,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,three ,,textile ,,raw ,,materials ,,and ,,their ,,manufacture ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york ,copyright1 #aibd ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york ,,contents ,part ,one ,,cotton ,page ,,chapter ,i ,the ,raw ,material #i ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,manufacture of ,cotton #ai ,,chapter ,,iii ,from ,mill to ,consumer #di ,,chapter ,,iv ,the ,position of the ,united ,states #eb ,part ,two ,,wool ,,chapter ,i ,the ,raw ,material #ei ,,chapter ,,ii ,worsted ,manufacture #fg ,,chapter ,,iii ,woolen ,manufacture #ha ,,chapter ,,iv ,the ,economic ,aspect #hi ,part ,three ,,silk ,,chapter ,i ,the ,raw ,material #ig ,,chapter ,,ii ,reeling #ajd ,,chapter ,,iii ,marketing ,raw ,silk #aji ,,chapter ,,iv ,the ,manufacture of ,thrown and ,spun ,silk #aae ,,chapter ,v ,weaving and ,finishing #abj ,,chapter ,,vi ,artificial ,silk #abc ,illustration3 ,cotton ,bolls ,,preface ,the importance of the three main textiles in the civilized life of today is probably but vaguely realized by the majority of people4 ,in this country we consume raw cotton alone at the rate of about twenty-six pounds per capita each year1 which if translated to yards of cloth and other fabric1 would make a strip longer than the distance from the earth to the moon1 and a yard wide all the way4 ,add wool and silk to this and the picture becomes even more impressive4 ,there is not a man1 woman or child who does not use one or all three of these textiles in daily life4 ,with this in mind we submit this brief description of how they are produced1 emphasizing in particular the development of the raw material in each case4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii are practically revised editions of 8,cotton and ,cotton ,manufacture0 and 8,wool and ,wool ,manufacture0 which were written by ,james ,paul ,warburg in #aiba and #aibj1 respectively1 and published by the ,first ,national ,bank of ,boston1 with whom he was then associated4 ,we take this occasion to acknowledge the extreme courtesy of the ,first ,national ,bank of ,boston in allowing the use of this material4 ,part ,,iii1 dealing with ,silk1 has been newly compiled by ,benjamin ,strong1 ,jr41 of the ,international ,acceptance ,bank1 ,inc4 ,no attempt has been made in these studies to enter very deeply into the technical processes involved1 the purpose being more to give a condensed outline of the subject from the layman's point of view4 ,while actual survey and observation were extensively made in each case1 a great part of the material has of necessity been obtained from standard works on these subjects4 ,in this connection we wish especially to render acknowledgment to ,professor ,m4 ,t4 ,copeland of ,harvard ,university1 whose studies were freely used by the author of ,part ,i on ,cotton4 ,in the case of ,silk1 we are particularly grateful to ,mr4 ,w4 ,d4 ,darby1 whose 8,silk1 ,the ,queen of ,fabrics0 has been of invaluable assistance4 ,to the many friends in the textile trades who have provided opportunities for first hand observation1 as well as a wealth of information1 we tender our sincere thanks and grateful appreciation4 ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y41 ,october1 #aibd4 ,,part ,,one ,,cotton ,by ,,james ,,paul ,,warburg ,vice-,president ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,photographs by courtesy of the ,pacific ,mills and ,keystone ,view ,co4 ,illustration3 ,cotton ,field ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,raw ,,material #a4 ,,the ,,cotton ,,plant ,sidenote3 ,derivation of ,names ,the word1 8,cotton01 is said to be derived from an ,arabic word1 8,qutun01 originally meaning flax2 and the botanical name of the plant1 ,gossypium1 signifying the fleece worn1 was first found in the writings of ,pliny1 and is derived from the ,sanskrit4 ,thus1 in the mere origins of the colloquial and scientific designations of the plant1 we have ample proof of its antiquity4 ,sidenote3 ,botanical ,types ,the cotton plant belongs to the mallow family and is a native of the tropics4 ,the genus has a great many botanical varieties1 all of which1 in the wild state1 are perennial1 but under cultivation tend to become annual4 ,one variety1 ,gossypium ,arboreum1 which is found chiefly in ,mexico and ,brazil1 attains a height of over fifteen feet4 ,this tree cotton1 however1 has not been extensively cultivated because of the obvious expense of picking4 ,of the herbaceous varieties the most commonly known are the ,american and the long-staple ,egyptian4 ,g4 ,barbadense1 known as ,sea ,island cotton1 is another long staple variety which is grown only in certain counties of ,georgia1 ,south ,carolina and ,florida4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cotton ,plant ,sidenote3 ,the ,fibre ,in all the cultivated species the plant attains a height of two to four feet4 ,the leaves vary1 but all have characteristic lobes4 ,the blossoms also vary a good deal in color1 but have this in common that the seeds are contained in a pod or boll which is filled with a floss not unlike that of the common milk-weed4 ,in due course the boll bursts1 exposing the mass of fluffy fibre from which the plant derives its extraordinary value4 ,the superiority of cotton over other vegetable fibres1 such as hemp or flax1 is in the natural twist1 which makes it inherently adaptable to spinning4 ,the single fibre consists of a hollow tube having transverse joints at irregular intervals1 and this tube1 when dry1 has a tendency to flatten out and curl4 ,the more of this natural elasticity is found in the fibre the better it is for spinning purposes1 and an immature fibre is for this reason unsatisfactory4 ,cotton is exceedingly susceptible to moisture1 and a succession of violent atmospheric changes will cause such a rapid contraction and expansion in its fibre as to destroy its elasticity4 ,from the point of view of the manufacturer there is very little difference between immature cotton and that which has suffered loss of vitality4 ,sidenote3 ,seeds and ,stems ,besides yielding a natural wool from which a tremendous number of products are derived1 the seed of the plant gives forth a highly useful vegetable oil1 and the stems and leaves are used for fodder4 #b4 ,,history ,,and ,,distribution ,sidenote3 ,ancient ,history ,the origin of the cultivation and commercial use of cotton is shrouded in the dim veils of antiquity4 ,the records of ,india show that the plant was grown1 and its fibre utilized1 from the earliest times4 ,the ,phoenicians and the ,hebrews are known to have made cotton clothing1 and later the art was transmitted by them to the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the vague annals of ,china indicate a familiarity with this plant and its value extending back to the remote past1 and the same is true of ,japan4 ,cortez found a flourishing textile industry among the ,aztecs in #aeai1 and in ,peru1 ,pizarro found cotton garments said to antedate the civilization of the ,incas4 ,again early ,portuguese chroniclers relate the discovery of native cotton in ,brazil4 ,sidenote3 ,europe ,sidenote3 ,america ,the ,arabs and ,saracens were largely responsible for the introduction of the textile industries to western ,europe in the ninth century1 but it was not until about the middle of the seventeenth century that any great progress was made4 ,during this time the ,british began to attempt the cultivation of cotton in their colonies1 and it was about #afej when the first ,virginia plantations were begun4 ,since that time the ,united ,states has forged ahead until at present it grows over three-fifths of the world's crop4 ,sidenote3 ,egypt ,the cultivation of cotton in ,egypt was begun about #ahba1 ,american ,sea ,island seeds being imported at that time4 ,the fertile alluvial soil of the ,nile delta was found particularly adapted to this use1 and extensive irrigation later expanded the area4 ,the construction of the ,great ,assouan ,dam late in the nineteenth century gave a tremendous impetus to the industry4 ,egyptian cotton is mostly of the long staple variety1 the best1 known as ,sakellarides1 averaging an inch and three-quarters4 ,sidenote3 ,india ,cotton culture in ,india is perhaps the oldest of all1 but ,indian cotton is of the short staple variety1 and can only be used by certain manufacturers most of which are located in ,japan and ,germany4 ,about twenty-five million acres are said to be under cultivation1 but statistics are very meagre4 ,sidenote3 ,china ,china has long been a large grower of cotton1 but the native species are of a harsh1 short fibre4 ,korea and the ,yangtze and ,wei basins are the chief sources1 and ,american cotton has recently been introduced in the southern provinces4 ,sidenote3 ,other ,countries ,russia began to raise ,american cotton on a large scale in ,turkestan only some twenty years ago1 and bids fair to become a large producer4 ,the plant is indigenous to almost all the ,central and ,south ,american countries1 and particularly in ,mexico1 ,brazil and ,peru1 it has great potentialities4 ,peru has two kinds of native cotton known as the rough and smooth varieties4 ,the former is of a very long and tough fibre and is valuable because it can be blended with wool4 ,sidenote3 ,american ,varieties ,the greatest part of the ,american crop consists of the ,upland variety1 although1 as we have noted1 there is a small but important crop of ,sea ,island in the ,southern ,atlantic states4 ,another long staple species1 known as ,pimas1 has recently been introduced in ,arizona1 and the alluvial soil of ,mississippi1 ,arkansas1 and ,louisiana has produced still other desirable species1 locally known as 8,rivers10 8,peelers10 and 8,benders40 ,before we consider the relative manufacturing merits of the various kinds of cotton1 it would perhaps be well to consider briefly how the crop is grown4 #c4 ,,cultivation ,sidenote3 ,growth of the plant ,the cotton season of course varies in different latitudes1 but the planting is done everywhere in the early spring months4 ,the proper care and fertilization of the soil and its preparation to receive the seed is of the utmost importance4 ,the plant ripens in about four months1 so that the picking season in this country usually begins in ,august1 and continues until the first killing frost4 ,from the time of the opening of the first bolls the cotton continues to grow1 unless killed by drought or insects1 until the cold puts a stop to vegetation1 and the same stalk frequently contains ripe and immature cotton at the same time4 ,the cotton which matures first and has been least exposed to weather when picked is likely to be freer of spots and discolorations than that which is picked at the end of the season4 ,sidenote3 ,enemies of the plant ,sidenote3 ,the ,boll ,weevil ,the two great enemies of the cotton plant are drought and insect depredations4 ,late frosts and the right quantity of rain and sunshine are what every cotton planter prays for1 and praying is about all he can do in this respect4 ,not so1 however1 with insects4 ,unfortunately there are a great number of rapacious little creatures rendered particularly hardy by some caprice of ,nature1 to whom the growing cotton plant represents an especial delicacy4 ,against them the planters1 under the guidance of the ,department of ,agriculture1 are waging continuous warfare4 ,it is said that insect depredation1 at pre-war prices cost the country an annual sum of #fj1jjj1jjj1 more than half of which is attributable to the two worst offenders1 the boll weevil and the boll worm4 ,coming in hordes across the ,mexican border1 the boll weevil has destroyed millions of bales of cotton annually1 and as yet no very effective remedy has been found to exterminate it4 ,sidenote3 ,weather ,defects ,even at that1 however1 the planter's greatest worry is perhaps not so much the growth as the harvesting of his crop4 ,to get his cotton picked rapidly and properly1 an operation for which no successful machinery has yet been devised1 and to have it properly ginned1 presents his chief problem4 ,if cotton is left too long on the stem it will be exposed to the detrimental effects of the weather4 ,coloring matter from the newly opened bolls1 or from the soil1 is washed into the floss by the rain1 and while such spots or stains may be bleached out by the sun1 the lustrous bloom never returns4 ,frost will make permanent tinges or stains1 and the wind will frequently wrap the pendulous locks of fibre-covered seed about the stems of the plant or tangle them up in the leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,careless ,picking ,sidenote3 ,bad ,ginning ,when the pickers do not exercise proper care stem and leaves frequently get picked along with cotton1 and a considerable quantity of dirt inevitably finds its way into their bags4 ,or else the cotton may be picked when it is damp1 with the result that the teeth of the gin1 instead of picking out the seeds and stems will cut the matted fibres1 producing a class of cotton known as 8,gin-cut04 ,moreover the gin brushes will be unable to separate the matted tufts1 and so they go into the bale as 8naps0 or 8neps04 ,all these factors militate against the planter in his efforts to have his crop classified as high as possible4 #d4 ,,grades ,,and ,,staples ,sidenote3 ,grades ,based on ,condition ,the classification of cotton into the standard grades fixed by the ,government constitutes an exceedingly difficult art4 ,there is absolutely no mechanical basis1 and the classification is a purely relative one4 ,the kind of plant has no bearing whatsoever1 nor has the length or strength of staple4 ,it is really a distinction based upon the condition of the cotton1 rather than upon its inherent attributes4 ,the grade 8,,middling0 is the basis upon which the market values of the other grades are quoted4 ,there are eight full grades3 ,sidenote3 ,the ,full ,grades ,fair ,middling ,fair ,good ,middling ,middling ,low ,middling ,good ,ordinary ,ordinary ,low ,ordinary ,sidenote3 ,tinges and ,stains ,sidenote3 8,points0 ,between these full grades are the half grades1 known as the ,stricts1 and some classers use quarter grades with which1 however1 we shall not concern ourselves here4 ,the grades and half-grades are quoted for whites1 tinges1 and stains4 ,a stain is a heavy discoloration while a tinge is a lighter hue1 and partial discolorations1 known as spots1 are permissible in the lower grades of whites4 ,the values of the various grades are always quoted as so many points on or off ,white ,middling1 a point being #a_/ajjth4 of a cent4 ,thus1 if ,middling ,white were quoted at #bd;c and ,ordinary as #cjj points off1 it would mean that ,ordinary was worth #ba;c4 ,an example is given below of a regular quotation sheet4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,grades #a,,white #b,,tinges #b,,stains ,middling ,fair #djc on ,nominal ,nominal ,strict ,good ,middling #cbh on #di off a ,nominal ,good ,middling #bec on #aeb off a #ddg off a ,strict ,middling #ace on #cjj off a #fah off a ,middling ,basis #def off a #hji off a ,st4 ,low ,middling #cje off #gjd off a ,nominal ,low ,middling #hdc off #ajfd off a ,nominal ,strict ,good ,ordinary #abcj off ,nominal ,nominal ,good ,ordinary #aeah off ,nominal ,nominal #a ,u4 ,s4 ,government differences4 #b ,average of differences on ,new ,york1 ,new ,orleans1 ,memphis and either the ,savannah or the ,augusta exchanges4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,human ,element ,sidenote3 ,proportion of ,impurities ,it is obvious that in this classification the human element plays a great part4 ,the difference between quarter grades1 or even half grades1 or between a tinge and a stain1 are subject to a great variety of interpretations4 ,while there is no definite standard1 ,middling must be cream or white1 must show no soil evidence1 no gin-cuts or naps1 may have a few pieces of leaf 7not powdered71 and a few motes1 7immature seeds74 ,as the grades go up the cotton must be freer of impurities until the top grades have to show practically a perfect lustrous1 silky1 white1 and clear fibre4 ,on the lower side the impurities increase1 until1 in the ,ordinaries1 we find large and small leaf particles1 sticks1 hulls1 dirt1 sand naps1 gin-cuts1 and spots1 together with a dingy color4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,cottons not ,sold on ,middling ,basis ,it is this classification that governs the trading on all the exchanges1 and upon which the planter originally sells his crop4 ,the exceptions are those varieties of cotton which are distinct from the crop as a whole4 ,sea ,islands are sold as ,fancy1 ,choice1 ,fine1 ,medium1 and ,common4 ,bolly or immature cotton is sold by separate agreements2 and ,linters1 the fibres regained by the seed mills from reginning the seed1 are not sold on this basis4 ,neither is what is known as the 8,city ,crop0 of loose cotton accumulated from taking samples1 sold in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,staple ,length ,aside from grade there are two other qualifications which are of equal importance to the manufacturer3 length1 and strength4 ,lengths are quoted in eights of an inch1 and cotton under #a0 is termed short1 while that over #a0 is long4 ,the normal lengths run from 0 to #a01 and it is noteworthy that1 where a normal difference between grades would be #be points1 the difference of 0 would be about #bej points4 8,pulling0 for staple is another art where the individual's judgment plays an important part4 ,sidenote3 ,elasticity ,strength1--elasticity and tensile strength1--is again one of the mill's prerequisites4 ,the usual buyer's test for fibre vitality is to compress a sample in the hand to see if it will return to its former shape4 ,the importance of length is that it governs the fineness of the yarn to be spun1 while grades affect the finish of the cloth4 ,we shall see later that mills cannot buy mixed lots1 but must have even-running grades of fixed staple4 #e4 ,,buyers ,,of ,,raw ,,cotton ,sidenote3 ,storekeepers as ,local ,buyers ,the small planters of the ,south are usually unable to finance themselves independently through the growing and picking seasons4 ,consequently the local store-keeper1 from whom the planters buy their supplies1 usually extends credit in the form of an open account and so becomes the first middleman4 ,not infrequently the store-keeper will accept cotton rather than money in settlement of his accounts1 and where he follows this practice he becomes what is known as a local buyer4 ,when he has accumulated sufficient cotton he sells either to an intermediate buyer1 or to the buyer for some merchant or mill4 ,sidenote3 ,large ,growers ,in the case of the larger grower1 or the syndicate of growers1 the local buyer is usually eliminated4 ,these planters obtain their credit from the large merchant buyers1 who in turn are carried by their banks4 ,sidenote3 ,intermediate ,buyers ,very frequently the local buyers are scattered so thickly through a neighborhood1 and each accumulate such small and heterogeneous lots of cotton that an intermediate buyer finds his way into the natural order4 ,sometimes the intermediate is merely a 8scalper0 who buys from the local dealer and sells to merchant buyers4 ,in other cases1 notably in ,texas1 he acts as a concentrating agent1 buying at local points from growers and selling1 usually at compress points1 to representatives of merchants or mills4 ,in the latter case he is referred to as a 8street buyer40 ,sidenote3 ,financing ,early ,stages ,where the grower surrenders his cotton to the local dealer the latter usually has it ginned1 but in cases where the planter is able to finance himself he takes his cotton to the gin himself1 pays for the ginning1 and either sells in so-called gin bales1 7before they are compressed7 or1 if a warehouse is available at the gin or compress point1 holds his cotton until he can obtain a satisfactory price for it4 ,the local banks perform a very important part of the crop financing at this stage1 for1 since the grower sells for cash1 the buyers require advances4 ,these are made by the ,southern banks against buyers' tickets1 showing cotton purchased1 against gin receipts1 warehouse receipts1 compress receipts1 and finally when the cotton is shipped1 against bills of lading4 ,illustration3 ,the ,square ,bale ,sidenote3 ,the ,merchant ,buyer's ,importance ,sidenote3 ,the ,take-up ,man ,the large cotton merchants fulfill a very essential function in that they are responsible for the concentration of the raw material and for its redistribution into the proper channels of manufacture4 ,they maintain branches and representatives throughout the entire cotton growing areas and are directly connected by wire with all the important exchanges4 ,by far the bulk of their buying is done after the close of the ,new ,york ,exchange from local and intermediate buyers who during the day have been acquiring mixed lots of all sorts4 ,the merchant's representative1 known as the take-up man1 goes over and classifies the cotton accumulated by the local buyers1 takes a sample from each bale which he tags with a duplicate of the shipping tag he places on the bale itself1 and then ships the cotton to the concentration point and the samples to the office at that place4 ,he pays the local buyer by draft or check4 ,sidenote3 ,even-running ,lots from ,compress ,point ,the office at the concentration point1 usually where there is a compress1 has in the meantime received instructions from the head office as to how to make up the various lots4 ,as the bales are compressed they are collected into even-running lots of certain grades for which the head office has received inquiries from mills1 and are shipped out in this way4 ,the branch office will ship according to instructions forwarding the bills of lading with invoices and sight drafts to the head office or to some bank4 ,sidenote3 ,cooperative ,marketing ,since the war1 and particularly in the last three years1 the co-operative movement has in some sections developed to such an extent as to supplant in large part the old system of marketing4 ,in ,texas1 ,georgia1 and other ,states1 a large part of the crop is now concentrated1 financed1 and sold through these extensive organizations of growers either direct to mills1 or to large merchants and exporters4 ,almost all cotton is bought on ,middling ,basis1 but some is taken on sample with guarantees1 7often a dangerous practice for both parties71 and some is taken at a fixed price per bale4 ,sidenote3 ,direct ,buying ,a few ,southern mills buy direct from nearby growers1 but the preponderant majority and practically all the ,northern mills obtain their cotton through merchants1 or through brokers representing ,southern merchants4 ,we have seen briefly how the cotton is grown and brought to market1 but we have still to consider the all important question of what determines the price at which it changes hands4 #f4 ,,the ,,cotton ,,exchanges ,sidenote3 8,spot0 and 8,futures0 ,sidenote3 ,the ,great ,markets ,cotton trading falls roughly into two categories3 trading in cotton for immediate delivery1 or spot cotton2 and buying or selling for delivery at some future time4 ,purchases or sales of spot cotton mean that cotton actually will be delivered from vendor to purchaser1 but1 as we shall see1 trading in futures does not necessarily mean that the contract will be fulfilled by delivery4 ,the great cotton markets are ,new ,york1 ,liverpool1 ,new ,orleans1 ,bremen1 and ,havre4 ,of these ,new ,york is almost entirely a futures market1 while ,new ,orleans is chiefly a spot market4 ,liverpool1 ,bremen1 and ,havre trade in both spot and futures1 but ,liverpool is the ,european centre for trading in future contracts4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,new ,york ,cotton ,exchange ,only about #b of the annual crop is sold spot in ,new ,york1 and yet it is the prices on the ,new ,york ,cotton ,exchange which govern very largely the price paid to the grower in the ,south by the various buyers4 ,the ,new ,york ,exchange is the barometer of the ,american1 and to a large extent1 of the world's cotton trade1 because its mechanism works out the equilibrium between demand and supply2 and as this mechanism consists chiefly of the trading device called the 8,hedge01 we shall digress for a moment to consider its operation4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8,hedge0 ,we might say that hedging is an insurance against fluctuations in cotton prices by purchase or sale of future contracts for cotton against sale or purchase made for actual delivery4 ,it consists of nothing more than of neutralizing the gain or loss which will result from existing delivery contracts if the price rises or falls before delivery date1 by creating an off-setting loss or gain4 ,sidenote3 ,as ,used by the ,merchant ,assume1 for instance1 that a merchant makes a contract with a mill in ,july for #ajj bales ,october delivery4 ,he sells at the current price of let us say #cj cents per pound plus his overhead and profit4 ,in due course he will obtain his cotton from the ,south1 but in the meantime he covers1 or hedges his contract by buying #ajj bales of ,october futures on the ,exchange4 ,if he has to pay the grower #ca cents for the cotton which he has sold to the mill for #cj cents1 he will on the other hand1 be able to sell his future contract which he bought at #cj cents for #ca cents1 so that the loss on one is neutralized by the gain on the other4 ,vice versa1 he will lose whatever extra profit he might have made from a falling price4 ,sidenote3 ,by the ,manufacturer ,in the same way a manufacturer may buy futures against orders he has accepted for goods1 based on the price he expects to pay for his cotton4 ,or he may sell futures to protect himself on cotton he has bought but has not yet covered by cloth contracts4 ,hedging by manufacturers1 however1 particularly in the ,north1 is not a common practice1 because the cloth market is not elastic enough to follow accurately in the wake of cotton prices1 and also because the mill treasurer rarely wants to hedge cotton in his warehouse1 preferring to rely on his own judgment in matters of purchase4 ,sidenote3 ,by the ,grower ,occasionally a grower may find it to his advantage to hedge his crop4 ,if1 for example1 he is satisfied in ,august that the present price for ,december is likely to be higher than he will obtain later1 he may sell ,december futures for a conservative percentage of his crop1 thereby guaranteeing himself against a drop4 ,sidenote3 ,speculation ,by far the greatest part of the future trading1 however1 is done by merchants1 because they are actually engaged in the business of selling cotton which they have not yet acquired or of carrying cotton for which they have no contracts4 ,speculation1 of course1 enters into the dealings on the exchanges as an important economic factor1 in normal times tending to stabilize by discounting future trends1 but in periods of extraordinary demand or supply frequently causing violent fluctuations in prices4 ,at such times there is always a good deal of agitation for preventive legislation1 but it is unlikely that dealing in futures will ever be prohibited by law4 ,the present regulations of the large exchanges eliminate abuse as far as possible1 and the futures markets are really a factor of safety for the entire industry4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,dissemination of ,quotations ,all the large merchants1 as we have seen1 have branch offices in the ,south1 and all these offices have wire connections with the chief markets4 ,on the basis of the ,liverpool quotations and the ,new ,york opening prices the head offices will send out to their branches and representatives their daily limits1 above which they are instructed not to buy4 ,inasmuch as most of the small growers are dependent for their news of the markets upon the buyers1 they are at somewhat of a disadvantage1 but the keenness of competition prevents their exploitation by unscrupulous buyers4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,york ,cotton ,contract ,a contract on the ,new ,york ,cotton ,exchange calling for the delivery of #ajj bales specifies ,middling grade1 but the seller may deliver any grades which are tenderable by the ,exchange regulations4 ,these grades are from ,strict ,low ,middling to ,middling ,fair1 but if tinged1 not below ,middling ,tinged4 ,stains are not tenderable4 ,the grades are determined and settlement made on the basis of so many points on or off ,middling1 which1 as we have seen1 is the basis for all quotations4 ,sidenote3 ,buying ,season ,it is evident that mills1 which require certain even-running grades1 could of course never buy their cotton on the ,middling basis4 ,for this reason1 except in the few cases where they buy direct from the growers1 mills purchase their requirements from dealers on the basis of samples4 ,selling to mills1 as opposed to selling ,m_/,b1 is known as selling on merit4 ,mills usually begin to buy in ,september and fill about #fj of their year's requirements by ,january4 ,those manufacturers who use the high grades usually buy earliest because of the limited crop from which they must obtain their share4 ,cotton is ordinarily shipped soon after purchase and stored not by the merchant but at the mill4 ,the recent growth of ,southern warehouse companies1 however1 has caused mills to carry less cotton than formerly4 ,mills ordinarily pay for their cotton in three days4 ,we have now traced rapidly how the cotton is grown and marketed1 and our next concern will be to follow what happens to it during the process of making it into goods4 ,deferring for the moment consideration of cotton export from the ,united ,states1 we shall proceed in ,chapter ,two1 to glance at the various aspects of ,cotton ,manufacture4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,cotton #a4 ,,history ,,in ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,much has been written on the subject of the textile industry and perhaps even more still remains to be said4 ,it is not the object of this brief survey to present a complete picture of all the stages of manufacture1 but rather to place briefly before the reader a necessarily kaleidoscopic view of the various processes4 ,sidenote3 ,slater's ,mills ,sidenote3 ,whitney's ,gin ,sidenote3 ,stimulus of ,war of #ahab ,although the first cotton mill in the ,united ,states was founded in ,rhode ,island by ,samuel ,slater in #agij1 ,whitney's invention of the cotton gin in #agic marked the real beginning of the cotton growing and manufacturing industries in this country1 because it solved the hitherto vexatious problem of separating the fibre from the seed4 ,nevertheless1 until the war of #ahab1 this country exported almost all of its cotton to ,great ,britain1 and imported from there its cotton goods4 ,the war stimulated the textile industry for two reasons3 first1 because no ,british goods were available2 and second1 because it brought about the transference of ,new ,england capital from ships and commerce to home manufacturing industries4 ,the census figures for #ahje show #d1ejj spindles in the country2 in #ahbe there were #hjj1jjj4 ,sidenote3 ,growth to #ahfj ,various inventions1 notably ,lowell's power loom in #ahad1 and ,jenck's ring spindle in #ahcj1 made it possible for the ,new ,england manufacturer to compete with the skilled labor of ,england1 and up to the time of the ,civil ,war the industry made rapid strides4 ,in #ahca #gie establishments with #a1bjj1jjj spindles used #gg1hjj1jjj pounds of cotton and manufactured #cb1jjj1jjj worth of goods4 ,thirty years later there were #ajia mills with #e1bjj1jjj spindles using #dbb1gjj1jjj pounds of cotton and making a product worth #aae1gjj1jjj4 ,at this time #egj of the mills were in ,new ,england1 #cdj in the ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 #aei in the ,south1 and #bb in the ,western ,states4 ,the ,new ,england mills1 however1 averaged twice as many spindles as the others1 and ,massachusetts and ,rhode ,island alone contained #dh of the total4 ,sidenote3 ,civil ,war ,home industries at this time supplied most of the coarse drills and sheetings1 while the fine goods were imported from ,england4 ,there was a small export trade of coarse goods to ,asia4 ,the ,civil ,war cut off the industrial centers from their raw material so that for five years no progress was made1 and when normal life was resumed a new tendency towards concentration became manifest4 ,from then on the number of plants decreased and the individual establishment grew larger1 so that in #ahhj there were fewer mills and four and one-half times as many spindles as twenty years before4 ,sidenote3 ,rapid ,industrial ,rise of the ,south ,while we shall discuss the geographical distribution of the industry in a later chapter1 it is worthy of note here that the feature of the period beginning about #ahhj and extending to the present time1 was the gradual growth of the spinning and weaving industry in the ,south4 ,the social and economic system in the ,southern states before the abolition of slavery made those states entirely agrarian1 but as soon as a recovery from the war was accomplished1 manufacturing1 and particularly cotton manufacturing1 grew up surprisingly fast4 ,a glance at the growth in spindlage in the ,united ,states from #ahhj to #aibc will suffice to illustrate4 ,sixty per cent4 of the increase since #ahhj was in the ,south4 ,the units represent millions of spindles4 #ahhj #ahij #aijj #aiaj #aibc ,inc4 #dc yrs4 ,north #aj4a #ab4f #ad4e #ag4d #ai4i #i4h ,south 4#e #a4g #d4e #aa4b #af4c #ae4h #b4 ,,making ,,cotton ,,yarn ,sidenote3 ,the ,bale ,almost all cotton comes to the mill in standard compress bales of five hundred pounds gross4 ,the cotton is condensed to about #bb pounds per cubic foot at the compress1 wrapped in coarse jute bagging1 and circled with iron hoops4 ,for some time there has been a movement to improve the so-called square bale1 or to replace it with a different form of packing4 ,sea ,island cotton is frequently packed in a smaller round bale1 and there is much to be said for this practice4 ,what we are concerned with here1 however1 is that the mill receives the cotton in a compressed form which must be loosened before anything can be done with it4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,bale-,,breaker ,accordingly1 the first thing that happens is that the hoops are cut1 the bagging removed1 and the cotton thrown by hand into the feed-apron of the bale-breaker4 ,this machine does nothing more than to pick the compressed cotton apart and deliver it in tufts about the size of a handfull on a belt conveyor4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,opener ,the travelling belt or feeder delivers these bunches of cotton into machines called ,openers1 which simply repeat the operation of the bale-breaker on a more thorough scale1 reducing the large tufts into many smaller ones4 ,these small pieces are dropped into an air chute and drawn along parallel rods up to the picker room4 ,during transit in the trunk much of the heavier dirt falls between the rods and is removed4 ,in the most recent installations larger bale-breakers are used which reduce the cotton to small tufts and deliver through an air pipe to a condenser in the picker-room4 ,the condenser either empties into bins or else on to the automatic feed of the breaker-pickers4 ,illustration3 ,bale ,breakers ,sidenote3 ,pickers ,remove ,coarse ,dirt ,as the tufts come out of the chute they fall into the first of three machines known as ,pickers1 whose function is to beat out the coarser impurities and deliver the cotton in rolls of batting called laps4 ,in the first1 or breaker-picker the tufts are thoroughly whirled and pounded over grid-bars by rollers armed with short flail-like projections1 and then compressed into a continuous sheet or lap of a given weight per yard1 which is wound on a large spool and delivered to the second1 or intermediate picker4 ,this machine practically repeats the operation only that it combines four laps from the first picker into one which it hands over to the last1 or finisher picker4 ,the latter again takes four intermediate laps and forms them into one sheet of fairly clean cotton1 containing very little dirt or seed1 but still fairly filled with small particles of leaf4 ,in these preliminary operations the cotton has lost about five per cent4 of its weight4 ,illustration3 ,picker ,room ,sidenote3 ,the ,function of the ,card ,before anything else can be done it is now necessary to remove the leaf particles1 and to separate the individual fibres from their matted position4 ,both these functions are performed by the machine known as the ,card1 the principle of which is that of two surfaces armed with fine wire teeth revolving not quite tangent to each other4 ,originally carding was performed by hand1 but the ,wellman carding machine was one of the earliest textile inventions4 ,this was considerably improved by the revolving flat card in #aheg1 the operation of which is somewhat as follows4 ,illustration3 ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,flat ,,card ,sidenote3 ,its ,operation ,the lap from the finisher picker is fed over a plate on to a revolving cylinder bearing wire teeth1 which combs it over a set of knives1 thereby removing coarse dirt1 and passes it on to a large cylinder armed with millions of fine wire teeth4 ,the latter carries the cotton past a slowly revolving endless chain of flats which remove the neps and fine dirt4 ,the clean1 separated fibres are then picked off the cylinder by a smaller rapidly revolving roller called the doffer1 which carries them in a filmy sheet to be in turn removed by the doffing comb4 ,the latter1 working so rapidly that the eye fails to see it1 lifts the sheet of fibres clear so that it may be passed through a funnel and condensed into a single untwisted rope a little under an inch in diameter4 ,this rope is called a sliver1 and is automatically coiled into a can like an umbrella-stand4 ,sidenote3 ,counts of ,yarn ,sidenote3 ,two ,processes ,illustration3 ,feed ,end of ,card4 ,lap ,entering ,illustration3 ,delivery of ,sliver ,we have now for the first time reduced the raw material to a continuous strand1 comparatively free from impurities4 ,up to this point1 no matter what kind of yarn is to be spun1 the operations are practically identical1 but from here on the processes vary according to the product desired4 ,a hank of yarn is #hdj yards 7not to be confused with the worsted hank of #efj yards7 and the number of hanks it takes to make a pound is the basis upon which yarn is classified4 ,thus a coarse yarn which weighs only twenty hanks to the pound1 would be called #bjs1 while #hjs would be a very fine yarn4 ,various fabrics require different grades of yarn1 just as different finenesses of yarn must be spun from varying grades of cotton4 ,the processes preparatory to spinning vary1 not only with the counts to be spun1 but with the use to which the yarn is to be put4 ,ordinary coarse and medium yarns for weaving usually follow one process1 while fine counts for weaving1 or knitting yarn1 or coarse yarn made from long-staple cotton such as that used for tire-duck1 go through a different preparation4 ,the former are simply drawn and reduced1 while the latter are in addition combed4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,sidenote3 ,first ,process ,sidenote3 ,drawing ,in the ordinary process1 which is by far the most commonly used1 the sliver from the card is put through successive similar operations1 known as drawing1 the object of which is to draw out the fibres and cause them to lie parallel to each other4 ,six card slivers are fed together between two pairs of rollers1 the second of which is revolving faster than the first4 ,the obvious result of this is the stretching of that portion of the slivers which is between the two sets of rollers4 ,the operation is usually performed two or three times1 in each case combining six strands into one4 ,the sliver delivered by the third drawing machine will be of the same diameter as the original card sliver1 but will contain more or less parallel fibres4 ,illustration3 ,roving ,frame ,sidenote3 ,roving ,operations ,sidenote3 ,slubber ,there remains now only one series of operations before the yarn is ready to be spun4 ,the sliver must be reduced in size and given a certain amount of twist2 these objects are accomplished by the roving frames1 of which there are either three or four4 ,the first1 or slubber1 passes the drawn sliver through rollers without combining1 and winds it up on bobbins set in spindles4 ,the sliver is twisted by being fed onto the bobbin by an arm1 or flyer1 which revolves a little more slowly than the spindle1 being drawn around after it4 ,the result is a slightly twisted sliver1 now called a roving1 about the diameter of a clothes-line4 ,illustration3 ,four ,stages of ,roving ,the intermediate1 fine frame1 and jack frame1--or1 if there are only three roving boxes1 the intermediate and fine frames1--combine two rovings into one of smaller size and more twist4 ,the mechanism is much the same1 except that in each successive frame the spindles are smaller and revolve faster1 until finally the thread is small enough to spin4 ,sidenote3 ,second ,process ,sidenote3 ,lapper ,where it is desired to spin special kinds or very fine yarns twenty card slivers are usually combined in a machine similar to a drawing frame and known as a sliver-lapper4 ,the twenty ends are drawn between rollers and delivered not as we should expect in one strand1 but in a narrow band or lap1 which is wound on spools4 ,four of these laps are again combined and drawn over a spiral surface in the ribbon lapper which delivers its product to the comb4 ,the cotton is now in a band less than a foot wide1 with fibres more or less parallel and practically clean4 ,since it is desired to spin a yarn which demands not only parallel but uniform fibres1 the short fibres must be eliminated4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,comb ,there are a considerable number of combing machines in use at the present time1 but their differences are mechanical rather than in the function they perform4 ,the ,heilmann principle is the most commonly used in this country4 ,eight rolls from the ribbon-lapper are placed in separate rests1 or heads1 end to end1 and each lap is fed through rollers between teeth of a very fine and rapidly oscillating steel comb4 ,every back and forth motion1 known as a nip1 delivers about half an inch of filmy sheet from which the short fibres have been combed out4 ,the eight combed sheets are then once more condensed into a single sliver and coiled into a cylindrical can4 ,sidenote3 ,drawing ,sidenote3 ,doublings ,following the comb there are usually two drawing frames1 each combining six slivers into one1 and these are followed by the three or four roving frames as in the other process4 ,in the ordinary process the last roving as it leaves the jack frame has been doubled #bg1fdh times2 in the combed yarn there are #b1iei1abj doublings before spinning begins4 ,spinning proper is done either on the mule or the ring spindle4 ,very little cotton is spun on mules in this country1 although mules are extensively used in ,europe4 ,we shall concern ourselves here only with the ring spindle1 and that in bare outline4 7,see also ,part ,two1 ,page #hc74 ,sidenote3 ,the ,ring ,frame ,the principle of the ring frame is very similar to that of the roving operations which immediately precede it4 ,the thread is again drawn through two or three sets of rollers running at successively higher rates of speed1 and then passes as shown on the accompanying sketch through a guide to a small metal loop1 called the traveller1 which runs around on a metal track or ring within which the spindle with its bobbin is revolving4 ,since the spindle pulls the traveller around after it1 the yarn is twisted or spun as it is wound on the bobbin4 ,sometimes two spools of roving are spun into a single thread1 but more frequently there is no combination4 ,all the rings on one frame1 usually about #bef1 are moved up and down together on their spindles1 so that yarn will be wound evenly on the bobbin4 ,illustration3 ,ring ,twister ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ring ,,frame ,,principle ,illustration3 ,yarn of ,filling ,bobbin1 ,warp ,bobbin1 and ,spool ,sidenote3 ,warp and ,filling ,bobbins ,not only is a different bobbin used for spinning warp and filling yarns1 but they are also wound differently on the bobbin4 ,warp yarn is wound evenly up and down the whole length of the bobbin1 while the filling bobbins1 which go straight from the spindle into the shuttle of the loom1 are wound on in sections to facilitate rapid unwinding4 ,sidenote3 ,twisting ,we have now proceeded as far as the finished yarn4 ,sometimes1 however1 when a particularly strong thread is desired1 or in case of fancy designs1 it is desirable to twist two or more threads of yarn together1 this being known as two-ply1 three-ply1 etc4 ,various effects are obtained by twisting different yarns together1 and sometimes worsted and cotton strands are twisted together4 ,the operation is done on a frame similar to the spinning frame4 ,illustration3 ,the ,barber ,knotter ,sidenote3 ,the ,barber ,knotter ,in these and subsequent operations the ,barber ,knotter1 a little device worn on the hand of the operative1 has enormously increased efficiency4 ,by a single motion an entirely unskilled girl can knot and cut off evenly the ends of two threads4 #c4 ,,weaving ,,gray ,,goods ,sidenote3 ,principle of ,weaving ,the modern power loom represents one of the most remarkable achievements of industrial development4 ,into its perfection have gone the inventions and improvements of centuries1 and volumes could1 and have been written on the subject of modern weaving4 ,nevertheless1 the old-fashioned hand-loom has not yet gone out of existence1 and still finds its use in the development of new designs4 ,illustration3 ,spooling ,weaving is1 of course1 the process whereby yarn is made into cloth1 and its fundamental principle is that of the warp and weft structure4 ,in its simplest form this means that a series of threads are stretched parallel to each other1 thereby forming a warp4 ,a second thread1 called the weft1 is then passed over the odd and under the even warp threads1 and back again under the odd and over the even4 ,in this way a cloth fabric will gradually be built up4 ,in most cases the process has become considerably more complicated than this1 but there are even now certain materials1 such as calico1 which retain the elementary weave4 ,the actual weaving1 that is1 the passing of the shuttle carrying the weft thread over and under the warp threads1 has now been reduced to an entirely automatic process1 even with the most complicated designs1 but the preparatory work still entails a large proportion of hand labor4 ,illustration3 ,the ,creels ,sidenote3 ,spooling ,the first operation consists of winding the yarn from the bobbin on to spools1 each containing the same length of yarn4 ,this must be done with care or considerable waste will result4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,creel ,the next step is to place these spools in a rack or creel where they fit on glass bearings so that they may be arranged in the proper order and run through the warper on to the section beam4 ,the latter is a large roller several of which are combined to form a beam4 ,the beam is the name given to the roller which is placed in the loom to deliver the warp threads4 ,sidenote3 ,sizing ,in order both to strengthen the warp threads and to make them smoother for weaving it is usual to apply some starchy or glutinous substance to them4 ,this operation1 which is performed in a machine called the ,slasher1 is termed yarn sizing1 and consists of running the threads through a bath of preparation and then drying them quickly on a large steam-filled drum or can4 ,one slasher will do enough work for #bjj to #ejj looms4 ,illustration3 ,the ,slasher ,sidenote3 ,healding ,since it is necessary that the warp threads may be lowered or raised in various combinations to allow the passage of the shuttle1 each warp thread must be passed through an eye in the centre of a harness wire4 ,where1 for instance1 the warp is to be raised and depressed in three even sections there will be three harness frames1 each fitted with enough heald-wires to accommodate one-third of the number of threads in the entire warp4 ,in the ,jacquard loom1 used for intricate patterns1 each warp-thread is separately controlled4 ,the passing of the ends of the warp through their proper harness wires is a delicate and skilfull operation known as healding1 or drawing-in4 ,at the same time that this is done the threads are passed through individual stop-motion wires1 relaxed tension on any one of which will bring the loom to a stop4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,in ,sidenote3 ,reeding ,closely connected with drawing-in1 is the final step in the preparation of the warp1 and this is called reeding or sleying4 ,in order to keep the warp threads in proper position during weaving they are passed through the wires of what looks like a comb with a strip across the open ends4 ,this1 the sley or reed1 is attached to the batten on the loom and serves in addition to drive home each weft thread after the shuttle has passed4 ,sidenote3 ,warp ,tieing ,when the loom has devoured all the warp threads contained on one beam1 all that is necessary1 if the pattern is to be continued1 is to tie the ends of the old warp to the ends of the new1 and this is accomplished with marvelous accuracy by a little machine built on the same principle as the ,barber ,knotter4 ,this avoids drawing-in a second time4 ,illustration3 ,weaving ,shed of ,power ,looms ,sidenote3 ,the ,power ,loom ,when the preparatory processes have been completed the actual weaving is done1 practically without human agency4 ,the shuttle flies back and forth at the rate of from one to two hundred picks per minute1 and when its thread is exhausted it drops out and1 in the automatic loom1 is immediately supplanted by a fresh one4 ,the harness frames jerk up and down1 forming and reforming the ,v shaped shed through which the shuttle passes2 and after each pick the batten drives home the new thread into the ever-growing stretch of cloth4 ,like the film in a kodak1 where a roller at one end gives out plain paper which is rolled up at the other end as a magic sheet of pictures1 so in the loom the homely warp threads are rolled out at one end1 while the roller at the other extreme winds up smooth gray cloth4 ,we have now made yarn out of cotton1 and unbleached cotton cloth1 or gray goods1 out of our yarn4 ,all that remains before the fabric goes to the finisher is an inspection for imperfections and their removal where possible1 usually by hand4 #d4 ,,converting ,,and ,,finishing ,sidenote3 ,old-,fashioned ,bleaching ,cotton cloth as it comes from the loom has a gray or yellowish appearance due to the impurities it contains4 ,the old-fashioned method of removing these consists in simply spreading the cloth in the sun for a few days until it is bleached white4 ,most cloth mills dispose of their goods in the gray and allow the finishing to be done by a separate establishment1 although the large manufacturers of 8fancies0 sometimes do their own finishing4 ,sidenote3 ,sewing ,together ,the first step in the finishing plant is to inspect the cloth and then to sew the ends of many pieces together into long strips4 ,this greatly facilitates subsequent operations1 because the cloth can now be run through various processes as a single unit4 ,sidenote3 ,brushing ,in order to obtain a smooth surface for later processes1 the cloth is first run through a machine which brushes up the fibres and loose ends1 much as a carpet-sweeper picks up the fibres of a carpet4 ,sometimes a bladed roller like a lawn-mower is used4 ,sidenote3 ,singeing ,removing the raised lint is a dangerous operation because it might easily damage the cloth1 and this is usually done by the process of singeing4 ,the cloth is run rapidly through gas flames or over hot plates and is quickly cooled4 ,in this way the fuzz is burned off without injuring the cloth4 ,sidenote3 ,napping ,illustration3 ,inspecting ,illustration3 ,sewing ,ends ,together ,the next step is usually the bleaching process1 except where the cloth is to be finished as a corduroy1 velvet1 or flannel4 ,in the latter case it is first run through the napper1 a machine which brushes up the fibre with wire teeth in such a way as to leave a raised face or nap4 ,illustration3 ,singeing ,sidenote3 ,bleaching ,process ,bleaching is accomplished by boiling the cloth for several hours in large iron tanks known as kiers1 which contain a solution of caustic soda4 ,next it is washed and scoured in dilute acid for several hours with the object of removing iron stains4 ,then it is again washed1 boiled a second time1 washed1 run through a chemical solution of bleaching powder1 and allowed to steep4 ,after a last washing the cloth is dried by running over copper drums filled with steam1 and is then rolled up in bundles about the size of a barrel4 ,sidenote3 ,white ,goods ,if the cloth is to be finished as plain white goods it is next starched and ironed 7calendared71 inspected1 and put up in bolts for shipment4 ,sidenote3 ,mercerization ,if1 however1 it is desired either to dye or print the cloth with various colors and designs1 it still has several treatments to pass through4 ,white goods are sometimes mercerized1 but more commonly this process is employed with cloth that is to be dyed4 ,mercerization is the treating of cotton yarn or cloth to the action of caustic soda dissolved in water1 the remaining soda being removed by a wash of dilute sulphuric acid4 ,the result is an increased strength of fibre1 loss of elasticity1 silky appearance1 and an affinity for certain dyes and mordants4 ,illustration3 ,napping ,sidenote3 ,dyeing ,the subject of dyeing is one of intense interest and wide scope1 but it is unfortunately beyond the field of this brief survey4 ,suffice it to say that various chemical processes and mechanical devices are employed to give a permanent color to the cloth4 7,yarn and raw stock dyeing are less commonly employed in the cotton than in the woolen and worsted industries47 ,sidenote3 ,resist and ,discharge ,printing ,some cotton cloth is simply dyed with a solid color and finished1 but frequently it is first dyed with one color and then printed with others1 or with a chemical which will discharge the dye and leave white figures wherever it touches the cloth4 ,in contrast to this discharge method1 where it is desired to obtain white figures on a colored back-ground1 it is also possible first to print the figures with a chemical that will resist the subsequent action of the dye-stuff4 ,where a white ground is used and it is not essential that the colors and design appear on both sides of the cloth it is not necessary to dye at all4 ,illustration3 ,bleaching ,kiers ,sidenote3 ,printing ,process ,the printing process is a very old one1 and was employed centuries ago in ,china and ,india1 where natives used to impregnate cloth with colored designs by pounding small wooden blocks carved and filled with color on its surface4 ,the modern printing machine has a series of copper rollers in which the design to be printed is etched or sunk4 ,under each roller where it is fixed in the printing press is a trough filled with the particular coloring matter which that roller is to print on the cloth4 ,as the mechanism revolves the roller is constantly supplied with new color1 which is scraped off its surface except where the sunken design holds it1 by a knife1 called the doctor4 ,if the design calls for six colors there will be six rollers at work1 and so on up to fourteen colors at a single run through the press4 ,sidenote3 ,engraving ,an infinite number of designs are printed1 and the method of getting them etched on the copper roller is a fascinating one4 ,a zinc plate is carved by hand on a greatly enlarged scale from the original sketch1 and from this plate the girls who operate the pantograph machines transfer the outlines of each color on to the copper rollers4 ,illustration3 ,printing ,machine ,sidenote3 ,the ,pantograph ,when the roller is placed in the pantograph it is coated with varnish4 ,as the girl traces the outlines of the design on her zinc plate with a little pointer1 she presses a treddle which brings a number of little diamond points in contact with the roller4 ,each one of these points cuts through the varnish1 reproducing the design in its original size4 ,there will be as many points as the number of times the design is repeated across the roller4 ,when the roller is finished it is given a bath in nitric acid which will eat into the copper where the varnish has been cut away1 thus sinking the design so that it will hold color4 ,illustration3 ,a ,battery of ,forty-eight ,sidenote3 ,aging and ,washing ,there remain now only the finishing operations before the cloth is ready to be packed for the market4 ,usually1 after printing1 the cloth is steamed1 or aged1 to make the colors fast4 ,then it is fixed and soaped thoroughly1 after which it is run through the drier4 ,sidenote3 ,starching ,sidenote3 ,the ,tenter ,in order to give the cloth the proper 8feel0 an operation is next performed which closely resembles warp sizing4 ,a certain amount of hot starch is pressed into the cloth1 after which it is drawn through the tenter frames and not only dried but stretched back to its normal width4 ,the tenter frame is about one hundred feet long and contains long lines of steam pipes4 ,on each side an endless chain with clips grips the cloth and moving gradually further apart1 these chains stretch the cloth1 delivering it dry and of even width4 7,some goods1 notably those made for ,asiatic consumption in ,england1 are not only starched but filled with ,china clay1 which adds over #ajj to their weight47 ,illustration3 ,engraving ,plate ,as it comes off the tenter the cloth goes through steel rollers and is pressed smooth1 after which it is automatically folded and made ready for ticketing and packing4 #e4 ,,the ,,knitting ,,industry ,sidenote3 ,history ,we have just seen by what processes cotton yarn becomes first gray cloth1 and then finished goods4 ,there is of course a tremendous variety of woven fabric1 ranging all the way from the coarsest sail cloth to the finest organdie4 ,and there are certain finishes such as velveteen and corduroy which1 for want of space1 we have not even touched upon4 ,there is1 however1 a whole class of cotton fabric which is not woven but knit2 and since most of our hosiery and underwear are made in this way1 it behooves us to take at least a brief glance at the knitting industry4 ,illustration3 ,transferring ,design to ,copper ,roller ,the principle of knitting is so familiar to every one who is or has a mother or wife that no description of it is necessary4 ,curiously enough1 although the original stocking frame was invented as far back as #aehi1 power was applied to the industry for the first time at ,cohoes1 ,n4 ,y41 in #ahcb4 ,this city is still the centre of underwear manufacture in this country4 ,illustration3 ,cloth in ,tenter-frame ,sidenote3 ,two ,types of ,machines ,knitting is now done on two general types of machines3 the flat bed knitter1 and the circular knitting machine4 ,in the former the garment is knit in one flat piece and seamed afterwards4 ,underwear made in this way is described as full-fashioned4 ,on the circular machine a seam is not necessary1 for the complete cylinder of fabric is made at once4 ,while it is possible to manufacture underwear on a circular frame1 its use is far better adapted to the knitting of hosiery1 and a very large industry for the manufacture of this product has grown up in and near ,philadelphia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,flat ,bed ,knitter ,the ,cotton ,knitting ,frame1 invented in #ahfd1 is still the basis of the modern flat-bed knitter4 ,the product is a flat web which can be widened or narrowed by transferring the loops from the edge needles to a separate instrument1 and then replacing them4 ,in knitting stockings1 the shaped legs are made on one machine1 then transferred to a heeler1 and then to a third machine which knits the feet4 ,the stockings then must be seamed up the back4 ,the largest machines are capable of knitting twenty-four garments at one time4 ,the advantage of this type is that it produces more elastic fabric1 but it requires more operatives and more highly skilled labor than the circular machine4 ,illustration3 ,calendar ,sidenote3 ,the ,circular ,machine ,a series of inventions made in ,philadelphia from #ahfg to #ahhi perfected the completely automatic circular machine of which there are now more than seven times as many in use in this country than there are full-fashioned knitters4 ,the seamless machine goes on continuously and manufactures the entire garment at once4 ,narrowing is done by shortening the loops1 and this accounts for the loss of elasticity4 ,the finishing operations consist of seaming1 where necessary1 and removing imperfections4 ,sidenote3 ,growth ,the growth and importance of the industry is perhaps best realized from the fact that in #ahgj there were #e1fbe machines in the country1 in #aije1 #hh1cgd1 and now well over one hundred thousand4 ,in #ahej men wore hand-knitted socks and flannel underwear4 ,from #ahfj to #aiaj the product of the country's knitting machines rose from #g1cjj1jjj to #bjj1ajj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,folding ,cotton yarn is used more than woolen because it spins more cheaply and is less difficult to knit4 #f4 ,,other ,,cotton ,,products ,before concluding this part of our survey which deals with the manufacture of cotton into finished goods1 we must at least enumerate some of the by-products and minor fruits of the industry4 ,sidenote3 ,seed ,oil ,sidenote3 ,linters ,to begin with1 at the time that the cotton is ginned the seeds are sold to the manufacturers of cotton oil4 ,without going into detail as to the process1 we have here an annual product for this country worth #chd1jjj1jjj4 ,seed mills regin the seed before they crush it and remove the short fibres which have hitherto adhered to the seed4 ,this regained cotton is known as linters and amounts annually to about #hjj1jjj bales4 ,sidenote3 ,felt and ,surgical ,dressings ,being of very short staple this reginned cotton is adapted for the manufacture of felts and surgical dressings1 both of which are important by-products4 ,sidenote3 ,lace ,the manufacture of small-wares and lace curtains is another minor branch of cotton manufacture4 ,here1 however1 domestic production is comparatively small1 and the bulk of the lace used is imported4 ,nevertheless probably over #ge1jjj1jjj yards#c of the lace are made annually in this country4 ,sidenote3 ,gun ,cotton ,sidenote3 ,collodion ,gun-cotton1 a highly explosive substance1 is obtained by soaking cotton 7usually linters7 in nitric and sulphuric acids and then leaving it to dry4 ,and again1 gun-cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol yields the much used surgical adhesive known as collodion4 ,the stems and leaves of the cotton plant are used for fodder1 the seed hulls for fertilizer1 and there is in fact no part of the plant from which man has not learned to derive some useful product4 #c ,this figure is only roughly approximated4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,from ,,mill ,,to ,,consumer #a4 ,,industrial ,,organization ,before we proceed to discuss the various ways in which cotton goods are marketed we shall first take a cursory glance at the way in which the industry is subdivided4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mill ,treasurer ,the president of a cotton mill is usually not the active head of the business2 his position corresponds to that of the chairman of the board of directors in the usual banking or mercantile corporation4 ,the mill treasurer is1 on the other hand1 the chief directive force1 and he performs the two all-important functions of buying the mill's raw cotton and selling its product1 either direct or through other channels4 ,in the mills of ,new ,bedford and ,fall ,river1 which make chiefly gray goods1 the treasurer usually has his office at the mill4 ,in most other ,new ,england mills the treasurer is usually a member of a selling house and is frequently the treasurer for more than one mill4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,agent or ,supt4 ,where the treasurer has his office in the mill the man who has charge of the actual operation is known as the mill superintendent4 ,his functions include the general management of the plant and the purchasing of supplies other than cotton4 ,where the treasurer maintains his office in a selling house1 the operating head is known as an ,agent and enjoys a greater degree of responsibility and independence4 ,there are of course a varying number of minor operating chiefs in charge of sundry departments4 ,sidenote3 ,spinning and ,weaving in ,same ,plant ,the average ,new ,england cotton mill contains about fifty thousand spindles1 while the ,southern mill runs about twenty-five thousand4 ,the vast majority of mills do both spinning and weaving1 although some ,southern mills sell yarn and some ,pennsylvania establishments do nothing but weave4 ,of the entire number of spindles in the country1 #hc1 and of the looms #ig1 are in mills which do both spinning and weaving4 ,sidenote3 ,segregation of the ,converter ,in contrast to the tendency towards unification in spinning and weaving is the ever-increasing segregation of the converting plants4 ,the rise of the merchant-converter1 the growing demand for a great variety of finishes1 and the fact that converting is very much cheaper on a large scale1 have all brought about an increasing tendency on the part of the mill to sell its cloth in the gray1 or to have it finished on commission4 ,sidenote3 ,knitting ,while a few large knitting mills spin their own yarn1 this is the exception rather than the rule4 ,on the other hand the knitting mills finish their product for the market themselves1 and sell either direct or through a selling house4 #b4 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,products ,there are four general ways in which a cotton mill may dispose of its products3 a4 by selling direct1 b4 through a selling house1 c4 through a broker1 d4 through a converter4 ,sidenote3 a4 ,selling ,direct ,a few very large mills maintain selling offices of their own in the large centers of distribution through which they market their goods direct to the jobbers and retailers4 ,in most cases where direct selling is done1 however1 the goods are sold in the gray by the mill treasurer at the mill4 ,this practice is common with those mills which make staple gray goods and which1 when not sold ahead1 are able to manufacture for stock against spot sales4 ,a few ,southern yarn mills also sell direct4 ,sidenote3 b4 ,growth of the ,selling ,house ,the relation between the manufacturer and commercial banker or commission house is as old as the industry itself4 ,slater's first mill in #agij was financed by ,almy ,brown of ,boston1 who undertook to market his goods and also to furnish him the credit he needed to buy cotton and supplies4 ,in the early days the cloth was sold at auction by the selling house and the proceeds less commission credited to the mill4 ,later on the factors developed extensive selling organizations throughout the country by means of which they were able to market the products of a good many mills4 ,sidenote3 8,fancies0 ,sidenote3 ,finances ,the distribution of fancy goods requires a great deal of skill4 ,the ,fall and ,spring lines to be manufactured by the mills are sent out to the trade by the selling house about six months ahead1 and orders are taken before manufacture begins so as to be sure that the line will 8take04 ,of course there is always the danger of cancellations even then1 for which the selling house must bear most of the responsibility4 ,in addition to distributing the goods and guaranteeing the accounts1 the commission house renders financial assistance either by advancing on the mill's product1 or by indorsing its notes4 ,in return it receives the sole agency for the mill's products1 interest on the money advanced and a commission4 ,the latter varies with the amount of financial assistance required by the mill and the desirability of the risk4 ,as a general rule the ,southern mills1 because of their distance from the chief markets in ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,philadelphia1 are more dependent upon their selling agents than the ,new ,england manufacturers4 ,in ,new ,england a great number of manufacturers are amply able to finance themselves1 and could if necessary sell their own products4 ,stock ownership1 however1 and old ties have frequently kept up the relationship with the selling houses after its usefulness was partly outworn4 ,nevertheless in the selling of fancy goods1 even where the mill is supplied with plenty of capital1 the commission house fulfills a very necessary function4 ,sidenote3 c4 ,the ,broker ,gray goods are very often sold either by a mill or a selling house through the medium of a cloth broker4 ,the latter is strictly a middle man in that he does nothing but bring together prospective purchaser and seller4 ,in the event of sale he gets a commission of 1 which he often more than earns by his efforts4 ,these brokers are in touch with all the mills1 converters1 and consumers4 ,sidenote3 d4 ,merchant ,converters ,while there are some independent finishing establishments1 most of them operate on a commission basis for merchant converters4 ,the latter are a class of merchants of comparatively recent origin1 having appeared first about #ahhj1 since which time they have practically taken control of the finishing industry4 ,they buy gray goods either direct from the mill1 or through a broker or selling house1 and have them finished according to whatever they think the requirements of the market are4 ,inasmuch as they pay on short credit and carry the goods during conversion1 frequently selling on several months' credit to jobbers and retailers1 they perform an important part of the financing of the cloth4 ,their recent rapid rise has been due largely to the growing demand for a multiplicity of seasonal designs4 ,some large cutters-up1 and a few big mail-order houses do their own finishing or have it done4 ,as a rule they buy from converters and sell to the jobber1 retailer1 or consumer4 ,we have now traced the cotton from the seed through the various processes of manufacture and finishing1 and followed the finished goods through the channels of distribution to the consumer4 ,it remains only for us to compare briefly the position of the ,united ,states with that of other countries1 and the position of the various sections within the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states #a4 ,,cotton ,,production ,,and ,,consumption ,ever since the ,civil ,war the ,united ,states has produced more than half of the world's cotton crop4 ,from #ahfj to #aijj about one-third of the annual crop was consumed by the domestic industries1 and from that time domestic takings have increased1 except for #aiba1 to an average of about #ej in the last few years4 ,during the same period the actual size of the annual crops increased enormously4 ,if we take the figures from the present back to #agij it will give a rough idea of the progress since that time4 ,year ,crop in bales ,exports of dom4 takings 7of #ejj lbs47 #agij #c #a #ff #ahej #b1acf #a1hed #ac #ahfj #c1hda #fae #hd #ahgj #d1jbd #b1ibb #bh #ahhj #f1cef #d1dec #cj #ahij #h1efb #e1hej #cb #aijj #aj1bff #f1hjf #cc #aiaj #ab1jje #h1bje #cb #aiae #ab1abb #f1dje #dg #aiag #ab1dbh #d1ehg #fd #aiai #ab1jbh #f1gfj #dd #aiba #h1cea #f1dgi #bc #aibb #aj1cfi #e1jdi #eb 7,expressed in thousands of bales7 ,illustration3 ,,world',s ,,cotton ,,production #aijh ,illustration3 ,,world',s ,,cotton ,,production #aibb-c ,illustration3 ,,world',s ,,cotton ,,consumption #aijh ,illustration3 ,,world',s ,,cotton ,,consumption #aibb-c ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,,and ,,the ,,cotton ,,trade ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 offers to ,,cotton ,,exporters a unique service4 ,it is not only equipped to finance shipments to all parts of the world1 but1 because of the fact that it has as shareholders the leading banks and bankers of ,europe1 it is in a position to obtain unusual service1 advice1 and information for its clients4 ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 is constantly in touch with conditions abroad1 and maintains extensive credit files on ,european cotton merchants and spinners4 ,it not only finances millions of dollars of cotton exports every year for its domestic clients1 but opens credits for an even larger amount in favor of ,american shippers by order of its clients abroad4 ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 deals actively in foreign exchange1 and by reason of the large orders it receives from abroad1 is often in a position to purchase foreign currency drafts of cotton shippers at exceptionally fine rates4 ,,part ,,two ,,wool ,by ,,james ,,paul ,,warburg ,vice-,president ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,photographs by courtesy of ,the ,american ,woolen ,co4 ,illustration3 ,grading fleeces ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,raw ,,material #a4 ,,sheep ,,raising ,sidenote3 ,early ,history ,the raising of sheep goes so far back into primitive times that historians have been compelled to draw a veil over its origin4 ,whether sheep antedate man1 or man existed before sheep1 is a question that has never been authoritatively answered4 ,for our purposes very little history will suffice4 ,we know that sheep were raised in ,biblical times1 but we do not know much about them4 ,we do know1 however1 that the old ,romans practised sheep-breeding with great care and even went so far as to cover their animals with cloth in order to preserve the clean quality of the fleece4 ,during the reign of the ,roman ,emperor1 ,claudius 7,a4 ,d41 #ej71 an ,italian named ,columella1 took several ,italian sheep to ,spain and crossed them with the native ,spanish ,merino breed4 ,it is said that the resulting type is the progenitor of all the ,merino breeds which now form the basis of sheep-breeding4 ,under the rule of the ,saracens1 ,spain became not only a great sheep-raising country1 but a woolen manufacturing country as well4 ,in the thirteenth century there were no less than sixteen thousand looms in the town of ,seville alone4 ,sidenote3 ,spain ,when the ,saracens were driven out by ,philip ,,iii4 the textile industry disappeared from ,spain1 but sheep husbandry1 which did not require skilled labor1 remained1 and ,spanish wool continued to be the finest in the world4 ,sidenote3 ,europe ,sidenote3 ,spread of ,merino ,during the eighteenth century various ,european countries began to import merinos and cross them with their native breeds4 ,this1 because of the sturdy quality of some of the native types1 frequently produced excellent results4 ,in ,france we thus have the origin of the ,rambouillet merino1 in ,germany and ,austria of the ,saxony and ,silesian breeds4 ,in #ahaj merinos were first introduced into ,australia with astonishing results both as to grade of wool and increase of flocks4 ,about the same time ,south ,america1 ,south ,africa1 and the ,united ,states imported ,spanish sheep4 ,of all the highly civilized countries1 ,england is the only one where merino breeding was not successful4 ,this was due in part to the climate1 but the chief cause was the fact that ,british sheep-raising was primarily for mutton purposes1 and only secondarily for wool4 ,the merino types are smaller1 and hence do not yield as good mutton carcasses as some of the native 8,down0 and 8,mountain0 breeds4 ,in many cases1 however1 the native ,english breeds1 notably the ,lincolns1 have been imported to other countries and there crossed with merinos with very good success4 ,sidenote3 ,native ,breeds ,it would not be possible to give in detail the various breeds of sheep existing in different countries4 ,merino sheep are now bred in many parts of the world1 and1 together with the high crossbreds1 are the source of all the fine wools known as merino1 half-blood1 and three-eighths wools4 ,long wools are derived from various native breeds1 chiefly ,english1 and from the lower crossbreds of merinos1 such as quarter and low quarter bloods4 ,chinese1 ,siberian1 and ,turkish wools1 as well as many other uncivilized types1 are usually very long and coarse1 and are known as carpet and braid wools4 ,sidenote3 ,sources ,most of the best merino wools come from ,australia1 the next best from ,south ,africa1 and from ,south ,america4 ,the latter have one fault in that they contain many spiral burrs which are difficult to remove1 and which frequently get through the machines and show up as imperfections in the cloth4 ,europe grows some very fine short wools1 but these hardly ever leave the countries they are grown in4 ,sidenote3 ,u4 ,s4 ,domestic ,united ,states wools are known as 8domestic0 and 8territory40 ,domestic wools are those grown in the eastern and middle western states1 notably in the ,ohio valley4 ,these contain the highest grades of merino wools grown in this country4 ,it must be remembered that sheep raising began in the ,east1 and as civilization expanded1 was gradually crowded further and further westward4 ,the opening of the ,erie ,canal in #ahbe made available the fertile pasture lands of the ,ohio valley4 ,the ,ohio ,canal eight years later opened up still more territory1 and in #ahdi during the famous gold rush1 sheep were first taken to ,california4 ,sidenote3 ,territory ,the territory wools are those grown in the ,rocky ,mountain ,plateau states4 ,recently1 with improved methods and greater care in breeding1 some very fine wools have been derived from ,idaho1 ,wyoming1 ,nevada1 and ,montana1 and from a few other states4 ,the ,texas and ,california wools are usually classed separately1 because they are in most cases clipped twice a year4 ,a little later we shall discuss the various grades and sorts of wool obtained from the different breeds1 but as the wool is shorn or pulled before it is graded1 we shall take up these processes first4 ,,average ,,weights ,,of ,,different ,,breeds ,,of ,,sheep ,,with ,,weights ,,of ,,fleeces ,breed ,ewes ,rams ,fleece ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,leicester #ahe #bce #aj ,cotswold #bjj #bhe #ab ,lincoln #bej #cjj #ae ,southdown #ade #bjj #f ,english ,breeds 7,mutton7 ,shropshire #afe #bae #i ,oxford #bbj #bge #aa ,hampshire #bjj #bge #h ,rambouillet ,mer4 #aee #bce #ah ,amer4 ,merino ,a4 #aje #ade #bb 0 0 ,b4 #aaj #aee #bj ,merino ,breeds 0 0 ,c4 #abe #age #ah 7delaine7 #b4 ,,shearing ,,and ,,marketing ,,of ,,fleece ,,wool ,wool is obtained from the sheep in two ways2 it is either shorn from the live animal1 or pulled from the skin of the slaughtered carcass4 ,sidenote3 ,shearing ,sidenote3 ,australian ,system ,shearing was formerly done by hand4 ,an expert was able to clip as many as one hundred head per day1 but the average was less than half of that amount4 ,the introduction of machine shearing has made it possible for one man to shear from #age to #bjj sheep in a day1 and the fleece is very much more evenly clipped than formerly4 ,some merino breeds1 known as type ,a1 have so many folds of loose skin that machine shearing is not feasible1 but except for these animals1 and some of the type ,b or ,rambouillet ,merinos1 almost all sheep are now shorn by machine1 that is1 where they are raised in numbers4 ,sheep raising in this country is not pursued with nearly so much care as1 for instance1 in ,australia4 ,there they have huge shearing sheds where the animals are first sweated and then carefully shorn4 ,whereas here the entire fleece is left in one piece1 in ,australia the belly is shorn separately and each fleece is carefully skirted1 that is1 the inferior parts such as the britch are torn off4 ,then each fleece is folded and tied up and the fleeces are put up in bales4 ,moreover1 a bale usually contains fleeces of the same grade1 so that practically nothing but sorting remains to be done by the purchaser4 ,here1 on the other hand1 fleeces are shorn in one piece and are folded up carelessly1 without skirting4 ,the tying up is frequently done in a slovenly manner1 and a bag will very often contain all grades of wool from the finest to the coarsest4 ,of late years some attempt has been made to install the ,australian system1 but without much success4 ,sidenote3 ,seasons ,the shearing season in the northern hemisphere is in the spring1 in countries below the equator1 except ,australia1 it is1 of course1 in our fall4 ,in ,texas and ,california1 as well as in some other localities1 shearing is frequently done twice a year4 ,sidenote3 ,marketing ,roughly speaking1 there are seven ways in which the wool grower may dispose of his fleece wool3 ,sidenote3 ,merchant ,buyers #a4 ,he may sell it to buyers representing merchants4 ,the merchant1 while he is a middle man and therefore incurs the usual anathema1 performs a variety of very essential services4 ,at the time of the clip he sends his buyers to the wool producing centers and buys the clip for cash1 then he ships it to his warehouse1 grades it1 and sells to the mills on credit4 ,obviously he finances a very important part of the production1 and is furthermore essential1 because he knows the demand1 which the wool-grower does not1 and the supply--of which the mill is usually ignorant4 ,sidenote3 ,mill ,buyers #b4 ,the wool grower may also sell to buyers representing mills4 ,he likes to do this because he eliminates the merchant's profit1 but1 as a matter of fact1 there are only very few mills large enough to stand the buying expense1 and even fewer that can afford to buy their whole season's supply of raw material at one time and for cash4 ,also1 mills can usually employ only certain grades of wool1 and cannot therefore as a rule buy a whole clip4 ,sidenote3 ,consignment #c4 ,if the grower thinks that he is not receiving fair offers from the visiting buyers1 he will frequently consign his wool to a merchant to be sold on commission for his account4 ,in this case he may or may not get a better price1 but it costs him his carrying charges plus commission4 ,there are some wool houses that make it a specialty to execute commission sales of this nature4 ,sidenote3 ,local ,mills #d4 ,some wool is sold direct to nearby mills4 ,this is done particularly in ,ohio1 where many of the smaller mills obtain their entire requirements in this manner4 ,sidenote3 ,local ,dealers #e4 ,wool growers sometimes sell to local dealers4 ,this is particularly prevalent in regions where the individual grower's production is small4 ,in most eastern states there are a great number of small farmers who grow a certain amount of wool4 ,the local dealers are in many cases also the general store-keepers1 and1 since they are the farmer's creditor on other merchandise1 and since the average farmer knows very little about the grades of wool1 these individuals very frequently turn a handsome profit when they in turn sell to the visiting buyers4 ,sidenote3 ,coop4 ,sales #f4 ,some wool is sold through farmers' co-operative sales agencies1 but these organizations have in the past been so poorly administered1 that1 as a general rule they have not been successful4 ,the movement is1 however1 gaining ground and has shown great progress during recent years4 ,sidenote3 ,auctions #g4 ,finally1 there remains the method whereby almost all the ,british and colonial wools are sold1 namely1 by auction4 ,auction sales have been established for almost a century in ,london1 ,liverpool1 ,antwerp1 ,bremen1 ,hamburg1 ,marseilles1 and recently in ,australia4 ,this method of disposing of their raw product does not1 however1 appeal to the ,american growers1 because of the inherent ,american trading instinct4 ,it is also not very feasible in this country1 because the wool is not graded in the shearing sheds and because sheep-raising in not standardized4 ,sidenote3 ,markets ,the chief markets for wool in this country are ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,chicago1 ,new ,york and ,st4 ,louis4 #c4 ,,pulled ,,wool ,we have above discussed the shearing and marketing of wool obtained from the living animal4 ,there remains a large quantity of wool which is taken from the pelts of slaughtered sheep4 ,in #aiai there were produced #dh1cjj1jjj pounds of pulled wool in the ,u4 ,s4 as against #bfe1ici1jjj pounds of sheared wool4 ,sidenote3 ,use ,skin wool1 or tanner's wool1 as it is sometimes known1 is used extensively for soft twist yarns1 bed blankets1 flannels1 felts1 etc4 ,it is also used as an admixture in blends for top-making1 as we shall see later4 ,there are three methods whereby pulled wool is obtained4 ,sidenote3 ,sweating ,the oldest and simplest process is known as sweating1 and consists simply in sweating the hides until the wool is loosened and can easily be pulled out4 ,the disadvantage of this method is that it injures the hides4 ,sidenote3 ,lime ,the lime process consists in loosening the wool by painting the flesh side of the hide with lime4 ,this also injures the hides somewhat and has a bad effect on the dyeing qualities of the wool4 ,sidenote3 ,depilatory ,the depilatory process is the best1 and varies from the lime process only in that a solution is used instead of lime4 ,this mixture consists of sodium sulphate1 sulphuric acid1 and oyster shells4 ,by far the greatest pullery in the world is situated at ,mazamet1 ,france1 where the industry has assumed gigantic proportions4 ,the large packers in this country all operate their own pulleries1 and the pulled wool is marketed largely by them4 ,most mills buy their pulled wool direct from the pulleries1 but some is handled by merchants4 #d4 ,,what ,,is ,,wool ,we have now traced the wool from the sheep's back as far as the bag1 and may assume that the bag has travelled from the shearing shed to the merchant's or mill's warehouse4 ,some foreign wools1 notably ,australian and ,south ,american1 are1 as we have seen1 skirted and roughly graded in the shearing shed1 so that1 when the bag is opened1 there remains only the sorting to do4 ,grading is the separation of fleeces into classified groups4 ,skirting is the removal from each fleece of the worst parts1 namely1 the britch wool1 manure locks 7known as tags71 and matted or kempy portions4 ,sorting is the dividing of the individual fleece into various classifications4 ,sidenote3 ,wool as ,against ,hair ,before we take up the grades and sorts in detail1 it will be well for us to inquire briefly into the nature of the wool fibre4 ,in the first place1 wool differs from hair in that its fibre consists of a core 7medulla71 a pulp 7cortex71 and an epidermis4 ,a hair follicle consists of a medulla and an epidermis4 ,moreover1 the epidermis of a hair is closely and evenly scaled1 which makes it smooth and lustrous4 ,the surface of a wool fibre is not evenly serrated1 which accounts for the felting1 or interlocking1 quality4 ,wool in which there is insufficient moisture and natural grease 7yolk7 frequently becomes felted at the ends4 ,such wool is variously referred to as cotted1 cotty1 or brashy4 ,the tensile strength of a wool fibre is low1 its elasticity high4 ,the length of the fibre varies from one to over ten inches1 and the diameter from 4#jjah to 4#jjd inches4 ,the better a wool the less like it is to a hair4 ,generally speaking1 the finer the wool1 the shorter the fibre1 but length alone would not indicate the grade4 ,pure merino and high cross-bred wools have a close wave1 known as crimp1 which increases the elasticity and is therefore desirable from a spinning standpoint4 ,the chemical composition of wool is3 carbon #ej1 hydrogen #g1 nitrogen #ah1 oxygen #bb1 and sulphur #c4 ,it is soluble in alkalies1 and at a temperature of #acj ,c4 will reduce to powder4 ,sidenote3 ,shrinkage ,wool before it is scoured contains a large quantity of yolk1 or natural grease1 and also1 besides dust and vegetable matter1 a considerable amount of dried perspiration1 or suint4 ,the amount of weight lost through the removal of these substances when the wool is scoured is termed shrinkage4 ,it will be readily appreciated that this is a very important factor in connection with the purchase of grease wool4 ,the percentage of shrinkage varies from #bj to #hj4 ,nevertheless a good buyer will often be able to estimate within one or two per cent4 ,the factors to be considered in this connection are the breed1 the soil1 the climate1 and the care with which the sheep are raised1 as well as the diligence with which the fleeces are put up4 ,fine wools always shrink more heavily than coarse2 and pulled wools1 since they are washed and brushed during the process1 show a very much lower shrinkage than fleece wools4 ,the average shrinkage of ,united ,states wools is about #ee4 ,fine domestics shrink about #fj4 ,lower grades about #de4 ,fine territory wools about #fe2 lower grades about #ee4 ,pulled wool averages about #bg4 ,fine ,australian wools average #di1 for1 although they are the finest1 the fleeces contain less dirt4 ,cape wools about #fb1 and ,south ,american about #ea4 ,sidenote3 ,qualities ,desired ,the qualities looked for in wool are roughly six1 and they vary according to the purpose for which the wool is to be used4 #a4 ,it must be fine enough to spin the required number of counts4 #b4 ,it must be strong enough to withstand strain of manufacture4 #c4 ,it must have the proper staple 7length74 #d4 ,it must be of a certain softness or hardness4 #e4 ,it must have the proper felting qualities if the material is to be fulled4 #f4 ,it must either scour white1 or else have sufficient lustre to take dyes4 ,sidenote3 ,clothing and ,combing ,as we take up the manufacture of worsted and woolen yarns we shall see how these qualifications play a different part in the two processes4 ,at the outset the only important difference we are concerned with is staple length4 ,generally speaking1 wools under two inches are too short to be combed and are classed as clothing wools4 ,clothing wools are used for woolens1 combing wools for worsteds4 ,this applies only to wools of fine fibre4 ,the mere fact that a wool has long staple length does not make it a combing wool4 ,as a rule1 the coarser the wool the longer its staple1 and the longest wools are the exceedingly coarse 8common0 or 8braid0 wools1 which can only be used for carpet manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,sorting ,wool ,in grading and sorting1 practically the only guide is the fineness of the individual fibre4 ,the other qualifications just enumerated have a very important bearing on what the wool can be used for1 but they have very little to do with its classification by grades4 ,sidenote3 ,classifications ,fleece wools are graded by two systems1 one by bloods1 the other by counts spun4 7,this means the number of hanks of #efj yards each to a pound of yarn47 ,domestic and foreign wools are usually graded by bloods4 ,u4 ,s4 ,territory wools are graded a little differently1 as per second column below1 and pulled wool is only roughly graded into four classes 7third column74 ,the blood classifications originated from the breeding of the sheep1 but1 as a matter of fact they have become arbitrary terms denoting a certain degree of fineness4 ,the same fleece may1 and frequently does1 contain 1 1 and blood wool4 ,,comparative ,,grades ,u4 ,s4 ,u4 ,s4 ,pulled ,u4 ,s4 ,counts ,foreign ,domestic ,territory ,spun ,counts4 ,full blood 7,,xx7 ,fine ,,aa #fjs #ff-gds 0 7,x7 #ejs #fj-ffs 0 ,a #djs #ed-fjs 0 ,b #cfs #dh-eds 0 ,b #cbs #dd-dhs ,low ,low ,c #bjs #dj-dds ,common ,common ,c #afs #cf-djs ,braid ,braid ,c #abs #cb-cfs ,sidenote3 ,grading ,sidenote3 ,skirting ,sidenote3 ,sorting ,when a bag of domestic wool is opened the fleeces are taken out one by one and put into baskets according to the grades in the first column4 ,the grader simply decides what the majority of the fleece is and puts it into that class4 ,when he has filled a basket with1 let us say1 half-blood fleeces1 this basket is given to a sorter4 ,he takes each fleece1 shakes it out1 and1 first of all1 skirts it4 ,then he separates it into the various sorts it contains4 ,fleeces graded as half-blood will probably sort into mostly half1 some fine 7full-blood71 and a considerable quantity of three-eighths blood4 ,the best wool comes off the shoulders1 then the sides1 then the back1 then the thighs1 and finally the britch and belly4 ,usually a fleece will not contain more than three sorts4 ,if this were a bag of ,australian1 ,south ,american1 or ,cape wool1 the fleeces would in all probability have been bagged according to grades1 so that only the sorting operation would have to be performed by the merchant or the mill4 ,when the wool has been sorted it is put into bins1 and may now be said to be ready for the first of the manufacturing processes for which it is destined4 ,sorting is sometimes done by the merchants1 but more frequently by the manufacturers4 ,sidenote3 ,off-sorts ,kempy or cotted pieces1 tags1 stained or painty wool1 etc41 are called off-sorts1 and these are put through a number of processes for the purpose of reclaiming as much of the wool as possible4 ,illustration3 ,scouring ,machine ,,chapter ,,ii ,,worsted ,,manufacture #a4 ,,scouring ,when the wool has been graded it is sold either to worsted manufacturers or to makers of woolen goods4 ,the two industries are entirely distinct and separate4 ,the first cog in the worsted machine is the wool comber1 or top-maker4 ,sometimes he buys assorted grades1 known as matchings1 from a wool merchant2 sometimes he buys and sorts his own wool2 but most frequently he sorts and combs the wool on a commission basis4 ,many of the big worsted mills do their own sorting and combing4 ,sidenote3 ,blending ,tops are usually made from blends of various kinds of wool1 and this blending is done after sorting1 before the wool is scoured4 ,sidenote3 ,scouring ,scouring is nothing more or less than a glorified washing4 ,a machine closely akin to a gigantic laundry machine removes first the yolk or grease in an alkaline solution1 and then rinses out the dirt and suint in a series of soap and water baths4 ,the last bath is pure water1 and from this the wool is taken on a belt through the drier4 ,from the drier it is usually blown through tubes to the carding room4 ,illustration3 ,worsted carding ,machine ,approximately #bj of the moisture is allowed to remain in the wool in order to facilitate subsequent processes4 ,if the wool is still warm it is easier to card4 #b4 ,,carding ,sidenote3 ,opens ,fibres ,the purpose of the carding operation is to open out the fibres in the wool4 ,originally1 carding was done by hand with two leather surfaces1 much like butter pats1 the inner faces of which were studded with wire nails4 ,between these two surfaces the wool was rubbed until all the fibres were opened out4 ,in woolen manufacture carding is more violent and seeks to lay the fibres in all directions4 ,worsted carding aims to separate the fibres1 but also to keep them as closely parallel as possible4 ,illustration3 ,woolen card4 ,feed end ,illustration3 ,woolen card4 ,condenser end ,illustration3 ,back ,washing ,sidenote3 ,the ,card ,the carding machine is somewhat similar to that used for cotton 7see page #bb74 ,the wool is automatically fed between the feed rollers1 which revolve in opposite directions and are armed with heavy teeth4 ,from the feed a roller known as the licker-in starts the wool on its course over a number of cylinders1 each of which is surrounded by several toothed rollers known as workers4 ,each worker has a smaller companion roller1 revolving at a higher speed1 which derives its name of stripper from the fact that its function is to take the wool off the worker and deliver it to the next worker4 ,the last roller1 known as the fancy1 raises the wool off the cylinder to be caught by the doffer4 ,the doffing-comb lifts the wool in a filmy sheet of fibres1 which is condensed into a thick untwisted rope by passing through a funnel on to the balling-head4 ,this rope1 which is about an inch and a half in diameter1 is known as a sliver4 ,a certain length of it is automatically rolled into balls and these are taken into the back-wash room4 ,from a loose unrelated mass the wool has now been transformed into a continuous strand of more or less uniform diameter4 ,illustration3 ,gilling before combing #c4 ,,backwashing ,,and ,,gilling ,a back-wash machine takes several of the carded slivers and combines them into one4 ,the slivers pass through several baths which rinse them thoroughly and are then slowly drawn through a drier4 ,the process is quite similar to scouring1 except that it is very much less violent4 ,sidenote3 ,combining and ,drawing ,slivers ,as the slivers come out of the drier they are fed through a number of gill boxes4 ,the gill box is the first of a long series of drawing operations4 ,in this1 and all the following stages of open drawing1 there are always several slivers being combined into one and drawn out until the resulting sliver has about the same or a smaller diameter than the ones fed into the machine4 ,the principle of the gill box is quite simple4 ,several slivers are fed in between rollers revolving at a comparatively low rate of speed4 ,as they pass through they are flattened out over what is known as a faller4 ,this is armed with very fine close wire teeth which come up through the fibres and the draft is imparted when the wool is taken off the faller by a final pair of rollers which are revolving considerably faster4 ,the sheet of wool which emerges from these rollers is again passed through a funnel and thereby condensed once more into a sliver4 ,this operation is repeated from two to four times1 according to the quality of the top desired1 and the methods employed by the particular mill4 ,illustration3 ,gilling the top ,where very coarse long fibred wool is to be worked there is no carding1 and the wool is prepared by straightening the fibres into a sliver through a series of gill-boxes4 ,at some point during the gilling process a slight amount of oil is usually dropped onto the sliver1 as this facilitates combing4 #d4 ,,combing ,sidenote3 ,removes ,short ,fibres ,the next operation1 namely that of combing1 is again simple when viewed as the primitive manufacturing process4 ,the old comber would take a short length of sliver1 hang it on a nail by tying one end together and then proceed to comb out the short fibres much as one may comb out the dead short hairs from a dog's coat4 ,combing is simply the removal from the sliver of the short fibres which would not spin properly4 ,these short fibres are known as noils and are the waste product of top-making4 ,the top is a continuous untwisted strand of long wool fibres made parallel by the comb4 7,by long fibres we mean fibres which are relatively long4 ,some tops consist of fibres less than an inch and a half in length4 ,in this case1 which is very infrequent1 the noil would be even shorter47 ,illustration3 ,the ,noble ,comb ,sidenote3 ,noils ,noils are sold either to woolen or knitting mills direct by the top-maker1 or else to a merchant who disposes of them4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,noble ,comb ,the ,noble circular comb is the most generally used combing machine4 ,other types are the ,lister1 the ,holden1 and the ,heilmann4 ,the ,noble comb is a compact circular structure standing at a height of about three feet from the floor1 with a steam box underneath it4 7,heat greatly facilitates the process47 ,there are two smaller circles inside the main circumference which are tangent to the outer circle at opposite points of its diameter4 ,all rotate in the same direction4 ,seventy-two slivers are rolled up in creels on the outside of the main circle and are automatically fed on to the tangental points4 ,a dabbing brush pushes the slivers down between the points of the two circles4 ,as the circles draw apart the long fibres are left protruding from the inner edge of the outer circle and the outer edge of the inner circles4 ,they travel thus until they are gripped by vertical rollers set to catch them4 ,after passing the rollers the wool is lifted off the pins of the circles by knives4 ,the four ribbons of combed fibres 7two from the outer and one from each of the inner circles7 are condensed into a single beautiful even band which coils itself softly into a revolving can4 ,what remains is the waste or noil4 ,sidenote3 ,gilling the ,top ,the top1 as it comes from the comb1 is again put through a series of several gill boxes with the object of further drawing it out4 ,once again several slivers are combined into one in each process4 ,at the end of this gilling the top is coiled in balls and allowed to rest4 ,we have now reduced the wool to its real worsted basis4 ,the noils have been taken out1 and the balls of top are ready to be sent to the spinner to be spun into worsted yarn4 #e4 ,,spinning ,sidenote3 ,drawing ,the first processes in a spinning mill very closely approximate the last operations in the combing plant4 ,the tops are usually gilled several times before weighing1 and then are put through several drawing machines in which1 as heretofore1 several slivers are condensed into one4 ,in the last of these machines there are no fallers1 the entire process consisting of two sets of rollers revolving at different speed4 ,each operation results in a slightly finer sliver1 and the number of machines through which the material is drawn is determined by the fineness of the yarn desired4 ,sidenote3 ,french ,sidenote3 ,english ,the last of the drawing processes is the so-called roving box1 which1 in most cases is a cone-drawing process4 ,there is a difference here between ,french spinning and ,english spinning4 ,according to the ,french system1 which is employed in this country only for very soft fine yarns1 no twist is given to the sliver until the actual spinning begins2 and the spinning is then usually done on mules1 which in this country are rarely used in the manufacture of worsted yarn4 ,we shall discuss these machines when we come to woolens4 ,according to the most common procedure in this country1 the roving box not only draws1 but imparts a certain amount of twist to the yarn4 ,this is done by winding the yarn from horizontal spools on to vertical spindles4 ,these spindles are set on long frames1 similar to spinning frames1 one frame containing about #bjj spindles4 ,the yarn is guided on the bobbin by an arm1 known as the flyer1 which draws the bobbin around after it4 ,sidenote3 ,spinning ,there is very little difference between this last drawing operation and the actual spinning which immediately succeeds it4 ,in both cases the yarn is unwound from horizontal spools placed at the top of the frame through the inevitable two rollers going at different speeds1 and guided on to the revolving spindle4 ,since the spindle revolves vertically the yarn is twisted4 ,the amount of twist is regulated1 as is also the amount of tension1 and these two factors1 together with the quality of the material1 determine the quality of the yarn4 ,worsted yarn is graded according to the number of counts1 which1 as we have seen1 is the number of hanks of #efj yards that make a pound avoirdupois4 ,illustration3 ,drawing ,sidenote3 ,flyer ,sidenote3 ,cap ,sidenote3 ,ring ,roughly speaking1 there are three modern methods of spinning1 namely1 the flyer1 cap1 and ring frames4 ,all of them are derived from ,arkwright's original water throstle1 and1 if we want to go further back1 from the old-fashioned spinning wheel4 ,the chief difference between the three types lies in the method of driving the spindle and guiding the yarn on to the bobbin4 ,the flyer arm we have described briefly above4 ,in the cap system1 the bobbin is moved up and down in a fixed metal cap1 something like the front end of a two-inch shell-casing1 and this method of guiding the yarn has the advantage that1 because of its lower vibration1 the spindles may be driven faster4 ,it also causes considerably more friction on the yarn4 ,for worsted spinning it is probably the most commonly employed4 ,ring spinning1 the most frequently used for cotton1 and described briefly on page #bh1 is very similar 7to the layman7 except that the spindle revolves in a metal sleeve1 and that the yarn is guided by a metal ring with a traveller1 instead of by the end of the cap4 ,illustration3 ,reducing ,sidenote3 ,twisting ,what follows now is merely an auxiliary process of spinning4 ,the yarn has been completed1 but it is rarely used for weaving1 as it comes off the spindle4 ,several strands are usually twisted together1 both to make it stronger and to give various effects of body and color4 ,the number of strands in a yarn are designated as plys4 ,yarn consisting of two strands is called two-ply1 three strands are three-ply1 and so on4 ,yarns of two or more colors1 or yarns of varying counts1 are frequently twisted together4 ,it is possible also to twist worsted and cotton yarns4 ,illustration3 ,cap spinning ,sidenote3 ,spindlage ,twisting is done in a manner similar to spinning4 ,a worsted spinning mill usually has about a third as many twisting spindles as spinning spindles1 but it is important to remember that when speaking of a mill's capacity in terms of spindles1 it is only the spinning spindles that are counted4 ,sidenote3 ,winding or ,skeining ,after the twisting is completed the finished yarn is wound on small spools1 known as cheesers1 to be weighed4 ,next it is wound on large spools in such a way that the large spool holds the contents of from ten to twenty cheesers1 each wound in an adjacent space at the same time4 ,some of the yarn is shipped to weaving mills on these large spools2 and some of it is taken off them and skeined4 ,sidenote3 ,waste ,we are now ready to weave the cloth1 but there are a considerable number of very interesting details which we have been forced to omit4 ,all the processes we have discussed produce a certain amount of waste material4 ,the combing waste1 known as noils1 is the largest by-product of the worsted industry1 but there is also a considerable amount of yarn waste produced in the various drawing and spinning operations4 ,practically all of this material finds its way back1 in one form or another1 into the woolen industry4 ,the subject of reclaiming waste is in itself so comprehensive that we can do no more than touch upon it here4 #f4 ,,dyeing ,sidenote3 ,wool and ,piece and ,double ,dyeing ,some yarns are dyed after they have been spun4 ,in most cases1 however1 woolen yarns receive their color after the wool is scoured and before it goes into the carding machine4 ,in worsted manufacture the common procedure is to dye the top after it has been combed4 ,in this way a uniform color is obtained1 whereas it is exceedingly difficult to obtain the same color from two vats in piece-dyeing4 ,some materials are both wool and piece-dyed1 the second dye being given to the cloth4 ,this is done in cases where a peculiarly fast color is desired1 or where the cloth contains separate materials such as wool and cotton4 ,the operation of the loom has already been described in connection with the manufacture of cotton1 but the preparatory processes1 although somewhat similar1 vary considerably because of the difference in the nature of the materials4 ,in worsted manufacture the work which has to be done before the loom can begin to operate is usually referred to as loom-mounting1 and consists of five stages4 ,sidenote3 ,warping #a4 ,warping is the arranging of the warp threads in the order necessary to produce the desired cloth4 ,this was formerly1 and still is to a great extent1 done entirely by hand on a sort of rack known as the woof4 ,in the larger mills1 however1 warping is now done either on a sectional warping machine or on the warping mill4 ,both these devices are only partly automatic1 and require highly-skilled labor4 ,sidenote3 ,sizing #b4 ,the mechanical structure of woolen or worsted yarns necessitates the application of some glutinous substance to their surfaces before subjecting them to the weaving process4 ,no matter how even the worsted yarn1 a microscopic examination would show certain fibres protruding from the surface4 ,sizing has the effect of smoothing the surface of the yarn1 and at the same time distributing more evenly the strain of weaving4 ,the sizing machine is rather like the back-washer used in the manufacturing of worsted yarn4 ,the warp is run through the sizing bath and then compressed between rollers1 after which it is dried by steam or fan4 ,sidenote3 ,beaming #c4 ,beaming is the term applied to winding the warp upon the beam of the loom4 7,the beam is the roller from which the warp threads are unwound as the weaving progresses47 ,in order to keep the threads in their proper position an instrument known as a raddle is employed1 and the raddling process is one which requires considerable care4 ,illustration3 ,drawing in the warp threads ,sidenote3 ,healding #d4 ,the next step1 healding1 is the same as that described on page #cd and enables the warp threads to be lifted in sections in order that the shuttle may pass under some and over others4 ,from the original weave of lifting alternate threads1 a great many complicated designs have been evolved1 which necessitate the lifting of the warp threads in many small series4 ,in the elementary weave where there are only two groups1 this work is done by heald-wires which raise the odd and depress the even threads1 thus forming a ,v1 known as the shed1 through which the shuttle may pass4 ,as the design becomes more intricate the healding process becomes more complicated1 and the number of heald shafts increases4 ,sidenote3 ,sleying #e4 ,sleying1 or reeding1 is the final preparatory process1 and has the object of keeping the warp threads the proper distance apart during weaving4 ,the sley is really nothing more than a fine comb with a strip across the ends of the teeth4 ,the warp threads are passed between the wires 7reeds7 of the sley and are so compelled to keep their proper position4 ,illustration3 ,weaving ,the sley is attached to the batten1 or fly1 and as in the cotton loom performs the additional function of driving home each weft thread after the shuttle has passed4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,power ,loom ,once these processes have been completed the remainder is almost entirely automatic4 ,the shuttle flies back and forth without aid4 ,the proper warp threads are raised and lowered to let it pass1 and after each traverse1 or pick1 the batten automatically drives home the weft thread1 into the growing stretch of cloth that is winding itself up on to the beam at one end1 while the beam at the other end delivers the parallel warp threads4 ,the average worsted loom makes about #ajj picks per minute1 which is only about half as fast as the calico loom1 the reason being the lower tensile strength of the yarn4 #h4 ,,worsted ,,finishing ,while1 as we shall see1 finishing in the woolen industry is a very important stage of manufacture1 worsted materials are practically unchanged after they come out of the loom4 ,there is sometimes a certain amount of fulling and raising and cropping1 but the net result does not in any way alter the cloth1 except perhaps to impart a little smoother finish4 ,we shall discuss finishing in a little more detail when we come to the last stage of woolen manufacture4 ,our worsted cloth is now finished1 and we have traced its origin1 somewhat sketchily1 from the back of the sheep up to the point where it takes only a tailor to put it on the back of a man4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,woolen ,,manufacture #a4 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,woolen ,,yarn ,we have taken the worsted industry first1 not because it is necessarily any more important than woolen manufacture1 but because its processes are more complicated1 and therefor1 if we have gained a certain amount of familiarity with them1 we are able to take up the sister industry in a more abbreviated manner4 ,although1 at the present time1 the demand for worsted materials is a great deal heavier than the demand for woolens1 the woolen industry is by far the older of the two1 and may rightfully claim that the worsted branch is really an off-shoot of its tree4 ,moreover1 while broadcloth and similar material no longer enjoy their erstwhile popularity1 there is still a tremendous demand for other products of the woolen industry such as blankets1 flannels1 overcoatings1 etc4 ,and we must bear in mind that most of the cheaper clothing materials are woolens4 ,sidenote3 ,raw ,material ,in the sorting of wool we saw that the shorter staples were classed as clothing wools4 ,to these must be added the noils from worsted combing1 yarn waste1 and wool reclaimed from off-sorts1 as well as wool extract made from rags1 before we have the raw material for the woolen industry4 ,sidenote3 ,scouring ,whereas we found that combing wool had to be left in the grease until it could be carded immediately after scouring1 the maker of woolen yarn will buy wool that has been scoured months before4 ,most of the wool that is scoured by or near the growers finds its way into the woolen industry for this reason4 ,the scouring given to clothing wool varies only in that it is more violent than that given to combing wool1 and in that it is frequently augmented by carbonization to remove vegetable matter4 ,illustration3 ,mule ,spinning ,sidenote3 ,blending ,the first process after scouring is blending4 ,when the desired mixture of various grades1 kinds1 and colors of wool1 wool extract1 or cotton has been effected1 the resulting heterogeneous mass is put through the first of several carding processes4 ,sidenote3 ,fibres not parallel as in ,worsted ,from now on the desire of the woolen yarn manufacturer is diametrically opposed to that of the worsted comber4 ,he wants to open out the fibres1 but he wants them to lie in all directions4 ,he does not want uniformity4 ,he wants just the opposite4 ,his yarn must have a certain amount of strength1 but it must have1 first of all1 felting properties1 so that when the cloth is finished the various threads will merge and interlock4 ,as might be expected1 therefore1 the carding process is very much more violent4 ,sidenote3 ,carding ,sidenote3 ,condenser ,the blend is first put through a fearnought which might be described briefly as the most pitiless member of the card family4 ,it is also known as a tenter-hook-willy1 from the reversed position of its teeth4 ,from this machine the wool goes through the card proper1 which is similar to the worsted card except that the rollers go in opposite directions1 instead of in the same directions4 ,here1 again1 the doffer lifts the wool off in a continuous filmy sheet and delivers it to the condenser4 ,the sheet is not simply drawn through a funnel into a single thick sliver1 but is forced between rollers into two leather rubbing aprons which by pressure and friction reduce it to a series of small soft flabby slivers1 having just enough adhesiveness to permit of mule spinning4 ,illustration3 ,burling and mending ,the fibres in these slivers may be of all lengths and degrees of fineness1 and they lie in all directions4 ,there are now no elaborate drawing or combing processes4 ,all that remains to be done before we have a weavable woolen yarn is a certain amount of twisting and attenuation4 ,both these results are obtained at once in the mule4 ,sidenote3 ,mule ,spinning ,in a woolen mule the spools of sliver are placed in a fixed frame1 and the sliver passes between a pair of rollers to the spindles4 ,these stand1 slightly inclined backwards1 in a long row upon the movable carriage4 ,at first the spindle tips are close to the rollers4 ,the sliver is paid out1 and at the same time the carriage bearing the revolving spindles retreats4 ,during this time no yarn is wound on the bobbins1 but the slivers are being twisted4 ,then the rollers cease to pay out sliver1 the carriage moves out a little further1 and the spindles rotate faster1 so that the yarn is being twisted and stretched4 ,when sufficient twist has been imparted the carriage moves back again and the spindles wind up the twisted yarn on to the bobbins4 ,this1 briefly1 is the operation of the mule4 ,there are a great many intricate devices in this machine which deserve attention1 but which hardly fall within our scope4 ,all that remains now is to wind the yarn on spools1 or skein it1 before it is ready for the weaver4 #b4 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,woolen ,,cloth ,sidenote3 ,weaving ,there are many differences between weaving worsteds and woolens1 but for our purposes we may consider the process the same1 as in a general way it is4 ,some cloths are woven with a cotton warp and a woolen yarn filling1 the warp being carefully concealed4 ,woolen cloths are more frequently woven with a backing than worsteds4 ,this means that either there is a double warp1 a double weft1 or both4 ,the object of backing is usually to add strength and warmth to the material1 and the lower side is therefore often woven of coarser yarn4 ,in some cases1 however1 notably in travelling rugs1 the backing may be just as elaborate as the face1 and this necessitates a rather intricate mounting process4 ,sidenote3 ,carpets ,carpet weaving is one of the large branches of the woolen industry1 and for this purpose the coarsest and longest fibred wools 7common1 braid1 and carpet wools7 are usually employed4 ,these wools readily lend themselves to the manufacture of a coarse thick yarn1 which in turn produces a thick1 durable material4 ,the thickness of a carpet is known as the pile4 ,sidenote3 ,finishing ,important in ,woolens ,whereas we saw that the worsted cloth was practically finished when it left the loom1 this is not the case with woolens4 ,oftentimes it would tax an expert to identify the finished goods with the loose and altogether different material produced by the weaver4 ,some fine woolens1 it is true1 are scarcely altered more than worsteds1 but in most cases the finishing operations are in this industry a major rather than a subsidiary stage of manufacture4 ,the reader may have been puzzled at the divergent lines along which woolen and worsted yarns are manufactured1 and at a loss to account for the reasons4 ,the cause is precisely this1 that the worsted manufacturer aims to produce a cloth that is completed when woven1 while the woolen maker wants his loom to turn out a material that will readily adopt a great variety of finishes4 ,sidenote3 ,burling ,the first finishing operation1 which applies also to worsteds1 is the examination of the piece for imperfections and the removing of them by hand4 ,the piece is then scoured to get rid of dirt1 and1 where the finish is complicated1 this may be repeated several times4 ,illustration3 ,fulling ,sidenote3 ,fulling ,fulling1 the next and very important process1 consists in passing the material through closed or partially enclosed boxes1 in which the cloth is run through soap solutions and then forced through rollers4 ,the result of fulling is to shrink the material and give more body to it4 ,it is chiefly in order to be able to do this that the maker of woolens wants the fibres in his yarn to lie criss-cross1 so that in the fulling mill their serrated edges will felt and interlock with each other4 ,the amount of fulling done depends upon the shrinkage desired4 ,it is possible to reduce the size of the cloth by half in this process4 ,some worsteds are slightly fulled1 but in their case it simply serves to add a little body to the cloth1 without in any way sacrificing the design of the weaving4 ,long before the invention of even the earliest automatic textile machinery there were great numbers of water-driven fulling mills1 in which the woolen cloth was pounded in fuller's earth by wooden hammers4 ,in those days the cloth was felted into a stiff thick mass which would resist wear almost indefinitely1 but which would hardly adapt itself to the requirements of modern tailoring4 ,illustration3 ,steaming ,sidenote3 ,raising ,sidenote3 ,cropping ,sidenote3 ,pressing ,the fulled piece is next made to revolve on a large drum set with teazle-heads4 ,the object of this procedure is to open out the fibres1 and the process is known as raising4 ,in worsteds and fancy woolens1 such as trouserings1 raising is really nothing more than the brushing up of the loose fibres so that they may be cropped off1 much as grass is cut on a lawn4 ,this will of course have the effect of showing up the weave very plainly4 ,in most woolens1 however1 the cloth is raised wet1 and the teazle motion is more violent1 so that the entire surface is covered with a thick nap of brushed up fibres which entirely conceal the weave4 ,this is often very desirable where coarse backing threads are to be hidden1 or where1 for other reasons1 a thick nap is desired1 as for instance in rough overcoatings4 ,there may be several raisings and croppings1 between which the material is boiled and pressed1 all depending on the character of the face that is desired4 ,in some cloths the finishing processes are exceedingly complicated1 particularly where a smooth finish such as doeskin is sought4 ,the variety of finishes is infinite and new ones are constantly being invented1 many of which are closely guarded trade secrets4 ,in most cases pressing completes the process4 ,illustration3 ,cropping ,we have now followed both the combing and the clothing wools through the process of manufacture into worsted and woolen yarns and cloths4 ,again1 let us emphasize that the relative amount of space devoted here to the two industries is governed1 not by their comparative importance1 but by what appeared to be the most concise method of approach4 ,many details1 which loom up as tremendous problems to the manufacturer1 have necessarily been treated here with scant respect1 and others have not even been mentioned4 #c4 ,,mohair ,,and ,,alpaca ,sidenote3 ,mohair ,there are two materials upon which we have not touched at all1 although they are generally included in wool manufacture4 ,mohair is the hair of the ,angora goat1 and has many characteristics of both hair and ,mohair wool4 ,these animals are native to ,asia ,minor1 but are now extensively raised in other parts of the world1 notably in ,africa and in this country4 ,the hair averages about four inches in length1 although it frequently grows much longer1 is very smooth and fine1 has considerable tensile strength1 low elasticity1 and practically no felting property4 ,it is used primarily in the manufacture of plush1 such as is used in railroad carriages1 and makes very durable material4 ,it is also woven into ,palm ,beach cloth1 or mixed with worsted or cotton yarns in such fabrics as automobile tops4 ,sidenote3 ,alpaca ,alpaca is a similar fibre1 obtained from an animal native to ,bolivia and ,peru4 ,the fibre is finer than mohair1 and a little more like wool4 ,it comes in three natural colors2 white1 brown1 and black1 all of which are found on the same fleece4 ,alpaca is both light and soft1 and therefore lends itself admirably to the manufacture of thin linings4 #d4 ,,knitting ,,and ,,felt ,,manufacture ,sidenote3 ,stockinette ,frame ,whereas most wool yarn is woven into cloth1 there is also the knitting process1 in which the individual threads are interlaced into a regular fabric without warp and weft structure4 ,the work is performed on a sort of loom1 called the stockinette frame1 upon which the yarns are arranged in parallel order and uniform distances apart4 ,the actual knitting closely resembles hand knitting1 and is done entirely by automatic mechanism4 ,a machine of this sort is capable of turning out a great length of material in a short time1 and the fabric has the fine ribbed character seen in ordinary knitted goods4 ,the article is soft1 full1 and elastic1 but lacks the strength and firmness of woven fabrics4 ,stockinette cloths1 sweaters1 some underwear1 and hosiery are products of the knitting machine1 and the knitting mills are important consumers of noils and low-grade wools4 ,sidenote3 ,felt ,besides being made into yarn1 and woven or knit into goods1 wool is also compressed into felts of various kinds4 ,space unfortunately is lacking for the consideration of this subject here1 although a considerable quantity of wool goes into felt manufacture4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,economic ,,aspect #a4 ,,financial ,,risks ,bearing in mind the industrial structure we have just outlined1 it might be well for us to glance briefly at its financial scaffolding4 ,from the banker's point of view there are many features which are distinctive of the wool trade1 and which exercise an important bearing upon the judgment of a credit risk4 ,sidenote3 ,sheep ,banks ,sidenote3 ,sheep ,risks ,to begin with the grower1 we find here that in many instances the large raisers of sheep have built up their own banks4 ,in ,texas1 for instance1 there are a considerable number of banks whose chief business consists in financing the wool clips of their sections4 ,on the other extreme we have the small grower of the ,east1 who is frequently at the mercy of the local store-keeper4 ,where wool growing is practised on a large scale in this country the tendency is more and more to reduce the business to a scientifically standardized scale1 in such a manner as is prevalent in ,australia4 ,the more this is done the more independent the grower becomes1 and the easier it is for a bank to determine the strength of the individual risk4 ,the sheep raiser has of course one primary asset1 his flocks2 and if he is compelled to borrow1 the security behind his note rests upon his sheep4 ,in making a loan to a sheep man a bank has to consider not only the market value of the animals1 but the conditions under which they are being raised4 ,sheep are affected by droughts1 for instance1 and many flocks have been ravaged by predatory animals1 or decimated by disease4 ,any one of these contingencies may at any moment destroy or depreciate the bank's collateral1 and for this reason borrowing of this sort is confined very largely to banks situated in sheep-growing sections which specialize in this form of loan4 ,sidenote3 ,grower's ,cost ,it would be of great interest to figure the average cost of production per pound of wool to the grower1 but1 with the varying conditions encountered in different parts of the country and with sundry breeds1 an accurate estimate can hardly be arrived at4 ,even the cost of shearing is variously figured from ten to nearly thirty cents4 ,generally speaking1 however1 the grower needs very little financial assistance1 because he is able to sell his entire clip for cash4 ,the buyers representing merchants--or in a few cases1 mills--are prepared to pay cash for their wool1 and in some cases where they feel sure of a rising market1 often go so far as to buy the wool on the sheep's back before it is shorn4 ,provided the grower knows something about wool1 and the existing demand1 there is no reason why1 from the proceeds of one clip1 he should not be able to meet his costs up to the time of the next shearing4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,merchant ,the merchant is up against a very different proposition4 ,as we have seen1 he buys for cash1 and not only sells on credit1 but carries a large proportion of what he buys for several months1 before he can dispose of it4 ,there are so many kinds of wool merchants that it is almost impossible to make any general observations4 ,one merchant1 for example1 may specialize entirely in domestic wools2 in that case he would do all his buying in the spring months and would gradually dispose of his material1 having first graded it1 during the remainder of the year4 ,another house might do the bulk of its business in ,south ,american wools1 which would mean a fall purchasing season4 ,still another would handle both domestic and ,south ,american1 and a fourth might import from all parts of the world1 so that buying and selling would be going on continuously and at the same time throughout the year4 ,the credit requirements of the first two houses would be an easier demand upon the bank than those of the latter1 but in all cases the judging of the risk involves certain primary considerations1 each of which really necessitates the close study of the individual case4 ,sidenote3 ,credit ,risks ,a wool merchant's business is largely based on his estimate of the future4 ,there are no 8future0 markets for wool as there are for cotton and silk1 and the wool dealer cannot therefore protect himself by hedging4 ,were it not for the fact that he assumes a risk which neither the grower nor1 in most cases1 the manufacturer is able to take1 he could not maintain his position as the middleman4 ,the merchant's buyer must1 as we have seen1 be able to judge the amount of shrinkage within a very small fraction1 he must know the demand for each quality of wool so that he may be sure not to pay more than he can sell for1 and1 what is more1 he must be able to forecast the future with a certain amount of accuracy in order to make his profit4 ,furthermore1 the merchant must be constantly on his guard against doing more business than his capital warrants1 while at the same time1 unless he makes every dollar work1 his business will in normal times fail to show him a profit4 ,sidenote3 ,merchant ,manufacturers ,some wool dealers have become considerably more than middlemen1 and have gone quite extensively into the first stages of manufacture4 ,this is particularly true of some of the large houses which of recent years have established top manufacturing departments1 and which therefore sell a large proportion of their goods not as raw wool but as tops and noil4 ,sidenote3 ,brokers ,although the dealers do the bulk of the commission work in consignment sales1 there are a great number of brokers whose function is primarily the buying and selling for account of others4 ,these houses usually operate with a limited capital1 and are not extensive seekers of credit4 ,sidenote3 ,mills ,so far as the manufacturers1 or mills of various sorts1 are concerned1 there is one striking difference about the paper of woolen and worsted mills as against cotton mill notes which appear in the open market2 cotton mill paper1 except in the case of the strongest mills1 usually bears the endorsement of the commission house which sells the mill's product1 but this is not as a rule the case with woolen and worsted mill paper4 ,the reason is that a large number of the wool manufacturing establishments sell direct to wholesalers and jobbers1 and have no close affiliation with a selling-house4 ,sidenote3 ,trade ,terms ,trade terms vary a good deal4 ,raw wool is almost invariably sold for cash by the grower4 ,dealers make various terms to mills1 the most usual being #a ten days1 sixty days net4 ,the terms on which mills sell to jobbers also have a wide range2 some sell thirty days net1 some #aj thirty days1 others #g four months4 #b4 ,,demand ,,and ,,supply ,sheep raising is1 as we have seen1 chiefly carried on on the borderlines of civilization4 ,as civilized life encroaches upon the pasture lands the flocks are driven gradually further and further into hitherto uninhabited regions4 ,the population of the world is steadily increasing1 and the available grazing acres are constantly being reduced as the world becomes more thickly populated4 ,also1 as the population increases1 the demand for clothing and food increases1 so that1 on the face of it1 it would seem that the production of wool would decrease while the demand grew constantly larger4 ,in a measure this is true2 but there are several factors which tend to arrest this ,malthusian spectre4 ,in the first place1 there are still vast areas of desert land which can be reclaimed for grazing purposes4 ,in the second place the growing of wool in most countries is as yet practiced on a very crude and consequently uneconomical scale4 ,and1 finally1 the use of shoddy and wool regained from rags1 has only begun to be developed4 ,nor is it true that sheep must necessarily be raised in uncultivated regions2 ,england1 with her closely settled soil1 supports about three-fifths as many sheep as the ,united ,states1 on an area of only #aba1cgg square miles1 as against the #c1jbf1ghi square miles in this country4 ,the world's total output of wool in #aiba is estimated at three billion1 three million pounds1 as against two billion1 eight hundred and ninety-four million pounds in #aiah4 ,the production of the #aiba crop was divided as follows3 ,europe #hii million pounds1 ,australia #gah million pounds1 ,south ,america #eib million pounds1 ,asia #cbg million pounds1 ,north ,america #bih million pounds1 ,africa #afi million pounds4 ,the following table will show the amount of wool produced and imported in the ,united ,states between the years of #ahig and #aibb3 ,,wool ,,product ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,sidenote3 ,u4 ,s4 ,product ,year ,pounds #ahig #bei1aec1bea #ahih #bff1gbj1fhd #ahii #bgb1aia1ccj #aijj #bhh1fcf1fba #aija #cjb1ejb1chb #aijb #caf1cda1jcb #aijc #bhg1dej1jjj #aijd #bia1ghc1jcb #aije #bie1dhh1dch #aijf #bih1gae1acj #aijg #bih1bid1gej #aijh #caa1ach1cba #aiji #cbh1aaj1gdi #aiaj #cba1cfb1gej #aiaa #cah1edg1ijj #aiab #cjd1jdc1djj #aiac #bif1age1cjj #aiad #bij1aib1jjj #aiae #bhh1ggg1jjj #aiaf #bhh1dih1fjj #aiag #bhe1egc1jjj #aiah #bii1iba1jjj #aiai #bih1beh1jjj #aibj #bgg1ije1jjj #aiba #bgc1edf1jjj #aibb #bfa1jie1jjj ,,imports ,,of ,,wool ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,states ,sidenote3 ,u4 ,s4 ,imports ,year ,pounds #ahig #cej1heb1jbf #ahih #acb1gie1cjb #ahii #gf1gcf1bji #aijj #aee1iah1dee #aija #ajc1ehc1eje #aijb #aff1egf1iff #aijc #agg1acg1gif #aijd #agc1gdb1hcd #aije #bdi1ace1gdf #aijf #bja1fhh1ffh #aijg #bjc1hdg1ede #aijh #abe1ihj1ebd #aiji #bff1dji1cjd #aiaj #bfc1ibh1bcb #aiaa #acg1fdg1fda #aiab #aic1djj1gac #aiac #aie1bic1bee #aiad #bdg1fdh1hfi #aiae #cjh1jhc1dbi #aiaf #ecd1hbh1jbb #aiag #cgb1cgb1bah #aiah #dbb1dad1ihe #aiai #dad1ejf1hia #aibj #dai1cid1bja #aiba #cad1fbd1bhh #aibb #bej1hdj1geb ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,,and ,,the ,,wool ,,trade ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 opens commercial letters of credit in ,south ,america1 ,australia1 and ,south ,africa for the importation of raw ,,wool4 ,it is particularly well equipped to handle this business because of its intimate connection with ,,the ,,first ,,national ,,bank ,,of ,,boston1 which is not only the leading wool bank of the country1 but also maintains a branch in ,buenos ,aires4 ,,the ,,first ,,national ,,bank ,,of ,,boston is one of the most important stockholders of ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,by reason of its having as shareholders ,messrs4 ,n4 ,m4 ,,rothschild ,,sons and ,,the ,,national ,,provincial ,,bank ,,ltd41 ,,london1 as well as many other correspondents in that city1 ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 is able to finance imports of wool by means of ,sterling credits as well as through its own ,dollar facilities4 ,,part ,,three ,,silk ,by ,,benjamin ,,strong1 ,,jr4 of the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,photographs by courtesy of ,william ,skinner ,sons and the ,keystone ,view ,co4 ,illustration3 ,picking ,mulberry ,leaves ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,raw ,,material #a4 ,,history ,sidenote3 ,early ,sericulture ,silk owes its position as one of the three leading textiles to its qualities of strength1 elasticity and beauty--in which respects it surpasses all other fabrics4 ,its production dates far into antiquity2 for centuries ,china was the seat of the industry1 guarding the secret methods and processes with the utmost care4 ,during the sixth and seventh centuries ,a4 ,d4 the secret began to leak out and sericulture gradually found root in the ,near ,east and the ,levant1 whence it spread to ,greece1 ,italy1 ,france and ,spain4 ,japan also took it up and developed it to a very high point4 ,sidenote3 ,industry in ,america ,attempts to establish the industry in ,america have been generally unsuccessful1 high costs precluding the possibility of competing with foreign conditions4 ,in addition1 the raising of raw silk has been built up principally in countries where there is a system of home industry--a social and industrial system never developed in the ,united ,states4 ,however1 although ,america has never been a factor in the producing of the raw material1 it has risen to a place of utmost importance in the manufacture of the finished textile4 ,immense quantities of raw silk are imported from abroad--principally ,japan1 ,italy1 and ,china--and its conversion into the finished products constitutes a most important part of our industry4 #b4 ,,the ,,silk ,,worm ,sidenote3 ,names and ,types of ,silk ,worms ,the textile fibre known as silk is a filament secreted by one of two general types of moth larv--the cultivated and the wild4 ,the largest proportion is1 of course1 made up of the former1 produced by the worm known as the ,bombyx mori1 while the most common type of wild silk worm is called the ,tussah4 ,the name ,bombyx mori comes from the name of the family to which the silk worm belongs3 the ,bombycidoe 7spinners71 and mori1 from the morus multicaulis or mulberry tree1 on the leaves of which it feeds4 ,the species ,sericaria mori1 or silk worm of the mulberry1 belongs to the generic class of ,lepidoptera or scaly-winged insects4 ,sidenote3 ,bombyx ,mori ,the ,bombyx mori1 with which we are chiefly concerned1 is divided into other groups according to the cycle of reproduction4 ,the annuals reproduce once a year1 and sixty per cent of the silk worms belong to this class4 ,the bivoltines reproduce twice a year1 and the polyvoltines1 several times during the year1 the first crop being the best4 ,illustration3 ,full ,grown ,worms ,the study and development of the various phases through which the silk worm passes1 leading up to its production of the actual filament1 have been a subject of intense research in many parts of the world for a great number of centuries4 ,the present silk worm is nothing more than a highly specialized product of a long train of artificial cultivation4 ,sidenote3 ,stages of ,growth ,the cultivated silk worm passes through four changes in its life of two months1 i4e41 egg1 larva1 chrysalis 7or pupa71 and adult--a cream-white moth which is about one inch in length4 ,the moths live only a few days1 during which mating takes place1 and the female lays several hundred eggs2 after about six months these eggs hatch into worms4 ,the latter pass through what are known as four 8molts10 or shedding of the skin1 before the worm matures1 spins its cocoon1 becomes a chrysalis1 and finally emerges as a moth4 ,this1 very briefly1 is the life history of the silk worm4 #c4 ,,modern ,,sericulture ,sidenote3 ,countries ,producing ,raw ,silk ,silk raising1 or sericulture1 has been a leading industry in ,japan and ,china for a great many years1 while the ,near ,east and such countries as ,france and ,italy have also played a part in the industry--but to a lesser degree4 ,a great deal of this work1 particularly in ,japan and ,china1 has been carried on as a home industry1 but with the growth of modern business methods more and more of the silk raising has come into the hands of companies operating on a highly scientific basis4 ,illustration3 ,cocoonery ,sidenote3 ,japanese ,supervision ,after many years of experience and experimentation the breeding and care of the silk worm has been put on a very technical and closely regulated schedule that minimizes the chances of loss by waste or the spread of disease4 ,in ,japan the industry has been encouraged and fostered by the ,government2 a special division of the administration is devoted to its attention1 and numerous organizations and associations conduct experimental stations for research and study4 ,in fact since about the middle of the #aith century everything possible has been done to foster this highly profitable branch of the country's industry4 ,sidenote3 ,modern ,methods of ,cultivation ,sidenote3 ,hatching the ,eggs ,the merest outline of the modern methods of cultivation will show how highly they have been developed4 ,to begin with1 the eggs are placed on sheets of paper or muslin directly after they are laid4 ,these sheets are hung for a few days in a damp atmosphere1 and then placed in cold storage for about six months1 the period of cold being advantageous for later hatching1 which is done by heat4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the ,worms ,after hatching1 the worm sheds its skin four times4 ,the periods between the 8molts10 or ages1 vary with different silk worms1 but the total process takes about a month4 ,worms of different ages are always kept separate1 being held on large cloth trays which are carried in tiers along the walls of the rearing rooms4 ,the cocooneries where best results are obtained are quiet1 spacious1 well-ventilated rooms where an even temperature can be maintained4 ,each worm is kept absolutely clean and has plenty of room1 as overcrowding brings disease4 ,as a precaution mild fumigation is resorted to from time to time4 ,heavy odors or smoke of any sort are not allowed1 as these are disturbing to the worms4 ,sidenote3 ,feeding the ,worms ,sidenote3 ,the ,mulberry ,tree ,nourishment is1 of course1 a very important item for the growing worms1 and the best form of food for the ,bombyx mori is the leaf of the white mulberry1 which must be young1 fresh and dry1 but never withered4 ,for this purpose mulberry tree raising has become an important by-industry in itself4 ,three varieties are found1 classified according to the time of budding--early1 medium and late4 ,the leaves1 therefore1 can be found in the correct condition for the various stages in the growth of the worm4 ,the late budding trees are cultivated in more abundance1 as the worms are larger at that time and consume more leaves4 ,the soil in which the trees grow is important1 as it has been found that one which is rich in certain minerals provides leaves that keep the worms in better physical condition4 ,a cold winter followed by a warm spring develops the leaves well1 and the condition of the leaves is one of the most important factors in the whole process4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,development ,careful selection of the eggs is another matter of prime importance4 ,when the leaves are almost ready1 the eggs are brought out of cold storage and subjected to heat for about a month before they hatch out4 ,when the worm hatches it is about the diameter of a hair and less than three-fourths of an inch long4 ,it gnaws a hole through the end of the egg from which it issues4 ,nourishment at first is taken by sucking the sap of the leaves1 which are at this stage chopped into fine pieces2 later the leaves are consumed without the necessity of their being chopped up4 ,sidenote3 ,spinning the ,cocoon ,the development is very rapid1 the worms consuming their own weight daily4 ,during this period1 as has been stated1 they shed their skins four times1 and after the fourth molt--about one month after hatching--they have assumed their full size4 ,from then on hunger lessens1 restlessness grows1 and the lifting of the fore part of the body indicates the desire to climb and spin cocoons4 ,for this purpose brush and twigs are provided in the trays1 to which the worms attach themselves and begin the spinning process4 ,the silk thread is expelled in a semi-liquid form from two openings underneath the mouth1 hardening as it comes in contact with the air4 ,the first threads issued are coarse and rough1 having the necessary strength to serve as supports and guys for the cocoon4 ,gradually the worm is enclosed in the cocoon after three days of continuous spinning1 during one of which it is visible and then slowly disappears1 though it can be heard working inside4 ,illustration3 ,worms ,feeding ,the worm wastes away as its silk glands are exhausted1 and becomes a chrysalis1 from which the moth escapes after fifteen to twenty days4 ,illustration3 ,a ,nest of ,cocoons ,sidenote3 ,cocoons for ,breeding ,cocoons to be used for silk manufacture must be submitted to heat soon after they are completed1 in order to kill the chrysalis and prevent it from forcing its way out1 thus breaking the fibres4 ,a certain proportion of the cocoons of each crop1 however1 is allowed to go through the natural process1 for reproductive purposes4 ,there is an active market in these breeding cocoons1 particularly in ,japan and ,china1 and a large quantity are exported annually to ,europe and the ,near ,east4 ,sidenote3 ,construction of the ,silk ,thread ,the female cocoon is oval and the male cocoon is peanut shaped4 ,the silk itself consists of two parts3 fibroin 7the silk fibre7 and sericin 7the gum74 ,the thread is made up of two strands of fibre held together by the gum1 and the length of thread in a single cocoon varies from three hundred to fourteen hundred yards4 ,the cocoons are white1 yellowish1 or greenish1 but after the boiling process the color of the ,bombyx mori silk is pure white4 ,illustration3 ,japanese ,cocoon ,market ,sidenote3 ,tussah and ,wild ,silk ,the preceding description is concerned more particularly with the latter type1 from which the largest proportion of the world's silk supply is derived1 but in a general way it applies to the other types also4 ,the most important of these are the ,tussah silk of ,india and ,china and the ,japanese wild silk4 ,the products are coarser and harsher than those of the ,bombyx mori1 and the natural color is brown4 ,illustration3 ,a ,japanese ,filature ,,chapter ,,ii ,,reeling #a4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,filature ,sidenote3 ,early ,reeling and ,twisting ,sidenote3 ,vaucanson's ,filature ,sidenote3 ,silk ,manufacture in ,europe ,the next step in the production of silk is called reeling1 and for this purpose the modern filature has been developed4 ,the actual existence of reeling machines is by no means modern1 however1 for it is a well-known fact that the ,chinese knew how to use raw silk as far back as #ejjj years ago4 ,old prints dating back #cjjj years show that the hand 8reelers0 then in use differed little in principle from the highly developed filatures of today4 ,although ,china knew how to reel and twist silk for several thousand years1 it was only in the third1 fourth1 and fifth centuries ,a4 ,d4 that other countries1 such as ,japan and ,eastern ,europe1 took it up4 ,the first filatures were1 of course1 extremely simple1 operated entirely by hand1 and produced a very coarse thread4 ,although a little progress was made during the ,middle ,ages1 the turning point came in #agej when ,vaucanson1 a ,french engineer1 invented the first real filature--which combined several reelers1 giving the whole process more speed and turning out a product of considerably better quality4 ,this marked the beginning of ,europe's interest in what had so long been an exclusively ,oriental industry1 and from then on the ,french1 ,italians and ,spanish in particular took up the study of sericulture and the reeling and manufacturing process4 ,the result was to put the industry on a scientific basis which it had never reached in the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,the ,reeling ,basins #b4 ,,preparing ,,to ,,reel ,sidenote3 8,stoving0 ,the reeling process is the first step in which machinery plays an important part4 ,when the cocoons are ready they must first be submitted to the 8stoving0 process1 or stifling1 in which they are exposed to heat sufficient to kill the chrysalis inside4 ,this is followed by further drying1 after which the cocoons are shipped in bags to the filatures and may be kept indefinitely without injuring the filament4 ,sidenote3 8,beating0 ,sidenote3 ,waste ,material ,as a preliminary to reeling1 the cocoons are immersed in boiling water to soften the gum that holds the fibre together4 ,while in the water they are brushed with a coarse brush to remove the heavy outer strands of the cocoon--a process called 8beating40 ,these outer strands are usually too harsh and broken to be reeled1 but are afterwards utilized as so-called waste which is used for spun-silk manufacture4#d ,this applies also to the innermost layers of the cocoon4 ,about one-half of the thread on a cocoon actually finds its way into thrown silk4 ,the remainder is 8waste40 ,when1 by brushing1 the true threads are reached it is possible to start reeling1 and barring occasional breaks these threads are continuous all the way down to the chrysalis4 #d ,see ,chapter ,,iv4 #b4 #c4 ,,modern ,,reeling ,,methods ,sidenote3 ,reeling ,basins ,while being reeled the cocoons are floated in basins of very hot water1 each basin feeding a reeling machine4 ,a single cocoon strand is too fine to use commercially1 so several are taken at a time1 varying from three to seven or eight according to the size of thread desired4 ,the size used in this country most extensively is known as #ac_/ae deniers and is reeled from six or seven cocoons4 ,during the reeling the water is kept at about #fj ,c41 but if the cocoons are very dry a higher temperature is required4 ,a heavy smoke issues from the basins and not only humidifies the room but also penetrates the silk1 rendering it very gummy and hard4 ,this is overcome by the use of steam-heated tubes running over and around the machines4 ,each reeling machine and basin is in charge of a girl who is responsible for its operation and for the reeling of thread of correct size4 ,she must keep careful watch that the filament comes off the cocoons steadily and that all breaks are immediately taken care of1 exhausted cocoons being replaced by new ones at the proper time4 ,in many filatures each girl is charged with so many cocoons and must turn in a proportionate amount of reeled silk at the end of the day4 ,sidenote3 ,twisting ,sidenote3 ,human ,element ,the twisting operation is an important part of the reeling process1 for the raw silk threads1 being composed of parallel cocoon filaments1 cohering only by their natural gum1 would1 unless twisted1 mat up and become unworkable4 ,various methods are used to obtain this torque1 the general idea in each case being to run the separate cocoon threads through small rings or eyes and then unite them in one thread large enough to reel4 ,in spite of the many mechanical devices and improvements brought out in the last few years1 the success of the reeling operation still is dependent on the reeling girl's ability and care4 ,it is particularly important that she be able to judge the number of cocoons of a certain size and texture needed to make a thread of the required denier4 ,illustration3 ,rereeling ,room ,sidenote3 ,testing the ,skeins ,sidenote3 ,color of ,raw ,silk ,the raw silk is reeled on travellers in hanks known as skeins and varying from #ej to #ajj grams in weight1 which are taken off by the reeling girl and the ends of the thread tied up to facilitate the work at the mill4 ,before leaving the filature it is also subjected to critical tests and examinations for size1 winding1 cleanliness1 irregularities1 etc4 ,the color of raw silk as it comes off the cocoon and is reeled into skeins is either white or yellow1 though some sorts have a brownish or greenish tinge4 ,tussah silks have a brownish-yellow color4 ,the coloring matter in the cultivated silks is only in the gum and boils out with it1 but the color in the tussah is in the fibre1 rendering it very difficult to bleach4 ,illustration3 8,books0 of ,raw ,silk ,skeins ,sidenote3 ,reeling ,wild ,silk ,sidenote3 ,waste ,silk ,tussah1 or wild silk1 is not generally reeled by the wet reel process1 as the cocoons are apt to be closed up at each end by gum4 ,in ,china this gum is softened by burying the cocoons in manure instead of immersing them in hot water4 ,this is known as dry reeling4 ,it very often happens that the tussah cocoons are unfit for reeling1 due to being pierced or tangled4 ,silk from these imperfect cocoons is again classed as 8waste10 along with the frisons1 or outside and inmost layers of the cultivated cocoons1 which1 as has been stated1 are used to make spun silk4 ,in this country waste silk is often called schappe1 although strictly speaking this name should only be applied to waste silk degummed by the ,french process of fermentation4 ,sidenote3 ,baling ,sidenote3 ,picul ,bale ,the raw silk1 having been reeled and twisted into skeins1 is next marked and tied together in bundles of skeins known as 8books0 each bearing the mark or 8chop0 of its grade4 ,these are packed in bales for shipment1 the weight of the bales varying in different countries4 ,in ,japan and ,china they are called picul bales and weigh #acc pounds4 ,italian silks1 on the other hand1 are packed in shipping bales of about #bjj pounds4 #d4 ,,sources ,,of ,,raw ,,silk ,of the countries producing raw silk1 ,japan and ,china occupy the leading positions by a large margin1 the former contributing roughly one half of the world's supply1 and the latter about one third4 ,italy ranks a poor third with about one tenth1 and ,france1 the ,near ,east1 ,india1 ,spain and the ,balkans contribute the balance4 ,sidenote3 ,japan ,although the greater part of the raw silk produced in the various countries is exported for manufacture abroad1 a certain percentage is retained for home spinning and weaving4 ,it is estimated that about #fe per cent of the ,japanese output is exported1 approximately #ij per cent4 of which goes to the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,china ,in ,china over one half of the output is held for domestic consumption1 the remainder being divided about equally between ,europe and ,america4 ,sidenote3 ,italy ,the ,italian raw silk--a very high quality product--finds its largest market in ,france1 principally in the city of ,lyons1 the silk center of ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,marketing ,,raw ,,silk #a4 ,,marketing ,,methods ,sidenote3 ,principal ,markets ,the principal raw silk markets of the world are ,yokohama1 ,lyons1 ,new ,york1 ,milan and ,canton4 ,of these1 ,yokohama is probably the largest and most important1 due to the pre-eminent position of ,japan in raw silk production4 ,,raw ,,silk ,,production1 ,,including ,,tussah ,,silk ,,seasons #aiag-aiah ,,to #aibb-aibc #aibb-aibc #aiba-aibb #aibj-aiba ,crops in ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,europe #h1hda1jjj #g1fbh1jjj #h1jeh1jjj ,viz3 ,italy #h1bcd1jjj #g1jff1jjj #g1ccj1jjj ,france #dcg1jjj #dcj1jjj #eea1jjj ,austria 4444 4444 4444 ,spain #agj1jjj #acb1jjj #agg1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,levant #a1edc1jjj #a1bac1jjj #a1fed1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,asia3 ,total ,quantity ,exported#e #eg1dci1jjj #ec1ida1jjj #ce1ach1ejj ,viz3 ,china1 ,shanghai #fh1fbh1jjj #ff1iic1jjj #ff1eah1ejj ,china1 ,canton #g1jej1jjj #e1gce1jjj #d1baj1jjj ,japan1 ,yokohama #da1eda1jjj #dj1ihb1jjj #bd1cjj1jjj ,india #bbj1jjj #bca1jjj #aaj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,total1 ,pounds #fg1hbc1jjj #fb1ghb1jjj #dd1hej1ejj ,tussah #b1jcd1jjj #a1hef1jjj #a1fej1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,grand ,total1 ,pounds #fi1heg1jjj #fd1fch1jjj #df1ejj1ejj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- #aiai-aibj #aiah-aiai #aiag-aiah ,crops in ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,europe #d1ibg1jjj #f1igh1jjj #g1aed1jjj ,viz3 ,italy #d1jde1jjj #e1idb1jjj #f1bag1jjj ,france #cig1jjj #edj1jjj #deb1jjj ,austria #gcca1jjj #gcca1jjj #gcca1jjj ,spain #aed1jjj #afe1jjj #aed1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,levant #gb1bic1jjj #gb1bic1jjj #gb1bic1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,asia3 ,total ,quantity ,exported#e #ea1hfj1jjj #de1dge1jjj #dh1jbf1jjj ,viz3 ,china1 ,shanghai #faj1bbe1jjj #fi1bji1jjj #fh1efc1jjj ,china1 ,canton #g1jic1jjj #c1gjd1jjj #e1agj1jjj ,japan1 ,yokohama #cd1bbb1jjj #cb1cjh1jjj #cd1jej1jjj ,india #cbj1jjj #bed1jjj #bdc1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,total1 ,pounds #ei1jhj1jjj #ed1gdf1jjj #ed1dgc1jjj ,tussah #a1ifj1jjj #a1efa1jjj #a1ecd1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,grand ,total1 ,pounds #fa1jdj1jjj #ef1cjg1jjj #ei1jjg1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- #e ,the production of raw silk in ,china and ,india is unknown4 ,the ,japan crop is approximately #dg1jjj1jjj pounds4 #f ,excludes ,tussah silk4 #g ,in the absence of statistics from ,austria and the ,levant1 #aiae production is used as an estimate4 ,courtesy of ,the ,silk ,association of ,america ,illustration3 ,unpacking ,bales of ,raw ,silk ,sidenote3 ,yokohama ,silk ,exchange ,the ,yokohama ,raw ,silk ,exchange operates on a basis similar to that of the various cotton exchanges1 and transactions are carried on in 8futures0 as far ahead as five months4 ,the speculative element is very active and its influence is often felt extensively throughout all phases of the industry4 ,on several occasions it has been necessary to close the exchange to avert real disaster after the quotations have been manipulated to an unbelievable extent4 ,during the last few years the ,japanese ,government and various silk organizations have1 by law and regulation1 succeeded in improving this situation to a very great degree1 and the benefit has been felt throughout the industry4 ,sidenote3 ,conditioned ,weight ,raw silk is sold by weight--in ,yokohama1 by net weight1 that is1 less wrappings1 etc4 ,of recent years in most countries it has been the custom to deal by conditioned weight1 and as a result the conditioning process has become an important side line in the industry4 #b4 ,,conditioning ,sidenote3 ,invoice ,weight ,conditioning is desirable principally on account of the fact that raw silk absorbs considerable moisture4 ,a careless buyer may find after delivery that he has purchased more water than he has silk4 ,to avoid this possibility1 ,asiatic and ,european markets in particular have adopted the conditioned weight basis--absolute dry weight plus #aa per cent moisture4 ,quotations are often given on invoice weight1 which is conditioned weight plus a #b margin for variation4 ,a conditioning house1 besides examining for weight1 also conducts numerous other tests necessary to conditioned silk4 ,the main factors taken into consideration1 besides weight1 are size1 color1 cleanliness1 boil-off1 winding strength1 elasticity1 and general uniformity4 ,sidenote3 ,weight ,as regards size1 the unit is the denier1 an ancient ,french weight equal to 4#je gram2 the size is measured by the weight in deniers of #dej meters of the thread4 ,as previously stated1 the #ac_/ae denier size is the standard used in the ,united ,states1 although the larger and smaller grades are dealt in to some extent for special types of products4 ,size is always given as averaging between certain deniers 7such as #ac to #ae7 as it is impossible to attain absolute accuracy in reeling1 and slight variations cannot be avoided1 either within the bales or within the skeins themselves4 ,sidenote3 ,color ,the color test is concerned merely with uniformity in shade1 which makes accurate dyeing possible4 ,the cultivated silks are either pure white or yellow1 according to the variety of cocoon from which they are derived4 ,sidenote3 8,boil off0 ,the term 8boil off0 refers to the amount or percentage of gum on the filament4 ,as explained before1 the individual strands of fibre adhere together through a gummy substance secreted by the worm4 ,the amount found in the reeled silk varies with different kinds from #aj to #be per cent by weight--which is brought down to a minimum by the boiling process4 ,sidenote3 ,winding ,strength ,winding strength is measured by the breaks that occur in winding4 ,in this country the test is based on the number of breaks occurring in #cj or more skeins wound at the rate of about #abj yards per minute4 ,this test is extremely important since a weak thread can do much to hinder an efficient re-reeling process1 inasmuch as each break stops the machine and must be tied by the operator4 #c4 ,,grading ,,and ,,quotations ,sidenote3 ,classification ,sidenote3 ,difficulties in ,grading ,the question of classification of raw silk for market and the various terms used for its purchase and sale is a complicated one4 ,standardization has been sought after for a good many years and committees both here and abroad have studied the problem on various occasions--but without entirely satisfactory results4 ,the chief source of trouble appears to lie the many types of variation that may occur1 not only on account of the great number of qualities required in the product1 but also due to the varying conditions under which the silk is produced4 ,in the early days of the industry1 when farm production was the chief source of supply1 particularly in ,japan and ,china1 satisfactory grading was almost an impossibility4 ,however1 now that sericulture and reeling has come more and more into the hands of the large companies and filatures1 a greater degree of standardization can be reached4 ,sidenote3 ,quotations ,the following is an actual example of a recent quotation list in the ,new ,york market as it appeared in a commercial paper3-- ,,japan 7,ninety ,days' ,basis1 #ac-ae ,denies7 ,kansai ,double ,extra ,cracks #f4ae #f4bj ,kansai ,double ,extra 8,a0 #f4je #f4aj ,kansai ,double ,extra 8,b0 #f4jj #f4jg ,kansai ,best ,extra #e4ie #f4jb ,kansai ,extra #e4ij #e4ig ,kansai ,best ,no4 #a to ,extra #e4hg #e4ie ,kansai ,best ,no4 #a #e4he #e4ib ,kansai ,no4 #a #e4hb #e4ij ,sinshiu ,no4 #a #e4gg #e4he ,,canton 7,ninety ,days' ,basis7 ,king ,seng gr4 #ad-af #f4dj ,favorite--,double ,extra #bj-bb #f4jj ,favorite--,double ,extra #bb-bf #e4ij ,,shanghai 7,ninety ,days' ,basis7 ,,china ,,steam ,,filature ,gold ,double ,deer1 new crop #g4ej ,geranium1 new crop #g4be ,comet #f4fj ,tsatless ,blue ,dragon and ,flying ,horse #e4fj ,black ,lion1 ,no4 #a-b #e4aj ,tussah--,best chops #c4ij ,,italian ,grand ,extra ,classical #g4jj ,extra ,classical #f4hj ,best ,classical #f4gj ,illustration3 ,,raw ,,silk ,,prices ,,new ,,york ,,market #aiac-aibc ,courtesy of ,the ,silk ,association of ,america ,sidenote3 ,kansai and ,sinshiu ,in the ,japanese classification1 ,kansai and ,sinshiu originally indicated the section of ,japan where the silk originated1 but of recent years they have come to mean hard or soft natured silks respectively4 ,the 8,sinshiu ,no4 #a0 is usually considered the standard quotation to use in judging the market trend4 ,sidenote3 8,chops0 ,the ,chinese quotations are probably the most difficult to understand since they go almost entirely by 8chop0--that is1 well-known brands which are marked in some distinctive way1 as shown on the above list of quotations4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,manufacture ,,of ,,thrown ,,and ,,spun ,,silk ,we have covered in the preceding chapters the culture of raw silk1 its reeling1 and finally its marketing in the countries where it is to be manufactured into the finished textile4 ,we now come to the mechanical phases of the industry1 by which raw silk is made first into yarn and then into fabric4 ,whereas1 in the case of cotton and wool1 we have seen that yarn is manufactured by various modifications of the spinning process1 this is not true in the case of silk4 ,the spinning process is here supplanted by an operation known as 8throwing10 and is resorted to only in the manufacture of yarn from the various kinds of silk waste4 #a4 ,,thrown ,,silk ,sidenote3 ,necessity for ,throwing ,the ordinary raw silk1 as it comes from the filature and is sold in the market1 is composed of from two to eight filaments adhering together by virtue of the natural gum secreted by the worm4 ,this thread is too thin and delicate for many uses and so must be submitted to further twisting and doubling--a process called 8throwing40 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that there are several types of fabrics in which raw silk is used without going through the throwing operation4 ,this is usually the case1 for example1 with the warp threads for crepes1 charmeuse1 and messaline4 ,sidenote3 8,throwsters0 ,although some of the larger silk mills have their own departments for this process1 as a general rule it is done by independent concerns known as 8throwsters0--who specialize in this particular operation4 ,machinery of a very complicated and accurate type is necessary1 capable of operating at very high speed4 ,it has been found that the investment called for to equip such a mill is too large in most cases to allow the manufacturers to incorporate this operation in their factories1 particularly if it happens that the spindles are not fully employed during the whole of the year4 ,illustration3 ,throwing ,machines ,sidenote3 ,organzine and ,tram ,there are two main classes of thrown silk--organzine and tram--the former has a heavy twist and is used for the warp2 while the latter is given only a light twist and is used for filling4 ,within these two general types there are many special grades1 according to the type of material for which they are to be used1 such as crepe1 chiffon1 sewing thread1 floss silk1 embroidery silk1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,soaking the ,raw ,silk ,the raw silk as it comes to the throwing mill is done up in books of skeins and packed in bales1 as described in a previous chapter4 ,the skeins1 after being weighed and examined1 are first soaked for about twelve hours in warm soapy water1 which softens the natural gum1 after which they are thoroughly dried4 ,this1 of course1 reduces the moisture content below the customary #aa per cent1 which is later restored by natural absorption4 ,sidenote3 ,winding ,the first step in the actual throwing is the winding of the thread on bobbins4 ,the skeins are put on swifts--a light type of reel--and wound at a very high rate of speed on the proper size of bobbin4 ,it is here that the winding strength of the silk meets its severest test1 for constant breaks during the winding involve considerable expense when speed is such an important factor4 ,sidenote3 ,twisting ,the bobbins of silk are next taken to the twister1 which combines two or more strands and gives the thread the necessary amount of twist for the special type that is desired4 ,in the case of tram a very light twist is given1 about two or three turns to the inch4 ,for organzine the single threads are first given sixteen turns to an inch in one direction1 then doubled and twisted fourteen turns in the other direction4 ,sidenote3 ,crepe ,twisting is the basis of the manufacture of the various kinds of crepe4 ,the filling or tram used is given a very hard twist1 about sixty-five turns to the inch--either in right or left-hand direction4 ,these threads are later woven alternately and so produce the crinkled effect4 ,thrown silk is classified in a similar way to raw silk1 except that usually market quotations on thrown silks mention not only the classification but also the purpose for which it is to be used 7tram or organzine71 the size in deniers1 the number of threads and twists to the inch4 #b4 ,,spun ,,silk ,sidenote3 ,spinning ,waste ,silk ,the above processes refer only to throwing of raw silk4 ,in the case of waste1 schappe1 frisons1 etc41 an entirely different method must be used1 comprising a series of operations very similar to the carding1 combing and spinning of wool4#h ,the gum1 of which silk waste contains a very large proportion1 must first be boiled off in a hot soapy bath or allowed to ferment in vats1 the latter method being used more generally in ,europe4 ,after degumming1 the waste silk is next washed and dried and allowed to absorb the #aa per cent moisture content1 as in the case of the thrown silk4 ,this is followed by picking1 combing1 and dressing to remove any dirt or other foreign matter and to separate the fibres and arrange them in parallel order4 ,the silk is next separated into short laps1 then drawn out into thin slivers by means of drawing frames1 and thoroughly combed to make the fibres smooth and uniform4 ,these slivers are finally made suitable for winding on bobbins by being passed through roving frames4 ,then follows the actual spinning process1 which twists the roving into yarn4 ,different types of yarn are produced by varying the amount of twist and the number of strands used4 ,single yarn is made by twisting a single strand on itself1 while for #b-ply1 two yarns are twisted together1 and so forth1 as in the case of cotton or wool4 ,after being cleaned and examined1 the yarn is wound into skeins of about #e ounces4 ,sidenote3 ,uses of ,spun ,silk ,the principal use of spun silk is in mixed fabrics1 in conjunction with wool1 cotton1 or raw silk1 the spun silk thread generally being used as filling rather than warp4 ,the better grades are made into velvet and plush and various types of knit goods4 ,although high quality spun silk often has the strength and wearing quality of thrown silk1 it never can compete with the latter in regard to lustre4 ,sidenote3 ,sizing ,spun silk is described as to size in one of two general ways4 ,in the ,english system the number of the yarn is the number of hanks of #hdj yards weighing a pound1 with a second number indicating the ply4 ,thus1 size 8#bj-b0 would designate a #b-ply yarn1 a pound of which contained #af1hjj yards4 ,the ,french system is more or less on the same principle1 the main difference being that the number of the yarn indicates the thousands of metres weighing a kilogram4 #h ,see ,part ,two1 ,page #gd to ,page #gh for details of spinning4 #c4 ,,marketing ,,thrown ,,and ,,spun ,,silk ,thrown and spun silk are bought and sold in very much the same way as is raw silk1 although the market is not as extensive nor is the volume of trading as large4 ,the following tables of quotations are from a recent silk journal4 ,a comparison with the quotations given in ,chapter ,,iii will show the appreciation in value of the various gradings through the throwing and spinning processes4 ,,thrown ,,silk ,,organzine ,double ,extra ,crack #g4cj ,double ,extra #g4bj ,extra #g4aj ,,tram ,extra #f4he ,best ,no4 #a #f4ge ,kansai ,no4 #a #f4gj ,japan ,crepe ,twist1 #b thread1 #ge turns #g4hj ,japan ,crepe ,twist1 #c and #d thread1 #fj-fe turns #g4be ,canton ,crepe ,twist1 #c and #d thread1 #fj-fe turns #g4bj ,hosiery ,tram #f4ge ,,spun ,,silk #b net #cj days #f_/b #d4be #aj_/b #d4ce #bj_/b #d4ge #cj_/b #e4ae #dj_/b #e4ce #ej_/b #e4ej #fj_/a #d4de #fj_/b #e4fj ,illustration3 ,twisting on ,new ,warp ,threads ,illustration3 ,modern ,british ,loom ,shown at the ,british ,empire ,exposition ,wembley1 #aibd ,sidenote3 ,imports ,although far from approaching raw silk1 the importations of silk waste to this country reach quite substantial figures1 as the following table shows3 ,raw ,silk ,waste ,silk #aibj #cj1jeh1cgd #i1djj1ihe #aiba #de1cee1jie #f1hdi1cfi #aibb #ej1gaa1hbf #g1fch1cag #aibc #di1eje1eha #ab1aja1dbj 7,courtesy of ,silk ,association of ,america7 ,,chapter ,v ,,weaving ,,and ,,finishing #a4 ,,weaving ,the manufacture of thrown and spun silk into the finished material1 whether by weaving or knitting1 varies with the different types of fabric desired4 ,but the several processes are based on the same general principle and are very similar to those used for cotton and wool4 ,to avoid repetition we would refer to ,pages twenty-six to twenty-nine and ,pages thirty-one to thirty-five1 where full descriptions will be found4 #b4 ,,finishing ,sidenote3 ,boiling ,off ,the first step in the finishing of fabrics is dyeing--unless it has already been done before weaving4 ,a considerable proportion of silk is dyed in skein or yarn form before weaving1 but in either case the methods of dyeing are practically the same4 ,preparatory to dyeing it is necessary to boil off the natural gum by means of hot soap baths4 ,if the silk is to be dyed in dark colors a considerable amount of the gum is allowed to remain4 ,such silk is known as souple silk and is used principally for filling4 ,if all the gum has been removed1 it is called bright silk4 ,sidenote3 ,bleaching ,all silk1 after boiling off1 should be nearly pure white4 ,raw silk1 as mentioned in a previous chapter1 is often bright yellow1 but as this color is entirely in the gum1 it is lost by boiling off4 ,in the case of uneven coloration in the raw silk1 it is necessary to resort to bleaching before dyeing in order to get uniformity in the finished product4 ,this applies particularly to wild silks1 such as ,tussah1 which are bleached by being placed in an air-tight room filled with a chemical preparation1 such as sulphur gas or sodium or hydrogen peroxide4 ,a further washing and drying is then necessary before the skeins or goods can be dyed4 ,illustration3 ,jacquard ,loom ,sidenote3 ,dyeing ,sidenote3 ,mordant ,dyes ,there is no standard dye used for silk1 some manufacturers preferring one type and others1 another4 ,it may be said1 however1 that as a general rule silk is dyed by the direct method1 without the use of an intermediate or mordant agent as in the case of cotton4 ,this is made possible through the natural absorptive powers of silk fibre4 ,mordant dyes are sometimes used1 it is true1 salts of tin or iron being employed as the agent2 but this method is useful principally when it is desired to weight the silk and restore what was lost in boiling off4 ,as this loss generally amounts to about #bj or #be per cent and as raw silk is sold by weight1 it is easy to see that this1 unless recovered in some way1 would reduce the manufacturer's profit considerably4 ,illustration3 ,winding ,thrown ,silk into ,skeins for ,dyeing ,sidenote3 ,weighting ,silk ,the process of weighting silk has been greatly abused1 as it is comparatively simple to adulterate it1 without discovery1 to such an extent that the properties of the fibre are seriously impaired4 ,weighted silk never has the strength or wearing quality of the unadulterated product4 ,however1 a certain amount of weighting--to restore a part of the degumming loss--is generally recognized as legitimate1 although the percentage permissible is often a matter for discussion4 ,both skein and piece silk are dyed by being immersed in vats containing the hot dye solution4 ,the silk is run over rollers which insure even coloration throughout4 ,after dyeing it is dried1 stretched on a tenter frame and then submitted to dry heat which sets the dye and adds luster to the silk4 ,sidenote3 ,printing ,printing is also used for coloring and pattern effects in very much the same way as for cotton goods4 ,after printing the goods are submitted to a dry steam heat which sets the colors4 ,sidenote3 ,finishing ,beyond dyeing or printing1 silk goods require very little finishing other than calendaring by passing through rollers4 ,some types of fabric require softening and others1 hardening--accomplished in a variety of ways too numerous to describe4 ,many of these are secret processes perfected and patented by individual companies4 ,a multitude of different effects can be obtained by these various treatments of the surface of the goods4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,artificial ,,silk #a4 ,,early ,,development ,sidenote3 ,chardonnet ,the discovery of what is known as 8artificial silk0 is generally attributed to a ,frenchman1 ,count ,hilaire de ,chardonnet1 who after many years of research and experimentation1 between #ahdj and #ahij1 finally perfected a fibre that possessed the necessary qualities for practical weaving4 ,he introduced his discovery to the public in #ahia at the ,paris ,exposition1 and in addition to winning the 8,grand ,prix0 was also made a knight of the ,legion of ,honor in recognition of his contribution to science and industry4 ,sidenote3 ,further ,development ,since that time others have contributed to the development of the new fibre and discovered other methods of production--all1 however1 based on the same general principle as the ,chardonnet process4 ,despaisses and ,panly1 two ,frenchmen1 and ,stearn1 ,cross and ,bevan1 ,englishmen1 are the outstanding names in this work4 #b4 ,,various ,,processes ,sidenote3 ,use of ,cellulose ,all the processes that have met with any success are based on the use of cellulose in some form1 as a foundation4 ,the two sources that have proved most successful are wood-pulp and cotton and it may be said that the bulk of the artificial silk on the market comes from one or the other of these two raw materials4 ,sidenote3 ,chardonnet ,process ,the ,chardonnet process uses cotton as its base4 ,it is first bleached1 then by chemical treatment is changed to nitro-cellulose1 which is dissolved in alcohol and ether and thus made ready for 8spinning40 ,sidenote3 ,viscose ,process ,the ,viscose process1 which has made great strides in recent years1 makes use of a pure grade of sulphite wood-pulp4 ,this pulp is in sheet form and is first treated with a solution of caustic soda1 then shredded very fine and put through several more chemical treatments1 finally being dissolved in water preparatory to the 8spinning40 ,sidenote3 8,spinning0 ,in both of the above methods the production of the thread is the same4 ,the solution1 whether it be based on cotton or wood-pulp1 is forced through minute holes and comes out in a thread-like stream1 which solidifies when subjected to a setting bath4 ,it is then washed1 dried1 and put through processes1 such as twisting1 reeling1 etc41 very similar to those which natural silks undergo4 #c4 ,,uses ,,of ,,artificial ,,silk ,the uses of artificial silk are many and are not entirely confined to combinations with other textiles4 ,of recent years the knitting trade has adopted it extensively1 particularly in hosiery1 sweater and underwear manufacture4 ,in weaving1 it has proven very successful in combination with silk or cotton4 ,large quantities are used in ribbon1 electric cord covering1 yarns1 threads1 etc4 ,it is generally felt that the new fibre does not directly compete with or replace natural silk1 but rather occupies its own place in the trade on the same basis as the other textiles4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the ,industry ,it has only been during the last fifteen years that artificial silk has been a very important factor commercially1 although for a few years before that time1 small quantities were produced in ,europe4 ,since about #aiaj its use has been steadily growing in this country1 the importations from ,europe increasing in #aiab from about one and one-half million pounds to nearly three million pounds in #aiad4 ,since #aiaj domestic production has also become a factor in the market and numerous factories have been established1 the figures for #aibc showing about #cc1jjj1jjj pounds output4 ,it is estimated that in #aibb the combined importations and domestic production amounted to around #bj1jjj1jjj pounds1 about #ej of the total consumption of natural silk for that year4 ,sidenote3 ,u4 ,s4 ,production ,the following figures show the production of artificial silk in the ,united ,states in #aiac and between #aibj and #aibc3 #aiac #a1eff1jjj pounds #aibj #h1jjj1jjj 0 #aiba #ae1jjj1jjj 0 #aibb #bd1jjj1jjj 0 #aibc #cc1jjj1jjj 0 ,illustration3 ,,imports ,,of ,,raw ,,silk ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,calendar ,,year #aiad-aibc ,courtesy of ,the ,silk ,association of ,america ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc4 ,,and ,,the ,,silk ,,trade ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 finances annually the importation of millions of dollars worth of ,,silk from ,china1 ,japan1 and ,italy4 ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 can offer exceptional facilities for opening commercial letters of credit in the ,far ,east by reason of its large net-work of correspondents1 and particularly because of its close relation to the ,,netherlands ,,trading ,,society1 with branches throughout the ,far ,east1 which is one of its leading shareholders4 ,through its close relationship with this institution1 and with many other ,eastern banks1 ,,the ,,international ,,acceptance ,,bank1 ,,inc41 can obtain for its clients a highly efficient service and can give them the benefit of the confidential information which it receives4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #gd ,changed3 from horizonal spools on to vertical spindles to3 from horizontal spools on to vertical spindles pg #gh ,changed3 then compressed betweeen rollers to3 then compressed between rollers pg #ia ,changed3 further into hitherto uninhabitated to3 further into hitherto uninhabited pg #abd ,changed3 ,it is then washed1 dryed to3 ,it is then washed1 dried