,,ritual ,,and ,,belief ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religion ,,by ,,edwin ,,sidney ,,hartland1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,london ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate #ad ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,w4,c4 #aiad ,,preface v ,among the various intellectual activities of the last fifty years none has awakened a more widespread interest than that of the study of the evolution of human civilization4 ,the reason is apparent3 it has revolutionized our conception of human history1 and has shaken to their very centre the religious traditions of ,europe and civilized ,america4 ,the general doctrine of evolution as applied to the universe at large was established shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century by ,darwin and ,spencer4 ,geology had already revealed the enormous age of the earth1 and the long procession of periods through which the flora and fauna had advanced to ever higher organization4 ,archology had begun its enquiries into the antiquity of man2 but the evidence was not yet fully understood1 and its weight or even its existence was denied4 ,while theology1 after first indignantly repudiating the new teachers1 was trying with many grimaces to accommodate itself to their teaching1 new lines of investigation were entered upon in this country and ,america by ,lubbock1 ,tylor1 ,m#8,lennan1 and ,morgan4 ,the mental and social development of mankind1 the history of ideas and of institutions1 received fresh and unexpected illumination4 ,it began to be possible to sketch a very different outline of human origins and early history from that which had hitherto remained almost unquestioned4 ,in a country like ours1 where an established ,church vi arrogated to itself all social and almost all intellectual influences1 and where it was very generally supported by those who dissented from it on other points in its dogmatic opposition to the results of scientific enquiry1 it was natural that attention should be directed to the bearing of those results on theology4 ,anthropology1 as the new ,science of ,man came to be called1 was materially assisted in the quarrel by ,biblical criticism begun in ,germany and popularized in ,england by ,colenso and others4 ,the authenticity of the books so long attributed to ,moses was questioned and overthrown2 they themselves were emptied of all historical authority1 and put on a level in this respect with the books of heathen nations4 ,professor ,robertson ,smith's fight for liberty of criticism in the ,free ,church of ,scotland roused the enthusiasm even of men who did not agree with all his opinions2 and when he was finally ejected from his chair at ,aberdeen1 he was provided with a home first at ,edinburgh and then at ,cambridge1 and the editorship of the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,thus unmuzzled1 he devoted himself to the study of ,semitic religion and customs on the largest scale and in the most unbiassed spirit4 ,unfortunately1 his health gave way2 and two precious volumes are well-nigh all that has reached us of his labours4 ,but his influence at ,cambridge1 and particularly over a younger fellow-countryman to whom we owe ,the ,golden ,bough1 was of a most fruitful character4 ,to the impulse he gave is to be traced much--perhaps more than we suspect--of what anthropology has accomplished in various directions during the last five-and-twenty years4 ,meanwhile revolt against false interpretation of known facts and inadequate methods of enquiry had spread elsewhere4 ,professor ,max ,mller1 by his unsurpassed vii powers of exposition1 his eloquence and his wide knowledge of the ,aryan tongues1 had become the champion in this country of the ,german explanation of myths as a disease of language1 a teacher on whose lips learned and simple hung4 ,great as was his learning1 however1 it was circumscribed by the ,indo-,european languages and literature4 ,he took little account of savage myths which could not be interpreted on his principles1 and still less of the equally important rites and beliefs of ,european peasants and primitive peoples beyond the seas4 ,in ,germany1 ,mannhardt1 originally a disciple of the same school1 had turned to more reasonable and penetrating modes of interpretation4 ,it is his glory to have been the first to combat the fancies of the philologists in a series of works steeped as deeply in classical learning as theirs1 but with a much wider outlook and a keener sense of actuality4 ,yet he died without having made many converts2 and in ,germany still the sun-myth lingers1 though hastening fast to its inevitable setting4 ,in ,england his works were hardly known1 when1 in #ahhg1 ,andrew ,lang1 after a powerful article on 8,mythology0 in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 and other preliminary essays1 published ,myth1 ,ritual and ,religion1 in which he attacked with overwhelming acumen and wit the philological position4 ,it is not too much to say that as far as ,english-speaking countries were concerned the blow was decisive1 the philological position was carried1 and the enemy's flag planted triumphantly on the battlements4 ,the way was thus cleared for a really scientific enquiry into the beginnings of religion4 ,no longer were we hampered with the story of ,genesis and the primitive revelation4 ,our vision was not to be bounded by the ,aryan and ,semitic peoples4 ,the guesswork of the philological school was at an end1 and ritual was admitted viii to be at least as indispensable to the enquiry as story and belief4 ,professor ,tylor had already done something more than pioneer work in the chapters on ,mythology and ,animism in ,primitive ,culture4 ,in the chapters on ,animism in particular he had exhibited the universal belief in the souls1 not merely of human beings1 but of other animate1 and even of inanimate1 creatures4 ,he had boldly discussed the relation of this belief to the doctrine of spirits generally1 and considered the transitional series of ideas through the cult of the dead1 possession1 fetishism1 idol-worship1 and the beliefs of the ,christian ,fathers4 ,it became evident that a doctrine so complex and subtle1 even in its simpler manifestations1 could not bean original and innate belief of the human mind1 but that it must have been evolved from something simpler1 perhaps vaguer1 certainly more comprehensive4 8,a theoretical conception of primitive philosophy1 designed to account for phenomena now classed under ,biology1 especially ,life and ,death1 ,health and ,disease1 ,sleep and ,dreams1 ,trance and ,visions0 pre-supposes a long period of observation1 comparison and discussion1 during which the ideas slowly took shape and ranged themselves round a central theory4 ,the late ,mr ,andrew ,lang was the first seriously to consider the questions involved4 ,his answer1 given in ,the ,making of ,religion 7#ahih71 was twofold4 ,on the one hand1 he suggested that 8the savage theory of the soul may be based1 at least in part1 on experiences0--hypnotism1 clairvoyance1 hallucination1 and so forth--8which cannot at present be made to fit into any purely materialistic system of the universe40 ,on the other hand1 he contended that 8the idea of ,god1 in its earliest known shape1 need not logically be derived from the idea of spirit1 however that idea itself may have been attained or ix evolved40 ,in this he was aiming partly at ,sir ,edward ,tylor's theory of ,animism1 as developed in the last of his famous chapters on that subject1 partly at the theory of the ancient sceptic ,euhemerus1 revived and championed within recent years by ,herbert ,spencer and ,grant ,allen1 that gods had been developed out of the ghosts of dead men4 ,he sought to draw a broad distinction between the two concepts1 that of a god and that of a spirit of any sort4 ,he claimed that the idea of ,god was earlier than that of a spirit1 and that 8a relatively ,supreme ,god10 often expressly described as ,creator1 existing before death came into the world1 and practically eternal1 had everywhere preceded the propitiation of the dead4 ,he did not commit himself to any definite opinion as to how this idea of a ,supreme ,god was reached by the rude forefathers of the race4 ,but when he oracularly observed1 8,the hypothesis of ,st ,paul seems not the most unsatisfactory10 it is no wonder that orthodox readers understood by that expression a primitive revelation1 whereas what he meant was the argument from ,design as stated in ,rom4 i4 #ai1 #bj4 ,though ,lang's book1 therefore1 was hailed as a sign that anthropological science was after all coming round to the support of the old orthodoxy1 he himself was too true a sceptic to fall satisfactorily into line4 ,in fact1 he solved nothing4 ,the 8,high ,gods0 of the lowest savages must have had some origin1 must have been evolved out of conceptions lower or more indefinite4 ,professor ,frazer has approached the problem from another side4 ,in the first edition of ,the ,golden ,bough he attempted no definition of ,religion2 and the relation of ,magic to ,religion1 therefore1 was hardly clear4 ,critics did not fail to call his attention to this4 ,in the second edition 7#aijj7 he accordingly proceeded to define x his position4 ,there1 with ,sir ,alfred ,lyall and ,professor ,jevons1 he recognizes 8a fundamental distinction and even opposition of principle between magic and religion02 and in ,the ,magic ,art1 he has more recently somewhat expanded his exposition of their relations4 ,magic1 it appears1 is a false science based on the assumption 8that in nature one event follows another necessarily and invariably without the intervention of any spiritual or personal agency40 ,religion is 8a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life40 ,man began with magic4 ,he knew of no beings superior to himself1 and he believed that by certain ceremonies he could cause the results he desired4 8,yet his power1 great as he believes it to be1 is by no means arbitrary and unlimited4 ,he can wield it only so long as he strictly conforms to the rules of his art1 or to what may be called the laws of nature as conceived by him4 ,to neglect these rules1 to break these laws in the smallest particular is to incur failure1 and may even expose the unskilful practitioner himself to the utmost peril4 ,if he claims a sovereignty over nature1 it is a constitutional sovereignty1 rigorously limited in its scope1 and exercised in exact conformity with ancient usage40 ,after a while man found out his blunder4 8,the shrewder intelligences must in time have come to perceive that magical ceremonies and incantations did not really effect the results they were designed to produce1 and which the majority of their simpler fellows still believed that they did actually produce4''' ,the discovery amounted to this1 that men for the first time recognized their inability to manipulate at pleasure certain natural forces which hitherto they had believed to be completely within their control4 ,it was a confession of human xi ignorance and weakness4 ,man saw that he had taken for causes what were no causes1 and that all his efforts to work by means of these imaginary causes had been vain4''' ,not that the effects which he had striven so hard to produce did not continue to manifest themselves4 ,they were still produced1 but not by him40 ,in this emergency he turned to 8a new system of faith and practice1 which seemed to offer a solution of his harassing doubts and a substitute1 however precarious1 for that sovereignty over nature which he had abdicated4 ,if the great world went on its way without the help of him or his fellows1 it must surely be because there were other beings1 like himself1 but far stronger1 who1 unseen themselves1 directed its course and brought about all the varied series of events which he had hitherto believed to be dependent on his own magic4''' ,to these mighty beings1 whose handiwork he traced in all the gorgeous and varied pageantry of nature1 man now addressed himself1 humbly confessing his dependence on their invisible power1 and beseeching them of their mercy to furnish him with all good things40 ,here1 to be sure1 was a revolution4 ,the ,age of ,religion succeeded to the ,age of ,magic1 though gradually1 reluctantly1 and1 as regards at least the majority of mankind1 incompletely even to the present day4 ,it is needless to dwell on the contrast between this hypothesis and ,lang's4 ,the one traces religion back to the belief in a ,supreme ,god1 the other to a reaction against the belief in magic4 ,they are alike in one respect3 they both derive it from an exercise of man's reasoning faculties4 ,it seems a just criticism to say that neither of them takes sufficient account of man's emotional nature4 ,yet it must have played an important part in the evolution of religion4 ,it is1 if ,i may say so1 the merit of another xii enquirer1 ,dr ,r4 ,r4 ,marett1 that he was the first to point this out4 ,in an article published in ,folk-lore in the year #aijj1 he analyzed1 with psychological knowledge and skill1 the experiences that underlay ,animism1 and came to the conclusion that behind the logic was emotion1 the recoil from the uncanny and the mysterious1 8that basic feeling of awe1 which drives a man1 ere he can think or theorize upon it1 into personal relations with the ,supernatural40 ,dr ,marett's views have been subsequently developed in a series of papers printed in different periodicals and collections1 and republished in #aiji in a volume entitled ,the ,threshold of ,religion4 ,this has been supplemented more recently by his inaugural lecture as ,reader in ,social ,anthropology at ,oxford1 on ,the ,birth of ,humility 7#aiaj71 in which he takes the opportunity of criticizing with vivacity and effect ,professor ,frazer's exposition of the relations of magic and religion4 ,his opinions have been reinforced by the independent enquiries of two learned ,frenchmen1 ,,mm4 ,hubert and ,mauss1 who in #aijd published in ,l',anne ,sociologique a remarkable 8,esquisse d'une thorie gnrale de la ,magie10 reissued five years later among their collected essays entitled ,mlanges d',histoire des ,religions4 ,they approach the subject from the social side1 insisting that religion is before everything a social matter1 its judgements are social judgements1 its rites social rites4 ,they point out its intimate connection with magic1 and by skilful analysis exhibit the parallelism between them4 ,more recently the psychological aspect of the problem has been considered by a group of ,american writers1 notably by ,professor ,james ,leuba 7,a ,psychological ,study of ,religion7 and ,dr ,irving ,king 7,the ,development of ,religion1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj74 ,the latter work is a most suggestive and judicious survey of the evidence afforded xiii by savage rites and belief4 ,the writer insists on the priority of rites to belief1 and finds their origin in social activities1 largely in what he calls play-activities1 and in spontaneous reactions to the environment4 ,the religious attitude may be coeval with these activities1 but organized beliefs were developed gradually4 ,the particular forms they took were the result of different social situations1 these in turn depending on the physical and cultural environment4 8,in and so far as they have elements which are similar functionally1 religion and magic10 he holds1 8originally formed a part of a primitive1 undifferentiated attitude1 and separated from each other as experience became more complex and the requirements of action more varied40 ,magic became the individualist and antisocial application of the impulses and organized methods of which religion was the social expression and application4 ,lastly1 ,professor ,durkheim1 taking ,totemism as the most primitive religion known to us1 has in ,les ,formes ,elmentaires de la vie ,religieuse analyzed elementary conceptions1 with the result that he derives religious ideas and practices entirely from a social origin4 ,as ,i have considered his theory more fully on another page1 it needs no further reference here4 ,thus at the present moment the controversy stands--if it be legitimate to call it a controversy4 ,criticism1 according to a pregnant saying of ,andrew ,lang's1 is a form of co-operation--of co-operation in the pursuit of truth4 ,the following essays are intended in that spirit as a humble contribution to the discussion4 ,their primary intention is not controversial4 ,they rather seek to express some of the results of a study of the phenomena1 from the point of view of one who has been convinced that the emotions and the imagination--and xiv not merely the individual1 but the collective emotions and imagination--have had at least as much to do with the generation of religious practices and beliefs as the reason1 and that for the form they may have assumed1 physical1 social1 and cultural influences must be held accountable4 ,the essay on 8,the ,relations of ,religion and ,magic0 is an expansion of two presidential addresses1 one delivered to the ,anthropological ,section of the ,british ,association at ,york in #aijf1 the other to the section on the ,religions of the ,lower ,culture at the ,international ,congress for the ,history of ,religions at ,oxford in #aijh4 ,the essay on 8,the ,rite at the ,temple of ,mylitta0 was contributed to the volume of ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,sir ,edward ,tylor1 in honour of his seventy-fifth birthday1 in #aijg4 ,that on 8,the ,voice of the ,stone of ,destiny0 was published in ,folk-lore1 #aijc4 ,both of these have undergone revision4 ,the remaining essays are new4 ,one of them deals as a preliminary with some of the difficulties that beset the enquirer into the religious ideas of the lower races1 with wandering fires that mislead him1 with barriers that seem impassable4 ,the others seek to concentrate attention on particular instances of ritual or belief1 to elucidate the ideas and emotions that underlie them1 or further to illustrate their evolution4 ,i am indebted to the publishers of such as have been already published for their courtesy in facilitating reproduction here4 ,e4 ,,sidney ,,hartland ,highgarth1 ,gloucester1 ,january #aiad4 ,,contents xv ,,learning ,,to 8,,think ,,black0 ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,religion ,,and ,,magic3 ,i4 ,,the ,,common ,,root ,,ii4 ,,theories ,,and ,,definitions ,,iii4 ,,development ,,iv4 ,,divergence ,,the ,,boldness ,,of ,,the ,,celts ,,the ,,haunted ,,widow ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,mourning ,,clothes ,,the ,,rite ,,at ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,mylitta ,,the ,,voice ,,of ,,the ,,stone ,,of ,,destiny ,,bibliographical ,,list ,,endnotes ,,ritual ,,and ,,belief #a ,,learning ,,to 8,,think ,,black0 ,sir ,edward ,tylor begins the chapters on ,animism in that great work which laid the foundation of the modern study of the history of civilization1 by a discussion of the evidence for the existence of tribes destitute of religion4 ,in some half-dozen pages he easily shows that the existence of such tribes1 8though in theory possible1 and perhaps in fact true1 does not at present rest on that sufficient proof which1 for an exceptional state of things1 we are entitled to demand40 ,he convicts travellers and missionaries who have made the assertion1 of contradicting themselves2 and he renders probable that the denial of religion to peoples in the lower culture is begotten of a perverted judgement in theological matters1 and 8the use of wide words in narrow senses40#a4a ,other causes are equally prolific of error in regard to savage beliefs4 ,sir ,edward ,tylor refers to haste and imperfect acquaintance by the traveller with the people whose beliefs he is professing to repeat4 ,these are obvious causes on which it is needless to dwell4 ,many peoples1 too1 are accustomed out of mere politeness to endeavour to divine what sort of answer to his remarks will please a guest1 or what sort of answer an enquirer expects to his questions1 and to make it accordingly1 #b regardless whether it has any relation to the facts or not4 ,this courtier-like etiquette of agreement applies to every subject1 and is emphasized when the enquirer is an official or social superior from whom favour may be looked for or displeasure apprehended4 ,the ,malayans1 a jungle tribe of southern ,india1 invariably say 8,yes0 in reply to a question by a government officer or a member of a higher caste1 8believing that a negative answer might displease him40#b4a ,in such cases it is difficult to extract the truth on the most indifferent and trivial1 to say nothing of weightier1 matters4 ,passing over these commonplaces1 let us pause for a moment on another cause mentioned by ,tylor1 namely1 the natural reluctance of savages to reveal 8to the prying and contemptuous foreigner their worship of gods who seem to shrink1 like their worshippers1 before the white man and his mightier ,deity40#b4b ,very instructive is the account given by ,kolben of the ,hottentots4 ,writing in the early years of the eighteenth century1 he says it is 8a difficult thing to get out of the ,hottentots what are really their notions concerning ,god and religion1 or whether they have any at all4 ,they keep all their religious opinions and ceremonies1 as they do every other matter established among them1 as secret as they can from ,europeans1 and when they are questioned concerning such matters are very shy in their answers and hide the truth as much as they can40 ,they take refuge from questions in 8a thousand fictions10 which they excuse1 when taxed with them1 by alleging that 8the ,europeans are a crafty1 designing people4 ,they never ask a question for the sake of the answer only1 but have other ends to serve1 perhaps against the peace and security of the ,hottentots40 ,from this source1 we are told1 have sprung #c most of the contradictions to be found in authors upon the religion of the ,hottentots4#c4a ,more than a hundred years after ,kolben's day a ,british traveller1 exploring ,great ,namaqualand under the auspices of the ,british ,government and of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 assembled some of the old men among the ,namaqua and put them through an examination4 ,his thirst for information was doubtless praiseworthy2 and he was at least successful in proving1 albeit unconsciously1 the truth of the older traveller's words4 ,for the proceeding he adopted affords a brilliant example of 8how not to do it40 ,i quote some of his questions3 8,what laws have the ,namaqua80 ,answer--8,they have none2 they only listen to their chiefs40 8,do the people know anything of the stars80 ,answer--8,nothing40 8,do the ,namaqua believe in lucky and unlucky days80 ,answer--8,they don't know anything of these things40 8,are there rainmakers in the land80 ,answer--8,none40 8,what do the old ,namaqua think becomes of people when they die80 ,answer--8,they know nothing of these things2 all they see is that the people die and are buried1 but what becomes of them they know not2 and before the missionaries came to the ,great ,river the people had never heard of another world40#c4b ,many ,european casuists justify one who is questioned concerning matters he desires to keep secret1 and who meets the inquisitive person with a falsehood4 ,it cannot therefore be surprising that these poor ,hottentots thus took advantage of the only defence open to them when they found their most cherished beliefs and customs the subject of impertinent and bungling interrogations by an #d unsympathetic intruder into their country4 ,their ,bantu neighbours do the same4 ,the ,kaffir1 we are told1 8dislikes to find ,europeans investigating his customs1 and he usually hides all he can from them and takes a sportive pleasure in baffling and misleading them40#d4a ,when questioned by ,andersson1 the ,ovambo denied that they had any belief1 or abruptly stopped him with a 8,hush60#d4b ,prying of this kind is rarely welcomed even among peoples on a much higher plane of civilization4 ,not to appeal to our own feelings1 we may take as an illustration a people of the ,far ,east4 ,to question a native of ,korea concerning custom or belief at once arouses his suspicions4 ,indeed1 for a stranger to enquire the number of houses in a village1 or what the land produces1 needs much tact if bad feeling is to be avoided4 ,a missionary who lived for many years in the country was of opinion that people are unconscious of their customs4 ,at any rate a ,korean asked suddenly about a certain custom will in all likelihood deny that such a thing exists2 and yet he may be absolutely free from dishonesty in the matter3 he is simply unconscious1 he has never thought about it4#d4c ,to this point we will return directly3 our present point is the conscious refusal of information4 ,and here it should be noted that savages1 as well as others1 do not hide their beliefs only because they do not understand the motive of enquiry1 or because they are afraid of ridicule or of the denunciations of the missionary1 even where the ,christian priest can call down the thunderbolt of the magistrate4 ,these reasons operate1 but not alone4 #e ,from all quarters of the world comes the report that the native is uncommunicative4 ,the ,lengua ,indians of the ,paraguayan ,chaco are quite aware that their 8superstition is regarded with disfavour by the missionaries02 but they are naturally 8very reticent in these matters10 and their reticence is only heightened--not caused--by this knowledge4#e4a ,an excellent illustration of the difficulty of discovering the beliefs and even the practices of savages is afforded by ,mr ,batchelor1 a missionary who1 having resided among the ,ainu of ,japan for more than twelve years1 wrote an interesting book upon them4 ,he naturally supposed that so long a residence and intimacy with them entitled him to think he knew practically all that could be told about them4 ,alas for the fallibility of even a careful observer6 ,there was one chamber in the mind of every ,ainu which he had not explored4 ,when another twelve years had elapsed he wrote that 8when writing that book ,i must frankly confess that ,i had no idea1 nor had ,i for many years after1 that ophiolatry was practised at all by this people40 ,and all the while the ,ainu whom he knew so well were holding beliefs1 relating myths1 and practising rites of which he had not the least suspicion4#e4b ,nor is there any reason to suggest that they were concealing those things from him out of fear of ridicule or clerical reproofs4 ,deeper reasons exist4 ,german missionaries have been labouring for a number of years among the tribes on the north-eastern coast of ,new ,guinea4 ,in view of the various difficulties attending the investigation of the beliefs of these tribes the latest scientific explorer of the country called in the aid of some of the more experienced #f of the missionaries4 ,he thus sums up the position3 8,the heathen ,papuan is a reticent fellow1 and no power in the world can move him to disclose the secrets of his fathers4 ,he has too much fear of the vengeance of the spirits and of the sorcerers1 who would infallibly kill him if he betrayed the smallest thing4 ,long years of work accomplished with endless patience have been necessary to convince the ,black that sorcery is powerless1--that it is all lies and deceit4 ,only if he is about to be baptized will he voluntarily deliver up to his teacher his knowledge of witchcraft and its methods4 ,in plain terms1 he feels the need on this point to lighten both his conscience and his pocket40#f4a ,reasons of this order have never been better put than by an eminent ,french anthropologist whose untimely death a few years ago was a serious blow to the cause of science4 ,reviewing the work of a lady for whom ,english colleagues yet mourn1 he says3 8,the savage does not like to speak of his belief2 he fears the contemptuous mockery of the ,whites4 ,perhaps1 too1 he fears to give an advantage over himself1 in allowing more to be known than is fitting of the rites by which he tries to conciliate the benevolence of the spirits1 or to turn away their disfavour from his hut and his plantations4 ,to make known his resources for the fight would be to half-disarm him2 surrounded with supernatural dangers1 he does not willingly indicate the supernatural means by which he guarantees himself against them40#f4b ,one other reason may be added to these3 a reason probably operative in many more cases than enquirers have been aware of4 ,the things after which they ask are often revealed only to the initiate4 ,an #g outsider1 one who is not known to be1 or at least treated as1 an initiate1 will seek in vain by means direct or indirect for information on these matters4 ,a stony silence or repeated lies are all he will get4 ,this has been the cause of much mystification and many contradictory statements about tribes in various parts of the world1 not the least in ,australia4#g4a ,it is not suggested1 of course1 that all contradictory statements emanate from the deliberate mystification of non-initiate enquirers4 ,we have not by any means exhausted the causes of error in regard to savage beliefs4 ,contradictory statements are made in good faith because those who make them hold contradictory beliefs4 ,on the subject1 for example1 of the future life the mutually destructive character of the beliefs often held by the same tribes1 and even by the same individuals1 is one of the truisms of anthropology4 ,the ,zulus and their neighbours hold that their dead are to be recognized in the form of various animals1 notably snakes1 that haunt the tomb or the abodes of the living1 and yet that these very dead dwell in the bowels of the earth1 presiding in patriarchal fashion over shadowy kraals1 and rejoicing in the possession of herds of sky-blue kine with red and white spots4 ,moreover1 notwithstanding this wealth of cattle1 they are dependent1 if not for their continued existence1 at least for their comfort1 on the sacrifices offered by their descendants4 ,the truth is that 8the whole spirit-world is one of haze and uncertainty40#g4b ,this opinion1 expressed by an experienced missionary1 #h is true of all savage and barbarous nations4 ,it is not merely the doctrine of souls that is difficult to understand fully and to state clearly3 all the relations with the supernatural are shifting2 and the supernatural itself melts away into mist and gloom and the undefined terrors of night4 ,proof of the mental capacity of peoples in the lower culture1 and their alertness within the narrow range of their appetites1 their bodily needs1 and the warfare they wage for existence against untoward environment of various kinds1 is to be found in every record of exploration1 in the reports of every missionary4 ,beyond that range there are differences between races1 as between individuals1 in reasoning power1 in curiosity1 and in general development4 ,some cause to us unknown may have turned the thoughts of one people into profounder and subtler channels than those of another4 ,we are told of two neighbouring tribes in ,california that their differences are very striking1 and are based on deep-lying racial factors4 ,the mythology of the one is more dramatic1 that of the other is more metaphysical1 exhibiting 8more of the power of abstract thought and intellectual conception40#h4a ,we must beware of reading too extensive a meaning into what is after all merely a comparison of characteristics4 ,it is adduced here for the sole purpose of illustrating the statement that such differences exist even between tribes that are subject to similar external influences4 ,in spite of these differences the unanimous verdict1 alike of missionaries and explorers1 scientific enquirers and traders1 given with tiresome iteration1 is that of dormant faculties1 want of interest1 inability to follow a train of thought1 and dislike of intellectual effort4 ,these are qualities that we are sufficiently familiar #i with at home to render them fully credible in 8the poor heathen40 ,ask a man anywhere--ask a ,zulu1 ask an ,english peasant--why such and such a thing is done4 ,he will tell you3 8,it is the custom10 and will look at you with wondering eyes that you can demand a reason or dream of any alternative as possible4 ,custom to him is more than a second nature4 ,it is nature itself1 the established order1 the cosmos4 ,to conceive of departure from it would entail a greater burden of thought than he has ever undertaken or would willingly bear4 ,it may even be so much a part of his existence that1 like the ,korean referred to above1 he is barely conscious of it4 ,in such a case the custom may be denied in perfect good faith4 ,sometimes1 it is true1 another cause may lead to the denial4 ,this is well illustrated in a recent work on the ,holy ,land4 ,the author1 speaking of local variations of custom1 says3 8,the small area in which peculiar customs occur1 and the comparative isolation of these areas which still prevails1 make it often extremely difficult to ascertain local customs and usages4 ,many of these can only be discovered accidentally or by long residence in the particular locality4 ,the people of neighbouring villages may be quite unaware of the existence of a certain custom1 while only a few miles away it may be very familiar4 ,i have known intelligent1 educated natives to be entirely ignorant of certain customs1 and even to deny their existence1 because they were not in vogue in their own particular district1 whereas further enquiry or fuller acquaintance with other parts revealed the fact that they were perfectly familiar to others40#i4a ,here the expression 8intelligent1 educated natives0 must be interpreted of course by reference to the standard #aj of intelligence and education in the rural parts of a country so backward as ,palestine4 ,in such a case the ignorance by natives described as intelligent and educated of customs quite different from1 and perhaps opposed to1 their own may be due to the concentration of their faculties in the struggle for daily needs1 or the absorption of their interests in the concerns of their own little community4 ,millions of men and women in our country1 who may be fairly described1 by reference to their class and occupation1 as 8intelligent1 educated natives10 are quite ignorant--and supremely indifferent--about everything not pertaining to their material well-being1 their habitual amusements1 the affairs of their little town1 their family or their church1 or the latest scandal whispered in their tiny coterie4 ,these fill up their life2 they have neither leisure nor inclination to worry about anything beyond4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 be surprised that where the facilities for communication are smaller and the general indigence greater1 similar mental indolence may exist4 ,economic causes1 the product themselves of the environment1 are often responsible for internal conditions1 and cannot be disentangled from them4 ,intelligent curiosity about things not immediately or apparently affecting ourselves is a rare virtue1 and of late development4 ,we ourselves often deem that we pay it abundant homage by witnessing the exhibition of a few lantern slides1 or slumbering tranquilly through a lecture on ,dante4 ,but to it1 if rightly and strenuously pursued1 we owe how much of modern discovery and the amenities of civilization6 ,let us1 however1 return to our savages4 ,of the ,nootkas or ,ahts of ,vancouver ,island we are told by ,sproat in a passage that has often been quoted that he 8had abundant proof in conversing with them about matters in which they took an interest1 that their mental #aa capacities are by no means small4 ,it is true that the native mind1 to an educated man1 seems generally to be asleep2 and if you suddenly ask a novel question1 you have to repeat it while the mind of the savage is awaking1 and to speak with emphasis until he has got your meaning4 ,this may partly arise from the questioner's imperfect knowledge of the language2 still1 ,i think1 not entirely1 as the savage may be observed occasionally to become forgetful when voluntarily communicating information4 ,on his attention being fully aroused he often shows much quickness in reply and ingenuity in argument4 ,but a short conversation wearies him1 particularly if questions are asked that require efforts of thought or memory on his part4 ,the mind of the savage then appears to rock to and fro out of mere weakness1 and he tells lies and talks nonsense40#aa4a ,on this ,professor ,boas1 the distinguished ,american anthropologist1 comments thus3 8,i happen to know through personal contact the tribes mentioned by ,sproat4 ,the questions put by the traveller seem mostly trifling to the ,indian2 and he naturally soon tires of a conversation carried on in a foreign language1 and one in which he finds nothing to interest him4 ,as a matter of fact1 the interest of those natives can easily be raised to a high pitch1 and ,i have often been the one who was wearied out first4 ,neither does the management of their intricate system of exchange prove mental inertness in matters which concern the natives4 ,without mnemonic aids1 they plan the systematic distribution of their property in such a manner as to increase their wealth and social position4 ,these plans require great foresight and constant application40#aa4b ,so far as this comment is directed to depreciate the #ab value of ,sproat's estimate of the mental powers of the ,nootkas1 ,i cannot think that ,professor ,boas has been quite fair to the writer4 ,sproat was no passing traveller1 speaking to the natives in a foreign language1 and jotting down superficial impressions derived from hasty observation4 ,he had 8lived among them and had a long acquaintanceship with them40 ,he was a settler1 and for five years a colonial magistrate in constant contact with several of their tribes4 ,his own account of his method of collecting information and the substance of his book are conclusive as to his painstaking researches2 and ,professor ,boas himself elsewhere bears testimony to his trustworthiness4#ab4a ,moreover1 a comparison of the quotations renders it clear that on the whole they confirm one another4 ,probably1 however1 ,professor ,boas' criticism is intended to apply not so much to ,sproat's statements as to the use made of them by ,herbert ,spencer and other theorists4 ,it comes to this1 therefore1 that the ,nootka's mental capacity is considerable1 his mind is alert and active on subjects that interest him1 but that he is not interested in many of those on which an anthropologist desires to learn1 and hence he speedily becomes 8bored0 and answers at random4 ,the horizon of savage interests among the neighbouring ,dene or ,ten'a of the ,yukon ,valley is thus defined by an experienced missionary3 8,the activity of their minds is commonly confined within a narrow circle1 as is evidenced by their favourite subjects of conversation4 ,food1 hunting and fishing1 with their attendant circumstances1 family happenings1 health and disease1 devils and their actions1 sexual propensities--such are the topics which practically sum up the encyclopdia of their conversation40 8,the #ac ,ten'a mind10 he says in another place1 8is anything but speculative1 and its imaginative powers have not been turned to building theories of its belief1 but rather to excogitate a variety of ways whereby this belief perseveringly asserts itself40 ,the native's 8dogmas are very nebulous and undefined1 and he has never heard them explicitly formulated1 nor even attempted to state them distinctly to himself40 ,consequently1 8whereas there is a certain uniformity in the practices1 and an overabundance of them1 there are very few points of belief common to several individuals1 and these are of the vaguest kind40#ac4a ,if we turn to an entirely different race1 the same features present themselves4 ,the capacity of the ,bantu peoples of the ,lower ,congo for the intellectual acts of perception1 recognition1 memory1 and so forth1 is well developed and appears early in childhood4 8,in this respect the natives are much on a par with the civilized races2 but the limit is reached early in life1 and but little mental progress is observable after adolescence is reached4 ,the ideas are mostly of the simpler forms1 seldom passing the concretes of actual experience1 generalizations being as a rule beyond their power4 ,association of ideas1 though good as implied by good memory1 only takes place in the concrete form of contiguity in time and space as actually already perceived2 analogies are confined to the crudest forms1 and a very simple figure of speech is apt to be unintelligible4''' ,the fundamental act of intelligence1 the intuition of likeness and unlikeness1 is very circumscribed2 and high acts of intellect are thereby negatived4''' ,an accompanying trait is the absence of rational surprise4 ,on seeing something new a vacant wonder is all that is observable2 and this is very transient1 and the #ad new experience is classified as #8white man's fashion4' ,it almost follows as a matter of course that there is no curiosity1 no wish to enquire into the cause of a novel experience2 it never occurs to the native that there is a cause of the novelty or an explanation required4 ,in like manner there is almost total absence of theorizing about natural phenomena40 ,in fact1 the relation of cause and effect in all but the most patent and mechanical cases is said to be beyond his grasp4#ad4a ,in general terms this description may stand for all the ,bantu1 due allowance being made1 as pointed out above1 for individual and tribal differences4 ,the natural result is vagueness on all religious and metaphysical subjects4 ,this is a characteristic of savages all over the world4 ,nor is it limited by any means to them4 ,recent investigations have established the evolution of some at least of the majestic figures of the ,olympian ,pantheon from not merely rude but vague and nameless personalities2 and to the very end of ,hellenic religion1 unknown gods and dim1 indefinite heroes continued to be honoured not merely in every country place1 but in ,athens herself4 ,the ,arabs of ,moab have professed for many generations the religion of the ,prophet4 ,yet they have the feeblest apprehension of that great ,allah in whom they are supposed to believe4 ,when questioned on his nature1 his abode1 his occupation1 they usually answer3 8,we do not know40 ,one of them told a missionary3 8,it is said that ,allah is like an old man with a white beard1 but ,i do not know where he dwells2 it is asserted that he is above10 pointing to the sky4 ,they also honour numerous beings called by the generic name of ,wely 7protector or friend71 who are identified with rocks1 trees1 and other holy places4 ,even of these1 however1 #ae their ideas are obscure4 ,like the local hero of the ,greeks1 the ,wely is not as a rule individualized with a personal name4 ,who he is in most cases is unknown4 ,his exact connection with the spot where he is honoured is equally unknown4 ,some ,arabs say that it is he who gives vigour to the sacred tree2 others declare that he dwells beneath it1 or that he dwells in the branches and the leaves2 but ,allah knows4#ae4a ,and the pious reference to ,allah and his knowledge is sufficient for the ,arab4 ,the fact is that on these subjects the majority of the human race1 whether savage or civilized1 think little4 ,their minds are seldom excited to the point of reasoning on their beliefs4 ,they accept what they are told1 and do not even know whether they believe it or not1 because they have never reflected upon it4 ,one has only to talk for a few minutes to a peasant at home to find out how narrow the border of his knowledge is1 how misty and uncertain is everything beyond the routine of his daily life and the village gossip and amusements1 unless where in the neighbourhood of a town the supreme interests of football open to him a prospect into another world4 ,gossip1 amusements1 his daily bread are subjects of importance2 they fill his horizon2 on them his views are perfectly definite4 ,nor does he differ in this respect from people who are looked upon as his social superiors4 ,it would be making too strenuous a demand upon their intellectual life to expect them to rise above the markets1 the newspaper1 the latest novel1 the county cricket-score1 and the problems of golf and bridge4 ,all the rest they are content to leave to their professional advisers1 who in nine cases out of ten1 if the truth must be told1 have as little taste or capacity as themselves for metaphysical speculation1 historical research or theological enquiry1 and #af are bound as tightly in the cords of tradition as the far more imaginative ,zulu medicine-man1 or the ,eskimo wizard4 ,for the average man in civilization appraises the subjects of thought no otherwise than does his brother in savagery4 ,each alike is eminently practical4 ,something done1 or to be done1 by himself or others is what interests him4 ,some personal gain1 some bodily pleasure--for this he will think and think hard2 all other mental exertion must be easy and short4 ,nor could the human race exist on any other terms4 ,still further difficulties beset the enquirer into the beliefs of the lower culture4 ,on the threshold is that of language4 ,to be sure that you have grasped the real meaning of your savage friend you must be able to talk his language as he talks it himself--and even then you may be mistaken4 8,when there is no certain medium of communication10 says ,bishop ,codrington1 writing of the ,melanesians1 8when a native interpreter who speaks a little broken ,english is employed to ask questions and to return the answers1 nothing can be depended on as certain which is received4 ,to be able to use some ,european word1 or word supposed to be ,english1 to describe a native practice or to convey a native belief1 is to have an easy means of giving information2 and so among the islands #8plenty devil' is the description given of a sacred spot1 and #8tevoro' 7devil7 in ,fiji has become the common appellation of the native ghosts or spirits4 ,supposing1 again1 that the enquirer is able to communicate pretty freely on ordinary subjects in the language of any island1 he will surely find himself baffled when any one of the elder people undertakes to give him information4 ,the vocabulary of ordinary life is almost useless when the region of mysteries and superstitions is approached40#af4a #ag ,the use of the word 8devil10 universal in and around ,melanesia when speaking in pigeon ,english of the native mysteries and the objects of the native cult or fear1 illustrates one of the pitfalls in the path of the anthropologist4 ,the native ideas do not coincide with ours4 ,the history1 the environment1 the social and intellectual condition of peoples in the lower culture are as diverse from ours as their geographical situation4 ,consequently their speech contains no equivalent for many of our words1 even of words that seem to us to convey ideas elementary and simple4 ,no ,australian language possesses a word which is the exact equivalent of our word 8mother40 ,the word we roughly equate with 8mother0 includes a host of other women beside her who has given birth to the child4 ,some of these women we should designate as 8aunt10 or as 8stepmother02 but many of them stand in no relation of kinship according to our reckoning4 ,yet they are all addressed and spoken of by the same term as the veritable mother4 ,kinship1 in fact1 is counted in the lower culture along lines quite different from ours2 and though it is probable that our degrees of kindred have evolved from a rudimentary condition similar to that which we find among savages1 we have so far outgrown it that their reckoning is often unintelligible to us1 and only a very few of the terms in use among ,european nations remain to point back to an earlier stage of development4 ,if we have this difficulty in finding equivalents for terms expressive of the simplest relationships of our social life1 how much greater must be our difficulty when we come to terms expressive of the mysterious and supersensual relations of man to the unknown and dimly conceived powers of the universe about him6 ,we have no word to render the ,fijian mana1 the ,siouan wakan1 the ,malagasy andria-manitra4 #ah ,conversely1 scarce a savage language can render our word 8,god40 ,over and over again missionaries have sought1 and sought in vain1 for a native word for the purpose4 ,when they have fixed upon one1 as often as not they have had to confess a blunder2 and many times in despair they have invented a word4 ,the idea embodied in the acts by which the mysterious relations between man and the supernatural are emphasized and knit together is equally incapable of translation by any one vocable4 ,a ,roman ,catholic missionary1 speaking of the religious assembly of the ,creeks of ,north ,america1 says3 8,the mitewewin represents the highest expression of magic 7maeghiw or maskikiy7 among the nations of the ,algonkian stock4 ,the word1 in fact1 signifies at the same time labour1 occupation1 judgement1 adoration1 and sacrifice4 ,it is a religious act addressed to the powakans1 or animal fetishes1 and a sort of ,illinoian freemasonry requiring initiation and inviolable secrecy2 it is a camp-meeting'''2 it is the grand council of an entire nation40#ah4a ,these sentences afford an excellent example of the difficulty of translating the native ideas into ,english words4 ,they unite a brave and more or less successful attempt to convey the notion of mitewewin1 with incidental but none the less certain failures in the cases of maeghiw or maskikiy and powakan4 ,for none of them would a single ,english word1 or even a phrase1 be adequate4 ,the opportunity of blundering in the endeavour to understand and report the beliefs and usages of the lower races is obviously as great as could be desired4 ,when to the various causes enumerated above is added not merely the conscious want of sympathy on the part of the observer1 but his unconscious prejudice in favour of #ai certain interpretations derived from the civilized and the specifically ,christian notions in which he has been brought up from his youth1 the wonder is not that so many mistakes have been made1 but that we have on the whole succeeded in obtaining so large a mass of fairly trustworthy information4 ,even that of which we are the best assured1 however1 must be used with caution4 ,it must be criticized1 checked with other accounts of the same or neighbouring tribes2 and allowance must be made for the personal equation of the observer4 ,the use of a word like worship1 spirit1 or ,god1 which connotes to us very different ideas from those connoted to the native mind by the native word thus translated1 must put us at once on our guard4 ,fancied resemblances between the myths1 heard perhaps at second-hand and only half-understood1 and some story1 ,biblical or other1 known to the reporter1 and the expectation of finding in savage tradition some fragment of divine revelation have proved real ,will-o'-the-wisps to the unwary4 ,nor must we forget that things actually seen are also liable to be misinterpreted4 ,captain ,john ,smith1 in writing of ,virginia1 describes as a human sacrifice--a sacrifice of children--what seems to have been no more than the ceremony of initiation into manhood4#ai4a ,it is true that his account was written three hundred years ago1 and that he was not allowed to witness the whole performance4 ,but after all our subsequent experience and accumulation of records1 nothing is harder even yet than to determine the meaning of ceremonies and institutions1 often carefully examined and minutely described by skilled eyewitnesses and scientific explorers4 ,we may go further still4 ,where the observer puts aside his prejudices1 where he is animated by true sympathy--not #bj the false and mawkish sympathy that too often takes its place--where he is able to communicate with the natives in their own tongue1 there is notwithstanding very often a difficulty in following their ideas4 ,we have been told of the ,andaman ,islanders that 8with these1 as with other savages1 it is vain to expect them to understand the logical conclusions to which their beliefs tend40#bj4a ,that may be because they have never thought them out4 ,in the majority of cases it would probably be juster to say that their logic follows a different course1 their ideas run in different channels1 from ours4 ,after conceding everything that has been said with perfect truth as to their vagueness1 their indolence of mind on subjects not concerned with their daily life1 and their dislike of intellectual effort1 there remains the fact that they are human2 they do reason1 albeit after their own fashion4 ,language among the higher races has been trained and tortured during many centuries to express the highest thoughts of the highest thinkers2 and how inadequate an instrument has it often been found6 ,it must therefore not surprise us if the thought of races in the lower culture occasionally surpasses a language not yet exercised and adapted to the complicated processes of ideation and ratiocination4 ,thus not merely is it difficult or impossible to translate native words by ,english equivalents1 as ,i have already pointed out3 the native finds it not easy to translate his thoughts into his own tongue4 ,when he has struggled with more or less success to effect this1 his course of thought is so widely different from ours that we can hardly believe in its coherence4 ,the objects of thought1 alike among savages and among ourselves1 fall into categories4 ,many of these categories manifest themselves in the very fibre of language4 ,a #ba familiar illustration is the curious distinctions of grammatical gender1 so different even in different languages sprung from a common stock1 and those comparatively simple1 as are the ,aryan tongues of civilization4 ,when we refer to the languages of the lower culture1 with their minute distinctions of number and person1 of action1 tense1 and all sorts of relations of time and place1 we are overwhelmed by their complexity and puzzled by the oddness of their grouping4 ,categories of another kind become visible when we attempt to push our explorations further into savage thought4 ,the counting of kinship and the difficulties attending the attempt to translate words expressive of religious ideas have already been mentioned4 ,in the totemism of ,australia the totems are classes of animals or other objects not merely united by some mystic bond to one or other class of tribesmen2 they are related to other objects of human environment in such a way that the whole universe is shared among them4 ,to us these relationships are strange and inexplicable2 they form categories that we do not understand4 ,to the native these categories are familiar by immemorial association2 they have become part of the texture of his mind2 and thereby they have acquired emotional values1 from the bonds of which he can hardly deliver himself4 ,so it seems that the ,west ,african ,bantu comprise their entire social system1 every activity of their mental and physical life1 and every aspect of the external universe under a limited number of categories wholly alien to our modes of thought4 ,hints of them are perhaps to be found in the various classes of ,bantu nouns that have not yet been fully explained by philologists4 ,in any case the classification of these nouns is probably no arbitrary association of purely formal significance4 ,it is based on some archaic experience1 which has grouped #bb together various objects often to us utterly dissimilar3 the connecting links escape us4#bb4a ,among other peoples in parts of the earth remote from one another categories have been discovered associating and dissociating acts and modes of feeling1 and apportioning their environment in unexpected ways4 ,such categories must react on mentality to an extent that we can hardly measure4 ,they form part of the traditional presuppositions of thought4 ,they are the framework in which ideas are grouped4 ,we1 who have gradually elaborated and established through generations of increasing discovery and invention a habit of regarding everything from a more or less scientific standpoint1 have acquired a series of presuppositions of an entirely different character4 ,to the educated classes of ,europe and ,america they in their turn have become traditional4 ,they are the axioms from which we argue4 ,every new experience must be fitted into the framework thus supplied1 otherwise we cannot logically interpret it4 ,at the best we may make for it what has been wittily called a watertight compartment4 ,men of the lower culture brought suddenly into contact with civilization and civilized ideas experience a corresponding difficulty4 ,missionaries are often in despair over their converts' relapses4 ,these relapses are occasioned not merely by the difference of moral atmosphere1 but quite as much by the intellectual abyss between savagery and civilization4 ,christianity and heathenism--the new and the old--are jumbled together in the convert's mind4 ,his traditional modes of thought are as little changed as his outward environment1 and the new ideas are incongruous with them4 ,the result is chaos4 ,so the civilized enquirer into savage belief is constantly brought up in what seems #bc a blind alley4 ,he cannot find the way out1 not because there is not a logical issue1 but because the landscape is unfamiliar4 ,he attempts to adapt the thoughts of the savage1 so far as he has seized them1 to his own totally different mental framework2 and they are refractory4 ,not until the effort is abandoned1 and patient1 unprejudiced search has discovered the true pattern of the puzzle1 will it be solved4 ,for it needs a considerable apprenticeship to enable the observer1 in ,miss ,kingsley's phrase1 to 8think black10 to understand the logic of 8black0 thought1 and accurately1 or at least approximately1 to reproduce its process and aims4 ,when we are told1 therefore1 by a writer whom ,i cited a few pages back that the relation of cause and effect in all but the most patent and mechanical cases is beyond the grasp of the ,west ,african ,bantu1 that statement must be taken with some qualification4 ,it should be explained that it is the relation of cause and effect according to our ideas and our reasoning that is beyond the native grasp1 because our axioms are unknown to him2 he reasons from quite another set of logical presuppositions4 ,to change the figure1 he is a child1 but a child familiar only with what we deem a topsy-turvy world1 though it is the same world from which we ourselves emerged long ago4 ,if we would comprehend him we must painfully climb down into that world again1 breathe its air1 familiarize ourselves with its scenes of wonder and of terror1 and make intimate companions of all its strange inhabitants4 ,thus and thus only can we recover the clue that will lead us safely through the shadowy forests and haunted valleys and over the primeval mountain-tops of native thought4 ,then we shall find that the savage is not so irrational as we have thought him1 and that in his wildest divergence from our #bd methods of reasoning he has a method of his own--a method followed once upon a time by our own ancestors1 a method from which the peasantry of many a ,european country is not yet wholly emancipated4 ,this is to 8think black40 ,it is not everybody who can do it3 it requires more sympathy and insight than are given to all men4 ,above all1 it requires patience1 long and close contact with the native1 and the persistent and self-abandoning endeavour to penetrate his thoughts4 ,some missionaries have achieved it1 some travellers1 some traders1 some colonists1 some government officials4 ,too many of them1 alas6 have only skimmed the surface of the native mind4 ,even the latter1 however1 though they have failed to read the underlying meaning of what they saw1 have sometimes taught us what to look for4 ,to that extent the modern school of anthropology is founded on their observations4 ,the training now given in anthropology at the universities and elsewhere utilizes and criticizes the reports of all observers1 as well as the conclusions drawn from them by anthropologists at home4 ,that training is of material assistance in fitting new labourers out for fresh fields of enquiry1 or for working over again those fields which have been hitherto imperfectly reaped by ill-equipped enquirers4 ,in some measure it supplies the place of longer preliminary intercourse with the man of lower culture2 and it has the advantage that it teaches the student what kind of phenomenon to expect--an advantage perhaps not unaccompanied by dangers of its own4 ,be that as it may1 the information of all kinds1 good1 bad1 and indifferent1 already at our service on the subject of the religions of the lower culture has been and is still being subjected to ruthless comparison and criticism4 ,the result of this constant sifting is to put us in #be possession of a considerable body of material for a sane judgement in regard to some of the beliefs of tribes in various parts of the world and to help us forward on the track of others4 ,we no longer summarily deny the possession of religion to tribes whose practices we do not understand4 ,we no longer attempt to docket beliefs imperfectly apprehended under headings applicable only to the highly developed and literary theology of ,europe4 ,we lie under a more insidious temptation--that of the too rapid generalization of the beliefs of the lower culture1 for which the groundwork may not as yet exist4 ,but we are learning the lesson that only by unwearied investigation1 diligent observation1 sympathetic enquiry without prepossession1 can we attain to a real grasp of the protean ideas and half-formulated speculations of savage minds4 ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,religion ,,and ,,magic #bf ,i4 ,the ,common ,root ,thus forewarned of the difficulties and dangers of our path1 let us proceed to enquire whether there are any general ideas relating to religion disseminated among men in the lower stages of culture1 that either are themselves primitive1 or can have been derived from an earlier condition of thought discoverable by us4 ,the religious practices of savage and barbarous peoples are largely based upon ideas which anthropologists have agreed to group together under the comprehensive title of animism4 ,animism is1 to quote ,sir ,edward ,tylor1 who was the first to investigate the subject and to use the word in this sense1 8the groundwork of the philosophy of religion1 from that of savages up to that of civilized man40#bf4a ,as he uses the word1 it expresses the doctrine which attributes a living and often a separable soul--a soul in any case distinct from the body--alike to human beings1 to the lower animals and plants1 and even to inanimate objects4 ,let us note1 however1 that this soul is not necessarily immaterial4 ,the refined conception of the soul1 which we have received from the ,greek philosophers1 belongs not to the savage4 ,to him1 as to the average man of civilization1 the notion of an absolutely immaterial being would seem to be unthinkable4 ,at all #bg events it has hardly occurred to him4 ,the soul1 to him1 may be thin as a vapour1 oftentimes invisible as the air2 at other times it takes a visible and even tangible form4 ,so far as it is connected with what we know as a living body1 the ordinary1 familiar form and substance1 it is the principle of life4 ,but it is capable of existing independently of the body1 at least for a time4 ,the body1 on the other hand1 is also capable of continuing to exist1 and even to live1 though not in full health and vigour1 for a time without the soul2 but a lengthened separation usually means death4 ,this1 without taking account of details varying from culture to culture and people to people1 may be described as the outline of the savage doctrine of the soul1 reduced as nearly as may be into the terms in which we think4 ,beyond this1 and probably as a development of it1 is the belief in spirits1 beings frequently vague and shadowy1 sometimes regarded as more substantial1 sometimes inhabiting objects and persons known and definite1 at other times unattached1 but in all cases of more or less power1 which may be exercised to the advantage or to the detriment of their human fellows1 or perhaps subordinates4 ,the distinction between spirits and gods is not very easy to formulate1 and need not for our present purpose trouble us4 ,animism thus conceived is1 it is obvious1 too complex and elaborate to be really primitive4 ,it appears to be itself derived from a simpler and earlier conception1 whereby man attributes to all the objects of external nature life and personality4 ,in other words1 the external world is first interpreted by the savage thinker in the terms of his own consciousness2 animism1 or the distinction of soul and body1 is a development necessitated by subsequent observation and the train of reasoning which that observation awakens4 #bh ,primitive man is so far away from us1 not merely in time but in thought1 that we find it difficult to imagine his attempts to grapple with the interpretation of external phenomena4 ,what waves of desire1 of curiosity1 of wonder1 of awe1 of terror1 of hope1 of bewilderment must have rolled through the sluggish dawn of his intellect6 ,as he struggled in his little communities 7tiny by comparison with ours7 with the evolution of speech1 how did those various and perhaps ill-defined emotions come to utterance8 ,he was not naturally speculative4 ,savage man even now is not1 as a rule1 speculative1 though1 as we have seen in the preceding essay1 observers who have had opportunities of comparison have noted differences in this respect between one people and another4 ,everything primitive man saw1 everything he heard or felt must have struck his mind primarily in relation to himself--or rather to the community 7the food-group1 as it has been called71 of which the individual formed a part1 to its dangers and its needs4 ,the personal element would dominate his thoughts1 and must have found expression in his words4 ,as a matter of fact1 it forms everywhere the basis of language4 ,hence it was impossible for man to interpret external phenomena in any other than personal terms4 ,this necessity may have been an inheritance from a pre-human stage1 since there is reason to think that the lower animals project their own sensations to other animals1 and even to objects without life4 ,yet to fix the objective personalities that primitive man thought he saw and felt about him must have taken time and observation4 ,not all objects claimed his attention in the same degree or with the same insistence4 ,some would stand out aggressively1 would fill him with a sense of power manifested in ways that seemed analogous with his own4 ,others would long remain comparatively unregarded1 #bi until something happened which aroused his interest4 ,his attitude was first of all and intensely practical1 not contemplative4 ,his fellow-men1 the animals he hunted1 the trees whose branches he saw waving in the breeze1 the sun and moon overhead going their daily rounds--to all these he would early attach significance3 they would easily yield the personal quality4 ,but what of the pools1 the hills1 the rocks1 and so forth8 ,there must have been many things that long abode in the twilight of perception--many things upon which reflection was not yet concentrated4 ,the ,north ,american ,indian lays a tribute of tobacco at the foot of any strange rock whose form strikes him as he goes by1 or strews his gift upon the waters of the lake or stream that bears his canoe4 ,on the top of every pass in the ,cordilleras of ,south ,america and of every pass in the mountains of ,china the native leaves a token still more trivial4 ,it may be that his earliest forefather1 who set the example of such an offering1 did so without any definite conception of a personality behind the phenomenon1 but1 smitten by fear or awe1 simply sought1 by the means familiar to him in the case of known personal beings1 to conciliate whatever power might lurk beneath an unwonted form4 ,and although a comparatively definite conception of a personality might in time crystallize1 to be transformed later by the evolution of animism into the idea of a spirit1 yet there must always have remained1 after all these crystallizations1 the vague and formless ,unknown1 confronted in all its more prominent manifestations through the medium of an undefined dread of power which might at any time be revealed from it4 ,in this relation of the personal and the impersonal lies1 as it seems to me1 the secret of primitive philosophy1 if philosophy it may be called1 all un-selfconscious as #cj it must have been4 ,there is no written record of man's earliest guesses at the meaning of the universe4 ,whatever they were1 they were limited to his immediate surroundings and the relation of these surroundings to himself4 ,we must judge of them as they are represented in the beliefs and actions of modern1 or at all events much later1 savages and in those of great historic nations4 ,for all scientific enquirers are agreed that the history of the human mind has been that of a slow evolution from something lower than the lowest savagery known to-day1 that it has not everywhere evolved in the same way or to the same degree1 and that the course it has taken has left traces1 discoverable by close inspection1 upon every mental product and in every civilization throughout the world4 ,the testimony on which we have to rely in the investigation is of the most various value1 and often most difficult of interpretation4 ,its difficulties and defects have already been touched upon2 nor do ,i propose further to consider them now4 ,the minute examination and relentless criticism to which it has been subjected have revealed its weakness2 they have also revealed its strength4 ,they have left a solid body of evidence from which we may cautiously but confidently reason4 ,what can we learn from it on the point under discussion8 ,the first thing to be noticed is the fluidity of the savage concept of personality4 ,it is not confined within the bounds of one stable and relatively unchangeable body4 ,you may quite easily be transformed1 like the hero of ,apuleius' tale1 into an ass4 ,your next-door neighbour1 for whom you have the profoundest respect as a prosperous man of business and a churchwarden of exemplary piety1 may startle you some morning with a sudden change into a noisy little street-arab1 not a tenth #ca of his own portly dimensions1 turning a wheel all down his garden path1 or into a melancholy cow cropping a bare pittance of grass from his closely trimmed lawn4 ,he and his magnificent wife may even become1 like ,philemon and ,baucis1 an oak and a lime-tree before your eyes1 or a pair of standing stones upon the moor4 ,none of these metamorphoses would be accounted impossible by peoples in the lower culture4 ,to them the essential incident of the tale of ,dr ,jekyll and ,mr ,hyde would be mere commonplace4 ,the personality which they have known running in one mould can1 in their opinion1 be directed into1 and will run as freely in1 another mould1 and yet be the same4 ,so hard do such archaic beliefs die1 that in remote parts of our own country it is still firmly believed that a witch may assume the form of a hare1 and if any bold sportsman succeed in wounding the animal1 the injury will afterwards be found on the witch's proper person1 testifying beyond dispute to the preservation of her individuality under the temporary change of shape and species4 ,shape-shifting1 as it is called1 may even take place by means of death and a new birth without loss of identity4 ,miss ,kingsley tells us that in ,west ,africa 8the new babies as they arrive in the family are shown a selection of small articles belonging to deceased members whose souls are still absent3 the thing the child catches hold of identifies him4 #8,why1 he's ,uncle ,john2 see6 he knows his own pipe'2 or #8,that's ,cousin ,emma2 see6 she knows her market calabash1' and so on40#ca4a ,this belief and corresponding practices are found over a large part of the world4 ,nor is it necessary that the deceased should be born again in human form1 or even of the same sex4 ,a group of tribes in ,central ,australia #cb have elaborated the doctrine of re-birth to an unusual degree4 ,two of the tribes1 the ,warramunga and ,urabunna1 definitely hold1 if we may trust our authorities1 that the sex changes with each successive birth4#cb4a ,a ,mongolian tale relates that a certain ,khotogait prince1 having been beheaded for conspiracy against the ,chinese ,emperor1 twice reappeared as a child of the ,empress1 and was identified by the cicatrice on his neck4 ,both children were destroyed1 and he was then born as a hairless bay mare1 whose hide is still preserved4#cb4b ,in the same way1 fish1 fruit1 worms1 stones1 any object indeed1 may1 if it can once 7no matter how7 enter the body of a woman1 be born again and become human4 ,as developed by animism1 the doctrine of a new birth has become what we know as that of the ,transmigration of ,souls1 which has played a part in more religions and more philosophies than one4#cb4c ,moreover1 detached portions of the person1 as locks of hair1 parings of finger-nails1 and so forth1 are not dead inert matter4 ,they are still endued with the life of their original owner4 ,nay1 garments once worn1 or other objects which have been in intimate contact with a human being1 are penetrated by his personality1 remain as it were united with him for good and ill4 ,it would be no exaggeration to say of this belief that it is universal4 ,upon it rests much of the practice of witchcraft1 as well as of the medicine of the lower culture4 ,the cleft ash through which a child has been drawn for the cure of infantile hernia1 bound up and allowed to grow together1 continues to sympathize with him in health and sickness #cc as though part of his own body4 ,in ancient ,greece maidens on their marriage offered their veils to ,hera1 the goddess who favoured marriage and aided childbirth2#cc4a and ,athenian women who became pregnant for the first time used to hang up their girdles in the temple of ,artemis4 ,these customs were not mere acts of homage2 they had a practical intention4 ,some votive offerings may perhaps be interpreted as surrogates of human sacrifice4 ,others1 made when the votary is suffering from sickness1 may be intended to transfer the disease4 ,these explanations are in many cases very questionable2 and a large number of offerings remain that do not easily submit to be thus explained4 ,the ,greek women just mentioned had no disease to be returned to the custody of the goddess1 ready for another victim4 ,in view of future contingencies they placed in her care objects identified with themselves2 they brought into physical touch with her a portion of their own personality4 ,convergence of more than one rite1 similar in outward form but distinct in origin1 has doubtless occurred very often in human history4 ,but the ambiguity which would follow is not always to be traced on a careful analysis4 ,it is obvious1 at all events1 that if an article of my clothing in a witch's hands may cause me to suffer and die1 the same article in contact with a beneficent power may relieve my pain1 restore me to health1 or promote my general prosperity4 ,my shirt or stocking1 or a shred from it1 placed upon a sacred bush1 or thrust into a sacred well--a lock of my hair laid upon a sacred image--my name written upon the walls of a temple--a stone from my hand cast upon a sacred cairn--a remnant of my food thrown into a sacred waterfall or suspended from a sacred tree--a nail #cd driven by my hand into the trunk of a tree--is thenceforth in immediate contact with divinity4 ,it is a portion of my personality enveloped with the sanctity of the divine being2 and so long as it remains there ,i am myself in contact with the same divine being1 whoever he may be1 and derive all the advantages incident to the contact4 ,such beliefs as these are world-wide2 they are a commonplace of anthropology2 and it would be waste of time to multiply examples4 ,they exhibit a concept of personality imperfectly crystallized4 ,it is still fluid and vague1 only to become entirely definite under the influence of trained reason and larger and more scientific knowledge4 ,but1 such as it is1 there is behind and around it the still vaguer1 the unlimited territory of the ,impersonal1 because the ,unknown4 ,every object on which the attention has been fixed1 every object1 therefore1 that may be said to be known1 has its own personality--every object1 whether living1 or1 according to our ideas1 not-living4 ,what remains is the stuff out of which personalities are formed as it is gradually reduced into relations with the savage observer4 ,these personalities do not necessarily correspond even to anything objective4 ,they may be creations of the excited imagination4 ,it is sufficient for the savage that they seem to be1 and to have a relation to himself which he cannot otherwise interpret4 ,his emancipation from this state of mind is slow1 though among some peoples in the lower culture it is more perceptible than among others4 ,but it leaves its traces everywhere--there1 most of all1 where emotion is most acute and permanent1 where hopes and fears are most overwhelming1 in the sphere of religion4 ,now every personality is endowed with qualities which enable it to persist1 to influence others1 and even to #ce overcome1 subjugate1 and destroy them for its own ends4 ,no more than ourselves could the primeval savage avoid being influenced and often overmatched by the charm and wiles of woman1 the wisdom of the elders of his horde1 the dauntless might of the warrior4 ,the non-human personalities with which he came in contact possessed qualities not less remarkable than those of the human4 ,the strength1 the fierceness1 the agility of the lion1 the speed of the antelope1 the cunning of the fox1 the lofty forms and endurance of the forest trees1 their response to every breath of wind1 and the kindly shelter they yielded to birds and beasts and men1 the fantastic forms and stern patience of the rocks1 the smooth and smiling treachery of the lake1 the gentle murmur and benign largess of the river1 the splendour1 the burning heat of the sun1 the changeableness and movement of the clouds are a few of the more obvious qualities attached to the myriad personalities with which men found themselves environed4 ,these personalities and their qualities would impress them all the more because of the mystery that perpetually masked them4 ,mystery magnified them4 ,hence every non-human personality was apt to be conceived in larger than human terms1 and its qualities were larger than human4 ,i do not pause here to adduce illustrations of this attitude towards the objects surrounding mankind4 ,in any event it would of course be impossible to illustrate it from prehistoric1 not to say primeval1 ages4 ,it is characteristic of modern savages wherever an intimate acquaintance enables the civilized observer to penetrate into their arcana4 ,some of them have got no further2 others have advanced to the full stage of animism4 ,reference may be made to any work in which the life and ideas of a savage tribe are depicted4 #cf ,not merely was every personality1 human and other1 endowed with qualities1 but by virtue of those qualities it possessed a potentiality and an atmosphere of its own4 ,the successful warrior and huntsman by more than his successes1 by his confidence and his brag1 his readiness to quarrel and his vindictiveness1 or the many-wintered elder1 wise and slow to wrath1 experienced in war and forestry1 of far-reaching purpose and subtle in execution1 would be enshrined in a belief in his powers1 surrounded with a halo of which we still see a dim1 a very dim1 reflection in the touching regard entertained for a political leader or the worship paid to an ecclesiastical dignitary4 ,nor would this atmosphere surround only important or successful men4 ,everyone is conscious of powers of some sort1 and everyone would attribute to others capabilities larger or smaller4 ,some would possess in their own consciousness and in the eyes of their fellows a very small modicum of power for good or evil4 ,the mere glance or voice of others would inspire terror or confidence4 ,this potentiality1 this atmosphere would often cling with greater intensity to non-human beings1 objective or imaginary4 ,the snake1 the bird1 the elephant1 the sun1 the invisible wind1 the unknown wielder of the lightning1 would be richly endowed4 ,none1 human or non-human1 would 7in theory1 at least7 be wholly without it4 ,the ,iroquoian tribes of ,north ,america possess a word which exactly expresses this potentiality1 this atmosphere1 which they believe inheres in and surrounds every personality4 ,they call it orenda4 ,a fine hunter is one whose orenda is fine1 superior in quality4 ,when he is successful he is said to baffle or thwart the orenda of the quarry2 when unsuccessful1 the game is said to have foiled or outmatched his orenda4 ,a person who defeats #cg another in a game of skill or chance is said to overcome his orenda4 8,at public games or contests of skill or endurance1 or of swiftness of foot1 where clan is pitted against clan1 phratry against phratry1 tribe against tribe1 or nation against nation1 the shamans--men reputed to possess powerful orenda--are employed for hire by the opposing parties respectively to exercise their orenda to thwart or overcome that of their antagonists10 and thus secure victory4 ,so1 when a storm is brewing1 it 7the storm-maker7 is said to be preparing its orenda2 when it is ready to burst1 it has finished1 has prepared its orenda4 ,similar expressions are used for a man or one of the lower animals when in a rage4 ,a prophet or soothsayer is one who habitually puts forth his orenda1 and has thereby learned the secrets of the future4 ,the orenda of shy birds and other animals which it is difficult to ensnare or kill is said to be acute or sensitive--that is1 in detecting the presence of the hunter1 whether man or beast4 ,anything reputed to have been instrumental in obtaining some good or accomplishing some end is said to possess orenda4 ,of one who1 it is believed1 has died from witchcraft it is said1 8,an evil orenda has struck him40#cg4a ,among the ,algonkian and ,siouan tribes are found beliefs that seem to go behind this personal but mystic potentiality to its source in the ,unknown1 the ,impersonal4 ,the ,algonkian word expressive of the idea is manitou4 ,the early ,french missionaries1 who were the first to make it known to us1 interpreted it of a personal being--,god or the ,devil1 they hardly knew which4 ,they were reading into it their own more highly crystallized beliefs4 ,as in the case of orenda1 we are fortunate in having the term more accurately defined for us by a descendant #ch of the native tribes1 who may be presumed to have been better equipped by inheritance and early associations to understand ,algonkian thought than the ,jesuit ,fathers were4 8,the ,algonkin conception of the manitou10 he tells us1 8is bound up with the manifold ideas that flow from an unconscious relation with the outside world4''' ,the term manitou is a religious word2 it carries with it the idea of solemnity2 and whatever the association it always expresses a serious attitude1 and kindles an emotional sense of mystery4''' ,the essential character of ,algonkin religion is a pure1 nave worship of nature4 ,in one way or another associations cluster about an object and give it a certain potential value2 and because of this supposed potentiality the object becomes the recipient of an adoration4 ,the degree of the adoration depends in some measure upon the extent of confidence reposed in the object1 and upon its supposed power of bringing pleasure or inflicting pain4 ,the important thing with the individual is the emotional effect experienced while in the presence of the object1 or with an interpreted manifestation of the object4 ,the individual keeps watch for the effect1 and it is the effect that fills the mind with a vague sense of something strange1 something mysterious1 something intangible4 ,one feels it as the result of an active substance1 and one's attitude toward it is purely passive4 ,to experience a thrill is authority enough of the existence of the substance4 ,the sentiment of its reality is made known by the fact that something has happened4 ,it is futile to ask an ,algonkin for an articulate definition of the substance1 partly because it would be something about which he does not concern himself1 and partly because he is quite satisfied with only the sentiment of its existence4 ,he feels that the property is everywhere1 is omnipresent4 ,the feeling that it is #ci omnipresent leads naturally to the belief that it enters into everything in nature2 and the notion that it is active causes the mind to look everywhere for its manifestations4 ,these manifestations assume various forms2 they vary with individuals and with reference to the same and different objects4 8,language affords means of approaching nearer to a definition of this religious sentiment4 ,in the ,algonkin dialects of the ,sauk1 ,fox1 and ,kickapoo1 a rigid distinction of gender is made between things with life and things without life4''' ,accordingly1 when they refer to the manitou in the sense of a virtue1 a property1 an abstraction1 they employ the form expressive of inanimate gender4 ,when the manitou becomes associated with an object1 then the gender becomes less definite4''' 8,when the property becomes the indwelling element of an object1 then it is natural to identify the property with animate being4 ,it is not necessary that the being shall be the tangible representative of a natural object40 ,this the writer illustrates from the account given by a ,fox ,indian of the sweat-lodge1 in the course of which he observes3 8,the manitou comes from the place of his abode in the heated stone1 ''' when the water is sprinkled on it4 ,it comes out in the steam1 and in the steam it enters the body wherever it finds entrance4 ,it moves up and down and all over inside the body1 driving out everything that inflicts pain4 ,before the manitou returns to the stone it imparts some of its nature to the body4 ,that is why one feels so well after having been in the sweat-lodge40 ,the writer's comment on this is instructive4 8,the sentiment10 he says1 8behind the words rests upon the consciousness of a belief in an objective presence2 it rests on the sense of an existing reality with the quality of self-dependence2 it rests on the perception of a definite1 #dj localized personality4 ,yet at the same time there is the feeling that the apprehended reality is without form and without feature4 ,this is the dominant notion in regard to the virtue abiding in the stone of the sweat-lodge2 it takes on the character of conscious personality with some attributes of immanence and design40 ,but further1 as the manitou--this mystic1 all-pervasive property or substance--on investing an object acquires conscious personality1 so also 8it is natural to confuse the property0--the manitou--8with an object containing10 or invested with1 8the property40 8,it is no trouble for an ,algonkin to invest an object with the mystic substance1 and then call the object by the name of the substance4 ,the process suggests a possible explanation of how an ,algonkin comes to people his world with manitou forces different in kind and degree2 it explains in some measure the supernatural performances of mythological beings1 the beings that move in the form of men1 beasts1 birds1 fishes1 and other objects of nature4 ,all these are a collection of agencies4 ,each possesses a virtue in common with all the rest1 and in so far do they all have certain marks of agreement4 ,where one differs from another is in the nature of its function1 and in the degree of the possession of the cosmic substance4 ,but the investment of a common mystic virtue gives them all a common name1 and that name is manitou40 ,the conclusion is 8that there is an unsystematic belief in a cosmic mysterious property which is believed to be existing everywhere in nature2 that the conception of the property can be thought of as impersonal1 but that it becomes obscure and confused when the property becomes identified with objects in nature2 that it manifests itself in various forms2 and that its emotional effect awakens a sense of mystery2 that there is a lively #da appreciation of its miraculous efficacy2 and that its interpretation is not according to any regular rule1 but is based on one's feelings rather than on one's knowledge40#da4a ,whatever differences an exact analysis1 in accordance with the clearly cut methods of scientific thought1 may result in discovering between the concept of manitou as here displayed and the ,iroquoian orenda1 two resemblances stand out prominently4 ,orenda is1 like manitou1 a mystic1 or magical--not a natural--quality or potentiality1 which resides in some persons or objects in greater measure than others4 ,and the fact that it is 8held to be the property of all things1 all bodies1 and by the inchoate mentation of man is regarded as the efficient cause of all phenomena1 all the activities of his environment10#da4b approximates the conception very closely to that of manitou4 ,when we turn to the ,omaha1 a ,siouan tribe1 we find a concept hardly distinguishable from that of the ,algonkins4 ,here again we have the advantage of native help4 ,mr ,francis ,la ,flesche1 the son of a former chief of the tribe1 is jointly responsible for an exhaustive monograph on the ,omaha with ,miss ,alice ,fletcher1 whose knowledge of this and neighbouring tribes is among investigators of ,european descent unrivalled4 ,we may therefore rely upon their exposition with confidence equal to that we have given to those already cited on the ,iroquois and the ,algonkins4 8,an invisible and continuous life was believed10 they tell us1 8to permeate all things1 seen and unseen4 ,this life manifests itself in two ways3 first1 by causing to move--all motion1 all actions of mind or body are because of this invisible life2 second1 by causing #db permanency of structure and form1 as in the rock1 the physical features of the landscape1 mountains1 plains1 streams1 rivers1 lakes1 the animals and man4 ,this invisible life was also conceived of as being similar to the will-power of which man is conscious within himself--a power by which all things are brought to pass4 ,through this mysterious life and power all things are related to one another and to man1 the seen to the unseen1 the dead to the living1 a fragment of anything to its entirety4 ,this invisible life and power was called ,wakonda4 ,while it was a vague entity1 yet there was an anthropomorphic colouring to the conception1 as is shown in the prayers offered and the manner in which appeals for compassion and help were made1 also in the ethical quality attributed to certain natural phenomena--the regularity of night following day1 of summer winter 7these were recognized as emphasizing truthfulness as a dependable quality and set forth for man's guidance71--and in the approval by ,wakonda of certain ethical actions on the part of mankind40#db4a 8,there is therefore10 the writers tell us in another place1 8no propriety in speaking of ,wakonda as #8the ,great ,spirit4' ,equally improper would it be to regard the term as a synonym of nature1 or of an objective god1 a being apart from nature4 ,it is difficult to formulate the native idea expressed in this word4 ,the ,european mind demands a kind of intellectual crystallization of conceptions1 which is not essential to the ,omaha1 and which1 when attempted1 is apt to modify the original meaning40 ,but while the concept appears to be vague and impersonal1 inasmuch as human conditions were projected upon nature1 8certain anthropomorphic attributes were ascribed to it1 approximating to a kind of #dc personality40 ,moreover1 8there is a distinction in the ,omaha mind between varying meanings of the word wakonda4 ,the ,wakonda addressed in the tribal prayer and in the tribal religious ceremonies which pertain to the welfare of all the people is the ,wakonda that is the permeating life of visible nature--an invisible life and power that reaches everywhere and everything1 and can be appealed to by man to send him help4 ,from this central idea of a permeating life comes1 on the one hand1 the application of the word wakonda to anything mysterious or inexplicable1 be it an object or an occurrence2 and1 on the other hand1 the belief that the peculiar gifts of an animate or inanimate form can be transferred to man4 ,the means by which this transference takes place is mysterious and pertains to ,wakonda1 but is not ,wakonda4 ,so the media--the shell1 the pebble1 the thunder1 the animal1 the mythic monster--may be spoken of as wakondas1 but they are not regarded as the ,wakonda40#dc4a ,like the ,algonkian manitou1 the ,siouan wakonda is thus seen to hover between the ,personal and the ,impersonal1 whereas the ,iroquoian orenda clings about persons and things4 ,yet it is applied in an adjectival form by various ,siouan tribes to medicine-men1 to the sacred pipe1 to the sleight-of-hand tricks performed by the medicine-men or jugglers1 and apparently to anyone who displays unusual qualities or powers4 ,thus it is used for a man who is extraordinarily stingy1 to a man who has a habit of loud and rapid speech1 to one who is a hard1 almost an unmerciful1 rider1 to a child who speaks or walks for the first time and has thus manifested a new and individual power to act4 ,a woman during her menstrual period is wakan2 to perform acts of worship is to make wakan2 the secret society among the ,dakotas #dd which is the depository of their mysteries is wakanwacipi1 the sacred dance4 ,in these cases the word conveys the sense not only of mysterious1 powerful1 wonderful1 but also of sacred1 spiritual1 taboo4 ,and a ,ponka medicine-man once told the late ,j4 ,o4 ,dorsey1 8,i am a wakanda40#dd4a ,equivalent ideas and expressions are used by other ,american tribes4 ,supernatural power impresses the ,tlingit1 for example1 8as a vast immensity1 one in kind and impersonal1 inscrutable as to its nature1 but whenever manifesting itself to men1 taking a personal1 and it might be said a human personal1 form in whatever object it displays itself4 ,thus the sky-spirit is the ocean of supernatural energy as it manifests itself in the sky1 the sea-spirit as it manifests itself in the sea1 the bear-spirit as it manifests itself in the bear1 the rock-spirit as it manifests itself in the rock1 etc4 ,it is not meant that the ,tlingit consciously reasons this out thus1 or formulates a unity in the supernatural1 but such appears to be his unexpressed feeling4 ,for this reason there is but one name1 yk1 a name which is affixed to any specific personal manifestation of it4''' ,this supernatural energy must be carefully differentiated from natural energy and never confused with it4 ,it is true that the former is supposed to bring about results similar to the latter1 but in the mind of the ,tlingit the conceived difference between these two is as great as with us4 ,a rock rolling downhill or an animal running is by no means a manifestation of supernatural energy1 although if something peculiar be associated with these actions1 something outside of the ,indian's usual experience of such phenomena1 they may be thought of as such40 ,on the other hand1 and here we approach the ,iroquoian idea1 8the number of #de spirits yk with which this world was peopled was simply limitless4''' ,there is said to have been a spirit in every trail on which one travelled1 and one around every fire2 one was connected with everything one did40 ,the writer whom ,i am quoting goes on to give a large number of instances showing that the heavenly bodies1 the wind1 the sea1 mountains1 lakes1 trees1 animals1 in short1 all things1 were addressed1 to conciliate them1 to render them friendly1 to acquire some gift or advantage1 were treated with reverence or with magical intent4 ,and of course the medicine-men or shamans were the special favourites of the spirits1 and were endowed with power which they often matched against one another4#de4a ,thus we have in these ,north ,american ideas two distinct conceptions--the possession of what ,i have called a potentiality or atmosphere of its own by the individual personality1 whether human or non-human2 and the impersonal1 mysterious1 undefined reservoir of power in the universe as conceived by the savage4 ,these two conceptions are not mutually exclusive1 for the impersonal power is often held to be the source of the personal power or potentiality4 ,as among the ,american ,indian tribes1 so elsewhere they are differently emphasized by different peoples4 ,the ,bantu of the ,lower ,congo basin emphasize the impersonal conception4 ,according to the ,bafiote1 the first ages of the world were ruled by ,nzambi1 though whether he made everything seems a matter of doubt4 ,when he retired from active interference in the concerns of men1 he left behind1 or sent1 or there remained in the earth1 ,something4 ,indeed1 it seems to be believed that ,nzambi himself1 or his power1 his vital and creative energy1 is still in earth and water1 in the air1 in plants1 animals and men4 ,in any case1 the ,something remaining #df on earth since ,nzambi's outward and visible departure is or has ,lunynsu4 ,the concept of ,lunynsu is that of natural force1 vital energy1 power of increase1 in short1 the ,all-ruling1 the ,highest1 that penetrates every living thing4 ,it is not life1 but an activity bound up with life1 its manifestation1 its condition4 ,a crippled limb does not possess it1 and with death it ceases entirely1 it is gone4 ,the ,something1 however1 which either is or has ,lunynsu is even wider than this4 ,it is represented by ,bu-nssi 7probably the older name7 or ,mkissi-nssi4 ,the latter means the supernatural or magical power of the earth1 and seems to be due to the later overgrowth of fetishism4 ,the former conveys the idea of the force1 the energy of earth4 ,in any case it is not to be confounded with fetish-power1 for it is revered as fetish-power is not1 nor with the earth-spirit1 for the ,bafiote know no elemental spirits4 ,it must be conceived as the terrestrial energy1 the all-permeating creative force1 the all-wielding1 the fertility1 the becoming4 ,hence there is a sacredness attaching to the earth2 and connected as the earth is with the idea of fecundity and the operations of agriculture1 and as it is an inseparable condition of life1 these all form a foundation for the right to the soil1 for hospitality and the relations of the sexes4 ,the indefiniteness of ,bu-nssi is shown by the fact that the natives themselves are not agreed whether it is one or many4 ,in fact1 in the use of its synonym1 ,mkissi1 the plural form--and what is significant1 the plural personal form--is often heard4 ,opinion wavers as the needs or the excitement of the moment may demand1 or perhaps as tradition wavers with changing mental environment4 ,but those who claim the older faith or the deeper insight adhere to the statement that there is but one ,mkissi-nssi1 even ,bu-nssi4 ,thus the conception of ,bu-nssi roughly corresponds #dg with that of the reservoir of power we have already found among the ,omaha and other tribes4 ,on the other hand1 the ,bafiote hold that everything in nature has its peculiar property1 everything is pervaded by forces4 ,all things influence one another by visible deeds of power or in secret-wise4 ,hence are evolved manifold relations1 among which the most important for man are those that extend to his person4 ,the effect of physical forces is obvious4 ,but experience teaches that there are other forces that are efficacious1 although the process is not always understood4 ,such forces as these act without immediate and perceptible contact4 ,so at least the wise men believe1 and they act accordingly4 ,how it happens they do not bother their heads4 ,it is so1 and that is enough4 ,if it were otherwise they could not explain the events that happen4 ,here is1 in something more than germ1 the ,iroquoian orenda4 ,but the more sensual ,bafiote1 whether from their own nature and social organization1 or from the tropical environment in which they live1 are preoccupied with the relations of the various forces thus permeating all things4 ,these forces are misused4 ,prudence and activity1 strength of limb and skill do not suffice2 far too much evil occurs among them4 ,the ,bafiote are obsessed1 like all the ,african peoples1 with the idea of witchcraft4 ,they must be protected against it4 ,power is therefore matched against power1 spell against spell4 ,if there were not thoroughly wicked men who sought openly or secretly to injure others1 fetishes would hardly be needed4 ,by the use of fetishes they seek to master the forces of which on every side they see indications1 and to make them their own4 ,fetishes are not gods4 ,there is nothing spiritual1 nothing independent of men1 about them4 ,they are material objects1 fabricated by art1 so as to embody forces working by mysterious means for the aid #dh or injury of men4 ,the destruction of the fetish involves the annihilation of the forces it embodies1 whereas the existence of a god is in nowise imperilled by the destruction of his image4 ,in short1 fetishes are magical instruments4 ,yet such is the inveterate anthropomorphism of mankind that they do acquire a quasi-personal character1 and tend to be thought of as individual and conscious beings4 ,but they are never worshipped2 the ,fiote has no gods4 ,he has only fetishes1 the incorporation of powers and energies he sees acting around him everywhere4 ,by that incorporation these powers and energies are appropriated for his benefit1 for his particular ends1 or for the ends and benefit of the society of which he is a member4#dh4a ,similar ideas of mysterious force wavering between the personal and the impersonal and permeating all things appear to underlie the ,chinese conceptions of the ,tsing1 or operative energy1 which inspires1 or manifests itself in1 the ,khi1 breath or soul1 to produce the living being4#dh4b ,these ideas have been taken over by the ,annamites1 among whom the ,tinh is 8a fluid1 a force which resides in all things1 and without which no existence can manifest itself10 and is 8the essential principle of all action40 ,uniting with the ,khi1 breath or soul1 it produces 8the life1 the movement1 the beings and the things peopling the world40 ,it is their essential condition4 ,the entire system of magic and religion rests on these ideas4#dh4c ,much the same may be said of the ,japanese ,kami1 probably connected with ,ainu ,kamui4#dh4d ,it is1 however1 unnecessary to discuss #di at length the conceptions involved4 ,they have been elaborated through centuries of civilization and philosophical exposition1 until it is now difficult to determine how much of their present form and content they owe to archaic savagery4 ,let us turn to the ,melanesian islands of the ,south ,pacific4 8,the ,melanesian mind10 says ,dr ,codrington1 8is entirely possessed by the belief in a supernatural power or influence1 called almost universally mana4 ,this is what works to effect everything which is beyond the ordinary power of men1 outside the common processes of nature2 it is present in the atmosphere of life1 attaches itself to persons and to things1 and is manifested by results which can only be ascribed to its operation4 ,when one has got it he can use it and direct it1 but its force may break forth at some new point2 the presence of it is ascertained by proof4 ,a man comes by chance upon a stone which takes his fancy2 its shape is singular1 it is like something1 it is certainly not a common stone1 there must be mana in it4''' ,having that power1 it is a vehicle to convey mana to other stones4''' ,but this power1 though itself impersonal1 is always connected with some person who directs it2 all spirits have it1 ghosts generally1 some men4 ,if a stone is found to have a supernatural power1 it is because a spirit has associated itself with it2 a dead man's bone has with it mana1 because the ghost is with the bone2 a man may have so close a connexion with a spirit or ghost that he has mana in himself also1 and can so direct it as to effect what he desires2 a charm is powerful because the name of a spirit or ghost expressed in the form of words brings into it the power which the ghost or spirit exercises through it4 ,thus all conspicuous success is a proof that a man has mana2 his influence depends on the impression made #ej on the people's mind that he has it2 he becomes a chief by virtue of it4 ,hence a man's power1 though political or social in its character1 is his mana2 the word is naturally used in accordance with the native conception of the character of all power and influence as supernatural4 ,if a man has been successful in fighting1 it has not been his natural strength of arm1 quickness of eye or readiness of resource that has won success2 he has certainly got the mana of a spirit or of some deceased warrior to empower him1 conveyed in an amulet of a stone round his neck1 or a tuft of leaves in his belt1 in a tooth hung upon a finger of his bow-hand1 or in the form of words with which he brings supernatural assistance to his side4 ,if a man's pigs multiply1 and his gardens are productive1 it is not because he is industrious and looks after his property1 but because of the stones full of mana for pigs and yams that he possesses4 ,of course a yam naturally grows when planted2 that is well known2 but it will not be very large unless mana comes into play2 a canoe will not be swift unless mana be brought to bear upon it1 a net will not catch many fish nor an arrow inflict a mortal wound40 ,such a power or influence as this is of course not physical1 though it may show itself 8in physical force or in any kind of power or excellence which a man possesses40 ,finally1 8all ,melanesian religion consists1 in fact1 in getting this mana for one's self1 or getting it used for one's benefit--all religion1 that is1 as far as religious practices go1 prayers and sacrifices40#ej4a 7,the very intention that animates the ,fiote rites of fetishism47 ,it is not easy to formulate a clear idea of the original source of mana4 ,it is said to be impersonal1 to be present in the atmosphere of life and communicable to persons and to things4 ,to that extent it resembles the #ea impersonal power or potentiality we have found elsewhere4 ,but wherever it is manifested it is connected with some personal being who originates and directs it4#ea4a ,it is not a quality inherent in men of more than ordinary power and skill4 8,if a man10 writes ,bishop ,codrington1 8has been successful in fighting1 ''' he has certainly got the mana of a spirit or of some deceased ancestor to empower him40 ,and again3 8,no man has this power of his own2 all that he does is done by the aid of personal beings1 ghosts or spirits2 he cannot be said1 as a spirit can1 to be mana himself1 using the word to express a quality2 he can be said to have mana1 it may be said to be with him1 the word being used as a substantive40#ea4b ,it would thus seem as if it were an essential characteristic not of personal beings--even of powerful personal beings--in general1 but belonging to the world of spirits1 including the spirits of the dead4 ,yet not to all spirits2 for elsewhere we read3 8,it must not be supposed that every ghost becomes an object of worship10 as a source of mana4 8,a man in danger may call upon his father1 his grandfather1 or his uncle2 his nearness of kin is sufficient ground for it4 ,the ghost who is to be worshipped is the spirit of a man who in his lifetime had mana in him2 the souls of common men are the common herd of ghosts1 nobodies alike before and after death4 ,the supernatural power abiding in the powerful living man abides in his ghost after death with increased vigour and more ease of movement40#ea4c ,thus #eb we are found in something like what logicians call a vicious circle4 ,only those ghosts have mana1 or are mana1 after death who had mana in their lifetime4 ,but if they had mana in their lifetime1 it was because they derived it from ghosts or other spirits4 ,in any case mana appears to be conceived of as transcending humanity1 belonging to the mysterious region of the ,unknown1 embodied in its primitive denizens1 flowing from them1 by the channel of material objects 7amulets71 forms of words 7charms7 or names1 to certain human beings1 and taken back by the latter into the same great reservoir of power when they die1 thence to be communicated afresh to favoured mortals1 and so on for ever4 ,probably1 however1 no such definite concept finds a place in the ,melanesian brain2 the mode of savage thought hardly admits of such crystallization4 ,it is likely that mana 7both the word and the meaning7 #ec was introduced into the ,melanesian islands from ,polynesia1 where it is widely spread and the word has numerous derivatives4 ,in seeking there its explanation we are at a disadvantage2 because1 with all their devotion and merits1 no missionary and no scientific enquirer has given us such a study of ,polynesian mentality as ,dr ,codrington has given of that of the ,melanesians4 ,we turn therefore1 in the first place1 to the more dangerous guidance of a dictionary4 ,from that we learn that everywhere mana has the signification of power1 and almost everywhere of supernatural power4 ,it is also defined as influence1 prestige1 honour1 authority2 in ,hawaiian it is used to express1 besides supernatural power such as would be attributed to the gods1 the simpler idea of power1 and also spirit 7in the sense of energy of character71 glory1 majesty1 intelligence--all doubtless secondary meanings4 ,we need not discuss in detail the derivatives in various ,polynesian dialects4 ,their general trend is towards the expression of thought1 opinion or belief1 industry1 vehement desire1 love--all of them activities primarily of the mind or emotions4 ,manava or manawa is a word meaning the belly or internal organs of the body1 then the heart as the seat of affection1 the feelings or emotions1 soul1 conscience1 and in one dialect at least1 an apparition1 a ghost or spirit4 ,mana1 in short1 seems to recall the idea of extraordinary qualities1 especially power1 and the emotional reactions caused by their exhibition4 ,power or energy1 overwhelming1 supernatural1 is evidently the root-idea1 vested in individual1 personal beings4 ,one phrase1 to be sure1 in a ,maori myth suggests the independent possession of this power by an object we should not regard as personal3 ,he taiaha whaimana1 explained by the lexicographer as 8,a wooden sword which has done #ed deeds so wonderful as to possess a sanctity and power of its own40 ,literally it is 8,a sword in which mana is resident40 ,whether this or the parallel ,mangarevan e turuturu mana1 a powerful or magical staff1 really implies an inherent power independent of spiritual origin1 must remain undecided4#ed4a ,we are led to think of the weapons of ,teutonic mythology and romance1 having names as if they were personalities1 and endowed with powers to render their bearers invincible--nay1 when drawn1 to inspire them with ungovernable fury4 ,but in the form in which their stories reach us all such weapons owe their peculiar properties1 like the curse upon the ,nibelung hoard1 to some more than earthly being1 or at least to a mortal wizard4 ,having furnished ourselves with this key1 we may examine some of the incidents of ,polynesian life and religion reported by competent observers4 ,the inauguration ceremony of a ,tahitian king1 we are told by the missionary ,ellis1 consisted in girding him with the maro ura1 or sacred girdle of red feathers4 ,this girdle 8was made with the beaten fibres of the aoa2 with these a number of uru1 red feathers1 taken from the images of their deities1 were interwoven with feathers of other colours4 ,the maro thus became sacred1 even as the person of the gods1 the feathers being supposed to retain all the dreadful attributes of power and vengeance which the idols possessed1 and with which it was designed to endow the king40 ,so potent indeed was it that 8it not only raised him to the highest earthly station1 but identified #ee him with0 the gods4#ee4a ,the same missionary elsewhere relates that 8throughout ,polynesia the ordinary medium of communicating or extending supernatural powers was the red feather of a small bird found in many of the islands and the beautiful long tail-feathers of the tropic or man-of-war bird4 ,for these feathers the gods were supposed to have a strong predilection2 they were the most valuable offerings that could be presented2 to them the power or influence of the gods was imparted1 and through them transferred to the objects to which they might be attached40 ,on certain ceremonial occasions those persons 8who wished their emblems of deity to be impregnated with the essence of the gods1 repaired to the ceremony with a number of red feathers1 which they delivered to the officiating priest4 ,the wooden idols being generally hollow1 the feathers were deposited in the inside of the image1 which was filled with them40 ,when the idols were solid1 the feathers were attached on the outside4 ,to anyone who brought fresh feathers1 two or three of the same kind which had been thus 8united to the god0 at a former festival were given in return4 8,these feathers were thought to possess all the properties of the images to which they had been attached1 and a supernatural influence was supposed to be infused into them4 ,they were carefully wound round with very fine cord1 the extremities alone remaining visible4 ,when this was done1 the new-made gods were placed before the larger images from which they had been taken2 and lest their detachment should induce the god to withhold his power1 the priest addressed a prayer to the principal deities1 requesting them to abide in the red feathers before them4 #ef ,at the close of his ubu1 or invocation1 he declared that they were dwelt in or inhabited 7by the gods71 and delivered them to the parties who had brought the red feathers4 ,the feathers1 taken home1 were deposited in small bamboo-canes1 excepting when addressed in prayer4 ,if prosperity attended their owner1 it was attributed to their influence1 and they were usually honoured with a too1 or image1 into which they were inwrought2 and subsequently1 perhaps1 an altar and a rude temple were erected for them4 ,in the event1 however1 of their being attached to an image1 this must be taken to the large temple1 that the supreme idols might sanction the transfer of their influence40#ef4a ,in the foregoing passages it will be perceived that the missionary is doing something more than describing rites he had no doubt often witnessed2 he is labouring also to translate into ,english and incorporate with his account the explanations he had extracted from his ,polynesian friends4 ,he seems to exhaust his spiritual vocabulary in speaking of 8powers10 8influence10 8the communication of attributes10 of 8the essence of the gods40 ,but when he recalls the words of the priest1 they are even stronger and at the same time simpler than any of these expressions3 the god is prayed to 8abide in0 the feathers2 he is declared to 8inhabit0 them4 ,if these be an accurate translation of the words employed1 it would seem that not merely the power but a portion of the personality of the god passed into the feathers1 and that while his chief residence was still at the great temple where his principal image dwelt1 he was also present whithersoever the bunches of feathers which had been consecrated by deposition within or upon it were carried4 ,he himself inhabited them2 and it was this fact that 8identified0 the king1 as the wearer of such feathers1 with the gods4 #eg ,it may be so4 ,it may be another illustration of the fluidity of the concept of personality4 ,but what we have already learned of mana may lead us to place another interpretation upon it4 ,it was not merely the gods whose influence or personality was conveyed by contact4 ,the king in his turn spread an awful influence in the same way1 or even by the utterance of a word4 ,in ,new ,zealand 8the garments of an ariki1 or high chief1 were tapu1 as well as everything relating to him2 they could not be worn by anyone else1 lest they should kill him40 ,if a single drop of a high chief's blood flowed on anything1 it consecrated the object to him1 or1 as the natives phrased it1 rendered it tapu4 ,this consequence resulted to everything touched by him1 to everything to which he chose to affix his name or the name of one of his ancestors4 ,he could not eat with his wife1 lest his sanctity should kill her1 though she herself was by marriage consecrated to him4 ,nor was the sanctity by any means confined to the highest chiefs4 ,it extended downwards to the lower ranks1 but always in a decreasing measure4 ,it mainly depended on rank and influence2#eg4a it could be none other than the effect of mana4 ,between mana1 however1 and personality the dividing line is very thin4 ,we find it the same in other parts of the world4 ,father ,de ,acosta relates that upon the even of his feast the ,mexican idol ,tezcatlipuca was furnished with a new robe4 ,when it was put on1 the old robe was taken off 8and kept with as much or more reverence than we doe our ornaments40 ,ecclesiastical ornaments of course are meant2 and the writer goes on to say that 8there were in the coffers of the idoll many ornaments1 iewelles1 eareings1 and other riches1 as bracelets and pretious feathers1 which served to no other vse than to be #eh there1 and was sic worshipped as their god it selfe40#eh4a ,here the ornaments would seem to all intents identified with the god1 exactly as the red feathers of the ,tahitian god are 8inhabited0 by him4 ,the explanation of the one is the explanation of the other4 ,the same ambiguity is discoverable in a much higher civilization than either the ,polynesian or the ,mexican4 ,down to the end of the eighteenth century ,breton women1 in order to secure a happy delivery1 used to dip their girdles in certain sacred fountains2 and even to-day the expectant mother who can wrap around her body a ribbon thus dipped is sure in due course to bring into the world a robust child1 and that without danger to herself4#eh4b ,this we may be inclined to think an example of an impersonal power analogous to that of the ,siouan wakonda or the ,algonkian manitou4 ,but we can carry the matter a step further4 ,the ,ursuline nuns of ,quintin keep a girls' school of high reputation in ,brittany4 ,when one of their pupils has married and become pregnant1 they sometimes send her as a special favour a ribbon which has touched a reliquary containing a fragment of the ,virgin ,mary's zone2 and it is worn by the recipient around her waist until her baby is born4#eh4c ,it is not surely misinterpreting the rite to deem that the ,virgin's zone1 having been in contact with her divinity1 has acquired and retains a portion of the mana emanating from her person2 the reliquary in turn is permeated by that mana1 and communicates it to everything that touches it4 ,the worthy nuns probably have no exact theory on the subject2 but a little consideration of the practice will lead us to think that we have understated its meaning4 #ei ,it is the converse case to that of the deposit of clothing and other articles on the shrine or the image of the divine being1 which we have already considered4 ,in the latter case there could be no question of mana conveyed to the god from his votary4 ,moreover1 the true interpretation of the practice must explain the cult of relics of the saints1 whether ,christian1 ,mohammedan1 or ,buddhist4 ,now1 these relics consist not merely of garments and articles of use1 like a staff1 but also of the bodies or fragments of the bodies of the saints4 ,in them a portion of their very personality inheres1 and accounts for the beneficent potentiality residing in the relics1 as it accounts also for the liability to injury by witchcraft upon similar fragments of the body or clothing of ordinary mortals4 ,for ordinary mortals1 whatever their potentiality1 cannot measure it against that of saints and witches4 ,yet human beings who are neither saints nor witches1 and the lower animals also1 have their potentialities1 the benefit of which is capable of being transferred to others4 ,this is one of the reasons for cannibalism4 ,among the ,veddas of ,ceylon1 one of the lowest known peoples1 it is said to have been the custom1 when a man had been killed1 for the slayer to open the body and take out a piece of the liver1 which he would dry in the sun and keep in his pouch4 ,indeed a man was sometimes put to death for the purpose4 ,its object was to make its possessor strong and confident to avenge insults4 ,he would bite off a piece of the dried liver and chew it1 saying to himself3 8,i have killed this man2 why should ,i not be strong and confident and kill this other one who has insulted me80#ei4a ,so the ,turks1 after the death of the ,albanian hero ,scanderbeg1 dug up his body and from his bones constructed amulets to inspire courage into the wearer on #fj the battlefield4#fj4a ,this potentiality may be communicated1 like the ,melanesian mana1 through other objects2 and the possibility has led to certain funeral customs in ,europe as well as elsewhere4 ,after a death in the ,highlands of ,bavaria it was formerly the duty of the housewife to prepare corpse-cakes 7,leichen-nudeln74 ,having kneaded the dough1 she placed it to rise on the dead body1 which lay on a bier enswathed in a linen shroud4 ,when the dough had risen1 the cakes were baked for the expected guests4 ,to the cakes so prepared the belief attached that 8they contained the virtues and advantages of the deceased10 and that his 8living strength passed over into the kinsmen who consumed the cakes1 and was thus retained within the kindred40#fj4b ,the eating of the flesh of animals remarkable for qualities such as ferocity1 strength1 fleetness1 and so forth1 with intent to acquire these qualities is well known4 ,one illustration will be sufficient here4 ,the ,basuto1 before going to war1 make assurance doubly1 trebly sure by a cruel rite4 ,the foreleg of a living bull is cut off4 ,the warriors eat it and are sprinkled with blood from the animal1 which is then killed4 ,they are lanced by the witch-doctor1 and a powder made of the flesh of the bull is rubbed into the wounds4 ,in this way1 namely1 by eating the flesh1 by sprinkling the blood1 and by inoculation1 8the strength and courage of the animal0 are imparted to them4#fj4c ,it appears then that the concept of personality is inseparable from that of the potentiality with which a personality is endowed4 ,hence the ambiguity of the ,tahitian rite4 ,whether the feathers which had been #fa attached to an image retained and transmitted to the next wearer the mana1 or a portion of the personality1 of the god1 the one effect was equivalent to the other3 they are indistinguishable4 ,but between mana and the potentiality that elsewhere invests a personality there is a difference4 ,the latter may be1 and frequently is1 held to be drawn from the common source of power1 the invisible and continuous life that permeates all things2 whereas in ,melanesia 7and perhaps in ,polynesia too7 mana is definitely ascribed only to a personal origin1 if ,dr ,codrington has rightly interpreted the belief4 ,it is the special property of spirits--that is to say1 of supernatural beings--and is communicated by them to whatsoever or whomsoever they will4 ,an important step has thus been taken by the ,melanesian mind towards separating the ,personal from the ,impersonal1 and human from superhuman attributes and potentialities4 ,thus we find in widely separated regions1 among widely different races and in cultures the most diverse1 the idea of mystic power or potentiality1 often concentrated in individual persons or things1 but in effect spread throughout the world4 ,some peoples have been more alive to the impersonal character of this power1 and have ascribed to it1 wherever manifested1 a unity of origin akin to the scientific concept of force behind all phenomena4 ,to others it has assumed a more individual character4 ,it clings in any case to personality and tends to become inseparable from it2 but the impersonal aspect is never wholly wanting4 ,the patient reader will have observed the difficulty experienced alike by scientific explorers and missionaries in expounding this idea in its varied forms and applications4 ,the difficulty has not arisen wholly from its strangeness4 ,it is due in large part to its want of clarity4 ,the savage #fb himself does not know2 he has rarely had occasion1 and still more rarely inclination1 to reflect on his beliefs4 ,he has had no schools of science or philosophy to think out his thoughts for him4 ,hence they are ill defined2 like clouds in the sky1 they take first one shape and then another4 ,yet those very clouds1 by comparison with the formless vapour from whence they have been condensed1 are continents of solidity and definiteness4 ,although the idea of orenda1 or mana1 may not receive everywhere the same explicit recognition1 it is implied in the customs and beliefs of mankind throughout the world4 ,it underlies the practice of ,taboo4 ,we have had already occasion to notice this in reference to the mana of ,maori chiefs4 ,in the population of ,madagascar there is a large1 perhaps a predominant ,polynesian element4 ,when a ,malagasy sticks up in his field a figure or scarecrow to keep off robbers1 it is not that they may dread prosecution with all the rigour of the law1 though that may be the result if they are caught4 ,what is threatened is sickness1 mysteriously induced by the power of the owner of the field1 or by the power which he has caused to be conjured into the scarecrow4#fb4a ,a ,samoan in the same way suspends to a cocoa-nut palm a small figure of a shark made with a leaf of the tree2 it is notice to the robber that he will be inevitably devoured by a white shark the next time he goes to fish4#fb4b ,similar practices prevail in the ,melanesian islands4#fb4c ,taboo has obtained a very prominent position in the social order and government of ,polynesian communities4 ,it is #fc from them that the word has been adopted into ,english parlance1 and adapted to a sense near akin to that of another interesting word--to boycott4 ,but it is not only in ,polynesia and the neighbouring islands of ,melanesia that the dread of a mysterious mana is found1 or that it leads to prohibitions and abstinences often very burdensome4 ,it is unnecessary to adduce examples of the taboos on women1 practically universal in the lower culture at certain times4 ,the ,siberian ,chukchi1 whose fire has gone out on the cold and timberless tundra1 cannot borrow fire from his neighbour1 for 8the fire of a strange family is regarded as infectious and as harbouring strange spirits4 ,fear of pollution extends also to all objects belonging to a strange hearth1 to the skins of the tent and the sleeping room1 and even to the keepers and worshippers of strange penates4 ,the ,chukchi from far inland1 who travel but little1 when they come to a strange territory fear to sleep in tents or to eat meat cooked on a strange fire1 preferring to sleep in the open air and to subsist on their own scant food-supply4 ,on the other hand1 an unknown traveller1 coming unexpectedly to a ,chukchi camp1 can hardly gain admittance to a tent10 a difficulty of which the writer ,i am quoting had personal experience4#fc4a ,this reluctance to contact with strangers is not shyness2 nor is it the dread of hostile intentions4 ,each individual1 each family or body of men1 has its own atmosphere2 and this atmosphere conveys 8pollution40 ,it is only throwing the idea a step backwards to imagine the cause of the pollution as 8strange spirits40 ,spirits are mana2 and it is the mana that is feared--the mystic influence or potentiality that may strike the unwary stranger4 ,this is what issues in practice as the taboo4 ,the subject of ,taboo has been treated so fully by #fd ,professor ,frazer#fd4a that it is needless to discuss it here4 ,moreover1 to do so in any detail would require a volume4 ,suffice it to say that the universal avoidance of a dead body1 the prohibitions observed by priests1 by chiefs1 by hunters and warriors1 the prohibitions of temple and shrine1 of times and seasons1 of speech and act1 may all be traced to the same root-idea4 ,our words sanctity1 pollution1 infection feebly and partially translate the intuitive dread of orenda which is embodied in a taboo4 ,the ,evil ,eye is a striking example of the belief in orenda that has survived into civilized communities4 ,here the whole maleficent potentiality of a person is concentrated in a glance2 and the amulets so often worn on the body or suspended on the wall or at the door of a house are directed to intercepting and so exhausting the influence4 ,in many cases1 either by means of them or by a word or gesture1 a counter-orenda is exercised1 intended to annihilate1 or at least neutralize1 the evil influence4 ,an analogous superstition may be cited from the ,upper ,congo4 ,the ,boloki believe that an occult power is possessed and exercised by many individuals4 ,they call it likundu4 ,like the ,evil ,eye1 its possession and exercise may be unconscious4 8,a person is accused of possessing likundu when he or she is extraordinarily successful in hunting1 fishing1 skilled labour or the accumulation of wealth4 ,there is apparently10 says ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 8only a certain amount of skill extant1 only a certain number of fish to be caught1 only a certain amount of wealth to be gained2 and for a person to excel all others is a proof that he is using evil means #fe to his own advantage1 and in thus defrauding others of their share he lays himself open to the charge of possessing likundu40 ,consequently 8a person who possesses this likundu may unconsciously cause the hunting skill of any hunter in his family to fail40 ,when the charge is seriously made 8it causes much annoyance1 and can only be disproved by either drinking the ordeal or refraining from doing that which has brought the charge10 of which ,mr ,weeks goes on to give an illustration that had come under his own observation4#fe4a ,finally1 what foundation there may be for the modern psychological doctrine of ,telepathy it is not my business to determine4 ,but its resemblance to the ,iroquoian doctrine of orenda may be pointed out here4 ,telepathic communication may result from conscious or unconscious exertion of will2 it may occur at a supreme crisis of fate or at a casual moment4 ,it is in either case the product of a potentiality which we call mystic for want of a better name1 and which attaches to1 or flows from1 some personalities more strongly than others4 ,we have all had the experience of occasionally meeting1 or receiving a letter from1 someone on whom our thoughts have been more or less insistently dwelling1 and whom we did not expect immediately to see or hear from4 ,goethe is reported by his friend ,eckermann as having told him3 8,i have often enough had the experience in my youthful years of a powerful longing for a beloved maiden taking possession of me during a #ff lonely walk2 and ,i thought about her and thought about her until she really came and met me40 ,we need1 however1 no such commonplace illustration to convince us of ,goethe's orenda4 ,without multiplying illustrations which will spring to the mind of everyone1 ,i venture to suggest that in man's emotional response to his environment1 in his interpretation in the terms of personality of the objects which encountered his attention1 and in their investiture by him with potentiality1 atmosphere1 orenda1 mana--call it by what name you will--we have the common root of magic and religion4 ,,ii4 ,theories and ,definitions ,at this point we are confronted with the difficult questions ,what is ,religion8 and ,what is ,magic8 ,religion is notoriously hard to define4 ,every man thinks he knows what it is2 but when he comes to define it he never succeeds1 clever as he may be1 in framing a definition generally acceptable4 ,the ordinary man1 with a particular religion--the only one of which he has had any experience--in his eye1 defines it to square with that religion3 if others cannot be brought into the definition1 so much the worse for them4 ,the anthropologist1 whatever his bias1 fares no better than the ordinary man4 ,he has his theories2 and in expounding them he is frequently called upon to define religion4 ,in practice his theories are hardly a safer guide than the other's prejudices or ignorance4 ,hence a definition of religion usually begs the question4 ,we will confine our attention here to some of the recent attempts made by anthropologists to define religion4 #fg ,to ,professor ,jevons the fundamental principle of religion is 8belief in the wisdom and goodness of ,god02 8the revelation of ,god to man's consciousness was immediate1 direct1 and carried conviction with it02 and the original religion was monotheism1 albeit a low form of that faith4#fg4a ,this may perchance fit the religion of the ,hebrews as seen through theological spectacles2 but it definitely excludes ,buddhism1 at all events in its primitive form4 ,for though ,buddhism arose out of an earlier religion1 and in a comparatively high stage of civilization1 and though its founder admitted 7apparently7 the existence of other intelligences than man1 he would have nothing to do with them4 ,sir ,edward ,tylor surmounts this difficulty by his famous 8minimum definition of religion--the belief in ,spiritual ,beings40#fg4b ,but it is only to land himself in another4 ,for religion is nothing if not practical3 the mere belief is not religion4 ,as ,lord ,avebury points out3 8,a belief in ghosts is in itself no evidence of religion4 ,a ghost is not a god1 though it may become one40#fg4c ,australian savages believe in ghosts--and tremble2 but of very few of them is anything approaching to worship recorded4 ,conscious of this objection1 ,professor ,frazer employs the word ,religion to express 8a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life4 ,thus defined1 religion consists of two elements1 a theoretical and a practical1 namely1 a belief in powers higher than man and an attempt to propitiate or please them4''' ,hence belief and practice or1 in theological language1 faith and works #fh are equally essential to religion1 which cannot exist without both of them40#fh4a ,this definition supplies the obvious deficiency in ,tylor's2 but it does not touch the case of ,buddhism4 ,and there is one important respect in which all these definitions fail4 ,none of them explicitly recognizes the social character of the religions of the lower culture4 ,for aught that appears1 religion might be the business of solitary men1 founded on their speculations1 hopes and fears1 uncommunicated to and unshared by others1 their own individual concern4 ,but1 in savage life at least1 religion is pre-eminently social4 ,individual rites there may be2 they are1 however1 parts of a whole1 subordinate to the common observances and common beliefs on which they are founded4 ,the individualist idea--the supreme necessity of saving one's own soul--has no place in them4 ,st ,simeon ,stylites and the ,hindu fakir are equally the product of a much higher development4 ,a recent ,french writer1 impressed with these objections to the foregoing and similar definitions1 has attempted to formulate one more comprehensive and more subtle4 ,summing up a long discussion1 he concludes that 8a religion is a connected 7solidaire7 system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred--that is to say1 separated1 interdicted--things1--beliefs and practices that unite into one moral community1 called ,church1 all who adhere to them40#fh4b ,this1 however1 is not ,religion 7with a capital #fi letter74 ,religion1 referring of course to the theoretical side or belief1 he says elsewhere1 8is before everything a system of notions by means of which individuals interpret the society of which they are members1 and the obscure but intimate relations they sustain with it40 ,and he goes on to say of the practical side that the function of religious rites is to tighten the bonds that unite the individual to the society4#fi4a ,in other words1 ,religion is ,society realizing itself4 ,before considering this definition1 let us turn to ,magic4 ,professor ,frazer draws a sharp line between religion and magic4 ,the latter is founded 7unconsciously indeed1 for the primitive magician 8never analyses the mental processes on which his practice is based07 on the assumption 8that in nature one event follows another necessarily and invariably without the intervention of any spiritual or personal agency4''' ,the magician does not doubt that the same causes will always produce the same effects1 that the performance of the proper ceremony1 accompanied by the appropriate spell1 will inevitably be attended by the desired results1 unless indeed his incantations should chance to be thwarted and foiled by the more potent charms of another sorcerer40#fi4b ,the laws governing the practical application of this assumption are resolved into two3 8first1 that like produces like1 or that an effect resembles its cause2 and second1 that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed4 #gj ,the former principle may be called the ,law of ,similarity1 the latter the ,law of ,contact or ,contagion4 ,from the first of these principles1 namely1 the ,law of ,similarity1 the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it3 from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact1 whether it formed part of his body or not4 ,charms based on the ,law of ,similarity may be called ,homopathic or ,imitative ,magic4 ,charms based on the ,law of ,contact or ,contagion may be called ,contagious ,magic40#gj4a ,magic therefore is the result of a mistaken association of ideas4 ,it preceded religion4 ,but when man began to find out 8the inherent falsehood and barrenness of magic10 when 8men for the first time recognized their inability to manipulate at pleasure certain natural forces which hitherto they had believed to be completely within their control10 they fell back on the theory that there were other beings like themselves who directed the course of nature and brought about the effects they had hitherto believed to be dependent on their own magic4 ,to them they turned in their helplessness1 and thus evolved religion4#gj4b ,accordingly1 magic and religion have always been hostile4 ,magic has indeed in many ages and in many lands permeated religion1 has often gone the length of fusing and amalgamating with it4 ,but this fusion was not primitive3 they are originally and fundamentally distinct4#gj4c ,in a powerful criticism of this theory ,messrs ,hubert and ,mauss1 two ,french anthropologists1 have pointed #ga out that ,professor ,frazer has omitted one essential item4 ,the effect of a magical rite is not attained merely by sympathy4 ,all magic is not sympathetic magic1 whether that sympathy be expressed by the ,law of ,similarity or the ,law of ,contact4 ,moreover1 even in sympathetic magic the sympathetic formula is insufficient to account for the facts4 ,sympathy is only the means by which the magical force passes from the magician to the object at which it is aimed2 it is not the magical force itself4 ,that still remains to be explained4 ,it cannot be wholly explained by the properties attributed to the materials used in the magical rite1 and that for three reasons4 ,in the first place1 the notion of property is normally not the only one present4 ,the employment of substances having magical properties is ritually conditioned4 ,they must be collected according to rule1 at certain times1 in certain places1 with certain means1 and after certain ritual preparations4 ,when collected1 they must be employed according to certain rules and with the accompaniment of rites1 often exceedingly elaborate1 which permit the utilization of their qualities4 ,in the second place1 the magical property is not conceived as naturally1 absolutely1 and specifically inherent in the thing to which it is attached1 but always as relatively extrinsic and conferred4 ,sometimes it is conferred by a rite4 ,at other times it is explained by a myth2 and in this case it is clearly regarded as accidental and acquired4 ,it often resides in secondary characters1 such as form1 colour1 rarity1 and so forth4 ,in the third place1 the notion of magical property suffices so little that it is always confounded with a very generalized idea of force and nature4 ,the idea of the effect to be produced may indeed be precise2 but that of the special qualities of the substance used to produce it1 and their immediate action1 is always obscure4 #gb ,in fact1 the idea of things having undefined virtues is always prominent in magic4 ,salt1 blood1 saliva1 coral1 iron1 crystals1 precious metals1 the mountain ash1 the birch1 the sacred fig-tree1 camphor1 incense1 tobacco are among the many objects which embody general magical powers1 capable of all sorts of applications4 ,corresponding with this is the extreme vagueness of the designations applied to magical properties1 such as divine1 sacred1 mysterious1 lucky1 unlucky1 and equivalent expressions4 ,the notion of property passes over easily into power and spirit4 ,property and power are inseparable terms2 property and spirit are often confounded4 ,the virtues or properties of a thing often belong to it as the abode of a spirit4 ,spirits are indeed often the agents of magic4 ,it is hardly too much to say that there is no magical rite in which their presence is not in some degree possible1 though not expressly mentioned4 ,magic works in a special atmosphere1 if not in the world of demons1 at least in conditions in which their presence is possible4 ,beyond doubt1 one of the essential characteristics of magical causality is that it is spiritual4 ,yet the idea of spiritual personalities ill represents the general anonymous forces which constitute the power of magicians4 ,it gives no account of the virtue of words or gestures1 the power of a look or of the intention1 the influence or the mode of action of a rite4 ,it does not explain why the magical rite controls and directs spiritual existences1 any more than the sympathetic formula explains why the rite acts directly on the object4#gb4a #gc ,i do not tarry now to give illustrations in detail of the various points in the argument ,i have here summarized4 ,it is clear that ,professor ,frazer has overlooked something of importance1 from one fact alone to which he alludes1 but of which he fails to observe the vast implications4 ,the commonest excuse made by the magician for the failure of his spells is that some other magician of greater power is thwarting him4 ,there must therefore be degrees of power among magicians1 however it be acquired1 and whether temporary or permanent1 inherent or due to the possession of greater knowledge or more powerful spells4 ,but that is a factor that tumbles the whole edifice of the theory down4 ,it introduces another element--the personal potentiality4 ,the same causes do not always produce the same effects1 apart from the personal element2 the performance of the proper ceremony1 accompanied by the appropriate spell1 is not inevitably attended by the desired results2 the magician has not reached the scientific conclusion 8that in nature one event follows another necessarily and invariably1 without the intervention of any spiritual or personal agency40 ,nay1 the intervention of the magician himself is proof to the contrary4 ,destructive criticism is comparatively easy2 anyone can make objections4 ,not everyone can substitute a sounder theory in place of that destroyed4 ,it is when ,messrs ,hubert and ,mauss come to construct their own theory of magic that they find themselves in difficulty4 ,for they have to admit that in magic the same collective forces operate as in religion4 ,faith is as necessary to magic as to religion2 it is as necessary to the magician as to the priest4 ,trickery no doubt there is2 that has not always been excluded from religion4 ,but there is much more than trickery4 ,the magician believes in his own powers2 #gd and he believes all the more strongly because his public believes4 ,the faith of society and his own faith act and react upon one another4 ,but this is precisely the case with the priest and his religion4 ,if we examine the magician's methods we can hardly distinguish them from those employed in religion4 ,the attempt to bewitch an enemy by means of his clothing or a fragment of his body is precisely the same in principle as the proceedings already described at the inauguration of a ,polynesian king or the communication of the virtues of medival saints by means of their relics4 ,it is true that in the one case the object of the ceremony is maleficent1 in the other cases it is beneficent4 ,if that were a real distinction1 the processes would still remain analogous4 ,it is not real1 however2 for the sanctity of ,polynesian kings has its maleficent side1 and the relics of the saints have been often employed to the injury of an enemy1 as well as to the healing of a friend4 ,nor can it be said that magic is purely an art1 a technique1 while religion is dependent upon higher and independent wills4 ,the aid of spirits is often invoked in magic2 spell passes easily into prayer1 and prayer into spell4 ,the accounts that have reached us of the ,witches' ,sabbath may be the product of hallucination1 or confessions extorted from victims who said what they were expected to say4 ,but at least they bear witness to the general belief of the times1 which regarded magic rather as a counter-religion than as a mere technique4 ,professor ,frazer's reply to this is of course that such a belief1 such practices1 were the result of a later fusion of religion and magic4 ,that the fusion was not primitive is1 however1 incapable of proof4 ,as we shall see by and by1 in the lowest societies of which we have evidence practices usually regarded as magical are indistinguishable from those regarded as #ge religious4 ,the mutual hostility of religion and magic1 where it exists1 is1 in truth1 the result of a later development4 ,like religion1 the chief factor in magic--that by which it accomplishes its ends--is the mystic force that is released and set at work by the rite or the spell4 ,behind the sympathetic formula1 behind the notions of property and of spirits1 there is another notion still more mysterious1 the notion of power1 vague1 impersonal1 always operating1 irresistible1 or depending for its efficaciousness on conditions not altogether at command4 ,the investigations of the last chapter have disclosed to us what this power is4 ,by its very vagueness and impersonality it enshrines possibilities illimitable4 ,it may be materialized1 localized1 personalized2 but it ceases not to be spiritual1 to act at a distance1 and that by direct connection1 if not by contact1 to be mobile and to move without movement1 to be impersonal though clothed in personal forms1 to be divisible yet continuous4 ,it is this notion that accounts in the last resort for the phenomena of magic4 ,without it1 magic is incomprehensible2 like a sentence without the copula1 the action1 the affirmation is wanting4 ,all this is equally true of religion4 ,the authors see therefore that magic is1 like religion1 a social phenomenon2 it has parallel rites with those of religion2 it has parallel postulates and beliefs4 ,to distinguish it from religion they are driven to erect into a test the individualistic aims of its practitioners1 or of those on whose behalf it is called in aid4 ,its true distinction is1 according to this1 that it tends to be isolated1 to be furtive1 to be put into motion on behalf of individuals and against the community2 its methods become arbitrary2 it ceases to be a common obligation4 ,individuals in magic have appropriated the ideas and the collective forces generated by #gf religion1 and turned them to their own ends4 ,religion1 in short1 is social in its aims1 magic is antisocial4 ,that is the only difference between them4 ,in this distinction ,professor ,durkheim agrees4 ,everywhere1 he says1 religious life has for its substratum a definite group2 even what are called private cults are celebrated by the family or the corporation or society to which they are restricted4 ,on the other hand1 though magical beliefs are widely diffused and practised by large classes of a population1 their effect is not to bind together those who adhere to them and unite them into a group having one common life3 there is no magical ,church4 ,between the magician and those who consult him there is no durable bond4 ,he has clients1 not a church4 ,his relations with them are accidental1 not permanent2 and they may have no relations with one another2 they may even be ignorant of one another's existence4#gf4a ,but this very charge of being antisocial is brought by many dominant religions against their rivals4 ,it was substantially the charge brought against the early ,christians by the ,pagans4 ,it is to-day the charge formulated by fanatical ,russian ,christians against the ,jews4 ,here in the west of ,europe it is1 in a somewhat vaguer form1 the reproach of orthodox ,christians against ,agnostics and all shades of ,rationalists4 ,to apply it as a test to distinguish religion from magic is to qualify the same practices as religious or as magical1 according as they have social or antisocial ends4 ,and how shall we define these ends8 ,the act which at one stage of civilization is antisocial1 at another is often a social duty4 ,to attempt a change in this respect may be antisocial as regards the existing society1 though it may result in ultimate benefit2 and the attempt may be made from purely individualist motives1 for purely individualist ends4 #gg ,nay1 the same act may be in the same society social or antisocial1 according to circumstances4 ,in ,central ,australia the man who kills an enemy by means of arungquiltha1 which may be rendered evil magic1 commits an antisocial act2 he does it in secret3 it would be dangerous to let it become known4 ,but if a woman run away from her husband and cannot be recovered1 he may lawfully avenge himself with the aid of arungquiltha4 ,he is performing an act of social justice1 and will be joined in doing it by the men of his local group4 ,in the same way vengeance may be taken for a murder1 real or supposed1 by a ,kurdaitcha party1 which performs what we should designate as a magical ceremony to cause the victim to sicken and die4 ,this is held to be a social1 not an antisocial act1 for it is fulfilling the social duty of revenge4 ,it is done with the sanction of the council of elders4#gg4a ,in ,melanesia1 as we have seen1 all religion consists in getting mana for oneself1 not for the benefit of others2 though doubtless the mana1 when obtained1 is often used for the advantage of the community4#gg4b ,often it is not4 8,a man will commonly have his keramo1 a tindalo a ghost that is worshipped of killing1 who will help him in fighting or in slaying his private enemy40 ,the tindalo1 albeit the object of religious worship1 has no prejudice against antisocial acts4 ,his worshipper1 before going out to commit what we should call murder1 performs an elaborate ceremony1 sacrificing to the ghost1 and cursing his victim4 ,if he succeed in killing him1 the tindalo gets as his share of the spoil the ghost of the deceased1 and is invoked to give mana in return4#gg4c ,the man who1 in ,europe or elsewhere1 makes use of #gh spells to injure individuals1 or even of the ,evil ,eye1 is practising magic3 he is doing an antisocial act4 ,the man who defends himself with a gesture1 with spells1 or by loading his body with amulets1 is not doing an antisocial act2 he is simply protecting himself4 ,but is he practising religion or magic8 ,be it remembered here that a man may have the ,evil ,eye without knowing it4 ,pius the ,ninth1 ,vicar of ,christ1 was reputed to have the ,evil ,eye4 ,nothing was so fatal as his blessing2 the faithful quailed at his glance and doubtless protected themselves with amulets4 ,so the ,boloki of the ,congo hold that 8one can have witchcraft without knowing it40#gh4a ,in these cases there can be no antisocial intention4 ,among the ,thonga of ,south-,eastern ,africa a common procedure is to point at one's enemy with the index-finger4 ,this is antisocial3 it is witchcraft4 ,before they go to war a ceremony is performed by an old woman1 naked and in a state of ritual purity1 over the warriors1 and an incantation is muttered1 to enable them to kill their foes4#gh4b ,this may not be antisocial2 but is it anything else than magic8 ,true1 the men murmur prayers to their ancestral spirits for help2 but then religion is penetrated with magic4 ,even ,professor ,durkheim admits that he cannot show a solution of continuity between them2 the frontiers between their respective domains are often undefined1 unfixed4#gh4c ,at all events he cannot say where the one ends and the other begins4 ,perhaps1 however1 not the intention but the tendency1 whether social or antisocial1 is the test4 ,in that case it is hard to conceive anything more antisocial than the operations of the ,holy ,inquisition4 ,they were1 it is #gi true1 not performed by supernatural instrumentality1 or for supernatural purposes4 ,to that extent they are not directly parallel with the rites we have been considering4 ,but they were carried on by persons consecrated to religion1 as religious acts1 surrounded by religious rites1 by exorcisms1 imprecations1 conjurations1 shielded by the ,church with all her powers1 and sanctioned1 if not set in motion1 by the highest ecclesiastical authorities4 ,they desolated every society where the institution was introduced4#gi4a ,secrecy has been already noted as a characteristic of magic as opposed to religion4 ,naturally antisocial acts are performed in secret4 ,the deeds of the ,holy ,office were done in the deepest dens of the building1 and surrounded by impervious precautions against discovery1 except the last dread act4 ,in that consummation of cruelty1 that supreme ,act of ,faith1 as it was called1 its officials nominally took no part2 though it was well known that they insisted upon it relentlessly and with every terror1 ghostly or secular1 which they knew so well how to wield4 ,on the other hand1 the ,african sorcerer1 conjuring the rain or the sunshine so necessary for the crops1 performs an eminently social work1 and does it very often in the open eye of day and before the assembled people4 ,when a fisher-boat was launched in the north-east of ,scotland a bottle of whisky used to be broken on the prow or stern with the words3 8,frae rocks an' saands ,an' barren lands ,an' ill men's hands ,keep's free4 ,weel oot1 weel in1 ,wi' a gueede shot40 #hj 8,on the arrival of the boat at its new home the skipper's wife1 in some of the villages1 took a lapful of corn or barley1 and sowed it over the boat40#hj4a ,these are not antisocial acts2 they have no antisocial tendency2 and they are not performed in secret4 ,must we account them religious1 and the operations of the ,inquisition magical8 ,thus antisocial character is no sufficient test of magic as opposed to religion4 ,professor ,doutt1 dealing with magic as developed in ,islam1 adheres generally to the views of ,messrs ,hubert and ,mauss4 ,he proposes1 however1 another definition4 ,quoting with approval the late ,m4 ,marillier's observation that magic is 8the action on the without by the within10#hj4b he remarks that the savage has not yet made a sufficient distinction between subject and object2 he does not differentiate himself from the universe4 ,and he concludes that magic1 invented under the pressure of need1 is only the objectivation of desire under the form of an extended force1 singular1 bound to gestures representative of the phenomenon desired and mechanically producing it4 ,if the savage externalize this magical force so far that he ends by personifying it1 we have the genesis of a god2 the god1 in fact1 may be a personified mana4 ,a god can only be anthropomorphic2 he is the psycho-physical objectivation of man in phenomena4#hj4c ,this brings ,professor #ha ,doutt much nearer to ,dr ,frazer's position1 and might form the basis of an eirenicon between them4 ,for though he is fully aware that much in magic is indistinguishable from religion1 he holds it to be a subsequent development3 magic has so far modelled itself on religion and borrowed its theistic methods of procedure4 ,it presents itself as an anti-religion4 ,under ,christianity it reaches its ultimate term with the ,black ,mass and the cult of the devil3 ,islam does not lend itself so well to hideous parody4 ,yet ,professor ,doutt1 after flirting with ,professor ,frazer's opinion1 comes back to the orthodoxy of the ,french sociologists3 the real distinction between religion and magic is that the one is social--it sustains the life of the society2 the other applies its rites to strictly personal ends--it is antisocial4 ,the one is magic lawful and even obligatory2 the other is magic useless or injurious to society1 and it is condemned and interdicted4 ,islam even recognizes white or religious magic2 the ,prophet himself recommended it4 ,ibn ,khaldon1 a great ,mohammedan jurist1 can find1 indeed1 no solid distinction between the miracle of the saint and the prodigy wrought by the sorcerer1 save that of the morality of its aim4 ,the test of morality is what is permitted by the ,law4 ,that which is permitted by the ,law is moral2 the rest is immoral4 ,it comes to this1 then1 that a miracle is legitimate magic1 and magic is a forbidden miracle4#ha4a ,the same difficulty in severing magic from religion is experienced by one of the acutest writers who has considered the subject4 8,magic and religion10 says ,dr ,marett1 8according to the view ,i would support1 belong #hb to the same department of human experience4''' ,together they belong to the supernormal world1 the x-region of experience1 the region of mental twilight4 ,magic ,i take to include all bad ways1 and religion all good ways1 of dealing with the supernormal--bad and good1 of course1 not as we may happen to judge them1 but as the society concerned judges them4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 the people themselves hardly know where to draw the line between the two2 and in that case the anthropologist cannot well do it for them4 ,but every society thinks witchcraft bad4 ,witchcraft consists in leaguing oneself with supernormal powers of evil in order to effect selfish and antisocial ends4 ,witchcraft then is genuine magic--black magic1 of the devil's colour40#hb4a ,presumably white magic--magic performed for good and social ends--is not magic2 it is a part of religion1 notwithstanding that precisely the same means may be employed as in witchcraft--black magic4 ,for ,dr ,marett adds3 8,every primitive society also distinguishes certain salutary ways of dealing with supernormal powers4 ,all these ways taken together constitute religion40#hb4b ,coming more particularly to define religion1 he says3 8,savage life has few safeguards4 ,crisis is a frequent1 if intermittent1 element in it4 ,hunger1 sickness and war are examples of crisis4 ,birth and death are crises4 ,marriage is usually regarded by humanity as a crisis4 ,so is initiation--the turning-point in one's career1 when one steps out into the world of men4 ,now what in terms of mind does crisis mean8 ,it means that one is at one's wits' end2 that the ordinary and expected has been replaced by the #hc extraordinary and unexpected2 that we are projected into the world of the unknown4''' ,psychologically regarded1 then1 the function of religion is to restore men's confidence when it is shaken by crisis4''' ,religion is the facing of the unknown4 ,it is the courage in it that brings comfort40 ,sociologically1 8a religion is the effort to face crisis1 so far as that effort is organized by society in some particular way4 ,a religion is congregational--that is to say1 serves the ends of a number of persons simultaneously4 ,it is traditional--that is to say1 has served the ends of successive generations of persons4 ,therefore inevitably it has standardized a method4 ,it involves a routine1 a ritual4 ,also1 it involves some sort of conventional doctrine1 which is1 as it were1 the inner side of the ritual--its lining40#hc4a ,on this definition two observations may be made4 ,the first is that it does not exclude any rites performed for social ends1 or for individual ends1 so far as they are not definitely antisocial4 ,the ,australian husband meets the crisis of desertion by his wife by means of arungquiltha4 ,he performs an act organized by society to meet this very crisis--on the definition1 therefore1 a religious act4 ,but if by precisely the same process he attempt to slay his enemy1 he is guilty of magic4 ,or is the wife's desertion not a crisis in the sense attached to the word by ,dr ,marett8 ,perhaps it is a relief1 a solution of a domestic crisis4 ,the second observation is that the definition ignores the whole of life not occupied by crises4 ,when the ,californian ,hupa awakes in the morning and sees the dawn1 it cannot be said that he is at his wits' end1 that the ordinary and expected has been replaced by the extraordinary and unexpected4 ,what does he do8 ,he #hd greets the dawn with a silent prayer that he may see many dawns1 for he regards it as a person who is benevolently inclined to him4#hd4a ,this surely is religion4 ,the point is met by the further statement that 8the religion of a savage is part of his custom2 nay1 rather it is his whole custom so far as it appears sacred--so far as it coerces him by way of his imagination4 ,between him and the unknown stands nothing but his custom4 ,it is his all-in-all1 his stand-by1 his faith and his hope4 ,being thus the sole source of his confidence1 his custom1 so far as his imagination plays about it1 becomes his #8luck4' ,we may say that any and every custom1 in so far as it is regarded as lucky1 is a religious rite40#hd4b ,in that case religion is much more than the facing of the unknown1 the organized effort to face crisis4 ,it is custom coercing man by way of his imagination4 ,a convenient custom coerces by way of their imagination weary women at ,tlemcen in ,algeria not to sweep out the house for three days at the ,new ,year1 so that they may not lose their luck4#hd4c ,can we legitimately call this religion8 ,or take another case4 ,there are people in ,england who will not utter a boast1 or tell a small social fib1 without taking the precaution to touch wood4 ,i have known educated women drag a chair across the room to a visitor who had just boasted of immunity from a trifling ailment1 in order that she might touch wood4 ,despite their education1 they were coerced by way of their imagination to this little ceremony4 ,there must be thousands of things done merely for luck1 and done habitually1 by peoples alike in barbarism and in civilization4 ,some of them probably are relics of a once living belief4 ,about others there is no such presumption2 #he yet they exercise the same constraint4 ,does that make them religious rites8 ,does it make even those that once were portions of some living belief1 but are so no longer1 religious rites now8 ,of course it is all a matter of definition of terms4 ,but a definition of religion which would include all these would be catholic indeed4 ,the criticisms in this chapter involve no reflection on the perspicacity of scientific writers who are trying to obtain a clear vision of religion and magic and of their specific differences4 ,but they do aim at illustrating the futility of the attempt absolutely to define anything so fluid and elusive as religion4#he4a ,both religion and magic owe their origin to society2 they are born and nurtured in a social atmosphere4 ,both are concerned with forces mysterious1 far-reaching1 enveloping and constraining #hf men and things4 ,these forces are not always personal1 though their evolution usually takes a personal direction4 ,the means used by both are similar1 because the forces are the same1 or at least alike4 ,spell and prayer are very near akin2 the one passes insensibly into the other4 ,and the material means common to both are chosen arbitrarily or according to some fancied symbolism1 and employed in closely parallel ways4 ,there is1 in short1 no decided boundary between religion and magic4 ,the task remains1 notwithstanding1 of defining the words for the purposes of the following pages4 ,it is hopeless to attempt to harmonize the definitions we have considered4 ,whatever definition we adopt1 it is clear that we cannot so express it as to confine religion within its own bounds1 or to outlaw magic from the territory occupied by its rival4 ,yet a working definition is needed4 ,in framing it regard ought to be paid to the ordinary meaning of the words3 the definition must not be arbitrary4 ,now the word ,magic1 by the usage of centuries1 is concerned not so much with aim or tendency as with method4 ,it conveys the notion of power1 by whatsoever means acquired1 wielded by the magician as his own1 and not as that of a higher being whose coperation is only obtained by supplication and self-abasement4 ,supplication1 self-abasement1 flattery are the religious means of winning the help of divinities4 ,where higher beings1 whether called gods or devils1 or by the more ambiguous title of spirits1 are invoked by spell1 compliance with the call is not dependent on their goodwill2 the command is irresistible2 and the procedure is magical4 ,sacrifice is utilized in both procedures2 but it has a very different value in the one and the other4 ,in the one it operates as a communion with the divinity1 as a gift to #hg win favour which he is by no means bound to grant1 or as an atonement for wrong4 ,in the other it is a condition on the fulfilment of which the desire of him who offers it is accomplished1 inevitably and by compulsion4 ,in such a case he who offers the sacrifice is not a worshipper2 he is a master of the beings to whom it is offered4 ,true1 they are sometimes gods4 ,in the religion of the ,hindus 8prayers1 penances1 and sacrifices are supposed to possess an inherent and actual value1 in no degree depending upon the disposition or motive of the person who performs them4 ,they are drafts upon ,heaven1 for which the ,gods cannot refuse payment4 ,the worst men1 bent upon the worst designs1 have in this manner obtained power which has made them formidable to the ,supreme ,deities themselves40#hg4a ,thus has ,southey succinctly stated the belief on which his poem of ,the ,curse of ,kehama is built4 ,here by prayers are meant liturgical formul1 which everywhere tend to degenerate into magical spells4 ,penances are in the nature of sacrifices4 ,or they are taboos that preserve and enhance the force and influence of the suppliant4 ,both alike are a magical process1 in the sense in which the word ,magic is generally employed4 ,the constraining power of sacrifices was also a tenet of ,egyptian religion1 at all events in its last ages4#hg4b ,have analogous beliefs in the magical powers of a rite even yet disappeared from ,christianity8 ,this then is the sense in which ,i venture to think the words ,magic and ,magical should be employed4 ,it is based upon their general1 if somewhat vague1 usage2 and it is therefore intelligible to the ordinary reader without recourse to a special definition4 ,it is substantially that of ,professor ,frazer1 save that it affirms nothing concerning #hh the origin of the power active in magical practices3 it simply takes them as they are--again an undeniable convenience4 ,it follows that for our purpose ,religion will be confined to cultual systems1 whose objects1 so far as they are personal1 are endowed with free will1 are to be approached with true worship1 and may or may not grant the prayers of their suppliants4 ,here also we have common usage on our side1 with all its advantages4 ,in this use of the word ,religion1 where the object is impersonal1 or is but vaguely personal1 it is none the less treated with reverence and submission1 as something transcending man2 it is the object of an emotional attitude1 actively directed towards it4 ,the object thus1 even where it is not personal1 tends to become so4 ,buddhism1 in its original form1 and similar religions are the product of comparatively high civilizations4 ,the puritan severity of their primitive thought and practice was speedily relaxed2 they acquired personal gods1 and thus liberated themselves from a rule of life based upon philosophical considerations and the effort to escape without the aid of the higher personalities1 of which they despaired1 from the evils by which they felt themselves oppressed4 ,in the lower civilizations1 as we have seen1 no sooner is an impersonal power conceived as acting than it assumes personal characteristics4 ,when once the attention is concentrated upon any manifestation of it1 these characteristics1 originally vague1 are likely to be emphasized1 and may grow into true personalities4 ,in magic1 on the other hand1 the impersonal power does not so readily become thus transformed1 because the attention fastens on the personal agent1 the magician1 rather than on the power by which he operates4 ,when all is said1 however1 religion is 7ideally1 at least7 social--that is to say1 moral--in its aims and tendencies1 #hi whereas magic lends itself to individualist aims4 ,religion binds the society together by raising the individual above himself1 and teaching him to subordinate his desires and actions to the general good2 magic has no compunction in assisting to carry out the wishes of the individual1 though they may be contrary to the interests of the society as a whole4 ,to that extent it is disruptive1 antisocial1 immoral2 and when thus applied it may be described as ,black1 or ,evil1 or ,hostile ,magic4 ,here perhaps we find the origin of the opposition between them4 ,so far from religion and magic having been originally hostile1 the further we go back into savage life1 and presumably1 therefore1 towards primitive humanity1 the more we find them interwoven1 indistinguishable4 ,it is only in the advance of civilization1 and the consequent evolution of religion and of magic that they become conscious of mutual hostility4 ,when once the separation had begun it would tend to widen4 ,certain methods and means would be regarded as proper to the one1 certain other methods and means as proper to the other1 albeit neither of them1 not even the highest known and recognized form of religion1 has hitherto been able to shake itself entirely free from the methods of the other4 ,this is not incompatible with increasing hostility4 ,the loftier the claims of religion become1 the closer its relations with the profoundest thought of mankind1 the more awful the sanctions it invokes1 the more inevitable1 the more irreconcilable the hostility becomes4 ,family quarrels are ever the bitterest4 ,,iii4 ,development ,the discussion has led to some anticipation of the argument4 ,we turn back again to the personal potentiality4 #ij ,he for whom the world is full of personal beings and hardly anything else--a universe of objects interpreted in the terms of conscious personality and projected on a background of the ,unknown with all its possibilities--he for whom each of those objects1 human and non-human1 living and not-living1 is invested in a greater or less degree with orenda1 will naturally and instinctively on the one hand avail himself of his own orenda1 and on the other hand will dread and endeavour to turn to account the orenda of others4 ,but this very endeavour to turn others' orenda to account is an exercise by prayer or compulsion of his own4 ,i can see no satisfactory evidence that early man consciously entertained any great faith in the order and uniformity of nature4 ,automatically1 no doubt1 he assumed that night would follow day and day night1 that the winter would follow the summer or the dry season the wet1 that the trees would blossom in the spring or after the rains set in1 as he had been accustomed to see them4 ,but that was not the result of reflection2 it was not an act of faith4 ,so things had always been1 and he could not conceive any different course4 ,it was not part of his mental furniture2 it was no acquisition of reasoning4 ,it was the very framework of his mind4 ,when he began to reflect he referred these phenomena to the same cause to which he referred his own acts1 and the more uncertain and capricious acts of other living beings--to personal will and orenda4 ,even if he had risen to the large conception of the ,siouan wakonda1 that impersonal force must1 as we have seen1 clothe itself with personality in order to operate4 ,immediately and for practical purposes the personal will and orenda of himself or some other object were the fount of all causation4 ,they impelled and directed all actions1 all means1 and were responsible for all effects4 ,if he took aim at his #ia enemy and flung his spear1 or whatever primitive weapon served the same purpose2 if it hit the man1 and he fell2 he might witness the result1 but the mere mechanical causation1 however inevitable in its action1 would be the last thing he would think about4 ,conscious of his own will1 of his own effort1 of the words1 perhaps1 with which he had accompanied and directed the spear1 he would attribute the result to such causes as these4 ,his own orenda felt in his passion1 his will1 his effort1 and displayed in his acts and words1 the orenda of the spear1 either inherent in itself1 conceived as a personal being1 or conferred by its maker1 and manifested in the keenness of its point1 the precision and the force with which it flies to its work and inflicts the deadly wound--these would be to him the true causes of his enemy's fall4 ,his orenda is mightier than his enemy's and overcomes it4 ,so1 when the enemy is absent and he cannot visibly reach him1 his orenda may yet suffice to accomplish the desired injury4 ,by a psychological process which ,dr ,marett has subtly analysed1#ia4a he is led to perform in pantomime all the acts of a murder in the absence of the victim1 either silently1 or to the accompaniment of a chant1 or of spoken words4 ,his foe1 who is as convinced as himself of the power of such a performance1 if it come to his knowledge1 falls a victim to the terror it inspires1 unless he can call in the aid of some other person1 objective or imaginary1 whose orenda is more powerful still4 ,nor would the belief lack vindication even in the case of the victim's ignorance2 for any chance misfortune or sickness would be put down to a hostile orenda2 and if he did escape1 it would be due to his own superior orenda4 ,thus what we generally call magic or witchcraft is #ib primarily an application of orenda4 ,by his orenda a man bewitches his enemy 7or1 for a consideration1 someone else's enemy71 causes rain or sunshine1 raises and protects the crops1 gains success in hunting1 divines the cause of sickness and cures it1 raises the dead1 spells out the future4 ,his incantations1 his gestures1 his apparatus--whether of plants1 stones1 animal products1 magical drawings1 or whatever else it may be--would be of no avail without this4 ,in ,central ,australia the ,arunta magician arms his 8pointing bone0 with arungquiltha4 ,in ,central ,africa the ,murundi impregnates his magical implements with evil influence by means of his imprecations1 his incantations1 and his evocation of spirits4 ,that is1 he puts into them his orenda or the mana of the spirits3 until then they are absolutely powerless and indifferent4#ib4a ,this influence1 this orenda1 mana1 or arungquiltha1 is the nexus--the copula1 as it has been called--which links the subject1 the magician1 to the object1 the result4 ,but man is not the only being who possesses orenda4 ,the orenda of his quarry sometimes foils his own4 ,the cicada chirping in the fields ripens the maize for the ,iroquois2 the orenda of the rabbit controls the snow and fixes the depth to which it must fall4 ,the awful mountain1 the treacherous sea1 those mighty beings who command the winds1 who send forth the storm1 who rule in the darkness and mystery of the forest1 possess an orenda surpassing man's4 ,it is useless to pit his orenda against theirs4 ,therefore he must adopt a different course4 ,he must lay down his orenda and submit it to theirs4 ,this is the literal meaning of the ,iroquoian phrase which signifies in modern usage 8,he habitually prays40#ib4b ,he must take such a course as he would to #ic obtain assistance from a human being 7say1 a powerful chief71 or to conciliate an enemy4 ,by gift1 by abasement1 by abstinence1 by self-torture1 by cajolery he must win this powerful orenda to his side4 ,of these efforts abstinence and abasement are negative forms of propitiation4 ,they are perhaps the earliest forms4 ,if our reports be complete 7on which we may have our doubts71 abstinence is the only form used among the ,andaman ,islanders1 where belief is said to outrun active worship4#ic4a ,in any case a taboo for propitiatory purposes is very early and very persistent4 ,not without insight does the poet tell us that ,caliban 8,will let those quails fly1 will not eat this month ,one little mess of whelks1 so he may 'scape40 ,and the modern ,european has still his ,lent1 and his ,ember ,days and ,fridays throughout the year4 ,such abstinence is the laying down and submission of the orenda to those of mightier beings4 ,on the other hand1 gift1 prayer1 cajolery are1 properly speaking1 an active exercise of orenda4 ,the relation of spell and incantation to prayer has already been alluded to4 ,they are often indistinguishable3 they shade into one another by the finest gradations4 ,gifts are not mere self-deprivation4 ,they must be accompanied by rites more or less elaborate1 to render them acceptable to the lofty beings for whom they are intended4 ,or they are part of a bargain2 they are the performance on the suppliant's side which demands a corresponding return on the side of the god4 ,more than one comparatively civilized people has held that sacrifices properly performed not merely incline but compel the gods to grant what their worshipper desires4 ,gesture-language plays a large part in savage life4 ,a #id ceremony such as those familiar to us in sympathetic magic--to take only one instance1 the sticking of pins into a waxen figure--frequently is1 to a large extent1 gesture-language3 it helps to suggest to the supernatural personages of whose orenda the magician desires to make use exactly what is wanted4 ,it is more than this1 of course4 ,it is in part the make-believe which is a relief to overcharged feelings2 in part it is the means by which the orenda is conveyed to the object intended to be affected4 ,the concomitant words that form part of the ceremony emphasize the desire4 ,they fill and strengthen the instrument with the orenda of the performer1 or of the supernatural personage invoked or compelled to assist2 they direct the instrument1 considered as a personal being1 in the service it is required to fulfil2 or they allure1 entreat1 or command the object at which the rite is aimed4 ,if the view here taken be accurate1 the essential opposition between magic and religion disappears4 ,nor am ,i greatly concerned to decide whether of the two developed the earlier4 ,their origin is the same2 they grow from one root4 ,nay1 ,i should hardly be wrong if ,i changed the metaphor and said3 magic and religion are the two faces of one medal4 ,from the lowest stage of culture to the highest we find them inseparable4 ,gods were not invented because man proved unequal to the strain of arranging the affairs of the universe by himself2 nor has the age of religion been everywhere preceded by the age of magic4 8,by whatever name it is called10 says ,dr ,codrington1 speaking of the ,melanesian mana1 8it is the belief in this supernatural power and in the efficacy of the various means by which spirits and ghosts can be induced to exercise it for the benefit of men that is the foundation of the rites and practices which can be called religious3 and it is from the same belief that everything #ie which may be called magic and witchcraft draws its origin4 ,wizards1 doctors1 weather-mongers1 prophets1 diviners1 dreamers1 all alike1 everywhere in the islands1 work by this power4 ,there are many of these who may be said to exercise their art as a profession2 they get their property and influence in this way4 ,every considerable village or settlement is sure to have someone who can control the weather and the waves1 someone who knows how to treat sickness1 someone who can work mischief with various charms4 ,there may be one whose skill extends to all these branches2 but generally one man knows how to do one thing and one another4 ,this various knowledge is handed down from father to son1 from uncle to sister's son for in many of these islands descent is still reckoned exclusively through the mother1 in the same way as is the knowledge of rites and methods of sacrifice and prayer2 and very often the same man who knows the sacrifice knows also the making of the weather and of charms for many purposes besides4 ,but as there is no order of priests1 there is also no order of magicians or medicine-men4 ,almost every man of consideration knows how to approach some ghost or spirit1 and has some secret of occult practices4 ,knowledge of either kind can be bought1 if the possessor chooses to impart it to any other than the heirs of whatever he has besides40#ie4a ,here we see1 as yet undistinguished1 the beginnings of the professional magician and the professional priest4 ,roughly and provisionally it may be said that the professional magician is he who in the course of the evolution of society1 by birth1 by purchase1 or by study and practice in the conventional methods1 has acquired the most powerful orenda4 ,similarly1 the professional #if priest is he who in these ways1 or by prayer and fasting1 has obtained the favour of the imaginary personages believed to influence or control the affairs of men--who has1 in a word1 possessed himself of their orenda4 ,the union of these two professions in one person is not adventitious2 it is probably fundamental2 it is at least so general that in describing the society of savages and peoples in low stages of culture observers are often at a loss whether to call their functionaries priests or wizards1 exorcists or medicine-men4 ,consequently1 many anthropological writers use the word shaman1 borrowed from the ,tunguz1 a tribe of ,south-,eastern ,siberia1 and including all four meanings4 ,for in that condition of society the functions of priest and sorcerer and medicine-man are1 as ,professor ,frazer says1 8not yet differentiated from each other40 ,that could not be until1 in the course of evolution1 religion became severed from magic4 ,yet it has never become so wholly severed that the primitive connection may not be traced4 ,priests have become organized into a separate order4 ,triumphant religions have proscribed the conquered faiths1 and have repudiated their practices as magical4 ,magic has thus become a term of opprobrium4 ,the conquered faiths under repression have carried on their religious worship mixed with magical rites and tending more and more to be degraded1 yet never losing all religious elements4 ,even the magic of the ,middle ,ages and later1 in ,europe1 if we may trust the confessions of the judicial victims themselves1 was mingled with the worship of a being in whom they recognized the devil1 perhaps the last avatar of a heathen god2 and witchcraft was one of the commonest charges against heretics4 ,on the other hand1 not even the highest religions have been able to free themselves wholly from rites strictly parallel to those #ig characterized as magical1 by which their followers have striven to compass union with the objects of worship1 to avail themselves of the orenda of these objects1 to locate it in their own persons or in the images and implements of their cult1 to intensify their own orenda1 and to exercise it for the benefit1 spiritual1 corporal or pecuniary1 of themselves and others4 ,it may be well to illustrate the foregoing speculation from the customs and superstitions of the ,arunta of ,central ,australia4 ,the ,arunta have been represented to be the lowest and least evolved of known humanity in their beliefs and institutions3 they are1 it is said1 still in the stage of primitive absence of religion2 magic alone is the object of their belief2 magic alone they practise4 ,now none of the ,australian tribes are1 strictly speaking1 in a primitive condition4 ,the civilization of all of them has evolved to some extent4 ,it has evolved1 speaking in general terms1 along similar lines2 and these lines have been conditioned by the environment4 ,it is admittedly significant that1 in a land where so many archaic types of the lower animals have survived1 we should find archaic types of human culture4 ,yet the most archaic types of ,australian culture are far from being primitive4 ,so far are they that the social organization is of the most complex character1 the product of a succession of stages of development4 ,the least archaic types exhibit the old social organization breaking down and new structures in course of formation4 ,with the evolution of society an evolution of belief has also been going on4 ,it has not been exactly concurrent4 ,culture rarely or never evolves equally in all directions4 ,it is a mental process1 partly conscious1 partly unconscious4 ,the collective mind of a given society1 like the individual minds of which it is composed1 is not exercised equally #ih on all subjects at the same time4 ,hence while1 for example1 we find among the ,euahlayi tribe1 in the north of ,new ,south ,wales1 an advanced theology and a more developed worship than have been recorded elsewhere in ,australia1 the social organization is still on the basis of female descent2 and though the clansmen eat without scruple their hereditary totems1 in other respects the totemic system seems to be in full force4 ,in the same way the ,arunta and their neighbours certainly preserve relics of a very archaic condition of thought and social organization4 ,though for certain purposes a son inherits from his mother's husband1 it is doubtful whether descent is counted through the father for social purposes2 the physical relation between father and child1 indeed1 is but imperfectly recognized4 ,on the other hand1 they have developed a very elaborate theory of reincarnation1 and their totemic system seems to be in course of transformation into a number of societies bearing in some respects remarkable resemblance to those of the tribes of ,british ,columbia4#ih4a ,magical practices 7chiefly in connection with these societies or totemic groups7 are more prominent than religious4 ,yet a closer examination will lead us to the conclusion that something more than1 on any definition of magic1 we can call magical practices1 something we must recognize as religion1 albeit of a low type1 is not wholly wanting to the natives of ,central ,australia4 ,we may perhaps grant that ,twanyirika1 with whose name the women and #ii uninitiate children are kept in awe1 is a bugbear 8to frighten babes withal10 and nothing more4 ,the ,kaitish and the ,loritja1 adjacent tribes sharing the general culture of the ,arunta1 at all events believe in the real existence of a superior being1 who invented the initiation rites and is pleased when men perform them now4#ii4a ,indeed1 if ,herr ,strehlow's investigations are to be trusted1 the ,arunta themselves are not destitute of belief in such a being1 though we learn little about him1 and he has no influence on the destinies of mankind4#ii4b ,among the ,warramunga1 a tribe a little further to the north1 the ,wollunqua1 a gigantic mythical snake1 is the object of important rites1 and one of the totem-clans is called by its name4 ,it dwells in a certain water-hole in a lonely valley of the ,murchison ,range1 8and there is always the fear that it may take it into its head to come out of its hiding-place and do some damage40 ,hence propitiation is necessary4 ,this is effected by building a mound of sandy earth and delineating on it a representation of the animal4 8,they say that when he sees the mound with his representation drawn upon it1 he is gratified1 and wriggles about underneath with pleasure40 ,on the evening of the day succeeding that on which the ceremonies in connection with this mound were witnessed by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 8the old men who had made the mound said that they had heard the ,wollunqua talking1 and that he was pleased with what had been done and was sending rain2 the explanation of which doubtless was that they1 like ourselves1 had heard thunder in the distance4 ,no rain fell1 but a few days later the distant rumble of thunder was again heard at night-time2 and #ajj this1 the old men now said1 was the ,wollunqua growling because the remains of the mound had been left uncovered4 ,they also told the younger men that a heavy bank of clouds which lay on the western horizon had been placed there as a warning by the ,wollunqua1 and at once cut down boughs and hid the ruins of the mound from view1 after which the ,wollunqua ceased from growling1 and all went on peacefully until the end of the series0 of ceremonies4#ajj4a ,there are1 of course1 myths associated with the ,wollunqua4 ,the mound recalled one of them4 ,during its building and the ceremonies about it chants were sung referring to the deeds of the ,wollunqua1 breaking out from time to time into refrains of words1 now at least meaningless1 and said to belong to the language of the mythical past4 ,the name ,wollunqua is avoided in common parlance4 ,a circumlocution is employed instead1 8because1 so they told us1 if they were to call it too often by its real name1 they would lose their control over it and it would come out and eat them all up40#ajj4b ,how does this differ from the familiar taboo of sacred names8 ,when the explorers were taken to visit the ,wollunqua's dwelling-place 7should we be wrong to call it his shrine871 the two chief men of the totemic group went down to the water's edge and addressed him in whispers with bowed heads1 praying him to remain quiet and do them no harm1 for they were mates of his and had brought up two great white men to see where he lived and to tell them about him4 8,we could plainly see that it was all very real to them1 and that they implicitly believed that the ,wollunqua was indeed alive beneath the water1 watching them1 though they could not see him40#ajj4c ,in all these rites 7the details #aja of which were carried out with earnestness and frequently with excitement7 it can hardly be denied that we have the elements of a true cult4 ,the only one as to which any qualification could be admitted is 8the savage attack10 described as being made on the mound when the ceremony relating to it was concluded4 ,the result of it was that the figures delineated on the mound were destroyed1 and all that remained was a rough heap of sandy earth4 ,this is represented as an attempt to 8coerce the mythic beast40 ,it is not quite certain that the interpretation is correct1 for it does not rest on native statements1 but is an inference of the explorers4 ,the obliteration of sacred figures drawn on sand or earth for the purpose of a rite is not confined to the cult of the ,wollunqua1 nor even to ,australia4 ,it is equally found among the ,pueblo tribes of ,north ,america and the ,mongolian ,buddhists of ,central ,asia4#aja4a ,its object is to hide the sacred symbols from the eyes of the profane4 ,but if the interpretation were correct 7and it is not inconsistent with some of the expressions and traditions reported71 it is no more than we might expect4 ,if a savage deals with the mythic figures of his imagination as he deals with his fellowman1 we must not be surprised that he should pass from cajolery to coercion1 from prayer to defiance4 ,peoples on a much higher religious horizon 7as we shall see hereafter7 do not hesitate to threaten1 and even to offer violence to1 the objects of their worship1 when they are unable to obtain otherwise what they want4 ,nor are the rites of the ,wollunqua alone among these tribes in bearing evidence of something more than magical ceremonies1 namely1 of rudimentary worship4 #ajb ,when at the close of the initiation rites among the ,arunta someone with a bundle of churinga1 sacred stones or sticks in the shape of a bull-roarer1 comes up to the newly initiated youth1 saying3 8,here is ,twanyirika1 of whom you have heard so much2 they are churinga and will help to heal you quickly10#ajb4a neither the neophyte nor his friend regards them as mere toys4 ,the statement that they will help to heal the neophyte's wounds is enough to show this4 ,we must not be misled by the apparent anticlimax to forget that they are1 throughout this group of tribes1 mysterious objects1 marked with the emblem of the totem1 and in the closest association with it2 to the ,arunta and ,loritja they are the outward and visible sign1 if not the embodiment1 of the ancestral souls or invisible portions1 and as such are regarded with veneration4#ajb4b ,they are kept cunningly concealed from the eyes of the profane1 hidden in stores which are sanctuaries1 places of refuge from the pursuit of enemies1 for men and even for wild animals4 ,herr ,strehlow relates that when he was trying to find a native word to translate church1 two baptized ,blackfellows in all seriousness suggested to him the use of arknanaua1 the name of these sacred storehouses in their tongue4#ajb4c ,the very word churinga means1 as nearly as can be rendered in a ,european tongue1 hidden away1 secret1 appropriated1 sacred4 ,it is used as an adjective to describe objects employed in the sacred ceremonies1 and the secret name bestowed on a child at birth4 ,in this connection it is #ajc important to remember that the sacred ceremonies1 and in fact everything sacred1 are among these tribes secret also from the uninitiate4 ,though individuals may1 at least among the ,arunta and ,loritja1 have special property in their churingas1 the latter are1 as a whole1 the collective property of the totemic clan2 they are under the control of the ceremonial headman2 their loss is the most serious evil that can befall a group2 and even to lend them to another group1 as is occasionally done for special purposes1 is undertaken with the greatest solemnity and caution4 ,when returned1 they are received with every mark of veneration1 with weeping and a low1 mournful chant2 and both parties must be strictly fasting4#ajc4a ,the churinga are1 moreover1 endowed with power1 with mana1 which not merely heals wounds1 but when they are brought ceremonially in contact with the body produces other physical1 mental1 and even moral effects4 ,in the ,kaitish tribe the performance of some ceremonies1 in the course of which the churinga are handled1 renders a man so full of this mana1 or1 as they call it1 churinga1 using the very word1 that he becomes for the time taboo4#ajc4b ,in addition1 the churinga have virtue to make the yams and the grass-seed grow2 they frighten the game1 or enable a man to secure it1 and so forth4 ,they are handled in a manner which it is no exaggeration to call devout4 ,they are polished with red ochre to 8soften0 them1 a term that1 as ,messrs ,spencer and ,gillen remark1 8very evidently points to the fact that the churinga is regarded as something much more than a piece of wood or stone4 ,it is intimately associated with the ancestor1 and has #8feelings1' just as human beings have1 which can be soothed by rubbing in the same way in which those of living men can be40 ,we gather that a man will sing #ajd to his churinga1 that the subject of his song will be the mythical story of the ancestor 7or the previous incarnation7 to whom it belonged1 and that as he sings and rubs it with his hand1 8he gradually comes to feel that there is some special association between him and the sacred object--that a virtue of some kind passes from it to him1 and also from him to it40 ,so from generation to generation it gathers more and more of what our authors describe as magical power--what would certainly be called in ,melanesia mana--the mystic potentiality already discussed4#ajd4a ,thus the churinga have to the ,blackfellow a more or less definitely personal aspect4 ,it may be said that the songs chanted over them are after all merely magical spells4 ,but the spell implies some more or less defined personality in the objects to which it is addressed4 ,in these tribes rites are performed1 called in the ,arunta tongue ,intichiuma1 for the purpose of causing a manifestation of the power of the totem1 of multiplying the totem-animal or plant1 and generally of increasing the prosperity of the totem4 ,in the course of these rites there is much singing4 ,the members of the group invite the witchetty grubs to come from all directions and lay their eggs1 or the hakea-trees to flower and their blossoms to fill with honey2 they beg the rain to come and bring fish2 they direct the kangaroos to go from one place to another2 and so on4 ,even when the songs and the actions performed in the ceremonies recall the events of the mythical past1 they are not necessarily more magical than the words of sacred dramas1 which everywhere in the lower culture inseparably interweave what we generally speak of as magic and religion4 ,the mighty ancestors 7as elsewhere #aje the gods7 whose deeds they chant are present in the rite4 8,the totem1 the ancestor1 and the descendant 7that is to say1 the performer7 appear in these songs as one4 ,without keeping in view the indivisible unity of the totem1 the mythic ancestor and the offspring 7ratapa71 many of the songs are quite incomprehensible40#aje4a ,thus where invitation or command is not issued directly to the object1 the mana of the ancestors seems to be evoked for the accomplishment of the end4 ,again1 so far from the ,arunta medicine-men being practitioners of anything analogous to modern science1 they are initiated by1 and their power is derived from1 the spirits4 ,these spirits are believed to put the candidate to death1 to carry him down into their abode1 and there to take out his internal organs1 replacing them with a new set1 planting in his body a supply of magical crystals by which all his subsequent wonders will be performed1 and then bringing him to life again4 ,he remains1 however1 in a condition of insanity for some days4 ,it is true that an imitation of this process can be performed by medicine-men of flesh and blood2 but candidates thus initiated have a lower repute 7save apparently among the ,warramunga7 than those initiated directly by the spirits4 ,the crystals are in any case the home and symbol of the magician's powers4 ,they are in fact full of mana4 ,if they be lost1 the magician ceases to be a magician1 and the crystals themselves return to the spirits4 ,all over ,australia1 so far as we know1 the same influence is attributed to them4#aje4b ,on the eastern side of the continent1 where something like a tribal ,all-,father #ajf is believed in1 he is regarded1 like ,odin1 as the mightiest of magicians1 and the crystals are1 as well as the bull-roarer1 among his special attributes4 ,let me observe too in passing that it is not a little significant that1 as in the witchcraft of ,europe and ,africa1 portions of dead bodies are in great request in ,australia for magical purposes4 ,the 8pointing bone10 to which ,i referred just now1 is part of a dead man's leg or arm4 ,a portion of his personality inheres in it4 ,consequently1 even before it is 8sung10 it is endowed with his mana1 which the singing only enhances and directs in its course4#ajf4a ,for the same reason human fat and a dead man's hair are important parts of the ,australian native's magical apparatus4 ,the initiation of the medicine-man or magician by spirits1 often the spirits of the dead1 is practically the universal belief in ,australia4 ,in this respect the ,australian medicine-man is in line with many of his professional brethren elsewhere4 ,in the island of ,saghalien the ,gilyak shamans are chosen vessels1 to whom their tutelary gods reveal their high calling in vision or in trance4 ,from the moment that this is done the gods install themselves as the new shaman's assistants and perform his commands4 ,yet shamanhood is not regarded as a gift1 but as a burden4 ,to become a shaman1 either a man must find favour with one of these assistant tutelary gods1 or such a god must be bestowed upon him by his father or uncle4 ,conversion into a shaman forms a break in the life of the chosen1 accompanied by many complicated psychical phenomena4 ,the process in his own case was described by a shaman to a ,russian anthropologist4 ,for more than two months he was sick and lay without movement or consciousness4 ,as soon #ajg as he revived from one attack he fell under another4 8,i should have died10 he said1 8if ,i had not become a shaman40 ,he began to dream at night that he sang shaman songs4 ,visions appeared to him1 and he was told to make a drum and the proper apparatus of a shaman1 and to sing4 ,if he were a simple man1 the vision told him1 nothing would happen2 8but if thou art a shaman1 be a real shaman40 ,when he awoke he found that it was thought the spirits had killed him1 and preparations for his funeral rites had been made4 ,but he got a drum and began to sing4 ,this produced a feeling which hovered between intoxication and death4 ,then for the first time he saw his tutelary gods1 and received from them instruction in his business as a shaman4#ajg4a ,among the ,koryak on the adjacent continent1 8nobody can become a shaman of his own free will4 ,the spirits enter into any person they may choose and force him to become their servant40 ,such persons are 8usually nervous young men1 subject to hysterical fits1 by means of which the spirits express their demand0 that the patient shall become a shaman4 ,fasting1 paroxysms1 exhaustion succeed one another4 ,finally1 the spirits appear to the patient in visible form1 endow him with power1 inspire and instruct him4#ajg4b ,in other words1 they fill him with their mana4 ,here we have manifestly the wide-spread phenomena of ,possession4 ,in these tribes there are no professional priests4 ,the magicians1 though in a sense the intermediaries between men and the higher powers1 are not charged with the duty of offering sacrifice and prayer4 ,in ,south ,africa1 among the ,bantu tribes1 also1 there are #ajh no professional priests4 ,ancestor-worship is the religion2 and the only worship paid is paid to the manes of the dead4 ,the proper person to offer sacrifices is the head of the family for the time being4 ,but medicine-men or magicians form a regular profession1 which is divided into a number of branches4 ,for some of these branches initiation by the spirits of the dead is not necessary4 ,for others it is indispensable4 ,frequently1 however1 the same man combines the practice of several branches of the art4 ,all who practise openly are recognized as ,white ,wizards1 exercising their powers for the wellbeing of society1 in defence of the established order4 ,yet these very men sometimes boast of being baloyi1 a term by which evil wizards are generally known4 ,they claim to be more powerful than ordinary wizards1 able to discover and baffle their tricks1 and to kill4 ,moreover1 there are good baloyi1 who use their power to bless4 ,they are sometimes sent by ancestral spirits to increase the produce of the fields1 and then they are said to have bewitched the fields to make them bring forth more fruit4 ,thus it is clear that a hard and fast line cannot be drawn between the social and the antisocial magicians1 at least among some of the ,bantu tribes4 ,one of the chief branches of the profession is that of exorcist4 ,now no man can set up as an exorcist without having been himself possessed by the spirits and exorcised4 ,this is indeed the regular method of initiation1 for a man is not merely restored to ordinary life by exorcism2 he is also aggregated to the society of magicians2 he enters a new life2 he becomes a neophyte among the practitioners1 and must undergo further probation which may result in his becoming more than an exorcist--he may become clairvoyant or a diviner1 a prophet or a worker of marvels2 he may cure diseases or cause the rain to fall4 ,many practitioners #aji profess more than one of these accomplishments2 the most distinguished profess several4#aji4a ,how far the phenomena of possession are voluntary need not here be discussed4 ,the ,zulu or ,xosa patient 7if we may call him so7 becomes sickly and abstinent2 he distinguishes himself by dreams and visions1 and begins to talk of his intercourse with spirits of the dead2 he becomes 8a house of dreams02 he is hysterical2 he sings2 he behaves as though he were out of his mind2 he is possessed by an ,itongo1 an ancestral spirit4 ,then he is admitted to the society of the magicians and receives instruction from them4 ,finally1 he is accounted a new creature1 whose intercourse with spirits and share in their supernatural powers is recognized by everyone4#aji4b ,among the ,ngombe in the ,northern ,congo basin1 we are told1 8the ghosts call to the man from the bowels of the earth4 ,he goes into the grave1 underground1 and stays there four months4 ,when the four months are finished he comes forth1 rubs himself with camwood and dances1 contorting his body40 ,this seems to be the neophyte's only preparation for the office of nganga4 ,after that1 according to the same authority1 8whenever a man is sick he is carried by others to the nganga4 ,they accompany him to the man of ghosts4 ,he looks at the body1 then recites to the spirit4 ,they lift up the man and go out4 ,all the people dance1 and he who is afflicted with sickness is brought to the doctor for medicine40#aji4c ,on the ,north ,american continent the medicine-man was not 8possessed10 as among the ,siberian tribes and the ,bantu2 but his mode of initiation was similar4 ,the #aaj ,ojibway sorcerer after prolonged fasting was initiated by the supernatural powers4#aaj4a ,among many of the ,californian tribes 8a spirit1 be it that of an animal1 a place1 the sun or other natural object1 a deceased relative or an entirely unembodied spirit1 visits the future medicine-man in his dreams1 and the connection thus established between them is the source and basis of the latter's power4 ,this spirit becomes his guardian spirit or #8personal4' ,from it he receives the song or rite or knowledge of the charm1 and the understanding which enable him to cause or remove disease1 and to do and endure what other men cannot40#aaj4b ,the ,skidi ,pawnee is allured to the abode of the mysterious animal-powers1 and there taught their knowledge and gifted with their powers2 or he is visited by a supernatural being in dreams for the same purpose4#aaj4c ,among the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo 8there are two descriptions of manangs shamans1 the regular and the irregular4 ,the regular are those who have been called to that vocation by dreams1 and to whom the spirits have revealed themselves4 ,the irregular are self-created and without a familiar spirit40 ,it is not enough for the manang simply to say 8that he feels himself called2 he must prove to his friends that he is able to commune with the spirits2 and in proof of this he will occasionally abstain from food and indulge in trances1 from which he will awake with all the tokens of one possessed by a devil1 foaming at the mouth and talking incoherently40#aaj4d ,one of the ways to 8get magic0 among the ,malays is to meet the ghost of a murdered man4 ,in order to do this a #aaa ceremony must be performed at the grave on a ,tuesday at full moon4 ,the aspirant calls upon the deceased for help1 and states his request4 ,ultimately an aged man appears1 to whom the request is repeated2 and it would seem that the suppliant gets what he wants4#aaa4a ,in ,europe the dominant religion has proscribed witchcraft with terrors spiritual and physical1 which have emphasized its separation and intensified its spiritual aspect4 ,the judicial records are full of stories of initiation to the ,black ,art that begin by the formal renunciation of ,christian worship and baptism4 ,the novice tramples upon symbols of the ,christian faith1 or otherwise treats them with indignity4 ,he utters incantations with appropriate rites to call up the devil4 ,that gentleman then appears to receive his formal profession of allegiance1 admit him ceremonially into his band of worshippers1 and tutor him in the methods of his art4 ,that the confessions of this procedure were not wholly imaginary1 and dictated by the orthodox functionaries who examined the tortured victim1 is rendered probable from the fact that down to the present day1 in many continental countries1 if not in the ,british ,islands1 the peasant witch enters upon her trade by a rite recalling its main features4 ,it would be easy to expand the list4 ,enough has1 however1 been said to show that over a wide area of the world and in the most various stages of civilization what we call supernatural beings are concerned with the preparation of the magician's career1 and that the ,arunta beliefs do not differ in this respect from those current among many other peoples4 ,in none of the foregoing cases does the shaman or magician as such exercise the functions of priest4 ,he offers no sacrifices1 he addresses no prayers on behalf of the community to the divinities4 #aab ,he performs wonders by the aid of the spirits2 but the spirits who first invade and then help him are by no means everywhere those who are the object of worship4 ,it is not my intention to discuss the psychological and physiological aspects of the phenomena4 ,they recall the phenomena of 8conversion0 among ourselves4 ,occurring1 as they usually do1 at or shortly after the commencement of adult life1 they display the effervescence of puberty1 accentuated by the neurotic peculiarities of the individual1 acted upon1 directed and controlled by the social environment4 ,as in the case of 8conversion10 too1 they are liable to become epidemic1 particularly at times of social and political crisis1 where feeling in the tribe is more than commonly excited4 ,before passing away from the subject we may turn to a different type of shaman4 ,among the ,veddas the shaman is in effect the priest4 ,the spirits to whom offerings are made are those of the dead4 ,it is the shaman who makes the offering1 and performs the invocation2 and he is in return possessed by them4 ,but here the novice is chosen and trained by one who already exercises the profession4 ,he does not become possessed in his capacity as novice4 ,possession only takes place at the public ceremonies2 it is temporary2 and it may affect others besides the shaman4 ,the position of shaman is practically hereditary1 for the novice trained is usually the shaman's son1 or his sister's son1 that is to say1 his actual or potential son-in-law4 ,the ,veddas are on a level of civilization as low as the ,arunta4 ,though they do not practise rites of such senseless and revolting cruelty1 in their natural condition and apart from external influence they live entirely by hunting and the collection of honey2 they build no huts1 but take advantage of caves and rock-shelters2 their pottery is of the roughest description2 #aac and the iron arrowheads1 axes and other implements which they possess are obtained by barter from the ,sinhalese1 for they do not exercise the art of smithying4 ,the lowest and wildest of them1 however1 know nothing of hostile magic4 ,even protective magic is hardly practised2 and the charms they make use of appear to be derived from the neighbouring ,sinhalese4 ,it is true they have traditions that it used to be customary to seek strength and confidence to avenge insults by chewing a small dried piece of the liver of a man who had been killed for the purpose4 ,this is an application of a well-known magical principle4#aac4a ,but1 so far as our information goes1 it is a solitary case4 ,if therefore the ,vedda shaman is not initiated by the spirits1 it is not because the ,veddas have not yet passed out of the age of magic4 ,if there be an age of magic in which religion is unknown1 for aught that appears they have not yet passed into it4 ,at all events they cannot be said to confirm the generalization that magic precedes religion2 for magical practices once adopted persist with remarkable tenacity into the highest planes of culture4 ,there is1 finally1 an example of a functionary occupying an ambiguous position as priest or magician1 at which we may glance for a moment4 ,the ,mincopies of the ,andaman ,islands1 before the arrival of strangers in modern times1 were1 like the ,arunta1 living in the ,stone ,age4 ,they had no agriculture2 their food was supplied by the chase1 or the search for insects1 roots1 and honey4 ,they had indeed learned to build huts2 and they had the use of fire1 but they were ignorant how to produce it4 ,they are divided into local tribes1 ruled by elected chiefs with very limited power4 ,the chiefs acquire such authority as they have by their skill in hunting and fishing #aad and their reputation for generosity and hospitality2 and it is on these qualifications that social status mainly depends4 ,social and political organization is therefore1 as well as religion1 in a somewhat rudimentary stage4 ,nor is magic more advanced than religion4 ,the only persons who exercise any magical or religious functions are called by the title of oko-paiad1 or ,dreamer4 ,such a man obtains his position by relating an extraordinary dream foreshadowing some future event1 which afterwards happens4 ,since these practitioners are credited with the power of communicating in dreams with the spirits1 it may be presumed that the initial dream is in the nature of a 8call0 by them4 ,the oko-paiad does not seem to be subject to possession by the spirits2 but he is believed to have powers of second sight and a mysterious influence over the fortunes and lives of his neighbours4 ,he is therefore the constant recipient of presents1 which are in effect bribes for his favour4 ,our information concerning his proceedings is of the scantiest description4 ,it does not extend to any active attempt at magical interference with the fate or the actions of others4 ,perhaps we may conclude that any interference he may be held to exercise is confined to his intercourse in dreams with the spirits4 ,however this may be1 his only recorded overt acts are on the occurrence of an epidemic1 when 8he brandishes a burning log1 and bids the evil spirit keep at a distance40 ,sometimes as a further precaution he plants stakes in front of each hut1 and smears them in stripes with black beeswax1 the smell of which1 being peculiarly offensive to the demon1 ensures his speedy departure4#aad4a ,if any inference can be drawn from this account it hardly seems to favour the priority of the evolution of magic over religion2 for the oko-paiad1 #aae if not initiated by the spirits1 is essentially one who is in communication with them1 and who exercises his powers not merely against individuals 7of which there is no direct evidence71 but in favour of them and of the community4 ,the conclusion is that there is no solid and convincing proof of the development of magic prior to religion4 ,if the ,mincopies1 the ,veddas1 and the tribes of ,central ,australia fail us1 whither shall we turn for evidence8 ,yet there is a consideration generally applicable to savage life that must not be overlooked here4 ,vague1 uncertain1 and contradictory as the savage may be in his beliefs1 sluggish as his mind may be in regard to matters of speculation1--in matters of practical importance1 the provision of food and shelter1 the protection of his women and children1 and the defence of his little community against aggression by human foes or the wild beasts1 he is bound to be on the alert and to act4 ,his wits are therefore sharpened for action4 ,action is natural to him2 thought which has no immediate objective in action is strange4 ,the energies remaining when the body is satisfied with food1 when shelter is assured1 and hostilities against his fellow-man or the lower animals are for the moment forgotten1 must be expended in other kinds of action4 ,bodily recreation--play--satisfies this craving for movement and excitement1 while at the same time it fulfils the useful purpose 7albeit unconsciously to him7 of keeping his faculties1 bodily and mental1 ready and supple1 and of training them still further for more directly practical ends4 ,this form of activity1 organized into dances and games1 easily begets ritual4 ,the ,hottentots danced all night at full moon with extravagant gestures1 saluting the moon and invoking her for cattle-fodder and milk4#aae4a ,the ,wichita of #aaf ,north ,america played every year in the spring a game of shinny1 which represented1 there can be little doubt1 the contest of winter and spring4#aaf4a ,in such cases as these1 and they are legion1 a recreation has been indulged in at a period appropriate for it--the dance in the clear1 cool night1 the game under the mild returning warmth and stimulating influences of the early spring4 ,because it thus naturally recurs at definite times it comes to be regarded as proper1 even necessary3 it develops into a rite4 ,to a similar game played by the ,omaha was attached1 in the phrase of the writers who describe it1 8a cosmic significance40#aaf4b ,the impulse to movement1 to exertion1 liberates emotion2 the emotion is in turn intensified by its collective expression2 and this intensification would lead to the conviction that the expression has somehow or other in itself an influence on external nature1 just as it would have in human relations4 ,the exact mechanism by which it acted probably would not trouble the savage at an early stage4 ,later1 it would be fitted into the framework of his ideas4 ,the ,hottentot rite came to be addressed to the moon4 ,the ,wichita rite seems to have been thought to assist directly in conquest of the evil power of winter and the renewal of life4 ,but we may go further back still4 ,i have referred to the make-believe that is a relief to overcharged feelings4 ,emotional stress is felt at times by everybody1 be he savage or civilized4 ,it causes a reaction1 more or less powerful in proportion to the magnitude of the cause or the excitability of the person who undergoes it4 ,it is expressed in acts sometimes of the wildest extravagance1 sometimes rhythmic and partially controlled4 ,these acts are spontaneous1 automatic4 ,recurrence of the emotional stress would tend to be accompanied by repetition of the #aag acts in which the reaction had been previously expressed4 ,if the recurrence were sufficiently frequent1 the form of the reaction would become a habit to be repeated on similar occasions1 even where the stress was less vivid or almost absent4 ,it can hardly be doubted that many rites owe their existence to such reactions4 ,the ,pawnees1 like the ,wichita1 a tribe belonging to the ,caddoan stock of ,north ,america1 summoned with song and dance and other elaborate rites the buffaloes which were the mainstay of their existence4 ,everything depended--sustenance1 provision of clothing and tents and all other necessaries1 hence the very continuance of the tribal life--on the buffaloes4 ,their movements about the great central plains of the continent were mysterious4 ,the true causes were unknown2 the course was not predicable with certainty4 ,accordingly1 the period of expectation while the people were awaiting the advent of the herd was one of great emotional tension4 ,it was relieved by a series of acts1 originally automatic1 or quasi-automatic1 which would gradually assume more and more definitely the calling and enticement of the expected herd4 ,this form of reaction to the particular stress would become habitual4 ,it would end as a solemn rite1 which was believed to have a powerful influence in bringing the animals and effecting a satisfactory capture4 ,the orenda of the performers1 expressed in the manner consecrated by tradition1 would then be held to exercise a compelling power4#aag4a ,to such an origin must be ascribed the rehearsal of a battle that takes place in many savage tribes before #aah the warriors go forth on a raid1 and the dances and other ceremonies accomplished by women left at home when their husbands are absent fighting or hunting4 ,more obviously must it be held responsible for a variety of other performances1 of which the common spell in this country and on the continent of ,europe1 to recover an article stolen or the waning affections of a lover1 is a type4 ,the love-lorn maiden takes some object1 frequently a shoulder-bone of lamb1 and sticks a knife or a pin into it1 saying3 8',tis not this bone ,i mean to stick1 ,but my lover's heart ,i mean to prick1 ,wishing him neither rest nor sleep ,till he comes with me to speak40 ,of spells like this the preparation of an effigy1 and the assaults upon it representing acts done to the person for whom the effigy stands1 are an elaboration4 ,the overcharged emotion first of all finds a vent in an attack upon any convenient object4 ,then from various causes a special object is singled out as the appropriate vehicle of the performer's wrath1 hatred or jealousy1 the act gradually becomes more solemn and deliberate1 and a formal rite is evolved4 ,it should hardly be necessary to say that it is not claimed that the foregoing paragraphs explain the genesis of all rites4 ,but that many do thus originate accords with all we know of human nature4 ,in any case a rite was not instituted because men were previously convinced of its efficacy4 ,the primitive savage may have been a man of preternatural stupidity2 but even he would not have been equal to putting the cart before the horse in that fashion4 ,the rite must have been an established habit before a conscious meaning filtered into it4 ,interpretation would be a gradual process4 ,if the rite were shared #aai by the social group1 and by expansion or accretion attained sufficient importance1 the interpretation might take the form of a myth4 ,the myth in turn would contribute to the stability of the rite1 by means of the sacred character it would affix to it1 or the reminiscence of an ancient experience it would be supposed to embody4 ,thus ritual1 religious or magical1 is evolved long before belief has become definite and cogent4 ,it may emerge from what ,i may style the mere surface of human nature1 from necessities mainly physical1 from direct nervous reaction4 ,it may1 on the other hand1 have roots in the social relations of mankind4 ,the savage naturally1 habitually--,i might almost say instinctively--applies the forms of social life to his relations with his non-human surroundings4 ,presumably1 as we have seen1 primitive man in his rough way did likewise4 ,but this affords no argument for holding that magic preceded religion4 ,rites are not necessarily magical because they are not addressed to defined personalities4 ,they may be yet inchoate4 ,not until reflection has begun to clarify in some degree man's relation to his environment 7a slow and tedious process1 slowest and most tedious of all in the early stages7 can we reckon them satisfactorily under the one head or the other4 ,if ,i am right in contending that magic and religion flow from a common source1 rites may remain for generations in an indecisive condition which is neither1 but may crystallize in either shape according to the specific occasion1 the environment1 or the dominant mental and institutional tendency of the social group4 ,such a transformation will be gradual and piecemeal1 and in large part1 if not entirely1 unconscious4 ,many things done 8for luck10 even in the higher civilizations1 are #abj still in this indeterminate state4 ,the intellectual atmosphere is unfavourable2 their development is arrested1 probably for ever4 ,i suspect that an accurate appreciation of the ,intichiuma rites practised by the ,arunta and their neighbours would show that they too are not finally to be assigned to either category4 ,the part played by society in the generation of religion demands some further observations4 ,from whatever type of anthropoid ape man has been evolved1 it is safe to believe that he has from the first lived in communities4 ,but for this he could have made no progress1 if even he could have existed as man4 ,the condition of the solitary apes is incapable of improvement4 ,it is incredible that if rudimentary human beings had lived like them in a group consisting at the utmost of a male1 female1 and still dependent young1 they would ever have emerged into humanity1 or that if they had emerged they would have been able to hold their own against the foes that surrounded them4 ,the lowest human beings are never found solitary4 ,if they wander on the food-quest1 or are driven away from higher and more powerful societies1 they do not fail to come together at certain times to enjoy the companionship of their fellows1 to exchange experiences1 to plan hunts or raids1 to perform rites in common and partake of common pleasures4 ,this implies organization4 ,in fact1 such communities1 when they meet and live the communal life1 are not found to be a mere incoherent congeries of individuals4 ,they are true societies1 organized1 some more1 some less closely1 on a definite plan1 in which every individual has his place4 ,the ,australian natives have evolved social institutions of proverbial complexity4 ,the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa1 persecuted and broken by intrusive races1 have left us on the walls of the caverns they haunted representations #aba marvellous in their skill of ceremonies apparently totemic4 ,and if this interpretation of the drawings be doubtful1 such remains as have been preserved of their traditions afford evidence of an organization by no means contemptible4 ,the ,seri of the ,californian ,gulf1 perhaps on a still lower plane of civilization1 and certainly leading their life in more miserable surroundings1 are divided into clans and furnished with a social hierarchy built up on a reverence for women almost chivalrous in its type4#aba4a ,the existence everywhere of organized societies implies the paramount influence of the community over the individual4 ,nor is that influence only a matter of implication4 ,abundant evidence is found of the control wielded by society over the actions and the very thoughts of its members4 ,the individual is nothing3 the group is everything4 ,as ,professor ,durkheim remarks1 every society exercises power over its members1 power physical and above all moral4 ,it keeps them in a sensation of perpetual dependence4 ,it is distinct from the individuals who compose it1 and consequently its interests are distinct from theirs4 ,but as it cannot attain its ends except through and by means of the individual1 it makes an imperious claim on his assistance1 exacting it even to the sacrifice of his inclinations and interests4 ,thus at every moment we are obliged to submit to rules of conduct and of thought which we have neither made nor wished to make1 and which may even be contrary to our most fundamental instincts4#aba4b ,in these days and among civilized societies1 when individualism is so strongly developed in thought and action1 we are apt to forget to what an extent religion is an expression of the social organization4 ,an eminent #abb ,oxford professor1 not long ago deceased1 used to say that religion was a social secretion4 ,that may be an excellent way to phrase the relations between society and religion in modern ,europe4 ,it is a very incomplete account of them as they exist on the ,australian steppe or in the forests of ,brazil4 ,in the lower culture religion is much more than a social secretion3 it is one aspect of the social organization1 inseparable from the rest4 ,the organization cannot be understood without it--nay1 it cannot exist apart from it4 ,in these societies every member has his position and takes his share in religious rites4 ,whatever his place in the social scale1 he is on the same level of knowledge1 he shares in the same beliefs1 with his fellows4 ,the mental atmosphere of each is charged with the same electric fluid1 which communicates itself to all alike4 ,especially on the occasions of reunion its action is intensified1 frequently resulting in excitement1 in vehement exaltation1 translated into the wildest and most extravagant actions4 ,but these reunions are not merely social1 they are religious festivals4 ,for religion pervades every thought and deed both of the individual and of the community4 ,it binds the members together as no other force could do4 ,the power of society over the individual is the power of religion4 ,for religion is not as yet distinguished from politics1 from law1 from medicine1 or from other forms of social activity that in our stage of culture have long vindicated their freedom4 ,religion has therefore grown up with society4 ,its form has changed with the changing forms of society4 ,it cannot be said to be generated by society1 inasmuch as it is coeval with it4 ,the very mould in which a society in the lower stages of culture is cast is religious4 ,church and ,state are of necessity coterminous1 equivalent1 #abc one4 ,but this evolution must of necessity have taken time4 ,the inchoate society of half-human beings would have had a correspondingly vague and inchoate religion4 ,as intelligence grew1 the bonds of the horde would gather strength1 what we may call public opinion would become more and more definite with the gradual acquisition of speech1 until at last man emerged in something like a regularly ordered community4 ,it is difficult for us to imagine the steps of this long process1 by which1 with society1 what we call religion was evolved4 ,i have tried in an earlier chapter to sketch the external conditions that would have impressed humanity in its dawn4 ,these external conditions would have driven the individual more and more in upon the group1 and thus would have materially contributed to the conscious formation of common interests founded upon the common need of material help1 of sympathy1 and of relief from anxiety and terror1 whether of actual or imagined danger4 ,the formation of common interests must have been accompanied by the increasing subordination of the individual to the group4 ,in the extension of the authority of the group over the individual it is that ,m4 ,durkheim finds the origin of the idea of the impersonal force which the ,omaha call wakonda4 ,the idea1 as ,i have shown1 lies at the root of the religious conceptions of peoples in more than one vast cultural area4 ,that such authority of the group1 necessarily impersonal as it is1 would operate to strengthen the concept of a general impersonal force1 when once that concept had been formed1 there can be no question4 ,to ascribe to it the origin of the concept1 however1 seems to me an unwarranted inference4 ,it is more probable that the conflict of the ,personal and the ,impersonal should arise in the awakening mind as the result of its outlook upon #abd the world4 ,the whole environment does not present a personal aspect at once4 ,as personalities grow into relative definiteness one after another1 there remains behind them the ,unknown1 full of vague possibilities1 impersonal1 but the source of personalities1 which are for ever looming forth as the attention is concentrated on successive objects4 ,since it is the source of personalities1 it is the source of power1 mysterious and far-reaching1 everywhere enveloping the beholder4 ,it is true this power1 in order to become effectual1 must clothe itself with personal attributes4 ,that1 however1 is not because it is formed on experience of the authority of the group acting by individuals1 but because personalization is the inevitable tendency of the mind4 ,professor ,durkheim's theory of religion is exhibited in detail only in one type4 ,he speaks of 8the aptitude of society to erect itself into a god or to create gods02#abd4a but he illustrates his thesis only in the case of totemism1 which he takes as an example of the religion of the least advanced people hitherto thoroughly examined4 ,he is careful to say that the question whether totemism has been more or less widespread is of secondary importance2 it is at all events the most primitive and the simplest religion it is possible to reach4#abd4b ,but his whole argument1 if it prove anything1 goes to show the universality of totemism4 ,for the idea of the soul1 according to the data of ethnography1 appears to him to have been coeval with humanity1 and that not merely in germ but in all its essential characters2 and the soul is nothing else than the totemic principle incarnated in each individual1 a portion of the collective soul of the group1 that is to say of the totem1 individualized4#abd4c ,now totemism is certainly a very archaic form of religion4 ,that it was universal #abe is1 however1 very far from being demonstrated4 ,it may well be that many branches of the human race have outgrown it1 and that its traces have been obliterated4 ,but among peoples very low down in culture there are many where it is unknown1 or at least unrecognizable4 ,it is more than possible1 could we ascertain the facts1 that ,bushman society was organized on the basis of totemism4 ,but there are other tribes no higher than ,bushmen and ,australian ,blackfellows where we fail to discern it4 ,the ,veddas of ,ceylon are indeed divided into clans with female descent4 ,yet no totem has emerged after the most careful enquiries4 ,their religion is essentially a cult of the dead1 based on fear4 ,the dead man is addressed as 8,lord6 ,new ,driver-away of ,vaeddas60 ,sacrifices are offered and eaten as an act of communion with the deceased4 ,in addition to the dead of the local group1 8certain long-dead ,veddas who may be regarded as legendary heroes0 are invoked1 of whom the most important are ,kande ,yaka1 an ancient hunter whose assistance is implored for good hunting1 and his brother ,bilindi ,yaka1 a sort of pale double of himself4 ,but they are not known among all the ,vedda communities1 though ,kande is regarded by some as ,lord or leader of the dead4 ,there are also other spirits1 who appear to be of foreign origin and superimposed upon the original cult of the dead1 and are perhaps on their way to become nature-spirits4#abe4a ,the religion of the ,andaman ,islanders 8consists of fear of the evil spirits of the wood1 the sea1 disease and ancestors1 and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them40 ,there is besides an anthropomorphic being1 ,puluga1 who is said to be 8the cause of all things40 ,he receives no active worship1 though acts thought to be displeasing to him are avoided 8for fear of damage to #abf the products of the jungle40 ,there is some evidence that he is the north-east wind2 and ,sir ,r4 ,c4 ,temple is of opinion that he is 8fundamentally1 with some definiteness1 identifiable with the storm1 mixed up with ancestral chiefs40 ,he acts by his daughters1 the ,morowin1 who are his messengers2 but he seems to content himself with pointing out to the evil spirits offenders against himself1 without actually taking steps against them4#abf4a ,totemism is nowhere hinted at by the enquirers who have busied themselves with this childlike1 and on the whole harmless1 but somewhat capricious people4 ,still very low in the scale of civilization1 though somewhat higher than these1 are the tribes of the interior forests of ,brazil4 ,they people their environment with imaginary beings more or less hostile4 ,the object of their ceremonies appears to be to conciliate the favour of these gentry1 or to hold them at arm's length4 ,when once the death-rites are completed little account is taken of the departed4 ,so much we may gather from the reports of two ,german expeditions1 written by distinguished scientific men who led the expeditions4 ,although they penetrated different parts of the country1 there was a general resemblance between the civilization of the ,indians met with by both explorers4 ,a ,french anthropologist has remarked that ,english and ,german observers do not interest themselves to the same degree1 or in the same way1 in the social life of peoples in the lower culture2 for whereas the ,german explorers by preference describe1 and that with praiseworthy minuteness1 the nature of the country and the material civilization of the people1 the ,english1 on the other hand1 interest themselves more in the intellectual products1 the traditions and beliefs4 ,in other words1 he said1 the ,german is #abg more of an ethnographer1 the ,englishman more of a student of folklore and psychologist4 ,there is perhaps a measure of truth in this remark4 ,it may go far to explain why more distinct and definite accounts have not been given either by ,professor ,karl von den ,steinen or ,dr ,theodor ,koch-,grnberg of the religions of the aboriginal tribes of ,brazil4 ,in any case1 we miss much that we should have expected to find in their reports on the religious beliefs and ceremonies of these tribes4 ,among the omissions is that of any mention of totemism--an institution which concerns organization and government as much as religion4 ,what renders the omission significant in the case of ,professor von den ,steinen1 and not merely the result of want of interest in the subject1 is that he has taken pains to ascertain and record the attitude of the natives towards the lower animals4 ,he makes it clear that they draw no strict line of demarcation between man and brute4 ,nay1 he goes the length of saying that we must think the boundary completely away4 ,human beings are indebted to the lower animals for the most important elements of their culture1 many of which they have acquired from them by force or guile4 ,more than that1 the ,boror claim to be actually araras 7a kind of bird with brilliant red plumage72 their neighbours the ,trumai are believed to be water-animals2 a certain cannibal tribe is descended from the jaguar2 and so forth4 ,these beliefs are not totemic1 for they concern not clans but whole tribes4#abg4a ,apparently1 therefore1 there is no totemism among the wild forest-tribes investigated4 ,if the concept of the soul 7which1 it is needless to say1 all these peoples possess7 were coeval with humanity1 and if it were only the totemic principle individualized1 then totemism must have been coeval with humanity1 and it #abh must have been universal4 ,if so1 it is at least curious that the ,veddas1 the ,andaman ,islanders1 and the forest-tribes of ,brazil--all of them on the horizon of civilization on which totemism is found--should display no traces of it4 ,if the concept of impersonal force1 the substratum of religious and magical beliefs1 be derived from the authority of society over the individual1 and not merely strengthened and developed by it1 it is odd that religious and magical beliefs should1 so low down in culture1 have issued in such widely divergent forms4 ,the worship of the dead1 the conciliation of hostile nature-spirits1 the fear of an anthropomorphic being of enormous power1 are all explicable as the result of the action of external conditions on human mentality and emotions4 ,they are not explicable as the direct product of the authority of the group over the individual4 ,and if totemism had originally held sway over the ,veddas1 the ,mincopies and the ,brazilian tribes1 it is not easy to conceive how it could have evolved in directions so diverse1--and that without leaving any authentic witness to its past4 ,it is quite another thing if the action of the group had been rather to combine and consolidate1 to intensify and to organize the sensations and emotions awakened in its members by external nature1 to give them a measure of definiteness in the process1 and to habituate the individual to certain modes of reaction to the sensations1 and to certain forms of expression of the beliefs engendered by the emotions thus awakened4 ,,iv4 ,divergence ,in the foregoing pages ,i have attempted to trace ,magic and ,religion to a common root4 ,we have found them inextricably intertwined very low down in culture2 #abi we have seen the difficulty of distinguishing them by way of scientific definition1 and have been forced back upon ordinary usage4 ,both alike are concerned with the supernatural and the uncanny2 but the one deals with it by compulsion1 by the direct exertion of human orenda upon the objects sought to be constrained1 the other by the indirect method of appeal to mightier powers than human to exercise their orenda upon those objects1 in order to obtain the result desired4 ,and ,i have contended that the opposition of ,magic and ,religion1 on which writers of authority like ,professor ,frazer and the late ,sir ,alfred ,lyall have so much insisted1 is so far from being essential that it is a result of their concurrent development and of the general advance of civilization1 and is even yet imperfectly accomplished4 ,the argument seems to require some further illustrations4 ,first1 let me observe that the definition of magic here adopted does by no means coincide with that of ,professor ,frazer1 though1 like his1 it rests upon the method of compulsion as the distinguishing characteristic4 ,that1 however1 is not because of any faith by primeval man in the invariable order of nature or in the inevitable sequence of cause and effect4 ,the compulsion of magic1 as ,i understand it1 is wielded by1 and dependent upon1 the personal orenda of the magician1 either directly or through the medium of the powerful and uncanny beings whom he succeeds in bringing into play4 ,the idea of a god in our minds is associated with a reverential attitude that is very far from being universally adopted4 ,in a later essay we shall see that threats of bodily injury1 even 7in the legends7 actual hand-to-hand combats1 and 7in fact7 chastisement of the material representatives of divinity1 are often regarded as quite appropriate measures to be taken in dealing with beings #acj who are ordinarily the objects of worship4 ,i have already referred to the constraining power attributed to sacrifice and other rites in some of the more advanced religions4 ,where ritual has undergone a long term of development1 where it has been subjected for many ages to continuous thought1 and to elaboration in order to provide for new needs or against unforeseen contingencies1 there it is apt to acquire a proportionate value of its own1 independent of the merits of the performer4 ,the sacrifice which is a gift to the gods imperiously demands its looked-for repayment1 and will not be denied4 ,the penance1 whether it be in the nature of a sacrifice or a spell1 carries with it1 like the ,hindu rite of dharna1 an implied curse if not responded to4 ,in either case the deity to whom it is directed has no choice but to comply4 ,the constraining influence may take a variety of forms1 and is by no means confined to one plane of civilization1 or to one cultural area4 ,sometimes it is expressed in knots to which is widely attributed what we call magical power4 ,in ,morocco1 where civilization has rather deteriorated than progressed for many ages1 the cult of the dead is largely prevalent4 ,professor ,westermarck records that a ,berber servant of his told him that once when in prison he invoked a certain great female saint whose tomb was in a neighbouring district1 and tied his turban1 saying3 8,i am tying thee1 ,llla ,rah'ma ,yusf1 and ,i am not going to open the knot till thou hast helped me40 ,and a person in distress will sometimes go to her grave and knot the leaves of some palmetto growing in its vicinity1 with the words3 8,i tied thee here1 ,o saint1 and ,i shall not release thee unless thou releasest me from the toils in which ,i am at present40#acj4a ,this perhaps also is1 as ,professor ,westermarck suggests1 #aca a conditional curse4 ,now a curse1 like other magical proceedings before referred to1 is primarily a relief of overcharged feelings4 ,uttered with all the strength of those feelings by an aggrieved or baffled adversary1 it evokes even in our breasts to-day shuddering and horror4 ,much more then in days when the man's orenda was deemed to go out in speech with immediate result upon the object to which he directed it4 ,when gods came to be adopted and worshipped1 strength was added to the curse by invocation of the god4 ,the god's name added to the curse was an addition of the god himself4 ,for the name is a part1 and an important part1 of the god1 and cannot be used without effect4 ,the god is bound to respond to it1 and to act in accordance with the votary's demand4 ,for this reason the real names of gods were kept secret4 ,mystery thus attached to the name of the ,god of the ,hebrews3 hence the express prohibition to 8take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain40 ,almost all over the world this belief in efficacy of the uttered name as a means of compulsion is responsible not merely for taboos on the names of gods1 and of men living or dead1 but also for the form and potency of magical formul4 ,if you know the name of a spirit and utter it1 or sometimes even threaten to utter it1 you compel the owner's attention to your wants4 ,or you may pretend to be some great personage1 such as 7wherever the ,mohammedan tradition has penetrated7 ,king ,solomon or the angel ,gabriel2 and in that name you may issue your commands4 ,or1 as among ,christians1 you call for the obedience of a spirit in the great name of ,god or the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,in ,india to repeat the divine name aloud1 or even by way of meditation1 8is the most usual way of acquiring religious merit4''' ,so much importance is given to this mode of meditation that ,tulsidas in #acb his ,ramayan lays down that the name of ,rama is greater than ,rama himself40 ,in other words1 its utterance compels him4 8,it is said of a certain ,hindu who had notoriously lived a life of impiety that he obtained salvation by calling on his deathbed for his son by his name1 which happened to be ,nryan40#acb4a ,the name ,nryan is sacred4 ,it was originally a title of ,brahm1 but is now usually applied to ,vishnu1 and is that under which he was first worshipped4#acb4b ,the curse1 if curse it were1 involved in the rite practised by ,professor ,westermarck's servant was not of the kind dependent on the utterance of a name4 ,it was rather of that in which the curse is conveyed by a sign or figure deriving its power from the orenda of the magician himself4 ,i have already referred to one species of such curses intended for the protection of property by marking it as taboo to the owner4#acb4c ,in this form they are chiefly used by the ,malayo-,polynesian and ,melanesian peoples and on the eastern side of ,central ,africa1 though they have their analogues elsewhere4#acb4d ,the leaden tablets of defixiones employed by the ancient ,greeks1 of which numerous examples are known1 show a similar practice founded on similar ideas4 ,the tablet is inscribed with the name of the person intended to be injured1 and it is then 8defixed10 or bound1 with a nail4 ,the ceremony was doubtless accompanied by some words expressive of the intention4 ,indeed the expression of the intention was in course of time recorded on the tablet4 ,a further stage in development was reached when the gods were invoked1 #acc beginning with ,hermes and ,ge1 and going on to other chthonic divinities4 ,later1 apparently towards the end of the third century ,b4,c41 the custom began of devoting to various gods lost property and the thief who had stolen it4 ,such tablets affixed to the walls of temples doubtless served the purpose of our advertisements for the recovery of lost or stolen property4 ,the difference is that1 whereas we offer material rewards1 the ,greeks invoked the help of the gods and threatened the thief or receiver with supernatural vengeance4#acc4a ,the use of defixiones spread into ,italy1 and has lasted into quite modern times1 or1 it may be truer to say1 was revived under the influence of learned men who at the close of the ,middle ,ages became imbued with the astrology and magic of earlier days4 ,one of these learned men1 ,cornelius ,agrippa of ,nettesheim1 who attained high judicial office under the ,emperor ,charles the ,fifth1 but afterwards got into trouble for his occult studies1 wrote a book on ,occult ,philosophy1 which was translated into ,english in the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,at that time the study of magic was falling into disrepute4 ,agrippa's book was left to charlatans who preyed upon the ignorant4 ,some of the results have been found up and down the country in the form of leaden tablets inscribed with curses1 mystical numbers and signs1 names of the spirits invoked to make the curses effectual and of the victims against whom the curses were intended to operate4#acc4b ,in these modern cases #acd the powers appealed to are no longer beings recognized by the dominant religion4 ,they are relics of religions passed away1 or figments of the pedantic imagination4 ,magic1 in short1 has for purposes of private vengeance been ousted from religion and has set up for itself4 ,at any rate the ,moroccan rite involves a threat2 and a threat is near akin to a curse4 ,much may be done with gods1 as with men1 by means of a little judicious bluff4 ,a certain ,malay robber kept six tame spirits1 to whom he made an offering from time to time4 ,when he did so he called them by name1 bidding them3 8,come here6 ,eat my offering6 ,take you care that my body is not affected1 that the flow of my blood is not stayed6 ,likewise with the bodies of my wife and children4 7,if not7 ,i'll turn the earth and the sky the wrong way round60 ,he was fully convinced of the power of these spirits and apparently of the value of his terrible threat1 though1 as ,mr ,annandale1 who reports the case1 points out1 the spirits had been unable to save him from being convicted and imprisoned for his crimes4#acd4a ,in ancient ,egypt magic was practised in connection with religion from prehistoric times4 ,magic and religion 8were two products of one and the same ,weltanschauung1 not disparate either in their methods or in their psychological basis4 ,nor were they differently estimated from the ethical point of view3 magic was deemed permissible1 so long as it was turned to no evil purpose4 ,it follows that the classification of ,egyptian superstitious practices as 7a7 religious1 7b7 magical1 must be a purely external mode of classification3 the distinction between religion #ace and magic in ,egypt has not1 and cannot be made to have1 any deeper significance40#ace4a ,the scholar from whom ,i quote these words1 so far from exaggerating the close relationship between magic and religion1 may be said to understate it4 ,magic was an integral part of religion4 ,the priests of the gods were magicians4 ,magic was employed in the ritual of worship4 ,it enabled the great god ,ra to overcome the serpent ,apep4#ace4b ,magical ceremonies performed by the priests over the mummy1 or over a statuette representing the deceased1 were the means by which his success in passing the necessary tests and his lasting happiness after death were secured4 ,the means employed were those universally known to magic3 amulets1 waxen and other figures1 pictures1 spells and words of power1 the knowledge of names1 rites imitating the results desired1 and so forth4 ,concerning the dead we are told3 8,few were those who remained for ever with the ,sun1 and they were not necessarily the great ones of the earth1 nor yet the very good1 but those who possessed the most minute information as to the next world1 and who were best versed in magic4 ,thus the whole doctrine is based on a belief in the power of magic40#ace4c 8,in the next world a correct knowledge of magic words and formulas was absolutely essential4 ,there no door would open to him who knew not its name2 no demon would allow the passage of the dead who did not call upon him correctly1 nor would any god come to his help unless invoked by the right name2 no food could be had so long as the exactly prescribed prayers were not uttered with the true intonations4 ,but the dead who #acf knew these formulas1 and who knew how to speak them correctly at the proper moment1 who was ma kher 7right-speaking71 might rest assured of immortality and of eternal blessedness40#acf4a ,this led of course to the multiplication of spells1 to the elaboration of ritual1 during the long ages of ,egyptian history1 until at last they must have become extremely burdensome4 ,moreover1 sorcery was not only expended by man in the service of the gods and of the dead3 it was used by the gods themselves4 8,only by means of conjurations could ,ra himself pass through0 the divisions between the twelve hourly spaces of the night4#acf4b ,by the power of his name ,neb-er-tcher or ,khepera1 often identified with certain aspects of ,ra1 the ,sun1 evolved himself and created the world4#acf4c ,the secret name of ,ra was a word of might4 ,isis set herself with all her arts to learn it1 that she might possess the world in heaven and upon earth as ,ra did 7that is1 become a goddess72 and when she had extorted it from the august divinity1 she turned the weapon without hesitation upon himself4#acf4d ,by examples like these men were authorized to have recourse to magic in their own secular concerns1 their loves and hates1 their sickness1 their social and business relations1 their private enterprizes1 their competitions and resentments4 ,kings consulted the soothsayers on public affairs2 they employed magical processes to vanquish their enemies2 #acg with the aid of soothsayers and magicians they governed their realm4 ,it was only when sorcery was directed against the king's life1 when it aimed at the overthrow of his power1 or the injury or death of others1 that it was reckoned a crime1 or even reprehended on moral grounds4 ,nor did the magician hesitate to compel even the gods to perform his wishes1 and to threaten them1 like the ,malay robber1 with dire disaster to themselves and the universe as a punishment of their obstinacy4 ,in one papyrus preserved to us1 for example1 a woman in labour declares herself to be ,isis and summons the gods to her help4 ,if they refuse to come1 8,then shall ye be destroyed1 ye nine gods2 the heaven shall no longer exist1 the earth shall no longer exist1 the five days over and above the year shall cease to be1 offerings shall no longer be made to the gods1 the lords of ,heliopolis4 ,the firmament of the south shall fail1 and disaster shall break forth from the sky of the north4 ,lamentations shall resound from the graves1 the midday sun shall no longer shine1 the ,nile shall not bestow its waters of inundation at the appointed time40#acg4a ,such bombastic menaces as these continued to be part of the practitioner's stock-in-trade in the ,roman ,empire to the downfall of paganism4 ,among the ancient ,greeks in ,plato's time there were soothsayers and medicine-men who professed to have power over the gods1 so that they could compel them to do their bidding1 even though it were to injure another person4#acg4b ,i am not aware whether any of their spells have been preserved4#acg4c #ach ,cases like these display the religion of the community applied to the private advantage of the individual4 ,more interesting is the authority which ,mr ,hodson attributes to the khullakpa1 or village priest1 of the ,naga tribes of ,manipur4 ,the khullakpa is to be distinguished from the maiba1 or medicine-man1 who is doctor and magician in one4 ,the maiba is called in to deal with individual cases2 the khullakpa plays the leading part when a village genna is held4 ,it is he who offers the sacrifices and performs the rites4 ,the term genna means forbidden4 ,a genna extending to the whole village excludes strangers from entering1 and prohibits the inhabitants from going out and from doing any work while the genna lasts2 it may also prescribe fasting1 continence1 and other observances4 ,in short1 8the ordinary routine of life is profoundly modified1 if not broken off altogether40 ,a genna may be either periodical1 as for the sake of the crops or the hunting2 or it may be occasional1 as at a death1 or against epidemic sickness1 or at an earthquake or eclipse4 ,a sacrifice is invariably a part of the ritual4 ,the khullakpa 8acts10 says ,mr ,hodson1 8whenever a rite is performed which requires the whole force of the community behind it1 and this force finds its operation through him4 ,these village gennas seem in many cases to be inspired by the belief that man1 the man1 the #aci khullakpa1 when fortified by the whole strength and will of the village1 is able to control and constrain forces which are beyond his control if unaided40#aci4a ,if this inference1 made by an acute observer1 be correct1 it is a remarkable example of the corporate strength of the society applied by means of religious rites to the coercion of the gods and other supernatural beings4 ,not a little significant of the intimate relations of religion and magic is the fact that many peoples have expressly ascribed the authorship and practice of magic to their gods4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales the figure of ,baiame1 the idealized headman just developing into a god1 is modelled upon that of a magician4 ,he is described by one of the tribes in so many words as 8mightiest and most famous of ,wirreenun10 or magicians4#aci4b ,the ,arawk of ,british ,guiana tell of a similar personage in a semi-deified position1 named ,arawnili or ,orowma1 to whom the mysteries of sorcery were revealed by an orehu4 ,the orehu is a sort of mermaid who is an important figure in the mythology of these ,indians4 ,she haunts the rivers1 a capricious1 mischievous1 not always malicious and cruel1 but sometimes benevolent figure4 ,in one of her kindlier moments she met ,arawnili brooding over the condition to which men were reduced by the evil doings of the yauhahu1 downright malignant beings1 the authors of sickness and death4 ,to combat their depredations she gave him the sorcerer's rattle and instructed him how to use it4 8,he followed her directions and thus became the founder of that system which has since prevailed among all the ,indian tribes40 ,according to ,arawk belief ,arawnili did not die like other men1 but 8went up10 that is to say1 disappeared or departed in the manner of other ,american #adj culture-heroes4 ,we have no evidence1 however1 that he is actually worshipped4#adj4a ,the coast-dwellers of the ,gazelle ,peninsula of ,new ,pomerania1 whose effective belief is in spirits1 both manes and spirits non-human in origin1 presuppose in their witchcraft the existence of these spirits4 ,sickness and other ills are caused by evil-disposed spirits1 and are combated by magic4 ,but this magic is due to the superior might of well-disposed spirits4 ,it is they who reveal the spells by which human ailments may be vanquished and human desires gratified4 ,among these spirits are especially to be named the ,inal1 a spirit with wings like a bird's and face like an owl's1 inhabiting a great giao-tree 7,ficus prolixa71 and the ,kaya1 a gigantic python with human face1 worshipped by certain of the natives as ancestor4 ,from the ascription to spirits of all spells made use of by the sorcerers1 ,father ,meier1 to whom we are indebted for our knowledge of the native beliefs1 infers that the belief in spirits preceded witchcraft4#adj4b ,whether the inference be right or wrong1 there can be no doubt of the fact that this belief and witchcraft are now inseparable4 ,among the ,lushai-,kuki of ,assam1 ,pathian the creator1 a quasi-supreme and benevolent being1 was acquainted with1 but is not definitely stated to have been the author of1 witchcraft4 ,it was taught by his daughter1 as a ransom for her life1 to ,vahrika1 who had caught her stealing water from his private supply4 ,vahrika is described as 8something like0 ,pathian--a purely mythological figure4 ,he in turn taught it all to others4#adj4c ,in ,japan1 ,jimmu #ada ,tenn1 the deified legendary founder of the empire1 is said to have first taught the use of magical formul2 while the gods ,ohonamochi and ,sukunabikona are credited with the invention of medicine and magic4#ada4a ,the ancient ,egyptians held ,thoth1 the god of writing and guardian of law1 8to have written the most sacred books and formulas with his own hand1 and therein to have set down his knowledge of magic1 in which art ,isis was his only rival4 ,his pre-eminence in magic naturally led to his becoming the god of medicine1 for magic was fully as important to the medical practitioners of the ,nile ,valley as knowledge of remedies40#ada4b ,in other words1 medicine was not yet separated from magic1 the physician was a sorcerer1 who may have been versed in simples1 but whose practice was essentially mysterious and derived its effect rather from what we call supernatural than natural modes of action4 ,hence to recognize ,thoth as god of medicine was equivalent to recognizing him as god of magic1 a character peculiarly suitable to a god of letters4 ,finally1 not to lengthen the list1 if we may trust the ,ynglinga-saga1 ,odin was the author of those crafts which men have long since plied1 and among them of magic4 ,he 8was wise in that craft wherewith went most might1 which is called spell-craft2 and this he himself followed4 ,wherefore he had might to know the fate of men and things not yet come to pass2 yea1 or how to work for men bane or illhap or ill-heal1 and to take wit or strength from men and give them unto others40 ,he was a notorious shape-shifter4 8,he knew how by words alone to slake the fire or still the sea1 and how to turn #adb the wind to whichso way he would40 ,he could 8wake up dead men from the earth40 ,he 8knew of all buried treasures where they were hidden2 and he knew lays whereby the earth opened before him1 and mountains and rocks and mounds1 and how to bind with words alone whoso might be found dwelling therein2 and he would go in and take thence what he would4 ,from all this craft he became exceeding famed1 and his foes dreaded him1 but his friends put their trust in him1 and had faith in his craft and himself2 but he taught the more part of his cunning to the temple-priests1 and they were next to him in all wisdom and cunning3 albeit many others got to them much knowledge thereof1 and thence sorcery spread far and wide and endured long40#adb4a ,although the opening chapters of the ,ynglinga-saga1 from which ,i have extracted these particulars1 are a late and euhemerized version of the ,scandinavian mythology1 the account of ,odin's magical powers contains little that does not appear in the early poems1 or cannot be inferred from them4 ,whatever may have been the primitive form of this renowned god1 there can be no doubt that he was before the close of the pagan age regarded as a god of magic and sorcery4 ,his reputation as god of poetry1 and probably as war-god1 is bound up with this4 ,the magical value attached to verse is very common among peoples in an archaic stage of culture2 and it was shared to the full by the ancient ,norsemen4 ,many of them--at least in ,viking days1 and it is by no means unlikely much earlier--combined in their own persons the warrior with the poet and the sorcerer4 ,nor shall we go far astray if we conclude that these various strands had been long interwoven to form the character of the ,lord of the ,anses4 ,the intimate relation existing among the ,norse between #adc religion and magic is further indicated by the superior magical knowledge and powers ascribed to them and stated to be originally derived from ,odin4 ,thus1 on the one hand1 we find constraint of the higher powers for public or private ends2 on the other hand1 the invention of spells and practice of magic are attributed to the gods themselves4 ,we may think that constraint of the gods is inconsistent with worship4 ,this is not the notion of peoples among which magic and religion are thus interwoven4 ,the object of religion is to acquire benefits for the individual or the community4 ,with this end men deem themselves justified in applying any means likely to secure it2 and they treat their gods as they would powerful fellow-men1 seeking favours where favours are to be had for the asking or in return for favours1 enforcing compliance with their wishes where prayers will not avail1 or cheating them where they get the chance4 ,the repetition of a divine name may be either a favour to the god1 or may be compulsion4 ,the votary cares not to distinguish4 ,in either case it brings about the gratification of his wishes4 ,the village genna practised by the ,nagas is compulsion4 ,it is none the less worship4 ,many of the magical texts of ancient ,egypt are directed to assisting the gods to overcome their enemies1 thus rendering them a favour which they were bound to return4 ,the ritual of the ,scapegoat1 familiar to us in its ,hebrew form1#adc4a but in fact found in many other quarters of the globe1 presents another form of these magical practices4 ,the sins of which men have been guilty1 the evils from which they have been suffering are laden on the head of the unfortunate victim1 who is forthwith put to death or driven away forever from society4 #add ,whether in the earliest form of the rite the victim was regarded as divine may be doubted3 it is certain that it has been taken up into the cult of the gods in many religions1 and has been deemed a pious act1 a work of obligation1 for the wellbeing of the joint community of gods and men4 ,divine beings may even be made accomplices in ,black or antisocial ,magic without any compulsion4 ,the white-headed carrion-hawk 7,haliaster intermedius7 is the most important bird of omen observed by the ,kenyahs of ,borneo4 ,under the name of ,bali ,flaki he is looked upon as messenger and intermediary between themselves and ,bali ,penyalong1 the ,supreme ,being4 ,apparently every individual hawk is such a messenger1 but his sacred character appears in his title ,bali3 a word probably derived from the ,sanskrit and sometimes translated holy1 but having the force of 8an adjectival equivalent of the mana of the ,melanesians1 or of the wakanda or orenda of ,north ,american tribes1 words which seem to connote all power other than purely mechanical40#add4a ,bali ,flaki is appealed to publicly on behalf of the community on various occasions1 as on sowing or harvesting the rice-crop1 making war or peace1 or in fact before any undertaking or decision4 ,his aid may also 8be sought privately by any man who wishes to injure another4 ,for this purpose a man makes a rough wooden image in human form1 and retires to some quiet spot on the river-bank1 where he sets up a tegulun1 a horizontal pole supported about a yard above the ground by a pair of vertical poles4 ,he lights a small fire beside the tegulun1 and taking a fowl in one hand1 he sits on the ground behind it1 so as to see through it a square patch of sky1 and so waits until a hawk becomes visible upon the patch4 ,as #ade soon as a hawk appears he kills the fowl1 and with a frayed stick smears its blood on the wooden image1 saying3 #8,put fat in his mouth4'0 ,this appears to be addressed to the hawk4 ,in the description of what is in effect the same rite as practised among some of the ,klemantans of the same island1 we are definitely told it is so addressed4 ,the expression means1 8,let his head be taken02 for the people are head-hunters1 and fat is put in the mouth of every head taken4 ,messrs ,hose and ,m#8,dougall1 whom ,i am quoting1 proceed3 8,and he puts a bit of fat in the mouth of the image4 ,then he strikes at the breast of the image with a wooden spear1 and throws it into a pool of water reddened with red earth1 and then takes it out and buries it in the ground10 in the manner in which only persons dying by violence or some much feared disease are buried4 8,while the hawk is visible he waves it towards the left2 for he knows that if it flies to the left he will prevail over his enemy1 but that if it goes to the right his enemy is too strong for him40 ,in the ,klemantan rite1 as described for us1 he also shouts to the hawk to go to the left4 ,when it has gone in the desired direction he addresses a prayer beginning 8,o ,bali ,flaki1 go your way1 let this man 7naming him7 die2 go and put him in the lake of blood1 ,o ,bali ,flaki2 stab him in the chest1 ,bali ,flaki10 and so on1 invoking all sorts of evil deaths upon him4#ade4a ,now here we have a well-known rite of antisocial magic4 ,but to make it effectual the coperation of the divine power is requisite4 ,that power is called upon4 ,there is no attempt to coerce ,bali ,flaki1 who1 if not himself a god1 is at least a messenger and intermediary of the great god ,bali ,penyalong4 ,yet there is confidence that he can perform the request1 and that he shows by his flight that he will do so4 #adf ,so on the mainland of ,india1 in the ,nilgiri ,hills1 the ,toda sorcerer1 having procured some human hair--not that of the person to be injured1 for it would be impossible to get it--ties together by its means five small stones1 and with a piece of cloth makes a bundle of them4 ,over them thus tied up he utters his incantation4 ,it begins by calling on his gods2 and whether the opening clauses be precisely rendered or not in the following free translation1 it is clear that the gods are invoked4 ,indeed1 ,dr ,rivers1 after careful enquiry1 expresses the opinion that 8in the formul used in ,toda sorcery appeal to the gods is even more definite than in the prayers of the dairy ritual10 the most important of the religious ceremonies4 8,in them10 he says1 8the names of four most important gods are mentioned1 and it seems quite clear that the sorcerer believes he is effecting his purpose through the power of the gods40 ,the spell runs something like this3 8,for the sake of ,pithioteu1 n1 ,teikirzi and ,tirshti2 by the power of the gods1 if there be power2 by the gods' country1 if there be a country2 may his calves perish2 as birds fly away1 may his buffaloes go when the calves come to suck2 as ,i drink water1 may he have nothing but water to drink2 as ,i am thirsty1 may he also be thirsty2 as ,i am hungry1 may he also be hungry2 as my children cry1 so may his children cry2 as my wife wears only a ragged cloth1 so may his wife wear only a ragged cloth40 ,the bundle thus enchanted he hides in the thatch of the victim's hut4#adf4a ,another example of the complicity in hostile magic of a supernatural being1 who perhaps can hardly be pronounced a god in the strict sense of the term1 though #adg powerful for good and ill1 may be cited1 this time from the continent of ,africa4 ,the religion of the ,boloki 7,bangala7 on the ,upper ,congo1 we are told1 8has its basis in their fear of those numerous invisible spirits which surround them on every side1 and are constantly trying to compass their sickness1 misfortune and death2 and the ,boloki's sole object in practising their religion is to cajole or appease1 cheat1 or conquer and kill those spirits that trouble them--hence their nganga medicine-man1 their rites1 their ceremonies and their charms4 ,if there were no evil spirits to be circumvented1 there would be no need of their medicine-men and their charms40 ,among these various spirits is one called ,ejo1 the spirit of wealth4 8,a man who wants to become rich pays a large fee to nganga ya bwaka the most feared and respected of all the classes of medicine-men1 who then uses his influence with ,ejo on behalf of his client1 who must in all future gains set apart a portion for ,ejo1 and should he fail to do so1 ,ejo has the power to punish him4''' ,when a person has received the mono mwa ejo 7ejo medicine or charm71 and has become wealthy by his luck-giving power1 he takes the nail-parings and hair-cuttings of a woman and makes medicine with them2 and the woman soon dies and her spirit goes to ,ejo as an offering for its help4 ,he is said to lekia nkali 7to pass her on as a gift or sacrifice to ,ejo740#adg4a ,it is difficult to distinguish a transaction like this from the ordinary relations of a man to his god4 ,the votary pays tithe of his gains obtained by favour of the spirit2 and over and above the tithe1 he is under the necessity of providing a human sacrifice from time to time for the spirit4 ,but the means by which the sacrifice is provided are the exercise of witchcraft1 and that with the full knowledge and assistance #adh of the supernatural being who is to be kept in good humour thereby4 ,an example of the intermingling of religion and magic in a different way may also be taken from the same people4 8,physical phenomena 7as heavy storms71 when taking place about the time that a person dies1 or is being buried1 are regarded as caused by the deceased person2 hence when a storm threatens to break during the funeral festivities of a man1 the people present will call the beloved child of the deceased1 and1 giving him a lighted ember from the hearth with a vine twined round it1 they will ask him to stop the rain4 ,the lad steps forward and waves the vine-encircled ember towards the horizon where the storm is rising1 and says3 #8,father1 let us have fine weather during your funeral ceremonies4' ,the son1 after this rite1 must not drink water 7he may drink sugar-cane wine71 nor put his feet in water for one day4 ,should he not observe this custom1 the rain will at once fall40#adh4a ,the boy's father1 having died1 has become a mongoli1 that is to say1 an ancestral spirit of indefinite powers1 who watches over the perpetuation of his family1 haunts the forest or the river1 inspires mediums to deliver oracles1 and visits the village at times in the material form of a crocodile or a hippopotamus to receive offerings of sugar-cane wine and food4 ,his favourite son has influence with him to change his purposes1 and exercises that influence by prayer4 ,but to make the prayer effectual in staying the storm1 he must use a widely diffused charm against rain--the waving of a brand and abstinence from water4 ,it is probable1 as we have seen1 that the early stages of ritual were vague and inchoate4 ,it was adaptable to #adi interpretation as culture progressed1 as new beliefs were evolved or imported4 ,such an example of adaptability has been pointed out by ,miss ,werner in a rite practised by the ,anyanja of ,british ,central ,africa when rain is wanted4 ,it is complete in itself1 but is now prefaced by an appeal to ,mpambe1 a quasi-supreme being4 8,the principal part was taken by a woman--the chief's sister4 ,she began by dropping ufa maize-flour on the ground1 slowly and carefully1 till it formed a cone1 and in doing this called out in a high-pitched voice1 #8,imva ,mpambe6 ,adza mvula' 7,hear thou1 ,o ,god1 and send rain671 and the assembled people responded1 clapping their hands softly and intoning--they always intone their prayers--#8,imva ,mpambe4' ,the beer was then poured out as a libation1 and the people1 following the example of the woman1 threw themselves on their backs and clapped their hands 7a form of salutation to superiors71 and finally danced round the chief where he sat on the ground40 ,then followed the rite in question4 8,the dance ceased2 a large jar of water was brought and placed before the chief4 ,first ,mbudzi 7his sister7 washed her hands1 arms and face2 then water was poured over her by another woman2 then all the women rushed forward with calabashes in their hands1 and1 dipping them into the jar1 threw the water into the air with loud cries and wild gesticulations40 ,this is obviously a rain-charm1 but1 as ,miss ,werner says1 it 8might be taken as prayer and not magic1 if we are to understand the water to be thrown into the air as a sign that water is wanted40 ,she adds3 8,sometimes people smear themselves with mud and charcoal to show that they want washing4 ,if the rain still does not come1 they go and wash themselves in the rivers and streams40#adi4a ,the women's action and cries may #aej be interpreted as addressed to someone or something1 though possibly originating merely in excessive emotion and now become traditional4 ,it would be only necessary for the cries to become articulate and the name of ,mpambe1 or some other name1 to be pronounced1 to form a genuine invocation1 as has happened in the ,boloki rite just described4 ,actually the invocation forms the preliminary of the rite3 that may be what1 for want of better knowledge1 we should call an accident4 ,that it is comparatively recent is shown by the employment of maize-flour4 ,the evolution might easily have taken another course4 ,turning to another continent1 we may find an example of adaptability of a more elaborate ceremony4 ,the ,navaho are in the main an ,athapascan people who have wandered down to the sterile plains of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona4 ,there1 ages ago1 they came into contact with the more settled ,pueblo tribes4 ,the researches of ,american anthropologists show the practical identity of certain of their religious rituals with those of their ,pueblo neighbours4 ,it would seem that these rituals have been taken over from the latter4 ,this is only natural1 seeing that the ,navaho came down from the north with an undeveloped culture and organization into a country where new needs were experienced and a higher civilization was met with4 ,but in taking over the rituals they have applied them to purposes different from those of their original performers4 ,the chief aim of the ceremonies as used among the ,pueblo tribes is to obtain fertility1 and the condition of fertility is rain4 ,this is clear from the use made of corn-meal and corn-pollen4 8,pollen is the symbol of fertility1 and the rite at bottom is for rain4 ,the ,navaho took over the use of the corn and the pollen together with the other features2 but the corn no longer served its previous #aea purpose as a prayer for rain and the ripening of the crops3 it was used for the cure of disease40#aea4a ,the ,dene or ,athapascans1 of which stem the ,navaho are a branch1 are a people of migratory hunters4 ,agriculture would be foreign to them4 ,their principal ceremonies are concerned with the conjuration of evil spirits and the cure of diseases1 which are usually ascribed to the spirits4 ,it was natural that when they borrowed the ceremonies of a settled agricultural community they should imbue them with their own ideas4 ,in their hands the cure of disease 8became the fundamental feature of the borrowed rites4 ,a ceremony intended for rain-making would naturally need some alteration in order to serve as a cure of disease40#aea4b ,and it has received it4 ,the fact that they have been able so to adapt the rites probably points to some want of definiteness in the form of the rites at the time they were borrowed4 ,another illustration of adaptability is seen in the rites at wells or rocks common all over ,europe4 ,what may have been the original cause of the sacredness of a well or a rock1 what may have been the original intention of the processions1 the dances and the decorations we have of course no means of knowing4 ,we may guess that some peculiarity in the shape of the rock1 the sweet or healing waters of the fountain1 or some sudden and unexplained or untoward incident first called and concentrated popular attention1 and that a precise1 intelligible meaning may hardly have been attached to the few and simple ceremonies first performed4 ,in course of time1 we may conjecture1 ritual and belief were elaborated and defined4 ,however this may be1 we know that before the end of paganism--at #aeb least in those countries of the west where inscriptions have been preserved--a spirit or god was believed to haunt the place and to preside over the rites of which it was the scene4 ,to him they were addressed1 and it was his favour they sought to conciliate4 ,christianity came and diverted the rites to new objects1 not altogether forbidding1 but baptizing them1 in accordance with the policy enunciated in ,pope ,gregory's famous letter to the ,abbot ,mellitus4 ,all these changes necessitate adaptations of practice4 ,that which at first was formless receives a definite form4 ,that which may have been an indeterminate expression of awe and reverence becomes distinctly worship1 though not without elements1 often retained to the last1 that we should call magical4 ,and the changes in the nominal objects of worship are accompanied by progressive changes in the details of the ritual4 ,lastly when1 as in many cases1 official recognition of the ritual is abandoned1 and it is left to the unguided superstition of the peasant1 it tends to slip back into its original indeterminate condition4 ,acts are performed or avoided1 and ceremonies undertaken1 not as worship of a power known and resident on the hallowed spot1 but for benefits sometimes precise1 more often for luck mysterious1 impersonal1 half-credited1 or from fear of something equally mysterious1 but for that reason all the more terrible4 ,beyond this1 the practices linger into a stage1 unknown to the savages who began them1 where they are performed for pleasure1 or else in the hope of monetary gain1 by children and adolescents1 and die away gradually under the stress of modern life and the influence of the schoolmaster4 ,the earlier stages of this round may1 as we have seen1 be observed occasionally in the rites of peoples still in the lower culture4 ,close observation1 accurate analysis and #aec comparison would probably result in finding them more frequently4 ,meanwhile let us turn to another question4 ,if ,i have been right in insisting throughout these essays on the fundamental organic unity of ,magic and ,religion1 ,i have not denied their gradual separation and opposition at a later stage4 ,they have their common root in the same attitude toward the environment1 social and physical4 ,rite and belief have been elaborated and organized together4 ,for ages during this process magic and religion must have been integral parts of one another1 as they are now in many parts of the world4 ,except in regard to antisocial magic1 they have not yet among many peoples begun to feel opposition4 ,but this unity1 as civilization progresses1 becomes more and more unstable4 ,where1 as is said to be the case in ,morocco1 civilization has recoiled1 magic comes more and more to the front4 ,though it does so not without protests on the part of those who retain any consciousness of the higher development of religion1 still on the whole it is successful in overlaying religion and pushing it into the background4 ,another people whose religion is in process of degeneration1 if ,dr ,rivers' opinion be correct1 is the ,todas4 ,there the magic of the dairy ritual has thrust aside the worship of the gods4 ,in this case1 however1 the opposition is not open and avowed4 ,the history of the ,todas is a blank4 ,we cannot put our finger on one period and say3 ,here the gods were worshipped and the dairy magic was unknown4 ,we have no records4 ,we can only conclude from an examination of the internal evidence that the gods once played a more prominent part in the life of the community than they do now1 but that ,toda culture had not so far progressed that magic was not an inseparable part of religion1 and that any growth of magic at the expense of religion would have #aed been viewed without misgiving or even consciousness4 ,even religions where the opposition is most pronounced are themselves by no means pure from magic4 ,all the subtlety1 all the rhetoric of theologians may well be needed to rebut the charge of magic against the seven sacraments of the ,church4 ,i at least have no intention to risk the curse levelled by the ,council of ,trent at him who denies their efficacy ex opere operato1 and whether or not the minister may be in a state of mortal sin4 ,in denouncing witchcraft the ,christian ,church has followed the lead of the ,hebrew religion4 ,the ,hebrew law against witchcraft was unambiguous1 pitiless4 8,thou shalt not suffer a sorceress to live0#aed4a is the grim direction of the oldest ,hebrew writing4 ,it is expanded by the ,deuteronomist3 8,when thou art come into the land which ,yahw thy ,god giveth thee1 thou shalt not learn to do after the abominations of those nations4 ,there shall not be found with thee anyone that maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the fire1 one that useth divination1 one that practiseth augury1 or an enchanter1 or a sorcerer1 or a charmer1 or a consulter with a familiar spirit1 or a wizard1 or a necromancer4 ,for whosoever doeth these things is an abomination unto ,yahw2 and because of these abominations ,yahw thy ,god doth drive them out from before thee40#aed4b ,this is pretty comprehensive4 ,yet it left many practices within the national religion1 recognized as part of it1 though essentially magical4 ,the scapegoat ,i have already mentioned4 ,the ordeal of the water of bitterness1 to which a woman suspected by her husband of infidelity was compelled to submit1 is equally a magical proceeding4#aed4c ,both are sanctioned1 not to say prescribed1 by ,yahw2 though in their present form the prescriptions may be late4 ,divination #aee is prohibited1 and consultation with familiar spirits or the ghosts of the dead1 augury1 and the taking of omens4 ,nevertheless1 the children of ,israel enquired of ,yahw1 and he answered them by dreams2 and the high priest divined by means of ,urim and ,thummim4 ,teraphim seem to have been amulets--one might almost say fetishes4 ,they are referred to more than once in the ,hebrew books4 ,as late as the prophet ,hosea they were not merely tolerated but regarded as necessities to the prosperity of the people4 8,for the children of ,israel shall abide many days without king and without prince1 and without sacrifice and without pillar 7massebah71 and without ephod or teraphim4 ,afterward shall the children of ,israel return and seek the ,lord their ,god and ,david their king1 and shall come with fear unto the ,lord and to his goodness in the latter days40#aee4a ,the use of the ephod was probably connected with divination1 and ,yahw1 speaking through the prophet1 expressly countenanced not only this1 but also the use of teraphim4 ,with growing monotheism they were1 however1 eventually repressed4 ,indeed1 a comparison of the passages in which reference is made to various magical practices will suggest that the real reason of the hostility to them arose from their connection with heathenism4 ,they were representative practices of a rival religion4 ,they hindered the concentration of worship on ,yahw at his sole shrine on ,mount ,zion4 ,on the other hand1 the casting out of evil spirits continued unabated and unreproved into ,new ,testament times1 and the wearing of personal amulets in the shape of phylacteries persists among the uneducated classes of ,jews to the present day and has full rabbinical sanction4 ,both these practices are uncontrovertibly magical4 #aef ,similar considerations inspired medival hostility to witchcraft1 and continued it with little decrease of intensity into the eighteenth century4 ,witchcraft was rebellion against the established religion4 ,it was identified with heresy4 ,it involved contempt of the omnipotent priesthood1 derogating thus not merely from its reputation1 but also its gains4 ,it was believed even to set up a rival god4 ,this belief was an inheritance from primitive ,christianity1 which looked upon the heathen gods as devils4 ,every miracle which imposed on the credulity of those ages1 if performed by a ,christian1 was attributed to divine interference2 if performed1 on the contrary1 by a pagan1 was with as little hesitation ascribed to ,satan and his underlings4 ,in either case nobody doubted the fact of the occurrence1 or thought it worth while minutely to examine the evidence4 ,the hostility of the ,church to witchcraft had1 however1 the excuse that the heathen rites were in a large measure magical1 and that magic1 other than ,black ,magic1 was avowedly practised during pagan times and regarded with toleration1 if not complacency4 ,heathenism died a hard death4 ,somewhat changed in form it survived for centuries2 and many of the heretical sects were more or less impregnated with it4 ,but all this does not fully account for the horror and hatred felt against magic alike by churchmen and the laity4 ,what gave intensity to the opposition was the dread that magical powers would be used to the disadvantage1 the injury1 the death of all against whom the magician had a grudge4 ,so persistently did this dread take hold of the imagination that the practice of magic was finally identified with ,black ,magic1 and to be accused of witchcraft meant to be charged with the attempt to injure1 and perhaps to slay1 one's neighbours #aeg by mysterious1 and because mysterious1 horrible means4 ,against proceedings of this kind there was no protection but in hunting out and putting an end to the magicians4 ,this feeling had manifested itself even in pagan times4 ,both in ,greece and at ,rome the laws condemned magicians to death4 ,it is1 in fact1 the tendency to individualism rather than magic itself that has awakened hostility everywhere4 ,but this tendency is inherent in magic4 ,in the lower stages of civilization magic is undistinguished not only from religion but from medicine1 from astronomy1 from engineering1 from literary learning1 from the practice of industries other than the simplest and of art4 ,consequently everyone who possesses a little more skill than ordinary1 or is credited with a knowledge surpassing that of the vulgar1 faces the inevitable risk of being reputed a magician1 and the suspicion of using his advantages to the detriment of others4 ,nor is the suspicion unfounded4 ,human nature being what it is1 power1 of whatever kind1 is utilized for the benefit of its possessor1 frequently without regard to the claims of others or the public good4 ,the shaman or the wizard who is called in to the aid of the sick is often the depositary of knowledge of healing herbs and of poisons4 ,the powers that are at the disposal of beneficence are equally applied to baleful ends4 ,the healing of disease1 whether it be effected by suggestion or by physical remedies1 may be a social good3 primarily and directly it is an individual benefit4 ,to put the public foe under a spell excites the approval of the community4 ,to lay a private enemy low is a very different matter4 ,but the same expert by the exercise of the same skill performs both4 ,moreover1 he subserves the ends of private gain and private revenge with equal indifference1 and1 it is #aeh believed1 by the same mysterious means4 ,in all these instances the professor of magic places his skill1 knowledge1 experience1 and the terror of his name and incantations--in one word1 his orenda--at the service of his clients without distinction4 ,as civilization advances1 and religion and religious ministers begin to be differentiated from the wizard or medicine-man1 the latter is probably called on less and less to perform rites on behalf of the public1 and more and more on behalf of individuals4 ,the portions of magic that can be disposed for the purposes of the community are taken up into religion4 ,what remains when this is done becomes specifically the method and practice of the magician4 ,small wonder then that the only magic recognized as such is antisocial magic4 ,on the other hand1 so great is the terror inspired by magic1 and so instinctively gregarious is mankind1 that mere eccentricity1 the failure to follow the crowd1 is often of itself sufficient to start the cry of witchcraft4 ,the slavery of man in the lower culture to custom is a commonplace of anthropology4 ,that custom is religious to the core1 for religion is only one aspect of the social polity4 ,everyone observes it1 because upon it depends the weal of all alike4 ,everyone's eye too is upon his neighbour2 and a departure from custom is sure to be noticed1 and equally sure to be resented as something sinister4 ,at the least it is viewed with suspicion and concern4 ,done innocently1 it will bring misfortune on the doer and all connected with him4 ,done with a purpose1 it is abhorred and punished as evil magic4 ,happily the fear of witchcraft is not everywhere an obsession4 ,where it is1 as almost all over ,africa1 it has become the most powerful cause of the stagnation of culture4 ,mr ,weeks1 a missionary of long #aei experience1 and an admirable observer1 speaking of the ,bangala on the ,upper ,congo1 says the native 8has a wonderful power of imitation1 but he lacks invention and initiative2 but this lack is undoubtedly due to suppression of the inventive faculty4 ,for generations it has been the custom to charge with witchcraft anyone who commenced a new industry or discovered a new article of barter4 ,the making of anything out of the ordinary has brought on the maker a charge of witchcraft that again and again has resulted in death by the ordeal4 ,to know more than others1 to be more skilful than others1 more energetic1 more acute in business1 more smart in dress1 has often caused a charge of witchcraft and death4 ,therefore the native1 to save his life and live in peace1 has smothered his inventive faculty1 and all spirit of enterprise has been driven out of him40#aei4a ,this deplorable result is attributable to the suspicion of antisocial ends4 ,it is this kind of magic which alone is reprobated in the lower culture4 ,death is very generally regarded as unnatural4 ,if not caused by open violence1 it must be due to spirits or to magic4 ,magic indeed is often deemed responsible for deaths by violence1 or deaths credited to the immediate action of the spirits4 ,magic sets both causes in motion4 ,hence at a death1 however occasioned1 an inquest is commonly held to ascertain who is responsible2 the accused is required to undergo an ordeal1 and is punished if found guilty--as he usually is4 ,but it is not the practice of magic that is condemned2 it is the application of magic to the injury of the community4 ,the chieftain of a tribe of ,bantu 8smells out0 and puts to death the witch who has slain his father4 ,the same chieftain will habitually practise magic on another chief before fighting with him4 ,he #afj will make rain1 or employ a wizard for the purpose4 ,his sacrifices and acts of worship are inextricably mingled with magic4 ,even when the schism between magic and religion has attained much wider dimensions than anywhere among the ,bantu1 it is rather magic in its antisocial aspect than in itself that is reprobated and punished4 ,the departure from established custom and established belief involves a severance from the community and an imputation of antisocial ends4 ,the pursuit of individual desires and hatreds at odds with the general interest is what arouses the anger of society4 ,practices essentially magical may be incorporated in religious rites and exercised for what is believed to be the public good2 and they will continue to be exercised with general assent1 even in the highest forms of religion4 ,,the ,,boldness ,,of ,,the ,,celts #afa lian1 writing of the boldness of the ,celts1 relates that many of them await the overflowing sea1 some throwing themselves armed into the waves and receiving their onset with drawn swords and threatening spears1 just as if they could scare back or wound them4#afa4a ,this report seems to have come to him in the shape of gossip2 nor does he assign it to any tribe or definite locality4 ,that there was some ground for it1 however1 is to be inferred from the existence in the ,book of ,ballymote1 an ,irish manuscript of the end of the fourteenth century1 of a short tradition1 obviously of much earlier date1 concerning ,tuirbhe ,trghmar1 the father of ,gobn ,saer1 who owned ,trigh ,tuirbhi4 8',tis from that heritage he1 standing on ,telach ,bela 7the ,hill of the ,axe71 would hurl a cast of his axe in the face of the flood-tide1 so that he forbade the sea1 which then would not come over the axe40#afa4b ,the rhetorician perhaps regarded this ,celtic practice as a useless piece of bravado1 and only cited it by way of climax to his illustrations of ,celtic daring and recklessness4 ,there is little doubt that to the ,celts themselves it was quite different4 ,the sea and the waves were looked upon as personal beings with whom it was possible literally to fight1 and who might even be overcome4 #afb ,such a view is common to many seaboard peoples4 ,a curiously parallel tradition is found among the ,malays at ,jugra on the ,selangor coast concerning the bore of the ,langat ,river4 ,this bore was conceived to be caused by the passage of a gigantic animal1 probably a dragon4 ,when it came up the river the ,malays used to go out in small canoes or dug-outs to 8sport amongst the breakers10 frequently getting upset for their pains4 ,eventually however1 as ,mr ,skeat was told1 the bore was killed by a ,malay1 who struck it upon the head with a stick4 ,whether from this cause or from the diversion of the stream into a new channel to the sea1 there is no longer a bore in the river4#afb4a ,we may conclude that the ,malays who went out to sport among the breakers really went to assail the bore in force1 and that when the bore ceased to flow the belief arose that one of them had attacked it successfully and killed it4 ,european folk-tales have been found recording a similar belief4 ,among the ,basques we are told that a witch once determined to sink a certain fishing-boat and drown its crew4 ,her plan was to overwhelm it with three immense waves1 the first of milk1 the second of tears1 and the third of blood4 ,the boat might ride in safety over the first two2 but the third wave would be herself in person1 and the only way to escape would be to launch a harpoon into the midst of it3 the weapon would pierce her heart1 and the boat with its crew would be saved4 ,with the want of caution which1 fortunately for the heroes of folk-tales1 is so remarkable a characteristic of cunning and malevolent beings1 the plot was laid in the hearing of the cabin-boy4 ,at the critical moment he nerved his arm to fling the harpoon1 and struck the wave in the midst4 ,it divided and dashed upon the shore1 #afc covering all the strand with a bloody foam4 ,the bark was saved2 but on his return the master found his wife dying of her wound1 for she was the witch who had planned the destruction of her husband and his craft4#afc4a ,this ,basque story1 though only recorded in a literary version1 appears to be a genuine folk-tale1 since it is also found substantially the same among the traditions of the ,frisian ,islands and ,norway4#afc4b ,other waters than the sea have likewise been endowed with personality4 ,rivers and streams have everywhere been regarded as conscious beings1 or 7in a later stage of animism7 as the haunt of such beings4 ,usually they have been reckoned as endowed with a might too mystical and too tremendous to be attacked by man2 but occasionally men of heroic mould have been supposed to fight and overcome them4 ,professor ,frazer has argued with probability that the angel who wrestled with ,jacob at the ford of the ,jabbok was in the original tale the river-god himself1 the awful spirit of the ,jabbok4#afc4c ,he has not adduced any direct parallel in support of the conjecture1 though the examples of offerings to streams for leave to cross them1 of which he has collected a number from various parts of the world1 do show that these waters are inhabited by supernatural beings1 who must be treated with respect and whose goodwill must be obtained4 ,where he has failed to find parallels it is not likely that another can succeed4 ,yet it is curious that he should have overlooked the #afd traditions of the water-kelpie current in his native ,scotland4 ,take one story told by ,dr ,gregor concerning a water-kelpie who used to come out of the stream and visit the sheeling where a certain blacksmith's family and cow spent the summer4 ,his visits1 as was natural1 caused terror and annoyance4 ,at last the wife told the husband1 who resolved to kill the creature4 ,the wife took fright at the proposal and tried to dissuade him1 under the fear that the kelpie would carry him off to his pool4 ,he was deaf to her appeals4 ,preparing two long1 sharp-pointed spits of iron1 he repaired to the sheeling4 ,he made a large fire on the hearth1 and laid the two spits in it4 ,in a short time the kelpie made his appearance as usual4 ,the smith waited his opportunity1 and with all his might drove the red-hot spits into the creature's sides4 ,it fell on the ground like a heap of starch4#afd4a ,in this case the kelpie was killed4 ,more numerous are the tales in which he approaches a traveller in the shape of a horse and induces him to mount2 then he rushes to the pool1 carrying the unwary man to his death4 ,often1 however1 he can be caught and made to work1 by throwing over his head a bridle on which had been made the sign of the cross4 ,when this was done1 the creature became quiet and might be employed in labour needing strength and endurance1 like that of carrying stones to build a mill or a farm-steading4 ,when set free again1 he took his leave1 repeating the words3 8,sehr back an' sehr behns1 ,cairrit a' ----s' stanes40#afd4b ,in ,sweden the corresponding water-spirit--if that may be called a spirit which1 as in all these cases1 is regarded #afe as essentially corporeal--is called the ,neck1 a word connected with ,hnikarr1 the ,old ,norse appellation of ,odin regarded as a water-god1 and with the ,nicors1 or water-monsters referred to in ,beowulf4 ,the ,neck is said to appear in various forms4 ,sometimes he is a grown man1 and then 8particularly dangerous to haughty and pert damsels02 sometimes he is a comely youth with his lower extremities like those of a horse2 sometimes he is an old man with a long beard2 occasionally a handsome youth with yellow locks flowing over his shoulders and a red cap1 sitting in a summer evening on the surface of the water with a golden harp in his hand4 ,in return for a black lamb he is not unwilling to communicate his skill in music2 and if the offering be accompanied by the expression of a hope of his salvation1 he is rendered especially gracious4 ,for above all things he longs for eternal happiness2 nor can deeper distress be inflicted upon him than by denying this possibility4 ,a ,neck who takes up his abode under a bridge1 or in a stream1 is commonly called a ,strmkarl4 ,he usually plays not on the harp but on the viol4 ,near ,hornborgabro in ,west ,gothland a ,strmkarl was once heard singing to a pleasant melody these words thrice repeated3 8,i know--and ,i know--and ,i know--that my ,redeemer liveth40 ,he is acquainted with a measure which1 if played1 will cause even inanimate things1 as trees and stones1 to dance2 so powerful is his music4 ,but he appears in other forms4 ,a favourite is that of a horse1 sometimes described as with hoofs reversed4 ,at ,bohuus in ,west ,gothland he was caught by means of a cunningly contrived halter1 from which he could not break loose4 ,his captor kept him all the spring and made him plough his fields4 ,only when once the halter accidentally slipped off was the ,neck able to escape this #aff slavery4 ,he sprang like lightning into the water1 dragging the harrow after him4 ,the ,neck also causes disease4 ,his appearance forbodes tempest4 ,he haunts wells and must be propitiated with offerings1 or measures must be taken to render him innocuous4#aff4a ,without pausing to analyse the complex character assigned to the ,neck1 it will be abundantly clear that he belongs to the same category as the foregoing1 and may be subdued by similar means4 ,to fetch parallels to the spirit of the ,jabbok from ,scotland and ,sweden may be thought going far afield4 ,it is going no farther than ,dr ,frazer himself goes for examples of the custom of propitiating river-spirits4 ,the protest often uttered by cautious anthropologists against those who would cast the net so widely has its reason4 ,when we are dealing with customs it is well to remember that customs superficially alike may spring from quite different social organizations1 and their real intentions may be divergent or even opposite3 in short1 they may have nothing in common but external resemblance4 ,they cannot be understood without taking into account the sequences of which they are often part1 and the social organization and cultural condition from which they spring4 ,it is otherwise when those great products of human imagination that animate the world about us are concerned4 ,the personalities believed to haunt mountain and stream1 air and water1 heaven and earth1 are elemental conceptions1 the inevitable offspring of the human mind in its intercourse with nature4 ,analogies discovered between them are real analogies2 they are the proofs of the essential oneness of mankind in the snow-hut of an arctic winter and the tree-shelter of a tropical forest4 ,and when we find the relations believed to exist between such personalities #afg and human beings1 the need of their conciliation or coercion in order to obtain benefits for their human worshipper or antagonist1 and the means taken for this purpose1 the same1 with only such variations as may be accounted for by differences of environment1 then we may with confidence appeal to them as mutually illustrative4 ,for these reasons it would appear that we must regard such tales as those of the kelpie and the water-bull of ,scotland and the ,isle of ,man1 or the ,neck of ,sweden1 as illuminating the legend of ,jacob's struggle at the ford of the ,jabbok4 ,professor ,frazer rightly adduces as in some degree analogous the story of ,menelaus catching the shy sea-god ,proteus sleeping on the sands1 and compelling him to say his sooth1 as ,jacob compels the angel to pronounce a blessing1 and that of ,peleus catching and conquering the sea-goddess ,thetis to be his bride4 ,here we are reminded of a cycle of traditions found all over the world1 and known as the ,swan-maiden cycle4 ,the heroine of the tale is a supernatural being1 usually in the form of a bird which casts its feathers like a robe and becomes human4 ,the hero1 possessing himself of the robe1 acquires power over her and makes her his wife1 only to lose her again when she recovers it4 ,as told in ,scotland and the adjacent isles1 in the ,faeroe ,islands and ,iceland1 the lady is a seal4#afg4a ,it may be doubtful whether ,thetis was ever so represented2 but it is certainly most suggestive that ,proteus was discovered sleeping among the seals4 ,for it is not only for matrimonial purposes that these supernatural beings are caught in modern mrchen4 ,in a ,tamil tale the hero #afh steals the dress of one of a band of divine maidens1 and thereby compels her to bring him a certain divine parijata1 or flower of the coral tree1 which was demanded by another lady as the price of her hand4#afh4a ,in the ,spanish tale of ,the ,marquis of the ,sun1 the ,marquis is a great gamester4 ,a man who played with him lost all he had1 and then staked his soul and lost it4 ,to get it back he was advised to watch on the banks of a river4 ,three princesses would come in the guise of doves1 cast their feathers and bathe4 ,he was to take the dress of the smallest and thus compel her to show him the road to the ,marquis her father's castle4#afh4b ,it is true that both these adventures do result in the hero's union with the bird-maiden4 ,such union is1 however1 incidental4 ,in a ,samoyed ,swan-maiden story the heroine1 captured in the usual way1 flings the hearts of herself and her husband1 as well as of other members of his family1 into the air2 and their owners in consequence remain neither living nor dead4 ,the husband's father's sister goes in search of the hearts to the lake where the bride was captured1 and finds her six sisters there swimming as before4 ,she takes possession of the clothes of one of them1 and thus compels her to restore the hearts of her relatives4#afh4c ,so the hero of a tale told by a tribe on ,vancouver ,island is sent in search of his daughter1 who has eloped with a wolf4 ,he sees a number of young wolves playing at ball1 having laid aside their mantles4 ,he sets himself down beside the mantles1 and in this way putting their owners to shame at being found naked1 compels them to bring him to his son-in-law's abode4#afh4d ,the mantles are obviously the wolf-skins1 laid aside to enable their owners to appear in human form4 #afi ,wolves are of course not water-spirits1 like swans or seals2 but they obey the same law as that imagined for the latter4 ,the man who seizes something which is at once the symbol of their supernatural character and the source of their power1 renders them helpless and compels them to his will4 ,the contest is in these cases one of trickery and determination1 rather than of strength4 ,the captures of ,proteus and of ,thetis1 however1 seem to have been effected by main force and a wrestler's skill4 ,this is often the case with the capture of mermaids in the west of ,europe4 ,hugh ,miller long ago translated into literature a local legend of ,cromarty which told how ,john ,reid captured on the shores of the ,firth a mermaid1 from whom he extracted as a ransom the grant of three wishes1 including prosperity and union with the maiden of his choice4#afi4a ,mermaid-stories thus agree with kelpie-stories and with those of ,proteus and the spirit of the ,jabbok in assigning victory to the strength and skill of the human wrestler4 ,water-spirits are not the only supernatural beings with whom men are represented in story as matching themselves4 ,the ,lushei clans of ,assam believe in various demons that inhabit hills1 streams and trees4 ,they are called ,huai1 those inhabiting the water being known as ,tui-huai1 and those residing on the land as ,rm-huai4 ,a certain sacrifice1 generally of a big sow1 is offered to the ,rm-huai4 ,it is called ,sakhua4 ,one night1 towards morning1 it is related1 a ,rm-huai appeared to a man who had unwittingly neglected his ,sakhua sacrifice4 ,it came into the straw where he was sleeping and wrestled with him until daylight4 ,even then it followed him and wrestled with him again2 nor does the man seem to have been loth4 ,at last he conquered the ,rm-huai1 #agj who then told him that his ,sakhua sacrifice was over-due2 and he performed it at once4 ,sometimes the ,rm-huai appears as a tiger and sometimes as a man4 ,on this occasion he seems to have been in human form4#agj4a ,yet even in such a contest the skill displayed may be much more than a trick of jiu-jitsu4 ,an example or two will suffice4 ,in the ,wild ,huntsman of ,teutonic lands anthropologists agree in recognizing traditions of the god ,woden4 ,he is well known to the ,german rustic as ,wod4 ,a tale from ,mecklenburg represents a peasant as encountering him one dark night in the form of a tall man on a white horse4 ,the peasant accepts the stranger's challenge to pull against him1 and grasps one end of a heavy chain1 while the stranger ascends into the clouds with the other end4 ,the peasant knows that1 if he lose1 he is himself lost4 ,he quickly twists the end around a stalwart oak1 and the ,huntsman tugs in vain4 ,a second and a third time the contest is renewed1 after he has persuaded the stranger that he is holding the chain1 and it is only his own strength that is being put forth4 ,the oak-tree creaks and crackles to its roots1 but finally holds its ground4 ,wod owns himself vanquished1 and rewards his courageous antagonist with a share of his game--a haunch of venison1 which turns to a rich booty of gold and silver ere he reaches home4#agj4b ,we are indebted to ,ovid for another example4 ,he tells us how ,numa by the advice of ,egeria entrapped ,picus and ,faunus1 two ancient rustic deities who were wont to drink of a certain stream4 ,the king tempted them by means of wine placed beside the fountain2 and when they had fallen into the slumber of intoxication he issued from his ambush and put them in chains4 ,as the price of freedom he compelled them to bring down ,jupiter from the sky1 to give him the famous #aga formula for averting the thunderbolt4#aga4a ,innocents like these are of course easily caught with strong drink4 ,in ,greek tradition ,silenus1 who as the son of a nymph was described as of condition inferior to the gods1 but superior to mortals and to death1 was not superior to some mortal weaknesses4 ,indeed1 he was notoriously convivial4 ,hence he fell victim to a similar wile on the part of ,midas1 the ,phrygian king4 ,nor was he released before he had revealed some astounding geographical and ethnological information1 that staggered the sceptical lian when he found it placed on record in the now lost pages of ,theopompus4#aga4b ,such legends of contest are not confined to merely second-rate personages like these subordinate or superseded divinities4 ,when in the ,iliad ,diomed attacks and wounds ,aphrodite1 she goes crying to her mother4 ,dione by way of consolation recounts a list of ,olympian gods who have grievously suffered in fight with headstrong and violent men4 ,it includes ,ares1 ,hera1 and ,hades1 all of them potent figures in ,greek mythology4 ,ares was bound by ,otus and ,ephialtes1 the sons of ,aloeus1 and kept in durance vile for thirteen moons1 until ,hermes came to his rescue4 ,even he1 it seems1 was obliged to have recourse to secret means to steal him away4 ,the arrows of ,herakles inflicted grievous wounds on ,hera and ,pluto4 ,and though naturally ,dione denounces untimely death as the penalty for such presumption1 the injuries received in the conflict are not all on one side4#aga4c ,odin himself fights more than once in the ,scandinavian lays and sagas against human antagonists4 ,nay1 if ,m4 ,a4 ,j4 ,reinach's interpretation be accepted1 ,jacob's #agb opponent at the ford of the ,jabbok was no other than 8,elohim in person40 ,the growth of religious feeling1 on this theory1 found this coarse representation abhorrent2 and while the incident1 being part of the sacred legends1 could not be ignored or repudiated1 it was so altered as to obscure its real significance4#agb4a ,however this may be1 tales like these are echoes of belief in the possibility of a successful corporeal struggle with the mysterious powers4 ,they are blurred memories of the practice of threatening and even attacking what we call supernatural beings under their material manifestations4 ,those beings were conceived1 if not always in human form1 at least as human in their wills and passions1 hence in their motives and modes of action4 ,the only way in which they differed from humanity was in their vaster and undefined powers4 ,they were1 to adopt ,matthew ,arnold's phrase1 magnified1 non-natural--that is to say1 mysterious--men4#agb4b ,thus conceived1 they were accessible to every sort of influence that affected mankind1 including coercion4 ,but it took a bold man to coerce them1 though the task might be attempted upon occasion1 even by ordinary mortals--not always with success4 ,sometimes the contest is of a more distinctly intellectual character4 ,the trial of musical skill between ,apollo and ,marsyas will occur to everyone4 ,the ,egyptian king called by ,herodotus ,rhampsinitus is said to have penetrated to ,hades and there played at dice with ,demeter4 ,varying fortune attended him2 but he was so far successful that he returned with a golden handkerchief1 the gift of the goddess4 ,and the ,egyptians #agc still in the historian's time celebrated a feast in memory of the adventure4#agc4a ,if we turn from legend to fact1 we find the belief translated into action1 into the attempt to control the supernatural by force4 ,thus did ,xerxes when he lashed the ,hellespont and let down fetters into it1 for destroying the bridge he had endeavoured to build4#agc4b ,thus did the ancient priestesses of the ,canary ,islands when rain was too long in coming3 they beat the sea with rods to punish the spirit of the waters for withholding the boon they needed4#agc4c ,in the same way 7the tale is probably at least founded on fact71 when the ,nile had risen to the height of eighteen cubits--higher than it had ever risen before--,pheros1 the son and successor of ,sesostris1 is declared to have taken a spear and driven it into the midst of the whirling waters4 ,it is added--and here we have a testimony to the recognition by the ancient ,egyptians of the awful divinity whom the king had thus challenged--that he was thereupon struck with a disease of the eyes and made blind4#agc4d ,the vengeance mentioned by ,dr ,frazer as taken by the ,kakhyeen of ,upper ,burmah points distinctly to the same intention4 8,if some friend or relative has been drowned in crossing a river1 the avenger repairs once a year to the banks1 and1 filling a bamboo vessel with the water1 hews it through with his dah sword as if he were despatching #agd a living enemy40#agd4a ,the ,korwas of ,chota ,nagpur on a similar occasion shoot arrows into the river4#agd4b ,after comparing these cases there can be little doubt that the ,celtic practice of fighting the waves reported by lian was not undertaken as a foolhardy piece of presumption1 but literally as a combat with a foe susceptible to such attacks1 or 7as the ,irish text suggests7 a necessary proceeding in self-defence1 lest otherwise the sea should encroach upon the land4 ,the orenda of the land-dwellers was pitted against that of the waters4 ,the conclusion will be confirmed by considering a few examples of the treatment of divinities other than those of sea or river4 ,the tribe of the ,getai1 the bravest of the ,thracians1 were in the habit1 during thunderstorms1 of shooting arrows up to the sky and threatening their god4 ,it is indeed not clear what god they threatened4 ,usually it is understood to be the god ,zalmoxis1 pre-eminently the god of the ,getai4 ,but he seems to have been a chthonic divinity2 and as the text of ,herodotus stands they recognized no other god4 ,the historian's account of him is rationalized2 and there is reason to think that he failed to grasp all the essentials of the ,getic religion3 his own doubts on the subject are more than hinted at4 ,in shooting upwards1 however1 and uttering threats1 the ,getai must have menaced some being conceived more or less in personal terms4 ,this is sufficient for our present purpose4#agd4c ,the ,atarantes1 who dwelt ten days' journey from ,mount ,atlas1 in like #age manner cursed the sun when he was at his height and reviled him with all manner of foul terms1 because he oppressed both themselves and their land by his burning heat4#age4a ,among the ,bayaka of the ,kasai district in the ,congo ,state it is common to hear people running about at night and shouting insults to ,moloki1 a malignant spirit who has made them ill1 or caused the death of a relation4#age4b ,the ,bechuana1 on the great central plain of ,south ,africa1 ascribe changes of weather to the influence of the manes of deceased members of the tribe4 ,they are called by the generic term ,barimo1 of which the singular form1 ,morimo1 was adopted by the early missionaries to translate ,god2 and it is now frequently used with that meaning4 ,when hail damaged the crops1 or rain fell unseasonably1 ,moffat tells us1 ,morimo would be cursed in the vilest language4 8,would that ,i could catch it1 ,i would transfix it with my spear60 exclaimed in the missionary's hearing a chief whose judgement on other subjects would command attention4#age4c ,on the occasion of an earthquake a traveller saw the ,bakwena women in an instant rushing out of their huts1 with clubs and hoes in their hands1 holding them up at the sky1 and cursing ,god with most awful imprecations and demoniac yells4#age4d ,the proceedings of the ,zulus1 neighbours of the ,bakwena1 during a thunderstorm were thus described by a native to ,bishop ,callaway3 8,when it thunders the doctors go out and scold it2 they take a stick and say they are going to beat the lightning of heaven4 ,they say they can overcome the lightning4 ,they shout and take shields and sticks2 they strike on their shields and shout4 ,and when it clears away again #agf they say1 #8,we have conquered it4' ,they say they can overcome the heaven40#agf4a ,the ,hottentots curse the thunder and shoot their poisoned arrows at the lightning1 telling him to be off4 ,some of them1 however1 adopt a milder course1 assembling to dance and sing an incantation4 ,two specimens of these incantations have been preserved4 ,the thunder is thus addressed3 8,son of the ,thunder-cloud1 ,thou brave loud-speaking ,guru6 ,talk softly1 please1 ,for ,i have no guilt6 ,leave me alone 7,forgive me76 ,for ,i have become quite weak 7 ,i am quite stunned1 perplexed74 ,thou1 ,o ,guru1 ,son of the ,thunder-cloud60 ,the other incantation is addressed to the lightning4 ,it is a dramatic performance1 the lightning being played by one person1 the chorus representing the appeal of the inhabitants of the kraal4 ,chorus4 8,thou1 ,thunder-cloud's daughter1 daughter-in-law of the ,fire6 ,thou who hast killed my brother6 ,therefore thou liest now so nicely in a hole6 ,solo4 7,yes7 indeed1 ,i have killed thy brother so well6 ,chorus4 7,well7 therefore thou liest 7now7 in a hole4 ,thou who hast painted thy body red1 like ,goro6 ,thou who dost not drop the menses1 ,thou wife of the ,copper-bodied man 7the mythical ancestor of the ,hottentots760#agf4b #agg ,perhaps the sex of the lightning here may render it more amenable to the softer arts of persuasion4 ,the ,bushmen used to look steadily at the quarter whence the lightning came4 ,they believed its object was to kill them by stealth1 and that if they looked towards it they would cause the thunderbolts to turn back4 ,it appears1 they said1 8to fear our eye1 when it feels that we quickly look towards it4''' ,therefore it goes over us2 it goes to sit on the ground yonder1 while it does not kill us40#agg4a ,in other words1 they believed themselves so powerful that the lightning quailed before them and did not dare to strike4 ,among the ,nandi1 a ,nilotic tribe of ,east ,africa1 it is the duty of the ,toiyoi1 or ,thunder-clan1 when a heavy thunderstorm occurs1 to seize an axe and1 having rubbed it in the ashes of the fire1 to throw it outside the hut1 crying out3 8,thunder1 be silent in our village60#agg4b ,among their neighbours 7but not kinsfolk71 the ,wawanga1 an old man was recently found by a government official to have stuck a curious-looking spear in an ant-hill in his village to drive off the hail4#agg4c ,similar practices are found in the less advanced cultures of the ,new ,world4 ,the ,hurons of ,canada were in the habit of sticking their javelins into the ground point upwards4 ,the explanation they gave1 as reported by the ,jesuit ,father1 was that the thunder had intelligence1 and it would1 on seeing these naked javelins1 turn aside and be careful not to come near their cabins4#agg4d ,the ,salinans of ,california possess an amulet which will stop the thunder1 if it be held in the hand and pushed out towards a thunder-cloud4#agg4e ,the ,guaycurus of ,paraguay1 #agh great and small1 on the occasion of a great storm of wind and rain1 issued from their huts armed with clubs and sticks1 and uttering terrible cries1 to fight with the hurricane1 persuaded that it was an attack on them by evil spirits1 and that they must defend themselves without showing cowardice4#agh4a ,according to legends current at the time of the conquest1 8the hapiuu1 or bosom-clutching spirits1 who were believed to have been the original occupants of the ,peruvian valleys1 were forcibly expelled by the early human inhabitants1 immigrants from the country of the ,guaycurus4 ,when the ancestors of the ,incas arrived in the sierra #8from beyond ,potosi'--that is1 from the ,gran ,chaco--these spirits1 according to a fragment of an ancient song which has been preserved by an ,indian writer1 disappeared with terrible cries1 saying3 #8,we are conquered6 ,we are conquered6 ,alas1 for ,i lose my lands6'0#agh4b ,the tribes of the ,uaupes ,river in ,brazil1 after a funeral1 shoot into the air to chase away1 and if possible kill1 the evil-disposed spirit which has caused the death4#agh4c ,in tropical surroundings1 separated from the ,hurons by nearly half the globe1 by the whole breadth of the ,pacific ,ocean and nearly the whole breadth of the continent of ,north ,america1 the ,kai-folk of the ,kai1 or forest hinterland of the south-eastern coast of ,german ,new ,guinea1 adopt the very same measure as they for protection against the storms4 ,like their surroundings1 their culture is widely different from that of the ,hurons4 ,they dwell in frail cabins raised upon posts1 in order to secure them from the intrusion of their half-domesticated swine and the attacks of the wilder animals4 ,these huts #agi cluster on the mountain-side in tiny villages of from two to six4 ,their framework is of wood1 bound together with tough lengths of a climbing plant4 ,the walls consist of long pandanus leaves2 and they are thatched with leaves of the sago-palm1 or with grass4 ,it is obvious that such feeble structures can offer little resistance to high winds4 ,happily wind-storms are of rare occurrence2 but when they do come they wield terrific force1 splitting or uprooting powerful trees4 ,against the onslaught of such foes1 which1 it need not be said1 are regarded as personal beings1 the ,kai-folk have more than one means of defence4 ,they take one of the jawbones of wild beasts which hang in the hut as trophies of the chase1 put it in the fire and pray the storm-spirit to accept the soul of the deceased animal and spare the house4 ,but they do not rely on the chance of placating the spirit2 they oppose him with threats and with weapons4 ,they fasten a pointed stake or spear before the windward side of the house1 its point turned to the wind1 so that it will 8prick him in the belly10 and thus compel him to leave the hut in peace4 ,or they reply to each gust by striking the threshold with a club or stone-axe1 crying out3 8,if you tread here on my house1 ,i will smash your feet60#agi4a ,almost all nations in the lower culture hold an eclipse to be the attempt on the part of some evil-disposed being to eat up or destroy the sun or moon4 ,the custom of terrifying and driving him away is too well known to need illustration4 ,in these cases1 though the supernatural being may be out of reach1 that does not hinder men and women from pitting their orenda against his2 and as soon as the storm #ahj or the eclipse comes to an end they naturally vaunt their success4 ,in the form of wind indeed he may be held to descend to actual blows with his human opponents4 ,professor ,frazer has collected a number of examples of fighting the storm and the whirlwind4#ahj4a ,nor are those examples confined to such as already recounted4 ,even in ,europe eddies and gusts of wind are attacked without hesitation by peasants1 whether ,scottish1 ,breton1 ,german1 ,slav1 or ,esthonian4 ,a small whirlwind of the kind with which we are all familiar is believed to be caused by a witch1 who is carried along unseen at its centre1 and may be revealed and rendered harmless by launching some object1 preferably a knife1 into it4 ,in the ,tirol a knife of special form is used for the purpose1 on the blade of which are engraved nine ,st ,andrew's crosses and nine crescent moons4 ,it wounds the witch as surely as the harpoon in the ,basque tale cited at the beginning of this essay4#ahj4b ,here and in many of the other instances the supernatural being is regarded as actually hostile4 ,at certain stages of evolution there is1 however1 as little hesitation in turning upon a god with whom one is usually on terms of friendship and submission4 ,we have had some examples of this4 ,a god may provoke a worshipper1 and human nature will not always put up with the provocation4 ,when he is found in tangible shape as an idol his #aha aggrieved client may even resort to corporal chastisement4 ,dr ,farnell refers in this connection to the passage in the seventh idyll of ,theocritus1 where the poet mentions the whipping of the image of ,pan with squills when food was scarce1 and to a ,breton smith 8who threatened the saint's image with red-hot pincers to compel him to heal his son40#aha4a ,the two practices thus put together are not strictly parallel4 ,originally at least they were widely different in purpose1 though they have some outward resemblance4 ,to beat the image of ,pan with squills was not to punish the god for neglect of duty1 but to bring him into touch with the powers of growth1 to drive out the barrenness that possessed him and to recreate his fructifying forces4 ,it was a magical means of restoring his life-giving properties4 ,it may have been to some extent1 like punishment1 a relief to the feelings of the beater2 but the chief object is unmistakably shown by the ritual requirement to beat with squills4#aha4b ,it would seem1 however1 as if this had been forgotten by the time of ,theocritus2 for in the following lines 7not cited by ,dr ,farnell7 the poet goes on to threaten stinging with nettles in case of the god's recalcitrance1 as if this were the same sort of petty torment4 ,on the other hand1 means are often taken1 like those of the ,breton smith1 to compel a god to grant his suppliant's wishes1 and in default to inflict indignity and injury4 ,pietro della ,valle tells in his ,voyages of an image of ,saint ,anthony which was thus treated by ,portuguese sailors4 ,first of all1 prayers were addressed to the image for a favourable wind4 ,the wind not being forthcoming1 the #ahb image was taken from its shrine and lashed to the mast1 in the beginning with comparatively slack cords4 ,the bonds were progressively tightened as the saint delayed to accede to his worshippers' demands4 ,they were not in a mood to stand any nonsense4 ,the image before which they had knelt in prayer only a few hours earlier was now the object of curses and derision2 and every day the wind was delayed a new cord was added to bind the sacred victim more tightly4 ,at last1 however1 the wind changed and blew from the quarter desired2 the saint was loosed from his uncomfortable position and replaced respectfully in his niche2 the sailors thanked him1 but mingled with their thanks reproaches for the obstinacy which had forced them to take severe measures with him4#ahb4a ,saint ,anthony indeed suffers much from his votaries4 ,the ,spanish population of ,new ,mexico do not hesitate to hang his image head downwards to urge him to his duty of performing miracles4 ,other obstinate saints they simply put away or imprison4#ahb4b ,the modern ,aztecs give their sacred images a whipping when their prayers are not attended to4 ,the ,tarascos of ,mexico make ,san ,mateo responsible for the weather and the crops4 ,when it freezes his image is taken from the church in the early morning and dumped into cold water as a punishment4 ,on the other hand1 he is rewarded for good crops by a procession1 a big feast1 and abundance of brandy and tamales4#ahb4c ,in ,france1 near the village of la ,selle1 on the highway from ,autun to ,chteau ,chinon1 is a granite rock1 on the top of which rustic piety has erected a ,calvary4 ,just below it is a little grotto that serves as a niche to shelter #ahc the statue of the good ,saint ,merri1 the patron of the parish4 ,saint ,merri has a reputation extending far and wide4 ,formerly on the stone at his feet might be seen offerings of eggs and small change2 and even yet pilgrimages are made to his shrine in pursuance of vows or for the cure of certain diseases4 ,among these1 it would seem1 as the offering of eggs may indicate1 he was expected to cure sterility4 ,it is related that a pious woman of a neighbouring village was in the habit of coming to implore the saint for her daughter1 who had been married for some years1 but had had no children4 ,she had another daughter1 who was not married2 and the saint made a mistake3 it was her unmarried daughter to whom a child was granted4 ,the good woman1 enraged at a blunder so inexcusable1 returned to the saint4 ,bitterly reproaching him with his mockery of her prayers1 she took a stick and inflicted on him a sound castigation1 breaking his arm and rolling him over on the ground1 where he long remained1 a witness to his own unseemly jest and her righteous indignation4 ,the inhabitants at last made a collection to buy a new saint1 which is now placed on a pedestal in the foreground of the grotto1 while the old and guilty saint is relegated shamefully to a corner1 and still bears the scornful title of the ,weeper4#ahc4a ,corporal punishment of saints1 otherwise than by way of penance during their mortal life1 has never enjoyed official favour in any form of ,christianity1 however gratifying it may be to the feelings of disappointed worshippers4 ,so far as it is employed as a serious means of compelling attention to the needs and prayers of #ahd their clients it is by no means confined to ,christianity4 ,savage and barbaric peoples do not hesitate to punish their idols in this manner4 ,the practice is reported from the ,southern ,pacific to the frozen shores of the ,arctic ,ocean in both hemispheres4 ,two or three examples will suffice4 ,the ,eskimo who wander along the inhospitable coasts of ,ungava to the north of ,hudson's ,bay are attended each by a guardian spirit1 often in the form of a doll carried somewhere about the person4 ,these spirits are not naturally benevolent4 ,they must be abundantly propitiated with offerings of food1 water and clothing1 to induce them to confer success and prosperity upon the man who may with equal propriety be termed their master or their worshipper4 ,if the spirit prove obdurate and1 like ,saint ,anthony1 reluctant to grant the needful assistance1 its owner sometimes becomes angry with it and inflicts a condign chastisement1 deprives it of food1 strips it of its garments1 or even palms it off secretly on some unsuspecting friend1 to his discomfort or injury4#ahd4a ,when a chief dies in the district of ,ibouzo1 on the ,niger1 without leaving a son1 his ,ikengua1 or domestic wooden idol of the god of riches1 is cut in two and flung away into the bush1 because it has procured no male descendant for its worshipper4#ahd4b ,a ,brahman boy in ,india attended a mission-school1 and was selected to compete in a tennis tournament4 ,he and his two younger brothers had each an image of ,ganesa1 which was kept in a shrine for worship4 ,previous to the tournament the images were taken out and solemnly threatened by the three brothers with something very disagreeable if the eldest brother lost the match4 ,he lost it4 ,the brothers returned home1 and carried out their threat by pitching the three #ahe images into the well at the back of the house4 ,the next day they sallied out and bought three new images of the god to replace the old ones4#ahe4a ,the ,paraiyans of ,southern ,india on the occasion of a drought invoke the dvata called ,kodumpvi 7wicked one74 8,the ceremony consists in making a huge figure of ,kodumpvi in clay1 which is placed on a cart and dragged through the streets for seven to ten days4 ,on the last day the final death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated40 ,it is mutilated1 and funeral rites are performed by the grave-diggers4 8,this procedure is believed to put ,kodumpvi to shame10 and to get her to induce her paramour ,sukra1 who has neglected his duty1 to stay the drought4#ahe4b ,if this be so1 it is evident that the figure is not identified with the dvata1 and the punishment operates by the mental rather than the corporeal annoyance inflicted upon her4 ,japan affords an example of righteous indignation expressing itself in castigation which is passing1 or has already passed1 into a spell4 ,when the owner of a tea-house is dissatisfied with the number of his customers1 the wooden pestle of the tub in which various kinds of meal and salt are mixed for the preparation of a certain dish is taken out and struck through the uppermost paper panel of the door or window1 so that it falls on the floor with a crash4 ,out come the people of the house armed with sticks1 brooms1 and so forth2 and they scold and thrash the pestle1 making him responsible for the fewness of their guests4 ,he is bound and thrown into a chest4 ,if shortly afterwards the guests increase1 the pestle is taken out of his prison1 his forgiveness is asked1 and he is drenched with saki4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that the pestle is a phallic representative1 and that the business of a tea-house #ahf often extends to the entertainment of a guest in more ways than one4#ahf4a ,the practice1 however1 is so well known that it would be waste of time to multiply illustrations4 ,i will only add that in the valley of the ,nile1 in the days when the worship of animals1 whatever its exact origin or meaning1 prevailed1 the sacred beasts were carefully tended and trained1 and all their wants were provided for4 ,in return they were expected to grant their worshippers' wishes4 ,if they 8could not or would not help in emergency they were beaten2 and if this measure failed to prove efficacious1 then the creatures were punished by death2''' and it was the priests themselves who condemned and executed the sacred animal4 ,afterwards indeed they sought to secure its immortality by the embalmment of the body1 thereby hoping to appease the wrath of the god1 lest he should avenge the killing of the creature in which he had been incarnate40#ahf4b ,there is such a thing as carrying punishment too far1 especially when you cannot carry it far enough to put an end to a being of indefinite but superhuman power1 who will bottle up his anger until he can catch you off your guard4 ,this inconvenience is incident to the theory evolved by ,egyptian syncretism that the sacred animals were incarnations of the divinities4 ,another method of dealing with a god or any supernatural being is to bind and imprison him1 if you can catch him4 ,this needs but a cursory mention here4 ,it has been dealt with at some length by ,mr ,william #ahg ,crooke1 who has ingeniously suggested that the ,homeric story1 already referred to1 of the binding and imprisonment of ,ares by ,otus and ,ephialtes owes its origin to this practice4#ahg4a ,in any case it is a common expedient for the laying of a ghost4 ,i was privileged to live for some years in a house concerning which one of these ghost-laying traditions was told2 and so far as my experience goes the expedient was entirely successful4 ,it is still in use by medicine-men for delivering their clients from the persecution of troublesome spirits4 ,among the ,bangala of the ,upper ,congo 8sometimes the witch-doctor will drive the spirit into a saucepan or calabash1 and either kill it or imprison it40#ahg4b ,obviously the adage 8,first catch your hare0 applies here4 ,the supernatural being cannot always be caught4 ,but he may be driven away4 ,dr ,frazer has illustrated very fully the widespread practice of expelling evils considered as personal beings either periodically or occasionally by ceremonies of violence or of enticement1 persuasion and magical spells4#ahg4c ,the ancient ,scandinavians seem to have instituted solemn legal proceedings against troublesome ghosts4 ,there is a remarkable story in the ,eyrbyggia ,saga of a number of malignant ghosts who haunted the settlement at ,frodiswater with disastrous effects to men and stores4 ,the ,christian priest sang the hours there1 manufactured holy water and shrived all folk4 ,this was not enough to disperse the ghosts1 who had audaciously come and sat by the fires1 to the horror of the survivors1 and devastated the place with sickness and misfortune4 ,it was but the preparation for the stringent measures to follow4 ,the bed-gear of ,thorgunna1 the deceased stranger-woman who had started #ahh the mischief1 was burned4 ,the ghosts were summoned to a door-doom2 8and it was done in all matters even as at a doom of the ,thing3 verdicts were delivered1 cases summed up and doom given40 ,the ghosts attended in obedience to the summons4 ,as each was found guilty he was sentenced to depart4 8,but as soon as the sentence on ,thorir ,wooden-leg was given out1 he rose and said3 #8,here have ,i sat while sit ,i might'02 and thereafter he stumped out by the door opposite to that before which the court was holding its session4 ,thus they were banished one after another2 8and each arose as the sentence fell on him1 and all said somewhat at their going forth2 but ever it seemed by the words of each that they were all loth to depart40 ,last of all judgement was given upon ,thorod1 the recently deceased goodman of the house1 8and when he heard it he stood up and said3 #8,meseems little peace is here2 so get us all gone otherwhere'2 and therewith he went out4 ,then in walked ,kiartan the heir and his folk1 and the priest bare hallowed water and the holy things throughout the house2 and on the next day they sang all the hours and mass with great solemnity2 and so there was an end thereafter to all walkings and hauntings at ,frodiswater40#ahh4a ,what is important to observe here is the entire respect paid by the criminal revenants to the formal and deliberate decision of the society against which they had sinned4 ,they obeyed it as they would have obeyed it in their lifetime4 ,in heathen times1 out of which ,iceland had scarcely emerged1 the ,thing was the lawful assembly of the whole community4 ,its doom outlawed those members who were convicted of antisocial conduct1 and such was undoubtedly the conduct of the dead who returned to #ahi harm the living4 ,though dead they were still members of the society and subject to its laws4 ,by those laws it was their duty to abide in the howe1 or grave-mound1 and thence watch over the well-being of the family1 receiving in return a cult4 ,the authority of the ,thing extended to all matters interesting the community1 religious as well as political1 juridical and administrative4 ,under ,christianity1 and the advancing civilization of which it was a part1 the religious authority was beginning to be separated from its control1 of which perhaps we may see a hint in the narrative4 ,but the religious officials were acting in unison with the rest1 though hardly now as part of them4 ,on the other hand1 the cult of the dead was no longer officially recognized4 ,it is improbable that it had ceased2 and assuredly the defunct were still charged with the negative duty of remaining quietly in the howe and abstaining from all molestation of those whom they had left behind4 ,there may be some doubt as to the technical status of the assembly which dealt with the case4 ,if not a local and subordinate ,thing1 it seems at least to have been a properly constituted tribunal1 proceeding in a perfectly regular manner1 and carrying in its decisions the force of law4 ,it had probably not yet become entirely divested of spiritual jurisdiction1 or at least of spiritual prestige1 which may indeed be taken to be sanctioned and supported by the countenance and assistance of the priest of the new religion4 ,the ghostly transgressors recognized its authority1 the propriety of its procedure1 the justice and the binding character of its sentence2 and however much they grudged it1 they submitted4 ,it need not be said that more summary measures were often taken with those who 8walked0 after death to the inconvenience of the survivors4 ,they consisted in #aij digging out and destroying the corpse1 or dealing with it in a way similar to that used with vampires1 which are indeed one species of these troublesome visitors4 ,examples are not uncommon in the ,norse sagas1 and are plentiful in the folklore of the ,scandinavian and other countries4 ,an alternative to driving away the supernatural being is to threaten and insult him4 ,of this ,i have in previous pages given some examples4 ,the ancient ,greeks had a technical term for formul of this kind4 ,they called them 1 compulsions of the gods4 ,it will be sufficient to refer to a few cases of insult employed by different peoples in all seriousness1 and often in the sacred ritual4 ,when a sacrifice is offered to the ancestral manes by the ,thonga of ,south-,eastern ,africa on the occasion of sickness in the family1 they are told3 8,you are useless1 you gods2 you only give us trouble6 ,for although we give you offerings1 you do not listen to us6 ,we are deprived of everything6 ,you naming the ancestral spirit who is addressed as the cause of the evil are full of hatred6 ,you do not enrich us6 ,all those who succeed do so by the help of their gods60 ,we are informed that when some great misfortune is the occasion for a special sacrifice1 the request presented in the prayer is preceded or followed by a ritual insulting of the gods 7manes74 8,there are two words used to designate this curious part of the prayer3 holobela1 to scold the gods1 or rukatela1 the real word for to insult40#aij4a ,here it must not be forgotten that the personages addressed are #aia members of the family4 ,it is true that they have been divinized by death1 but their family relationship has not been dissolved4 ,they have still their duties to perform1 as well as the survivors2 and if they neglect them a family quarrel may reasonably be the consequence1 as it might in their lifetime4 ,this method of bullying divinities is well known in ,india4 ,a pair of examples from the extremities of the peninsula will suffice4 ,parakutty is a debased form of ,vishnu 7or perhaps it may be more correct to say an aboriginal demon identified with ,vishnu71 worshipped by some of the low castes in ,cochin4 ,the ,nayadis are a jungle tribe reputed to be skilful hunters4 ,parakutty is supposed to aid them in hunting4 ,when they fail to get the expected game they abuse him for his ingratitude1 and for betraying the trust they have reposed in him4 ,he is also the favourite deity of the ,parayans4 ,a ,paraya magician is frequently called in to assist in recovering stolen property4 ,he invokes ,parakutty for the purpose4 ,if the property be not recovered the magician prays again1 this time in a more indignant and abusive form1 and he thinks that then his object is sure to be gained4#aia4a ,in ,the ,legends of the ,panjab1 ,sir ,r4 ,c4 ,temple gives a long poem in which a woman in trouble expresses her intention of cursing her patron saint ,gorakh ,nth for the misfortunes that have befallen her4#aia4b ,in the same spirit ,charlemagne1 in the romances1 is made to threaten ,god to throw down his altars and make the churches with all their priests cease from the land of the ,franks4#aia4c ,great and awful as gods may be1 they are after all but #aib human4 ,the most mysterious of them are conceived in quasi-human terms4 ,on the other hand1 human beings are often looked upon as gods and treated accordingly4 ,but then their treatment is simply that of powerful men1 men possessed of and filled with a greater or less degree of mana1 who therefore require to be handled gingerly1 like an unexploded bomb4 ,such a man-god1 if a native ruler or fellow-tribesman1 can seldom be driven away2 but he may1 especially if his mana be suspected of departing from him1 be attacked and slain4 ,to expound this practice and the belief on which it is founded1 or with which it is bound up1 ,dr ,frazer's great work1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 has been written4 ,the white man1 like the gods1 is to peoples in the lower culture mysterious1 powerful1 endowed with mana4 ,to that extent he is the object of wonder and fear1 he is a god4 ,yet he may be fought and overpowered1 killed or driven away4 ,of the ,bangala in the ,upper ,congo basin we are told that before the unknown and mysterious the native 8is timid1 fearful1 and very superstitious4 ,he will regard you as a god1 and yet try to fight you2 he will superstitiously believe that you have wonderful occult powers that can stop the rain1 cause pestilence and plagues2 and yet he will not attempt to conciliate you1 but he will savagely tell you to clear out of his town and take your witchcraft elsewhere40#aib4a ,so and not otherwise the savage treats his gods4 ,where milder means avail not1 and he can get his way by rough treatment of the idols or other tangible forms in which they are presented1 he does not hesitate to use physical force4 ,as little will he hesitate to use guile to eke out his inferior strength4 ,it is but another manifestation of his orenda4 ,hence the tales of audacious heroes #aic who have measured their strength or their cunning against more tremendous personages4 ,hence the threats and insults addressed to powers beyond immediate reach by peoples all over the world4 ,hence the punishment inflicted on the images of gods and saints4 ,hence the boldness of the ,celts4 ,,the ,,haunted ,,widow #aid ,according to the legend of ,osiris as preserved for us by ,plutarch1 the slain divinity accompanied with ,isis1 his sister-wife1 after his death1 with the result that she had by him a child whose name is given in ,greek form as ,harpocrates4#aid4a ,doubt has been thrown by some ,egyptologists upon the accuracy of ,plutarch's report2 but it is probably correct4 ,at all events the incident is fairly widespread both in tale and superstition1 as ,i shall proceed to show4 ,among the ,chinese the dead of both sexes have always been held capable of sexual intercourse with the living4 ,a favourite topic of ,chinese tales is that of a belated wanderer entertained by a liberal host or hostess and passing the time in agreeable conversation1 eating1 drinking1 sleeping and sexual intercourse1 and then suddenly awaking to find himself or herself1 as the case may be1 in or on a tomb1 with no trace of human dwelling near4 ,visits are paid by the dead to the living for various purposes1 from which the enjoyment of the pleasures of married life are not excluded4 ,one famous story concerns a man of the ,ma clan1 who died childless1 leaving a wife who refused to marry again4 ,in her sorrow she #aie caused to be made a clay image of the deceased and offered something to it whenever she took a meal1 as she had done to her husband in his lifetime4 ,one night the image became animated1 and telling her that he was her husband permitted to return and solace her fidelity and chastity1 he passed the night with her1 rising at cockcrow and going away4 ,the visit was repeated every night1 with the result that before the end of a month she had conceived and in due time bore a son4 ,information was laid before the magistrate and the woman was arrested4 ,on hearing her story the magistrate said3 8,i have heard that the children of ghosts are shadowless1 and that those that have shadows are not genuine40 ,he took the child into the sunshine1 and lo1 its shadow was as faint as a light smoke4 ,he further tested it by pricking its finger and putting the blood on the clay image of the woman's husband1 into which it soaked without leaving a trace1 whereas smeared on another image it was wiped off at once4 ,these experiments convinced the magistrate that the woman's tale was true2 and all traces of suspicion subsequently vanished when1 as the boy grew up1 he was found closely to resemble the deceased in face1 gesture and speech4#aie4a ,gansm1 a divinity worshipped by the ,muss and ,gonds of ,bengal1 is said to have been a ,gond chief who was devoured by a tiger just after his marriage at an early age4 8,cut off at such a moment1 it was unreasonable to suppose that his spirit would rest4 ,one year after his death he visited his wife1 and she conceived by him2 and the descendants of the ghostly embrace are1 it is said1 living to this day at ,amodah in the ,central ,provinces40 ,as a result of other apparitions to many of his old friends he persuaded them to inaugurate a regular worship of #aif him1 and two festivals in the year were established in his honour4#aif4a ,not in all cases1 however1 do the deceased husband's visits to his widow result in the birth of a child4 ,the legend of ,zhir ,pir1 the saint of a ,mohammedanized caste of scavengers about ,benares1 relates that he was involved in strife with his mother's sister's sons1 who disputed his succession to his father's kingdom1 and slew them4 ,for this he was cursed by his mother never to see her face again4 ,in his anguish he called upon ,mother ,earth to receive him into her bosom4 ,on her refusal1 because1 being a ,hindu1 he was not burnt1 he made a pilgrimage to ,mecca and accepted ,islam4 ,afterwards renewing his petition1 the earth opened and disclosed a chapel as for a hermit4 ,zhir ,pir entered on his charger1 and the earth closed above him and his devotions4 ,siryal1 his widow1 reduced with his mother to poverty1 mourned him and cried3 8,mother ,earth1 give me back my husband60 ,by ,god's command the earth yielded him up to visit her nightly2 but every morning at daybreak he flew away on his winged charger4 ,siryal had discarded her jewels as became a widow when she lost her husband4 ,now that she received these secret visits she resumed them as a matron4 ,when her mother-in-law upbraided her1 saying3 8,what means this wanton finery80 she returned3 8,to thee thy son is dead3 to me my husband is alive40 ,in explanation of the riddle she placed her beneath the bedstead at night that she might see her son4 ,but when ,zhir ,pir came at midnight his aged mother had fallen into a deep sleep1 which was undisturbed by the caresses above her2 nor was it until he had quitted the bed and vaulted into the saddle that ,siryal could rouse her4 ,she started up and clutched his bridle4 ,even then her curse prevented her from #aig seeing her son's face4 8,i do but obey thy bidding10 he groaned1 turning his face away4 8,look back6 thy house is burning40#aig4a ,so among the ,calmucks we hear of a khan who1 being married to a wife whom he did not love1 resorted to a girl living a little distance away4 ,his visits resulted in her pregnancy2 but before the birth of her child he died4 ,death does not prevent him from carrying her off to his funeral rites1 nor from afterwards paying her marital visits on the fifteenth of every month1 and spending the night with her1 disappearing in the morning4 ,when she urges him to stay1 so that his mother may see him and be convinced of her truth1 he gives her directions to go to the place of the dead and fetch his heart4 ,this she accomplishes1 and thus recovers him as her husband permanently4#aig4b ,the islanders of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago are profoundly convinced that various kinds of spirits can have similar intercourse with human beings4 ,the spirits of the dead are not excepted from this belief2 and albinos are held to be their offspring by a living mother4 ,a famous priest-king of the ,toba-bataks1 called ,singa ,mangaraja1 owed his birth to this cause4#aig4c ,a story is told by the ,dene 7,athapascans7 of the northern provinces of ,canada concerning a man who one night suddenly disappeared from his wife's side1 and in the morning1 in the ashes of the hearth1 were found the cloven footprints of a reindeer3 he had been transformed4 #aih ,his wife was an adept in magic4 ,by its aid she became an expert hunter1 and after the loss of her husband supplied the family1 consisting of her mother and little son1 with food4 ,as her son grew up1 he in turn hunted and successfully snared reindeer4 ,one day he caught a reindeer with human hair between its horns4 ,he brought its carcase to his mother1 who had constantly mourned her husband4 ,she at once recognized the dead reindeer as her husband4 ,lying down along with it1 the animal revived and once more became man4 ,thus she recovered the husband whom she had loved1 and for whom she had so long sorrowed4 ,the story is tiological1 told to explain why so many reindeer are caught with snares made of magical bonds of pine-root1 and why certain parts of the reindeer are not eaten4#aih4a ,plutarch mentions that ,harpocrates was born lame1 that is to say1 with his lower limbs feebly developed1 and interprets this as a parable of the new corn with its tender and imperfect shoots4 ,we find1 however1 that the offspring born of the unnatural connection with a dead man is represented as being as remarkable as the manner of his generation1 and not infrequently monstrous4 ,we have seen that the ,toba-bataks thus account for the birth of an albino4 ,a story told by the ,transylvanian ,gypsies concerns a girl named ,mariutza of the ,chale tribe1 the daughter of a wealthy chief4 ,she loved a youth named ,jarko1 to whom her father refused to give her4 ,her brothers caught her in his arms one night1 and slew him4 ,they killed one of their father's horses and buried it with him in a grave on the edge of the forest1 spreading the report abroad that he had fled and would never return to the tribe4 ,she was not a witness of his death1 and did not know what had become of him4 ,one #aii night1 unable to sleep1 she went out of the tent1 sat down beside a brook and wept bitterly1 crying aloud3 8,oh that ,i could once more see him1 dead or alive60 ,hardly had she uttered the words when she heard the ring of a horse's hoofs1 and her lover galloped up on a white steed1 his clothing covered with blood and his hair with icicles4 ,he took her up2 and the steed made off to the grave1 where he lay down with her in his arms4 ,she rested thus in her lover's arms until day began to break1 when he sent her back to her tent1 charging her to cease from disturbing his rest any further with her tears4 ,as she hurried away the grave closed4 ,after nine months she bore a great stone that flew from tent to tent until it met her brothers1 and1 striking them on the head1 hurled them both dead to the ground4 ,then it disappeared2 and when folk came to look for ,mariutza1 she too lay dead on her bed4#aii4a ,in a modern ,icelandic tale a youth and maiden love one another1 but are prevented from marrying4 ,the youth dies1 but after death visits his beloved by night4 ,an old woman in whom she confides compels the dead man to confess4 ,he tells her that the girl is pregnant1 and will bear a son who will surpass all men in beauty and intellect1 and will become a priest2 but unless someone be found bold enough to stab him in the breast during his first mass1 the church will sink into the earth with all the people in it4 ,it was done2 and the young priest disappeared1 leaving behind on the floor of the church nothing but three drops of blood4#aii4b ,in ,brittany a story is told with much circumstance of place and name1 relating how a peasant-farmer of the village of ,keranniou died1 leaving a wife much younger #bjj than himself and seven children4 ,after death he reappeared as ghost1 and played a variety of tricks4 ,at length his widow found herself pregnant1 and1 seeking the priest1 confessed with tears that the deceased had lain with her several times1 insisting that he had been sent back by ,god because he had not had his full tale of children4 ,the duty of bringing into the world one's allotted number of children1 it may be observed1 is a motive in many of the grimmer ,breton stories4 ,as her condition became visible the neighbours taunted the unfortunate widow2 but the priest took her part openly in the church4 ,a child was born1 but without eyes4 ,the ghost appeared again1 and took far more interest in it than in any of the children born during his lifetime4 ,the child was extremely precocious1 but lived only for seven months4 ,when it died the dead man's ghost was seen to accompany the funeral procession4 ,from that hour he was never beheld again2 and the villagers said he had been waiting for the babe to lead him by the hand to ,paradise4#bjj4a ,a similar incident is found as far away as among the ,bella ,coola of the ,british ,columbian fiords4 ,there a husband and wife who were devoted to one another made vows of mutual fidelity1 even after the death of either of them4 ,the husband died2 and his body was placed1 as was usual1 in a little dead-hut4 ,the widow wept bitterly1 entered the dead-hut and lay down to sleep beside the corpse4 ,in her dreams she saw him once more alive4 ,he begot upon her a child1 which was born after the lapse of a fortnight4 ,it was not like other children1 for it consisted only of a head without a body4 ,the widow was unwilling to exhibit such a monster2 but her mother did not rest until she was allowed to take it in her arms4 ,when she saw what it was she let it fall #bja in terror4 ,the head sank into the earth and disappeared from view4#bja4a ,cases like these suggest that ,plutarch's view of the crippled condition in which ,harpocrates was born is not to be accepted4 ,it does not necessarily follow that the interpretation of ,osiris as a deity of vegetation1 adumbrated by the philosopher and adopted by ,professor ,frazer1 is wholly incorrect4 ,we are in error if we suppose the myth of ,osiris to be one and self-consistent4 ,the myths of ,osiris were innumerable4 ,the realm of ,egypt was formed by the union of a number of small independent states or communities4 ,each of these communities had its own customs1 institutions1 beliefs1 mrchen4 ,many stories told1 whether for serious credence or by way of pastime1 in every district were doubtless common to all ,egypt4 ,but probably even they had their local variants2 and these variants must often have been irreconcilable4 ,the phenomenon is familiar4 ,it is abundantly exemplified in the tales of the ,greek and ,scandinavian mythologies4 ,in ,egypt1 however1 the formation of a strong central authority1 and the consequent growth and maintenance during many ages of a powerful and educated priesthood1 were among the influences that led to a persistent attempt to unify and explain the principal divine myths1 to attach them to the various local and periodical solemnities already observed from time immemorial1 and to educe from the jumble something like a system1 a philosophy4 ,whether in this process an originally independent myth had become united with a series of agricultural rites1 or whether a myth previously annexed to such rites had acquired an independent existence by virtue of a higher inspiration1 #bjb matters not to us4 ,the story of ,osiris is found on the ,egyptian monuments in a number of frequently disconnected texts1 of which there is no authoritative canon4 ,among those texts the exact status and meaning of the ,harpocratian episode is probably a subject on which the ,egyptians themselves would have been unable to agree4 ,we can hardly be wrong in indulging our scepticism at the expense of ,plutarch's interpretation1 though he may simply have reported it as it was given to him4 ,the parallel tales1 whether of ,europe or ,america1 at least are purely human4 ,they yield no trace of vegetable symbolism4 ,they are founded upon impulses and beliefs that have all over the world influenced the conduct of men towards the supernatural4 ,it was a common belief in antiquity1 and thence through the ,middle ,ages and right down1 among the uneducated classes1 to modern times1 that dead men and other supernatural beings might have intercourse with living women4 ,upon this belief and the innumerable tales connected therewith was founded ,brger's famous ballad of ,lenore4#bjb4a ,the story told by ,herodotus of the paternity of ,demaratus1 ,king of ,sparta1 is an early example4 ,demaratus1 being accused of not being the son of his predecessor1 ,ariston1 adjured his mother in a solemn ceremony to tell him the truth4 ,her account was that1 on the third night after her marriage to ,ariston1 an apparition in his likeness and wearing garlands came to her1 and1 having embraced her in conjugal wise1 transferred to her the garlands it wore and departed4 ,ariston1 coming in afterwards1 saw the garlands and asked who had given them to her4 ,she told him he had done so himself2 and when he denied #bjc it she confirmed it with an oath4 ,ariston then began to suspect divine interference4 ,on making enquiry it was found that the garlands were from the adjacent temple of the hero ,astrabakus2 and the diviners identified the apparition with the hero himself4 ,in that night ,demaratus' mother became pregnant of him4#bjc4a ,satyrs and ,fauns1 under the name of incubi1 were generally held to be guilty of criminal assaults upon women when opportunity offered4 ,among the ,gauls1 we are told by ,saint ,augustine1 this kind of evil spirit was known as ,dusii2 and their constant exploits1 as well as those of the ,silvans and ,fauns1 were so well attested that to the great ecclesiastic it seemed it would be impudent to deny them4#bjc4b ,incubi were identified by later theologians with devils2 and their embraces were almost always an item in the accusation against witches before a legal tribunal4 ,when offspring resulted1 it was naturally a monster4 ,the romance of ,merlin1 born of such a connection1 born grisly to sight and rough and not as other children1 was cited as a fact by the credulous writers of those days on witchcraft and demonology4#bjc4c #bjd ,according to ,bulgarian belief a ghost against which proper precautions are not taken may cause1 especially in the winter1 much annoyance4 ,such ghosts may even have sexual intercourse with women4 ,as lately as the year #ahhh1 at the village of ,orzoja1 the death of a certain girl was attributed by the people to this cause4#bjd4a ,a ,ruthenian story represents a dead husband as haunting his wife every night for a whole year4 ,whether he actually came to conjugal intercourse does not appear4 ,however that might have been1 he gave her no rest from his bodily attacks4 ,worn out1 she sought for help against him1 and was advised to take poppy-seed to bed with her1 to fasten upon her head a large bowl1 and to light a taper4 ,when the dead man came as usual she threw the poppy-seed in his face1 as she had been prescribed4 ,he asked in a tone of surprise who had given her this advice4 ,by way of answer she threw more4 ,in a fury the dead man flung himself upon her1 by main force tore the bowl from her and took to flight1 apparently convinced that he had torn off her head4 ,the door banged after him so violently as to split from top to bottom2 and in the morning the bowl was found some distance away1 smashed to pieces4 ,but the woman was delivered from her tormentor from that hour4#bjd4b ,sir ,walter ,scott's novel1 ,the ,pirate1 was based on the deeds and capture of one ,john ,gow4 ,this man was taken prisoner in the ,orkney ,islands and afterwards tried before the ,high ,court of ,admiralty in ,london1 condemned for piracy and executed4 ,before his capture he had become affianced to an ,orcadian girl4 8,it is #bje said10 writes ,sir ,walter in the advertisement prefixed to the book1 8that the lady whose affections ,gow had engaged went up to ,london to see him before his death1 and that1 arriving too late1 she had the courage to request a sight of his dead body2 and then1 touching the hand of the corpse1 she formally resumed the troth-plight which she had bestowed4 ,without going through this ceremony she could not1 according to the superstition of the country1 have escaped a visit from the ghost of her departed lover1 in the event of her bestowing upon any living suitor the faith which she had plighted to the dead40#bje4a ,in the ,orkney ,islands these superstitions were then vivid4 ,if we may judge by a phrase in the record of a witch-trial at ,kirkwall1 it was the belief in the early part of the seventeenth century that a man slain at the going down of the sun remained neither living nor dead1 but was capable of sexual intercourse with any woman who would yield herself to him2 in return for which he gave 8a guidly fe10 in the shape of second sight and power of divining the future4#bje4b ,a circumstantial and horrible account of a series of occurrences of the same period in ,iceland is given by contemporary authorities4 ,a man of position named ,ivar ,eyjulfsson was wedded to ,herdis1 daughter of ,sera ,magnus ,jonsson of ,ottrardal4 ,they lived at ,reykjarfjrd on affectionate terms2 and the husband often prayed his wife in case of his death not to marry again1 or something untoward would happen4 ,in the year #afjd1 despite foreboding dreams during the whole of the previous winter1 he went to sea with four companions4 ,on taking leave of his wife and father-in-law #bjf as if he never expected to see them again1 he reiterated his injunctions to her to remain single4 ,a quarrel arose at sea between ,ivar and one of his companions named ,jon2 the boat foundered1 and ,ivar1 ,jon1 and another of the crew were drowned4 ,the bodies came to shore at ,langardal1 and were buried in the churchyard there4 ,on digging the grave an older grave1 lying in heathen fashion north and south1 was found2 and just where the breast of the corpse lay was a great stone1 and beside it an iron arrowhead4 ,this incident seems to have been regarded as having some connection with the spooks which were subsequently manifested4 ,whatever that connection may have been1 it speedily began to be noised abroad that ,ivar and ,jon 8walked10 and that their quarrel was far from being ended with their death4 ,after a year or two of widowhood ,herdis was courted by an honourable man1 one ,sturla ,gottskalksson1 and on her father's advice consented to marry him4 ,already1 however1 she had been suffering from an ulcer on the foot2 and after she had given her consent to ,sturla it became worse4 ,nor was this all4 ,one night her first husband came to her bed and had intercourse with her4 ,another night she struggled with him1 seizing the coverlet with her teeth to protect herself from him4 ,one disaster followed another4 ,a black blister on her tongue burst and sloughed away half of that member4 ,in spite of all1 the formal betrothal took place2 but it was followed by such an exhibition of ghostly fury that even ,sturla wished to withdraw1 and only ,sera ,magnus' firmness in insisting on the wedding prevented the engagement from being broken off4 ,when the wedding was solemnized1 no sooner had the vows been spoken in the church than ,herdis uttered a piercing cry1 and those of the company who1 being ,sunday-born children1 had #bjg the gift of seeing spirits beheld ,ivar's ghost approach her4 ,such was the horror and confusion that the ceremony had to be cut short1 and the newly wedded pair left the church without the customary prayer and blessing4 ,the persecution was repeated every time that ,sturla attempted to consummate the marriage1 until even ordinary folk who were not ghost-seers saw how the ghost waylaid the unfortunate ,herdis4 ,recourse was had to a renowned practitioner of supernatural arts1 who by his incantations succeeded in making things somewhat quieter in the house2 but after awhile matters were as bad as ever1 and his spells ceased to be effective4 ,sometimes ,ivar appeared alone1 sometimes with ,jon1 and then both were usually in fierce contest4 ,if the word of ,god were read they slunk out of the house2 as soon as the reading was over they returned4 ,herdis was again subjected to the dead man's assaults2 and the magician could only protect her by setting on her lap a woman holding upright a naked blade of steel4 ,at length the ghost attacked the magician himself1 and1 blowing in his mouth1 caused him a frightful ulcer in the neck2 so that he was compelled to leave the place1 declaring that he could not cope with all the devils that followed ,ivar's ghost4 ,herdis sought refuge in a chapel1 but in vain4 ,she returned home1 therefore2 and shortly after1 on a ,sunday morning1 a loud crash was heard2 her bed had broken down1 and two of its timbers had fallen to the ground4 ,that was the culmination of the ghostly persecution4 ,the unhappy woman breathed her last4 ,the magician said1 when he heard of it1 that the ghost had strangled her4 ,then he did what1 by all the rules of the ghostlayer's art1 he ought to have done before4 ,venturing back to ,sturla's house1 he ordered ,ivar's grave to be opened4 ,ivar's body and that of ,jon were found undecayed1 but right #bjh evil to look upon4 ,they were disinterred and burnt1 and with that all manifestations came to an end4#bjh4a ,this narrative is not an ordinary saga1 located indeed at a specified place1 but the events of which are told of an indefinite past1 or are clustered in a manner known to all students of folklore round a celebrated name4 ,it is quite distinguishable in character from the ,icelandic tale ,i have mentioned on a previous page4 ,it was soberly reported in the year #afjf by persons of credit1 if also of credulity1 according to our standard1 while most of the actors and a number of persons who had more or less acquaintance with the facts were yet living2 it was related as something which had occurred not within their recollections at some distant date1 but quite recently4 ,the ghostlayer whose services were called in survived until the year #afdg1 and was well known in the island4 ,the account therefore discloses the kind of horrors that in that age1 as in earlier ages1 witness the ,heimskringla and various sagas1 enlivened the long gloom of an arctic winter4 ,foremost among those horrors may be reckoned the belief that dead men still1 in some circumstances at any rate1 retained their sexual instincts1 and attempted1 not in vain1 to gratify those instincts upon living women4 ,indeed1 communities boasting themselves of the culture and progress of the twentieth century have not entirely discarded the terrors born of some such belief4 ,i do not refer to solitary cases of mania1#bjh4b such as are probably to be found in all communities from time to time1 but to cases in which the belief has been adopted by society #bji at large and stamped with the collective approval1 or at least acceptance4 ,this may be said to be done when a court of law1 in the course of a judicial investigation1 admits evidence of haunting and solemnly gives judgement based upon such evidence4 ,on the #afth ,february #aiab1 at ,macon1 ,georgia1 in the ,united ,states of ,america1 the second husband of a lady was actually granted a decree of divorce on the ground that the ghost of her first husband haunted both his wife and himself1 and the difficulty was so great that it was utterly impossible for them to live together4 ,it was not of course given in evidence that the ghost committed assaults1 such as those we have just been considering4 ,the advance of civilization since the seventeenth century has softened the manners even of ghosts4 ,but it was stated that the wife had promised her former husband that she would not marry again2 she violated the promise2 and it was solemnly testified in court that the first husband's spirit appeared nightly with groans and reproachful glances1 and only ceased to do so when the lady left her new husband4#bji4a ,in our country a luckless husband would find that the posthumous jealousy of his predecessor in the mnage is no ground for divorce4 ,since the days of the witch-trials our courts have remained unmoved by ghostly perturbations4 ,they have even been known to refuse assistance to the tenant of a haunted house4 ,but ,europe is effete4 ,in the lower culture it is otherwise4 ,the ,ewhe of ,togoland believe in the possibility of conjugal intercourse and other communion between a dead and a living spouse2 but when it takes place it results in death to the survivor4 ,stringent measures are therefore adopted to prevent it4 ,these measures are all the more necessary1 since the #baj survivor must during the period of mourning--in which all the danger seems to be concentrated--lay aside all clothing and ornaments and go entirely naked4 ,a widow for the first six weeks has nothing to fear so much as her deceased husband4 ,she must remain all that time in the hut beneath which her husband is buried1 only leaving it for short intervals to bathe and for other necessary purposes4 ,in token of mourning she goes with bowed head and eyes bent down1 crossing her arms over her breast so that the left hand rests on the right shoulder1 in order that 8no mischief befall her from the dead man40 ,she also carries a club to drive him away in case he wish to approach her1 otherwise there would immediately be an end of her4#baj4a ,she sleeps1 moreover1 on the club1 because1 if she did not1 he would take it away from her unperceived4 ,ashes must be mingled with her food and drink to prevent her husband from partaking of it--a sign probably of the renewal of conjugal life--in which case she would die4 ,she must not answer any call1 must eat neither beans1 nor flesh nor fish1 drink neither palm-wine nor rum2 for any infringement of these prohibitions would cost her life4 ,smoking is the only solace permitted to her4 ,during the night a charcoal fire is kept up in the hut2 and upon this fire she strews a powder1 consisting of peppermint-leaves dried and rubbed down1 and red pepper1 so as to cause an evil-smelling smoke1 which makes the dead man--it would make any living man--averse to entering4#baj4b ,after the death of his wife #baa a man1 in some districts at all events1 must remain for three days in his hut and abstain from intercourse with his other wives4 ,at the expiration of this period the women of the town assemble and wash him with medicine prepared by the witch-doctor4 ,without this precaution none of his other wives would dare to come near him1 lest they too should die4#baa4a ,before passing to another cultural area we may note two other significant customs in ,togoland4 ,weddings there1 as elsewhere1 are occasions of festivity2 and the firing of guns is doubtless an expression of joy and triumph1 for the ,negro delights in noise4 ,even when1 among the ,akposso1 in the administrative district of ,atakpame1 a man succeeds in seducing a married woman away from her husband into his own house1 he fires a gun1 for he says3 8,i have now a new wife60 ,with that the marriage is concluded1 and he gives a great feast and defies the former husband1 who sometimes attempts to recover her by force4 ,but if the former husband be dead he fires no gun on marrying the widow4#baa4b ,on the other hand1 when a man's wife dies in her house the husband fears to enter it again1 and it is usually destroyed4 ,even where it is not destroyed1 it is never again entered by the widower or any of his relations or dependants4 ,only a stranger not belonging to his #bab family may dare to dwell there4 ,if the widower take a new wife1 he builds her a new house4#bab4a ,to build a new house for a new wife is usual2 what is important to observe here is that the old house in which the deceased wife dwelt may be safely inhabited by a stranger1 and only by a stranger4 ,precautions like those of the ,togo are taken by widows in ,loango4 ,all the openings in a widow's hut are closed1 and a spell is laid on every place where the ghost might harbour4 ,but that is not enough4 ,what she fears is that her deceased husband1 or some other disembodied spirit greedy of her society1 will visit her by night4 ,that would result either in her death1 or in her bringing some fearful monster into the world4 ,so the medicine-men prepare for her1 according to the rules of their art1 a piece of wood wherewith to fasten the door by way of bar or bolt2 or they give her a fringed cord to stretch behind1 and another to stretch round1 her bed1 both of them of course enchanted4 ,more than this1 the door of the hut is changed to another side1 further to mystify the unwelcome revenant4 ,if she be very nervous they lead her in the darkness by a roundabout way to another hut1 carefully erasing her footsteps1 unless they carry her or make her wear shoes that will render the traces unrecognizable4 ,besides that1 they furnish her with a magical staff to embrace when she goes to sleep4 ,sometimes at least it is carried in daylight also4 ,one would think such precautions would daunt the most evil-designing ghost4 ,if any ghost1 however1 were so obdurate1 or so conceited of his #bac power to break down these defences1 as to persist1 he would find they were mere outworks1 and that there were stronger and more effectual lines behind4 ,the witch-doctors are not easily beaten--provided they have a client who is willing and able to pay the enhanced cost of their services4 ,without going into all the details of what is in effect a war to the bitter end against the intrusive ghost1 it may be said generally that they will give him no rest2 they will beat the dwelling inside and outside with their conjuring implements2 they will sweep the courtyard clear2 they will leave no corner where the poor wretch can skulk2 they will lay spells2 they will hunt him through the village with beating1 with sweeping1 with fire1 with the discharge of guns2 they will rouse the whole population to their assistance2 they will lay bombs laden with magical virtue2 they will stretch magical cords across every path leading to the village4 ,if1 in spite of all these boisterous proceedings1 the ghost be so hardy or so clever as to continue haunting the place1 there will be nothing for it but to remove the village1 or to catch the supernatural enemy and to shoot him dead beyond resurrection4 ,but this is obviously an extreme measure1 to which it is seldom necessary to resort1 and which can only be undertaken by a specialist of the first rank and at a corresponding cost4 ,the ghosts of deceased men are1 in ,loango1 scarcely more to be dreaded than those of women dead in childbed1 or of marriageable girls4 ,the former are especially dreaded by pregnant women and married men1 for their vengeful malice4 ,the latter attack married men in their sleep1 or seduce them under varied forms2 and to yield means impotence or death4#bac4a #bad ,a little further to the south1 beyond the ,congo1 it was the custom in ,matiambo for widows to sacrifice themselves1 together with the slaves of the deceased1 who were sent to accompany their master into the other world4 ,widows who neglected to do so1 and who escaped victorious from the ordeal for witchcraft1 felt the soul of the departed spouse oppressing their breasts2 and the witch-doctor was required to purify them before they ventured to contract a new marriage4#bad4a ,the process of purification is not described1 but is probably like that reported by a missionary who has spent many years on the ,congo4 ,the widow must go to a running stream1 taking her husband's bed and one or two of the articles he has commonly used4 ,these are all placed in the middle of the stream2 and after she has well washed she sits on the bed4 ,the witch-doctor dips her three times in the water and then dresses her2 the bed and other articles are broken and thrown down the stream to float away4 ,she is led out of the stream2 a raw egg is broken1 and she swallows it2 a toad is killed1 and some of the blood rubbed on her lips2 lastly1 a fowl is killed and hung by the roadside--presumably a sacrifice to the deceased4 ,she returns to her town4 ,on arriving there1 #bae she sits on the ground1 stretching out her legs before her1 and her deceased husband's brother steps over them4 ,she is then free to marry again2 but inasmuch as widows are not allowed to marry for a year or two after the husband's death1 the rite is most likely not performed until the end of that period4 ,it is only necessary after the death of a first husband4 ,corresponding ceremonies are necessary for a man after his first wife's death4 ,he may not leave his house1 except at night1 for six days1 and he must sleep only on a basket made by plaiting together two palm-fronds4 ,he then undergoes a similar purification to that just described1 with some additional precautions4 ,on returning home his deceased wife's sister steps over his legs4 ,no woman would dare to marry him until these rites are performed4#bae4a ,although they do not seem to be confined to cases in which oppression by the ghost is endured1 it is fairly certain that their object is to get rid1 not merely of the death-pollution1 but of the ghost4 ,we shall see directly what is the meaning of the ceremonial stepping over the survivor's legs4 ,meanwhile let us cross the continent to ,delagoa ,bay4 ,the neighbourhood of ,delagoa ,bay1 together with a large extent of country to the north in ,portuguese and across the border in ,british territory1 is occupied by various branches of a ,bantu people frequently known as ,shangaans1 but which it is convenient to call the ,thonga1 a name proposed by ,m4 ,henri ,junod1 a ,swiss ,protestant missionary4 ,the tribe more immediately around the ,bay is called the ,baronga4 ,the rites of purification practised by the ,thonga on different occasions--among others1 notably after a death--are very remarkable1 and indicate a considerable preoccupation with sexual matters4 ,these rites have been carefully described by ,m4 ,junod1 but #baf they have not yet been sufficiently studied to enable us to pronounce on the meaning of them all4 ,i shall therefore only refer to one or two4 ,the death-pollution affects not merely all who come into contact with the corpse2 it affects the entire kin1 and indeed the whole of the village in which the deceased resided1 whether related to him or not4 ,but it affects especially his wives1 and among these his principal or 8great0 wife4 ,like the grave-diggers who have been handling the corpse1 she is required to take a sweat-bath4 ,she is required1 moreover1 to fumigate herself over a fire of dry grass from the roof of the hut1 mingled with cock's dung 7not hen's74 ,a reed or a strip of palm-leaf with a few other leaves suspended to it is then put round her waist4 ,she enters the hut1 which has been already unroofed1 wailing to her deceased husband1 and crawls out again by the hole at the back made to remove the corpse1 as if she were herself a corpse4 ,she cannot remain there4 ,a new hut is therefore built for her2 and there she must afterwards sleep1 until the days of her purification are accomplished and she passes into the possession of her husband's kinsman to whom she is assigned4 ,even for the subordinate wives 7who have their own rites of purification to observe7 it would be dangerous to sleep on the very ground where they have been accustomed to meet the deceased3 hence their huts must also be removed4 ,it is difficult to understand what danger they are exposed to1 unless it be assaults from the ghost4 ,the huts they occupy do not seem to be polluted1 at least beyond the general pollution of the village1 or they could not continue to occupy them4 ,but the sites must be changed2 and this can hardly be for any other purpose than to mystify the ghost4#baf4a #bag ,turning now to two other widely separated cultural regions1 we will first of all notice a significant article of dress worn by a widow in the eastern islands of ,torres ,straits4 ,the ordinary dress of a woman comprised invariably a petticoat 7sometimes more than one7 of ample size1 extending from the waist to the knee or thereabouts1 and made of split leaves or bark-fibre4 ,but a widow1 and she alone1 8twisted up a petticoat of banana leaves1 and1 passing it between her legs1 fixed it at her waistband4 ,this was the first sign of widowhood10 and had a special name4 ,it was put on as soon as the preliminary ceremonies had finished1 and prior to the removal of the body for the purpose of mummification4 ,the widow continued to wear it after she had discarded every other sign of mourning1 and until she married again4#bag4a ,in the ,mekeo district of ,british ,new ,guinea1 inhabited by a population consisting1 so far as has been ascertained1 of a fusion of ,melanesians and ,papuans1 the lot of a widower is not a happy one4 ,so closely is he haunted by the ghost of his deceased wife that he becomes a social outcast1 shunned by everyone1 and loses all civil rights1 such is the horror he inspires4 ,excluded thus #bah from communion with his fellow-men1 he skulks alone in the long grass and the bushes2 for he must not be seen4 ,he invariably carries1 like the ,ewhe widow1 a tomahawk to defend himself against the dreaded spirit of his departed spouse1 who1 we are told1 would do him an ill turn if she could4 ,this may1 to be sure1 as the missionary to whom we are indebted for the report presents it1 be no more than the natural malignancy of the dead1 whose chief delight is to harm the living4#bah4a ,the missionary1 however1 may not have penetrated the true inwardness of the superstition4 ,at all events1 elsewhere there is no room for doubt4 ,among the ,indians of the ,thompson ,river in ,british ,columbia both widows and widowers took elaborate precautions against the persecution of their deceased spouses4 ,directly death occurred the survivor went out and passed four times through a patch of rose-bushes1 doubtless to ensure that the spirit should not cling to him or her4 ,probably for the same end ablutions in the creeks morning and evening for a year were prescribed4 ,rigid abstention from certain kinds of food was part of the discipline2 and1 contrary to the practice of the ,ewhe1 tobacco was also forbidden4 ,during a whole year the survivor was required to sleep on a bed made of fir-branches1 on which rose-bush sticks were also spread at the head and foot1 while in the middle were not only rose-bush sticks1 but also branches of bearberry1 mountain-ash1 juniper1 sage1 and so forth4 ,a widow could neither lie or sit where her children slept1 nor let them lie down #bai on her bed4 ,finally1 a widow often wore a breech-cloth made of dry bunch-grass for several days1 that the ghost of her husband should not have conjugal intercourse with her4#bai4a ,the aborigines of ,hispaniola also believed that the dead walked in the night and entered into converse with living people1 even in their beds2 but if we may trust ,peter ,martyr1 though in human shape they thus approached women1 seeking sexual intercourse1 8when the matter cometh to actual deede10 suddenly they vanished away4#bai4b ,our information concerning this unfortunate people1 speedily destroyed by the ,spaniards1 is extremely meagre2 and we do not know whether any precautions were taken against these ghostly visits4 ,among the ,tarahumares of ,mexico three great feasts are given at intervals after a death4 ,until the last of them is held the deceased hangs about the neighbourhood4 ,their object therefore is to get rid of the ghost4 ,to that end he is presented with gifts and adjured to depart with them1 and not to come and disturb the survivors4 ,at the second1 and especially at the third feast1 ceremonial races are performed1 in order to chase him away4 ,hikuli1 the sacred plant of the ,tarahumares1 plays a prominent part in these festivities1 for it 8is thought to be very powerful in running off the dead1 chasing them to the end of the world1 where they join the other dead40 ,the third feast1 the most elaborate of all1 is deemed to be at last effectual4 ,not until it is over 8will a widower or a widow marry again1 being more afraid of the dead than are the other relatives40#bai4c ,it is #bbj not expressly stated what their fear is2 but in the light of other examples it is perhaps not unreasonable to suspect that it arises from jealousy on the part of the deceased4 ,at all events ,i have shown that among the ,negroes on the northern shore of the ,gulf of ,guinea1 among the ,bantu about the ,lower ,congo1 and among the ,indians of the ,thompson ,river in ,british ,columbia1 the fear is seriously entertained that the deceased will seek a renewal of conjugal intercourse1 and the utmost precautions are taken to prevent it4 ,the precautions taken by the ,baronga 7also a ,bantu tribe7 in ,south-,east ,africa1 and by some ,melanesian peoples of the ,torres ,straits ,islands and the mainland of ,new ,guinea1 strongly suggest the same fear4 ,the ancient inhabitants of ,hispaniola attributed sexual desires to the dead1 though they do not seem to have believed in the possibility of their accomplishment2 and the ,tarahumare husband or wife is afraid to marry again until the deceased spouse has been finally driven away from the society of the living to herd with the other dead at the end of the world4 ,it is very striking that the populations of areas so widely different in race and culture1 as well as so far apart in space1 as some of these1 should display the identical terror exhibited in the tales and superstitions cited from ancient and modern ,europe and from ,china4 ,the story of the generation of ,harpocrates1 though related of a god1 points to similar ideas in ancient ,egypt2 and it has its analogues in ,india and the ,east ,indian ,archipelago4 ,practices exist1 moreover1 in other countries that seem to bear witness to the same terror1 though the terror itself is not recorded4 ,in such cases they may be indirect evidence of its existence4 ,the practices ,i refer to are such as that among the ,kikuyu and ,anyanja in ,east-,central #bba ,africa4 ,the former are a tribe ,bantu in speech and mainly ,bantu in blood and custom1 though mingled with other elements4 ,on the third day after the burial of a husband the elders assemble at the village to kill a ram4 ,this ceremony has the effect of cleansing the village at large 8from the stain of death02 but something more is needed by the widow4 ,accordingly 8the elders bring with them one of their number who is very poor1 and of the same clan as the deceased1 and he has to sleep in the hut of the senior widow of the deceased10 and to have sexual relations with her4 ,his poverty1 and the rule that 8he generally lives on in the village and is looked upon as a stepfather to the children10 point to the service he thus performs being considered attended with some danger1 and therefore not to be undertaken except in hope of an adequate reward4#bba4a ,the ,anyanja1 likewise a ,bantu tribe1 settled at the southern end of ,lake ,nyasa1 hold a beer-drinking accompanied by dance and song a month after the burial1 which takes place two or three days after the death4 ,up to that time conjugal relations are forbidden throughout the village of the deceased4 ,the widow or widower and then each relative in turn is shaved1 and cohabitation by all except the widow is resumed4 ,she must wait until the second beer-drinking1 six months or a year later4 ,at this second ceremony dancing takes place on the first night1 and beer is drunk the next day4 ,before sunset on the first day the widow is again shaven1 and the mother of the deceased informs her that she is now free to marry again4 ,that night 8she has to sleep with a man paid by her #bbb relations40 ,he is not her permanent husband2 his services are merely required as a preliminary to her marriage4 ,according to the account from which ,i am quoting it would appear that she may marry after mourning two or three months1 but not without the same previous ritual coition1 else 8her second husband would die1 should she have committed adultery40 ,a widower1 on the other hand1 8mourns five or six months and is then given medicine1 after which he may marry again1 and without which1 should he marry1 his new wife would die40#bbb4a ,there are some difficulties here4 ,it seems clear that until the mourning is over the widows cannot marry again1 and the length of mourning is decided by the relatives of the deceased2 it is closed with the beer-drinking4 ,when it is over1 the widows select their husbands from among the kindred of the deceased2 he who marries the chief wife is the heir4 ,a widow cannot marry outside this limited circle1 unless she1 or her new husband1 be prepared to repay her bride-price1 and often more4 ,customs doubtless differ1 but this is the usual course4 ,it is curious too that the second husband of a widow should die1 if he married her without the previous coition by another man1 only if she had committed adultery1 whereas the woman marrying a widower will die in any case if he have not had medicine4 ,it is probable that there has been some misunderstanding of the informants and that the second husband runs the risk of death in any case by wedding a widow who has not undergone the regular preliminary4#bbb4b ,the probability is confirmed by the practice of the ,yaos1 a neighbouring tribe1 among whom the second husband #bbc pays a man to pass a night with the widow before he takes her4#bbc4a ,a further example may be given from a wholly different cultural area4 ,among the ,kamtchadals no one would be willing to marry a widow 8unless her sins have been previously taken away by the highest degree of familiarity granted to anyone who wishes to render her this service40 ,the writer to whom we are indebted for the information reported in the eighteenth century that the natives imagined that this expiation might cause the expiator to die like the defunct husband1 so that the poor women would remain widows but for the assistance of the ,russian soldiers1 who were not afraid of exposing themselves to a danger so equivocal4#bbc4b ,the ,kikuyu1 ,anyanja and ,kamtchadal customs are evidently the same4 ,the penalty for non-observance1 though not expressed in our account of the ,kikuyu custom1 is1 it will hardly be questioned1 the same as in the other two2 it is the death of the second husband4 ,what ,i venture to suggest1 in view of the other ,bantu customs already laid before the reader1 is that the risk actually run by marrying or cohabiting with the widow is that of death from the posthumous jealousy of the deceased4 ,the fact that the deceased is still supposed to desire a continuance of conjugal relations renders it natural to think that1 even where the extreme terrors that torture the widow in some places are not shown1 the belief may linger in his jealousy of other men1 who do what he perhaps is no longer conceived capable of4 ,the suggestion derives support from the rites performed about the ,lower ,congo4 ,there1 it will be remembered1 the terror of a dead husband is excessive4 ,the elaborate #bbd purification of the widow1 every incident of which points to the desire to rid her of his attentions1 culminates in his brother stepping over her outstretched legs4 ,now the act of stepping over another is everywhere regarded as one of great rudeness1 if not insult4 ,more than this1 it is regarded as likely to communicate some mysterious injury or to take away some luck1 good quality or advantage from the person who is thus treated4 ,hence it is often hotly resented4 ,without going beyond the ,congo region1 it is enough to note that in ,loango to step over a child is to interfere with his development--in other words1 to stop his growth2 to step over an adult is to transfer to him every evil from which one may be suffering4 ,it is not good even to reach1 or to throw anything1 across him2 and if such a thing be done1 the action must be repeated in the contrary direction1 in order1 it would seem1 to reverse the spell4#bbd4a ,but in the ceremony of purification an act in ordinary circumstances so injurious is ritually performed for some beneficial effect4 ,this may be simply to take away some evil2 it may be to dispossess finally and for ever the tenacious ghost1 in case all the previous efforts have proved unavailing4 ,but the difference of the performer's sex means surely more than this4 ,when a widow is purified1 her husband's brother performs the final rite2 when it is a widower1 his wife's sister4 ,now it will be observed these persons belong to the precise class from which the next spouse is to be taken4 ,when the husband dies the widow becomes the wife of one of his brothers2 when the wife dies the husband demands another wife from her family4#bbd4b ,the act of stepping over the widow or widower1 therefore1 seems to symbolize the taking of possession by one of the persons entitled to do so4 #bbe ,let us turn to the ,baganda1 a ,bantu people on the highest pitch of civilization to which any branch of the race had attained prior to the coming of the white man4 ,there we find that jumping over a woman1 or stepping over her legs1 is regarded as 8equivalent to1 or instead of1 having sexual connection with her40 8,for a woman to sit with her legs straight in front of her1 or apart1 was looked upon as unbecoming2 and for any man to step over her legs was equivalent to having intercourse with her4 ,the mere fact of stepping over a wife1 or over some of her clothing1 was a method frequently followed to end a taboo which necessitated intercourse0 7scil41 to end it74#bbe4a ,the act is performed on a variety of ceremonial occasions when coition would be inconvenient4 ,to mention only one1 the king had an officer of the court1 a relative of his own1 called the ,kauzumu1 whose duty it was to fulfil certain rites and taboos for him1 and thus to save him from inconvenience4 ,among others1 it was said that in former times it was his duty to take the women who were to become the king's wives for one night to his bed4 ,to the latest period of national independence1 when one of the king's wives died and her clan sent another in her place1 the ,kauzumu jumped over her before presenting her to the king4#bbe4b ,by this act the taboo was removed1 the danger1 whatever it was1 was diverted from the king to the ,kauzumu4 ,we may safely infer that the act of stepping over the legs of the surviving spouse in the ,congo region is a symbolic coition4 ,it is performed by one who belongs to the class of prospective spouses1 though probably after the performance #bbf of such a ceremony not the one who would actually wed the survivor2 for its object1 if ,i am right1 is to take on the shoulders of the performer the consequences which would otherwise light on the new consort4#bbf4a ,though not by any means so conclusively as the practices just discussed1 the delay between the ending of a first marriage by the death of one of the parties and the second marriage of the other party seems to indicate the same dread of the deceased4 ,the mourning ceremonies must usually all be accomplished before the survivor1 at all events if a woman1 can be married again4 ,with the completion of the mourning ceremonies it is a common belief1 of which we have had more than one instance1 that the deceased is finally despatched to the society of the dead2 in any case1 he is at rest1 and is very often speedily forgotten4 ,among the ,namib-,bushmen of ,south-,west ,africa1 a mongrel people1 the result of the intermingling of probably many broken tribes with an original stock of ,hottentots1 marriage is monogamous4 ,that does not mean that death only can separate the married pair4 ,if separation between two living spouses take place1 either can marry again forthwith4 ,but if the separation be caused by death1 something like half a year 7that is to say1 either a rainy or a dry season7 must elapse before re-marriage2 for1 we are told1 the belief prevails that1 for example1 the woman whom a widower marries without waiting will soon herself die4 ,and when the widower does venture on a new marriage1 it must be to #bbg a sister of his deceased wife if there be one at liberty4#bbg4a ,so in the ,togo district of ,atakpame1 a woman who is left by her husband1 even if only for a time1 may be taken by another man2 and this1 it seems1 under ,german rule renders it difficult to get men to work at the making of roads1 for his absence will cost the labourer his wife4 ,but when a man dies his widow must wait for three farm-years 7a farm-year equals ten months7 before she marries again4 ,the delay seems not to be popular4 ,in the western portion of the district1 among the ,akposso1 the time has been shortened to two years1 while in the eastern portion1 where the people are less purely ,akposso1 the widow marries after eleven months4 ,the modern ,akposso widow holds it silly to wait longer3 she has not murdered her first husband1 and therefore she ought1 she thinks1 to be able to marry sooner4 ,but she must wait these eleven months1 else she would die4 ,if1 however1 her husband has been hanged for murder or some other reason1 she may marry at the end of two or three months4 ,the ground alleged for this shortening of the period of delay is economic4 ,there seems to be no rule requiring the widow to be taken by a surviving member of the husband's family1 though the children resulting from a second marriage belong to it4 ,if she cannot find another husband1 therefore1 she must go back to her own family and she may become a burden upon it4 ,on marrying she must work in her husband's fields1 for the benefit of himself and his family4 ,but she is entitled to a small field for herself1 out of which she may make her own profit2 and there is now plenty of money in the country1 and a general desire to earn as #bbh much of it and as soon as possible4#bbh4a ,all this may be very true2 but seeing that the widow who marries prematurely must die1 she will not be likely to run so serious a risk for the chance of making a little money4 ,if we are right in supposing that the death-penalty is one exacted by the deceased1 the conjecture will not be deemed unreasonable that hanging is believed to inflict such injuries on the ghost that its interference is not to be dreaded4 ,the mode of death and the mutilations 7if any7 inflicted on the corpse are widely held to affect the departed in the future life4 ,jealousy is a passion by no means confined to the male sex4 ,in the lower culture it is believed to continue to inspire women as well as men1 even after death4 ,if not so prominent a superstition as the belief in masculine jealousy1 this is perhaps to be accounted for partly by the generally dominant position in the household and in society of the man1 partly to the widespread habit of polygamy1 and partly to the physiological rule that the decay of sexual impulse makes its appearance earlier in women than in men4 ,we have already found examples of customs pointing to posthumous feminine jealousy among various races in both hemispheres4 ,one or two other examples may be given4 ,among the ,bantu tribes of ,north-,eastern ,rhodesia1 when a married woman dies her husband sends to her father for another wife in her stead4 ,a sister or some such relative of the deceased is the proper person to take her place4 ,if there be none unmarried and therefore available1 a married sister of the deceased must spend one or two nights with the widower 8to take the death from off his body40#bbh4b ,this is so much in harmony with #bbi the ,bantu practices previously considered1 that we can only suppose the deceased would acquiesce in her sister's succession to her rights1 but would feel jealous and angry at the intrusion of another woman4 ,the women of these tribes are high-spirited and jealous1 those of the ,awemba being proverbially fierce4 ,among most of the tribes it is imperative for the bridegroom to move into the bride's parents' village1 where he will always be under the eye of his mother-in-law1 and where1 no doubt1 in case of the wife's death1 a sister or other relation would be conveniently handy to step into her shoes4 ,indeed1 among the ,awemba the wife often relinquishes her position voluntarily to another member of the family4 ,when she 8has presented her husband with two or three children she considers that she has fulfilled her marriage obligations towards him4 ,with his consent1 which as a rule is not difficult to obtain1 she hands over her niece as a substitute4 ,the niece inherits her aunt's position1 and cares for her children1 while the aunt retires to the peace of a single life1 or very often finds a new partner40#bbi4a ,thus it may be presumed that a dead wife1 if she returned and found a relative of her own in her husband's arms1 would submit to a relationship between them such as she herself might in a year or two have voluntarily initiated1 satisfied that her children1 if any1 would be looked after4 ,how long that relationship would last 7and divorce is quite an everyday occurrence7 would be no concern of hers1 and she would not trouble herself further in the matter4 ,the next woman whom her husband married would therefore be rendered safe3 the 8death0 would have been taken off his body4 ,in ,india the widows of the higher castes are not allowed to marry again4 ,among the aboriginal tribes #bcj widows who do so often marry 8under cover of darkness1 and with the aid of certain ceremonies commonly relied upon as a protection against spirits40 ,if in spite of these precautions the woman should be troubled by her departed husband1 he is placated1 as among the ,kols of ,ahmadnagar1 by a tiny image of himself worn in a copper case round her neck1 or set among the household gods1 and by the expenditure of money in charity4#bcj4a ,but the spirit of a dead wife is more troublesome4 ,her character for jealousy and malice is perhaps partly due to confusion with a woman dead in childbirth or pregnancy1 or who has never had a child4 ,a ghost of this kind is greatly dreaded4#bcj4b ,the ghosts of ordinary married women are1 however1 not to be despised4 ,they perform all sorts of unpleasant tricks on the survivors1 not the least of which are the attacks they make on their successors in their husbands' affections4 ,happily these attacks can be warded off by a judicious homage to the departed or a pretended identification of the deceased with her successor4 ,thus among the ,gaddis1 a ,hindu sect in the ,panjab1 when the first wife dies the second wears a silver plate called saukan mora1 or crown of the rival wife4 ,this plate represents the deceased1 and is propitiated to avert her hostility4#bcj4c ,indeed1 the practice is not confined to one sect3 it is common to several of the castes4 ,the widower hangs a miniature portrait of his former wife1 or even her name engraved on a silver or gold plate1 about the new bride's neck4 ,the object1 it has been suggested1 is to humour the spirit of the first wife by identifying her with the second1 thus proving the husband's fidelity4 ,in the #bca ,central ,panjab1 on the other hand1 the bride is dressed as a milkmaid1 or a flower-seller1 and given a servile nickname1 apparently to convince the spirit of the deceased that the girl being married is not a real wife1 but a slave-girl4 ,when the death of the second wife shows that the device has been unsuccessful1 a mock-marriage of the bridegroom to a tree or a sheep1 adorned like a bride1 is resorted to before his marriage with a woman4 8,it is interesting to watch the bedecked sheep sitting on the khrs 7reversed baskets7 with a bridegroom and being led by him round the sacrificial fire1 while the real bride sits by40 ,here it is doubtless intended to fix the attention of the deceased upon the tree or the sheep1 and so leave the real wife free from her jealousy4 ,after the death of the third wife the evil influence of the first is deemed to be exhausted4#bca4a ,the ,lets of ,bengal1 who are also ,hindus in religion1 permit their widows to marry again1 though not by the rite for a virgin-bride4 ,the second husband is usually a widower2 and he places the iron bangle of his former wife on his new wife's arm4#bca4b ,so in ,baroda a widower who marries again has to present to his new wife a neck-ornament with marks to represent the feet of his first wife4 ,she will wear this to prevent the ghost of the latter from troubling her4#bca4c ,it need hardly be said that the rites and tales here discussed involve something more than the belief in the survival of death by a bare human personality4 ,they could not have come into existence without the belief that what remained after the catastrophe was still in some degree a sentient and powerful being4 ,it is difficult for mankind to acquiesce in the reality of death4 ,the imagination refuses to harbour the thought of the cessation of conscious existence4 #bcb ,the dead1 although they appear to respond no longer to the physical and social stimuli hitherto effective1 must still be4 ,vanished from our ordinary ken1 they must be living somewhere1 somehow2 they cannot have been annihilated4 ,if they still live1 they must live under conditions analogous to those we know1 and with affections1 desires1 appetites1 aversions1 similar to those they had in this life1 though the objects may conceivably be changed4 ,hence every sort of activity known to man is ascribed to them4 ,in dreams1 in trances1 and in the phenomena of possession they are observed to carry on these activities4 ,but because they are observed to carry them on only under such mysterious conditions they repel the survivors and fill them with an undefinable horror and awe4 ,among the affections and appetites of mankind those connected with the sexual life are almost the strongest4 ,it is natural therefore to imagine that the dead will still endeavour1 by social and even by fleshly intercourse with the survivors1 to gratify them4 ,for if the belief in their activity in other directions be conceded1 this cannot be denied2 and perhaps the very horror that would be inspired by the ultimate stages of such a possibility serves to attract the thoughts1 and therefore the belief1 of peoples on the lower planes of civilization4 ,ill weeds grow rank in such a soil4 ,not only are sexual appetites and affections almost the strongest2 but1 as is now well recognized1 in the complex attitude of mankind to the invisible world they have no inconsiderable share4 ,marriage is a status hemmed about by many taboos and easily lending itself to mystical presentation4 ,it is natural that the demise of one of the parties should cause a shock to the survivor corresponding to the change of condition involved1 and should powerfully affect the sexual impulses4 ,even #bcc apart from marriage they are an object on which the thought of mankind1 whether savage or civilized1 broods with a persistent endeavour to solve the mystery surrounding them4 ,hints are seen in them for the solution of many a problem other than that of the propagation of the species4 ,the ideas suggested by their contemplation are utilized alike for practical and economical purposes 7for example1 in agricultural magic71 and for speculation on the transcendent themes of life and death and the constitution of the universe4 ,the tales and superstitions ,i have brought together exhibit these impulses emphasizing the terror of the dead4 ,many of the phenomena of dreams1 and the phenomena of hysteria and various forms of delusion are due to the sexual impulses4 ,the sexual impulses in turn are in many1 if not all1 of the cases referred to above greatly aided by the conditions imposed on the patient4 ,no less than luxury and over-feeding1 fasting and abstinence from the ordinary and reasonable gratification of animal appetites1 and from social intercourse1 are the parents of nightmare and delusion4 ,both extremes lead through physical disturbances to disorders of the imagination and the reason4 ,hermits and celibates have probably suffered even more than rakes and gluttons and drunkards4 ,the annals of monasticism with tiresome and pitiful iteration record the disastrous effects of asceticism upon body and mind4 ,among savage and barbarous peoples these effects are as a rule less noxious1 because the conditions inducing and accelerating them are less continuous4 ,but it is precisely at the time when sexual relations are put out of normal gear1 and the sexual impulses are left without their normal gratification1 that exclusion from society and abstinence1 sometimes from sleep1 always #bcd from food usual in quality and amount1 are imposed4 ,the imagination1 already stimulated by the shock of the death 7rarely attributed to natural causes71 the possibility of an accusation of witchcraft hanging over the widow's head1 the certainty in many cases 7as among the tribes of ,british ,columbia7 of a long period of hardship and even torture1 all combine with the exclusion and enforced abstinence to produce a state of unnatural excitement1 amounting at times to terror and delusion--in any case liable powerfully to affect the dreams1 and to produce hysteria4 ,it must be remembered that the entire community shares to the full the underlying beliefs1 and participates in varying degrees in the fears of the bereaved spouse4 ,we are familiar even in ,europe with the effect upon a crowd--nay1 upon an entire nation--of emotions felt in common4 ,they are intensified4 ,the atmosphere becomes electrical1 and a spark suffices to produce a conflagration4 ,when the object of the emotion is strange1 imperfectly apprehended1 mysterious1 the effect is heightened2 it becomes a species of insanity4 ,things are imagined which do not exist2 eyewitnesses attest what a dispassionate observer knows to be impossibilities4 ,the most appalling of the tales and the most vivid of the rites we have been considering are thus easily accounted for4 ,the marvel is that they are not more widely distributed over the world than our present information enables us to affirm4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,mourning ,,clothes #bce ,it is a commonplace among anthropologists that certain events in a community cause a state of taboo1 which affects the members of the community in a greater or less degree1 according to their nearness of place or blood to the person principally concerned1 or according to the magnitude of the event4 ,among these events a death is not the least important4 ,in the lower culture the whole village or settlement is often attainted by the occurrence of a death4 ,but it is more particularly the near relatives1 and those who have been brought into contact with the corpse1 who are affected by the death-taboo 7or1 as it is often called1 the death-pollution71 most of all the widow or widower4 ,we call the period of the death-taboo--mourning4 ,the duration of the taboo1 as well as its intensity1 varies among different peoples1 and not only according to the relationship of the mourners to the deceased1 but also to his rank1 from a few days to many months1 and even to years4 ,it is very rare that there is no mourning on a death2 but if our reports may be trusted1 there are a few cases1 which1 however1 need not detain us4 ,mourning garb is an essential part of the observances4 ,its object has been much debated by anthropologists4 ,there seems little doubt that its first object is to distinguish those who are under the taboo from other persons3 it is the sign of the plague4 ,professor ,frazer #bcf many years ago laid it down 8that mourning costume is usually the reverse of that in ordinary life40 ,he cited 7among others7 the practice at ,rome for the sons of the deceased to walk at the funeral with their heads covered1 the daughters with their heads uncovered1 and that in ,greece for men and women during the period of mourning to invert their usual habits of wearing the hair1 the ordinary practice of men being to cut it short and that of women to wear it long4#bcf4a ,the accuracy of the generalization might be illustrated from examples all over the world4 ,the ,arapaho1 who wear their hair long and braided1 when in mourning unbraid it and wear it unbound4 ,sometimes they cut it4 ,they wear old clothing1 and do not paint themselves as they are accustomed to do4#bcf4b ,among the ,bangala of the ,upper ,congo men sometimes wear women's dresses instead of their own1 and shave half the hair of the head1 or shave it in patches1 and they rub clay on their bodies4 ,widows dress in only a few leaves or go stark naked1 but with dirt or clay rubbed on the body4 ,for three months after the funeral and a period of retirement in the bush they wear long1 untidy-looking grass cloths4#bcf4c ,when following a corpse to the grave ,ainu mourners wear their coats inside out and upside down4 ,an ,ainu's hair is never cut1 except on the death of husband or wife2 and then cutting is obligatory4#bcf4d ,among the ,iban of ,sarawak a widow's mourning lasts until the final ceremonies1 sometimes two years after the death4 ,during that time she may not wear any ornament1 her dress must be plain and old2 and she is not allowed to pull out her eyelashes and eyebrows1 nor to use soap for #bcg washing4 ,whatever acquaintance she may have in ordinary life with soap1 the prohibition to pull out her eyelashes and eyebrows is a prohibition of the last and most seductive touches of her toilet3 no ,iban woman would think of wearing eyelashes and eyebrows if she were not a widow in mourning4#bcg4a ,by reversing the usual costume the mourner is distinguished from others1 notice is given to the world of the taboo that binds him4 ,for this reason many of the aborigines of ,british ,guiana lay their trinkets aside and go entirely naked2 and among the ,jiraras or ,ayricas the wife1 brothers and sisters of the deceased paint themselves all over with the juice of a fruit that renders them as black as ,negroes1 while relatives less near paint only their feet1 legs1 arms and part of the face3 they are not so deeply compromised4#bcg4b ,so on the ,ivory ,coast the ,ngoulango or ,pakhalla mourners put off their ornaments1 put on the head a worn-out loin-cloth and wear brown clothing1 marking different parts of the body with red earth4 ,if anything more were necessary to exhibit their state of taboo1 it would be the practice of widows when they went out of doors to carry a piece of 8fetish0 wood1 endowed with the power of causing death to anyone who approached them and touched it4#bcg4c ,in ,australia the relatives1 especially the women1 cover their heads with clay1 or in some parts of ,west ,australia with red mud4#bcg4d ,the ,warramunga women in the ,northern ,territory cover themselves from head to foot with pipeclay4#bcg4e ,among the ,uriyas of ,india1 whose women are particularly fond of gay colours1 a widow wears a plain white borderless sari1 or cloth1 as #bch the sign of her bereavement4#bch4a ,the ,man ,cao ,lan of ,tonkin wear white garments not hemmed2 and those of their women who have adopted the ,annamite trousers recur to the native petticoat4#bch4b ,the colours of the mourning garb vary widely4 ,dr ,frazer has collected a considerable list1 to which it is needless to add4 ,let it suffice to say that though emblematic colours are often used1 the main principle1 especially in the lower culture1 is that just discussed of reversing1 or wearing something quite distinctive from1 the ordinary costume4 ,the condition of taboo occasioned by a death1 it should be noted1 is by no means limited to the death of a human being4 ,among the ancient ,egyptians the ,mendesians observed a great mourning on the death of a goat2 and more generally when a cat died by a natural death everyone in the house shaved his eyebrows1 while on the death of a dog the whole head and body were shaved4 ,both these and other animals were also accorded honours of burial in sacred tombs4#bch4c ,the native tribes of ,manipur lay a genna1 or taboo1 upon the inmates of a house in which an animal dies or has young1 especially a cow2 and when a cat dies it is wrapped up in a cloth and buried amid lamentations in a grave dug for it by the old women4#bch4d ,to the ,ibo-speaking peoples of ,nigeria the leopard is a quasi-sacred animal4 ,at ,aguku the hunter who has killed it puts eagle-feathers in his hair and does no work for twenty-eight days3 that is to say1 he is under a taboo for a whole moon4 ,at ,ugwoba he may not go to #bci the ,aana 7the shrine of the earth7 for a year2 he must sit down without working for twenty-eight days1 and may eat only such food as has been put in a pot and hung over the fire2 he sleeps in a good house1 and people watch lest other leopards come and kill him4 ,on the twenty-eighth day1 on taking the skin to market1 sacrifices are offered to a certain tree1 which is regarded as ekwensu1 defined as the spirit of a man who has been killed with a rope or a knife1 or of a woman who has died in pregnancy4#bci4a ,such a death would be an evil death1 and the ghost would be naturally inclined to make others suffer in the same way2 but the sacrifices would perhaps conciliate him and induce him to turn his attention to an effectual protection of the sacrificer against the leopards' vengeance4 ,among the ,herero of ,german ,south-,west ,africa to shed the blood of a lion is the same as to shed that of a human being2 and he who kills a lion can only wash away the sin by the shedding of his own blood4 ,this is done by scoring his breast and arm with a flint and dropping some of the blood upon the earth4#bci4b ,the ,hidatsa of the ,north ,american prairies1 after hunting eagles1 build a sweat-lodge and purify themselves1 singing a mystery-song or incantation4#bci4c ,the practice1 in fact1 is widespread4 ,in some instances it may be explained by totemism or analogous beliefs4 ,in any case there can be no doubt it is dictated by similar motives to those that lead to the taboo and mourning after the death of a human being4 ,the suggestion has been made that the change of #bdj garb is intended as a disguise to deceive the spirit of the deceased1 and so to shelter the mourner from its attacks4 ,on the one hand1 many tribes unquestionably adopt the same costume after killing an enemy as on the death of a friend4 ,among the ,abarambos of ,welle in the ,french ,soudan1 when a native kills another he blackens his face1 girds himself with a grass cord and eats only raw bananas1 to hinder the ghost from coming to kill him in his turn4 ,the same rites are observed on the death of a husband or wife1 with the addition that the survivor disappears for a time into the woods4#bdj4a ,but this is by no means the universal rule4 ,among the ,nandi of ,east ,africa the killing of an enemy entails quite a different garb from the death of a friend4 8,when a married man dies1 his widows and unmarried daughters lay aside all their ornaments1 and the eldest son wears his garment inside out02 and more or less shaving1 according to their nearness in blood1 is done by all the relatives4 8,on the death of a married woman her youngest daughter wears her garment inside out1 whilst her other relations put rope on their ornaments to hide them1 a common practice where they cannot easily be taken off and shave their heads4 ,in the case of unmarried people the female relations cover their ornaments with rope1 and the male relations shave their heads40 ,the killing of a ,nandi1 so far as appears1 does not entail a change of costume1 at least if the homicide belong to a different clan from his victim4 ,it is merely the subject of vengeance1 unless bought off by blood-money4 ,curiously enough1 it does not even seem to render the guilty man 8unclean10 as the killing of a member of his own #bda clan does4 ,the latter indeed renders him 8unclean for the rest of his life1 unless he can succeed in killing two other ,nandi of a different clan1 and can pay the fine himself40 ,in the meantime1 for aught that appears in ,mr ,hollis' careful account of the ,nandi1 no change of costume is necessary beyond what other members of the clan must undergo on the death of a relation4 ,the killing of a person belonging to another tribe--a person who is not a ,nandi1--however1 entails a stringent condition of taboo1 yet it is a subject1 not of blame like the killing of a ,nandi1 but of praise4 ,the slayer 8paints one side of his body1 spear and sword red1 and the other side white4 ,for four days after the murder he is considered unclean1 and may not go home4 ,he has to build a small shelter by a river and live there2 he must not associate with his wife or sweetheart1 and he may only eat porridge1 beef1 and goat's flesh4 ,at the end of the fourth day he must purify himself by drinking a strong purge made from the bark of the segetet-tree1 and by drinking goat's milk mixed with bullock's blood40#bda4a ,other tribes in the east of ,africa paint the man-killer4 ,masai warriors 7from whom possibly the ,nandi have taken over the custom71 after returning victorious1 paint the body in the manner just described4#bda4b ,among the ,borna ,galla1 the conquerors who have slain an enemy1 on returning1 are washed by the women with a mixture of fat and milk1 and their faces are painted red and white4 ,after dirges over those who have fallen1 the praises of the surviving heroes are sung1 and the young warriors' trophies are publicly buried outside the village4 ,these trophies are portions of the bodies #bdb of the slaughtered foes which cannot be conveniently preserved4#bdb4a ,the washing is obviously a ceremonial purification4 ,apart from this the entire proceeding is one of triumph1 and there is no indication of an attempt at concealment4 ,in the ,congo basin the ,yaka warrior who kills a man in battle incurs the danger of reprisals on the part of the ghost4 ,he can1 however1 escape by wearing the red tail-feathers of the parrot in his hair and painting his forehead red4 ,upon this it is to be observed that1 as elsewhere1 red is a favourite colour among the ,bayaka4 ,it is used for body-painting of both living and dead4 ,the corpse is painted before burial2 the dandy paints himself to increase his beauty2 the widow is painted in mourning4 ,the painting of the forehead can therefore hardly be a disguise4 ,the tail-feathers of the parrot are probably an amulet4#bdb4b ,the ,lillooet or the ,ntlakapamux warrior of ,british ,columbia who has slain a foe paints not merely his forehead but his entire face black4 ,if he did not do so1 it was believed that he would become blind2 and in the case of the latter tribe we are told that 8the spirit of #bdc the victim would cause him to become blind40 ,blindness for some reason is dreaded by these tribes after other deaths4 ,among the ,lillooet a widower cuts his hair very short above his eyes and ears2 8for if his hair touched the eyes he would become blind40 ,the cutting of the hair is1 of course1 a very common rite either in or at the conclusion of mourning4 ,among the ,ntlakapamux1 widows and widowers 8rubbed four times across their eyes a small smooth stone taken from beneath running water1 and then threw it away1 praying that they might not become blind40#bdc4a ,since widows and widowers are specially subject to the persecution of the deceased spouse1 we may perhaps infer that the blindness in such cases would be attributable to the departed4 ,a parity of reasoning would lead to the same conclusion in regard to the warrior's victim4 ,but how the painting of the face black would prevent such a catastrophe we are in the dark4 ,for aught we know1 it may have been 7for instance7 an expression of contrition designed to mollify the injured ghost4 ,mortuary ceremonies are almost everywhere so complicated that it is difficult to disentangle their motives4 ,in the related tribe of the ,skqomic all who follow the corpse in the burial procession must paint the breasts of their garments with red paint1 else 8a scarcity of fish would be the result at the next salmon run02 and the widow in addition is painted with red streaks on the crown of her head4#bdc4b ,the fact is that painting oneself is a preparation for the footlights by no means confined to over-civilized peoples4 ,it is so usual in the most varied stages of culture1 from the lowest upwards1 that we cannot safely pronounce it an attempt at disguise4 #bdd ,a somewhat stronger case might perhaps be made for the garb of a company of ,dyak head-hunters1 if we could be sure that the ceremonies as described a few years ago by an eyewitness at the settlement of ,tandjoeng-,karang1 on the river ,kapoeas1 were intact4 ,but when a rite is in decay1 as head-hunting is1 all sorts of variations are possible4 ,the ,british and ,dutch governments1 now supreme in ,borneo1 with little regard for the most sacred feelings of their heathen subjects1 positively forbid a custom intended to procure blessings for the community by the conversion of ancient foes into guardian spirits4 ,hence it is often necessary1 instead of taking fresh heads1 to put up with old ones and to make believe that they are new4 ,for this purpose an expedition is sent forth on a mock-raid1 carrying skulls of former victims with them1 and bringing them back as if they were just acquired4 ,when the expedition returns1 it is received as if it were a successful war-party1 and the ceremonies on the arrival of genuine head-hunters are performed4 ,at ,tandjoeng-,karang1 on the occasion in question1 these included dances in which both men and women took part4 ,the men 7who had been fasting1 and were still under taboo7 were clad in war-apparel4 ,skins of animals hung from their shoulders2 feathers adorned their caps2 and all wore on their wrists1 arms and legs ornaments of withered palm-leaves1 such as are distinctive of successful raiders4 ,in addition1 some had also shaved the front of the head and decked it with similar wreaths1 so that the leaves hung down like fringes over the face4 ,if this were intended as a disguise1 it is curious that not all the raiders were thus shaven4 ,whether there was any reason why all did not share in this treatment of the head1 or indeed what the palm-leaf ornament signified1 it was not possible to ascertain4 ,the observer was assured1 however1 #bde that the shaving was necessary in order to bring the fast to an end1 and that in former days the shorn hair was thrown into the water with invocations to the spirits4 ,now it lay neglected where it fell4 ,the day was concluded with feasting and further dances2 but the men were not yet entirely relieved from their taboo4 ,this was accomplished early the next morning with a bath in the river2 and the slaughter of hogs and another feast brought the solemnity to a close4#bde4a ,on the other hand1 all supernatural beings are deceived and tricked with what are to us very transparent devices4 ,the standard of intellect in the other world would seem to be much lower than in this4 ,even the spirits of ,shakespeare and ,milton1 when conjured up in a spiritualistic sance1 are found stripped of all their supreme qualities1 and hardly the equals of the silly persons who have flocked to their manifestations4 ,in ,borneo it is recorded that 8some ,madang a sub-tribe of the ,kenyahs1 who had crossed over from the ,baram to the ,rejang on a visit1 appeared each with a cross marked in charcoal on his forehead4 ,they supposed that by this means they were disguised beyond all recognition by evil spirits40 ,and ,tama ,bulan1 a ,kenyah chief1 when on a visit to ,kuching1 discarded for the same reason the leopard's teeth which he habitually wore at home through the upper part of his ears4#bde4b ,in the same island also the ,kayans protect a child from an evil-disposed ,toh1 or inferior spirit1 by a sooty mark on the forehead1 consisting of a vertical median line and a horizontal band above the eyebrows1 which is thought to render it difficult for the ,toh to recognize his victim4#bde4c #bdf ,this facility of deception1 it may be observed1 extends to other senses than that of sight4 ,it is accountable for the taboo of words and the use of euphemisms in hunting and on other occasions4 ,the poor silly spirits will not be able to penetrate the disguise4 ,in the north-east of ,scotland the fishermen when at sea never pronounced the words minister1 kirk1 swine1 salmon1 trout1 dog1 and so on1 but used other words or phrases instead1 such as 8bell-hoose0 for kirk1 or 8the man wi' the black quyte0 for minister4#bdf4a ,the people of ,mulera-,ruanda in ,german ,east ,africa have a definite theory to account for such a practice4 ,they hold that the spirits have indeed ears and can hear what is said1 but they have no eyes4 ,consequently when a householder proposes on some solemn occasion1 as a betrothal1 to sacrifice an animal1 he directs the slave to go to the hill and fetch the thickest sweet potato for a feast1 meaning a fat goat from the herd4 ,this goat he then offers to his ancestors1 calling it an ox2 for the spirits will not be able to detect the cheat4#bdf4b ,like ,isaac in the ,hebrew story1 they are blind1 and 8what the eye doesn't see1 the heart doesn't grieve at10 as our ,english proverb has it3 they can be thus deceived into giving their blessing in return for a trifling gratification4 ,yet it may be doubted whether the cases alleged by ,professor ,frazer in the important paper to which reference has been made1 as favouring the opinion that mourning clothes are a disguise1 are not susceptible of a different interpretation4 ,so inconclusive did he himself think the evidence that he refrained from definitely committing himself to the opinion in question1 though others have since done so4 ,the custom of painting the face and body in mourning is so common that it is at least remarkable that the tribes of ,borneo1 who disguise #bdg themselves1 as we have seen1 from hostile spirits with charcoal1 do not seem to attempt this defence against the peevish ghost of a newly deceased person4 ,they content themselves with wearing bark-cloth or clothes stained yellow with clay1 with allowing the hair to grow where it is usually shaved1 or shaving it where it usually grows1 and with laying aside personal ornaments or substituting for the metal earrings commonly worn by the women a wooden makeshift4#bdg4a ,in this way they may be said to conform to the rule already discussed of reversing the ordinary costume4 ,a ,bohemian custom required the mourners to put on masks and to practise strange behaviour on their return from the funeral4 ,it may be conjectured that this was a dance or devil-drive1 intended to expel1 not to deceive4 ,such dances are not uncommon1 both at periodical purification ceremonies#bdg4b and on the occasion of a death4 ,the use of masks at funeral dances of this kind has been reported1 for example1 in recent years among the ,bantu-speaking peoples of the prairie-land in the interior of the ,kamerun4 ,at these dances wooden masks in the likeness of lower animals as well as of human beings are worn2 and two of the latter1 hideous enough to horrify any respectable ghost1 are figured by the ,german explorer who discovered them4#bdg4c ,more recently another ,german explorer has found1 on the ,upper ,aiary in the interior of ,brazil1 mourning-dances of a similar character1 in which masks were used representing various animals and demons1 and has given figures from photographs of the dancers1 as well as a lively description of one of the dances which he witnessed4 ,this dance began with an attack on the #bdh ,maloka1 or community-house1 by a troop of evil spirits1 who eventually succeeded in storming it4 ,the mother and widow of the dead man wailed4 ,the attacking party1 having forced an entrance1 sang4 ,the women were terrified1 but the scene ended in weeping and laughter4 ,it was followed by dances and songs by the various animals2 and the performance was concluded by a phallic dance--a pantomime of the process of reproduction4 ,the meaning of the masque1 the explorer declares1 was clear4 ,it was a magic ritual intended to propitiate the angry ghost of the deceased1 that he might not return and carry off any of the survivors4 ,the evil demons1 to whose charge perhaps the death was laid1 and from whose spite mankind is never safe1 would by the performance be hindered from further mischief4 ,mkuk 7the forest-demon7 and the jaguar1 foes of the hunter1 the spoilers of the crops 7worms1 larv1 and other vermin71 and likewise the game itself were meant1 by the mimicry of their various proceedings1 to be magically influenced and rendered favourable to men1 so that rich booty1 large harvests1 and every sort of fertility and blessing would result4#bdh4a ,if it be objected that a mask is by its very nature intended to deceive1 we must not forget that that is very often not its primary object4 ,a nurse in play with a child will sometimes put on a mask for an instant4 ,she does so not to deceive the child as to her identity1 but to cause a momentary terror4 ,so the horrible distortions of the human countenance1 the wild1 the grotesque1 the impossible mingling of human and bestial features characteristic of many of the masks used in these dances1 are often intended rather to terrify than to deceive the supernatural beings against whom the performance is directed4 #bdi ,a warrior going to battle decks himself out with paint and feathers1 with helmet and grinning crest1 in order to strike fear into the heart of his foe4 ,spirits are as easily frightened as human beings4 ,indeed1 happily for the comfort of mankind1 they are possessed of uncommonly weak nerves which fail them1 with all their malevolence1 at every turn4 ,all that is necessary is for the man who knows how to deal with them to put on a bold front1 and they will flee before him4 ,professor de ,groot1 writing of the war against spectres in ,china1 says3 8,a courageous man while boldly fighting1 or trying to terrify by aggressive gestures1 easily gets his hair disordered4 ,therefore flowing hair intimates intrepidity1 and cannot fail to inspire the spectral world with fear4''' ,this idea has not only formed the text of old traditions1 but as early as the ,han dynasty had created the custom of setting up long-haired heads1 in order to drive away spectres4 ,no wonder that to this day long-haired exorcists assuming this terrifying aspect1 and enhancing it by weapons brandished with vigour1 are everyday appearances also in spectre-expelling processions4 ,accoutrements10 he goes on to say1 8have been worn with the same object since early times4 ,before the ,christian era1 the fang-siang1 while purifying grave-pits1 houses1 and streets1 were dressed with bearskins and masked with grotesque caps2 and under the ,han dynasty persons masked as animals1 feathered1 haired and horned1 accompanied them in exorcising processions1 jumping about and screaming4 ,probably such exorcists have appeared in all ages at funerals4 ,even to this day''' fang-siang are seen therein in the shape of effigies40#bdi4a ,but masked personages in many mourning-dances represent the ghosts themselves4 ,in the islands of ,torres #bej ,straits1 for example1 such representations are an indispensable part of the funeral ceremonies1 and the identity of the ghost is 8indicated by a pantomimic representation of characteristic traits of the deceased4 ,the idea10 says ,dr ,haddon1 8evidently was to convey to the mourners the assurance that the ghost was alive and that in the person of the dancer he visited his friends2 the assurance of his life after death comforted the bereaved ones40#bej4a ,the identification of the performer with the deceased is among some peoples complete4 ,thirty days after the death of an adult ,musquakie ,indian the dead man is personated by a friend1 who in this character attends a farewell feast preparatory to the final departure of the ghost for the ,happy ,hunting ,grounds4 ,he is called the ghost-carrier4 ,when the sun goes down he departs toward the west1 convoyed by a number of the friends of the deceased1 all of whom1 like himself1 are painted but not masked4 ,after nightfall they return and are welcomed as from a long journey4 ,the ghost-carrier is by everyone addressed by the name of the deceased4 ,in a few days he visits the parents of the deceased1 if they survive1 announcing himself as their dead son1 who would care for them in their old age4 ,he is henceforth looked upon as their son1 called by that son's name1 and pledged to a son's duty to them1 though his own parents do not necessarily give him up and still call him by his own name4 ,similar ceremonies are performed for women by women4#bej4b ,in fact the performer who represents a supernatural being in a religious dance of any kind is quite commonly regarded not as a representative1 but as the supernatural personage himself1 so long as he wears the mask and bears his attributes4 ,so an author already quoted1 writing of the #bea ,indians of ,north-,western ,brazil1 says3 8,the demon is involved in the mask1 is incorporated in it2 the mask is for the ,indian the demon himself4''' ,the demon of the mask passes over into the masquer for the time being40#bea4a ,the masked dances of these ,indians are performed especially in honour of the dead4 ,the masks therefore are intended to deceive nobody1 not even the recently deceased1 who as a new arrival in the other world may be 8a babe in these things40 ,the masquers are the demons in propriis personis without any deceit4 ,a different case is that of a ,myoro woman cited by ,dr ,frazer from ,captain ,speke's ,journal of the ,discovery of the ,source of the ,nile4 ,her child had died4 ,she smeared herself with butter and ashes and ran frantically about1 8while the men abused her in foul language for the express purpose of frightening away the demons0 who had carried off her child4 ,and ,dr ,frazer asks3 8,if curses are meant to frighten1 are not the ashes meant to deceive the demon80#bea4b ,from the description of the scene1 however1 it seems probable that the demon was conceived as actually in possession of the woman1 and that it was intended to drive him out of her4 ,in that event again there would be no deception of the demon--it was open war2 while the ashes may be referable to quite another cause1 as will be suggested below4 ,a third possible example is the custom in ,calabria1 whereby the women cease wailing at night and put off the black veils they donned at the moment of death4#bea4c ,here it may be1 as ,professor ,frazer suggests1 a sufficient explanation that disguise is superfluous in the dark4 ,the custom of wearing veils or hoods to conceal the face in #beb mourning is not confined to ,europe1 though widely spread there4 ,the 8weepers0 and other crape trappings still in use in ,france1 but for the most part abandoned in this country1 are probably relics of it4 ,it is found among nations sundered as far as the ,eskimo on the shores of the frozen ocean from the tribes of the ,eastern ,archipelago and ,melanesia4 ,the veil is sometimes worn without intermission4 ,among the ,minuanes of ,south ,america the widow carefully covers her face with her hair1 notwithstanding she remains for several days in the hut4#beb4a ,about ,bering ,strait the housemates of a deceased ,eskimo must remain in their accustomed places in the house during the four days following the death1 while the ghost is believed to be still about4 ,during this time all of them must keep their fur hoods drawn over their heads1 not to deceive the dead man1 but 8to prevent the influence of the shade from entering their heads and killing them40#beb4b ,where the mourners are confined more or less to the house1 however1 the custom of veiling is often1 perhaps usually1 more stringent on going out of doors than when they are inside in the dark4 ,in the lower culture the women at least are frequently confined to the house1 and only go out in case of necessity at night1 or at early morning and evening to weep at the grave4 ,but the ,calabrian women would more naturally go out of doors1 if at all1 by day2 hence they would be more closely veiled by day2 and at night1 when they would not go out1 they might wear their ordinary head-dress of a white handkerchief4 ,it is at least curious that they themselves assume that they would be recognized at night through the disguise by 8il demonio10 who has doubtless succeeded to the pre-,christian terrors of the other world2 and they declare it is lest he should rejoice #bec over their sorrow--to deceive him as to that1 and not as to their identity--that they doff the discomfort of the veil4 ,for the same reason they take the opportunity to suspend their wailing1 which to be sure is not as a rule anywhere absolutely continuous3 human nature could not endure it4 ,taboo is the most contagious of diseases4 ,mourning garb is its outward and visible sign1 and a warning to all who would otherwise come into contact with the mourner4 ,the veil in particular may be compared with the head-coverings and seclusion required of girls arriving at maturity4 ,at that period they also are under taboo4 ,among the ,eskimo1 the tribes of ,british ,columbia1 many of the ,south ,american tribes and the ,bantu tribes of ,africa1 and over a considerable area in the south of ,asia1 the ,indian ,ocean and ,melanesia1 adolescent girls are confined for a longer or shorter time where they cannot be seen1 or kept covered if they go out of doors4 ,they are very sensitive to the influence of the sun4#bec4a ,but it is not merely that the sun would affect them2 their very glance is deleterious4 ,a ,thlinkit girl wears a hat with long flaps1 that her glance may not pollute the sky4 ,among the ,tsetsaut it is believed that if she were to expose her face to the sun or the sky1 rain would fall4#bec4b ,so the ,hupa grave-digger in ,california is under a taboo4 ,he has come into contact with death1 and is required after the funeral to carry a bough of ,douglas spruce over his head1 8that he may not by any chance glance at the sky or at any human being1 thereby contaminating them40#bec4c ,on the island of ,mabuiag1 if a maturing girl's own father see her1 he will have bad luck in fishing1 and probably #bed smash his canoe the next time he goes in it4#bed4a ,so far as ,i am aware1 there is no intention in veiling a girl at puberty to disguise her so as to delude any spiritual foe4 ,it is true that both she and the mourners at a death 7including all who take part in the death-rites7 are exposed to special dangers4 ,that is because they are alike in a state of taboo4 ,they are thus also dangerous to others4 ,they must be secluded2 or if they venture abroad they must be either covered or so garbed as to keep other persons at a distance4 ,that the same reasons apply1 at all events among some tribes1 to the veiling of the faces of widows and widowers appears from the customs of the ,lkungen of ,vancouver ,island4 ,after a burial 8the whole tribe go down to the sea1 wash their heads1 bathe1 and cut their hair4 ,the nearer related a person is to the deceased1 the shorter he cuts his hair4 ,those who do not belong to the deceased's family merely clip the ends of their hair4''' ,widow and widower1 after the death of wife or husband1 are forbidden to cut their hair1 as they would gain too great power over the souls and the welfare of others4 ,they must remain alone at their fire for a long time1 and are forbidden to mingle with other people4 ,when they eat1 nobody must see them4 ,they must keep their faces covered for ten days4 ,they fast for two days after burial and are not allowed to speak4 ,after two days they may speak a little2 but before addressing anyone they must go into the woods and clean themselves in ponds and with cedar-branches4 ,if they wish to harm an enemy they call his name when taking their first meal after the fast1 and bite very hard in eating4 ,it is believed that this will kill him4 ,they must not go near the water1 or eat fresh salmon1 as the latter might be driven away4 #bee ,they must not eat warm food1 else their teeth would fall out40#bee4a ,this account shows that the widow or widower is dangerous to other people1 and consequently in a state of taboo4 ,it further shows that the fast and privation of society and comfort that such a mourner undergoes materially increase his orenda1 giving him power to kill his enemy by sympathetic magic1 or even rendering him a peril to his own community if he add to the severity of his penance by cutting his hair1 as a mourner who is not so nearly related to the deceased does4 ,all this is in accord with the principles underlying the taboo and fast of girls and boys at puberty4 ,there can be very little doubt that it is dictated by similar motives4 ,if so1 the covering of the face is1 here at least1 not intended to disguise the mourner and conceal him from the ghost4 ,it is an integral portion of his taboo4 ,it helps to safeguard the well-being of the surviving members of his community1 and to make his own orenda more powerful4 ,it is no part of my case to deny that mourning garb is ever intended to deceive the ghost4 ,customs differ so much in different cultural areas that it is quite possible there may be some instances in which the intention is to disguise the mourner by way of precaution against the deceased4 ,professor ,frazer has brought forward two cases1 and only two1 so far as ,i am aware1 in which this object is avowed4 ,the first is found in the western districts of the island of ,timor4 ,when a man dies and before his body is put into a coffin1 his wives stand weeping over it with their village gossips1 8all with loosened hair1 in order to make themselves unrecognizable by the nitu 7spirit7 of the dead40#bee4b ,i have not seen the authority #bef he cites2 therefore ,i do not know whether we are given any information how a widow in these districts habitually wears her hair4 ,for aught that appears here1 the hair is loosened only for this ceremony1 which comes to an end with the enclosure of the corpse in the coffin1 and may not last for more than an hour or two4 ,if so1 whatever be the reason for hindering the ghost from identifying the participants1 the loosening of the hair may not be1 strictly speaking1 part of the mourning garb4 ,the other case is a practice occasionally in use among the ,herero4 ,when a dying man intimates to one of his relatives and friends1 who crowd around him at such a time1 that he has 8decided upon taking him away after his death10 that is to say1 that he will kill him 7fetch him to the other world71 the person so threatened has recourse to an onganga1 or witch-doctor4 ,this functionary strips him1 washes and greases him afresh1 and dresses him in other clothes4 8,he is now quite at his ease about the threatening of death caused by the deceased2 for1 says he3 #8,now1 our father does not know me4'0 ,the survivors1 however1 may fulfil the threat4#bef4a ,this certainly does appear to be a case of disguise1 or at least a change of clothes in order to deceive the deceased2 but the substituted clothes do not appear to be mourning garb1 and the problem of mourning garb is what we are endeavouring to solve4 ,that protection is needed against the ghost of the recently dead is clear4 ,all over the world there is fear of ghosts4 ,protection1 however1 is not commonly sought in disguise1 even in extreme cases4 ,it is frequently sought1 as against other supernatural foes1 in fire4 ,the custom is so well known that it need not now detain us4#bef4b #beg ,the ,ewhe widow provides herself with a club1 burns pungent powders and takes other precautions from assault1 or even approach1 by the deceased4 ,a widower does the same4 ,in both cases the event to be dreaded is the attempt by the deceased to renew conjugal relations4 ,this danger assumes recognition by the ghost4 ,so far from seeking to elude it1 she goes entirely naked4 ,the lot1 whether of widow or widower1 is not happy1 though here1 as elsewhere1 the woman gets the worst of it3 she must be defended for six weeks1 while seven or eight days suffice for him4#beg4a ,the ,charrua mourner in ,south ,america went forth into the wilderness armed with a stick4#beg4b ,the ,eskimo of ,bering ,strait indeed wear fur hoods1 but1 as we have seen1 they are a direct defence against the penetrative influence of the ghost1 not a disguise4 ,the ,koryak1 the ,timorlaut islanders1 the ,ngoulango of the ,ivory ,coast seek refuge in a talisman or amulet4#beg4c ,the amulet preserved by the son of the deceased ,timorlaut islander is a piece of his father's nail4 ,according to the rules of sympathetic magic he preserves in this way his corporal union with the deceased1 and thereby ensures his protection4 ,the widow or widower does not take a portion of the body1 but wears a piece of the clothing4 ,this obviously is intended to have the same effect4 ,the practice is not unknown elsewhere4 ,in ,syria when a man dies his wife puts on one of his garments and sings funeral songs4#beg4d ,dr ,junker relates that he witnessed the ceremonies on the death of the ruler of ,kabajendi1 who had lived almost all his life #beh among the ,a-sande and was mourned according to their rites4 ,his wives1 after wailing beside the coffin1 marched through the zeriba and pretended to search in every hole and corner1 crying out to him1 creeping in and out on hands and knees under the overhanging thatch of the roofs1 then gathering and starting again on further explorations1 all the while howling1 shrieking1 and lamenting4 ,the next morning those of them who could manage to possess themselves of any article of his clothing put it on1 marching round the village thus attired in a continual procession or dance1 while others carried sword1 lances1 clubs1 climbing plants1 maize-cobs1 and so forth1 their heads strewn with ashes4 ,this performance lasted for a fortnight1 despite the tropical rain4#beh4a ,some light on this fantastic promenade may be thrown by the proceedings of the ,bangala women4 ,in the ,boloki district1 8when a man of any position died his wives would throw off their dresses and wear old rags 7sometimes they would go absolutely naked71 pick up anything belonging to him--his chair1 spear1 pipe1 mug1 knife1 shield or blanket--anything that came first to hand2 and having covered their bodies with a coating of clay1 they would parade the town in ones1 or twos1 or threes1 crying bitterly and calling upon him to return to them4 ,they would stop at times in their crying and say3 #8,he is gone to ,so-and-so2 we will go and find him'2 and away they would start off in a business-like fashion in their pretended search for him4 ,this parading they would keep up for a day or two1 and then women of the town would bedeck themselves with climbing plants1 vines1 #bei leaves1 and bunches of twigs2 and1 forming themselves into a procession1 they would march through the town chanting the praises of the deceased4 ,men would paint and arm themselves as for a fight1 and would imitate the daring acts of the departed as a warrior2 and if he had been remarkable for fighting on the river1 they would arrange a sham canoe-fight in his honour4''' ,it was an amusing and interesting sight1 and seemed to be thoroughly enjoyed both by actors and spectators alike4 ,they called this praising or honouring the dead40#bei4a ,it has been suggested that the wearing of a portion of the clothing of the dead is intended to delude him into the belief that those who do so are themselves dead1 and so to turn aside his attack4#bei4b ,no proof1 so far as ,i am aware1 has been offered for the suggestion4 ,whatever the exact intention of the ,a-sande rite 7and its equivalence with the ,boloki rite is obvious71 it can hardly be tortured into this4 ,the ghost must be stupid indeed who cannot distinguish his own clothing and personal chattels when carried about by his wives4 ,to wear the clothing of the deceased identifies the mourner with him1 sometimes for the purpose of protection by means of sympathetic magic1 sometimes for the presentation of the dead man in funeral ceremonies like those of the ,torres ,straits islanders or the ,musquakie ,indians4#bei4c ,where this is not the object1 to put on his coat and to carry his mug or his spear in procession may be due1 as it seems to be here1 to some vague idea of honouring him1 or perhaps of inducing him to return4 ,the supposition that it is intended to deceive the ghost may be safely discarded4 ,in more general terms it has been conjectured that #bfj mourning rites are intended to express union with the departed by obligatory1 if partial1 participation of his state1 that by virtue of the contagion of death the mourners have become really changed and are for a time as if they were dead1 hence they must eat1 clothe1 and conduct themselves as far as possible like the dead4#bfj4a ,lastly1 it has been pointed out that many of the observances imposed on mourners are a return to more primitive and savage conditions--such as sitting on the bare earth1 going naked or wearing only the roughest and coarsest stuffs1 and abstaining from good food in favour of wild berries and roots2--and the question has been put whether this may not be the essence of mourning4#bfj4b ,there is probably some measure of truth in both these suggestions2 but they must not be pressed too far4 ,many of the rites and usages are intended beyond question to express sympathy for the deceased1 and a temporary segregation with him from ordinary life4 ,but they go further3 in all the greater degrees of mourning at least they indicate grief at his loss that is calculated to call down the pity and compassion of every beholder1 and to deprecate the wrath or ill-humour of the deceased4 ,it is very striking that while coarse and scanty garments 7sackcloth or bark-cloths among peoples who usually wear cotton or wool1 and mere loin-cloths or nothing at all among peoples usually clad7 are worn in place of more luxurious stuffs1 a frequently recurring prescription is old worn-out clothes4 ,in the ,tonga ,islands the mourners 7who are always women7 are 8habited in large old ragged mats--the more ragged1 the more fit for the occasion1 as being more emblematical of a spirit broken down1 or1 as it were1 torn to pieces by #bfa grief40#bfa4a ,in the hinterland of the ,sherbro in ,west ,africa1 on the mourning for a chief's death1 the people most closely connected with him 8presented an unkempt and slovenly appearance1 their bodies draped in the oldest and dirtiest of their cloths40#bfa4b ,among the ,baganda on the other side of the continent the mourning garb for an ordinary man is 8old bark-cloths and a girdle of dry plantain leaves3 the hair is unkempt1 the nails are allowed to grow long like birds' claws1 and on the chest is a white patch1 a mixture of water and ashes40#bfa4c ,the custom of strewing ashes on the person is very widely practised3 more than one example has been incidentally given4 ,among the ,hebrews its use was not confined to mourning for the dead2 repentance in dust and ashes is a familiar figure in ,english speech1 and is derived from the ,bible4 ,the general air of neglect and misery produced by these practices might be paralleled in the mourning customs of most countries4 ,even in our own island little more than a hundred years ago it was noted that the chief mourner at a funeral in the parish of ,llanvetherine1 ,monmouthshire1 and elsewhere wore a dirty cloth about his head4#bfa4d ,and of many peoples the description by a ,french writer of the mourning garb among the ,agni of ,sanwi on the ,ivory ,coast would hold literally true3 8,old black loin-cloths1 unwashed for a long time4 ,on ne se peigne pas--on ne fait pas de toilette--on reste modeste40#bfa4e ,this is not all4 ,mourners fast1 abstaining altogether from food or indulging only in restricted diet1 and that of an inferior kind4 ,on the island of ,aurora all who are in mourning refrain from certain food4 ,the immediate relatives may not eat any cultivated food4 #bfb ,they are limited to gigantic caladium1 bread-fruit1 cocoa-nuts1 mallow1 and other things which must be sought in the bush where they grow4#bfb4a ,the ancient ,hurons were forbidden1 even in cold weather1 to eat warm food4#bfb4b ,among the ,charruas of ,south ,america the adult sons of a dead man remain for two days entirely naked in their huts and almost without food4#bfb4c ,in ,togoland the ,ewhe widow is forbidden beans1 flesh1 fish1 palm-wine and rum2 any infringement of these prohibitions would cost her life4#bfb4d ,many nations add to their other rites that of laceration or even mutilation of the body4 ,in ,central ,australia the ,warramunga women fight with one another and cut one another's scalps1 and all who stand in any near relation to the deceased1 reckoned according to the classificatory system--which greatly widens the area of relationship--also cut their own scalps open with yam-sticks1 the actual widows even searing the wound with red-hot fire-sticks4#bfb4e ,it was forbidden to the ancient ,hebrews1 by what was evidently a reform of a pre-existing custom1 to make a baldness between the eyes for the dead--in other words1 to cut themselves on the brow4#bfb4f ,among the ,arawaks a drinking-feast is held1 at which all the men of the village assemble and scourge one another with whips made of a climbing plant1 until the blood runs in streams and strips of skin and muscle hang down4 ,those who participate in the rite often die of their wounds4#bfb4g ,as if mere wounding were not enough1 #bfc finger-joints are frequently cut off4 ,in the ,fiji ,islands the amputation of a finger-joint is a common sign of mourning4 ,in one case in ,tonga when a king died orders were issued that one hundred fingers should be cut off4#bfc4a ,in ,montana1 one of the north-western states of ,america1 on the execution of four aborigines for murder in ,december #ahij1 they were mourned by two squaws1 who scalped their children4 ,one of them gashed her own face1 while the other cut off two of her fingers and threw them into the grave4#bfc4b ,when a ,charrua dies his widow and his married daughters and sisters amputate each of them a finger-joint1 besides inflicting other wounds on themselves4#bfc4c ,the illustration of practices like these might be multiplied indefinitely4 ,the same reason holds good for them all4 ,in the lower culture grief at a death is often intensified by fear--on the one hand1 of an accusation of witchcraft--on the other hand1 of the ill-will of the deceased himself1 who is naturally disgusted to find himself dead4 ,against the latter danger at any rate the forlorn condition of the survivors1 stiff with wounds1 thrust like him from the company of their friends and fellow-tribesmen1 made to wear a distinctive garb1 often in rags or dirt1 wailing1 watching1 fasting1 would constitute an appeal that even the ghost of a savage would feel hard to resist4 ,that this is actually the effect intended1 in some instances at least1 is certain4 ,a widow among the ,salivas of ,south ,america cuts her hair1 and is not allowed to anoint herself as usual1 nor to wear any ornament1 in order1 we are expressly told1 not to irritate the departed1 but to humble herself before him4#bfc4d #bfd ,nor must it be overlooked that wailing and lamenting1 so usually part of the rites practised especially by the chief mourners1 such as widows and near relations1 would not favour concealment4 ,on the contrary1 they would draw attention to the grief1 and help even the simplest and most easily deluded of ghosts to identify the mourner1 which they would seem indeed to be meant to do4 ,but they would powerfully deprecate his malice or revenge4 ,in this connection the belief of the ,baarwanda on the east of ,lake ,kivu1 in ,german ,east ,africa1 is interesting4 ,to them the bazimu 7plural of muzimu7 or souls of the departed are by no means always kindly disposed1 even the best of them4 ,they must be continually propitiated with offerings1 or they will cause calamities1 either of themselves directly1 or indirectly by setting in motion the imandwa1 semi-apotheosized heroes4 ,but the muzimu does not begin his mischievous activities until the mourning ceremonies are at an end4 ,so long as they last the survivors are quite safe from him1 for he will not during that period attack the living4#bfd4a ,many customs1 sometimes born of widely differing motives1 converge in a similarity of expression4 ,hence it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge dogmatically to assert a single origin for practices of a like character extending over so wide an area as those we have just passed in review4 ,they are the expression of the psychological reaction caused by the shock of death and the consequent breach of the circle of kinship or other social bonds4 ,the taboo results from the bewilderment and terror caused by the entry of death into the circle4 ,the conduct and garb of the mourners are the outcome of grief and sympathy1 but also of fear4 ,that fear has for its object survivors who have it in their #bfe power to involve the mourners in even a more terrible doom by an accusation of witchcraft4 ,even more1 it has regard to death itself1 and to the inimical designs of him whose earthly life has been severed1 and who has thereby been converted into an envious1 and if not a malicious1 at least a peevish and easily angered1 being1 armed by his death with greater1 because more mysterious1 powers4 ,mourning garb is often a device to secure his compassion2 it is often a defence against his overt attacks2 but on the whole tangible proof is lacking that it is a disguise to deceive him4 ,,the ,,rite ,,at ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,mylitta #bff ,among the religious rites of antiquity there was none more alien to modern feeling than the sacrifice of chastity by every ,babylonian woman at the temple of ,mylitta4 ,it is described first and in most detail by ,herodotus1 whose denunciation of it shows that to the ,greeks of the fifth century ,b4,c4 it was as abhorrent as it is to us4 ,according to this account1 every woman once in her life was required to sit down in the precincts of the temple of ,mylitta wearing a wreath of cord about her head1 and there to wait until a stranger should throw a silver coin into her lap and summon her with ritual words in the name of the goddess to follow him4 ,she was not allowed to refuse1 but was compelled to follow the first man who threw1 and to have sexual intercourse with him outside the temple4 ,she might then depart to her home1 her duty to the goddess being fulfilled4#bff4a ,the historian lets fall the observation that there was a similar custom in some places in ,cyprus4 ,this has been supposed to be referred to by ,justin1 who wrote probably after the establishment of ,christianity1 but whose work consists of selections from ,trogus ,pompeius1 a lost writer of the ,augustan age4 ,he reports that it was the ,cypriote custom to send maidens before their marriage on certain days to seek their dowry by prostitution on the seashore1 #bfg and to pay the offerings to ,venus for their future chastity4 ,dido on her way to ,carthage touched at the island at the very time1 and took on board her fleet eighty of these damsels1 to be wives to her followers and assist in peopling the city she was going to found4#bfg4a ,we shall further consider ,justin's statement hereafter4 ,for the moment we pass on to ,heliopolis 7,baalbec71 where1 the ecclesiastical historian ,socrates affirms1 virgins were offered in prostitution to strangers4#bfg4b ,he does not1 any more than ,justin1 connect this with a temple or a divinity2 but from ,sozomen we gather that it was a religious observance1 inasmuch as the prostitution of virgins prior to their marriage is stated to have been abolished by ,constantine when he destroyed the temple of ,aphrodite4#bfg4c ,a similar custom1 according to lian1 was followed by the ,lydians4 ,and he expressly says that when once the rite had been performed the woman remained ever afterwards chaste1 nor would a repetition be forgiven her on any plea4#bfg4d ,herodotus1 however1 states that the daughters of the common people in ,lydia earned their dowries by a life of prostitution4#bfg4e ,the two writers are obviously referring to two different customs4 ,a third custom distinct from either is mentioned by ,strabo as practised by the ,armenians1 among whom even the highest families of the nation consecrated their virgin daughters to the service of the goddess ,anaitis1 to remain as prostitutes at her temple before their marriage4#bfg4f #bfh ,what is the relation of these three customs8 ,they have usually been considered as closely connected4 ,it may be1 as ,dr ,frazer suspects1 that the real motive for the custom described as that of earning dowries by prostitution was religious1 rather than economical1 although my own suspicions point in another direction4 ,but putting that custom aside for further examination1 both the others are certainly portrayed as religious4 ,as practised by the nations of ,western ,asia for a thousand years prior to the fall of paganism they were annexed to the cult of certain divinities4 ,there is1 however1 a broad distinction to be drawn between a custom requiring every woman once in her lifetime to submit to the embraces of a stranger1 and one which consecrated a life of prostitution4 ,such a life was one of devotion to the goddess as a more or less permanent servant4 ,the other custom demanded a single act which freed the worshipper for the rest of her days4 ,it may be freely conceded that the goddess at whose temple1 or on whose feast-day1 the act was performed was endowed with similar characteristics to those of the goddess in whose service the life of prostitution was lived4 ,it may even have been that sometimes the same goddess had bands of harlots attached to her shrine1 and also required the sacrifice of the virginity of all other women in the manner described4 ,this perhaps1 as we shall see1 was the case in ,lydia4 ,we should still need to investigate separately the two customs4 ,one of the most fertile sources of error in the interpretation of custom is the fatal tendency of rites distinct1 or even altogether different in origin and intention1 but similar in expression1 to converge4 ,this convergence is accelerated by a variety of causes4 ,the natural vagueness of tradition1 the forgetfulness of the exact original meaning1 the gradual predominance of one idea over another owing #bfi to circumstances which1 for want of knowledge1 we call accidental1 the tendency to repeat by way of precaution in one rite acts which essentially belong to another1 are all causes of the kind referred to4 ,moreover1 we have so often found in the similarity of rite the real key to a common interpretation1 that where convergence does not in fact occur there is a temptation to read identity of meaning into two rites having a superficial likeness4 ,it behoves us1 therefore1 to be on our guard1 and to scrutinize with some scepticism all cases where the identity both of act and intention is not demonstrably complete4 ,the practices ,i have enumerated have all been interpreted as expiations for marriage4 ,marriage1 it is said1--the appropriation of one or more women to one man--is an evolution from the primeval condition of promiscuity4 ,religious prostitution1 the jus prim noctis and other customs are expiations exacted by society from women who are thus appropriated4 ,they witness to the primeval common rights of the male sex1 thus asserted for the last time by one or more on behalf of all on abandoning the woman to the exclusive possession of one of their number4 ,now1 if the interpretation in question be suitable for any of these customs1 it is more suitable for the single rite such as that at the temple of ,mylitta than for the exercise of prostitution over an extended period2 and it is to this rite that ,i desire more particularly to call attention4 ,i need hardly observe that the explanation of the rite as an expiation for marriage does not by any means follow of necessity from the theory of primitive promiscuity4 ,on the contrary it overlooks one of the peculiar features of the rite4 ,alike at ,babylon1 at ,heliopolis1 and apparently at ,cyprus 7if ,cyprus be a case in point7 the act has to be accomplished with a stranger4 ,if it were #bgj a forfeit rendered to the general body of men1 who might have had a claim to temporary union but for the institution of marriage1 or if it were a formal witness of that claim1 it would seem1 prima facie1 more natural that it should be accomplished with some one or more of the claimants1 that is to say1 with a member or members of the same community4 ,a similar rite of intercourse with a stranger was practised1 as ,lucian relates1 at ,byblus4 ,there it was the custom at the mourning for ,adonis to perform the well-known mourning rite of cutting off the hair4 ,any woman who refused to do this was required to exhibit herself on one day of the festival and undergo prostitution to one of the strangers who resorted thither1 handing over the price to the goddess called by ,lucian the ,byblian ,aphrodite4#bgj4a ,the rite as there practised therefore was1 at all events in the second century ,a4,d41 an alternative to the dedication of hair3 it was a redemption for the tresses that should have been sacrificed4 ,thus the woman would repeat the expiation once a year1 whether married or single1 so long as she was unwilling to shear her locks1 or preferred the alternative sacrifice of her chastity4 ,there is no evidence that it ever had anything to do with marriage2 it certainly had not when ,lucian wrote4 ,the rite at ,byblus must1 however1 be distinguished from those we are considering4 ,they were performed by every woman without alternative1 but they were performed only once4 ,if they were an expiation for marriage we should expect to find them described as part of the marriage rites4 ,the ,balearic islanders1 the ,nasamonians and the ,auziles in antiquity had1 as well as many modern savages1 such rites1 whether or not they can be properly explained as an expiation for marriage4 ,but at the most the rites with which we are now concerned were a #bga preliminary to marriage--a necessary preliminary1 perhaps1 but one that might have been accomplished at any period before it4 ,indeed1 so far as appears from ,herodotus1 the victim1 if we may call her so1 of the ,babylonian rite was not necessarily unmarried4 ,but comparison of the accounts of the practice at ,heliopolis1 in ,lydia and in ,cyprus renders it fairly certain that it was only unmarried women who were subjected to it1 and that it was essentially a sacrifice of maidenhood4 ,a passing reference by ,eusebius has been interpreted to imply that at ,heliopolis both married women and girls were prostituted in the service of the goddess4#bga4a ,but ,eusebius says nothing about the goddess4 ,his reference must be construed in the light of ,socrates' statement that women were by the law of the country required to be common1 and hence the offspring was doubtful1 for there was no distinction between fathers and children4#bga4b ,whatever else those phrases may mean1 they entirely negative the theory of expiation for marriage4 ,but they do not refer to the custom of prostituting virgins to strangers1 which the historian expressly distinguishes4 ,it may be objected to this reading of ,herodotus that while he uses the generic term women 77 in speaking of the victims1 on the other hand1 in a previous chapter referring to the ,babylonian marriage customs1 he #bgb reports that once a year in every village the marriageable maidens 77 were all put up to auction1 the respective purchasers being required to give security that they would marry them2 and it was unlawful to give them in marriage in any other way4 ,the objection is of little weight4 ,it is needless to consider whether we are to understand the specific term literally4 ,even if so1 there would doubtless be ample time for the performance of the rite at the temple of ,mylitta between the auction and the marriage4 ,it does not appear that marriage followed the auction immediately4 ,had that been contemplated1 security would hardly have been necessary4 ,when the anniversary came round all the maidens who had during the preceding year attained puberty and thus become ripe for marriage 7 7 were probably put up4 ,those who had not previously undergone the rite would1 if my interpretation be correct1 be required to submit to it before marriage4 ,it is superfluous to discuss other and obvious objections to the theory of expiation for marriage4 ,but the appearance of prostitution which the rite presents demands further consideration4 ,at ,babylon1 although a piece of money passed1 the payment seems to have been merely pro forma4 ,it mattered not how small the coin was1 it could not be refused4 ,whatever it was1 ,strabo tells us it was considered as consecrated to the goddess4 ,lastly1 the rite once performed1 no gift1 were it ever so great1 would be accepted to repeat it4 ,the details of the rite at ,heliopolis and among the ,lydians have not been preserved to us2 but we may with probability infer that they were similar4 ,in ,lydia1 indeed1 if we are to trust both lian and ,herodotus1 two distinct customs are traceable1 namely1 the sacrifice of virginity and the life of prostitution to earn a dowry4 ,a ,greek inscription #bgc of the second century ,a4,d41 found at ,tralles and referred to by ,dr ,frazer1 discloses also the existence of religious prostitution by girls expressly chosen by the god and set apart for that end4#bgc4a ,this is a similar custom to that of the ,armenian girls already mentioned1 and is not to be confounded with the prostitution mentioned by the ,father of ,history as practised by all the daughters of the common people4 ,whatever may have been the origin of the latter1 the other two in the time of lian were connected with religion4 ,on the island of ,cyprus we seem to find much the same state of things4 ,if we may believe ,justin1 the maidens earned their dowry by prostitution4 ,from other sources we learn that there were mysteries of the ,cypriote ,aphrodite1 which were said to have been instituted by ,cinyras1 king of ,paphos and father of ,adonis4 ,into these mysteries there was a regular initiation4 ,sexual matters no doubt formed their staple teaching2 and what classical and especially apologetic writers would call prostitution would be practised4 ,the legend ran that the daughters of ,cinyras1 through the wrath of ,aphrodite1 united themselves with strangers4#bgc4b ,probably it was believed to be in imitation of them that the maidens of ,cyprus sought prostitution on the seashore4 ,in any case the story indicates1 as ,dr ,frazer has pointed out1 8that the princesses of ,paphos had to conform to the custom as well as the women of humble birth40 ,but if this be so1 the object of the harlotry alleged by ,justin falls to the ground1 since it would be unnecessary for princesses to earn their dowry4 ,it may be suspected1 therefore1 that ,justin or his authority has confounded two disparate customs1 that of earning the #bgd dowry by prostitution1 and that of a religious sacrifice of virginity in connection with the mysteries of ,aphrodite1 in which the other party to the rite was a stranger4 ,only thus can we satisfactorily explain the limitation of the practice to stated days1 probably festivals of ,aphrodite1 and the phrase about paying the offerings to her for future chastity4 ,the money payment1 whether large or small1 was in the ,byblian rite1 as in the ,babylonian and 7if ,i interpret correctly7 in the ,cypriote rites1 consecrated to the goddess4 ,we may infer that the same was the case wherever else the rite was performed4 ,at ,byblus it was the alternative to the consecration of the woman's hair4 ,prostitution--that is1 sexual intercourse for hire--is not a primitive practice4 ,the appearance of prostitution in connection with religion may be accounted for by the influence upon the religious practice of the general practice of harlots4 ,analogy would suggest that intercourse other than conjugal or the satisfaction of the genuine passion of love demanded a monetary consideration4 ,but when that intercourse was the performance of a religious duty the money was not kept as gain by the woman4 ,it was not earned for herself1 but devoted to the goddess4 ,where bands of 8harlots0 were attached to a temple their earnings probably went to swell the temple funds out of which they were supported4#bgd4a ,it may accordingly be suggested that the hire was not an essential part of the rite1 but merely an aftergrowth in the process of adapting an older custom to the changing manners and religious ideas of a growing civilization4#bgd4b #bge ,assuming1 therefore1 that the rite was a sacrifice of virginity to which every woman was subjected1 it would probably be performed either on the attainment of puberty or as a preliminary to the marriage ceremonies4 ,but we gather from the historian's account of the sale of the village maidens around ,babylon that the auction followed almost immediately after the attainment of puberty1 or within 7say7 a year at the furthest4 ,the practice of most ancient nations1 as of nearly all barbarous and savage peoples1 and indeed of many in a high stage of civilization1 would lead us to expect that marriage would be entered into within a very short time of the bride's puberty4 ,sometimes marriage even precedes puberty4 ,where1 as more usual1 it follows that epoch of life1 the rites incident to puberty must first be completed4 ,among such rites defloration is not infrequently found4 ,in this respect the ,australian tribes are notorious4 ,in the ,boulia district of ,northern ,queensland the girl is compelled to intercourse with a number of men4#bge4a ,among the ,dieri of ,south ,australia a ceremony called ,wilpadrina is performed on the young women when they come to maturity1 in which the elder men claim and exercise a right to them1 and that in the presence of the other women4#bge4b ,the ,arunta and ,ilpirra tribes in the centre of the continent perform a ceremony on every girl when she arrives at a marriageable age1 but before she has been taken over by the husband to whom she has been allotted4 ,as part of that ceremony a number of men have access to her in ritual order2 and the intercourse #bgf is often repeated the following day4#bgf4a ,analogous proceedings are known in other parts of the world4 ,the central tribes of ,new ,ireland have a women's house in every village4 ,when a girl attains puberty she withdraws into a small house1 called mbak1 built inside it4 ,there it is said she has to remain for ten months1 only going outside at night4 ,during this period she is waited upon by the old women1 and through their intervention every man who chooses has access to her4 ,on leaving the mbak she belongs only to the husband to whom she has probably been betrothed since infancy4#bgf4b ,in the west of the island of ,serang between ,celebes and ,new ,guinea1 a girl after ceremonial bathing goes round clothed with a sarong woven of the fibre of the ,pandanus repens1 at the service of every man until her family have collected the necessary materials for a feast4 ,in certain districts1 however1 before actual puberty the teeth are filed4 ,when this operation is completed1 a feast is prepared of which the novice must taste everything4 ,further1 an earthen pot filled with spring-water is covered with a fresh pisang-leaf4 ,one of the old women then taking the index-finger of the girl's right hand thrusts it through the leaf as 8a symbol of the rupture of the hymen1 or to show that the possession of virginity means nothing for her40 ,the leaf is then displayed on the ridge of the roof4 ,this done1 the women fall to eating and drinking4 ,when they have finished they begin singing to the accompaniment of drums4 ,the men are then admitted to the house4 ,in some villages the old men have free access that evening to the room of the girl in whose honour the feast is given1 while the other guests amuse themselves with #bgg singing outside4 ,after this celebration the girl is entitled to free intercourse with men1 even before puberty4#bgg4a ,in ,east-,central ,africa the ,azimba maiden is artificially deflowered during a period of retirement and instruction in the forest4 ,when the retirement is over she celebrates her attainment of puberty by a dance in which only women take part4 ,that night a man1 hired by her father for the purpose1 sleeps with her1 and once this is done she is supposed to have no further intercourse with him4 ,often1 however1 she is already married before puberty1 and consequently no longer a maiden4 ,none the less is she taken from her husband that the puberty customs may be performed4 ,when she is brought back he himself sleeps with her apparently as a ritual act1 without the necessity of hiring a man for the purpose4#bgg4b ,among the ,wanyasa1 or ,mang'anja1 at the southern end of ,lake ,nyasa1 ceremonies are performed similar to those of the ,intonjane 7girls' puberty ceremonies7 of ,south ,africa1 and every girl on her return after the initiation must find some man 8to be with her10 otherwise she will die4#bgg4c ,the ,intonjane among the ,kaffirs is well known to be an occasion of sexual indulgence4 ,it may be surmised that the ceremonies of the ,suahili on the east coast were originally similar to those just mentioned4 ,but the ,suahili have become partially ,arabized1 though their ,mohammedanism is little more than a veneer over their heathen customs and belief4 ,among them now a girl returns from her seclusion in silence and gives her hand to every man she meets1 receiving from him in return a few small coins4#bgg4d ,it is said that the girls of #bgh the ,wamegi1 also a tribe near the coast1 are artificially deflowered at puberty by certain old women4#bgh4a ,artificial defloration at puberty is also practised by the ,sawu ,islanders4 ,the ,sakalava girls in ,madagascar perform it on themselves in case their parents have not previously taken the trouble4#bgh4b ,other examples could be cited1 but the subject need not be pursued4 ,i would venture to suggest then that the ,babylonian rite was a puberty rite1 and that a maiden was not admitted to the status and privileges of adult life until she had thus been ceremonially deflowered4 ,among those privileges1 and the chief of them1 was the gratification of the sexual instinct4 ,it was1 therefore1 a prerequisite to marriage4 ,ceremonial defloration of the bride by others than her husband has prevailed in many places4 ,when marriage follows closely after puberty it is difficult to determine whether the custom really belongs to the puberty rites1 or to those of marriage4 ,i am not concerned here to deny that among many peoples who practise it as part of the marriage rites it may have been such ab initio4 ,the determination of this question would involve an examination of marriage customs extending far beyond the space at my disposal4 ,but it will be admitted that as puberty rites gradually #bgi became simplified or altogether obsolete such a custom could only maintain existence as part of the marriage rites4 ,it is then usually 7but1 as we shall see1 not always7 performed by one or more of the bridegroom's friends or by an appointed official1 and ultimately degenerates into the jus prim noctis vested in some powerful personage1 as a lord or priest4 ,nothing of the sort appears in the accounts which have come down to us of the ancient rite in ,western ,asia4 ,in all of them 7save among the ,lydians7 emphasis is laid on the performance by a stranger4 ,at ,babylon our information does not connect the rite with marriage at all4 ,elsewhere it is referred to not as part of the marriage rites1 but as a preliminary to marriage4 ,that such a rite should be found annexed to the temple and worship of a luxurious goddess causes no surprise2 on the contrary1 it is what might have been anticipated4 ,every reader will call to mind numerous examples of archaic rites which have become attached to ,christian festivals1 and of ,christian shrines which are simply shrines of an earlier religion adapted and consecrated afresh under ,christian names4 ,the difficulty of uprooting old customs1 and their consequent incorporation and adaptation by advancing culture or a new religion1 are phenomena too well known to be insisted on here4 ,probably the ,cypriote mysteries were adapted to the worship of ,aphrodite from a ruder stage in which no divinity was invoked4 ,and if this could happen once in ,western ,asia1 it might have happened also at ,babylon1 at ,heliopolis and elsewhere4 ,it is possible that other practices1 such as the prostitution of the ,armenian girls at the temple of ,anaitis1 or that of the ,lydian and ,paphian girls to earn their dowries1 are no more than the adaptation of a custom common enough in the lower #bhj barbarism1 by which unmarried girls have unfettered liberty in their sexual relations4 ,the ,armenian maidens1 at all events1 though spoken of as harlots by ,strabo1 do not seem to have exercised their calling for money1 nor to have admitted indiscriminately to their favours all who offered4 ,they reserved themselves for their equals in rank1 and entertained them in their dwellings with more hospitality than in a spinsters' house in the ,pacific ,islands4 ,the surmise may be indulged that it was in fact originally1 if not in later times1 their way of choosing husbands4 ,the ,lydian girls are expressly said to have bestowed themselves in marriage4 ,mannhardt contended 7and his opinion is so far endorsed by ,dr ,frazer7 that the maidens who surrendered their virginity in connection with the cult of a goddess like ,aphrodite did so in imitation of their divinity1 as her representatives1 the human players of her part4#bhj4a ,this may have been the mode by which the ancient custom was adapted to the newer order of things4 ,but it is submitted that it is a very insufficient account of it4 ,the custom must have been older than any definite belief in the goddess's habits or any story of her various intrigues4 ,are we then to suppose that it was a magical rite designed to promote the fertility of animal and vegetable life8 ,such rites are known in both hemispheres4 ,the great goddess worshipped under different names throughout ,western ,asia personified1 we may concede1 the reproductive energies of ,nature4 ,many of the rites employed in her cult are in the last analysis magical1 and had for their purpose to assist those energies4 ,by a well-known mental process magical efficacy is often ascribed to acts and usages not essentially of a magical1 nor indeed of a #bha ritual1 character4 ,thus the general prostitution of young girls to earn their dowries1 and that of widows--customs which are probably of quite a different origin--are among certain tribes of ,morocco held to be not without their effect on the abundance of the crops4#bha4a ,such a belief may have consecrated lives of habitual harlotry in ,armenia1 in ,lydia1 and in ,cyprus4 ,it by no means follows that every rite performed in the name of the goddess acquired that meaning1 still less that that was its primitive meaning4 ,many such rites would be wholly personal4 ,they would be intended to secure personal blessings to the worshipper1 and nothing more1 though everyone might have been required to perform them4 ,it is needless to suppose without express evidence that the rite described by ,herodotus as taking place at the temple of ,mylitta had more than a personal reference4 ,the most obvious personal blessing to be secured from such a goddess would be fertility4 ,it is possible that this was the intention here4 ,puberty customs are doubtless performed for the good of the individual1 and of the tribe or nationality through the individual4 ,we must not infer1 however1 that the personal blessing of fertility was held to be the natural and direct outcome of the sacrifice of virginity4 ,that was not the way in which it would be envisaged1 however logical such an outcome may seem to us4 ,the savage would not expect the natural result1 but one that we call magical4 ,at the stage represented by the ,babylonian custom the blessing was invoked from the goddess1 and was her gift4 ,in other words1 it was not that specific ritual act of coition1 but future acts rendered licit and consecrated by it which were expected to bear fruit4 #bhb ,this interpretation is perhaps strengthened by a rite said to have been regularly performed in the ,troad4 8,every maiden on the approach of her marriage was required to go and bathe in the ,skamandros1 and standing in the water to pronounce the sacred formula3 #8,skamandros1 take my maidenhood as a gift4'0 ,dr ,farnell1 citing the fictitious letter of ,aischines on which the evidence for the custom rests1 observes3 8,the letter narrates how a mortal assumed the human form of the god and took a treacherous advantage2 but originally1 we may suppose1 the rite of consecration was not associated with any anthropomorphic divinity1 but was performed in the hope that the spirit of the river might enter into the maiden1 and that the child she might afterwards bear to her wedded husband might thus be mystically akin to the guardian of the land4 ,the many early myths concerning heroines and princesses being made pregnant by river-gods suggest that the ritual just described was once prevalent in primitive ,greece2 for such myths could arise naturally from such a custom40#bhb4a ,but the ritual itself suggests that it is a relic of a still older rite parallel with the rite at the temple of ,mylitta4 ,the last of the problems connected with the rite is to explain why it must be accomplished with a stranger4 ,if1 as has been alleged1 the act of defloration of a maiden were held to be in itself dangerous1 it is not easy to say why anyone1 even a stranger1 should undertake it1 unless he were strangely ignorant of the risk or strangely careless4 ,in some places1 indeed1 a maiden who had come to submit to the rite may have been outwardly indistinguishable from one of the hierai2 and hence the man may have been unconscious #bhc of his risk1 or may have been willing to undertake a risk thus diminished4 ,but at ,babylon the women who came thus to offer themselves wore a distinctive head-dress of cords1 the emblem1 perhaps1 of their condition of virginity4 ,moreover1 they seem to have been penned in enclosures divided from each other by ropes1 which were broken to let them out for the accomplishment of the rite4 ,there was therefore no mistake as to their status or object4#bhc4a ,on the other hand1 if the defloration simply involved ritual impurity such as could be removed by the proper ceremonies1 it must be asked why the task was left to a stranger4 ,none of our ancient authorities have condescended to define a stranger4 ,we are probably to understand by that term one who was not an inhabitant of the town or who was not a member of the community4 ,the analogy of certain ,australian rites already referred to1 and of rites of marriage in some other parts of the world1 would lead us to suppose that what was really intended in the first instance was one who was not eligible for sexual relations with the woman in the ordinary course4 ,thus in ,peru and ,new ,granada 8the nearest relations of the bride and her most intimate friends0 are said to have performed the corresponding rite#bhc4b2 and even her father is credited #bhd with the labour among the ,orang-,sakai of the ,malay ,peninsula1 the ,battas of ,sumatra1 the ,alfoers of ,celebes1 and on the ,island of ,ceylon and the eastern ,moluccas4#bhd4a ,from this the more developed morality of the ,babylonians would recoil4 ,mr ,crawley1 commenting on the ,australian rite1 surmises that in it 8initiation0 and marriage are one1 and that 8initiation0 ceremonies 7that is to say1 puberty ceremonies7 8of this kind are marriages to the other sex in abstract40#bhd4b ,the surmise follows from his theory of the danger of human contact1 and especially of marriage1 and the importance of ceremonies to avert the peril4 ,the theory itself--at all events pushed to the length to which ,mr ,crawley pushes it--is very questionable4 ,but defloration at puberty1 whether natural or artificial1 is undoubtedly 7whatever else it may be7 a formal introduction to sexual life4 ,such introduction might be the more authoritative and emphatic if given by one 7or more7 with whom sexual relations would not in future be sustained4 ,it is a ritual act4 ,ritual acts are acts out of the ordinary course--often clean contrary to the ordinary course4 ,therein consists their essence1 their virtue4 ,but in the growth of civilization1 with the emergence of a new religion or different customs1 the real meaning of a traditional rite is obscured1 the rite itself becomes decadent1 and a new meaning is assigned to it4 ,hence a puberty rite might easily become part of the cult of a goddess like ,mylitta4 ,moreover1 at the stage of decay which the rite had reached at ,babylon and elsewhere in ,western ,asia1 the proviso that the person with whom the act was performed must be a stranger might be intended to prevent an #bhe assignation4 ,when the act had to be performed as a sacrifice in honour of the goddess it might be regarded as a profanation to perform it as an act of inclination with a favoured lover4 ,the best way to prevent this would be to require that it should be performed with a chance stranger1 who might further be looked upon1 if ,mannhardt's interpretation be correct1 as a representative sent by the goddess to play ,adonis to the maiden's ,aphrodite4 ,the rite at ,byblus lends countenance to this conjecture4 ,it is supported also by the artificial defloration enacted only in symbol by ,roman brides1 but in grim earnest at the temples of ,siva by brides in ,southern ,india4 ,but we are able to carry the conjecture a step beyond this4 ,here ,i am glad to avail myself of the criticism of ,professor ,westermarck1 who has pointed out that a semi-supernatural character is very generally ascribed to strangers1 and that intercourse with a stranger would thus be productive of blessings--especially the blessing of fertility--to the woman4#bhe4a ,from the large collections on the subject of relations with strangers brought together by ,professor ,frazer and ,professor ,westermarck himself it results that a stranger is regarded as uncanny4 ,he is a being possessed of unknown powers for good or ill4 ,his orenda1 as we have seen1 is incalculable4#bhe4b ,he must therefore be either repulsed at once as a foe or received and treated with extraordinary respect4 ,the former course is not usually adopted unless the strangers come in force or there are other circumstances that suggest hostile intent4 ,the latter course has given birth to laws of hospitality recognized all over the world1 however the exact procedure may differ among different peoples4 #bhf ,but even in this case the stranger is looked upon with suspicion until he has undergone what ,m4 van ,gennep calls rites of aggregation to the group or society to which he has come4 ,these rites may be of the most simple character1 such as spitting upon his host or drinking a cup of water or coffee from his host's hand2 or they may involve a trial of strength1 an exchange of gifts1 the offering of sacrifices or entry into a blood-covenant4#bhf4a ,the uncanny character thus attributed to a stranger includes not merely the possession of magical powers4 ,in a society where everyone1 or at least a large and unknown number of persons1 is believed to be endowed more or less with magical powers1 this is a matter of course4 ,but a halo of still more mysterious possibility encircles a stranger3 he may be a superhuman ,power1 a dead man1 or even a god4 ,hence arise the numerous stories1 many of which have been collected by ,mr ,gerould in his monograph on ,the ,grateful ,dead1 published by the ,folk-,lore ,society in #aijh4 ,these stories usually represent the stranger as a dead man to whom the hero has rendered some service1 such as that of burying his corpse4 ,but perhaps the best known1 and among the most ancient is that found in the book of ,tobit1 where the stranger is the angel ,raphael4 ,a tale even older and more widespread is preserved among the ,hebrew traditions as that of ,lot and the two angels who visited him in ,sodom4 ,probably it was part of the common ,semitic stock1 and as such would have been known at ,babylon4 ,substantially the same story is that of ,baucis and ,philemon reported by ,ovid2 and the tale of ,demeter's wanderings and many another in ,greek legend rest on a common basis of belief4 ,continental folklore down to modern days #bhg identifies the unknown beggar as ,jesus ,christ ,himself or1 if a woman1 his ,mother4 ,the ,bantu of ,south-,west ,africa tell of the great goddess ,nzambi who begs in disguise for a little palm-wine to slake the thirst of her child4 ,refusal is followed in the night by punishment2 the smiling valley1 like that of ,sodom1 is covered by the waters of a lake2 and the only person saved is he who had taken compassion and granted the poor old mendicant's request4#bhg4a ,lest this be thought a tale imported from ,europe1 let me add that in ,annam a similar tale is told to account for three lakes in the province of ,thay ,nguyen4 ,there a beggar-woman is repulsed by all save an old widow and her son1 who give of their poverty food and a night's lodging to the miserable and unattractive creature4 ,she turns out to be a supernatural personage4 ,she has come down to test the hearts of the devotees who have flocked to a great religious festival periodically held in the place4 ,the hypocrites who repulsed her are all overwhelmed in a deluge of waters2 only the widow and her son are saved4#bhg4b ,to labour the proof is unnecessary4 ,it is abundantly clear that a stranger may be far more than mortal1 and that this possibility has deeply affected the evolution of hospitality4 ,the stranger must be conciliated4 ,he must be bound by sacred ties to the host--ties which he cannot break so long as he remains under the host's protection4 ,among the rites of aggregation--the rites effecting this union--,m4 van ,gennep reckons the use of the women frequently accorded to visitors in the lower culture2 and he suggests that the rite at the temple of ,mylitta was such a rite of aggregation4 ,it may have been so4 ,it may have been expected of all masculine strangers at ,babylon to unite themselves with the natives by means #bhh of this homage to the goddess4 ,all that can be said is that ,herodotus gives no hint of it4 ,according to him it was only on the women that the duty lay--and that no more than once in their lives--of submitting to the rite4 ,the mystery attaching to a stranger and involving the expectation of divine blessing is a sufficient reason for the performance of the rite with one who might be a god in person1 and in any event must have been held to be divinely sent2 for chance is the servant of the gods4 ,thence it is but a step 7and the step was taken elsewhere1 if not at ,babylon7 to the substitution of the priest for the stranger or the god2 and the way is opened to the abuses of the jus prim noctis4#bhh4a ,before dismissing the subject reference may be made to ,professor ,cumont's note on the subject of religious prostitution in ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain 7,paris1 #aijg71 pp4 #adc1 #bhf1 as showing the facility with which a learned and highly distinguished scholar may fail to appreciate the complexity of the problem4 ,he makes no distinction between the three customs of sacrifice of virginity1 prostitution to earn a dowry1 and a life of religious prostitution in the service of the goddess4 ,he refers them all to the primitive constitution of the ,semitic tribe1 and explains them as a modified form1 become utilitarian1 of an ancient exogamy4 ,mating with a virgin1 he holds1 resulted in defilement2 therefore she was given first to a stranger2 only after that could she be married to a man of her own race4 ,i pass by the confusion between the three customs in question1 to all of which his explanation will not equally #bhi apply4 ,but if the explanation be correct for any of them1 either the ancient exogamy of the ,semites must have been quite different from exogamy as generally understood1 or it must have been not merely modified but transformed4 ,exogamy1 as generally understood1 has nothing to do with race or nationality4 ,it is simply the savage rule corresponding to our table of prohibited degrees4#bhi4a ,a man may not marry or have sexual relations with one who is akin to him2 every member of his clan 7not of his tribe or his race7 is akin to him2 therefore1 he cannot marry or have sexual relations with any member of his clan4 ,the origin of this rule is still disputed by anthropologists1 and we need not here discuss it4 ,but since exogamy bars a man from sexual relations with every member of his kin1 it is obvious that it cannot be merely a preliminary to marriage within the kin4 ,where exogamy is the law1 the bar is absolute2 it is the law for the whole of life2 it is not intended to provide for a temporary union outside the kin in order to prepare the way for a permanent union within the kin4 ,exogamy1 therefore1 ,i submit1 cannot explain these customs4 ,,the ,,voice ,,of ,,the ,,stone ,,of ,,destiny #bij ,in the following pages ,i propose to consider some of the auguries which have been deemed necessary to the choice of a king4 ,kingship is not found in the most archaic forms of society known to us4 ,but where the community is organized on the basis of monarchy the king tends to be regarded as something more than ordinary humanity4 ,he has powers and privileges denied to other mortals4 ,these very powers and privileges and the sanctity of which they are the appanage entail1 however1 taboos and penalties of the most burdensome description4 ,professor ,frazer has abundantly illustrated this side of royalty1 and has also fully discussed some of the means whereby pretensions to the throne are enforced4 ,but there remain others witnessing not less than those he has described to the extraordinary position of a king4 ,some of these and their echoes in folk-tale and romance will repay a little attention4 ,the famous ,coronation ,stone has an authentic history of six hundred years4 ,at the time of the conquest of ,scotland by ,edward ,i41 it was the stone on which the kings of the ,scots were1 according to immemorial custom1 installed4 ,regarded by the ,scots as sacred1 it was therefore removed by ,edward's order from ,scone1 where it stood1 to ,westminster1 and was enclosed in what is now1 #bia and has been ever since1 the ,coronation ,chair4 ,its earlier history1 as distinguished from conjecture and legend1 goes no further back than the middle of the thirteenth century1 or something less than half a century before its removal to ,westminster1 when it is recorded by ,fordun that ,alexander ,,iii4 was solemnly placed upon it and hallowed to king by the ,bishop of ,st4 ,andrews 7#abdi74 ,but what is wanting in authentic history has been abundantly made up in legend4 ,the tale1 of which there are two versions1 is the creation of a literary age4 ,the ,irish version brings it1 with the ,tuatha ,d ,danann1 from ,lochlann1 or ,scandinavia1 to ,ireland4 ,the ,scottish version traces it on the other hand from ,egypt1 whence it was carried by the ,milesians4 ,this was improved upon1 to the extent of identifying the stone with that used by ,jacob as a pillow on his journey from ,beersheba to ,haran4 ,the attempt was thus made1 by connecting the ruling race in ,scotland with the legends of the ,hebrew patriarchs1 to confer upon the stone the united sanctity of religion1 of antiquity1 and of patriotism4 ,in the course of its wanderings the stone is said to have reached ,tara2 and it is declared to be the famous ,lia ,fil1 or ,stone of ,destiny1 one of the two wonders of ,tara celebrated in ,irish sagas4 ,we are indebted to the ,book of ,lismore1 a fifteenth-century manuscript1 for an enumeration of the wonderful properties of the ,lia ,fil4 ,the ,colloquy with the ,ancients1 which is comprised in this precious manuscript1 records a number of ,irish traditions1 some of which would else in all probability have perished beyond recovery4 ,there we learn--the account is put into the mouth of no less a personage than ,ossian himself--that 8,anyone of all ,ireland on whom an ex parte imputation rested was set upon that stone3 #bib then if the truth were in him he would turn pink and white2 but if otherwise1 it was a black spot that in some conspicuous place would appear on him4 ,further1 when ,ireland's monarch stepped on to it the stone would cry out under him1 and her three arch-waves would boom in answer3 as the wave of ,cleena1 the wave of ,ballintoy1 and the wave of ,loch ,rury2 when a provincial king went on it the flag would rumble under him2 when a barren woman trod it1 it was a dew of dusky blood that broke out on it2 when one that would bear children tried it1 it was a #8nursing drop'0--that is1 says ,mr ,standish ,o',grady1 from whose translation ,i quote1 semblance of milk--8that it sweated40#bib4a ,the ,colloquy is imperfect1 the legible portion of the manuscript ceasing a line or two further on1 just as we are about to be told how it was that the stone left ,ireland4#bib4b ,its subsequent adventures are related by ,keating1 who says that it was sent to ,feargus the ,great1 8to sit upon1 for the purpose of being proclaimed king of ,scotland40 ,however1 it is not to the adventures of the stone1 but to its properties that ,i wish now to direct attention4 ,with regard to the former1 all that ,i need add is that the legend has been subjected by ,skene1 and more recently by ,mr ,p4 ,j4 ,o',reilly1 to an exhaustive analysis1 which renders it clear that there is no trustworthy evidence that the stone of ,tara is the ,coronation ,stone4 ,the antecedent improbability is great2 and even if it were indisputable that the stone in question was no longer at ,tara in the eleventh century1 the chasm between that period and ,fergus1 whose very existence only rested on legend1 #bic would still have to be bridged1 and the variants of the story would need to be reconciled4#bic4a ,the properties of the stone of ,tara were oracular2 and the stone itself was one of a large class of stones endowed in popular opinion with divining powers1 and actually resorted to for the purpose of enquiry4 ,when the reputation of an oracle is once established1 it is consulted for many purposes4 ,not only political1 but juridical and domestic purposes are enumerated by the author of the ,colloquy in regard to the ,lia ,fil4 ,among these functions is the recognition of the monarch4 ,the phrase used in the ,colloquy is ambiguous4 ,it is not stated why1 or on what occasion1 the stone was expected to make its voice heard4 ,in practice the only object of obtaining such a recognition would be that of determining the succession to the throne4 ,keating supplies the missing explanation4 8,it was a stone10 he says1 8on which were enchantments1 for it used to roar under the person who had the best right to obtain the sovereignty of ,ireland at the time of the men of ,ireland being in assembly at ,tara to choose a king over them40#bic4b ,whether as a matter of fact the stone ever was consulted with this object is another question4 ,it is enough at #bid present to know that ,irish tradition asserted this use of the oracle4 ,in a semi-civilized community a disputed succession is of frequent occurrence4 ,to prevent a dispute1 and to settle it when it arises1 various means are adopted4 ,the usual ,irish plan seems to have been the custom of ,tanistry4 8,during the lifetime of a chief10 ,sullivan tells us1 8his successor was elected under the name of ,tanaiste2 and on the death of the former the latter succeeded him4 ,the ,tanaiste was not necessarily the son of the chief3 he might be his brother or nephew2 but he should belong to his ,fine10 or family4#bid4a ,that this mode of election was not always successful we may easily believe4 ,that it was the gradual outcome of the experience of a long series of generations is probable4 ,where for one cause or another it failed1 how would the succession be determined8 ,the most obvious means would be either conflict or divination4 ,according to the legends1 divination was sometimes actually used to determine the appointment of king4 ,on one occasion in the days of ,conchobar1 the famous ,king of ,ulster1 the monarchy of ,ireland had been vacant for seven years4 ,this state of things being found intolerable1 a general assembly was held at ,tara to choose a king4 ,the royal houses of ,connaught1 ,south ,munster1 ,north ,munster1 and ,leinster were there1 but the ,ulstermen were absent2 for there was bitter feud between ,ulster and the rest of ,ireland1 and they would not hold kingly counsel together4 ,the mode of election adopted was divination by means of a dream induced by certain ceremonies4 ,the ceremonies began with a bull-feast4 ,a bull was killed1 and a man was gorged with its flesh and #bie broth4 ,we are told 8he slept under that meal40 ,it is not incredible4 ,then 8a true oration10 which ,i understand to mean an incantation1 was pronounced over him by four ,druids4 ,he dreamed1 and screamed out of his sleep1 and related to the assembled kings that he had seen in his dream 8a soft youth1 noble1 and powerfully made1 with two red stripes on his skin around his body1 and he standing at the pillow of a man who was lying in a decline at ,emain ,macha10 the royal palace of ,ulster4 ,messengers were accordingly sent thither1 and the description was found to correspond with that of ,lugaidh ,reo-derg1 the pupil of ,cuchulainn1 who was then lying ill4 ,lugaidh was brought to ,tara1 recognized as the subject of the vision1 and proclaimed as monarch of ,ireland4#bie4a ,this is not the only instance in ,irish legend of election to the throne by incubatio1 or divination by means of a dream4 ,conaire1 whose tale is filled with incidents explicable only by the comparative studies of ethnologists1 was thus elected4 ,though really begotten by a supernatural bird-man1 he was regarded as the son of his predecessor1 ,eterscle4 ,but this does not seem to have given him any title to succeed4 ,a bull-feast was accordingly given2 and the bull-feaster in his sleep at the end of the night beheld a man stark-naked1 passing along the road of ,tara with a stone in his sling4 ,warned and counselled by his bird-relatives1 ,conaire fulfilled these requirements4 ,he found three kings 7doubtless of the under-kings of ,ireland7 awaiting him1 with royal raiment to clothe his nakedness1 and a chariot to convey him to ,tara4 ,it was a disappointment to the folk of ,tara to #bif find that their bull-feast and their spell of truth chanted over the feaster had resulted in the selection of a beardless lad4 ,but he convinced them that he was the true successor1 and was admitted to the kingship4#bif4a ,a traditional story is not a record of fact4 ,it is a record only of what is believed4 ,probably both ,lugaidh ,reo-derg and ,conaire are mythical personages1 but their stories certainly embody what was thought to be possible4 ,the description of the election by divination is substantially the same in both4 ,it may therefore be taken1 if not as approximately correct1 at least as showing that election by divination was regarded among the ancient ,irish as in the last resort a reasonable and proper manner of ascertaining and appointing a king4 ,in this the ,irish were by no means singular4 ,the traditions of other nations point to the same result1 and the customs in various parts of the world confirm it4 ,the incident of election by divination is so picturesque and so suitable for the purposes of a story-teller that it is to be expected far more often in a tale than in real life4 ,but that the story-incident is based on actual practice1 ,i think there is sufficient ground for believing4 ,we will first shortly review a few stories of election by divination4 ,the ,saxons of ,transylvania tell of a peasant who had three sons1 of whom the youngest was despised by the others because he was weak and small while they were tall and strong4 ,in that kingdom ,god ,himself chose the king from time to time4 ,the mode of ascertaining the divine will was to call a general assembly of the people on the king's meadow in the largest commune of the country1 and there to lay the crown at a certain hour on a hillock or mound4 ,all the bells in the #big town pealed forth together2 and the crown slowly raised itself in the air1 floated round over the heads of the assembly1 and finally alighted on that of the destined sovereign4 ,the two elder brothers made ready to attend the ceremony1 but bade the youngest remain at home in the ashes1 where his place was4 ,however1 he slipped out after them1 and1 for fear they would see him1 crept into a pigsty that stood at the end of the town abutting on the meadow4 ,the crown1 passing over all the people present1 sank down upon the pigsty4 ,surprised and curious to know what this strange proceeding meant1 the people ran to the pigsty1 there found the trembling boy1 and drawing him forth bowed the knee and saluted him as the new king1 called by ,god to occupy the throne4#big4a ,in this ,transylvanian mrchen the crown is the instrument of divination4 ,going next to the dim and distant ,east we find other emblems of royalty thus represented4 ,in the ,jtaka1 the great book of ,buddhist ,birth-stories1 the supposititious child of a merchant's wife of ,maghada is the hero of a similar adventure4 ,he is1 however1 no ordinary child but the ,bodhisatta1 the future ,buddha in an earlier birth4 ,he was called ,banyan1 from having been found under a banyan tree1 where his own mother had forsaken him at his birth4 ,travelling with two faithful companions who had been born on the same day as himself1 he came to ,benares1 and entering the royal park lay down upon a slab of stone with his two companions beside it4 ,the previous night they had slept in the city under a tree at a temple4 ,one of the youths had awakened at dawn and heard some cocks quarrelling in the branches4 ,he listened1 and learnt that whoever killed a certain one of these birds and ate of his fat would become king that very day1 he who ate the middle flesh #bih would become commander-in-chief1 and he who ate the flesh about the bones would become treasurer4 ,he killed the bird1 gave the fat to ,banyan1 the middle flesh to his other friend1 and gnawed the bones himself4 ,now the king of ,benares was dead1 and that day the festal car was going forth with the five symbols of royalty1 the sword1 the parasol1 the diadem1 the slippers1 and the fan1 within it1 to choose the king's successor4 ,as the three youths lay in the royal park1 the ceremonial chariot rolled up and stopped before them4 ,the chaplain 7presumably a ,brahman7 followed4 ,removing the cloth from ,banyan's feet he examined the marks upon them4 8,why60 he exclaimed1 8he is destined to be king of all ,india1 let alone ,benares60 and he ordered the gongs and the cymbals to strike up4 ,this awoke ,banyan1 who sat up4 ,the chaplain fell down before him1 saying3 8,divine being1 the kingdom is thine40 8,so be it10 quietly answered the youth2 the chaplain placed him upon the heap of precious jewels and sprinkled him to be king4#bih4a ,in a ,calmuck tale the instrument of divination is not one of the royal insignia1 but a sacrificial cake4 ,an assembly of the people is held to choose a new khan2 and it is decided to appeal to the judgement of heaven by throwing a sacrificial cake1 called ,baling1 apparently a figure of dough1 into the air1 at the time of the sacrifice 7,streuopfer74 ,on whosesoever head the cake fell1 he should be khan4#bih4b ,a tale of the ,teleut ,tartars tells of a father who was enraged with his son because he interpreted the cry of some birds1 declaring that they foretold that he himself would become emperor1 and his father would drink his urine4 ,the father1 in his anger1 struck off his son's head4 #bii ,he then killed his horse1 skinned it1 rolled his son's body in the hide and flung it into the sea4 ,the waves carried the package to a village1 where an old woman found it4 ,she opened the leather1 and the youth came out alive4 ,the prince of that land had died1 leaving no son4 ,his subjects took two golden posts1 and fastened on their tops two tapers4 ,they then set up the posts in the middle of the village4 ,everyone was required to jump through them1 and the tapers would fall on him who was to be the prince4 ,but they obstinately remained standing until the destined youth came1 when they both fell on his neck and burst into flame4 ,if he had not become an emperor1 at least he was now a prince3 and with that variation1 the whole of the bird's prophecy was in due course fulfilled4#bii4a ,but we need not follow it further4 ,the hero of a ,balochi tale likewise falls under his father's displeasure4 ,his father was a king1 and the son took advantage of his royalty to break the crockery of his father's subjects4 ,when the people complained1 his father drove him away4 ,in the course of his wanderings1 he came to a town where the king had just died4 ,the palace door was shut1 and upon it was written3 8,he whose hand shall open this door1 shall be king of this city40 ,the wandering prince1 reading this1 said3 8,bismillah40 ,he pushed the door3 it opened4 ,he entered1 seated himself on the throne1 and became king4#bii4b ,the ,kah-gyur1 a sacred work of ,tibetan ,buddhism dating back to the eleventh century or thereabouts1 contains a story of king nanda4 ,the name nanda is famous in the literature of ,buddhism as that of a favourite disciple of the master2 but it is here used in the indiscriminate way in which the medival friars used #cjj the names of ,pompey1 ,titus1 ,pliny1 and other famous ,romans1 in the ,gesta ,romanorum4 ,this king had five sons1 of whom the youngest was endowed with qualities better suited to a ruler than the others1 and to whom accordingly he desired to leave the kingdom4 ,but he feared that if he invested his youngest son with sovereign power1 his kinsmen would reproach him for having passed over his elder sons4 ,as a way of escape from the difficulty he decreed that after his death his sons should be tested1 and that he should be made king whom the jewel-shoes should fit1 under whom the throne should remain steadfast1 and on whose head the diadem should rest unshaken1 whom the women should recognize1 and who should guess six objects to be divined by insight4#cjj4a ,there is a triple test here--divination by the royal insignia1 the choice of the harem1 and the solution of a riddle4 ,i shall return to the two former tests4 ,but before passing to another type of story ,i may note that in the ,bakhtyr-,nma1 a ,persian romance translated by ,sir ,william ,ouseley1 who brought it from the ,east in the early part of the last century1 there is a story in which the succession to the throne is made to depend upon the solution of three riddles4 ,the king having died without issue1 it was resolved to go to the prison and propound three questions to the criminals confined there4 ,he who answered best was recognized as king4#cjj4b ,riddles are regarded in certain stages of civilization as a test of more than ordinary wisdom4 ,their position in the evolution of thought and custom is well worth investigation4 ,it is too large a subject for discussion here4 ,occasionally the instrument of divination is wholly wanting1 and the first man met with is taken for king4 #cja ,among a tribe in ,morocco is told a tale of which the hero is made king1 because he is the first man found outside the city-gate when it is opened in the morning4#cja4a ,another of these stories is that of ,ali ,shar and ,zumurrud in the ,arabian ,nights4 ,ali ,shar was a prodigal1 and ,zumurrud was his favourite female slave4 ,by a series of diverting adventures which do not concern us1 they are separated4 ,after much suffering1 ,zumurrud contrives to possess herself of a man's clothes1 horse and sword4 ,in the course of her wanderings she draws nigh to a city-gate1 where she finds the emirs and nobles with the troops drawn up and waiting1 as ,conaire found the three kings waiting on the way to ,tara4 ,the soldiery1 on seeing her1 dash forward4 ,they dismount and prostrate themselves before her1 saluting her as lord and sultan4 ,on enquiry she learns that the sultan of the city is dead2 and on such occasions it is the custom that the troops sally forth to the suburbs1 there to sojourn for three days4 ,whoever comes during that time from the quarter whence she has come is made king4 ,being a lady of resource1 she accepts the position1 administers the kingdom with efficiency1 and ultimately finds means to avenge herself on her enemies and to be reunited with her master1 ,ali ,shar4#cja4b ,an ,indian folk-tale relates that in a certain city 8it was the custom that when the rja died the nobles of the kingdom used to take their seats at the gate of the city1 and the first man who appeared before them they made their rja40#cja4c ,the same tale is told by the ,taranchi ,tartars1 an #cjb agricultural people who are now settled in the valley of the ,ili1 a large river flowing into ,lake ,balkash1 in ,central ,asia4 ,but it is told with this difference4 ,when the hero draws nigh to the gate of the city1 all the people cry out 8,cuckoo1 cuckoo60 ,on enquiring why they do this1 they reply3 8,our ruler has been dead for three days4 ,he had a magical bird1 which has been let fly1 and on whosesoever head the bird settles1 him we raise to be our prince40 ,here the augury is drawn from a bird4#cjb4a ,in another ,tartar mrchen1 this time from the west of ,siberia1 the ruler of the town has grown old1 and is desirous of retiring4 ,he has a bird which is let fly and chooses a woman4 ,she is immediately accepted as prince and installed in the place of the old man4#cjb4b ,in a ,kurdish mrchen a special bird called 8the bird of dominion0 is fetched1 it is not said whence1 for the purpose of the divination4#cjb4c ,an animal of some kind is1 in fact1 the agent in most of these tales4 ,a ,buddhist tale from ,cambodia tells us that1 the royal family having become extinct1 it was the custom to ask the royal family of another kingdom to furnish a king4 ,the council of mandarins determined to take this course4 ,under the advice of an old astrologer horses were harnessed to the carriage--we must understand1 no doubt1 the royal carriage--and then allowed to go in any direction they pleased1 without a driver4 ,this is described as consulting the horses4 ,the first day the horses re-entered the palace4 ,the next day they drew the carriage in the direction of a neighbouring kingdom4 ,twice1 thrice the carriage was turned back2 but the #cjc horses persisted in drawing it again in the same direction4 ,it was accordingly decided to demand a prince from that kingdom4#cjc4a ,in the ,east1 however1 as might be expected1 it is usually the royal animal1 the elephant1 which thus confers the kingdom4 ,i have already cited one great collection of ,indian tales4 ,there is another1 only second to the ,jtaka in extent1 the ,kath ,sarit ,sgara1 or ,ocean of the ,streams of ,story1 translated a few years ago by ,dr ,tawney4 ,it contains a mrchen1 perhaps derived from that older and more famous collection1 the ,panchatantra1 of a man who retired with his wife to the forest1 to practise austerities4 ,while there he rescued from the river a wretch whose hands and feet had been cut off1 and who had been thrown by his enemies into the stream to die4 ,his wife1 probably sick of austerities1 falls in love with the cripple thus rescued1 and plots her husband's death4 ,she succeeds in precipitating him into the river2 but instead of being drowned he is thrown on the bank near a city4 8,now it happened that at that time the king of that city had just died1 and in that country there was an immemorial custom1 that an auspicious elephant was driven about by the citizens1 and any man that he took up with his trunk and placed on his back1 was anointed king40 ,the hero of the story1 who is 8an incarnation of a portion of a ,bodhisattva10 is of course chosen2 and when he gets the chance he inflicts condign punishment on his wife4#cjc4b ,the elephant is here described as 8an auspicious elephant40 ,sometimes he is called the 8crown-elephant10 the special property and symbol of royalty4 ,so in a ,tamil story we learn that the king of #cjd a certain city dying childless1 on his death-bed called his ministers together and directed them 8to send his crown-elephant with a flower-wreath in his trunk1 and to choose him on whom the elephant throws the garland1 as his successor40#cjd4a ,in a folk-tale from the far north of ,india it is 8the sacred elephant0 before whom all the inhabitants are required to pass in file1 and the animal is expected to elect one of them to the vacant throne 8by kneeling down and saluting the favoured individual as he passed by1 for in this manner kings were elected in that country40#cjd4b ,in a story which appears to come from ,gujerat1 the king dies without an heir1 and the astrologers prophesy that his heir would be the first who entered the gates of the city on the morrow of the king's decease1 and around whose neck the sacred elephant would throw a garland of flowers4#cjd4c ,at other times the elephant alone does not make the choice4 ,with him is conjoined some other animal or symbol of royalty4 ,a tale from ,kashmir speaks of a land where1 when the king died1 his elephant 8was driven all over the country and his hawk was made to fly here1 there and everywhere in search of a successor2 and it came to pass that before whomsoever the elephant bowed and on whosesoever hand the hawk alighted1 he was supposed to be the divinely chosen one40#cjd4d ,in the ,kathkoa1 a collection of stories illustrating the tenets and practice of ,jainism1 five ordeals1 as they are expressly called1 are invoked4 8,the mighty elephant came into the garden outside the city4 ,there the elephant sprinkled ,prince #cje ,amaradatta we have already heard of sprinkling as a means of hallowing to kingship1 and put him on its back4 ,then the horse neighed4 ,the two chowries fanned the prince4 ,an umbrella was held over his head4 ,a divine voice was heard in the air3 #8,long live ,king ,amaradatta4'0#cje4a ,in most of these cases the decision is clearly regarded as the judgement of ,heaven2 and in every case the judgement of ,heaven may at least be inferred4 ,the incident is hardly less a favourite in the ,west than in the ,east4 ,in the ,west1 too1 it is an appeal to the judgement of ,heaven4 ,all the ,european stories1 however1 in which it occurs have been recorded within the last century2 consequently the incident in question appears only in a very late form4 ,now an appeal to the judgement of ,heaven in the selection of a ruler is familiar to the peasant mind of the continent in one solitary instance--that of the choice of a pope4 ,accordingly this is the favourite1 if not the only form of the story as it is told in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,switzerland4 ,the charming collection by the late ,m4 ,luzel of religious and quasi-religious tales of ,lower ,brittany contains one entitled 8,pope ,innocent40 ,the hero is a son of the ,king of ,france cast off by his parents1 who attempt to put him to death4 ,he sets out for ,rome to be present at the election of a new pope4 ,on the way he falls in with two ,capuchin monks4 ,the elder of them is gentle to him1 the other suspicious and hostile4 ,the youth is a bit of a prig4 ,perhaps this is not to be wondered at1 seeing that he is endowed with supernatural knowledge and power4 ,these qualities make his conduct throughout the journey enigmatical to the point of excusing1 if not justifying1 the attitude of his unfriendly companion4 #cjf ,everyone takes him for a sorcerer2 and the younger monk says in so many words to the other1 that they will be lucky if he do not bring them to the gallows or the stake before reaching ,rome4 ,as they draw near the holy city1 the boy hears some birds in a hedge foretell that one of the three will be made pope1 just as the cocks were overheard in the story ,i have cited from the ,jtaka4 ,thereupon he enquires of each of his companions what office he will give him if he 7the monk7 attain this dignity4 ,the elder monk promises to make him his first cardinal1 the younger contemptuously says he will make him beadle in his cathedral4 ,arrived at ,rome1 they find that the choice of a pope proceeds in this way3 ,there are to be three days' processions4 ,every pilgrim has to carry a candle1 not lighted1 in his hand2 and he whose candle lights of itself is the person designated by ,god to the office of pope4 ,the youth1 however1 has no money to buy candles4 ,so he carries merely a white wand which he has cut in the hedge where the birds sang2 and people1 seeing him1 shrug their shoulders and exclaim3 8,look at that poor innocent60 ,it is1 however1 not the candle of an archbishop1 or bishop1 or of any great dignitary of the church2 it is not that of an abbot1 or a monk1 or even of a simple priest1 which lights2 it is the boy ,innocent's white wand4 ,the omen is refused on the first day2 nor is it accepted until it has been repeated on the second and third days of the ceremony4 ,at last the premier cardinal kneels before him1 acknowledges him as pope and asks for his benediction4 ,thus ,innocent becomes pope at ,rome1 by the will of ,god4#cjf4a ,the story of ,pope ,innocent belongs to the cycle of the ,outcast ,child1 a well-known group of folk-tales1 of which #cjg the examples most familiar to us are the story of ,king ,lear and that of ,joseph and his brethren4 ,the hero 7or heroine7 of these tales is cast off by his relatives for reasons at the least excusable4 ,sometimes1 as in the ,teleut tale already mentioned1 his life is attempted4 ,but in the end he attains a place and dignity which enable him to compel recognition of his wrongs1 and1 after the infliction of retributive humiliation1 to pardon the offenders4 ,in these mrchen the pope is not always chosen by the burning of a taper4 ,in the ,italian variants the favourite method is by a dove which alights on the hero's head4 ,in a ,swiss story from the ,upper ,valais two snow-white doves settle on his shoulders4 ,in a ,basque story1 as the travellers approach ,rome the bells begin to ring of themselves4 ,in a story from ,upper ,brittany the will of ,heaven is declared by a bell1 which rings of itself when the destined pope passes beneath it4 ,in a story from ,normandy the new pope is indicated by 8a portion of ,heaven stooping upon him whom ,jesus would choose to govern ,his ,church40 ,the collector1 while faithfully recording this singular phrase1 is puzzled by it1 and suggests that it must mean a cloud resting on him4#cjg4a ,in all cases it is quite clear that the falling of the lot1 however it may be accomplished1 is regarded as a direct expression of the divine will4 ,the sacred character of the ,papacy1 and the names of historical popes1 as ,innocent and ,gregory1 given to the heroes1 raise the suspicion that these tales are something more than mrchen1 and lead directly to the enquiry1 not whether such prodigies have in fact been the means of determining the succession to the popedom1 but whether they have been believed to have occurred4 ,now it happens that this very event was reported in #cjh connection with the election of the great ,pope ,innocent ,,iii41 in the year #aaih4 ,three doves1 it was said1 flew about the church during the proceedings1 and at last one of them1 a white one1 came and perched on his right side1 which was held to be a favourable omen4#cjh4a ,in the atmosphere of the ,middle ,ages an occurrence of the kind1 if it happened1 could not fail to make a great impression on the popular mind4 ,the dove would be regarded as no less than the embodiment of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,long before ,innocent's day--indeed before the ,middle ,ages began--something like this would seem to have happened4 ,it is recorded by ,eusebius that in the reign of the ,emperor ,gordian1 who ruled from ,a4,d4 #bch to #bdd1 when all the brethren were assembled in the church for the purpose of electing a successor to ,anteros1 ,bishop of ,rome1 suddenly a dove flew down from on high and sat on the head of ,fabian4 ,thereupon the assembly with one voice acclaimed him bishop and seated him on the episcopal throne4#cjh4b ,nor were popes alone thus honoured4 ,dr ,conyers ,middleton1 in his once famous ,letter from ,rome1 records that 8in the cathedral church of ,ravenna ,i saw1 in mosaic work1 the pictures of those archbishops of the place who1 as all their historians affirm1 were chosen for several ages successively by the special designation of the ,holy ,ghost1 who in a full assembly of the clergy and people1 used to descend visibly on the person elect in the shape of a dove40#cjh4c ,among the apocryphal stories in ,the ,book of ,sir ,john ,maundeville we are told that in the convent on ,mount ,sinai are many lamps burning4 ,the author1 #cji whoever he may have been1 writes rather a muddled account of the election of 8prelate of the abbey40 ,i gather from it that each monk has a lamp1 and that when a prelate is chosen his lamp will light of itself1 if he be a good man and worthy of the office2 if otherwise1 the lamp1 though lighted1 will go out4 ,an inconsistent tradition ran that the priest who sang mass for the deceased dignitary found written upon the altar the name of him who was to be chosen in his place4 ,but though the miracle-monger who writes under the name of ,sir ,john ,maundeville professes to have been at the monastery and questioned the monks1 he admits that he could not induce them to tell him the facts4#cji4a ,the marvels reported of the election of ,christian bishops are told with little variation of the election of other rulers4 ,paulus ,diaconus relates that when ,liutprand1 king of the ,lombards1 a contemporary of ,charles ,martel1 was thought to be dying1 his subjects met outside the walls of his capital1 ,pavia1 at the church of ,st ,mary ad ,perticas1#cji4b to choose a successor4 ,their choice fell on the king's nephew1 ,hildeprand1 in whose hand they formally placed the royal spear4 ,immediately a cuckoo flew down and settled on the point of the spear1 as it will be remembered a cuckoo in the ,tartar story settled on the kalender's head4 ,this1 however1 was reckoned by #caj ,lombard wiseacres as an evil omen4 ,their augury was so far justified1 that ,king ,liutprand did not die after all1 but recovered from his sickness and was not well pleased that his subjects had been in such a hurry to find a successor4 ,yet he did not refuse to recognize his nephew as co-ruler2 and when he at last died1 ,hildeprand succeeded him4#caj4a ,of another king of the ,lombards1 ,desiderius1 a contemporary of ,charles the ,great1 the story is told that the ,lombard nobles were meeting to choose a king at ,pavia1 and ,desiderius1 a pious man of noble lineage who dwelt at ,brescia1 journeyed thither to be present1 accompanied by a serving man4 ,at ,leno1 between ,brescia and ,cremona1 being weary1 he lay down under a tree to sleep4 ,as he slept his servant beheld a snake crawl forth and wind itself round his head like a crown4 ,the servant was afraid to move1 lest the snake might injure his master2 but after a while it uncoiled and crept away4 ,desiderius meanwhile had dreamt that the crown of the ,lombards was placed on his head4 ,when he reached ,pavia1 the dream was fulfilled4#caj4b ,it is said that in ,senjero1 a petty kingdom in the south of ,abyssinia1 when the king dies the nobles assemble outside the city in the open plain1 and wait until a vulture or an insect settles on one of them1 who is then saluted as king4#caj4c ,everyone is familiar with the story told by #caa ,herodotus concerning the election of a successor to ,smerdis the ,magian1 usurper of the throne of ,persia1 how it was agreed that the successful conspirators should meet at sunrise1 and that he whose horse first neighed should be king4 ,according to ,herodotus1 ,darius won by a trick of his groom4 ,that may or may not have been4 ,what interests us in the story is that it was believed that the succession on this occasion to the throne of ,persia was determined by an augury drawn from horses1 and that the neighing of ,darius' horse was instantly followed by the further manifestation of the will of ,heaven in thunder and lightning from a clear sky4#caa4a ,the elephant1 the horse and the divine voice of ,indian mrchen here find their counterpart1 if not in actual fact1 at least in the serious belief of the venerable historian1 and the people whose tradition he reports4 ,in this connection it must not be forgotten that among many peoples1 horses were sacred animals4 ,they were sacrificed to the gods2 they were looked upon as in the counsels of the gods2 their neighing was a favourable omen4 ,it is therefore not at all improbable that ,herodotus is here recording the mode of choice actually adopted4#caa4b ,similarly in the annals of ,kedda1 a portion of the ,malay ,peninsula1 there is a story of the rajah who was dethroned and fled4 ,his nobles and queen sent to the ,king of ,siam for a new ruler4 ,he1 having consulted his astrologers1 was advised that the true heir to the throne could only be discovered by a supernaturally intelligent elephant1 named ,kamala ,jauhari1 which was wandering about on the confines of ,kedda and ,patani4 ,when the envoys brought back the message to the ,kedda chiefs1 #cab they decked the palace for a fte4 8,then all the people held a fast for seven days and nights4''' ,on the night of the seventh day the dupa and incense were burned1 and all sorts of perfumes were diffused around1 and at the same time the name of the super-intelligent elephant was invoked to attend upon the four mantris ministers4 ,immediately almost there was a sound1 like the rushing of a coming tempest1 from the ,east1 with earthquakes1 agitations and terrific sounds4 ,in the midst of all this uproar the terrified spectators were delighted to see ,kamala ,jauhari standing at the hall1 and thrusting up her trunk into it4 ,the four mantris instantly rubbed her with cosmetics and bathed her with lime-juice1 while others applied cosmetics and sweet-smelling oils1 rubbing these over its whole body4 ,then a meal was served up to it1 and put into its mouth4 ,the state howdah was now placed on its back1 along with all its appurtenances1 curtains and hangings4 ,then one of the mantris read the ,king of ,siam's letter close to the ear of ,kamala ,jauhari1 acquainting her that she was expected to assist in finding out a rajah for ,kedda by all means4 ,when ,jauhari heard all this1 she bowed her head and played her trunk1 and then set forth in the direction of the ,east1 followed and attended by from three to four hundred men1 having banners and flags streaming in the wind1 and being supplied with all necessaries1 and armed with various kinds of spears1 held in hand40 ,it is needless to say that the expedition thus pompously described was successful in discovering the boy4 ,the elephant caught him up in her trunk1 and1 placing him on her back in the howdah1 carried him off in triumph to the palace1 where he was forthwith clad in royal robes and crowned4#cab4a ,in ,indian belief it is not only super-intelligent #cac elephants which can discover the future occupant of a throne4 ,the elephant is the possession and symbol of royalty4 ,but in the stories1 other royal properties are also instruments of divination for that purpose4 ,that these stories were founded on current superstitions is shown by the fact that among the ornaments of the throne of the famous ,tippoo1 conquered by the ,british at the end of the eighteenth century1 was a bird of paradise made of gold and covered with diamonds1 rubies and emeralds1 and represented in the act of fluttering4 ,of this bird it was believed that every head it overshadowed would1 in time1 wear a crown4 ,when ,tippoo was defeated and slain1 the ,marquis ,wellesley1 at that time governor-general1 sent it home to the ,court of ,directors of the ,east ,india ,company4#cac4a ,it is now at ,windsor4 ,coming back to ,europe1 we find the succession to the throne of one of the ,scythian tribes determined by the possession of a certain stone4 ,the author of the work on the names of rivers and mountains attributed to ,plutarch relates that in the river ,tanais a stone like a crystal grows4 ,it resembles in shape a man wearing a crown4 ,when the king dies1 whosoever finds it1 and can produce it in the assembly held on the banks of the river to elect a new sovereign1 is recognized as the rightful successor4#cac4b ,for this statement ,ctesiphon on ,plants and ,aristobulus on ,stones are cited1 authors whose works are lost and who are unknown by any other citations4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible for us to judge how far they are likely to have known1 or with what accuracy they may have presented1 the practice of the barbarous tribe referred to4 ,there can1 however1 be no doubt that election by divination has been resorted to by peoples in many parts of the world4 ,the succession of ,grand ,lamas of ,lhasa #cad supplies examples of both story and custom4 ,the custom used to be to write on slips of paper the names of all likely male children born under miraculous portents 7of which anon7 just after the death of the preceding ,lama1 to put these slips into a golden urn and thus ballot for his successor 7or1 as it is believed1 his new incarnation7 amid constant prayer4 ,but the ,chinese court1 which has a considerable stake in the decision1 was thought to influence the selection4 ,the state-oracle has therefore predicted disaster by the appearance of a monster as the ,dalai or ,grand ,lama1 if the ancient practice were continued2 and on a recent vacancy1 in #ahgf1 he foretold the discovery1 by a pious monk1 of the future ,grand ,lama1 announcing that his discovery would be accompanied by horse-neighings4 ,he sent this monk to ,chukorgye1 where he dreamed that he was to look in a certain lake for the future ,dalai4 ,there1 pictured in the bosom of the lake1 the monk saw the child with his parents in the house where he was born1 and at the same instant his horse neighed4 ,in due course the child himself was found1 and successfully encountered the usual test1 by recognizing the articles which had belonged to him in his previous life4 ,every child who is a candidate has to pass this test4 ,he is confronted with a duplicate collection of various sacred objects1 and he is required to point out among them the genuine possessions of the ,dalai ,lama4 ,the ,dalai ,lama is not the only ,grand ,lama4 ,the head of every lamasery1 or convent of lamas1 bears this title4 ,when the ,grand ,lama of such a lamasery dies1 his successor1 or new incarnation1 is sought first of all by divination4 ,a diviner is called in1 who1 after consulting his books1 directs the lamas where to look for the boy4 ,when they have found him1 he has to pass a similar test to that just described4 ,in addition he has to submit to cross-examination #cae on the name and situation of the lamasery1 and how many lamas reside there1 and on the habits of the deceased ,grand ,lama1 and the manner of his death4 ,the portents at the birth of a ,dalai ,lama are magnificent4 ,it is not irrelevant to mention them here1 as they may be regarded as part of the auguries which decide the succession4 ,an official report from the ,chinese ,commissioner to the ,emperor1 on such an occasion in the year #ahci1 declares1 among other things1 that it was ascertained that on the night before the boy was born1 a brilliant radiance of many colours was manifested in the air1 and the water in the well of the temple courtyard changed to a milk-white colour4 ,seven days later a flame appeared on the rock behind the post-station4 ,when the rock was examined1 no trace of fire remained1 but a sacred image and characters were found1 together with the print of footsteps4 ,moreover1 on the night when the child was born1 the sound of music was heard1 and milk dropped upon the pillars of the house4#cae4a ,the ,buddhists are not the only sect in the ,chinese ,empire which has a supreme head appointed by religious divination4 ,the arch-abbot of ,taouism dwells in a princely residence on the ,dragon and ,tiger ,mountains1 in the province of ,kiang-si4 8,the power of this dignitary10 we are told1 8is immense1 and is acknowledged by all the priests of his sect throughout the empire40 ,the office has been confined for centuries to one family or clan4 ,when the arch-abbot dies1 all the male members of his clan are cited to appear at the official residence4 ,the name of each one is engraved on a separate piece of lead1 and deposited in a large earthenware vase filled with water4 ,standing round this vase are priests who invoke the three persons of the ,taouist ,trinity to cause the piece #caf of lead bearing the name of the person on whom the choice of the gods has fallen1 to come to the surface of the water4#caf4a ,the ,taouist dignitary seems to possess only spiritual power1 except probably in his own monastery4 ,the ,dalai ,lama1 on the other hand1 retains some portion of civil rule4 ,in both cases the person of the ruler is looked upon as sacred4 ,among savage and barbarous nations the office of priest or medicine-man is often not clearly distinguished from that of temporal ruler4 ,the instances in which the chief or king is looked upon as divine1 in which he is responsible for the weather1 in which he causes the crops to grow1 and performs other superhuman functions1 are too numerous1 and too well-known to be mentioned here4 ,since the publication of ,the ,golden ,bough they have been among the commonplaces of folklore4 ,i need only remind you that 8the divinity that doth hedge a king0 is not confined to savagery and barbarism4 ,it has lasted far into civilization1 and been sedulously cultivated for political purposes by royalty in every age4 ,a ,roman ,emperor was ,divus ,augustus4 ,when the dignity of king becomes hereditary1 the monarch is held to be at least descended from the gods4 ,the ,mikado traces his descent from the ,sun-goddess4 ,king ,george ,v4 traces his from ,woden1 the war-god of the ,anglo-,saxon tribes which colonized ,britain in the fifth and sixth centuries4 ,it is true that this genealogy1 at one time seriously credited1 is now treated as fable2 but even yet the coronation ceremonies of 8,his ,sacred ,majesty10 though not directly of pagan origin1 witness to the mysterious sanctity that surrounds him4 ,a view of kingship thus exalted renders it easy to understand why1 when circumstances compelled the choice #cag of a king1 the divine will must have been most anxiously consulted4 ,it was not merely that the qualities of a leader in battle1 a wise judge and administrator1 and a prudent politician were needed4 ,luck and the favour of the gods were more than these1 to say nothing of the marks of godhead1 which in many cases it was necessary to discover in his person1 conduct or knowledge4 ,hence the choice of the people1 or rather the recognition by the people1 would depend upon the auguries1 or upon more direct indications of the decision of ,heaven4 ,when ,dagara1 the ,king of ,karagwe1 on the western shore of ,lake ,victoria ,nyanza1 died1 he left behind him three sons1 any of whom was eligible to the throne4 ,the officers of state put before them a small mystic drum4 ,it was of trifling weight1 but1 being loaded with charms1 no one could lift it1 save he to whom the ancestral spirits were inclined as the successor4 ,nor was this enough4 ,the victor in this contest was required to undergo a further trial of his right4 ,he was made to sit1 as he himself informed ,captain ,speke1 on the ground at a certain spot where the land would gradually rise up under him1 like a telescope1 until it reached the skies4 ,the aspirant who was approved by the spirits was then gradually lowered in safety2 whereas1 if not approved1 the elastic hill would suddenly collapse1 and he would be dashed to pieces4 ,it is needless to add1 that ,rumanika1 ,captain ,speke's informant1 claimed to have gone through the ordeal with success4#cag4a #cah ,light is perhaps thrown on the matter by the final test actually imposed on the successor elected to the throne of ,ukerewe1 an island in the lake1 and therefore adjacent to the kingdom of ,karagwe4 ,he is taken to ,kitale1 the burial-place of the kings1 about two kilometres from the capital4 ,there lies an immense stone rising like a donkey's back from the soil1 beginning a few centimetres only above the earth1 and gently swelling until it attains the height of a little more than a metre4 ,it is called the ruswa4 ,the provisionally proclaimed king1 with both hands laden with lances1 bows and arrows1 and wearing gigantic native sandals1 is required to climb it slowly and with short steps to the top4 ,if he be so unfortunate as to slip and fall on the way1 he is unworthy of the drum 7the symbol of sovereignty71 and is driven away without pity4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he successfully reach the platform1 or highest point of the rock1 he is acclaimed in a frenzy of excitement1 the men breaking forth into a sham fight1 the women joyfully shouting 8,yu1 yu60 ,the test is over2 he is definitely king4#cah4a ,it is not impossible that1 reduced to its final terms1 some such ordeal as this was what the candidate for the throne of ,karagwe actually underwent4 ,these are barbarous auguries4 ,but all auguries and oracles are barbarous4 ,we do not know how ,melchizedek was appointed ,king of ,salem4 ,the writer of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews refers to him as 8without father1 without mother1 without genealogy10 as if there were something peculiar in the omission of his pedigree1 though in this respect he did not differ from the other kings mentioned in the narrative4 ,however1 the discovery at ,tel-el-,amarna of letters from ,ebed-tob1 ,king of ,salem in the fifteenth century ,b4,c41 to his suzerain the #cai ,king of ,egypt1 has rendered it possible to suppose that ,melchizedek did not come to the throne by inheritance1 and consequently that his parentage was unimportant4 ,ebed-tob1 protesting his loyalty as an ally and a tributary of the ,king of ,egypt1 says3 8,neither my father1 nor my mother1 7but7 the oracle of the mighty king1 established 7me7 in the house of 7my7 father40 ,in other words1 he states1 as ,professor ,sayce interprets the expression1 8that his authority was not based on the right of inheritance2 he had been called to exercise it by a divine voice40#cai4a ,we must beware of drawing too large an inference from a single phrase4 ,assuming that 8the mighty king0 is the god ',shalim1 and not the suzerain whom he is addressing1 there remains the question what is meant by 8the house of his father40 ,evidently it is the royal office2 but is it not the royal office previously filled by his ancestors8 ,the correct view1 ,i would suggest1 is that the kingship was1 like that of ,karagwe1 descendible to any scion of the royal house1 subject to the decision of the oracle4 ,the pedigree then would be important1 but not all-important4 ,the god would decide among the candidates4 ,some such arrangement would seem to have been recognized in the heroic age of ,greece1 if we may trust the somewhat obscure expressions of the ,odyssey4 ,there are examples in the ,homeric poems of kings who have succeeded to the inheritance of their sires4 ,agamemnon is one4 ,on the other hand1 the position of ,ulysses is enigmatical4 ,it is enigmatical in regard to ,laertes1 his father1 who was still alive2 while1 if ,ulysses were dead1 it would seem that ,telemachus1 his son1 would only have the first1 but by no means an indefeasible1 claim4 ,as ,mr ,crooke has pointed out1 it results from #cbj the interview between ,telemachus and the wooers in the first book of the ,odyssey1 that some kind of divine nomination should appoint the king1 and that the choice might fall1 not on ,telemachus1 but on another of the ,achans in sea-girt ,ithaca4#cbj4a ,it is dangerous to read into the poem what is not expressed4 ,the poet is describing an age already mythical1 though no doubt he has embodied considerable fragments of actual custom in the representation4 ,he does not detail the process of appointment of king4 ,consequently1 all we can safely say 7and that on the assumption that here we have one of the fragments of actual custom7 is that the manners and whole atmosphere of the poem correspond with a stage of culture in which the will of the gods would be ascertained by augury4 ,in this connection it may not be irrelevant to refer to the early traditions of ,rome4 ,the quarrel between ,romulus and ,remus concerned not merely the site of the city1 but also the founder after whose name it should be called--in other words1 the royal dignity4 ,it was settled by an augury taken from the flight of vultures4 ,numa1 the successor of ,romulus1 though elected1 took care to assure himself by auguries that the gods approved of the choice4 ,it must be remembered that the legends1 as we have them1 took shape under the republic when the ordinary human process of election had been long established4 ,the habit thus formed probably affected them2 and ,i think we are warranted in suspecting that if we could recover them at a prior stage1 we should find the appointment of king resting on the will of the gods and ascertained by divination4 #cba ,no argument is needed to show that the form of tradition is affected1 even where the substance remains1 by external changes4 ,customs referred to in a legend may become obsolete and consequently unintelligible2 and the reference to them must of necessity be modified into something which is understood1 or it will be dropped into oblivion4 ,the tradition of the ,lia ,fil1 with which ,i started1 is an example4 ,to step on the stone was to put one's claim to sovereignty to proof4 ,as ,keating relates1 doubtless from some older author1 on it 8were enchantments1 for it used to roar under the person who had the best right to obtain the sovereignty of ,ireland40 ,but this is the latest form of the tradition4 ,we can1 however1 reconstruct the earlier form by comparison with custom and tradition elsewhere4 ,they render it clear that the stone was once held to declare the divine will as to the succession4 ,further back still1 it may have been regarded as itself endowed with power of choice4#cba4a ,strictly speaking1 this is not augury1 for augury is the ascertainment and declaration of a higher will4 ,but some such animistic belief may have been the seed-plot out of which augury grew as gods properly so-called were evolved4 ,at the stage at which the tradition reaches us the ,lia ,fil no longer either chooses on its own account or makes known the choice of ,heaven4 ,at this stage1 not only is it enchanted1 consequently diabolic rather than divine in the source of its power1 but also it merely points out him who has 8the best right40 ,the principle of #cbb heredity is now firmly established2 its application alone is uncertain4 ,when the principle is established and the application certain1 it is not necessary to consult an oracle4 ,the changes ,i thus venture to postulate are steps in the disintegration of the myth4 ,a ,welsh tale now to be cited has taken a further step in that it simply credits the instrument of divination with the diagnosis of blood royal1 the practical purpose of determining the succession to the kingdom having disappeared4 ,according to ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 it happened that in the time of ,henry ,i4 ,gruffydd ap ,rhys ap ,tudor1 who1 although he only held of the king one commote1 namely1 a fourth part of the cantref of ,caio1 yet was reputed as lord in ,deheubarth1 was returning from court by way of ,llangorse ,lake1 in ,brecknockshire1 with ,milo1 ,earl of ,hereford and ,lord of ,brecknock1 and ,payn ,fitz,john1 who then held ,ewyas1 two of the king's secretaries and privy councillors4 ,it was winter1 and the lake was covered with water-fowl of various kinds4 ,seeing them1 ,milo1 partly in joke1 said to ,gruffydd3 8,it is an old saying in ,wales that if the natural prince of ,wales1 coming to this lake1 command the birds upon it to sing1 they will all immediately sing40 ,gruffydd replied3 8,do you1 therefore1 who now bear sway in this country1 command them first40 ,both ,milo and ,payn having made the attempt in vain1 ,gruffydd dismounted from his horse1 fell on his knees with his face to the ,east1 and after devout prayers to ,god1 stood up1 and making the sign of the cross on his forehead and face1 cried aloud3 8,almighty and all-knowing ,god1 ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 show forth here to-day ,thy power6 ,if ,thou hast made me lineally to descend from the natural princes of ,wales1 ,i command these birds in ,thy name to declare it40 #cbc ,forthwith all the birds1 according to their kind1 beating the water with outstretched wings1 began altogether to sing and proclaim it4 ,no wonder that all who were present were amazed and confounded1 and that ,milo and ,payn reported it to the king1 who is said to have taken it philosophically enough4 8,by the death of ,christ60 7his customary oath71 he replied1 8it is not so much to be wondered at4 ,for although by our great power we may impose injustice and violence upon those people1 yet they are none the less known to have the hereditary right to the country40#cbc4a ,in the same manner1 in ,india snakes are supposed to be specially gifted with the faculty of distinguishing persons of royal race or born to rule4#cbc4b ,one example will be enough4 ,the ,gandharbs of ,benares1 a caste of singers and prostitutes1 ascribe their origin to ,doman ,deo1 the second ,raghubansi ,rjput king of ,chandrvati4 ,he had a groom named ,shru1 who one day went into the jungle to cut grass1 and fell asleep4 ,while he slept1 a cobra raised its hood over his head1 and a wagtail kept flying above him4 ,in that condition his master saw him1 and afterwards asked him what he would do for him if he became king4 ,shru promised to make him his prime minister4 ,going subsequently to ,delhi1 the throne of which was vacant1 ,shru was chosen emperor1 in the manner with which we are already acquainted1 by an elephant laying a garland on his neck2 and he redeemed his word by making ,doman ,deo his wazr4#cbc4c ,in ,further ,india a saga of the ,chams relates that ,klong ,garay1 who plays a great part in their legendary history1 #cbd was found by a companion of his wanderings1 after a temporary absence1 sleeping and watched by two dragons1 which were licking his body4 ,then he knew1 we are told1 that ,klong ,garay was of royal race4#cbd4a ,the child of a king of ,siam by a ,naga1 or divine snake1 being exposed1 was found and adopted by a hunter4 ,the king's subjects were compelled by law to work in turn for the king4 ,the hunter1 when summoned1 took with him his adopted child and laid it in the shadow of the palace1 to protect it from the rays of the sun while he performed his task4 ,but the spire of the palace inclined before the child1 and the shadow appeared to fly4 ,this prodigy put the king upon enquiry1 and he identified his son by means of the ring and mantle which he had given to the lady1 and which had been found with the child4#cbd4b ,in the old ,english metrical romance of ,havelok the ,dane1 the hero is identified by means of a royal mark1 8a croiz ful gent10 shining brighter than gold on his right shoulder4 8,it sparkede1 and ful brith shon1 ,so doth the gode charbucle ston1 ,that men mouthe se by the lith ,a peni chesen1 so was it brith40#cbd4c ,the romance in which the incident is found is a literary version of the local tradition of ,grimsby1 still commemorated in the seal of the corporation4 ,the poem dates from the end of the thirteenth century4 ,there are two ,french versions which ,i have not seen4 ,professor ,skeat has epitomized the longer in the preface to his edition of the ,english romance4 ,in it a flame issues from ,havelok's mouth when he sleeps4 ,this is #cbe a personal peculiarity1 also found in the ,english lay4 ,his heirship to the throne of ,denmark is determined by his ability to blow a horn which none but the true heir could sound4 ,thus we are brought back to the succession by divination from which we started1 and of which the simple diagnosis of royal descent is a corruption and a weakening4 ,it is preserved here1 we know not by what cause1 after its true meaning had been forgotten4 ,adopted first of all into tradition from living custom1 when the custom was superseded by other means of determining the succession it survived as a tradition until1 its true intent being gradually lost1 while the hereditary principle was strengthened and fenced about with sanctity1 the incident faded into a merely picturesque presentation1 in some places of prophecy1 in other places of the claims of birth4 ,the study of folk-tales is often despised as mere trifling4 ,but traditional narratives must always occupy an important place in the study of the past4 ,rightly used they have much to tell us of human history1 of human thought and the evolution of human institutions4 ,it may safely be said that of all the incidents that compose them there is none which is not a concrete presentation either of human institutions or of human belief4 ,they are all thus in a sense the outcome of actual human experiences4 ,the stories of election by augury are not wilder than the authentic facts4 ,the telescopic mountain of ,karagwe1 which ,rumanika averred himself to have experienced1 is at least as wonderful as the groaning of the ,lia ,fil1 or the lighting of a dry twig4 ,even if we may be allowed to rationalize it in the manner suggested by the ordeal required of the chosen candidate for the throne of the neighbouring ,bakerewe1 it remains evidence of the belief imposed by the power of imagination in a moment #cbf of excitement4 ,analogous performances are averred by the votaries of what is called spiritualism to have been exhibited in our own day by mediums1 and were solemnly recorded long ago in the witch-trials of various ,european countries4 ,in one of the stories ,i have cited we found the dying monarch laying down among the conditions to be fulfilled by his successor1 that the women of the royal household should recognize him4 ,secret intrigues of the harem are believed to determine the devolution of many an ,eastern crown4 ,but that the formal and ceremonial choice of the heir should be made by the wives of the deceased ruler seems too grotesque to be known outside a fairy tale4 ,yet this was the law a hundred years ago in the kingdom of ,quiteve1 on the south-eastern coast of ,africa4 ,when a king died the queens 7that is to say1 his legitimate wives7 named the person who was to accompany his body to the burial-place1 and the person thus named became the successor4#cbf4a ,in an adjoining kingdom a similar law prevailed4 ,it was forbidden to any prince to enter the palace where the women were1 or to take possession of the kingdom without their consent1 and whoever entered by violence and took possession against their will1 lost his right of succession4 ,the ,portuguese friar1 to whom we are indebted for the information1 records a case which happened while he was in ,sofala1 and in which the claimant would have entered and formally seated himself in the royal hall with the royal widows4 ,they1 however1 were unwilling to acknowledge him as their king and husband4 ,accordingly they secretly summoned another member of the royal family1 seated him with them in the public #cbg place1 and sent officers through the town to proclaim the new sovereign and call his subjects to do homage4 ,the pretender fled4 ,this instance is the more remarkable because the unsuccessful claimant had in his favour the nomination of the previous monarch4 ,though this constituted not an indefeasible title1 it afforded at least a strong presumption in his favour4 ,yet it was defeated1 in accordance with established and publicly acknowledged custom1 by the choice of the harem4 ,nor was the rule requiring the choice1 or at any rate the recognition1 by the harem so redolent of the comic opera as it may seem1 since the women all became the wives of the new king4#cbg4a ,this is usual in ,africa1 and not in ,africa only1 but in other regions where a similar type of polygamous monarchical society exists4 ,it is most familiar to us among the ancient ,hebrews4 ,absalom1 by taking possession of his father's harem1 made a final and unqualified assertion of his succession to the throne4 ,solomon evidently regarded ,adonijah's request for ,abishag the ,shunammite as a pretension inconsistent with his own sovereignty2 for she had been part of ,king ,david's harem1 though in fact no more than his nurse4#cbg4b ,in these cases the women had probably little to say in the matter4 ,but by the customs of the ,south-,eastern ,bantu a man's widows1 though they are bound to the family of the deceased1 are allowed some latitude in the choice of the individual man with whom they will mate4 ,among the ,thonga1 for example1 at the final distribution of the estate1 any of the widows who refuses to take the husband #cbh to whom she has been provisionally allotted will be permitted to exercise her own preference4#cbh4a ,the power accorded to the widowed queens of ,quiteve to choose their new husband was hardly an extension of this liberty4 ,that it drew with it incidentally the right to the kingdom was a consequence which did not affect the principle4 ,the ,end ,,bibliographical ,,list #cbi ,intended to facilitate reference to modern works cited and not otherwise sufficiently described4 ,alexander1 ,sir ,james ,edward1 ,k4,l4,s41 ,an ,expedition of ,discovery into the ,interior of ,africa4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahch4 ,alldridge1 ,t4 ,j41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,the ,sherbro and its ,hinterland4 ,london1 #aija4 ,american ,anthropologist4 ,new series4 #ae vols4 ,new ,york1 #ahii-proceeding4 ,am ,urquell4 ,monatschrift fr ,volkskunde4 ,herausgegeben von ,friedrich ,s4 ,krauss4 #f vols4 ,wien1 #ahij-if4 ,anantha ,krishna ,iyer1 ,l4 ,k41 ,b4,a41 ,l4,t41 ,the ,cochin ,tribes and ,castes4 #b vols4 ,madras1 #aiji-ab4 ,andersson1 ,charles ,john1 ,lake ,ngami2 or ,explorations and ,discoveries during ,four ,years' ,wanderings in the ,wilds of ,south-,western ,africa4 #bnd edition4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,andree1 ,richard1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen und ,vergleiche4 #b vols4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgh2 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,l',anne ,sociologique1 publie sous la ,direction de mile ,durkheim4 #aa vols4 ,paris1 #ahih-aiaj4 ,anthrop4 ,class41 ,anthropology and the ,classics4 ,six ,lectures delivered before the ,university of ,oxford4 ,edited by ,r4 ,r4 ,marett4 ,oxford1 #aijh4 ,anthropos4 ,ephemeris ,internationalis ,ethnologica et ,linguistica4 #h vols4 ,salzburg now ,st ,gabriel ,mdling1 bei ,wien1 #aijf-proceeding4 ,antiquary1 ,the3 ,a ,magazine devoted to the ,study of the ,past4 #di vols4 ,london1 #ahhj-proceeding4 ,arber1 ,edward1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,the ,first ,three ,english ,books on ,america1 edited by4 ,westminster1 #ahie4 #ccj ,archologia2 or ,miscellaneous ,tracts relating to ,antiquity1 published by the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london4 #fd vols4 ,london1 #aggc-proceeding4 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft4 #af vols4 ,freiburg-i4-,b4 now ,leipzig1 #ahih-proceeding4 ,aston1 ,w4 ,g41 ,c4,m4,g41 ,d4,lit41 ,shinto3 ,the ,way of the ,gods4 ,london1 #aije4 ,avebury1 ,right ,hon4 ,lord1 ,marriage1 ,totemism and ,religion3 ,an ,answer to ,critics4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ----,the ,origin of ,civilisation and the ,primitive ,condition of ,man4 ,mental and ,social ,condition of ,savages4 ,by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,bart41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 #eth edition4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,bakhtyr ,nma1 ,the3 ,a ,persian ,romance4 ,translated by ,sir ,william ,ouseley4 ,edited by ,w4 ,a4 ,clouston4 ,privately printed1 #ahhc4 ,bastian1 ,dr ,a41 ,afrikanische ,reisen4 ,ein ,besuch in ,san ,salvador der ,hauptstadt des ,knigreichs ,congo4 ,bremen1 #ahei4 ,batchelor1 ,rev4 ,john1 ,the ,ainu and their ,folk-,lore4 ,london1 #aija4 ,brenger-,feraud1 ,l4 ,j4 ,b41 ,superstitions et ,survivances tudies au point de vue de leur origine et de leurs transformations4 #e vols4 ,paris1 #ahif-4 ,biblioteca de las ,tradiciones ,populares ,espaolas4 #aa vols4 ,sevilla--,madrid1 #ahhc-hf4 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch ,indi1 uitgegeven door het ,koninklijk ,instituut4 #fc vols4 ',s-gravenhage1 #aheb-proceeding4 ,black1 ,g4 ,f41 ,examples of ,printed ,folk-,lore concerning the ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands1 collected by4 ,county ,folk-,lore1 vol4 iii4 ,london1 #aijc ,folk-,lore ,soc44 ,boas1 ,franz1 ,indianische ,sagen von der ,nord-,pacifischen ,kste ,amerikas4 ,berlin1 #ahie4 ----,the ,mind of ,primitive ,man4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,brand1 ,john1 ,m4,a41 and ,henry ,ellis1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,observations on ,popular ,antiquities3 chiefly illustrating the ,origin of our ,vulgar ,customs1 ,ceremonies and ,superstitions4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahac4 ,brett1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h41 ,the ,indian ,tribes of ,guiana3 their ,condition and ,habits4 ,london1 #ahfh4 #cca ,budge1 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d41 ,d4,litt41 ,books on ,egypt and ,chaldea4 ,egyptian ,magic4 ,london1 #ahii4 ----,the ,gods of the ,egyptians2 or ,studies in ,egyptian ,mythology4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,bulletin of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 vols4 ,new ,york1 #ahha-proceeding4 ,bulletin de la ,socit ,neuchateloise de ,gographie4 vols4 ,neuchatel1 #ahhi787-proceeding4 ,bulletin de ,folk-,lore3 ,organe de la ,socit du ,folk-,lore ,wallon4 #d vols4 ,bruxelles1 #ahia-4 ,burton1 ,richard ,f41 ,a ,plain and ,literal ,translation of the ,arabian ,nights' ,entertainments1 now entituled ,the ,book of the ,thousand ,nights and a ,night4 #aj vols4 ,privately printed1 #ahhe4 ,callaway1 ,rev4 ,canon1 ,m4,d41 ,the ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu4 vol4 #a incomplete1 all published4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,castrn1 ,alexander1 ,ethnologische ,vorlesungen ber die ,altaischen ,vlker1 herausgegeben von ,anton ,schiefner4 ,st ,petersbourg1 #aheg4 ,census of ,india1 #aija3 ,reports1 published in the various provinces and states of the ,indian ,empire4 ,census of ,india1 #aiaa3 ,reports1 published in the various provinces and states4 ,chapman1 ,james1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,travels in the ,interior of ,south ,africa1 comprising ,fifteen ,years' ,hunting and ,trading4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,child1 ,francis ,james1 ,the ,english and ,scottish ,popular ,ballads4 #e vols4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 ,n4,d4 #ahhb-ih4 ,clozel1 ,f4 ,j41 et ,roger ,villamur1 ,les ,coutumes ,indignes de la ,cote d',ivoire4 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,codrington1 ,r4 ,h41 ,d4,d41 ,the ,melanesians3 ,studies in their ,anthropology and ,folk-,lore4 ,oxford1 #ahia4 ,contributions to ,north ,american ,ethnology4 #i vols4 ,washington1 ,department of the ,interior1 #ahgg-ic4 ,crawley1 ,ernest1 ,m4,a41 ,the ,mystic ,rose3 ,a ,study of ,primitive ,marriage4 ,london1 #aijb4 ----,the ,tree of ,life3 ,a ,study of ,religion4 ,london1 #aije4 ,crooke1 ,w41 ,b4,a41 ,the ,popular ,religion and ,folk-,lore of ,northern ,india4 #b vols4 ,westminster1 #ahif4 #ccb ,crooke1 ,w41 ,b4,a41 ,the ,tribes and ,castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh4 #d vols4 ,calcutta1 #ahif4 ,dalton1 ,edward ,tuite1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal4 ,calcutta1 #ahgb4 ,davies1 ,t4 ,witton1 ,b4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,magic1 ,divination and ,demonology among the ,hebrews and their ,neighbours4 ,london and ,leipzic1 ,n4,d4 #ahih4 ,day1 ,rev4 ,lal ,behari1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,de ,acosta1 ,father ,joseph1 ,the ,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies4 ,reprinted from the ,english translated edition of ,edward ,grimston1 #afjd4 ,edited by ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 #b vols4 paged continuously4 ,london1 #ahhj ,hakluyt ,soc44 ,de ,groot1 ,j4 ,j4 ,m41 ,ph4,d41 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china4 #f vols41 published the first three and the last three paged continuously4 ,leyden1 #ahib-aiaj4 ,dennett1 ,r4 ,e41 ,notes on the ,folk-,lore of the ,fjort 7,french ,congo74 ,london1 #ahih ,folk-,lore ,soc44 ,dorsa1 ,vincenzo1 ,la ,tradizione ,greco-,latina negli ,usi e nelle ,credenze ,popolari della ,calabria ,citeriore4 #bnd edition4 ,cosenza1 #ahhd4 ,dorsey1 ,george ,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,traditions of the ,skidi ,pawnee1 collected and annotated by4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #aijd ,american ,f4-,l4 ,soc44 ----,the ,mythology of the ,wichita1 collected under the auspices of the ,carnegie ,institution of ,washington4 ,washington1 #aijd4 ,doutt1 ,edmond1 ,la ,socit ,musulmane du ,maghrib4 ,magie et ,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord4 ,alger1 #aiji4 ,dumoutier1 ,g41 ,les ,chants et les ,traditions ,populaires des ,annamites1 recueillis et traduits4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,durkheim1 mile1 ,les ,formes ,elmentaires de la ,vie ,religieuse4 ,le ,systme totmique en ,australie4 ,paris1 #aiab4 ,early ,travels in ,palestine4 ,edited1 with notes1 by ,thomas ,wright1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,ellis1 ,william1 ,polynesian ,researches during a ,residence of nearly ,eight ,years in the ,society and ,sandwich ,islands4 #bnd edition1 #d vols4 ,london1 #ahca4 #ccc ,encyclopdia ,biblica4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d41 and ,j4 ,sutherland ,black1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #d vols4 ,london1 #ahii-aijc4 ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics4 ,edited by ,james ,hastings1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 #f vols4 ,edinburgh1 #aijh-proceeding4 ,farnell1 ,lewis ,richard1 ,litt4,d41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,a4,s41 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states4 #e vols4 ,oxford1 #ahif-aiji4 ----,the ,evolution of ,religion3 ,an ,anthropological ,study4 ,london1 #aije4 ----,greece and ,babylon3 ,a ,comparative ,sketch of ,mesopotamian1 ,anatolian and ,hellenic ,religions4 ,edinburgh1 #aiaa4 ,fasciculi ,malayenses3 ,anthropological and ,zoological ,results of an ,expedition to ,perak and the ,siamese ,malay ,states1 #aija-aijb1 undertaken by ,nelson ,annandale and ,herbert ,c4 ,robinson4 ,anthropology1 #b parts4 ,london1 #aijc-d4 ,folk-,lore3 ,a ,quarterly ,review of ,myth1 ,tradition1 ,institution and ,custom organ of the ,f4-,l4 ,soc44 #bd vols4 ,london1 #ahij-proceeding4 ,folk-,lore ,journal1 ,the organ of the ,f4-,l4 ,soc44 #g vols4 ,london1 #ahhc-hi4 ,forbes1 ,james1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,oriental ,memoirs3 ,a ,narrative of ,seventeen ,years' ,residence in ,india4 #bnd edition1 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahcd4 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d41 ,the ,golden ,bough3 ,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion4 #bnd edition1 #c vols4 ,london1 #aijj4 ,the same4 #crd edition1 #aj vols41 published under different titles1 as follows3-- #a4 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aiaa4 #b4 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul4 #aiaa4 #c4 ,the ,dying ,god4 #aiaa4 #d4 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris3 ,studies in the ,history of ,oriental ,religion4 #bnd edition4 #aijg4 #e4 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild4 #b vols4 #aiab4 #f4 ,the ,scapegoat4 #aiac4 #g4 ,balder the ,beautiful4 #b vols4 #aiac4 #ccd ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d41 ,psyche's ,task3 ,a ,discourse ,concerning the ,influence of ,superstition on the ,growth of ,institutions4 #bnd edition4 ,london1 #aiac4 ,frere1 ,m41 ,old ,deccan ,days2 or ,hindoo ,fairy ,legends current in ,southern ,india4 ,collected from oral tradition4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,frobenius1 ,herman1 ,die ,heiden-,neger des gyptischen ,sudan4 ,berlin1 #ahic4 ,furness1 ,william ,henry1 #c;d1 ,m4,d41 ,the ,home-,life of ,borneo ,head-hunters1 its ,festivals and ,folk-,lore4 ,philadelphia1 #aijb4 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,first ,part of the ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas4 ,translated by ,clements ,r4 ,markham4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahfi ,hakluyt ,soc44 ,georgi1 ,j41 ,description de toutes les ,nations de l',empire de ,russie4 #c;ime collection1 contenant les nations ,samoyedes et ,mandshoures1 et les ,peuples les plus orientaux de la ,sibirie4 ,traduite de l',allemand4 ,st4 ,petersbourg1 #aggg4 ,giles1 ,herbert ,a41 ,strange ,stories from a ,chinese ,studio4 ,translated and annotated4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,giran1 ,paul1 ,magie et ,religion ,annamites4 ,paris1 #aiab4 ,globus3 ,illustrirte ,zeitschrift fr ,lnder- und ,vlkerkunde4 #ih vols4 ,braunschweig1 #ahfb-aiaj4 ,gouldsbury1 ,cullen1 and ,herbert ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern ,rhodesia1 being some ,impressions of the ,tanganyika ,plateau4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,gray1 ,john ,henry1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,china1 a ,history of the ,laws1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,people4 ,edited by ,w4 ,g4 ,gregor4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,gregor1 ,rev4 ,walter1 ,m4,a41 ,notes on the ,folk-,lore of the ,north-,east of ,scotland4 ,london1 #ahha ,f4-,l4 ,soc44 ,grimm1 ,jacob1 ,teutonic ,mythology4 ,translated from the fourth edition1 with notes and appendix1 by ,james ,steven ,stallybrass4 #d vols4 ,london1 #ahhj-hh4 ,grinnell1 ,george ,bird1 ,pawnee ,hero ,stories and ,folk-,tales4 ,new ,york1 #ahhi4 ,grubb1 ,w4 ,barbrooke1 ,an ,unknown ,people in an ,unknown ,land3 ,an ,account of the ,life and ,customs of the ,lengua ,indians4 ,london1 #aiaa4 #cce ,hahn1 ,theophilus1 ,ph4,d41 ,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,khoi-,khoi4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,haltrich1 ,josef1 ,deutsche ,volksmrchen aus dem ,sachsenlande in ,siebenbrgen4 #dte ,auflage4 ,wien1 #ahhe4 ,hanauer1 ,j4 ,e41 ,folk-,lore of the ,holy ,land1 ,moslem1 ,christian and ,jewish4 ,london1 #aijg4 ,hansen1 ,c4 ,p41 ,sagen und ,erzhlungen der ,sylten ,friesen4 ,garding1 #ahge4 ,harrison1 ,jane ,ellen1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion4 #bnd edition4 ,cambridge1 #aijh4 ,hartland1 ,edwin ,sidney1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus3 ,a ,study of ,tradition in ,story1 ,custom and ,belief4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahid-e-f4 ----,primitive ,paternity3 ,the ,myth of ,supernatural ,birth in ,relation to the ,history of the ,family4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aiji-aj4 ,havelok the ,dane1 ,the ,lay of4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,walter ,w4 ,skeat1 ,m4,a4 ,london1 #ahfh ,e4,e4,t4,s44 ,hertz1 ,wilhelm1 ,die ,sage vom ,giftmdchen4 ,munchen1 #ahic4 ,hodson1 ,t4 ,c41 ,the ,nga ,tribes of ,manipur4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,hollis1 ,a4 ,c41 ,the ,masai1 their ,language and ,folk-,lore4 ,oxford1 #aije4 ----,the ,nandi1 their ,language and ,folk-,lore4 ,oxford1 #aiji4 ,hose1 ,charles1 ,d4,sc41 and ,william ,m#8,dougall1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo3 ,a ,description of their ,physical1 ,moral and ,intellectual ,condition1 with some ,discussion of their ,ethnic ,relations4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,howitt1 ,a4 ,w41 ,d4,sc41 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,huc1 ,l',abb1 ,souvenirs d'un ,voyage dans la ,tartarie1 le ,thibet et la ,chine4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahej4 ,hutter1 ,franz1 ,wanderungen und ,forschungen im ,nord-,hinterland von ,kamerun4 ,braunschweig1 #aijb4 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie4 #ba vols4 ,leiden1 #ahhh-proceeding4 ,jtaka1 ,the2 or ,stories of the ,buddha's former ,births4 ,translated from the ,pli by various hands under the editorship of ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,cowell4 #g vols4 ,cambridge1 #ahie-aiac4 #ccf ,jaussen1 ,le ,p4 ,antonin1 tudes ,bibliques4 ,coutumes des ,arabes au ,pays de ,moab4 ,paris1 #aijh4 ,jesuit ,relations1 ,the1 and ,allied ,documents3 ,travels and ,explorations of the ,jesuit ,missionaries in ,new ,france1 #afaj-agia4 ,the original texts1 with ,english translations4 ,edited by ,reuben ,gold ,thwaites4 #gc vols4 ,cleveland1 #ahif-aija4 ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,publications of the4 ,edited by ,franz ,boas4 #ab vols41 not yet all issued4 ,new ,york and ,leiden1 #aijj-4 ,the earlier volumes were issued as part of the ,memoirs of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,jevons1 ,frank ,byron1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d41 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,johnston1 ,sir ,harry1 ,g4,c4,m4,g41 ,k4,c4,b41 ,hon4 ,d4,sc41 ,george ,grenfell and the ,congo3 ,a ,history and ,description of the ,congo ,independent ,state and adjoining ,districts of ,congoland4 #b vols41 paged continuously4 ,london1 #aijh4 ----,the ,uganda ,protectorate4 #b vols41 paged continuously4 ,london1 #aijb4 ,jones1 ,rev4 ,peter1 ,history of the ,ojebway ,indians1 with especial reference to their conversion to ,christianity4 ,london1 ,n4,d4 #ahfa4 ,journal of the ,african ,society founded in ,memory of ,mary ,kingsley4 #ac vols4 ,london1 #aija-proceeding4 ,journal of ,american ,folk-,lore4 #bf vols4 ,boston1 #ahhh-proceeding4 ,organ of the ,american ,folk-,lore ,soc44 ,journal of the ,anthropological now ,royal ,anthropological ,institute of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 #dc vols4 ,london1 #ahgb-proceeding4 ,cited as ,j4 ,a4 ,i44 ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago and ,eastern ,asia4 vols4 ,singapore1 #ahdg-ei4 ,jlg1 ,b41 ,die ,mrchen des ,siddhi-,kr4 ,kalmkischer ,text mit deutscher bersetzung4 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 ,junod1 ,henri ,a41 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe4 #b vols4 ,neuchatel1 #aiab-ac4 ,kathkoa1 ,the2 or ,treasury of ,stories4 ,translated from ,sanskrit ,manuscripts by ,c4 ,h4 ,tawney1 ,m4,a4 ,london1 #ahie4 #ccg ,kath-sarit-,sgara1 ,the2 or ,ocean of the ,streams of ,story4 ,translated from the original ,sanskrit by ,c4 ,h4 ,tawney1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 ,calcutta1 #ahhj-hd4 ,keating1 ,geoffrey1 ,d4,d41 ,the ,history of ,ireland4 ,edited1 with translation and notes1 by ,david ,comyn1 ,m4,r4,i4,a4 #c vols4 ,london1 #aijb-h ,irish ,texts ,soc44 ,kidd1 ,dudley1 ,the ,essential ,kafir4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,kingsley1 ,mary ,h41 ,travels in ,west ,africa4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,knowles1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,hinton1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,folk-,tales of ,kashmir4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,koch-,grnberg1 ,dr ,theodor1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den ,indianern3 ,reisen in ,nordwest-,bresilien4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #aiji4 ,kolben1 ,peter1 ,a4,m41 ,the ,present ,state of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,written originally in ,high ,german4 ,done into ,english from the original by ,mr ,medley4 ,london1 #agca4 ,kruijt1 ,alb4 ,c41 ,het ,animisme in den ,indischen ,archipel4 ',s-gravenhage1 #aijf4 ,landes1 ,a41 ,contes ,tjames traduits et annots4 ,saigon1 #ahhg4 ,le ,braz1 ,a41 ,lgende de la ,mort en ,basse ,bretagne4 ,croyances1 ,traditions et ,usages des ,bretons ,armoricains4 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h41 ,m4,a41 ,history of the ,rise and ,influence of the ,spirit of ,rationalism in ,europe4 #b vols41 #bnd edition4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,leclre1 ,adhmard1 ,cambodge4 ,contes et ,lgendes recueillis et publis en ,franais4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,lehmann-,filhs1 ,m41 ,islndische ,volkssagen1 aus der ,sammlung von ,jn rnason ausgewhlt und aus dem ,islndischen bersetzt4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #ahhi-ia4 ,leuba1 ,james ,h41 ,a ,psychological ,study of ,religion4 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,littmann1 ,enno1 ,publications of the ,princeton ,expedition to ,abyssinia4 ,vol4 ii4 ,tales1 ,customs etc4 of the ,tigr ,tribes4 ,leyden1 #aiaj4 ,lloyd1 ,l4 ,c41 ,specimens of ,bushman ,folk-,lore4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,lubbock1 see ,avebury4 ,lumholtz1 ,carl1 ,m4,a41 ,unknown ,mexico3 ,a ,record of ,five ,years' ,exploration among the ,tribes of the ,western ,sierra ,madre etc44 #b vols4 ,london1 #aijc4 #cch ,lunet de la ,jonquire1 ,le ,commandant ,e41 ,ethnographie du ,tonkin ,septentrional4 ,paris1 #aijf4 ,luzel1 ,f4 ,m41 ,lgendes ,chrtiennes de la ,basse ,bretagne4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,macdonald1 ,rev4 ,duff1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d41 ,africana2 or the ,heart of ,heathen ,africa4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,mannhardt1 ,wilhelm1 ,mythologische ,forschungen aus dem ,nachlasse von4 ,strassburg1 #ahhd4 ----,wald- und ,feldkulte4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #ahge-gg4 ,marett1 ,r4 ,r41 ,m4,a41 ,anthropology4 ,london ,home ,university ,library1 ,n4,d4 #aiab4 ----,the ,threshold of ,religion4 ,london1 #aiji4 ,mariner1 ,william1 ,an ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands in the ,south ,pacific ,ocean4 ,compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of ,mr ,w4 ,m41 several years resident in those islands4 ,by ,john ,martin1 ,m4,d4 #b vols4 #crd edition4 ,edinburgh1 #ahbg4 ,matthews1 ,washington1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,navaho ,legends4 ,collected and translated4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #ahig ,american ,f4-,l4 ,soc44 ,maurer1 ,dr ,konrad1 ,islndische ,volkssagen der ,gegenwart4 ,leipzig1 #ahfj4 ,mlusine3 ,recueil de ,mythologie1 ,littrature ,populaire1 ,traditions et ,usages4 ,publi par ,h4 ,gaidoz et ,e4 ,rolland4 #aa vols4 the last #h vols4 edited by ,h4 ,gaidoz alone4 ,paris1 #ahgh-aiab4 ,memoirs of the ,american ,anthropological ,association4 #b vols4 ,lancaster1 ,pa41 #aije-proceeding4 ,merensky1 ,a41 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss ,sd-,afrikas4 ,berlin1 #ahge4 ,meyer1 ,dr ,felix1 ,wirtschaft und ,recht der ,herero4 ,berlin1 #aije4 ,miller1 ,hugh1 ,scenes and ,legends of the ,north of ,scotland2 or ,the ,traditional ,history of ,cromarty4 #bnd edition4 ,london1 #ahej4 ,mittheilungen der ,afrikanischen ,gesellschaft in ,deutschland4 vols4 ,berlin1 #ahgh-proceeding84 ,moffat1 ,robert1 ,missionary ,labours and ,scenes in ,southern ,africa4 ,london1 #ahdb4 #cci ,morris1 ,william1 and ,eirkr ,magnsson1 ,the ,story of the ,ere-dwellers 7,eyrbyggia ,saga74 ,done into ,english out of the ,icelandic4 ,london1 #ahib4 ----,the ,stories of the ,kings of ,norway called ,the ,round ,world 7,heimskringla7 by ,snorri ,sturluson4 ,done into ,english out of the ,icelandic4 #d vols4 ,london1 #ahic-aije4 ,natesa ,sastri1 ,pandit ,s4 ,m41 ,the ,dravidian ,nights ,entertainments1 being a ,translation of ,madanakamarajankadai4 ,madras1 #ahhf4 ,neuhauss1 ,prof4 ,dr ,med4 ,r41 ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea4 #c vols4 ,berlin1 #aiaa4 ,only the #crd vol41 containing communications by resident ,german missionaries1 cited4 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries3 ,a ,monthly ,periodical4 ,edited by ,william ,crooke1 ,b4,a4 #e vols4 ,allahabad1 #ahia-if4 ,nutt1 ,alfred1 ,the ,voyage of ,bran1 ,son of ,febal1 to the ,land of the ,living3 an old ,irish saga1 now first edited1 with translation1 notes and glossary1 by ,kuno ,meyer1 with an ,essay upon the ,irish ,vision of the ,happy ,otherworld and the ,celtic ,doctrine of ,rebirth1 by4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahie-ig4 ,o',grady1 ,standish ,h41 ,silva ,gadelica3 ,a ,collection of ,tales in ,irish4 ,edited from ,,mss4 and translated4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,owen1 ,mary ,alicia1 ,folk-,lore of the ,musquakie ,indians of ,north ,america and ,catalogue of ,musquakie ,beadwork and other objects in the ,collection of the ,folk-,lore ,society4 ,london1 #aijd ,f4-,l4 ,soc44 ,owen1 ,captain ,w4 ,f4 ,w41 ,r4,n41 ,narrative of ,voyages to explore the ,shores of ,africa1 ,arabia and ,madagascar1 performed in ,h4,m4 ,ships 8,leven0 and 8,barracouta10 under the direction of4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,parker1 ,mrs ,k4 ,langloh1 ,australian ,legendary ,tales4 #b vols41 the second entitled ,more ,australian ,legendary ,tales4 ,london1 #ahif-ih4 ,paulitschke1 ,dr ,philipp1 ,ethnographie ,nordost-,afrikas4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #ahic-if4 ,payne1 ,edward ,john1 ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america4 #b vols4 ,oxford1 #ahib-ii4 ,pechul-,loesche1 ,prof4 ,dr ,e41 ,volkskunde von ,loango4 ,stuttgart1 #aijg4 #cdj ,petitot1 mile4 ,traditions ,indiennes du ,canada ,nordouest4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,ploss1 ,dr ,h41 ,das ,weib in der ,natur- und ,vlkerkunde4 ,anthropologische ,studien4 ,nach dem ,tode des ,verfassers bearbeitet und herausgegeben von ,dr ,max ,bartels4 #b vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahia4 ,post1 ,dr ,albert ,hermann1 ,afrikanische ,jurisprudenz4 ,ethnologisch-juristische ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der einheimische ,rechte ,afrikas4 #b vols4 ,oldenburg und ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,proceedings of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london4 #bnd series4 #bd vols4 ,london1 #ah-proceeding4 ,putnam ,anniversary ,volume3 ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,frederic ,ward ,putnam in ,honor of his ,seventieth ,birthday1 ,april #af1 #aiji1 by his ,friends and ,associates4 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,radloff1 ,dr ,w41 ,proben der ,volkslitteratur der ,trkischen ,stmme ,sd-,sibiriens1 gesammelt und bersetzt4 #g 787 vols4 ,the volumes after the #dth are entitled ,proben der ,volkslitteratur der ,nrdlichen ,trkischen ,stmme4 ,st ,petersburg1 #ahff-4 ,ralston1 ,w4 ,r4 ,s41 ,m4,a41 ,tibetan ,tales derived from ,indian ,sources4 ,translated from the ,tibetan of the ,kah-gyur by ,f4 ,anton ,schiefner4 ,done into ,english from the ,german with an ,introduction4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,ramsay1 ,william ,mitchell1 ,the ,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia4 #a vol4 in #b parts published4 ,london1 #ahie1 #ahig4 ,rattray1 ,r4 ,sutherland1 ,some ,folk-,lore ,stories and ,songs in ,chinyanja1 with ,english ,translation and ,notes4 ,london1 #aijg4 ,reinach1 ,salomon1 ,orpheus3 ,histoire ,gnrale des ,religions4 #f;ime d4 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,reliquary1 ,the1 and ,illustrated ,archologist3 ,a ,quarterly ,journal and ,review4 ,n4,s4 vols4 ,london1 #ahie-proceeding4 ,reports of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 ,london4 ,yearly volumes cited by the date of the year4 ,reports1 ,annual1 of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 #bh vols4 ,washington1 #ahgi-hj-proceeding4 ,cited as ,r4 ,b4 ,e44 ,report on the ,work of the ,horn ,expedition to ,central ,australia4 ,part ,,iv41 ,anthropology4 ,edited by ,baldwin ,spencer1 ,m4,a4 ,london and ,melbourne1 #ahif4 #cda ,revue ,celtique4 ,dirige par ,h4 ,gaidoz4 vols4 ,paris1 #ahgj-proceeding4 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions4 #fh vols4 ,paris1 #ahhj-proceeding4 ,revue d',ethnographie et de ,sociologie4 ,publie sous la direction de ,m4 ,a4 van ,gennep4 #d vols4 ,paris1 #aiaj-proceeding4 ,cited as ,r4 ,e4 ,s44 ,revue des tudes ,ethnographiques et ,sociologiques4 ,publie sous la direction de ,arnold van ,gennep4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #aijh-i4 ,cited as ,r4 ,e4 ,e4 ,s4 ,revue des ,traditions ,populaires4 #bh vols4 ,paris1 #ahhf-proceeding4 ,organ of the ,soc4 des ,trad4 ,pop44 ,rice1 ,stanley ,p41 ,occasional ,essays on ,native ,south ,indian ,life4 ,london1 #aija4 ,riedel1 ,joh4 ,gerard ,fried41 ,de ,sluik- en kroesharige ,rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua4 ',s--gravenhage1 #ahhf4 ,rivers1 ,w4 ,h4 ,r41 ,the ,todas4 ,london1 #aijf4 ,rogers1 ,rev4 ,charles1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,s4,a4,scot4 ,scotland1 ,social and ,domestic3 ,memorials of ,life and ,manners in ,north ,britain4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,rohde1 ,erwin4 ,psyche4 ,seelencult und ,unsterblichkeitsglaube der ,griechen4 #bte ,auflage4 ,freiburg-i4-,b41 #ahih4 ,roscher1 ,wilhelm ,heinrich4 ,ephialtes1 eine pathologisch-mythologische ,abhandlung ber die ,alptrame und ,alpdmonen des klassischen ,altertums4 ,leipzig1 #aijj4 ,roscoe1 ,rev4 ,john1 ,hon4 ,m4,a41 ,the ,baganda3 ,an ,account of their ,native ,customs and ,beliefs4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,roth1 ,henry ,ling1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 based chiefly on the ,,mss4 of the late ,hugh ,brooke ,low4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,roth1 ,walter ,e41 ,b4,a41 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,l4,r4,c4,p41 ,ethnological ,studies among the ,north-,west-,central ,queensland ,aborigines4 ,brisbane1 #ahig4 ,rouse1 ,william ,henry ,denham1 ,m4,a41 ,greek ,votive ,offerings3 ,an ,essay in the ,history of ,greek ,religion4 ,cambridge1 #aijb4 ,sacred ,books1 ,the1 of the ,east4 ,translated by various ,oriental scholars and edited by ,f4 ,max ,mller4 #ej vols4 ,oxford1 #ahgi-4 #cdb ,scheffer1 ,johannes1 von ,strassburg1 ,lappland4 ,das ist1 ,neue und wahrhafftige ,beschreibung von ,lappland und dessen ,einwohnern4 ,frankfurt und ,leipzig1 #afge4 ,sbillot1 ,paul1 ,le ,folk-,lore de ,france4 #d vols4 ,paris1 #aijd-g4 ,seligmann1 ,c4 ,g41 ,m4,d41 and ,brenda ,z4 ,seligmann1 ,the ,veddas4 ,cambridge1 #aiaa4 ,shakespear1 ,lieut4-,col4 ,j41 ,the ,lushei ,kuki ,clans4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,shooter1 ,rev4 ,joseph1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal and the ,zulu ,country4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,skeat1 ,walter ,william1 ,malay ,magic1 being an ,introduction to the ,folk-,lore and ,popular ,religion of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,london1 #aijj4 ,smirnov1 ,jean ,m41 ,les ,populations ,finnoises des ,bassins de la ,volga et de la ,kama4 tudes d',ethnographie ,historique traduites du ,russe et revues par ,paul ,boyer4 #ast vol4 only published4 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,smith1 ,capt4 ,john1 ,works1 #afjh-afca4 ,the ,english ,scholar's ,library1 edited by ,edward ,arber4 ,birmingham1 #ahhd4 ,smyth1 ,r4 ,brough1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria3 with ,notes relating to the ,habits of the ,natives of ,other ,parts of ,australia and ,tasmania4 #b vols4 ,melbourne1 #ahgh4 ,soldan1 ,f41 ,sagen und ,geschichten der ,langobarden4 ,halle-a4-,s41 #ahhh4 ,south ,african ,folk-,lore ,journal4 ,edited by the ,working ,committee of the ,south ,african ,folk-,lore ,society4 #b vols4 ,cape ,town and ,london1 #ahgi-hj4 ,speke1 ,john ,hanning1 ,journal of the ,discovery of the ,source of the ,nile4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,spencer1 ,baldwin1 ,m4,a41 and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,cited as ,c4 ,t4 ----,the ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,cited as ,n4 ,t4 ,sproat1 ,gilbert ,malcolm1 ,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,steel1 ,f4 ,a41 and ,r4 ,c4 ,temple1 ,wide ,awake ,stories3 ,a ,collection of ,tales told by little ,children between ,sunset and ,sunrise in the ,panjab and ,kashmir4 ,bombay1 #ahhd4 #cdc ,strackerjan1 ,l41 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg4 #b vols4 ,oldenburg1 #ahfg4 ,strausz1 ,adolf1 ,die ,bulgaren4 ,ethnographische ,studien4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,strehlow1 ,c41 ,die ,aranda- und ,loritja-,stmme in ,zentral ,australien4 #c parts 7#d fascicules7 published4 ,frankfurt-a4-,m41 #aijg-aa4 ,verffentlichungen aus der stdtischen ,museum4 ,stumme1 ,dr ,hans1 ,mrchen der ,schluh von ,tzerwalt4 ,leipzig1 #ahie4 ,swanton1 ,john ,r41 ,tlingit ,myths and ,texts4 ,washington1 #aiji ,bull4 ,b4 ,e4 #ci4 ,taylor1 ,rev4 ,richard1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,te ,ika a ,maui2 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants4 #bnd edition4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,temple1 ,capt4 ,r4 ,c41 ,the ,legends of the ,panjb4 #c vols4 ,bombay and ,london1 ,n4,d4 ,tennent1 ,sir ,james ,emerson1 ,k4,c4,s41 ,,ll4,d41 ,ceylon3 ,an ,account of the ,island4 #bnd edition4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,theal1 ,george ,m#8,call1 ,,ll4,d41 ,records of ,south-,eastern ,africa4 ,collected in various ,libraries and ,archive ,departments in ,europe4 #g vols4 ,cape ,colony1 #ahih-aija4 ----,the ,yellow and ,dark-skinned ,people of ,africa ,south of the ,zambesi4 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,thomas1 ,northcote ,w41 ,m4,a41 ,anthropological ,report on the ,ibo-speaking ,peoples of ,nigeria4 #c vols4 ,london1 #aiac4 ,thorpe1 ,benjamin1 ,northern ,mythology1 comprising the ,principal ,popular ,traditions and ,superstitions of ,scandinavia1 ,north ,germany and the ,netherlands4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahea-eb4 ,thunberg1 ,charles ,peter1 ,m4,d41 ,travels in ,europe1 ,africa and ,asia made between the years #aggj and #aggi4 #bnd edition4 #d vols4 ,london1 #agie4 ,thurston1 ,edgar1 ,c4,i4,e41 assisted by ,k4 ,rangachari1 ,m4,a4 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india4 #g vols4 ,madras1 #aiji4 ,torres ,straits1 ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to4 vols4 ,vols4 iii41 iv41 v41 vi41 and portions of vol4 ii4 published4 ,cambridge1 #aija-4 ,tozer1 ,rev4 ,henry ,fanshawe1 ,m4,a 1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,researches in the ,highlands of ,turkey4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahfi4 #cdd ,transactions of the ,third ,international ,congress for the ,history of ,religions4 #b vols4 ,oxford1 #aijh4 ,turner1 ,george1 ,,ll4,d41 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ,ago and ,long ,before4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,tylor1 ,edward ,b41 ,primitive ,culture3 ,researches into the ,development of ,mythology1 ,philosophy1 ,religion1 ,art and ,custom4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,tylor ,essays1 ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,edward ,burnett ,tylor in ,honour of his ,seventy-fifth ,birthday1 ,october #b1 #aijg1 by names follow4 ,oxford1 #aijg4 ,university of ,california ,publications in ,american ,archology and ,ethnology4 ,frederic ,ward ,putnam1 editor4 #aa vols4 ,berkeley1 #aijc-proceeding4 ,van der ,burgt1 le ,r4 ,p4 ,j4 ,m4 ,m41 ,un ,grand ,peuple de l',afrique quatoriale4 lments d'une ,monographie sur l',urundi et les ,warundi4 ,bois le ,duc1 #aijd4 ,van ,gennep1 ,arnold1 ,les ,rites de ,passage3 tude systmatique des ,rites4 ,paris1 #aiji4 ----,tabou et ,totmisme ,madagascar1 tude descriptive et thorique4 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,vinson1 ,julien1 ,le ,folk-,lore du ,pays ,basque4 ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,von ,alpenburg1 ,johann ,nepomuk1 ,ritter1 ,mythen und ,sagen ,tirols4 ,zurich1 #aheg4 ,von den ,steinen1 ,professor ,dr ,karl1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,zentral ,brasiliens4 ,reiseschilderung und ,ergebnisse der ,zweiten ,sching ,expedition1 #ahhg-ahhh4 ,berlin1 #ahid4 ,von ,wlislocki1 ,dr ,heinrich1 ,volksdichtungen der siebenbrgischen und sdungarischen ,zigeuner4 ,wien1 #ahij4 ,waddell1 ,l4 ,austine1 ,m4,b41 ,the ,buddhism of ,tibet1 or ,lamaism with its ,mystic ,cults4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,weeks1 ,john ,h41 ,among ,congo ,cannibals3 ,experiences1 ,impressions and ,adventures during a ,thirty ,years' ,sojourn amongst the ,boloki and other ,congo ,tribes4 ,london1 #aiac4 ,werner1 ,a41 ,the ,natives of ,british ,central ,africa4 ,london1 #aijf4 ,westermarck1 ,edward1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs connected with ,agriculture1 ,certain ,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and the ,weather in ,morocco4 ,helsingfors1 #aiac4 #cde ,westermarck1 ,edward1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aijf-h4 ,wiedemann1 ,alfred1 ,ph4,d41 ,religion of the ,ancient ,egyptians4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,wilken1 ,prof4 ,dr ,g4 ,a41 ,de verspreide ,geschriften van1 verzameld door ,mr ,f4 ,d4 ,e4 van ,ossenbruggen4 #d vols4 ',s-gravenhage1 #aiab4 ,williams1 ,clement1 ,through ,burmah to ,western ,china1 being ,notes of a ,journey in #ahfc4 ,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahfh4 ,williams1 ,rev4 ,john1 ,a ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,williams1 ,thomas1 ,fiji and the ,fijians4 ,and ,missionary ,labours among the ,cannibals1 by ,james ,calvert4 ,edited by ,george ,stringer ,rowe4 #crd edition4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,wilson1 ,rev4 ,c4 ,t41 ,peasant ,life in the ,holy ,land4 ,london1 #aijf4 ,wolf1 ,johann ,wilhelm1 ,niederlndische ,sagen4 ,leipzig1 #ahdc4 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins fr ,volkskunde4 #bc vols4 ,berlin1 #ahia-proceeding4 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie4 ,organ der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte4 vols4 ,berlin1 #ahfi-proceeding4 ,zeitschrift fr vergleichende ,rechtswissenschaft4 #bh vols4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhg-proceeding4 ,,endnotes #a4a ,prim4 ,cul41 i4 #cgh sqq4 #b4a ,anantha ,krishna1 i4 #bi4 #b4b ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,cul41 i4 #chb4 #c4a ,kolben1 #ia4 #c4b ,alexander1 i4 #agj sqq4 ,similar answers were more recently given to a missionary by one of the neighbouring ,bergdamara1 a people mainly of ,bantu blood 7,globus1 xcvi4 #agc74 #d4a ,kidd1 #fe4 ,amusing illustrations of the ,kaffir's cleverness at the game are given4 #d4b ,andersson1 #bjj4 ,cf4 ,pogge on the ,bashilange1 ,mittheil4 d4 ,afrik4 ,gesellsch41 iv4 #bed4 #d4c ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,gale1 ,f4 ,l41 xi4 #cbe4 #e4a ,s4 ,h4 ,c4 ,hawtry1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxi4 #bij4 ,cf4 ,grubb1 #aad4 ,similar statements are made concerning other ,south ,american tribes 7,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xiii4 #bji1 #bec74 #e4b ,batchelor1 #ceg4 #f4a ,neuhauss1 iii4 #ddh note4 ,cf4 ,introduction and pp4 #aed1 #ejg4 #f4b ,marillier1 reviewing ,miss ,kingsley's ,travels2 ,rev4 ,hist4 ,rel41 xxxix4 #acg4 #g4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 #aci note4 #g4b ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xx4 #abj4 ,cf4 ,junod1 ,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 ii4 #bgh4 ,dr ,theal says that it is only since ,european ideas have been disseminated among these peoples that the question of the place of the dead has arisen2 and he points to the similarity in mental condition between them and the peasantry of ,europe 7,yellow and ,dark-skinned ,people1 #ahe74 #h4a ,journ4 ,am4 ,f4 ,l41 xxi4 #bcc1 #bcf4 #i4a ,wilson1 ,peasant ,life1 #f4 #aa4a ,sproat1 #abj4 #aa4b ,boas1 ,mind1 #aaa4 #ab4a ,boas1 ,sixth ,report on the ,north-western ,tribes of ,canada1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,ass41 #ahij1 #ehb4 #ac4a ,rev4 ,father ,j4 ,jett1 ,s4,j41 ,anthropos1 vi4 #bdb1 #ie4 #ad4a ,r4 ,c4 ,phillips1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xvii4 #bbj4 #ae4a ,jaussen1 #bhg1 #bid1 #ccb1 #ccd4 ,cf4 ,hanauer1 #bcd4 #af4a ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 x4 #bfb4 #ah4a ,bull4 ,soc4 ,neuch4 ,gog41 ix4 #if4 #ai4a ,j4 ,smith1 #gg1 #cgc4 #bj4a ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xii4 #afc note4 #bb4a ,similar classifications of nouns have now been discovered among the ,negroes1 see ,r4 ,e4 ,s41 iii4 #bda4 #bf4a ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,cul41 i4 #che4 #ca4a ,kingsley1 ,trav41 #dic4 #cb4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #age1 #ceh n41 #ecj4 #cb4b ,f4 ,l4 ,journ41 iv4 #cj4 #cb4c ,i have collected the evidence in ,the ,legend of ,perseus1 vol4 i41 and in some directions more fully in ,primitive ,paternity1 vol4 i4 #cc4a ,farnell1 ,cults1 i4 #aie4 #cg4a ,j4 ,n4 ,b4 ,hewitt1 ,amer4 ,anthr41 ,n4,s41 iv4 #ch4 #da4a ,w4 ,jones1 ,journ4 ,am4 ,f4 ,l41 xviii4 #ahc sqq4 ,as used by ,dr ,jones here1 the word ,algonkin only includes the ,sauk1 ,fox1 and ,kickapoo tribes4 #da4b ,amer4 ,anthr41 ,n4,s41 iv4 #cf2 cf4 #cc4 #db4a ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xxvii4 #acd4 ,wakonda in its various forms is pronounced with an n somewhat like the ,french nasal4 #dc4a ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xxvii4 #eig sqq4 #dd4a ,fletcher1 ,am4 ,anthr41 xiv4 #ajf2 ,j4 ,o4 ,dorsey1 ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xi4 #cff2 ,riggs1 ,contrib4 ,n4 ,am4 ,ethnol41 vii4 #ejg sqq4 #de4a ,swanson1 ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xxvi4 #dea n41 #deb sqq4 #dh4a ,the analysis of the philosophy 7if it may be so called7 of the ,bafiote which ,i have tried to summarize above is by ,dr ,pechul-,loesche1 the most acute and profound of enquirers into the civilization and mentality of the peoples of ,loango1 and will be found in his ,volksk41 chaps4 iii4 and iv4 #dh4b ,de ,groot1 ,rel4 ,syst41 iv4 chap4 i4 #dh4c ,giran1 #ba sqq4 #dh4d ,batchelor1 ,encyc4 ,rel41 i4 #bci1 #bdj 7cf4 ,id41 ,ainu ,f4 ,l41 #ehj72 ,aston1 ,shinto1 #g sqq4 #ej4a ,codrington1 #aah sqq4 #ea4a ,is this really the original belief8 ,dr ,marett cites ,dr ,seligmann's 7verbal87 authority for the statement that in ,new ,guinea 7among the tribes of ,melanesian culture and descent87 8a yam-stone would be held capable of making the yams grow miraculously1 quite apart from the agency of spirits0 7,arch4 ,rel41 xii4 #aij74 #ea4b ,codrington1 #abj1 #aia4 #ea4c ,codrington1 #abd-e4 ,father ,joseph ,meier denies that the ,melanesian population of the ,gazelle ,peninsula of ,new ,britain possesses the concept of mana in the sense of a universal impersonal1 magical power4 ,yet he goes on to say3 8,the sorcerer 7,zauberer7 himself derives the inherent power of his spells 7,zauber-mitteln7 from two different sources of energy4 ,first1 he relies on the might of the spirits to whom he is indebted for his spells1 or on the might of his forefathers who have practised magic before him1 and have handed down to him their spells4 ,in his incantation therefore the magician 7,hexenmeister7 will always name a spirit1 or the name of a deceased sorcerer1 or at least silently presume his assistance4 ,a second source of energy for the sorcerer is his own soul4 ,by associating this with natural objects he enhances their powers4 ,everything the sorcerer does he conceives under the aspect of these two sources of energy4 ,the originator of an enchantment 7,zauberei7--be it an unembodied spirit1 or the ghost of a deceased person1 or a spirit residing in a living being 7for example1 a bird7--operates in his spell and makes it always and everywhere effective4 ,or else only the sorcerer's own soul is considered for magical purposes4 ,beyond this there is no other power0 7,anthropos1 viii4 #h1 #i74 ,this seems to resemble the concept of mana1 as set forth by ,dr ,codrington4 ,later ,father ,meier remarks3 8,the enquiry into the witchcraft 7,zauberwesen7 of the coast-dwellers of the ,gazelle ,peninsula is not yet closed4 ,so far we only know a small fragment of all their enchantments0 7ibid41 #aa74 ,our knowledge of the social elements and cultural history of ,melanesia as a whole1 and of ,new ,britain in particular1 is still very imperfect4 #ed4a ,e4 ,tregear1 ,the ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 ,wellington1 ,n4,z41 #ahia1 #bjc-f1 s4vv4 ,cf4 ,marett1 ,trans4 ,oxford ,cong41 i4 #dh sqq4 ,it is perhaps worth while to note 8that the ,samoan ,new ,testament was translated from the ,greek and uses mana as the equivalent of the ,greek 1 whilst pule is used for the ,greek 0 7,haddon1 ,torres ,str4 ,rep41 v4 #cbi1 quoting communication from ,s4 ,h4 ,ray74 #ee4a ,ellis1 ,polyn4 ,res41 iii4 #ajh4 ,a specimen of the girdle was sent by ,john ,williams1 the missionary afterwards killed at ,eramanga1 to ,england1 probably to the ,london ,missionary ,society4 ,see his ,miss4 ,enterprises1 #add4 #ef4a ,ellis1 op4 cit41 i4 #cch4 #eg4a ,taylor1 #afd sqq4 #eh4a ,de ,acosta1 #cgh4 #eh4b ,sbillot1 ,f4 ,l4 ,france1 ii4 #bce4 #eh4c ,ploss1 ,weib1 i4 #ejd1 quoting ,bonnemre1 but as usual without the exact reference4 #ei4a ,seligmann1 ,veddas1 #bjg4 #fj4a ,tozer1 i4 #baf4 #fj4b ,dr ,m4 ,hoefler1 ,am ,urquell1 ii4 #aja4 #fj4c ,rev4 ,h4 ,e4 ,mabille1 ,journ4 ,afr4 ,soc41 v4 #ceb4 #fb4a ,van ,gennep1 ,tabou1 #ahd4 #fb4b ,turner1 ,samoa1 #ahf4 ,compare a number of similar taboos on the previous and subsequent pages4 #fb4c ,codrington1 #bae4 #fc4a ,w4 ,bogoras1 ,amer4 ,anthr41 ,n4,s41 iii4 #ig4 #fd4a ,see ,golden ,bough#c1 passim1 especially the volume on ,taboo4 ,it is needless to say that ,professor ,frazer does not write from the point of view here adopted1 and that his interpretations frequently diverge from those which ,i should be inclined to4 #fe4a ,f4 ,l41 xii4 #ahf4 ,elsewhere ,mr ,weeks says3 8,no stigma attaches to the man who is proved guilty of witchcraft by the ordeal1 for #8one can have witchcraft without knowing it'0 7,cannibals1 #ahi74 ,presumably likundu is here included under the general term of witchcraft4 ,in another place he says3 8,the general belief is that only one in the family can bewitch a member of the family0 7ibid41 #caa74 ,hence the evil influence of the possessor of likundu extends no further4 #fg4a ,jevons1 ,introd41 #agh1 #g1 #cij sqq4 #fg4b ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,cul41 i4 #chc4 #fg4c ,avebury1 ,marriage1 #adb4 ,i cannot find that he commits himself to a definition of religion1 though his view may perhaps be inferred from the above quotation 7cf4 his ,origin of ,civilization1 #bje sqq474 #fh4a ,frazer1 ,magic ,art1 i4 #bbb1 #bbc4 #fh4b ,durkheim1 ,formes lmentaires1 #fe4 ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach in a recent brilliant work on the history of religions proposes as a definition3 8,an assemblage 7ensemble7 of scruples which stand in the way of the free exercise of our faculties40 ,this reduces religion to a system of taboos4 ,but he subsequently qualifies it by saying3 8,animism on one side1 taboos on the other1 these are the essential factors of religions0 7,orpheus1 #d1 #aj74 ,thus qualified1 however1 it excludes ,buddhism2 and with or without the qualification it does not express the social side of religion4 ,m4 ,reinach is quite conscious of these omissions4 ,they are an illustration of the extreme difficulty found by the most able and learned enquirers in formulating an adequate definition of religion1 a definition at once all-embracing and exact4 #fi4a ,durkheim1 #cbc4 #fi4b ,frazer1 ,magic ,art1 i4 #bbj4 #gj4a ,frazer1 op4 cit41 #eb4 #gj4b ,ibid41 #bba1 #bcg sqq4 #gj4c ,ibid41 #bcc4 ,frazer has worked out the theory more completely than anyone else2 but it has been more or less anticipated1 or shared1 by others1 such as ,sir ,edward ,tylor1 ,sir ,alfred ,lyall1 and ,professor ,jevons4 #gb4a ,the above is a brief summary 7partly borrowed from my review in ,f4 ,l41 xv4 #cei7 of a portion of the argument elaborated by ,,mm4 ,hubert and ,mauss in their 8,esquisse d'une ,thorie ,gnrale de la ,magie10 ,l',anne ,soc41 vii4 #a-adf4 #gf4a ,durkheim1 op4 cit41 #fa4 #gg4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 #edi1 #dgf4 #gg4b ,ante1 p4 #ej4 #gg4c ,codrington1 #acc4 ,another example is cited subsequently1 p4 #add1 from ,borneo4 #gh4a ,weeks1 #ahi2 see ante1 p4 #fe note4 #gh4b ,junod1 ,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 ii4 #dfg2 i4 #dda4 #gh4c ,durkheim1 op4 cit41 #fc note4 #gi4a ,all this indictment holds good in a lesser degree of the witch-hunts of ,europe and ,new ,england4 #hj4a ,gregor1 #aig4 #hj4b ,this1 however1 is not exactly what ,marillier says4 8,a #8natural' act 7and that is its sole difference from a magical act7 only reaches bodies1 or at least it only reaches the soul through the object it animates4 ,a magical practice1 which may1 however1 be a purely material act1 acts in some way from within outwards 7agit en quelque sorte du dedans au dehors72 it only kills or fecundates the man1 animal1 or plant to which it is applied1 by exercising first of all its beneficent or calamitous action on the soul1 which1 like that of the sorcerer1 is the principle of his life0 7,rev4 ,hist4 ,rel41 xxxvi4 #cdc74 #hj4c ,doutt1 #cbh1 #ccj4 #ha4a ,doutt1 #cdj1 #ccd1 #cdc1 #cch4 ,compare what the schoolboy called their 8conjuring tricks10 performed before ,pharaoh by ,moses and ,aaron1 and by the magicians 7,ex4 vii4 #h sqq474 #hb4a ,marett1 ,anthrop41 #bji4 ,dr ,marett might have omitted the words 8of evil0 after 8supernormal powers40 ,they do not strengthen his argument4 ,in savage communities a hard and fast line is not usually drawn between supernormal powers of evil and supernormal powers of good4 #hb4b ,ibid41 #baj4 #hc4a ,marett1 ,anthrop41 #baa4 #hd4a ,p4 ,e4 ,goddard1 ,univ4 ,cal4 ,pub41 i4 #hg4 #hd4b ,marett1 ,anthrop41 #bac4 #hd4c ,westermarck1 ,ceremonies1 #fg note1 quoting ,destaing4 #he4a ,reference may be made here to ,mr ,ernest ,crawley1 who writes like ,professor ,jevons from a distinctly theological standpoint4 ,i can find no formal definition of religion in his book on the subject4 ,he says3 8,the vital instinct1 the feeling of life1 the will to live1 the instinct to preserve it1 is the source of1 or rather is identical with1 the religious impulse1 and is the origin of religion0 7,tree of ,life1 #bad74 ,but1 as ,professor ,leuba has rightly observed1 8the love and lust of life is the source of all human conduct and not of religion alone0 7,psychol4 ,study1 #dh74 ,elsewhere ,mr ,crawley observes that religion is not a department1 like law or science1 having a special subject-matter2 it is 8a tone or spirit40 ,it 8chiefly concerns itself with elemental interests--life and death1 birth and marriage are typical cases0 7op4 cit41 #bjd sq474 ,nor can ,i find any definition of magic1 though he maintains in opposition to ,professor ,frazer that 8it seems impossible to separate magic and religion in their early forms40 8,indeed10 he adds1 8the practical meaning of magic1 when worked in connection with religion1 is control of the supernatural1 which is thus not superior to man0 7#ahf74 ,what is magic when not 8worked in connection with religion08 ,he identifies mana with the force 8which underlies magical processes generally10 but apparently not religious processes4 ,a religious process he defines as 8that of making a thing sacred0 7#bca sq474 ,he opposes magic to sacredness4 8,sacredness is a result of the application of religious impulse and of nothing else0 7#bjh sq474 ,compare ,professor ,durkheim's definition of religion 7supra1 p4 #fh74 ,mr ,crawley takes insufficient account of the social aspect of religion4 #hg4a ,southey1 ,the ,curse of ,kehama1 preface4 #hg4b ,augustine1 ,civ4 ,dei1 x4 #aa1 citing ,porphyry4 #ia4a ,marett1 ,threshold1 #dd sqq4 #ib4a ,j4 ,m4 ,m4 van der ,burgt1 #ee4 #ib4b ,hewitt1 ,am4 ,anthr41 ,n4,s41 iv41 #dj4 #ic4a ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xii4 #afa1 #afc1 #cec1 etc4 #ie4a ,codrington1 #aib4 #ih4a ,the primary authority on the ,arunta and neighbouring tribes is ,messrs ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t4 and ,n4 ,t41 and ,rep4 ,horn ,exped41 but ,strehlow's researches 7,aranda- und ,loritja-stmme7 are important4 ,the results of the latter are divergent to some extent from those of the former1 but in most respects are not irreconcilable4 ,see1 e4g41 ,professor ,durkheim's valuable discussion of the different versions of reincarnation1 op4 cit41 #ceg sqq4 ,i have stated above in a summary manner what seems to be the result of the criticism of both authorities4 #ii4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #dih2 ,strehlow1 ii4 #a4 ,cf4 ,rep4 ,horn ,exped41 iv4 #ahc4 #ii4b ,strehlow1 i4 #a4 #ajj4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #bbg1 #bcb1 #bch4 #ajj4b ,ibid41 #bbg4 #ajj4c ,ibid41 #beb4 #aja4a ,for the ,mongolian practice see ,amer4 ,anthr41 ,n4,s41 xv4 #cgj4 ,the ,pueblo ,indian practice has been recorded by every scientific enquirer among the tribes4 #ajb4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 #bdi4 ,note also the threat which follows4 #ajb4b ,m4 ,durkheim contends1 and ,i think with justice1 that the association of the churinga with individual ancestors1 and therefore with their descendants1 or rather reincarnations1 is secondary 7op4 cit41 #agc74 ,but cf4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #bha4 #ajb4c ,strehlow1 ii4 #gh4 ,he resisted the temptation and avoided the mistake made so often by missionaries of translating by native words ,christian terms of fundamentally different content4 #ajc4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #bei sqq4 #ajc4b ,ibid41 #bic4 #ajd4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 chaps4 v4 and vi4 passim2 ,n4 ,t41 chap4 viii4 passim2 ,strehlow1 ii4 #ge sqq4 #aje4a ,strehlow1 iii4 #f4 #aje4b ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 chap4 xvi42 ,n4 ,t41 chap4 xv42 ,rep4 ,horn ,exped41 #ahj4 #ajf4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 #ecd1 #eec4 ,cf4 #dhj1 #ech4 #ajg4a ,arch4 ,rel41 viii4 #dfc1 #dfg4 ,compare the account of the initiation by the ,devil of a ,lapp wizard quoted from ,tornus1 ,scheffer1 #acf4 #ajg4b ,jesup4 ,exped41 vi4 #dg4 #aji4a ,junod1 ,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 ii4 #dej1 #dga1 #dgc4 ,m4 ,junod's work is concerned with the ,thonga1 but it is true in general terms of other tribes4 #aji4b ,merensky1 #ace2 ,shooter1 #aia2 ,callaway1 ,rel4 ,syst41 #bei sqq4 #aji4c ,johnston1 ,grenfell1 ii4 #fei note1 quoting ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,stapleton4 ,he is obviously reporting a statement by a native4 #aaj4a ,jones1 ,ojebway1 #bfi4 #aaj4b ,a4 ,l4 ,kroeber1 ,univ4 ,cal4 ,pub41 iv4 #cbh4 #aaj4c ,g4 ,a4 ,dorsey1 ,trad4 ,skidi ,pawnee1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aid1 #aii1 #bjf1 #baj1 #bai1 #bba1 #bca4 #aaj4d ,roth1 ,sarawak1 i4 #bff4 #aaa4a ,skeat1 ,magic1 #fj4 #aac4a ,seligmann1 ,veddas1 #abh sqq41 #aij sqq41 #bjg4 ,see supra1 p4 #ei4 #aad4a ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xii4 #if4 #aae4a ,kolben1 #ig4 #aaf4a ,dorsey1 ,wichita1 #ii4 #aaf4b ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xxvii4 #aig4 #aag4a ,there appears to be no detailed account of the ,buffalo ,dance of the ,pawnees4 ,see ,dorsey1 ,skidi ,pawnees1 xxi4 #df2 ,grinnell1 #cfi4 ,the latest stage1 perhaps contaminated with ,european notions1 is in part described1 ,id41 #bgj4 #aba4a ,w4 ,j4 ,m#8,gee1 ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xvii4 #afh99 sqq4 #aba4b ,durkheim1 #bie4 #abd4a ,durkheim1 #cje4 #abd4b ,ibid41 #acd1 #ace4 #abd4c ,ibid41 #cdc1 #cee1 #cgh4 #abe4a ,seligmann1 #cj1 #abf1 #acj1 #agj sqq41 #adi4 #abf4a ,cens4 ,ind4 ,rep41 #aija1 iii4 #fb4 ,cf4 the papers by ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xii4 #abg4a ,koch-,grnberg1 passim2 von den ,steinen1 passim1 especially #cej sqq4 #acj4a ,westermarck1 ,moral ,ideas1 ii4 #ehe4 #acb4a ,marten1 ,ind4 ,cens4 ,rep41 #aiaa1 x4 #hj4 #acb4b ,laws of ,manu1 ,sac4 ,bks41 xxv4 #e4 ,i am indebted for this reference and the further explanation above to my friend ,mr ,william ,crooke4 #acb4c ,supra1 p4 #fb4 #acb4d ,dr ,frazer1 ,psyche's ,task1 #be sqq41 has made a collection of these rites and signs4 ,see also ,westermarck1 ,moral ,ideas1 ii4 #fc sqq4 #acc4a ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons1 ,oxford ,cong4 ,rep41 ii4 #aca2 ,id41 ,grco-,italian ,magic1 ,anthrop4 ,class41 #ajf4 ,see also ,rouse1 ,greek ,v4 ,o41 #ccg4 #acc4b ,i described one such leaden tablet1 found at ,dymock1 ,gloucestershire1 in ,reliquary1 ,n4,s41 iii4 #adj4 ,another was subsequently found at ,lincoln's ,inn1 and reported on by ,mr ,w4 ,paley ,baildon to the ,society of ,antiquaries 7,proc4 ,soc4 ,anti41 #bnd ser41 xviii4 #ada74 ,others have also been found elsewhere1 among them two on ,gatherley ,moor in ,yorkshire4 ,if the identification of the persons against whom the tablets on ,gatherley ,moor and at ,lincoln's ,inn were directed be conclusively established1 they antedate by more than half a century the translation above referred to of ,agrippa's book4 ,this of course is by no means impossible1 or indeed improbable1 for the practitioners of occult science in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth were frequently men of learning4 #acd4a ,fasc4 ,malay1 ii4 #da4 #ace4a ,alan ,h4 ,gardiner1 ,oxford ,cong4 ,rep41 i4 #baj4 #ace4b ,budge1 ,archologia1 lii4 #dba sqq41 transliterating1 translating1 and commenting on a papyrus in the ,british ,museum1 which belonged to a priest of ,ra about the year ,b4,c4 #cje1 and contains the ritual for the purpose4 #ace4c ,wiedemann1 #id4 #acf4a ,wiedemann1 #bgi4 #acf4b ,ibid41 #ii4 #acf4c ,budge1 ,archologia1 lii4 #dbe1 #ddj1 #eci sqq4 ,the ,egyptian gods merged into one another like the dissolving pictures of a lantern4 ,this was probably in part the result of the union in one kingdom of a number of petty states1 which were centres of worship of disparate though cognate divinities1 and the consequent effort to synthesize these divinities and their worship1 and in part the issue of philosophical speculation1 itself doubtless influenced by political events4 #acf4d ,wiedemann1 #ed2 ,budge1 ,egypt4 ,magic1 #acg4 ,dr ,frazer's version1 ,taboo1 #chg1 is formed on a comparison of these and other texts4 #acg4a ,wiedemann1 #bgc4 ,more personal threats are often employed4 ,see1 for examples1 ,arch4 ,rel41 xvi4 #he4 #acg4b ,plato1 ,rep41 ii4 #cfd4 #acg4c ,there are of course plenty of magical ,greek texts1 but they are much later4 ,the papyri unearthed in such numbers during recent years contain many2 and they often imply that the deity invoked is compelled to perform his votary's wishes4 ,he is addressed in terms of command1 adjured by names of power and bidden to be quick about his work4 ,such spells1 however1 are not purely ,greek4 ,they are produced under foreign influence1 and the gods or demons invoked bear alien names4 ,the texts are frequently defixiones4 ,simaitha's incantation in the second idyll of ,theocritus1 so far as it is addressed to the ,moon1 to ,hecate or ,artemis1 is not couched in terms of command4 ,the goddesses1 if they grant the damsel's desires1 are accomplices who cannot plead vis major4 ,yet threats and insults to the gods were1 it seems1 sometimes made use of1 probably in the hope of driving them by taunts to do what was wanted 7see below1 p4 #aij74 ,the dividing line here is very thin4 #aci4a ,hodson1 ,naga1 #aci1 #ada2 cf4 #ajb1 #afd4 #aci4b ,parker1 ,tales1 i4 #ig4 #adj4a ,brett1 ,ind4 ,tribes1 #dja4 #adj4b ,anthropos1 viii4 #c4 ,for the belief in and cult of the ,kaya1 see ibid41 iii4 #ajje2 and of the ,inal1 ibid41 v4 #ie4 #adj4c ,shakespear1 ,lushai1 #aji 7cf4 #fa74 #ada4a ,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 ,f4 ,l41 xxiii4 #ahg sq4 #ada4b ,wiedemann1 #bbg4 ,on ,thoth as magician and the words of power which he uttered and wrote down compare ,budge1 ,egypt4 ,magic1 #abh sqq4 #adb4a ,morris1 ,heimskringla1 i4 #ah1 #ai4 #adc4a ,levit4 xvi4 #h4 ,on the ,scapegoat in general see ,dr ,frazer's volume bearing that title4 #add4a ,hose1 ii4 #bi note4 #ade4a ,hose1 #ef1 #aag4 #adf4a ,rivers1 ,todas1 #beg1 #dej4 ,for an alternative translation of the third clause of the spell1 see pp4 #aie1 #bga4 ,for another form of the spell1 see p4 #bei4 #adg4a ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xl4 #cgg1 #cgh4 #adh4a ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xl4 #chc4 ,surely in the face of these examples ,mr ,weeks' statement--8,nor did we find any form of prayer among them1 no worship and no sacrifices0 7ibid41 #cgf7--needs some qualification4 ,as to the mongoli1 see ibid41 #cfh4 #adi4a ,werner1 #ef1 #gf4 #aea4a ,a4 ,m4 ,tozzer1 ,putnam ,vol41 #cjd4 ,cf4 ,matthews1 ,navaho ,leg41 #dj4 #aea4b ,tozzer1 op4 cit41 #cjc4 ,on the rites and beliefs of the ,dene1 see ,father ,jett1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxvii4 #aeg sqq4 #aed4a ,exod4 xxii4 #ah4 #aed4b ,deut4 xviii4 #i sqq4 #aed4c ,num4 v4 #aa sqq4 #aee4a ,hos4 iii4 #d1 #e4 ,cf4 ,t4 ,w4 ,davies1 ,magic1 #cf2 and ,encyc4 ,bibl41 s4v4 #aei4a ,weeks #agg4 #afa4a lian1 ,var4 ,hist41 xii4 #bc4 ,philo 7,dreams1 ii4 #ag7 attributes the same practice to the ,germans4 #afa4b ,o',grady1 ii4 #eah4 ,professor ,whitley ,stokes also gives it1 ,f4 ,l41 iv4 #dhh1 from an ,edinburgh ,,ms4 ,i quote his translation1 which is to the same effect as ,mr ,o',grady's4 #afb4a ,skeat1 ,magic1 #aj4 #afc4a ,vinson1 #bj4 ,according to this story there were two cabin-boys1 one of whom overheard the plot and the other struck the blow1 but this appears to be a literary embellishment4 #afc4b ,strackerjan1 i4 #cbd1 #cbe2 ,hansen1 #ch4 ,the ,norse tale 7by ,asbjoernsen7 is referred to1 ,mlusine1 ii4 #bja4 ,i have not seen it4 ,analogous tale in ,ireland1 ,ant41 xlv4 #cga4 #afc4c ,tylor ,essays1 #ach4 ,roscher 7,ephialtes1 #ch7 thinks it was 8a quite obvious nightmare40 #afd4a ,gregor1 #ff4 #afd4b ,gregor1 loc4 cit4 #aff4a ,thorpe1 ,n4 ,myth41 ii4 #gh4 #afg4a ,hibbert1 ,a ,description of the ,shetland ,islands 7,edinburgh1 #ahbb71 #efi2 ,zeits4 des ,ver41 ii4 #ae1 #ag2 ,rogers1 #bah2 ,lehmann-,filhs1 ii4 #af2 ,maurer1 #agc4 #afh4a ,natesa ,sastri1 #adh4 #afh4b ,bibl4 ,trad4 ,pop4 ,espan41 i4 #ahg #afh4c ,castrn1 #agb4 #afh4d ,boas1 ,ind4 ,sagen1 #hf4 #afi4a ,miller1 ,scenes and ,leg41 #bhg4 #agj4a ,shakespear1 ,lushei1 #ff4 #agj4b ,grimm1 ,teut4 ,myth41 iii4 #ibd4 #aga4a ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bhe4 #aga4b ,pausanias1 i4 #d1 #e2 ,ovid1 ,metam41 xi4 #ij2 ,herod41 viii4 #ach2 lian1 ,var4 ,hist41 iii4 #ah4 #aga4c ,iliad1 v4 #cgj sqq4 #agb4a ,r4 ,e4 ,e4 ,s41 i4 #cch4 #agb4b ,as an example the ,nattu ,malayans of ,cochin in the south of ,india may be cited4 8,when questioned as to their ideas of gods1 they say that they are like men themselves1 but invisible1 yet all-powerful0 7,anantha ,krishna1 i4 #cd74 #agc4a ,herod41 ii4 #abb4 ,gods1 like men1 were addicted to gambling4 ,according to ,plutarch 7,de ,iside71 ,hermes in ,egyptian legend played with the moon and won the seventieth part of each of her light periods1 wherewith he made the last five days of the year and added them to the calendar4 #agc4b ,herod41 vii4 #ce4 #agc4c ,brenger-,feraud1 ,superst41 i4 #dgc4 ,the author has collected in the chapter from which this is cited numerous other instances of the punishment of the recalcitrant god4 #agc4d ,herod41 ii4 #aaa4 #agd4a ,williams1 ,burmah1 #ia4 #agd4b ,ind4 ,cens4 ,rep41 #aiaa1 x4 #fa4 #agd4c ,herod41 iv4 #id4 ,rohde 7,psyche1 ii4 #bh note7 suggests that the personage against whom the arrows and threats were aimed was not strictly a god1 but an evil spirit or a magician4 ,this1 however1 does not follow4 ,philo 7l4c47 states that ,xerxes1 when his bridge across the ,hellespont was destroyed1 aimed his arrows at the sun1 and regards the action with pious horror as a symptom of insanity4 #age4a ,herod41 iv4 #ahd4 #age4b ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxvi4 #ea4 #age4c ,moffat1 #bfa1 #bfe4 #age4d ,chapman1 i4 #bac4 ,the word translated by ,chapman as 8,god0 is doubtless ,morimo4 ,cf4 ibid41 #df1 8,all ,bechuanas believe in ,god 7,morimo71 whom they laud or execrate as good or bad luck attends them40 #agf4a ,callaway1 ,rel4 ,syst41 #djd4 #agf4b ,hahn1 #df1 #ea1 #ei1 #id4 ,cf4 #ii1 where the practice of the ,urjangkut1 a tribe of ,black ,tartars1 to scold the thunder and lightning is cited from ,bastian4 #agg4a ,lloyd1 #cig4 ,according to another account1 8when it thunders the ,bushmen are very angry and curse bitterly1 thinking that the storm is occasioned by some evil being0 7,thunberg1 ii41 #afc74 #agg4b ,hollis1 ,nandi1 #i1 #ii4 #agg4c ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xliii4 #di4 #agg4d ,jes4 ,rel41 xii4 #be4 #agg4e ,j4 ,a4 ,mason1 ,univ4 ,cal4 ,pub41 x4 #ahe4 #agh4a ,lozano1 ,desc4 ,chorographica del ,gran ,chaco 7#agcc71 #ga1 quoted ,payne1 i4 #cia note4 #agh4b ,payne1 l4c4 #agh4c ,int4 ,arch41 ,suppl41 xiii4 #hh4 #agi4a ,neuhauss1 iii4 #aeg4 ,i may refer also to the account of a young ,kayan brave in ,borneo taking his arms and sallying forth to fight the ,thunder-god 7,int4 ,arch41 xxi4 #aci74 ,but further examples are unnecessary4 #ahj4a ,frazer1 ,magic ,art1 i4 #cbg sqq4 #ahj4b ,von ,alpenburg1 #bfb1 #cfe4 ,many such knives are to be found in peasants' houses in the ,lower ,inn valley4 ,in the ,netherlands these whirlwinds are held to be 8the ,travailing ,mother10 who seems to be a woman dead in childbirth unconfessed of mortal sin4 ,she cannot be received into heaven4 ,she is equally denied a place in hell1 since her sufferings and death have already provided a sufficient penance4 ,hence she wanders about1 seeking an abiding-place 7,wolf1 ,niederl4 ,sag41 #faf74 ,women who die in childbirth are commonly considered very dangerous ghosts4 ,see below1 p4 #bac4 #aha4a ,farnell1 ,evol41 #dc4 ,cf4 ,miss ,harrison1 ,prolegomena1 #aja4 #aha4b ,i have discussed similar practices1 ,prim4 ,pat41 i4 #ajb4 ,see also ,mannhardt1 ,myth4 ,forsch41 #aac sqq42 ,frazer1 ,scapegoat1 #bee4 ,these contain a large collection of examples1 which put the magical and purificatory purpose beyond doubt4 #ahb4a ,mlusine1 ii4 #ahg1 quoting the passage4 #ahb4b ,journ4 ,am4 ,f4 ,l41 xxiii4 #daf1 #dah4 #ahb4c ,lumholtz1 ii4 #cdb1 #dbb4 #ahc4a ,rev4 ,trad4 ,pop41 xi4 #ffc4 ,vlmiki1 the ,indian epic poet1 author of the ,rmyana1 is said to have owed his birth to a similar blunder by a saint who was the object of prayers by two sisters-in-law1 and mistook the maiden for the married woman 7,harikishan ,kaul1 ,ind4 ,cens4 ,rep41 #aiaa1 xiv4 #aca1 citing ,vaman ,shiva ,ram ,apte's ,sanskrit ,dictionary74 #ahd4a ,turner1 ,r4 ,b4 ,e41 xi4 #aid4 #ahd4b ,m4 ,friedrich1 ,anthropos1 ii4 #aja4 #ahe4a ,anthropos1 vii4 #gd4 #ahe4b ,thurston1 ,castes1 vi4 #he4 #ahf4a ,dr ,h4 ten ,kate1 ,anthropos1 vii4 #cif4 ,cf4 ,aston1 ,shinto1 #ahi4 #ahf4b ,wiedemann1 op4 cit41 #agh4 ,brenger-,feraud1 ,superst41 i4 #dea sqq41 gives a long list of examples of punishments inflicted on the obdurate divinity4 ,see also ,frazer1 ,magic ,art1 i4 #bif2 ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,cul41 ii4 #aee-g1 and the numerous authorities there referred to2 ,grimm1 ,teut4 ,myth41 ii4 #gfg note4 #ahg4a ,f4 ,l41 viii4 #cdi4 #ahg4b ,weeks1 #bga4 #ahg4c ,frazer1 ,scapegoat1 passim4 #ahh4a ,morris1 ,ere1 #aea4 #aij4a ,junod1 ,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 ii4 #cfh1 #chd4 ,if ,lactantius and the other writers of antiquity who have mentioned the sacrifice to ,hercules referred to by ,dr ,frazer 7,magic ,art1 i4 #bha7 had given us the exact words and occasion of the rite1 we might perhaps find a similar explanation for it4 ,both that and the rite addressed at ,cranganore in ,southern ,india 7ibid41 #bhj7 to the goddess ,bhagavati are at present very obscure4 #aia4a ,anantha ,krishna1 i4 #ec1 #gf4 #aia4b ,temple1 ,leg4 ,panj41 ii4 #dbe4 ,cf4 ,f4 ,l41 x4 #djf4 #aia4c ,grimm1 ,teut4 ,myth41 i4 #bj1 where other instances are also cited4 #aib4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxix4 #acd1 reproduced in the same author's ,congo ,cannibals1 #agf4 #aid4a ,plutarch1 ,de ,iside4 ,wiedemann 7#bac7 suggests that the ,greeks misunderstood the myth4 ,but the text of the hymn which he quotes appears to prove the accuracy of ,plutarch's interpretation4 ,this is in effect the view taken by ,dr ,wallis ,budge 7,gods1 i4 #dhg74 ,harpocrates 7,heru-p-khart7 is ,horus the younger4 #aie4a ,de ,groot1 ,rel4 ,syst41 iv4 #dbi1 #dba1 #cdb2 ,giles1 ii4 #bgf4 #aif4a ,dalton1 #bcb4 #aig4a ,n4 ,ind4 ,n4 and ,q41 iii4 #ig1 par4 #bje4 #aig4b ,jlg1 #if 7,story ,no4 #i74 ,compare children's tales from various parts of ,india1 where the hero or heroine's life is dependent on a necklace which is stolen4 ,the owner of the necklace dies when it is worn by the thief1 and revives when it is taken off4 ,the birth of a child follows visits by the other spouse4 ,by the child's help the necklace is recovered1 and permanent life is thus restored to the half-dead1 half-living hero or heroine 7,frere1 #bcj 7,story ,no4 #bj72 ,day1 #a 7,story ,no4 #a72 ,steel and ,temple1 #he74 #aig4c ,kruijt1 #cih1 #eji2 cf4 #bcj4 #aih4a ,petitot1 #bfb4 #aii4a ,von ,wlislocki1 ,volksdicht41 #bhc4 #aii4b ,maurer1 #cjj 7cf4 #aib74 ,a ,protestant version is given1 ,lehmann-,filhs1 i4 #acb4 #bjj4a ,le ,braz1 #cba1 ,story ,no4 #fj4 #bja4a ,boas1 ,ind4 ,sag41 #bfg4 ,compare a curious ,tlingit story of a girl who married a dead man 7ghost71 who in consequence came to life again 7,swanton1 ,tlingit ,myths1 #bdg74 #bjb4a ,the ghostly visitant might be of either sex1 though the masculine was perhaps more common4 ,the visit was generally attended in either case with fatal effects4 ,see below as to ,lami4 #bjc4a ,herodotus1 vi4 #fh1 #fi4 #bjc4b ,augustine1 ,civ4 ,dei1 xv4 #bc4 #bjc4c ,malleolus1 ,de ,credul4 ,dmon4 adhibenda1 ,malleus ,maleficarum 7,frankfurt1 #aehb71 #dbh4 ,see also ,bodin1 ,de ,magorum ,dmonomania 7,frankfurt1 #afjc71 ii4 #g4 ,by this time1 however1 there began to be sceptics4 ,cf4 ,wierus1 ,de ,prstigiis ,dmonum 7,basel1 #aegg71 #ceh2 ,ulr4 ,molitor1 ,de ,pythonicis ,mulieribus1 ,malleus ,mal41 #hc4 ,the extensive information possessed for many centuries by these learned men was not limited to the incubus4 ,there were also corresponding female demons commonly known as ,succubi1 or ,lami1 whose ravages were almost equally great4 ,awful tales were related by way of warning against their temptation4 ,compare the putiana of the ,moluccas1 cited below4 ,see also ,lecky1 ,rationalism1 i4 #bf note4 ,among the ancient ,assyrians and the modern ,arabs the possibility of cohabitation by a man with a spirit or non-human supernatural being1 who may even bear him children1 was and is believed4 ,but they are very jealous 7,encyc4 ,rel41 iv4 #ega2 ,f4 ,l41 xi4 #chh74 #bjd4a ,strausz1 #ded4 #bjd4b ,bartels1 quoting ,wladimir ,bugiel1 ,zeit4 des ,vereins1 x4 #aba4 ,apparently the throwing of the poppy-seed imposed on the ghostly visitant the necessity of counting the grains before proceeding to his attack4 ,see ,andree1 i4 #ha2 ,wilken1 iii4 #bbf note1 citing ,mannhardt4 #bje4a ,scott goes on to refer to the old ,scottish ballad of ,sweet ,william's ,ghost1 founded1 like that of ,brger's poem1 on the same superstition4 ,it is reprinted1 with an account of the literature on the subject1 in ,child1 ,ballads1 ii4 #aii sqq41 #bbf sqq42 v4 #bic1 #bid4 #bje4b ,black1 #aac4 #bjh4a ,maurer1 #aaa4 #bjh4b ,for example1 the notable case of the foundress of a new and popular religion1 who was said to be haunted after the manner of ,herdis1 to her great annoyance and terror4 ,but even her deluded followers felt bound to draw the line somewhere1 and they seem to have drawn it at this obsession4 #bji4a ,daily ,chronicle1 #agth ,february #aiab4 #baj4a ,among the ,ngoulango or ,pakhalla of the ,ivory ,coast a widow carries a piece of fetish wood which has the power to cause death to anyone who1 attempting to approach her1 is touched with it 7,clozel1 #cfc74 ,it is probably effectual also against the ghost4 #baj4b ,globus1 lxxii4 #bb2 lxxxi4 #aij4 ,compare a custom of the ,minas of the ,slave ,coast1 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xv4 #he note4 ,the ,kagoro of ,northern ,nigeria are also reported to believe in the possibility of sexual connection by ghosts with women 7,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xlii4 #aei74 ,major ,tremearne marks this belief as doubtful2 but it accords with that of other peoples4 ,the pungent smoke of red pepper is used in exorcisms by the ,tigre of ,abyssinia 7,littmann1 #caj1 #caa74 #baa4a ,zeits4 v4 ,rechtsw41 xxvii4 #he4 ,a widow remains four months in her hut1 subject to a corresponding taboo4 ,among the ,negroes of ,surinam1 before a widow or widower marries again1 an offering of food and drink must be made to the ghost in order to obtain permission for the new marriage4 ,the new spouse will be considered as belonging1 even if not actually so belonging1 to the family of the deceased4 ,the widow or widower may not leave the house for three months1 nor do any work 7ibid41 #cie1 #cid74 #baa4b ,ibid41 xxv4 #ii sqq4 #bab4a ,zeits4 v4 ,rechtsw41 xxv4 #ajg4 ,the ,f ,negresses in ,togoland also fear to be haunted by their deceased husbands1 who may kill them1 or at least drive them mad4 ,but this is said to be only when they have neglected them during life 7,anthropos1 vii4 #cjg74 #bac4a ,pechul-,loesche1 #cjh sqq4 ,the ghosts of women who have died in childbed are frequently the objects of dread in areas far apart4 ,the belief is common in the ,east ,indian ,archipelago 7see ,wilken1 iii4 #bbd sqq474 ,such a ghost is called by the inhabitants of the ,island of ,serang1 in the ,moluccas1 ,putiana4 ,she appears after death as a great white bird1 or else as a beautiful woman with fragrant clothing1 who attacks pregnant women1 or seduces and then with her long nails emasculates men4 ,the most elaborate precautions are taken against her 7,riedel1 #aab74 ,among the ,shans of the ,upper ,chindwin ,valley1 ,burma1 the husband feigns madness1 and undergoes a special purification 7,f4 ,l41 xxiii4 #dgj74 #bad4a ,bastian1 ,san ,salvador1 #ajj4 ,among the ,fans1 further to the north1 as ,frazer notes 7,balder1 ii4 #ah1 quoting ,w4 ,l4 ,priklonsky in ,bastian's ,allerlei aus ,volks- und ,menschenkunde71 at the end of the mourning ceremonies the widows are purified by passing over a lighted brazier and sitting down with leaves still burning under their feet4 ,their heads are then shaved1 and they are shared between the heirs of the deceased4 #bae4a ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1 ,folk-,lore1 xix4 #dcj2 xxi4 #dfc4 #baf4a ,junod1 ,r4 ,e4 ,s41 i4 #afb2 id41 ,the ,fate of the ,widows amongst the ,ba-,ronga1 reprinted from the report of the ,south ,african ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #aijh 7,grahamstown1 ,cape ,colony1 #aiji71 #e4 ,it is fair to say that another and somewhat more popular account by ,m4 ,junod states3 8,the night after the burial has come4 ,all the widows sleep in the open1 their huts1 which belonged to the deceased1 being taboo4 ,if it rains1 they sleep in other huts of the village0 7,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 i4 #ade74 ,i do not know how to reconcile these two statements4 ,i have adopted that which ,m4 ,junod has twice affirmed1 the articles in the ,r4 ,e4 ,s4 being particularly detailed and precise4 ,among the northern clans of the ,thonga1 he tells us 7,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 i4 #aej7 that the first night of mourning 8everyone scil4 in the village sleeps in the open40 #bag4a ,c4 ,s4 ,myers and ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,torres ,str4 ,rep41 vi4 #aec1 #aeh1 #afj2 ,haddon1 ibid4 7#aiab71 iv4 #fj4 ,in the ,murray ,islands 8the ghost of a recently deceased person is particularly feared2 it haunts the neighbourhood for two or three months40 ,but whether it specially attacks the widow the members of the expedition do not seem to have learned 7ibid41 vi4 #bec74 ,the peculiarity of the dress1 however1 speaks for itself4 #bah4a ,frazer1 ,taboo1 #add1 citing ,father ,guis1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques 7#aijb71 xxxiv1 #bjh4 ,among the ,abarambo of the ,congo basin1 north of the ,wele1 the husband or wife disappears in the bush for a time1 the latter until she finds a new husband4 ,the widow or widower blackens the face1 binds a cord round the waist1 wears nothing but an old garment and only eats raw food 7,johnston1 ,grenfell1 ii4 #fej74 #bai4a ,teit1 ,jes4 ,exped41 i4 #ccb4 ,compare the ,bella ,coola tale cited above 7p4 #bjj74 #bai4b ,peter ,martyr1 ,the ,decades of the ,new ,world1 in ,arber1 #ajj4 #bai4c ,lumholtz1 ,unk4 ,mexico1 i4 #chd sqq4 ,four feasts are given for a woman4 8,she cannot run so fast1 and it is therefore harder to chase her off40 #bba4a ,hobley1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xli4 #dah4 ,among the neighbouring ,atharaka and ,akamba the duty of sleeping with the widow on the fifth night after the death is performed by a brother of the deceased 7,champion1 ibid41 xlii4 #hd74 #bbb4a ,stannus1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xl4 #cae4 #bbb4b ,compare the accounts of ,anyanja funerals in ,rattray1 #ib 7this account is by a native71 and ,werner1 #afe4 ,in neither of these is the custom in question referred to4 #bbc4a ,rattray1 #ahg4 #bbc4b ,georgi1 iii4 #hi4 ,the information is perhaps derived from the old travellers1 ,steller and ,krasheninnikoff1 both of whom mention the custom4 ,see ,jesup4 ,exped41 vi4 #geb4 #bbd4a ,pechul-,loesche1 #ccj4 ,cf4 ,weeks1 #cjj4 #bbd4b ,f4 ,l41 xix4 #dac4 #bbe4a ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 #ceg n41 #dh4 ,of the ,king of ,nri in ,nigeria we are told3 8,no man is allowed to step over his wives' legs1 nor may anyone commit adultery with them0 7,thomas1 ,ibo1 i4 #ec74 ,this collocation of prohibitions is hardly accidental4 #bbe4b ,roscoe1 #bje4 #bbf4a ,i suspect that the requirement mentioned by ,professor ,frazer 7,dying ,god1 #ahc71 of some of the ,kaffir tribes1 not specified1 that the first child born after the second marriage of a widow of a man killed in battle1 whether by her first or her second husband1 must be put to death1 is to be referred to the same cycle of ideas4 ,but ,i have no access to the authority he cites1 which is partly unpublished4 #bbg4a ,lieut4 ,hans ,kaufmann1 ,mitteil4 aus den ,deutschen ,schutzgeb4 7,berlin1 #aiaj71 xxiii4 #afh4 #bbh4a ,zeits4 v4 ,rechtsw41 xxv4 #aja1 #ig1 #aje4 #bbh4b ,gouldsbury and ,sheane1 #aga4 #bbi4a ,gouldsbury and ,sheane1 #afh sqq4 #bcj4a ,cens4 ,ind4 ,rep41 #aija1 ix4 #bjh2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,encyc4 ,rel41 iv4 #fjc4 #bcj4b ,w4 ,crooke1 l4c4 ,see supra1 p4 #bac note4 ,cf4 also ,cens4 ,ind4 ,rep41 #aija1 xvii4 #abj4 #bcj4c ,cens4 ,ind4 ,rep41 #aija1 xvii4 #aba4 #bca4a ,cens4 ,ind4 ,rep41 #aiaa1 xiv4 #bhc4 #bca4b ,ibid41 #aija1 vi4 #dba4 #bca4c ,ibid41 #aiaa1 xvi4 #agf4 #bcf4a ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xv4 #gc1 #ih4 #bcf4b ,a4 ,l4 ,kroeber1 ,bull4 ,am4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,history1 xviii4 #ag4 #bcf4c ,weeks1 #cbj1 #cba2 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxix4 #dec4 #bcf4d ,batchelor1 #ajf1 #afg4 #bcg4a ,anthropos1 i4 #agb4 #bcg4b ,int4 ,arch41 xiii41 ,suppl41 #gg4 #bcg4c ,clozel1 #cfc4 #bcg4d ,brough ,smyth1 ii4 #big2 ,f4 ,l41 xiv4 #cbe1 #cch4 #bcg4e ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #eba4 #bch4a ,rice1 #ef1 #eg4 #bch4b ,lunet de ,lajonquire1 #bhb4 #bch4c ,herod41 ii4 #df1 #ff1 #fg4 ,they were all no doubt sacred animals4 #bch4d ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxi4 #cjf4 #bci4a ,thomas1 ,ibo1 i4 #de1 #ci4 #bci4b ,meyer1 #hc4 #bci4c ,pepper and ,wilson1 ,mem4 ,am4 ,anthrop4 ,assoc41 ii4 #cac4 #bdj4a ,bull4 de ,folklore1 iii4 #gd4 #bda4a ,hollis1 ,nandi1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd4 #bda4b ,id41 ,masai1 #cec4 #bdb4a ,paulitschke1 i4 #beh4 ,cf4 the customs of the ,kavirondo and ,ja-,luo1 where no painting is recorded 7,johnston1 ,uganda1 ii4 #gdc1 #gid74 #bdb4b ,torday and ,joyce1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxvi4 #ej 7cf4 #da74 ,professor ,frazer has mentioned 7,taboo1 #ahf n47 some other ,african cases in which the custom of painting the man-slayer may be intended as a disguise4 ,none of them seem to be stronger than the above4 ,he goes on to mention the ,yabim of ,german ,new ,guinea1 among whom the relations of a murdered man1 on accepting a bloodwit instead of avenging his death1 must allow the family of the murderer to mark them with chalk on the brow4 8,if this is not done1 the ghost of their murdered kinsman may come and trouble them2 for example1 he may drive away their swine or loosen their teeth40 ,i have no access to the ,german authority he cites2 but ,i may suggest for what it may be worth that the chalk-mark is a certificate to the ghost that his relatives have done their duty by exacting a fine for his death1 and that he has no cause to feel aggrieved with them--in fact1 that he may feel well satisfied4 ,dr ,frazer himself indeed once took this view1 or something like it 7,tylor ,essays1 #ajg74 #bdc4a ,teit1 ,jesup ,exped41 ii4 #bga1 #bce2 i4 #ceg1 #ccb4 #bdc4b ,hill-,tout1 ,notes on the ,skqomic1 ,brit4 ,ass4 ,reb41 #aijj1 #dgh sq4 #bde4a ,bijdragen1 xxxix4 #cg4 ,cf4 ,furness1 #ia4 #bde4b ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxvi4 #hc note2 ,hose1 i4 #bga note4 #bde4c ,hose1 ii4 #bd4 #bdf4a ,gregor1 #aii4 #bdf4b ,anthropos1 iv4 #hei1 #hfj4 #bdg4a ,hose1 ii4 #cg4 #bdg4b ,frazer1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xv4 #gc2 ,id41 ,scapegoat1 chaps4 i4 iii4 iv4 vi4 #bdg4c ,hutter1 #ddb4 #bdh4a ,koch-,grnberg1 i4 #acj-adj4 #bdi4a ,de ,groot1 ,rel4 ,syst41 vi4 #aaea4 #bej4a ,torres ,str4 ,exped41 v4 #bef2 cf4 vi4 #adj sqq4 #bej4b ,owen1 ,musquakie1 #ha4 ,cf4 ,arch4 ,rel41 xiv4 #beg4 #bea4a ,koch-,grnberg1 ii4 #agc4 #bea4b ,frazer1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xv4 #ii1 citing ,speke1 ,journal1 #edb4 #bea4c ,dorsa1 #ia4 #beb4a ,int4 ,arch41 xiii41 ,suppl41 #gf4 #beb4b ,rep4 ,b4 ,e41 xviii4 #cae4 #bec4a ,frazer1 ,balder1 i4 #bb sqq42 ,hartland1 ,prim4 ,pat41 i4 #hi sqq4 #bec4b ,frazer1 l4c41 #de1 #df4 #bec4c ,goddard1 ,univ4 ,cal4 ,pub41 i4 #gb4 #bed4a ,frazer1 ,balder1 i4 #cf4 #bee4a ,boaz1 ,brit4 ,ass4 ,rep41 #ahij1 #ege4 #bee4b ,tylor ,essays1 #aaj1 citing ,riedel1 ,deutsche ,geographische ,bltter1 x4 #bhf4 #bef4a ,s4 ,afr4 ,f4 ,l4 ,journ41 i4 #ea4 #bef4b ,see for example the cases collected by ,dr ,frazer1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xv4 #hd1 #he #beg4a ,supra1 p4 #bji4 #beg4b ,int4 ,arch41 xiii41 ,suppl4 #gb4 #beg4c ,jesup4 ,exped41 vi4 #aac2 ,riedel1 #cjg2 ,clozel1 #cfc4 #beg4d ,journ4 ,am4 ,f4 ,l41 xvi4 #acg4 #beh4a ,frobenius1 ,heiden-,neger1 #djh4 ,compare the widows' dance among the ,wawanga in the ,elgon ,district1 ,british ,east ,africa 7,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xliii4 #cf74 ,among the ,ibo-speaking people of ,nigeria1 at ,aguku1 the women of the quarter in which a death has occurred march round at midnight and sing 7,thomas1 ,ibo1 i4 #hj74 #bei4a ,weeks1 #ajd1 #cba4 #bei4b ,kruijt1 #bgb4 #bei4c ,striking examples will be found in von den ,steinen1 #ejf2 and ,smirnov1 i4 #adc1 #cff4 #bfj4a ,rev4 ,hist4 ,rel41 lx4 #ceh4 #bfj4b ,prof4 ,e4 ,monseur1 ibid41 liii4 #bij sqq4 #bfa4a ,mariner1 i4 #caa4 #bfa4b ,alldridge1 #aai4 #bfa4c ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxii4 #dg4 #bfa4d ,brand and ,ellis1 ii4 #ahg note4 #bfa4e ,clozel1 #agi4 #bfb4a ,codrington1 #bha4 #bfb4b ,rep4 ,b4 ,e41 v4 #aaa1 translating ,jesuit ,relations4 #bfb4c ,int4 ,arch41 xiii41 ,suppl4 #gb4 #bfb4d ,globus1 lxxii4 #bb4 #bfb4e ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,n4 ,t41 #eba4 #bfb4f ,deut4 xiv4 #a4 #bfb4g ,int4 ,arch41 xiii41 ,suppl4 #ga4 ,sir ,everard im ,thurn throws doubt upon this as a funeral rite 7,f4 ,l41 xii4 #ada74 #bfc4a ,williams1 ,fiji1 #afi4 #bfc4b ,dix-neuvime ,sicle1 #bfth ,december #ahij4 #bfc4c ,int4 ,arch41 xiii41 ,suppl4 #gb4 #bfc4d ,ibid41 #gg4 #bfd4a ,father ,alex4 ,arnoux1 ,anthropos1 vii4 #bhh4 #bff4a ,herod41 i4 #aii2 ,strabo1 xvi4 #a1 #bj4 ,further details are supplied by the ,epistle of ,jeremy appended to the apocryphal ,book of ,baruch4 #bfg4a ,justin1 xviii4 #e4 #bfg4b ,socrates1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 i4 #ah4 #bfg4c ,sozomen1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 v4 #aj4 #bfg4d lian1 ,var4 ,hist41 iv4 #a4 ,dr ,farnell 7,greece and ,bab41 #bga note1 #bgc sqq47 considers that the ,lydian practice was identical with that of the ,armenians1 referred to just below4 ,this is possible4 ,the lady who commemorated at ,tralles her dedication for this purpose 7see below1 p4 #bgc7 seems to have been a ,lydian4 ,in either case it was a religious practice1 though lian does not explicitly say so4 ,his account in fact is vague4 #bfg4e ,herod41 i4 #ic4 #bfg4f ,strabo1 xi4 #ad1 #af4 #bgj4a ,lucian1 ,de ,dea ,syria1 #f4 #bga4a ,eusebius1 ,vita ,const41 iii4 #eh2 ,frazer1 ,adonis1 #aijf1 #bb note #b4 ,i am uncertain how far ,professor ,frazer adheres to this interpretation 7see ,adonis#c1 #cc note74 ,eusebius1 it is true1 was a contemporary2 but he was a bitter partizan1 and wrote in a rhetorical style1 exaggerating everything that could bring glory to his hero ,constantine4 ,socrates1 on the other hand1 was a lawyer1 a man of wider and more liberal views1 and of fairer judgement4 ,sozomen too was a lawyer4 ,they wrote a century later2 but they wrote at ,constantinople1 and probably had access to official documents4 ,to my mind1 if their statements be irreconcilable1 these qualifications entitle them to greater credit than the not-too-scrupulous ecclesiastic4 #bga4b ,socrates1 loc4 cit4 #bgc4a ,ramsay1 i4 #id1 #aae2 ,frazer1 ,adonis1 #cd4 ,such religious prostitutes were1 of course1 common in ,western ,asia4 ,cf4 ,strabo1 xii4 #c1 #cf4 #bgc4b ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept41 ii2 ,arnobius1 ,adv4 ,gentes1 v4 #ai2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de ,errore ,prof4 ,rel41 x2 ,apollodorus1 ,bibl41 iii4 #ad1 #c4 #bgd4a ,the service of the hierai is discussed by ,ramsay1 op4 cit41 #ace-g4 ,see also below1 p4 #bgi4 #bgd4b ,on the other hand1 it must not be forgotten that at a marriage among the ,auziles and the ,nasamonians the guests who enjoyed the bride's favours were expected to reward her with a gift4 ,similarly1 in modern ,europe1 a gift is also found as the return for a kiss or a dance with the bride4 ,i have collected several cases1 ,leg4 ,perseus1 ii4 #cfa1 #cee-h1 and many more might be added4 ,compare the ,suahili custom mentioned below1 p4 #bgg4 #bge4a ,roth1 ,ethnol4 ,studies1 #agd4 #bge4b ,howitt1 #ffd2 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xx4 #hg4 ,see also ,ploss1 i4 #cjh4 #bgf4a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,c4 ,t41 #ib4 #bgf4b ,globus1 xci4 #cac4 #bgg4a ,riedel1 #ach1 #acg4 #bgg4b ,h4 ,crawford ,angus in ,zeits4 f4 ,ethnol41 xxx41 ,verhandl41 #dgi4 #bgg4c ,duff ,macdonald1 i4 #abf2 ,jas4 ,macdonald1 in ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxii4 #aja4 #bgg4d ,h4 ,zache1 in ,zeits4 f4 ,ethnol41 xxxi4 #gf4 ,more than thirty years ago a ,french writer cited by ,hertz 7,giftmdchen1 #da7 reported that among the ,bafiote of the ,loango ,coast the girls were led round the village and their virginity put up to auction4 ,this looks like a puberty rite of a similar character4 ,i have not seen the book1 however1 and think it not impossible that the writer may have misunderstood the ceremony usual on emerging from the 8paint-house40 #bgh4a ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 xxxi4 #aba4 #bgh4b ,ploss1 i4 #cjg1 #cjh4 ,puberty ceremonies to which girls are subjected are by no means confined to 8initiation-mysteries0--that is to say1 collective rites performed on a number of candidates at the same time4 ,several of the above-cited ceremonies are performed on individual girls as they reach puberty2 and examples might very easily be multiplied4 ,in ,cyprus1 on the other hand1 there seem to have been collective rites1 with the sacrifice of virginity4 #bhj4a ,mannhardt1 ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 ii4 #bhd2 ,frazer1 ,adonis1 #cb note4 #bha4a ,rev4 ,hist4 ,rel41 xli4 #cae4 #bhb4a ,farnell1 ,cults1 v4 #dbc4 #bhc4a ,we are reminded of the risk incurred in relieving ,kamtchadal widows of their 8sins0 7supra1 p4 #bbc74 ,there1 however1 the ,russian soldiers who assisted them belonged to a totally different mental and social environment4 ,they contemned the native superstition4 ,it is improbable that any strangers at ,babylon or ,heliopolis could have been on a plane of civilization so far removed from that of the natives that they were either ignorant of1 or indifferent to1 the native ideas4 ,rather1 they are likely to have shared them4 ,among the ,baronga1 when a similar service is required to be rendered1 the man must be inveigled by a trick3 he would not knowingly incur the risk 7,junod1 ,r4 ,e4 ,s41 i4 #afc74 #bhc4b ,garcilasso1 i4 #ei4 #bhd4a ,ploss1 i4 #djf2 ,hertz1 loc4 cit41 citing authorities4 #bhd4b ,crawley1 ,mystic ,rose 7#aijb71 #cdh4 #bhe4a ,westermarck1 ,moral ,ideas1 ii4 #dde4 #bhe4b ,above1 p4 #fc4 #bhf4a ,van ,gennep1 ,rites1 #ci sqq4 ,as to trials of strength1 see ,jesup ,exped41 vii4 #ehb4 #bhg4a ,dennett1 #aba4 #bhg4b ,dumoutier1 #ahb4 #bhh4a ,since this essay was published in its original form the whole position of women in the temple-ritual of ,western ,asia has been carefully discussed by ,dr ,farnell 7,greece and ,bab41 #bfh sqq471 to whose criticisms ,i have been greatly indebted during the process of revision4 #bhi4a ,among many savages additional prohibited degrees exist side by side with exogamy strictly so called4 ,in my view these1 where they exist1 are supplementary rules of subsequent growth4 ,in any case exogamy operates in the same way as our prohibited degrees4 #bib4a ,o',grady1 ii4 #bfd4 #bib4b ,there are other manuscripts of the ,colloquy1 but none of them contain the sequel of the adventures of the ,lia ,fil4 ,see the preface to ,stokes' edition1 ,irische ,texte1 #dth ser4 7,leipzig1 #aijj74 #bic4a ,skene's paper is in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,scotland1 viii4 #fh2 ,mr ,o',reilly's in ,journal of the ,royal ,society of ,antiquaries of ,ireland1 xxxii4 #gg4 ,the stone now called the ,lia ,fil at ,tara is clearly not the stone of tradition4 #bic4b ,keating1 i4 #aja4 ,see also #bjg1 #bji4 ,on the latter page 8a poem from a certain book of invasion0 is quoted at length4 ,it contains an enumeration of the four jewels of the ,tuatha ,d ,danann1 among them the ,lia ,fil1 8which used to roar under the king of ,ireland40 ,in the ,baile an ,scail 7,the ,champion's ,ecstasy7 ,conna of the ,hundred ,fights steps on the stone accidentally1 and is told by the ,druid who accompanies him1 8,fl has screamed under thy feet4 ,the number of its screams is the number of kings that shall come of thy seed for ever2 but ,i may not name them40 ,in this passage the stone is said to have come from the ,island of ,foal to abide for ever in the land of ,tailtin 7,nutt1 i4 #ahg1 summarizing ,o',curry's translation74 #bid4a ,o',curry1 ,on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,irish 7three vols41 ,london1 #ahgc71 vol4 i4 7,sullivan's ,introduction71 p4 clxxxiii4 ,spencer1 ,view of the ,state of ,ireland1 says that the ,tanist is 8the eldest of the kinne40 ,ancient ,irish ,histories 7,dublin1 ,hibernia ,press1 #ahji71 i4 #ab4 #bie4a ,o',curry1 ii4 #aii4 ,from a reference in an ,irish text translated by ,professor ,windisch from the ,lebor na h,uidre1 it seems that the bull was required to be white4 ,irische ,texte1 ser4 i4 #bjj4 #bif4a ,revue ,celtique1 xxii4 #bb1 in the story of the ,sack of ,d ,derga's ,hostel translated by ,whitley ,stokes4 #big4a ,haltrich1 #aie4 #bih4a ,jtaka1 iv4 #bc1 ,story ,no4 #dde4 #bih4b ,jlg1 #fj1 ,story ,no4 #b4 #bii4a ,radloff1 i4 #bjh4 #bii4b ,folk-,lore1 iv4 #bjb4 #cjj4a ,ralston1 ,tibetan ,tales1 p4 #bi4 #cjj4b ,bakhtyr ,nma1 #ea4 #cja4a ,stumme1 #abc1 ,story ,no4 #ae4 #cja4b ,burton1 ,nights1 iv4 #baj4 #cja4c ,n4 ,ind4 ,n4 and ,q41 iv4 #ff4 ,similarly in a story from ,mirzapur1 the first man met in the forest is made king4 ,ibid41 ii4 #ha4 ,in another story from ,mirzapur a trained elephant is let loose to choose the king's bride4 ,ibid41 iii4 #ajc4 #cjb4a ,radloff1 vi4 #aeg4 #cjb4b ,ibid41 iv4 #adc4 #cjb4c ,prym und ,socin1 ,kurdische ,sammlungen1 ,erste ,abteil4 7,st ,petersburg1 #ahhg72 bersetz41 #cb4 #cjc4a ,leclre1 #af4 8,tous ceux qui taient presents ce conseil''' decidrent qu'on consulterait immdiatement les chevaux40 #cjc4b ,kath1 ii4 #ajb4 #cjd4a ,natesa ,sastri1 #abf4 #cjd4b ,steel and ,temple1 #adj4 ,in other stories from ,kashmir1 it is 8an elephant0 7,knowles1 #afi1 #cji74 #cjd4c ,rev4 ,trad4 ,pop41 iv4 #ddb4 #cjd4d ,knowles1 #aeh4 ,other stories1 ,ibid41 #ag1 #cji2 ,bakhtyr ,nma1 #afi 7notes by the ,editor72 ,day1 #ii1 ,story ,no4 #e4 #cje4a ,kathkoa1 #aee4 #cjf4a ,luzel1 ,lg4 ,chrt41 i4 #bhb 7pt4 iii41 ,story ,no4 #aa72 a variant1 ,mlusine1 i4 #cjj4 #cjg4a ,f4-,l4 ,journ41 iv4 #cch sqq41 including the references at foot of #cdh4 #cjh4a ,friedrich von ,raumer1 ,geschichte der ,hohenstaufen und ihrer ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahbd71 iii4 #gd4 #cjh4b ,eusebius1 ,eccles4 ,hist41 vi4 #bi4 #cjh4c ,middleton1 ,works 7#bnd ed4 ,london1 #agee71 vol4 v41 p4 #aec1 citing 8,hist4 ,raven41 etc4 ,aring hus1 ,roma ,subterranea1 l4 vi41 c4 #dh40 #cji4a ,early ,trav41 #aeh4 ,the casting of lots is divination--an appeal to supernatural powers to decide the event4 ,such divination 7frequently glossed as the ballot7 took place at the election of ,matthias to succeed ,judas ,iscariot in the apostolate 7,acts i4 #bc74 ,it seems to have been a not uncommon practice in the ,middle ,ages for the election of ecclesiastical dignitaries4 ,it is expressly reprehended in a tract ,de decem prceptis1 published in the year #adci1 by ,thomas ,ebendorfer of ,haselbach1 ,court ,chaplain and ,privy ,councillor of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,iii 7,zeit4 des ,vereins1 xii4 #aa74 #cji4b ,the church derived its name from having been erected in a ,lombard burial-ground4 ,poles were set up on the graves1 and on each pole the wooden figure of a dove4 ,it is suggestive that the scene of the story is placed in such surroundings4 #caj4a ,paulus ,diaconus1 ,gesta ,longobard41 vi4 #ee4 ,see also ,soldan1 #ade1 #adh4 ,hildeprand did not reign long4 ,he was deprived of the throne a few months later by ,ratchis1 who reigned for five years1 #gdd-gdi4 #caj4b ,soldan1 #aej4 #caj4c ,post1 ,afr4 ,juris41 i4 #ach1 citing ,harris1 ,the ,highlands of ,ethiopia4 ,post notes that ,krapf contests the accuracy of this account and states the succession was hereditary4 ,the two statements are perhaps not irreconcilable4 ,the succession to the throne of ,businza1 south of ,lake ,victoria ,nyanza1 was hereditary1 but among the candidates an animal omen was decisive4 ,father van ,thiel1 who says this1 however1 omits to tell us exactly how 7,anthropos1 vi4 #ejb74 ,see also1 as to other tribes1 below1 pp4 #cag sqq4 #caa4a ,herod41 iii4 #hd sqq4 #caa4b ,grimm has collected instances1 ,teut4 ,myth41 i4 #dg2 ii4 #feh2 iv4 #acja1 #adha4 ,also von ,negelein1 ,zeits4 des ,ver41 xi4 #djf sqq4 #cab4a ,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip41 iii4 #caf4 #cac4a ,forbes1 ii4 #dfe4 #cac4b ,plutarch1 ,de ,fluv41 xiv4 #cae4a ,huc1 ii4 #cdc2 i4 #bgh2 ,waddell1 #bde sqq4 #caf4a ,gray1 i4 #ajc4 #cag4a ,speke1 ,journ41 #bba4 ,a less astonishing species of augury1 and one reminding us of ,english ,hallowe'en practices1 is that adopted by the ,shilluk on the ,upper ,nile4 ,on choosing a king a small stone for everyone of the royal princes is thrown into the fire4 ,the stones of the rejected candidates fly out again2 he whose stone remains in the fire becomes king 7,anthropos1 v4 #ccc74 #cah4a ,anthropos1 vi4 #gj4 #cai4a ,records of the ,past1 #bnd series #ahia v4 #fh1 #fb4 #cbj4a ,folk-,lore1 ix4 #aad4 ,mr ,crooke does not refer to the speech of ,eurymachus immediately following that of ,telemachus1 which confirms what has been said on this subject by ,antinous and ,telemachus4 #cba4a ,i am indebted to ,miss ,burne for suggesting that something like this is the true interpretation of the use alike of the ,lia ,fil and of the various regal paraphernalia employed in the stories4 ,as she puts it1 they would know their rightful owner4 ,this1 however1 is to assume the principle of heredity as already established4 ,the animistic belief involved in the interpretation suggested was perhaps applied even before then4 #cbc4a ,girald4 ,cambr41 ,itinerarium ,kambri1 l4 i41 c4 #b4 #cbc4b ,crooke1 ,pop4 ,rel41 ii4 #adb4 #cbc4c ,crooke1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #chj4 ,cf4 the ,legend of ,dhatu ,sena1 ,king of ,ceylon 7,tennent1 ,ceylon1 i4 #chi74 #cbd4a ,a4 ,landes1 ,contes ,tjames1 #ajd4 #cbd4b ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 iii4 #ega4 #cbd4c ,havelok1 ll4 #fjb sqq41 #baci sqq4 #cbf4a ,owen1 ,narrative1 ii4 #dah1 translating a ,,ms41 of ,sr4 ,fero1 a ,portuguese governor of the coast4 ,this translation is reprinted by ,theal1 ,records of ,south-,eastern ,africa1 vii4 #cga sqq4 #cbg4a ,theal1 ,records1 vii4 #aia sqq4 #cbg4b #b ,sam41 ch4 #af2 #a ,kings1 ch4 #b4 ,there is some reason to think that the same custom obtained among the ancient ,teutonic peoples1 and even in ,england4 ,both this and succession by marrying a daughter are frequent incidents in historical traditions as well as in mrchen 7see ,frazer1 ,magic ,art1 ii41 ch4 xviii41 and ,scapegoat1 #cfh74 #cbh4a ,junod1 ,s4 ,a4 ,tribe1 i4 #aii1 #bjf4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,page numbers are given in in curly brackets4 ,endnote markers are given in square brackets in the plain text version4 ,alterations to the text3 ,convert footnotes to endnotes4 ,relabel note markers3 append the original note number to the page number4 ,omit the ,index4 ,preface 8published ,myth ,ritual and ,religion1 in which he attacked0 add comma after ,myth4 ,the relations of religion and magic 78,if a man10 writes ,bishop ,codrington1 has been successful'''7 add quotation mark before has4 ,change 8,it is substantially that of ,professer ,frazer0 to ,professor4 ,the boldness of the ,celts 8,there is a remarkable story in the ,eyrbyggja ,saga0 to ,eyrbyggia4 ,endnotes ,two punctuation corrections 7missing periods74 ,end of text