general equality of all citizens of the state opens to every man an equal field for the activity of his personal ego1 have the ,ukrainians been able to do the state-idea justice and to embody it very finely4 ,they have given the best proof of this in the ,zaporog ,cossack organization4 ,this fact gives us the only hope that the ,ukrainians may yet become an organized nation in modern times4 ,the present manner of national life is what the ,ukrainians wished to have centuries ago--much too early1 of course4 ,in view of the great uniformity1 every rise of land is significant4 ,slight elevations1 chains of hills1 river valleys1 even swamps and forests appear in the ,ukraine as important boundaries1 lines of defence1 foundations for cities and castles1 fortified places1 lookout stations1 etc4 ,even the many barrows 7mohili1 kurhani7 have played an important part in the history of the ,ukraine4 ,the anthropogeographical significance of the ,ukrainian mountains is in general slight1 altho we find all the typical influences of the mountains in the mountain tribes of the ,ukrainians4 ,great physical endurance1 coupled with a feeling for liberty and independence1 great personal courage1 great love of country1 etc41 have always distinguished the ,ukrainian mountain dwellers4 ,the ,ukrainian ,carpathians are1 to this day1 one of the most thinly settled regions of the ,ukraine1 chiefly for the reason that it was always a passive region1 which was not considered in political life4 ,great historical movements hardly ever touched the ,carpathians4 ,for many centuries they remained almost devoid of human life4 ,hence1 the ,carpathians played hardly any part as a border defence of the ,ukrainian state organizations4 ,mountain chains usually are of very great importance as a defence for individual tribes or entire races4 ,the ,carpathians1 with their great ease of passage1 especially in the ,ukrainian part1 have been of no significance in this respect4 ,they did provide effective protection for the ,walachian shepherds thru many centuries4 ,these shepherds led a nomad life with their flocks on the ,carpathian pastures1 and left proof of their presence in numerous names of mountains1 rivers and villages4 ,the ,carpathians also provided shelter for the numerous ,ukrainian fugitives who fled from oppressive serfdom and formed bands of half-political freebooters1 friends of the lowly1 and warriors against the lords 7oprishki74 ,the brigandage peculiar to all mountain regions flourished also in the ,carpathians4 ,but no state originated in the ,carpathians4 ,the ,alps were the foundation of ,switzerland1 and played a part in the formation of the ,austrian state4 ,the ,carpathians have given the ,ukraine nothing1 apart from occasional passing shelter4 ,at this point we must emphasize another anthropogeographical characteristic of the mountains4 ,it is the general poverty of their inhabitants and their consequent desire1 under compulsion1 to seek expansion4 ,the inhabitants of the ,ukrainian ,carpathians1 about the middle of the #aith ,century1 were in a serious economic condition because of the small amount of productive ground4 ,need came first to the ,lemkos1 then to the ,boikes1 and last to the ,hutzuls4 ,above all1 it partly divested the mountain population of the then predominating industry of cattle raising4 ,the ,lemkos at first carried on a lively trade in wagon grease thruout the southern part of ,eastern ,europe1 then they turned to harvest work1 in the surrounding lowlands1 and last to the annual emigration to ,america4 ,the ,boikes first carried on trade in salt1 then changed to the fruit trade1 which they are carrying on today1 down as far as ,warsaw and ,moscow4 ,very lately1 the annual emigration to ,america has been depleting their ranks also4 ,the ,hutzuls have but just begun to resort to emigration4 ,they hire out less frequently for agricultural work than for the lumber industry1 in which they are very skilful4 ,their highly developed domestic industry1 which borders on the artistic1 might provide them with rich support1 but it is rather hindered than advanced by the determining factors of the land4 ,in presenting the general influence of the ground formation on the people1 we must also consider the anthropogeographical significance of the geological conditions of the country4 ,they should not be underestimated1 as one might expect1 while to overestimate them1 as some scholars have done1 by even referring anthropological characteristics back to the geological composition of the country1 is quite as bad2 at all events very many of the living conditions of the inhabitants are dependent upon the geological make-up of the land4 ,we shall skip over the great importance of the geological composition of the country for the surface formations which it determines4 ,we shall pay attention only to the direct geological influences4 ,the ,ukraine possesses very great mineral treasures4 ,the most important mineral deposits for the present time1 namely1 coal1 iron1 salt and petroleum1 are very large in the ,ukraine4 ,of all these mineral treasures1 however1 only the salt deposits have had an historical significance1 since far back in the period of the ,kingdoms of ,kiev and ,halich they furthered active trade and commerce1 and later favored the development of the ,chumak organization4 ,the other mineral treasure attained a greater importance only in the past century4 ,when one considers today that the ,ukraine furnishes almost three-fourths of the coal and iron output of ,russia1 one can readily believe that the ,ukraine might some day become as great an industrial country as ,germany1 ,england or ,belgium4 ,a single glance at the mining map of the ,ukraine soon shows us1 however1 how small the regions containing this abundance of mineral wealth are in proportion to the entire territory4 ,then everyone can understand what the geological composition of the country means4 ,it condemns the ,ukraine forever to remain an agricultural country1 altho it also permits the development of a considerable industry in several centers4 ,the same path of future development is outlined for the ,ukraine by its fertile soil4 ,almost three-fourths of the ,ukrainian territory lies within the ,eastern ,european black-earth zone4 ,the chornozyom1 one of the most fertile species of earth on the globe1 makes the ,ukraine the most fruitful land of ,europe4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that the ,ukrainians have1 to this day1 remained almost entirely an agricultural people4 ,the fertility of the soil must also remain the greatest wealth of the land into the remotest future4 ,now that the greatest grain lands of the earth1 the ,american prairies and pampas1 the ,australian border-steppes1 etc41 have been almost entirely subjected to cultivation1 the extensive market production of grain must1 in the nearest future1 give way to intensive production4 ,then the importance of the ,ukrainian black earth1 which has maintained its great fertility for thousands of years1 will become even greater than it is today2 and even today the ,ukraine must be considered one of the main centers of grain production4 ,the fertility of the ,ukrainian soil has had several unfavorable as well as favorable results4 ,like a promised land1 the ,ukraine has always lured foreign conquerors and colonists4 ,its fertility has brought the ,ukraine much war and trouble4 ,for centuries the fertile ground of the ,ukraine gave its own people only a part of its rich produce4 ,to this day the foreign landowners and grain merchants demand the greater part of the harvest1 while the native people of the ,ukraine1 who have dwelt in the land since time out of mind1 can hardly reserve enough for themselves to keep from dying of hunger4 ,the fertile ,ukrainian ground has exerted another important unfavorable influence over the ,ukrainian people4 ,the great fertility of its fields has caused a certain indifference and carelessness in planting among the ,ukrainian peasants4 ,to be sure1 the ,ukrainian is a better farmer than the ,white ,russian1 ,russian or ,roumanian4 ,but for centuries he has been accustomed to depend on the fertility of his native soil and is1 therefore1 far behind the progressive farmer of ,central or ,western ,europe4 ,antiquated methods of planting have until recently prevailed in the ,ukraine without the slightest change4 ,at the same time the ground has become scant1 and progressive methods of cultivation must be adopted in order to get as much as possible out of the land and to balance the relative diminution of the cultivation area4 ,the geological conditions have also exerted a great deal of influence over the buildings and roads of the ,ukraine4 ,clay houses1 covered with straw1 are still typical for the ,ukraine today4 ,only in the most recent times brick houses1 covered with shingle1 are beginning to appear in the ,ukrainian villages4 ,stone buildings were not original with the ,ukraine1 and were only adopted with the higher grade of culture4 ,the cause of this is not the lack of building material4 ,almost everywhere in the ,ukraine good building-stone is found beneath the thick cover of loose earth4 ,but the abundance of clay always showed the nearer and easier way--clay huts4 ,even this small matter has had an unhappy influence upon the fate of the ,ukraine4 ,the ancient ,ukrainian cities consisted chiefly of wood and clay buildings and were fortified by means of earthworks1 palisades and clay covered wooden towers4 ,walled houses and circular walls were very rare4 ,this condition made the defence of the cities and castles1 even against the attacks of nomadic tribes1 very difficult4 ,the ancient ,ukrainian ,state would not have been destroyed so soon if it had had an abundance of strongly fortified walled cities4 ,the black earth and clay sub-layer of the ,ukraine has1 since the most ancient times1 been an unfavorable influence as far as the quality of its roads are concerned4 ,outside of the negligence of the ,polish and the ,russian ,state1 which alternated in the domination of the ,ukrainian territory1 natural conditions1 too1 have had a great deal to do with the roads in the ,ukraine4 ,the stone lay far below the loose cover of clay2 it was used very rarely for building purposes2 hence the idea of plastering the roads with stones could hardly occur to anyone4 ,we shall now consider the anthropogeographical significance of the ,ukrainian bodies of water4 ,of the importance of the ,black ,sea we have already spoken4 ,the ,ukrainian people lived in close connection with this sea in the days of the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev1 as well as in the days of the ,cossack organization4 ,but the lack of well-developed coast1 of harbors and islands1 have prevented the development of the ,ukrainians into a seafaring nation1 altho favorable tendencies were not lacking4 ,the smallness and isolation of the ,black ,sea could not favor the development of navigation4 ,the frequency of dangerous storms had a deterring effect1 altho they strengthened the courage of the sailors4 ,then again1 the smallness of the sea made the use of small vessels sufficient1 which could more readily find shelter at any time or at any point along the coast1 with its few harbors1 than larger ships4 ,these circumstances have hindered the development of extensive navigation for long distance traffic4 ,hence1 the ,ukrainians1 altho in certain periods of their history they gained a not inconsiderable familiarity with the sea1 could not rise to a genuine seafaring people4 ,much stronger ties connect the ,ukrainian people with the rivers of its territory4 ,the rivers have an anthropogeographical significance chiefly as ways of travel4 ,the great main streams of the ,ukraine1 particularly the ,dnieper and the ,dniester1 have always had the character of a transition between rivers and arms of the sea4 ,at the time of the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev1 seafaring vessels sailing up the ,dniester reached the royal city of ,halich1 and1 in the time of the ,cossacks1 the ,zaporog boats were pursued by the ,turkish galleys as far as the rapids of the ,dnieper4 ,as far as ancient navigation was concerned1 there was very little difference between river and sea2 rivers were simply the extension of sea routes4 ,in the ancient ,ukraine1 the ,varangians were the first to use them in this sense4 ,their route 8from the ,varangian ,land to ,greece10 which later became one of the main paths of the old ,kingdom of ,kiev1 led from the ,baltic to the ,black ,sea by way of rivers and portages4 ,these wanderings of the ,varangians in the ,ukrainian water system are of great historical significance4 ,for altho we are now almost certain that the ,varangians were not the founders of the ,kingdom of ,kiev1 it cannot be denied that they played a great part in the forming of it4 ,rivers are natural1 and therefore1 also the easiest and cheapest roads4 ,especially in countries of great area1 as the ,united ,states1 ,russia and the ,ukraine1 the importance of rivers as roadways is very great4 ,rivers connect the nations4 ,the ,dniester and the ,dnieper connected the ,ukraine with the sea1 with the highly-cultured ,constantinople1 with the entire ,mediterranean and ,oriental world of culture4 ,the ,dnieper1 thru its much branched water-web1 connected the ,ukraine directly with ,poland and ,white ,russia1 and indirectly with the ,baltic ,sea and ,northern ,europe4 ,even today1 altho the canals connecting the ,dnieper with the ,vistula1 ,niemen1 and ,dvina are entirely neglected1 the ,dnieper ,river plays a very significant part as a great vein of traffic connecting different lands1 peoples and producing regions4 ,it may become more important still if it is made accessible to sea vessels and connects two distant seas4 ,in the ,cossack period a considerable portion of the ,ukrainians became a river people4 ,the life and work of the ,zaporog ,sich depended entirely upon the ,dnieper ,river4 ,it protected1 fed and clothed them4 ,so strongly were the ,zaporogs bound to the ,dnieper1 so necessary did the great river become to them1 that all attempts to found new ,zaporog centers on other rivers simply failed4 ,we need not wonder1 then1 that the ,dnieper is celebrated in all the ,cossack songs as a sacred possession of the nation4 ,closely connected with the character of rivers as roadways1 is their importance as the directing lines of the movements of races4 ,the history of the ,ukraine tells us how the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev penetrated toward the south along the ,dnieper1 and how the ,kingdom of ,halich reached the delta of the ,danube by way of the ,dniester and ,prut4 ,most likely the first expansion of the ,ukrainians proceeded along the ,dniester1 ,boh and ,dnieper1 southward4 ,at the time of the great shifts of the ,ukrainian southeast border1 the advance of the ,ukrainians was always directed southeast1 their retreat always northwest4 ,the history of the #afth ,century shows plainly how the first pioneers of the new colonization movement--the ,cossacks--pushed along the ,dnieper1 toward the southeast1 into the steppe region4 ,altho it is a commonplace1 yet it may be established without doubt that the whole ,ukrainian nation took its way southeast along the ,ukrainian rivers4 ,to this day the national territory of the ,ukraine is advancing irresistibly in that direction4 ,but not only with the southeast has ,nature connected the ,ukraine4 ,important borderlands of the ,ukrainian territory--,central ,galicia1 the region of ,kholm1 ,podlakhia1 ,western ,volhynia--with their river system1 belong to the ,baltic slope4 ,at the same time1 the transition from the ,pontian river system to the ,baltic system is very easy1 the divides flat and low4 ,the easy transition from the ,dniester to the ,san and ,buh1 from the ,pripet to the ,vistula and the ,niemen1 was of great importance in the past1 when western influences could easily penetrate these ,ukrainian borderlands1 and is of great importance in the present4 ,if1 in the near future1 the now antiquated canals are improved and new ones built1 the ,ukraine will have as good connections with the west as it has with the east4 ,then the ,ukraine may1 from a hydrographic point of view1 gain great importance as a transition country of important waterways4 ,by no means accidental is the remarkable fact that the ,ukraine has no hydrographic connection with the northeast1 the real ,muscovite country4 ,of the country drained by the ,don1 only the region of the ,donetz 7which also flows southeast7 and the mouth of the main stream belong to the territory of the ,ukraine1 and that only since a relatively short time4 ,outside of the ,don region the ,ukraine has no hydrographic connections with the ,muscovite country1 which has always had different directions1 different channels of traffic1 and different centers of waterways4 ,modern geography does not consider rivers good natural boundaries1 and does not believe in their powers of separation4 ,in the ,ukraine1 rivers have played almost no part as boundaries4 ,even the ,pripet1 surrounded as it is with inaccessible swamps1 does not make a good natural boundary between the ,ukraine and ,white ,russia4 ,the ethnographic influences on both sides1 and even the political boundaries are hardly considered4 ,nor could the rivers be important lasting obstacles2 instead of separating they are more likely to connect individuals1 and even whole nations4 ,only as passing1 momentary obstacles1 they were of importance to the ,ukraine in the innumerable wars which were waged on ,ukrainian soil1 and much ,ukrainian blood was carried by them to the sea4 ,we now come to the relations between climate and people of the ,ukraine4 ,the situation of the ,ukraine at an equal distance from the equator and the pole1 on the southeast border of the ,european continent1 which is so very favored climatically1 has given the country one of the finest climates of the temperate zone4 ,the hot summer permits of an extensive exploitation of the ground1 the severe winter hardens the body and strengthens the soul1 strong winds clear the atmosphere and bring motion into nature4 ,the amount of rainfall is sufficient for the vegetable world1 and is as far removed from the superabundance of damp ,western ,europe1 as from the deadly dryness of the ,asiatic steppes4 ,as for the general influence of the ,ukrainian climate upon the people1 it is in the main similar to that of ,western and ,central ,europe4 ,the ,ukrainians are one of the northern peoples of ,europe1 and they show it by the difficulty with which they become acclimated to the tropical conditions of ,brazil and ,argentina4 ,there conditions are much worse for the ,ukrainians than for the ,spaniards1 ,portuguese and ,italians1 but at least better than for the ,english or ,scandinavians4 ,the ,ukrainian is already accustomed to a hot and long summer in his native land4 ,he accustoms himself quickly and easily to the cold ,siberian climate1 because the frosts in the ,ukraine1 despite the short frost period1 are very severe4 ,for climatic reasons then1 the colonial capacity of the ,ukrainians must be even better than that of most of the peoples of ,western or ,central ,europe4 ,the climate of the ,ukraine1 which we have discussed in a preceding chapter1 is very uniform thruout the entire great territory1 with the exception of the southern borders4 ,this homogeneity is favorable on the one hand1 because it advances the homogeneity of the people1 unfavorable on the other hand1 because differences in climate as a rule enliven and quicken the course of history of a country4 ,the variations in character of the people and in the mode of living due to the differences in climate give countless impulses to development and to progress4 ,despite the general uniformity of the climate1 we do find appreciable differences when we compare the northern border regions of our country with the southern ones4 ,the ,ukraine has the same climatic peculiarity as ,france on a small scale1 the transition of the temperate to the ,mediterranean climate without sharply defined boundaries4 ,in this way some difference of products does arise1 which advances the development of trade and commerce4 ,in our description of the ,ukrainian climate1 we emphasized its peculiar position as compared with the climates of the adjacent districts of ,eastern ,europe4 ,just beyond the borders of the ,ukraine1 to the north and east1 the annual temperature becomes lower and the duration and severity of the winter suddenly becomes very much greater4 ,the ,muscovite climate and that of the ,ukraine would not be ranked together by anyone who understands anything about the matter4 ,and yet the renowned historian and publicist1 ,leroy ,beaulieu1 considers a uniform climate as one of the chief causes of the unity of ,russia4 ,in ,january1 he writes1 one may ride in a sleigh from ,astrakhan to ,archangel2 the ,sea of ,azof and the ,caspian ,sea freeze over just as the ,white ,sea or the ,finnish ,gulf1 the ,dnieper as well as the ,dvina2 the winter wraps north and south in one vast blanket of snow every year4 ,less strong are the ties formed by the summer1 but there is a preponderance of unifying circumstances4 ,such statements can come only from one who has no conception of climatology and anthropogeography4 ,on such premises no conclusions may be based1 except by persons who have previously constructed a hypothesis and now wish at all costs1 to prove its validity4 ,for it is certainly generally known that the same winter covers all ,scandinavia1 ,poland1 ,germany and ,northern ,france together with the same white mantle4 ,in the winter-time one may travel by sleigh not only from ,astrakhan to ,archangel1 but also to ,irkutsk in one direction and to ,stockholm in the other1 and even to ,paris4 ,not only the ,dnieper freezes1 but also the ,vistula1 the ,oder1 the ,elbe1 and sometimes even the ,seine4 ,if we consider ice and snow as the basis of 8unification10 very little of ,europe remains4 ,for not only in snow and ice should we seek signs of uniformity in climate1 but in its general character1 in the community of all climatic characteristics4 ,it is true that the ,ukraine is part of the ,eastern ,european climatic province1 but in this province we may also include almost all of ,sweden1 almost all of ,poland1 a part of ,austria-,hungary and ,prussia1 and ,supan adds all of ,western ,siberia1 ,caucasia and ,turkestan as well4 ,every geographer understands that so great a climatic province must be divided into smaller districts even in climatology1 not to mention the details of daily life4 ,every inhabitant of ,southern ,russia1 whether a ,ukrainian or not1 feels the difference of the ,ukrainian climate from that of ,st4 ,petersburg or ,moscow very keenly4 ,there is hardly a ,russian author who does not describe the fine climate of the ,ukraine as wonderfully mild compared to the inhospitable climate of his native land4 ,how keenly1 then1 does a ,ukrainian feel the difference in the two climates1 who is forced to live in the cold ,muscovite country4 ,the climatic difference is illustrated more clearly still when we consider the matter from the climatological side4 ,voyekov1 the great ,russian climato pzeshasiemlogist1 expressly the slight cover of snow in the ,ukraine1 the relatively high temperature of the warmer periods of the winter1 and the abnormally warm spring1 which is due to the lightness of the snow-cover1 which requires only a little of the spring warmth to melt it4 ,the snow cover of ,poland1 ,lithuania or ,northeastern ,germany is much more similar to that of ,muscovy than the ,ukrainian4 ,the ,january isotherms in the ,ukraine switch over from the ,n4 to ,s4 direction to the ,n4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,e4 direction4 ,the isotherm of the typical ,russian winter 7,january -#h to -#aj7 avoids the region of the ,ukraine entirely4 ,it is true that the ,dnieper and ,dniester have the same amount of ice as the ,volga or the ,dvina4 ,but here the main consideration should be the period of freezing2 the ,dvina is covered over for #aij days1 the ,volga #afj1 the ,dnieper in the ,ukraine only #hj to #ajj days1 the ,dniester #gj days4 ,these are certainly greater differences4 ,still greater differences between the ,ukrainian and the ,muscovite climates become evident when we compare the length of the winter1 or the time suitable for work outdoors4 ,in ,great ,russia this time is at most four months2 in the ,ukraine1 at least six and a half2 and in its southern borderlands even nine months4 ,such differences play a great part in the life of the people4 ,the time of the winter obstructions and enforced idleness is twice as great in ,russia as in the ,ukraine4 ,the struggle with the cold takes on forms in the ,ukraine which are entirely analogous to the ,western ,european forms4 ,in the ,muscovite country we observe polar elements in the winter-life of the people4 ,the ,ukrainian winter does not depress the people1 does not bore them to death1 but only steels their bodies in the struggle with the cold and gives them the desired rest after the summer's heat4 ,the winter is the time of the most intensive social life among the ,ukrainian peasantry4 ,the spring of the ,ukraine1 warm and sunny1 has quite a different influence upon people to that of the cool1 damp ,russian or ,polish spring4 ,the sunny climate of the spring and the cloudlessness of the summer have produced in the ,ukrainian a quiet1 fundamentally cheerful temper4 ,yet1 we find in him none of the gaiety which is characteristic of the people of the south as compared with the people of the north1 but rather a quiet melancholy4 ,it is just the ,russians or the ,poles that are of a much gayer sort than the ,ukrainians1 livelier1 more easy-going in their social life1 more frolicsome2 not the ,ukrainians1 but the ,russians and ,poles1 are the very ones that are vying with one another for the epithet of the 8,frenchmen of the ,north0 or 8of the ,east10 respectively4 7,this remarkable fact is due1 in the first place1 to the unhappy history of the ,ukraine74 ,but1 on the other hand1 the melancholy of the ,ukrainians is quiet1 while the occasional melancholy of the ,russians turns into despair and pessimism4 ,the ,ukrainian summer and fall1 warm and beautiful1 has made the ,ukrainian1 in contrast with the ,russian1 a farmer par excellence4 ,the warmth of these seasons is very similar to ,southern ,european conditions1 and gives to the life of the ,ukrainian people many southern characteristics4 ,the life in open communion with ,nature1 the accessibility of her organic treasures1 is much more pronounced in the ,ukraine than in ,russia1 ,white ,russia or ,poland4 ,in the warm seasons the ,ukrainian lives much of the time outside his house4 ,in the day he works continuously in the field or in the garden1 and even at night he usually sleeps outdoors in the orchard or the yard4 ,if the fields are at a distance from the village1 a large part of the population of the place camp out in the open fields for several days during harvest time4 ,these are all characteristics of the life of the south4 ,yet we see in our people no real characteristics of the people of the south4 ,despite all this1 the ,ukrainian is much more domestic than the ,russian1 more frugal and more temperate2 the 8extravagant ,russian nature0 is entirely foreign to him4 ,we have already seen that the ,ukrainians do not have gay manners1 and in like manner their activity of thought is less than that of the northern peoples1 the ,russians and the ,poles4 ,yet the depth of thought of the ,ukrainians is much greater1 and their popular poetry incomparably deeper than that of the ,russians or ,poles4 ,dreaminess and reserve of character is much greater in the ,ukrainians who live in the south than in the ,poles and ,russians who live in the north4 ,all these are the effects of a sorrowful past4 ,only in one respect do the ,ukrainians bear out their southern type of character2 in their great abilities and their generally rich intellectual gifts4 ,every unprejudiced observer must admit that the ,ukrainian peasant1 almost the only typical representative of our nation1 surpasses almost all his neighbors in his natural accomplishments4 ,the laziness and weakness of will peculiar to the southern nations compared to the northern1 have not developed into a typical characteristic among the ,ukrainians4 ,the often remarkable indifference of the ,ukrainian is rather an outgrowth of sad historical events than of the climate and the nature of the land in general4 ,at most one might blame the great fertility of the black soil4 ,for the faith in this fertility is almost never misplaced and favors the indifference of the peasant4 ,on the other hand1 the five hundred years of ,tatar oppression were actually able to produce an inherited indifference4 ,and why strive and work1 when at any moment the ,tatar hordes might come and take or burn everything8 ,despite this historically inherited indifference1 as we may call it1 the laziness peculiar to southerners cannot be ascribed to the ,ukrainians4 ,they are better farmers than all their neighbors1 with the single exception of those who adopted progressive farming1 as1 for example1 the ,prussian ,poles4 ,domestic industry is also well developed among the ,ukrainians1 and the ,ukrainian seasonal workers are actually sought after1 especially in ,germany1 and earn a great deal4 ,the ,ukrainian harvest-worker is more sought after and better paid than the ,russian4 ,he works slowly but methodically1 and achieves good results4 ,the ,ukrainian colonists find tolerable living conditions in places in which the ,russian starves to death or from which he flees4 ,in like manner weakness of will is not a real peculiarity of the ,ukrainians1 in spite of their southern location4 ,the thousand years' struggle with piratical ,asia1 the independent establishment of two great state organizations1 especially the second1 after three centuries of slavery1 the new awakening in the #aith ,century under such difficult and hostile conditions1 the splendid colonial expansion--all this speaks rather for great energy than for weakness of will4 ,it is certainly true that in our people1 oppressed by centuries of serfdom1 energy and strength of character must hide beneath a thick crust of indifference1 and our educated people find their energy weakened by the bad influence of foreign cultures4 ,but these facts show most clearly that an enormous amount of energy and willpower is latent in the ,ukrainian people1 which1 to this day1 however1 has not been properly developed4 ,among historians and anthropogeographers it is a much used commonplace that the northern peoples always appear as conquerors who subjugate the southern peoples1 and that they are always the founders of states in their particular climatic zones4 ,the ,germans overthrew the ,roman ,empire1 the ,northern ,frenchmen founded the ,french state1 the ,northern ,spaniards the ,spanish1 the ,northern ,italians1 the ,italian state1 and the ,north ,germans united ,germany4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that this commonplace should be applied also in ,eastern ,europe4 ,the 8,northern0 ,russians have1 by the natural necessity of history1 8united0 the 8southern0 ,russians4 ,the same explanation should be accepted as a necessity by the ,ukrainians1 and nothing should be done to resist this condition6 ,in reality this commonplace1 like so many others1 is false4 ,the ,ukrainians1 as we have already observed1 possess no such characteristics1 as opposed to the ,russians1 as a southern race possesses with regard to a northern neighbor4 ,to be sure1 the ,russian state now dominates the ,ukraine4 ,but the present ,russian state is1 after all1 only a branch of the ancient ,ukrainian ,kingdom of ,kiev4 ,the ancient ,ukrainian ,kingdom subjugated the present ,russian territory1 organized it as a state1 even partly colonized it1 and gave it a ruling dynasty4 ,the ancient ,ukrainian state tradition was usurped by the ,muscovite states1 and gave them all the prestige which the ,muscovite possesses4 ,it was only the ,tatar invasion that entirely held up the political development of the ,ukraine1 and1 at the same time1 favored the development of the ,muscovite ,empire4 ,only the ,tatar invasion brought ,moscow the supremacy over the ,ukraine which ,russia still enjoys4 ,it was a foreign conquest1 which has nothing to do with climatic influences4 ,the very name of ,russia only came into use in the time of ,peter the ,great6 ,from this survey of climatic influences1 it appears1 unequivocally1 that the ,ukrainians cannot be classed with the so-called southern peoples4 ,the ,ukrainians have all the characteristics of the races of the ,north ,temperate ,zone1 who are the representatives of the ,european culture of today4 ,the growth of national consciousness and of culture will1 without a doubt1 raise the ,ukrainians to the standard of the ,european family of cultured nations4 ,the nature of the country has1 by means of its influences1 given them all the necessary prerequisites4 ,the significance of the flora and fauna1 for a lowland people like the ,ukrainians1 should be considered very great4 ,from the physico-geographical description of the ,ukraine1 everyone will observe that the ,ukraine may be naturally divided into two main parts1 the forest country and the steppe country4 ,the mountain formations take up only a comparatively small part of our territory4 ,even among the ,ukrainians themselves1 the opinion is very widespread that they are a steppe-people4 ,the enemies of the ,ukraine have largely represented them in the eyes of ,europe as a semi-nomadic steppe-people1 devoid of all culture1 which thru their growth and development might threaten the cultural treasures of ,europe4 ,these views1 tho based partly upon the great part the steppe has played in the history of the ,ukraine1 and partly upon the unquestionable fact that three-fourths of the present ,ukrainian territory lies within the steppe region of ,eastern ,europe1 are1 nevertheless1 incorrect4 ,for1 a glance at the floral map of ,europe is enough to show that the so-called old ,ukraine1 that is1 the original ,ukrainian territory1 lies almost completely within the forest region4 ,that means ,galicia1 ,kholm1 ,western ,podolia1 ,western ,volhynia1 ,kiev1 ,chernihiv1 etc4 ,from here the most ancient ,ukrainian colonization advanced to the ,black ,sea1 only to lose all the steppe districts again upon the sudden nomad attack4 ,for centuries the steppes of the present ,ukraine were the stamping-ground of ,mongolian-,turkish nomad tribes4 ,the ,cossack organization at last wrested great areas from them1 and made these accessible to ,ukrainian colonization4 ,and only the last colonial expansion of the ,ukrainians has been able to reach the ,pontian shore again4 ,the ,ukrainians1 then1 were originally a forest and wood-meadow people4 ,they have become in part a steppe people1 but only thru their latest colonial expansion4 ,and1 just as today we would not call the ,english or the ,north ,americans steppe peoples1 merely because they colonized the ,american prairies and now inhabit them1 so we can no more call the ,ukrainians a steppe people1 merely because they have colonized the ,southern ,european steppes4 ,not the steppe1 but the forest and the wood-meadow are the native floral conditions of the ,ukrainian4 ,in the forest zone and in the adjacent parts of the forest-meadow zone1 the seed of the ,kiev ,state originated4 ,in its expansion1 this state first of all embraced the forest regions of the ,ukraine1 while the steppe regions were conquered later and kept under the dominion of the state for a comparatively short time only4 ,the second center of the old ,ukrainian historic life also lies within the forest zone of the ,ukraine1 namely1 the ,galician-,volhynian4 ,even the center of ,ukrainian historical life that extended farthest into the steppe1 the ,zaporog ,sich1 was dependent for its existence upon the great wooded areas of the ,veliki ,luh on the ,dnieper and its tributaries1 and thus bound to the forest country4 ,the pronounced inclination of the ,ukrainian people to agriculture1 from the most ancient times down to the present1 is another proof that it is a forest people1 paradoxical tho it may seem4 ,for it is an undisputed fact that1 altho the steppes have apparently been most favorable to the cultivation of the grain grasses1 and altho the present main centers of the grain production of the world lie in the steppe country of the prairies1 pampas1 ,ukraine1 yet nowhere in the whole world have the steppes brought forth an agricultural people4 ,no steppe-people1 anywhere1 ever began agriculture of its own accord4 ,the forest peoples had to teach the steppe-races agriculture in the first place4 ,only in case of bitter necessity do the inhabitants of the steppes take to the plough1 and never has agriculture become part of their system to them4 ,how great was the part of the ,ukrainian forest region in the past life of the nation has already been suggested in ,book ,i4 ,only to the forests does the ,ukrainian nation owe its preservation during the ,tatar attacks4 ,the forests were the only refuge of the people1 to the forest zone the inhabitants of the steppes retreated whenever the steppes were threatened by the nomads1 moving back again at a favorable opportunity4 ,the ,ukrainian forests have also been of great importance as boundaries4 ,the function of the forest to form important boundaries for races on a low grade of culture is familiar to anthropogeography4 ,in ,ukrainian history1 too1 this characteristic of the forests has appeared prominently4 ,the forests of the ,ukrainian ,polissye were of great importance for the fencing-off of the ,east ,slavic tribes1 and by forming a wide zone1 difficult of passage1 separating the ,east ,slavic tribes of the south from those of the north and west1 they have contributed a great deal to the formation of the three ,east ,slavic nations of today4 ,in the days of the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev1 the centers in which the ,muscovite nation later developed bore the name of ,salissye 7land behind the forest74 ,there was a ,pereyaslav ,saliski1 ,vladimir ,saliski1 etc4 ,the significance of the forest as a boundary has also made itself felt in the internal history of the ,ukraine4 ,for the grade of culture upon which the ,ukraine remained thruout the ,middle ,ages and in the early centuries of the modern era1 the forests constituted good boundaries4 ,the forest divided the population into small groups1 which lived apart in separate clearings1 every group living its own life4 ,the forest made communication difficult and did not permit the organization of a powerful central state4 ,the forest character of the old ,ukraine was the natural chief cause of the formation of principalities in the ancient ,kingdom of ,kiev1 and advanced that fateful particularism4 ,it is not by mere accident that ,kiev lies on the border of the forest zone of the ,ukraine4 ,together with other causes1 the thinner forests were an aid to the more rapid development of the ,kiev principality1 and made it the natural starting point for the great expansion under the reigns of ,oleh1 ,sviatoslav1 ,volodimir4 ,from his original territory the ,ukrainian took with him his great preference for trees1 a love of trees which causes the white huts of a typical ,ukrainian village to be bordered with the fresh green of leaves4 ,the green of the trees in which the ,ukrainian huts disappear1 enables us immediately to differentiate a ,ukrainian from a ,russian village1 which seems to be afraid of trees4 ,consequently1 the steppe is not originally native to the ,ukrainian4 ,the words of the ,cossack song1 8,the steppes so wide1 the joyous land0 were not composed until the latter days of the ,cossack organization4 ,for centuries the steppe meant to the ,ukrainian the terrible1 mysterious1 8wild field10 from which at every moment the nomad hosts1 like a swarm of locusts1 invaded the ,ukraine4 ,the struggles of the ,kingdom of ,kiev with the nomads show an anthropogeographer very plainly the reason of their final failure4 ,the ancient ,ukrainians1 being forest dwellers1 simply could not successfully fight the riders on the natural steppe or the artificial steppe of their own fields4 ,the ancient ,ukrainians did not feel at home in the steppe4 ,a long evolution was necessary before the ,ukrainians adapted themselves to the steppe1 and the beginning of this adaptation was the ,ukrainian ,cossack organization4 ,not until after the formation and development of the ,cossack organization could the ,ukrainian people successfully advance into the steppe zone and colonize it4 ,yet the denser settlement of the steppes did not take place until toward the end of the #ahth ,century4 ,some of these early ,ukrainian settlements have1 to this day1 not lost the character of new colonies4 ,but these steppe districts were colonized by so great a mass of ,ukrainian colonists1 and they increased so rapidly in the fertile country1 that today more than half the ,ukrainians live in the steppe zone1 and thereby favor the widespread commonplace that the ,ukrainians are a steppe people4 ,the wealth of its flora and fauna very soon enabled the ,ukraine to prosper4 ,very early it was called a land 8where milk and honey flows40 ,this natural wealth of the organic world possessed the greater worth for the reason that it was not soon exhausted1 and offered1 as it still offers1 to the population1 an opportunity for constant work1 enduring activity and steady development4 ,the natural treasures of the ,ukrainian territory are not the treasures of tropical countries which favor laziness1 but the treasures of a more thrifty ,nature1 which require constant work to properly exploit them4 ,man has changed the natural conditions of the flora and fauna of the ,ukraine to a great extent4 ,these changes are not as fundamental as in ,western and ,central ,europe1 but they have a great anthropogeographical significance4 ,the forest zone of the ,ukraine is thinned even beyond the normal and in places destroyed4 ,the artificial steppe of the cultivated land has penetrated very far to the north and west4 ,certain plant species have become rare1 others have entirely disappeared1 while1 on the other hand1 new ones have been acclimated4 ,the original wealth of game of the ,ukraine is a thing of the past now1 and the great abundance of fish is almost all gone4 ,on the other hand1 man has increased the number of domestic animals enormously4 ,all these conditions give to the ,ukraine characteristics of a cultivated country4 ,as we shall see further on1 the degree of exploitation of natural resources is still very low1 much lower than in the genuinely cultured countries of ,europe4 ,despite all this1 the ,ukraine must be considered a land exceptionally endowed with riches by ,nature4 ,up to the present day this has been a misfortune1 for from all sides strangers have come in to take with full hands of the riches of the ,ukraine4 ,but the time has come1 at last1 in which the possibility lies in the hands of the ,ukrainian people to make use in the future of the rich resources of the ,ukrainian land for themselves4 ,,economic-,,geographical ,,survey ,,of ,,ukraine ,to give a lucid economic-geographical view of the ,ukraine today is very difficult--almost impossible4 ,the ,ukrainian territory is divided among three states1 and nowhere does the ,ukrainian country form unbroken administrative units4 ,consequently1 the official statistics cannot give an exact picture of the economic conditions of the ,ukraine4 ,the following attempt1 also1 can lay no claim to accuracy4 ,a very heterogeneous and incomplete mass of material has made it impossible to attain the desired accuracy and uniformity4 ,the ,ukraine differs from the cultural countries of ,central and ,western ,europe first1 in that its settlement is not yet complete1 so to say4 ,only the northwestern regions of the 8,old ,ukraine0 possess a sufficient density of population4 ,the entire south and east are thinly1 in places even very thinly1 peopled4 ,and the complete exploitation of the natural resources is still a far way off1 even in the most thickly settled parts of the ,western ,ukraine4 ,in our economic-geographical survey of the ,ukraine1 we shall begin with the most primitive branches of the exploitation of natural resources and proceed from them to those that are more advanced4 ,,hunting ,,and ,,fishing ,the most primitive way of exploiting the natural resources of a country has always1 and everywhere1 been hunting and fishing4 ,both played a great part in the economic life of the ,ukraine a thousand years ago4 ,our ancient chronicles contain many reports of the great abundance of game and fish in the ,ukrainian land1 and of their great importance for the population4 ,five centuries of ,tatar warfare effectively interrupted the exploitation of these natural treasures1 and even in the #afth and #agth ,century the ,ukraine still aroused the amazement of travelers from foreign lands1 thru its great wealth of game and fish4 ,in these centuries1 hunting and fishing were among the main branches of industry of the ,cossack border population of the ,ukraine4 ,as late as the second half of the #ahth ,century1 hunting and fishing were still two of the main sources of industry of the ,zaporog ,sich4 ,but soon agriculture began to gain ground in the regions ruled by it1 the density of the population increased1 and with it the fundamental strength of the ,zaporog organization4 ,this circumstance seemed threatening to the ,russian government1 and was the chief motive for the destruction of the ,sich4 ,today hunting has almost no significance in the economic life of the ,ukraine4 ,altho in the year #aijf1 in ,galicia1 #ejj stags1 about #aj1jjj roes1 over #bjjj boars1 about #ij1jjj rabbits1 over #hjjj pheasants1 #ej1jjj partridges1 #cj1jjj quail1 #aj1jjj woodcocks1 and #ad1jjj wild ducks were killed1 the figures for other countries at the same time were much higher2 in ,bohemia which is more thickly populated there were brought down more than #hjj1jjj rabbits1 #a1jjj1jjj partridges1 etc4 ,these figures show that in ,galicia the natural wealth of game has declined considerably1 while the artificial conservation of game has not yet begun4 ,in the ,austro-,hungarian part of the ,ukraine1 hunting has become a mere diversion of the upper classes--a mere sport4 ,the hunting monopoly of the upper classes even bring to the country folk serious disadvantages1 for boars and stags cause great damage to agriculture1 especially in the ,boiko and ,hutzul country1 and it is forbidden to keep them off4 ,this circumstance encourages poaching1 which in many districts is quite common4 ,the extermination of beasts of prey1 bears1 wolves1 lynx and wildcats is as a rule1 undertaken only in occasional general chases1 but the ,ukrainian mountain-dwellers are very well able1 despite all game laws1 to defend themselves and their herds effectively from these wild animals4 ,in #aijf more than #ijjj foxes were brought down in ,galicia4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine the economic importance of hunting is as slight as in ,austria-,hungary4 ,nowhere in this region do we find a developed1 profitable hunting industry4 ,even in the ,polissye hunting is not very important and is at most an avocation for a few forest settlers4 ,here rabbits1 roes1 boars1 elk1 grouse1 wild fowl and water-game are sometimes hunted4 ,bison and beaver hunting is now very strictly forbidden4 ,many foxes and badgers are killed and a relatively large number of bears and wolves4 ,volhynia is much poorer in game1 and still poorer are ,podolia1 and the districts of ,kiev1 ,poltava and ,kharkiv4 ,in all the places1 the most that one can get a shot at1 aside from wild fowl1 is rabbits and foxes1 and sometimes wolves4 ,in the forests and swamps of the ,chernihov country there is a somewhat greater abundance of game4 ,hunting is most important1 relatively1 in the southern part of the ,ukraine1 on the ,black ,sea border and in the ,caucasus lands4 ,besides roes1 rabbits1 and foxes1 there are hunted in the steppes3 wolves1 sayga-antelopes and wild dogs2 and in the ,caucasus3 bison1 stags1 bears1 and lynx4 ,the number of steppe and waterfowl1 e4g41 bustards1 partridge1 quail1 wild geese and wild ducks1 and of mountain fowl1 as pheasants1 mountain-quail1 and grouse1 is still considerable4 ,collecting the eggs of waterfowl is still a remunerative occupation4 ,on the shores of the ,caspian ,sea #acj1jjj ,caspian seals are killed every year4 ,of much greater importance than hunting is the fishing industry4 ,it is only a weak reminiscence of what it once was1 yet it remains to this day an important economic element4 ,the ,ukrainian fishing industry is carried on in three regions3 on the high sea1 in the river-mouths1 and in the interior of the land1 in rivers1 lakes and ponds4 ,the actual sea-fishing industry attains relatively slight results1 on the average #bd million kilograms a year4 ,on the ,black ,sea1 along the shores of ,bessarabia1 ,kherson and ,tauria1 a great amount of mackerel1 sardines1 herrings and sturgeon-like fish are caught4 ,the main fisheries of the northern ,pontian shore are situated at the ,kinburn bar1 at the island of ,tendva1 in the ,bay of ,karkinit1 at ,cape ,tarkhankut1 at ,eupatoria1 ,balaklava1 ,yalta1 ,sudak1 and ,theodosia4 ,fishing on the high seas1 because of its great cost1 is undertaken only by the large enterprising companies1 who hire the ,ukrainian fishing companies 7artili7 for the entire summer4 ,of late1 fishing on a small scale has begun to develop4 ,the small fishermen catch chiefly mackerel1 which are then salted1 or1 less often1 smoked4 ,they also go after the small but savory ,black ,sea oysters1 of which an average number of one million a year are gathered4 ,far greater profit is yielded by the fisheries at the mouths of the rivers1 in the limans1 and particularly on the largest liman of all1 the ,sea of ,azof4 ,the annual yield here attains an average of #adj million kilograms4 ,at the mouths of the ,danube the chief fishing center is ,vilkiv4 ,toward the end of the #aith century there lived at this place #ijj independent fisherman1 who sometimes united to form artils4 ,here they catch chiefly sturgeon and other fish of the sturgeon class 7on the average #cj1jjj a year71 and four and a half million of ,pontian herrings4 ,at the mouths of the ,dniester1 ,boh and ,dnieper1 chiefly river fish are caught4 ,herrings and sturgeon-like fish are of minor consequence here4 ,the fishermen in this region are always organized either in artils1 in which the profits are shared equally among the members1 or in so-called takhvi1 which are hired by the entrepreneurs4 ,the chief center of the fishing trade and of the putting up of canned fish1 is ,odessa4 ,yet the ,bay of ,odessa cannot compare with the ,sea of ,azof in fish production4 ,the average value of the annual haul here exceeded a million rubles in the latter years of the #aith ,century4 ,over #aa million kilograms of sturgeon-like fish and other large fish1 besides #g million herrings1 were caught here annually4 ,in some winters more than #gj1jjj fishermen1 with #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj horses and oxen1 gather on the frozen ,sea of ,azof4 ,with gigantic nets1 which are sometimes nearly two kilometers long1 a very profitable fishing industry is carried on here4 ,important fishing centers1 with great freezing plants and works for salting and smoking1 are situated in ,osiv 7,azof7 and ,kerch4 ,the members of the fisher artils come principally from the ,poltava and ,kharkiv country4 ,the ,ukrainians may also claim a rather prominent part in the fishing industry of the ,caspian ,sea1 which yields more than half a billion kilograms of fish annually4 ,the ,ukrainian ,caspian fishermen come from ,ukrainian colonies on the ,volga1 and from the eastern parts of the ,ukraine proper4 ,the interior fishing industry on the rivers1 lakes and ponds now has only slight significance4 ,on the ,dniester and ,dnieper on the ,pripet1 ,desna1 ,sula and ,orel1 and on the ,donetz there still exist here and there fisher-artils1 but the fish are caught only for local use4 ,in the ,polissye region the fishing industry still yields some profit1 e4g41 in the ,district of ,mosir about #dj1jjj rubles a year1 in the ,district of ,pinsk only #cejj rubles4 ,lake ,knias yields #aj1jjj rubles worth of fish annually4 ,all of ,galicia yields about #a1ejj1jjj kilograms a year1 of which two-thirds are contributed by the ,ukrainian part of the country4 ,in examining the fishing industry of the ,ukraine one cannot escape reminiscences that are painful4 ,everywhere a ruthless system of pillage and waste is carried on4 ,the excessively fine meshes of the nets catch the young broods of fish with the old1 and these are either sold for a few kopeks a pound or simply thrown away4 ,the fish which come up the rivers to spawn are ruthlessly intercepted4 ,a closed season or region barely exists1 except on paper4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that the abundance of fish in the ,ukraine is rapidly decreasing1 and fishing is losing its importance more and more4 ,not a soul thinks of a rational method of breeding fish1 of increasing the stock of fish in the streams4 ,in ,galicia a start has been made1 but thus far the results are very slight4 ,and yet the ,ukraine1 being an almost exclusively agricultural country1 where there is no factory sewage to poison the rivers1 could very easily recover its fame as a land abounding in fish4 ,the related industry of crab-fishing is not developed in the ,ukraine1 altho the ,jewish dealers of ,eastern ,galicia send whole wagon-loads of crabs from ,galician and ,russian ,podolia to the west4 ,the old ,zaporog regions have been famous since ancient times for their abundance of crabs4 ,in ,oleshki there also exists a drying-plant for crabs' tails4 ,from this short survey of the hunting and fishing industry of the ,ukraine1 we perceive that these branches of industry play only a small part in the economic life of the ,ukrainian population4 ,a further proof of this fact is the small percentage of the population which engages in this work4 ,this percentage amounts to #j4b in the ,russian-,ukraine2 in the ,austrian ,ukraine it must be much smaller still4 ,,forestry ,how extensive the wooded area of the ,ukraine is cannot be determined exactly without detailed investigation1 for the same reason that statistical figures concerning the ,ukraine in other fields are difficult to determine4 ,an approximate calculation of the forest surface gives us an area of over #aaj1jjj square kilometers1 that is #ac of the entire surface of the country4 ,these figures show us that the ,ukraine is one of the more sparsely-wooded countries of ,europe4 ,of all the larger territories of our continent1 only ,england1 with its #d1 is poorer in forests4 ,there remain only smaller territories1 as ,portugal 7#b4h71 the ,netherlands 7#h71 ,denmark 7#h4c71 ,greece 7#i4c74 ,so old a land of culture as ,france still possesses #ae4h forest surface1 ,germany #be4i1 ,hungary #bg4d1 ,austria #cb4g1 ,russia #ch4h4 ,among the large territories1 the ,united ,states stand nearest to the ,ukraine as far as their forest area 7#aj4c7 is concerned4 ,the causes of the comparative lack of forests in the ,ukraine are to be sought1 first of all1 in the fact that it includes large parts of the steppe region of ,eastern ,europe4 ,the percentage of forest land in the various regions of the ,ukraine show us this most clearly4 ,the mountain regions still retain the highest proportion of forest4 ,the ,bukowina has #db of forest 7,district of ,kimpolung #gh71 the ,ukrainian region of ,northeastern ,hungary about #dj 7,marmarosh #fb74 ,then come the ,ukrainian regions of the forest zone3 ,polissye1 from ,minsk down #ch4b1 ,volhynia #bi4f1 ,galicia #be4d1 ,grodno #be4e1 ,podlakhia1 starting from ,lublin1 #be4a1 from ,sidletz #ai4h4 ,in the same class1 as far as forest area is concerned1 the ,kuban region seems to stand4 ,besides the heavily wooded mountain region1 this division includes the luhi in the foothill country and the treeless steppes2 hence the percentage comes out very small--#ai4h4 ,the transition between the forest and the steppe zone is indicated by the following series3 ,kiev #ah1 ,chernihiv #ae1 ,podolia #aj4i1 ,kharkiv #h4e of forest area4 ,the steppe regions of the ,ukraine have very little forest land3 ,kursk #g4a1 ,voroniz #f4h1 ,bessarabia #e4h1 ,tauria 7,yaila forests7 #e4g1 ,poltava #d4g1 ,katerinoslav #b4d1 the ,don region the same1 ,kherson #a4d1 ,stavropol #j4c4 ,in this distribution of forest we see a certain analogy between the ,ukraine and the ,united ,states4 ,here the steppes are treeless1 there it is the prairies4 ,here the forest predominates in the ,carpathians1 there in the ,appalachians2 here1 just as there1 we have zones of transition from forest regions to the steppes4 ,but there is another point of similarity between the ,ukraine and the ,united ,states--the ruthless exploitation and waste in forestry4 ,this criminal waste is the second main cause for the lack of forests of the ,ukraine4 ,it began in the #afth ,century and it still continues today4 ,historical sources mention great forest formations1 even in those regions of the ,ukraine which are now poor in forests4 ,the 8,great ,forest0 7veliki luh7 in the ,zaporog land1 the 8,black ,forest0 at the sources of the ,inhul1 the large forests of the ,poltava and ,kharkiv region1 the ,derevlan jungles1 the gigantic forests on the ,buh and ,vislok1 in the ,rostoche1 all have either entirely disappeared from the earth's surface or have changed into miserable remnants1 which1 at any moment1 may fall a final victim to human greed4 ,a host of geographical names1 in regions which are almost entirely treeless today1 point to former forests4 ,thick1 primitive oak trunks are found in the beds of rivers which flow only thru the treeless steppe-region4 ,in five decades1 in the second half of the #aith ,century1 the forest area of the ,government of ,kharkiv decreased from #aj4i to #h4e1 in ,poltava from #ac to #d4g1 ,chernihiv from #ag4a to #ae4 ,detailed investigations of the ground have proved that the forest area of the ,district of ,poltava was originally #cd 7now #g71 of the ,district of ,romny #bh 7now #i7 and of the ,district of ,lubni #cj 7now #d74 ,similar conditions of forest devastation prevail everywhere in the ,ukraine4 ,thus1 the forest area of ,galicia1 for example1 has decreased by #bjjj square kilometers1 i4e41 almost #c of the total surface area of the country1 in the course of the last century4 ,we have already frequently called attention to the sad results of this criminal waste for the entire land4 ,but1 because of the low grade of culture of the nations dominating the ,ukraine1 the ,polish nation and the ,russian1 no attention is paid to the fatal results of forest destruction4 ,the forests are recklessly cut down for lumber1 and year by year the scarcity of wood is being felt in most regions of the ,ukraine4 ,only in ,podlakhia1 ,volhynia1 ,polissye1 and in the mountain regions of the ,ukraine1 is there no scarcity of wood4 ,the three cubic meters of wood which1 on the average1 are due every inhabitant of the ,ukraine1 are not easily accessible to more than one-fifth of the ,ukrainians4 ,at the same time1 the forests of the ,ukraine are1 as a rule1 badly managed4 ,even in the ,austro-,hungarian parts of the ,ukraine there are very few professional foresters2 in ,galicia for example1 #bej to #hjj4 ,conditions are still worse in the ,russian-,ukraine4 ,consequently1 the forest does not grow up again very well1 and a great deal of wood is simply ruined4 ,this happens chiefly in the mountain forests of the ,carpathians1 where hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of wood decay every year4 ,in the regions which are poor in forests1 the products of the woods are carefully and economically used1 so that1 for instance1 from one hectare of forest in the ,poltava region1 #aa4e cubic meters of wood are produced every year2 in the region of ,katerinoslav1 #g cubic meters4 ,of the production of the ,ukrainian forest1 building wood constitutes only a comparatively small part4 ,there is a crushing preponderance of firewood1 especially in the regions which are poor in forests4 ,building wood1 in large quantities1 comes from the forests of the ,polissye and of the ,carpathians only4 ,the export of building wood from ,galicia and the ,bukowina reached a million and a half cubic meters annually at the end of the century4 ,the export of wood from the ,polissye1 starting from ,minsk1 exceeded #ijj1jjj cubic meters4 ,the complete production of ,galicia in the year #aijj was #c1ffj1jjj cubic meters of building wood and an equal quantity of firewood4 ,the reclaiming of forests1 even in the ,austrian ,ukraine1 where it is required by law1 is not properly administered4 ,it is still worse in the ,russian ,ukraine4 ,hence1 the forest surface of the ,ukraine is constantly decreasing instead of remaining unchanged or even increasing1 as usually happens in the cultured lands of ,europe4 ,and yet1 the ,ukraine is one of those countries in which the forest problem is a life problem4 ,the ,ukrainian people engage in the ,ukrainian lumber industry only as labor-power1 while the money profit goes to strangers--great landowners or middlemen4 ,the forest-area which is in the possession of ,ukrainian peasants is very small1 even in ,galicia1 where at the time of the removal of the labor tax system1 at least small patches of forest came into the possession of the peasant communities4 ,almost all the forests of the ,ukraine belong to the large landowners1 the clergy and the national lands4 ,the lumber industry and the industrial exploitation of the forest products engages but a slight part of the ,ukrainian people4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine the percentage of such workers is barely #j4a4 ,in this percentage1 however1 the entire mass of ,ukrainian peasants which seeks its incidental profit in forest work1 is not considered4 ,in the ,carpathian regions of the ,ukraine this percentage increases a hundredfold and more4 ,,agriculture ,since the very first beginnings of the history of the ,ukraine1 the main occupation of its people has been1 and has remained to this day1 agriculture4 ,to give a complete picture of ,ukrainian agriculture is beyond the scope of our little book4 ,even a detailed economic study could not do justice to this task4 ,hence1 we shall have to limit ourselves to its most important phases4 ,almost nine-tenths of the ,ukrainian people are engaged in agriculture4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine1 the agricultural percentage of the population1 according to official estimate1 is #hf4d4 ,this figure is probably correct for the ,austrian-,ukraine as well1 altho the biased calculations of ,buzek place the percentage of farmers among the ,ukrainians of ,galicia at #id4d4 ,these figures show us very clearly the significance of agriculture in the economic life of the ,ukraine4 ,now1 a person seeing these figures and knowing the fertility of the ,ukraine might easily imagine that agriculture here stands upon a high plane4 ,such a view1 however1 would be entirely false4 ,agriculture is on a very very low plane in the ,ukraine4 ,yet the causes of this sad state of affairs do not lie in the nature of the land4 ,the climate of the ,ukraine favors the cultivation of grains as no other does4 ,barely one small part of the steppe-zone is unfavorable to agriculture1 because of its frequent periods of drought4 ,the soil of the ,ukraine is one of the most fertile on the whole globe4 ,more than three-fourths of the ,ukraine lies in the ,black ,earth ,region1 and many varieties of soil in the northwestern part of the ,ukraine are by no means without value and at least equal to the best soils of ,germany4 ,not in ,nature1 but in the cultural conditions1 lie the causes of the low grade of ,ukrainian agriculture4 ,the first and main cause is the lack of enlightenment among the people of the ,ukraine4 ,the ,ukraine peasant cultivates his field entirely after the manner of his forefathers1 which may have proved excellent a hundred years ago1 and actually did make the ,ukrainian peasant appear as the best farmer among his neighbors of other races1 but they fail completely in these days of intensive cultivation of the soil4 ,the illiteracy of the ,ukrainian peasant renders almost inaccessible to him all the great progress of agricultural science4 ,the old methods of cultivation1 the primitive agricultural implements1 waste his energy and his stock of living resources4 ,the use of agricultural machines1 which may be of great significance even in intensive farming on a small scale1 is almost unknown to the ,ukrainian peasant4 ,the progressive amelioration of the soil and the national rotation of crops is not at all of wide application4 ,and all efforts at enlightening the ,ukrainian peasantry are hindered as much as possible by the governments dominating them1 by their ,polish and their ,russian masters4 ,the highest level1 relatively1 in agriculture1 is attained by the western borderlands of the ,ukraine1 ,podlakhia1 the ,khohos country1 and ,galicia4 ,the poorer quality of the soil has always required more intensive cultivation here4 ,besides1 the influences of advanced methods of cultivation sifted thru more easily here1 whether indirectly thru the ,polish territory1 or directly thru the influence of the ,german colonies4 ,the greater enlightenment of the ,ukrainian peasants of ,galicia has brought it about that they now regularly apply rational rotation of crops and fertilization of the soil1 even with artificial fertilizers1 and possess pretty good agricultural implements4 ,the three-field system has disappeared almost everywhere in this region1 and continues in use only in the most fertile parts of ,podolia4 ,in the mountains1 on the other hand1 making land arable by means of fires followed immediately by planting1 is still a procedure frequently met with4 ,in the ,polissye region burning is still frequently applied1 but the two-field and three-field systems are used more frequently4 ,on the same principle1 agriculture is carried on in the northern parts of ,volhynia1 ,kiev and ,chernihiv4 ,in the southern parts of these districts1 as well as in ,podolia1 ,poltava and ,kharkiv1 the three-field system predominates4 ,manuring is usually confined to small plots directly adjoining the farmhouse4 ,here1 too1 however1 an advance to rational rotation of crops and to the multi-field system is undeniable4 ,in the steppe zone the method of cultivation becomes more careless and the so-called fallow-system prevails4 ,the steppe soil is cultivated for a number of years and then left lying fallow for some time4 ,in very recent years1 however1 even the steppe-peasant has had to face the hard necessity of going on to the intensive methods of cultivation4 ,the agricultural implements of the ,ukrainian peasants have undergone a great change4 ,the primitive wooden plough1 without metal mounting1 has been retained only in places1 in the ,polissye region and the ,carpathian country1 more as a relic of the fathers than as an agricultural implement4 ,in the entire central zone of the ,ukraine1 the typical ,ukrainian plough1 made of wood1 with strong iron fittings1 is used4 ,iron ploughs are rapidly coming into use4 ,in the southern steppe zone of the ,ukraine1 the peasant has by far the best implements4 ,iron ploughs of different kinds are used here1 in imitation of the ,german colonists1 while sowing1 harvesting1 and also threshing machines are found as the property of large farmers or of agricultural co-operative associations4 ,it is possible1 then1 to note a certain progress in ,ukrainian agriculture4 ,the ,russian and ,white ,russian peasant is much more badly off1 but the ,ukrainian peasant1 too1 has a long way to go in order to reach the level of even the ,ukrainian large landowners4 ,various agricultural co-operative associations are working to raise the standard of agriculture among the ,ukrainian peasantry4 ,one of these co-operative associations has #ij branches1 #aajj local groups1 and #bg1jjj members--the ,eastern ,galician 8,silsky ,hospodar40 ,such associations would1 if not hindered in their development 7especially by the ,russian ,government71 become of great importance in raising the level of the agricultural industry of the ,ukraine1 that ancient granary of ,europe4 ,the second cause of the sad condition of ,ukrainian agriculture lies in their unsound property conditions4 ,the foreign conquerors1 who were continually attracted by the fertility of the ,ukrainian land1 after taking possession of the land1 divided it among their upper classes4 ,the foreign conquerors have succeeded in denationalizing the ,ukrainian nobility1 have succeeded even in developing the republican ,cossack organization into a new class of landowners and1 very largely in russifying them4 ,foreign rule in the ,ukraine has always supported foreign ownership of land on a large scale1 and the ,ukrainian peasant must be satisfied with small1 mediocre and widely scattered bits of land4 ,now for a few corroborative figures4 ,in the ,ukrainian part of ,galicia the large estates embrace #dj4c of the total area4 ,in the ,governments of ,chernihiv1 ,poltava and ,kharkiv1 the proportion of peasant-owned land is still rather large 7#ec1 #eb1 #ei71 because here the property of descendants of the old-time ,cossacks is included4 ,far worse are the conditions in other parts of the ,ukraine4 ,in ,volhynia the peasant-owned land constitutes only #dj of the area1 in ,podolia #dh1 in ,kiev #df1 in ,kherson #cg1 in ,katerinoslav #de1 in ,tauria #cg1 while in the ,polissian ,government of ,minsk the peasants retain only #bh of the land4 ,the results of such unsound property conditions are fatal to the ever-increasing density of the peasant population4 ,land-famine has become chronic all thru the ,ukraine4 ,the parcelling out of the large estates which began with such fine results in ,galicia a few years ago has now come to a halt1 and the ,stolypin radical agrarian reform in the ,russian ,ukraine has thus far only slight results to show4 ,to be sure1 the amount of property of the medium landowners is decreasing1 but the giant estates are not only not losing ground1 but even show a steady1 tho gradual1 growth4 ,as a result of the ever increasing scarcity of land1 the ,ukrainian peasants are splitting up their property more and more1 trying to rent as much land as possible from the large landowners1 and seeking subsidiary occupations in domestic work2 but a large percentage find it necessary to leave their fatherland and to seek homes in ,caucasia1 ,turkestan1 ,siberia1 ,canada1 ,brazil and ,argentina4 ,and this sad fact need not amaze us4 ,for1 while the foreign colonists who settled in ,southern ,ukraine upon the invitation of ,catherine ,,ii were given #fe hectares of land per head1 the ,ukrainian peasant1 after the abolition of serfdom1 in #ahfa1 was given a maximum of #c hectares1 and in many cases only #a hectares per head4 ,in half a century the rural population has doubled1 while the area of cultivation has not increased perceptibly at all4 ,thus1 there existed in the ,government of ,poltava1 as early as twenty years ago1 more than #fj of peasant-farms with an area of cultivation of only #a4c desiatins1 while another four percent of estates occupied more than #e desiatins4 ,how can one speak of progressive farming under such property conditions8 ,those #fj of peasant farms resemble very closely the sort of plots occupied by cottagers or squatters4 ,and the consequence3 #fb of the emigrants who emigrated to ,russian ,asia in #aiaj came from the ,ukrainian governments1 that 8granary0 of ,russia4 ,and not only from the thickly populated districts of ,kiev or ,poltava1 but also from the comparatively thinly populated1 very fertile districts of the ,ukraine--from ,kherson1 ,katerinoslav and ,tauria4 ,the third reason for the sad condition of ,ukrainian agriculture1 is the community ownership of land established in the ,eastern ,ukraine4 ,the basis of their system1 which is in vogue everywhere in ,great-,russia1 is that the land is not owned by the individual peasant1 but by the entire community1 which apportions it among its individual members4 ,this ,muscovite property system is unbearable to the ,ukrainian peasant and causes him to neglect his land1 since it does not really belong to him4 ,it does not pay him at all to cultivate the ground better than his neighbor1 since1 in the new apportionment1 the carefully improved patch may fall to someone else4 ,if1 therefore1 despite all these unfavorable conditions1 the agricultural production of the ,ukraine and its exports of food stuffs are very great1 this fact is due1 above all1 to the great fertility of the ,ukrainian soil and the economic policy of the large landowners1 who1 in spite of the frequent danger of famine in their own country1 continue to export the products of their great estates beyond the borders of the land4 ,after these general observations1 we proceed to a short survey of agriculture in the ,ukraine4 ,none of the ,european countries 7with the exception of ,russia7 possesses as great an area under cultivation as the ,ukraine4 ,it amounts to more than #de million hectares1 that is1 more than #cb of the area of cultivation of ,european ,russia1 which is six times as large as the ,ukraine4 ,the proportion of the area of cultivation in the ,ukraine is nearly #ec of the total area of the country4 ,in this respect the ,ukraine is surpassed only by ,france 7#ef74 ,in ,germany1 the proportion is only #dh4f1 in ,austria #cf4h1 in ,hungary #dc4a1 in ,russia #bf4b4 ,to be sure1 the proportion of the cultivated area is very different in different districts of the ,ukraine4 ,the most agricultural land is found in the steppe and transition regions3 ,kherson #gh1 ,poltava #ge1 ,kursk #gd1 ,kharkiv #ga1 ,voroniz and ,katerinoslav #fi each1 ,podolia and ,tauria #fd each1 ,bessarabia #fa1 ,kiev #eg1 ,chernihiv #ee4 ,the forest regions possess much less farm land3 ,galicia #dh1 ,grodno #dj1 ,volhynia #cg1 ,minsk #bd1 etc4 ,besides this1 the farm land within each of the above mentioned regions is diversely distributed4 ,in ,galicia1 for example1 the area of cultivation is apportioned as follows3 ,in ,eastern ,podolia #ge-hj1 in ,western ,podolia #fj-ge1 in ,pidhirye only #bj-cj1 in the ,hutzul country only #aj1 of the total area4 ,similar conditions prevail in the ,bukowina1 in ,upper ,hungary1 ,caucasia4 ,in the level regions of the ,ukraine these local differences are slighter4 ,to calculate the general agricultural production of the ,ukraine is difficult1 if not impossible4 ,by combining various reports1 we get1 for the yearly average in the beginning of the #bjth ,century1 a grand total of #aej million metric hundred weights4 7,this number1 however1 includes only the wheat1 rye1 and barley production47 ,in this respect1 the ,ukraine surpasses all the countries of ,europe except ,russia4 ,its production is greater than that of ,austria1 ,hungary or of ,france1 to say nothing of other ,european ,states4 ,following are several figures about the harvest yield of the ,central regions of the ,ukraine in #aiaj4 ,volhynia produced #gc4d million puds 7#a pud #af4d kilograms71 ,kiev #aac4d1 ,podolia #aae4i1 ,kherson #ahh4f1 ,chernihiv #dj1 ,poltava #aac4f1 ,kharkiv #ie4i1 ,katerinoslav #aid4i1 ,tauria #ach4c1 ,kuban #bad4d million puds4 ,the total yield of the central regions of the ,ukraine 7without the borderlands1 which also produce a great deal1 as for example1 parts of ,kursk1 ,voroniz1 the ,don region1 etc47 totalled #bae million metric hundred weights1 and was1 consequently1 six times as great as the harvest yield of ,russian ,poland1 and comprised #ci of the total production of ,european ,russia and over #cc that of the entire ,russian ,empire4 ,if we consider now that the ,russian ,ukraine comprises only a twenty-ninth part of the gigantic ,russian ,empire and barely one-fourth of its population1 we recognize the great importance attached to the ,ukraine as the granary of ,russia4 ,among the species of grain grown in the ,ukraine1 wheat is without doubt of the first importance4 ,in the ,southern ,ukraine wheat takes up half the area of cultivation1 decreasing rapidly toward the north and west4 ,in the ,government of ,kherson the wheat fields cover #ea of the cultivated surface1 in ,katerinoslav #ej1 in ,tauria and in the ,don region #di1 in ,bessarabia #cf1 in ,podolia #cj1 in ,kharkiv #bi1 in ,poltava and in ,kiev #bb1 in ,galicia #ad1 in ,volhynia #aa1 in ,grodno #d1 in ,minsk #c1 in ,chernihiv only #a4 ,in ,kiev1 ,podolia1 ,volhynia1 ,galicia1 more winter wheat is raised2 in the ,southern ,ukraine1 more summer wheat4 ,the mean annual yield per hectare is #aj hl4 for winter wheat and #g hl4 for summer wheat4 ,the mean annual yield of wheat in the first decade of the #bjth ,century in ,russian ,ukraine was #fh million metric quintals1 that is1 over #df of the production of ,european ,russia4 7,in ,eastern ,galicia it was #a4i million q474 ,the chief centers of wheat production in the ,ukraine are ,kuban 7#ag million q471 ,katerinoslav 7#ab4d million q471 ,kherson 7#ab4d million q471 ,tauria 7#i million q471 ,poltava 7#f4c million q471 ,podolia 7#e4h million q471 ,kharkiv 7#d4i million q471 ,kiev 7#d4b million q471 ,stavropol 7#c4c million q471 and ,volhynia 7#b4g million q474 ,wheat is one of the chief exports of the ,ukraine4 ,rye is cultivated chiefly in the northern and western districts of the ,ukraine1 where it is the chief grain used for breadmaking4 ,in ,chernihiv1 ,minsk and ,grodno1 rye takes up #dh of the farm land1 in ,volhynia #ch1 in ,poltava #c1 in ,kharkiv #bi1 in ,kiev #bh1 in the ,don region #bb1 in ,katerinoslav and ,podolia #ai1 in ,tauria #ah1 in ,kherson and ,galicia #ag1 in ,bessarabia only #g4 ,rye 7almost everywhere winter rye7 yields on the average #aj hl4 per hectare4 ,the chief districts of production are ,poltava 7#ee million q471 ,volhynia 7#d4i million q471 ,kiev 7#d4h million q474 ,the total rye output of the ,ukraine is as high as #db million q41 that is1 over #bj of the ,russian output4 ,barley is raised mostly in the ,southern ,ukraine1 where it takes up #bh of the farm land in ,tauria1 #bf in ,katerinoslav1 #ba in ,kharkiv and ,kherson1 #ah in ,bessarabia1 #ag in the ,don regions4 ,the chief districts of production are ,katerinoslav 7#i4b million q471 ,kherson 7#g4i million q471 and ,kuban 7#f4i million q47 ,barley is also an important export of the ,southern ,ukraine4 ,in other regions of the ,ukraine less barley is raised1 e4g41 in ,poltava #ac1 in ,polissye and in ,galicia #i4 ,the barley production of the ,russian ,ukraine amounts to #di million q41 therefore #fa of the ,russian production of barley4 ,the importance of the remaining grains is1 of course1 comparatively slight4 ,oats take up on the average #af of the farm land in the ,ukraine 7#ba in the ,polissye region1 #ag in ,galicia1 #af in ,chernihiv1 #aa in ,kharkiv and ,poltava1 #e in ,southern ,ukraine74 ,the total production is #bh million q4 ,kiev1 ,volhynia and ,poltava take first rank4 ,as a bread cereal1 oats are of some importance only among the ,carpathian people of the ,ukraine4 ,the ,eastern ,galician oats production amounts to #d4e million q4 ,spelt is raised very seldom and then only along the western borders of the ,ukraine4 ,buckwheat is of the greatest importance in the ,chernihiv country 7about #bg of the farm area and a yield of #j4h million q4 a year71 and ,kiev1 ,volhynia1 and ,poltava each produce almost as much4 ,in other regions of the ,ukraine1 buckwheat is raised much less frequently 7#g in ,polissye1 #b in ,galicia71 in the southern part of the ,ukraine almost none at all4 ,millet is raised chiefly in the ,government of ,kiev 7#aj of the farm-land1 #b4c million q4 annual production7 and ,voroniz 7#i74 ,in ,kharkiv and ,poltava the amount of land used for millet is only #d1 in ,galicia #a4 ,in ,kherson the cultivation of the ,chugara-millet has been begun4 ,the chief region of ,indian corn cultivation is ,bessarabia1 where this crop takes up #cb of the area of cultivation4 ,indian corn is also grown in the adjacent regions of ,podolia 7#g71 ,kherson 7#c71 ,galicia 7#c71 and the ,bukowina1 playing an important part in feeding the population in these regions4 ,the chief regions of corn production are ,podolia 7#a4h million q471 the ,ukrainian part of ,bessarabia and ,kherson 7each #a4a million q47 and ,southeastern ,galicia 7#j4i million q474 ,besides grains and cereals1 some other species of plants are of great importance in the agricultural production of the ,ukraine4 ,the first of these is the potato4 ,the fact that the yield of the potato is six or eight times that of the other plants makes it a very important staple4 ,yet this advantage of the potato is but little exploited in the ,ukraine4 ,only in ,galicia does the potato take up #ad of the farm-land 7annual production in ,eastern ,galicia #ch4g million q474 ,even in the ,polissye region and in ,chernihiv1 only #f of the farm-land consists of potato-fields1 in ,poltava and ,kharkiv only #c1 in the ,southern ,ukraine barely #a4 ,the total production of potatoes in the ,russian ,ukraine is #fc4b million q4 annually1 therefore #bb of the production of ,european ,russia4 ,the large landowners use the potato for distilling alcohol 7especially in ,galicia71 or for cattle-feed4 ,various species of beans and lentils are raised everywhere in the ,ukraine1 but on a small scale1 chiefly in kitchen-gardens4 ,in ,galicia these vegetables take up #c of the farm-land1 in ,polissye and ,chernihiv #b each1 in the other districts of the ,ukraine still less4 ,the culture of forage 7clover1 lucerne1 fodder-turnip7 is still in its infancy in the ,ukraine4 ,only in ,galicia do such plants take up more than #aj of the farm-land4 ,the cultivation of commercial plants stands upon a comparatively low level4 ,most extensive is the cultivation of hemp and flax2 but it takes up only a tiny part of the general area of cultivation of the land4 ,flax is cultivated chiefly in the ,polissye region and in ,katerinoslav 7#c of the farm-land74 ,in ,chernihiv1 ,poltava1 ,kharkiv1 it takes up #a to #b of the farm-land1 in ,galicia #a 7together with hemp74 ,in the ,southern ,ukraine a short-stemmed variety of flax1 raised only for obtaining oil1 is cultivated widely4 ,hemp takes up on the average #a of the farm-land1 only in ,chernihiv as much as #d4 ,all the hemp products are used in home industry1 white the flax products are mostly exported4 ,another plant grown for the sake of oil thruout the ,ukraine1 but especially in the eastern borderlands of the country1 is the sunflower4 ,rapeseed is grown only by the large landowners1 chiefly in ,kherson1 ,kiev1 ,poltava1 and ,podolia4 ,poppy is cultivated everywhere in the ,ukraine even by the peasants4 ,among the industrial plants of the ,ukraine the sugar-beet plays a very important part4 ,in the year #ahig ,russia had #daj1jjj hectares of beet-fields1 #ccj1jjj hectares of this area being in the ,ukraine4 ,the total ,russian production of sugar-beets was #fj million metric hundredweights1 of which #ej millions1 that is1 five-sixths1 came from the ,ukraine4 ,the most important centers of sugar-beet production lie in the ,governments of ,kiev1 ,kharkiv and ,podolia1 much less being produced in ,volhynia1 ,chernihiv and ,kursk4 ,in the ,austrian ,ukraine sugar-beet culture is developed only in ,southeastern ,galicia and ,northern ,bukowina4 ,not only the large landowners1 but also frequently the peasants1 engage in sugar-beet culture with great profit4 ,another important commercial plant of the ,ukraine is tobacco1 which takes up over #ej1jjj hectares of farm-land1 #cjjj hectares of it in ,galicia4 ,the chief districts of tobacco production are ,chernihiv1 ,poltava1 ,kuban and ,tauria4 ,much less is produced in the ,black ,sea region in ,podolia1 ,volhynia1 ,bessarabia1 ,kherson and ,kharkiv4 ,the tobacco production in ,russian ,ukraine in #aijh amounted to over #ffj1jjj q41 that is1 #fi of the total production of ,russia1 in ,galicia #ej1jjj q4 ,tobacco culture has a great future in the ,ukraine1 because the ground and the climate are wonderfully fit for it4 ,but first the unfavorable conditions1 which lie chiefly in the poor organization of the tobacco trade1 must be removed4 ,hops are raised in the ,ukraine to a very slight extent4 ,in ,galicia only the large landowners engage in a little hop culture on #bcjj hectares of ground4 ,in ,volhynia the ,chekhic colonists have introduced the cultivation of hops4 ,it comprises about #cjjj hectares of land and yields over #af1jjj q4 of hops a year1 that is #dj of the total ,russian output of hops4 ,,fruit ,,and ,,vegetable ,,raising ,vegetable-culture is very slightly developed in the ,ukraine4 ,beyond the little vegetable gardens about the houses and the melon-patches in the steppe we see no developed vegetable culture even in the neighborhood of large cities4 ,it is worthy of mention only in the ,chernihiv and ,odessa regions1 as well as in the old ,zaporog country on the ,dnieper 7,oleshki1 etc474 ,here vegetables are harvested twice a year1 in the early summer for exportation and in the fall for home use4 ,the ,south ,ukrainian melon plantations 7bashtani7 annually yield great masses of sweet melons1 watermelons1 pumpkins and cucumbers4 ,here there has even arisen a special class of bashtanki1 who rent pieces of land for melon patches4 ,fruit-culture is much more highly developed in the ,ukraine4 ,the love of the ,ukrainian people for trees favors the planting of orchards4 ,the ignorance of progressive fruit-culture1 owing to illiteracy1 as well as the exploitation of the fruit growers by middlemen is hindering the development of ,ukrainian fruit-culture1 which1 nevertheless1 has a great future before it1 and even now plays an important part in the economic life of the ,ukraine4 ,the greatest amount of space is taken up by orchards in ,bessarabia 7#dj1jjj hectares71 where the more delicate kinds of apples1 pears1 plums and walnuts1 almonds and apricots are raised4 ,in ,podolia the orchards of the peasants alone comprise more than #bf1jjj hectares4 ,besides apples1 pears and plums1 great quantities of cherries are raised here4 ,the orchards usually lie in the deep river-valleys4 ,the yar of the ,dniester1 between ,khotin and ,yampol1 produces annually half a million metric hundredweights of fruit4 ,from ,podolia and ,bessarabia over #hjj1jjj q4 of fresh fruit1 #ajj1jjj q4 of dried fruit and #bj1jjj q4 of nuts and almonds are exported annually4 ,the most luxuriantly growing orchards are those of ,tauria1 which cover over #gjjj hectares on the northern declivities of the ,yaila ,mountains4 ,the annual production exceeds #afj1jjj q4 of fruit and #dj1jjj q4 of nuts4 ,in this region the tenderest species of apples1 pears and plums flourish1 besides apricots 7#d1jjj q4 a year7 and peaches4 ,about the middle of ,may the cherries ripen here4 ,in the middle of ,june the apricots2 at the end of ,june plums and early pears2 about the middle of ,july peaches and early apples2 in ,august we have autumn pears and apples1 and in the first half of ,september1 the winter apples4 ,beyond these districts1 fruit-culture is practised on a large scale in the ,kiev region and in ,volhynia4 ,here1 above all1 the hardier northern species of apples and pears are raised1 as well as cherries4 ,in ,kherson and ,katerinoslav1 too1 fruit-raising flourishes2 especially in the ,dnieper valley1 where apricots also thrive4 ,in the ,poltava country fruit-culture is still important enough1 while in the districts of ,kharkiv1 ,voroniz1 ,kursk and ,chernihiv it is much less significant1 altho we find1 even here1 a few centers of intensive fruit-growing2 for instance1 in the vicinity of the cities of ,kharkiv1 ,okhtirka1 ,bohodukhiv4 ,in ,galicia fruit-growing is not especially developed1 except in ,pokutia1 the vicinity of ,kossiv1 and the ,podolian yari-valleys1 where 7near ,zalishchiki7 even apricots and grapes are grown4 ,there is a certain connection between fruit-growing and viniculture4 ,the northern boundary of the grape in the ,ukraine1 coincides approximately with the ,may isotherm of #af and reaches the #dith parallel4 ,this boundary line may be drawn from ,zalishchiki1 past ,kamianez and ,katerinoslav1 to ,astrakhan4 ,in places1 however1 the northern boundary of the vineyards extends beyond the #ejth parallel2 for example1 near ,bilhorod1 in the ,government of ,kursk4 ,thus1 the entire southern part of the ,ukraine may be considered a favorable vine-growing region4 ,but vine-culture has not developed in the entire great expanse of the ,southern ,ukraine2 it is confined to only a few centers4 ,in ,galicia the vine is cultivated only in ,zalishchiki1 in ,russian-,podolia only in a few river-valleys4 ,somewhat greater is the wine-production of the old ,zaporog district1 where both inclines of the ,dnieper valley are planted with grape-vines4 ,in the ,kherson region the vineyards cover about #gjjj hectares4 ,the most important wine-producing district of the ,ukraine is ,bessarabia1 where the vineyards take up #ge1jjj hectares1 that is1 a third of the entire ,russian wine-country1 and yield over #b million metric hundredweights of grapes annually4 ,from this amount usually #hgj1jjj hl4 of wine are obtained1 which1 despite its fine quality1 is so cheap1 as a result of the poor organization of the wine trade1 that the barrel often costs more than its contents4 ,vine-growing is but slightly developed in the ,don region1 where #cc1jjj q4 of grapes are obtained every year1 and the familiar sparkling wines are manufactured4 ,in the ,government of ,stavropol we find large vineyards only in the ,kuma and ,terek valley4 ,in ,ciscaucasia1 the vineyards cover about #ai1jjj hectares1 and nearly #bjj1jjj hl4 of wine 7of very good quality7 are obtained annually4 ,grapes flourish very luxuriantly in the ,black ,sea region and in ,tauria4 ,many vineyards are found in ,melitopol and ,berdiansk1 but the most successfully flourishing vines are those of ,crimea1 where tender ,french and ,spanish varieties are also cultivated4 ,wine-growing has become an important branch of industry for the population here4 ,tauria yields only #bej1jjj hl4 of wine annually1 because of the exclusive use of raw grapes for medicinal purposes4 ,bee-culture has1 since ancient times1 been carried on in the ,ukraine in very close connection with fruit-growing4 ,it is very popular thruout the ,ukraine1 and in some districts of the country we rarely find a peasant farm without several beehives4 ,yet the almost fabulous wealth of honey which the ,ukraine originally possessed is steadily declining4 ,deforestation has limited the original forest bee-culture to the ,polissye only4 ,the continued assimilation of meadows and steppes for agriculture has greatly injured the ,ukrainian bee industry1 and progressive bee-culture is spreading very slowly among the ,ukrainians1 due to the lack of education and instruction4 ,the chief producing centers of honey in the ,ukraine are ,kuban 7#cbf1jjj bee-hives71 ,poltava 7#cje1jjj bee-hives71 ,chernihiv 7#bhc1jjj bee-hives71 ,kharkiv 7#bdf1jjj bee-hives71 ,kiev 7#bdb1jjj bee-hives71 ,volhynia and ,podolia 7each #bjf1jjj bee-hives74 ,the total production of honey of the ,russian ,ukraine1 in #aiaj1 amounted to #abe1ijj q41 wax #ac1gjj q4 7#ch and #cd respectively of the total production of the ,russian ,empire74 ,in ,galicia1 in #ahhj1 the number of bee-hives was still as high as #cjj1jjj1 in #aijj only #baj1jjj4 ,nevertheless1 the land produced one-half of the honey and one-eighth of the wax of the entire ,austrian production 7#be1jjj and #cej q4 respectively74 ,the damp1 cool summers of the past decades have greatly injured the ,galician bee industry1 but1 in very recent years1 progressive bee-culture has begun to develop strongly here1 and to increase the honey and wax production of the land4 ,silkworm-culture is very slightly developed in the ,ukraine1 altho the mulberry trees thrive almost everywhere in the country1 and silkworm-culture requires no great outlay in money and labor4 ,attempts are being made in the ,don region1 ,tauria1 ,bessarabia1 ,kherson1 ,katerinoslav1 ,kharkiv1 ,kiev1 ,poltava and ,chernihiv1 but the silk output is still very small4 ,in the ,government of ,kiev1 in #aijg1 barely #a1cjj q4 of cocoons were obtained4 ,,cattle ,,raising ,cattle-raising thruout the ,ukraine is closely joined to agriculture4 ,only in the ,pontian steppes the remains of the originally extensive cattle industry are left today4 ,with the prevailing shortage of land1 cattle-raising is a source of industry of the greatest importance to the ,ukrainian peasantry1 the most important source of ready money with which to pay taxes and to invest in farm improvements4 ,unfortunately1 the ,ukrainian peasantry is only beginning to understand the importance of progressive cattle-raising and to introduce it4 ,in ,galicia1 this movement has already had a good start4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine1 only the large landowners 7and they but rarely7 are carrying on progressive agriculture4 ,on the other hand1 it should be noted that only extensive cattle-raising pays the large landowner1 hence1 cattle-raising by the peasants is of incomparably higher importance in the life of every cultured nation4 ,for this reason1 cattle-raising in the ,ukraine gives promise of a splendid future1 once it is carried on by an enlightened peasant class4 ,the total number of cattle in the ,ukraine can hardly be estimated1 even roughly4 ,at any rate it is considerably more than #cj million1 of which approximately four million belong to the ,austrian ,ukraine4 ,compared to the adjacent countries1 the ,ukraine is very rich in cattle4 ,the ,russian ,ukraine1 which comprises not quite a sixth part of ,european ,russia1 possesses fully a third of the ,russian stock of cattle2 that is1 about double the amount it should have according to the size of the territory4 ,in like manner1 the ,austrian ,ukraine is important for its exports of cattle to ,western ,austria and ,germany4 ,of all the districts of the ,ukraine1 the relatively smallest stock of cattle is found in ,galicia1 for here there are only #gbc head of cattle 7#aaf horses1 #cgb horned cattle1 #fj sheep1 #agb hogs7 for each #ajjj inhabitants4 ,the proportions are greater in the ,russian ,ukraine4 ,for every #ajj of the population ,volhynia has #ai horses1 #cb steers1 #ah sheep1 #ag hogs4 ,the corresponding numbers for ,podolia are #af1 #ai1 #ag1 #aa2 for ,kiev #ac1 #ah1 #ag1 #aj2 for ,kherson #bi1 #bd1 #af1 #aa2 for ,chernihiv #ba1 #be1 #cc1 #af2 for ,poltava #ad1 #bb1 #bg1 #aa2 for ,kharkiv #ag1 #bg1 #bc1 #aj2 for ,katerinoslav #be1 #bf1 #ba1 #ab2 for ,tauria #cj1 #bh1 #fa1 #aa2 for ,kuban #cd1 #ed1 #hj1 #ba4 ,we shall begin our survey of the cattle industry with a consideration of horse-raising4 ,the ,ukrainian breed of horses is widely distributed thruout the entire ,dnieper region1 its ,chornomoric variety in the ,kuban region1 its ,don variety in the eastern border districts of the ,ukraine4 ,by far the greater number of the ,ukraine horses1 however1 are a mixed breed1 of small stature1 and1 despite great powers of endurance1 not particularly strong4 ,of the different breeds of small horses1 only the ,hutzulian mountain-breed are important1 because of their fine qualities4 ,the remaining millions of small horses rather mark the low grade of horse-breeding than real value for the population1 which1 in proportion to its economic resources1 keeps entirely too many horses4 ,very little is being done to raise the standards of horse-raising in the ,ukraine4 ,breeding-studs are kept up by the large landowners only for the breeding of race-horses1 while nothing at all is done for the breeding of work-horses4 ,only in ,voroniz a breed of strong draught-horses is produced 7bitiuhi71 and a little is accomplished also by the breeding-studs of ,novo-,alexandrivsk 7,kharkiv region7 and in ,yaniv 7in the ,kholm country74 ,in the ,austrian ,ukraine the war-department takes care of the breeding of the ,hutzulian breed of horses with great success4 ,horned cattle are of much greater importance to the ,ukrainian people than horses1 and the breed is relatively much better4 ,thanks to the general distribution of the native gray breed1 the addition of the red ,kalmuck breed of cattle in ,eastern ,ukraine1 and the frequent crossing with ,western ,european breeds accomplished thru the agency of the large landowners1 the governments and the agricultural organizations1 cattle-breeding in the ,ukraine appears much more advanced than horse-breeding4 ,on the other hand1 dairying in the ,ukraine is barely in its beginnings4 ,only in ,galicia has a dairymen's organization been formed by the ,ukrainian peasants1 which produce million kilograms of butter a year4 ,sheep-raising in the ,ukraine decreased considerably within the last decades of the #aith ,century1 as a result of ,australian competition4 ,formerly1 the ,southern ,ukraine was one of the most important wool producing regions of the world4 ,the decline of the sheep-raising industry has been accelerated a great deal by the transformation of the steppes into farmland4 ,the immense flocks of sheep which roamed the ,ukrainian steppes under the care of semi-nomadic shepherds are a thing of the past4 ,nevertheless1 about #aj million sheep can still be found in the ,ukraine4 ,the greatest part of them is raised in the ,don region1 the ,kuban region1 ,tauria1 ,katerinoslav and ,bessarabia4 ,just as in the other branches of live-stock-breeding1 so also in the matter of sheep-raising1 the most important part is performed by the peasant4 ,the peasants breed chiefly coarse-wooled sheep of various breeds4 ,these sheep can graze three-fourths of the year out in the steppes4 ,the large landowners raise far less sheep1 but these belong to the fine-wooled ,merino breed1 the raising of which is more expensive1 but also more profitable4 ,in very recent years the peasants have at last begun to engage in breeding the fine-wooled varieties4 ,sheep-raising is very important in the districts of ,chernihiv1 ,poltava and ,kharkiv1 where1 in the year #aijj1 there were #c million sheep 7#c million of which belonged to peasants74 ,here the greatly renowned ,reshetilov breed of sheep is raised4 ,the remaining districts of the ,ukraine carry on very little sheep-raising4 ,only in the ,carpathians is it an important branch of industry of the population4 ,here the coarse-wooled mountain-sheep graze in the mountain pastures1 and bring almost greater profit thru their dairy products and skins than thru their wool4 ,goats are found very rarely in the ,ukraine1 almost exclusively in the ,carpathian1 ,yaila and ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,hog-raising1 however1 is perhaps the most important source of income of the poorer ,ukrainian peasantry1 and as such it is common everywhere in the ,ukraine1 most of all in ,chernihiv1 ,volhynia and ,kuban4 ,besides sty-breeding1 extensive breeding is carried on in some districts4 ,on the lower ,dnieper and ,dniester large droves of swine remain in the plavni all summer and fall4 ,improved breeds of ,english hogs 7,yorkshire1 ,berkshire1 etc47 are not common in the ,ukraine and easily degenerate1 while the most common breeds1 the ,russian1 the ,polish and the southern curly-haired variety1 are very hard to fatten4 ,camels are kept only in the southeastern steppes of the ,ukraine 7,tauria1 ,don region1 ,stavropol71 buffaloes only in ,bessarabia1 asses and mules in ,bessarabia and ,tauria4 ,having reached the end of our survey of cattle-raising in the ,ukraine1 we must turn to poultry-raising1 which constitutes one of the most important sources of the money income of the peasantry4 ,in view of the truly ,spartan mode of life of our peasants1 very little poultry is consumed by the breeder himself1 most of it being sold to the dealers or in the cities4 ,the balance of the production over the local consumption is so great that the entire ,ukraine has become an exporting region for poultry1 eggs and feathers to the other districts of ,russia1 to ,western ,austria1 ,germany1 ,england1 etc4 ,from the nine governments of the ,ukraine1 in #aije1 over #fjj1jjj q4 of eggs were exported1 #ij of which went over the border4 ,these ,ukrainian governments yielded #dj of the total ,russian exportation of eggs1 ,kharkiv alone giving #h1 ,kiev #e4 ,if we consider the remaining ,ukrainian districts of ,russia1 we can say1 without fear of error1 that all the ,russian territory together that is inhabited by ,ukrainians produces more than half the ,russian output of eggs and poultry4 ,podolia alone1 in #aijh1 sold nearly #c million fowl1 ,kharkiv 7#aijf7 #a million4 ,galicia1 about the year #aijc1 exported annually eggs to the value of #ce million crowns #a1 feathers to the value of #c million1 and poultry to the value of #a million1 of which1 at least1 two-thirds must be credited to the ,ukrainian part of the land4 ,every farmer in the ,ukraine raises live-stock4 ,the percentage of exclusive breeders of live-stock is very small2 in the ,russian ,ukraine1 in #ahig1 it was hardly #j4d4 ,,mineral ,,production ,altho farming--agriculture and cattle-raising--must1 for the time being1 comprise the main source of industry of the population of the ,ukraine1 this blessed land does not lack other resources as well4 ,very great mineral resources lie in various districts of the ,ukraine2 the largest in the ,donetz ,plateau1 in the ,carpathians1 and in the ,caucasus4 ,there is little prospect1 to be sure1 that the ,ukraine might1 with the aid of its mineral resources1 become an industrial country like ,germany or ,england1 yet there does exist some hope that it will soon be in a position to provide its own needs in the way of industrial products4 ,gold is found in the ,ukraine only in traces1 hardly worth mentioning1 in the gold-containing quartz of the ,naholni kriaz in the ,donetz ,plateau4 ,silver1 together with lead1 appears much more frequently1 chiefly in the ,kuban and ,terek regions of the ,caucasus1 where1 in #aiaj1 about #cjj1jjj q4 of lead and silver ore were mined 7#gc of the total ,russian production71 yielding #be4e q4 of silver 7#ij7 and about #aa1jjj q4 of lead 7#ha71 and also in the ,donetz region and in the ,ukrainian ,carpathians of the ,bukowina and ,northern ,hungary4 ,the amount produced outside of the ,caucasus1 on the other hand1 is very insignificant4 ,zinc is found only in small quantities in the ,naholni kriaz4 ,tin1 nickel1 chromium and platinum are not found anywhere in the ,ukraine4 ,the first in the series of the more important mining products of the ,ukraine is mercury4 ,it is obtained from the cinnabar mines of ,mikitivka1 in the ,donetz ,plateau4 ,here1 #hdb1jjj q4 of cinnabar were mined in #aije1 yielding #cbj1jjj kilograms of mercury4 ,outside the ,ukraine1 the ,russian ,empire has no mercury mines worthy of mention4 ,copper ore is found in the ,donetz ,plateau1 in ,kherson and ,tauria1 in the ,bukowina and ,marmarosh1 yet the production is comparatively small4 ,much greater is the copper production of the ,caucasus1 where1 in #aiaj1 about #b1ejj1jjj q4 of copper ore 7#ce of the ,russian production7 and #ha1jjj q4 of copper 7#ca7 were gained4 ,much more important is the manganese production of the ,ukraine4 ,manganese ores are gained chiefly from the oligocene strata of the ,nikopol region 7on the lower ,dnieper71 and in ,eastern ,podolia4 ,the production for the year #aijg amounted to #c1bde1jjj q41 or #cb of the total ,russian output and about one-sixth of the output of the world4 ,but all the remaining metal resources of the ,ukraine disappear1 as it were1 beside the enormous wealth of iron of the land4 ,iron ores are found in great quantities in very many places in the ,ukraine2 many deposits have not been sufficiently explored to make exploitation seem advisable1 and many1 for various reasons1 are not being exploited4 ,the iron production of the ,ukraine is consequently limited to a few centers1 but in these it is of very great importance4 ,the most important center of iron mining is ,krivi ,rih 7,government of ,kherson7 and vicinity4 ,the annual production here 7#aijc-aijd7 amounted to #bf million metric hundredweights4 ,the entire supply of iron ore at ,krivi ,rih is estimated at #hgj million metric hundredweights1 but in the immediate vicinity there lie much larger untouched deposits4 ,the iron content of the ores 7red and brown iron ore7 is #fj-ge4 ,other iron ore deposits of the ,ukraine are of much less significance4 ,only in the ,donetz ,plateau and in the vicinity of ,kerch are iron ores still mined in considerable quantities4 ,the iron ore deposits of the ,caucasus1 the brown iron ores and swamp-ores of ,volhynia1 of the western ,kiev country and of the ,polissye1 are not exploited1 and in in the ,ukrainian ,carpathians of the ,bukowina and ,northeastern ,hungary1 iron mining is dying out4 ,the iron production of the ,russian ,ukraine in #aijg amounted to #ci4i million q41 that is1 #gc of the total ,russian production4 ,the figures for the years following are3 #aijh--dj4c million q4 #gd2 #aiji--ci million q4 #gd2 #aiaj--dc4d million q4 #gd2 #aiaa--ea4a million q4 #gb4 ,these figures show clearly enough what a wealth of iron the ,ukraine possesses1 and what part the country plays as the chief producer of iron for ,russia4 ,we now come to the second group of mineral resources1--the mineral fuels4 ,in this respect1 too1 the ,ukraine is richly supplied4 ,the ,ukraine possesses but one coal-field in the ,donetz ,plateau1 but this coal-field is one of the largest and richest in ,europe4 ,its surface area is #bc1jjj square kilometers1 the annual production 7#aiaa7 #bjc million metric hundredweights1 that is1 #gj of the total production of coal of the entire ,russian ,empire4 ,then1 the coal-district on the ,donetz is very rich in anthracite4 ,in #aiaa1 approximately #ca million metric hundredweights of anthracite were gained here 7#ih4e of the total ,russian production74 ,for coke-making1 practically the only coal that can be used in ,russia is the ,donetz coal4 ,in #aiaa1 #cc4g million metric hundredweights of coke was gained in the ,donetz region2 in all the remaining coal districts of the ,russian ,empire1 barely #ac1fjj q4 ,from these figures we see clearly that the ,ukraine1 despite its general agrarian character1 possesses great supplies of coal1 that indispensable aid in modern industry4 ,to be sure1 the ,ukraine takes only seventh rank in the world's coal production 7being preceded by the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,france and ,belgium7 yet it is1 nevertheless1 not to be despised as a producing district4 ,when we consider the backward state of material culture in ,russia as a whole1 the youth of the ,ukrainian coal-mining industry1 and the centripetal railway tariff policy of the ,russian ,government1 we must come to realize that1 with better conditions1 a brilliant future awaits the ,ukrainian coal industry4 ,the brown-coal deposits of the ,ukraine are as yet but slightly explored1 and1 in themselves1 much less important than the pit-coal deposits4 ,a brown-coal field of #ejjj square kilometers is part of the tertiary strata of the ,dnieper ,plateau 7,kiev-,yelisavet coal region74 ,toward the end of the past century an annual average of #hb1jjj q4 of brown-coal was mined here 7,katerinopol1 ,zuraska74 ,just as unimportant is the brown-coal production in the ,caucasian foothills 7,batalpashinsk74 ,in the ,carpathian foothill country and in the ,rostoch1 in #aija1 over #a million metric hundredweights of brown-coal was mined2 in #aije barely one-half that amount4 ,notwithstanding1 some importance must be attached to the brown-coal industry in the ,ukraine for the future4 ,large peat deposits are widely distributed in the ,polissye1 in ,volhynia1 ,podlakhia1 ,galicia1 ,kiev1 ,podolia1 etc41 but extremely little is done in the way of rational exploitation4 ,only in the ,polissye and in ,galicia 7#dj places in #aije7 is peat cut on a large scale1 altho its importance1 especially for the districts of the ,ukraine1 which have few forests1 should not be underestimated4 ,in petroleum and ozokerite the ,ukraine is the richest land in ,europe4 ,along the great bend of the ,carpathians1 beginning at the ,poprad ,pass1 one petroleum district crowds close upon the next4 ,they lie almost exclusively in the ,ukrainian territory of ,galicia1 e4g41 ,borislav and ,tustanovichi1 which1 in #aijg1 yielded about #hf of the ,galician petroleum output1 in the ,ukrainian ,district of ,drohobich4 ,the ,galician petroleum production in #aiaa amounted to #ad4i million metric hundredweights--7in #aijg even #ag4e million metric hundredweights71 and takes third rank in the world's production 7being outranked by ,russian ,caucasia and the ,united ,states74 ,considerable naphtha fields are also found in the ,ukrainian sub-,caucasian country1 where1 in #aiaj1 near ,hrosni and ,maikop1 #ab4f million metric hundredweights of petroleum were gained4 ,from the eastern tip of ,crimea and the ,taman peninsula to the ,caspian ,sea immense treasures of petroleum are hidden4 ,the only place in the world where ozokerite is found in large quantities is ,eastern ,galicia4 ,in #ahhe ,borislav yielded #abc1jjj q4 of this rare mineral4 ,the unexampled wastefulness in mining accounts for the fact that1 in #aiaa1 ,borislav together with other small sub-,carpathian mines 7,dsviniach1 ,starunia1 ,truskavetz7 yielded barely #ai1djj q4 of ozokerite4 ,ozokerite is also found in the ,ukrainian sub-,caucasus country1 but in inconsiderable quantities4 ,quite as important as the iron1 coal and petroleum deposits of the ,ukraine1 are its salt deposits4 ,the ,ukraine has three districts of salt-production--the ,carpathian foothills1 the ,donetz ,plateau1 and the ,pontian-,caspian salt-lake and liman region4 ,the sub-,carpathian salt-mines and salt-works of ,galicia 7,latzke1 ,drohobich1 ,stebnik1 ,bolekhiv1 ,dolina1 ,kalush1 ,delatin1 ,lanchin1 ,kossiv7 all lie within ,ukrainian national territory1 with the single exception of ,vielichka and ,bokhnia4 ,in #aiaa ,galicia produced about #a1ddj1jjj q4 of rock salt1 most of which1 to be sure1 must be credited to ,vielichka and ,bokhnia4 ,on the other hand1 the #a1fij1jjj q4 of manufactured salt and brine were produced mainly in the ,ukrainian part of ,galicia4 ,in #aijh the salt production of the ,ukrainian part of ,galicia amounted to only #edj1jjj q4 ,in the ,donetz region there are immense deposits of rock-salt in the vicinity of ,bakhmut 7e4g41 ,branzivka with a deposit of pure rock-salt #ajj meters deep74 ,here1 in #aiaa1 about #d4i million metric hundredweights of rock-salt were mined 7#hf of the total ,russian rock-salt production7 and the rich salt-springs and salt-lakes exploited besides4 ,in the ,ponto-,caspian region first place is held by the salt-lakes and limans of ,crimea1 then follow the limans of the ,kherson region 7,knyalnik1 etc471 the ,manich lakes1 etc4 ,the amount produced vacillates between #c and #e million metric hundredweights a year1 and depends largely on the degree of dryness and heat of the summer season4 ,the total salt production of the ,russian ,ukraine in #aijg attained #aj million metric hundredweights1 or #ec of the production of the entire ,russian ,empire4 ,nitre salts are found in great quantities only in the ,ukrainian sub-,carpathian country4 ,in #aija the amount produced was about #agi1jjj q42 in the year of #aijh it decreased to #aba1jjj q4 ,besides the above-mentioned most important treasures of the soil1 minerals less important1 but yet noteworthy1 are found in the ,ukraine4 ,in ,podolia and the adjoining border strips of ,bessarabia there lie some rich deposits of phosphorites 7#gj-ge phosphoric acid71 out of which1 in #aijg1 over #aad1jjj q4 7#gb of the total ,russian production7 were mined4 ,in the districts of ,katerinoslav1 ,kherson1 ,poltava1 ,chernihiv1 ,kiev1 ,volhynia1 in #aijg1 over #baf1jjj q4 of kaolin were mined4 ,outside of the ,ukraine no kaolin is found in ,russia4 ,good pottery clays are found thruout the ,ukraine1 mostly around ,kiev1 ,chernihiv and ,poltava4 ,fireproof clays occur in the ,donetz ,plateau1 slate in the ,zaporoze 7,katerinoslav71 lithographic stone in ,podolia 7near ,kamianez and ,mohiliv71 graphite 7in inconsiderable quantities1 to be sure7 in ,volhynia1 on the ,sluch ,river1 near ,krivi ,rih 7,kherson71 in the districts of ,kiev and ,katerinoslav1 mineral paints near ,lissichansk 7,donetz region71 ,krivi ,rih1 and ,yelisavet 7,kherson71 ,stari ,oskol 7,kursk74 ,sulphur is obtained on the upper course of the ,kuban ,river1 pumice stone in the ,caucasus1 rotten-stone near ,svenihorodka 7,kiev74 ,mill-stones are obtained in many places1 the best variety near ,hlukhiv 7,chernihiv71 whetstones especially in the ,poltava region and in the ,devonian region of ,galician-,podolia 7,terebovla74 ,chalk is widely distributed in ,podolia1 ,volhynia and ,kharkiv1 gypsum in ,podolia and ,pokutia 7beautiful alabasters71 as well as in the ,donetz region4 ,building-stones1 lime1 sand1 loam are found everywhere in the ,ukraine and are of good quality4 ,the most fit for masonry work are the devonian sandstone of ,podolia1 the granite gneisses of the ,dnieper ,plateau1 and the old eruptive formations of ,volhynia4 ,from this short survey of the mineral resources of the ,ukraine1 we perceive that the ,ukraine1 altho in this respect it does not compare with the countries of ,western and ,central ,europe1 yet does produce a great deal1 and after a thoro change in the political and cultural conditions1 should be able to occupy an important place in the world's production of mineral wealth4 ,at present the ,ukrainian people contributes only the poorly-paid labor1 while the profit falls to the foreign rulers4 ,,industry ,the industry of the ,ukraine is now in an important stage of transition4 ,the originally very important home industries which1 until recently1 satisfied all the needs of the peasantry1 cannot endure the competition with the factory system of large-scale industry1 which is penetrating more and more deeply into those regions of the ,ukraine that lie farthest from the highways of the world's trade4 ,home industry is declining irresistibly1 factory industry is developing more and more1 and1 altho the latter is still young and is retarded1 in the textile branches1 by the centralization of industry at ,moscow1 still the ,ukraine 7especially the southern part7 is on the way to becoming the most important industrial district of all ,russia4 ,ukrainian home industry is just as old and of as high a grade as all the popular culture of the ,ukrainians--this typical primitive agricultural people4 ,the products of ,ukrainian home industry are characterized above all by their great solidity and durability4 ,their distinguishing feature is in the original ornamentation on all objects1 even those destined for every-day use1 noticeable particularly in the products of the textile1 wood-carving and pottery industries4 ,anyone who knows ,ukrainian home industry is overcome by a sad feeling when he perceives that this industry1 which may really be called a fine art1 will soon be a thing of the past4 ,the foreign rulers of the ,ukraine are hostile1 or at best indifferent1 to ,ukrainian home industry1 and all efforts of the ,ukrainians to promote their very vital native home industry are hindered at every turn4 ,the middlemen ruthlessly exploit the artisan1 whose earnings are a mere pittance1 insufficient even for the contented ,ukrainian4 ,more and more of those who work at a trade are turning their backs upon their thankless occupations1 if they can only find a means of subsistence at something else4 ,the most important branch of ,ukrainian home industry is weaving4 ,it is not confined only to the weaving of coarse1 very durable kinds of linen and cloth2 for very fine1 sometimes really artistically ornamented tablecloths1 towels and handkerchiefs1 fine woolens1 decorative fabrics with inwoven patterns1 gold and silver thread1 carpets and tapestries1 too1 come out of the primitively equipped workshops of the ,ukrainian weavers4 ,under very difficult working conditions1 with the most primitive means1 genuine works of art are frequently created4 ,for all that1 the artistic weaver must yield place to factory goods1 even in the ,ukraine1 and the home weaving industry is surely hurrying toward extinction4 ,yet1 to this day1 thanks to the persistence of the people in preserving their national costume1 the weaving industry is still so widespread thruout the ,ukraine that there is hardly a hamlet where there are not some weavers by trade1 or at least such persons as carry on weaving as an avocation4 ,home weaving is at its height in the districts of ,poltava1 where it occupies #bj1jjj families 7#aijb71 ,chernihiv and ,kharkiv4 ,its chief centers are ,krolevetz and vicinity1 ,sinkiv1 ,mirhorod1 ,zolotonosha 7wool-weaving74 ,in ,galicia1 the entire ,ukrainian ,pidhirye is famous for its home weaving industry2 in the mountains it is the neighborhood of ,kossiv1 in the low country the districts of ,horodok1 ,komarno1 ,halich1 ,busk1 etc41 which are important in this connection4 ,the most beautiful carpets and tapestries1 worked in colors1 come from the districts of ,mirhorod and ,sinkiv 7,poltava71 ,olhopol1 ,balta1 ,yampol1 ,bratzlav 7,podolia71 ,sbaraz1 ,buchach1 ,kossiv 7,eastern ,galicia74 ,tailoring is nowhere developed to large proportions1 altho no place1 not even the smallest village1 is without it4 ,in ,poltava1 tailoring and cap-making occupies over #aj1jjj families4 ,rope-making is very common thruout the ,ukraine1 mostly in the districts of ,poltava1 ,kiev 7,lissianka7 and in ,galicia 7,radimno74 ,nets are made in the district of ,lokhvitzia 7,poltava7 and ,oster 7,chernihiv7 on a large scale4 ,after the textile industry comes the wood-working industry4 ,it is common1 everywhere in the ,ukraine1 the steppe country alone excepted4 ,almost every ,ukrainian peasant of the ,carpathian ,mountains1 of the ,polissye1 ,volhynia1 ,kiev1 ,chernihiv1 knows the carpenter trade4 ,the best carpenters are the ,hutzulians1 who1 independently1 without drawn plans1 build churches of fine style1 even for the most distant villages of the low country4 ,ship-building is carried on chiefly in the ,polissye 7,mosir1 ,petrikiv1 ,balazevichi on the ,pripet1 and particularly ,davidhorodok on the ,horin74 ,on the ,dnieper ,river1 ships are built at ,horodnia1 small sea-vessels in ,nikopol1 ,oleshki1 ,hola ,pristan1 ,kherson2 on the ,don in ,osiv 7,azof74 ,on the ,dniester1 river-ships are built in ,zuravno1 ,halich1 ,zvanetz1 ,mohiliv1 ,yampol4 ,cabinet-making1 altho in general but slightly developed1 still supplies the demand of the peasantry and the common city-dwellers4 ,artistic cabinet-making is carried on in the ,hutzul country 7,kossiv1 ,yavoriv1 ,richka1 ,viznitza71 where1 besides furniture1 various kinds of woodwork1 decorated with artistic carvings and with the beautifully conventionalized specifically ,hutzulian bead and brass-wire ornaments are produced1 e4g41 canes1 boxes1 picture-frames1 etc4 ,the furniture industry is common in the ,district of ,cherkassia 7,kiev7 and in the entire ,poltava country4 ,here1 too1 beautiful and durable wooden chests are made4 ,wooden spoons are produced in the districts of ,poltava 7,kalaidintzi71 ,kiev 7,chornobil1 ,hornostapol71 in the ,hutzul country 7,porohy1 ,yavoriv71 in the ,rostoche region 7,yavoriv1 ,vishenka71 and smoking-pipes of wood in the ,poltava region 7,velika ,pavlivka74 ,cooperage and the making of wooden vessels is common everywhere1 but it is most extensive in the districts of ,poltava 7#c1gjj families71 ,kharkiv 7,okhtirka1 ,kotelva71 ,polissye 7,mosir71 ,kiev 7,district of ,radomishl71 ,chernihiv1 ,volhynia and the ,hutzul country4 ,wagon-making and the making of sleds and wooden agricultural implements has its chief center in the ,poltava country1 where it occupies over #bdjj families 7,districts of ,sinikiv1 ,lubni1 ,hadyach74 ,in the ,kharkiv country this industry is important about ,starobilsk1 ,bohodukhiv1 ,isium1 ,kupiansk1 as well4 ,in ,ardon 7,government of ,chernihiv7 beautiful carriages are produced and in ,tarashcha 7,government of ,kiev7 the world-renowned tarantas4 ,the shingle industry1 charcoal-burning1 pitch and potash-making are met with only in the ,carpathians and in the ,polissye region4 ,yet1 not so long ago1 these comprised one of the most important branches of industry of the forest-dwellers4 ,basket-weaving is especially developed in the ,poltava region 7about #ajjj families1 chiefly in the ,districts of ,lokhvitzia and ,kupiansk71 to some degree also in ,podolia 7,districts of ,litin and ,vinitza71 ,kherson1 ,kiev1 ,polissye about ,mosir4 ,sieves are made everywhere the wood industry is established4 ,bast shoes are made only in the ,polissye region4 ,among the branches of industry in which mineral substances are used1 pottery takes first rank4 ,thanks to great deposits of splendid pottery clay1 the ,ukrainian pottery industry developed very early and now stands upon a very high plane4 ,its products usually have fine form and beautiful ornamentation4 ,pottery is best developed in the ,poltava region1 especially in the ,districts of ,mirhorod1 ,sinkiv 7well-known center of ,oposhnia71 ,romen and ,lokhvitzia4 ,in the ,chernihiv country pottery is almost as important1 especially in the vicinity of ,horodnia1 ,krolevetz1 ,hlukhiv 7,poloshki and ,novhorod ,siversky74 ,in the ,kharkiv region we find large pottery works in the regions of ,valki1 ,lebedin1 ,okhtirka1 ,bohodukhiv1 ,isium2 in the ,kiev country about ,chihirin1 ,uman1 ,cherkassia1 ,svenihorodka1 ,kaniv1 in ,podolia about ,mohiliv1 ,ushitza1 ,yampol1 and ,letichiv4 ,in ,galicia the ,rostoche region 7,potilich1 ,hlinsko1 etc471 ,podolia 7,chortkiv1 ,borshchiv1 ,kopichintzi1 etc471 and especially the ,hutzul country 7,kolomia1 ,kossiv1 ,pistin1 ,kuti7 are renowned for pottery products4 ,in other regions of the ,ukraine pottery is less developed4 ,the brick-making industry is actively growing all over the ,ukraine1 and the introduction of tile-covered brick buildings has led to the formation of numerous peasant organizations1 for the purpose of making these building-materials4 ,the stone-cutting industry is carried on on a large scale only in the region of ,odessa1 ,olexandrivsk 7,kamishevakha7 and ,bakhmut4 ,the metal-working industry is1 in general1 not highly advanced4 ,only the blacksmith trade is carried on everywhere and shows a fine development1 especially in the ,southern ,ukraine4 ,in the village smithies in ,kherson1 ,katerinoslav and ,tauria1 even complicated agricultural machines are often made4 ,the production of iron ploughs has for its centers the districts of ,starobilsk 7the village of ,bilovodsk produces on the average #c thousand ploughs a year71 ,isium and ,valki of the ,kharkiv country1 in the ,chernihiv country 7districts of ,starodub and ,sosnitza71 in the ,poltava country 7,zolotonosha and vicinity74 ,artistic brass-work is made by the ,hutzuls of the ,kossiv region 7,brusturi1 ,yavoriv1 etc474 ,the utilization of animal raw-materials plays an important part in the home industry of the ,ukraine4 ,sausage-makers are found in all the towns of the ,ukraine1 especially those of the left half1 and their products enjoy a good reputation1 even beyond the borders of the land4 ,tanning and fur-manufacturing flourish in the ,ukraine4 ,ukrainian workmen have had no small share in earning world-renown for the ,russian leather industry4 ,the chief centers of this home industry lie in the districts of ,chernihiv 7in the regions of ,chernihiv1 ,koseletz1 ,krolevetz71 ,poltava 7about ,sinkiv1 ,poltava1 ,reshetilivka with its famous furriery1 ,pereyaslav1 ,kobeliaki71 ,kharkiv 7about ,okhtirka1 ,valki1 ,isium1 ,sumi74 ,in the ,government of ,voroniz1 the village of ,buturlinivka is noted for its leather industry4 ,shoemaking engages over #ijjj families in ,poltava 7districts of ,sinkiv1 ,kobeliaki1 ,romen1 ,konstantinohrad1 etc474 ,in the region of ,kharkiv1 the towns of ,okhtirka and ,kotelva are the main centers of the shoemaking industry1 in the ,chernihiv country the regions of ,novosibkiv1 ,borsna and ,oster4 ,in the region of ,voroniz 7districts of ,bobrivsk1 ,biriuch1 ,valuiki7 there are over #ab1jjj shoemakers4 ,in the ,ukrainian part of ,kursk the chief centers are the districts of ,sudza 7#ejjj shoemakers1 #cjjj of them in ,miropilia alone7 and ,hraivoron4 ,in ,galicia we find a strongly developed shoemaking and tanning industry in ,horodok1 ,kulikiv1 ,busk1 ,uhniv1 ,stari ,sambir1 ,ribotichi1 ,nadvirna1 ,buchach1 ,potik1 etc4 ,the horn industry1 especially the making of horn combs1 appears in ,mirhorod and ,sinkiv1 in ,kharkiv and about ,sumi4 ,of the numerous other branches of home industry in the ,ukraine the organized 7guild7 painters of sacred pictures1 of whom there are over #cjj families in the ,poltava region1 may be mentioned in passing4 ,so much for home industry4 ,the factory industry of the ,ukraine is still in its infancy4 ,notwithstanding1 it is already producing so much1 despite its youth1 that ,southern ,ukraine1 in particular1 is on the way to becoming the most important industrial center of all ,russia4 ,large-scale production in the ,ukraine is carried on almost exclusively by foreign 7,russian1 ,jewish1 ,english1 ,french and ,belgian7 capitalists--the ,ukrainians contribute only the poorly-paid labor4 ,ukrainian large-scale industry must wage a hard battle against the economic policy of the ,russian ,government1 which aims to stop the declining preponderance of the ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg centers of industry1 and to prevent the industrial rise of the south4 ,the total value of the industrial output of the ,russian ,ukraine1 in #aijh1 was approximately #hgj million rubles1 or #ai of the total ,russian large-scale production4 ,the production of the ,austrian ,ukraine amounts to not even one-tenth of this amount4 ,the main centers of large-scale production are ,katerinoslav 7#aff4b million rubles71 ,kiev 7#adc4e71 ,kherson 7#abg4e71 and ,kharkiv 7#ih4g74 ,ukrainian large-scale industry concerns itself chiefly with the manufacturing of the mineral products of the land and the preparation of foods4 ,the textile industry is artificially suppressed in the interests of the ,central ,russian industrial districts4 ,the cotton industry is confined to only a few small factories in the ,don region 7,rostiv1 ,nakhichevan7 and ,katerinoslav 7,pavlokichkas74 ,the woolen industry is less limited 7,chernihiv country1 especially ,klinzi1 then ,kharkiv1 ,kiev1 the ,don region1 ,volhynia74 ,the linen and hemp industry is well developed only in the ,chernihiv country 7,pochep1 ,mhlin1 ,starodub1 ,novosibkiv7 and in ,kherson 7,odessa7 jute factories are also found4 ,the clothing industry is worthy of mention only in ,kherson and the larger cities of ,eastern ,galicia4 ,of the many branches of the food industry1 the first to be mentioned is the manufacture of sugar4 ,the sugar refineries of the ,ukraine1 more than #bjj in number 7most of them in the territories of ,kiev1 ,kharkiv1 ,podolia1 ,kherson71 produce annually 7#aijd7 over #f4f million metric hundredweights of raw sugar and #c4i metric hundredweights of refined sugar4 ,these figures represent #gf and #fh respectively of the total ,russian output4 ,it is remarkable that in the ,austrian ,ukraine1 where the sugar industry has the finest possibilities of expanding1 it is entirely undeveloped 7only two factories74 ,the milling industry1 which1 in general1 is carried on chiefly in small water and wind-mills1 possesses also some large mills operated by steam 7,kharkiv1 ,kiev1 ,poltava1 ,kreminchuk1 ,odessa1 ,mikolaiv1 ,melitopol1 ,lviv1 ,brody1 ,ternopil1 ,stanislaviv1 ,kolomia1 etc474 ,another important industry is alcohol-distillation1 which is well advanced in all parts of the ,ukraine1 but particularly in ,russian and ,galician ,podolia 7,galicia has #hjj stills71 ,kharkiv and ,kiev4 ,the beer-brewing industry is but slightly developed1 and the only districts in which it yields a product of some quality are ,galicia and the ,bukowina4 ,mead brewing1 also a common industry1 is carried on on a large scale only in the ,kharkiv country and in ,eastern ,galicia4 ,oil-pressing is important in the territories of ,kherson 7,odessa71 ,kiev1 ,chernihiv 7,pochep1 ,novosibkiv71 in ,kharkiv and in ,kreminchuk4 ,the important tobacco industry is carried on to a considerable degree in #ajj factories in the ,russian ,ukraine 7,kiev1 ,kharkiv1 ,odessa1 ,zitomir1 ,poltava1 ,kreminchuk1 ,romen1 ,katerinoslav1 ,mikolaiv1 etc47 as well as in three government factories in ,galicia 7,vinniki1 ,monastiriska and ,zabolotiv74 ,the lumber industry embraces large saw-mills in the ,carpathian mountain districts of ,galicia1 the ,bukowina and ,northeastern ,hungary1 as well as long the ,pripet and ,dnieper ,rivers 7,mosir1 ,kreminchuk1 ,katerinoslav1 ,kherson1 etc474 ,the cork industry is established in ,odessa1 the paper industry in ,rostiv1 ,odessa1 ,kharkiv1 ,poltava4 ,the most important branch of ,ukrainian large-scale industry is the metal-industry4 ,the ,ukrainian iron industry1 despite its youth1 has rapidly surpassed the ,polish1 ,moscow and ,ural industry1 and would be even more advanced if the economic policy of the ,russian ,government had not taken measures for the protection of the ,moscow and ,ural industry from the industrial competition of the ,ukraine4 ,hence1 the ,ukrainian metal industry must furnish chiefly semi-manufactured goods1 which are afterwards worked into finished goods in the center of the ,empire4 ,in #aiaa1 there were obtained in the ,ukraine1 #bd1fbe1jjj q4 of cast iron1 that is1 #fg4d of the total ,russian production2 in #aiab the percentage is said to have reached #gj1 while the rest1 #cj1 is accredited to ,poland1 ,great-,russia and ,russian-,asia4 ,in #aiaa the ,ukraine produced #ah4h metric hundredweights 7#ee4f of the total ,russian production7 of wrought iron and steel1 and in the year #aiab1 it attained the same percentage4 ,the significance of these figures is at once apparent4 ,the iron works of the ,ukraine lie chiefly near ,krivi ,rih1 in ,katerinoslav and vicinity1 ,olexandrivsk1 the ,donetz ,plateau and the adjacent districts 7,yusivka1 ,hrushivka1 ,tahanroh1 ,mariupol1 ,kerch1 etc474 ,the nail and wire industry has its center in ,katerinoslav1 machine-manufacturing in ,katerinoslav1 ,kiev1 ,kharkiv1 ,yelisavet1 ,odessa1 ,olexandrivsk1 ,mikolaiv and ,berdiansk4 ,the iron steamship building industry has its seat in ,rostiv and ,mikolaiv4 ,in ,galicia we find only a very small iron industry1 and at best a few railway supplies1 factories and workshops are worthy of mention1 e4g41 those in ,sianik 7car factory71 ,new ,sandetz and ,lemberg4 ,of the other branches of industry which manufacture mineral products1 the petroleum refineries must be mentioned above all1 particularly those of the ,carpathian foothill country 7,horlitzi1 ,drohobich1 ,kolomia7 and at the foot of the ,caucasus 7,hrosni74 ,the factory industry of pottery is carried on in ,lviv and ,kharkiv2 porcelain and chinaware manufacture in the ,kharkiv region 7,budi1 ,slaviansk7 and in ,odessa2 cement manufacture in the ,black ,sea region1 in ,odessa and in the ,bukowina2 brick and tile manufacture in all the large cities of the ,ukraine4 ,glass manufacture1 once very extensive in the forest regions of the ,western ,ukraine 7,rostoche1 ,volhynia71 is now confined to the neighborhood of ,kharkiv1 ,horodnia and ,bakhmut4 ,of the different branches of the chemical industry1 the manufacture of matches is important2 its seat is in the ,chernihiv country near ,novosibkiv1 and in the ,galician sub-,carpathian country 7,striy1 ,skole1 ,bolekhiv1 etc474 ,this does not exhaust the branches of industry of the ,ukraine1 but1 because of their comparative insignificance1 we must desist from describing them4 ,having now come to the end of our presentation of ,ukrainian industry1 we have still to consider what percentage of ,ukrainians engage in industrial pursuits4 ,according to official ,russian estimates of the year #ahig1 the percentage is barely #e 7in ,galicia1 according to ,buzek's biased calculation1 #a4d74 ,the smallness of the figures would surprise us if we did not know how the ,russian and ,polish nationality 8make0 their statistics2 nevertheless1 it cannot be denied that the ,ukrainian people still engage too little in industry4 ,among the ,ukrainians who seek their subsistence in industry1 the greatest number 7#ad7 engage in the making of clothing2 then follow1 in order1 the building1 metal1 lumber and food industries1 linen-weaving and pottery4 ,,trade ,,and ,,commerce ,the mercantile movement in the ,ukraine1 as1 in fact1 in all of ,eastern ,europe1 is comparatively slight4 ,to give an exact picture of ,ukrainian commerce is much more difficult than to describe its agricultural and industrial production4 ,the great exchanges of goods in the interior1 the commercial relations of the ,ukraine with the other districts of ,russia and ,austria-,hungary1 its part in the export trade of these states1--all this matter awaits working up on the part of competent economists and geographers4 ,the ,ukrainian people take but little part in the commercial activity of their country2 the ,ukrainian peasant simply considers trade an occupation very little in accord with the rank of a landed proprietor1 and the middle class has only begun in the last decades to recover from the suppression of centuries4 ,hence1 ,ukrainian commerce lies almost wholly in the hands of the foreign races--the ,russians1 ,jews1 ,armenians and ,greeks4 ,the causes of this condition are usually sought and found by the foreign 7,russian and ,polish7 8standard-bearers of culture0 in the indifference and incapacity for culture of the ,ukrainians4 ,this explanation1 however1 can be objected to when we recall the great commercial importance of the ancient ,kingdoms of ,kiev and ,halich1 as well as the long perseverance of the ,ukrainian trade down into the #afth ,century1 despite its systematic suppression by the ,polish ,government4 ,naturally1 the five centuries of ,tatar invasion caused severe injuries to ,ukrainian trade4 ,and when the commercial activity of the ,ukraine of the hetmans began to flourish in the #agth and #ahth ,centuries1 it was systematically suppressed by the ,russian ,government1 following the ill-fated rebellion of ,mazeppa4 ,then we must consider the difficulties of competition with the ,russians1 a very talented commercial race1 with the ,jews1 the ,armenians and the ,greeks4 ,most keenly1 however1 the calamitous lack of education is being felt4 ,wherever the education of the people is more advanced1 as1 for example1 in ,eastern ,galicia1 there is a revival of the commercial spirit in the ,ukrainians4 ,the ,galician ,ukrainians have thousands of shops1 large commercial co-operative organizations 7,narodna ,torhovla1 with seventeen branch warehouses and several hundred shops1 ,soyuz tohorvelnick spilok1 ,soyuz zbutu khudobi1 etc471 with the large annual turnover 7large for ,galician conditions7 of #be million crowns4 ,the enlightened peasantry of ,sinevidsko and vicinity 7,boiko country7 carries on an active fruit-trade far beyond the ,austrian borders4 ,even in the ,russian ,ukraine trade is coming to life in all places4 ,the co-operative movement has taken such a bound in advance1 in spite of the frightful illiteracy1 that in #aiab there were over #bejj such organizations1 while all of ,russia 7including the ,ukraine7 had #ebfj1 and ,poland only #ibj4 ,from these facts we may safely conclude that1 with the elevation of the grade of culture1 the former commercial spirit of the ,ukraine is reawakening4 ,to be sure1 the sturdy1 upright nature of the ,ukrainian1 which abhors every form of dishonesty1 will not lend to this new commercial spirit a world-conquering character1 but it will1 on the other hand1 increase the influence of the ,ukrainian merchant in the commercial world4 ,the present condition of commerce in the ,ukraine is still very primitive2 first1 because of the generally low grade of culture2 second1 because of the very primitive traffic conditions of ,eastern ,europe4 ,the first mark of the primitive condition is probably the existence of countless annual fairs in the ,ukraine--a relic of medieval trade conditions4 ,the number of annual fairs in the ,russian ,ukraine exceeds #djjj1 altho it is far out of proportion to the great number of annual fairs in ,great ,russia4 ,but out of twenty-two grand annual fairs of ,russia1 eleven fall to the ,ukrainian territory--four in ,kharkiv1 two in ,romny1 one in ,poltava1 ,kursk1 ,kolevez1 ,yelisavet and ,sumy1 respectively4 ,in addition1 there are the once famous ,kiev 8kontrakti0 7now declining71 and the smaller annual fairs in ,berdichiv1 ,zitomir1 ,dubno1 etc4 ,the greatest exchanges of goods take place in the ,yordan fair in ,kharkiv 7,january #bjth71 and the ,elias fair 7,august #bnd7 in ,poltava4 ,here the wholesale dealers sell their goods to the retailers 7,ofenyi--,russians from the ,governments of ,vladimir and ,slobozani--,russian sectarians1 colonists from the ,chernihiv country1 ,jewish retailers who sell in the right half of the ,ukraine71 who buy or supplement their stock of goods during the annual fairs4 ,in these wholesale transactions1 the so-called prassoli--,russian barterers--also engage1 dealers who travel all year thru the villages of the ,ukraine1 exchange the wool1 bristles and flax of the peasants for hardware1 and sell the collected raw materials to the wholesalers4 ,in this annual fair system1 the ,ukrainians have1 until recently1 played an important part as paid drivers1 who drove the goods on their oxcarts from fair to fair4 ,these drivers at one time formed a sort of class of their own--the 8chumaki0--and even engaged independently in the trading of the ,crimean salt and the dried fish of the ,sea of ,azof4 ,the railroads have put an end to the former importance of the chumaki1 yet the scanty length of the ,ukrainian railway system prevents this carting industry from disappearing altogether4 ,in the eighties of the past century there were counted in the districts of ,poltava1 ,kharkiv and ,chernihiv1 #baj1jjj chumaks2 in the year #ahig1 in ,kherson1 ,katerinoslav1 ,tauria and ,don1 about #ajj1jjj of these hired drivers4 ,the fair system of ,ukrainian trade is carried on not only by means of great annual fairs1 which1 by the way1 are decreasing in importance year by year1 but also by means of an enormous number of smaller annual fairs in the cities1 towns1 and even villages of the ,russian ,ukraine1 which take care of the retail trade4 ,in the ,austrian ,ukraine the annual fairs 7as for instance1 the once famous fairs of ,tarnopol1 ,ulashkivtzi1 ,czernowitz7 have lost all significance since the modernization of the country's commerce4 ,world-commerce has1 until very recently1 left the ,ukraine almost untouched4 ,this is one of the reasons why the primitive forms of commerce were able to last so long in the ,ukraine4 ,until recently1 world-commerce has taken the ,ukraine merely for a producing and exporting country of raw materials1 and left the supplying of local demands to the traditional forms of trade4 ,only within the last decades has the modern commercial organization begun slowly to take in the ,ukraine4 ,the exchanges in ,kiev1 ,kharkiv1 ,odessa1 ,kreminchuk1 ,mikolaiv1 ,tahanroh1 ,rostiv1 the chambers of commerce in ,lviv and ,brodi1 are organizing the export of raw materials from the ,ukraine1 and the flooding of the country with the products of foreign industry is becoming more and more intensive4 ,in spite of all we have mentioned1 the significance of the ,ukraine in the internal commerce of ,russia and in world-trade is very great4 ,the natural resources of the country1 its situation on the threshold of ,asia and the ,mediterranean world1 its property of being a direct hinterland of the ,black ,sea1 give to the ,ukraine a commercial importance with which that of any other individual district of ,european ,russia1 the ,baltic lands and ,poland not excepted1 can never compare4 ,in the internal commerce of ,russia1 the ,ukraine figures1 first of all1 as purveyor of foodstuffs1 and in ,austria-,hungary the ,austrian ,ukraine plays the same part on a small scale4 ,to represent these relations in figures encounters great difficulties1 and the figures can be only approximate4 ,in #ahie the ,ukraine exported over #a4e million metric hundredweights of grain to ,lithuania and ,white ,russia1 about #a4g million metric hundredweights to ,poland1 and about #j4i million metric hundredweights to ,central ,russia4 ,in #aije1 two ,ukrainian districts alone1 ,poltava and ,kharkiv1 exported over #j4g metric hundredweights of grain to ,central ,russia4 ,these figures must be much greater today4 ,and the grain exportation of the ,austrian ,ukraine to the interior of ,austria must be relatively as great4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,galicia produces one-third of the total ,austrian output of oats and wheat1 and almost half the output of potatoes4 ,quite as important is the ,ukraine's exportation of live-stock4 ,in the years #aijb-aijd1 the ,ukraine exported #hj1jjj head of cattle to ,central ,russia1 and the part played by ,galicia as purveyor of live-stock for slaughter is well-known4 ,equally important is the exportation of small cattle1 poultry1 eggs and butter4 ,the exportation of wool from the ,southern ,ukraine plays an important part in the internal commerce of ,russia4 ,the ,polissye1 ,carpathian and ,caucasus regions furnish great quantities of lumber for exportation4 ,the mineral products of the ,ukraine are used for the greater part outside the country--,caucasian and ,carpathian petroleum1 the iron ore of ,krivi ,rih1 the salt1 the manganese1 the coal of the ,donetz ,plateau4 ,of the entire yield of coal of the ,donetz basin in #aije1 barely one-third was used up in the factories of this region2 the other two-thirds were to serve the advancement of ,central ,russian industry4 ,all these products are the object of an active export trade4 ,in comparison with the exports1 the imports of the ,ukraine cannot be very large4 ,the imports embrace1 almost exclusively1 products of foreign manufacturing4 ,in view of the general poverty and the very limited wants of the ,ukrainian peasantry1 these imports must be small1 since home industry still covers the greatest part of the demand4 ,the part of the ,ukraine in the external commerce of the ,russian ,state is very important1 while the ,austrian ,ukraine plays a very subordinate part in this respect4 ,the ten central regions of the ,ukraine furnish over #fj of the total grain export of ,russia4 ,in the customs districts of the ,ukrainian part of the western border of ,russia1 #bh4f million rubles' worth of goods was exported1 #ad4c million rubles imported4 ,the customs districts of the ,pontian and ,azof coast within the borders of the ,ukraine passed #bde million rubles in exports1 #fd4h million rubles in imports4 ,over the borders of ,russian ,ukraine passed #cc of the ,russian exportation and only #aa of the importation4 ,this shows us how much the ,ukraine contributes to the balance of trade in favor of ,russia4 ,traffic in the ,ukraine is very slightly developed4 ,altho the natural conditions for traffic are very favorable1 the historical fortunes of the country took such a course that we cannot wonder at the present state of intercourse4 ,the ,ukraine was for a long time under the domination of ,poland1 which never cared for the condition of the roads2 then the country fell under the rule of ,russia1 which to this day stands upon a very low level as far as traffic conditions are concerned4 ,the ,austrian ,ukraine has the greatest number and the best roads1 but they are found especially in ,bukowina and ,northern ,hungary4 ,for in ,galicia1 where most of the roads are under the management of the autonomous ,polish authorities1 the condition of the roads is sad enough4 ,the overwhelming majority of ,ukrainian highways are unpaved4 ,all that the ,russian geographer1 ,krassnov1 has said in general about the highways of ,russia1 applies in its fullest extent to the unpaved1 unmacadamized roads of the ,ukraine4 ,these roads are among the worst in the world4 ,in the summer they are enveloped in clouds of dust2 in the spring and fall1 as well as in rainy weather1 they are strips of bottomless mud1 in which even the light farm-wagon sinks to its axles4 ,wherever it is at all possible1 vehicles drive across the fields along the roadway4 ,worst of all are the ways in the vicinity of and within villages and small towns4 ,drains and bridges are either unknown1 or else there are not enough of them4 ,the kind of roads just described are known in the entire right half of the ,ukraine by the traditional name of 8,polish roads40 ,still worse are the cane and corduroy roads of the ,polissye2 riding over these a long time becomes a positive torture to the traveler4 ,in the ,hutzul country most of the roads are ordinary bridle-paths 7plai71 accessible only to foot passengers and bridle-horses4 ,in ,galicia1 only villages and hamlets are connected by unpaved roads2 in the ,russian ,ukraine even large cities4 ,not a single macadamized road leads to cities like ,poltava1 ,kreminchuk1 ,katerinoslav1 ,rostiv1 ,kherson4 ,that such negligence of the government should cause the ,ukrainian peasantry incalculable damage1 and actually hinder trade and commerce1 is obvious at once4 ,macadamized roads are very scarce in the ,ukraine as a whole4 ,the ,austro-,hungarian part of the ,ukraine1 altho in this respect it is far behind the cultural countries of ,europe1 possesses a greater absolute number of macadamized roads than the ,russian ,ukraine1 which is ten times as large in area4 ,all cities and towns of the ,austrian ,ukraine are connected by macadamized roads4 ,eight such roads meet at ,lemberg1 seven in ,czernowitz1 six each in ,peremishl1 ,ternopil1 ,kolomia1 ,buchach1 ,horodenka1 etc4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine1 on the other hand1 the only macadamized roads that deserve the name1 are the road from ,homel to ,kiev1 the road from ,kiev to ,berestia 7by way of ,zitomir1 ,novhorod-,volinsky1 ,rivne1 with branches to ,dubno and to ,kremianetz1 ,lutzk1 ,kovil71 the road from ,tomashiv to ,lublin1 the road from ,starokonstantiniv to ,kamenetz1 the road from ,kursk to ,kharkiv1 and the mountain-road in the ,yaila ,mountains in ,crimea4 ,the remaining 8great tracts0 and 8post-roads0 7altho they sometimes figure as macadamized roads7 are in such a miserable condition1 that even in the large cities they look more like moraines than streets in a civilized city4 ,quite analogous conditions prevail1 also1 in the railroad traffic of the ,ukraine4 ,in this respect1 too1 the ,austrian ,ukraine surpasses the ,russian ,ukraine by far1 despite the backward condition of the former4 ,galicia1 for instance1 has #e kilometers of railroad for #ajj square kilometers of surface1 the ,russian ,ukraine barely #a kilometer4 ,besides the loose mesh of the railway-net of the ,ukraine1 there is the additional disadvantage that its lines tend toward foreign centers1 and consider the local needs of ,ukrainian traffic only in rare cases4 ,galicia1 separated from the rest of ,austria-,hungary by the natural boundary of the ,carpathians1 has had to develop an independent system of railways1 with the main junction at ,lemberg4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine all the main lines were built only for the convenience of the ,moscow center and the ,baltic ports4 ,hence1 there is no direct railway line between ,kiev and ,odessa1 for instance1 or to ,kharkiv1 while there exist almost straight line connections between ,romen and ,libau1 between ,sevastopol and ,kharkiv and ,moscow4 ,besides that1 strategic factors were the deciding ones in the building of the railroads 7particularly in ,western ,ukraine71 and the economic life of the country often has had to suffer for it4 ,a third disadvantageous aspect of the ,russian ,ukrainian railway system is its tariff regulations1 the purpose of which is to concentrate the greatest possible amount of traffic on the railroads of ,central ,russia and the ,baltic provinces1 and thus redound to their advantage4 ,as a result of this tariff policy of the ,russian ,government1 it happens that it is sometimes cheaper to transport goods from the ,ukraine to the most distant ,baltic ports1 than to the adjacent ports of the ,black ,sea4 ,thus1 the tariff rates for grain from ,romen to ,libau 7#ajgg versts7 are #ba kopeks per pud1 from ,romen to ,mikolaiv 7#dbi kilometers7 #ah kopeks4 ,it costs more money and trouble to transport coal from the ,donetz region to the ,black ,sea ports than to the ports of the ,baltic1 which1 of course1 are far more distant4 ,naturally ,pontian navigation suffers above all from this cause1 but all ,ukrainian trade in general suffers likewise4 ,as a result of the loose web of the net of railroads1 and the destination of all the railroad lines in the ,ukraine to foreign centers1 there are almost no important railway centers in the ,ukraine4 ,the only center of ,european proportions is ,lemberg1 where nine main and local lines meet4 ,striy1 ,stanislaviv1 ,kolomia and ,ternopil are smaller junctions1 with five converging lines4 ,in the ,russian ,ukraine1 only ,berestia and ,kharkiv deserve the name of railway junction1 in the strict sense of being a point of intersection of at least two main lines2 the same is true of ,poltava and ,rostiv4 ,the dependence of the ,ukrainian railway lines upon foreign centers is the cause of the fact that frequently very important crossings lie beyond large towns1 near to some miserable little village1 as for example1 ,sarni1 ,bakhmach1 ,kosiatin1 ,zmerinka1 etc4 ,the only concentrated district of the ,ukrainian railroad system with numerous local junctions1 lies in the ,donetz ,plateau4 ,we shall now enumerate several railroads of the ,ukraine which are most important for the traffic of the country4 ,the ,ukraine is connected with the ,black ,sea by means of seven main lines3 ,lemberg-,odessa1 ,znamenka-,mikolaiv1 ,kharkiv-,sevastopol 7with a branch to ,kerch71 ,katerinoslav-,berdiansk1 ,donetz ,plateau-,mariupol1 ,donetz ,plateau-,tahanroh1 ,katerinodar-,novorossysk4 ,direct railroad connections with ,roumania exist via ,tiraspol to ,yassy1 and from ,lemberg by way of ,czernowitz to ,bukarest4 ,the following lines lead into ,hungary3 ,stanislaviv-,sihot1 ,lemberg-,mukachiv1 ,lemberg-,uzhorod-,peremishl-,uihely4 ,the connection with ,austrian-,poland 7,western ,galicia7 is formed by the ,lemberg-,cracow and ,stanislaviv-,new-,sandetz lines1 the connection with ,russian-,poland by the lines of ,kovel-,lublin-,warsaw and ,berestia-,sidletz-,warsaw4 ,the lines of ,berestye-,bilostok1 ,rivne-,vilna1 and ,romen-,minsk-,libau lead north to ,white ,russia1 ,lithuania and the ,baltic4 ,the ,ukraine is connected with the north and northeast 7,great ,russia7 by the lines of ,kiev-,kursk1 ,kharkiv-,moscow1 ,kupiansk-,penza-,samara1 and ,donetz ,plateau-,voroniz4 ,eastward1 the railroad lines run from the ,donetz region and ,katerinodar to the bend of the ,volga1 and from ,rostiv along the ,caucasus to ,baku4 ,in the ,ukraine itself1 the main lines of the railroads should run in a direction west and northwest to east and southeast4 ,hence1 the main paths of traffic should be the following lines3 ,czernowitz-,odessa1 ,berestye-,rivne-,berdichiv-,uman1 ,kovel-,kiev-,poltava-,donetz region-,rostiv1 ,fastiv-,katerinoslav1 ,novosibkiv-,sumi-,kharkiv-,donetz ,plateau1 etc4 ,as a result of the railroad policy of the ,russian ,government1 the north and south lines1 which lead directly or indirectly to the ,muscovite centers1 are held to be more important1 as for instance1 the following3 ,berestye-,minsk-,moscow1 ,lemberg-,rivne-,vilna1 ,novoselitza-,kiev-,kursk1 ,vapniarka-,cherkassi-,piriatin1 ,mikolaiv-,kreminchuk-,romni1 ,balta-,kreminchuk-,kharkiv-,kursk1 etc4 ,of greatest importance are1 also1 the industrial railroads which connect the iron mines of ,krivi ,rih with the coal-fields of the ,donetz region1 via ,katerinoslav4 ,the waterways of the ,ukraine were at one time the main roads of trade and commerce4 ,the great cultural mission of the ,ukrainian waterways is familiar from history2 thru the course of long centuries they were the only convenient thorofares thru the difficult forest regions and the pathless steppes of the ,ukraine4 ,traffic on the ,ukrainian waterways was1 in former times1 much more important than at present1 not only because of the lack of other convenient pathways1 but also because of their former greater length and capacity4 ,deforestation has decreased the normal level of the rivers2 mill-dams have cut off the once navigable stretches of water4 ,the ,ukraine possesses almost no artificial waterways4 ,the only ones in existence--the ,orginski ,canal 7,yassiolda-,vihonivske ozero-,shchara1 #ed kilometers of canal1 #abd kilometers of connected watercourses7 and the ,dnieper-,buh ,canal 7,pina-,mokhavez1 #ha kilometers of canal1 #acd kilometers of connected watercourses7--were built back in the days of ,polish rule4 ,they are antiquated1 shallow and neglected1 so they can serve only occasionally1 and then only for log-floating4 ,the total length of ,ukrainian waterways exceeds #gjjj kilometers1 which is just as much as the length of the waterways of ,austria or of ,england1 but only one-tenth that of ,european ,russia4 ,in this figure1 sections of rivers are included which are navigable only for smaller river vessels4 ,the statement of the navigability of individual rivers of the ,ukraine is contained in the section which deals with the rivers of the ,ukraine 7v4 p4 #gj ff474 ,the most important waterway of the ,ukraine is the ,dnieper system4 ,the main river is navigable in its entire ,ukrainian section by the largest river vessels4 ,in the entire ,russian river system the ,dnieper system constitutes #aa of the length1 #aj of the total navigable length1 #af of the length navigable by steamship-lines4 ,the rapids section1 however1 as a result of the incomprehensible negligence of the ,russian ,government1 is1 to this day1 accessible only to the smaller ships and rafts1 and then only for sailing downstream4 ,the canals built by the ,government in the ,porohi 7#ahdc-ahef7 are so badly placed that navigation1 to this day1 must still keep largely to the natural ancient 8,cossack paths40 ,in the years #ahic-ahie1 investigating engineering commissions determined that it was possible1 without great cost1 to make the ,porohi section completely navigable4 ,but the thing never went any further than that4 ,at the beginning of the #bjth ,century1 ,english engineers worked out a plan for the complete regulation of the ,pohori section and the construction of a waterway1 accessible even to sea-going ships1 which should connect the ,baltic with the ,black ,sea by means of the ,dvina and the ,dnieper4 ,the realization of this plan1 which would be of the very greatest importance to the ,ukraine1 is still distant1 and there is no hope that the ,russian ,government will attack it very soon4 ,thus1 the rapids hinder ,dnieper navigation to this day1 and not least for the reason that the insurance companies will not insure vessels for the rapids section4 ,for this reason1 the river fleet of the ,dnieper is separated into two parts4 ,above the rapids 7in #aijj7 #bjh steamboats and #ajjb other ships1 below the rapids 7together with the inlets of the ,boh7 #adh steamboats and #abjc other ships were plying4 ,the number of steamboats increased threefold above the rapids and doubled below the rapids during the last sixteen years of the last century4 ,the total horse power in #aijj was over #af1jjj4 ,in #aijf the number of steamers of the ,dnieper region was #chb1 the number of other ships #bbah4 ,the ,dnieper ships1 propelled by sails and oars1 which carry lumber1 grain1 fruit and other goods1 are of various types4 ,the largest are called 8honchaki10 and have a tonnage of up to #adjj2 then come the 8barzi0 and 8barki0 7#ijj-acjj tons71 8berlini0 7#hjj-aadj tons71 which are the most useful1 8baidaki0 7#fej tons71 8trembaki10 8laibi10 8dubi0 7#acj-afj tons71 8lodki0 7#hj tons71 8galari0 7#ej tons71 and 8chaiki0 7#cj tons74 ,the tonnage of the river fleet of the ,dnieper 7not counting steamers71 in #aijj1 was approximately #ejj1jjj tons1 hence not much less than the tonnage of the present ,austro-,hungarian merchant-marine4 ,besides this1 the ,dnieper and its tributaries are navigated by a great number of rafts4 ,in #aiaj the number of them was #ae1fgf4 ,of the river harbors of the ,dnieper system1 ,kherson carries on the greatest exchange of goods 7#aj million q4 in #aiaj74 ,then follow ,kiev 7#e4c million q471 ,katerinoslav 7#c4a million q471 ,cherkassi 7#b4a million q471 ,niznodniprovsk 7#a million q471 ,chernihiv 7#j4f million q471 and ,pinsk 7#j4e million q474 ,navigation on the ,don1 as a result of the small volume of water1 is much slighter than the ,dnieper navigation1 despite the absence of rapids4 ,in #aijj1 the number of steamboats on the ,don was #ahi1 with #aj1jjj horse-power 7in #aijf it was #chb72 the number of other ships #dhh1 with #bjj1jjj tonnage 7in #aijf only #dga ships74 ,the main river-harbor is ,rostiv1 which handles goods to the amount of #g4e million q4 annually4 ,a good deal smaller still is the navigation of the ,dniester4 ,here1 in #aijj1 there were only #i steamers1 with #bjj horse-power 7#af steamers in #aijf71 and #ahg ships of other kinds with a tonnage of #bb1jjj tons 7#bgg of them in #aijf74 ,the harbors of the main stream are ,benderi 7handles #j4g million q4 of goods7 and ,maiaki 7#j4e million q474 ,on the ,kuban ,river #fi steamers 7counting in those of the ,kura7 and #aca other ships plied in #aijf4 ,in general1 river navigation in the ,ukraine is on a very moderate scale4 ,the negligence of the ,russian ,government and the low grade of culture limit the development of ,ukrainian interior navigation4 ,thru the regulation of the ,dnieper rapids and the connection of the river systems of the ,dnieper and ,dniester with the ,baltic waters1 by means of practicable canals1 the waterways of the ,ukraine could attain a wonderful importance4 ,having come to the end of our description of ,ukrainian traffic1 we must still devote some attention to ,ukrainian sea-navigation4 ,its present condition is as lamentable as the general condition of ,ukrainian traffic4 ,of course1 there is no doubt that the ,black ,sea has many qualities unfavorable to the development of navigation--its seclusion1 the lack of good harbors1 and an abundance of dangerous storms4 ,yet1 what are these disadvantages against modern engineering8 ,to assign all the blame to the low grade of ,russian industry1 as the ,russian publicists are in the habit of doing1 will not do4 ,the causes of the slight development of ,pontian navigation should be sought in the low cultural conditions of the ruling ,russian nation and in the indolence of the government1 which is not properly encouraging this navigation4 ,the ,russian steamers do not enjoy a good reputation on the ,black ,sea4 ,pontian coastwise navigation1 which at the beginning of the #aith ,century had a splendid start1 and was carried on predominantly by ,ukrainians1 has not been able to develop properly under the heavy fist of the government4 ,today1 conditions on the ,black ,sea are such1 that the transportation of a unit by weight of goods from one ,pontian harbor to another1 costs just as much as the transportation of the same unit from the same port to ,england4 ,the number of steamers which sail the ,black ,sea under the ,russian flag was1 in #aija1 only #caf1 with a tonnage of #ahg1jjj tons1 that is1 #db of the number and #eb of the tonnage of the entire steamship fleet of ,russia4 ,in #aiab the figures were #daj steamers1 #bbc1jjj tons1 the percentages being #db and #dg4 ,the number of sailing vessels in #aija was #fce1 with a total tonnage of #dg1jjj1 and in the year #aiab there were #hbg sailing vessels1 with over #ec1jjj tons4 ,the development of ,pontian navigation is thus going a very slow1 if not a retrogressive course4 ,the ,russian ,black ,sea steamers maintain a more or less regular service between the most important ,black ,sea ports--,odessa1 ,mikolaiv1 ,kherson1 ,sevastopol1 ,rostiv1 ,novorossysk1 etc4 ,from ,sevastopol a line goes to ,constantinople1 from ,odessa one to ,alexandria and ,vladivostok4 ,despite this miserable condition of ,pontian navigation1 from a ,european point of view1 it still has greater significance than navigation on other seas of ,russia4 ,near the end of the past century1 #gj of the total oversea exportation of ,russia by weight1 and #fe by value1 went thru the harbors of the ,ukrainian coast4 ,to be sure1 in #ahif1 only #g4e of the ships which visited these ports sailed under the ,russian flag4 ,in the year of #aiaa it was not much different2 of the outgoing ships only #aa4d1 and of the incoming ships only #ac4i carried the ,russian flag6 ,among the ,black ,sea ports1 ,odessa1 now1 as ever1 takes first place4 ,the imports of ,odessa1 in #aiaa1 amounted to #ai4b million q41 the exports #bf4b million q4 ,this1 by the way1 is an example of the great preponderance of exportation over importation4 ,in other ports the disparity is even greater4 ,thus1 the imports of ,mikolaiv amount to only #b4c million q41 the exports #bb4h million q4 ,for ,tahanroh the respective figures are #a4i and #ai4e1 for ,novorossysk #a4e and #ah4c1 for ,mariupol #c4a and #af4b1 for ,kherson #a4a and #aa4c1 for ,feodosia #j4f and #d4h1 for ,rostiv #b4a and #b4d1 for ,berdiansk #j4c and #c4i1 for ,eupatoria #j4h and #b4i1 for ,akerman #j4d and #b4j4 ,these figures once more bring before our eyes the ruinous effect of the economic policy of the ,russian ,government upon the ,ukraine4 ,the natural resources of the ,ukraine are exported in enormous masses1 without consideration of the needs of the ,ukrainian population2 the imports are to a great extent directed to other far distant coasts of the ,russian ,empire1 and ,great ,russia gets the advantage of them1 while the ,ukraine is flooded with the inferior goods of ,central ,russian industry4 ,if we consider1 further1 that an annual customs balance of #bjj million rubles goes to the central government from the ,ukraine1 an amount which is then used for the development of the central provinces1 we become able to understand under what unfavorable conditions the economic life of the ,ukraine must develop1 and how dearly its progress must be paid for4 ,,the ,,districts ,,and ,,settlements ,,of ,,ukraine ,for centuries robbed of its political independence1 the ,ukraine today simply vegetates1 instead of living in a state of full development4 ,the fatal results of its lack of independence are visible in every aspect of the material and spiritual life of the country4 ,the present political-administrative division of the ,ukraine is also a result of the want of political independence of this nation4 ,this division corresponds neither to the natural nor to the anthropogeographical conditions1 and to a great degree represents only entirely antiquated1 now worthless remnants of the statesmanship of former centuries4 ,even the state boundaries are very unnaturally drawn in the ,ukrainian territory4 ,the ,austrian crown-province of ,galicia embraces parts of ,rostoche1 ,volhynia1 ,podolia1 ,pokutye1 while other parts of this natural territory lie outside the state border1 in ,russia4 ,the topography and the people are the same on both sides of the cordon2 only the state authorities and the ruling races are different4 ,the ,carpathian boundary between the ,austrian and ,hungarian parts of the ,ukraine1 to be sure1 seems a good natural boundary1 but in reality it would be that only if it ran along the southern foot of the range4 ,for the ,carpathian region of the ,ukraine1 as a result of its easy communications constitutes not only a physico-geographical1 but also an anthropogeographical unit4 ,on both sides of the border live the same ,lemkos1 ,boikos and ,hutzuls4 ,more glaringly still does the unnaturalness of the present political division of the ,ukraine stand out1 when we view the administrative units in the framework of the states which at present dominate the ,ukraine4 ,in ,hungary1 the ,ukrainian part of the land is united into one great whole1 together with ,slavonia1 ,transylvania1 ,alfld1 ,banat1 etc4 ,all is centered in ,budapest4 ,even the boundaries of the autonomous countries are so constructed that1 besides a piece of ,ukrainian territory1 they embrace an equally great or even greater1 but1 at any rate1 heavily peopled piece of a foreign national territory1 e4g41 of the ,roumanian1 ,magyar1 ,slovenian4 ,as a result of this scattering allotment1 the ,ukrainians of ,hungary possess no political influence4 ,the same is the case in the ,austrian parts of the ,ukraine4 ,galicia proper1 which is inhabited by ,ukrainians1 the nucleus of the ancient ,ukrainian ,kingdom of ,halich1 which1 in its physico-geographical aspect1 is wholly a part of ,eastern ,europe1 is welded together with the so-called ,western ,galicia1 properly a part of ,little ,poland 7grand-duchy of ,cracow71 which is inhabited entirely by ,poles and belongs physically to ,central ,europe1 both halves constituting together one administrative unit4 ,the result of this unnatural union is the bitter racial struggle of century-long duration between the ,poles and ,ukrainians1 a struggle which is still going on without prospect of peace1 and is very unfavorable for the beneficial development of the land4 ,the ,ukrainians are fighting for equal rights and against ,polonization2 the ,poles1 in the name of their state tradition1 for their hegemony in the land and for the forcible assimilation of the ,ukrainians4 ,the only remedy which presents itself would be the division of the present crown-province of ,galicia into two crown-provinces1 an eastern ,ukrainian1 and a western ,polish province4 ,the present crown-province of ,bukowina also consists of parts of ,pokutye1 ,pidhirye and the ,ukrainian ,carpathians1 together with a part of the ,roumanian ,carpathian foothills4 ,this circumstance again brings about a national struggle between the ,ukrainians and the ,roumanians4 ,the greatest portion of the country1 the ,russian ,ukraine1 also suffers from an unnatural political division4 ,the ,ukrainian territory is divided into several great administrative districts1 or groups of governments4 ,parts of the ,ukrainian national territory lie in the ,vistula ,governments in ,western1 ,southwestern1 ,southern and ,little ,russia and ,caucasia4 ,the boundaries of the individual governments everywhere are drawn without consideration for natural and ethnographic conditions4 ,in this way the border districts of the unbroken ,ukrainian territory have been united with parts of foreign racial territories into artificial administrative units1 as1 for example1 the ,governments of ,lublin and ,sidlez 7the present ,government of ,kholm71 ,grodno1 ,minsk1 ,kursk1 ,voroniz1 ,don region1 ,stavropol1 ,bessarabia1 etc4 ,this circumstance being a result of the poor development of constitutional life in ,russia1 has no great significance now1 but may in the future become as unfavorable for the ,ukraine as is the similar condition today in ,austria-,hungary4 ,the anthropogeography of today in describing a land1 very seldom takes such artificial divisions into consideration4 ,then there is the additional circumstance that these divisions1 as is obvious1 have no physico-geographical value4 ,in like manner1 the division of ,russia 8according to natural and economic characteristics10 by ,arseniev1 ,semyonoff1 ,richter1 ,fortunatov1 etc41 are worthless for geographical purposes4 ,the most suitable of any of them is that of ,richter1 which gives the ,ukrainian territory an independent position4 ,a good division also comes from ,m4 ,drahomaniv1 but it is not suitable for a geographical description4 ,for all these reasons we shall keep to the natural districts which we described in ,book ,i4 ,such a division is the only justifiable one in a country which1 like the ,ukraine1 has no political independence4 ,the ,carpathian region constitutes the first natural district of the ,ukraine4 ,it is populated by three ,ukrainian mountain-tribes--the ,lemkos 7from ,poprad to the ,oslava71 the ,boikos 7together with ,tukholzians1 from the ,oslava to the ,limnitzia7 and the ,hutzuls 7from the ,limnitzia to the ,roumanian ethnographic border74 ,the population is everywhere thinly strewn1 especially in the ,boike country4 ,the agriculture of the region is not sufficient at any point to nourish even the sparse population4 ,the ,lemkos and ,boikos carry on a little farming 7oats1 potatoes71 the ,hutzuls only along the edge of the mountains4 ,cattle-raising1 with dairying1 forestry and lumbering1 and among the ,hutzuls their fine home industry as well1 constitute the main sources of sustenance of the mountain dwellers4 ,every year a large percentage of the population goes out for seasonal migrations4 ,the settlements of the ,ukrainian ,carpathians all have the character of villages4 ,the ,lemko and ,boiko villages usually form long rows of farms1 which extend along the valley bottom4 ,the ,hutzulian villages1 on the other hand1 consist of separate farms which lie scattered on valley sides1 valley plains1 and even valley spurs4 ,the huts are everywhere built of wood1 and covered with shingles or boards2 only among the ,boikos1 sometimes1 with straw4 ,the very practical block houses1 adapted to the climate1 which are built by the ,hutzuls1 look very neat4 ,there are no cities in the ,carpathian region1 but only small towns1 inhabited for the most part by ,jews1 and bristling with dirt4 ,the ,lemko country 7,lemkivshchina7 has only one larger town1 ,sianik 7#aa1jjj inhabitants71 with railway-car factories4 ,also noteworthy1 on the ,hungarian side1 are the little towns of ,svidnik and ,strupkiv1 on the ,galician side the resorts of ,krinitzia1 ,zeghestiv1 ,vissova1 ,rimaniv4 ,in the little towns of the adjacent ,polish 7,new ,sandetz1 ,gorlice1 ,gribov1 ,dukla7 and ,slovenian territory 7,bartfeld7 the ,lemkos supply their needs in industrial products and grain4 ,in the ,boiko country 7,boikivshchina7 the towns are little centers for the retail trade and the lumber industry1 as for instance1 ,turka on the ,striy 7#aa1jjj pop471 ,lisko on the ,san1 ,stari ,sambir on the ,dniester1 and ,skole on the ,opir 7match manufacture74 ,the village of ,smorze is noted for its cattle fairs1 ,sinevidsko for its fruit trade4 ,along the ,opir valley lie numerous summer resorts 7,tukhla1 ,slavsko74 ,in the ,hutzul country1 too1 there are many summer resorts1 particularly in the valley of the ,prut 7,dora1 ,yaremche1 ,mikulichin1 ,tatariv1 ,vorokhta74 ,the ,hutzuls make their purchases in the little towns which lie at the exit of the main passes of the range--in ,nadvirna 7saw-mills71 ,delatin 7salt-works71 in ,kossiv1 noted for its mild climate1 its flourishing home industry and fruit-culture and its salt-works1 in ,kuti1 where tanning and furriery flourish1 and in ,viznitza 7saw-mills and lumber industrial school74 ,in the center of the ,hutzul country lies the large ,hutzulian village of ,zabye4 ,there are noted mineral springs in ,burkut and ,pistin4 ,on the southern slope of the range lies the only city of the ,hutzul country 7#ba1jjj pop47 and the town of ,hust 7#aj1jjj pop471 both important as trade centers of the ,hungarian ,hutzul country4 ,in the southern sub-,carpathian zone the ,ukrainian territory extends forward but a slight distance4 ,the economic conditions of the mountain range suddenly give way to agriculture and vine-growing4 ,all the cities of the region lie on the borders of the ,ukrainian territory at the points of exit of important railroad lines and highroads out of the mountains4 ,such is the position of ,uzhorod 7#ag1jjj pop47 and ,mukachiv 7#ag1jjj pop47 where the products of the plain and the mountains are exchanged4 ,the ,galicia-,bukowina sub-,carpathian hill country 7,pidhirye7 forms a gentle transition from the mountains to the plain4 ,with the great wealth of forest and meadow and a not very fertile soil1 agriculture begins to predominate but slowly as we depart from the limits of the mountain district4 ,besides1 the great abundance of salt and petroleum demands many hands4 ,the villages of the ,pidhirye are as a rule1 not large2 the huts are regularly covered with straw4 ,here we find the rather unattractive type of the ,galician cities and towns4 ,their chief characteristic is unfathomable mud or unfathomable dust on the streets1 depending on the season of the year4 ,only the suburbs inhabited by the ,ukrainian city-farmer population appear at all friendly1 with their orchards and their little white-painted houses4 ,the center of the city is regularly taken up by the ,jews4 ,their houses1 as a rule1 defy all ideas of cleanliness and hygiene1 and1 amid bristling dirt1 the retail trade surges thru miserable booths and shops4 ,almost nowhere in the ,galician cities do we find wholesale trade or industry on a large scale1 in the ,european sense4 ,the ,christian middle-class does not exist1 and the educated class of the city population is represented by officials 7usually ,poles1 and1 in decreasing proportions1 ,ukrainians74 ,on the western borderlands of the ,ukraine1 in this region1 lies the city of ,yaroslav on the ,san 7#be1jjj pop471 a railway junction in an important strategic position4 ,founded by the ancient ,ukrainian princes of ,kiev1 ,yaroslav was once famous for its annual fairs4 ,near it1 on the ,san1 lies ,radimno with its rope industry4 ,but the most important city on the ,san is ,peremishl 7#eg1jjj pop471 at once one of the oldest cities of ,galicia and the one-time capital of the ,ukrainian dynasty of the ,rostislavids4 ,peremishl owes its importance to its position as a bridge city at a point where important roads from the west and northwest cross the ,san to the east and south4 ,it lies at the important junction of the ,galician main railroad line1 with the important ,lupkov line coming from ,hungary1 and is accordingly1 as a result of its position1 a first-class fortress1 which closes the ,san valley and cuts off access to the adjacent ,carpathian passes4 ,the commercial standing of the city is considerable2 here1 too1 a ,greek-,catholic bishopric has its seat1 and here there exist numerous ,ukrainian cultural and economic societies4 ,in the sub-,carpathian ,dniester region1 which is traversed lengthwise by the ,galician ,transversal ,railroad1 lie a number of important cities4 ,on the ,dniester we find ,sambir 7#ba1jjj pop47 at the crossing of the railroads1 with a lumber industry of some size4 ,on the ,tismenitza ,railroad lies ,borislav 7#ae1jjj pop471 but recently a little ,boike village1 now1 together with the adjacent towns of ,tustanovichi 7#ab1jjj pop47 and ,skhidnitza1 the center of petroleum and ozokerite production4 ,a forest of artesian wells1 factory chimneys1 petroleum reservoirs1 have sprung up amid the famous 8,borislav mud10 among miserable dirty houses which shelter so many millionaires and hungry wretches1 so much happiness and misery1 crime and immorality4 ,the refineries for the petroleum that is gained here are located mostly in the adjacent ,drohobich 7#ci1jjj pop471 the seat of the petroleum speculators4 ,salt works also are found in this city1 still greater ones in the adjacent ,stebnik1 where enormous deposits of salt have been discovered1 but thus far not been exploited4 ,truskavetz is a well-known watering-place4 ,on the ,striy lies the important railroad junction of ,striy 7#cc1jjj pop471 with a mill1 lumber and match industry1 the seat of the ,ukrainian dairymen's association and other ,ukrainian organizations2 at the mouth of the ,striy the ancient town of ,zidachiv4 ,on the sub-,carpathian ,transversal ,railroad toward the east1 lie the following3 the watering-place ,morshin1 ,bolekhiv with salt-works and match factories ,dolina with salt-works and saw-mills1 ,kalush with saltpeter-mining and salt-works4 ,stanislaviv 7over #fj1jjj pop471 situated at the junction of the two ,bistritza rivers1 is an important railway center in which the ,lemberg-,czernowitz ,railroad meets the ,transversal railroad1 the ,south ,polish ,railroad and the ,hungarian branch railroad to ,marmarosh4 ,the city has an important industrial and commercial activity1 and is the seat of the ,greek-,catholic bishopric4 ,stanislaviv has inherited the former importance of ,halich1 the one-time capital of the ,ukrainian ,kingdom of the same name1 which1 at its highest development1 reached the ,polissye swamps on the north1 the ,dnieper on the east1 the ,black ,sea and the ,danube delta on the south4 ,at that time 7#aath and #abth ,century71 ,halich equalled or surpassed in size1 wealth and commercial importance1 most of the capitals of ,western ,europe4 ,after a thousand years of ,polish dominion it is now a miserable town in a beautiful location1 important geographically for its traffic advantages4 ,a side-line here branches off from the main railroad into ,podolia4 ,attempts are being made to enliven ,dniester navigation1 which begins here and in ,zuravno at the mouth of the ,svicha4 ,not far from ,stanislaviv lie ,tovmach1 ,tismenitza 7#aj1jjj pop47 with a leather industry1 and ,ottinia with a machine industry of some size4 ,in the ,galician ,prut region1 ,kolomia 7#de1jjj pop47 is the most important city1 at the junction of sub-,carpathian and ,pokutian railroad lines1 with an important commerce and pottery industry4 ,further to the east1 on the ,prut1 lies ,zabolotiv with a tobacco factory and ,sniatin 7#ab1jjj pop47 with an active commerce and agricultural production4 ,dzuriv and ,novoselitza have lignite mines4 ,in the sub-,carpathian country of the ,bukowina1 the capital city1 ,czernowitz1 developed in one century from a miserable village to a city of #ic1jjj inhabitants4 ,czernowitz has some industry and considerable commerce4 ,important railroads lead from here1 via ,novoselitza to ,russia1 and via ,itzkany to ,roumania4 ,czernowitz is the seat of the most eastern ,german ,university 7but several professors lecture in ,ukrainian71 a ,greek-,catholic metropolitan1 and numerous ,ukrainian organizations4 ,in nearby ,sadahora1 well-frequented annual fairs take place4 ,the cities carrying on a lively trade1 ,seret1 ,storozhinetz 7#aj1jjj pop471 ,radivtzi 7#ag1jjj pop4--the city with the great breeding-stud71 and ,suchava 7#ab1jjj pop471 all lie on the boundary of the ,ukrainian and ,roumanian-speaking populations4 ,katshka possesses large salt-works4 ,the ,rostoche1 which embraces a part of ,northern ,galicia and the southern part of the ,government of ,kholm 7eastern borderlands of the ,governments of ,lublin and ,sidletz71 is1 for the most part1 an agricultural country1 altho the forest areas1 which are still rather large1 have retained their once flourishing lumber industry4 ,the villages of this region are large1 but consist1 as a rule1 of scattered hamlets and lone farms4 ,there are not many cities in the ,rostoche region1 but on its southern border we find one of the most important in the ,ukraine1 the ancient royal city of ,lviv 7,lemberg1 #bbj1jjj pop474 ,the importance of the geographical position of ,lemberg is in the fact that it lies at the point of the easiest passage from the low country of the ,buh to the west1 and into the ,carpathian country across the ,ukrainian group of plateaus1 which is narrowest here4 ,lemberg commands all the more important roads of the ,western ,ukraine1 and1 after their union1 leads them westward4 ,lemberg is the greatest railroad center of all the ,ukraine2 nine railroads as well as eight highroads converge here from all parts of the continent4 ,the thing that has contributed most to the remarkable growth of ,lemberg in the last half-century1 besides the railroads1 is its position as the capital of ,galicia1 that largest of the ,austrian crown-provinces4 ,founded about the middle of the #acth ,century by the ,ukrainian princes of ,halich1 ,danilo and ,lev1 ,lemberg1 about the middle of the #adth ,century1 fell under ,polish rule4 ,here industry and commerce flourished in the #aeth and #afth ,centuries1 thanks to the ,german middle-class of the city2 then ,lemberg declined irresistibly until it came under ,austria's dominion as a little town1 from which time on1 it flourished again4 ,at present ,lemberg is the trade center of ,ukrainian-,galicia and shows some industrial progress 7brick-kilns1 breweries1 alcohol distilleries1 railroad shops1 etc474 ,as a result of recent rapid development1 the character of the city is almost wholly modern2 the number of historical landmarks is not large4 ,lemberg is the seat of three archbishops1 a ,university with several ,ukrainian chairs1 a technical and a commercial college1 as well as many trade schools and intermediate schools4 ,lemberg is also one of the chief centers of ,ukrainian cultural life1 and the seat of many important ,ukrainian societies and institutions4 ,in the ,galician ,rostoche region there are besides ,lemberg1 only small towns3 ,zovkva1 ,yavoriv 7#aj1jjj pop471 with lumber industry1 ,rava 7#aa1jjj pop474 ,at the railroad junction1 ,nemiriv with mineral springs1 ,potilich with a considerable pottery industry4 ,mosti veliki1 the large village of ,kaminka voloska 7#aj1jjj pop471 ,belz1 formerly a ,ukrainian royal residence4 ,on the ,buh lie the following3 the old town of ,busk1 ,kaminka strumilova1 ,sokal1 at the point where more active river navigation begins4 ,in the ,kholm ,rostoche1 the most important city is ,kholm 7#bj1jjj pop471 founded1 like ,lemberg1 by ,prince ,danilo1 now a ,jewish city carrying on a lively trade in the agricultural products of this fertile region1 and the capital of the ,government of the same name4 ,tarnohorod and ,tomashiv are notorious for their smuggling1 ,bilhoray is known for its sieve industry1 ,hrubeshiv and ,zamostye 7#ab1jjj pop47 for their trade in foodstuffs4 ,a country of similar anthropogeographical character is the adjacent plain of ,pidlassye4 ,this country embraces the northern part of the ,government of ,kholm and the southern part of the ,government of ,grodno4 ,fertile stretches of land1 with large villages1 here alternate with large wooded areas 7the virgin forest of ,biloveza7 and swamp areas1 in which small villages and hamlets predominate4 ,the most important city of the ,pidlassye is the fortress of ,berestia 7#eg1jjj pop47 on the ,mukhavetz1 the eastern base of the fortress quadrangle of the ,vistula region and an important railroad center1 where five lines meet with the ,dnieper-,buh ,canal4 ,besides its very considerable commerce1 ,berestye has great historical reminiscences of the union of the orthodox church with ,rome1 accomplished here in #aeif4 ,on the left bank of the ,buh lie the commercial cities of ,vlodava and ,bila 7#ac1jjj pop471 on the ,mukhavetz lies ,kobrin 7#aj1jjj pop471 and in the neighborhood of the ,bilovez ,forest1 the ancient ,kamenetz-,litovsky and ,bilsk4 ,the neighboring ,ukrainian country in the east is the ,ukrainian ,polissye4 ,it embraces the southern part of the ,government of ,minsk1 on the right shore of the ,zna and the ,pripet1 and the northern lowland region of the ,governments of ,volhynia and ,kiev4 ,as a result of the decided preponderance of forest and swamp1 agriculture must retire to the background1 and confine itself only to the small number of higher and more fertile places4 ,there are not such great obstacles to cattle-raising1 but forestry and lumber-floating play the most important part4 ,the most important city of the ,polissye is ,pinsk 7#cg1jjj pop471 situated on the navigable ,pina1 where the ,dnieper-,buh ,canal and the ,dnieper-,niemen ,canal connect with the ,pripet system4 ,here begins the regular steamship navigation of the ,pripet1 here there are large saw-mills1 match factories1 shipyards1 beer and mead breweries and tobacco factories1 and here active commerce and lumber-floating flourish4 ,another important river port is ,davidhorodok on the mouth of the ,horin1 the people of which carry on ship-building and river-navigation and engage in sausage-making and cheese-making4 ,farther down the river is the antique ,turiv1 a former royal city1 now a miserable little town with a population of farmers and timber-floaters4 ,the equally antique town of ,mosir 7#ab1jjj pop47 has retained a greater significance1 with a good river harbor1 ship-building industry and match-making4 ,the last important port on the ,pripet is ,chornobil4 ,in the ,volhynian ,polissye1 ,kovel 7#ag1jjj pop471 situated on the navigable ,turia1 is1 above all1 an important railroad center1 which carries on a considerable trade in agricultural products and wood4 ,another important railroad center is ,sarni on the ,sluch4 ,the antique town of ,orruch on the ,norin is rich in swamp-ores and pottery-clay4 ,the natural district of ,volhynia embraces only the ,volhynian ,plateau1 together with the wide river plains1 which penetrate far into the heart of the ,plateau4 ,to ,volhynia1 then1 belongs the southern part of the present ,government of ,volhynia1 as well as a small strip of the ,government of ,kiev1 on the left bank of the ,teterev4 ,here agriculture forms the main occupation of the people4 ,forestry and lumbering become less important4 ,with regard to the manner of settlement1 ,volhynia still has a suggestion of the adjacent regions in the west and north1 with their small villages1 hamlets and single farms4 ,in the east it begins to assume the genuine ,ukrainian character1 with large villages and country towns4 ,the cities and towns of ,volhynia are1 as a rule1 not large1 inhabited chiefly by ,jews1 dirty and neglected1 surpassing in this respect even the typical ,galician villages and towns4 ,on the ,galician side there is only one city worthy of mention1 namely ,brodi 7#ah1jjj pop471 which carries on a considerable trade in agricultural and animal products1 as well as some lively smuggling4 ,on the ,russian side the following may be enumerated1 from west to east3 ,volodimir volinsky 7#aj1jjj pop471 formerly a royal city1 now a miserable ,jewish town with some lumber and grain trade and smuggling4 ,lutzk1 ,dubno and ,rivne form the ,volhynian triangle of forts directed against ,austria4 ,lutzk 7#cb1jjj pop47 is an old royal city at the junction of roads which cross the navigable ,stir at this point1 and carries on a considerable trade1 as well as a cloth and leather industry of some dimensions2 ,dubno 7#ad1jjj pop471 on the ,ikva1 is known for its once famous annual fairs2 ,rivne 7#ci1jjj pop47 carries on a considerable trade with grain1 live-stock1 alcohol1 etc4 ,along the ,austrian border lie3 ,berestechko on the ,stir1 memorable for the unhappy battle fought by ,khmelnitsky against the ,poles 7#afea72 ,radiviliv1 opposite ,brody1 the main seat of smuggling2 ,pochayiv1 a famous place of pilgrimage1 and simultaneously a den of smugglers4 ,kremianetz 7#ah1jjj pop47 on the ,ikva1 a strong fortress in the days of the ,ukrainian princes1 now carries on a considerable grain trade4 ,on the ,horin1 at the point where that river becomes navigable1 lies ,ostroh 7#ae1jjj pop471 with many ruins1 the former residence of the ,princes of ,ostrohsky1 who founded an academy here in the #afth ,century1 and made of ,ostroh an important spiritual center of the ,ukraine of that time4 ,zaslav 7#ac1jjj pop471 likewise on the ,horin1 was once the residence of the ,princes of ,zaslavsky4 ,both cities carry on some trade in grain today4 ,on the ,sluch lie the cities of ,starokonstantiniv 7#ag1jjj pop471 founded by the ,princes of ,ostrohsky1 with considerable export of grain and cattle1 and ,novhorod-,volinsky 7,zviahel1 #ag1jjj pop471 rich in marsh-ore and pottery-clay4 ,korez 7#aj1jjj pop47 is famous for its porcelain clay4 ,just on the border of ,volhynia lies its administrative center1 ,zitomir 7#ic1jjj pop474 ,this old city lies at the edge of the forest and agricultural regions1 carries on a considerable trade in grain and wood1 salt and sugar1 and has an important clothing1 leather and tobacco industry4 ,downstream1 on the ,teterev1 lies the little commercial city of ,radomishl 7#aa1jjj pop474 ,podolia's natural territory embraces the most eastern part of ,galicia and almost the entire ,government of ,podolia1 besides the northern borderlands of ,kherson4 ,podolia is a purely agricultural region2 its manufacturing is limited to home industry1 besides some mills1 distilleries and sugar factories4 ,the ,podolian villages are large as a rule1 lie in rows in the caon valleys1 while1 on the height of the plateau1 usually only single farms and hamlets are seen4 ,the huts are almost all built of loam and covered with straw4 ,city settlements are rare and small1 all insignificant emporiums for agricultural and animal products4 ,on the western edge of ,galician-,podolia lie ,horodok 7#ac1jjj pop471 on a large pond formed by the ,vereshitza1 and ,lublin1 with sulphur baths2 on the ,hnila ,lipa1 the antique city of ,rohatin2 on the ,zlota ,lipa1 ,berezani 7#ac1jjj pop471 with a large pond2 on the ,koropetz ,river there are ,pidhaitzi and ,monastiriska1 with a tobacco factory2 on the ,stripa ,river1 ,zboriv1 memorable for the decisive victory of ,khmelnitsky over the ,poles and for the treaty of #afdi following1 which allowed the ,ukraine almost complete autonomy--within the framework of the ,polish state4 ,downstream1 on the ,stripa1 lies the commercial city of ,buchach 7#ad1jjj pop474 ,on the northern boundary of ,podolia1 already in the ,buh region1 lie ,zolochiv 7#ac1jjj pop47 and ,sassiv1 with a paper and pottery industry4 ,on the ,sereth1 and in its district1 lie ,zbaraz1 memorable for the victory of ,khmelnitsky 7#afdh72 ,ternopil 7#cd1jjj pop471 the most important railroad center and commercial city of ,podolia1 with a large grain1 cattle and alcohol trade2 ,terebovla1 a former ,ukrainian prince's residence2 ,chortkiv1 a center of ,podolian local railroads4 ,on the ,sbruch1 the only town worth mention is the border town and border station of ,pidvolochiska-,volochiska4 ,in the ,dniester caon there is only one important place4 ,salishchiki1 with considerable fruit-culture4 ,all the cities of ,galician-,podolia are bridge cities1 and lie at convenient crossings over the left tributaries of the ,dniester4 ,all these crossings were once guarded by castles1 about which cities were later developed4 ,in ,russian-,podolia the number of cities and towns is still smaller4 ,the capital of the ,government of ,kamenetz ,podilsky 7#ej1jjj pop471 lies on the ,smotrich1 and was at one time an important border-fortress against the ,turks4 ,to this day the city has no railroad connections1 hence its commercial importance is very slight4 ,the adjacent ,zvanetz is memorable because of the ,khmelnitsky campaign 7#afec74 ,on the ,dniester1 whose entire valley is covered with fruit orchards and vineyards1 lies the important river port of ,mohiliv 7#cc1jjj pop471 with considerable lumber1 grain and fruit trade2 ,ushitza with a fruit trade2 the river part of ,yampol on the ,dniester rapids4 ,in the region and the valley of the ,boh lie ,proskuriv 7#da1jjj pop471 a genuine village-city with considerable trade2 ,pilavtzi1 memorable because of the complete defeat suffered there by the ,poles 7#afdh72 ,meziboz1 in an important strategic position against the ,austrian border2 ,letichiv and ,khmelnik 7#aa1jjj pop471 surrounded by orchards2 on the ,shar ,r41 ,litin 7#aj1jjj pop472 on the ,rivi the once famous ,bar 7#aa1jjj pop471 now a miserable town2 further downstream on the ,boh1 ,vinnitza 7#dh1jjj pop471 once a ,cossack city1 memorable because of a defeat of the ,poles 7#afea71 now a lively commercial city4 ,the former capital of the palatinate of ,bratzlav is now entirely insignificant1 likewise the new ,olhopil on the ,savranka4 ,the only commercial city of any importance in ,southern ,podolia is the muddy ,balta1 which1 in its famous annual fairs1 trades in grain1 cattle1 bacon and skins1 but especially pumpkins and melons1 and has a soap and candle industry of some importance4 ,the adjacent city of ,ananiiv 7#ag1jjj pop47 also carries on considerable trade in agricultural products4 ,the ,pokutian-,bessarabian ,plateau embraces a narrow zone of ,southeastern ,galicia and the ,northern ,bukowina1 as well as the northern part of the ,russian ,government of ,bessarabia4 ,the manner of settling is similar to the ,podolian1 with large villages and few small cities4 ,agriculture and wine-growing are the most important occupation of the people2 toward the south cattle-raising is becoming of greater importance4 ,home industry is insignificant1 of factory industry there is almost none4 ,in ,galician-,pokutye the only cities worthy of mention are ,horodenka 7#aa1jjj pop471 in a very fertile region1 and the old commercial city of ,sniatin 7#ab1jjj pop471 and in ,bukowina-,pokutye the commercial town of ,kitzman4 ,in ,bessarabia we find1 on the ,dniester1 the former fortress of ,khotin 7#ah1jjj pop471 memorable for two ,turkish battles 7#afba and #afgc71 now a river port and the seat of an active grain and fruit trade1 as well as a notorious nest of smugglers4 ,the second ,dniester port of ,bessarabia1 ,soroki 7#ae1jjj pop471 serves principally the export trade4 ,at some distance from the course of the ,dniester lies the insignificant town of ,orhv 7#ac1jjj pop471 and the dirty city of ,biltzi 7#ai1jjj pop471 with a large grain and cattle trade4 ,the capital of ,bessarabia1 ,kishiniv 7#abe1jjj pop471 lies outside of the ,ukrainian territory4 ,the ,dnieper ,plateau is important1 not only because of its agriculture1 cattle-raising and fruit-culture1 but also because of a considerable cultivation of commercial plants1 because of a developed home and factory industry1 and because of a comparatively lively trade4 ,it is one of the central districts of the ,ukraine1 with typical conditions of settlement4 ,large agglomerations of dwellings1 picturesquely located1 consisting of whitewashed1 straw-covered clay huts1 lie on the rivers and creeks1 usually on wide valley bottoms or slightly inclined valley sides1 surrounded and dotted with the fresh green of orchards4 ,on the plateau1 which is one great wave of never-ending grain-fields1 there lie only a few scattered manors of large landowners1 single farmhouses1 bee orchards1 adjoining little woodlands and groves4 ,the number and size of the cities is not great4 ,the prevailing type is that of the village city--a great village with an area of buildings in the middle1 which have a city-like character4 ,the streets are broad and unpaved1 the green of the gardens being apparent even in the center of the city4 ,where the northeastern spurs of the ,dnieper ,plateau reach the ,dnieper ,river1 lies the natural capital of the ,ukraine1 the former 8mother of the ,ruthenian cities10 ,kiev 7#ejf1jjj pop474 ,its great history finds expression in an enormous number of architectural monuments1 especially churches and convents4 7,lavra ,pecherska1 the ,church of ,sophia1 the ,church of ,andreas1 the ,tithe ,church1 the ,golden ,gate1 etc474 ,kiev was the capital of the ancient ,ukrainian ,kingdom and its spiritual center2 today it is called the 8,ukrainian ,jerusalem10 and is visited by hundreds of thousands of pilgrims every year4 ,besides its historical importance1 ,kiev possesses also a great geographical significance4 ,its picturesque position on the lofty right-hand bank of the ,dnieper1 which is cut up into beautiful erosive hills1 offers great geographical advantages4 ,here1 opposite the ,desna outlet1 the ,dnieper1 after receiving its two largest tributaries1 completes its transformation into the second largest river of ,eastern ,europe4 ,the waterways of the ,pripet1 the upper ,dnieper and the ,desna here form a junction1 the importance of which is heightened by the junction of railroads and highways at the same point2 such thorofares have always found in ,kiev the most convenient crossing over the ,dnieper ,river into the ,western ,ukrainian lands4 ,this junction of roads favors the rapidly progressing development of ,kiev's commerce1 which concentrates in the 8lower city0 7,podil7 and in its great river harbor4 ,kiev is the most convenient emporium for the forest and grain regions of the ,ukraine1 which border on one another here4 ,in the last decades a considerable factory industry has developed in ,kiev1 embracing all possible branches of industry4 ,above all1 the sugar industry has its center here4 ,kiev has a ,russian ,university and a technical college4 ,ukrainian cultural life1 which has always had its main headquarters in ,kiev1 has experienced an unexpected rise here since #aije4 ,not far from ,kiev1 which is an important fortress today1 there lie many places of historical significance1 among them the convents of ,vidubitsky and ,mezihirsky4 ,rzishchiv is a river port with some grain exportation4 ,on the ,stuhna lies the old city of ,vassilkiv 7#ah1jjj pop471 with an insignificant trade1 from a modern point of view4 ,at the point where the borders of the ,governments of ,kiev1 ,volhynia and ,podolia touch1 lies ,berdichiv1 a city of #hc1jjj1 inhabited mostly by ,jews1 after ,kiev the most important emporium for cattle and grain in the country4 ,the products of the industry of this place are offered for sale by ,jewish peddlers thruout the entire right half of the ,ukraine4 ,in the river region of the ,ross we find several cities which are local centers of the sugar and alcohol industry3 ,skvira 7#af1jjj pop471 in a region covered with ancient walls1 with pottery and cap manufactures2 the old ,cossack city of ,bila ,tserkov 7#fa1jjj pop471 famous for the treaty of ,khmelnitsky with the ,poles 7#afeb71 now a lively commercial city1 with sugar and machine manufactures2 ,tarashcha 7#aa1jjj pop471 with a considerable wagon industry 7the familiar tarantasses are made here74 ,korsun is noteworthy because of the victory of ,khmelnitsky over the ,poles 7#afdh74 ,nearby lie the villages of ,kirilivka and ,morintzi1 the home of the greatest ,ukrainian poet1 ,taras ,shevchenko4 ,the entire plateau zone along the right ,dnieper bank is full of old monuments of ,ukrainian history1 of walls1 ancient fortifications1 ruins and barrows4 ,along the ,dnieper lie in succession3 ,trekhtimiriv1 ,kaniv1 ,cherkassi1 once the most important center of the ,ukrainian ,cossack organization ,near ,kaniv1 elevated on the lofty right bank of the ,dnieper1 is the mound of ,shevchenko1 visited every year by numerous companies of pilgrims of all classes of the ,ukrainian nation4 ,kaniv is now a little town with an insignificant river harbor4 ,cherkassi 7#dj1jjj pop471 on the other hand1 thanks to its large river harbor and the railroad which crosses the ,dnieper here1 has developed into a lively commercial city 7wood1 iron1 sugar and salt trade1 lumber and sugar industry74 ,by the example of ,cherkassi or ,kreminchuk1 we are shown how the poor villages and towns on the ,dnieper could be developed if cultural conditions were favorable4 ,a fine example of such a neglected town is ,chihirin 7#aj1jjj pop471 on the ,tiasmin1 the former residence city of the ,ukrainian hetmans4 ,situated1 as tho by a wonderful coincidence1 in the center of the present ,ukrainian territory1 ,chihirin is hardly more than a large village1 with crooked1 muddy streets1 a slight lumber and grain trade1 remains of the ,chumak organization1 and an insignificant stonecutters' trade4 ,in ,subotiv1 nearby1 ,khmelnitsky was buried1 but his grave was destroyed by the ,poles a short time after4 ,at the ,tiasmin outlet lies the river port of ,kriliv 7#ab1jjj pop471 with lumber and cattle trade2 further downstream1 ,verkhnodniprovsk1 with an iron industry4 ,at the source of the ,inhuletz is ,olexandria 7#ad1jjj pop471 noteworthy for some milling industry4 ,on the southwestern and southern border of the ,dnieper ,plateau1 which is really part of the country drained by the ,boh1 there lie several smaller towns1 e4g41 ,lipovetz1 ,haisin1 ,novomirhorod1 with some grain and cattle trade4 ,in this respect1 ,zvenihorodka 7#ag1jjj pop47 is of greater importance4 ,nearby lies ,katerinopol1 with its lignite mines4 ,uman 7#db1jjj pop47 is known because of its associations with the ,haydamak times1 its great park1 and its considerable grain trade4 ,the largest city of this strip of borderland1 ,yelisavet 7#gf1jjj pop471 at the source of the ,inhul1 carries on a considerable trade in grain and wool1 and possesses an important factory industry4 ,the ,dnieper ,plain1 in its northern part1 reveals quite a ,polissian character4 ,but in the north we note the first differences too--the highly developed home industry and agriculture much more highly developed than in the ,polissye region4 ,on the left ,desna bank1 lumbering declines gradually1 and the villages of the ,polissian type give way to the typical ,ukrainian villages1 consisting of neatly whitewashed1 straw-covered huts1 which lie picturesquely among fruit-gardens4 ,the towns and suburbs here1 as in fact everywhere in the left half of the ,ukraine1 have an entirely rural appearance4 ,the cities have very wide streets and squares4 ,there are very few connected rows of houses1 and the single houses are surrounded by gardens and large yards4 ,the ,dnieper ,plain embraces the greatest part of the ,governments of ,chernihiv and ,poltava1 and the northern edge of ,katerinoslav4 ,the chief city of the northern half of the section is ,chernihiv 7#cc1jjj pop471 an old city1 perhaps as ancient as ,kiev4 ,it lies at the crossing of the main road leading to ,muscovy1 across the navigable ,desna4 ,in the city and its vicinity we find many historical monuments1 churches1 walls and barrows2 but the present commercial importance of the city is very slight4 ,konotop 7#bj1jjj pop471 surrounded by swamps1 and at one time a strong fortress1 famous for the victory of the ,cossack hetman1 ,vihovsky1 over the ,russians 7#afei71 now carries on a considerable commerce1 thanks to its railroad junction1 and has large peat deposits4 ,bakhmatch1 which lies nearby1 is an important railroad junction4 ,on the ,sem lies the commercial town of ,baturin1 the former hetman residence1 whose population was completely slaughtered by ,menshikov in #agji4 ,sosnitza1 ,borsna 7#ab1jjj pop47 and ,berezna 7#aj1jjj pop47 carry on an insignificant grain and cattle trade4 ,on the navigable ,oster lies ,nizin 7#eb1jjj pop471 an old city of the time of the ,ukrainian princes1 in the #agth ,century a ,greek colony carrying on a lively trade1 later famous for its great annual fairs4 ,just now the tobacco and grain trade of the city is increasing considerably4 ,there is also a philological academy here4 ,further downstream1 on the ,oster1 we find two old towns1 ,koseletz and ,oster1 with a river harbor and a considerable net industry4 ,on the ,trubaylo and on the ,alta lies the ancient city of ,pereyaslav 7#ae1jjj pop471 founded by ,volodimir the ,great1 noteworthy for the victory of the ,cossack hetman1 ,taras ,triasilo1 over the ,poles 7#afcj74 ,here the unfortunate treaty of #afed was enacted1 joining the ,ukraine1 which had just been freed from ,polish rule1 to ,russia1 as an autonomous vassal state4 ,the once navigable ,trubaylo has become shallow1 the railroad line has left the city lying to one side and ,pereyaslav has lost all significance4 ,equally insignificant is the adjacent town of ,zolotonosha4 ,in the ,sula region1 on the verge of the ,dnieper ,plain1 lies ,romen 7,romni1 #cc1jjj pop471 with annual fairs that are important even today1 the center of the judicial district of ,romni-,libau1 which transports the products of the ,ukraine to the distant ,baltic ports4 ,romen has a soap industry and tobacco factories1 and here and in the adjacent town of ,lokhvitzia1 fruit and tobacco culture flourish4 ,the center of ,ukrainian tobacco-culture is ,priluky 7#ca1jjj pop471 on the ,udai1 which carries on the greatest tobacco trade in all ,russia1 exporting half a million puds of it annually4 ,on the ,udai also lies the old ,cossack city of ,piriatin1 now an important railroad center4 ,below the outlet of the ,udai into the ,sula1 lies ancient ,lubni 7#aj1jjj pop471 with its great fruit-gardens and tanneries4 ,in the region drained by the ,psiol1 we find on the ,khorol1 the old ,cossack city of ,mirhorod 7#aj1jjj pop471 so masterfully pictured by ,gogol1 with its industrial school and its great home industry4 ,mirhorod was once an important center of the ,chumak organization4 ,not far from it lies the railroad center of ,romodan and the antique town of ,khorol4 ,hadyach is noteworthy because of the treaty of the ,cossack hetman1 ,vihovsky1 with ,poland 7#afeh71 which was to join the ,ukraine as the third autonomous unit to the ,polish-,lithuanian state4 ,sinkiv 7#aj1jjj pop47 is an important center of a versatile home industry2 ,rashivka1 a center of the ,prassoli societies2 ,sorochintzi1 the birthplace of ,gogol1 has grain and cattle markets2 ,reshetilivka is famous for its sheep-raising and its leather industry4 ,above the outlet of the ,psiol into the ,dnieper1 lies the chief river port of the region1 ,kreminchuk 7#ii1jjj pop471 an important bridge city1 where numerous highways and two railroads cross the navigable ,dnieper4 ,kreminchuk trades1 particularly in lumber and grain1 is an emporium for lumber1 coal and salt1 and has machine1 tobacco1 carriage and leather factories1 and large saw-mills4 ,the city is subject to many floods and conflagrations1 but is growing constantly4 ,half of the population is comprised of ,jewish merchants and business men4 ,in the spring the population of the city is regularly doubled4 ,on the opposite ,dnieper bank lies the river port of ,krukiv 7#aj1jjj pop471 almost a suburb of ,kreminchuk4 ,in the river region of the ,vorskla1 on the northeastern boundary of the plain1 lies ,oposhnia1 widely known for its pottery4 ,farther downstream lies the city of ,poltava 7#hc1jjj pop471 the chief city of the southern part of the left half of the plain1 notable for the unfortunate battle 7#agji7 in which ,peter the ,great1 with ,polish help1 destroyed the plan of the dashing hetman1 ,mazeppa1 to free the ,ukraine from ,russian dominion1 with the aid of ,charles ,,xii4 of ,sweden4 ,today ,poltava is a rising industrial city1 with an important railroad junction and great annual fairs1 chiefly for wool and horses4 ,kobeliaki 7#ab1jjj pop471 situated downstream on the ,vorskla1 has a cloth industry of some dimensions1 as has also the district of ,konstantinohrad1 in the river region of the ,orel4 ,on the southeastern border of the plain1 where it joins the ,pontian plain in the region of the ,samara1 lie the old ,zaporog settlements of ,samarchik 7,novonoskovsk1 #ac1jjj pop47 and ,pavlohrad 7#da1jjj pop471 with a considerable grain trade and a large mill1 leather and wax industry4 ,the spurs of the ,central ,russian ,plateau1 which lie within the borders of the ,ukrainian national territory offer an almost complete anthropogeographical analogy to the above discussed district4 ,in the north the ,polissian character is still apparent4 ,in the south agriculture and home industry are well developed4 ,traffic is more difficult1 because of the greater distance to the navigable ,dnieper1 but is rather active with the ,muscovite country4 ,the left plateau district embraces the northwest frontiers of the ,governments of ,chernihiv and ,poltava1 all of the ,government of ,kharkiv and the adjacent districts of ,kursk1 ,voroniz and ,don4 ,the northernmost town of the ,ukraine is ,mhlin1 with its important annual fairs4 ,in the vicinity lies ,pochep1 with some textile industry and ,klintzi 7#ab1jjj pop471 the 8,manchester of the ,chernihiv country10 with spinning-mills1 cloth1 leather and metal factories4 ,the inhabitants of nearby ,ardon engage in carriage-making1 and carry on peddling thruout the entire ,ukraine4 ,considerable industry and trade is carried on also by ,novosibkiv 7#af1jjj pop47 and ,klimiv4 ,starodub 7#ac1jjj pop471 the old ,cossack city1 on the other hand1 is rich in historical reminiscences4 ,the ancient town of ,novhorod ,siversky1 on the ,desna1 and ,korop1 downstream1 are insignificant today4 ,kluhiv 7#ae1jjj pop47 carries on a considerable grain trade4 ,in the vicinity lies ,shostka1 with a powder factory which supplies all the powder factories of ,russia with salpeter4 ,krolevetz 7#aj1jjj pop47 still has important annual fairs1 the old town of ,putivl some trade in grain and flax1 ,bilopilye 7#ae1jjj pop471 important annual fairs and a great grain trade4 ,in the country about the source of the ,sula lies ,nedrihailiv2 at the source of the ,psiol is ,sudza 7#ac1jjj pop471 with a large grain1 honey and fruit trade4 ,miropilye 7#aa1jjj pop471 has an important shoe industry1 ,sumi 7#eb1jjj pop471 situated at a railroad junction1 has an important factory industry 7especially sugar factories7 and important annual fairs4 ,the old ,cossack city of ,lebedin 7#ad1jjj pop471 famous because of the atrocities of ,menshikov 7#agjh71 now carries on a considerable grain trade4 ,in the region of the source of the ,vorskla lies the town of ,hraivoron1 downstream ,okhtirka 7#cb1jjj pop471 a much frequented place of pilgrimage1 with considerable fruit-culture and lumber1 fur1 shoe1 pottery and milling industries4 ,considerable fruit-culture is carried on also by ,bohodukhiv4 ,the farther part of the left plateau lies in the region drained by the ,don4 ,on the small rivers1 ,kharkiv and ,lopan1 lies the capital of the region1 ,kharkiv 7#bdh1jjj pop474 ,founded as a ,cossack hamlet in the #agth ,century1 ,kharkiv has grown very rapidly1 thanks to its geographical position at a convenient crossing point from the ,dnieper region into the ,don region1 between the interior and the sea4 ,here was once a crossing of ,chumak roads1 and is now a railroad junction4 ,hence the importance of ,kharkiv lies in commerce4 ,four great fairs1 whose business still amounts to #hj million rubles a year1 on an average1 are especially important for trade in grain1 horned cattle1 horses1 wool and manufactures4 ,besides1 ,kharkiv has a considerable factory industry 7linen1 cloth1 soap1 candle1 sugar1 alcohol1 tobacco1 brick1 ceramic1 machine1 boiler and bell factories74 ,kharkiv is the seat of a ,russian ,university1 and one of the chief centers of ,ukrainian cultural life4 ,in the east of the ,donetz course lie several small cities1 e4g41 ,zolochiv1 with its annual fairs2 ,valki1 with a considerable home industry and large fruit-gardens4 ,in the country about the source of the ,donetz1 on the border of the ,ukraine1 lies ,bilhorod 7#bb1jjj pop471 a commercial city with a woolen industry4 ,downstream1 on the ,donetz1 lie ,vovchansk 7#aa1jjj pop471 ,chuhuyiv 7#ac1jjj pop47 and ,smiiv4 ,korocha 7#ad1jjj pop47 carries on grain1 cattle and fruit trade in its annual fairs1 and has some industry 7oil-pressing1 alcohol-distillation1 and albumen manufacture74 ,on the ,oskol lie the following3 ,stari-,oskol 7#ag1jjj pop471 with a considerable trade and with a leather1 wax1 mead and tobacco industry2 the insignificant town of ,novi-,oskol1 ,valuiki1 ,urasova 7#ac1jjj pop471 with grain trade1 tanneries and rope factories2 ,kupiansk at a railroad junction4 ,on the ,tikha ,sosna lies ,biriuch 7#ac1jjj pop471 with annual fairs and oil factories1 ,olexiyivka1 known for sunflower-culture and painters' guilds1 and ,ostrohorsk 7#bb1jjj pop471 with a large grain1 cattle and bacon trade1 and soap1 wax and tobacco industry1 once a center of the fish trade4 ,starobilsk 7#ac1jjj pop47 has lively annual fairs4 ,on the ,don1 within the province of the plateau1 there are no larger cities4 ,korotoiak 7#aj1jjj pop47 carries on an active trade1 ,pavlovsk has soap factories1 fat-extraction and oil-presses1 and is an important river-port1 from which the regular ,don navigation begins4 ,altogether1 on the eastern border country of the ,ukraine1 there are no larger cities or even towns4 ,only a few isolated large villages gain greater significance thru their markets and industry4 ,one of these is the largest village of the ,ukraine3 ,buturlinivka 7#ch1jjj pop471 with important annual fairs1 with brick-kilns1 tanneries1 alcohol-stills1 as well as very considerable furriery and shoemaking4 ,the ,donetz ,plateau is1 from an anthropogeographical point of view1 a very remarkable country1 which has its closest analogy in the ,north ,american mining districts4 ,only the northern edge of the country on the ,donetz has an appearance analogous to the adjacent ,kharkiv country1 with large1 typically ,ukrainian villages and village-towns4 ,all the remaining region of the ,donetz ,plateau is a naked steppe4 ,here and there factory chimneys1 isolated or in groups1 rise1 surrounded by factory buildings and laborers' huts4 ,the settlements come into existence and grow with true ,american speed4 ,the ,donetz ,plateau embraces parts of the ,governments of ,kharkiv1 ,katerinoslav and ,don4 ,one of the farthest advance guards of the typical ,ukrainian settlements is ,isium 7#bc1jjj pop471 on the ,donetz1 one of the chief centers of the pottery industry4 ,slaviansk1 once ,tor 7#bj1jjj pop471 on the ,torez1 has large salt mines and salt lakes1 with bathing pavilions1 which draw many guests in the summer1 large salt-works and a number of mills1 porcelain and metal industries4 ,besides1 ,slaviansk has important horse-markets4 ,nearby1 on the chalk-cliffs of the ,donetz1 lies the famous convent of the ,holy ,mountains4 ,on the eastern border of the ,ukraine1 on the ,donetz1 lies the river port of ,kamenske 7#ea1jjj pop471 with a great grain trade and glass-works4 ,in the mining and factory district of the ,donetz ,plateau there lie1 besides innumerable small industrial towns1 a number of more important centers4 ,luhan 7#fj1jjj pop47 has a large metallurgical industry with foundries and hammer-works1 machine-factories1 numerous alcohol-stills1 breweries1 tanneries1 soap and tile factories4 ,bakhmut 7#cc1jjj pop47 has large salt mines and salt-works and considerable trade2 the adjacent town of ,mikitivka1 mercury and coal mines4 ,yusivka 7#di1jjj pop47 is the chief center of the coal mines1 iron and steel factories2 ,hrushivka 7#df1jjj pop47 the center of the anthracite mines4 ,the ,pontian ,plain gives us an anthropogeographical picture which is different from that of the thus far described sections of the ,ukraine4 ,here1 in the newly settled steppe region1 the type of the ,ukrainian settlements gradually disappears4 ,the ,ukrainian type of the large villages remains1 to be sure1 but these villages are1 by their position1 dependent upon the water as well as other conditions of a practical nature1 such as roads1 mines1 etc41 which tempt a great number of people to settle in the district4 ,the huts here and there bear the marks of provisional buildings1 are not always whitewashed1 are covered with reeds1 and in some places even earthen huts have been preserved4 ,as a rule1 however1 the typical ,ukrainian whitewashed and straw-covered clay hut advances farther and farther1 and is sometimes even prettier and better equipped here than in ,northern ,ukraine1 thanks to the greater prosperity of the peasant4 ,in the last few years more and more brick houses have been built1 covered with tiles4 ,extensive steppe agriculture and steppe cattle-raising have1 to this time1 been the chief occupation2 on the coast1 salt-extraction and navigation4 ,typical ,ukrainian towns are rare here1 but in the once wild steppes1 on the other hand1 large commercial and industrial cities have shot up1 which possess a much more ,european appearance than the ,russian cities4 ,almost all these cities lie on the sea1 or at the river outlets4 ,the ,pontian ,plain embraces the southern parts of ,bessarabia1 ,kherson1 ,katerinoslav1 the mainland part of ,tauria1 the southwestern part of the ,don region and the northern part of the ,kuban region4 ,on the ,kilia arm of the ,danube delta lie the following important river ports1 at the same time the centers of the ,danube trade and of the sea-fishing industry3 ,ismail 7#cf1jjj pop471 ,kilia 7#ab1jjj pop47 and ,vilkiv4 ,akerman 7#dj1jjj pop471 on the ,dniester liman1 rich in historical memories1 is an important harbor for smaller ships1 and carries on a considerable salt1 fish1 bacon and woolen trade4 ,on the lower course of the ,dniester lie the river ports of ,dubosari 7#ac1jjj pop471 located in the midst of vineyards and fruit-gardens and tobacco fields1 with a considerable tobacco1 wine1 cattle and grain trade2 ,benderi 7#fj1jjj pop471 a strong fortress with a considerable trade1 surrounded by fruit-gardens1 vineyards and melon-patches and ,teraspol 7#cb1jjj pop47 with a large grain trade4 ,here the goods shipped down the ,dniester are unloaded1 to be sent by rail to ,odessa4 ,odessa 7#fbj1jjj pop471 the largest city and the most important port of the ,ukraine1 is situated #cb kilometers north of the ,dniester outlet1 and opposite the ,dnieper liman1 on a deep but open roadstead4 ,by means of expensive constructions1 the unprotected harbor of ,odessa was considerably improved4 ,it now has six protected harbor basins for ships4 ,in some winters the harbor does not freeze over1 at other times remaining frozen from #ca to #fg days1 but then it can be kept open without difficulty by ice-breakers4 ,the city itself is built up on the high and naked steppe plain1 where orchards can be planted and taken care of only with the greatest difficulty4 ,the city has an entirely ,european appearance1 with broad1 straight streets and fine houses4 ,there are almost no historic landmarks in ,odessa1 since it was founded as late as #agid4 ,the city grew very rapidly1 especially in its free-harbor period 7#ahag-ahei74 ,today ,odessa is the most important seaport of the ,russian ,empire1 after ,st4 ,petersburg1 and even surpasses the latter in exports4 ,the exports from ,odessa are made up chiefly of grain1 also cattle1 wood1 sugar1 fishing products1 fats and alcohol4 ,these exports go to ,england1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,holland1 ,belgium and the far east4 ,the imports of ,odessa are disproportionately smaller than the exports1 and are made up chiefly of coal1 rice1 tropical fruits1 tea1 etc41 the benefit of which goes mostly to the cities of ,central ,russia4 ,outside of this commercial activity1 which is directed by the stock exchange and the numerous banks1 ,odessa also possesses a well-developed factory industry 7mills1 sugar1 oil1 macaroni1 canned-goods1 alcohol1 metal1 ceramic1 and chemical factories74 ,about the year #aijj1 the annual productive value was #gj million rubles4 ,odessa is also a university city1 and one of the intellectual centers of the ,ukraine4 ,in the vicinity of ,odessa are the famous limans of ,kuyalnik and ,khadzybei1 with their sanatoriums4 ,on the ,boh1 at the point where the river becomes navigable1 lies ,vosnesensk1 an important river port1 with some industry and considerable wood and grain trade4 ,on the deep ,boh liman1 at the mouth of the ,inhul1 lies ,mikolaiv 7#ajc1jjj pop471 a very important naval and commercial harbor1 which has the greatest exportation of grain1 after ,odessa1 and large shipyards1 foundries and machine-shops4 ,krivi ,rih 7#ae1jjj pop471 on the ,inhul1 has #cc iron mines1 and is the center of ,ukrainian iron mining4 ,on the ,dnieper1 on the border of the ,pontian and ,dnieper ,plains1 lies the city of ,katerinoslav 7#bah1jjj pop471 hardly more than a century old4 ,katerinoslav owes its great importance to its position on the ,dnieper at the beginning of the rapids section1 and at the end of the upper steamboat navigation1 where an important railroad line crosses the river1 connecting the iron mines of ,krivi ,rih with the coal fields on the ,donetz4 ,hence1 ,katerinoslav is1 above all1 an industrial city with large foundries1 forges and machine shops4 ,katerinoslav carries on the greatest lumber trade in the entire ,ukraine4 ,its grain and coal trade is very important too4 ,below the rapids1 in the old ,zaporog country1 sacred to every ,ukrainian1 lies the rapidly rising city of ,olexandrivsk 7#ea1jjj pop471 an important river port and railroad junction1 with a metal and milling industry4 ,nikopol 7#ag1jjj pop471 the point of crossing of the old commercial road over the ,dnieper into ,crimea1 is the center for manganese mining1 and has some milling industry4 ,its harbor is exceptional in that it is reached by smaller sea-vessels1 which1 however1 sail up the ,dnieper only as far as ,berislav 7#ab1jjj pop471 where the grain is transferred from river boats to sea-vessels4 ,on the left ,dnieper bank1 opposite ,berislav1 lies the important river harbor of ,kakhivka4 ,oleshki has considerable vegetable1 fruit and melon-culture1 fishing and crab-fishing4 ,not far from the outlet of the ,dnieper into its liman1 lies the government capital1 ,kherson 7#ib1jjj pop471 like ,odessa1 ,mikolaiv and ,katerinoslav1 a young city of the end of the #ahth ,century4 ,its harbor was first made accessible to large sea-vessels by the dredging of the ship-canal of ,otshakiv in the ,dnieper liman 7#ahhg71 and since then the city has been growing rapidly4 ,kherson carries on a very important lumber and grain trade1 and has large saw-mills1 grain-mills1 soap and tobacco factories4 ,two fortresses defend the entrance to the ,dnieper liman1 ,ochakiv 7#ab1jjj pop471 with an insignificant harbor for coast vessels1 and ,kinburn4 ,in the narrow strip of low country on the north shore of the ,black ,sea1 all the larger cities keep close to the coast4 ,melitopol on the ,molochna 7#ag1jjj pop471 carries on considerable trade in cattle1 lumber1 skins1 eggs and wool1 and has large mills1 alcohol-stills and factories1 which make agricultural machinery4 ,berdiansk 7#cf1jjj pop471 despite its poor harbor1 exports much grain1 and has machine factories1 mills1 breweries1 and fine fruit gardens and vineyards4 ,the former great importance of ,berdiansk has been inherited by ,mariupol 7#ec1jjj pop471 with a good harbor at the mouth of the ,kalmius1 a city which possesses some factory industry1 and carries on an active export trade in coal1 coke1 metal and grain4 ,still more important are the harbors at the mouths of the ,don4 ,opposite the ,don delta lies ,tahanroh 7#ge1jjj pop47 with a leather and metal industry1 as well as an extensive trade in grain1 fish1 beef1 oil1 bacon1 leather and fruit1 the most important grain exporting harbor of the ,ukraine1 after ,odessa and ,mikolaiv4 ,in the ,don delta lies ,rostiv 7#agb1jjj pop471 the most important commercial city of ,southeastern ,ukraine1 with an extensive trade in grain1 cattle1 wool and flax1 large mills1 shipyards1 tobacco and machine factories4 ,the ,armenian city of ,nakhichevan 7#ga1jjj pop47 forms the suburbs1 as it were1 of ,rostiv1 taking considerable part in its industrial and commercial activity4 ,the historically memorable city of ,osiv 7,azof1 #ca1jjj pop47 is an important center of the ,don and ,azof fishing industry1 and has some grain trade4 ,yesk 7#ea1jjj pop471 on the eastern shore of the ,sea of ,azof1 has some grain export1 and is a not insignificant importing city4 ,the mountains and hill country of the ,crimea are not properly a part of the ,ukrainian territory1 altho the ,ukrainian element flows into the villages and cities of the land in an uninterrupted stream1 while the ,mohammedan ,tartar population emigrates to ,turkey4 ,in the northern part of the ,crimean peninsula1 the economic and settlement conditions are the same as in the ,pontian lowland4 ,there is an especially important cattle-raising industry4 ,in the southern1 mountainous part of the peninsula1 agriculture and cattle-raising lose their predominating importance1 and fruit1 wine and vegetable-cultivation1 navigation and salt-making1 which flourishes along almost the entire coast of the ,crimea1 comprise the chief occupations of the population4 ,the chief center of salt-manufacture lies on the salt lakes and limans of ,eupatoria 7#cj1jjj pop471 where also famous sanatoriums are located4 ,in the northern foothills of the ,yaila lies the ancient capital of the ,khans1 ,bakchisarai 7#ac1jjj pop471 which has entirely preserved its oriental character1 as well as the new capital of ,tauria1 ,simferopol 7#ga1jjj pop471 the center of the fruit and wine-culture and of important fruit-canning factories4 ,an extensive fruit trade is carried on also by ,karasubazar 7#ae1jjj pop474 ,at the gates of the ,crimean ,riviera is the city of ,sevastopol 7#gg1jjj pop471 world renowned since the ,crimean ,war1 a great sea-fortress and the strongest naval port of the ,russian ,empire in ,europe4 ,the commercial harbor of the city has been without importance for the last twelve years4 ,in the vicinity1 on a beautiful bay1 lies ,belklava1 known for its fisheries4 ,on the southern coast is the following chain of watering-places and summer-resorts3 ,alupka1 ,livadia1 ,yalta 7#bc1jjj pop471 ,orianda1 ,alushta1 ,hursuf4 ,in the summer patients and vacationists come here from all the cities of ,russia1 and the ,riviera of ,crimea is also growing continually in importance as a winter resort4 ,on the eastern spurs of the ,crimean peninsula lie two large cities4 ,feodosia 7formerly ,kaffa1 #dj1jjj pop47 is the largest commercial port of ,crimea1 with a considerable grain and fruit export4 ,kerch 7#eg1jjj pop47 also has a commercial port1 used especially by large ships1 which must avoid the shallow ,sea of ,azof1 but the city derives a much greater importance from its extensive fishing industry1 its fish-canning and milling industry1 and in recent years its metallurgical industry1 which exploits the large mineral deposits of the region4 ,the sub-,caucasus country of ,kuban1 colonized a century ago by the posterity of the ,zaporogs1 offers1 in its western part1 an anthropogeographical picture quite analogous to the other central regions of the ancient ,ukraine4 ,it is actually a piece of the old ,ukraine1 transplanted to the foot of the ,caucasus ,mountains1 with its large villages1 farms 7khutori71 its important agriculture and extensive cattle-raising4 ,fishing1 lumbering and hunting play an important part in its economic life1 besides fruit and wine-culture4 ,the mining industry is showing great promise4 ,the eastern and southern part of the sub-,caucasus country1 which1 besides parts of ,kuban1 embraces also parts of the ,government of ,stavropol and of the ,black ,sea and ,terek regions1 is a land newly settled by the ,ukrainians1 and has a still imperfect anthropogeographical type4 ,the center of the land and of the ,ukrainian cultural life is ,katerinodar 7#ajj1jjj pop47 on the ,kuban1 the capital of the ,kuban ,cossacks4 ,it carries on an active trade in agricultural products4 ,the main port of the region is the rising city of ,novorossysk 7#fa1jjj pop471 with a large grain1 wool and petroleum export4 ,temriuk1 in the ,kuban delta1 also exports much grain4 ,on the ,bila lies the commercial city of ,maikop 7#di1jjj pop472 on the ,luba1 ,labinsk 7#cc1jjj pop471 both important for the exchange of products of the plains and the mountains4 ,on the ,stavropol ,plateau lies ,stavropol 7#fa1jjj pop471 with an important grain and cattle trade1 ,praskoveya 7#aa1jjj pop471 with considerable wine-culture1 and ,olexandrivsk 7#aj1jjj pop474 ,at the foot of the mountain range lies the renowned mineral spring region around the commercial city of ,piatihorsk 7#cb1jjj pop474 ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on ,,the ,,ukraine ,i4 ,,general ,,works4 ,,physical ,,geography ,atlas ,climatologique de l'empire de la ,russie4 ,petersburg #aijj 7,russian74 ,atlas geologiczny ,galicyi4 ,cracow #ahhb ff4 7,polish74 ,beauplan4 ,description de l',ukraine4 ,rouen #affj4 ,bonmariage4 ,la ,russie d',europe4 ,brussels #aijc4 ,brockhaus-,efron4 ,enciklopedcheski ,slavar4 ,petersburg1 #ast ed4 beginning #ahij4 #bnd ed4 in course of publication4 ,carte gologique internationale de l',europe4 ,berlin4 ,d ,,iv1 ,d ,v1 ,e ,,iv1 ,e ,v1 ,f ,,iv1 ,f ,v4 ,dokutchaev4 ,the ,russian ,steppes4 ,petersburg #ahic4 ,encyklopedia ,polska4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,cracow #aiab4 7,polish74 ,friederichsen4 ,methodischer ,atlas zur vergleichenden ,lnderkunde von ,europa4 ,part ,i1 ,hannover #aiad4 ,guide des excursions du ,,vii ,congrs gologique internationale4 ,petersburg #ahig4 ,geologcheski ,komityt4 ,carte gologique gnrale4 ,petersburg #ahig ff4 ,karpinsky4 bersicht der phys4-geogr4 ,verhltnisse ,russlands whrend der verflossenen geologischen ,perioden4 ,beitrge zur ,kenntnis des russischen ,reichs4 #ahhg4 ---- ,sur les mouvements de l'corce terrestre dans la ,russie d',europe4 ,annales de ,gographie4 #ahie-f4 ,kehnert ,habenicht4 ,map of ,russia 7,scale3 #a-c1gjj1jjj7 in ,stieler's ,handatlas4 ,no4 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di4 ,kohl4 ,reisen in ,sdrussland4 ,berlin #ahda4 ,krassnov-,voyeykov4 ,russland 7,in3 ,kirchhoff's ,lnderkunde von ,europa1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,leipzig #aijg74 ,krassnov4 ,travynye stypi syvyernavo polyshryia4 ,moscow #ahid4 7,russian74 ,murchison1 de ,verneuil1 ,keyserling4 ,geology of ,russia4 ,petersburg #ahdf4 sterreichisch-ungarische ,monarchie in ,wort und ,bild4 ,wien #ahgg ff4 bersichtsband4 ,galizien1 ,bukowina4 ,philippson4 ,landeskunde des europischen ,russlands nebst ,finnlands4 ,leipzig #aijh4 ---- ,geographische ,reiseskizzen aus ,russland4 ,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde4 ,berlin #ahih4 ,reclus4 ,nouvelle gographie universelle4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,paris #ahgf4 ,russian translation with supplementary volume4 ,petersburg #ahhd4 ,rehmann4 ,ziemie davnej ,polski4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,lemberg #ahie1 #aijd4 7,polish74 ,rossya1 yey nastoyshcheye i proshdsheye4 ,a volume consisting of articles collected from ,brockhaus-,efron4 ,petersburg #aijj 7,russian74 ,rudnitsky4 ,korotka geografia ,ukrainy4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,lemberg1 ,kieff4 7,ukrainian74 ---- ,der stliche ,kriegsschauplatz4 ,jena #aiae4 ,sibirtseff4 ,etude des sols de la ,russie4 ,petersburg #ahig4 ---- ,pochvnnaya karta evropiskoi ,rossyi4 ,scale3 #a-b1ebj1jjj4 ,petersburg #aijb4 ,siemiradzki4 ,geologia ziempolskich4 ,lemberg ,i4 #aijc1 ,,ii4 #aiji4 7,polish74 ,semyonov4 ,rossya4 ,plnoye geogr4 opisnye atychestva1 #bb vols4 ,petersburg #ahii ff4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,,vii1 ,,ix1 ,,xiv4 7,russian74 ,suess4 ,antlitz der ,erde4 ,bd4 ,i-,,iii4 ,wien1 ,leipzig #ahhc-aiji4 ,tanfilyev4 ,die ,waldgrenzen in ,sdrussland4 ,petersburg #ahid4 7,russian1 with a rsum in ,german74 ,tillo4 ,gipsometrcheskaya krta yevropiskoi ,rossyi4 #ast ed4 ,petersburg #ahhi1 #a3b1ebj1jjj4 #bnd ed4 ,petersburg #ahif1 #a3a1fhj1jjj4 ,uhlig4 ,bau und ,bild der ,karpathen4 ,wien #aijc4 ,,periodicals ,izvstya ,imp4 rsskavo geograficheskavo bshchestva4 ,petersburg #ahfe ff4 7,russian74 ,izvstya geologicheskavo komityta4 ,petersburg #ahhb ff4 7,russian74 ,kosmos4 ,lemberg #ahge ff4 7,polish74 ,the ,zapiski 7,transactions7 of the ,russian universities and learned societies of ,kieff1 ,kharkov1 ,odessa1 ,warsaw1 ,moscow1 ,petersburg1 etc4 7,russian74 ,sbirnyk mat4-pryr4 nauk ,tovarystva im4 ,shevchenka4 #ae vols4 ,lemberg #ahig ff4 7,ukrainian74 ,trdy geologcheskavo komityta4 ,petersburg #ahhc ff4 ,zyemlevyedynye4 ,moscow #ahid ff4 ,,ii4 ,,anthropology ,,and ,,other ,,auxiliary ,,sciences ,aitoff4 ,carte de l'extension du peuple ukrainien4 ,paris #aijf4 ,akademya nak imperatrskaya4 ,ob atmynye styessnnyi malorsskavo yazyk4 ,petersburg #aije4 7,russian74 ,andree4 ,die ,ruthenen4 ,globus #ahgj4 ,annales des nationalits4 ,paris #aiac4 ,no4 #c and #d4 ,antonovych4 ,try natsionalni typy4 ,pravda #ahgh 7,ukrainian74 ,german translation in ,ukrainische ,rundschau4 ,jahrgang ,v4 ---- ,monogrfiyi po istryi zpadnoi i ygozpadnoi ,rossiyi4 ,i4 ,kieff #ahhe4 7,russian74 ,antonovych i ,drahomaniv4 ,istoricheskiya pyessni malorusskavo naroda4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,kieff #ahgd-e4 ,bedwin ,sands4 ,the ,ukraine4 ,london #aiad4 ,bodenstedt4 ,die poetische ,ukraine4 ,frankfurt a4 ,m4 #ahde4 ,czoernig4 ,ethnographie der sterreichischen ,monarchie4 ,i-,,iii4 ,wien #ahee-eg4 ---- ,ethnographische ,karte der sterreichischen ,monarchie4 ,wien #ahee4 ,drahomanov4 ,politcheskaya sochinynyia4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,paris #aije-f4 ,i4 ,moscow #aijh4 7,russian74 ,engel4 ,geschichte der ,ukraine4 ,halle #agif4 ,evarnitzky4 ,istriya zaporzhskikh kazkov4 ,i-,,iii4 ,petersburg #ahib-ig4 7,russian74 ,goebel4 ,russische ,industrie4 ,berlin #aiac4 ,haxthausen4 ,studien ber die inneren ,zustande ,russlands usw4 ,i-,,iii4 ,berlin #ahdg-eb4 ,hettner4 ,das europische ,russland4 ,leipzig #aije4 ,hoetzsch4 ,russland4 ,berlin #aiac4 ,hrushevsky4 ,geschichte des ukrainischen ,volkes4 ,leipzig #aijf4 ---- cherk istryi ukranskavo narda4 ,petersburg4 #crd ed4 #aiaa4 7,russian74 ---- ,ilustrovana istorya ,ukrainy4 ,kieff #aiaa4 7,ukrainian74 ---- ,die ukrainische ,frage in historischer ,entwicklung4 ,wien #aiae4 ,ivanovsky4 ,ob antropologcheskom sostvye nasyelynya ,rossyi4 ,trudy antr4 otdyel bshchestva liubtelyei yestystvoznnya4 ,vol4 ,,cv 7,,xxii74 ,moscow #aijd4 7,russian74 ,k4 ,die ,hauptstmme der ,russen4 ,karte #a3c1gjj1jjj4 ,petermanns ,mitteilungen4 #ahgh4 ,ko-yi4 ,natsionalno-teritorialni mezhi ,ukrainy4 ,lit4 nauk4 ,vistnyk #aijg4 7,ukrainian74 ,kostomarov4 ,dvy rsskiya nardnosti4 ,petersburg #ahfc4 7,russian74 ,french translation in ,revue ukrainienne4 ,lausanne #aiae4 ---- ,sobrnie sochinynye4 ,petersburg ,i-,,viii1 #aijc-f4 7,russian74 ,kovalevsky4 ,die ,produktivkrfte ,russlands4 ,leipzig #ahih4 ---- ,l',agriculture en ,russie4 ,paris #ahig4 ---- ,la ,russie la fin du ,,xix siecle4 ,paris #aijj4 ,leroy-,beaulieu4 ,l',empire des ,tsars4 ,i-,,iii4 ,paris #ahha4 ,lipinski4 ,zdziejow ,ukrainy4 ,cracow #aiab4 7,polish74 ,machat4 ,le dveloppement conomique de la ,russie4 ,paris #aijb4 ,melnik4 ,russen ber ,russland4 ,frankfurt a4 ,m4 #aijf4 ,myezhov4 ,literatra rsskoi geogrfiyi1 etnogrfiyi1 statstiki4 ,petersburg1 #i vols4 closing #ahhj4 7,russian74 ,pypin4 ,istriya rsskoi etnogrfiyi4 ,,iii4 ,petersburg #ahia4 7,russian74 ,pabst4 ,der ,ausbau der russischen ,seehandelshfen4 ,weltverkehr und ,weltwirtschaft4 #aiad-ae4 ,rambaud4 ,la petite ,russie1 etc4 ,la ,russie pique4 ,paris #ahgf4 7,revue politique et littraire74 ,recensement gnral de l',empire4 #ahig4 bshchi svod po impriyi etc4 ,petersburg #aije4 7,russian74 ,rittich4 ,ethnographie des russischen ,reichs4 ,karte #a3c1gjj1jjj4 ,petermanns ,mitteilungen4 ,ergnzungsheft #ed4 #ahgh4 ---- ,etnografcheskaya krta yevrop4 ,rossyi #a3b1ebj1jjj4 ,petersburg #ahge4 7,russian74 ,rudnitsky4 ,ukraina und die ,ukrainer4 ,wien #aiad4 #bnd ed4 ,berlin #aiae4 ,russov4 ,krta razselynya ukranskavo narda4 ,ukranski vystnik #aijf4 7,russian74 ,russ'ka istorychna biblioteka4 ,vols4 ,i-,,xxiv4 ,lemberg #ahhf-aijd4 7,ukrainian74 ,stockyj-,gartner4 ,grammatik der ruthenisch-ukrainischen ,sprache4 ,wien #aiac4 ,schulze-,gvernitz4 ,volkswirtschaftliche ,studien aus ,russland4 ,leipzig #ahii4 ,statistcheski yezhegdnik4 ,petersburg1 beginning in #aiab4 7,russian74 ,supan4 ,ergebnisse der ,sprachenzhlung im russischen ,reiche #ahig4 ,petermanns ,mitteilungen #aije4 ---- ,die ,bevlkerung der ,erde4 ,,xiii4 ,petermanns ,mitteilungen4 ,ergnzungsheft #afc4 #aiji4 ,tomashivsky4 ,etnografichna karta uhorskoi rusy4 #a3cjj1jjj4 ,petersburg #aiaj4 7,ukrainian74 ,tomashivsky4 ,die weltpolitische ,bedeutung ,galiziens4 ,mnchen #aiae4 ,trdy etn4-stat4 ekspedtsiyi v zpadno russky krai ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iv1 ,,vi1 ,,vii4 ,petersburg #ahgb-gh4 7,russian1 with ,ukrainian language texts74 ,ukransky nard v yev prshlom i nastoyshchem4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,petersburg #aiad4 ,ukransky voprs4 ,izdnye red4 zhurnla ,ukranskaya ,zhiz4 ,petersburg #aiae4 ,velitchko4 ,narodopysna karta ukrainskoho narodu4 #a3cgj1jjj4 ,lemberg #ahif4 7,ukrainian74 ,vovk4 ,antropometrichni doslidy ukrainskoho naselenya etc4 ,lemberg #aijh4 7,ukrainian74 ,wallace4 ,russia4 ,london #aiab4 ,zepelin4 ,die ,ksten und ,hfen des russischen ,reiches4 ,berlin4 ,zherela do istoriyi ,ukrainy4 ,i-,,xii4 ,lemberg #ahie-aiaa4 ,,periodicals ,etnografichni ,sbirnyk4 ,lemberg1 beginning #ahie4 #cj vols4 7,ukrainian74 ,kieffskaya ,starina4 ,kieff4 #ahhb-aije4 7,russian74 ,literaturno-naukovy vistnyk4 ,lemberg1 ,kieff1 beginning #ahih4 #ag vols4 7,ukrainian74 ,materialy do ukrainskoyi etnologiyi4 ,lemberg1 beginning #ahii4 #ac vols 7,ukrainian74 ,ruthenische ,revue4 ,wien #aijc-e4 ,sbirnyk ist4 fil4 sektsyi nauk4 ,tov4 im4 ,shevchenka4 ,lemberg1 beginning #ahig4 #ad vols4 7,ukrainian74 ,sbirnyk filol4 sektsyi nauk4 ,tov4 im4 ,shevchenka4 ,lemberg1 beginning #ahih #ac vols4 7,ukrainian74 ,studiyi s polya suspilnykh nauk i statystyky4 ,lemberg1 beginning #aiji4 7,ukrainian74 ,ukrainische ,rundschau4 ,wien1 beginning #aijf4 ,ukrainskaya ,zhiz4 ,moscow1 beginning #aiab4 7,russian74 ,yefimenko4 ,istriya ukrainskavo narda4 ,petersburg #aijf4 7,russian71 ,yefremov4 ,istoriya ukrainskoho pysmenstva4 ,petersburg1 beginning #aiaa4 7,ukrainian74 ,yezhegodnik ,rossiyi4 7,annuaire de la ,russie74 ,petersburg1 beginning #aijd4 ,zapisky naukovoho tovarystva imeny ,shevchenka4 ,lemberg1 beginning #ahia4 #abj vols4 7,ukrainian74 ,zapisky ukrainskoho naukovoho tovarystva v ,kyivi4 ,kieff1 beginning #aijh4 7,ukrainian74 ,,note #a #a crown 7#a krone7 #bj cents 7,u4 ,s4 ,a47