,,essays ,,in ,,zen ,,buddhism ,,essays ,,in ,,zen ,,buddhism ,,by ,,daisetz ,,teitaro ,,suzuki ,professor of ,zen ,buddhism at ,otani ,buddhist ,college1 ,kyoto 7,,first ,,series7 ,illustration ,,london ,,luzac ,,and ,,company #df ,great ,russell ,street ,published for ,the ,eastern ,buddhist ,society1 ,kyoto1 ,japan #aibg ,,all ,,rights ,,of ,,reprinting ,,and ,,translation ,,reserved ,,by ,,the ,,author ,made in ,great ,britain and printed at ,the ,vincent ,works1 ,oxford ,,preface ,the most fruitful growth of ,buddhism in the ,far ,east has resulted in the development of ,zen and ,shin4 ,zen attained its maturity in ,china and ,shin in ,japan4 ,the vigour and vitality which ,buddhism still has after more than two thousand years of history1 will be realised when one comes in contact with these two branches of ,buddhism4 ,the one appeals to the inmost religious consciousness of mankind1 while the other touches the intellectual and practical aspects of the ,oriental mind1 which is more intuitive than discursive1 more mystical than logical4 ,if ,zen is the ultra 8self-power0 wing of ,buddhism1 ,shin represents the other extreme wing known as the 8other-power10 and these two extremes are synthesised in the enlightened ,buddha-consciousness4 ,since the publication of my short note on ,zen ,buddhism in the ,journal of the ,pali ,text ,society1 #aijg1 nothing of importance has been published in ,english on the subject except ,professor ,kwaiten ,nukariya's ,religion of the ,samurai1 #aiac4 ,in fact1 even in ,japanese or ,chinese1 this branch of ,buddhism has received very slight attention from modern writers of ,buddhism4 ,this is due to the peculiar difficulties which accompany the study of it4 ,the 8,goroku0f#aa 7sayings7 is the only literary form in which ,zen expresses itself2 and to understand it requires some special practical training in ,zen1 for mere knowledge of the ,chinese1 classical and historical1 is far from being enough2 even with the masterly understanding of the philosophy of general ,buddhism1 ,zen is found quite hard to fathom4 ,some of such scholars sometimes try to explain the truth and development of ,zen1 but they sadly fail to do justice to the subject4 ,on the other hand1 the ,zen masters so called are unable to present their understanding in the light of modern thought4 ,their most intellectually-productive years are spent in the ,meditation ,hall1 and when they successively graduate from it1 they are looked up to as adepts thoroughly versed in the k-ans4#b ,so far so good2 but1 unfortunately from the scholarly point of view1 they remain contented with this1 and do not show any lively intellectual interest in the psychology and philosophy of ,zen4 ,thus ,zen is left to lie quietly sealed up in the 8,sayings0 of the masters and in the technical study of the k-ans2 it is thus incapacitated to walk out of the seclusion of the cloisters4 ,of course1 great mistake it would be if one should ever take the notion even for a moment that ,zen could be mastered from its philosophical presentation or its psychological description2 but this ought not to mean that ,zen is not to be intelligently approached or to be made somewhat accessible by our ordinary means of reasoning4 ,i need not mention that my attempts in the following pages are anything but adequate for the rational treatment of the subject4 ,but as a tentative experiment to present ,zen from our common-sense point of view and as a direct lineage of ,buddhist faith as first proclaimed or rather realised by the ,buddha1 ,i hope ,i have worked towards removing some of the difficulties usually besetting us in the mastery of ,zen thought4 ,how far ,i have succeeded or how utterly ,i have failed1--this is naturally for the reader to judge4 ,the book is a collection of the ,essays originally published in ,the ,eastern ,buddhist except one on the 8,history of ,zen ,buddhism0 which was written specially for this volume2 but all of them have been thoroughly revised and in some parts entirely re-written and new chapters added4 ,the book will be followed by a second series of ,essays before long1 in which some more of the important points in the constitution of ,zen will be treated4 ,the publication of these ,essays in bookform is principally due to the most liberal encouragement1 both material and moral1 of ,mr ,yakichi ,ataka1 of ,osaka1 who is an old friend of the author's and who has not forgotten the pledge half-seriously and half-dreamily made in our youthful days4 ,the author also owes a great deal to his wife in the preparation and revision of the ,,ms1 without which the book would have shown many more imperfections than it does now in various ways4 ,lastly1 in sending this humble work1 not written in the author's native tongue1 out to the world1 he cannot help thinking of his late teacher in ,zen1 ,soyen ,shaku1 of ,engakuji1 ,kamakura1 with regret that his life had not been spared for several years yet1 not only for the sake of ,japanese ,buddhism but for many of his lamenting friends4 ,this is the seventh autumn for the maple-trees to scatter their crimson leaves over his grave at ,matsu-ga-oka4 ,might his spirit not for once be awakened from deep meditation and criticise the book now before the reader6 ,daisetz ,teitaro ,suzuki ,kyoto1 ,october1 #aibf ,,contents ,,page ,preface v ,,essay ,i ,introduction #a ,,essay ,,ii ,zen as the ,chinese ,interpretation of the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment #bf ,,essay ,,iii ,enlightenment and ,ignorance #aje ,,essay ,,iv ,history of ,zen ,buddhism in ,china1 from ,bodhi-dharma to the ,sixth ,patriarch 7,hui-nng7 #adi ,,essay ,v ,satori #bac ,,essay ,,vi ,practical ,methods of ,zen ,instruction #bea ,,essay ,,vii ,the ,meditation ,hall and the ,ideals of ,zen ,life #bii ,,essay ,,viii ,the ,ten ,cow-,herding ,pictures #cdg ,,appendix ,chinese ,notes #cfg ,index #dac ,,introduction ,,introductionf#b ,zen in its essence is the art of seeing into the nature of one's own being1 and it points the way from bondage to freedom4 ,by making us drink right from the fountain of life1 it liberates us from all the yokes under which we finite beings are usually suffering in this world4 ,we can say that ,zen liberates all the energies properly and naturally stored in each of us1 which are in ordinary circumstances cramped and distorted so that they find no adequate channel for activity4 ,this body of ours is something like an electric battery in which a mysterious power latently lies4 ,when this power is not properly brought into operation1 it either grows mouldy and withers away or is warped and expresses itself abnormally4 ,it is the object of ,zen1 therefore1 to save us from going crazy or being crippled4 ,this is what ,i mean by freedom1 giving free play to all the creative and benevolent impulses inherently lying in our hearts4 ,generally1 we are blind to this fact1 that we are in possession of all the necessary faculties that will make us happy and loving towards one another4 ,all the struggles that we see around us come from this ignorance4 ,zen1 therefore1 wants us to open a 8third eye10 as ,buddhists call it1 to the hitherto undreamed-of region shut away from us through our own ignorance4 ,when the cloud of ignorance disappears1 the infinity of the heavens is manifested where we see for the first time into the nature of our own being4 ,we now know the signification of life1 we know that it is not blind striving1 nor is it a mere display of brutal forces1 but that while we know not definitely what the ultimate purport of life is1 there is something in it that makes us feel infinitely blessed in the living of it and remain quite contented with it in all its evolution1 without raising questions or entertaining pessimistic doubts4 ,when we are full of vitality and not yet awakened to the knowledge of life1 we cannot comprehend the seriousness of all the conflicts involved in it which are apparently for the moment in a state of quiescence4 ,but sooner or later the time will come when we have to face life squarely and solve its most perplexing and most pressing riddles4 ,says ,confucius1 8,at fifteen my mind was directed to study1 and at thirty ,i knew where to stand40 ,this is one of the wisest sayings of the ,chinese sage4 ,psychologists will all agree to this statement of his2 for1 generally speaking1 fifteen is about the age youth begins to look around seriously and inquire into the meaning of life4 ,all the spiritual powers until now securely hidden in the subconscious part of the mind break out almost simultaneously4 ,and when this breaking out is too precipitous and violent1 the mind may lose its balance more or less permanently2 in fact1 so many cases of nervous prostration reported during adolescence are chiefly due to this loss of the mental equilibrium4 ,in most cases the effect is not very grave and the crisis may pass without leaving deep marks4 ,but in some characters1 either through their inherent tendencies or on account of the influence of environment upon their plastic constitution1 the spiritual awakening stirs them up to the very depths of their personality4 ,this is the time you will be asked to choose between the 8,everlasting ,no0 and the 8,everlasting ,yea40 ,this choosing is what ,confucius means by 8study10 it is not studying the classics1 but deeply delving into the mysteries of life4 ,normally1 the outcome of the struggle is the 8,everlasting ,yea10 or 8,let thy will be done02 for life is after all a form of affirmation however negatively it might be conceived by the pessimists4 ,but we cannot deny the fact that there are many things in this world which will turn our too sensitive minds towards the other direction and make us exclaim with ,andreyev in 8,the ,life of ,man03 8,i curse everything that you have given4 ,i curse the day on which ,i was born4 ,i curse the day on which ,i shall die4 ,i curse the whole of my life4 ,i fling everything back at your cruel face1 senseless ,fate6 ,be accursed1 be forever accursed6 ,with my curses ,i conquer you4 ,what else can you do to me8444 ,with my last thought ,i will shout into your asinine ears3 ,be accursed1 be accursed60 ,this is a terrible indictment of life1 it is a complete negation of life1 it is a most dismal picture of the destiny of man on earth4 8,leaving no trace0 is quite true1 for we know nothing of our future except that we all pass away including the very earth from which we have come4 ,there are certainly things justifying pessimism4 ,life1 as most of us live it1 is suffering4 ,there is no denying the fact4 ,as long as life is a form of struggle1 it cannot be anything but pain4 ,does not a struggle mean the impact of two conflicting forces1 each trying to get the upperhand of the other8 ,if the battle is lost1 the outcome is death1 and death is the fearsomest thing in the world4 ,even when death is conquered1 one is left alone1 and the loneliness is sometimes more unbearable than the struggle itself4 ,one may not be conscious of all this1 and may go on indulging in those momentary pleasures that are afforded by the senses4 ,but this being unconscious does not in the least alter the facts of life4 ,however insistently the blind may deny the existence of the sun1 they cannot annihilate it4 ,the tropical heat will mercilessly scorch them1 and if they do not take proper care1 they will all be wiped away from the surface of the earth4 ,the ,buddha was perfectly right when he propounded his 8,fourfold ,noble ,truth0 the first of which is that life is pain4 ,did not everyone of us come to this world screaming and in a way protesting8 ,to come out into cold and prohibitive surroundings after a soft1 warm motherly womb was surely a painful incident to say the least4 ,growth is always attended with pain4 ,teething is more or less a painful process4 ,puberty is usually accompanied with a mental as well as a physical disturbance4 ,the growth of the organism called society is also marked with painful cataclysms1 and we are at present witnessing one of its birth-throes4 ,we may calmly reason and say that this is all inevitable1 that inasmuch as every reconstruction means the destruction of the old regime1 we cannot help going through a painful operation4 ,but this cold intellectual analysis does not alleviate whatever harrowing feelings we have to undergo4 ,the pain heartlessly inflicted on our nerves is ineradicable4 ,life is1 after all arguing1 a painful struggle4 ,this however is providential4 ,for the more you suffer the deeper grows your character1 and with the deepening of your character you read the more penetratingly into the secrets of life4 ,all great artists1 all great religious leaders1 and all great social reformers have come out of the intensest struggles which they fought bravely1 quite frequently in tears and with bleeding hearts4 ,unless you eat your bread in sorrow1 you cannot taste of real life4 ,mencius is right when he says that when ,heaven wants to perfect a great man it tries him in every possible way until he comes out triumphantly from all his painful experiences4 ,to me ,oscar ,wilde seems always posing or striving for an effect2 he may be a great artist1 but there is something in him that turns me away from him4 ,yet he exclaims in his ,de ,profundis3 8,during the last few months ,i have1 after terrible difficulties and struggles1 been able to comprehend some of the lessons hidden in the heart of pain4 ,clergymen and people who use phrases without wisdom sometimes talk of suffering as a mystery4 ,it is really a revelation4 ,one discerns things one never discerned before4 ,one approaches the whole of history from a different standpoint40 ,you will observe here what sanctifying effects his prison life produced on his character4 ,if he had had to go through a similar trial in the beginning of his career1 he might have been able to produce far greater works than those we have of him at present4 ,we are too ego-centred4 ,the ego-shell in which we live is the hardest thing to outgrow4 ,we seem to carry it all the time from childhood up to the time we finally pass away4 ,we are1 however1 given many chances to break through this shell1 and the first and greatest of them is when we reach adolescence4 ,this is the first time the ego really comes to recognise the 8other40 ,i mean the awakening of sexual love4 ,an ego1 entire and undivided1 now begins to feel a sort of split in itself4 ,love hitherto dormant deep in his heart lifts its head and causes a great commotion in it4 ,for the love now stirred demands at once the assertion of the ego and its annihilation4 ,love makes the ego lose itself in the object it loves1 and yet at the same time it wants to have the object as its own4 ,this is a contradiction1 and a great tragedy of life4 ,this elemental feeling must be one of the divine agencies whereby man is urged to advance in his upward walk4 ,god gives tragedies to perfect man4 ,the greatest bulk of literature ever produced in this world is but the harping on the same string of love1 and we never seem to grow weary of it4 ,but this is not the topic we are concerned with here4 ,what ,i want to emphasise in this connection is this1 that through the awakening of love we get a glimpse into the infinity of things1 and that this glimpse urges youth to ,romanticism or to ,rationalism according to his temperament and environment and education4 ,when the ego-shell is broken and the 8other0 is taken into its own body1 we can say that the ego has denied itself or that the ego has taken its first steps towards the infinite4 ,religiously1 here ensues an intense struggle between the finite and the infinite1 between the intellect and a higher power1 or1 more plainly1 between the flesh and the spirit4 ,this is the problem of problems that has driven many a youth into the hands of ,satan4 ,when a grown-up man looks back to these youthful days1 he cannot but feel a sort of shudder going through his entire frame4 ,the struggle to be fought in sincerity may go on up to the age of thirty when ,confucius states that he knew where to stand4 ,the religious consciousness is now fully awakened1 and all the possible ways of escaping from the struggle or bringing it to an end are most earnestly sought in every direction4 ,books are read1 lectures are attended1 sermons are greedily taken in1 and various religious exercises or disciplines are tried4 ,and naturally ,zen too comes to be inquired into4 ,how does ,zen solve the problem of problems8 ,in the first place1 ,zen proposes its solution by directly appealing to facts of personal experience and not to book-knowledge4 ,the nature of one's own being where apparently rages the struggle between the finite and the infinite is to be grasped by a higher faculty than the intellect4 ,for ,zen says it is the latter that first made us raise the question which it could not answer by itself1 and that therefore it is to be put aside to make room for something higher and more enlightening4 ,for the intellect has a peculiarly disquieting quality in it4 ,though it raises questions enough to disturb the serenity of the mind1 it is too frequently unable to give satisfactory answers to them4 ,it upsets the blissful peace of ignorance and yet it does not restore the former state of things by offering something else4 ,because it points out ignorance1 it is often considered illuminating1 whereas the fact is that it disturbs1 not necessarily always bringing light on its path4 ,it is not final1 it waits for something higher than itself for the solution of all the questions it will raise regardless of consequences4 ,if it were able to bring a new order into the disturbance and settle it once for all1 there would have been no need for philosophy after it had been first systematised by a great thinker1 by an ,aristotle1 or by a ,hegel4 ,but the history of thought proves that each new structure raised by a man of extraordinary intellect is sure to be pulled down by the succeeding ones4 ,this constant pulling down and building up is all right as far as philosophy itself is concerned2 for the inherent nature of the intellect1 as ,i take it1 demands it and we cannot put a stop to the progress of philosophical inquiries any more than to our breathing4 ,but when it comes to the question of life itself we cannot wait for the ultimate solution to be offered by the intellect even if it could do so4 ,we cannot suspend even for a moment our life-activity for philosophy to unravel its mysteries4 ,let the mysteries remain as they are1 but live we must4 ,the hungry cannot wait until a complete analysis of food is obtained and the nourishing value of each element is determined4 ,for the dead the scientific knowledge of food will be of no use whatever4 ,zen therefore does not rely on the intellect for the solution of its deepest problems4 ,by personal experience it is meant to get at the fact at first hand and not through any intermediary whatever this may be4 ,its favorite analogy is3 to point at the moon a finger is needed1 but woe to those who take the finger for the moon2 a basket is welcome to carry our fish home1 but when the fish are safely on the table why should we eternally bother ourselves with the basket8 ,here stands the fact1 and let us grasp it with the naked hands lest it should slip away--this is what ,zen proposes to do4 ,as nature abhors a vacuum1 ,zen abhors anything coming between the fact and ourselves4 ,according to ,zen1 there is no struggle in the fact itself such as between the finite and the infinite1 between the flesh and the spirit4 ,these are idle distinctions fictitiously designed by the intellect for its own interest4 ,those who take them too seriously or those who try to read them into the very fact of life are those who take the finger for the moon4 ,when we are hungry we eat2 when we are sleepy we lay ourselves down2 and where does the infinite or the finite come in here8 ,are not we complete in ourselves and each in himself8 ,life as it is lived suffices4 ,it is only when the disquieting intellect steps in and tries to murder it that we stop to live and imagine ourselves to be short of or in something4 ,let the intellect alone1 it has its usefulness in its proper sphere1 but let it not interfere with the flowing of the life-stream4 ,if you are at all tempted to look into it1 do so while letting it flow4 ,the fact of flowing must under no circumstances be arrested or meddled with2 for the moment your hands are dipped into it1 its transparency is disturbed1 it ceases to reflect your image which you have had from the very beginning and will continue to have to the end of time4 ,almost corresponding to the 8,four ,maxims0 of the ,nichiren ,sect1 ,zen has its own four statements3 8,a special transmission outside the ,scriptures2 ,no dependence upon words and letters2 ,direct pointing to the soul of man2 ,seeing into one's nature and the attainment of ,buddhahood40f#ca4a ,this sums up all that is claimed by ,zen as religion4 ,of course we must not forget that there is a historical background to this bold pronunciamento4 ,at the time of the introduction of ,zen into ,china1 most of the ,buddhists were addicted to the discussion of highly metaphysical questions1 or satisfied with the merely observing of the ethical precepts laid down by the ,buddha or with the leading of a lethargic life entirely absorbed in the contemplation of the evanescence of things worldly4 ,they all missed apprehending the great fact of life itself which flows altogether outside of these vain exercises of the intellect or of the imagination4 ,bodhi-,dharma and his successors recognised this pitiful state of affairs4 ,hence their proclamation of 8,the ,four ,great ,statements0 of ,zen as above cited4 ,in a word they mean that ,zen has its own way of pointing to the nature of one's own being and that when this is done1 one attains to ,buddhahood in which all the contradictions and disturbances caused by the intellect are entirely harmonised in a unity of higher order4 ,for this reason ,zen never explains but indicates1 it does not appeal to circumlocution1 nor does it generalise4 ,it always deals with facts1 concrete and tangible4 ,logically considered1 ,zen may be full of contradictions and repetitions4 ,but as it stands above all things1 it goes serenely on its own way4 ,as a ,zen master aptly puts it1 8carrying his home-made cane on the shoulder1 he goes right on among the mountains one rising above another40 ,it does not challenge logic1 it simply walks its path of facts1 leaving all the rest to their own fates4 ,it is only when logic neglecting its proper functions tries to step into the track of ,zen that it loudly proclaims its principles and forcibly drives out the intruder4 ,zen is not an enemy of anything4 ,there is no reason why it should antagonise the intellect which may sometimes be utilised for the cause of ,zen itself4 ,to show some examples of ,zen's direct dealing with the fundamental facts of existence1 the following are selected3 ,rinzaif#da4b 7,lin-chi7 once delivered a sermon1 saying 8,over a mass of reddish flesh there sits a true man who has no title2 he is all the time coming in and out from your sense-organs4 ,if you have not yet testified to the fact1 ,look6 ,look60 ,a monk came forward and asked1 8,who is this true man of no title80 ,rinzai came right down from his straw-chair and taking hold of the monk exclaimed1 8,speak6 ,speak60 ,the monk remained irresolute not knowing what to say1 whereupon the master letting him go remarked1 8,what worthless stuff is this true man of no title60 ,rinzai then went straight back to his room4#a4c ,rinzai was noted for his 8rough0 and direct treatment of his disciples4 ,he never liked those roundabout dealings which generally characterised the methods of a lukewarm master4 ,he must have got this directness from his own teacher ,obaku 7,huang-nieh71#a4d by whom he was struck three times by asking what the fundamental principle of ,buddhism was4 ,it goes without saying that ,zen has nothing to do with mere striking or roughly shaking the questioner4 ,if you take this as constituting the essentials of ,zen1 you would commit the same gross error as one who took the finger for the moon4 ,as in everything else1 but most particularly in ,zen1 all its outward manifestations or demonstrations must never be regarded as final4 ,they just indicate the way where to look for the facts4 ,therefore these indicators are important1 we cannot do well without them4 ,but once caught in them which are like entangling meshes we are doomed2 for ,zen can never be comprehended4 ,some may think ,zen is always trying to catch you in the net of logic or by the snare of words4 ,if you once slip your steps1 you are bound for eternal damnation1 you will never get to freedom for which your hearts are so burning4 ,therefore1 ,rinzai grasps with his naked hands what is directly presented to us all4 ,if a third eye of ours is opened undimmed1 we shall know in a most unmistakable manner where ,rinzai is driving us4 ,we have first of all to get into the very spirit of the master and interview the inner man right there4 ,no amount of wordy explanations will ever lead us into the nature of our own selves4 ,the more you explain1 the further it runs away from you4 ,it is like trying to get hold of your own shadow4 ,you run after it and it runs with you at the identical rate of speed4 ,when you realise it1 you read deep into the spirit of ,rinzai or ,obaku1 and their real kind-heartedness will begin to be appreciated4 ,ummonf#ea4e 7,yn-mn71 was another great master of ,zen at the end of the ,t#8ang dynasty4 ,he had to lose one of his legs in order to get an insight into the life-principle from which the whole universe takes rise1 including his own humble existence4 ,he had to visit his teacher ,bokuju 7,mu-chou7#a4f who was a senior disciple of ,rinzai under ,obaku1 three times before he was admitted to see him4 ,the master asked1 8,who are you80 8,i am ,bun-yen 7,wn-yen710 answered the monk4 7,bun-yen was his name1 while ,ummon was the name of the monastery where he was settled later74 ,when the truth-seeking monk was allowed to go inside the gate1 the master took hold of him by the chest and demanded1 8,speak6 ,speak60 ,ummon hesitated1 whereupon the master pushed him out of the gate1 saying1 8,oh1 you good-for-nothing fellow60f#fa4g ,while the gate was hastily shut1 one of ,ummon's legs was caught and broken4 ,the intense pain resulting from this apparently awakened the poor fellow to the greatest fact of life4 ,he was no more a solicitous1 pity-begging monk1 the realisation now gained paid more than enough for the loss of his leg4 ,he was not however a solitary instance in this respect1 there were many such in the history of ,zen who were willing to sacrifice a part of the body for the truth4 ,says ,confucius3 8,if a man understands the ,tao in the morning1 it is well with him even when he dies in the evening40 ,some would feel indeed that truth is of more value than mere living1 mere vegetative or animal living4 ,but in the world1 alas1 there are so many living corpses wallowing in the mud of ignorance and sensuality4 ,this is where ,zen is most difficult to understand4 ,why this sarcastic vituperation8 ,why this seeming heartlessness8 ,what fault had ,ummon to deserve the loss of his leg8 ,he was a poor truth-seeking monk1 earnestly anxious to get enlightenment from the master4 ,was it really necessary for the latter from his way of understanding ,zen to shut him out three times1 and when the gate was half opened to close it again so violently1 so inhumanly8 ,was this the truth of ,buddhism ,ummon was so eager to get8 ,but the outcome of all this singularly was what was desired by both of them4 ,as to the master1 he was satisfied to see the disciple attain an insight into the secrets of his being2 and as regards the disciple he was most grateful for all that was done to him4 ,evidently1 ,zen is the most irrational1 inconceivable thing in the world4 ,and this is why ,i said before that ,zen was not subject to logical analysis or to intellectual treatment4 ,it must be directly and personally experienced by each of us in his inner spirit4 ,just as two stainless mirrors reflect each other1 the fact and our own spirits must stand facing each other with no intervening agents4 ,when this is done1 we are able to seize upon the living1 pulsating fact itself4 ,freedom is an empty word until then4 ,the first object was to escape the bondage in which all finite beings find themselves1 but if we do not cut asunder the very chain of ignorance with which we are bound hands and feet1 where shall we look for deliverance8 ,and this chain of ignorance is wrought of nothing else but the intellect and sensuous infatuation1 which cling tightly to every thought we may have1 to every feeling we may entertain4 ,they are hard to get rid of1 they are like wet clothes as is aptly expressed by the ,zen masters4 8,we are born free and equal40 ,whatever this may mean socially or politically1 ,zen maintains that it is absolutely true in the spiritual domain1 and that all the fetters and manacles we seem to be carrying about ourselves are put on later through ignorance of the true condition of existence4 ,all the treatments1 sometimes literary and sometimes physical1 which are most liberally and kindheartedly given by the masters to inquiring souls1 are intended to get them back to the original state of freedom4 ,and this is never really realised until we once personally experience it through our own efforts1 independent of any ideational representation4 ,the ultimate standpoint of ,zen1 therefore1 is that we have been led astray through ignorance to find a split in our own being1 that there was from the very beginning no need for a struggle between the finite and the infinite1 that the peace we are seeking so eagerly after has been there all the time4 ,sotoba 7,su ,tung-p#8o71#a4h the noted ,chinese poet and statesman1 expresses the idea in the following verse3 8,misty rain on ,mount ,lu1 ,and waves surging in ,ch-chiang2 ,when you have not yet been there1 ,many a regret surely you have2 ,but once there and homeward you wend1 ,and how matter-of-fact things look6 ,misty rain on ,mount ,lu1 ,and waves surging in ,ch-chiang40#i ,this is what is also asserted by ,seigen ,ishin 7,ch#8ing-yan ,wei-hsin71 according to whom1 8,before a man studies ,zen1 to him mountains are mountains and waters are waters2 after he gets an insight into the truth of ,zen through the instruction of a good master1 mountains to him are not mountains and waters are not waters2 but after this when he really attains to the abode of rest1 mountains are once more mountains and waters are waters40#a4aj ,bokuju 7,mu-chou7 who lived in the latter half of the ninth century1 was once asked1 8,we have to dress and eat every day1 and how can we escape from all that80 ,the master replied1 8,we dress1 we eat40 8,i do not understand you10 said the questioner4 8,if you don't understand put your dress on and eat your food40#a4aa ,zen always deals in concrete facts and does not indulge in generalisation4 ,and ,i do not wish to add unnecessary legs to the painted snake1 but if ,i try to waste my philosophical comments on ,bokuju1 ,i may say this4 ,we are all finite1 we cannot live out of time and space2 inasmuch as we are earth-created1 there is no way to grasp the infinite1 how can we deliver ourselves from the limitations of existence8 ,this is perhaps the idea put in the first question of the monk1 to which the master replies3 ,salvation must be sought in the finite itself1 there is nothing infinite apart from finite things2 if you seek something transcendental1 that will cut you off from this world of relativity1 which is the same thing as the annihilation of yourself4 ,you do not want salvation at the cost of your own existence4 ,if so1 drink and eat1 and find your way of freedom in this drinking and eating4 ,this was too much for the questioner1 who1 therefore1 confessed himself as not understanding the meaning of the master4 ,therefore1 the latter continued3 ,whether you understand or not1 just the same go on living in the finite1 with the finite2 for you die if you stop eating and keeping yourself warm on account of your aspiration for the infinite4 ,no matter how you struggle1 ,nirvana is to be sought in the midst of ,samsara 7birth-and-death74 ,whether an enlightened ,zen master or an ignoramus of the first degree1 neither can escape the so-called laws of nature4 ,when the stomach is empty1 both are hungry2 when it snows1 both have to put on an extra flannel4 ,i do not however mean that they are both material existences1 but they are what they are1 regardless of their conditions of spiritual development4 ,as the ,buddhist scriptures have it1 the darkness of the cave itself turns into enlightenment when a torch of spiritual insight burns4 ,it is not that a thing called darkness is first taken out and another thing known by the name of enlightenment is carried in later1 but that enlightenment and darkness are substantially one and the same thing from the very beginning1 the change from the one to the other has taken place only inwardly or subjectively4 ,therefore1 the finite is the infinite1 and vice versa4 ,these are not two separate things1 though we are compelled to conceive them so1 intellectually4 ,this is the idea1 logically interpreted1 perhaps contained in ,bokuju's answer given to the monk4 ,the mistake consists in our splitting into two what is really and absolutely one4 ,is not life one as we live it1 which we cut to pieces by recklessly applying the murderous knife of intellectual surgery8 ,on being requested by the monks to deliver a sermon1 ,hyakujo ,nehan 7,pai-chang ,nieh-p#8an7#a4ab told them to work on the farm1 after which he would give them a talk on the great subject of ,buddhism4 ,they did as they were told1 and came to the master for a sermon1 when the latter1 without saying a word1 merely extended his open arms towards the monks4 ,perhaps there is after all nothing mysterious in ,zen4 ,everything is open to your full view4 ,if you eat your food and keep yourself cleanly dressed and work on the farm to raise your rice or vegetables1 you are doing all that is required of you on this earth1 and the infinite is realised in you4 ,how realised8 ,when ,bokuju was asked what ,zen was1 he recited a ,sanskrit phrase from a ,sutra1 8,mahprajpramit60 7in ,japanese1 ,makahannyaharamii674 ,the inquirer acknowledged his inability to understand the purport of the strange phrase1 and the master put a comment on it1 saying1 8,my robe is all worn out after so many years' usage4 ,and parts of it in shreds loosely hanging have been blown away to the clouds40#a4ac ,is the infinite after all such a poverty-stricken mendicant8 ,whatever this is1 there is one thing in this connection which we can never afford to lose sight of1 that is1 the peace or poverty 7for peace is only possible in poverty7 is obtained after a fierce battle fought with the entire strength of your personality4 ,a contentment gleaned from idleness or from a laissez-faire attitude of mind is a thing most to be abhorred4 ,there is no ,zen in this1 but sloth and mere vegetation4 ,the battle must rage in its full vigour and masculinity4 ,without it1 whatever peace that obtains is a simulacrum1 and it has no deep foundation1 the first storm it may encounter will crush it to the ground4 ,zen is quite emphatic in this4 ,certainly1 the moral virility to be found in ,zen1 apart from its mystic flight1 comes from the fighting of the battle of life courageously and undauntedly4 ,from the ethical point of view1 therefore1 ,zen may be considered a discipline aiming at the reconstruction of character4 ,our ordinary life only touches the fringe of personality1 it does not cause a commotion in the deepest parts of the soul4 ,even when the religious consciousness is awakened1 most of us lightly pass over it so as to leave no marks of a bitter fighting on the soul4 ,we are thus made to live on the superficiality of things4 ,we may be clever1 bright1 and all that1 but what we produce lacks depth1 sincerity1 and does not appeal to the inmost feelings4 ,some are utterly unable to create anything except makeshifts or imitations betraying their shallowness of character and want of spiritual experience4 ,while ,zen is primarily religious1 it also moulds our moral character4 ,it may be better to say that a deep spiritual experience is bound to effect a change in the moral structure of one's personality4 ,how is this so8 ,the truth of ,zen is such that when we want to comprehend it penetratingly we have to go through with a great struggle1 sometimes very long and exacting constant vigilance4 ,to be disciplined in ,zen is no easy task4 ,a ,zen master once remarked that the life of a monk can be attained only by a man of great moral strength1 and that even a minister of the state cannot expect to become a successful monk4 7,let us remark here that in ,china to be a minister of the state was considered to be the greatest achievement a man could ever hope for in this world47 ,not that a monkish life requires the austere practice of asceticism1 but that it implies the elevation of one's spiritual powers to their highest notch4 ,all the utterances or activities of the great ,zen masters have come from this elevation4 ,they are not intended to be enigmatic or driving us to confusion4 ,they are the overflowing of a soul filled with deep experiences4 ,therefore1 unless we are ourselves elevated to the same height as the masters1 we cannot gain the same commanding views of life4 ,says ,ruskin3 8,and be sure also1 if the author is worth anything1 that you will not get at his meaning all at once1--nay1 that at his whole meaning you will not for a long time arrive in any wise4 ,not that he does not say what he means1 and in strong words too2 but he cannot say it all and what is more strange1 will not1 but in a hidden way and in parable1 in order that he may be sure you want it4 ,i cannot see quite the reason of this1 nor analyse that cruel reticence in the breasts of wise men which makes them always hide their deeper thought4 ,they do not give it you by way of help1 but of reward1 and will make themselves sure that you deserve it before they allow you to reach it40 ,and this key to the royal treasury of wisdom is given us only after patient and painful moral struggle4 ,the mind is ordinarily chock-full with all kinds of intellectual nonsense and passional rubbish4 ,they are of course useful in their own ways in our daily life4 ,there is no denying that4 ,but it is chiefly because of these accumulations that we are made miserable and groan under the feeling of bondage4 ,each time we want to make a movement1 they fetter us1 they choke us1 and cast a heavy veil over our spiritual horizon4 ,we feel as if we are constantly living under restraint4 ,we long for naturalness and freedom1 yet we do not seem to attain them4 ,the ,zen masters know this1 for they have gone through with the same experiences once4 ,they want to have us get rid of all these wearisome burdens which we really do not have to carry in order to live a life of truth and enlightenment4 ,thus they utter a few words and demonstrate with action that1 when rightly comprehended1 will deliver us from the oppression and tyranny of these intellectual accumulations4 ,but the comprehension does not come to us so easily4 ,being so long accustomed to the oppression1 the mental inertia becomes hard to remove4 ,in fact it has gone down deep into the roots of our own being1 and the whole structure of personality is to be overturned4 ,the process of reconstruction is stained with tears and blood4 ,but the height the great masters have climbed cannot otherwise be reached2 the truth of ,zen can never be attained unless it is attacked with the full force of personality4 ,the passage is strewn with thistles and brambles1 and the climb is slippery in the extreme4 ,it is no pastime but the most serious task in life1 no idlers will ever dare attempt it4 ,it is indeed a moral anvil on which your character is hammered and hammered4 ,to the question1 8,what is ,zen80 a master gave this answer1 8,boiling oil over a blazing fire40#a4ad ,this scorching experience we have to go through with before ,zen smiles on us and says1 8,here is your home40 ,one of these utterances by the ,zen masters that will stir a revolution in our minds is this3 ,hkoji 7,p#8ang-yn71 formerly a ,confucian1 asked ,baso 7,ma-tsu1 -#ghh71 8,what kind of man is he who does not keep company with any thing80 ,replied the master1 8,i will tell you when you have swallowed up in one draught all the waters in the ,west ,river40#a4ae ,what an irrelevant reply to the most serious question one can ever raise in the history of thought6 ,it sounds almost sacrilegious when we know how many souls there are who go down under the weight of this question4 ,but ,baso's earnestness leaves no room for doubt as is quite well known to all the students of ,zen4 ,in fact1 the rise of ,zen after the sixth patriarch1 ,hui-nng1 was due to the brilliant career of ,baso under whom there arose more than eighty fully-qualified masters1 and ,hkoji who was one of the foremost lay disciples of ,zen1 earned a well-deserved reputation as the ,vimalakrti of ,chinese ,buddhism4 ,a talk between two such veteran ,zen masters could not be an idle sport4 ,however easy and even careless it may appear1 there is hidden in it a most precious gem in the literature of ,zen4 ,we do not know how many students of ,zen were made to sweat and cry in tears because of the inscrutability of this statement of ,baso's4 ,to give another instance3 a monk asked the master ,shin of ,chsa 7,chang-sha ,ching-ch#8n71 8,where has ,nansen 7,nan-ch#8an7 gone after his death80 ,replied the master1 8,when ,sekito 7,shih-tou7 was still in the order of young novitiates1 he saw the sixth patriarch40 8,i am not asking about the young novitiate4 ,what ,i wish to know is1 where is ,nansen gone after his death80 8,as to that10 said the master1 8it makes one think40#a4af ,the immortality of the soul is another big question4 ,the history of religion is built upon this one question1 one may almost say4 ,everybody wants to know about life after death4 ,where do we go when we pass away from this earth8 ,is there really another life8 or is the end of this the end of all8 ,while there may be many who do not worry themselves as to the ultimate significance of the solitary1 8companionless0 ,one1 there are none perhaps who have not once at least in their lives asked themselves concerning their destiny after death4 ,whether ,sekito when young saw the sixth patriarch or not1 does not seem to have any inherent connection with the departure of ,nansen4 ,the latter was the teacher of ,chsa1 and naturally the monk asked him whither the teacher finally passed4 ,chsa's answer is no answer1 judged by the ordinary rules of logic4 ,hence the second question1 but still a sort of equivocation from the lips of the master4 ,what does this 8making one think0 explain8 ,from this it is apparent that ,zen is one thing and logic another4 ,when we fail to make this distinction and expect of ,zen to give us something logically consistent and intellectually illuminating1 we altogether misinterpret the signification of ,zen4 ,did ,i not state in the beginning that ,zen deals with facts and not with generalisations8 ,and this is the very point where ,zen goes straight down to the foundations of personality4 ,the intellect ordinarily does not lead us there1 for we do not live in the intellect1 but in the will4 ,brother ,lawrence speaks the truth when he says 78,the ,practice of the ,presence of ,god071 8,that we ought to make a great difference between the acts of the understanding and those of the will3 that the first were comparatively of little value1 and the others1 all40 ,zen literature is all brimful of such statements1 which seem to have been uttered so casually1 so innocently1 but those who actually know what ,zen is will testify to the fact that all these utterances dropped so naturally from the lips of the masters are like deadly poisons1 that when they are once taken in they cause such a violent pain as to make one's intestines wriggle nine times and more1 as the ,chinese would express it4 ,but it is only after such pain and turbulence that all the internal impurities are purged and one is born with quite a new outlook on life4 ,it is strange that ,zen grows intelligible when these mental struggles are gone through4 ,but the fact is that ,zen is an experience actual and personal1 and not a knowledge to be gained by analysis or comparison4 8,do not talk poetry except to a poet2 only the sick know how to sympathise with the sick40 ,this explains the whole situation4 ,our minds are to be so matured as to be in tune with those of the masters4 ,let this be accomplished1 and when one string is struck1 the other will inevitably respond4 ,harmonious notes always result from the sympathetic resonance of two or more chords4 ,and what ,zen does for us is to prepare our minds to be yielding and appreciative recipients of old masters4 ,in other words1 psychologically ,zen releases whatever energies we may have in store1 of which we are not conscious in ordinary circumstances4 ,some say that ,zen is self-suggestion4 ,but this does not explain anything4 ,when the word 8,yamato-damashi0 is mentioned1 it seems to awaken in most ,japanese a fervent patriotic passion4 ,the children are taught to respect the flag of the rising sun1 and when the soldiers come in front of the regimental colours they involuntarily salute4 ,when a boy is reproached for not acting like a little samurai and disgracing the name of his ancestor1 he at once musters his courage and will resist temptations4 ,all these ideas are energy-releasing ideas for the ,japanese1 and this release1 according to some psychologists1 is self-suggestion4 ,social conventions and imitative instincts may also be regarded as self-suggestions4 ,so is moral discipline4 ,an example is given to the students to follow or imitate it4 ,the idea gradually takes root in them through suggestion1 and they finally come to act as if it were their own4 ,self-suggestion is a barren theory1 it does not explain anything4 ,when they say that ,zen is self-suggestion1 do we get any clearer idea of ,zen8 ,some think it scientific to call certain phenomena by a term newly come into fashion1 and rest satisfied with it as if they disposed of them in an illuminating way4 ,the study of ,zen must be taken up by the profounder psychologists4 ,some think that there is still an unknown region in our consciousness which has not yet been thoroughly and systematically explored4 ,it is sometimes called the ,unconscious or the ,subconscious4 ,this is a territory filled with dark images1 and naturally most scientists are afraid of treading upon it4 ,but this must not be taken as denying the fact of its existence4 ,just as our ordinary field of consciousness is filled with all possible kinds of images1 beneficial and harmful1 systematic and confusing1 clear and obscure1 forcefully assertive and weakly fading2 so is the ,subconscious a storehouse of every form of occultism or mysticism1 understanding by the term all that is known as latent or abnormal or psychic or spiritualistic4 ,the power to see into the nature of one's own being may lie also hidden there1 and what ,zen awakens in our consciousness may be that4 ,at any rate the masters speak figuratively of the opening of a third eye4 8,satori0 is the popular name given to this opening or awakening4 ,how is this to be effected8 ,by meditating on those utterances or actions that are directly poured out from the inner region undimmed by the intellect or the imagination1 and that are calculated successfully to exterminate all the turmoils arising from ignorance and confusion4f#g ,it may be interesting to readers in this connection to get acquainted with some of the methodsf#h used by the masters in order to open the spiritual eye of the disciple4 ,it is natural that they frequently make use of the various religious insignia which they carry when going out to the ,hall of the ,dharma4 ,such are generally the 8hossu10f#i 8shippe10f#aj 8nyoi10f#aa or 8shujyo0 7or a staff74#a4ag ,the last-mentioned seems to have been the most favourite instrument used in the demonstration of the truth of ,zen4 ,let me cite some examples of its use4 ,according to ,y-ryo 7,hui-lng71 of ,chkei 7,chang-ch#8ing71#a4ah 8when one knows what that staff is1 one's life study of ,zen comes to an end40 ,this reminds us of ,tennyson's flower in the crannied wall4 ,for when we understand the reason of the staff1 we know 8what ,god and man is10 that is to say1 we get an insight into the nature of our own being1 and this insight finally puts a stop to all the doubts and hankerings that have upset our mental tranquillity4 ,the significance of the staff in ,zen can thus readily be comprehended4 ,y-sei 7,hui-ch#8ing71 of ,basho 7,pa-chiao71 probably of the tenth century1 once made the following declaration3 8,when you have a staff1 ,i will give you one2 when you have none1 ,i will take it away from you40#a4ai ,this is one of the most characteristic statements of ,zen1 but later ,bokitsu 7,mu-chi71 of ,daiyi 7,ta-wei71 was bold enough to challenge this by saying what directly contradicts it1 viz41 8,as to myself1 ,i differ from him4 ,when you have a staff1 ,i will take it away from you2 and when you have none1 ,i will give you one4 ,this is my statement4 ,can you make use of the staff8 or can you not8 ,if you can1 ,tokusan 7,t-shan7 will be your vanguard and ,rinzai 7,lin-chi7 your rearguard4 ,but if you cannot1 let it be restored to its original master40#a4bj ,a monk approached ,bokuju and said1 8,what is the statement surpassing the wisdom of all ,buddhas and ,patriarchs80 ,the master instantly held forth his staff before the congregation1 and said1 8,i call this a staff1 and what do you call it80 ,the monk who asked the question uttered not a word4 ,the master holding it out again1 said1 8,a statement surpassing the wisdom of all ,buddhas and ,patriarchs1--was that not your question1 ,o monk80#a4ba ,to those who carelessly go over such remarks as ,bokuju's may regard them as quite nonsensical4 ,whether the stick is called a staff or not1 it does not seem to matter very much as far as the divine wisdom surpassing the limits of our knowledge is concerned4 ,but the one made by ,ummon1 another great master of ,zen1 is perhaps more accessible4 ,he also once lifted his staff before a congregation and remarked3 8,in the scriptures we read that the ignorant take this for a real thing1 the ,hinayanists resolve it into a nonentity1 the ,pratyekabuddhas regard it as a hallucination1 while the ,bodhisattvas admit its apparent reality1 which is1 however1 essentially empty40 8,but10 continued the master1 8monks1 you simply call it a staff when you see one4 ,walk or sit as you will1 but do not stand irresolute40#a4bb ,the same old insignificant staff and yet more mystical statements from ,ummon4 ,one day his announcement was3 8,my staff has turned into a dragon1 and it has swallowed up the whole universe2 where would the great earth with its mountains and rivers be80#a4bc ,on another occasion1 ,ummon1 quoting an ancient ,buddhist philosopher who said that 8,knock at the emptiness of space and you hear a voice2 strike a piece of wood and there is no sound10 ,ummon took out his staff1 and striking space1 he cried1 8,oh1 how it hurts60 ,then tapping at the board1 he asked1 8,any noise80 ,a monk responded1 8,yes1 there is a noise40f#aba4bd ,thereupon exclaimed the master1 8,o you ignoramus60 ,if ,i go on like this1 there will be no end4 ,so ,i stop1 but expect some of you asking me the following questions3 8,have these utterances anything to do with one's seeing into the nature of one's being8 ,is there any relationship possible between those apparently nonsensical talks about the staff and the all-important problem of the reality of life80 ,in answer ,i append these two passages1 one from ,jimyo 7,tz#8u-ming7#a4bf and the other from ,yengo 7,yan-wu73 ,in one of his sermons1 ,jimyo said3 8,as soon as one particle of dust is raised1 the great earth manifests itself there in its entirety4 ,in one lion are revealed millions of lions1 and in millions of lions is revealed one lion4 ,thousands and thousands of them there are indeed1 but know ye just one1 one only40 ,so saying he lifted up his staff1 and continued1 8,here is my own staff1 and where is that one lion80 ,bursting out into a 8,kwats0 7h71 he set the staff down1 and left the pulpit4 ,in the ,hekigan 7,pi-yen-lu71f#ac ,yengo expresses the same idea in his introductory remark to the 8one finger ,zen0 of ,gutei 7,chh-chih i chih t#8ou ch#8an7f#ad3a4bg 8,one particle of dust is raised and the great earth lies therein2 one flower blooms and the universe rises with it4 ,but where should our eye be fixed when the dust is not yet stirred and the flower has not yet bloomed8 ,therefore1 it is said that1 like cutting a bundle of thread1 one cut cuts all asunder2 again1 like dyeing a bundle of thread1 one dyeing dyes all in the same colour4 ,now yourself get out of all the entangling relations and rip them up to pieces1 but do not lose track of your inner treasure2 for it is through this that the high and the low universally responding and the advanced and the backward making no distinction1 each manifests itself in full perfection40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the foregoing sketch of ,zen ,i hope will give the reader a general1 though necessarily vague1 idea of ,zen as it is and has been taught in the ,far ,east for more than one thousand years4 ,in what follows ,i will try first to seek the origin of ,zen in the spiritual enlightenment itself of the ,buddha2 for ,zen has been frequently criticised for deviating too far from what is popularly understood to be the teaching of the ,buddha as it is recorded especially in the gamas or ,nikyas4 ,while ,zen1 as it is1 is no doubt the native product of the ,chinese mind1 the line of its development must be traced back to the personal experience of the ,indian founder himself4 ,unless this is understood in connection with the psychological characteristics of the people1 the growth of ,zen among the ,chinese ,buddhists would be unintelligible4 ,zen is after all one of the ,mahayana schools of ,buddhism shorn of its ,indian garb4 ,next ,i have tried to write a history of ,zen in ,china after ,bodhi-,dharma1 who is the real author of the school4 ,zen was quietly matured and transmitted by the five successive patriarchs so-called after the passing of the first propagator from ,india4 ,when ,hui-nng1 the sixth patriarch1 began to teach the gospel of ,zen ,buddhism1 it was no more ,indian but thoroughly ,chinese1 and what we call ,zen now in the form as we have it1 dates from him4 ,the course thus definitely given shape by the sixth patriarch to the development of ,zen in ,china gained its strength not only in volume but in content by the masterful handling of it by the spiritual descendants of ,hui-nng4 ,the first section of the ,chinese history of ,zen therefore naturally closes with him4 ,as the central fact of ,zen lies in the attainment of 8satori0 or the opening of a spiritual eye1 ,i have next dwelt upon the subject4 ,the treatment is somewhat popular1 for the main idea is to present the fact that there is such a thing as an intuitional understanding of the truth of ,zen1 which is 8satori10 and also to illustrate the uniqueness of 8satori0 as experienced by ,zen devotees4 ,when we understand the significance of 8satori0 in ,zen1 we may logically wish to know something about the methods whereby the masters contrive to bring about such a revolutionary experience1 more or less noetic1 in the minds of the students4 ,some of the practical ,zen methods resorted to by the masters are classified under a certain number of headings1 but in this classification ,i have not attempted to be thoroughly exhaustive here4 ,the ,meditation ,hall is an institution quite peculiar to ,zen ,buddhism1 and those who want to know something about ,zen and its educational system cannot afford to ignore the subject4 ,this unique organ of ,zen ,buddhism however has never been described before4 ,the reader ,i hope will find here a subject interesting enough for his thorough investigation4 ,while ,zen claims to be the 8ultra-abrupt0 wing of ,buddhism1 it has a well-marked gradation in its progress towards the ultimate goal4 ,hence the concluding chapter on 8,the ,ten ,cow-herding ,pictures40 ,there are many more topics with which one ought to be acquainted in the study of ,zen ,buddhism1 and some of them1 considered by the author the more important1 will be treated in the second series of the ,essays4 ,,zen ,,as ,,chinese ,,interpretation ,,of ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,enlightenment ,,zen ,,as ,,chinese ,,interpretation ,,of ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,enlightenment ,foreword ,before ,i proceed to the discussion of the main idea of this essay1 which is to consider ,zen the ,chinese way of applying the doctrine of ,enlightenment in our practical life1 ,i wish to make some preliminary remarks concerning the attitude of some ,zen critics and thereby to define the position of ,zen in the general body of ,buddhism4 ,according to them1 ,zen ,buddhism is not ,buddhism1 it is something foreign to the spirit of ,buddhism1 and that it is one of those aberrations which we often see growing up in the history of any religion4 ,zen is thus1 they think1 an abnormality prevailing among the people whose thought and feeling flow along a channel different from the main current of ,buddhist thought4 ,whether this allegation is true or not1 will be decided1 on the one hand1 when we understand what is really the essence or genuine spirit of ,buddhism1 and1 on the other1 when we know the exact status of ,zen doctrine in regard to the ruling ideas of ,buddhism as they are accepted in the ,far ,east4 ,it may also be desirable to know something about the development of religious experience in general4 ,when we are not prepared thoroughly to understand these questions in the light of the history and philosophy of religion1 we may come dogmatically to assert that ,zen is not ,buddhism just because it looks so different on its surface from what some people with a certain set of preconceived notions consider ,buddhism to be4 ,the statement of my position as regards these points will therefore pave the way to the development of the principal thesis4 ,superficially1 indeed1 there is something in ,zen so bizarre and even irrational1 as to frighten the pious literary followers of the so-called primitive ,buddhism and to make them declare that ,zen is not ,buddhism but a ,chinese anomaly of it4 ,what1 for instance1 would they really make out of such statements as follows3 ,in the ,sayings of ,nan-ch#8an#b4l we read that1 when ,ts#8ui1 governor of ,ch#8i ,district1 asked the fifth patriarch of the ,zen sect1 that is1 ,hung-jn1 how it was that while he had five hundred followers1 ,hui-nng1 in preference to all others1 was singled out to be given the orthodox robe of transmission as the sixth patriarch1 replied the fifth patriarch3 8,four hundred and ninety-nine out of my disciples understand well what ,buddhism is1 except one ,hui-nng4 ,he is a man not to be measured by an ordinary standard4 ,hence the robe of faith was handed over to him40 ,on this comments ,nan-ch#8an3 8,in the age of ,void there are no words whatever2 as soon as the ,buddha appears on earth1 words come into existence1 hence our clinging to signs4444 ,and thus as we now so firmly take hold of words1 we limit ourselves in various ways1 while in the ,great ,way there are absolutely no such things as ignorance or holiness4 ,everything that has a name thereby limits itself4 ,therefore1 the old master of ,chiang-hsi declared that #8it is neither mind1 nor ,buddha1 nor a thing4' ,it was in this way that he wished to guide his followers1 while these days they vainly endeavour to experience the ,great ,way by hypostatising such an entity as mind4 ,if the ,way could be mastered in this manner1 it would be well for them to wait until the appearance of ,maitreya ,buddha which is said to be at the end of the world and then to awaken the enlightenment-thought4 ,how could such ones ever hope for spiritual freedom8 ,under the fifth patriarch1 all of his five hundred disciples1 except one ,hui-nng1 understood ,buddhism well4 ,the lay-disciple1 ,nng1 was quite unique in this respect1 for he did not at all understand ,buddhism4f#ae ,he understood the ,way only and no other thing40 ,these are not very extraordinary statements in ,zen1 but to most of the ,zen critics they must spell abomination4 ,buddhism is flatly denied1 and its knowledge is regarded not to be indispensable to the mastery of ,zen1 the ,great ,way1 which on the contrary is more or less identified with the negation of ,buddhism4 ,how is this8 ,in the following pages an attempt is made to answer this question4 ,the ,life and ,spirit of ,buddhism ,to make this point clear and to justify the claim for ,zen that it transmits the essence of ,buddhism and not its formulated articles of faith as are recorded in letters1 it is necessary to strip the spirit of ,buddhism off all its outer casings and appendages1 which1 hindering the working of its original life-force1 are apt to make us take the unessential for the essential4 ,we know that the acorn is so different from the oak1 but as long as there is a continuation of growth1 their identity is a logical conclusion4 ,to see really into the nature of the acorn is to trace an uninterrupted development through its various historical stages4 ,when the seed remains a seed and means nothing more1 there is no life in it1 it is a finished piece of work and except as an object of historical curiosity1 it has no value whatever in our religious experience4 ,in like manner1 to determine the nature of ,buddhism we must go along its whole line of development and see what are the healthiest and most vital germs in it which have brought it to the present state of maturity4 ,when this is done1 we shall see in what manner ,zen is to be recognised as one of the various phases of ,buddhism and in fact as the most essential factor in it4 ,to comprehend fully1 therefore1 the constitution of any existent religion that has a long history1 it is advisable to separate its founder from his teaching1 as a most powerful determinant in the development of the latter4 ,by this ,i mean1 in the first place1 that the founder so called had in the beginning no idea of being the founder of any religious system which would later grow up in his name2 in the second that to his disciples1 while he was yet alive1 his personality was not regarded as independent of his teaching1 at least as far as they were conscious of the fact2 in the third that what was unconsciously working in their minds as regards the nature of their master's personality came out in the foreground after his passing with all the possible intensity that had been latently gaining strength within them1 and lastly that the personality of the founder grew up in his disciples' minds so powerful as to make itself the very nucleus of his teaching1 that is to say1 the latter was made to serve as explanation of the meaning of the former4 ,it is a great mistake to think that any existent religious system was handed down to posterity by its founder as the fully matured product of his mind1 and1 therefore1 that what the followers had to do with their religious founder and his teaching was to embrace both the founder and his teaching as sacred heritage--a treasure not to be profaned by the content of their individual spiritual experience4 ,for this view fails to take into consideration what our spiritual life is and petrifies religion to its very core4 ,this static conservatism1 however1 is always opposed by a progressive party which looks at a religious system from a dynamic point of view4 ,and these two forces which are seen conflicting against each other in every field of human activity1 weave out the history of religion as in other cases4 ,in fact1 history is the record of these struggles everywhere4 ,but the very fact that there are such struggles in religion shows that they are here to some purpose and that religion is a living force2 for they gradually bring to light the hidden implications of the original faith and enrich it in a manner undreamed of in the beginning4 ,this takes place not only with regard to the personality of the founder but with regard to his teaching1 and the result is an astounding complexity or rather confusion which sometimes prevents us from properly seeing into the constitution of a living religious system4 ,while the founder was still walking among his followers and disciples1 the latter did not distinguish between the person of their leader and his teaching2 for the teaching was realised in the person and the person was livingly explained in the teaching4 ,to embrace the teaching was to follow his steps1 that is1 to believe in him4 ,his presence among them was enough to inspire them and convince them of the truth of his teaching4 ,they might not have comprehended it thoroughly1 but his authoritative way of presenting it left in their hearts no shadow of doubt as to its truth and eternal value4 ,so long as he lived among them and spoke to them1 his teaching and his person appealed to them as an individual unity4 ,even when they retired into a solitary place and meditated on the truth of his teaching1 which they did as a form of spiritual discipline1 the image of his person was always before their mental eyes4 ,but things went differently when his stately and inspiring personality was no more seen in the flesh4 ,his teaching was still there1 his followers could recite it perfectly from memory1 but its personal connection with the author was lost1 the living chain which solidly united him and his doctrine as one was for ever broken4 ,when they reflected on the truth of the doctrine1 they could not help thinking of their teacher as a soul far deeper and nobler than themselves4 ,the similarities that were1 either consciously or unconsciously1 recognised as existing in various forms between leader and disciple gradually vanished1 and as they vanished1 the other side1 that is1 that which made him so distinctly different from his followers came to assert itself all the more emphatically and irresistibly4 ,the result was the conviction that he must have come from quite a unique spiritual source4 ,the process of deification thus constantly went on until1 some centuries after the death of the ,master1 he became a direct manifestation of the ,supreme ,being himself1 in fact1 he was the ,highest ,one in the flesh1 in him there was a divine humanity in perfect realisation4 ,he was ,son of ,god or the ,buddha and the ,redeemer of the world4 ,he will then be considered by himself independently of his teaching2 he will occupy the centre of interest in the eyes of his followers4 ,the teaching is of course important1 but mainly as having come from the mouth of such an exalted spirit1 and not necessarily as containing the truth of love or ,enlightenment4 ,indeed1 the teaching is to be interpreted in the light of the teacher's divine personality4 ,the latter now predominates over the whole system1 he is the centre whence radiate the rays of ,enlightenment1 salvation is only possible in believing in him as saviour4f#af ,around this personality or this divine nature there will now grow various systems of philosophy essentially based on his own teaching1 but more or less modified according to the spiritual experiences of the disciples4 ,this would perhaps never have taken place if the personality of the founder were not such as to stir up the deep religious feelings in the hearts of his followers2 which is to say1 what most attracted the latter to the teaching was not primarily the teaching itself but that which gave life to it1 and without which it would never have been what it was4 ,we are not always convinced of the truth of a statement because it is so logically advanced1 but mainly because there is an inspiring life-impulse running through it4 ,we are first struck with it and later try to verify its truth4 ,the understanding is needed1 but this alone will never move us to risk the fate of our souls4 ,one of the greatest religious souls in ,japan once confessed1f#ag 8,i do not care whether ,i go to hell or elsewhere1 but because my old master taught me to invoke the name of the ,buddha1 ,i practise the teaching40 ,this was not a blind acceptance of the master1 in whom there was something deeply appealing to one's soul1 and the disciple embraced this something with his whole being4 ,mere logic never moves us2 there must be something transcending the intellect4 ,when ,paul insisted that 8if ,christ be not raised1 your faith is vain2 ye are yet in your sins10 he was not appealing to our logical idea of things1 but to our spiritual yearnings4 ,it did not matter whether things existed as facts of chronological history or not1 the vital concern of ours was the fulfilment of our inmost inspirations2 even so-called objective facts could be so moulded as to yield the best result to the requirements of our spiritual life4 ,the personality of the founder of any religious system that has survived through centuries of growth must have had all the qualities that fully meet such spiritual requirements4 ,as soon as the person and his teaching are separated after his own passing in the religious consciousness of his followers1 if he was sufficiently great1 he will at once occupy the centre of their spiritual interest and all his teachings will be made to explain this fact in various ways4 ,to state it more concretely1 how much ,christianity1 for instance1 as we have it to-day is the teaching of ,christ himself8 and how much of it is the contribution of ,paul1 ,john1 ,peter1 ,augustine1 and even ,aristotle8 ,the magnificent structure of ,christian dogmatics is the work of ,christian faith as has been experienced successively by its leaders1 it is not the work of one person1 even of ,christ4 ,for dogmatics is not necessarily always concerned with historical facts which are rather secondary in importance compared with the religious truth of ,christianity3 the latter is what ought to be rather than what is or what was4 ,it aims at the establishment of what is universally valid1 which is not to be jeopardised by the fact or non-fact of historical elements1 as is maintained by some of the modern exponents of ,christian dogmatics4 ,whether ,christ really claimed to be the ,messiah or not is a great historical discussion still unsettled among ,christian theologians4 ,some say that it does not make any difference as far as ,christian faith is concerned whether or not ,christ claimed to be the ,messiah4 ,in spite of all such theological difficulties1 ,christ is the centre of ,christianity4 ,the ,christian edifice is built around the person of ,jesus4 ,buddhists may accept some of his teachings and sympathise with the content of his religious experience1 but so long as they do not cherish any faith in ,jesus as 8,christ0 or ,lord1 they are not ,christians4 ,christianity is therefore constituted not only with the teaching of ,jesus himself but with all the dogmatical and speculative interpretations concerning the personality of ,jesus and his doctrine that have accumulated ever since the death of the founder4 ,in other words1 ,christ did not found the religious system known by his name1 but he was made its founder by his followers4 ,if he were still among them1 it is highly improbable that he would sanction all the theories1 beliefs1 and practices1 which are now imposed upon self-styled ,christians4 ,if he were asked whether their learned dogmatics were his religion1 he might not know how to answer4 ,he would in all likelihood profess complete ignorance of all the philosophical subtleties of ,christian theology of the present day4 ,but from the modern ,christians' point of view they will most definitely assure us that their religion is to be referred to 8a unitary starting point and to an original basic character10 which is ,jesus as ,christ and that whatever manifold constructions and transformations that were experienced in the body of their religion did not interfere with their specific ,christ-faith4 ,they are ,christians just as much as the brethren of their primitive community were2 for there is an historical continuation of the same faith all along its growth and development which is its inner necessity4 ,to regard the form of culture of a particular time as something sacred and to be transmitted for ever as such is to suppress our spiritual yearnings after eternal validity4 ,this ,i believe is the position taken up by progressive modern ,christians4 ,how about progressive modern ,buddhists then in regard to their attitude towards ,buddhist faith constituting the essence of ,buddhism8 ,how is the ,buddha conceived by his disciples8 ,what is the nature and value of ,buddhahood8 ,when ,buddhism is defined merely as the teaching of the ,buddha1 does it explain the life of ,buddhism as it moves on through the course of history8 ,is not the life of ,buddhism the unfolding of the inner spiritual life of the ,buddha himself rather than his exposition of it1 which is recorded as the ,dharma in ,buddhist literature8 ,is there not something in the wordy teaching of the ,buddha1 which gives life to it and which lieth underneath all the arguments and controversies characterising the history of ,buddhism throughout ,asia8 ,this life is what progressive ,buddhists endeavour to lay hands on4 ,it is therefore not quite in accordance with the life and teaching of the ,buddha to regard ,buddhism merely as a system of religious doctrines and practices established by the ,buddha himself2 for it is more than that1 and comprises as its most important constituent elements1 all the experiences and speculations of the ,buddha's followers especially concerning the personality of their master and his relations to his own doctrine4 ,buddhism did not come out of the ,buddha's mind fully armed1 as did ,minerva from ,jupiter4 ,the theory of a perfect ,buddhism from the beginning is the static view of it1 and cuts it short from its continuous and never-ceasing growth4 ,our religious experience transcends the limitations of time1 and its ever-expanding content requires a more vital form which will grow without doing violence to itself4 ,inasmuch as ,buddhism is a living religion and not an historical mummy stuffed with dead and functionless materials1 it must be able to absorb and assimilate all that is helpful to its growth4 ,this is the most natural thing for any organism endowed with life4 ,and this life may be traceable under divergent forms and constructions4 ,according to scholars of ,pali ,buddhism and of the gama literature1 all that the ,buddha taught1 as far as his systematic teaching went1 seems to be summed up by the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth1 the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,causation1 the ,eightfold ,path of ,righteous ,living1 and the doctrine of ,non-ego 7,antman7 and ,nirvana4 ,if this was the case1 what we call primitive ,buddhism was quite a simple affair when its doctrinal aspect alone is considered4 ,there was nothing very promising in these doctrines that would eventually build up a magnificent structure to be known as ,buddhism comprising both the ,hinayana and the ,mahayana4 ,when we wish to understand ,buddhism thoroughly1 we must dive deep into its bottom where lies its living spirit4 ,those that are satisfied with a superficial view of its dogmatical aspect are apt to let go the spirit which will truly explain the inner life of ,buddhism4 ,to some of the ,buddha's immediate disciples the deeper things in his teachings failed to appeal1 or they were not conscious of the real spiritual forces which moved them towards their ,master4 ,we must look underneath if we want to come in contact with the ever-growing life-impetus of ,buddhism4 ,however great the ,buddha was1 he could not convert a jackal into a lion1 nor could a jackal comprehend the ,buddha above his beastly nature4 ,as the later ,buddhists state1 a ,buddha alone understands another ,buddha2 when our subjective life is not raised to the same level as the ,buddha's1 many things that go to make up his inner life escape us2 we cannot live in any other world than our own4f#ah ,therefore1 if the primitive ,buddhists read so much in the life of their ,master as is recorded in their writings1 and no more1 this does not prove that everything belonging to the ,buddha has thereby been exhausted4 ,there were probably other ,buddhists who penetrated deeper into his life1 as their own inner consciousness had a richer content4 ,the history of religion thus becomes the history of our own spiritual unfolding4 ,buddhism must be conceived biologically1 so to speak1 and not mechanically4 ,when we take this attitude1 even the doctrine of the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth becomes pregnant with yet deeper truths4 ,the ,buddha was not a metaphysician and naturally avoided discussing such subjects as were strictly theoretical and had no practical bearing on the attainment of ,nirvana4 ,he might have had his own views on those philosophical problems that at the time engaged ,indian minds4 ,but like other religious leaders his chief interest was in the practical result of speculation and not in speculation as such4 ,he was too busy in trying to get rid of the poisonous arrow that had pierced the flesh1 he had no desire to inquire into the history1 object1 and constitution of the arrow2 for life was too short for that4 ,he thus took the world as it was1 that is1 he interpreted it as it appeared to his religious insight and according to his own valuation4 ,he did not intend to go any further4 ,he called his way of looking at the world and life 8,dharma10 a very comprehensive and flexible term1 though it was not a term first used by the ,buddha2 for it had been in vogue some time prior to him mainly in the sense of ritual and law1 but the ,buddha gave it a deeper spiritual signification4 ,that the ,buddha was practical and not metaphysical1 may be seen from the criticism which was hurled at him by his opponents3 8,as ,gautama is always found alone sitting in an empty room1 he has lost his wisdom4444 ,even ,sariputra who is the wisest and best disciple of his is like a babe1 so stupid and without eloquence40f#ai ,here however lies the seed of a future development4 ,if the ,buddha had been given up to theorising his teaching never could be expected to grow4 ,speculation may be deep and subtle1 but if it has no spiritual life in it1 its possibilities are soon exhausted4 ,the ,dharma was ever maturing1 because it was mysteriously creative4 ,the ,buddha evidently had quite a pragmatic conception of the intellect and left many philosophical problems unsolved as unnecessary for the attainment of the final goal of life4 ,this was quite natural with him4 ,whilst he was still alive among his disciples1 he was the living illustration of all that was implied in his doctrine4 ,the ,dharma was manifest in him in all its vital aspects1 and there was no need to indulge in idle speculation as to the ultimate meaning of such concepts as ,dharma1 ,nirvana1 ,atman 7ego71 ,karma1 ,bodhi 7enlightenment71 etc4 ,the ,buddha's personality was the key to the solution of all these4 ,the disciples were not fully aware of the significance of this fact4 ,when they thought they understood the ,dharma1 they did not know that this understanding was really taking refuge in the ,buddha4 ,his presence somehow had a pacifying and satisfying effect on whatever spiritual anguish they had2 they felt as if they were securely embraced in the arms of a loving1 consoling mother2 to them the ,buddha was really such4f#bj ,therefore1 they had no need to press the ,buddha very hard to enlighten them on many of the philosophical problems that they might have grown conscious of4 ,they were easily reconciled in this respect to the ,buddha's unwillingness to take them into the heart of metaphysics4 ,but at the same time this left much room for the later ,buddhists to develop their own theories not only as to the teaching of the ,buddha but mainly as to its relation to his personality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,buddha's entrance into ,nirvana meant to his disciples the loss of the ,world-,light1f#ba through which they had such an illuminating view of things4 ,the ,dharma was there and in it they tried to see the ,buddha as they were instructed by him1 but it had no enlivening effect on them as before2 the moral precepts consisting of many rules were regularly observed in the ,brotherhood1 but the authoritativeness of these regulations was missed somehow4 ,they retired into a quietude and meditated on the teaching of the ,master1 but the meditation was not quite so life-giving and satisfying because they were ever assailed by doubts1 and1 as a natural consequence1 their intellectual activities were resumed4 ,everything was now to be explained to the full extent of the reasoning faculty4 ,the metaphysician began to assert himself against the simple-hearted devotion of the disciple4 ,what has been accepted as an authoritative injunction from the mouth of the ,buddha1 was now to be examined as a subject of philosophical discussion4 ,two factions were ready to divide the field with each other1 and radicalism was opposed to conservatism1 and between the two wings there were arranged schools of various tendencies4 ,the ,sthaviras were pitted against the ,mahsaghikas1 with twenty or more different schools representing various grades of diversity4f#bb ,we cannot1 however1 exclude from the body of ,buddhism all the divergent views on the ,buddha and his teaching as something foreign and not belonging to the constituent elements of ,buddhism4 ,for these views are exactly what support the frame of ,buddhism1 and without them the frame itself will be a non-entity altogether4 ,the error with most critics of any existent religion with a long history of development is to conceive it as a completed system which is to be accepted as such1 while the fact is that anything organic and spiritual--and we consider religion such--has no geometrical outline which can be traced on paper by ruler and compass4 ,it refuses to be objectively defined1 for this will be setting a limit to the growth of its spirit4 ,thus to know what ,buddhism is will be to get into the life of ,buddhism and to understand it from the inside as it unfolds itself objectively in history4 ,therefore1 the definition of ,buddhism must be that of the life-force which carries forward a spiritual movement called ,buddhism4 ,all these doctrines1 controversies1 constructions1 and interpretations that were offered after the ,buddha's death as regards his person1 life1 and teaching were what essentially constituted the life of ,indian ,buddhism1 and without these there could be no spiritual activity to be known as ,buddhism4 ,in a word what constituted the life and spirit of ,buddhism is nothing else than the inner life and spirit of the ,buddha himself2 ,buddhism is the structure erected around the inmost consciousness of its founder4 ,the style and material of the outer structure may vary as history moves forward1 but the inner meaning of ,buddhahood which supports the whole edifice remains the same and ever living4 ,while on earth1 the ,buddha tried to make it intelligible in accordance with the capacities of his immediate followers1 that is to say1 the latter did their best to comprehend the deeper significance of the various discourses of their master1 in which he pointed the way to final deliverance4 ,as we are told1 the ,buddha discoursed 8with one voice10f#bc but this was interpreted and understood by his devotees in as manifold manners as possible4 ,this was inevitable1 for we have each his own inner experience which is to be explained in terms of his own creation1 naturally varying in depth and breadth4 ,in most cases these so-called individual inner experiences1 however1 may not be so deep and forceful as to demand absolutely original phraseology1 but may remain satisfied with new interpretations of the old terms--once brought into use by an ancient original spiritual leader4 ,and this is the way every great historical religion grows enriched in its contents or ideas4 ,in some cases this enrichment may mean the overgrowth of superstructures ending in a complete burial of the original spirit4 ,this is where critical judgment is needed1 but otherwise we must not forget to recognise the living principle still in activity4 ,in the case of ,buddhism we must not neglect to read the inner life of the ,buddha himself asserting itself in the history of a religious system designated after his name4 ,the claim of the ,zen followers that they are transmitting the essence of ,buddhism is based on their belief that ,zen takes hold of the enlivening spirit of the ,buddha1 stripped of all its historical and doctrinal garments4 ,some vital problems of ,buddhism ,to the earlier ,buddhists the problem did not present itself in this light2 that is to say1 they did not realise that the centre of all their dogmatics and controversies was to ascertain the real inner life of the ,buddha1 which constituted their active faith in the ,buddha and his teaching4 ,without exactly knowing why1 they first entertained1 after the passing of the ,buddha1 a strong desire to speculate on the nature of his personality4 ,they had no power to check the constant and insistent cry of this desire brimming over in their inmost hearts4 ,what constituted ,buddhahood8 ,what was the essence of ,buddhahood8 ,questions like these assailed them one after another1 and among those there were the following which stood out more prominently as they were more vitally interesting4 ,they were those concerned with the ,enlightenment of the ,buddha1 his entrance into ,nirvana1 his former life as a ,bodhisattva 7that is1 as one capable of ,enlightenment71 and his teaching as viewed from their way of understanding the ,buddha4 ,thus his teaching ceased to be considered independently of its author1 the truth of the teaching was so organically connected with the ,buddha's personality1 the ,dharma was to be believed because it was the very embodiment of ,buddhahood1 and not necessarily because it was so logically consistent or philosophically tenable4 ,the ,buddha was the key to the truth of ,buddhism4 ,when attention thus centres in the person of the ,buddha as the author of the ,dharma1 the question of his inner experience known as ,enlightenment becomes the most vital one4 ,without this experience the ,buddha could not be called a ,buddha2 in fact1 the term 8,buddha10 the ,enlightened ,one1 was his own making4 ,if a man understands what enlightenment is or really experiences it in himself1 he knows the whole secret of the ,buddha's superhuman nature and with it the riddle of life and the world4 ,the essence of ,buddhism must then lie in the ,doctrine of ,perfect ,enlightenment4 ,in the enlightened mind of the ,buddha there were many things which he did not and could not divulge to his disciples4 ,when he refused to answer metaphysical questions1 it was not because the minds of the questioners were not developed enough to comprehend the full implications of them4 ,if however the ,buddhists really desired to know their master1 and his teaching1 they had to study the secrets of ,enlightenment4 ,as they had no living master now they had to solve the problems by themselves if they could1 and they were never tired of exhausting their intellectual ingenuity on them4 ,various theories were then advanced1 and ,buddhism grew richer in content1 it came to reflect something eternally valid besides mere personal teaching of an individual4 ,it ceased to be a thing merely historical1 but a system ever living1 growing1 and energy-imparting4 ,various ,mahayana ,sutras and ,shastras were produced to develop various aspects of the content of ,enlightenment as realised by the ,buddha4 ,some of them were speculative1 others mystical1 and still others ethical and practical4 ,in the idea of ,enlightenment was thus focussed all ,buddhist thought4 ,nirvana as the ideal of ,buddhist life next engaged the serious attention of ,buddhist philosophers4 ,was it an annihilation of existence1 or that of passions or desires1 or the dispelling of ignorance1 or a state of egolessness8 ,did the ,buddha really enter into a state of utter extinction leaving all sentient beings to their own fate8 ,did the love he showed to his followers vanish with his passing8 ,would he not come back among them in order to guide them1 to enlighten them1 to listen to their spiritual anguish8 ,the value of such a grand personality as the ,buddha could not perish with his physical existence1 it ought to remain with us for ever as a thing of eternal validity4 ,how could this notion be reconciled with the annihilation theory of ,nirvana so prevalent among the personal disciples of the ,buddha8 ,when history conflicts with our idea of value1 can it not be interpreted to the satisfaction of our religious yearnings8 ,what is the objective authority of 8facts0 if not supported by an inwardly grounded authority8 ,varieties of interpretation are then set forth in the ,mahayana texts as to the implications of ,nirvana and other cognate conceptions to be found in the 8original0 teaching of the ,buddha4f#bd ,what is the relationship between ,enlightenment and ,nirvana8 ,how did ,buddhists come to realise ,arhatship8 ,what convinced them of their attainment8 ,is the ,enlightenment of an ,arhat the same as that of the ,buddha8 ,to answer these questions and many others in close connection with them was the task imposed upon various schools of ,hinayana and ,mahayana ,buddhism4 ,while they quarrelled much1 they never forgot that they were all ,buddhists and whatever interpretations they gave to these problems they were faithful to their ,buddhist experience4 ,they were firmly attached to the founder of their religion and only wished to get thoroughly intimate with the faith and teaching as were first promulgated by the ,buddha4 ,some of them were naturally more conservative and wished to submit to the orthodox and traditional way of understanding the ,dharma2 but there were others as in every field of human life1 whose inner experience meant more to them1 and to harmonise this with the traditional authority they resorted to metaphysics to its fullest extent4 ,their efforts1 there is no doubt1 were honest and sincere1 and when they thought they solved the difficulties or contradictions they were satisfied inwardly as well as intellectually4 ,in fact they had no other means of egress from the spiritual impasse in which they found themselves through the natural and inevitable growth of their inmost life4 ,this was the way ,buddhism had to develop if it ever had in it any life to grow4 ,while ,enlightenment and ,nirvana were closely related to the conception of ,buddhahood itself1 there was another idea of great importance to the development of ,buddhism1 which however had no direct connection apparently1 though not in its ultimate signification1 with the personality of the ,buddha4 ,this idea naturally proved to be most fruitful in the history of ,buddhist dogmatics along with the doctrines of ,enlightenment and ,nirvana4 ,i mean by this the doctrine of non-,atman which denies the existence of an ego-substance in our psychic life4 ,when the notion of ,atman was ruling ,indian minds1 it was a bold announcement on the part of the ,buddha to regard it as the source of ignorance and transmigration4 ,the theory of ,origination 7prattya-samutpda7 which seems to make up the foundation of the ,buddha's teaching is thus finally resolved into the finding of a mischievous 8designer0 who works behind all our spiritual restlessness4 ,whatever interpretation was given to the doctrine of non-,atman in the early days of ,buddhism1 the idea came to be extended over to things inanimate as well4 ,not only there was no ego-substance behind our mental life1 but there was no ego in the physical world1 which meant that we could not separate in reality acting from actor1 force from mass1 or life from its manifestations4 ,as far as thinking goes1 we can establish these two pairs of conception as limiting each other1 but in the actuality of things they must all be one1 as we cannot impose our logical way of thinking upon reality in its concreteness4 ,when we transfer this separation from thought into reality1 we encounter many difficulties not only intellectual but moral and spiritual1 from which we suffer unspeakable anguish later4 ,this was felt by the ,buddha1 and he called this mixing up ,ignorance 7avidy74 ,the ,mahayana doctrine of nyat was a natural conclusion4 ,but ,i need not make any remark here to the effect that the nyat theory is not nihilism or acosmism1 but that it has its positive background which sustains it and gives life to it4 ,it was in the natural order of thought now for ,buddhists to endeavour to find a philosophical explanation of ,enlightenment and ,nirvana in the theory of non-,atman or nyat1 and this to the best of their intellectual power and in the light of their spiritual experience4 ,they finally found out that ,enlightenment was not a thing exclusively belonging to the ,buddha1 but that each one of us could attain it if he got rid of ignorance by abandoning the dualistic conception of life and of the world2 they further concluded that ,nirvana was not vanishing into a state of absolute non-existence which was an impossibility as long as we had to reckon with the actual facts of life1 and that ,nirvana in its ultimate signification was an affirmation--an affirmation beyond opposites of all kinds4 ,this metaphysical understanding of the fundamental problem of ,buddhism marks the features of the ,mahayana philosophy4 ,as to its practical side where the theory of nyat and the doctrine of ,enlightenment are harmoniously united and realised in life1 or where the ,buddhists aim to enter into the inner consciousness of the ,buddha as was revealed to him under the ,bodhi tree1 we will refer to it in the following section4 99 99 99 99 99 ,almost all ,buddhist scholars in ,japan agree that all these characteristic ideas of the ,mahayana are systematically traceable in ,hinayana literature2 and that all the reconstructions and transformations which the ,mahayanists are supposed to have put on the original form of ,buddhism are really nothing but an unbroken continuation of one original ,buddhist spirit and life1 and further that even the so-called primitive ,buddhism as is expounded in the ,pali canons and in the ,agama texts of the ,chinese ,tripitaka1 is also the result of an elaboration on the part of the earlier followers of the ,buddha4 ,if the ,mahayana is not ,buddhism proper1 neither is the ,hinayana1 for the historical reason that neither of them represents the teaching of the ,buddha as it was preached by the ,master himself4 ,unless one limits the use of the term ,buddhism very narrowly and only to a certain form of it1 no one can very well refuse to include both ,mahayana and ,hinayana in the same denomination4 ,and1 in my opinion1 it is proper1 considering the organic relation between system and experience and the fact that the spirit of the ,buddha himself is present in all these constructions1 it is proper that the term ,buddhism should be used in a broad1 comprehensive1 and inward sense4 ,this is not the place to enter into the details of organic relationship existing between the ,hinayana and the ,mahayana2 for the object of this essay is to delineate the course of development as traversed by ,zen ,buddhism before it has reached the present form4 ,having outlined my position with regard to the definition of ,buddhism and the ,mahayana in general as a manifestation of ,buddhist life and thought1 or rather of the inner experience of the ,buddha himself1 the next step will be to see where lies the source of ,zen and how it is one of the legitimate successors and transmitters of the ,buddha's spirit4 ,zen and ,enlightenment ,the origin of ,zen1 as is the case with all other forms of ,buddhism1 is to be sought in ,supreme ,perfect ,enlightenment 7anuttara-samyak-sabodhi7 attained by the ,buddha while he was sitting under the ,bodhi-tree1 near the city of ,gaya4 ,if this ,enlightenment is of no value and signification to the development of ,buddhism1 ,zen then has nothing to do with ,buddhism1 it was altogether another thing created by the genius of ,bodhi-,dharma who visited ,china early in the sixth century4 ,but if ,enlightenment is the raison d'tre of ,buddhism1 that is to say1 if ,buddhism is an edifice erected on the solid basis of ,enlightenment1 realised by the ,buddha and making up his being1 ,zen is the central pillar which supports the entire structure1 it composes the direct line of continuation drawn out from the content of the ,buddha's illumined mind4 ,traditionally ,zen is considered to have been transmitted by the ,buddha to his foremost disciple1 ,mahkyapa1 when the ,buddha held out a bunch of flowers to his congregation1 the meaning of which was at once grasped by ,mahkyapa who quietly smiled at him4 ,the historicity of this incident is justly criticised1 but knowing the value of ,enlightenment we cannot ascribe the authority of ,zen just to such an episode as this4 ,zen was in fact handed over not only to ,mahkyapa but to all beings who will follow the steps of the ,buddha1 the ,enlightened ,one4 ,like a true ,indian the ,buddha's idea of ascetic meditation was to attain ,vimoksha 7or simply ,moksha1 deliverance7 from the bondage of birth and death4 ,there were several ways open to him to reach the goal4 ,according to the ,brahman philosophers of those days1 the great fruit of deliverance could be matured by embracing religious truth1 or by practising asceticism or chastity1 or by learning1 or by freeing oneself from passions4 ,each in its way was an excellent means1 and if they were practised severally or all together1 they might result in emancipation of some kind4 ,but the philosophers talked about methods and did not give one any trustworthy information concerning their actual spiritual experience1 and what the ,buddha wished was this self-realisation1 a personal experience1 an actual insight into truth1 and not mere discoursing about methods1 or playing with concepts4f#be ,he detested all philosophical reasonings which he called dishti or darana1 for they would lead him nowhere1 bring him no practical result in his spiritual life4 ,he was never satisfied until he inwardly realised the ,bodhi as the truth immediately presented to his transcendental consciousness and whose absolute nature was so inner1 so self-convincing that he had no doubt whatever in regard to its universal validity4 ,the content of this ,enlightenment was explained by the ,buddha as the ,dharma which was to be directly perceived 7sandihika71 beyond limits of time 7akalika71 to be personally experienced 7ehipassika71 altogether persuasive 7opanayika71 and to be understood each for himself by the wise 7paccatta veditabbo viuhi74 ,this meant that the ,dharma was to be intuited and not to be analytically reached by concepts4 ,the reason why the ,buddha so frequently refused to answer metaphysical problems was partly due to his conviction that the ultimate truth was to be realised in oneself through one's own efforts2f#bf for all that could be gained through discursive understanding was the surface of things and not things themselves1 conceptual knowledge never gave full satisfaction to one's religious yearning4 ,the attainment of the ,bodhi could not be the accumulation of dialectical subtleties4 ,and this is the position taken up by ,zen ,buddhism as regards what it considers a final reality4 ,zen in this respect faithfully follows the injunction of the ,master4 ,that the ,buddha had an insight of higher order into the nature of things than that which could be obtained through ordinary logical reasoning is evidenced everywhere even in the so-called ,hinayana literature4 ,to cite just one instance from the ,brahmajla ,sutta in which the ,buddha deals with all the heretical schools that were in existence in his days1 he invariably makes reference after refuting them to the ,tathagata's deeper understanding which goes beyond their speculations 8wriggling like an eel40 ,what they discuss just for the sake of discussion and to show the keenness of their analytical faculty about the soul1 future life1 eternity1 and other important spiritual subjects1 is not productive of any actual benefits for our inner welfare4 ,the ,buddha knew well where these reasonings would finally lead to and how trivial and unwholesome they were after all4 ,so we read in the ,brahmajla ,sutta3 8,of these1 ,brethren1 the ,tathagata knows that these speculations thus arrived at1 thus insisted on1 will have such and such a result1 such and such an effect on the future condition of those who trust in them4 ,that does he know1 and he knows also other things far beyond 7far better than those speculations73 and having that knowledge he is not puffed up1 and thus untarnished he has in his own heart realised the way of escape from them1 has understood1 as they really are1 the rising up and passing away of sensations1 their sweet taste1 their danger1 how they cannot be relied on2 and not grasping after any of those things men are eager for1 he1 the ,tathagata1 is quite set free40f#bg ,while the ideal of ,arhatship was no doubt the entering into ,nirvana that leaves nothing behind 7anupdhiesha71 whatever this may mean1 it did not ignore the significance of ,enlightenment1 no1 it could not do so very well without endangering its own reason of existence4 ,for ,nirvana was nothing else in its essence than ,enlightenment1 the content was identical in either case4 ,enlightenment was ,nirvana reached while yet in the flesh1 and no ,nirvana was ever possible without obtaining ,enlightenment4 ,the latter may have a more intellectual note in it than the former1 which is a psychological state realised through ,enlightenment4 ,bodhi is spoken of in the so-called primitive ,buddhism just as much as ,nirvana4 ,so long as passions 7klea7 were not subdued1 and the mind still remained enshrouded in ignorance1 no ,buddhists could ever dream of obtaining a ,moksha 7deliverance7 which is ,nirvana1 and this deliverance from ,ignorance and passions was the work of ,enlightenment4 ,generally ,nirvana is understood in its negative aspect as the total extinction of everything1 body and soul1 but in the actuality of life no such negativist conception could ever prevail1 and the ,buddha never meant ,nirvana to be so interpreted4 ,if there were nothing affirmative in ,nirvana1 the ,mahayanists could never have evolved the positive conception of it later4 ,though the immediate disciples of the ,buddha were not conscious of this1 there was always the thought of ,enlightenment implied in it4 ,enlightenment attained by the ,buddha after a week's meditation under the ,bodhi-tree could not be of no consequence to his ,arhat-disciples1 however negatively the latter tended to apply this principle to the attainment of their life-object4 ,the true significance of ,enlightenment was effectively brought out by the ,mahayanists not only in its intellectual implications but in its moral and religious bearings4 ,the result was the conception of ,bodhisattvaship in contradistinction to ,arhatship1 the ideal of their rival school4 ,the ,arhat and the ,bodhisattva are essentially the same4 ,but the ,mahayanists1 perceiving a deeper sense in ,enlightenment as the most important constituent element in the attainment of the final goal of ,buddhism1 which is spiritual freedom 7ceto-vimutti71 as the ,nikyas have it1 did not wish to have it operated in themselves only1 but wanted to see it realised in every being sentient and even non-sentient4 ,not only this was their subjective yearning1 but there was an objective basis on which the yearning could be justified and realised4 ,it was the presence in every individual of a faculty designated by the ,mahayanists as ,praj4f#bh ,this was the principle that made ,enlightenment possible in us as well as in the ,buddha4 ,without ,praj there could be no ,enlightenment1 which was the highest spiritual power in our possession4 ,the intellect or what is ordinarily known by ,buddhist scholars as ,vijna1 was relative in its activity1 and could not comprehend the ultimate truth which was ,enlightenment4 ,and it was due to this ultimate truth that we could lift ourselves above the dualism of matter and spirit1 of ignorance and wisdom1 of passion and non-attachment4 ,enlightenment consisted in personally realising the truth1 ultimate and absolute and capable of affirmation4 ,thus we are all ,bodhisattvas now1 beings of ,enlightenment1 if not in actuality1 then potentially4 ,bodhi-sattvas are also ,praj-sattvas1 as we are universally endowed with ,praj1 which1 when fully and truly operating1 will realise in us ,enlightenment1 and intellectually 7in its highest sense7 lift us above appearances1 which is a state designated by ,nikaya ,buddhists as 8emancipation of mind or reason0 7pa-vimutti or sammad-a vimutti74 ,if by virtue of ,enlightenment ,gautama was transformed into the ,buddha1 and then if all beings are endowed with ,praj and capable of ,enlightenment1 that is1 if they are thus ,bodhisattvas1 the logical conclusion will be that ,bodhisattvas are all ,buddhas1 or destined to be ,buddhas as soon as sufficient conditions obtain4 ,hence the ,mahayana doctrine that all beings1 sentient or non-sentient1 are endowed with the ,buddha-nature1 and that our minds are the ,buddha-mind and our bodies are the ,buddha-body4 ,the ,buddha before his ,enlightenment was an ordinary mortal1 and we1 ordinary mortals1 will be ,buddhas the moment our mental eyesf#bi open in ,enlightenment4 ,in this do we not see plainly the most natural and most logical course of things leading up to the main teaching of ,zen as it later developed in ,china and ,japan8 ,how extensively and intensively the concept of ,enlightenment influenced the development of ,mahayana ,buddhism may be seen in the composition of the ,saddharmapuarka1 which is really one of the profoundest ,mahayana protests against the ,hinayana conception of the ,buddha's ,enlightenment4 ,according to the latter1 the ,buddha attained it at ,gay while meditating under the ,bodhi-tree1 for they regarded the ,buddha as a mortal being like themselves1 subject to historical and psychological conditions4 ,but the ,mahayanists could not be satisfied with such a realistic common-sense interpretation of the personality of the ,buddha1 they saw something in it which went deep into their hearts and wanted to come in immediate touch with it4 ,what they sought was finally given1 and they found that the idea of the ,buddha's being a common soul was a delusion1 that the ,tathagata arrived in his ,supreme ,perfect ,enlightenment 8many hundred thousand myriads of kotis of ons ago10 and that all those historical 8facts0 in his life which are recorded in the ,agama or ,nikaya literature are his 8skilful devices0 7upya-kaualya7 to lead creatures to full ripeness and go in the ,buddha ,way4f#cj ,in other words1 this means that ,enlightenment is the absolute reason of the universe and the essence of ,buddhahood1 and therefore that to obtain ,enlightenment is to realise in one's inner consciousness the ultimate truth of the world which for ever is4 ,while the ,puarka emphasises the ,buddha-aspect of ,enlightenment1 ,zen directs its attention mainly to the ,enlightenment-aspect of ,buddhahood4 ,when this latter aspect is considered intellectually1 we have the philosophy of ,buddhist dogmatics1 which is studied by scholars of the ,tendai 7t#8ien-tai71 ,kegon 7avatasaka71 ,hosso1 7dharmalaksha71 and other schools4 ,zen approaches it from the practical side of life1 that is1 to work out ,enlightenment in life itself4 ,seeing that the idea of ,enlightenment played such an important rle in the development of ,mahayana ,buddhism1 what is the content of it8 ,can we describe it in an intelligible manner so that our analytical intellect could grasp it and make it an object of thought8 ,the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth was not the content of ,enlightenment1 nor was the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,causation1 nor the ,eightfold ,righteous ,path4 ,the truth flashed through the ,buddha's consciousness was not such a thought capable of discursive unfolding4 ,when he exclaimed3 8,through birth and rebirth's endless round1 ,seeking in vain1 ,i hastened on1 ,to find who framed this edifice1 ,what misery6--birth incessantly6 8,o builder6 ,i've discovered thee6 ,this fabric thou shall ne'er rebuild6 ,the rafters all are broken now1 ,and pointed roof demolished lies6 ,this mind has demolition reached1 ,and seen the last of all desire60f#ca he must have grasped something much deeper than mere dialectics4 ,there must have been something most fundamental and ultimate which at once set all his doubts at rest1 not only intellectual doubts but spiritual anguish4 ,indeed1 forty-nine years of his active life after ,enlightenment were commentaries on it1 and yet they did not exhaust its content2 nor did all the later speculations of ,ngrjuna1 ,avaghosha1 and ,vasubandhu1 and ,asanga explain it away4 ,in the ,lakvatra therefore the author makes the ,buddha confess that since his ,enlightenment1 till his passing into ,nirvana he uttered not a word4f#cb ,therefore1 again with all his memory and learning1 nanda could not sound the bottom of the ,buddha's wisdom1 while the latter was still alive4 ,according to tradition1 nanda's attainment to ,arhatship took place at the time of the ,first ,convocation in which he was not allowed to take part in spite of his twenty-five years' attendance upon the ,buddha4 ,grieving over the fact1 he spent the whole night perambulating in an open square1 and when he was about to lay himself down on a couch all exhausted1 he all of a sudden came to realise the truth of ,buddhism1 which with all his knowledge and understanding had escaped him all those years4 ,what does this mean8 ,arhatship is evidently not a matter of scholarship2 it is something realised in the twinkling of an eye after a long arduous application to the matter4 ,the preparatory course may occupy a long stretch of time1 but the crisis breaks out at a point instantaneously1 and one is an ,arhat1 or a ,bodhisattva1 or even a ,buddha4 ,the content of ,enlightenment must be quite simple in nature and yet tremendous in effect4 ,that is to say1 intellectually1 it must transcend all the complications involved in an epistemological exposition of it2 and psychologically1 it must be the reconstruction of one's entire personality4 ,such a fundamental fact naturally evades description1 and can be grasped only by an act of intuition and through personal experience4 ,it is really the ,dharma in its highest sense4 ,if by 8the stirring of one thought0 ,ignorance came into our life1 the awakening of another thought must put a stop to ,ignorance and bring about ,enlightenment4f#cc ,and in this there is no thought to be an object of logical consciousness or empirical reasoning2 for in ,enlightenment thinker and thinking and thought are merged in the one act of seeing into the very being of ,self4 ,no further explanation of the ,dharma is possible1 hence an appeal to via negativa4 ,and this has reached its climax in the nyat philosophy of ,ngrjuna1 which is based upon the teaching of the ,prajpramit literature of ,buddhism4 ,so we see that ,enlightenment is not the outcome of an intellectual process in which one idea follows another in sequence finally to terminate in conclusion or judgment4 ,there is neither process nor judgment in ,enlightenment1 it is something more fundamental1 something which makes a judgment possible1 and without which no form of judgment can take place4 ,in judgment there are a subject and a predicate2 in ,enlightenment subject is predicate1 and predicate is subject2 they are here merged as one1 but not as one of which something can be stated1 but as one from which arises judgment4 ,we cannot go beyond this absolute oneness2 all the intellectual operations stop here2 when they endeavour to go further1 they draw a circle in which they for ever repeat themselves4 ,this is the wall against which all philosophies have beaten in vain4 ,this is an intellectual terra incognita1 in which prevails the principle1 8,credo quia absurdum est40 ,this region of darkness1 however1 gives up its secrets when attacked by the will1 by the force of one's entire personality4 ,enlightenment is the illuminating of this dark region1 when the whole thing is seen at one glance1 and all intellectual inquiries find here their rationale4 ,hitherto one may have been intellectually convinced of the truth of a certain proposition1 but somehow it has not yet entered into his life1 the truth still lacks ultimate confirmation1 and he cannot help feeling a vague sense of indeterminateness and uneasiness4 ,enlightenment now comes upon him in a mysterious way without any previous announcement1 and all is settled with him1 he is an ,arhat or even a ,buddha4 ,the dragon has got its eyes dotted1 and it is no more a lifeless image painted on a canvas1 but winds and rains are its willing servants now4 ,it is quite evident that ,enlightenment is not the consciousness of logical perspicuity or analytical completeness1 it is something more than an intellectual sense of conclusiveness1 there is something in it which engages the entire field of consciousness not only by throwing light on the whole series of links welded for the purpose of solving the problems of life1 but by giving a feeling of finality to all the spiritual anguish that has ever been so disquieting to one's soul4 ,the logical links however accurately adjusted and perfectly wrought together1 fail by themselves to be pacifying to the soul in the most thoroughgoing manner4 ,we require something more fundamental or more immediate for the purpose1 and ,i maintain that the mere reviewing of the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth or the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,origination does not result in the attainment of the ,anuttara-samyak-sambodhi4 ,the ,buddha must have experienced something that went far deeper into his inmost consciousness than the mere intellectual grasping of empirical truths4 ,he must have gone beyond the sphere of analytical reasoning4 ,he must have come in touch with that which makes our intellectual operations possible1 in fact that which conditions the very existence of our conscious life4 ,when riputra saw ,avajit1 he noticed how composed the latter was1 with all his organs of sense well controlled and how clear and bright the colour of his skin was4 riputra could not help asking him who was his teacher and what doctrine he taught4 ,to this ,avajit replied3 8,the great kyamuni1 the ,blessed ,one1 is my teacher and his doctrine in substance is this3 8,the ,buddha hath the cause told ,of all things springing from a cause2 ,and also how things cease to be-- ',tis this the ,mighty ,monk proclaims40 ,it is said that on hearing this exposition of the ,dharma1 there arose in the mind of riputra a clear and distinct perception of the ,dharma that whatever is subject to origination is subject also to cessation4 riputra then attained to the deathless1 sorrowless state1 lost sight of and neglected for many myriads of kalpas4 ,the point to which ,i wish to call attention here is this3 ,is there anything intellectually remarkable and extraordinary and altogether original in this stanza that has so miraculously awakened riputra from his habitually cherished way of thinking8 ,as far as the ,buddha's ,dharma 7,doctrine7 was concerned1 there was not much of anything in these four lines4 ,it is said that they are the substance of the ,dharma2 if so1 the ,dharma may be said to be rather devoid of substance1 and how could riputra ever find here a truth concrete and efficient enough to turn him away from the old rut8 ,the stanza which is noted for having achieved the conversion of not only riputra but ,maudgalyyana1 has really nothing characteristic of ,buddhistic thought1 strong enough to produce such a great result4 ,the reason for this1 therefore1 must be sought somewhere else1 that is1 not in the formal truth contained in the stanza1 but in the subjective condition of the one to whose ears it chanced to fall and in whom it awakened a vision of another world4 ,it was in the mind of riputra itself that opened up to a clear and distinct understanding of the ,dharma2 in other words1 the ,dharma was revealed in him as something growing out of himself and not as an external truth poured into him4 ,in a sense the ,dharma had been in his mind all the time but he was not aware of its presence there until ,avajit's stanza was uttered4 ,he was not a mere passive recipient into which something not native to his ,self was poured4 ,the hearing of the stanza gave him an opportunity to experience the supreme moment4 ,if riputra's understanding was intellectual and discursive1 his dialogue with nanda later on could not take place in the way it did4 ,in the ,sayutta-,nikya1 iii41 #bce;f1 we read3 nanda saw riputra coming afar off1 and he said to him2 8,serene and pure and radiant is your face4 ,brother riputra6 ,in what mood has riputra been to-day80 8,i have been alone in ,dhyana1 and to me came never the thought3 ,i am attaining it6 ,i have got it6 ,i have emerged from it60 ,here we notice the distinction between an intellectual and a spiritual understanding which is ,enlightenment4 ,when riputra referred to the cause of his being so serene1 pure and radiant1 he did not explain it logically but just stated the fact as he subjectively interpreted it himself4 ,whether this interpretation of his own was correct or not takes the psychologist to decide4 ,what ,i wish to see here is that riputra's understanding of the doctrine of 8origination and cessation0 was not the outcome of his intellectual analysis but an intuitive comprehension of his own inner life-process4 ,between the ,buddha's ,enlightenment which is sung in the ,hymn of ,victory and riputra's insight into the ,dharma as the doctrine of causation1 there is a close connection in the way their minds worked4 ,in the one ,enlightenment came first and then its expression2 in the other a definite statement was addressed first and then came an insight2 the process is reversed here4 ,but the inadequacy of relation between antecedent and consequence remains the same4 ,the one does not sufficiently explain the other1 when the logical and intellectual understanding alone is taken into consideration4 ,the explanation must be sought not in the objective truth contained in the doctrine of causation1 but in the state of consciousness itself of the enlightened subject4 ,otherwise1 how do we account for the establishment of such a firm faith in self-realisation or self-deliverance as this8 8,he has destroyed all evil passions 7sava72 he has attained to heart-emancipation 7ceto-vimutti7 and intellect-emancipation 7pann-vimutti71 here in this visible world he has by himself understood1 realised1 and mastered the ,dharma1 he has dived deep into it1 has passed beyond doubt1 has put away perplexity1 has gained full confidence1 he has lived the life1 has done what was to be done1 has destroyed the fetter of rebirth1 he has comprehended the ,dharma as it is truly in itself40f#cd ,this is why the ,lakvatra-,stra tries so hard to tell us that language is altogether inadequate as the means of expressing and communicating the inner state of ,enlightenment4 ,while without language we may fare worse at least in our practical life1 we must guard ourselves most deliberately against our trusting it too much beyond its legitimate office4 ,the ,sutra gives the main reason for this1 which is that language is the product of causal dependence1 subject to change1 unsteady1 mutually conditioned1 and based on false judgment as to the true nature of consciousness4 ,for this reason language cannot reveal to us the ultimate signification of things 7paramrtha74 ,the noted analogy of finger and moon is most appropriate to illustrate the relation between language and sense1 symbol and reality4 ,if the ,buddha's ,enlightenment really contained so much in it that he himself could not sufficiently demonstrate or illustrate it with his 8long thin tongue0 7prabhtatanujihva7 through his long peaceful life given to meditation and discoursing1 how could those less than he ever hope to grasp it and attain spiritual emancipation8 ,this is the position taken up by ,zen3 ,to comprehend the truth of ,enlightenment1 therefore1 we must exercise some other mental power than intellection1 if we are at all in possession of such4 ,discoursing fails to reach the goal and yet we have an unsatiated aspiration after the unattainable4 ,are we then meant to live and die thus tormented for ever8 ,if so1 this is the most lamentable situation in which we find ourselves on earth4 ,buddhists have applied themselves most earnestly to the solution of the problem and have finally come to see that we have after all within ourselves what we need4 ,this is the power of intuition possessed by spirit and able to comprehend spiritual truth which will show us all the secrets of life making up the content of the ,buddha's ,enlightenment4 ,it is not an ordinary intellectual process of reasoning1 but a power that will grasp something most fundamental in an instant and in the directest way4 ,praj is the name given to this power by the ,buddhists1 as ,i said1 and what ,zen ,buddhism aims at in its relation to the doctrine of ,enlightenment is to awaken ,praj by the exercise of meditation4 ,we read in the ,saddharma-puarka3 8,o riputra1 the true ,law understood by the ,tathagata cannot be reasoned1 is beyond the pale of reasoning4 ,why8 ,for the ,tathagata appears in the world to carry out one great object1 which is to make all beings accept1 see1 enter into1 and comprehend the knowledge and insight gained by the ,tathagata1 and also to make them enter upon the path of knowledge and insight attained by the ,tathagata4444 ,those who learn it from the ,tathagata also reach his ,supreme ,perfect ,enlightenment40f#ce ,if such was the one great object of the ,buddha's appearance on earth1 how do we get into the path of insight and realise ,supreme ,perfect ,enlightenment8 ,and if this ,dharma of ,enlightenment is beyond the limits of the understanding1 no amount of philosophising will ever bring us nearer the goal4 ,how do we then learn it from the ,tathagata8 ,decidedly not from his mouth1 nor from the records of his sermons1 nor from the ascetic practise1 but from our own inner consciousness through the exercise of dhyana4 ,and this is the doctrine of ,zen4 ,enlightenment and ,spiritual ,freedom ,when the doctrine of ,enlightenment makes its appeal to the inner experience of the ,buddhist and its content is to be grasped immediately without any conceptual medium1 the sole authority in his spiritual life will have to be found within himself2 traditionalism or institutionalism will naturally lose all its binding force4 ,according to him1 then1 propositions will be true1 that is1 living1 because they are in accordance with his spiritual insight2 and his actions will permit no external standard of judgment2 as long as they are the inevitable overflow of his inner life1 they are good1 even holy4 ,the direct issue of this interpretation of ,enlightenment will be the upholding of absolute spiritual freedom in every way1 which will further lead to the unlimited expansion of his mental outlook going beyond the narrow bounds of monastic and scholastic ,buddhism4 ,this was not however1 from the ,mahayanistic point of view1 against the spirit of the ,buddha4 ,the constitution of the ,brotherhood will now have to change4 ,in the beginning of ,buddhism1 it was a congregation of homeless monks who subjected themselves to a certain set of ascetic rules of life4 ,in this ,buddhism was an exclusive possession of the lite1 and the general public or ,upsaka group who accepted the ,threefold ,refuge ,formula was a sort of appendage to the regular or professional ,brotherhood4 ,when ,buddhism was still in its first stage of development1 even nuns 7bhikshu7 were not allowed to come into the community2 the ,buddha received them only after great reluctance1 prophesying that ,buddhism would now live only half of its normal life4 ,we can readily see from this fact that the teaching of the ,buddha and the doctrine of ,enlightenment were meant to be practised and realised only among limited classes of people4 ,while the ,buddha regarded the various elements of his congregation with perfect impartiality1 cherishing no prejudices as to their social1 racial1 and other distinctions1 the full benefit of his teaching could not extend beyond the monastic boundaries4 ,if there was nothing in it that could benefit mankind in general1 this exclusiveness was naturally to be expected4 ,but the doctrine of ,enlightenment was something that could not be kept thus imprisoned1 it had many things in it that would overflow all the limitations set to it4 ,when the conception of ,bodhisattvahood came to be emphatically asserted1 a monastic and self-excluding community could no longer hold its ground1 a religion of monks and nuns had to become a religion of laymen and laywomen4 ,an ascetic discipline leading to the ,anpdhiesha-,nirva had to give way to a system of teaching that would make any one attain ,enlightenment and demonstrate ,nirvana in his daily life4 ,in all the ,mahayana ,sutras1 this general tendency in the unfoldment of ,buddhism is vehemently asserted1 showing how intense was the struggle between conservatism and progressivism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this spirit of freedom which is the power impelling ,buddhism to break through its monastic shell and bringing forward the idea of ,enlightenment ever vigorously before the masses1 is the life-impulse of the universe1--this unhampered activity of spirit1 and everything that interferes with it is destined to be defeated4 ,the history of ,buddhism is thus also a history of freedom in one's spiritual1 intellectual1 and moral life4 ,the moral aristocracy and disciplinary formalism of primitive ,buddhism could not bind our spirit for a very long period of time4 ,as the doctrine of ,enlightenment grew to be more and more inwardly interpreted1 the spirit rose above the formalism of ,buddhist discipline4 ,it was of no absolute necessity for one to leave his home life and follow the footsteps of the wandering monks in order to reach the supreme fruit of ,enlightenment4 ,inward purity1 and not external piety1 was the thing needed for the ,buddhist life4 ,the ,upsakas were in this respect as good as the ,bhikshus4 ,the fact is most eloquently illustrated in the ,vimalakrti-,stra4 ,the chief character here is ,vimalakrti1 a lay philosopher1 outside the pale of the ,brotherhood4 ,none of the ,buddha's disciples were his matches in the depth1 breadth1 and subtleties of thought1 and when the ,buddha told them to visit his sickroom1 they all excused themselves for some reason or other1 except ,majur1 who is ,praj incarnate in ,mahayana ,buddhism4 ,that the lay-devotees thus asserted themselves even at the expense of the ,arhats1 may also be gleaned from other sources than the ,vimalakrti1 but especially from such ,sutras as the rml1 ,gahavyha1 ,vajrasamdhi1 ,candrottara-drik1 etc4 ,what is the most noteworthy in this connection is that woman plays an important rle on various occasions4 ,not only is she endowed with philosophising talents1 but she stands on equal footing with man4 ,among the fifty-three philosophers or leaders of thought visited by ,sudhana in his religious pilgrimage1 he interviewed many women in various walks of life1 and some of whom were even courtesans4 ,they all wisely discoursed with the insatiable seeker of truth4 ,what a different state of affairs this was when compared with the reluctant admission of women into the ,sangha in the early days of ,buddhism6 ,later ,buddhism may have lost something in austerity1 aloofness1 and even saintliness1 which appeal strongly to our religious imagination1 but it has gained in democracy1 picturesqueness1 and largely in humanity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the free spirit which wanders out beyond the monastic walls of the ,brotherhood now follows its natural consequence and endeavours to transcend the disciplinary rules and the ascetic formalism of the ,hinayanists4 ,the moral rules that were given by the ,buddha to his followers as they were called for by the contingencies of life1 were concerned more or less with externalism4 ,when the ,buddha remained with them as the living spirit of the ,brotherhood1 these rules were the direct expressions of the subjective life2 but with the ,buddha's departure1 they grew rigid and failed to reach the inner spirit of their author1 and the followers of ,enlightenment revolted against them1 upholding 8the spirit that giveth life40 ,they advocated perfect freedom of spirit1 even after the fashion of antinomians4 ,if the spirit were pure1 no acts of the body could spoil it2 it could wander about anywhere it liked with absolute immunity4 ,it would even go down to hell1 if it were necessary or expedient for them to do so1 for the sake of the salvation of the depraved4 ,it would indefinitely postpone the entering into ,nirvana if there were still souls to save and minds to enlighten4 ,according to 8the letter that killeth0 no ,buddhists were allowed to enter a liquor shop1 or to be familiar with inmates of the houses barred from respectability1 in short1 even for a moment to be thinking of violating any of the moral precepts4 ,but to the ,mahayanists all kinds of 8expediency0 or 8devices0 were granted if they were fully enlightened and had their spirits thoroughly purified4 ,they were living in a realm beyond good and evil1 and as long as they were there1 no acts of theirs could be classified and judged according to the ordinary measure of ethics2 they were neither moral nor immoral4 ,these relative terms had no application in a kingdom governed by free spirits which soared above the relative world of differences and oppositions4 ,this was most slippery ground for the ,mahayanists4 ,when they were really enlightened and fathomed the depths of spirituality1 every deed of theirs was a creative act of ,god1 but in this extreme form of idealism1 objectivity had no room1 and consequently who could ever distinguish libertinism from spiritualism8 ,in spite of this pitfall the ,mahayanists were in the right in consistently following up all the implications of the doctrine of ,enlightenment4 ,their parting company with the ,hinayanists was inevitable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the doctrine of ,enlightenment leads to the inwardness of one's spiritual experience1 which cannot be analysed intellectually without somehow involving logical contradictions4 ,it thus seeks to break through every intelligent barrier that may be set against it1 it longs for emancipation in every form1 not only in the understanding but in life itself4 ,the unscrupulous followers of ,enlightenment are thus liable to degenerate into votaries of libertinism4 ,if the ,mahayanists remained here and did not see further into the real nature of ,praj1 they would have certainly followed the fates of the ,friends of ,free ,spirit1 but they knew how ,enlightenment realises its true signification in love for all beings and how freedom of spirit has its own principle to follow though nothing external is imposed upon it4 ,for freedom does not mean lawlessness1 which is the destruction and annihilation of itself1 but creating out of its inner life-force all that is good and beautiful4 ,this creating is called by the ,mahayanists 8skilful device0 7upya-kaualya71 in which ,enlightenment is harmoniously wedded to love4 ,enlightenment when intellectually conceived is not dynamical and stops at illumining the path which love will tread4 ,but ,praj is more than merely intellectual1 it produces ,karu 7love or pity71 and with her co-operation it achieves the great end of life1 the salvation of all beings from ,ignorance and passions and misery4 ,it now knows no end in devising all kinds of means to carry out its own teleological functions4 ,the ,saddharma-,puarka regards the ,buddha's appearance on earth and his life in history as the 8skilful devices0 of world-salvation on the part of the ,supreme ,being of ,eternal ,enlightenment4 ,this creation1 however1 ceases to be a creation in its perfect sense when the creator grows conscious of its teleological implicationsf#cf2 for here then is a split in his consciousness which will check the spontaneous flowing-out of spirit1 and then freedom will be lost at its source4 ,such devices as have grown conscious of their purposes are no more 8skilful devices10 and according to the ,buddhists they do not reflect the perfect state of ,enlightenment4 ,thus the doctrine of ,enlightenment is to be supplemented by the doctrine of ,device 7upya71 or the latter may be said to evolve by itself from the first when it is conceived dynamically and not as merely a contemplative state of consciousness4 ,the earlier ,buddhists showed the tendency to consider ,enlightenment essentially reflective or a state of tranquillity4 ,they made it something lifeless and altogether uncreative4 ,this however did not bring out all that was contained in ,enlightenment4 ,the affective or will element which moved the ,buddha to come out of his ,sgaramudr-,samdhi1--a samadhi in which the whole universe was reflected in his consciousness as the moon stamps her image upon the ocean1--has now developed into the doctrine of ,device4 ,for the will is more fundamental than the intellect and makes up the ultimate principle of life4 ,without the 8devising0 and self-regulating will1 life will be the mad display of a mere blind force4 ,the wantonness of 8a free spirit0 is thus now regulated to operate in the great work of universal salvation4 ,its creative activity will devise all possible means for the sake of love for all beings animate as well as inanimate4 ,dhyana is one of those devices which will keep our minds in balance and well under the control of the will4 ,zen is the outcome of the dhyana discipline applied to the attainment of ,enlightenment4 ,zen and ,dhyana ,the term 8,zen0 7ch#8an in ,chinese71 is an abbreviated form of ,zenna or ,ch#8anna1#b4b which is the ,chinese rendering of 8dhyna10 or 8jhna10 and from this fact alone it is evident that ,zen has a great deal to do with this practice which has been carried on from the early days of the ,buddha1 indeed from the beginning of ,indian culture4 ,dhyana is usually rendered in ,english meditation1 and1 generally speaking1 the idea is to meditate on a truth1 religious or philosophical1 so that it may be thoroughly comprehended and deeply engraved into the inner consciousness4 ,this is practised in a quiet place away from the noise and confusion of the world4 ,allusion to this abounds in ,indian literature2 and 8to sit alone in a quiet place and to devote oneself to meditation exclusively0 is the phrase one meets everywhere in the gamas4 ,the following conversation between ,sandhana1 a ,buddhist1 and ,nigrodha1 an ascetic1 which is recorded in the ,udumbarika ,shanda ,suttanta1f#cg will throw much light on the habit of the ,buddha4 ,says ,sandhana1 8,but the ,exalted ,one haunts the lonely and remote recesses of the forest1 where noise1 where sound there hardly is1 where the breezes from the pastures blow1 yet which are hidden from the eyes of men1 suitable for self-communing40 ,to this1 the ascetic wanderer answers3 8,look you now1 householder1 know you with whom the ,samana ,gotama talks8 with whom he holds conversation8 ,by intercourse with whom does he attain the lucidity in wisdom8 ,the ,samana ,gotama's insight is ruined by his habit of seclusion4 ,he is not at home in conducting an assembly4 ,he is not ready in conversation4 ,so he keeps apart from others in solitary places4 ,even as a one-eyed cow that1 walking in a circle1 follows only the outskirts1 so is the ,samana ,gotama40 ,again we read in the ,smaa-phala ,suttaf#ch3 8,then1 the master of this so excellent body of moral precepts1 gifted with this so excellent self-restraint as to the senses1 endowed with this so excellent mindfulness and self-possession1 filled with this so excellent content1 he chooses some lonely spot to rest at on his way--in the woods1 at the foot of a tree1 on a hill side1 in a mountain glen1 in a rocky cave1 in a charnel place1 or on a heap of straw in the open field4 ,and returning thither after his round for alms he seats himself1 when his meal is done1 cross-legged1 keeping his body erect1 and his intelligence alert1 intent40 ,further1 in the days of the ,buddha1 miracle-working and sophistical discussions seem to have been the chief business of the ascetics1 wanderers1 and ,brahman metaphysicians4 ,the ,buddha was thus frequently urged to join in the debates on philosophical questions and also to perform wonders in order to make people embrace his teaching4 ,nigrodha's comment on the ,buddha conclusively shows that the ,buddha was a great disapprover of empty reasoning1 devoting himself to things practical and productive of results1 as well as that he was always earnestly engaged in meditation away from the world4 ,when ,chien-ku1 son of a wealthy merchant in ,nalanda1 asked the ,buddha to give his command to his disciples and make them perform for the benefit of his townspeople1 the ,buddha flatly refused1 saying1 8,my disciples are instructed to sit in solitude quietly and to be earnestly meditating on the ,path4 ,if they had something meritorious1 let them conceal it1 but if they had faults1 let them confess40f#ci ,an appeal to the analytical understanding is never sufficient to thoroughly comprehend the inwardness of a truth1 especially when it is a religious one1 nor is mere compulsion by an external force adequate for bringing about a spiritual transformation in us4 ,we must experience in our innermost consciousness all that is implied in a doctrine1 when we are able not only to understand it but to put it in practice4 ,there will then be no discrepancy between knowledge and life4 ,the ,buddha knew this very well1 and he endeavoured to produce knowledge out of meditation1 this is1 to make wisdom grow from personal1 spiritual experience4 ,the ,buddhist way to deliverance1 therefore1 consisted in threefold discipline3 moral rules 7la71 tranquillisation 7samdhi71 and wisdom 7praj74 ,by la one's conduct is regulated externally1 by ,samdhi quietude is attained1 and by ,praj real understanding takes place4 ,hence the importance of meditation in ,buddhism4 ,that this threefold discipline was one of the most characteristic features of ,buddhism since its earliest days is well attested by the fact that the following formula1 which is culled from the ,mahparinibbna-,sutta1 is repeatedly referred to in the ,sutra as if it were a subject most frequently discussed by the ,buddha for the edification of his followers3 8,such and such is upright conduct 7la72 such and such is earnest contemplation 7samdhi72 such and such is intelligence 7praj74 ,great becomes the fruit1 great the advantage of intellect when it is set round with earnest contemplation4 ,the mind set round with intelligence is set quite free from the intoxications 7rava71 that is to say1 from the intoxication of sensuality 7kma71 from the intoxication of becoming 7bhva71 from the intoxication of delusion 7dishti71 from the intoxication of ignorance 7avidy7f#dj40 ,samadhi and dhyana are to a great extent synonymous and interchangeable1 but strictly samadhi is a psychological state realised by the exercise of dhyana4 ,the latter is the process and the former is the goal4 ,the ,buddhist scriptures make reference to so many samadhis1 and before delivering a sermon the ,buddha generally enters into a samadhi1f#da but never ,i think into a dhyana4 ,the latter is practised or exercised4 ,but frequently in ,china dhyana and samadhi are combined to make one word1 ch#8an-ting2#b4c meaning a state of quietude attained by the exercise of meditation or dhyana4 ,there are some other terms analogous to these two which are met with in ,buddhist literature as well as in other ,indian religious systems4 ,they are ,sapatti 7coming together71 ,samhita 7collecting the thoughts71 amatha 7tranquillisation71 ,cittaikgrat 7concentration71 ,dishta-dharma-sukha-vihra 7abiding in the bliss of the ,law perceived71 ,dhrai or ,dhraa 7abstraction71 etc4 ,they are all connected with the central idea of dhyana1 which is to tranquillise the turbulence of self-assertive passions and to bring about a state of absolute identity in which the truth is realised in its inwardness1 that is1 a state of ,enlightenment4 ,the analytical tendency of philosophers is also evident in this when they distinguish four or eight kinds of dhyana4f#db ,the first dhyana is an exercise in which the mind is made to concentrate on one single subject until all the coarse affective elements are vanished from consciousness except the serene feelings of joy and peace4 ,but the intellect is still active1 judgment and reflection operate upon the object of contemplation4 ,when these intellectual operations too are quieted and the mind is simply concentrated on one point1 it is said that we have attained the second dhyana1 but the feelings of joy and peace are still here4 ,in the third stage of dhyana1 perfect serenity obtains as the concentration grows deeper1 but the subtlest mental activities are not vanished and at the same time a joyous feeling remains4 ,when the fourth and last stage is reached1 even this feeling of self-enjoyment disappears1 and what prevails in consciousness now is perfect serenity of contemplation4 ,all the intellectual and the emotional factors liable to disturb spiritual tranquillity are successively controlled1 and mind in absolute composure remains absorbed in contemplation4 ,in this there takes place a fully-adjusted equilibrium between ,samatha and ,vipasayana1 that is1 between tranquillisation or cessation and contemplation4 ,in all ,buddhist discipline this harmony is always sought after4 ,for when the mind tips either way1 it grows either too heavy 7stynam7 or too light 7auddhatyam71 either too torpid in mental activity or too given up to contemplation4 ,the spiritual exercise ought to steer ahead without being hampered by either tendency1 they ought to strike the middle path4 ,there are further four stages of dhyana called 8,arpa-vimoksha0 which are practised by those who have passed beyond the last stage of dhyana4 ,the first is to contemplate the infinity of space1 not disturbed by the manifoldness of matter2 the second is on the infinity of consciousness as against the first2 the third is meant to go still further beyond the distinction of space and thought2 and the fourth is to eliminate even this consciousness of non-distinction1 to be thus altogether free from any trace of analytical intellection4 ,besides these eight ,sampatti 78coming together07 exercises1 technically so called1 the ,buddha sometimes refers to still another form of meditation which is considered to be distinctly ,buddhist4 ,this is more or less definitely contrasted to the foregoing by not being so exclusively intellectual but partly affective1 as it aims at putting a full stop to the operation of ,samj 7thought7 and ,vedita 7sensation71 that is1 of the essential elements of consciousness4 ,it is almost a state of death1 total extinction1 except that one in this dhyana has life1 warmth1 and the sense-organs in perfect condition4 ,but in point of fact it is difficult to distinguish this ,nirodha-vimoksha 7deliverance by cessation7 from the last stage of the ,aruppa 7or ,arpa7 meditation1 in both of which consciousness ceases to function even in its simplest and most fundamental acts4 ,whatever this was1 it is evident that the ,buddha like the other ,indian leaders of thought endeavoured to make his disciples realise in themselves the content of ,enlightenment by means of dhyana1 or concentration4 ,they were thus made to gradually progress from a comparatively simple exercise up to the highest stage of concentration in which the dualism of the ,one and the ,many vanished even to the extent of a total cessation of mentation4 ,apart from these general spiritual exercises1 the ,buddha at various times told his followers to meditate on such objectsf#dc as would make them masters of their disturbing passions and intellectual entanglements4 ,we can now see how ,zen developed out of this system of spiritual exercises4 ,zen adopted the external form of dhyana as the most practical method to realise the end it had in view1 but as to its content ,zen had its own way of interpreting the spirit of the ,buddha4 ,the dhyana practised by primitive ,buddhists was not in full accord with the object of ,buddhism1 which is no other than the attaining of ,enlightenment and demonstrating it in one's everyday life4 ,to do away with consciousness so that nothing will disturb spiritual serenity was too negative a state of mind to be sought after by those who at all aspired to develop the positive content of the ,buddha's own enlightened mind4 ,tranquillisation was not the real end of dhyana1 nor was the being absorbed in a samadhi the object of ,buddhist life4 ,enlightenment was to be found in life itself1 in its fuller and freer expressions1 and not in its cessation4 ,what was it that made the ,buddha pass all his life in religious peregrination8 ,what was it that moved him to sacrifice his own well-being1 in fact his whole life1 for the sake of his fellow-creatures8 ,if dhyana had no positive object except in pacifying passions and enjoying absorption in the unconscious1 why did the ,buddha leave his seat under the ,bodhi-tree and come out into the world8 ,if ,enlightenment was merely a negative state of cessation1 the ,buddha could not find any impulse in him that would urge him to exertion in behalf of others4 ,critics sometimes forget this fact when they try to understand ,buddhism simply as a system of teaching as recorded in the ,agamas and in ,pali ,buddhist literature4 ,as ,i said before1 ,buddhism is also a system built by his disciples upon the personality of the ,buddha himself1 in which the spirit of the ,master is more definitely affirmed4 ,and this is what ,zen has in its own way been attempting to do--to develop the idea of ,enlightenment more deeply1 positively1 and comprehensively by the practice of dhyana and in conformity with the spirit of general ,buddhism1 in which life1 purged of its blind impulses and sanctified by an insight into its real values1 will be asserted4 ,zen and1 the ,lakvatra ,of the many ,sutras that were introduced into ,china since the first century ,a4,d41 the one in which the principles of ,zen are more expressly and directly expounded than any others1 at least those that were in existence at the time of ,bodhi-,dharma1 is the ,lakvatra ,stra4 ,zen1 as its followers justly claim1 does not base its authority on any written documents1 but directly appeals to the enlightened mind of the ,buddha4 ,it refuses to do anything with externalism in all its variegated modes2 even the ,sutras or all those literary remains ordinarily regarded as sacred and coming directly from the mouth of the ,buddha are looked down upon1 as we have already seen1 as not touching the inward facts of ,zen4 ,hence its reference to the mystic dialogue between the ,enlightened ,one and ,mahkyapa on a bouquet of flowers4 ,but ,bodhi-,dharma1 the founder of ,zen in ,china1 handed the ,lakvatra over to his first ,chinese disciple ,hui-k#8 as the only literature in existence at the time in ,china1 in which the principles of ,zen are taught4 ,when ,zen unconditionally emphasises one's immediate experience as the final fact on which it is established it may well ignore all the scriptural sources as altogether unessential to its truth2 and on this principle its followers have quite neglected the study of the ,lakvatra4 ,but to justify the position of ,zen for those who have not yet grasped it and yet who are desirous of learning something about it1 an external authority may be quoted and conceptual arguments resorted to in perfect harmony with its truth4 ,this was why ,dharma selected this ,sutra out of the many that had been in existence in ,china in his day4 ,we must approach the ,lakvatra with this frame of mind4 ,there are three ,chinese translations of the ,sutra still in existence4 ,there was a fourth one1 but it was lost4 ,the first in four volumes was produced during the ,lu-,sung dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ddc7 by ,guabhadra1 the second in ten volumes comes from the pen of ,bodhiruci1 of the ,yan-,wei dynasty 7,a4,d4 #eac71 and the third in seven volumes is by ikshnanda1 of the ,t#8ang dynasty 7,a4,d4 #gjj74b4d ,the last-mentioned is the easiest to understand and the first the most difficult1 and it was this1 the most difficult one1 that was delivered by ,dharma to his disciple ,hui-,k#8 as containing the 8essence of mind04 ,in form and in content this translation reflects the earliest text of the ,sutra1 and on it are written all the commentaries we have at present in ,japan4 ,the special features of this ,sutra1 which distinguish it from the other ,mahayana writings1 are1 to give the most noteworthy ones3 first1 that the subject-matter is not systematically developed as in most other ,sutras1 but the whole book is a series of notes of various lengths2 secondly1 that the ,sutra is devoid of all supernatural phenomena1 but filled with deep philosophical and religious ideas concerning the central teaching of the ,sutra1 which are very difficult to comprehend1 due to tersity of expression and to the abstruse nature of the subject-matter2 thirdly1 that it is in the form of dialogues exclusively between the ,buddha and the ,bodhisattva ,mahmati while in the other ,mahayana ,sutras the principal figures are generally more than one besides the ,buddha himself who addresses them in turn2 and lastly1 that it contains no ,dharanis or ,mantrams--those mystical signs and formulas supposed to have a miraculous power4 ,these singularities are enough to make the ,lakvatra occupy a unique position in the whole lore of the ,mahayana school4 ,in this characterisation of the ,lakvatra ,stra1 ,i am referring to the first ,chinese text of ,guabhadra4 ,the two later ones have three new chapters in addition3 one of which forming the first chapter is a sort of introduction to the whole ,sutra1 giving the main idea of what is discussed in the body of the text itself2 the remaining two are attached to the end4 ,of these1 the one is a short collection of ,dharanis1 and the other which is the conclusion is known as the ,gth chapter written throughout in verse and summarises the contents of the whole ,sutra4 ,it has1 however1 no paragraph making up the 8regular ending0 in which the whole congregation unites in the praise of the ,buddha and in its assurance of observing his instructions4 ,there is no doubt that these three new chapters are of later growth4 ,the main thesis of the ,lakvatra ,stra is the content of ,enlightenment1 that is1 the ,buddha's own inner experience 7pratytmagati7 concerning the great religious truth of ,mahayana ,buddhism4 ,most of the readers of the ,sutra have singularly failed to see this1 and contend that it principally explains the ,five ,dharmas1 the ,three ,characteristics of ,reality 7svabhva71 the ,eight ,kinds of ,consciousness 7vijna71 and the ,two ,forms of ,non-,ego 7nairtmya74 ,it is true that the ,sutra reflects the psychological school of ,buddhism advocated by ,asaga and ,vasubandhu1 when for instance it refers to the layavijna as the storage of all karmic seeds2 but such and other references in fact do not constitute the central thought of the ,sutra1 they are merely made use of in explaining the 8noble understanding of the ,buddha's inner experience0 7pratytmryajna74 ,therefore when ,mahmati finishes praising the ,buddha's virtues before the whole assembly at the summit of ,mount ,lak1 the ,buddha is quite definite in his declaration of the main theme of his discourse in this ,sutra4 ,let us however first quote the song of the ,bodhisattva ,mahmati since it sums up in a concise and definite manner all the essentials of ,mahayana ,buddhism and since at the same time it illustrates my statement concerning the union of ,enlightenment and ,love4 ,the hymn runs as follows3 8,when thou reviewest the world with thy wisdom and compassion1 it is to thee like the ethereal flower1 and of which we cannot say whether it is created or vanishing1 as the categories of being and non-being are inapplicable to it4 8,when thou reviewest all things with thy wisdom and compassion1 they are like visions1 they are beyond the reach of mind and consciousness1 as the categories of being and non-being are inapplicable to them4 8,when thou reviewest the world with thy wisdom and compassion1 it is eternally like a dream1 of which we cannot say whether it is permanent or it is subject to destruction1 as the categories of being and non-being are inapplicable to it4 8,the ,dharmakya whose self-nature is a vision and a dream1 what is there to praise8 ,real existence is where rises no thought of nature and no-nature4 8,he whose appearance is beyond the senses and sense-objects and is not to be seen by them or in them--how could praise or blame be predicated of him1 ,o ,muni8 8,with thy wisdom and compassion1 which really defy all qualifications1 thou comprehendest the ego-less nature of things and persons and art eternally clean of the evil passions and of the hindrance of knowledge4 8,thou dost not vanish in ,nirvana1 nor does ,nirvana abide in thee2 for it transcends the dualism of the enlightened and enlightenment as well as the alternatives of being and non-being4 8,those who see the ,muni so serene and beyond birth1 are detached from cravings and remain stainless in this life and after40 ,after this says the ,buddha3 8,o you1 sons of the ,jina1 question me anything you feel like asking4 ,i am going to tell you about the state of my inner attainment 7pratytmagatigocaram740 ,this is conclusive1 nothing is left to discussion concerning the theme of the ,lakvatra4 ,the five ,dharmas1 the three ,characteristics1 etc41 are referred to only in the course of the ,buddha's exposition of the principal matter4 ,the two later translations1 which1 as aforementioned1 contain some extra chapters1 are divided regularly in the one into ten and in the other into eighteen chapters1 while the earliest one of ,gunabhadra has just one chapter title for the whole book1 8,the ,gist of all the ,buddhawords40 ,the first extra chapter which is not found in ,gunabhadra's text is remarkable in this that it gives the outlines of the whole ,sutra in the form of a dialogue between the ,buddha and ,rvana1 ,lord of the ,yakshas1 in the ,isle of ,lak4 ,when the ,buddha1 coming out of the ,nga's palace1 views the castle of ,lak1 he smiles and remarks that this was the place where all the ,buddhas of the past preached regarding the excellent understanding of ,enlightenment realised in their inner consciousness1 which is beyond the analysis of logic and is not the state of mind attainable by the ,trthya1 rvaka1 or ,pratyekabuddha4 ,the ,buddha then adds that for this reason the same ,dharma will be propounded for ,rvana1 ,lord of the ,yakshas4 ,in response to this1 the latter1 making all kinds of costly offerings to the ,buddha1 sings in the praise of his insight and virtues3 8,o ,lord1 instruct me in thy system of doctrine which is based on the self-nature of mind1 instruct me in the doctrine of non-ego1 free from prejudices and defilements1 the doctrine that is revealed in thy inmost consciousness40 ,in the conclusion of this chapter1 the ,buddha reaffirms his doctrine of inner realisation which is ,enlightenment3 8,it is like seeing one's own image in a mirror or in water1 it is like seeing one's own shadow in moonlight or lamplight1 again it is like hearing one's voice echoed in the valley3 as a man clings to his own false assumptions1 he erroneously discriminates between truth and falsehood1 and on account of this false discrimination he fails to go beyond the dualism of opposites1 indeed he cherishes falsity and cannot attain tranquillity4 ,by tranquillity is meant singleness of purpose 7or oneness of things71 and by singleness of purpose is meant the entrance into the most excellent samadhi1 whereby is produced the state of noble understanding of self-realisation1 which is the receptacle of ,tathagatahood 7tathgatagarbha740 ,from these quotations we can easily see why ,bodhi-,dharma recommended this ,sutra for the special perusal of his ,zen disciples4 ,but in order to impress the reader further with the great importance of the ,lakvatra ,stra in the historical study of ,zen in ,india and ,china1 ,i quote a few more passages showing how the teaching of self-realisation is developed in the ,sutra4 ,according to the author1 the anuttara-samyak-sambodhi attained by the ,muni of the kyas1 whereby he became the ,buddha1 is realisable by transcending the ideas of being and non-being 7nsy-asti-vikalpa74 ,this being the fundamental error--this cherishing of dualism--must be got rid of as the first necessary step to reach the state of self-realisation4 ,the error comes from not perceiving the truth that all things are empty 7nya71 uncreated 7anutpda71 non-dualistic 7advaya71 and have no immutably individualistic characters 7nisvabhvalakshaa74 ,by the emptiness of things is meant principally that their existence being so thoroughly mutually conditioning1 nowhere obtains the false notion of distinctive individuality1 and that when analysis is carried to its logical consequence there exists nothing that will separate one object from another in a final way2 therefore says the ,sutra1 8,sva-para-ubhaya-abhvt0 7there exists neither one nor another nor both74 ,secondly1 things are uncreated1 because they are not self-created1 nor are they created by an outside agency4 ,thirdly1 as their existence is reciprocally conditioning1 a dualistic conception of the world is not the ultimate one1 and thus it is a mistake1 due to this wrong discrimination 7vikalpa71 to seek ,nirvana outside of ,samsara 7birth-and-death7 and ,samsara outside of ,nirvana4 ,fourthly1 this principle of mutuality means the denial of individuality as absolute reality1 for there is nothing in existence that will absolutely maintain its individuality standing above all conditions of relativity or mutual becoming--in fact1 being is becoming4 ,for these reasons1 we can realise the truth of ,enlightenment only by transcending the first condition of intellection1 which is1 according to the ,lakvatra1 ,parikalpa1 or ,vikalpa 7discrimination74 ,the warning against this ,vikalpa which is the analysing tendency of mind1 or1 we may say1 the fundamentally dualistic disposition of consciousness is the constant refrain of the ,sutra1 while on the other hand it never forgets to emphasise the importance of self-realisation which is attained by overcoming this fundamental tendency4 ,by thus transcending the intellectual condition1 ,paramrthasatya is realised1 which is the ultimate truth1 and which subjectively constitutes ,pratytmajna2 it is also the eternally abiding law of the universe 7paurasthitidharmat74 ,this inwardly realised truth has many names as it is viewed in various relations in which it stands to human activities1 moral1 spiritual1 intellectual1 practical1 and psychological4 8,bodhi0 is enlightenment and used most generally1 in ,mahayana as well as in ,hinayana literature1 to designate the mind in which ,ignorance is completely wiped out2 ,tathat 7thatness7 or ,bhtat 7reality7 is metaphysical4 ,nirvana is conceived as a spiritual state in which all passional turmoil is quieted2 ,tathgatagarbha is more psychological than ontological2 ,citta is used as belonging to the series of mental terms such as ,manas1 ,manovijna1 and other ,vijnas1 and is not always synonymous with ,bodhi or ,pratytmajna unless it is qualified with adjectives of purity2 nyat is a negative term and distinctively epistemological1 and ,buddhist scholars1 especially of the ,prajpramit school1 have been quite fond of this term1 and we see that the ,lakvatra too has indulged in the use of it4 ,it goes without saying however that these synonyms are helpful only as sign-posts indicating the way to the content of self-realisation4 ,besides these1 we have two or three most frequently repeated phrases to characterise the central idea of the ,mahayana text4 ,in fact1 when the meaning of these phrases is grasped together with psychological discourse on the ,citta and ,vijna1 the whole philosophy of ,zen as it is expounded in the ,sutra grows transparent1 and also with it the general tendency of ,mahayana thought4 ,the phrases are3 8,vg-vikalpa-ahita0 or 8vg-akshara-prativikalpana vinihata0 or 8vata-uccheda-sad-asad-dishi-vivarjita40 ,with these the reader is most frequently greeted in the ,sutra4 ,the first and the second phrases mean that the inner content of the noble understanding is beyond the reach of words and analytical reasoning1 and the third phrase says that the ultimate truth is not to be found in eternalism1 or nihilism1 or realism1 or non-realism4 ,the ,sutra sometimes goes so far as this3 8,o ,mahmati1 it is because the ,sutras are preached to all beings in accordance with their modes of thinking1 and do not hit the mark as far as the true sense is concerned2 words cannot re-instate the truth as it is4 ,it is like mirage1 deceived by which the animals make an erroneous judgment as to presence of water where there is really none2 even so1 all the doctrines in the ,sutras are intended to satisfy the imagination of the masses1 they do not reveal the truth which is the object of the noble understanding4 ,therefore ,o ,mahmati1 conform yourself to the sense1 and do not be engrossed in words and doctrines40f#dd ,the purport of these adjectives and phrases is that no conceptual interpretation is possible of ,enlightenment or self-realisation and that the realisation must issue from one's own inner consciousness1 independent of scriptural teaching or of another's help4 ,for all that is needed to lead one to the attainment of ,pratytmryajna is within oneself1 only that it is in a state of confusion owing to wrong judgments 7vikalpa7 cherished and infused 7vsan7 in the mind since beginningless time4 ,it requires a direct1 personal confirmation or transmission from the ,buddhas1 but even these latter are unable to awaken us to the exalted state of ,enlightenment unless we ourselves concentrate our spiritual efforts in the work of self-emancipation4 ,therefore1 meditation 7dhyna7 is recommended in the ,sutra as the means of attaining to the truth of the inmost consciousness4 ,the idea of dhyana as explained in the ,lakvatra1 however1 is different from what we generally know in ,hinayana literature1f#de that is1 from those kinds of dhyana mentioned in the previous part of this essay4 ,the ,sutra distinguishes four dhyanas3 the first is practised by the unlearned 7blopacrika71 such as the rvakas1 ,pratyeka-buddhas1 and devotees of the ,yoga4 ,they have been instructed in the doctrine of nontman1 and regarding the world as impermanent1 impure1 and pain-producing1 they persistently follow these thoughts until they realise the samadhi of thought-extinction4 ,the second dhyana is designated 8statement-reviewing0 7artha-pravicaya7 by which is meant an intellectual examination of statements or propositions1 ,buddhist or non-,buddhist1 such as 8,each object has its individual marks10 8,there is no personal ,atman10 8,things are created by an external agency10 or 8things are mutually determined02 and after the examination of these themes the practiser of this dhyana turns his thought on the non-atman-ness of things 7dharma-nairtmya7 and on the characteristic features of the various stages 7bhmi7 of ,bodhisattvaship1 and finally in accordance with the sense involved therein he goes on with his contemplative examination4 ,the third dhyana is called 8,attaching oneself to ,thatness0 7tathatlambana7 whereby one realises that to discriminate the two forms of non-atman-ness is still due to an analytical speculation and that when things are truthfully 7yathbhtam7 perceived1 no such analysis is possible1 for then there obtains absolute oneness only4 ,the fourth and last is 8,tathgata-dhyna40 ,in this one enters into the stage of ,buddhahood where he enjoys a threefold beatitude belonging to the noble understanding of self-realisation and performs wonderful deeds for the sake of all sentient beings4 ,in these dhyanas we observe a gradual perfection of ,buddhist life culminating in the utmost spiritual freedom of ,buddhahood1 which is above all intellectual conditions and beyond the reach of relative consciousness4 ,those wonderful1 unthinkable 7acintya7 deeds issuing from spiritual freedom are technically called 8deeds performed with no sense of utility0 7anbhogacary71 or the 8deeds of no purpose0 as referred to elsewhere1 and mean the perfection of ,buddhist life4 ,the ,lakvatra was thus handed over by ,bodhi-,dharma to his first disciple ,hui-k#8 as the most illuminating document on the doctrine of ,zen4 ,but the development of ,zen in ,china naturally did not follow the line as was indicated in the ,sutra1 that is1 after the ,indian fashion2 the soil where the dhyana of the ,lakvatra was transplanted did not favour its growth in the same manner as it did in the original climate4 ,zen was inspired with the life and spirit of the dhyana of the ,tathagata1 but it created its own mode of manifestation4 ,indeed this was where it showed its wonderful power of vitality and adaptation4 ,the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment as ,zen in ,china ,to understand how the doctrine of ,enlightenment or self-realisation came to be translated in ,china as ,zen ,buddhism1 we must first see where the ,chinese mind varies from the ,indian generally4 ,when this is done1 ,zen will appear as a most natural product of the ,chinese soil where ,buddhism has been successfully transplanted in spite of many adverse conditions4 ,roughly1 then1 the ,chinese are above all a most practical people while the ,indians are visionary and highly speculative4 ,we cannot perhaps judge the ,chinese as unimaginative and lacking in the dramatic sense1 but when they are compared with the inhabitants of the ,buddha's native land1 they look so grey1 so sombre4 ,the geographical features of each country are singularly reflected in the people4 ,the tropical luxuriance of imagination so strikingly contrasts with the wintery dreariness of common practicalness4 ,the ,indians are subtle in analysis and dazzling in poetic flight2 the ,chinese are children of earthly life1 they plod1 they never soar away in the air4 ,their daily life consists in tilling the soil1 gathering dry leaves1 drawing water1 buying and selling1 being filial1 and observing social duties1 and developing the most elaborate system of etiquette4 ,being practical means in a sense being historical1 observing the progress of time and recording its traces as they are left behind4 ,the ,chinese can very well boast of their being great recorders1--such a contrast to the ,indian lack of sense of time4 ,not satisfied with books printed on paper and with ink1 the ,chinese would engrave their deeds deep in stone1 and have developed a special art of stone-cutting4 ,this habit of recording events has developed their literature1 and they are quite literary and not at all warlike1 they love a peaceful life of culture4 ,their weakness is that they are willing to sacrifice facts for literary effects1 for they are not very exact and scientific4 ,love of fine rhetoric and beautiful expressions has frequently drowned their practical sense1 but here is also their art4 ,well restrained even in this1 their soberness never reaches that form of fantasy which we encounter in most of the ,mahayana texts4 ,the ,chinese are in many ways great1 their architecture is great indeed1 their literary achievements deserve the world's thanks2 but logic is not one of their strong points2 nor are their philosophy and imagination4 ,when ,buddhism with all its characteristically ,indian dialectics and imageries was first introduced into ,china1 it must have staggered the ,chinese mind4 ,look at its gods with many heads and arms--something that has never entered into their heads1 in fact into no other nation's than the ,indian's4 ,think of the wealth of symbolism with which every being in ,buddhist literature seems to be endowed4 ,the mathematical conception of infinities1 the ,bodhisattva's plan of world-salvation1 the wonderful stage-setting before the ,buddha begins his sermons1 not only in their general outlines but in their details--bold1 yet accurate1 soaring in flight1 yet sure of every step--these and many other features must have been things of wonderment to the practical and earth-plodding people of ,china4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one quotation from a ,mahayana ,sutra will convince readers of the difference between ,indian and ,chinese minds1 in regard to their imaginative powers4 ,in the ,saddharma-puarka the ,buddha wishes to impress his disciples as to the length of time passed since his attainment of ,supreme ,enlightenment2 he does not merely state that it is a mistake to think that his ,enlightenment took place some countable number of years ago under the ,bodhi-tree near the town of ,gay2 nor does he say in a general way that it happened ages ago1 which is very likely the way with the ,chinese1 but he describes in a most analytical way in how remote an age it was that he came to ,enlightenment4 8,but1 young men of good family1 the truth is that many hundred thousand myriads of kotis of ons ago ,i have arrived at ,supreme1 ,perfect ,enlightenment4 ,by way of example1 young men of good family1 let there be the atoms of earth of fifty hundred thousand myriads of kotis of worlds2 let there exist some man who takes one of these atoms of dust and then goes in an eastern direction fifty hundred thousand myriads of kotis of worlds further on1 there to deposit that atom of dust2 let the man in this manner carry away from all those worlds the whole mass of earth1 and in the same manner1 and by the same act as supposed1 deposit all those atoms in an eastern direction4 ,now would you think1 young men of good family1 that any one should be able to weigh1 imagine1 count1 or determine the number of these worlds8 ,the ,lord having thus spoken1 the ,bodhisattva ,mahsattva ,maitreya and the entire host of ,bodhisattvas replied3 ,they are incalculable1 ,o ,lord1 those worlds1 countless1 beyond the range of thought4 ,not even all the rvakas and ,pratyeka-buddhas1 ,o ,lord1 with their rya-knowledge1 will be able to imagine1 count1 or determine them4 ,for us also1 ,o ,lord1 who are ,bodhisattvas standing on the place from whence there is no turning back1 this point lies beyond the sphere of our comprehension2 so innumerable1 ,o ,lord1 are those worlds4 8,this said1 the ,buddha spoke to those ,bodhisattvas ,mahsattvas as follows3 ,i announce to you1 young men of good family1 ,i declare to you3 ,however numerous be those worlds where that man deposits those atoms of dust and where he does not1 there are not1 young men of good family1 in all those hundred thousands of myriads of kotis of worlds so many dust atoms as there are hundred thousands of myriads of kotis of ons since ,i have arrived at ,supreme1 ,perfect ,enlightenment40f#df ,such a conception of number and such a method of description would never have entered the ,chinese mind4 ,they are1 of course1 capable of conceiving long duration1 and great achievements1 in which they are not behind any nation2 but to express their idea of vastness in the manner of the ,indian philosophers would be beyond their understanding4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when things are not within the reach of conceptual description and yet when they are to be communicated to others1 the ways open to most people will be either to remain silent1 or to declare them simply to be beyond words1 or to resort to negation saying1 8not this10 8not that10 or if one were a philosopher1 to write a book explaining how logically impossible it was to discourse on such subjects2 but the ,indians found quite a novel way of illustrating philosophical truths that cannot be appealed to analytical reasoning4 ,they resorted to miracles or supernatural phenomena for their illustration4 ,thus they made the ,buddha a great magician2 not only the ,buddha but almost all the chief characters appearing in the ,mahayana scriptures became magicians4 ,and in my view this is one of the most charming features of the ,mahayana texts--this description of supernatural phenomena in connection with the teaching of abstruse doctrine4 ,some may think it altogether childish and injuring the dignity of the ,buddha as teacher of solemn religious truths4 ,but this is a superficial interpretation of the matter4 ,the ,indian idealists knew far better2 they had a more penetrating imagination which was always effectively employed by them whenever the intellect was put to a task beyond its power4 ,we must understand that the motive of the ,mahayanists who made the ,buddha perform all these magical feats was to illustrate through imageries what in the very nature of things could not be done in an ordinary method open to human intellect4 ,when the intellect failed to analyse the essence of ,buddhahood1 their rich imagination came in to help them out by visualising it4 ,when we try to explain ,enlightenment logically1 we always find ourselves involved in contradictions4 ,but when an appeal is made to our symbolical imagination--especially if one is liberally endowed with this faculty--the matter is more readily comprehended4 ,at least this seems to have been the ,indian way of conceiving the signification of supernaturalism4 ,when ,vimalakrti was asked by riputra how such a small room as his with just one seat for himself could accommodate all the hosts of ,bodhisattvas and ,arhats and ,devas numbering many thousands1 who were coming there with ,majur to visit the sick philosopher1 replied ,vimalakrti1 8,are you here to seek chairs or the ,dharma8444 ,one who seeks the ,dharma finds it in seeking it in nothing40 ,then learning from ,majur where to obtain seats1 he asks a ,buddha called ,sumerudparja to supply him with #cb1jjj lion-seats1 majestically decorated and as high as #hd1jjj yojanas4 ,when they were brought in1 his room1 formerly large enough for one seat1 now miraculously accommodated all the retinue of ,majur1 each one of whom was comfortably seated in a celestial chair1 and yet the whole town of ,vaili and the rest of the world did not appear on this account crammed to overflowing4 riputra was surprised beyond measure to witness this supernatural event1 but ,vimalakrti explained that for those who understand the doctrine of spiritual emancipation1 even the ,mount of ,sumeru could be sealed up in a seed of mustard1 and the waves of the four great oceans could be made to flow into one pore of the skin 7romakpa71 without even giving any sense of inconvenience to any of the fishes1 crocodiles1 tortoises1 and other living beings in them2 the spiritual kingdom was not bound in space and time4 ,to quote another instance from the first chapter of the ,lakvatrastra1 which does not appear in the oldest ,chinese translation4 ,when ,king ,rvaa was requesting the ,buddha through the ,bodhisattva ,mahmati to disclose the content of his inner experience1 the king unexpectedly noticed his mountain-residence turned into numberless mountains of precious stones and most ornately decorated with celestial grandeur1 and on each of these mountains he saw the ,buddha manifested4 ,and before each ,buddha there stood ,king ,rvaa himself with all his assemblage as well as all the countries in the ten quarters of the world1 and in each of those countries there appeared the ,tathagata1 before whom again there were ,king ,rvaa1 his families1 his palaces1 his gardens1 all decorated exactly in the same style as his own4 ,there was also the ,bodhisattva ,mahmati in each of these innumerable assemblies asking the ,buddha to declare the content of his inner spiritual experience2 and when the ,buddha finished his discourse on the subject with hundreds of thousands of exquisite voices1 the whole scene suddenly vanished1 and the ,buddha with all his ,bodhisattvas and his followers were no more2 then ,king ,rvaa found himself all alone in his old palace4 ,he now reflected3 8,who was he that asked the question8 ,who was he that listened8 ,what were those objects that appeared before me8 ,was it a dream8 or a magical phenomenon80 ,he again reflected3 8,things are all like this1 they are all creations of one's own mind4 ,when mind discriminates1 there is manifoldness of things2 but when it does not1 it looks into the true state of things40 ,when he thus reflected1 he heard voices in the air and in his own palace1 saying3 8,well you have reflected1 ,o ,king6 ,you should conduct yourself according to this view40 ,the ,mahayana literature is not the only recorder of the miraculous power of the ,buddha1 which transcends all the relative conditions of space and time as well as of human activities mental and physical4 ,the ,pali scriptures are by no means behind the ,mahayana in this respect4 ,not to speak of the ,buddha's threefold knowledge which consists in the knowledge of the past1 the future1 and of his own emancipation1 he can also practise what is known as the three wonders which are the mystic wonder1 the wonder of education1 and the wonder of manifestation4 ,but when we carefully examine the miracles described in the ,nikayas1 we see that they have no other objects in view than the magnification and deification of the personality of the ,buddha4 ,the recorders of these miracles must have thought that they could thus make their master greater and far above ordinary mortals in the estimate of their rivals4 ,from our modern point of view it was quite childish for them to imagine that any unusual deeds performed by their master would attract1 as we read in the ,kevaddha ,sutta1 people's attention to ,buddhism and recognise its superior value on that very account2 but in those ancient days in ,india1 the masses1 nay even learned scholars1 thought a great deal of supernaturalism1 and naturally the ,buddhists made the best possible use of this belief4 ,but when we come to the ,mahayana ,sutras we at once perceive that the miracles described here on a much grander scale have nothing to do with supernaturalism as such or with any ulterior motives such as propagandism or self-aggrandisement1 but that they are essentially and intimately connected with the doctrine itself which is expounded in the texts4 ,for instance1 in the ,praj-pramit ,stra every part of the body of the ,buddha simultaneously emits innumerable rays illuminating at once the furthest ends of the worlds1 whereas in the ,avatasaka ,stra the different parts of his body shoot out beams of light on different occasions4 ,in the ,saddharma-puarka ,stra1 a ray of light issues from within the circle of hair between the eyebrows of the ,buddha which illuminates over eighteen hundred thousand ,buddha-countries in the eastern quarter1 revealing every being in them1 even the inhabitants of the deepest hell called ,avici4 ,it is evident that the ,mahayana writers of these ,sutras had in their minds something much different from the ,hinayana compilers of the ,nikayas in their narratives of the miraculous power of the ,buddha4 ,what that something was ,i have here pointed out in a most general way4 ,a systematic study in detail of the ,mahayana supernaturalism will no doubt be an interesting one4 ,at all events1 the above references will suffice ,i believe to establish my thesis that the reason for the introduction of supernaturalism into the ,mahayana literature of ,buddhism was to demonstrate the intellectual impossibility of comprehending spiritual facts4 ,while philosophy exhausted its resources logically to explain them1 ,vimalakrti like ,bhva1 a ,vedic mystic1 remained silent2 not satisfied with this1 the ,indian ,mahayana writers further introduced supernaturalistic symbolism1 but it remained with the ,chinese ,zen ,buddhists to invent their own methods to cope1 according to their own needs and insight1 with the difficulties of communicating one's highest and deepest spiritual experience known as ,enlightenment in ,buddhism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,chinese have no aptitude like the ,indians to hide themselves in the clouds of mystery and supernaturalism4 ,chwang-tz and ,lieh-tz were the nearest to the ,indian type of mind in ancient ,china1 but their mysticism does not begin to approach that of the ,indian ,mahayanists in grandeur1 in elaborateness1 and in the height of soaring imagination4 ,chwang-tz did his best when he rode up in the air on the back of the ,tai-p#8ng whose wings soared like overhanging clouds2 and ,lieh-tz when he could command winds and clouds as his charioteers4 ,the later ,taoists dreamed of ascending to the heavens after so many years of ascetic discipline and by taking an elixir of life concocted from various rare herbs4 ,thus in ,china we have so many ,taoist hermits living in the mountains far away from human habitations4 ,no ,chinese saints or philosophers are however recorded in history who have been capable of equalling ,vimalakrti or ,majur or even any of the ,arhats4 ,the ,confucian verdict that superior man never talks about miracles1 wonders1 and supernaturalism1 is the true expression of ,chinese psychology4 ,the ,chinese are thoroughly practical4 ,they must have their own way of interpreting the doctrine of ,enlightenment as applied to their daily life1 and they could not help creating ,zen as an expression of their inmost spiritual experience4 ,if the imagery of supernaturalism did not appeal to sober ,chinese character1 how did the ,chinese followers of ,enlightenment contrive to express themselves8 ,did they adopt the intellectual method of the nyat philosophy8 ,no1 this too was not after their taste1 nor was it quite within the reach of their mental calibre4 ,the ,praj-,pramit was an ,indian creation and not the ,chinese4 ,they could have produced a ,chwang-tz or those ,taoist dreamers of the ,six ,dynasties1 but not a ,ngrjuna or a ankra4 ,the ,chinese genius was to demonstrate itself in some other way4 ,when they began inwardly to assimilate ,buddhism as the doctrine of ,enlightenment1 the only course that opened to their concrete practical minds was to produce ,zen4 ,when we come to ,zen after seeing all the wonderful miracles displayed by the ,indian ,mahayana writers1 and after the highly abstracted speculations of the ,mdhyamika thinkers1 what a change of scenery do we have here8 ,no rays are issuing from the ,buddha's forehead1 no retinues of ,bodhisattvas reveal themselves before you1 there is indeed nothing that would particularly strike your senses as odd or extraordinary1 or as beyond intelligence1 beyond the ken of logical reasoning4 ,the people you associate with are all ordinary mortals like yourselves1 no abstract ideas1 no dialectical subtleties confront you4 ,mountains tower high towards the sky1 rivers all pour into the ocean4 ,plants sprout in the spring and flowers bloom in red4 ,when the moon shines serenely1 poets grow mildly drunk and sing a song of eternal peace4 ,how prosaic1 how ordinary1 we may say6 but here was the ,chinese soul1 and ,buddhism came to grow in it4 ,when a monk asks who is the ,buddha1 the master points at his image in the ,buddha ,hall2 no explanations are given1 no arguments are suggested4 ,when the mind is the subject of discourse1 asks a monk1 8,what is mind1 anyway80 8,mind10 says the master4#b4e 8,i do not understand1 ,sir40 8,neither do ,i10 quickly comes from the master4 ,on another occasion1 a monk is worried over the question of immortality4 8,how can ,i escape the bondage of birth and death80#b4e ,answers the master1 8,where are you80 ,the ,zen adepts as a rule never waste time in responding to questions1 nor are they at all argumentative4 ,their answers are always curt and final1 which follow the questions with the rapidity of lightning4 ,some one asked1#b4f 8,what is the fundamental teaching of the ,buddha80 ,said the master1 8,there is enough breeze in this fan to keep me cool40 ,what a most matter-of-fact answer this6 ,that inevitable formula of ,buddhism1 the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth1 apparently has no place in the scheme of ,zen teaching1 nor has that persistently enigmatic statement in the ,praj-,pramit1 8taccittam yaccittam acittam10 threatens us here4 ,ummon 7,yn-mn7#b4g once appeared in the pulpit and said1 8,in this school of ,zen no words are needed2 what then is the ultimate essence of ,zen teaching80 ,thus himself proposing the question1 he extended both his arms1 and without further remarks came down from the pulpit4 ,this was the way the ,chinese ,buddhists interpreted the doctrine of ,enlightenment1 this was the way they expounded the ,pratytmajanagocara of the ,lakvatra4 ,and for the ,chinese ,buddhists this was the only way1 if the inner experience of the ,buddha were to be demonstrated1 not intellectually or analytically1 nor in supernatural manners1 but directly in our practical life4 ,for life1 as far as it is lived in concreto1 is above concepts as well as images4 ,to understand it we have to dive into it and to come in touch with it personally2 to pick up or cut out a piece of it for inspection murders it2 when you think you have got into the essence of it1 it is no more1 for it has ceased to live but lies immobile and all dried up4 ,for this reason1 ,chinese minds1 ever since the coming of ,bodhi-,dharma1 worked on the problem how best to present the doctrine of ,enlightenment in their native garment cut to suit their modes of feeling and thinking1 and it was not until after ,hui-nng 7,yeno7 that they satisfactorily solved the problem and the great task of building up a school to be known thenceforward as ,zen was accomplished4 ,that ,zen was the thing ,chinese minds wanted to have when they thoroughly comprehended the teaching of ,buddhism is proved by the two incontestable historical facts3 first1 after the establishment of ,zen1 it was this teaching that ruled ,china while all the other schools of ,buddhism1 except the ,pure ,land sect1 failed to survive2 and secondly1 before ,buddhism was translated into ,zen it never came into an intimate relation with the native thought of ,china1 by which ,i mean ,confucianism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us see first how ,zen came to rule the spiritual life of ,china4 ,the inner sense of ,enlightenment was not understood in ,china1 except intellectually1 in the earlier days of ,buddhism4 ,this was natural1 seeing that it was in this respect that the ,chinese mind was excelled by the ,indian4 ,as ,i said before1 the boldness and subtlety of ,mahayana philosophy must have fairly stunned the ,chinese1 who had1 before the introduction of ,buddhism1 practically no system of thought worthy of the name1 except moral science4 ,in this latter they were conscious of their own strength2 even such devout ,buddhists as ,i-ching 7,gij7 and ,hs#8an-chuang 7,genj7 acknowledged it1 with all their ardour for the ,yogcra psychology and the ,avatamsaka metaphysics2 they thought that their country1 as far as moral culture was concerned1 was ahead of the land of their faith or at least had nothing to learn from the latter4 ,as the ,mahayana ,sutras and ,shastras were translated in rapid succession by able1 learned1 devout scholars1 both native and ,indian1 the ,chinese mind was led to explore a region where they had not ventured very far before4 ,in the early ,chinese biographical histories of ,buddhism1 we notice commentators1 expounders1 and philosophers far outnumbering translators and adepts in dhyana so called4 ,the ,buddhist scholars were at first quite busily engaged in assimilating intellectually the various doctrines propounded in ,mahayana literature4 ,not only were these doctrines deep and complicated but they were also contradicting one another1 at least on the surface4 ,if the scholars were to enter into the depths of ,buddhist thought1 they had to dispose of these entanglements somehow4 ,but if they were sufficiently critical1 they could do that with comparative ease1 which was however something we could never expect of those earlier ,buddhists2 for even in these modern days critical ,buddhist scholars will in some quarters be regarded as not quite devout and orthodox4 ,they all had not a shadow of doubt as to the genuineness of the ,mahayanist texts as faithfully and literally recording the very words of the ,buddha1 and therefore they had to plan out some systems of reconciliation between diverse doctrines taught in the ,scriptures4 ,this meant to find out what was the primary object of the ,buddha's appearance in the world ignorant1 corrupted1 and given up to the karma of eternal transmigration4 ,such efforts on the part of ,buddhist philosophers developed what is to be distinctly designated as ,chinese ,buddhism4 ,while this intellectual assimilation was going on on the one hand1 the practical side of ,buddhism was also assiduously studied4 ,some were followers of the ,vinaya texts1 and others devoted themselves to the mastery of dhyana4 ,but what was here known as dhyana was not the dhyana of ,zen ,buddhism1 it was a meditation1 concentrating one's thought on some ideas such as impermanence1 egolessness of things1 chain of causation1 or the attributes of the ,buddha1 ,even ,bodhi-,dharma1 the founder of ,zen ,buddhism1 was regarded by historians as belonging to this class of dhyana-adepts1 his peculiar merits as teacher of an entirely novel school of ,buddhism were not fully appreciated4 ,this was inevitable1 the people of ,china were not yet quite ready to accept the new form2 for they had only inadequately grasped the doctrine of ,enlightenment in all its bearings4 ,the importance of ,enlightenment in its practical aspects1 however1 was not altogether overlooked in the maze of doctrinal intricacies4 ,chi-i 7,chigi1 #ebb-eig71 one of the founders of the ,t#8ien ,tai school and the greatest ,buddhist philosopher in ,china1 was fully awake to the significance of dhyana as the means of attaining ,enlightenment4 ,with all his analytical powers1 his speculation had room enough for the practice of dhyana4 ,his work on 8,tranquillisation and ,contemplation0 is explicit on this point4 ,his idea was to carry out intellectual and spiritual exercises in perfect harmony1 and not partially to emphasise either one of the two1 ,samdhi or ,praj1 at the expense of the other4 ,unfortunately1 his followers grew more and more one-sided until they neglected the dhyana practice for the sake of intellection4 ,hence their antagonistic attitude later towards advocates of ,zen ,buddhism1 for which however the latter were to a certain extent to be responsible1 too4 ,it was due to ,bodhi-,dharma 7died #ebh7;f#dg that ,zen came to be the ,buddhism of ,china4 ,it was he that started this movement which proved so fruitful among a people given up to the practical affairs of life4 ,when he declared his message1 it was still tinged with ,indian colours1 he could not be entirely independent of the traditional ,buddhist metaphysics of the times4 ,his allusion to the ,vajrasamdhi and the ,lakvatra was natural1 but the seeds of ,zen were sown by his hands4 ,it now remained with his native disciples to see to it that these seeds grew up in harmony with the soil and climate4 ,it took about two hundred years for the ,zen seeds to bear fruit1 rich and vigorous in life1 and fully naturalised while retaining intact the essence of what makes up ,buddhism4 ,hui-nng 7#fcg-gac7 who was the sixth patriarch after ,bodhi-,dharma1 was the real ,chinese founder of ,zen2 for it was through him and his direct followers that ,zen could cast off the garment borrowed from ,india and began to put on one cut and sewn by the native hands4 ,the spirit of ,zen was of course the same as the one that came to ,china transmitted without interruption from the ,buddha1 but the form of expression was thoroughly ,chinese1 for it was their own creation4 ,the rise of ,zen after this1 was phenomenal4 ,the latent energy that had been stored up during the time of naturalisation suddenly broke out in active work1 and ,zen had almost a triumphal march through the whole land of ,cathay4 ,during the ,t#8ang dynasty 7#fah-ijf7 when ,chinese culture reached its consummation1 great ,zen masters succeeded one after another in building up monasteries and educating monks as well as lay-disciples who were learned not only in the ,confucian classics but in the ,mahayana lore of ,buddhism4 ,the emperors too were not behind them in paying respects to these ,zen seers1 who were invited to come to the court in order to give sermons to these august personages4 ,when for political reasons ,buddhism was persecuted1 which caused the loss of many valuable documents1 works of art1 and the decline of some schools1 ,zen was always the first to recover itself and to renew its activities with redoubled energy and enthusiasm4 ,throughout the ,five ,dynasties1 in the first half of the tenth century1 when ,china was torn up into minor kingdoms again1 and general political situations seemed to be unfavourable to the thriving of religious sentiments1 ,zen prospered as before and the masters kept up their monastic centers undisturbed4 ,with the rise of the ,sung dynasty 7#ifj-abgi7 ,zen reached the height of its development and influence1 while the other sects of ,buddhism showed signs of rapid decline4 ,when history opens on the pages of the ,yan 7#abhj-acfg7 and the ,ming 7#acfh-affa7 dynasty1 ,buddhism is found identified with ,zen4 ,the ,kegon 7,avatasaka71 ,tendai 7,t#8ien-tai71 ,sanron 7,san-lun71 ,kusha 7,abhidharma-koa71 ,hosso 7,yogcra7 and ,shingon 7,mantra71 if they were not completely wiped out through persecution1 suffered tremendously from the lack of fresh blood4 ,perhaps they were to die out anyway on account of their not having been completely assimilated by ,chinese thought and feeling2 there was too much of an ,indian element which prevented them from being fully acclimatised4 ,in any event ,zen as the essence of the ,buddha's mind continued to flourish so that any ,chinese minds at all inclined towards ,buddhism came to study ,zen and neglected the rest of the ,buddhist schools still in existence though at the last stage of their productive activity4 ,the only form of ,buddhism that retains its vitality to a certain extent even to this day1 is ,zen1 more or less modified to accommodate the ,pure ,land tendency1 that had been growing soon after the introduction of ,buddhism into ,china4 ,there was reason for this state of things in the religious history of ,china1 and it was this that ,zen dispensed with the images and concepts and modes of thinking that were imported from ,india along with ,buddhist thought2 and out of its own consciousness ,zen created an original literature best adapted to the exposition of the truth of ,enlightenment4 ,this literature was unique in many senses1 but it was in perfect accordance with the ,chinese mental modus operandi and naturally powerfully moved them to the core4 ,bodhi-,dharma taught his disciples to look directly into the essence of the teaching of the ,buddha discarding the outward manners of presentation1 he told them not to follow the conceptual and analytical interpretation of the doctrine of ,enlightenment4 ,literary adherents of the ,sutras objected to this and did all they could to prevent the growth of the teaching of ,dharma4 ,but it grew on in spite of oppositions4 ,the disciples mastered the art of grasping the central fact of ,buddhism4 ,when this was accomplished1 they proceeded to demonstrate it according to their own methods1 using their own terminology1 regardless of the traditional or rather imported way of expression4 ,they did not entirely abandon the old manner of speaking2 for they refer to ,buddha1 ,tathagata1 ,nirvana1 ,bodhi1 ,trikya1 ,karma1 transmigration1 emancipation1 and many other ideas making up the body of ,buddhism2 but they make no mention of the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,origination1 the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth1 or the ,eightfold ,righteous ,path4 ,when we read ,zen literature without being told of its relation to ,buddhism1 we may almost fail to recognise in it such things as are generally regarded as specifically ,buddhist4 ,when ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan1 #gea-hcd7 saw a monk1 he asked1#b4h 8,where do you come from80 8,i come from south of the ,lake40 8,is the ,lake over-flowing with water80 8,no1 sir1 it is not yet overflowing40 8,strange10 said the master1 8after so much rain why does it not overflow80 ,to this last query1 the monk failed to give a satisfactory answer1 whereupon ,ungan 7,yn-yen71 one of ,yakusan's disciples1 said1 8,overflowing1 indeed60 while ,dosan 7,tung-shan71 another of his disciples1 exclaimed1 8,in what kalpa did it ever fail to overflow80 ,in these dialogues do we detect any trace of ,buddhism8 ,do they not look as if they were talking about an affair of most ordinary occurrence8 ,but1 according to the masters1 their talks are brimful of ,zen1 and ,zen literature is indeed abound in such apparent trivialities4 ,in fact1 as far as its phraseology and manner of demonstration are concerned1 ,zen looks as if it had nothing to do with ,buddhism1 and some critics are almost justified in designating ,zen as a ,chinese anomaly of ,buddhism as was referred to at the beginning of this ,essay4 ,in the history of ,chinese literature1 ,zen writings known as ,y-lu 7,goroku7 form a class by themselves1 and it is due to them that the ,chinese colloquialism of the ,t#8ang and the early ,sung dynasty has been preserved4 ,men of letters in ,china despised to write except in classical style1 deliberately choosing such words1 phrases1 and expressions as enhanced the grace of the composition4 ,all the literature we have of those early days of ,chinese culture therefore is the model of such a cultivated style4 ,the ,zen masters were not necessarily despisers of classicism1 they took to fine literature as much as their contemporaries1 they were well-educated and learned too2 but they found colloquialism a better and more powerful medium for the utterance of their inner experiences4 ,this is generally the case with spiritual reformers1 who want to express themselves through the medium most intimate to their feelings and best suited for their original ways of viewing things4 ,they avoid wherever possible such nomenclature as has been in use and filled with old associations which are apt to lack in living purposes and therefore in vivifying effects4 ,living experiences ought to be told in a living language and not in worn-out images and concepts4 ,the ,zen masters therefore did what they could not help doing and made free use of the living words and phrases of the day4 ,does this not prove that in ,china ,buddhism through ,zen ceased to be a foreign importation and was transformed into an original creation of the native mind8 ,and just because ,zen could turn itself into a native product1 it survived all the other schools of ,buddhism4 ,in other words1 ,zen was the only form in which the ,chinese mind could accommodate1 appreciate1 and assimilate the ,buddhist doctrine of ,enlightenment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i hope ,i have shown how ,buddhism1 that is1 the doctrine of ,enlightenment had to be transformed into ,zen in ,china1 and through this transformation ,zen survived the other schools of ,buddhism4 ,let us now take up the second point1 as referred to before1 in which we will see how ,zen came to create the ,sung philosophy4 ,when ,i say that ,buddhism did not really affect ,chinese thought until it was converted into ,zen through which the creative genius of ,china began to formulate its philosophy along a much deeper and more idealistic line of thought than that of the ,ante-,ch#8in period1 there will be many who will object to this view4 ,it is true that ,buddhism began to make its influence felt among ,chinese thinkers even during the ,latter ,han dynasty as we see1 for instance1 in ,mou-tz's 8,essay on ,reason and ,error0 written between #aij-bbj ,a4,d4 ,after this there were many writers who discussed the ,buddhist doctrines of ,karma and ,causation and ,immortality2 for these were some of the ideas introduced from ,india through ,buddhism4 ,it was with the ,taoists1 however1 the ,buddhists had much heated controversy from the sixth century on4 ,the way ,buddhism exerted its influence over ,taoism was not only in the form of controversy but in actually moulding their thought and literature4 ,there were so many points of contact between ,taoism and ,buddhism3 and naturally the first object against which ,buddhism worked1 as it grew in importance and power not only as a religious system but as philosophy and the possessor of an inexhaustible wealth of knowledge1 was ,taoism2 while it was admitted that ,buddhism in its turn borrowed many things from ,taoism in order to make itself more easily acceptable to the native minds4 ,on the whole1 ,taoism owes more to ,buddhism as far as its organisation1 rituals1 literature and philosophy are concerned4 ,taoism systematised after the ,buddhist model all the popular superstitions native to ,china and built up a religious medley in which the ,indian elements are found more or less incongruously blended with ,laotzuanism and the popular desire for immortality1 worldly welfare1 and what they call 8purity40 ,but ,taoism as it is believed popularly is so full of superstitions that it is not in vital contact with the main current of orthodox ,chinese thought which is represented1 maintained1 and cherished by the literati including the government officials4 ,to a greater extent ,taoism is the popular and superstitious ,chinese rendering of ,buddhism1 but there will be many critics1 the present writer for one1 who rather hesitate to consider the essence of ,buddhism sufficiently transcribed in terms of the ,taoists4 ,unless the ,confucians were not moved to assimilate ,buddhist thought in their system1 so naturally that they attempted to reconstruct the whole frame of ,confucian ideas1 not merely for the sake of reconciliation1 but for the sake of deepening1 enriching1 and resuscitating it1 we cannot say that ,buddhism entered into the life of ,chinese thought and became the real possession of the ,chinese mind4 ,but this was done during the ,sung dynasty when the ,confucian philosophers took in ,buddhist ideas into their teaching and reconstructed the whole system on a new basis1 which1 however1 was considered by them to be the necessary course of growth for ,confucianism4 ,whatever this was1 there is no doubt that the ,sung philosophy was enriched and deepened by absorbing ,buddhist views4 ,in this1 all the historians of ,chinese intellectual development agree4 ,there is a question1 however1 one may ask concerning this general reconstruction of ,confucianism on the idealistic ,buddhist scheme4 ,if ,zen did not grow up in ,china as the native interpretation of the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment and prepared the way for the rise of such great ,confucian writers as ,chou ,tun-,i 7#ajag-ajgc71b4i the ,ch#8eng brothers1 ,ch#8eng ,hao 7#ajcb-ajhe7 and ,ch#8eng ,i 7#ajce-aajg71 and ,chu ,hsi 7#aacj-abjj71 would there have been a ,sung revival of the orthodox ,chinese teaching8 ,to my view1 without ,zen the ,sung dynasty would not have seen the phenomenal uprising of what the ,chinese historians call the 8,science of ,reason40 ,as we already said1 ,zen was the only form in which ,buddhism could enter into the ,chinese mind4 ,this being the case1 whatever they later produced in the realm of thought1 could not but be tinged with ,zen4 ,see how the psychological school of ,yogcra was received by the native thinkers4 ,it was first advocated1 propounded1 and commented by ,hsan-chuang and his great disciples1 but this profound study of the human mind was too analytical even for the best minds of ,china1 and did not thrive very long after ,hsan-chuang4 ,then how did the ,praj-,pramit philosophy fare8 ,it was brought into ,china in the first century soon after the introduction of ,buddhism itself and later most ably supported and interpreted by ,kumrajva and his ,chinese pupils4 ,it had a better prospect than the ,yogcra1 because its ,chinese counterpart was found in the teaching of ,lao-tz and his followers4 ,those two groups of philosophers1 ,buddhist and ,laotzan1 may be classed as belonging to the same type of thought2 but even in this case the ,chinese did not show any great disposition to embrace this nyat system4 ,why was this8 ,the reason was obvious1 seeing that in spite of a certain agreement between the two schools on a very broad basis1 the nyat mode of thinking was altogether too metaphysical1 too high-flown1 or1 from the ,chinese point of view1 too much in nubibus1 and the practical tendency of the native minds naturally failed to grow on it2 even in the disciples of ,lao-tz and ,chwang-tz there was the taint or virtue of utilitarianism which is deeply ingrained in all the ,chinese modes of feeling4 ,besides the ,mdhyamika school of ,ngrjuna and the ,yogcra school of ,asanga both of which developed in the country of the ,buddha itself1 there were ,chih-,i's ,tendai philosophy and ,hsien-shou's 7#fdc-gab7 ,avatasaka system of ,buddhism4 ,these latter were in a sense the creations of the native ,buddhist thinkers1 and if they were at all assimilable by their compatriots1 they would not have been neglected1 and their study1 instead of being confined within a narrow circle of ,buddhist specialists1 would have overflowed into the ,confucian as well as the ,taoist boundaries4 ,that they did not do so proves the fact that they were still foreign and a kind of translation1 not literary indeed1 but more or less conceptional4 ,therefore1 there was no other way left for ,buddhism but to be transformed into ,zen before it could be thoroughly acclimatised and grow as a native plant4 ,when this was achieved because it was in the inherent nature of ,buddhism that this achievement was to take place1 ,zen became the flesh and bones of ,chinese thought and inspired the ,confucians of the ,sung dynasty to reconstruct the foundation of their philosophy on the idealistic plans of ,buddhism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we may conclude now that ,zen1 in spite of the uncouthness and extraordinariness of its outward features1 belongs to the general system of ,buddhism4 ,and by ,buddhism we mean not only the teaching of the ,buddha himself as recorded in the earliest gamas1 but the later speculations1 philosophical and religious1 concerning the person and life of the ,buddha4 ,his personal greatness was such as occasionally made his disciples advance theories somewhat contrary to the advice supposed to have been given by their ,master4 ,this was inevitable4 ,the world with all its contents1 individually as well as as a whole1 is subject to our subjective interpretation1 not a capricious interpretation indeed1 but growing out of our inner necessity1 our religious yearnings4 ,even the ,buddha as an object of one's religious experience could not escape this1 his personality was so constituted as to awaken in us every feeling and thought that goes under the name of ,buddhism now4 ,the most significant and fruitful ideas that were provoked by him were concerned with his ,enlightenment and ,nirvana4 ,these two facts stood out most prominently in his long peaceful life of seventy-nine years1 and all the theories and beliefs that are bound up with the ,buddha are attempts to understand these facts in terms of our own religious experience4 ,thus ,buddhism has grown to have a much wider meaning than is understood by most scholars4 ,the ,buddha's ,enlightenment and ,nirvana were two separate ideas in his life as it unfolded in history so many centuries ago1 but from the religious point of view they are to be regarded as one idea4 ,that is to say1 to understand the content and the value of ,enlightenment is the same as realising the signification of ,nirvana4 ,taking a stand on this1 the ,mahayanists developed two currents of thought3 the one was to rely on our intellectual efforts to the furthest extent they could reach1 and the other1 pursuing the practical method adopted by the ,buddha himself1 indeed by all ,indian truth-seekers1 endeavoured to find in the practice of dhyana something directly leading to ,enlightenment4 ,it goes without saying that in both of these efforts the original impulse lies in the inmost religious consciousness of pious ,buddhists4 ,the ,mahayana texts compiled during a few centuries after the ,buddha testify to the view here presented4 ,of these1 the one expressly composed to propagate the teaching of the ,zen school is the ,lakvatra1 in which the content of ,enlightenment is1 as far as words admit1 presented from a psychological1 philosophical1 and a practical point of view4 ,when this was introduced into ,china and thoroughly assimilated according to the ,chinese methods of thinking and feeling1 the main thesis of the ,sutra came to be demonstrated in such a way as is now considered characteristically ,zen4 ,the truth has many avenues of approach through which it makes itself known to the human mind4 ,but the choice it makes depends on certain limitations under which it works4 ,the superabundance of ,indian imagination issued in supernaturalism and wonderful symbolism1 and the ,chinese sense of practicalness and its love for the solid everyday facts of life resulted in ,zen ,buddhism4 ,we may now be able to understand1 though only tentatively by most readers at present1 the following definitions of ,zen offered by its masters3 ,when ,jshu was asked what ,zen was1 he answered1 8,it is cloudy to-day and ,i won't answer40#b4aj ,to the same question1 ,ummon's reply was3 8,that's it40 ,on another occasion the master was not at all affirmative1 for he said1 8,not a word to be predicated40#b4aa ,these being some of the definitions given to ,zen by the masters1 in what relationship did they conceive of ,zen as standing to the doctrine of ,enlightenment taught in the ,sutras8 ,did they conceive it after the manner of the ,lakvatra or after that of the ,praj-pramit8 ,no1 ,zen had to have its own way1 the ,chinese mind refused blindly to follow the ,indian models4 ,if this is still to be contested1 read the following3 ,a monk asked ,kan 7,chien71 who lived in ,haryo 7,pa-ling71 8,is there any difference between the teaching of the ,patriarch and that of the ,sutras1 or not80 ,said the master1 8,when the cold weather comes1 the fowl flies up in the trees while the wild duck goes down into water40 ,h-yen 7,fa-yen7 of ,gosozan 7,wu-tsu-shan7 commented on this1 saying1 8,the great teacher of ,pa-ling has expressed only a half of the truth4 ,i would not have it so4 ,mine is3 ,when water is scooped in hands1 the moon is reflected in them2 when the flowers are handled1 the scent soaks into the robe40#b4ab ,,enlightenment ,,and ,,ignorance ,,enlightenment ,,and ,,ignorance ,i ,strange though it may seem1 the fact is that ,buddhist scholars are engrossed too much in the study of what they regard as the ,buddha's teaching and his disciples' exposition of the ,dharma1 so called1 while they neglect altogether the study of the ,buddha's spiritual experience itself4 ,according to my view1 however1 the first thing we have to do in the elucidation of ,buddhist thought is to inquire into the nature of this personal experience of the ,buddha1 which is recorded to have presented itself to his inmost consciousness at the time of ,enlightenment 7sambodhi74 ,what the ,buddha taught his disciples was the conscious outcome of his intellectual elaboration to make them see and realise what he himself had seen and realised4 ,this intellectual outcome1 however philosophically presented1 does not necessarily enter into the inner essence of ,enlightenment experienced by the ,buddha4 ,when we want1 therefore1 to grasp the spirit of ,buddhism1 which essentially develops from the content of ,enlightenment1 we have to get acquainted with the signification of the experience of the founder1--experience by virtue of which he is indeed the ,buddha and the founder of the religious system which goes under his name4 ,let us see what record we have of this experience1 and what were its antecedents and consequences4f#dh ,there is a ,sutra in the ,dgha-,nikya known as the ,mahpadna ,suttanta1 in which the ,buddha is represented as enlightening his disciples concerning the six ,buddhas anterior to him4 ,the facts relating to their lives as ,bodhisattvas and ,buddhas are almost identical in each case except some incidental details2 for the ,buddhas are all supposed to have had one and the same career4 ,when therefore ,gautama1 the ,buddha of the present ,kalpa1 talks about his predecessors in this wise1 including the story of ,enlightenment1 he is simply recapitulating his own earthly life1 and everything he states here as having occurred to his predecessors1 except such matters as parentage1 social rank1 birthplace1 length of life1 etc41 must be regarded as also having happened to himself4 ,this is especially true with his spiritual experience known as ,enlightenment4f#di ,when the ,bodhisattva1 as the ,buddha is so designated prior to his attainment of ,buddhahood1 was meditating in seclusion1 the following consideration came upon him3 8,verily this world has fallen upon trouble 7kiccha71 one is born1 and grows old1 and dies1 and falls from one state1 and springs up in another4 ,and from this suffering1 moreover1 no one knows of any way of escape1 even from decay and death4 ,o when shall a way of escape from this suffering be made known1 from decay and death80 ,thus thinking1 the ,bodhisattva reasoned out that decay and death arose from birth1 birth from becoming1 becoming from grasping1 grasping from craving1 until he came to the mutual conditioning of name-and-form 7namarpa7 and cognition 7vina74f#ej ,then he reasoned back and forth from the coming-to-be of this entire body of evil to its final ceasing-to-be1--and at this thought there arose to the ,bodhisattva an insight 7cakkhu7f#ea into things not heard of before1 and knowledge arose1 and reason arose1 wisdom arose1 light arose4 7,bodhisattassa pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhu udapdi1 a udapdi1 pa udapdi1 vijj udapdi1 loka udapdi470 ,he then exclaimed3 8,i have penetrated this ,dharma1 deep1 hard to perceive1 hard to understand1 calm1 sublime1 no mere dialectic1 subtle1 intelligible only to the wise4 7,dhammo gambhro duddaso duranubodho santo panito atakkvacaro nipuo pandito vedanyo47 ,but this is a race devoting itself to the things to which it clings1 devoted thereto1 delighting therein4 ,and for a race devoting itself to the things to which it clings1 devoted thereto1 delighting therein1 this were a matter hard to perceive1 to wit1 that this is conditioned by that1 and all that happens is by way of cause4 ,this too were a matter hard to discern3--the tranquillisation of all the activities of life1 the renunciation of all substrata of rebirth1 the destruction of craving1 the death of passion1 quietude of heart1 ,nirvana40 ,the ,buddha then uttered the following verse in which he expressed his reluctance to preach the ,dharma to the world at large--the ,dharma which was realised in him by a1--which he saw visibly1 face to face1 without any traditional instruction3 8,this that through many toils ,i've won-- ,enough6 why should ,i make it known8 ,by folk with lust and hate consumed ,not this the ,truthf#eb that can be grasped6 ,against the stream of common thought4 ,deep1 subtle1 difficult1 delicate4 ,unseen 'twill be by passion's slaves ,cloaked in the murk of ,ignorance40f#ec ,according to this report transmitted by the compilers of the ,nikayas1 which is also confirmed by the other literature we have of the ,buddha's ,enlightenment1 what flashed through his mind must have been an experience most unusual and not taking place in our everyday consciousness1 even in the consciousness of a wise1 learned1 and thoughtful man4 ,thus1 he naturally wished to pass away into ,nirvana without attempting to propagate the ,dharma1 but this idea was abandoned when ,great ,brahma spoke to the ,buddha in verse thus3 8,as on a crag1 on crest of mountain standing1 ,a man might watch the people far below1 ,e'en so do thou1 ,o ,widsom fair1 ascending1 ,o ,seer of all1 the terraced heights of ,truth1 ,look down1 from grief released1 upon the nations ,sunken in grief1 oppressed with birth and age4 ,arise1 thou ,hero6 ,conqueror in the battle6 ,thou freed from debt6 ,lord of the pilgrim band6 ,walk the world o'er1 and sublime and blessed ,teacher6 ,teach us the ,truth2 there are who'll understand40 ,there is no doubt that it was this spiritual experience that converted the ,bodhisattva into the ,buddha1 the ,perfectly ,wise1 the ,bhagavat1 the ,arhat1 the ,king of the ,dharma1 the ,tathagata1 the ,all-knowing ,one1 and the ,conqueror4 ,in this1 all the records we have1 ,hinayana and ,mahayana1 agree4 ,here then arises the most significant question in the history of ,buddhism4 ,what was it in this experience that made the ,buddha conquer ,ignorance 7avijj1 avidy7 and freed him from the ,defilements 7sava1 rava78 ,what was the insight or vision he had into things1 which had never before been presented to his mind8 ,was it his doctrine of universal suffering due to ,thirst 7tah1 tish7 and ,grasping 7updna78 ,was it his causation theory by which he traced the source of pain and suffering to ,ignorance8 ,it is quite evident that his intellectual activity was not the efficient cause of ,enlightenment4 8,not to be grasped by mere logic0 7atakkvacara7 is the phrase we constantly encounter in ,buddhist literature1 ,pali and ,sanskrit4 ,the satisfaction the ,buddha experienced in this case was altogether too deep1 too penetrating1 and too far-reaching in result to be a matter of mere logic4 ,the intellectual solution of a problem is satisfying enough as far as the blockage has been removed1 but it is not sufficiently fundamental to enter into the depths of our soul-life4 ,all scholars are not saints and all saints are by no means scholarly4 ,the ,buddha's intellectual survey of the ,law of ,origination 7paicca-samuppda71 however perfect and thoroughgoing1 could not make him so completely sure of his conquest over ,ignorance1 ,pain1 ,birth1 and ,defilements4 ,tracing things to their origin or subjecting them to a scheme of concatenation is one thing1 but to subdue them1 to bring them to subjection in the actuality of life1 is quite another thing4 ,in the one1 the intellect alone is active1 but in the other there is the operation of the will1--and the will is the man4 ,the ,buddha was not the mere discoverer of the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,causation1 he took hold of the chain itself in his hands and broke it into pieces so that it would never again bind him to slavery4 ,his insight reached the bottom of his being and saw it really as it was1 and the seeing was like the seeing of your own hand with your own eyes--there was no reflection1 no inference1 no judgment1 no comparison1 no moving either backward or forward step by step1 the thing was seen and that was the end of it1 there was nothing to talk about1 nothing to argue1 or to explain4 ,the seeing was something complete in itself--it did not lead on to anything inside or outside1 within or beyond4 ,and it was this completeness1 this finality that was so entirely satisfying to the ,buddha1 who now knew that the chain was found broken and that he was a liberated man4 ,the ,buddha's experience of ,enlightenment therefore could not be understood by referring it to the intellect which tantalises but fails to fulfill and satisfy4 ,the ,buddha's psychological experience of life as pain and suffering was intensely real and moved him to the very depths of his being1 and in consequence the emotional reaction he experienced at the time of ,enlightenment was in proportion to this intensity of feeling4 ,all the more evident therefore it is that he could not rest satisfied with an intellectual glancing or surveying of the facts of life4 ,in order to bring a perfect state of tranquillity over the waves of turmoil surging in his heart1 he had to have recourse to something more deeply and vitally concerned with his inmost being4 ,for all we can say of it1 the intellect is after all a spectator1 and when it does some work it is as a hireling for better or for worse4 ,alone it cannot bring about the state of mind designated as enlightenment4 ,the feeling of perfect freedom1 the feeling that 8aha hi arah loke1 aha satth anuttaro10 could not issue from the consciousness of an intellectual superiority alone4 ,there must have been in the mind of the ,buddha a consciousness far more fundamental which could only accompany one's deepest spiritual experience4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to account for this spiritual experience the ,buddhist writers exhaust their knowledge of words relating to the understanding1 logical or otherwise4 8,knowledge0 7vijj71 8understanding0 7pajnan71 8reason0 7a71 8wisdom0 7pa71 8penetration0 7abhisameta71 8realisation0 7abhisambuddha71 8perception0 7sajnana71 and 8insight0 7dassana71f#ed are some of the terms they use4 ,in truth as long as we confine ourselves to intellection1 however deep1 subtle1 sublime1 and enlightening1 we fail to see into the gist of the matter4 ,this is the reason why even the so-called primitive ,buddhists who are by some considered positivists1 rationalists1 and agnostics1 were obliged to assume some faculty dealing with things far above relative knowledge1 things that do not appeal to our empirical ego4 ,the ,mahayana account of ,enlightenment as is found in the ,lalita-vistara 7,chapter on 8,abhisambodhana07 is more explicit as to the kind of mental activity or wisdom which converted the ,bodhisattva into the ,buddha4 ,for it was through 8ekacittekshaa-samyukta-praj0 that supreme perfect knowledge was realised 7abhisambodha7 by the ,buddha4 ,what is this ,praj8 ,it is the understanding of a higher order than that which is habitually exercised in acquiring relative knowledge4 ,it is a faculty both intellectual and spiritual1 through the operation of which the soul is enabled to break the fetters of intellection4 ,the latter is always dualistic inasmuch as it is cognisant of subject and object1 but in the ,praj which is exercised 8in unison with one-thought-viewing0 there is no separation between knower and known1 these are all viewed 7ikshaa7 in one thought 7ekacitta71 and enlightenment is the outcome of this4 ,by thus specifying the operation of ,praj1 the ,mahayanists have achieved an advance in making clearer the nature of sambodhi3 for when the mind reverses its usual course of working and instead of dividing itself externally1 goes back to its original inner abode of oneness1 it begins to realise the state of 8one-thought-viewing0 where ,ignorance ceases to scheme and the ,defilements do not obtain4 ,enlightenment we can thus see is an absolute state of mind in which no 8discrimination0 7parikalpana or vikalpa71 so called1 takes place1 and it requires a great mental effort to realise this state of viewing all things 8in one thought40 ,in fact our logical as well as practical consciousness is too given up to analysis and ideation2 that is to say1 we cut up realities into elements in order to understand them2 but when they are put together to make the original whole1 its elements stand out too conspicuously defined1 and we do not view the whole 8in one thought40 ,and as it is only when 8one thought0 is reached that we have enlightenment1 an effort is to be made to go beyond our relative empirical consciousness1 which attaches itself to the multitudinosity and not to the unity of things4 ,the most important fact that lies behind the experience of ,enlightenment therefore is that the ,buddha made the most strenuous attempt to solve the problem of ,ignorance and his utmost will-power was brought forth to bear upon a successful issue of the struggle4 ,we read in the ,katha-,upanishad3 8,as rain water that has fallen on a mountain ridge runs down on all sides1 thus does he who sees a difference between qualities run after them on all sides4 ,as pure water poured into pure water remains the same1 thus1 ,o ,gautama1 is the self of a thinker who knows40 ,this pouring pure water into pure water is1 as we have it here1 the 8viewing all qualities in one thought0 which finally cuts off the hopelessly entangling logical mesh by merging all differences and likenesses into the absolute oneness of the knower 7jnin7 and the known 7jeya74 ,this1 however1 in our practical dualistic life1 is a reversion1 a twisting1 and a re-adjustment4 ,eckhart1 the great ,german mystic1 is singularly one with the 8one-thought-viewing0 of things as done by ,buddhists when he expresses his view thus3 8,das ,auge darin ich ,gott sehe1 ist dasselbe ,auge1 darin ,gott mich sieht4 ,mein ,auge und ,gottes ,auge ist ein ,auge und ein ,gesicht und ein ,erkennen und eine ,liebe40f#ee ,the idea of reversion is more clearly expressed in ,jacob ,boehme's simile of the 8umgewandtes ,auge0 with which ,god is recognised4 ,enlightenment therefore must involve the will as well as the intellect4 ,it is an act of intuition born of the will4 ,the will wants to know itself as it is in itself1 yathbhtam dassana1 free from all its cognitive conditions4 ,the ,buddha attained this end when a new insight came upon him at the end of his ever-circulatory reasoning from decay and death to ,ignorance and from ,ignorance to decay and death1 through the twelve links of the ,paicca-samuppda4 ,the ,buddha had to go over the same ground again and again1 because he was in an intellectual impasse through which he could not move further on4 ,he did not repeat the process1 as is originally imagined1 for his own philosophical edification4 ,the fact was that he did not know how to escape this endless rotation of ideas2 at this end there was birth1 there was decay and death1 and at the other end there was ,ignorance4 ,the objective facts could not be denied1 they boldly and uncomfortably confronted him1 while ,ignorance balked the progress of his cognitive faculty moving farther onward or rather inward4 ,he was hemmed in on both sides1 he did not know how to find his way out1 he went first this way and then that way1 forever with the same result--the utter inutility of all his mental labour4 ,but he had an indomitable will2 he wanted1 with the utmost efforts of his will1 to get into the very truth of the matter2 he knocked and knocked until the doors of ,ignorance gave way3 and they burst open to a new vista never before presented to his intellectual vision4 ,thus he was able to exclaim to ,upaka1 the naked ascetic1 whom he happened to meet on his way to ,benares after ,enlightenment3 8,all-conqueror ,i1 knower of all4 ,from every soil and stain released1 ,renouncing all1 from craving ceased1 ,self-taught2 whom should ,i ,master call8 ,that which ,i know ,i learned of none1 ,my fellow is not on the earth4 ,of human or of heavenly birth ,to equal me there is not one4 ,i truly have attained release1 ,the world's unequalled teacher ,i1 ,alone1 enlightened perfectly1 ,i dwell in everlasting peace40f#ef ,when we speak of enlightenment or illumination we are apt to think of its epistemological aspect and to forget the presence of a tremendous will-power behind it--the power in fact making up the entire being of an individual4 ,especially as in ,buddhism the intellect stands forth prominently1 perhaps more than it ought to1 in the realisation of the ideal ,buddhist life1 scholars are tempted to ignore the significance of the will as the essentially determinate factor in the solution of the ultimate problem4 ,their attention has thus been directed too much towards the doctrine of the ,paicca-samuppda or the ,ariya-sacca1 which they considered constituted the final teaching of ,buddhism4 ,but in this they have been sadly at fault1 nor have they been right in taking ,buddhism for a sort of ethical culture1 declaring that it is no more than a system of moral precepts 7la71 without a soul1 without a ,god1 and consequently without a promise of immortality4 ,but the true ,buddhist ideas of ,ignorance1 ,causation1 and ,moral ,conduct had a far deeper foundation in the soul-life of man4 ,ignorance was not a cognitive ignorance1 but meant the darkness of spiritual outlook4 ,if ,ignorance were no more than cognitive1 the clearing-up of it did not and could not result in enlightenment1 in freedom from the ,fetters and ,defilements1 or ,intoxicants as some ,pali scholars have them4 ,the ,buddha's insight penetrated the depths of his being as the will1 and he knew what this was1 yathbhtam1 or in its tathbhva 7thatness or suchness71 he rose above himself as a ,buddha supreme and peerless4 ,the expression1 8,anuttara-samyak-sambodhi10 was thus used to designate this pre-eminently spiritual knowledge realised by him4 ,ignorance which is the antithesis of ,enlightenment1 therefore1 acquires a much deeper sense here than that which has hitherto been ascribed to it4 ,ignorance is not merely not knowing or not being acquainted with a theory1 system or law2 it is not directly grasping the ultimate facts of life as expressive of the will4 ,in ,ignorance knowing is separated from acting1 and the knower from that which is to be known2 in ,ignorance the world is asserted as distinct from the self1 that is1 there are always two elements standing in opposition4 ,this is1 however1 the fundamental condition of cognition1 which means that as soon as cognition takes place there is ,ignorance clinging to its every act4 ,when we think we know something1 there is something we do not know4 ,the unknown is always behind the known1 and we fail to get at this unknown knower1 who is indeed the inevitable and necessary companion to every act of cognition4 ,we want however to know this unknown knower1 we cannot let this go unknown1 ungrasped without actually seeing what it is1 that is1 ,ignorance is to be enlightened4 ,this involves a great contradiction1 at least epistemologically4 ,but until we transcend this condition1 there is no peace of mind1 life grows unbearable4 ,in his search for the 8builder0 7gahkara71 the ,buddha was always accosted by ,ignorance1 an unknown knower behind knowing4 ,he could not for a long time lay his hands on this one in a black mask until he transcended the dualism of knower and known4 ,this transcending was not an act of cognition1 it was self-realisation1 it was a spiritual awakening and outside the ken of logical reasoning1 and therefore not accompanied by ,ignorance4 ,the knowledge the knower has of himself1 in himself1 that is1 as he is to himself1 is unattainable by any proceedings of the intellect which is not permitted to transcend its own conditions4 ,ignorance is brought to subjection only by going beyond its own principle4 ,this is an act of the will4 ,ignorance in itself is no evil1 nor is it the source of evil1 but when we are ignorant of ,ignorance1 of what it means in our life1 then there takes place an unending concatenation of evils4 ,tah 7craving7 regarded as the root of evil can be overcome only when ,ignorance is understood in its deeper and proper signification4 ,,ii ,therefore1 it betrays an utter ignorance on the part of ,buddhist scholars when they relegate ,ignorance to the past in trying to explain the rationale of the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,causation 7paicca-samuppda7f#eg from the temporal point of view4 ,according to them1 the first two factors 7angni7 of the ,paicca-samuppda belong to the past while the following eight belong to the present and the last two to the future4 ,ignorance from which starts the series of the ,nidnas has no time-limits1 for it is not of time1 but of the will1 as is enlightenment4 ,when time-conception enters1 enlightenment which is negatively the dispelling of ,ignorance loses all its character of finality1 and we begin to look around for something going beyond it4 ,the ,fetters would ever be tightening around us1 and the ,defilements would be our eternal condition4 ,no gods would sing of the ,awakened ,one as 8a lotus unsoiled by the dust of passion1 sprung from the lake of knowledge2 a sun that destroys the darkness of delusion2 a moon that takes away the scorching heat of the inherent sins of existence40f#eh ,if ,enlightenment made the whole universe tremble in six different ways as is recorded in the ,sutras1 ,ignorance over which it finally prevailed must have as much power1 though diametrically opposed to it in value and virtue1 as ,enlightenment4 ,to take ,ignorance for an intellectual term and then to interpret it in terms of time-relation1 altogether destroys its fundamental character as the first in the series of the ,twelve ,nidnas4 ,the extraordinary power wielded by the ,buddha over his contemporaries as well as posterity was not entirely due to his wonderful analytical acumen though we have to admit this in him2 it was essentially due to his spiritual greatness and profound personality1 which came from his will-power penetrating down into the very basis of creation4 ,the vanquishing of ,ignorance was an exhibition of this power which therefore was invincible and against which ,mara with all his hosts was utterly powerless either to overwhelm or to entice4 ,the failure to see into the true meaning of ,ignorance in the system of the ,paicca-samuppda or in the ,ariya-sacca will end unavoidably in misconstruing the essential nature of ,enlightenment and consequently of ,buddhism4 ,in the beginning which is really no beginning and which has no spiritual meaning except in our finite life1 the will wants to know itself1 and consciousness is awakened1 and with the awakening of consciousness the will is split into two4 ,the one will1 whole and complete in itself1 is now at once actor and observer4 ,conflict is inevitable2 for the actor now wants to be free from the limitations under which he has been obliged to put himself in his desire for consciousness4 ,he has in one sense been enabled to see1 but at the same time there is something which he as observer cannot see4 ,in the trail of knowledge1 ,ignorance follows with the inevitability of fate1 the one accompanies the other as shadow accompanies object1 no separation can be effected between the two companions4 ,but the will as actor is bent on going back to his own original abode where there was yet no dualism1 and therefore peace prevailed4 ,this longing for the home1 however1 cannot be satisfied without a long hard trying experience4 ,for the thing1 once divided into two1 cannot be restored to its former unity until some struggle is gone through with4 ,and the restoration is more than a mere going back1 the original content is enriched by the division1 struggle1 and re-settlement4 ,when first the division takes place in the will1 consciousness is so enamoured of its novelty and its apparent efficiency in solving the practical problems of life that it forgets its own mission which is to enlighten the will4 ,instead of turning its illuminating rays within itself1 that is1 towards the will from which it has its principle of existence1 consciousness is kept busy with the objective world of realities and ideas2 and when it tries to look into itself1 there is a world of absolute unity where the object of which it wishes to know is the subject itself4 ,the sword cannot cut itself4 ,the darkness of ,ignorance cannot be dispelled because it is its own self4 ,at this point the will has to make a heroic effort to enlighten itself1 to redeem itself1 without destroying the once-awakened consciousness or rather by working out the principle lying at the basis of consciousness4 ,this was accomplished as we see in the case of the ,buddha1 and he became more than mere ,gautama1 he was the ,awakened ,one and the ,exalted and supremely ,enlightened4 ,in willing there is really something more than mere willing1 there is thinking and seeing4 ,by this seeing1 the will sees itself and is thereby made free and its own master4 ,this is knowing in the most fundamental sense of the term and herein consists the ,buddhist redemption4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ignorance prevails as long as the will remains cheated by its own offspring or its own image1 consciousness1 in which the knower always stands distinguished from the known4 ,the cheating1 however1 cannot last1 the will wishes to be enlightened1 to be free1 to be by itself4 ,ignorance always presupposes the existence of something outside and unknown4 ,this unknown outsider is generally termed ego or soul1 which is in reality the will itself in the state of ,ignorance4 ,therefore1 when the ,buddha experienced ,enlightenment1 he at once realised that there was no ,atman1 no soul-entity as an unknown and unknowable quantity4 ,enlightenment dispelled ,ignorance and with it all the bogies conjured up from the dark cave of ego disappeared4 ,ignorance in its general use is opposed to knowledge1 but from the ,buddhist point of view in which it stands contrasted to ,enlightenment1 it means the ego 7tman71 which is so emphatically denied by the ,buddha4 ,this is not to be wondered at1 seeing that the ,buddha's teaching centred in the doctrine of ,enlightenment1 the dispelling of ,ignorance4 ,those who only see the doctrine of non-atman in ,buddhism and fail to inquire into the meaning of ,enlightenment are incapable of appreciating the full significance of the ,buddha's message to the world4 ,if he simply denied the existence of an ego-entity from the psychological point of view after reducing it into its component factors1 scientifically he may be called great as his analytical faculties stood far above those of his contemporaries in this respect2 but his influence as a spiritual leader would not have reached so far and endured so long4 ,his theory of non-atman was not only established by a modern scientific method1 but essentially was the outcome of his inner experience4 ,when ,ignorance is understood in the deeper sense1 its dispelling unavoidably results in the negation of an ego-entity as the basis of all our life-activities4 ,enlightenment is a positive conception1 and for ordinary minds it is quite hard to comprehend it in its true bearings4 ,but when we know what it means in the general system of ,buddhism1 and concentrate our efforts in the realisation of it1 all the rest will take care of themselves1 such as the notion of ,ego1 attachment to it1 ,ignorance1 ,fetters1 ,defilements1 etc4 ,moral ,conduct1 ,contemplation1 and ,higher ,understanding--all these are meant to bring about the desired end of ,buddhism1 that is1 ,enlightenment4 ,the ,buddha's constant reiteration of the theory of causation1 telling his disciples how when this is cause that is effect and how when cause disappears1 effect also disappears1 is not primarily to get them acquainted with a kind of formal logic1 but to let them see how ,enlightenment is causally related to all human happiness and spiritual freedom and tranquillity4 ,as long as ,ignorance is understood as logical inability to know1 its disappearance can never bring out the spiritual freedom to which even the earliest known literature of ,buddhism makes so frequent and so emphatic allusions4 ,see how the ,arhat's declaration of spiritual independence reads in the ,nikayas3 8,there arose in me insight1 the emancipation of my heart became unshakeable1 this is my last birth1 there is now no rebirth for me40f#ei ,this is quite a strong statement showing how intensely and convincingly one has seized the central facts of life4 ,the passage is indeed one of the characterisations of ,arhatship1 and when a fuller delineation of it is made1 we have something like the following3 8,to him1 thus knowing1 thus seeing1f#fj the heart is set free from the defilement of lust1 is set free from the defilement of becoming1 is set free from the defilement of ,ignorance4 ,in him1 thus set free1 there arises the knowledge of his emancipation1 and he knows that rebirth has been destroyed1 that the ,higher ,life has been fulfilled1 that what had to be done has been accomplished1 and after this present life there will be no beyond40f#fa ,in essence the ,arhat is the ,buddha and even the ,tathagata1 and in the beginning of the history of ,buddhism the distinction between these terms did not seem quite sharply marked4 ,thus to a great extent they may be qualified in the same terms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the ,buddha was talking with his disciples concerning various speculations prevalent in his days1 he made the following remarks about the knowledge of things in command by the ,tathagata3 8,that does he know1 and he knows also other things far beyond1 far better than those speculations2 and having that knowledge he is not puffed up2 and thus untarnished he has1 in his own heart1 realised the way of escape from them1 has understood1 as really they are1 the rising up and passing away of sensations1 their sweet taste1 their danger1 how they cannot be relied on1 and not grasping after any of those things men are eager for1 he the ,tathagata is quite set free4 ,these are those other things1 profound1 difficult to realise1 and hard to understand1 tranquillising1 sweet1 not to be grasped by logic1 subtle1 comprehensible only by the wise1 which the ,tathagata1 having himself realised and seen face to face1 hath set forth2 and it is concerning these that they who would rightly praise the ,tathagata in accordance with the truth1 should speak40f#fb ,these virtues for which the ,tathagata was to be praised were manifestly not derived from speculation and analytical reasoning4 ,his intellectual sight was just as keen and far-reaching as any of his contemporaries1 but he was endowed with a higher faculty1 will-power1 which was exercised to its fullest capacity in order to bring about all these virtues which belonged to the entire being of ,tathagatahood4 ,and naturally there was no need for him to face these metaphysical problems that agitated the philosophers of his days2 they were solved in him1 when he attained his spiritual freedom and serenity1 in their entirety1 in their synthetic aspect1 and not partially or fragmentarily--which should be the case if they were presented to the ,buddha's cognition as philosophical problems4 ,in this light is to be read the ,mahli ,sutta4 ,some scholars wonder why two entirely disconnected ideas are treated together in one body of the ,sutra1 which however shows scholarly ignorance in regard to matters spiritual1 as they fail to notice the true import of ,enlightenment in the system of ,buddhist faith4 ,to understand this1 we need imaginative intuition directly penetrating the centre of life1 and not always do mere literary and philological talents succeed in unravelling its secrets4 ,the ,mahli ,sutta is a ,pali ,sutra in the ,dgha-,nikya1 in which ,mahli asks the ,buddha as to the object of the religious life practised by his disciples1 and the following is the gist of his answer3 ,the ,buddhists do not practise self-concentration in order to acquire any miraculous power such as hearing heavenly sounds or seeing heavenly sights4f#fc ,there are things higher and sweeter than that1 one of which is the complete destruction of the ,three ,bonds 7delusion of self1 doubt1 and trust in the efficacy of good works and ceremonies7 and the attainment of such a state of mind as to lead to the insight of the higher things in one's spiritual life4 ,when this insight is gained the heart grows serene1 is released from the taint of ,ignorance1 and there arises the knowledge of emancipation4 ,such questions as are asked by you1 ,o ,mahli1 regarding the identity of body and soul1 are idle ones2 for when you attain to the supreme insight and see things as they really are in themselves1 that is1 emancipated from the ,bonds1 ,taints1 and ,deadly ,flows1 those questions that are bothering you at the moment will completely lose their value and no more be asked in the way you do4 ,hence no need of my answering your questions4 ,this dialogue between the ,buddha and ,mahli well illustrates the relation between ,enlightenment and the problem of the soul4 ,there is no need of wondering why the ,buddha did not definitely solve the ever-recurring question instead of ignoring it in the manner as he did and talking about something apparently in no connection with the point at issue4 ,this is one of the instances by which we must try to see into the meaning of ,ignorance4 ,,iii ,one of the reasons1 however1 why the ,buddha left some metaphysical questions unanswered or indeterminate 7avykata7 was due to the fact that ,buddhism is a practical system of spiritual discipline and not a metaphysical discourse4 ,the ,buddha naturally had his theory of cognition1 but this was secondary inasmuch as the chief aim of ,buddhist life was to attain ,enlightenment from which spiritual freedom ensues4 ,enlightenment vanquishes ,ignorance lying at the root of birth-and-death and laying fetters of every description1 intellectual as well as affective4 ,and this vanquishing of ,ignorance cannot be achieved except by the exercise of one's will-power2 all the other attempts1 especially merely intellectual1 are utterly futile4 ,hence the ,buddha's conclusion3 8,these questionsf#fd are not calculated to profit1 they are not concerned with the ,dharma1 they do not redound to the elements of right conduct1 nor to detachment1 nor to purification from lusts1 nor to quietude1 nor to tranquillisation of heart1 nor to real knowledge1 nor to the insight of the higher stages of the ,path1 nor to ,nirvana4 ,therefore is it that ,i express no opinion upon them40 ,what the ,buddha on the other hand expounded was3 8,what pain is1 what the origin of pain is1 what the cessation of pain is1 and the method by which one may reach the cessation of pain40 ,for these are all practical matters to be not only fully understood and realised but actively mastered by any one who really desires to accomplish the great deed of emancipation4 ,that the ,buddha was very much against mere knowledge and most emphatically insisted on actually seeing and personally experiencing the ,dharma1 face to face1 is in evidence everywhere in the ,nikyas as well as in the ,mahayana texts4 ,this has been indeed the strongest point in the teaching of ,buddhism4 ,when a ,brahman philosopher was referring to his knowledge of the ,three ,vedas and a union with that which he has not seen1 the ,buddha ridiculed him in one of his strong phrases3 8,so you say that the ,brahmans are not able to point the way to union with that which they have seen1 and you further say that neither any one of them1 nor of their pupils1 nor of their predecessors even to the seventh generation1 has ever seen ,brahma4 ,and you further say that even the ,rishis of old1 whose words they hold in such deep respect1 did not pretend to know1 or to have seen where1 or whence1 or whither ,brahma is4 ,yet these ,brahmans versed in the ,three ,vedas say1 forsooth1 that they can point out the way to union with that which they know not1 neither have seen4444 ,they are like a string of blind men clinging one to the other1 neither can the foremost see1 nor can the middle one see1 nor can the hindmost see4 ,the talk of those ,brahmans versed in the ,three ,vedas is but blind talk3 the first sees not1 the middle one sees not1 nor can the last see40 ,enlightenment or the dispelling of ,ignorance which is the ideal of the ,buddhist life1 we can see now most clearly1 is not an act of the intellect1 but the transforming or re-modelling of one's whole being through the exercise of the most fundamental faculty innate in every one of us4 ,mere understanding has something foreign in it and does not seem to come so intimately into life4 ,if ,enlightenment had really such a tremendous effect on our spiritual outlook as we read in the ,sutras1 it could not be the outcome of just getting acquainted with the doctrine of ,causation4 ,enlightenment is the work of ,pa which is born of the will which wants to see itself and to be in itself4 ,hence the ,buddha's emphasis on the importance of personal experience2 hence his insistence on meditation in solitude as the means of leading to the experience4 ,meditation1 through which the will endeavours to transcend the condition it has put on itself in the awakening of consciousness1 is therefore by no means the simple act of cogitating on the theory of ,origination or ,causation1 which forever moves in a circle starting from ,ignorance and ending in ,ignorance4 ,this is the one thing that is most needed in ,buddhism4 ,all the other metaphysical problems involve us in a tangled skein1 in a matted mass of thread4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ignorance is thus not to be got rid of by metaphysical means but by the struggle of the will4 ,when this is done1 we are also freed from the notion of an ego-entity which is the product or rather the basis of ,ignorance1 on which it depends and thrives4 ,the ego is the dark spot where the rays of the intellect fail to penetrate1 it is the last hiding lair of ,ignorance1 where the latter serenely keeps itself from the light4 ,when this lair is laid bare and turned inside out1 ,ignorance vanishes like frost in the sun4 ,in fact1 these two are one and the same thing1 ,ignorance and the idea of ego4 ,we are apt to think that when ,ignorance is driven out and the ego loses its hold on us1 we have nothing to lean against and are left to the fate of a dead leaf blown away hither and thither as the wind listeth4 ,but this is not so2 for ,enlightenment is not a negative idea meaning simply the absence of ,ignorance4 ,indeed1 ,ignorance is the negation of ,enlightenment and not the reverse4 ,enlightenment is affirmation in the truest sense of the word1 and therefore it was stated by the ,buddha that he who sees the ,dharma sees the ,buddha and he who sees the ,buddha sees the ,dharma1 and again that he who wants to see the ,buddha ought not to seek him in form1 nor in voice1 etc4 ,when ,ignorance ruled supreme1 the ego was conceived to be a positive idea1 and its denial was nihilistic4 ,it was quite natural for ,ignorance to uphold the ego where it found its original home4 ,but with the realisation of ,enlightenment1 the whole affair changes its aspect1 and the order instituted by ,ignorance is reversed from top to bottom4 ,what was negative is now positive1 and what was positive now negative4 ,buddhist scholars ought not to forget this revaluation of ideas that comes along with ,enlightenment4 ,since ,buddhism asserts ,enlightenment to be the ultimate fact of ,buddhist life1 there is in it nothing negativistic1 nothing pessimistic4 ,,iv ,as philosophy tends to emphasise unduly the importance of abstract ideas and logical inferences and forgets to keep itself constantly in touch with the actual world of experience1 the ,buddha1 as ,i have repeatedly stated1 flatly refused to subscribe to theorisation 7takka or vitakka7 at the expense of practical discipline4 ,enlightenment was the fruit of such discipline1 and the dispelling of ,ignorance could not be effected by any other means4 ,if the ,buddha could be said to have had any system of thought governing the whole trend of his teaching1 it was what we may call radical empiricism4 ,by this ,i mean that he took life and the world as they were and did not try to read them according to his own interpretation4 ,theorists may say this is impossible1 for we put our subjectivity into every act of perception and what we call an objective world is really a reconstruction of our innate ideas4 ,epistemologically this may be so1 but spiritually a state of perfect freedom is obtained only when all our egoistic thoughts are not read into life and the world is accepted as it is as a mirror reflects a flower as flower and the moon as moon4 ,when therefore ,i say ,buddhism is radical empiricism1 this is not to be understood epistemologically but spiritually4 ,this is really the meaning of 8yathbhtam0 or 8yathtatham0--the term quite frequently used in the ,buddhist canon and in fact forming a most important refrain of ,buddhist thought4 ,in the ,smaa-phala ,sutta1 in the ,dgha-,nikya1 we are told in an ascending scale what the ultimate fruits of ,buddhist life are1 and the scale terminates in the 8yathbhtam0 acceptance of the world3 8,with his heart thus serene1 made pure1 translucent1 cultured1 devoid of evil1 supple1 ready to act1 firm1 and imperturbable1 he directs and bends down to the knowledge of the destruction of the ,defilements 7sav74 ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is pain4' ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is the origin of pain4' ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is the cessation of pain4' ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is the path that leads to the cessation of pain4' ,he knows as they really are3 #8,these are the ,defilements4' ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is the origin of the ,defilements4' ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is the cessation of the ,defilements4' ,he knows as it really is3 #8,this is the path that leads to the cessation of the ,defilements4' ,to him1 thus knowing1 thus seeing1 the heart is set free from the ,defilement of ,lusts 7kma71 is set free from the ,defilement of ,existence 7bhva71 is set free from the ,defilement of ,ignorance 7avijj74 ,in him1 thus set free1 there arises the knowledge of his emancipation1 and he knows3 #8,rebirth has been destroyed4 ,the higher life has been fulfilled4 ,what had to be done has been accomplished4 ,after this present life there will be no beyond6'0 ,how shall we understand this8 ,as in the case of the ,twelve ,nidanas1 the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth will surely fail to yield up its deepest signification when we approach it intellectually4 ,for it is no more than a restatement of the dogma of dependent origination1 however different in form1 the same principle is asserted both in the ,paicca-samuppda and in the ,ariya-sacca4 ,the latter points out the practical method of escape from the fetters of karma while the former draws out in view the plans of its modus operandi4 ,as concepts1 both formulas remain just what they are1 that is1 effectless and inefficient to produce a spiritual revolution4 ,the ,buddha's idea of formulating the ,fourfold ,truth was to see it practically applied to the realisation of an ideal4 ,the elaborate mental discipline which is explained in the previous parts of the ,smaa-phala is but preparatory to this final catastrophe4 ,without a serene1 pure1 and firm heart1 the truth can never be grasped as it really is4 ,a keen1 penetrating intellect may know of the truth and discourse about it1 but as to its realisation in life a disciplined mind is required4 ,the passages above quoted are intelligible only when they are seen in the light of spiritual life4 ,buddhism may be logical1 but if we fail to perceive anything further than that we sorely distort it4 ,the logicality of ,buddhist teaching is just one aspect of it and not a very important one4 ,we may even regard this logicalness as incidental to ,buddhism1 and those who are entranced by it1 remain quite ignorant of the true import of ,buddhism4 8,he knows as it really is10 ti yathbhta pajnti1--we must come to this2 for ,yathbhta-a-dassana is the insight that destroys the ,defilements 7savna khaya-na7 and produces the consciousness of spiritual emancipation 7cetovimutti74 ,without this ,naa or ,naa-dassana 7insight or intuition71 no detachment1 no freedom would be possible to a ,buddhist1 nor would he ever be assured of his ultimate deliverance from the bondage of existence as well as of the attainment of the higher life 7brahmacarya74 ,the 8knowing thus1 seeing thus10 does not mean an intellectual comprehension of facts or truths which fall outside the pale of one's own experience1 but it is the perception of events that have actually taken place within oneself4 ,even an intellectual comprehension will be impossible when there is no experience that goes to support its validity4 ,for those who have no spiritual training along the line of the ,hindu dhyana exercises1 the mental state culminating in the yathbhtam contemplation of the world will be a very difficult subject to be in sympathy with4 ,but in this light only the ,buddha's discourse on the fruits of the ,smaa life is to be understood4 ,the ,defilements 7sav71 or ,oozings 7lou7#c4b as the ,chinese translators have them1 are three1 sometimes four1 in number4 ,they are the ,defilements of ,desire 7kma71 ,existence 7bhva71 ,ignorance 7avijj71 and ,intellection 7dihi74 ,what kind of insight is it that destroys all these ,defilements8 ,and what is it that will be left in us after such a destruction8 ,the answers may be anticipated to be thoroughly nihilistic1 because nothing but absolute void will be seemingly the result of such destruction4 ,especially when we read a verse like the following 7,sutta-nipta1 vv4 #idi and #ajii71 we may reasonably be tempted to regard the teaching of the ,buddha as absolutely negativistic3 8,what is before thee1 lay it aside2 ,let there be nothing behind thee2 ,if thou wilt not grasp after what is in the middle1 ,thou wilt wander calm40f#fe ,but the fact is1 from the spiritual point of view1 that it is only after the destruction of the ,defilements and a release from every form of attachment that one's inmost being gets purified and sees itself as it really is1 not indeed as an ego standing in contrast to the not-ego1 but as something transcending opposites and yet synthesising them in itself4 ,what is destroyed is the dualism of things and not their oneness4 ,and the release means going back to one's original abode4 ,the insight therefore is to see unity in multiplicity and to understand the opposition of the two ideas as not conditioning each other but as both issuing from a higher principle2 and this is where perfect freedom abides4 ,when the mind is trained enough1 it sees that neither negation 7niratta7 nor affirmation 7atta7 applies to reality but that the truth lies in knowing things as they are or rather as they become4 ,a mind really sincere and thoroughly purified is the necessary preliminary to the understanding of reality in its suchness4 ,as the result we have 8ti yathbhta pajnti10 and this came later to be formulated by the ,mahayanists into the doctrine of ,thatness or ,suchness 7bhtatathat74 ,the trained mind that has gone through the four dhyana exercises as prescribed in the ,nikyas further develops into what is known among the ,mahayanists as the dara-jnam 7mirror-insight71 which corresponds to the ,bhta-a in the ,anguttara ,nikya4 ,the last simile in the ,buddha's discourse on the fruits of the ,smaa life1 which sums up the spiritual attainment of the ,buddhists1 becomes now quite intelligible4 ,it runs thus3 8,just1 ,o king1 as if in a mountain fastness there were a pool of water1 clear1 translucent1 and serene2 and a man1 standing on the bank and with eyes to see1 should perceive the oysters and the shells1 the gravel and the pebbles and the shoals of fish1 as they move about or lie within it3 he would know3 ,this pool is clear1 transparent1 and serene1 and there within it are the oysters and the shells1 and the sand and gravel1 and the shoals of fish are moving about or lying still40 ,the radical empiricism of the 8,yathbhtam0 teaching of the ,buddha is here graphically presented1 which reminds us of the ,buddha in the ,itivuttaka1 v4 #aji1 describing himself as the spectator standing on the shore 7cakkhum puriso tre hito74 ,to understand this simile intellectually will be sheer nonsense4 ,the writer describes his mental attitude from a higher plane of thought which has been realised by him after a long training4 ,sambodhi or ,enlightenment is the ,buddhist term given to this realisation4 ,the destruction of the four ,defilements is the negative phase of the experience which is the insight to which the ,buddha's serene and translucent mind was directed and bent down4 ,when the destructive activity alone is considered1 ,enlightenment is annihilating and negativistic1 but when the insight opens to the suchness of truth1 it is most emphatically affirmative4 ,this is where lies that 8matchless island possessing nothing and grasping after nothing1 called ,nirvana1 the destruction of decay and death40 7,sutta-nipta1 v4 #ajid74 ,remember that what is here destroyed is decay and death and not life2 for it is through ,enlightenment that life is for the first time restored to its native freedom and creativeness4 ,the simile of mirror 7dara7 may however suggest that the ,buddhist attitude towards the world is merely passive and lacking in energising inspirations4 ,this however betrays the ignorance on the part of the critic of the ,buddha's own life which was so unselfishly devoted for forty-nine long and peaceful years to the promotion of the general spiritual welfare of his people2 not only this1 but the critic has also forgotten to notice the extraordinary missionary enterprises of the ,buddha's disciples as well as their intellectual activities which developed into the ,mahayanist school of ,buddhism4 ,whatever this be1 the charge of passivity against ,buddhist weltanschauung is wrong even when it is considered apart from the historical facts of ,buddhism4 ,passivity we notice in ,enlightenment is merely apparent4 ,as a general statement1 a thing absolutely passive is unthinkable1 unless it is a state of absolute nothingness without any kind of content in it4 ,as long as ,enlightenment is the outcome of a most strenuous spiritual effort1 it is a positive state of mind in which lies hidden an inexhaustible reservoir of possibilities2 it is a unity in which a world of multitudinosity is lodged4 8,noisy go the small waters1 silent goes the vast ocean40f#ff ,in the vast ocean of ,enlightenment there is the silence of unity4 ,the ,avatasaka philosophers too compare it to the immense expanse of an ocean1 calm and translucent1 which reflects all the shining bodies of heaven1 but where at the same time possibilities of roaring and all-devouring waves lie innocently embosomed4 ,so asks the ,buddha in the ,mahli ,sutta3 8,when a monk knows thus and sees thus1 would that make him ready to take up the question3 ,is the soul the same as the body1 or is the soul one thing and the body another80 ,it is thus evident that the ,buddha's teaching always centered in the practical realisation of ,enlightenment as 8savem khata-a10 insight that destroys the ,defilements and releases one from every attachment 7updna74 ,he did not shun the discussion of the metaphysical problems merely because they were metaphysical1 but because they were not conducive to the attainment of the ultimate end of ,buddhist life which is the purification of spirit and not the display of epistemological subtlety4 ,ignorance was to be dispelled in our inner experience1 and not by intellectually understanding the principle of dependent origination whether expressed as the ,paicca-samuppda or as the ,ariya-sacca4 ,further1 that ,enlightenment consists in seeing into things 8yathbhtam0 or 8yathtatham10 free from doubt1 not disturbed by intellection or theorisation1 may be gleaned from the last gth in the ,itivuttaka1 where the ,buddha is praised for his various virtues4 ,i quote the first three stanzas3 8,having insight into all the world1 ,in all the world as it really is1 ,he is detached from all the world1 ,and without compare in all the world4 ,all surpassing in everything1 steadfast4 ,freed from all ties1 ,the highest repose belongs to him1 ,who has attained ,nirvana1 with no fear from any side4 ,this ,enlightened ,one1 with ,defilements destroyed1 ,undisturbed1 and free from doubt1 ,has attained destruction of all karma1 ,and is released in the destruction of the substratum40 ,v ,viewing things 8yathbhtam0 is1 so to speak1 the intellectual or noetic aspect of ,enlightenment though not in the sense of discursive understanding2 there is another aspect of ,enlightenment which will be the subject of consideration here4 ,i mean its relation to samadhi or dhyana4 ,this is preliminary1 as ,i said before1 to the realisation1 but it also shows that the realisation thus attained is something more than merely seeing into truth4 ,if ,enlightenment were just this seeing or having insight1 it would not be so spiritually enlightening as to bring about a complete riddance of evil passions and the sense of perfect freedom4 ,intuitions could not go so penetratingly into the source of life and set all doubts at rest and sever all bonds of attachment1 unless one's consciousness were thoroughly prepared to take in the ,all in its wholeness as well as its suchness4 ,our senses and ordinary consciousness are only too apt to be disturbed and to turn away from the realisation of truth4 ,mental discipline thus becomes indispensable4 ,we must remember that the ,buddha had this discipline under his two ,samkhya teachers and that even after his ,enlightenment he made it a rule for his disciples to train themselves in the dhyana exercises4 ,he himself retired into solitude whenever he had opportunities for it4 ,this was not of course merely indulging in contemplation or in making the world reflect in the mirror of consciousness4 ,it was a kind of spiritual training even for himself and even after ,enlightenment4 ,in this respect the ,buddha was simply following the practise of all other ,indian sages and philosophers4 ,this however was not all with him1 he saw some deeper meaning in the discipline which was to awaken the highest spiritual sense for comprehending the ,dharma4 ,indeed1 without this ultimate awakening1 dhyana however exalting1 was of no import to the perfection of ,buddhist life4 ,so we have in the ,dhammapada1 v4 #cgb3 8,without knowledge 7pa1 praj7 there is no meditation 7jhna1 dhyna71 without meditation there is no knowledge3 he who has knowledge and meditation is near unto ,nirvana40 ,this mutual dependence of jhna and pa is what distinguished ,buddhism from the rest of the ,indian teachings at the time4 ,jhna or dhyna must issue in pa1 must develop into seeing the world as it really is 7yathbhta72 for there is no ,buddhism in meditation merely as such4 ,and this was the reason why the ,buddha got dissatisfied with the teaching of his teachers2 it1 to use his own words1 did 8not lead to perfect insight1 to supreme awakening1 to ,nirvana0 7na abhiya na sambhodya na nibbnya savattati74 ,to be abiding in the serenity of nothingness was enjoyable enough1 but it was falling into a deep slumber1 and the ,buddha had no desire to sleep away his earthly life in a daydream4 ,there must be a seeing into the life and soul of things4 ,to him pa or praj was the most essential part of his doctrine1 and it had to grow out of dhyana1 and the dhyana that did not terminate in pa was not at all ,buddhistic4 ,the boat was to be emptied indeed1 but staying in an 8empty house0 7sugra7 and doing nothing is blankness and annihilation2 an eye must open and see the truth fully and clearly1 the truth 7parama ariyasacca7 that liberates life from its many bondages and encumbrances4 7,majjhima ,nikya1 #adj47 ,sings the ,dhammapada again 7v4 #cgc73 8,a monk who has entered his empty house1 and whose mind is tranquil1 ,feels a more than human delight when he sees the truth clearly40 99 99 99 99 99 ,as thus the aim of the dhyana exercises is to prepare the mind for the realisation of the paramasacca which destroys and liberates1 and as the truth is realisable only by the awakening of the parama-pa which is the knowledge 7a7 that puts an end to all misery 7sabbadukkha71 the ,buddha never fails to duly impress the importance of pa on the minds of his disciples1 for instance1 in his general disciplinary scheme given to them under the three headings3 la 7morality71 jhna 7meditation71 and pa 7intuitive knowledge74 ,whatever supersensual pleasures one may experience in the jhna exercises1 the ,buddha considered them to be far short of the ultimate goal of ,buddhist life1 every one of such pleasures had to be abandoned as it would entangle the mind and interrupt its ascending course to the awakening of pa4 ,it was through this awakening alone that the consciousness of emancipation or going back to one's original spiritual abode could be attained4 ,and by emancipation the ,buddha meant to be free from all forms of attachment1 both sensual 7rpa7 and intellectual 7vina74 ,so says he in the ,majjhima ,nikya1 #ach3 ,let not thy mind be disturbed by external objects1 nor let it go astray among thy own ideas4 ,be free from attachments1 and fear not4 ,this is the way to overcome the sufferings of birth and death4 ,as long as there is the slightest trace of attachment anywhere1 outwardly or inwardly1 there remains the substratum of selfhood1 and this is sure to create a new force of karma and involve us in the eternal cycle of birth-and-death4 ,this attachment is a form of obsession or illusion or imagination4 ,nine of such self-conceited illusions are mentioned in the ,nikyas1 all of which come out of the wrong speculations of selfhood and naturally lead to attachment in one way or another4 ,they are the ideas that 8,i am10 8,i am that10 8,i shall be10 8,i shall not be10 8,i shall have form10 8,i shall be without form10 8,i shall have thought10 8,i shall be without thought10 8,i shall neither have thought nor be without thought40f#fg ,we have to get rid of all these maitams1 arrogant1 self-asserting conceptions1 in order to reach the final goal of ,buddhist life4 ,for when they are eliminated1 we cease to worry1 to harbour hatred1 to be belabouring1 and to be seized with fears1--which is tranquillisation 7santi71 and ,nirvana1 and the seeing into the reality and truth of things4 ,when pa is awakened in us1 morality is abandoned1 meditation left behind1 and there remains only an enlightened state of consciousness in which spirit moveth as it listeth4 ,the well-known simile of the raft 7kullpama7f#fh which may seem somewhat unintelligible to some of the ,buddhist critics who are used to an altogether different 8intellectual landscape10 is a good illustration of the ,buddhist teaching of non-attachment4 ,the teaching1 8,kullpama vo bhikkhave jnantehi dhamm pi vo pahtabb1 pageva adhamm10 7,like unto a raft all dharmas indeed must be abandoned1 much more un-dharmas671 is really the most fundamental keynote running through the whole course of the history of ,buddhist dogmatics4 ,the philosophy of ,prajpramit which is considered by some quite deviating from the spirit of primitive ,buddhism is in no way behind in upholding this doctrine of non-attachment1 for instance1 as we see in the ,vajracchedik ,stra4 ,in fact1 the theory of nyat as expounded in all the ,praj-stras is no more than philosophising on the doctrine of non-attachment4f#fi ,the ,vajracchedik has3 8,tasmad iya thathgatena sandhya vg bhshi kolopama dharmaparyyam jnadbhir dharm eva t prahtavy prgeva adharm40 ,the simile itself runs as follows 7,majjhima ,nikya1 #bb73 8,in the simile of a raft do ,i teach my doctrine to you1 ,o monks1 which is designed for escape1 not for retention4 ,listen attentively and remember well what ,i am going to say4 ,suppose that a man coming upon a long journey finds in his way a great broad water1 the hither side beset with fears and dangers1 but the further side secure and free from fears1 and no boat wherewith to cross the flood nor any bridge leading from this to the other shore4 ,and suppose this man to say to himself3 ,verily this is a great and wide water1 and the hither side is full of fears and dangers1 but the further side secure and free from fears2 and there is neither boat nor bridge to take me from this to that further shore4 ,how if ,i gather some reeds and twigs and leaves and bind them together into a raft2 and then1 supported on that raft1 and labouring with hands and feet1 cross in safety to that other shore6 ,accordingly1 ,o monks1 suppose this man to gather together reeds and twigs and leaves and branches and bind them all together into a raft1 and launching forth upon it and labouring with hands and feet1 attain in safety the other shore4 ,and now1 the flood crossed1 the further shore attained1 suppose the man should say3 ,very serviceable indeed has this my raft been to me4 ,supported by this raft and working with hands and feet1 ,i am safely crossed to this other shore2 how now if ,i lift the raft up on my head or lay it upon my shoulder1 and so proceed whithersoever ,i wish6 ,what think ye1 ,o monks8 ,so doing1 would this man be acting rightly as regards his raft8 8,nay1 verily1 ,o ,lord6 8,and what then ought this man to do if he would act rightly as regards the raft8 ,thus1 ,o monks1 ought the man to consider3 ,truly this raft has been serviceable to me6 ,supported by this raft and exerting hands and feet1 ,i am crossed in safety to this further shore4 ,how now if ,i lay this raft up on the bank or leave it to sink in the water and so proceed upon my journey8 ,so doing1 ,o monks1 the man would be acting rightly as regards his raft4 8,in like manner also do ,i teach my doctrine to you in the simile of a raft1 which is meant1 ,o monks1 for escape and not for retention4 ,understanding the simile of the raft1 ,o monks1 you must leave dharmas behind1 how much more un-dharmas60f#gj ,the teaching of the ,buddha may now be summed up as follows3 ,seeing things thus or 8yathbhtam0 is the same as the attainment of perfect spiritual freedom2 or we may say that when we are detached from evil passions based upon the wrong idea of selfhood and when the heart grows conscious of its own emancipation1 we are then for the first time fully awakened to the truth as it really is4 ,these two events1 seeing and being freed1 are mutually dependent1 so intimately that the one without the other is unthinkable1 is impossible2 in fact they are two aspects of one identical experience1 separated only in our limited cognition4 ,pa without jhna is no pa1 and jhna without pa is no jhna4 ,enlightenment is the term designating the identification-experience of pa and jhna1 of seeing 8yathbhtam0 and abandoning the dharma-raft of every denomination4 ,in this light should the following be understood3 8,therefore1 ,o monks1 whatever of matter 7or body1 rpa7 there is1 whether of the past1 of the future1 or of the present time1 whether internal or external1 whether coarse or fine1 mean or exalted1 far or near1 all matter 7or body7 is to be regarded as it really is1 in the light of perfect knowledge 7sammpa71 thus3 #8,this is not of me1' #8,this am ,i not1' #8,this is not my ,self4' ,so with the rest of the five aggregates 7khaa73 vedan 7sensations71 sa 7concepts71 sankhra 7formative principle71 and vina 7consciousness74 ,one who thus seeing the world turns away from the world is truly freed from evil passions and has the consciousness of freedom4 ,such is called one who has the obstacles removed1 trenches filled1 one who has destroyed1 is free1 one whose fight is over1 who has laid down his burden1 and is detached40f#ga ,in short1 he has every quality of the ,enlightened1 in whom the will and the intellect are harmoniously blended4 ,,vi ,ignorance is departure from home and ,enlightenment is returning4 ,while wandering we lead a life full of pain and suffering and the world wherein we find ourselves is not a very desirable habitat4 ,this is however put a stop to by ,enlightenment as thus we are enabled once more to get settled at home where reign freedom and peace4 ,the will negates itself in its attempt to get an insight into its own life1 and dualism follows4 ,consciousness cannot transcend its own principle4 ,the will struggles and grows despondent over its work4 8,why80--the intellect asks1 but it is the question no human intellect can ever hope to solve2 for it is a mystery deeply inherent in the will4 ,why did the ,heavenly ,father have to send his only child to redeem the creation which was his own handiwork and yet went further astray from its home8 ,why had ,christ to be so dejected over the destiny of the erring children of ,god8 ,this is an eternal mystery1 and no relative understanding is made to grapple with these questions4 ,but the very fact that such questions are raised and constantly threaten one's spiritual peace shows that they are not idle metaphysical problems to be solved by professional philosophers1 but that they are addressed directly to one's inmost soul1 which must struggle and make effort to subdue them by a higher and deeper power native to itself--far higher and deeper than mere dialectic of cognition4 ,the story of the prodigal sonf#gb is such a favourite theme both for ,buddhists and ,christians1 and in this do we not discover something eternally true1 though tragic and unfathomable1 which lies so deep in every human heart8 ,whatever this may be1 the will finally succeeds in recognising itself1 in getting back to its original abode4 ,the sense of peace one finds in ,enlightenment is indeed that of a wanderer getting safely home4 ,the wandering seems to have altogether been unnecessary from the logical point of view4 ,what is the use of losing oneself if one has to find oneself again8 ,what boots it after all--this going over from one to ten and from ten to one8 ,mathematically1 all this is nonsensical4 ,but the spiritual mystery is that returning is not merely counting backwards so many figures that were counted before in a reverse way4 ,there is an immense difference here between physics and psychology4 ,after returning one is no longer the same person as before4 ,the will1 back from his excursion through time-consciousness1 is ,god himself4 ,in the ,vajrasamdhi ,stra1#c4d ,bodhisattva ,apratisthita#c4e asks the ,buddha why the father was so unkind as not to recall his wandering son before fifty years expired1 to which the ,buddha answers1 8,fifty years is not to be understood as indicating time-relation here2 it means the awakening of a thought40 ,as ,i would interpret1 this means the awakening of consciousness--a split in the will1 which now1 besides being actor1 is knower4 ,the knower1 however1 gradually grows to be the spectator and critic1 and even aspires to be the director and ruler4 ,with this arises the tragedy of life1 which the ,buddha makes the basis of the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth4 ,that pain 7dukha7 is life itself as it is lived by most of us1 is the plain1 undisguised statement of facts4 ,this all comes from ,ignorance1 from our consciousness not being fully enlightened as to its nature1 mission1 and function in relation to the will4 ,consciousness must first be reduced to the will when it begins to work out its 8original vows0 7prvapraidhna7 in obedience to its true master4 8,the awakening of a thought0 marks the beginning of ,ignorance and is its condition4 ,when this is vanquished1 8a thought0 is reduced to the will1 which is ,enlightenment4 ,enlightenment is therefore returning4 ,in this respect ,christianity is more symbolic than ,buddhism4 ,the story of ,creation1 the ,fall from the ,garden of ,eden1 ,god's sending ,christ to compensate for the ancestral sins1 his ,crucifixion1 and ,resurrection--they are all symbolic4 ,to be more explicit1 ,creation is the awakening of consciousness1 or the 8awakening of a thought02 the ,fall is consciousness going astray from the original path2 ,god's idea of sending his own son among us is the desire of the will to see itself through its own offspring1 consciousness2 ,crucifixion is transcending the dualism of acting and knowing1 which comes from the awakening of the intellect2 and finally ,resurrection means the will's triumph over the intellect1 in other words1 the will seeing itself in and through consciousness4 ,after ,resurrection the will is no more blind striving1 nor is the intellect mere observing the dancer dance4 ,in real ,buddhist life these two are not separated1 seeing and acting1 they are synthesised in one whole spiritual life1 and this synthesis is called by ,buddhists ,enlightenment1 the dispelling of ,ignorance1 the loosening of the ,fetters1 the wiping-off of the ,defilements1 etc4 ,buddhism is thus free from the historical symbolism of ,christianity2 transcending the category of time4 ,buddhism attempts to achieve salvation in one act of the will2 for returning effaces all the traces of time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,buddha himself gave utterance to the feeling of return when his eye first opened to the ,dharma unheard of before at the realisation of ,enlightenment4 ,he said3 8,i am like a wanderer who1 after going astray in a desolate wilderness1 finally discovers an old highway1 an old track beaten by his predecessors1 and who finds1 as he goes along the road1 the villages1 palaces1 gardens1 woods1 lotus-ponds1 walls1 and many other things where his predecessors used to have their dwellings40f#gc ,superficially1 this feeling of returning to an old familiar abode seems to contradict the statement made concerning 8an insight to things never before presented to one's mind02 but the contradiction is logical and not spiritual4 ,as long as the ,buddha was going over the ,chain of ,origination from the epistemological point of view1 that is1 as long as he attempted to get back to his native will through the channel of empirical consciousness1 he could not accomplish his end4 ,it was only when he broke through the wall of ,ignorance by the sheer force of his will that he could tread the ancient path4 ,the path was altogether unrecognisable by his intelligent eye which was one of the best of the kind2 even the ,buddha could not ignore the law governing its usage2 the ,chain was not to be cut asunder by merely reckoning its links of cause and effect backward and forward4 ,knowledge1 that is1 ,ignorance drove ,adam from the ,garden of ,eden to the world of pain and patience 7sahaloka71 but it was not knowledge that would reconcile him to his ,father1 it was the ,will dispelling ,ignorance and ushering ,enlightenment4 ,the sense of return or that of recognising old acquaintances one experiences at the time of ,enlightenment is a familiar fact to students of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,to cite one instance1 ,chih-,i 7#ecj-eig7c4f who is generally known by his honorary title as ,chih-ch ,tai-shih1#c4g was the founder of the ,t#8ien-tai school of ,buddhist philosophy in ,china4 ,he was also trained in meditation by his teacher ,hui-sz 7#eac-egg7c4h and though not belonging to the orthodox lineage of the ,zen masters1 he is reckoned as one4 ,when he came to the master1 he was set to exercise himself in a ,samadhi known as 8,fa-hua ,san-mei0 7saddharma-puarka-samdhi74#c4i ,while exercising himself in it1 he came across a certain passage in the ,sutra1 and his mind was opened1 and he at once realised the statement referred to by his master1 which was this--that he with the master personally attended the ,buddha's congregation at the ,vulture ,peak where the ,buddha discoursed on the ,sutra4 ,then said the master1 8,if not for you no one could see the truth3 and if not for me no one could testify it40 ,it is often remarked by ,zen masters that the holy congregation at the ,vulture ,peak is still in session4 ,this however ought not to be confounded with the remembering of the past which is one of the miraculous gifts of the ,buddhist saints4 ,it has nothing to do with such memory1 for in ,enlightenment there are more things than are implied in mere time-relations4 ,even when the ,prajpramit-stras expressly refer to one's previous presence at the discourse on the subject1 this is not a form of mere recollection2 the understanding is not a psychological phenomenon1 the praj goes much penetratingly into the depths of one's personality4 ,the sense of return to something familiar1 to the one thoroughly acquainted with1 really means the will getting settled once more in its old abode1 after many a venturesome wandering1 with an immense treasure of experience now and full of wisdom that will light up its unending career4 ,,vii ,it may not be altogether out of place here to make a few remarks concerning the popular view which identifies the philosophy of ,schopenhauer with ,buddhism4 ,according to this view1 the ,buddha is supposed to have taught the negation of the will to live1 which was insisted upon by the ,german pessimist1 but nothing is further from the correct understanding of ,buddhism than this negativism4 ,the ,buddha does not consider the will blind1 irrational1 and therefore to be denied2 what he really denies is the notion of ego-entity due to ,ignorance1 from which notion come craving1 attachment to things impermanent1 and the giving way to the egotistic impulses4 ,the object the ,buddha always has in view and never forgets to set forth whenever he thinks opportune1 is the ,enlightenment of the will and not its negation4 ,his teaching is based upon affirmative propositions4 ,the reason why he does not countenance life as it is lived by most of us is because it is the product of ,ignorance and egoism1 which never fail to throw us into the abyss of pain and misery4 ,the ,buddha pointed the way to escape this by ,enlightenment and not by annihilation4 ,the will as it is in itself is pure act1 and no taint of egotism is there2 this is awakened only when the intellect through its own error grows blind as to the true working of the will and falsely recognises here the principle of individuation4 ,the ,buddha thus wants an illumined will and not the negation of it4 ,when the will is illumined1 and thereby when the intellect is properly directed to follow its original course1 we are liberated from the fetters which are put upon us by wrong understanding1 and purified of all the defilements which ooze from the will not being correctly interpreted4 ,enlightenment and emancipation are the two central ideas of ,buddhism4 ,the argument ,avaghosha puts into the mouth of the ,buddha against ,arada 7or lra ,klma71 the ,samkhya philosopher1 is illuminating in this respect4 ,when ,arada told the ,buddha to liberate the soul from the body as when the bird flies from the cage or the reed's stalk is loosened from its sheath1 which will result in the abandonment of egoism1 the ,buddha reasons in the following way3 8,as long as the soul continues there is no abandonment of egoism4 ,the soul does not become free from qualities as long as it is not released from number and the rest2 therefore1 as long as there is no freedom from qualities1 there is no liberation declared for it4 ,there is no real separation of the qualities and their subject2 for fire cannot be conceived apart from its form and heat4 ,before the body there will be nothing embodied1 so before the qualities there will be no subject2 how1 if it was originally free1 could the soul ever become bound8 ,the body-knower 7the soul7 which is unembodied1 must be either knowing or unknowing2 if it is knowing1 there must be some object to be known1 and if there is this object1 it is not liberated4 ,or if the soul be declared to be unknowing1 then what use to you is this imagined soul8 ,even without such a soul1 the existence of the absence of knowledge is notorious as1 for instance1 in a log of wood or a wall4 ,and since each successive abandonment is held to be still accompanied by qualities1 ,i maintain that the absolute attainment of our end can only be found in the abandonment of everything40f#gd ,as long as the dualistic conception is maintained in regard to the liberation of the soul1 there will be no real freedom as is truly declared by the ,buddha4 8,the abandonment of everything0 means the transcending of the dualism of soul and body1 of subject and object1 of that which knows and that which is known1 of 8it is0 and 8it is not10 of soul and soul-lessness2 and this transcending is not attained by merely negating the soul or the will1 but by throwing light upon its nature1 by realising it as it is in itself4 ,this is the act of the will4 ,an intellectual contemplation which is advocated by the ,samkhya philosophers does not lead one to spiritual freedom1 but to the realm of passivity which is their 8realm of nothingness40 ,buddhism teaches freedom and not annihilation1 it advocates spiritual discipline and not mental torpor or emptiness4 ,there must be a certain turning away in one's ordinary course of life1 there must be a certain opening up of a new vista in one's spiritual outlook if one wants to be the true follower of the ,buddha4 ,his aversion to asceticism and nihilism as well as to hedonism becomes intelligible when seen in this light4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,majjhima-,nikya's account of the ,buddha's interview with the ,samkhya thinkers somewhat differs from the ,mahayana poet's1 but in a way gives a better support to my argument as regards the ,buddha's ,enlightenment4 ,the reason why he was not satisfied with the teaching and discipline of lra ,klma and ,uddaka is stated to be this3 8,this doctrine does not lead to turning away1 to dispassion1 to cessation1 to quietude1 to perfect penetration1 to supreme awakening1 to ,nirvana1 but only to attainment to the ,realm of ,nothingness40 ,what did then the ,buddha understand by ,nirvana which literally means annihilation or cessation1 but which is grouped here with such terms as awakening1 turning away 7that is1 revaluation71 and penetration1 and contrasted to nothingness8 ,there is no doubt1 as far as we can judge from these qualifications1 that ,nirvana is a positive conception pointing to a certain determinable experience4 ,when he came up to the bank of the ,nairajan and took his seat of soft grass on a shady1 peaceful spot1 he made up his mind not to leave the place until he realised in himself what he had been after ever since his wandering away from home4 ,according to the ,lalita-vistara1 he at that moment made this vow 7praidhna73 8,let my body be dried up on this seat1 ,let my skin and bones and flesh be destroyed3 ,so long as ,bodhi is not attained1 so hard to attain for many a kalpa1 ,my body and thought will not be removed from this seat40f#ge ,thus resolved1 the ,buddha finally came to realise ,supreme ,enlightenment for which he had belaboured for ever so many lives4 ,how does this vary from his former attainments under ,uddaka and lra ,klma8 ,let him express himself3 8,then1 disciples1 myself subject to birth1 but perceiving the wretchedness of things subject to birth and seeking after the incomparable security of ,nirvana which is birthless1 to that incomparable security ,i attained1 even to ,nirvana which is birthless4 8,myself subject to growth and decay1 but perceiving the wretchedness of things subject to growth and decay and seeking after the incomparable security of ,nirvana which is free from growth and decay1 to that incomparable security ,i attained1 even to ,nirvana which is free from growth and decay4 8,myself subject to disease1 but perceiving the wretchedness of things subject to disease and seeking after the incomparable security of ,nirvana which is free from disease1 to that incomparable security ,i attained1 even to ,nirvana which is free from disease4 8,myself subject to death1 but perceiving the wretchedness of things subject to death and seeking after the incomparable security of ,nirvana which is deathless1 to that incomparable security ,i attained1 even to ,nirvana which is deathless4 8,myself subject to sorrow1 but perceiving the wretchedness of things subject to sorrow and seeking after the incomparable security of ,nirvana which is sorrowless1 to that incomparable security ,i attained1 even to ,nirvana which is sorrowless4 8,myself subject to stain1 but perceiving the wretchedness of things subject to stain and seeking the incomparable security of ,nirvana which is stainless1 to that incomparable security ,i attained1 even to ,nirvana which is stainless4 8,then ,i saw and knew3 #8,assured am ,i of deliverance2 this is my final birth2 never more shall ,i return to this life6'0f#gf ,when ,nirvana is qualified as birthless1 deathless1 stainless1 sorrowless1 and free from growth and decay and disease1 it looks negativistic enough4 ,but if there were nothing affirmed even in these negations1 the ,buddha could not rest in 8the incomparable security0 7anuttara yogakkhema7 of ,nirvana and been assured of final emancipation4 ,what thus the ,buddha denied1 we can see1 was ,ignorance as to the true cause of birth and death1 and this ,ignorance was dispelled by the supreme effort of the will and not by mere dialectic reasoning and contemplation4 ,the will was asserted and the intellect was awakened to its true significance4 ,all the desires1 feelings1 thoughts1 and strivings thus illuminated cease to be egotistic and are no more the cause of defilements and fetters and many other hindrances1 of which so many are referred to in all ,buddhist literature1 ,mahayana and ,hinayana4 ,in this sense the ,buddha is the ,jina1 ,conqueror1 not an empty conqueror over nothingness1 but the conqueror of confusion1 darkness1 and ,ignorance4 ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,buddhism ,,from ,,bodhi-,,dharma ,,to ,,hui-,,neng 7,,yeno7 7#ebj ,a4,d4-#gac ,a4,d47 ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,buddhism ,,from ,,bodhi-,,dharma ,,to ,,hui-,,neng 7,,yeno7 7#ebj ,a4,d4-#gac ,a4,d47 ,my intention here is not to make a thoroughly critical and scientific study of the history of ,zen ,buddhism2 for this presupposes some knowledge of the development of ,buddhism in ,china1 and there are1 as far as my knowledge extends1 no text-books on the subject1 which are accessible to readers of this book4 ,the main object of the present ,essay will therefore be to acquaint them first with the traditional history of ,zen as it is told by its followers both in ,japan and ,china4 ,its critical investigation will follow when readers are in a degree prepared for the task4 ,the traditional origin of ,zen in ,india before its introduction into ,china1 which is recorded in ,zen literature1 is so mixed with legends that no reliable facts can be gathered from it4 ,in the days when there was yet no critical study of anything and when things1 especially relating to religion1 were believed in a wholesale manner1 we could not expect anything else4 ,it may now be too late to try to unravel the mysteries enveloping the origin of ,zen in ,india except in a general and logical way from the historical facts already known concerning the development of ,mahayana ,buddhism4 ,in fact1 ,zen ,buddhism1 as was already discussed1 is the product of the ,chinese mind1 or rather the ,chinese elaboration of the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment4 ,therefore1 when we want to narrate the history of ,zen1 it may be better in some respects not to go to ,india1 but to stay in ,china and study the psychology and philosophy of her people and the surrounding conditions that made it possible for ,zen to achieve a successful growth in the land of the celestials1 always remembering that it is a practical interpretation of the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment4 ,some scholars may however object to this kind of treatment of the subject1 on the ground that if ,zen is at all a form of ,buddhism or even the essence of it as is claimed by its followers1 it cannot be separated from the general history of ,buddhism in ,india4 ,this is quite true1 but as far as facts are concerned1 ,zen as such did not exist in ,india1 that is1 in the form as we have it to-day2 and therefore when we try to go beyond ,china to trace its origin and development1 the only way open to us will be the one ,i have followed in my previous ,essays collected here4 ,that is to say1 we must consider ,zen the ,chinese interpretation of the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment1 which is expounded in all ,buddhist literature1 most intensively in the ,mahayana and more or less provisionarily in the ,hinayana4 ,as time went on1 this doctrine steadily grew to occupy the minds of the ,buddha's followers and to control the course of development of ,buddhist thought generally2 for was it not through ,enlightenment that ,gautama became the ,buddha1 the ,enlightened ,one8 and is it not the object of ,buddhism to follow the footsteps of its founder in the attainment of final emancipation8 ,but the ,chinese adherents of ,bodhismf#gg or the upholders of ,enlightenment did not wish to swallow ,indian ,buddhism undigested4 ,the practical imagination of the ,chinese people came thus to create ,zen1 and developed it to the best of their abilities to suit their own religious requirements4 ,when we compare ,zen as a finished product to the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment as the latter began to unfold itself in primitive ,buddhism1 we find a wide and seemingly impassable gap between the two4 ,this was however naturally to be expected4 ,let us consider the following facts4 ,in the beginning1 the ,buddha was somewhat timid to disclose the entire secrets of the reason of ,buddhahood1 thinking that his disciples were not quite capable of following every step he had taken himself4 ,the feeling he first had after ,enlightenment governed him almost throughout the entire course of his earthly life4 ,it was this1 that the ,perfect ,supreme ,enlightenment attained by him was too exalted an object for sentient beings to strive after1 and that even when it were disclosed to them they would not fully comprehend it but might defile it to their own demerit4 ,did he not even think of passing into ,nirvana right after ,enlightenment8 ,his whole life1 in spite of the advice of the ,brahmadeva1 seems to have been controlled by this feeling--the reluctance to reveal the entirety of his inmost self-realisation 7pratytmajna1 according to the terminology of the ,lakvatra74 ,in point of fact1 the ,buddha himself might have communicated what he realised to all his disciples unreservedly1 but the impression we get from the ,agama or ,nikaya literature is that he was actually reluctant to do so4 ,at least this was the way the earlier writers of the canonical books attempted to represent their master whatever their motives might be4 ,this being the case1 the idea of ,enlightenment was not brought forward so fully and conspicuously in ,hinayana literature as at once to command our attention4 ,but as ,i pointed out1 this idea lies only superficially buried among the other and less important ideas1 and can easily be made manifest by logically and psychologically following up the course of events related in the canonical writings concerning the ,enlightenment of the ,buddha4 ,the earlier writers conceived the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth or the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,causation1 or the ,eightfold ,path of ,righteousness to be the central teaching of ,buddhism1 which also included on the psychological side the theory of non-ego 7antman74 ,but when we reflect1 both philosophically and from the ,zen point of view1 on the life of the ,buddha and on the ultimate principle of ,buddhahood1 we cannot help thinking of his ,enlightenment as the most significant and most essential and most fruitful part of ,buddhism4 ,therefore1 what the ,buddha really wished to impart to his disciples must be said to have been the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment in spite of the ,hinayanistic interpretation or understanding of what is known as primitive ,buddhism4 ,but as long as ,buddhism flourished in ,india1 this its central idea remained what it was1 that is1 such as is developed in most of the ,mahayana ,sutras4 ,it was only after ,bodhi-,dharma who brought it to ,china that the idea took root there and grew up to what we designate now specifically as the ,zen school of ,buddhism4 ,the history of ,zen1 therefore1 properly speaking or in its narrower sense1 may best be regarded as beginning in ,china4 ,the ,indian soil was too metaphysical1 too rich in romantic imagination for ,zen to grow as such in its pure form4 ,while the attainment of ,buddhahood or ,arhatship was the ultimate goal of his teaching1 the ,buddha was practical and always close to the facts of life and insisted in his ordinary sermons on a life regulated by moral rules4 ,nor had he any desire to disclose intellectually or metaphysically the content of ,enlightenment which must be experienced but cannot be explained4 ,he never neglected to emphasise the significance of self-realisation1 for ,nirvana or ,enlightenment was to be attained personally through one's own efforts in one's own inner consciousness4 ,the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth or the ,twelvefold ,chain of ,causation or the ,theory of ,non-ego was an intellectual guide to the realisation of the ,buddhist life4 ,such teaching could not have any practical meaning except as finally leading to ,enlightenment4 ,the ,buddha never thought that his followers would come to lay the entire stress of his teaching on these intellectual structures which could not stand by themselves without being supported by an inner spirit4 ,the ,eightfold ,path of ,righteousness was an ethical guide to ,enlightenment1 and as such it was regarded by the ,buddha4 ,those who have no higher insight into his teaching than reading a moral signification in it1 take it for a kind of ethical culture and no more4 ,they think that ,buddhism is a positivism as philosophy and its ,brotherhood 7sagha7 a body of moral ascetics4 ,they praise the ,buddha as the originator of a scientific religious system free from spiritualistic superstitions which so frequently and abundantly grow around religion4 ,but we know better because these comments are not in full accord with the teaching of the ,buddha1 for they only reflect one side of it and fail to take an inner and comprehensive view of the whole field4 ,if these critics took up the practise of dhyana as constituting the essence of ,buddhism along with the above considerations1 they may be said to have come nearer to the goal2 but even this dhyana is a form of spiritual exercise which will prepare the way to the final realisation of ,nirvana4 ,dhyana in itself does not distinguish ,buddhism from the other philosophico-religious systems which existed in ,india in the day of the ,buddha4 ,therefore1 to understand ,zen as expressing the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment which is the reason of ,buddhism1 we must wait for the rise of the ,mahayana movements4 ,and when this was introduced into ,china by ,bodhi-,dharma1 it grew up to what we now know by the name of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,i ,the legendary story of the origin of ,zen in ,india runs as follows3 kyamuni was once engaged at the ,mount of the ,holy ,vulture in preaching to a congregation of his disciples4 ,he did not resort to any lengthy verbal discourse to explain his point1 but simply lifted a bouquet of flowers before the assemblage1 which was presented to him by one of his lay-disciples4 ,not a word came out of his mouth4 ,nobody understood the meaning of this except the old venerable ,mahkyapa1 who quietly smiled at the ,master1 as if he fully comprehended the purport of this silent but eloquent teaching on the part of the ,enlightened ,one4 ,the latter perceiving this opened his golden-tongued mouth and proclaimed solemnly3 8,i have the most precious treasure1 spiritual and transcendental1 which this moment ,i hand over to you1 ,o venerable ,mahkyapa60#d4a ,orthodox ,zen followers generally blindly take this incident to be the origin of their doctrine1 in which1 according to them1 is disclosed the inmost mind of the ,buddha as well as the secret of the religion4 ,as ,zen claims to be the inmost essence of ,buddhism and to have been directly transmitted by the ,buddha to his greatest disciple1 ,mahkyapa1 its followers naturally look for the particular occasion when this transmission took place between the master and the disciple4 ,we know in a general way that ,mahkyapa succeeded the ,buddha as the leader of the ,faith1 but as to his special transmission of ,zen1 we have no historical records in the ,indian ,buddhist writings at present in our possession4 ,this fact is however specially mentioned for the first time as far as we know in a ,chinese ,zen history called ,the ,records of the ,spread of the ,lamp1#d4b compiled by ,li ,tsun-hs1 in #ajbi1 and also in ,the ,accounts of the ,orthodox ,transmission of the ,dharma compiled by ,ch#8i-sung in #ajfd1d4c where this incident is only referred to as not quite an authentic one historically4 ,in ,the ,records of the ,transmission of the ,lamp1#d4d written in #ajjd1 which is the earliest ,zen history now extant1 the author does not record any particular event in the life of the ,buddha regarding the ,zen transmission4 ,as all the earlier histories of ,zen are lost1 we have at present no means to ascertain how early the ,zen tradition started in ,china4 ,probably it began to be talked about among the ,zen followers when their religion had been well established in ,china late in the eighth century4 ,in those days there must have been some necessity to invent such a legend for the authorisation of ,zen ,buddhism2 for as ,zen grew in strength the other schools of ,buddhism already in existence grew jealous of its popular influence and attacked it as having no authorised records of its direct transmission from the founder of ,buddhism1 which was claimed by the devotees of ,zen4 ,this was the case especially when the latter made so light of the doctrinal teaching discussed in the ,sutras and astras1 as they thought that the ultimate authority of ,zen issued out of their own direct personal experience4 ,in this latter they were quite insistent2 but they were not1 nor could they be1 so critical and independent as to ignore altogether the authority of historical ,buddhism1 and they wanted somehow to find the record that the ,buddha handed ,zen over to ,mahkyapa and from ,mahkyapa on to the twenty-eighth patriarch1 ,bodhi-,dharma1 who became the first patriarch of ,zen in ,china4 ,a line of twenty-eight ,indian patriarchs thus came to be established by ,zen historians1 while1 according to other schools1 there were only twenty-three or twenty-four patriarchs after the founder4 ,when the historians had the need for the special transmission of ,zen from the ,buddha to ,mahkyapa1 they felt it necessary to fill up the gap between the twenty-third or twenty-fourth patriarch and ,bodhi-,dharma himself1 who according to them was the twenty-eighth4 ,from the modern critical point of view1 it did not matter very much whether ,zen originated with ,bodhi-,dharma in ,china or with the ,buddha in ,india1 inasmuch as ,zen is true and has an enduring value4 ,and again from the historian's point of view which tries scientifically to ascertain the source of development resulting in ,zen ,buddhism1 it is only important to find a logical connection between the ,mahayana ,doctrine of ,enlightenment in ,india and its practical application by the ,chinese to the actualities of life2 and as to any special line of transmission in ,india before ,bodhi-,dharma as was established by the ,zen devotees1 it is not a matter of much concern nor of great importance4 ,but as soon as ,zen is formulated into an independent system1 not only with its characteristic features but with its historically ascertainable facts1 it will be necessary for the historians to trace its line of transmission complete and not interrupted2 for in ,zen1 as we shall see later1 it is of the utmost importance for its followers to be duly certified or approved 7abbhanumodana7 by the master as to the genuineness or orthodox character of their realisation4 ,therefore1 as long as ,zen is the product of the ,chinese soil from the ,indian seed of ,enlightenment as ,i take it1 no special line of transmission need be established in ,india unless it is in a general logical manner such as was attempted in my previous ,essays4 ,the twenty-eight patriarchs of ,zen regarded by its followers as the orthodox line of transmission are as follows3 #a4 kyamuni4 #ab4 ,avaghosha4 #b4 ,mahkyapa4 #ac4 ,bhikshu ,kapimala4 #c4 nanda4 #ad4 ,ngrjuna4 #d4 aavsa4 #ae4 ,kadeva4 #e4 ,upagupta4 #af4 rya ,rhulata4 #f4 ,dhitaka4 #ag4 ,saghanandi4 #g4 ,micchaka4 #ah4 ,saghayaas4 #h4 ,buddhanandi4 #ai4 ,kumrata4 #i4 ,buddhamitra4 #bj4 ,jayata4 #aj4 ,bhikshu ,parva4 #ba4 ,vasubandhu4 #aa4 ,puyayaas4 #bb4 ,manura4 #bc4 ,haklenayaas4 #bf4 ,puyamitra4 #bd4 ,bhikshu ,siha4 #bg4 ,prajtara4 #be4 ,vasita4 #bh4 ,bodhi-,dharma4 ,to be consistent with the view that ,zen was a 8special transmission from the ,buddha outside of his doctrinal teaching10 ,zen historians have extended this transmission even beyond kyamuni2 for1 according to tradition prevalent already among primitive ,buddhists1 there were at least six ,buddhas prior to the ,buddha of the present kalpa who was the ,muni of the kyas2 and these several ,buddhas had each to leave a gth of 8,dharma transmission0 which is systematically preserved in ,zen history4 ,now if the six ,buddhas of the past had their gths1 why not those patriarchs between kyamuni and ,bodhi-,dharma1 all inclusively8 ,or1 if any one of them had at all any kind of gth1 why not the rest of them too8 ,so1 they have all bequeathed their gths of transmission regularly prefaced with the words3 8,i now hand over to you the eye-treasure of the ,great ,law1 which you will guard and ever be mindful of40 ,no doubt they are fictitious productions of the historical imagination which was so highly exercised by the early writers of ,zen history1 evidently inspired by an extraordinary zeal for their orthodox faith4 ,the translators of these patriarchal verses are1 according to the author of the ,records of the ,right ,transmission1 ,chih-chiang-liang-lou1#d4e of the ,first ,wei dynasty1 and ,na-lien-ya-sh1#d4f of the ,eastern ,wei2 the former came from ,middle ,india and the latter from ,kabul4 ,their book known as the ,account of ,succession in the ,law#d4g disappeared after the repeated persecutions carried out by the reigning dynasties1 but the stories of these patriarchs were quoted at least in the two books1 the ,pao-lin ,ch#8uan#d4h and the ,shng-chou ,chi1#d4i both compiled prior to the ,transmission of the ,lamp1 in which they are referred to4 ,but they too were lost some time after ,kaisu 7,ch#8i-sung7 in the ,sung dynasty4 ,therefore at present the ,transmission of the ,lamp is the earliest history of ,zen where the twenty-eight patriarchs and their verses of law-transmission are recorded in detail4 ,to quote as samples two of the six ,buddhas' gths1 the first ,buddha ,vipayi declares3 8,this body from within the ,formless is born1 ,it is like through magic that all forms and images appear3 ,phantom beings with mentality and consciousness have no reality from the very beginning2 ,both evil and happiness are void1 have no abodes40#d4aj ,the gth of the sixth ,buddha1 ,kyapa1 who just preceded the ,muni of the kyas1 runs thus3 8,pure and immaculate is the nature of all sentient beings2 ,from the very beginning there is no birth1 no death2 ,this body1 this mind--a phantom creation it is2 ,and in phantom transformation there are neither sins nor merits4#d4aa ,when the ,buddha belonging to the present age ordered ,mahkyapa to be the orthodox transmitter of the ,good ,law1 he uttered the following verse3 8,the ,dharma is ultimately a dharma which is no-dharma2 ,a dharma which is no-dharma is also a dharma3 ,as ,i now hand this no-dharma over to thee1 ,what we call the ,dharma1 the ,dharma--where after all is the ,dharma80f#ghd4ab ,the sixth patriarch ,dhtaka has3 8,penetrate into the ultimate truth of mind1 ,and we have neither things nor no-things2 ,enlightened and not-enlightened--they are the same2 ,neither mind nor thing there is40#d4ac ,the twenty-second patriarch1 ,manura1 gave his view thus3 8,the mind moveth with the ten thousand things3 ,even when moving1 it is serene4 ,perceive its essence as it moveth on1 ,and neither joy nor sorrow there is40#d4ad ,in these gths we notice the teaching generally characteristic of ,mahayana ,buddhism as it prevailed in ,india4 ,as ,i said before1 as far as the doctrinal side of ,buddhism was concerned1 ,zen had nothing particularly to offer as its own2 for its raison d'tre consists in its being a spiritual experience and not in its being a special system of philosophy or of certain dogmas conceptually synthesised4 ,we have ,zen only when the ,mahayana ,buddhist speculation is reduced to the actual things of life and becomes the direct expression of one's inner life4 ,and this did not come to pass until ,buddhism was transplanted into ,china and made there to grow nourished by a people whose practical turn of mentality refused to swallow the ,indian tradition undigested4 ,the form of thought as adopted in the so-called patriarchal verses did not appeal to the ,chinese mind4 ,when they got into the thought itself1 they wished to express it in their own way1 they wished to live the thought as was natural to them1 and not to hoard it as something imported from abroad and not inherently belonging to their psychology4 ,when ,bodhi-,dharma gave his full sanction to his disciples1 he is supposed to have composed the following gth3 8,the original reason of my coming to this country ,was to transmit the ,law in order to save the confused3 ,one flower with five petals is unfolded1 ,and the bearing of fruit will by itself come40#d4ae ,by this 8bearing of fruit0 did ,dharma prophesy the full development of ,zen later in ,china8 ,the 8five petals0 are supposed to mean the five ,zen ,fathers in ,china after ,dharma when ,zen came to be recognised as a branch of ,buddhism with a message of its own4 ,whether this gth was really a prophetic one by ,dharma himself1 or whether it was composed by some ,zen historian after the sixth patriarch ,hui-nng 7,yeno71 we have no means to decide4 ,the one thing is certain historically that ,dharma's teaching began to be naturalised in ,china about two hundred years after him and assimilated by her people in a manner best suited to their mental idiosyncracies4 ,zen in the form we have it to-day could not mature anywhere outside ,china4 ,india was too metaphysical1 or too given up to mystic imagination4 ,it was the home for the ,yuishiki 7,yogcra71 the ,shingon 7,mantra school71 the ,kegon 7,avatasaka71 or the ,sanron 7nyat or ,mdhyamika74 ,as for ,zen1 it needed a mind which had already been deeply steeped in the ,laotzan ideas and feelings and yet could not detach itself from the details of daily life4 ,aloofness1 romanticism1 a certain practical temperament1 and yet an even1 steady1 well-balanced character--these were needed to develop ,zen to its present form4 ,that is to say1 if ,mahayana ,buddhism as was expounded by ,ngrjuna and ,avaghosha1 and in the ,vimalakrti1 ,prajpramit1 and other ,sutras1 especially in the ,lakvatra1 were not worked upon by ,chinese genius1 ,zen as such could not at all have come into existence4 ,it may not altogether be out of place here to show by concrete examples how much the ,indian method diverges from the typically ,chinese one in demonstrating the truth of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,as ,i have repeatedly illustrated1 ,buddhism1 whether primitive or developed1 is a religion of freedom and emancipation1 and the ultimate aim of its discipline is to release the spirit from its possible bondage so that it can act freely in accordance with its own principles4 ,this is what is meant by non-attachment 7apratishita-cittam74 ,the idea is negative inasmuch as it is concerned with untying the knots of the intellect and passion1 but the feeling implied is positive1 and the final object is attained only when the spirit is restored to its original activity4 ,the spirit knows its own way1 and what we can do is to rid it of all the obstacles our ignorance has piled before it4 8,throw them down10 is therefore the recurring note in the ,buddhist teaching4 ,the ,indian ,buddhist way of impressing the idea is this3 ,a ,brahman named ,black-nails came to the ,buddha and offered him two huge flowering trees which he carried each in one of his hands through his magical power4 ,the ,buddha called out1 and when the ,brahman responded the ,buddha said1 8,throw them down60 ,the ,brahman let down the flowering tree in his left hand before the ,buddha4 ,the latter called out again to let them go1 whereupon ,black-nails dropped the other flowering tree in the right hand4 ,the ,buddha still kept up his command4 ,said the ,brahman1 8,i have nothing now to let go4 ,what do you want me to do80 8,i never told you to abandon your flowering plants10 said the ,buddha1 8what ,i want you to do is to abandon your six objects of sense1 your six organs of sense1 and your six consciousnesses4 ,when these are all at once abandoned and there remains nothing further to be abandoned1 it is then that you are released from the bondage of birth-and-death40 ,in contrast to this plain though somewhat round-about talk of the ,buddha1 the following case of ,jshu 7,chao-chou7f#gid4af is direct and concise and disposes of the matter in a most unequivocal manner4 ,a monk came and asked the master1#d4ag 8,how is it when a man brings nothing with him80 8,throw it away60 was ,jshu's immediate response4 8,what shall he throw down when he is not burdened at all80 8,if so1 carry it along60 ,the ,zen masters delight in paradoxes1 and ,jshu's remark here is a typical one4 ,the problem of emancipation is important1 but the still more important one is1 8,who or what is the ,buddha80 ,when this is mastered1 ,buddhism has rendered its full service4 ,what did the ,indian philosophers think of the ,buddha8 ,there was an old lady who lived at the time of the ,buddha4 ,she was born at the same time as the ,buddha himself and lived in the eastern part of the city4 ,she had a singular aversion against the ,buddha and never wished to see him4 ,whenever he passed by she would run away4 ,but whichever way she turned she would encounter him1 east or west4 ,she covered her face with her hands1 and lo6 she saw the ,buddha between her fingers4 ,this is beautiful and illuminating4 ,what follows is the ,zen way of treating the subject3 ,a monk came to ,ch#8i-an who was one of the disciples of ,ma-tsu1#d4ah and asked3 8,what is the original body of ,vairochana80 ,said the master1 8,would you mind passing that water-pitcher over to me80 ,the monk handed it to the master as asked4 ,then the master requested him to put it back where he got it4 ,the monk did so4 ,but not getting any answer as he thought to his first question1 he asked again1 8,what is the original body of ,vairochana ,buddha80 ,the master expressed his regret1 saying1 8,long it is since the departure of the old ,buddha60 ,these two instances will suffice to illustrate where the ,chinese ,zen mind deviates from the ,indian4 ,,ii ,the history of ,zen dates with the coming of ,bodhi-,dharma 7,bodai-,daruma7#d4ai from the west1 #ebj ,a4,d4 ,he came to ,china with a special message which is summed up in the following lines3 8,a special transmission outside the scriptures2 ,no dependence upon words and letters2 ,direct pointing at the soul of man2 ,seeing into one's nature and the attainment of ,buddhahood40 ,these four lines as describing the principles of ,zen teaching as distinguished from other schools of ,buddhism already in existence in ,china were formulated later and not by ,dharma himself4 ,we cannot exactly tell who was the real author1 as we have no definite information on this subject4 ,one historian1 ,tsung-chien1#d4bj who compiled from the ,t#8ien-tai point of view a ,buddhist history entitled ,the ,rightful ,lineage of the kya ,doctrine in #abcg1 ascribes it to ,nansen ,fu-gwan#d4ba2 probably the formula originated in those days when ,baso 7,ma-tsu71 ,hyakjo 7,pai-chang71 ,obaku 7,huang-po71 ,sekito 7,shih-tou7 and ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan7#d4bb were flourishing in the 8,west of the ,river0 and in the 8,south of the ,lake40 ,since then they have been regarded as characteristically ,zen1 and it was ,dharma that breathed this spirit into the minds of the ,chinese ,buddhists4 ,the latter had more or less been given up1 on the one hand1 to philosophising1 and1 on the other hand1 to practising contemplation4 ,they were not acquainted with the direct method of ,zen which was to see straightway into the truth of ,enlightenment and attain ,buddhahood without going through so many stages of preparation prescribed by the scholars4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our knowledge of the life of ,bodhi-,dharma comes from two sources1 the one which the earliest record we have of him is by ,tao-hsan#d4bc in his ,biographies of the ,high ,priests which was compiled early in the ,t#8ang dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #fde4 ,the author was the founder of a ,vinaya sect in ,china and a learned scholar1 who however was living before the movement of the new school to be known as ,zen came into maturity under ,hui-nng1 the sixth patriarch1 who was nine years old when ,tao-hsan wrote his ,biographies4 ,the other source is the ,records of the ,transmission of the ,lamp1 ,a4,d4 #ajjd1 compiled by ,tao-yan#d4bd early in the ,sung dynasty4 ,this was written by a ,zen monk after ,zen had received full recognition as a special branch of ,buddhism1 and contains sayings and doings of its masters4 ,the author often refers to some earlier ,zen histories as his authorities which are however lost now being known by the titles only4 ,it is quite natural that these two accounts of the life of ,bodhi-,dharma should vary at several points4 ,the first was written when ,zen was not yet fully established as a school1 and the second by one of the ,zen masters4 ,in the first1 ,dharma1 the founder of ,zen1 is treated as one of the many other ,buddhist priests eminent in various fields as translators1 commentators1 scholars1 ,vinaya-followers1 masters of meditation1 possessors of miraculous virtues1 etc41 and ,dharma could not naturally occupy in such a history any very prominent position distinguishing himself from the other 8high priests40 ,he is described merely as one of those 8masters of meditation0 whose conception of dhyana did not differ from the old traditional one as was practised by the ,hinayana followers4 ,tao-hsan did not understand the message of ,dharma in its full signification1 though he could read in it something not quite of the so-called 8practice of meditation40 ,and therefore it is sometimes argued by scholars that there is not much of ,zen in ,tao-hsan's account of ,dharma worthy of its first ,chinese promulgator and that therefore ,dharma could not be so regarded as is claimed by the followers of the ,zen school of ,buddhism4 ,but this is not doing justice to ,zen1 nor to ,tao-hsan who never thought of writing a ,zen history before ,zen came to be known as such4 ,tao-hsan could not be a prophetic historian4 ,while the biographical history of ,tao-yan contains much that is to be discredited as regards the life of ,bodhi-,dharma1 especially as regards that part of his life before he came to ,china1 we have reason to believe that the greater part of ,tao-yan's account of ,dharma's doings after his arrival in ,china is historical4 ,in this latter respect1 ,tao-hsan must be taken as complementing ,tao-yan4 ,it is not quite in accord with the spirit of fair critical judgment to be partial to one authority at the expense of the other without duly weighing all the historically known circumstances that contributed to the making of these histories4 ,according to ,tao-hsan1 ,bodhi-,dharma left many writings or sayings which were apparently still in circulation at the time of the author of the ,biographies of the ,high ,priests1 but the only authentic writing of the ,zen founder's at present in our possession is a very short one which is preserved in ,tao-hsan's ,biographies as well as in ,tao-yan's ,records4 ,there are some other essays ascribed to ,dharma1f#hj but most of which1 though deeply imbibing the spirit of ,zen1 are spurious except one which ,i am inclined to think to be genuinely his4 ,it is entitled 8,on the ,pacification of the ,soul40#d4bf ,together with the first one which is generally known under the title1 8,meditation on ,four ,acts10#d4bg we have just two pieces of writings handed down as ,dharma's4 ,though ,i do not think that 8,the ,meditation on ,four ,acts0 could be the best possible specimen of writing to be bequeathed by the founder of ,zen1 which will admit us straightway into the very essence of ,zen1 ,i will give here an ,english translation of it as the most reliable essay of ,bodhi-,dharma1 the first patriarch of ,zen in ,china4 ,there are two versions as ,i said before of this writing1 the one in the ,biographies and the other in the ,records1 and they do not quite agree with each other in some points4 ,the main drift is the same1 but in detail they vary4 ,the question now is1 which is the more original one8 ,chronologically1 the ,biographies were compiled earlier than the ,records1 but the latter presupposes some earlier writings which were utilised for its compilation4 ,we have no means to ascertain the reliability of the documents thus made use of1 and then the authority of the ,biographies is not absolute4 ,therefore1 the only profitable method of judging the respective merit of the two versions is to compare them from the literary point of view and see what light such comparison will shed on the nature of each4 ,the result ,i have reached is that the author of the ,biographies used the one preserved in the ,records1 which is more faithful to the original if there were any such besides this very version4 ,the reason for this conclusion is that ,dharma's writing appears much improved after the editing of ,tao-hsan1 the author of the ,biographies2 for he had to edit it for his own purposes4 ,thus edited1f#had4bh ,dharma's writing is now in a better style1 that is1 more concise1 more to the point1 and more refined4 ,for this reason the following translation#d4bi is made from ,tao-yan's ,records in which the author had every reason to reproduce the original as it stood4 8,bodhi-,dharma1 the ,teacher of the ,law1 was the third son of a great ,brahman king in ,south ,india1 of the ,western ,lands4 ,he was a man of wonderful intelligence1 bright and far-reaching2 he thoroughly understood everything that he ever learned4 ,as his ambition was to master the doctrine of the ,mahayana1 he abandoned the white dress of a layman and put on the black robe of monkhood1 wishing to cultivate the seeds of holiness4 ,he practised contemplation and tranquillisation1 he knew well what was the true significance of worldly affairs4 ,inside and outside1 he was transpicuous2 his virtues were more than a model to the world4 ,he was grieved very much over the decline of the orthodox teaching of the ,buddha in the remoter parts of the earth4 ,he finally made up his mind to cross over land and sea and come to ,china and preach his doctrine in the kingdom of ,wei4 ,those that were spiritually inclined gathered about him full of devotion1 while those that could not rise above their own one-sided views talked about him slanderingly4 8,at the time there were only two monks called ,tao-yih and ,hui-k#81 who while yet young had a strong will and desire to learn higher things4 ,thinking it a great opportunity of their lives to have such a teacher of the ,law in their own land1 they put themselves under his instruction for several years4 ,most reverently they followed him1 asked questions to be enlightened1 and observed his directions well4 ,the ,teacher of the ,law was moved by their spirit of sincerity and disciplined them in the true path1 telling them1 #8,this is the way to obtain peace of mind1' and #8,this is the way to behave in the world1' #8,this is the way to live harmoniously with your surroundings1' and #8,this is the upya 7means74' ,these being the ,mahayana ways to keep the mind tranquil1 one has to be on guard against their wrongful applications4 ,by this mental pacification ,pi-kuanf#hb is meant2 by this behaviour1 the ,four ,acts2 by this harmony with things1 the protection from slander and ill-disposition2 and by this ,upya1 detachment4 8,thus ,if#hc have briefly stated the story of what follows4 8,there are many ways to enter the ,path1 but briefly speaking they are of two sorts only4 ,the one is #8,entrance by ,reason' and the other #8,entrance by ,conduct4' ,by #8,entrance by ,reason' we mean the realisation of the spirit of ,buddhism by the aid of the scriptural teaching4 ,we then come to have a deep faith in the ,true ,nature which is one and the same in all sentient beings4 ,the reason why it does not manifest itself is due to the overwrapping of external objects and false thoughts4 ,when one1 abandoning the false and embracing the true1 and in simpleness of thought abides in ,pi-kuan 1 one finds that there is neither selfhood nor otherness1 that the masses and the worthies are of one essence1 and firmly holds on to this belief and never moves away therefrom4 ,he will not then be guided by any literary instructions1 for he is in silent communion with the principle itself1 free from conceptual discrimination1 for he is serene and not-acting4 ,this is called #8,entrance by ,reason4' 8,by #8,entrance by ,conduct' is meant the ,four ,acts in which all other acts are included4 ,what are the four8 #a4 ,how to requite hatred2 #b4 ,to be obedient to karma2 #c4 ,not to seek after anything2 and #d4 ,to be in accord with the ,dharma4 8#a4 ,what is meant by #8,how to requite hatred'8 ,those who discipline themselves in the ,path should think thus when they have to struggle with adverse conditions3 ,during the innumerable past ages ,i have wandered through multiplicity of existences1 all the while giving myself to unimportant details of life at the expense of essentials1 and thus creating infinite occasions for hate1 ill-will1 and wrong-doing4 ,while no violations have been committed in this life1 the fruits of evil deeds in the past are to be gathered now4 ,neither gods nor men can foretell what is coming upon me4 ,i will submit myself willingly and patiently to all the ills that befall me1 and ,i will never bemoan or complain4 ,in the ,sutra it is said not to worry over ills that may happen to you4 ,why8 ,because through intelligence one can survey the whole chain of causation4 ,when this thought arises1 one is in concord with the principle because he makes the best use of hatred and turns it into the service in his advance towards the ,path4 ,this is called the #8way to requite hatred4' 8#b4 ,by #8being obedient to karma' is meant this3 ,there is no self 7tman7 in whatever beings that are produced by the interplay of karmaic conditions2 pain and pleasure we suffer are also the results of our previous action4 ,if ,i am rewarded with fortune1 honour1 etc41 this is the outcome of my past deeds which by reason of causation affect my present life4 ,when the force of karma is exhausted1 the result ,i am enjoying now will disappear2 what is then the use of being joyful over it8 ,gain or loss1 let us accept karma as it brings us the one or the other1 the spirit itself knows neither increase nor decrease4 ,the wind of gladness does not move it as it is silently in harmony with the ,path4 ,therefore this is called #8being obedient to karma4' 8#c4 ,by #8not seeking after anything' is meant this3 ,men of the world1 in eternal confusion1 are attached everywhere to one thing or another1 which is called seeking4 ,the wise however understand the truth and are not like the vulgar4 ,their minds abide serenely in the uncreated while the body turns about in accordance with the laws of causation4 ,all things are empty and there is nothing desirable and to be sought after4 ,wherever there is the merit of brightness there follows the demerit of darkness4 ,this triple world where one stays too long is like a house on fire2 all that has a body suffers1 and who would ever know what is rest8 ,because the wise are thoroughly acquainted with this truth1 they get never attached to anything that becomes1 their thoughts are quieted1 they never seek4 ,says the ,sutra3 ,wherever there is seeking1 there you have sufferings2 when seeking ceases1 you are blessed4 ,thus we know that not to seek is verily the way to the truth4 ,therefore ,i preach to you not #8to seek after anything4' 8#d4 ,by #8being in accord with the ,dharma' is meant that the reason in its essence is pure which we call the ,dharma1 and that this reason is the principle of emptiness in all that is manifested1 as it is above defilements and attachments1 and as there is no ,self or ,other in it4 ,says the ,sutra3 ,in the ,dharma there are no sentient beings1 because it is free from the stains of being2 in the ,dharma there is no ,self because it is free from the stain of selfhood4 ,when the wise understand this truth and believe in it1 their conduct will be #8in accordance with the ,dharma4' 8,as the ,dharma in essence has no desire to possess1 the wise are ever ready to practise charity with their body1 life1 property1 and they never begrudge1 they never know what an ill grace means4 ,as they have a perfect understanding of the threefold nature of emptiness1 they are above partiality and attachment4 ,only because of their will to cleanse all beings of their stains1 they come among them as of them1 but they are not attached to the form4 ,this is known as the inner aspect of their life4 ,they however know also how to benefit others1 and again how to glorify the path of enlightenment4 ,as with the virtue of charity1 so with the other five virtues in the ,prajpramit4 ,that the wise practise the six virtues of perfection is to get rid of confused thoughts1 and yet they are not conscious of their doings4 ,this is called #8being in accord with the ,dharma4'0 99 99 99 99 99 ,the doctrine of the ,two ,entrances is evidently taken from the ,vajrasamdhi-straf#hd2 and that of the ,four ,acts is an amplification of the second form of ,entrance as is expounded in the ,sutra4 ,a comparison with the passage#d4bi;a from it will make this point clear at once3 8,said the ,buddha3 ,the two entrances are #8,entrance by ,reason' and #8,entrance by ,conduct4' #8,entrance by ,reason' means to have a deep faith in that all sentient beings are identical in essence with the true nature which is neither unity nor multiplicity2 only it is beclouded by external objects4 ,the nature in itself neither departs nor comes4 ,when a man in singleness of thought abides in cheh-kuan 1 he will clearly see into the ,buddha-nature1 of which we cannot say whether it exists or exists not1 and in which there is neither selfhood nor otherness4 ,he will also find that the nature is the same both in the masses and in the worthies4 ,he thus firmly holds the ground of the diamond-heart and never moves away therefrom2 he is serene and not-doing1 and free from conceptual discrimination4 ,this is called #8,entrance by ,reason4' 8#8,entrance by ,conduct' means not to be unsteady and reclining in mind and not to be in its shadows changing like a stream4 ,wherever you are1 let your thought be serene and not to be seeking after anything4 ,let it be like unto the great earth unmoved even in a raging storm4 ,giving up all thoughts of egoism in your heart1 save all beings and let them cross over to the other shore4 ,there are no births1 no signs1 no clinging1 no abandoning2 in the mind of a ,bodhisattva1 there is no going-out1 no coming-in4 ,when this mind which neither goes out nor comes in enters into that which is never entered into1 it is called entering4 ,this is the way the ,bodhisattva enters into the ,dharma4 ,the ,dharma is not empty in form1 and the ,dharma of non-emptiness is not to be put aside as non-entity4 ,why8 ,the ,dharma that is not non-entity is filled with virtues4 ,it is neither mind nor shadows1 it is pure in its suchness40 ,in comparing these two texts the reader will be impressed with the most important and most striking change ,bodhi-,dharma made in his quotation1 which is the substituting of pi-kuan for cheh-kuan4 ,pi ordinarily means 8wall0 or 8precipice10 and is often found in combination with li1 8standing10 in such phrases as pi li wan jn 1 to describe an unscalable wall1 or figuratively to represent the attitude1 for instance1 of ,acala-,vidyrja standing straight up4 ,what was the reason of ,dharma's changing cheh1 8to awaken10 or 8to be enlightened0 into a word which apparently has no organic relation to the following kuan1 8to perceive10 or 8to contemplate08 ,the novel combination is a very important one1 for it alters the sense of the whole context in which it occurs4 ,tao-hsan1 the author of the ,biographies1 refers to ,dharma's tai ch#8ng pi kuan1 ,mahayanistic wall-contemplation1 in his commentary notes to ,zen1 as the most meritorious work ,dharma achieved in ,china4f#he ,for this reason he is often spoken of as the pi-kuan ,brahman1 that is1 wall-contemplating ,brahman1 and in ,japan the monks belonging to the ,soto school of ,zen are supposed to follow the example of the founder of their religion when they keep up the practice of sitting facing the wall while meditating4 ,but this is evidently a superficial interpretation of the phrase pi-kuan2 for how could mere wall-gazing start a revolutionary movement in the ,buddhist world as is implied in ,tao-hsan's life of ,dharma8f#hf ,how could such an innocent practise provoke a terrible opposition among scholars of those days8 ,to my view1 pi-kuan has a far deeper meaning1 and must be understood in the light of the following passage in the ,records1 which is quoted from a work known as the ,pieh ,chi#d4cj meaning some special document of prior existence3 8,the master first stayed in the ,shrinji 7,shao-lin-sz7 monastery for nine years1 and when he taught the second patriarch1 it was only in the following way3 #8,externally keep yourself away from all relationships1 and1 internally1 have no pantings 7or hankerings1 ch#8uan7 in your heart2f#hg when your mind is like unto a straight-standing wall you may enter into the ,path4' ,hui-k#8 tried variously to explain or to discourse on the reason of mind1 but failed to realise the truth itself4 ,the master simply said1 #8,no6 ,no6' and never proposed to explain to his disciple what was the mind-essence in its thought-less state1 that is1 in its pure being4 ,later said ,hui-k#81 #8,i know now how to keep myself away from all relationships4' #8,you make it a total annihilation1 do you not8' queried the master4 #8,no1 master1' replied ,hui-k#81 #8,i do not make it a total annihilation4' #8,how do you testify your statement8' #8,for ,i know it always in a most intelligible manner1 but to express it in words--that is impossible4' ,thereupon1 said the master1 #8,that is the mind-essence itself transmitted by all the ,buddhas4 ,harbour no doubts about it4'0 ,in fact1 this passage sums up the special message contained in ,dharma's teaching1 and in it we may get an adequate answer as to the exact meaning of pi-kuan4 ,the term must have been a novel one in his day1 and the originality of his views really lay in the creative sense of the one word 8pi0 ,it was so concrete1 so graphic1 and there was nothing abstract and conceptual about it4 ,hence ,tao-hsan's special reference to ,dharma's teaching as the ,tai-chng pi-kuan4 7,mahayanistic wall-contemplation74 ,while there was nothing specifically ,zen in his doctrine of 8,two ,entrances and ,four ,acts10 the teaching of ,pi-kuan1 wall-contemplation1 was what made ,bodhi-,dharma the first patriarch of ,zen ,buddhism in ,china4 ,the author of the ,rightful ,transmission of the kya ,doctrine interprets pi-kwan as meaning the state of mind where 8no external dusts get in40#d4ca ,this may be all right1 but we are not told where he finds the authority for this way of understanding4 ,had he in mind ,dharma's remark to ,hui-k#8 as recorded in the document known as ,pieh-chi8 ,in any event the underlying meaning of the 8wall-contemplation0 must be found in the subjective condition of a ,zen master1 which is highly concentrated and rigidly exclusive of all ideas and sensuous images4 ,to understand the phrase1 8pi-kwan0 as simply meaning 8wall-gazing0 will be sheer absurdity4 ,if the specific message of ,dharma as the founder of ,zen in ,china is to be sought anywhere in the writings of his1 which are still in existence1 it must be in this 8,mahayanistic wall-contemplation40 ,besides this writing which is the only one left by ,dharma in our possession at present1 we have the ,lakvatra-stra1 ,vajrasamdhi-stra1 and ,vajracchedik-stra1 through which we can also have a glimpse into the central teaching of ,bodhi-,dharma4 ,zen1 unlike other schools of ,buddhism1 has no particular ,sutras to be called the 8foundation canon0 on which its followers would base the principal tenets of their school2 but ,dharma recommended the ,lakvatra to his first disciple ,hui-k#8 7,yeka71 as containing the teaching most intimately related to ,zen1 and after him this scriptural writing came to be studied chiefly by ,zen scholars4f#hh ,as to the importance of the ,vajrasamdhi as expounding the philosophy of ,zen1 we can easily understand it from ,dharma's own reference to the ,sutra in his writing as was already pointed out4 ,with regard to the ,vajracchedik-stra1 most people think of it as having nothing to do with ,zen prior to the fifth patriarch1 ,hung-jn 7,gunin72 for it was he who for the first time introduced it among his own disciples1 while ,dharma himself made no allusion whatever to this1 one of the most popular ,buddhist texts in ,china4 ,but according to ,hui-nng's ,preface to the ,vajracchedik1 which is still preserved1 8ever since the coming-west of ,dharma he wanted to propagate the meaning of this ,sutra and lead people to understand the ,reason and to see into the ,nature40 ,if this were actually the case1 ,dharma1 to say the least1 must have had some knowledge of this ,sutra from the very beginning of his career in ,china1 and the connection in a way between this and ,zen must have been more fundamental than that between the ,lakvatra and ,zen4 ,the prevalent notion then that the ,vajracchedik came only in vogue after ,hung-jn and ,hui-nng must be revised4 ,whatever this may be1 the ,lakvatra is too difficult a material for popular consumption1 and it was natural that this ,sutra came to be gradually superseded by the ,vajracchedik as ,zen gained more and more in power and influence4 ,as one of the ,sutras belonging to the ,prajpramit class of ,buddhist literature1 the teaching of the ,vajracchedik was comparatively simple and had something much akin to the ,laotzan ideas of emptiness and non-doing4 ,it was not hard for the average ,chinese to follow its philosophy of nyat1 in fact this agreed well with a certain aspect of ,chinese thought4f#hi ,however1 with ,zen followers all literature was like a finger pointing at the moon1 and there was not much in itself that will actually lead one to the seeing of one's own inner nature2 for this seeing was a realisation which must be attained by one's own personal efforts apart from the mere understanding of letters4 ,all ,buddhist ,sutras including the ,lakvatra1 ,vajrasamdhi1 and ,vajracchedik could not be of much help to the real earnest seekers of the truth1 so long as his idea is to grasp the naked facts with his own ungloved hands4 ,this was possible only when his own inner consciousness opened by itself1 from within1 through his whole-souled efforts4 ,literature is helpful only when it indicates the way1 it is not the thing itself4 ,the earlier part of ,bodhi-,dharma's life while in ,india as is narrated in the ,records may be discredited as containing a large dose of fiction1 but the latter part of it cannot so easily be disposed of4 ,this is where it supplements the story in ,tao-hsan's ,biographies1 which was written by a good historian but by one who did not know anything about the future development of ,zen4 ,according to the ,records then1 the first great personage ,dharma had an interview with when he came to ,china was the king of ,liang1 the greatest ,buddhist patron of the time4 ,and the interview took place in the following manner3 ,the ,emperor ,wu of ,liang asked ,dharma3 8,ever since the beginning of my reign ,i have built so many temples1 copied so many sacred books1 and supported so many monks2 what do you think my merit might be80 8,no merit whatever1 sire60 ,dharma bluntly replied4 8,why80 demanded the ,emperor astonished4 8,all these are inferior deeds10 thus began ,dharma's significant reply1 8which would cause their author to be born in the heavens or on this earth again4 ,they still show the traces of worldliness1 they are like shadows following objects4 ,though they appear actually existing1 they are no more than mere non-entities4 ,as to a true meritorious deed1 it is full of pure wisdom and is perfect and mysterious1 and its real nature is beyond the grasp of human intelligence4 ,such as this is not to be sought after by any worldly achievement40 ,the ,emperor ,wu thereupon asked ,bodhi-,dharma again1#d4cb 8,what is the first principle of the holy doctrine80 8,vast emptiness1 and there is nothing in it to be called holy1 sire60 answered ,dharma4 8,who is then that is now confronting me80 8,i know not1 sire60 ,the answer was simple enough1 and clear enough too1 but the pious and learned ,buddhist ,emperor failed to grasp the spirit pervading the whole attitude of ,dharma4 ,seeing that there was no further help to be given to the ,emperor1 ,dharma left his dominion and retired into a monastery in the state of ,wei1 where he sat quietly practising the 8wall-contemplation10 it is said1 for nine long years1 until he came to be known as the ,pi-kuan ,brahman4f#ij ,one day a monk ,shn-kuang#d4cc visited him and most earnestly implored him to be enlightened in the truth of ,zen1 but ,dharma paid no attention4 ,shn-kuang was not to be disappointed1 for he knew that all the great spiritual leaders of the past had gone through with many a heart-rending trial in order to attain the final object of their aspiration4 ,one evening he stood in the midst of the snow waiting for ,dharma to notice him when at last the fast-falling snow buried him almost as deep as his knees4 ,finally1 the master turned back and said1 8,what do you wish me to do for you80 ,said ,kuang1 8,i am come to receive your invaluable instructions2 pray open your gate of mercy1 and extend your hand of salvation to this poor suffering mortal40 8,the incomparable doctrine of ,buddhism10 replied ,dharma1 8can be comprehended only after a long hard discipline and by enduring what is most difficult to endure1 and by practising what is most difficult to practise4 ,men of inferior virtue and wisdom are not allowed to understand anything about it4 ,all the labours of such ones will come to naught40 ,kuang at last cut off his left arm with the swordf#ia he was carrying1 and presented it before the teacher as a token of his sincerity in the desire to be instructed in the doctrine of all the ,buddhas4 ,said ,dharma1 8,this is not to be sought through another40 8,my soul is not yet pacified4 ,pray1 master1 pacify it40 8,bring your soul here1 and ,i will have it pacified40 ,kuang hesitated for a moment but finally said1 8,i have sought it these many years and am still unable to get hold of it60 8,there6 it is pacified once for all40 ,this was ,dharma's sentence4f#ib ,dharma then told him to change his name into ,hui-k#84 ,nine years passed1#d4cd and ,dharma wished to return to his native country4 ,he called in all his disciples before him1 and said1 8,the time is come for me to depart1 and ,i want to see what your attainments are40 8,according to my view10 said ,tao-fu1 8the truth is above both affirmation and negation1 for this is the way it moveth40 ,dharma said1 8,you have got my skin40 ,next came in the nun1 ,tsung-ch#8ih1 and said1 8,as ,i understand it1 it is like nanda's viewing the ,buddha-land of ,akshobhya3 it is seen once and never again40 ,dharma said1 8,you have got my flesh40 ,tao-y was another disciple who presented his view1 saying1 8,empty are the four elements and non-existent the five skandhas4 ,according to my view1 there is not a thing to be grasped as real40 ,dharma said1 8,you have got my bone40 ,finally1 ,hui-k#81 that is1 ,shn-kuang1 reverently bowing to the master1 kept standing in his seat and said nothing4 ,dharma then announced1 8,you have my marrow40f#ic ,mystery envelops the end of ,bodhi-,dharma's life in ,china1 we do not know how1 when1 and where he passed away from this earth4 ,some say that he was poisoned by his rivals1 others say that he went back to ,india crossing the desert1 and still others report that he came over to ,japan4 ,in one thing they all agree which is this3 he was quite old1 being1 according to ,tao-hsan1 over one hundred and fifty years at his death4 ,,iii ,after ,bodhi-,dharma1 ,hui-k#8 7#dhf-eic7d4ce was the chief exponent of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,he was already a learned scholar before he came to his teacher for instruction1 not only in the ,chinese classics but in ,buddhist lore4 ,no amount of learning however satisfied him2 indeed he seems to have had a sort of enlightenment in his way1 which he wanted to be testified to by ,dharma4 ,after he left the master1 he did not at once begin his preaching hiding himself among the lower strata of society4 ,he evidently shunned being looked up to as a high priest of great wisdom and understanding4 ,however1 he did not neglect quietly preaching the ,law whenever he had an occasion4 ,he was simply quiet and unassuming1 refusing to show himself off4 ,but one day when he was discoursing about the ,law before a temple gate1 there was another sermon going on inside the temple by a resident priest1 learned and honoured4 ,the audience however left the reverend lecturer inside and gathered around the street-monk probably clad in rags and with no outward signs of ecclesiastical dignity4 ,the high priest got angry over the situation4 ,he accused the beggar-monk to the authorities as promulgating a false doctrine1 whereupon ,hui-k#8 was arrested and put to death4 ,he did not specially plead innocent but composedly submitted1 saying that he had according to the law of karma an old debt to pay up4 ,this took place in ,a4,d4 #eic1 and he was one hundred and seven years old when he was killed4 ,according to ,tao-hsan1 ,hui-k#8's eloquence flew directly from his heart1 not encrusted with learning or scholarly discourse4 ,while he was preaching in an important city on the meaning of ,zen1 those who could not rise above 8the letter that killeth0 took his teaching for heresy1 as the words of a devil devoid of sense4 ,especially among them a master of meditation called ,tao-han#d4cf who had about one thousand followers about him1 at once assumed an offensive attitude towards ,hui-k#84 ,he sent one of his disciples to the ,zen exponent1 perhaps to find out what kind of man he really was4 ,as soon as the disciple learned what was the teaching of the so-called heretic1 he was so deeply impressed by this man that he was converted into a ,zen advocate4 ,tao-han despatched another of his followers to call the first one back1 but he followed the example of the predecessor4 ,several other messengers were sent one after another1 but the result was altogether discouraging4 ,later when ,tao-han happened to meet his first messenger1 he asked2 8,how was it that ,i had to send for you so many times8 ,did ,i not open your eye after taking pains so much on my part80 ,the former disciple however mystically answered2 8,my eye has been right from the first1 and it was through you that it came to squint40 ,this stirred the master's ire1 and it was through his machination1 writes ,tao-hsan1 that ,hui-k#8 had to suffer official persecution4 ,this story taken from ,tao-hsan's ,biographies varies from that in the ,tao-yan's ,records1 but they both agree in making ,hui-k#8 a martyr at the hands of his enemy4 ,there is no doubt that in the ,zen teaching of ,bodhi-,dharma and his first ,chinese disciple1 ,hui-k#81 there was something that was unintelligible to most of the ,buddhists of the time who had been trained either in the abstract metaphysics or in the tranquillising exercises1 or in the mere morality1 of ,buddhism4 ,the exponents of ,zen then must have emphasised the truth to be awakened in one's inner consciousness1 even at the expense of the canonical teaching as is variously elucidated in the ,sutras and astras1 many of which in translations had already been in circulation4 ,this must have excited the conservatists and literalists4 ,like ,bodhi-,dharma1 ,hui-k#8 did not leave any literary writing though we know from their biographies that both had their sermons collected and in the case of ,hui-k#8 8classified10f#idd4cg whatever this may mean4 ,the following extracts preserved however may throw light on the teaching of ,hui-k#84 ,a lay-disciple called ,hsiang wrote a letter to ,hui-k#83#d4ch 8,shadow follows a body and echo rises from a sound4 ,he who in pursuit of the shadow tires out the body1 does not know that the body produces the shadow2 and he who attempts to stop an echo by raising his voice1 does not understand that the voice is the cause of the echo4 ,in a similar way he who seeks ,nirvana by cutting desires and passions is to be likened to one who seeks a shadow apart from its original body2 and he who aspires to ,buddhahood thinking it to be independent of the nature of sentient beings is to be likened to one who tries to listen to an echo by deadening its original sound4 ,therefore1 the ignorant and the enlightened are walking in one passageway2 the vulgar and the wise are not to be differentiated from each other4 ,where there are no names1 we create names1 and because of these names judgments are formed4 ,where there is no theorising1 we theorise1 and because of this theorising1 disputes arise4 ,they are all phantom creations and not realities1 and who knows who is right and who is wrong8 ,they are all empty1 no substantialities have they1 and who knows what is and what is not8 ,so we realise that our gain is not real gain and our loss not real loss4 ,this is my view and may ,i be enlightened if ,i am at fault80 ,to this ,hui-k#8 answered3 8,you have truly comprehended the ,dharma as it is2 the deepest truth lies in the principle of identity4 ,it is due to one's ignorance that the mani-jewel is taken for a piece of brick1 but lo6 when one is suddenly awakened to self-enlightenment1 it is realised that one is in possession of the real jewel4 ,the ignorant and the enlightened are of one essence1 they are not really to be separated4 ,we should know that all things are such as they are4 ,those who entertain a dualistic view of the world are to be pitied1 and ,i write this letter for them4 ,when we know that between this body and the ,buddha there is nothing to separate one from the other1 what is the use of seeking after ,nirvana as something external to ourselves80 99 99 99 99 99 ,next to ,hui-k#8 came ,sng-ts#8an 7died #fjf71d4ci who succeeded as the third patriarch4 ,the interview between master and disciple took place in this manner3 ,a layman of forty troubled with fng-yangf#ie according to the ,records1 came to ,hui-k#8 and asked2 8,i am suffering from fng-yang2 pray cleanse me of my sins40 8,bring your sins here10 said ,hui-k#81 8and ,i will cleanse you of them40 ,the lay-disciple was silent for a while but finally said1 8,as ,i seek my sins1 ,i find them unattainable40 8,i have then finished cleansing you altogether4 ,you should thenceforth take refuge in the ,buddha1 ,dharma1 and ,sagha 7,brotherhood71 and abide therein40 8,as ,i stand before you1 ,o master10 asked ,sng-ts#8an1 8,i know that you belong to the ,brotherhood1 but pray tell me what are the ,buddha and the ,dharma40 ,replied the master1 8,mind is the ,buddha1 ,mind is the ,dharma2 and the ,buddha and the ,dharma are not two4 ,the same is to be said of the ,brotherhood 7sagha740 ,this satisfied the disciple who now said1 8,to-day for the first time ,i realise that sins are neither within nor without nor in the middle2 just as ,mind is1 so is the ,buddha1 so is the ,dharma2 they are not two40f#if ,he was then ordained by ,hui-k#8 as a ,buddhist monk1 and after this he fled from the world altogether1 and nothing much of his life is known4 ,this was partly due to the persecution of ,buddhism carried on by the ,emperor of the ,chou dynasty4 ,it was in the twelfth year of ,k#8ai-huan1 of the ,sui dynasty 7,a4,d4 #eib71 that he found a disciple worthy to be his successor4 ,his name was ,tao-hsin4#d4dj ,he asked the master1 8,pray show me the way to deliverance40 8,who has ever put you in bondage80 8,nobody40 8,if so10 said the ,master1 8why should you ask for deliverance80 ,this put the young novice on the way to final enlightenment1 which he attained after many years' study under the master4 ,when ,sng-ts#8an thought that the time was ripe to consecrate him as his successor in the faith1 he handed him as the token of the rightful transmission of the ,law the robe which had come down from ,bodhi-,dharma1 the first patriarch of ,zen in ,china4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #fjf4 ,while much of his life is obscure1 his thought is gleaned from a metrical composition known as ,hsin-hsin-ming1 or 8,inscribed on the ,believing ,mind10 which is one of the most valuable contributions by the masters to the interpretation of ,zen teaching4 ,here follows a somewhat liberal translation of the poem3 ,inscribed on the ,believing ,mind4f#igd4da ,the ,perfect ,way knows no difficulties ,except that it refuses to make preference3 ,only when freed from hate and love1 ,it reveals itself fully and without disguise4 ,a tenth of an inch's difference1 ,and heaven and earth are set apart3 ,if you want to see it manifest1 ,take no thought either for or against it4 ,to set up what you like against what you dislike-- ,this is the disease of the mind3 ,when the deep meaning of the ,way is not understood ,peace of mind is disturbed and nothing is gained4 ,the ,way is perfect like unto vast space1 ,with nothing wanting1 nothing superfluous3 ,it is indeed due to making choice ,that its suchness is lost sight of4 ,pursue not the outer entanglements1 ,dwell not in the inner void2 ,when the mind rests serene in the oneness of things1 ,the dualism vanishes by itself4 ,and when oneness is not thoroughly understood1 ,in two ways loss is sustained-- ,the denial of reality may lead to its absolute negation1 ,while the upholding of the void may result in contradicting itself4 ,wordiness and intellection-- ,the more with them the further astray we go2 ,away therefore with wordiness and intellection1 ,and there is no place where we cannot pass freely4f#ih ,when we return to the root1 we gain the meaning2 ,when we pursue the external objects1 we lose the reason4 ,the moment we are enlightened within1 ,we go beyond the voidness of a world confronting us4 ,transformations going on in an empty world which confronts us1 ,appear real all because of ,ignorance3 ,try not to seek after the true1 ,only cease to cherish opinions4 ,tarry not with dualism1 ,carefully avoid pursuing it2 ,as soon as you have right and wrong1 ,confusion ensues1 the mind is lost4 ,the two exist because of the one1 ,but hold not even to this one2 ,when the one mind is not disturbed1 ,the ten thousand things offer no offence4 ,when no offence is offered by them1 they are as if not existing2 ,when the mind is not disturbed1 it is as if there is no mind4 ,the subject is quieted as the object ceases1 ,the object ceases as the subject is quieted4 ,the object is an object for the subject1 ,the subject is a subject for an object3 ,know that the relativity of the two ,rests ultimately on the oneness of the void4 ,in the oneness of the void the two are one1 ,and each of the two contains in itself all the ten thousand things3 ,when no discrimination is made between this and that4 ,how can a one-sided and prejudiced view arise8 ,the ,great ,way is calm and large-minded1 ,nothing is easy1 nothing is hard3 ,small views are irresolute1 ,the more in haste the tardier they go4 ,clinging never keeps itself within bounds1 ,it is sure to go in the wrong way3 ,let go loose1 and things are as they may be1 ,while the essence neither departs nor abides4 ,obey the nature of things1 and you are in concord with the ,way1 ,calm and easy and free from annoyance2 ,but when your thoughts are tied1 you turn away from the truth1 ,they grow heavier and duller and are not at all sound4 ,when they are not sound1 the soul is troubled2 ,what is the use of being partial and one-sided then8 ,if you want to walk the course of the ,one ,vehicle1 ,be not prejudiced against the six sense-objects4 ,when you are not prejudiced against the six sense-objects1 ,you in turn identify yourself with ,enlightenment2 ,the wise are non-active1 ,while the ignorant bind themselves up2 ,while in the ,dharma itself there is no individuation1 ,they ignorantly attach themselves to particular objects4 ,it is their own minds that create illusions-- ,is it not the greatest of self-contradictions8 ,ignorance begets the dualism of rest and unrest1 ,the enlightened have no likes and dislikes3 ,all forms of dualism ,are ignorantly contrived by the mind itself4 ,they are like unto visions and flowers in the air3 ,why should we trouble ourselves to take hold of them8 ,gain and loss1 right and wrong-- ,away with them once for all6 ,if an eye never falls asleep1 ,all dreams will by themselves cease3 ,if the mind retains its oneness1 ,the ten thousand things are of one suchness4 ,when the deep mystery of one suchness is fathomed1 ,all of a sudden we forget the external entanglements3 ,when the ten thousand things are viewed in their oneness1 ,we return to the origin and remain what we are4 ,forget the wherefore of things1 ,and we attain to a state beyond analogy3 ,movement stopped is no movement1 ,and rest set in motion is no rest4 ,when dualism does no more obtain1 ,even oneness itself remains not as such4 ,the ultimate end of things where they cannot go any further1 ,is not bound by rules and measures3 ,the mind in harmony with the ,way is the principle of identity ,in which we find all doings in a quiescent state2 ,irresolutions are completely done away with1 ,and the right faith is restored to its native straightness2 ,nothing is retained now1 ,nothing is to be memorised1 ,all is void1 lucid1 and self-illuminating1 ,there is no stain1 no exertion1 no wasting of energy-- ,this is where thinking never attains1 ,this is where the imagination fails to measure4 ,in the higher realm of ,true ,suchness ,there is neither 8other0 nor 8self03 ,when a direct identification is asked for1 ,we can only say1 8,not two40f#ii ,in being not two all is the same1 ,all that is is comprehended in it3 ,the wise in the ten quarters1 ,they all enter into this absolute faith4 ,this absolute faith is beyond quickening time and extension space4 ,one instant is ten thousand years2 ,no matter how things are conditioned whether with 8to be0 or 8not to be10 ,it is manifest everywhere before you4 ,the infinitely small is as large as large can be1 ,when external conditions are forgotten2 ,the infinitely large is as small as small can be1 ,when objective limits are put out of sight4 ,what is is the same with what is not1 ,what is not is the same with what is3 ,where this state of things fails to obtain1 ,be sure not to tarry4 ,one in all1 ,all in one-- ,if only this is realised1 ,no more worry about your not being perfect6 ,the believing mind is not divided1 ,and undivided is the believing mind-- ,this is where words fail1 ,for it is not of the past1 future1 or present4 ,under ,tao-hsin 7#ehj-fea71 the fourth patriarch1 ,zen was divided into two branches4 ,the one known as ,godzuzen 7,niu-t#8ou ,chan71#d4db did not live long after the passing of its founder1 ,fa-jung1#d4dc who lived at ,mount ,niu-t#8ou1 and is considered not belonging to the orthodox line of ,zen4 ,the other branch was headed by ,hung-jn#d4dd who is regarded by historians as the fifth patriarch1 and it is his school that has survived4 ,he came to the master when he was still a mere boy1 and what pleased his master at their interview was the way he answered4 ,when ,tao-hsin asked#d4de what was his family name 7hsing71 he said1 8,i have a nature 7hsing71 and it is not an ordinary one40 8,what is that80 8,it is the ,buddha-nature 7fo-hsing740 8,then you have no name80 8,no1 master10 said the boy1 8for it is empty in its nature40 ,here is a play of words2 the character denoting 8family name0 and that for 8nature0 are both pronounced hsing4 ,when ,tao-hsin was referring to the 8family name0 the young follower took it for 8nature0 purposely1 whereby to express his view by a figure of speech4 ,tao-hsin's interview with ,fa-jung1 the founder of the ,niu-t#8ou school of ,zen1 was significant1 showing where their views differed and how the one came to be converted into the orthodox understanding of ,zen4 ,it was during the ,chn-kuan era of the ,t#8ang dynasty that ,tao-hsin1 learning of the presence of an extraordinary saintly man in ,niu-t'ou mountains1 decided to see who he could be4 ,when ,tao-hsin came to a ,buddhist temple in the mountains1 he inquired after the man and was informed of a lonely anchorite who would never rise from his seat nor salute people even when they were approaching him4 ,when ,tao-hsin proceeded further into the mountains1 he saw him as he was told sitting quietly and paying no attention to the presence of a stranger4 ,he then asked the hermit what he was doing here4 8,i am contemplating on ,mind10 was the reply4 ,tao-hsin then demanded1 8,what is he that is contemplating8 ,what is ,mind that is contemplated80 ,fa-jung was not prepared to answer such questions4 ,thinking that the visitor was a man of deep understanding1 he rose from the seat and saluting him asked who he was4 ,when he found that the visitor was no other personage than ,tao-hsin himself whose reputation he was not ignorant of1 he thanked him for the visit4 ,they were now about to enter a little hut near by where they might talk about religion1 when ,tao-hsin saw some wild animals such as tigers and wolves wandering about the place1 and he threw up his hands as if he were greatly frightened4 ,fa-jung remarked1 8,i see this is still with you40 ,the fourth patriarch responded at once1 8,what do you see yet80 ,no answer came from the hermit4 ,after a while the patriarch traced the character 8,buddha0 7fo7 on the stone on which ,fa-jung was in the habit of sitting in meditation4 ,seeing it1 the latter looked as if shocked4 ,said the patriarch 8,i see this is still with you40 ,but ,fa-jung failed to see the meaning of this remark and earnestly implored to be instructed in the ultimate teaching of ,buddhism4 ,this was done1 and ,fa-jung became the founder of the ,niu-t#8ou school of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,tao-hsin died at the age of seventy-two1 ,a4,d4 #fea4 ,hung-jn1 #fje-fge1 the fifth patriarch1 came from the same province as his predecessor1 ,ch#8i ,chou1 now in the district of ,fu-pei4 ,his temple was situated in ,wang-mei ,shan 7,yellow ,plum ,mountain71 where he preached and gave lessons in ,zen to his five hundred pupils4 ,he is claimed by some to have been the first ,zen master who attempted to interpret the message of ,zen according to the doctrine of the ,vajracchedik-stra4 ,though ,i cannot quite agree with this view for the reason already referred to elsewhere1 we can consider the fifth patriarch the beginning of a turning in the history of ,zen1 which opened up to a full view under the sixth patriarch1 ,hui-nng4 ,until now1 the ,zen followers had kept quiet1 though working steadily1 without arresting public attention2 the masters had retired either into the mountains or in the hurly-burly of the world where nobody could tell anything about their doings4 ,but the time had at last come for a full proclamation of ,zen1 and ,hung-jn was the first who appeared in the field preparing the way for his successor1 ,hui-nng4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides this orthodox line of patriarchs1 there were some sporadic expositors of ,zen throughout the sixth and the seventh century4 ,several of them are mentioned1 but there must have been many more such who were either altogether forgotten or not at all known to the world4 ,the two best known are ,pao-chih 7died #ead7d4df and ,fu-hsi 7died #efi7d4dg2 and their lives are recorded in the ,records as 8adepts in ,zen but not appearing in the world though well-known at the time40 ,this is a strange phrasing1 and it is hard to know definitely what 8not appearing in the world0 means4 ,usually it applies to one who does not occupy any recognised position in an officially registered monastery4 ,but of those that are classed under this heading1 there is one at least to whom the designation does not properly apply2 for ,chi-i was a great high priest occupying an influential ecclesiastical post in the ,sui dynasty4 ,whatever this was1 those recorded here did not belong to the orthodox ,zen school4 ,the ,tendai 7,t#8ien-tai7 followers object to see two of their ,fathers ,hui-sz and ,chi-i mentioned as 8adepts in ,zen but not appearing in the world though well-known at the time40 ,they think that these two are great names in the history of their school and ought not to be so indifferently referred to in the records of the ,zen masters4 ,but from the ,zen point of view this classification is justifiable for the reason that the ,tendai1 except its metaphysics1 is another current of ,zen started independently of the line of ,bodhi-,dharma1 and if this were allowed to take a more practical course of development1 it should surely have resulted in ,zen as we have it now4 ,but its metaphysical side came to be emphasised at the expense of the practical1 and for this reason the ,tendai philosophers were ever at war with the ,zen1 especially with the ultra-left wing which was inflexible in denouncing an appeal to ratiocination and literary discoursing and ,sutra-learning4 ,in my view the ,tendai is a variation of ,zen and its first promulgators may justly be classed as ,zen masters though not of the pedigree to which belong ,shih-t#8ou1 ,yeh-shan1 ,ma-tsu1 ,lin-chi1 etc4 ,while there were thus in the sixth and the seventh century some other lines of ,zen about to develop1 the one started by ,bodhi-,dharma was uninterruptedly carried on by ,hui-k#81 ,shng-t#8san1 ,tao-hsin1 and ,hung-jn1 who proved to be the most fruitful and successful4 ,the differentiation of two schools under the fifth patriarch1 by ,hui-nng and ,shn-hsiu1 helped the further progress of pure ,zen by eliminating unessential or rather undigested elements4 ,that the school of ,hui-nng survived the other proves that his ,zen was in perfect accord with ,chinese psychology and modes of thinking4 ,the ,indian elements that had been found attached to the ,zen of ,bodhi-,dharma and his successors down to ,hui-nng1 were something grafted and not native to ,chinese genius4 ,and therefore when ,zen came to be fully established under ,hui-nng and his followers1 it had nothing further to obstruct its free development until it became almost the only ruling power in the ,chinese world of ,buddhism4 ,we must carefully watch how ,hui-nng came to be ,hung-jn's successor and where he differed from his rival school under ,shn-hsiu4 ,,iv ,hui-nng 7#fcg-gac7d4dh came from ,hsin-chou in the southern parts of ,china4 ,his father died when he was yet young4 ,he supported his mother by selling wood in town4 ,when one day he came out of a house where he sold some fuel1 he heard a man reciting a ,buddhist ,sutra4 ,the words deeply touched his heart4 ,finding what ,sutra it was and where it was possible to get it1 a longing came over him to study it with the master4 ,the ,sutra was the ,diamond ,sutra 7,vajracchedik-stra7 and the master was the fifth patriarch residing at ,yellow ,plum in ,chin-chou4 ,hui-nng somehow managed to get money enough for the support of his aged mother while he was gone4 ,it took him about a month to reach ,yellow ,plum where he at once proceeded to see ,hung-jn at the head of five hundred monks 7sometimes said to be seven or even ten hundred74 ,at the first interview asked the patriarch1 8,where do you come from8 and what do you want here80 8,i am a farmer from ,hsin-chou and wish to become a ,buddha40 8,so you are a southerner10 said the patriarch1 8but the southerners have no ,buddha-nature2 how could you expect to attain ,buddhahood80 ,this however did not discourage the bold seeker after the truth1 for he at once responded3 8,there may be southerners and northerners1 but as far as ,buddha-nature goes1 how could you make such a distinction in it80 ,this pleased the master very much4 ,hui-nng was given an office as rice-pounder for the ,brotherhood4 ,more than eight months1 it is said1 he was employed in this menial labour1 when the fifth patriarch wished to select his spiritual successor among his many disciples4 ,one day he made an announcement that any one who could prove his thorough comprehension of the religion would be given the patriarchal mantle and proclaimed as his legitimate heir4 ,shn-hsiu 7died #gjf7d4di who was the most learned of all the disciples and thoroughly versed in the lore of his religion1 and who was therefore considered by his brethren in the faith to be in possession of an unqualified right to the honour1 composed a stanza expressing his view1 and posted it on the outside wall of the meditation hall1 which read3 8,this body is the ,bodhi-tree1 ,the soul is like a mirror bright2 ,take heed to keep it always clean1 ,and let not dust collect on it40#d4ej ,all those who read these lines were greatly impressed1 and secretly cherished the idea that the author of this gatha would surely be awarded the prize4 ,but when they awoke the next morning1 they were surprised to see another written alongside of it1 which ran as follows3 8,the ,bodhi is not like the tree1 ,the mirror bright is nowhere shining2 ,as there is nothing from the first1 ,where can the dust itself collect80#d4ea ,the writer of these lines was an insignificant layman in the service of the monastery1 who spent most of his time in pounding rice and splitting wood for the ,brotherhood4 ,he had such an unassuming air that nobody ever thought much of him1 and therefore the entire community was now set astir to see this challenge made upon its recognised authority4 ,but the fifth patriarch saw in this unpretentious monk a future leader of mankind1 and decided to transfer to him the robe of his office4 ,he had1 however1 some misgivings concerning the matter2 for the majority of his disciples were not enlightened enough to see anything of deep religious intuition in the lines by the rice-pounder1 ,hui-nng3 and if he were publicly awarded the honour they might do him harm4 ,so the fifth patriarch gave a secret sign to ,hui-nng to come to his room at midnight1 when the rest of the ,brotherhood was fast asleep4 ,then he gave him the robe as insignia of his authority and in acknowledgment of his unsurpassed spiritual attainment and with the assurance that the future of their faith would be brighter than ever4 ,the patriarch then advised him that it would be wise for him to hide his own light under a bushel until the proper time arrived for his public appearance and active propaganda1 and also that the robe which was handed down from ,bodhi-,dharma as the sign of faith should no more be given up to ,hui-nng's successors1 because ,zen was now fully recognised by the outside world in general and there was no more necessity to symbolise the faith by the transference of the robe4 ,that night ,hui-nng left the monastery4 ,this narrative is taken from the literature left by the followers of the sixth patriarch and is naturally partial in his favour4 ,if we had another record left by ,shn-hsiu and his school1 the account here reproduced may materially differ4 ,in fact1 we have at least one document telling ,shn-hsiu's relation to ,hung-jn4 ,it is the memorial inscription on his grave-stone written by ,chang-shuo1#d4eb one of his lay-disciples4 ,in this inscription ,shn-hsiu is referred to as the one to whom the ,dharma has been transmitted from his master1 ,hung-jn4 ,judging from this1 the patriarchal authority of ,hui-nng was not an undisputed one at the time1 or the orthodox order of succession was not settled until some time later when the school of ,hui-nng had been well established in authority over all the other schools of ,zen that might have been existing then4 ,unfortunately1 this memorial inscription does not give any further information concerning ,hui-nng's relation to ,hung-jn1 but even from the above narrative we can gather certain facts of importance which will shed light on the history of ,zen4 ,first1 what necessity was there to make ,hui-nng an unlearned rustic in contrast with the erudition and wide information ascribed to ,shn-hsiu8 ,or was ,hui-nng really such an ignoramus as could not read any thing written8 ,but the ,fa-pao-t#8an-ching1#d4ec a collection of his sermons1 contains passages quoted from such ,sutras as the ,nirvna1 ,vajracchedik1 ,lakvatra1 ,saddharma-puarika1 ,vimalakrti1 ,amitbha1 and ,bodhisattva-la-sutra4 ,does this not evince the fact that the author was not altogether unacquainted with ,mahayana literature8 ,probably he was not a learned scholar as compared with ,shn-hsiu1 but in the narratives of his life we can trace some systematic effort to make him more unlettered than he actually was4 ,what1 let me ask1 do we read in this attempt at the hand of the editors8 ,in my opinion1 this emphasising of the contrast between the two most eminent disciples of the fifth patriarch was at the same time the emphasising of the real character of ,zen as independent of learning and intellectuality4 ,if ,zen is1 as its followers claim1 a 8special transmission outside the scriptural teaching10 the understanding of it must be possible even for the unlettered and unphilosophising4 ,the greatness of ,hui-nng as ,zen master is all the more enhanced4 ,this was in all likelihood the reason why the sixth patriarch was unreasonably and sometimes even dramatically made unlettered4 ,secondly1 why was not the patriarchal robe transferred beyond ,hui-nng8 ,if ,hung-jn advised him to keep it with him1 what does the advice really imply8 ,that the life of the possessor of the robe would be threatened1 points to the fact that there was a dispute among the disciples of ,hung-jn4 ,did they regard the robe as the symbol of patriarchal authority8 ,but what advantages1 material or spiritual1 accrued from the ownership of it8 ,did the teaching of ,bodhi-,dharma come now to be believed as the genuine transmission of the ,buddha8 ,and for that reason did the robe really cease to signify anything relative to the truth of ,zen8 ,if so1 when ,bodhi-,dharma first declared his special mission as teacher of ,zen1 was he looked upon as a heretic and persecuted accordingly8 ,the legend that he was poisoned by his rival teachers from ,india seems to corroborate this4 ,at all events1 the question of the robe is deeply connected with the status of ,zen teaching among the various schools of ,buddhism at the time1 and also with its firmer hold on the popular minds than ever before4 ,thirdly1 the secrecy observed in all the transactions between ,hung-jn and ,hui-nng concerning the transmission of the ,dharma naturally arrests our attention4 ,to raise the rice-pounder who is not even an ordained monk to the rank of a patriarch1 though only in name1 to succeed a great master who stands at the head of several hundred disciples1 seems to be a real cause for envy and jealousy and even for hatred4 ,but if one were really enlightened enough to take charge of the important position of spiritual leadership1 could not a combined effort of master and pupil withstand all the opposition8 ,perhaps1 even enlightenment could not stand against human passions so irrational and elemental4 ,i cannot however help imagining an attempt on the part of the biographers of ,hui-nng at the dramatisation of the whole scene4 ,i am very likely mistaken1 and there might have been some historical conditions of which we are now ignorant due to the lack of documents4 ,three days after the flight of ,hui-nng from the ,yellow-plum mountains1 the news of what had happened in secret became noised abroad throughout the monastery1 and a party of indignant monks headed by one named ,ming1 pursued the fugitive1 ,hui-nng1 who1 in accordance with his master's instructions1 was silently leaving the ,brotherhood4 ,when he was overtaken by the pursuers while crossing a mountain-pass far from the monastery1 he laid down his robe on a rock near by1 and said to the monk1 ,ming3 8,this robe symbolises our patriarchal faith and is not to be carried away by force4 ,take this along with thee1 however1 if thou so desirest40 ,ming tried to lift it but it was as heavy as a mountain4 ,he halted1 hesitated1 and trembled with awe4 ,at last1 he said1 8,i come here to obtain the faith and not the robe4 ,o my brother monk1 pray dispel my ignorance40 ,said the sixth patriarch1 8,if thou comest for the faith1 stop all thy hankerings4 ,think not of good1 think not of evil1 but see what at this moment thy own original face doth look like1 which thou hadst even prior to thy own birth40#d4ed ,being thus demanded1 ,ming at once perceived the fundamental truth of things1 which hitherto he had sought in things without4 ,he now understood everything1 as if he had taken a cupful of cold water and tasted it to his own satisfaction4 ,out of the immensity of his feeling1 he was literally bathed in tears and perspirations1 and most reverently approaching the patriarch he saluted him and asked2 8,besides this hidden sense as is embodied in these significant words1 is there anything which is secret80 ,the patriarch answered1 8,in what ,i have shown to thee there is nothing hidden4 ,if thou reflectest within thyself and recognisest thy own face1 which was before the world1 secrecy is in thyself40 ,whatever historical circumstances surrounded ,hui-nng in those remote days1 it is certain that in this statement1 8to see one's own face even before one was born10 we find the first proclamation of the new message which was destined to unroll a long history of ,zen and to make ,hui-nng really worthy of the patriarchal robe4 ,we can see here what a new outlook ,hui-nng has succeeded in opening to the traditional ,indian ,zen4 ,in him we do not recognise anything of ,buddhism as far as phraseology goes1 which means that he opened up his own way of presenting the truth of ,zen after his original and creative experience4 ,prior to him1 the ,zen experience had some borrowings1 either in wording or in method1 to express itself4 ,to say1 8,you are the ,buddha10 or 8,you and the ,buddha are one10 or 8,the ,buddha is living in you10 is too stale1 too flat1 because too abstract and too conceptual4 ,they contain deep truth but are not concrete nor vivifying enough to rouse our dormant souls from insensibility4 ,they are filled up too much with abstractions and learned phraseology4 ,hui-nng's simple-mindedness not spoiled by learning and philosophising could grasp the truth at first hand4 ,hence his unusual freshness in the way he handled the problem4 ,we may come to this again later4 ,v ,hung-jn died1 ,a4,d4 #fge1 four yearsf#ajj after the ,dharma was transmitted to ,hui-nng4 ,he was seventy-four years old4 ,but ,hui-nng never started his mission work until some years later1 for in accordance with the advice of his master he lived a secluded life in the mountains4 ,one day he thought that it was time for him to go out in the world4 ,he was now thirty-nine years old1 and it was in the first year of ,i-fng 7,a4,d4 #fgf7 during the ,t#8ang dynasty4 ,he came to ,fa-hsing temple in the province of ,kuang1 where a learned priest1 ,yin-tsung1 was discoursing on the ,nirvna ,stra4 ,he saw some monks arguing on the flattering pennant2 one of them said1 8,the pennant is an inanimate object and it is the wind that makes it flap40 ,against this it was remarked by another monk that 8,both wind and pennant are inanimate things1 and the flapping is an impossibility40 ,a third one protested1 8,the flapping is due to a certain combination of cause and condition02 while a fourth one proposed a theory1 saying1 8,after all there is no flapping pennant1 but it is the wind that is moving by itself40 ,the discussion grew quite animated when ,hui-nng interrupted with the remark1 8,it is neither wind nor pennant but your own mind that flaps40 ,this at once put a stop to the heated argument4 ,the priest-scholar1 ,yin-tsung1 was greatly struck by the statement of ,hui-nng1 so conclusive and authoritative4 ,finding out very soon who this ,hui-nng was1 ,yin-tsung asked him to enlighten him on the teaching of the master of ,yellow ,plum ,mountain4 ,the gist of ,hui-nng's reply was as follows3 8,my master had no special instruction to give1 he simply insisted upon the need of our seeing into our own ,nature through our own efforts1 he had nothing to do with meditation1 or with deliverance4 ,for whatever that could be named leads to dualism1 and ,buddhism is not dualistic4 ,to take hold of this non-duality of truth is the aim of ,zen4 ,the ,buddha-,nature of which we are all in possession1 and the seeing into which constitutes ,zen1 is indivisible into such oppositions as good and evil1 eternal and temporal1 material and spiritual4 ,to see dualism in life is due to confusion of thought2 the wise1 the enlightened see into the reality of things unhampered by erroneous ideas40 ,this was the beginning of ,hui-nng's career as ,zen master4 ,his influence seems to have been immediate and far-reaching4 ,he had many disciples numbering thousands4 ,he did not however go around preaching and proselyting4 ,his activities were confined in his own province in the south1 and the ,pao-lin monastery at ,ts#8ao-ch#8i was his headquarters4 ,when the ,emperor ,kao-tsung learned that ,hui-nng succeeded ,hung-jn as one of ,dharma's spiritual descendants in the faith of ,zen1 he sent him one of his court officials with an imperial message1 but ,hui-nng refused to come up to the capital1 preferring his stay in the mountains4 ,the messenger however wished to be instructed in the doctrine of ,zen that he might convey it to his august master at ,court4 ,said ,hui-nng in the main as follows3 8,it is a mistake to think that sitting quietly in contemplation is essential to deliverance4 ,the truth of ,zen opens by itself from within and it has nothing to do with the practise of dhyana4 ,for we read in the ,vajracchedik that those who try to see the ,tathagata in one of his special attitudes1 as sitting or lying1 do not understand his spirit1 and that the ,tathagata is designated as ,tathagata because he comes from nowhere and departs nowhere1 and for that reason he is the ,tathagata4 ,his appearance has no whence1 and his disappearance no whither1 and this is ,zen4 ,in ,zen therefore there is nothing to gain1 nothing to understand2 what shall we then do with sitting cross-legged and practising dhyana8 ,some may think that understanding is needed to enlighten the darkness of ignorance1 but the truth of ,zen is absolute in which there is no dualism1 no conditionality4 ,to speak of ignorance and enlightenment1 or of ,bodhi and ,klea 7wisdom and passions71 as if they were two separate objects which cannot be merged in one1 is not ,mahayanistic4 ,in the ,mahayana every possible form of dualism is condemned as not expressing the ultimate truth4 ,everything is a manifestation of the ,buddha-,nature which is not defiled in passions1 nor purified in enlightenment4 ,it is above all categories4 ,if you want to see what is the nature of your being1 free your mind from thought of relativity and you will see by yourself how serene it is and yet how full of life it is40 99 99 99 99 99 ,while ,hui-nng was working for the cause of ,zen in the south1 ,shn-hsiu representing another school was active in the north4 ,before he was converted into ,buddhism1 he was a learned ,confucian and thus destined from the start to cut a different figure1 compared with his brother-disciple1 ,hui-nng4 ,the ,emperor ,wu of the ,t#8ang dynasty was one of the devoted followers of ,shn-hsiu1 and naturally around him were gathered a large number of courtiers and government officers4 ,when the ,emperor ,chung-tsung came to the throne1 ,a4,d4 #fhe1 he was all the more treated with reverence1 and it was ,chang-shuo1 one of the state ministers1 who inscribed a biographical sketch and eulogy on the memorial stone erected over his grave when he died4 ,one of his sermons recorded reads3 8,the teaching of all the ,buddhas ,in one's own ,mind originally exists3 ,to seek the ,mind without one's ,self1 ,is like running away from the father40 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #gjf1 seven years prior to ,hui-nng4 ,his school known as the ,northern in contrast to ,hui-nng's ,southern ,school prospered in the north far better than the latter did in the south4 ,but when ,ma-tsu 7died #ghh7 and ,shih-t#8ou 7#gjj-gij7 began their active propaganda in the south and finally established the foundations of ,zen teaching1 ,shn-hsiu's school failed to find able successors and finally disappeared altogether so that all the records we have of their movements come from the rival school4 ,it thus came to pass that ,hui-nng1 and not ,shn-hsiu was recognised as the sixth patriarch of ,zen ,buddhism in ,china4 ,the difference between the ,southern and the ,northern school of ,zen is one inherent in human mind2 if we call the one intellectual or intuitional1 the other would be regarded as pragmatical4 ,the reason why the ,southern school is known as 8abrupt0 or 8instant0 7yugapad7 against the 8gradual0 7kramavittya7 school of the ,north is because it upholds that the coming of enlightenment is instantaneous and does not allow any gradation1 as there are no stages of progress in it2 whereas the ,northern school emphasises the process of arriving at enlightenment which is naturally gradual1 requiring much time and concentration4 ,hui-nng was a great advocate of absolute idealism1 while ,shn-hsiu was a realist and refused to ignore a world of particulars where ,time rules over all our doings4 ,an idealist does not necessarily ignore the objective aspect of reality1 but his eyes are always fixed at one point which stands by itself1 and his surveyings are done from this absolute point4 ,the doctrine of abruptness is thus the result of looking at the multitudinousness of things in absolute unity4 ,all true mystics are followers of the 8abrupt0 school4 ,the flight from the alone to the alone is not and cannot be a gradual process4 ,the teaching of ,shn-hsiu is to be heeded as the practical advice to those who are actually engaged in the study of ,zen1 but it fails to describe the character of experience known as 8the seeing into one's own ,nature10 which was the special message of ,hui-nng as distinguished from those of the other ,buddhist schools4 ,that the school of ,shn-hsiu could not survive as a branch of ,zen was natural enough1 for ,zen could not be anything else but an instantaneous act of intuition4 ,as it opens up all of a sudden a world hitherto undreamed of1 it is an abrupt and discrete leaping from one plane of thought to another4 ,hsiu missed the ultimate object of ,zen when he emphasised the process to reach the end4 ,as a practical adviser he was therefore excellent and full of merit4 ,the ideas of instantaneity and gradation in the realisation of the truth of ,zen originally comes from the ,lakvatra 7,nanjo's edition1 p4 #ee71 where this distinction is made in regard to cleansing one's mind of its stream of ideas and images4 ,according to the ,sutra1 this cleansing is in one sense gradual but in another abrupt or instantaneous4 ,when it is regarded as like the ripening of a fruit1 the modelling of a vessel1 the growing of a plant1 or the mastering of an art1 which takes place gradually and in time1 it is an act of gradual process3 but when it is comparable to a mirror reflecting objects1 or to the laya reproducing all mental images1 the cleansing of mind takes place instantaneously4 ,thus the ,sutra recognises the two types of minds3 with some the cleansing to a state of enlightenment can be obtained gradually after a long practice of meditation1 perhaps through many a successive life2 but to others it may come all of a sudden1 even without previously conscious efforts4 ,the division of the two schools as regards the abrupt realisation of enlightenment is based not only on the statements in the ,sutra but ultimately on facts of psychology4 ,the point at issue however was not a question of time2 whether enlightenment took place as an act of one moment or not1 ceased to concern them2 for the difference now developed into that of their general philosophical attitude and outlook towards the fact of enlightenment itself4 ,the question of physical time has thus turned into that of psychology in its more profound aspect4 ,when process is emphasised1 the end is forgotten1 and process itself comes to be identified with end4 ,when a disciple of ,shn-hsiu came to ,hui-nng to be instructed in ,zen1 he asked what was the teaching of ,shn-hsiu1 and the disciple informed him thus3 8,my master usually teaches us to stop the working of our minds and to sit quietly in meditation for a long time at a stretch1 without lying down40 ,to this ,hui-nng responded3 8,to stop the working of mind and to sit quietly in meditation is a disease and not ,zen1 and there is no profit whatever to be gained from a long sitting40 ,then he gave him the following gth3 8,while living1 one sits up and lies not1 ,when dead1 one lies and sits not2 ,a set of ill-smelling skeleton6 ,what is the use of toiling and moiling80#d4ee ,this shows exactly where ,hui-nng stands in relation to his rival ,shn-hsiu who is so taken up with the practical details of the process of ,zen4 ,those two gths inscribed on the monastery wall at ,yellow-plum ,mountain while they were yet under the tutorship of ,hung-jn1 are eloquent enough to bring out the characteristic features of the two schools4f#aja ,when ,hui-nng further asked the monk from the north as to the teaching of his teacher in regard to morality 7la71 meditation 7dhyna71 and wisdom 7praj71 the monk said1 8,according to my master ,hsiu1 morality consists in not doing anything that is bad2 wisdom in reverently practising all that is good2 and meditation in purifying the heart40 ,replied ,hui-nng3 8,my view is quite different4 ,all my teaching issues from the conception of ,self-,nature1 and those who assert the existence of anything outside it betray their ignorance of its nature4 ,morality1 ,meditation1 and ,wisdom--all these are forms of ,self-,nature4 ,when there is nothing wrong in it1 we have morality2 when it is free from ignorance1 it is wisdom2 and when it is not disturbed1 it is meditation4 ,have a thorough understanding once for all as to the being of ,self-,nature1 and you know that nothing dualistic obtains in it2 for here you have nothing to be particularly distinguished as enlightenment1 or ignorance1 or deliverance1 or knowledge1 and yet from this nothingness there issues a world of particulars as objects of thought4 ,for him who has once had an insight into his own ,nature1 no special posture as a form of meditation is to be recommended2 everything and anything is good to him1 sitting1 or lying1 or standing4 ,he enjoys perfect freedom of spirit1 he moves along as he feels1 and yet he does nothing wrong1 he is always acting in accord with his ,self-,nature1 his work is play4 ,this is what ,i call #8the seeing into one's own ,nature'2 and this seeing is instantaneous as much as the working is1 for there is no graduating process from one stage to another40 ,,vi ,some of the sermons of the sixth patriarch are preserved in the book known as the ,platform ,sutra on the ,treasure of the ,law 7,fa-pao-t#8an-ching74 ,the title1 8sutra0 has generally been given to writings ascribed to the ,buddha or those somehow personally connected with him1 and that a collection of the sermons of ,hui-nng has been so honoured shows what a significant position he occupies in the history of ,chinese ,buddhism4 8,the ,platform ,sutra0 has a reference to the famous ordination platform erected by ,gunabhadra1 the first translator of the ,lakvatra1 of the ,liu-sung dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #dbj-dgi4 ,at the time of the erection as well as later1 it was prophesied by ,chih-yeh 7according to another authority by ,paramrtha71 during the ,liang dynasty that some years later a ,bodhisattva in the flesh would be ordained on this platform and deliver sermons on the ,buddha's 8spiritual seal40 ,thus the 8,platform ,sutra0 means the orthodox teaching of the ,zen given from this platform4 ,the sermons here preserved are mere fragments of those delivered during the thirty-seven years of ,hui-nng's active missionary life4 ,even of these fragments how much is to be regarded as genuine and authoritative is a question we cannot at present give any definite answer1 as the book seems to have suffered the vicissitudes of fates1 partly showing the fact that the ,zen message of the sixth patriarch was extraordinary in many respects so as to arouse antagonism and misunderstanding among ,buddhists4 ,when this antagonism later reached its climax1 it is reported that the book was burned up as against the genuine teaching of ,buddhism4 ,except a few sentences and passages1 however1 which can at once be rejected as spurious1 we may take the ,platform ,sutra on the whole as expressing the spirit and teaching of the sixth patriarch of ,zen4 ,the principal ideas of ,hui-nng1 which make him the real ,chinese founder of ,zen ,buddhism may be summed up as follows3 #a4 ,we can say that ,zen has come to its own consciousness by ,hui-nng4 ,while ,bodhi-,dharma brought it from ,india and successfully transplanted it in ,china1 it did not fully realise its special message at the time4 ,more than two centuries were needed before it grew aware of itself and knew how to express itself in the way native to the ,chinese mind2 the ,indian mode in which its original teaching had been expressed as was the case with ,bodhi-,dharma and his immediate disciples had to give way as it were to become truly ,chinese4 ,as soon as this transformation or transplantation was accomplished in the hands of ,hui-nng1 his disciples proceeded at once to work out all its implications4 ,the result was what we have as the ,zen school of ,buddhism4 ,how did then ,hui-nng understand ,zen8 ,according to him1 ,zen was the 8seeing into one's own ,nature40 ,this is the most significant phrase ever coined in the development of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,around this ,zen is now crystallised1 and we know where to direct our efforts and how to represent it in our consciousness4 ,after this1 the progress of ,zen ,buddhism was rapid4 ,it is true that this phrase occurs in the life of ,bodhi-,dharma in the ,records of the ,transmission of the ,lamp1 but it is in the part of his life on which we cannot put much reliance4 ,even when the phrase was actually used by ,dharma1 it was not necessarily considered by him the essence of ,zen as distinguishing itself from other schools of ,buddhism4 ,hui-nng however was fully aware of its signification1 and impressed the idea unequivocally upon the minds of his audience4 ,when he made his first declaration of ,zen for the benefit of ,yin-tsung1 the statement was quite unmistakable1 8,we talk of seeing into our own ,nature1 and not of practising dhyana or obtaining liberation40#d4ef ,here we have the gist of ,zen1 and all his later sermons are amplifications of this idea4 ,by 8,nature0 he understood ,buddha-,nature1 or more particularly from the intellectual point of view1 ,praj4 ,he says that this ,praj is possessed by every one of us1 but owing to the confusion of thought we fail to realise it in ourselves4 ,therefore we must be instructed and properly guided by an adept in ,zen ,buddhism1 when we shall open a spiritual eye and by ourselves see into the ,nature4 ,this ,nature knows no multiplicity1 it is absolute oneness1 being the same in the ignorant as well as in the wise4 ,the difference comes from confusion and ignorance4 ,people talk so much1 think so much1 of ,praj1 but fail altogether to realise it in their own minds4 ,it is like talking about food all day1 however much we may talk we forever remain hungry4 ,you may explain the philosophy of nyat for ten thousand years1 but so long as you have not yet seen into your ,nature1 it is absolutely of no avail4 ,there are again some people who regard ,zen as consisting in sitting quietly with an empty mind devoid of thoughts and feelings4 ,such know not what ,praj is1 what ,mind is4 ,it fills the universe and never rests from work4 ,it is free1 creative1 and at the same time it knows itself4 ,it knows all in one and one in all4 ,this mysterious working of ,praj issues from your own ,nature4 ,do not depend upon letters but let your own ,praj illumine within yourself4 #b4 ,the inevitable result of it was the 8abrupt0 teaching of the ,northern school4 ,the seeing is an instant act as far as the mental eye takes in the whole truth at one glance--the truth which transcends dualism in all form2 it is abrupt as far as it knows no gradations1 no continuous unfolding4 ,read the following passage from the ,platform ,sutra1 in which the essentials of the abrupt doctrine are given3 8,when the abrupt doctrine is understood1 there is no need of disciplining oneself in things external4 ,only let a man always have a right view within his own mind1 no desires1 no external objects will ever defile him4 ,this is the seeing into his ,nature4 ,o my friends1 have no fixed abode inside or outside1f#ajb and your conduct will be perfectly free and unfettered4 ,take away your attachment1 and your walk will know no obstructions whatever4444 ,the ignorant will grow wise if they abruptly get an understanding and open their hearts to the truth4 ,o my friends1 even the ,buddhas will be like us common mortals when they have no enlightenment1 and even we mortals will be ,buddhas when we are enlightened4 ,therefore we know that all things are in our own minds4 ,why do we not then instantly see into our own minds and find there the truth of ,suchness8 ,in the ,sutra on the ,moral ,conduct of the ,bodhisattva we read that we are all pure in our ,self-nature1 and that when we know our own minds we see into this ,nature and all attain to ,buddhahood4 ,says the ,vimalakrti ,stra1 #8,an instant opening leads us into the ,original ,mind4' ,o my good friends1 while under my master ,jn1 ,i realised the truth the moment ,i heard him speak and had an instant i4e4 abrupt glimpse into the true essence of ,suchness4 ,this is the reason why ,i now endeavour by means of this doctrine to lead truth-seekers to an instant i4e4 abrupt realisation of ,bodhi4 ,when you by yourselves look into your minds1 you perceive at once what the ,original ,nature is4444 8,those who know by themselves do not look for anything external4 ,if they adhere to the view that liberation comes through external aid1 through the office of a good wise friend1 they are entirely at fault4 ,why8 ,there is a knower in your own mind and it is this that makes you realise the truth by yourselves4 ,when confusion reigns in you and false views are entertained1 no amount of teaching by others1 good wise friends of yours1 will be of use for your salvation4 ,when on the other hand your genuine ,praj shines forth1 all your confused thoughts will vanish in an instant4 ,knowing thus what your ,self-,nature is1 you reach ,buddhahood by this single understanding1 one knowledge40 #c4 ,when the seeing into ,self-,nature is emphasised and intuitive understanding is upheld against learning and philosophising1 we know that as one of its logical conclusions the old view of meditation begins to be looked down as merely a discipline in mental tranquillisation4 ,and this was exactly the case with the sixth patriarch4 ,since the beginning of ,buddhism there have been two currents of thought concerning the meaning of meditation3 the one was1 like ,arda and ,udraka who were the two teachers of the ,buddha1 to take it for suspending all psychic activities or for wiping consciousness clean of all its modes2 and the other was to regard meditation simply as the most efficacious means for coming in touch with the ultimate reality4 ,this fundamental difference of views with regard to meditation was a cause of the unpopularity at first of ,bodhi-,dharma among the ,chinese ,buddhists1 scholars and dhyana-masters of the time4 ,it was also a factor of divergence between the ,niu-t#8ou school of ,zen and the orthodox teaching of the fourth patriarch1 as well as between the ,northern and the ,southern school of ,zen ,buddhism after the fifth patriarch4 ,hui-nng1 the sixth patriarch1 came out as a strong advocate of intuitionalism and refused to interpret the meaning of dhyana statically1 as it were4 ,for the ,mind according to him at the highest stage of meditation was not a mere being1 mere abstraction devoid of content and work4 ,he wanted to grasp something which lay at the foundation of all his activities mental and physical1 and this something could not be a mere geometrical point1 it must be the source of energy and knowledge4 ,hui-nng did not forget that the will was after all the ultimate reality and that enlightenment was to be understood as more than intellection1 more than quietly contemplating the truth4 ,the ,mind or ,self-,nature was to be apprehended in the midst of its working or functioning4 ,the object of dhyana was thus not to stop the working of ,self-,nature but to make us plunge right into its stream and seize it in the very act4 ,his intuitionalism was dynamic4 ,in the following dialogues both ,hui-nng and his disciples are still using the older terminology but the import of this parley is illustrative of the point ,i want to specify4 ,hsan-chiao first studied ,t#8ien-tai philosophy and later while reading the ,vimalakrti he discovered his ,self-,nature4 ,being advised to see the sixth patriarch in order to have his experience certified or testified1 he came to ,tsao-ch#8i4 ,he walked around the master three times and erecting his staff straight stood before him4 ,said the master1 8,monks are supposed to observe three hundred rules of conduct and eighty thousand minor ones2 whence comest thou1 so full of pride80 8,birth-and-death is a matter of grave concern1 and time waits for nobody60 said the ,t#8ien-tai philosopher4 8,why dost thou not grasp that which is birthless and see into that which is timeless80 the master demanded4 8,birthless is that which grasps1 and timeless is that which sees into40 8,that is so1 that is so10 agreed the master4 ,when this was over1 ,hsan-chiao came to ,hui-nng again in the full attire of the ,buddhist monk1 and reverently bowing to the master wished to take leave of him4 ,said the master1 8,why departest thou so soon80 8,there is from the very beginning no such thing as movement1 and then why talkest thou of being soon80 8,who knows that there is no movement80 retorted the master4 8,there10 exclaimed ,hsan-chiao1 8thou makest a judgment thyself60 8,thou truly comprehendest the intent of that which is birthless40 8,how could the birthless ever have an intent80 ,hsan-chiao asked4 8,if there were no intent1 who could ever judge80 8,judgments are made with no intent whatever40 ,this was the conclusion of ,chiao4 ,the master then expressed his deep appreciation of ,hsan-chiao's view on the subject1 saying1 8,well thou hast said60#d4eg ,chih-huang was an adept in meditation which he studied under the fifth patriarch4 ,after twenty years' discipline he thought he well understood the purport of meditation or samadhi4 ,hsan-ts#81 learning his attainment1 visited him and said1 8,what are you doing there80 8,i am entering into a samadhi40 8,you speak of entering1 but how do you enter into samadhi--with a thought-ful mind or with a thought-less mind8 ,if you say with a thought-less mind1 all non-sentient beings such as plants or bricks could attain samadhi4 ,if you say with a thought-ful mind1 all sentient beings could attain it40 8,when ,i enter into samadhi10 said ,chih-huang1 8,i am not conscious of either being thoughtful or being thoughtless40 8,if you are conscious of neither1 you are right in samadhi all the while2 why do you then talk at all of entering into it or coming out of it8 ,if however there is really entering or coming out1 it is not ,great ,samadhi40 ,chih-huang did not know how to answer4 ,after a while he asked who was ,hsan-ts#8's teacher and what was his understanding of samadhi4 ,said ,hsan-ts#81#d4eh 8,hui-nng is my teacher1 and according to him1 the ultimate truth lies mystically serene and perfectly quiet2 substance and function are not to be separated1 they are of one ,suchness4 ,the five skandhas are empty in their nature1 and the six sense-objects have no reality4 ,the truth knows of neither entering nor going out1 neither being tranquil nor disturbed4 ,dhyana in essence has no fixed abode4 ,without attaching yourself to an abode1 be serene in dhyana4 ,dhyana in essence is birthless2 without attaching yourself to the thought of birth -and-death think in dhyana4 ,have your mind like unto space and yet have no thought of space40 ,thus learning of the sixth patriarch's view on samadhi or dhyana1 ,chih-huang came to the master himself and asked to be further enlightened4 ,said the patriarch1 8,what ,hsan-ts#8 told you is true4 ,have your mind like unto space and yet entertain in it no thought of emptiness4 ,then the truth will have its full activity unimpeded4 ,every movement of yours will come out of an innocent heart and the ignorant and the wise will have an equal treatment in your hands4 ,subject and object will lose their distinction1 and essence and appearance will be of one suchness4 ,when a world of absolute oneness is thus realised1 you have attained to eternal samadhi40 ,to make the position of the sixth patriarch on the subject of meditation still clearer and more definite1 let me quote another incident from his ,platform ,sutra4 ,a monk once made reference to a gth composed by ,wo-luan which read as follows #d4ei3 8,i1 ,wo-luan1 know a device ,whereby to blot out all my thoughts3 ,the objective world no more stirs the mind1 ,and daily matures my ,enlightenment60 ,hearing this1 the sixth patriarch remarked3 8,that is no enlightenment but leads one into a state of bondage4 ,listen to my gth3 8,i1 ,hui-nng1 know no device1 ,my thoughts are not suppressed3 ,the objective world ever stirs the mind1 ,and what is the use of maturing ,enlightenment80 ,these will be sufficient to show that ,hui-nng1 the sixth patriarch1 was on the one hand no quietist1 nor nihilist advocating the doctrine of absolute emptiness1 while on the other hand he was no idealist either1 in the sense of denying an objective world4 ,his dhyana was full of action1 yet above a world of particulars1 so long as it was not carried away by it and in it4 #d4 ,hui-nng's method of demonstrating the truth of ,zen was purely ,chinese and not ,indian4 ,he did not resort to abstract terminology nor to romantic mysticism4 ,the method was direct1 plain1 concrete1 and highly practical4 ,when the monk ,ming came to him and asked for instruction1 he said1 8,show me your original face before you were born40 ,is not the statement quite to the point8 ,no philosophic discourse1 no elaborate reasoning1 no mystic imagery1 but a direct unequivocal dictum4 ,in this the sixth patriarch cut the first turf and his disciples quickly and efficiently followed in his steps4 ,notice how brilliantly ,lin-chi made use of this method in his sermon on a 8true man of no title40 7,see the 8,introduction407 ,to give another instance4 ,when ,hui-nng saw ,huai-jang1 of ,nan-yeh1 he said1 8,whence comest thou80 which was followed by 8,what is it that so cometh80#d4fj ,it took for ,huai-jang eight long years to answer the question satisfactorily4 ,afterwards this way of questioning became almost an established form of greeting with ,zen masters4 ,nan-yan asked a newly arrived monk1 8,whence comest thou80 8,i am from ,han-shang40 ,said the master1 8,you are at fault as much as ,i am40#d4fa ,hsiang-yn asked ,san-shng1 8,whence comest thou80 8,from ,lin-chi40 8,bringest thou his sword80 ,san-shng took up his seat-cloth 7tso-chu7 and struck ,hsiang-yn across his mouth and went away4#d4fb ,the ,venerable ,ch#8en asked a monk1 8,whence comest thou80 8,from ,yang-shan40 8,thou art a liar60 was the verdict of the master4#d4fc ,another time he asked another monk1 8,whence comest thou80 8,from ,west of the ,river1 sir40 8,how many sandals hast thou worn out80 ,this monk had evidently a gentler treatment4 ,this difference of method between the ,indian and the ,chinese often raised the question as to the difference1 if there be1 between the 8,tathagata ,dhyana0 and the 8,patriarchal ,dhyana40 ,for instance1 when ,hsiang-yn showed his song of poverty to ,yang-shan1 the latter said1 8,you understand the ,tathagata ,dhyana but not yet the ,patriarchal ,dhyana40 ,when asked about the difference1 ,mu-chou replied1 8,the green mountains are green mountains1 and the white clouds are white clouds40#d4fd ,,vii ,hui-nng died at the age of seventy-six in ,a4,d4 #gab1 while the ,t#8ang dynasty was enjoying its halcyon days and ,chinese culture reached the highest point in its history4 ,a little over one hundred years after the passing of the sixth patriarch1 ,liu ,tsung-yan1 one of the most brilliant literati in the history of ,chinese literature1 wrote a memorial inscription on his tomb-stone when he was honoured by the ,emperor ,hsien-tsung with the posthumous title1 ,great ,mirror 7tai-chien71and in this we read#d4fe3 8,in a sixth transmission after ,dharma there was ,tai-chien4 ,he was first engaged in menial labour and servile work4 ,just a few words from the master were enough and he at once understood the deepest meaning conveyed in them4 ,the master was greatly impressed and finally conferred on him an insignia of faith4 ,after that he hid himself in the southern district1 nobody heard of him again for sixteen years when he thought the time was ripe for him to come out of the seclusion4 ,he was settled at ,ts#8ao-ch#8i and began to teach4 ,the number of disciples is said once to have reached several thousands4 ,according to his doctrine1 non-doing is reality1 emptiness is the truth1 and the ultimate meaning of things is vast and immovable4 ,he taught that human nature in its beginning as well as in the end is thoroughly good and does not require any artificial weeding-out1 for it has its root in that which is serene4 ,the ,emperor ,chung-tsung heard of him and sent his courtier twice asking him to appear at ,court but failed to get him out4 ,so the ,emperor had his words instead which he took for his spiritual guidance4 ,the teaching of the sixth patriarch in detail is generally accessible to-day2 all those who talk at all about ,zen find their source of information in ,ts#8ao-ch#8i40f#ajc ,after ,hui-nng ,zen was split up into several schools1 two of which have survived even down to this day1 in ,china as well as in ,japan4 ,the one represented by ,hsing-sz1 of ,ch#8ing-yan1 7died #gdj71 continues now as the ,soto 7,ts#8ao-tung7 school of ,zen1 and the other coming down the line of ,huai-jang1 of ,nan-yeh 7#fgg-gdd71d4ff is now represented by the ,rinzai 7,lin-chi7 school4 ,though much modified in various aspects1 the principle and spirit of ,zen ,buddhism is still alive as it was in the days of the sixth patriarch1 and as one of the great spiritual heritages of the ,east it is still wielding its unique influence especially among the cultured people in ,japan4 ,,on ,,satori--,,the ,,revelation ,,of ,a ,,new ,,truth ,,in ,,zen ,,buddhism ,,on ,,satori--,,the ,,revelation ,,of ,a ,,new ,,truth ,,in ,,zen ,,buddhism ,i ,the essence of ,zen ,buddhism consists in acquiring a new viewpoint of looking at life and things generally4 ,by this ,i mean that if we want to get into the inmost life of ,zen1 we must forego all our ordinary habits of thinking which control our everyday life1 we must try to see if there is any other way of judging things1 or rather if our ordinary way is always sufficient to give us the ultimate satisfaction of our spiritual needs4 ,if we feel dissatisfied somehow with this life1 if there is something in our ordinary way of living that deprives us of freedom in its most sanctified sense1 we must endeavour to find a way somewhere which gives us a sense of finality and contentment4 ,zen proposes to do this for us and assures us of the acquirement of a new point of view in which life assumes a fresher1 deeper1 and more satisfying aspect4 ,this acquirement1 however1 is really and naturally the greatest mental cataclysm one can go through with in life4 ,it is no easy task1 it is a kind of fiery baptism1 and one has to go through the storm1 the earthquake1 the overthrowing of the mountains1 and the breaking in pieces of the rocks4 ,this acquiring of a new point of view in our dealings with life and the world is popularly called by ,japanese ,zen students 8satori0#e4a 7wu in ,chinese74 ,it is really another name for ,enlightenment 7anuttara-samyak-sabodhi71 which is the word used by the ,buddha and his ,indian followers ever since his realisation under the ,bodhi-tree by the ,river ,nairajan4 ,there are several other phrases in ,chinese designating this spiritual experience1 each of which has a special connotation1 showing tentatively how this phenomenon is interpreted4 ,at all events1 there is no ,zen without satori1 which is indeed the ,alpha and ,omega of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,zen devoid of satori is like a sun without its light and heat4 ,zen may lose all its literature1 all its monasteries1 and all its paraphernalia2 but as long as there is satori in it1 it will survive to eternity4 ,i want to emphasise this most fundamental fact concerning the very life of ,zen2 for there are some even among the students of ,zen themselves who are blind to this central fact and are apt to think when ,zen has been explained away logically or psychologically or as one of the ,buddhist philosophies which can be summed up by using highly technical and conceptual ,buddhist phrases1 ,zen is exhausted and there remains nothing in it that makes it what it is4 ,but my contention is1 the life of ,zen begins with the opening of satori 7kai wu in ,chinese74#e4b ,satori may be defined as an intuitive looking into the nature of things in contradistinction to the analytical or logical understanding of it4 ,practically1 it means the unfolding of a new world hitherto unperceived in the confusion of a dualistically-trained mind4 ,or we may say that with satori our entire surroundings are viewed from quite an unexpected angle of perception4 ,whatever this is1 the world for those who have gained a satori is no more the old world as it used to be2 even with all its flowing streams and burning fires1 it is never the same one again4 ,logically stated1 all its opposites and contradictions are united and harmonised into a consistent organic whole4 ,this is a mystery and a miracle1 but according to the ,zen masters such is being performed every day4 ,satori can thus be had only through our once personally experiencing it4 ,its semblance or analogy in a more or less feeble and fragmentary way is gained when a difficult mathematical problem is solved1 or when a great discovery is made1 or when a sudden means of escape is realised in the midst of most desperate complications1 in short1 when one exclaims1 8,eureka6 eureka60 ,but this refers only to the intellectual aspect of satori1 which is therefore necessarily partial and incomplete and does not touch the very foundations of life considered one indivisible whole4 ,satori as the ,zen experience must be concerned with the entirety of life4 ,for what ,zen proposes to do is the revolution1 and the revaluation as well1 of oneself as a spiritual unity4 ,the solving of a mathematical problem ends with the solution1 it does not affect one's whole life4 ,so with all other particular questions1 practical or scientific1 they do not enter the basic life-tone of the individual concerned4 ,but the opening of satori is the re-making of life itself4 ,when it is genuine--for there are many simulacra of it--its effects on one's moral and spiritual life are revolutionary1 and they are so enhancing1 purifying1 as well as exacting4 ,when a master was asked what constituted ,buddhahood1 he answered1 8,the bottom of a pale is broken through40 ,from this we can see what a complete revolution is produced by this spiritual experience4 ,the birth of a new man is really cataclysmic4 ,in the psychology of religion this spiritual enhancement of one's whole life is called 8conversion40 ,but as the term is generally used by ,christian converts1 it cannot be applied in its strict sense to the ,buddhist experience1 especially to that of the ,zen followers2 the term has too affective or emotional a shade to take the place of satori1 which is above all noetic4 ,the general tendency of ,buddhism is as we know more intellectual than emotional1 and its doctrine of ,enlightenment distinguishes it sharply from the ,christian view of salvation2 ,zen as one of the ,mahayana schools naturally shares a large amount of what we may call transcendental intellectualism which does not issue in logical dualism4 ,when poetically or figuratively expressed1 satori is 8the opening of the mind-flower10#e4c or 8the removing of the bar10#e4d or 8the brightening up of the mind-works40#e4e ,all these tend to mean the clearing up of a passage which has been somehow blocked1 preventing the free1 unobstructed operation of a machine or a full display of the inner works4 ,with the removal of the obstruction1 a new vista opens before one1 boundless in expanse and reaching the end of time4 ,as life thus feels quite free in its activity1 which was not the case before the awakening1 it now enjoys itself to the fullest extent of its possibilities1 to attain which is the object of ,zen discipline4 ,this is often taken to be equivalent to 8vacuity of interest and poverty of purpose40 ,but according to the ,zen masters the doctrine of non-achievement concerns itself with the subjective attitude of mind which goes beyond the limitations of thought4 ,it does not deny ethical ideals1 nor does it transcend them2 it is simply an inner state of consciousness without reference to its objective consequences4 ,,ii ,the coming of ,bodhi-,dharma 7,bodai-daruma in ,japanese1 ,p#8u-ti ,ta-mo in ,chinese7 to ,china early in the sixth century was simply to introduce this satori element into the body of ,buddhism whose advocates were then so engrossed in subtleties of philosophical discussion or in the mere literary observance of rituals and disciplinary rules4 ,by the 8absolute transmission of the spiritual seal0#e4f which was claimed by the first patriarch1 is meant the opening of satori1 obtaining an eye to see into the spirit of the ,buddhist teaching4 ,the sixth patriarch1 ,yeno 7,hui-nng71 was distinguished because of his upholding the satori aspect of dhyana against the mere mental tranquillisation of the ,northern ,school of ,zen under the leadership of ,jinshu 7,shn-hsiu74 ,baso 7,ma-tsu71 ,obaku 7,huan-po71 ,rinzai 7,lin-chi71 and all the other stars illuminating the early days of ,zen in the ,t#8ang dynasty were advocates of satori4 ,their life-activities were unceasingly directed towards the advancement of this2 and as one can readily recognise1 they so differed from those merely absorbed in contemplation or the practising of dhyana so called4 ,they were strongly against quietism1 declaring its adherents to be purblind and living in the cave of darkness4 ,before we go on1 it is advisable1 therefore1 to have this point clearly understood so that we leave no doubt as to the ultimate purport of ,zen1 which is by no means wasting one's life away in a trance-inducing practise1 but consists in seeing into the life of one's being or opening an eye of satori4 ,there is in ,japan a book going under the title of ,six ,essays by ,shoshitsu 7that is1 by ,bodhi-,dharma1 the first patriarch of ,zen72 the book contains no doubt some of the sayings of ,dharma1 but most of the essays are not his2 they were probably composed during the ,t#8ang dynasty when ,zen ,buddhism began to make its influence more generally felt among the ,chinese ,buddhists4 ,the spirit however pervading the book is in perfect accord with the principle of ,zen4 ,one of the essays entitled 8,kechimyakuron10 or 8,treatise on the ,lineage of ,faith10#e4g discusses the question of ,chien-hsingf#ajd or satori1 which1 according to the author constitutes the essence of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,the following passages are extracts4 8,if you wish to seek the ,buddha1 you ought to see into your own ,nature 7hsing72 for this ,nature is the ,buddha himself4 ,if you have not seen into your own ,nature1 what is the use of thinking of the ,buddha1 reciting the ,sutras1 observing a fast1 or keeping the precepts8 ,by thinking of the ,buddha1 your cause i4e41 meritorious deed may bear fruit2 by reciting the ,sutras your intelligence may grow brighter2 by keeping the precepts you may be born in the heavens2 by practising charity you may be rewarded abundantly2 but as to seeking the ,buddha1 you are far away from him4 ,if your ,self is not yet clearly comprehended1 you ought to see a wise teacher and get a thorough understanding as to the root of birth-and-death4 ,one who has not seen into one's own ,nature1 is not to be called a wise teacher4 8,when this seeing into one's own ,nature is not attained1 one cannot escape from the transmigration of birth-and-death1 however well one may be versed in the study of the sacred scriptures in twelve divisions4 ,no time will ever come to one to get out of the sufferings of the triple world4 ,anciently there was a ,bhikshu ,zensho 7,shan-hsingf#aje7 who was capable of reciting all the twelve divisions of scriptures1 yet he could not save himself from transmigration1 because he had no insight into his own ,nature4 ,if this was the case even with ,zensho1 how about those moderners who being able to discourse only on a few ,sutras and astras regard themselves as exponents of ,buddhism8 ,they are truly simple-minded ones4 ,when ,mind is not understood1 it is absolutely of no avail to recite and discourse on idle literature4 ,if you want to seek the ,buddha1 you ought to see into your own ,nature1 which is the ,buddha himself4 ,the ,buddha is a free man--a man who neither works nor achieves4 ,if1 instead of seeing into your own ,nature1 you turn away and seek the ,buddha in external things1 you will never get at him4 8,the ,buddha is your own ,mind1 make no mistake to bow to external objects4 #8,buddha' is a ,western word1 and in this country it means #8enlightened nature'2 and by #8enlightened' is meant #8spiritually enlightened4' ,it is one's own spiritual ,nature in enlightenment that responds to the external world1 comes in contact with objects1 raises the eyebrows1 winks the eyelids1 and moves the hands and legs4 ,this ,nature is the ,mind1 and the ,mind is the ,buddha1 and the ,buddha is the ,way1 and the ,way is ,zen4 ,this simple word1 ,zen1 is beyond the comprehension both of the wise and the ignorant4 ,to see directly into one's original ,nature1 this is ,zen4 ,even if you are well learned in hundreds of the ,sutras and astras1 you still remain an ignoramus in ,buddhism when you have not yet seen into your original ,nature4 ,buddhism is not there in mere learning4 ,the highest truth is unfathomably deep1 is not an object of talk or discussion1 and even the canonical texts have no way to bring it within our reach4 ,let us once see into our own original ,nature and we have the truth even when we are quite illiterate1 not knowing a word4444 8,those who have not seen into their own ,nature1 may read the ,sutras1 think of the ,buddha1 study long1 work hard1 practise religion throughout the six periods of the day1 sit for a long time and never lie down for sleep1 and may be wide in learning and well-informed in all things2 and they may believe that all this is ,buddhism4 ,all the ,buddhas in successive ages only talk of seeing into one's ,nature4 ,all things are impermanent2 until you get an insight into your ,nature1 do not say1 #8,i have perfect knowledge4' ,such is really committing a very grave crime4 nanda1 one of the ten great disciples of the ,buddha1 was known for his wide information1 but did not have any insight into ,buddhahood1 because he was so bent on gaining information only44440 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sixth patriarch1 ,hui-nng 7,yeno71 insists on this in a most unmistakable way when he answers the question3 8,as to your commission from the fifth patriarch of ,huang-mei1 how do you direct and instruct others in it80 ,the answer was3 8,no direction1 no instruction there is2 we speak only of seeing into one's ,nature and not of practising dhyana and seeking deliverance thereby40 ,elsewhere they are designated as the 8confused0 and 8not worth consulting with10 they that are empty-minded and sit quietly having no thoughts whatever2 whereas 8even ignorant ones1 if they all of a sudden realise the truth and open their mental eyes1 are after all wise men and may attain even to ,buddhahood40 ,again when the patriarch was told of the method of instruction adopted by the masters of the ,northern ,school of ,zen1 which consisted in stopping all mental activities1 quietly absorbed in contemplation1 and in sitting cross-legged for the longest while at a stretch1 he declared such practises to be abnormal and not at all to the point1 being far from the truth of ,zen1 and added this stanza which was quoted elsewhere3 8,while living one sits up and lies not1 ,when dead1 one lies and sits not2 ,a set of ill-smelling skeleton6 ,what is the use of toiling and moiling so80 ,when at ,demboin1 ,baso used to sit cross-legged all day and meditating4 ,his master1 ,nangaku ,yejo 7,nan-yeh ,huai-jang1 #fgg-gdd71 saw him and asked1#e4h 8,what seekest thou here thus sitting cross-legged80 8,my desire is to become a ,buddha40 ,thereupon1 the master took up a piece of brick and began to polish it hard on the stone nearby4 8,what workest thou on so1 my master80 asked ,baso4 8,i am trying to turn this into a mirror40 8,no amount of polishing will make a mirror of the brick1 sir40 8,if so1 no amount of sitting cross-legged as thou doest will make of thee a ,buddha10 said the master 8,what shall ,i have to do then80 8,it is like driving a cart2 when it moveth not1 wilt thou whip the cart or the ox80 ,baso made no answer4 ,the master continued3 8,wilt thou practice this sitting cross-legged in order to attain dhyana or to attain ,buddhahood8 ,if it is dhyana1 dhyana does not consist in sitting or lying2 if it is ,buddhahood1 the ,buddha has no fixed forms4 ,as he has no abiding place anywhere1 no one can take hold of him1 nor can he be let go4 ,if thou seekest ,buddhahood by thus sitting cross-legged1 thou murderest him4 ,so long as thou freest thyself not from sitting so1f#ajf thou never comest to the truth40 ,these are all plain statements1 and no doubts are left as to the ultimate end of ,zen1 which is not sinking oneself into a state of torpidity by sitting quietly after the fashion of a ,hindu saint and trying to exclude all the mental ripplings that seem to come up from nowhere and after a while pass away--where nobody knows4 ,these preliminary remarks will help the reader carefully to consider the following 8,questions and ,answers0#e4i 7known as ,mondo in ,japanese72 for they will illustrate my thesis that ,zen aims at the opening of satori1 or at acquiring a new point of view as regards life and the universe4 ,the ,zen masters1 as we see below1 are always found trying to avail themselves of every apparently trivial incident of life in order to make the disciples' minds flow into a channel hitherto altogether unperceived4 ,it is like picking a hidden lock1 the flood of new experiences gushes forth from the opening4 ,it is again like the clock's striking the hours2 when the appointed time comes it clicks1 and the whole percussion of sounds is released4 ,the mind seems to have something of this mechanism2 when a certain moment is reached1 a hitherto closed screen is lifted1 an entirely new vista opens up1 and the tone of one's whole life thereafter changes4 ,this mental clicking or opening is called satori by the ,zen masters and is insisted upon as the main object of their discipline4 ,in this connection the reader will find the following words of ,meister ,eckhart quite illuminative3 8,upon this matter a heathen sage hath a fine saying in speech with another sage3 #8,i become aware of something in me which flashes upon my reason4 ,i perceive of it that it is something1 but what it is ,i cannot perceive4 ,only meseems that1 could ,i conceive it1 ,i should comprehend all truth4'0f#ajg ,,iii ,the records quoted below do not always give the whole history of the mental development leading up to a satori1 that is1 from the first moment when the disciple came to the master until the last moment of realisation1 with all the intermittent psychological vicissitudes which he had to go through4 ,the examples are just to show that the whole ,zen discipline gains meaning when there takes place this turning of the mental hinge to a wider and deeper world4 ,for when this wider and deeper world opens1 everyday life1 even the most trivial thing of it1 grows loaded with the truths of ,zen4 ,on the one hand1 therefore1 satori is a most prosaic and matter-of-fact thing1 but on the other hand when it is not understood it is something of a mystery4 ,but after all is not life itself filled with wonders1 mysteries1 and unfathomabilities1 far beyond our discursive understanding8 ,a monk asked ,jshu 7,chao-chou ,tsung-shn1 #ggh-hig7 to be instructed in ,zen4 ,said the master1 8,have you had your breakfast or not80 8,yes1 master1 ,i have10 answered the monk4 8,if so1 have your dishes washed10 was an immediate response1 which1 it is said1 at once opened the monk's mind to the truth of ,zen4 ,this is enough to show what a commonplace thing satori is2 but to see what an important rle this most trivial incident of life plays in ,zen1 it will be necessary to add some remarks which were made by the masters1 and through these the reader may have a glimpse into the content of satori4 ,ummon 7,yn-mn1 ,wn-yen1 died #idi7 who lived a little later than ,jshu commented on him2 8,was there any special instruction in the remark of ,jshu1 or not8 ,if there was1 what was it8 ,if there was not1 what satori was it that the monk attained80 ,later1 ,umpo ,monyetsu 7,yn-fng ,wen-yeh1 #iig-ajfb7 made a retort1 saying1 8,the great master ,ummon does not know what is what1 hence this comment of his4 ,it was altogether unnecessary1 it was like painting legs to the snake and growing a beard to the eunuch4 ,my view differs from his3 that monk who seems to have attained a satori goes to hell as straight as an arrow60#e4aj ,now1 what does this all mean--,jshu's remark about washing the dishes1 the monk's attainment of satori1 ,ummon's alternatives1 and ,monyetsu's assurance8 ,are they speaking against each other8 ,is this much ado about nothing8 ,this is where ,zen is difficult to grasp and at the same time difficult to explain4 ,let me add a few more queries4 ,how did ,jshu make the monk's eye open by such a prosaic remark8 ,did the remark have any hidden meaning1 however1 which happened to coincide with the mental tone of the monk8 ,how was the monk so mentally prepared for the final stroke of the master whose service was just pressing the button as it were8 ,nothing of satori is so far gleaned from washing the dishes2 we have to look somewhere else for the truth of ,zen4 ,at any rate1 we could not say that ,jshu had nothing to do with the monk's realisation4 ,hence ,ummon's remark which is somewhat enigmatic1 yet to the point4 ,as to ,monyetsu's comment1 it is what is technically known as ,nenro1#e4aa 8handling and playing10 or 8playful criticism40 ,he appears to be making a disparaging remark about ,ummon1 but in truth he is joining hands with his predecessors4 ,tokusan 7,teh-shan ,hsan-chien1 #ggi-hfe7e4ab was a great scholar of the ,diamond ,sutra 7,vajracchedik74 ,learning that there was such a thing as ,zen ignoring all the written scriptures and directly laying hand on one's soul1 he came to ,ryutan 7,lung-t#8an7 to be instructed in the doctrine4 ,one day ,tokusan was sitting outside trying to see into the mystery of ,zen4 ,ryutan said1 8,why don't you come in80 ,replied ,tokusan1 8,it is pitch dark40 ,a candle was lighted and handed over to ,tokusan4 ,when the latter was at the point of taking it1 ,ryutan suddenly blew the light out1 whereupon the mind of ,tokusan was opened4f#ajhe4ac ,hyakujo 7,pai-chang ,huai-hai1 #gbd-had7e4ad one day went out attending his master ,baso 7,ma-tsu74 ,a flock of wild geese was seen flying and ,baso asked 8,what are they80 8,they are wild geese1 sir40 8,whither are they flying80 8,they have flown away1 sir40 ,baso abruptly taking hold of ,hyakujo's nose gave it a twist4 ,overcome with pain1 ,hyakujo cried aloud1 8,oh6 ,oh60 8,you say they have flown away10 ,baso said1 8but all the same they have been here from the very beginning40 ,this made ,hyakujo's back wet with cold perspiration4 ,he had satori4 ,is there any connection in any possible way between the washing of the dishes and the blowing out of a candle and the twisting of the nose8 ,we must say with ,ummon3 ,if there is none1 how could they all come to the realisation of the truth of ,zen8 ,if there is1 what inner relationship is there8 ,what is this satori8 ,what a new point of viewing things is this8 ,so long as our observation is limited to those conditions which preceded the opening of a disciple's eye we cannot perhaps fully comprehend where lies the ultimate issue4 ,they are matters of everyday occurrence1 and if ,zen lies objectively among them1 every one of us is a master before we are told of it4 ,this is partly true inasmuch as there is nothing artificially constructed in ,zen1 but if the nose is to be really twisted or the candle blown out in order to take the scale off the eye1 our attention must be directed inwardly to the working of our minds1 and it will be there where we are to take hold of the hidden relation existing between the flying geese and the washed dishes and the blown out candle and any other happenings that weave out infinitely variegated patterns of human life4 ,under ,daiye 7,tai-hui1 #ajhi-aafc71e4ae the great ,zen teacher of the ,sung dynasty1 there was a monk named ,dken 7,tao-ch#8ien7 who had spent many years in the study of ,zen1 but who had not yet delved into its secrets if there were any4 ,he was discouraged when he was sent on an errand to a distant city4 ,a trip requiring half a year to finish would surely be a hindrance rather than a help to his study4 ,sogen 7,tsung-yan71 one of his fellow-monks1 took pity on him and said1 8,i will accompany you on this trip and do all that ,i can for you4 ,there is no reason why you cannot go on with your meditation even while travelling40 ,they started together4 ,one evening ,dken despairingly implored his friend to assist him in the solution of the mystery of life4 ,the friend said1 8,i am willing to help you in every way1 but there are five things in which ,i cannot be of any help to you4 ,these you must look after yourself40 ,dken expressed the desire to know what they were4 8,for instance10 said the friend1 8when you are hungry or thirsty1 my eating of food or drinking does not fill your stomach4 ,you must drink and eat yourself4 ,when you want to respond to the calls of nature1 you must take care of them yourself1 for ,i cannot be of any use to you4 ,and then it will be nobody else but yourself that will carry this corpse of yours i4e41 the body along this highway40 ,this remark at once opened the mind of the truth-seeking monk1 who1 so transported with his discovery1 did not know how to express his joy4 ,gen now told him that his work was done and that his further companionship would have no meaning after this4#e4af ,so they parted company and ,dken was left alone to continue the trip4 ,after the half-year ,dken came back to his own monastery4 ,daiye1 his teacher1 happened to meet him on his way down the mountain1 and made the following remark1 8,this time he knows it all40 ,what was it1 one may remark1 that flashed through ,dken's mind when his friend gave him a most matter-of-fact advice8 ,kygen 7,hsian-yen7 was a disciple of ,hyakujo4 ,after the master's death he went to ,yisan 7,wei-shan1 #gga-hec7 who was a senior disciple of ,hyakujo4 ,yisan asked him1#e4ag 8,i am told that you have been under my late master ,hyakujo1 and also that you have remarkable intelligence2 but the understanding of ,zen through this medium necessarily ends in intellectual and analytical comprehension1 which is not of much use4 ,yet you may have had an insight into the truth of ,zen4 ,let me have your view as to the reason of birth and death1 that is1 as to your own being before your parents gave birth to you40 ,thus asked1 ,kygen did not know how to reply4 ,he retired into his own room and assiduously made research among his notes which he had taken of the sermons given by his late master4 ,he failed to come across a suitable passage he might present as his own view4 ,he returned to ,yisan and implored him to teach in the faith of ,zen4 ,but ,yisan said1 8,i really have nothing to impart to you1 and if ,i tried to do so1 you may have occasion to make me an object of ridicule later on4 ,besides1 whatever ,i can instruct you is my own and will never be yours40 ,kygen was disappointed and considered his senior disciple unkind4 ,finally he came to the decision to burn up all his notes and memorandums which were of no help to his spiritual welfare1 and1 retiring altogether from the world1 to spend the rest of his life in solitude and simplicity in accordance with the ,buddhist rules4 ,he reasoned1 8,what is the use of studying ,buddhism1 so difficult to comprehend and too subtle to receive instructions from another8 ,i shall be a plain homeless monk1 troubled with no desire to master things too deep for thought40 ,he left ,yisan and built a hut near the tomb of ,chu 7,hui-chung71 the ,national ,master1 at ,nan-yang4 ,one day he was weeding and sweeping the ground1 and when a piece of rock brushed away struck a bamboo1 the sound produced by the percussion unexpectedly elevated his mind to a state of satori4 ,the question proposed by ,yisan became transparent2 his joy was boundless1 he felt as if meeting again his lost parent4 ,besides he came to realise the kindness of his abandoned senior brother monk who refused him instruction4 ,for he now knew that this would not have happened to him if ,yisan had been unkind enough to explain things for him4 ,below is the verse he composed soon after his achievement from which we may get an idea of his satori4 8,one stroke has made me forget all my previous knowledge1 ,no artificial discipline is at all needed2 ,in every movement ,i uphold the ancient way1 ,and never fall into the rut of mere quietism2 ,wherever ,i walk no traces are left1 ,and my senses are not fettered by rules of conduct2 ,everywhere those who have attained to the truth1 ,all declare this to be of the highest order40 ,,iv ,there is something1 we must admit1 in ,zen that defies explanation1 and to which no master however ingenious can lead his disciples through intellectual analysis4 ,kygen or ,tokusan had enough knowledge of the canonical teachings or of the master's expository discourses2 but when the real thing was demanded of them1 they significantly failed to produce it either to their inner satisfaction or for the master's approval4 ,the satori is not a thing after all to be gained through the understanding4 ,but once the key is within one's grasp1 everything seems to be laid bare before him2 the entire world assumes then a different aspect4 ,by those who know1 this inner change is recognised4 ,the ,dken before he started on his mission and the ,dken after the realisation were apparently the same person2 but as soon as ,daiye saw him1 he knew what had taken place in him even when he uttered not a word4 ,baso twisted ,hyakujo's nose1 and the latter turned into such a wild soul as to have the audacity to roll up the matting before his master's discourse had hardly begun 7see below74 ,the experience they have gone through with within themselves is not a very elaborate1 complicated1 and intellectually demonstrable thing2 for none of them ever try to expound it by a series of learned discourses1 they do just this thing or that1 or utter a single phrase unintelligible to outsiders1 and the whole affair proves most satisfactory both to the master and to the disciple4 ,the satori cannot be a phantasm1 empty and contentless1 and lacking in real value1 while it must be the simplest possible experience perhaps because it is the very foundation of all experiences4 ,as to the opening of satori1 all that ,zen can do is to indicate the way and leave the rest all to one's own experience2 that is to say1 following up the indication and arriving at the goal--this is to be done by oneself and without another's help4 ,with all that the master can do1 he is helpless to make the disciple take hold of the thing1 unless the latter is inwardly fully prepared for it4 ,just as we cannot make a horse drink against his will1 the taking hold of the ultimate reality is to be done by oneself1 just as the flower blooms out of its inner necessity1 the looking into one's own nature must be the outcome of one's own inner overflowing4 ,this is where ,zen is so personal and subjective1 in the sense of being inner and creative4 ,in the gama or ,nikya literature we encounter so frequently with such phrases as 8,atta-dp viharatha att sara anaa-sara10 or 8saya abhi10 or 8,diha-dhammo patta-dhammo vidita-dhammo pariyogha-dhammo aparappaccayo satthu ssane02 they show that ,enlightenment is the awakening1 within oneself and not depending on others1 of an inner sense in one's consciousness1 enabling one to create a world of eternal harmony and beauty--the home of ,nirvana4 ,i said that ,zen does not give us any intellectual assistance1 nor does it waste time in arguing the point with us1 but it merely suggests or indicates1 not because it wants to be indefinite1 but because that is really the only thing it can do for us4 ,if it could1 it would do anything to help us come to an understanding4 ,in fact ,zen is exhausting every possible means to do that1 as we can see in all the great masters' attitudes towards their disciples4f#aji ,when they are actually knocking them down1 their kindheartedness is never to be doubted4 ,they are just waiting for the time when their pupils' minds get all ripened for the final moment4 ,when this is come1 the opportunity of opening an eye to the truth of ,zen lies everywhere4 ,one can pick it up in the hearing of an inarticulate sound1 or listening to an unintelligible remark1 or in the observation of a flower blooming1 or in the encountering of any trivial everyday incident such as stumbling1 rolling up a screen1 using a fan1 etc4 ,these are all sufficient conditions that will awaken one's inner sense4 ,evidently a most insignificant happening1 and yet its effect on the mind infinitely surpasses all that one could expect of it4 ,a light touch of an ignited wire1 and an explosion shaking the very foundations of the earth4 ,in fact1 all the causes of satori are in the mind4 ,that is why when the clock clicks1 all that has been lying there bursts up like a volcanic eruption or flashes out like a bolt of lightning1f#aaj ,zen calls this 8returning to one's own home02 for its followers will declare3 8,you have now found yourself2 from the very beginning nothing has been kept away from you4 ,it was yourself that closed the eye to the fact4 ,in ,zen there is nothing to explain1 nothing to teach1 that will add to your knowledge4 ,unless it grows out of yourself1 no knowledge is really of value to you1 a borrowed plumage never grows40 ,kozankoku 7,huang ,san-ku71#e4ah a ,confucian poet and statesman1 came to ,kwaido 7,hui-t#8ang1 #ajbd-aajj7 to be initiated into ,zen4 ,said the ,zen master1 8,there is a passage in the text you are so thoroughly familiar with1 which fitly describes the teaching of ,zen4 ,did not ,confucius declare1 #8,do you think ,i am holding back something from you1 ,o my disciples8 ,indeed ,i have held nothing back from you4'0 ,sankoku tried to answer1 but ,kwaido immediately made him keep silence by saying1 8,no1 no60 ,the ,confucian disciple felt troubled in mind1 and did not know how to express himself4 ,some time later they were having a walk in the mountains4 ,the wild laurel was in full bloom and the air was redolent4 ,asked the ,zen master1 8,do you smell it80 ,when the ,confucian answered affirmatively1 ,kwaido said1 8,there1 ,i have kept nothing back from you60 ,this suggestion from the teacher at once led to the opening of ,kozankoku's mind4 ,is it not evident now that satori is not a thing to be imposed upon another1 but that it is self-growing from within8 ,though nothing is kept away from us1 it is through a satori that we become cognisant of the fact1 being convinced that we are all sufficient unto ourselves4 ,all that therefore ,zen contrives is to assert that there is such a thing as self-revelation1 or the opening of satori4 ,v ,as satori strikes at the primary fact of existence1 its attainment marks a turning point in one's life4 ,the attainment1 however1 must be thorough-going and clear-cut in order to produce a satisfactory result4 ,to deserve the name 8satori0 the mental revolution must be so complete as to make one really and sincerely feel that there took place a fiery baptism of the spirit4 ,the intensity of this feeling is proportional to the amount of effort the opener of satori has put into the achievement4 ,for there is a gradation in satori as to its intensity1 as in all our mental activity4 ,the possessor of a lukewarm satori may suffer no such spiritual revolution as ,rinzai1 or ,bukko 7,fo-kuang7 whose case is quoted below4 ,zen is a matter of character and not of the intellect1 which means that ,zen grows out of the will as the first principle of life4 ,a brilliant intellect may fail to unravel all the mysteries of ,zen1 but a strong soul will drink deep of the inexhaustible fountain4 ,i do not know if the intellect is superficial and touches only the fringe of one's personality1 but the fact is that the will is the man himself1 and ,zen appeals to it4 ,when one becomes penetratingly conscious of the working of this agency1 there is the opening of satori and the understanding of ,zen4 ,as they say1 the snake has now grown into the dragon2 or more graphically1 a common cur--a most miserable creature wagging its tail for food and sympathy1 and kicked about by the street boys so mercilessly--has now turned into a golden-haired lion whose roar frightens to death all the feeble-minded4 ,therefore1 when ,rinzai was meekly submitting to the 8thirty blows0 of ,obaku1 he was a pitiable sight2 as soon as he attained satori1 he was quite a different personage and his first exclamation was1 8,there is not much after all in the ,buddhism of ,obaku40#e4ai ,and when he saw the reproachful ,obaku again1 he returned his favour by giving him a slap on the face4 8,what an arrogance1 what an impudence60 ,obaku exclaimed2 but there was reason in ,rinzai's rudeness1 and the old master could not but be pleased with this treatment from his former tearful ,rinzai4 ,when ,tokusan gained an insight into the truth of ,zen1 he immediately took up all his commentaries on the ,diamond ,sutra1 once so valued and considered indispensable that he had to carry them wherever he went2 he now set fire to them1 reducing all the manuscripts into nothingness4 ,he exclaimed3 8,however deep your knowledge of abstruse philosophy1 it is like a piece of hair placed in the vastness of space2 and however important your experience in things worldly1 it is like a drop of water thrown into an unfathomable abyss40#e4bj ,on the day following the incident of the flying geese1#e4ba to which reference was made elsewhere1 ,baso appeared in the preaching hall and was about to speak before a congregation1 when ,hyakujo came forward and began to roll up the matting4f#aaa ,baso without protesting came down from his seat and returned to his own room4 ,he then called ,hyakujo and asked him why he rolled up the matting before he uttered a word4 8,yesterday you twisted my nose10 replied ,hyakujo1 8and it was quite painful40 8,where10 said ,baso1 8was your thought wandering then80 8,it is not painful any more to-day1 master40 ,how differently he behaves now6 ,when his nose was pinched1 he was quite an ignoramus in the secrets of ,zen4 ,he is now a golden-haired lion1 he is master of himself1 and acts so freely as if he owned the world1 pushing away even his own master far into the background4 ,there is no doubt that satori goes deep into the very root of individuality4 ,the change achieved thereby is quite remarkable1 as we see in the examples above cited4 ,,vi ,some masters have left in the form of verse known as 8,ge0 7gth7 what they perceived or felt at the time when their mental eye was opened4 ,the verse has the special name of 8,tki-no-ge0f#aabe4bb and from the following translations the reader may draw his own conclusions as to the nature and content of a satori so highly prized by the ,zen followers4 ,but there is one thing to which ,i like to call his attention1 which is that the contents of these gths are so varied and dissimilar as far as their literary and intelligible sense is concerned that one may be at a loss how to make a comparison of these divers exclamations4 ,being sometimes merely descriptive verses of the feelings of the author at the moment of satori1 analysis is impossible unless the critic himself has once experienced them in his own inner life4 ,nevertheless these verses will be of interest to the psychological students of ,buddhist mysticism even as merely emotional utterances of the supreme moment4 ,the following is by ,chkei 7,chang-ching1 died #icb7 whose eye was opened when he was rolling up the screen3 8,how deluded ,i was6 ,how deluded1 indeed6 ,lift up the screen1 and come see the world6 #8,what religion believest thou8' you ask4 ,i raise my hossuf#aac and hit your mouth40#e4bc ,hyen 7,fa-yen7 of ,gosozan 7wu-tso-shan71 who died in #aajd1 succeeded ,shutan 7,shou-tuan71 of ,haku-un 7,pai-yn71 and was the teacher of ,yengo 7,yan-wu71 composed the following when his mental eye was first opened3 8,a patch of farm land quietly lies by the hill1 ,crossing my hands over the chest ,i ask the old farmer kindly3 #8,how often have you sold it and bought it back by yourself8' ,i like the pines and bamboos that invite a refreshing breeze40#e4bd ,yengo 7,yan-wu1 #ajfc-aace7 was one of the greatest teachers in the ,sung dynasty and the author of a ,zen textbook known as the ,hekiganshu4 ,his verse stands in such contrast to that of his teacher1 ,hyen1 and the reader will find it hard to unearth anything of ,zen from the following romanticism3 8,the golden duck no more issues odorous smoke behind the brocade screens1 ,amidst flute-playing and singing1 he retreats1 thoroughly in liquor and supported by others3 ,a happy event in the life of a romantic youth1 ,it is his sweetheart alone that is allowed to know40#e4be ,yenju1 of ,ymeiji 7,yung-ming ,yen-shou1 #ijd-ige71 who belonged to the ,hgen ,school of ,zen ,buddhism1 was the author of a book called 8,shukyroku0 7,record of ,truth-,mirror7 in one hundred fasciculi1 and flourished in the early ,sung4 ,his realisation took place when he heard a bundle of fuel dropping on the ground4 8,something dropped6 ,it is no other thing2 ,right and left1 there is nothing earthy3 ,rivers and mountains and the great earth1-- ,in them all revealed is the ,body of the ,dharmarja40#e4bf ,the first of the following two verses is by ,ydainen 7,yang ,tai-nien1 #igc-ajbj71 a statesman of the ,sung dynasty10#e4bg and the second by ,iku1 of ,tory 7,tu-ling ,y71#e4bh who was a disciple of ,ygi 7,yang-ch#8i1 #ajbd--ajgb71 the founder of the ,ygi ,branch of the ,rinzai ,school4 8,an octagonal millstone rushes through the air2 ,a golden-coloured lion has turned into a cur3 ,if you want to hide yourself in the ,north ,star1 ,turn round and fold your hands behind the ,south ,star40 8,i have one jewel shining bright1 ,long buried it was underneath worldly worries2 ,this morning the dusty veil is off1 and restored is its lustre1 ,illumining rivers and mountains and ten thousand things40 ,a sufficient variety of the versesf#aad has been given here to show how they vary from one another and how it is impossible to suggest any intelligible explanation of the content of satori by merely comparing them or by analysing them4 ,some of them are easily understood1 ,i suppose1 as expressive of the feeling of a new revelation2 but as to what that revelation itself is1 it will require a certain amount of personal knowledge to be able to describe it more intelligently4 ,in any event all these masters testify to the fact that there is such a thing in ,zen as satori through which one is admitted into a new world of value4 ,the old way of viewing things is abandoned and the world acquires a new signification4 ,some of them would declare that they were 8deluded0 or that their 8previous knowledge0 was thrown into oblivion1 while others would confess they were hitherto unaware of a new beauty which exists in the 8refreshing breeze0 and in the 8shining jewel40 ,,vii ,when our consideration is limited to the objective side of satori as illustrated so far1 it does not appear to be a very extraordinary thing--this opening an eye to the truth of ,zen4 ,the master makes some remarks1 and if they happen to be opportune enough1 the disciple will come at once to a realisation and see into a mystery hitherto undreamed of4 ,it seems all to depend upon what kind of mood or what state of mental preparedness one is in at the moment4 ,zen is after all a haphazard affair1 one may be tempted to think4 ,but when we know that it took ,nangaku 7,nan-yeh7 eight long years to answer the question1 8,who is he that thus cometh towards me80 we shall realise the fact that there was in him a great deal of mental anguish and tribulation which he had to go through with before he could come to the final solution and declare1 8,even when one asserts that it is a somewhat1 one misses it altogether40#e4bi ,we must try to look into the psychological aspect of satori1 where is revealed the inner mechanism of opening the door to the eternal secrets of the human soul4 ,this is done best by quoting some of the masters themselves whose introspective statements are on record4 ,kh 7,kao-fng1 #abch-abhe7e4cj was one of the great masters in the latter part of the ,sung dynasty4 ,when his master first let him attend to the 8,jshu's ,mu10f#aaee4ca he exerted himself hard on the problem4 ,one day his master1 ,setsugan 7,hseh-yen71 suddenly asked him1 8,who is it that carries for you this lifeless corpse of yours80#e4cb ,the poor fellow did not know what to make of the question2 for the master was merciless and it was usually followed by a hard knocking down4 ,later in the midst of his sleep one night he recalled the fact that once when he was under another master he was told to find out the ultimate signification of the statement1 8,all things return to one0f#aafe4cc2 and this kept him up the rest of that night and through the several days and nights that succeeded4 ,while in this state of an extreme mental tension1 he found himself one day looking at ,goso ,hoyen's verse on his own portrait1 which partly read1#e4cd 8,one hundred years--thirty-six thousand morns1 ,this same old fellow moveth on for ever60 ,this at once made him dissolve his eternal doubt as to 8,who's carrying around this lifeless body of yours80 ,he was baptised and became an altogether new man4 ,he leaves us in his 8,goroku10 7,sayings ,recorded7 an account of those days of the mental strain in the following narrative3 8,in olden days when ,i was at ,skei 7,shuang-ching71 and before one month was over after my return to the ,meditation ,hall there1 one night while deep in sleep ,i suddenly found myself fixing my attention on the question3 #8,all things return to the ,one1 but where does this ,one return8' ,my attention was so rigidly fixed on this that ,i neglected sleeping1 forgot to eat1 and did not distinguish east from west1 nor morning from night4 ,while spreading the napkin1 producing the bowls1 or attending to my natural wants1 whether ,i moved or rested1 whether ,i talked or kept silent1 my whole existence was wrapt up with the question1 #8,where does this one return8' ,no other thoughts ever disturbed my consciousness2 no1 even if ,i wanted to stir up the least bit of thought irrelevant to the central one1 ,i could not do so4 ,it was like being screwed up or glued2 however much ,i tried to shake myself off1 it refused to move4 ,though ,i was in the midst of a crowd or congregation ,i felt as if ,i were all by myself4 ,from morning till evening1 from evening till morning1 so transparent1 so tranquil1 so majestically above all things were my feelings6 ,absolutely pure and not a particle of dust6 ,my one thought covered eternity2 so calm was the outside world1 so oblivious of the existence of other people ,i was4 ,like an idiot1 like an imbecile1 six days and nights thus elapsed when ,i entered the ,shrine with the rest1 reciting the ,sutras1 and happened to raise my head and looked at the verse by ,goso4 ,this made me all of a sudden awake from the spell1 and the meaning of #8,who carries this lifeless corpse of yours8' burst upon me1--the question once given by my old master4 ,i felt as if this boundless space itself were broken up into pieces1 and the great earth were altogether levelled away4 ,i forgot myself1 ,i forgot the world1 it was like one mirror reflecting another4 ,i tried several k-an in my mind and found them so transparently clear6 ,i was no more deceived as to the wonderful working of ,praj 7transcendental wisdom740 ,when ,kho saw his old master later1#e4ce the latter lost no time in asking him1 8,who is it that carries this lifeless corpse of yours80 ,kho burst out a 8,kwats60 ,thereupon the master took up a stick ready to give him a blow1 but the disciple held it back saying1 8,you cannot give me a blow to-day40 8,why can't ,i80 was the master's demand4 ,instead of replying to him1 however1 ,kho left the room briskly4 ,the following day the master asked him4 8,all things return to the ,one1 and where does the ,one return to80 8,the dog is lapping the boiling water in the cauldron40 8,where did you get this nonsense80 reprimanded the master4 8,you had better ask yourself10 promptly came the response4 ,the master rested well satisfied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hakuin 7#afhc-agfh7;f#aage4cf is another of those masters who have put down their first ,zen experience in writing1 and we read in his book entitled ,orategama#e4cg the following account3 8,when ,i was twenty-four years old1 ,i stayed at the ,yegan ,monastery1 of ,echigo4 8,joshu's ,mu0 being my theme at the time ,i assiduously applied myself to it4 ,i did not sleep days and nights1 forgot both eating and lying down1 when quite abruptly a great mental fixationf#aahe4ch 7tai-i7 took place4 ,i felt as if freezing in an ice-field extending thousands of miles1 and within myself there was a sense of utmost transparency4 ,there was no going forward1 no slipping backward2 ,i was like an idiot1 like an imbecile1 and there was nothing but #8,jshu's ,mu4' ,though ,i attended the lectures by the master1 they sounded like a discussion going on somewhere in a distant hall1 many yards away4 ,sometimes my sensation was that of one flying in the air4 ,several days passed in this state1 when one evening a temple-bell struck which upset the whole thing4 ,it was like smashing an ice-basin1 or pulling down a house made of jade4 ,when ,i suddenly awoke again1 ,i found that ,i myself was ,gantof#aai 7,yen-t#8ou7 the old master1 and that all through the shifting changes of time not a bit of my personality was lost4 ,whatever doubts and indecisions ,i had before were completely dissolved like a piece of thawing ice4 ,i called out loudly1 #8,how wondrous6 how wondrous62 ,there is no birth-and-death from which one has to escape1 nor is there any supreme knowledge 7,bodhi7 after which one has to strive4 ,all the complicationsf#abj past and present1 numbering one thousand seven hundred are not worth the trouble of even describing them4'0 99 99 99 99 99 ,the case of ,bukko 7,fo-kuang7 the ,national ,teacherf#aba was more extraordinary than that of ,hakuin1 and fortunately in this case1 too1 we have his own recording of it in detail4 8,when ,i was fourteen10 writes ,bukko1 8,i went up to ,kinzan4 ,when seventeen ,i made up my mind to study ,buddhism and began to unravel the mysteries of #8,jshu's ,mu4' ,i expected to finish the matter within one year1 but ,i did not come to any understanding of it after all4 ,another year passed without much avail1 and three more years1 also finding myself with no progress4 ,in the fifth or sixth year1 while no special change came over me1 the #8,mu' became so inseparably attached to me that ,i could not get away from it even while asleep4 ,this whole universe seemed to be nothing but the #8,mu' itself4 ,in the meantime ,i was told by an old monk to set it aside for a while and see how things would go with me4 ,according to this advice1 ,i dropped the matter altogether and sat quietly4 ,but owing to the fact that the #8,mu' had been with me so long1 ,i could in no way shake it off however much ,i tried4 ,when ,i was sitting1 ,i forgot that ,i was sitting2 nor was ,i conscious of my own body4 ,nothing but a sense of utter blankness prevailed4 ,half a year thus passed4 ,like a bird escaped from its cage1 my mind1 my consciousness moved about without restraint sometimes eastward1 sometimes westward1 sometimes northward or southward4 ,sittingf#abb through two days in succession1 or through one day and night ,i did not feel any fatigue4 8,at the time there were about nine hundred monks residing in the monastery1 among whom there were many devoted students of ,zen4 ,one day while sitting1 ,i felt as if my mind and my body were separated from each other and lost the chance of getting back together4 ,all the monks about me thought that ,i was quite dead1 but an old monk among them said that ,i was frozen to a state of immovability while absorbed in deep meditation1 and that if ,i were covered up with warm clothings1 ,i should by myself come to my senses4 ,this proved true1 for ,i finally awoke from it2 and when ,i asked the monks near my seat how long ,i had been in that condition1 they told me it was one day and night4 8,after this1 ,i still kept up my practice of sitting4 ,i could now sleep a little4 ,when ,i closed my eyes1 a broad expanse of emptiness presented itself before them1 which then assumed the form of a farmyard4 ,through this piece of land ,i walked and walked until ,i got thoroughly familiar with the ground4 ,but as soon as my eyes were opened1 the vision altogether disappeared4 ,one night sitting far into the night ,i kept my eyes open and was aware of my sitting up in my seat4 ,all of a sudden the sound of striking the board in front of the head-monk's room reached my ear1 which at once revealed me the #8original man' in full4 ,there was then no more of that vision which appeared at the closing of my eyes4 ,hastily ,i came down from the seat and ran out into the moonlit night and went up to the garden house called ,ganki1 where looking up to the sky ,i laughed loudly1 #8,oh1 how great is the ,dharmakya6 ,oh1 how great and immense for evermore6' 8,thence my joy knew no bounds4 ,i could not quietly sit in the ,meditation ,hall2 ,i went about with no special purpose in the mountains walking this way and that4 ,i thought of the sun and the moon traversing in a day through a space #d1jjj1jjj1jjj miles wide4 #8,my present abode is in ,china1' ,i reflected then1 #8,and they say the district of ,yang is the centre of the earth4 ,if so1 this place must be #b1jjj1jjj1jjj miles away from where the sun rises2 and how is it that as soon as it comes up1 its rays lose no time in striking my face8' ,i reflected again1 #8,the rays of my own eye must travel just as instantaneously as those of the sun as it reaches the latter2 my eyes1 my mind1 are they not the ,dharmakya itself8' ,thinking thus1 ,i felt all the bounds snapped and broken to pieces that had been tying me for so many ages4 ,how many numberless years had ,i been sitting in the hole of ants6 ,to-day even in every pore of my skin there lie all the ,buddha-lands in the ten quarters6 ,i thought within myself1 #8,even if ,i have no greater satori1 ,i am now all sufficient unto myself4'0 ,here is the stanza#e4da composed by ,bukko at the great moment of satori1 describing his inner feelings3 8,with one stroke ,i have completely smashed the cave of the ghosts2 ,behold1 there rushes out the iron face of the monster ,nata6 ,both my ears are as deaf and my tongue is tied2 ,if thou touchest it idly1 the fiery star shoots out60f#abc ,,viii ,these cases will be sufficient to show what mental process one has to go through with before the opening of satori takes place4 ,of course these are prominent examples and highly accentuated1 and every satori is not preceded by such an extraordinary degree of concentration4 ,but an experience more or less like these must be the necessary antecedent to all satori1 especially to that which is to be gone through with at the outset of the study4 ,the mirror of mind or the field of consciousness then seems to be so thoroughly swept clean as not to leave a particle of dust on it4 ,when thus all mentation is temporarily suspended1 even the consciousness of an effort to keep an idea focussed at the centre of attention is gone1 that is1 when1 as the ,zen followers say1 the mind is so completely possessed or identified with its object of thought that even the consciousness of identity is lost as when one mirror reflects another1 the subject feels as if living in a crystal palace1 all transparent1 refreshing1 buoyant1 and royal4 ,but the end has not yet been reached1 this being merely the preliminary condition leading to the consummation called satori4 ,if the mind remains in this state of fixation1 there will be no occasion for its being awakened to the truth of ,zen4 ,the state of 8,great ,doubt0 7tai-gi71 as it is technically known1 is the antecedent4 ,it must be broken up and exploded into the next stage1 which is looking into one's nature or the opening of satori4 ,the explosion1 as it is nothing else1 generally takes place when this finely balanced equilibrium tilts for one reason or another4 ,a stone is thrown into a sheet of water in perfect stillness1 and the disturbance at once spreads all over the surface4 ,it is somewhat like this4 ,a sound knocks at the gate of consciousness so tightly closed1 and it at once reverberates through the entire being of the individual4 ,he is awakened in the most vivid sense of the word4 ,he comes out baptised in the fire of creation4 ,he has seen the work of ,god in his very workshop4 ,the occasion may not necessarily be the hearing of a temple bell1 it may be reading a stanza1 or seeing something moving1 or the sense of touch irritated1 when a most highly accentuated state of concentration bursts out into a satori4 ,the concentration1 however1 may not be kept up to such an almost abnormal degree as in the case of ,bukko4 ,it may last just a second or two1 and if it is the right kind of concentration and rightly handled by the master1 the inevitable opening of the mind will follow4 ,when the monk ,j 7,ting7 asked ,rinzai1#e4db 8,what is the ultimate principle of ,buddhism80 the master came right down from his seat1 took hold of the monk1 slapped him with his hand1 and pushed him away from him4 ,the monk stood stupefied4 ,a bystander suggested1 8,why don't you make a bow80 ,obeying the order1 ,j was about to bow when he abruptly awoke to the truth of ,zen4 ,in this case ,jo's self-absorption or concentration did not seemingly last very long1 the bowing was the turning point1 it broke up the spell and restored him to sense1 not to an ordinary sense of awareness1 but to the inward consciousness of his own being4 ,generally we have no records of the inner working prior to a satori1 and may pass lightly over the event as a merely happy incident or some intellectual trick having no deeper background4 ,when we read such records1 we have to supply from our own experience1 whatever this is1 all the necessary antecedent conditions for breaking up into a satori4 ,,ix ,so far the phenomenon called satori in ,zen ,buddhism has been treated as constituting the essence of ,zen1 as the turning point in one's life which opens the mind to a wider and deeper world1 as something to be gleaned even from a most trivial incident of everyday life2 and then it was explained how satori is to come out of one's inner life1 and not by any outside help except as merely indicating the way to it4 ,next ,i proceeded to describe what a change satori brings in one's idea of things1 that is1 how it all upsets the former valuation of things generally1 making one stand now entirely on a different footing4 ,for illustrations1 some verses were quoted which were composed by the masters at the moment of their attainment of satori4 ,they are mostly descriptive of the feelings they experienced11 such as those by ,bukko and ,ydainen and ,yengo and others are typical of this class1 as they have almost no intellectual elements in them4 ,if one tries to pick up something from these verses by a mere analytical process1 one will be greatly disappointed4 ,the psychological side of satori which is minutely narrated by ,hakuin and others will be of great interest to those who are desirous of making a psychological inquiry into ,zen4 ,of course these narratives alone will not do1 for there are many other things one has to consider in order to study it thoroughly1 among which ,i may mention the general ,buddhist attitude towards life and the world and the historical atmosphere in which the students of ,zen find themselves4 ,i wish to close this ,essay by making a few general remarks in the way of recapitulation on the ,buddhist experience known as satori4 #a4 ,people often imagine that the discipline of ,zen is to induce a state of self-suggestion through meditation4 ,this is not quite right4 ,as we can see from the various instances above cited1 satori does not consist in producing a certain premeditated condition by intensely thinking of it4 ,it is the growing conscious of a new power in the mind1 which enables it to judge things from a new point of view4 ,even since the unfoldment of consciousness we have been led to respond to the inner and outer conditions in a certain conceptual and analytical manner4 ,the discipline of ,zen consists in upsetting this artificially constructed framework once for all and in re-modelling it on an entirely new basis4 ,the older frame is called 8,ignorance0 7avidy7 and the new one 8,enlightenment0 7sabodhi74 ,it is evident therefore that meditating on a metaphysical or symbolical statement which is a product of our relative consciousness plays no part in ,zen1 as ,i have touched on this in the ,introduction4 #b4 ,without the attainment of satori no one can enter into the mystery of ,zen4 ,it is the sudden flashing of a new truth hitherto altogether undreamed of4 ,it is a sort of mental catastrophe taking place all at once after so much piling of matters intellectual and demonstrative4 ,the piling has reached its limit and the whole edifice has now come to the ground when behold a new heaven is opened to your full survey4 ,water freezes suddenly when it reaches a certain point1 the liquid has turned into a solidity1 and it no more flows4 ,satori comes upon you unawares when you feel you have exhausted your whole being4 ,religiously this is a new birth1 and1 morally1 the revaluation of one's relationship to the world4 ,the latter now appears to be dressed in a different garment which covers up all the ugliness of dualism1 which is called in ,buddhist phraseology delusion 7my7 born of reasoning 7tarka7 and error 7vikalpa74 #c4 ,satori is the raison d'tre of ,zen1 and without which ,zen is no ,zen4 ,therefore every contrivance 7upya7 disciplinary or doctrinal is directed toward the attainment of satori4 ,zen masters could not remain patient for satori to come by itself1 that is1 to come sporadically and at its own pleasure4 ,they earnestly seek out some way to make people deliberately or systematically realise the truth of ,zen4 ,their manifestly enigmatical presentations of it were mostly to create a state of mind in their disciples1 which would pave the way to the enlightenment of ,zen4 ,all the intellectual demonstrations and exhortatory persuasions so far carried out by most religious and philosophical leaders failed to produce the desired effect4 ,the disciples were led further and further astray4 ,especially when ,buddhism was introduced into ,china with all its ,indian equipments1 with its highly metaphysical abstractions1 and in a most complicated system of moral discipline1 the ,chinese were at a loss how to grasp the central point of the doctrine of ,buddhism4 ,daruma1 ,yeno1 ,baso1 and other masters noticed the fact4 ,the natural outcome was the proclamation of ,zen1 satori was placed above ,sutra-reading and scholarly discussion of the astras1 and it came to be identified with ,zen4 ,zen therefore without satori is like pepper without its pungency4 ,but at the same time we must not forget that there is such a thing as too much satori1 which is indeed to be detested4 #d4 ,this emphasising in ,zen of satori above everything else makes the fact quite significant that ,zen is not a system of dhyana as practised in ,india and by other schools of ,buddhism than the ,zen4 ,by dhyana is understood popularly a kind of meditation or contemplation1 that is1 the fixing of thought1 especially in ,mahayana ,buddhism1 on the doctrine of emptiness 7nyat74 ,when the mind is so trained as to be able to realise the state of perfect void in which there is not a trace of consciousness left1 even the sense of being unconscious having departed1 in other words1 when all forms of mental activity are swept clean from the field of consciousness which is now like a sky devoid of every speck of cloud1 a mere broad expanse of blue1 dhyana is said to have reached its perfection4 ,this may be called ecstasy or trance1 but it is not ,zen4 ,in ,zen there must be a satori2 there must be a general mental upheaval which destroys the old accumulations of intellectuality and lays down a foundation for a new faith2 there must be the awakening of a new sense which will review the old things from an angle of perception entirely and most refreshingly new4 ,in dhyana there are none of these things1 for it is merely a quieting exercise of the mind4 ,as such it has doubtless its own merits1 but ,zen ought not to be identified with such dhyanas4 ,the ,buddha therefore got dissatisfied with his two ,sankhya teachers1 in whose teaching the meditations were so many stages of self-abstraction or thought-annihilation4 #e4 ,satori is not seeing ,god as he is1 as may be contended by some ,christian mystics4 ,zen has from the very beginning made clear its principal thesis1 which is to see into the work of creation and not interview the creator himself4 ,the latter may be found then busy moulding his universe1 but ,zen can go along with its own work even when he is not found there4 ,it is not depending on his support4 ,when it grasps the reason of living a life1 it is satisfied4 ,hyen1 of ,gosozan1 used to produce his own hand and asked his disciples why it is called a hand4 ,when one knows the reason1 there is satori and one has ,zen4 ,whereas1 with the ,god of mysticism there is the grasping of a definite object1 and when you have ,god1 what is not ,god is excluded4 ,this is self-limiting4 ,zen wants absolute freedom1 even from ,god4 8,no abiding place0 means that2 8,cleanse your mouth even when you utter the word #8,buddha'0 amounts to the same thing4 ,it is not that ,zen wants to be morbidly unholy and godless1 but that it knows the incompleteness of a name4 ,therefore1 when ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan7 was asked to give a lecture1 he did not say a word1 but instead came down from the pulpit and went off to his own room4 ,hyakujo 7,pai-chang7 merely walked forward a few steps1 stood still1 and opened his arms--which was his exposition of the great principle of ,buddhism4#e4dc #f4 ,satori is the most intimate individual experience and therefore cannot be expressed in words or described in any manner4 ,all that one can do in the way of communicating the experience to others is to suggest or indicate1 and this only tentatively4 ,the one who has had it understands readily enough when such indications are given1 but when we try to have a glimpse of it through the indices given we utterly fail4 ,we are then like the man who says that he loves the most beautiful woman in the world and yet who knows nothing of her pedigree or social position1 of her personal name or family name1 knows nothing of her individuality physical as well as moral4 ,we are again like the man who puts up a staircase in a place where four crossroads meet1 to mount up thereby into the upper story of a mansion1 and yet who knows not just where that mansion is1 in the ,east or ,west1 in the ,north or ,south4 ,the ,buddha was quite to the point when he thus derided all those philosophers and vain talkers of his day1 who merely dealt in abstractions1 empty hearsays1 and fruitless indications4 ,zen therefore wants us to build the staircase right at the front of the very palace into whose upper story we are to mount up4 ,when we can say1 8,this is the very personality1 this is the very house10 we have the satori interviewed face to face and realised by oneself4 7,dihe va dhamme saya abhi sacchikatv47 #g4 ,satori is not a morbid state of mind1 a fit subject for abnormal psychology4 ,if anything1 it is a perfectly normal state of mind4 ,when ,i speak of a mental upheaval1 one may be led to consider ,zen something to be shunned by ordinary people4 ,this is a mistaken view of ,zen1 unfortunately often held by prejudiced critics4 ,as ,nansen 7,nan-ch#8an7 declared1 it is your 8everyday thought40 ,when later a monk asked a masterf#abd what was meant by 8everyday thought10 he said1 8,drinking tea1 eating rice1 ,i pass my time as it comes2 ,looking down at the stream1 looking up at the mountains1 ,how serene and relaxed ,i feel indeed60 ,it all depends upon the adjustment of the hinge whether the door opens in or out4 ,even in the twinkling of an eye1 the whole affair is changed1 and you have ,zen1 and you are as perfect and normal as ever4 ,more than that1 you have in the meantime acquired something altogether new4 ,all your mental activities are now working to a different key1 which is more satisfying1 more peaceful1 and fuller of joy than anything you ever had4 ,the tone of your life is altered4 ,there is something rejuvenating in it4 ,the spring flowers look prettier1 and the mountain stream runs cooler and more transparent4 ,the subjective revolution that brings out this state of things cannot be called abnormal4 ,when life becomes more enjoyable and its expanse is as broad as the universe itself1 there must be something in satori quite healthy and worth one's striving after its attainment4 #h4 ,we are supposedly living in the same world1 but who can tell the thing we popularly call a stone lying before this window is the same thing to all of us8 ,according to the way we look at it1 to some the stone ceases to be a stone1 while to others it forever remains a worthless specimen of geological product4 ,and this initial divergence of views calls forth an endless series of divergencies later in our moral and spiritual lives4 ,just a little twisting as it were in our modes of thinking and yet what a world of difference will grow up eventually between one another6 ,so with ,zen1 satori is this twisting or rather screwing1 not in the wrong way1 but in a deeper and fuller sense1 and the result is the revelation of a world of entirely new values4 ,again1 you and ,i sip a cup of tea4 ,the act is apparently alike1 but who can tell what a wide gap there is subjectively between you and me8 ,in your drinking there may be no ,zen while mine is brimful of it4 ,the reason is1 the one moves in the logical circle and the other is out of it2 that is to say1 in one case rigid rules of intellection so called are asserting themselves1 and the actor even when acting is unable to unfetter himself from these intellectual bonds2 while in the other case the subject has struck a new path and is not at all conscious of the duality of his act1 in him life is not split into object and subject or into acting and acted4 ,the drinking at the moment to him means the whole fact1 the whole world4 ,zen lives and is therefore free1 whereas our 8ordinary0 life is in bondage2 satori is the first step to freedom4 #i4 ,satori is ,enlightenment 7sabodhi74 ,as long as ,buddhism is the doctrine of ,enlightenment as we all know from its earliest literature as well as from its later one1 and as long as ,zen asserts satori to be its culmination1 satori must be said to represent the very spirit of the ,buddhist teaching4 ,when it announces itself to be the transmission of the ,buddha-citta 7fo-hsin7 not dependent upon the logical and discursive exposition in the canonical writings1 either ,hinayana or ,mahayana1 it is by no means exaggerating its fundamental characteristic as distinguished from the other schools of ,buddhism that have grown up in ,japan and ,china4 ,whatever this may be1 there is no doubt that ,zen is one of the most precious and in many respects the most remarkable spiritual possessions bequeathed to ,eastern people4 ,even when it is considered the ,buddhist form of speculative mysticism not unknown to the ,west in the philosophy of ,plotinus1 ,eckhart1 and their followers1 its complete literature alone since the sixth patriarch1 ,yeno 7,hui-nng1 #fcg-gac71 so well preserved1 is worth the serious study of scholars and truth-seekers4 ,and then the whole body of the k-ans systematically grading the progress of the spiritual awakening is the wonderful treasure in the hands of the ,zen monks in ,japan at present4 ,,practical ,,methods ,,of ,,zen ,,instruction ,,practical ,,methods ,,of ,,zen ,,instruction 8,what is ,zen80 ,this is one of the most difficult questions to answer1 ,i mean1 to the satisfaction of the inquirer2 for ,zen refuses even tentatively to be defined or described in any manner4 ,the best way to understand it will be of course to study and practise it at least some years in the ,meditation ,hall4 ,therefore1 even after the reader has carefully gone over this ,essay1 he will still be at sea as to the real signification of ,zen4 ,it is1 in fact1 in the very nature of ,zen that it evades all definition and explanation1 that is to say1 ,zen cannot be converted into ideas1 it can never be described in logical terms4 ,for this reason1 the ,zen masters declare that it is 8independent of letter10 being 8a special transmission outside the orthodox teachings40 ,but the purpose of this ,essay is not just to demonstrate that ,zen is an unintelligible thing and that there is no use of attempting to discourse about it4 ,my object1 on the contrary1 will be to make it clear to the fullest extent of my ability1 however imperfect and inadequate that may be4 ,and there are several ways to do this4 ,zen may be treated psychologically1 ontologically1 or epistemologically1 or historically as ,i did in the first part of this book to a certain extent4 ,these are all extremely interesting each in its way1 but they are a great undertaking requiring years of preparation4 ,what here ,i propose to do1 therefore1 will be a practical exposition of the subject-matter by giving some aspects of the modus operandi of ,zen instruction as carried out by the masters for the enlightenment of the pupils4 ,the perusal of these accounts will help us to get into the spirit of ,zen to the limits of its intelligibility4 ,i ,as ,i conceive it1 ,zen is the ultimate fact of all philosophy and religion4 ,every intellectual effort must culminate in it or rather must start from it1 if it is to bear any practical fruits4 ,every religious faith must spring from it if it has to prove at all efficiently and livingly workable in our active life4 ,therefore1 ,zen is not necessarily the fountain of ,buddhist thought and life alone2 it is very much alive also in ,christianity1 ,mahommedanism1 in ,taoism1 and even in positivistic ,confucianism4 ,what makes all these religions and philosophies vital and inspiring1 keeping up their usefulness and efficiency1 is due to the presence in them of what ,i may designate as the ,zen element4 ,mere scholasticism or mere sacerdotalism will never create a living faith4 ,religion requires something inwardly propelling1 energising1 and capable of doing work4 ,the intellect is useful in its place1 but when it tries to cover the whole field of religion it dries up the source of life4 ,feeling or mere faith is so blind and will grasp anything that may come across and hold to it as the final reality4 ,fanaticism is vital enough as far as its explosiveness is concerned1 but this is not a true religion1 and its practical sequence is the destruction of the whole system1 not to speak of the fate of its own being4 ,zen is what makes the religious feeling run through its legitimate channel and what gives life to the intellect4 ,zen does this by giving one a new point of view of looking at things1 a new way of appreciating the truth and beauty of life and the world1 by discovering a new source of energy in the inmost recesses of consciousness1 and by bestowing on one a feeling of completeness and sufficiency4 ,that is to say1 ,zen works miracles by overhauling the whole system of one's inner life and opening up a world hitherto entirely undreamt of4 ,this may be called a resurrection4 ,and ,zen tends to emphasise the speculative element1 though confessedly it opposes this1 more than anything else in the whole process of the spiritual revolution1 and in this respect ,zen is truly ,buddhistic4 ,or it may be better to say that ,zen makes use of the phraseology belonging to the sciences of speculative philosophy4 ,evidently1 the feeling element is not so prominently visible in ,zen as in the ,pure ,land sects where 8bakti0 7faith7 is all in all2 ,zen on the other hand emphasises the faculty of seeing 7darana7 or knowing 7vidy7 though not in the sense of reasoning out1 but in that of intuitively grasping4 ,according to the philosophy of ,zen1 we are too much of a slave to the conventional way of thinking1 which is dualistic through and through4 ,no 8interpenetration0 is allowed1 there takes place no fusing of opposites in our everyday logic4 ,what belongs to ,god is not of this world1 and what is of this world is incompatible with the divine4 ,black is not white1 and white is not black4 ,tiger is tiger1 and cat is cat1 and they will never be one4 ,water flows1 a mountain towers4 ,this is the way things or ideas go in this universe of the senses and syllogisms4 ,zen1 however1 upsets this scheme of thought and substitutes a new one in which there exists no logic1 no dualistic arrangement of ideas4 ,we believe in dualism chiefly because of our traditional training4 ,whether ideas really correspond to facts is another matter requiring a special investigation4 ,ordinarily1 we do not inquire into the matter1 we just accept what is instilled into our minds2 for to accept is more convenient and practical1 and life is to a certain extent1 though not in reality1 made thereby easier4 ,we are in nature conservatists1 not because we are lazy1 but because we like repose and peace1 even superficially4 ,but the time comes when traditional logic holds no more true1 for we begin to feel contradictions and splits and consequently spiritual anguish4 ,we lose trustful repose which we experienced when we blindly followed the traditional ways of thinking4 ,eckhart says that we are all seeking repose whether consciously or not1 just as the stone cannot cease moving until it touches the earth4 ,evidently1 the repose we seemed to enjoy before we were awakened to the contradictions involved in our logic1 was not the real one1 the stone has kept moving down towards the ground4 ,where then is the ground of non-dualism on which the soul can be really and truthfully tranquil and blessed8 ,to quote ,eckhart again1 8,simple people conceive that we are to see ,god as if ,he stood on that side and we on this4 ,it is not so2 ,god and ,i are one in the act of my perceiving ,him40 ,in this absolute oneness of things ,zen establishes the foundations of its philosophy4 ,the idea of absolute oneness is not the exclusive possession of ,zen1 there are other religions and philosophies that preach the same doctrine4 ,if ,zen1 like other monisms or theisms1 merely laid down this principle and did not have anything specifically to be known as ,zen1 it would have long ceased to exist as such4 ,but there is in ,zen something unique which makes up its life and justifies its claim to be the most precious heritage of ,eastern culture4 ,the following 8mondo0 or dialogue 7literally1 questioning and answering7#f4a will give us a glimpse into the ways of ,zen4 ,a monk asked ,jshu 7,chao-chou71 one of the greatest masters in ,china1#f4b 8,what is the one ultimate word of truth80 ,instead of giving him any specific answer1 he made a simple response saying1 8,yes40 ,the monk who naturally failed to see any sense in this kind of response asked for a second time1 and to this the master roared back1 8,i am not deaf60f#abe ,see how irrelevantly 7shall ,i say87 the all-important problem of absolute oneness or of the ultimate reason is treated here6 ,but this is characteristic of ,zen1 this is where ,zen transcends logic and overrides the tyranny and misrepresentation of ideas4 ,as ,i said before1 ,zen mistrusts the intellect1 does not rely upon traditional and dualistic methods of reasoning1 and handles problems after its own original manners4 ,to cite another instance before going further into the subject proper4 ,the same old ,jshu was asked another time1 8,one light divides itself into hundreds of thousands of lights2 may ,i ask where this one light originates80f#abff4e ,this question like the last mentioned is one of the deepest and most baffling problems of philosophy4 ,but the old master did not waste much time in answering the question1 nor did he resort to any wordy discussion4 ,he simply threw off one of his shoes without a remark4 ,what did he mean by it8 ,to understand all this1 it is necessary that we should acquire a 8third eye0 as they say1 and learn to look at things from a new point of view4 ,how is this new way of looking at things demonstrated by the ,zen masters8 ,their methods are naturally very uncommon1 unconventional1 illogical1 and consequently incomprehensible to the uninitiated4 ,the object of the present essay will be to describe those methods classified under the following general headings3 ,i4 ,verbal ,method1 and ,,ii4 ,direct ,method4 ,the first method may be further divided into3 #a4 ,paradox2 #b4 ,going ,beyond ,opposites2 #c4 ,contradiction2 #d4 ,affirmation2 #e4 ,repetition2 and #f4 ,exclamation4 ,the ,direct ,method1 so called1 means a display of physical force1 and may be subdivided into several groups such as gesture1 striking1 performance of a definite set of acts1 directing others to move about1 etc4 ,but as ,i do not mean to offer here any scientific and thoroughgoing classification of the ,zen masters' ways of dealing with their pupils in order to initiate them into the mysteries of ,zen1 ,i will not attempt to be exhaustive in this article4 ,later ,i will write fully about the ,direct ,method4 ,if ,i make the reader acquire here a kind of understanding as to the general tendencies and peculiarities of ,zen ,buddhism1 ,i regard my task as a success4 ,,ii ,it is well-known that all mystics are fond of paradoxes to expound their views4 ,for instance1 a ,christian mystic may say3 8,god is real1 yet he is nothing1 infinite emptiness2 he is at once all-being and no-being4 ,the divine kingdom is real and objective2 and at the same time it is within myself--,i myself am heaven and hell40 ,eckhart's 8divine darkness0 or 8immovable mover0 is another example4 ,i believe we can casually pick up any such statements in mystic literature1 and compile a book of mystic irrationalities4 ,zen is no exception in this respect1 but in its way of thus expressing the truth there is something we may designate characteristically ,zen4 ,it principally consists in the concreteness and vividness of expression4 ,it generally refuses to lend an ear to abstractions4 ,a few examples will be given4 ,according to ,fudaishi 7,fu-ta-shih7#f4h2 8,empty-handed ,i go and yet the spade is in my hands2 ,i walk on foot1 and yet on the back of an ox ,i am riding3 ,when ,i pass over the bridge1 ,lo1 the water floweth not1 but the bridge doth flow40 ,this sounds altogether out of reason1 but in fact ,zen abounds with such graphic irrationalities4 8,the flower is not red1 nor is the willow green0--is one of the best known utterances of ,zen1 and is regarded as the same as its affirmative3 8,the flower is red and the willow is green40 ,to put it in logical formula1 it will run like this3 8,a is at once ,a and not-,a40 ,if so1 ,i am ,i and yet you are ,i4 ,an ,indian philosopher asserts that ,tat twam asi1 ,thou art it4 ,if so1 heaven is hell and ,god is ,devil4 ,to pious orthodox ,christians1 what a shocking doctrine this ,zen is6 ,when ,mr ,chang drinks ,mr ,li grows tipsy4 ,the silent thundering ,vimalakrti confessed that he was sick because all his fellow-beings were sick4 ,all wise and loving souls must be said to be the embodiments of the ,great ,paradox of the universe4 ,but ,i am digressing4 ,what ,i wanted to say was that ,zen is more daringly concerte in its paradoxes than other mystical teachings4 ,the latter are more or less confined to general statements concerning life or ,god or the world1 but ,zen carries its paradoxical assertions into every detail of our daily life4 ,it has no hesitation in flatly denying all our most familiar facts of experience1 8,i am writing here and yet ,i have not written a word4 ,you are perhaps reading this now and yet there is not a person in the world who reads4 ,i am utterly blind and deaf1 but every colour is recognised and every sound discerned40 ,the ,zen masters will go on like this indefinitely4 ,basho 7,pa-chiao71 a ,korean monk of the ninth century1 once delivered a famous sermon which ran thus3 8,if you have a staff 7shujo1 or chu-chang in ,chinese71 ,i will give you one2 if you have not1 ,i will take it away from you40#f4i ,when ,jshu1 the great ,zen master of whom mention was repeatedly made1 was asked what he would give when a poverty-stricken fellow should come to him1 he replied1 8,what is wanting in him80f#abgf4aj ,when he was asked on another occasion1 8,when a man comes to you with nothing1 what would you say to him80 his immediate response was1 8,cast it away60#f4aa ,we may ask him1 ,when a man has nothing1 what will he cast8 ,when a man is poor1 can he be said to be sufficient unto himself8 ,is he not in need of everything8 ,whatever deep meaning there may be in these answers of ,jshu1 the paradoxes are quite puzzling and baffle our logically trained intellect4 8,carry away the farmer's oxen1 and make off with the hungry man's food10 is a favourite phrase with the ,zen masters who think we can thus best cultivate our spiritual farm and fill up the soul hungry for the substance of things4 ,it is related that kubo ,shibun1 famous for painting bamboo1 was requested to execute a kakemono representing a bamboo forest4 ,consenting1 he painted with all his known skill a picture in which the entire bamboo grove was in red4 ,the patron upon its receipt marvelled at the extraordinary skill with which the painting had been executed1 and1 repairing to the artist's residence1 he said3 8,master1 ,i have come to thank you for the picture2 but1 excuse me1 you have painted the bamboo red40 8,well10 cried the master1 8in what colour would you desire it80 8,in black1 of course10 replied the patron4 8,and who10 answered the artist1 8ever saw a black-leaved bamboo80 ,when one is so used to a certain way of looking at things1 one finds it so full of difficulties to veer round and start on a new line of procedure4 ,the true colour of the bamboo is perhaps neither red nor black nor green nor any other colour known to us4 ,perhaps it is red1 perhaps it is black just as well4 ,who knows8 ,the imagined paradoxes may be after all really not paradoxes4 ,,iii ,the next form in which ,zen expresses itself is the denial of opposites1 somehow corresponding to the mystic 8via negativa40 ,the point is not to be 8caught0 as the masters would say in any of the four propositions 7catushkotika73 #a4 8,it is ,a02 #b4 8,it is not ,a02 #c4 8,it is both ,a and not-,a02 and #d4 8,it is neither ,a nor not-,a40 ,when we make a negation or an assertion1 we are sure to get into one of these logical formulas according to the ,indian method of reasoning4 ,as long as the intellect is to move along the ordinary dualistic groove1 this is unavoidable4 ,it is in the nature of our logic that any statement we can make is to be so expressed4 ,but ,zen thinks that the truth can be reached when it is neither asserted nor negated4 ,this is indeed the dilemma of life1 but the ,zen masters are ever insistent on escaping the dilemma4 ,let us see if they escape free4 ,according to ,ummon1#f4ab 8,in ,zen there is absolute freedom2 sometimes it negates and at other times it affirms2 it does either way at pleasure40 ,a monk asked1 8,how does it negate80 8,with the passing of winter there cometh spring40 8,what happens when spring cometh80 8,carrying a staff across the shoulders1 let one ramble about in the fields1 east or west1 north or south1 and beat the old stumps to one's heart's content40 ,this was one way to be free as shown by one of the greatest masters in ,china4 ,another way follows4 ,the masters generally go about with a kind of short stick known as shipp 7chu-pi71 or at least they did so in old ,china4 ,it does not matter whether it is a shipp or not1 anything in fact will answer our purpose4 ,shuzan1 a noted ,zen master of the tenth century1 held out his stick and said to a group of his disciples3#f4ac 8,call it not a shipp2 if you do1 you assert4 ,nor do you deny its being a shipp2 if you do1 you negate4 ,apart from affirmation and negation1 speak1 speak60 ,the idea is to get our heads free from dualistic tangles and philosophic subtleties4 ,a monk came out of the rank1 took the shipp away from the master's hand1 and threw it down on the floor4 ,is this the answer8 ,is this the way to respond to the master's request 8to speak08 ,is this the way to transcend the four propositions--the logical conditions of thinking8 ,in short1 is this the way to be free8 ,nothing is stereotyped in ,zen1 and somebody else may solve the difficulty in quite a different manner4 ,this is where ,zen is original and creative4 ,ummon expressed the same idea with his staff1 which he held up1 saying1#f4ad 8,what is this8 ,if you say it is a staff1 you go right to hell2 but if it is not a staff1 what is it80 ,hima's 7,pi-mo7 way somewhat deviated from this4 ,he used to carry a forked stick and whenever a monk came up to him and made a bow1 he applied the stick on the neck of the monk1 and said1#f4ae 8,what devil taught you to be a homeless monk8 ,what devil taught you to go round8 ,whether you can say something1 or whether you cannot say anything1 all the same you are to die under my fork3 speak1 speak1 be quick60 ,tokusan 7,t-shan7 was another master who flourished a stick to the same effect2 for he used to say#f4af3 8,no matter what you say1 or what you say not1 just the same thirty blows for you80 ,when the ownership of a kitten was disputed between two parties of monks1 the ,master ,nansen 7,nan-ch#8an ,p#8u-yan1 #gdi-hce7 came out1 took hold of the animal1 and said to them1#f4ag 8,if you can say a word1 this will be saved3 if not1 it will be slain40 ,by 8a word0 of course he meant one that transcended both affirmation and negation1 as when ,jshu was asked for 8,one word of the ultimate truth40 ,no one made a response1 whereupon the master slew the poor creature4 ,nansen looks like a hard-hearted ,buddhist1 but his point is3 ,to say it is1 involves us in a dilemma2 to say it is not1 puts us in the same predicament4 ,to attain to the truth1 this dualism must be avoided4 ,how do you avoid it8 ,it may not only be the loss of the life of a kitten1 but the loss of your own life and soul1 if you fail to ride over this impasse4 ,hence ,nansen's drastic procedure4 ,later1 in the evening ,jshu who was one of his disciples came back1 when the master told him of the incident of the day4 ,jshu at once took off one of his straw sandals and putting it over his head began to depart4 ,upon this1 said the master1 8,what a pity you were not to-day with us1 for you could have saved the kitten40 ,this strange behaviour1 however1 was ,jshu's way of affirming the truth transcending the dualism of 8to be0 7sat7 and 8not to be0 7asat74 ,while ,kyzan 7,yang-shan1 #hjd-hij7 was residing at ,thei 7,tung-ping7 of ,shao-chou1 his master ,isan 7,wei-shan1 #gga-hec71--;both of whom were noted ,zen masters of the ,t#8ang dynasty--sent him a mirror accompanied with a letter4#f4ah ,kyzan held forth the mirror before a congregation of monks and said1 8,o monks1 ,isan has sent here a mirror4 ,is this ,isan's mirror or mine own8 ,if you say it is ,isan's1 how is it that the mirror is in my hands8 ,if you say it is mine own1 has it not come from ,isan8 ,if you make a proper statement1 it will be retained here4 ,if you cannot1 it will be smashed in pieces40 ,he said this for three times but nobody even made an attempt to answer4 ,the mirror was then smashed4 ,this was somewhat like the case of ,nansen's kitten4 ,in both cases the monks failed to save the innocent victim or the precious treasure1 simply because their minds were not yet free from intellectualism and were unable to break through the entanglements purposely set up by ,nansen in one case and by ,kyzan in the other4 ,the ,zen method of training its followers thus appears so altogether out of reason and unnecessarily inhuman4 ,but the master's eyes are always upon the truth absolute and yet attainable in this world of particulars4 ,if this can be gained1 what does it matter whether a thing known as precious be broken and an animal be sacrificed8 ,is not the recovering of the soul more important than the loss of a kingdom8 ,kygen 7,hsiang-yen71#f4ai a disciple of ,isan 7,wei-shan71 with whom we got acquainted just now1 said in one of his sermons3 8,it is like a man over a precipice one thousand feet high1 he is hanging himself there with a branch of a tree between his teeth1 the feet are far off the ground1 and his hands are not taking hold of anything4 ,suppose another man coming to him to propose a question1 #8,what is the meaning of the first patriarch coming over here from the west8' ,if this man should open the mouth to answer1 he is sure to fall and lose his life2 but if he would make no answer1 he must be said to ignore the inquirer4 ,at this critical moment what should he do80 ,this is putting the negation of opposites in a most graphically illustrative manner4 ,the man over the precipice is caught in a dilemma of life and death1 and there can be no logical quibblings4 ,the cat may be sacrificed at the altar of ,zen1 the mirror may be smashed on the ground1 but how about one's own life8 ,the ,buddha in one of his former lives is said to have thrown himself down into the maw of a man-devouring monster1 in order to get the whole stanza of the truth4 ,zen being practical wants us to make the same noble determination to give up our dualistic life for the sake of enlightenment and eternal peace4 ,for it says that its gate will open when this determination is reached4 ,the logical dualism of 8to be0 7asti7 and 8not to be0 7nasti7 is frequently expressed by ,zen masters by such terms of contrast as are used in our daily parlance3 8taking life0 and 8giving life10 8capturing0 and 8releasing10 8giving0 and 8taking away10 8coming in contact0 and 8turning away from10#f4bj etc4 ,ummon once held up his staff and declared3 8,the whole world1 heaven and earth1 altogether owes its life and death to this staff40 ,a monk came out and asked1 8,how is it killed80 8,writhing in agony60 8,how is it restored to life80 8,you had better be a chf40 8,when it is neither put to death nor living1 what would you say80 ,ummon rose from his seat and said1 8,mo-h-pan-j-po-lo-mi-ta60 7,mah-praj-pramit74#f4ba ,this was ,ummon's synthesis--8the one word0 of the ultimate truth1 in which thesis and antithesis are concretely unified1 and to which the four propositions are inapplicable 7rahita74 ,,iv ,we now come to the third class ,i have styled1 8,contradiction10 by which ,i mean the ,zen master's negation1 implicitly or expressly1 of what he himself has stated or what has been stated by another4 ,to one and the same question his answer is sometimes 8,no10 sometimes 8,yes40 ,or to a well-known and fully-established fact he gives an unqualified denial4 ,from an ordinary point of view he is altogether unreliable1 yet he seems to think that the truth of ,zen requires such contradictions and denials2 for ,zen has a standard of its own1 which1 to our common-sense minds1 consists just in negating everything we properly hold true and real4 ,in spite of these apparent confusions1 the philosophy of ,zen is guided by a thorough-going principle which1 when once grasped1 its topsy-turviness becomes the plainest truth4 ,a monk asked the sixth patriarch of the ,zen sect in ,china1 who flourished late in the seventh and early in the eighth century1 8,who has attained to the secrets of ,wobai 7,huang-mei780 ,wobai is the name of the mountain where the fifth patriarch1 ,hung-jn used to reside1 and1 it was a well-known fact that ,hui-nng1 the sixth patriarch1 studied ,zen under him and succeeded in the orthodox line of transmission4 ,the question was therefore really not a plain regular one1 seeking an information about facts4 ,it had quite an ulterior object4 ,the reply of the sixth patriarch was1 8,one who understands ,buddhism has attained to the secrets of ,wobai40 8,have you then attained them80 8,no1 ,i have not40 8,how is it10 asked the monk1 8that you have not80 ,the answer was1 8,i do not understand ,buddhism40f#abhf4bb ,did he not really understand ,buddhism8 ,or is it that not to understand is to understand8 ,this is also the philosophy of the ,kena-,upanishad4 ,the self-contradiction of the sixth patriarch is somewhat mild and indirect when compared with that of ,dgo 7,tao-wu74 ,he succeeded to ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan ,wei-yen1 #gea-hcd71 but when he was asked by ,goh 7,wu-fng7 whether he knew the old master of ,yakusan1 he flatly denied it1 saying1#f4bc 8,no1 ,i do not40 ,goh was however persistent1 8,why do you not know him80 8,i do not1 ,i do not10 was the emphatic statement of ,dgo4 ,the latter thus singularly enough refused to give any reason except simply and forcibly denying the fact which was apparent to our common-sense knowledge4 ,another emphatic and unequivocal contradiction by ,tesshikaku 7,t#8ieh-tsui ,chiao7 is better known to students of ,zen than the case just cited4#f4bd ,he was a disciple of ,jshu 7,chao-chou74 ,when he visited ,hgen 7,fa-yen ,wn-i1 died #ieh71 another great ,zen master1 the latter asked him1 what was the last place he came from4 ,tesshikaku replied that he came from ,jshu4 ,said ,hgen1 8,i understand that a cypress tree once became the subject of his talk2 was that really so80 ,tesshikaku was positive in his denial1 saying1 8,he had no such talk40 ,hgen protested1 8,all the monks coming from ,jshu lately speak of his reference to a cypress tree in answer to a monk's question1 #8,what was the real object of the coming east of ,bodhi-dharma8' ,how do you say that ,jshu made no such reference to a cypress tree80 ,whereupon ,tesshikaku roared1 8,my late master never made such a talk2 no slighting allusion to him1 if you please60 ,hgen greatly admired this attitude on the part of the disciple of the famous ,jshu1 and said1 8,truly1 you are a lion's child60 ,in ,zen literature1 ,dharma's coming from the west1 that is1 from ,india1 is quite frequently made the subject of the discourse4 ,when a question is asked as to the real object of his coming over to ,china1 it refers to the ultimate principle of ,buddhism1 and has nothing to do with his personal motive which made him cross the ocean1 landing him at some point along the southern coast of ,china4 ,the historical fact is not the issue here4 ,and to this all-important question numerous answers are given1 but so varied and so unexpectedly odd1 yet according to ,zen masters all expressive of the truth of their teaching4 ,this contradiction1 negation1 or paradoxical statement is the inevitable result of the ,zen way of looking at life4 ,the whole emphasis of its discipline is placed on the intuitive grasping of the inner truth deeply hidden in our consciousness4 ,and this truth thus revealed or awakened within oneself defies intellectual manipulation1 or at least cannot be imparted to others through any of dialectical formulas4 ,it must come out of oneself1 grow within oneself1 and become one with one's own being4 ,what others1 that is1 ideas or images can do1 is to indicate the way where lies the truth4 ,this is what ,zen masters do4 ,and the indicators given by them are naturally unconventionally free and refreshingly original4 ,as their eyes are always fixed on the ultimate truth itself1 anything and everything they can command is utilised to accomplish the end1 regardless of its logical conditions and consequences4 ,this indifference to logic is sometimes asserted purposely1 just to let us know that the truth of ,zen is independent of the intellect4 ,hence the statement in the ,pra-pramit ,stra1 that 8,not to have any ,dharma to discourse about--this is discoursing about the ,dharma40 7,dharmadean dharmadeaneti subhte nsti sa kacid dharmo yo dharmadean nmotpalabhyate47 ,haikyu 7,p#8ei ,hsiu71 a state minister of the ,t#8ang dynasty1 was a devoted follower of ,zen under baku4 ,one day#f4be he showed him a manuscript in which his understanding of ,zen was stated4 ,the master took it1 and setting it down beside him1 made no movement to read it1 but remained silent for some little while4 ,he then said1 8,do you understand80 8,not quite10 answered the minister4 8,if you have an understanding here10 said the master1 8there is something of ,zen4 ,but if it is committed to paper and ink1 nowhere is our religion to be found40 ,something analogous to this we have already noticed in ,hakuin's interview with ,shju ,rnin4 ,being a living fact1 ,zen is only where living facts are handled4 ,appeal to the intellect is real and living as long as it issues directly from life4 ,otherwise1 no amount of literary accomplishment or of intellectual analysis avails in the study of ,zen4 ,v ,so far ,zen appears to be nothing but a philosophy of negation and contradiction1 whereas in fact it has its affirmative side1 and in this consists the uniqueness of ,zen4 ,in most forms of mysticism1 speculative or emotional1 their assertions are general and abstract1 and there is not much in them that will specifically distinguish them from some of the philosophical dictums4 ,sings ,blake for instance3 8,to see a world in a grain of sand1 ,and a heaven in a wild flower1 ,hold infinity in the palm of your hand ,and eternity in an hour40 ,again listen to the exquisite feelings expressed in the lines of ,wither3 8,by the murmur of a spring1 ,or the least bough's rustling2 ,by a daisy1 whose leaves spread ,shut when ,titan goes to bed2 ,or a shady bush or tree-- ,she could more infuse in me ,than all nature's beauties can ,in some other wiser man40 ,it is not very difficult to understand these poetic and mystical feelings as expressed by the highly sensitive souls1 though we may not all realise exactly as they felt4 ,even when ,eckhart declares that 8the eye with which ,i see ,god is the same with which ,god sees me10 or when ,plotinus refers to 8that which mind1 when it turns back1 thinks before it thinks itself10 we do not find it altogether beyond our understanding to get at their meaning as far as the ideas are concerned which they try to convey in these mystical utterances4 ,but when we come to statements by the ,zen masters1 we are entirely at sea how to take them4 ,their affirmations are as irrelevant1 so inappropriate1 so irrational1 and so nonsensical--at least superficially1 that those who have not gained the ,zen way of looking at things can hardly make1 as we say1 heads or tails of them4 ,the truth is that even with full-fledged mystics they are unable to be quite free from the taint of intellection1 and leave as a rule 8traces0 by which their holy abode could be reached4 ,plotinus' 8flight from alone to alone0 is a great mystical utterance proving how deeply he delved into the inner sanctuary of our consciousness4 ,but there is still something speculative or metaphysical about it1 and when it is put side by side with the ,zen utterances to be cited below1 it has1 as the masters would say1 a mystic flavour on the surface4 ,so long as the masters are indulging in negations1 denials1 contradictions1 or paradoxes1 the stain of speculation is not quite washed off of them4 ,naturally1 ,zen is not opposed to speculation as it is also one of the functions of the mind4 ,but ,zen has travelled along a different path altogether unique1 ,i think1 in the history of mysticism1 whether ,eastern or ,western1 ,christian or ,buddhist4 ,a few examples will suffice to illustrate my point4 ,a monk asked ,jshu1#f4bf 8,i read in the ,sutra that all things return to the ,one1 but where does this ,one return to80 ,answered the master1 8,when ,i was in the province of ,tsing ,i had a robe made which weighed seven chin40 ,when ,krin 7,hsiang-lin ,yan7#f4bg was asked what was the signification of ,bodhi-,dharma's coming from the ,west1 his reply was1 8,after a long sitting one feels fatigued40 ,what is the logical relation between the question and the answer8 ,does it refer to ,dharma's nine years' sitting against the wall as the tradition has it8 ,if so1 was his propaganda much ado for nothing except his feeling fatigued8 ,when ,kwazan 7,h-shan7#f4bh was asked what the ,buddha was1 he said1 8,i know how to play the drum1 rub-a-dub1 rub-a-dub60 7chieh ta ku74 ,when ,baso ,dichi was sick1#f4bi one of his disciples came and inquired about his condition1 8,how do you feel to-day80 8,nichimen-butsu1 ,gwachimen-butsu60 was the reply which literally means 8sun-faced ,buddha1 moon-faced ,buddha60 ,a monk asked ,jshu1#f4cj 8,when the body crumbles all to pieces and returns to the dust1 there eternally abides one thing4 ,of this ,i have been told1 but where does this one thing abide80 ,the master replied1 8,it is windy again this morning40 ,when ,shuzan 7,shou-shan7 was asked what was the principal teaching of ,buddhism1 he quoted a verse#f4ca3 8,by the castle of the king of ,ch#8u1 ,eastward flows the stream of ,ju40 8,who is the teacher of all the ,buddhas80#f4cb was the question put to ,bokuju 7,mu-chou71 who in reply merely hummed a tune1 8,ting-ting1 tung-tung1 ku-ti1 ku-tung60 ,to the question what ,zen was1 the same master gave the following answer1 8,namu-sambo60 7namoratnatrayya74 ,the monk however confessed that he could not understand it1 whereupon the master exclaimed1 8,o you miserable frog1 whence is this evil karma of yours80 ,on another occasion1 the same question called out a different answer1 which was1 8,makahannyaharamii60 7mahprajpramit74 ,when the monk failed to comprehend the ultimate meaning of the phrase1 the master went on3 8,my robe is all worn out after so many years' usage1 ,and parts of it in shreds loosely hanging1 have been blown away to the clouds60 ,to quote another case from ,bokuju1 he was once asked by a monk1 8,what is the doctrine that goes beyond the ,buddhas and ,fathers80 ,the master immediately holding up his staff said to the congregation1 8,i call this a staff1 and what would you call it80 ,no answer was forthcoming1 whereupon the master again holding forth the staff asked the monk1 8,did you not ask me about the doctrine that goes beyond the ,buddhas and ,fathers80 ,when ,nan-yin ,y-gu 7,nan-yan ,hui-yung7#f4cc was once asked what the ,buddha was1 he said1 8,what is not the ,buddha80 ,another time his answer was1 8,i never knew him40 ,there was still another occasion when he said1 8,wait until there is one1 for then ,i will tell you40 ,so far ,nan-yin does not seem to be so very incomprehensible1 but what follows will challenge our keenest intellectual analysis4 ,when the inquiring monk replied to the master's third statement1 saying1 8,if so1 there is no ,buddha in you10 the master promptly asserted1 8,you are right there40 ,this evoked a further question1 8,where am ,i right1 sir80 8,this is the thirtieth day of the month10 replied the master4 ,ki-su ,chi-jo 7,kuei-tsung ,chih-ch#8ang7 was one of the able disciples of ,baso 7,ma-tsu74#f4cd ,when he was weeding in the garden1 a ,buddhist scholar versed in the philosophy of ,buddhism came to see the master4 ,a snake happened to pass by them1 and the master at once killed it with a spade4 ,the philosopher-monk remarked1 8,how long ,i have heard of the name of ,kisu1 and how reverently ,i have thought of it6 ,but what do ,i see now but a rude-mannered monk80 8,o my scholar-monk10 said the master1 8you had better go back to the ,hall and have a cup of tea over there40 ,kisu's retort as it stands here is quite unintelligible as far as our common-sense knowledge of worldly affairs goes2 but according to another informant ,kisu is reported1 when he was reproached by the monk1 to have said this1 8,who is the rude-mannered one1 you or ,i80 ,then said the monk1 8,what is rude-mannered80 ,the master held up the spade4 8,what is refined8 8,he now assumed the attitude as if to kill the snake4 8,if so10 said the monk1 8you are behaving according to the law40 8,enough with my lawful or unlawful behaviour10 demanded the master1 8when did you see my killing the snake anyway80 ,the monk made no answer4#f4cd;a ,perhaps this is sufficient to show how freely ,zen deals with those abstruse philosophical problems which have been taxing all human ingenuity ever since the dawn of intelligence4 ,let me conclude this part with a sample sermon delivered by ,goso ,hyen 7,wu-tsu ,fa-yen72 for a ,zen master occasionally1 no1 quite frequently1 comes down to the dualistic level of understanding and tries to deliver a speech for the edification of his pupils4 ,but being a ,zen sermon we naturally expect something unusual in it4 ,goso was one of the ablest ,zen masters of the twelfth century4 ,he was the teacher of ,yengo 7,yan-wu7 famous as the author of the ,hekiganshu4 ,one of his sermons runs thus#f4ce3 8,yesterday ,i came across one topic which ,i thought ,i might communicate to you1 my pupils1 to-day4 ,but an old man such as ,i am is apt to forget1 and the topic has gone off altogether from my mind4 ,i cannot just recall it40 ,so saying1 ,goso remained quiet for some little time1 but at last he exclaimed1 8,i forget1 ,i forget1 ,i cannot remember60 ,he resumed however1 8,i know there is a mantram in one of the ,sutras known as ,the ,king of ,good ,memory4 ,those who are forgetful may recite it1 and the thing forgotten will come again4 ,well1 ,i must try40 ,he then recited the mantram1 8,om o-lo-lok-kei svha60 ,clapping his hands and laughing heartily he said1 8,i remember1 ,i remember2 this it was3 ,when you seek the ,buddha1 you cannot see him3 when you look for the patriarch1 you cannot see him4 ,the muskmelon is sweet even to the stems1 the bitter gourd is bitter even to the roots40 ,he then came down from the pulpit without further remark4 ,,vi ,in one of his sermons1 ,eckhart referring to the mutual relationship between ,god and man1 says3 8,it is as if one stood before a high mountain and cried1 #8,art thou there8' ,the echo comes back1 #8,art thou there8' ,if one cries1 #8,come out6' the echo answers1 #8,come out6'0 ,something like this is to be observed in the ,zen masters' answers now classified under 8,repetition40 ,it may be found hard for the uninitiated to penetrate into the inner meaning of those parrot-like repetitions which sometimes sound like mimicry on the part of the master4 ,in this case indeed the words themselves are mere sounds1 and the inner sense is to be read in the echoing itself if anywhere4 ,the understanding however must come out of one's own inner life and what the echoing does is to give this chance of self-awakening to the earnest seekers of truth4 ,when the mind is so timed as to be all ready to break into a certain note1 the master turns the key and it sings out its own melody1 not learned from anybody else but discovered within itself4 ,and this turning the key in the form of repetition in this case is what interests us in the following quotations4 ,chsui 7,ch#8ang-shui ,tzu-hsan7#f4cf once asked ,yekaku 7,hui-chiao71 of ,mount ,rya 7,lang-yeh71 who lived in the first half of the eleventh century1 8,how is it that the ,originally ,pure has all of a sudden come to produce mountains and rivers and the great earth80 ,the question is taken from the rangama-stra in which ,purna asks of the ,buddha how the ,absolute came to evolve this phenomenal world4 ,for this is a great philosophical problem that has perplexed the greatest minds of all ages4 ,so far all the interpretations making up the history of thought have proved unsatisfactory in one way or another4 ,chsui also being a student of philosophy in a way has now come to his teacher to be enlightened on the subject4 ,but the teacher's answer was no answer as we understand it1 for he merely repeated the question1 8,how is it that the ,originally ,pure has all of a sudden come to produce mountains and rivers and the great earth80 ,translated into ,english1 this dialogue loses much of its zest4 ,let me write it down in ,japanese-,chinese3 ,chsui asked1 8,sh-j hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji10 and the master echoed1 8,sh-j hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji40 ,this was not1 however1 enough4 ,later1 in the thirteenth century another great ,zen master1 ,kido 7,hs-t#8ang71 commented on this in a still more mystifying manner4#f4cg ,his sermon one day ran in this wise3 8,when ,chsui asked ,yekaku1 #8,sh-j hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji1' the question was echoed back to the questioner himself1 and it is said that the spiritual eye of the disciple was then opened4 ,i now want to ask you how this could have happened4 ,were not the question and the answer exactly the same8 ,what reason did ,chsui find in this8 ,let me comment on it40 ,whereupon he struck his chair with the hossu1 and said1 8,sh-j hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji40 ,his comment complicates the matter instead of simplifying it4 ,this has ever been a great question of philosophy--this question of unity and multiplicity1 of mind and matter1 of thought and reality4 ,zen1 being neither idealism nor realism1 proposes its own way of solution as is illustrated in the case of the ,originally ,pure4 ,the following one solves the problem also in its own way4 ,a monk asked ,chsa ,keishin1#f4ch 8,how do we1 transforming 7chuan7 mountains and rivers and the earth1 reduce them into the ,self80 ,replied the master1 8,how do we1 transforming the ,self1 produce mountains and rivers and the earth80 ,the monk confessed ignorance1 whereupon said the master3 8,in this city south of the ,lake1 people are thriving well1-- ,cheap rice and plentiful fuel and prospering neighbourhood40 ,tsu ,daido 7,t#8ou-tzu ,tai-t#8ung71#f4ci of the ,t#8ang dynasty1 who died in the year #iad1 answered 8,the ,buddha10 when he was questioned1 8,what is the ,buddha80 ,he said 8,tao0 when the question was1 8,what is ,tao80 ,he answered 8the ,dharma0 to the question1 8,what is the ,dharma80 ,when ,jshu asked ,kwanchu 7,tai-tz#8u ,huan-chung7#f4dj of the ninth century1 8,what is the being or substance of ,praj80 ,kwanchu without giving any answer simply echoed the question1 8,what is the being of ,praj80 ,and this brought out a hearty laugh on the part of ,jshu4 ,praj may be translated supreme intelligence1 and ,majur is regarded by the ,mahayanists as the embodiment of ,praj4 ,but in this case ,majur has nothing to do with it4 ,the question is concerned with the substantial conception of ,praj1 which1 being a form of mental activity1 requires something to abide in4 ,according to ,buddhist philosophy1 there are three fundamental conceptions to explain the problem of existence3 ,substance or ,being 7bhva71 ,appearance or ,aspect 7lakshaa71 and ,function or ,activity 7kitya74 ,or1 to use the terms of the ,mdhyamika1 the three conceptions are actor1 act1 and acting4 ,praj being an intellectual acting1 there must be an agent or substance back of it4 ,hence the question3 ,what is the being or body of ,praj8 ,now1 the answer or echo given out by ,kwanchu does not explain anything1 we are at a loss as far as its conceptual signification goes4 ,the ,zen masters do not give us any literary clue to get around what we see on the surface4 ,when we try to understand it intellectually1 it slips away from us4 ,it must be approached therefore from another plane of unconsciousness4 ,unless we move on to the same plane where the masters stand1 or unless we abandon so-called common-sense way of reasoning1 there is no possible bridge which will carry us over the chasm dividing our intellection from their apparently psittacine repetitions4 ,in this case1 as in other cases1 the idea of the masters is to show the way where the truth of ,zen is to be experienced1 but not in and through the language which they use and which we all use1 as the means of communicating ideas4 ,language1 in case they resort to words1 serves as an expression of feelings or moods or inner states1 but not of ideas1 and therefore it becomes entirely incomprehensible when we search its meaning in the words of the masters as embodying ideas4 ,of course1 words are not to be altogether disregarded inasmuch as they correspond to the feelings or experiences4 ,to know this is more important in the understanding of ,zen4 ,language is then with the ,zen masters a kind of exclamation or ejaculation as directly coming out of their inner spiritual experience4 ,no meaning is to be sought in the expression itself1 but within ourselves1 in our own minds1 which are awakened to the same experience4 ,therefore1 when we understand the language of the ,zen masters1 it is the understanding of ourselves and not the sense of the language which reflects ideas and not the experienced feelings themselves4 ,thus it is impossible to make those understand ,zen who have not had any ,zen experience yet1 just as it is impossible for the people to realise the sweetness of honey who have never tasted it before4 ,with such people1 8sweet0 honey will ever remain as an idea altogether devoid of sense1 that is1 the word has no life with them4 ,goso ,hyen first studied the ,yogcra school of ,buddhist philosophy and came across the following passage3 8,when the ,bodhisattva enters on the path of knowledge1 he finds that the discriminating intellect is identified with ,reason1 and that the objective world is fused with ,intelligence1 and there is no distinction to be made between the knowing and the known40 ,the anti-,yogcrians refuted this statement1 saying that if the knowing is not distinguished from the known1 how is knowledge at all possible8 ,the ,yogcrians could not answer this criticism1 when ,hsan-chang who was at the time in ,india interposed and saved his brethren in faith from the quandary4 ,his answer was3 8,it is like drinking water1 one knows by oneself whether it is cold or not40 ,when ,goso read this1 he questioned himself1 8,what is this that makes one know thus by oneself80 ,this was the way he started on his ,zen tour1 for his ,yogcra friends being philosophers could not enlighten him1 and he finally came to a ,zen master for instruction4 ,before we proceed to the next subject1 let me cite another case of echoing4 ,hgen ,mon-yeki 7,fa-yen ,wen-i71 the founder of the ,hgen branch of ,zen ,buddhism1 flourished early in the tenth century4 ,he asked one of his disciples1 8,what do you understand by this3 #8,let the difference be even a tenth of an inch1 and it will grow as wide as heaven and earth'80 ,the disciple said1 8,let the difference be even a tenth of an inch1 and it will grow as wide as heaven and earth40 ,hgen however told him that such an answer will never do4 ,said the disciple1 8,i cannot do otherwise2 how do you understand80 ,the master at once replied1 8,let the difference be even a tenth of an inch1 and it will grow as wide as heaven and earth40f#abif4da ,hgen was a great master of repetitions1 and there is another interesting instance4 ,after trying to understand the ultimate truth of ,zen under fifty-four masters1#f4db ,tokusho 7,t-shao1 #ijg-iga7 finally came to ,hgen2 but tired of making special efforts to master ,zen1 he simply fell in with the rest of the monks there4 ,one day when the master ascended the platform1 a monk asked1 8,what is one drop of water dripping from the source of ,sof#acj 7,ts#8ao780 ,said the master1 8,that is one drop of water dripping from the source of ,so40 ,the monk failed to make anything out of the repetition and stood as if lost2 while ,tokusho who happened to be by him had for the first time his spiritual eye opened to the inner meaning of ,zen1 and all the doubts he had been cherishing secretly down in his heart were thoroughly dissolved4 ,he was altogether another man after that4 ,such cases as this conclusively show that ,zen is not to be sought in ideas or words1 but at the same time they also show that without ideas or words ,zen cannot convey itself to others4 ,to grasp the exquisite meaning of ,zen as expressing itself in words and yet not in them1 is a great art which is to be attained only after so many vain attempts4 ,tokusho who after such an experience finally came to realise the mystery of ,zen1 did his best later to give vent to his view which he had gained under ,hgen4 ,it was while he was residing at the ,monastery of ,praj that he had the following 8mondo0 and sermon4#f4dc ,when ,tokusho came out into the ,hall1 a monk asked him1 8,i understand this was an ancient wise man's saying3 ,when a man sees ,praj he is tied to it2 when he sees it not he is also tied to it4 ,now ,i wish to know how it is that a man seeing ,praj could be tied to it40 ,said the master1 8,you tell me what it is that is seen by ,praj40 ,asked the monk1 8,when a man sees not ,praj1 how could he be tied to it80 8,you tell me10 said the master1 8if there is anything that is not seen by ,praj40 ,the master then went on3 8,praj seen is no ,praj1 nor is ,praj unseen ,praj3 how could one apply the predicate1 seen or unseen1 to ,praj8 ,therefore it is said of old that when one thing is missing the ,dharmakya is not complete2 when one thing is superfluous the ,dharmakya is not complete3 and again that when there is one thing to be asserted the ,dharmakya is not complete2 when there is nothing to be asserted the ,dharmakya is not complete4 ,this is indeed the essence of ,praj40 ,the 8repetition0 seen in this light may grow to be intelligible to a certain degree4 ,,vii ,as was explained in the preceding section1 the principle underlying the various methods of instruction used by the ,zen masters is to awaken a certain sense in the pupil's own consciousness1 by means of which he intuitively grasps the truth of ,zen4 ,therefore1 the masters always appeal to what we may designate 8direct action0 and are loathe to waste any lengthy discourse on the subject4 ,their dialogues are always pithy and apparently not controlled by rules of logic4 ,the 8repetitive0 method as in other cases conclusively demonstrates that the so-called answering is not to explain but to point the way where ,zen is to be intuited4 ,to conceive the truth as something external which is to be perceived by a perceiving subject1 is dualistic and appeals to the intellect for its understanding1 but according to ,zen we are living right in the truth1 by the truth1 from which we cannot be separated4 ,says ,gensha 7,hsan-sha71#f4dd 8,we are here as if immersed in water head and shoulders underneath the great ocean1 and yet how piteously we are extending our hands for water60 ,therefore1 when he was asked by a monk1#f4dd 8,what is my self80 he at once replied1 8,what would you do with a self80 ,when this is intellectually analysed1 he means that when we begin to talk about self we immediately and inevitably establish the dualism of self and not-self1 thus falling into the errors of intellectualism4 ,we are in the water--this is the fact1 and let us remain so1 ,zen would say1 for when we begin to beg for water we put ourselves in an external relation to it and what has hitherto been our own will be taken away from us4 ,the following case may be interpreted in the same light3 ,a monk came to ,gensha and said1#f4dd 8,i understand you to say this that the whole universe is one transpicuous crystal2 how do ,i get at the sense of it80 ,said the master1 8,the whole universe is one transpicuous crystal1 and what is the use of understanding it80 ,the day following the master himself asked the monk1 8,the whole universe is one transpicuous crystal1 and how do you understand it80 ,the monk replied1 8,the whole universe is one transpicuous crystal1 and what is the use of understanding it80 8,i know10 said the master1 8that you are living in the cave of demons40 ,while this looks another case of 8,repetition10 there is something different in it1 something more of intellection1 so to speak4 ,whatever this is1 ,zen never appeals to our reasoning faculty1 but points directly at the very object one wants to have4 ,while ,gensha on a certain occasion was treating an army officer called ,wei to tea1 the latter asked1 8,what does it mean when they say that in spite of our having it everyday we do not know it80 ,gensha without answering the question took up a piece of cake and offered it to him4 ,after eating the cake1 the officer asked the master again1 who then remarked1 8,only we do not know it even when we are using it everyday40#f4dd ,this is evidently an object lesson4 ,another time a monk came to him and wanted to know how to enter upon the path of truth4 ,gensha asked1 8,do you hear the murmuring of the stream80 8,yes1 ,i do10 said the monk4 8,there is a way to enter10 was the master's instruction4#f4dd ,gensha's method was thus to make the seeker of the truth directly realise within himself what it was1 and not to make him merely the possessor of a second-hand knowledge4 8,ein begriffener ,gott ist kein ,gott10 declares ,terstegen4 ,it is thus no wonder that the ,zen masters frequently make an exclamatory utterancef#aca in response to questions1 instead of giving an intelligible answer4 ,when words are used if at all intelligible we may feel that we can somehow find a clue to get at the meaning1 but when an inarticulate utterance is given1 we are quite at a loss how to deal with it1 unless we are fortified with some previous knowledge such as ,i have at some length attempted to give to my readers4 ,of all the ,zen masters who used to give exclamatory utterance1 the most noted ones are ,ummon and ,rinzai1 the former for his 8,kwan60 and the latter for his 8,kwats60 ,at the end of one summer sojourn ,suigan 7,ts#8ui-yen7 made the following remark#f4de3 8,since the beginning of this summer sojourn ,i have talked much2 see if my eyebrows are still there40 ,this refers to the tradition that when a man makes false statements concerning the ,dharma of ,buddhism he will lose all his hair in the face4 ,as ,suigan gave many sermons during the summer for the edification of his pupils1 while no amount of talk can ever explain what the truth is1 his eye-brows and beard might perhaps by this time have altogether disappeared4 ,this1 as far as its literary meaning is concerned1 is the idea of his remark whatever ,zen may be concealed underneath4 ,hofuku 7,pao-fu71 one of the masters1 said1 8,one who turns into a highwayman has a treacherous heart40 ,chkei 7,ch#8ang-ch#8ing71 another master1 remarked1 8,how thickly they are growing60 ,ummon1 one of the greatest masters towards the end of the ,t#8ang dynasty1 exclaimed1 8,kwan60 ,kwan literally means the gate on a frontier pass where travellers and their baggage are inspected4 ,in this case1 however1 the term does not mean anything of the sort1 it is simply 8,kwan60 an exclamatory utterance which does not allow any analytical or intellectual interpretation4 ,seccho1 the original compiler of the ,hekigan1 comments on this1 8,he is like one who1 besides losing his money1 is incriminated10 while ,hakuin has this to say1 8,even an angry fist does not strike a smiling face40 ,something like this is the only comment we can make on such an utterance as ,ummon's4 ,when we try anything approaching a conceptual interpretation on the subject we shall be 8ten thousand miles away beyond the clouds10 as the ,chinese would say4 ,while ,rinzai is regarded as the author of 8,kwats60 7h71 we have an earlier record of it2 for ,baso1 successor to ,nangaku 7,nan-yeh71 and an epoch-maker in the history of ,zen1 uttered 8,kwats60 to his disciple1 ,hyakjo 7,pai-chang71 when the latter came up to the master for a second time to be instructed in ,zen4 ,this 8,kwats60 is said to have deafened ,hyakujo's ear for the following three days4 ,but it was principally due to ,rinzai that this particular cry was most effectively and systematically made use of and later came to be one of the special features of the ,rinzai ,zen in distinction to the other schools4 ,in fact the cry came to be so abused by his followers that he had to make the following remark#f4df3 8,you are all so given up to learning my cry 7h71 but ,i want to ask you this3 ,suppose one man comes out from the eastern hall and another from the western hall1 and suppose both give out the #8,kwats6' simultaneously2 and yet ,i say to you that subject and predicate are clearly discernible in this4 ,but how will you discern them8 ,if you are unable to discern them1 you are forbidden hereafter to imitate my cry40 ,rinzai distinguishes four kinds of 8,kwats60#f4dg ,the first according to him1 is like the sacred sword of ,vajrarja2 the second is like the golden-haired lion squatting on the ground2 the third is like the sounding rod or the grass used as a decoy2 and the fourth is the one that does not at all function as a 8,kwats60 ,rinzai once asked his disciple1 ,rakuho 7,l-p#8u71#f4dh 8,one man has been using a stick and another resorting to the 8,kwats60 which of them do you think is the more intimate to the truth8 ,answered the disciple1 8,neither of them60 8,what is the most intimate then80 ,rakuho cried out1 8,kwats60 ,whereupon ,rinzai struck him4 ,this swinging of a stick was the most favourite method of ,tokusan and stands generally contrasted to the crying utterance of ,rinzai2 but here the stick is used by ,rinzai and the latter's speciality is taken up in a most telling manner by his disciple1 ,rakuho4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides these 8skilful contrivances0 7upya-kaualya7 so far enumerated under seven headings1 there are a few more 8contrivances0 though ,i am not going to be very exhaustive here on the subject4 ,one of them is 8silence40 ,vimalakrti was silent when ,majur asked him as to the doctrine of non-duality1 and his silence was later commented upon by a master as 8deafening like thunder40 ,a monk asked ,basho ,yesei 7,pa-chiao ,hui-ch#8ing7#f4di to show him the 8original face0 without the aid of any intermediary conception1 and the master keeping his seat remained silent4 ,when ,shifuku 7,tz-fu7#f4ej was asked as to a word befitting the understanding of the inquirer1 he did not utter a word1 he simply kept silent4 ,bunki 7,wn-hsi7 of ,koshu 7,hang-chou7#f4ea was a disciple of ,kyzan 7,yang-shan72 he was asked by a monk1 8,what is the self80 but he remained silent4 ,as the monk did not know what to make of it1 he asked again1 to which the master replied1 8,when the sky is clouded1 the moon cannot shine out40 ,a monk asked ,sozan 7,ts#8ao-shan71#f4eb 8,how is the silence inexpressible to be revealed80 8,i do not reveal it here40 8,where would you reveal it80 8,at midnight last night10 said the master1 8,i lost three pennies by my bed40 ,sometimes the masters sit quiet 8for some little while0 7liang chiu7 either in response to a question or when in the pulpit4 ,this liang-chiu does not always merely indicate the passage of time1 as we can see in the following cases3 ,a monk came to ,shuzan 7,shou-shan7 and asked1#f4ec 8,please play me a tune on a stringless harp40 ,the master was quiet for some little while1 and said1 8,do you hear it80 8,no1 ,i do not hear it40 8,why10 said the master1 8did you not ask louder80 ,a monk asked ,hofuku 7,pao-fu71#f4ed 8,i am told that when one wants to know the path of the uncreate1 one should know the source of it4 ,what is the source1 sir80 ,hofuku was silent for a while1 and then asked his attendant1 8,what did the monk ask me now80 ,when that monk repeated the question1 the master ejected him out1 exclaiming1 8,i am not deaf60 99 99 99 99 99 ,next1 we may mention the method of counter-questioning1 wherein questions are not answered by plain statements but by counter-questionings4 ,in ,zen1 generally speaking1 a question is not a question in its ordinary sense1 that is1 it is not simply asked for information1 and therefore it is natural that what ordinarily corresponds to an answer is not an answer at all4 ,some ,zen authority enumerates eighteen different kinds of questions1 against which we may distinguish eighteen corresponding answers4 ,thus a counter-question itself is in its way an illuminating answer4 ,a monk requested ,jimyo 7,tz-ming7 to 8set forth the idea of ,dharma's coming from the west10 and the master said1 8,when did you come80#f4ee ,when ,rasan ,dokan 7,lo-shan ,tao-hsien7 was asked1 8,who is the master of the triple world80 he said1 8,do you understand how to eat rice80#f4ef ,tenryu 7,t#8ien-lung71 the teacher of ,gutei1 was hailed by a monk who asked him1#f4eg 8,how are we released from the triple world80 ,he retorted1 8,where are you this very moment80 ,a monk asked ,jshu1 8,what would you say when a man is without an inch of cloth on him80 8,what did you say he has not on him80 8,an inch of cloth on him1 sir40 8,very fine this1 not to have an inch of cloth60 responded the master4#f4eh ,when we go on like this1 there may be no end to this way of treating the various 8contrivances0 devised by the ,zen masters for the benefits of their truth-thirsty pupils4 ,let me conclude this section by quoting two more cases in which a kind of reasoning in a circle is employed1 but from another point of view we may detect here a trace of absolute monism in which all differences are effaced4 ,whether the ,zen masters agree with this view1 however1 remains to be seen2 for while the absolute identity of meum et tuum is asserted1 facts of individualisation are not ignored either4 ,a monk asked ,daizui 7,tai-sui71#f4ei 8,what is my pupil's ,self80 8,that is my master's ,self10 answered the master4 8,how is it that my ,self is your ,self80 ,the ultimate dictum was1 8,that is your ,self40 ,to understand this in a logical fashion1 put 8ignorant10 or 8confused0 or 8human0 in place of 8my pupil's ,self10 and in place of 8your master's ,self0 put 8enlightened10 or 8,buddha's1' or 8divine10 and we may have a glimpse into what was going on in the mind of ,daizui4 ,but without his last remark1 8,that is your ,self10 the whole affair may resolve into a form of pantheistic philosophy4 ,in the case of ,sansho ,yenen 7,san-shng ,hui-jan7 and ,kyozan ,yejaku 7,yang-shan ,hui-chi71 the thought of ,daizui is more concretely presented4 ,yejaku asked ,yenen1#f4fj 8,what is your name80 and ,yenen replied1 8,my name is ,yejaku40 ,yejaku protested1 8,yejaku is my name40 ,thereupon said ,yenen1 8,my name is ,yenen10 which brought out a hearty laugh from ,yejaku4 ,these dialogues remind one of the famous ,hindu saying1 8,tat tvam asi60 but the difference between this and 8,my name is ,yejaku0 is that between ,vedanta philosophy and ,zen ,buddhism1 or that between ,indian idealism and ,chinese realism or practicalness4 ,the latter does not generalise1 nor does it speculate on a higher plane which has no hold on life as we live it4 ,according to the philosophy of the ,kegon 7,avatamsaka7 school of ,buddhism1 there is a spiritual world where one particular object holds within itself all other particular objects merged1 instead of all particular objects being absorbed in the ,great ,all4 ,thus in this world it so happens that when you lift a bunch of flowers or point at a piece of brick1 the whole world in its multitudinosity is seen reflected here4 ,if so1 the ,zen masters may be said to be moving also in this mystic realm which reveals its secrets at the moment of supreme enlightenment 7anuttara-samyak-sabodhi74 ,,viii ,we now come to the most characteristic feature of ,zen ,buddhism1 by which it is distinguished not only from all the other ,buddhist schools1 but from all forms of mysticism that are ever known to us4 ,so far the truth of ,zen has been expressed through words1 articulate or otherwise1 however enigmatic they may superficially appear2 but now the masters appeal to a more direct method instead of verbal medium4 ,in fact1 the truth of ,zen is the truth of life1 and life means to live1 to move1 to act1 not merely to reflect4 ,is it not the most natural thing for ,zen1 therefore1 that its development should be towards acting or rather living its truth instead of demonstrating or illustrating it in words1 that is to say1 with ideas8 ,in the actual living of life there is no logic1 for life is superior to logic4 ,we imagine logic influences life1 but in reality man is not a rational creature so much as we make him out1 of course he reasons1 but he does not act according to the result of his reasoning pure and simple4 ,there is something stronger than ratiocination4 ,we may call it impulse1 or instinct1 or1 more comprehensively1 will4 ,where this will acts there is ,zen1 but if ,i am asked whether ,zen is a philosophy of will ,i rather hesitate to give an affirmative answer4 ,zen is to be explained1 if at all explained it should be1 rather dynamically than statically4 ,when ,i raise the hand thus1 there is ,zen4 ,but when ,i assert that ,i have raised the hand1 ,zen is no more there4 ,nor is there any ,zen when ,i assume the existence of somewhat that may be named will or anything else4 ,not that the assertion or assumption is wrong1 but that the thing known as ,zen is three thousand miles away as they say4 ,an assertion is ,zen only when it is in itself an act and does not refer to anything that is asserted in it4 ,in the finger pointed at the moon there is no ,zen1 but when the pointing finger itself is considered1 altogether independent of any external references1 there is ,zen4 ,life delineates itself on the canvas called time2 and time never repeats1 once gone1 forever gone2 and so is an act1 once done1 it is never undone4 ,life is a sumiye-painting1 which must be executed once and for all time and without hesitation1 without intellection1 and no corrections are permissible or possible4 ,life is not like an oil-painting which can be rubbed out and done over time and again until the artist is satisfied4 ,with a sumiye-painting1 any brush stroke painted over a second time results in a smudge2 the life has left it4 ,all corrections show when the ink dries4 ,so is life4 ,we can never retract what we have once committed to deeds1 nay1 what has once passed through consciousness can never be rubbed out4 ,zen therefore ought to be caught while the thing is going on1 neither before nor after4 ,it is an act of one instant4 ,when ,dharma was leaving ,china1 as the legend has it1 he asked his disciples what was their understanding of ,zen1 and one of them who happened to be a nun1 replied1 8,it is like nanda's looking into the kingdom of ,akshobhya ,buddha1 it is seen once and has never been repeated40 ,this fleeting1 unrepeatable1 and ungraspable character of life is delineated graphically by ,zen masters who have compared it to lightning or spark produced by the percussion of stones3 1 7shan tien kuang1 chi shih huo7 is the phrase4#f4fa ,the idea of direct method appealed to by the masters is to get hold of this fleeting life as it flees and not after it has flown4 ,while it is fleeing1 there is no time to recall memory or to build ideas4 ,no reasoning avails here4 ,language may be used1 but this has been associated too long with ideation1 and has lost directness or being by itself4 ,as soon as words are used1 they express meaning1 reasoning2 they represent something not belonging to themselves2 they have no direct connection with life1 except being a faint echo or image of something that is no longer here4 ,this is the reason why the masters often avoid such expressions or statements as are intelligible in any logical way4 ,their aim is to have the pupil's attention concentrated in the thing itself which he wishes to grasp and not in anything that is in the remotest possible connection liable to disturb him4 ,therefore when we attempt to find meaning in dharanis or exclamations or a nonsensical string of sounds taken as such1 we are far away from the truth of ,zen4 ,we must penetrate into the mind itself as the spring of life1 from which all these words are produced4 ,the swinging of a stick1 the crying of a 8,kwats60 or the kicking of a ball must be understood in this sense1 that is1 as the directest demonstration of life1 no1 even as life itself4 ,the direct method is thus not always the violent assertion of life-force1 but a gentle movement of the body1 the responding to a call1 the listening to a murmuring stream1 or to a singing bird1 or any of our most ordinary everyday assertions of life4 ,reiun 7,ling-yn7#f4fb was asked1 8,how were things before the appearance of the ,buddha in the world80 ,he raised his hossu4 8,how were things after the appearance of the ,buddha80 ,he again raised the hossu4 ,this raising of the hossu was quite a favourite method with many masters to demonstrate the truth of ,zen4 ,as ,i stated elsewhere1 the hossu and the staff were the religious insignias of the master1 and it was natural that they would be in much display when the monks approached with questions4 ,one day baku ,kiun 7,huang-po ,hsi-yn7#f4fc ascended the pulpit1 and as soon as monks were gathered1 the master took up his staff and drove them all out4 ,when they were about all out1 he called them1 and they turned their heads back4 ,the master said1 8,the moon looks like a bow1 less rain and more wind40 ,the staff was thus wielded effectively by the masters1 but who would ever have thought of a cane being made an instrument of illustrating the most profound truth of religion8 ,jshu was the readiest master for pithy retorts and his 8,sayings0 7,goroku7 is filled with them1 but he was also an adept at the direct method4 ,when he was in his pulpit one day1 a monk came out of the rank and made bows to him4 ,without waiting1 however1 for further movements on the part of the monk1 ,jshu folded his hands and a parting salutation was given4 ,hyakujo ,isei's 7,pai-chang ,wei-chng7#f4fd way was somewhat different4 ,he said to the monks1 8,you open the farm for me and ,i will talk to you about the great principle of ,zen40 ,when the monks finished attending to the farm and came back to the master to discourse on the great principle1 he merely extended his open arms and said nothing4 ,a monk came to ,yenkwan ,an1#f4fe the ,national ,teacher1 and wanted to know what was the original body of ,vairochana ,buddha4 ,the ,teacher told him to pass the pitcher1 which he did4 ,the ,teacher then said1 8,put it back where you got it40 ,the monk faithfully obeyed1 but not being told what was the original body of the ,buddha1 he proposed the question once more1 8,who is the ,buddha80 ,answered the master1 8,long gone is he60 ,in this case the direct method was practised more by the monk himself under the direction of the master1 but unfortunately the pupil's spiritual condition was not ripe enough to grasp the meaning of his own 8direct method10 and alas1 let go 8the old ,buddha60 ,something similar to this case may be found in the following one3 ,sekiso 7,shih-shuang7#f4ff asked ,yenchi 7,yan-chih71#f4fg who was a disciple of ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan71 8,if some one after your death asked me about the ultimate fact1 what should ,i say to him80 ,the master gave no answer1 but instead called up the boy-attendant who at once responded4 ,he said1 8,fill up the pitcher10 and remained quiet for some little while4 ,he now asked ,sekiso1 8,what did you ask me before80 ,sekiso re-stated the question1 whereupon the master rose from his seat and left the room4 ,as some ,zen masters remarked1 ,zen is our 8ordinary mindedness10 that is to say1 there is in ,zen nothing supernatural or unusual or highly speculative that transcends our everyday life4 ,when you feel sleepy1 you retire2 when you are hungry1 you eat1 just as much as the fowls of the air and the lilies of the field1 taking 8no thought for your life1 what ye shall eat1 or what ye shall drink2 nor yet for your body1 what ye shall put on40 ,this is the spirit of ,zen4 ,hence no specially didactic or dialectical instruction in the study of ,zen except such as is given below by ,dgo4 ,ryutan ,sshin 7,lung-t#8an ,sui-hsin7#f4fh was a disciple of ,tenno ,dgo 7,tao-wu74 ,he served the master as one of his personal attendants4 ,he was with him for some time when one day he said to the master3 8,since ,i came to you1 ,i have not at all been instructed in the study of mind40 ,replied the master1 8,ever since you came to me1 ,i have always been pointing to you how to study mind40 8,in what way1 sir80 8,when you brought me a cup of tea1 did ,i not accept it8 ,when you served me with food1 did ,i not partake of it8 ,when you made bows to me1 did ,i not return them8 ,when did ,i ever neglect in giving you instructions80 ,ryutan kept his head hanging for some time1 when the master told him1 8,if you want to see1 see directly into it2 but when you try to think about it1 it is altogether missed40 ,dgo ,yenchi 7,tao-wu ,yan-chih7 and ,ungan ,donjo 7,yn-yen ,tan-shng7 were standing by the master ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan7 as attendants1 when ,yakusan remarked1#f4fi 8,where our intellect cannot reach1 ,i verily tell you to avoid talking about it2 when you do1 horns will grow on you4 ,o ,yenchi1 what will you say to this80 ,yenchi thereupon rose from his place and left the room4 ,ungan asked the master1 8,how is it1 sir1 that ,brother ,chi does not answer you80 8,my back aches to-day10 said ,yakusan1 8,you better go to ,yenchi himself1 for he understands40 ,ungan came to his brother monk and inquired thus1 8,o ,brother ,senior1 why did you not answer our master now80 8,you better go back to the master himself and ask10 was all that poor ,ungan could get out of his senior brother4 ,there was another favourite movement often practised by ,zen masters1 which was to call out to the questioner or somebody else4 ,one case of this has already been given somewhere else in another connection4 ,the following are the typical and classical ones4 ,chu1 the ,national ,teacher1 called out to his attendant monk three times1 to which the latter responded regularly4 ,said the ,teacher1 8,i thought ,i was not fair to you1 but it was you that were not fair to me40f#acbf4gj ,this calling and responding took place also three times between ,mayoku 7,ma-ku7 and ,ryosui 7,liang-sui71 which at last made the latter exclaim3 8,o this stupid fellow60#f4ga ,this trick of calling out and responding was frequently practised as is seen in the following cases3 ,a high government dignitary called upon ,ungo ,doyo 7,yn-ch ,tao-ying7 and asked#f4gb3 8,i am told that the ,world-honoured ,one had a secret phrase and ,mahkyapa did not keep it hidden2 what was the secret phrase80 ,the master called out1 8,o honoured officer60 and the officer responded4 8,do you understand80 demanded the master4 8,no1 ,reverend ,sir60 was his natural answer4 8,if you do not understand1 there is the secret phrase3 if you understand1 there is ,mahkyapa in full revelation40 ,haikyu 7,p#8ai-hsiu7#f4gc was a local governor in ,shinan 7,hsin-an7 before he was appointed a state-minister4 ,he once visited a ,buddhist monastery in his district4 ,while going around in the premises of the monastery1 he came across a fine fresco painting and asked the accompanying priests whose portrait this was4 8,he was one of the high priests10 they answered4 ,the governor now turned towards them and questioned1 8,here is his portrait1 but where is the high priest himself80 ,they all did not know how to answer him4 ,he then further asked if there were any ,zen monks about here4 ,they replied1 8,we have recently a new comer in this monastery1 he does some menial work for us and looks very much like a ,zen monk40 ,he was then brought in the presence of the governor who at once spoke to him1 8,i have one question in which ,i wish to be enlightened1 but the gentlemen here grudge the answer4 ,may ,i ask you to give me a word for them80 8,i humbly wish you to ask10 politely requested the monk4 ,the officer repeated the first question1 whereupon the monk loudly and clearly called out1 8,o ,haikyu60 ,haikyu responded at once1 8,here1 sir60 8,where is the high priest now80 cross-questioned the monk4 ,this opened the governor's eye to the sense of the monk's counter-question1 in which he could now read the solution of his first query4 ,the case between ,yisan 7,wei-shan7 and ,kyzan 7,yang-shan7 was more intellectual and to that extent more intelligible than this mere calling and responding4 ,kyzan was the chief disciple of ,yisan1 and one of the peculiar features of this school was to demonstrate the truth of ,zen concordantly both by the master and disciple4 ,they once went out picking tea-leaves4 ,the master said to ,kyzan1#f4gd 8,picking tea-leaves all day1 ,i hear only your voice and do not see your body2 manifest your original body and let me see it40 ,kyzan shook the tea-plant4 ,said ,yisan1 8,you have only got its function1 you have not got the substance40 ,kyzan said1 8,master1 how with you then80 ,the master was quiet for a while whereupon the disciple said1 8,o master1 you have got only the substance1 you have not got the function40 8,you will be spared of my twenty blows10 concluded the master4 ,in ,buddhist ontology three conceptions are distinguished1 as was referred to previously2 substance or body1 appearance1 and function or activity4 8,body0 or bhva corresponds to the idea of mass or being1 8appearance0 7lakshaa7 to that of form1 and 8function0 7kitya7 to that of force4 ,every reality is regarded by ,buddhist philosophers as analysable into these three notions4 ,sometimes1 however1 the second conception1 8appearance0 is absorbed in that of 8being10 or 8body40 ,without functioning no objects exist1 but functioning cannot take place without something functioning4 ,the two ideas1 according to ,buddhist philosophers1 are thus inseparable for our understanding of the universe4 ,but ,yisan and ,kyzan were not metaphysicians and would not argue on the subject4 ,the one shook the tree and the other stood still4 ,we cannot say that there is ,zen in this standing and shaking as we may interpret them philosophically1 but we may glean something of ,zen in their remarks on 8body0 and 8function0 together with their direct method4 ,so far the direct method has not been of any violent character as to involve a bodily injury or nervous shock1 but the masters had no qualms if they thought necessary to shake the pupils roughly4 ,rinzai for one was noted for the directness and incisiveness of his dealings2 the point of his sword cut through the heart of the opponent4 ,the monk ,j 7,ting7#f4ge was one of his disciples1 and when he asked the master what the fundamental principle of ,buddhism was1 ,rinzai came down from his straw chair1 and taking hold of the monk slapped him with the palm of his hand1 and let him go4 ,j stood still without knowing what to make of the whole procedure when a by-standing monk blamed him for not bowing to the master4 ,while doing so1 ,j all of a sudden awoke to the truth of ,zen4 ,later1 when he was passing over a bridge1 he happened to meet a party of three ,buddhist scholars1 one of whom asked ,j1 8,the river of ,zen is deep1 and its bottom must be sounded4 ,what does this mean80 ,j1 disciple of ,rinzai1 at once seized the questioner and was at the point of throwing him over the bridge1 when his two friends interceded and asked ,j's merciful treatment of the offender4 ,j released the scholar1 saying1 8,if not for the intercession of his friends ,i would at once let him sound the bottom of the river himself40 ,with these people ,zen was no joke1 no mere play of ideas1 it was on the contrary a most serious thing on which they would stake their lives4 ,rinzai was a disciple of baku 7,huang-po71 but while under the master he did not get any special instruction on ,zen2 for whenever he asked him as to the fundamental truth of ,buddhism1 he was struck by baku4 ,but it was these blows that opened ,rinzai's eye to the ultimate truth of ,zen and made him exclaim1 8,after all there is not much in the ,buddhism of baku60#f4gf ,in ,china and in ,korea what little of ,zen is left mostly belongs to the school of ,rinzai4 ,in ,japan alone the ,soto branch is flourishing as much as the ,rinzai4 ,the rigour and vitality of ,zen ,buddhism that is still present in the ,rinzai school of ,japan comes from the three blows of baku so mercifully dealt out to his poor disciple4 ,there is in fact more truth in a blow or a kick than in the verbosity of logical discourse4 ,at any rate the ,zen masters were in dead earnest whenever the demonstration of ,zen was demanded4 ,see the following instance4 ,when ,t-,impo 7,tng ,yin-fng7#f4gg was pushing a cart1 he happened to see his master ,baso stretching his legs a little too far out in the roadway4 ,he said1 8,will you please draw your legs in80 ,replied the master1 8,a thing once stretched out will never be contracted40 8,if so10 said ,t1 8a thing once pushed will never be retracted40 ,his cart went right over the master's legs which were thus hurt4 ,later ,baso went up to the ,preaching ,hall where he carried an axe and said to the monks gathered1 8,let the one who wounded the old master's legs awhile ago come out of the congregation40 ,t came forth and stretched his neck ready to receive the axe1 but the master instead of chopping the disciple's head off1 quietly set the axe down4 ,t-,impo was ready to give up his life to re-assert the truth of his deed1 through which the master got hurt4 ,mimicry or simulation was rampant everywhere1 and therefore ,baso wanted to ascertain the genuineness of ,t's understanding of ,zen4 ,when the thing is at stake1 the masters do not hesitate to sacrifice anything4 ,in the case of ,nansen1 a kitten was done away with3 ,kyzan broke a mirror into pieces2 a woman follower of ,zen burned up a whole house2 and another woman threw her baby into a river4 ,this latter was an extreme case1 and perhaps the only one of the kind ever recorded in the history of ,zen4 ,as to minor cases such as mentioned above1 they are plentiful and considered almost matters of course with ,zen masters4 ,,ix ,while ,i have not attempted to be very exhaustive in describing all the different methods of demonstration or rather realisation of the truth of ,zen resorted to by the masters of various schools1 the statements so far made in regard to them1 may suffice to give us at least a glimpse into some of the peculiar features of ,zen ,buddhism4 ,whatever explanations may be given by critics or scholars to the philosophy of ,zen1 we must first of all acquire a new point of view of looking at things1 which is altogether beyond our ordinary sphere of consciousness4 ,rather1 this new viewpoint is gained when we reach the ultimate limits of our understanding1 within which we think we are always bound and unable to break through4 ,most people stop at these limits and are easily persuaded that they cannot go any further4 ,but there are some whose mental vision is able to penetrate this veil of contrasts and contradictions4 ,they gain it abruptly4 ,they beat the wall in utter despair1 and lo1 it unexpectedly gives way and there opens an entirely new world4 ,things hitherto regarded as prosaic and ordinary and even binding are now arranged in quite a novel scheme4 ,the old world of the senses has vanished1 and something entirely new has come to take its place4 ,we seem to be in the same objective surroundings1 but subjectively we are rejuvenated1 we are born again4 ,wu ,tao-tz or ,godoshi was one of the greatest painters of ,china1 and lived in the reign of the ,emperor ,hsan-tsung1 of the ,t#8ang dynasty4 ,his last painting1 according to legend1 was a landscape commissioned by the ,emperor for one of the walls of his palace4 ,the artist concealed the complete work with a curtain till the ,emperor's arrival1 then drawing it aside exposed his vast picture4 ,the ,emperor gazed with admiration on a marvellous scene3 forests1 and great mountains1 and clouds in immense distances of sky1 and men upon the hills1 and birds in flight4 8,look10 said the painter1 8in the cave at the foot of this mountain dwells a spirit40 ,he clapped his hands2 the door at the cave's entrance flew open4 8,the interior is beautiful beyond words10 he continued1 8permit me to show the way40 ,so saying he passed within2 the gate closed after him2 and before the astonished ,emperor could speak or move1 all had faded to white wall before his eyes1 with not a trace of the artist's brush remaining4 ,wu ,tao-tz was seen no more4 ,the artist has disappeared1 and the whole scene has been wiped out2 but from this nothingness there arises a new spiritual world1 abiding in which the ,zen masters perform all kinds of antics1 assert all kinds of absurdities1 and yet they are in perfect accord with the nature of things in which a world moves on stripped of all its falsehoods1 conventions1 simulations1 and intellectual obliquities4 ,unless one gets into this world of realities1 the truth of ,zen will be eternally a sealed book4 ,this is what ,i mean by acquiring a new point of view independent of logic and discursive understanding4 ,emerson expresses the same view in his own characteristic manner3 8,foremost among these activities 7that is1 mathematical combination1 great power of abstraction1 the transmutings of the imagination1 even versatility1 and concentration71 are the somersaults1 spells1 and resurrections1 wrought by the imagination4 ,when this wakes1 a man seems to multiply ten times or a thousand times his force4 ,it opens the delicious sense of indeterminate size1 and inspires an audacious mental habit4 ,we are as elastic as the gas of gunpowder1 and a sentence in a book1 or a word dropped in conversation1 sets free our fancy1 and instantly our heads are bathed with galaxies1 and our feet tread the floor of the pit4 ,and this benefit is real1 because we are entitled to these enlargements1 and1 once having passed the bounds1 shall never again be quite the miserable pedants we were40 ,here is a good illustration of the difference between a 8miserable pedant0 and one who has 8passed the bounds40 ,there was a monk called ,gensoku 7,hsan-ts7#f4gh who was one of the chief officials of the monastery under the ,zen master ,hgen 7,fa-yen71 of the early tenth century4 ,he never came to the master to make inquiries about ,zen2 so the master one day asked him why he did not come4 ,the chief official answered3 8,when ,i was under ,seiho 7,ch#8ing-fng7 ,i got an idea as to the truth of ,zen40 8,what is your understanding then80 demanded the master4 8,when ,i asked my master1 who was the ,buddha1 he said1 ,ping-ting ,t#8ung-ts comes for fire40 8,it is a fine answer10 said ,hgen1 8but probably you misunderstand it4 ,let me see how you take the meaning of it40 8,well10 explained the official1 8,ping-ting is the god of fire2 when he himself comes for fire1 it is like myself1 who1 being a ,buddha from the very beginning1 wants to know who the ,buddha is4 ,no questioning is then needed as ,i am already the ,buddha himself40 8,there60 exclaimed the master1 8,just as ,i thought6 ,you are completely off40 ,soku1 the chief official1 got highly offended because his view was not countenanced and left the monastery4 ,hgen said1 8,if he comes back he may be saved2 if not1 he is lost40 ,soku after going some distance reflected that a master of five hundred monks as ,hgen was would not chide him without cause1 and returned to the old master and expressed his desire to be instructed in ,zen4 ,hgen said1 8,you ask me and ,i will answer40 8,who is the ,buddha80--the question came from the lips of the now penitent monk4 8,ping-ting ,t#8ung-tz comes for fire40 ,this made his eyes open to the truth of ,zen quite different from what he formerly understood of it4 ,he was now no more a second-hand 8pedant0 but a living creative soul4 ,i need not repeat that ,zen refuses to be explained but that it is to be lived4 ,without this1 all talk is nothing but an idea1 woefully inane and miserably unsatisfactory4 ,below is another story illustrating the peculiarity of ,zen understanding as distinguished from our ordinary intellectual understandings which are based on ideas and representations4 ,the same phrase is repeated here as in the preceding case1 and as far as its literal meaning goes1 we have no reason to suppose its producing different effects on the mind of the recipient4 ,but as ,i said elsewhere ,zen is the opening of one's own inner consciousness occasioned by some external incidental happening which may be of purely physical nature but may invoke some mental operation4 ,this opening is therefore something1 we as outsiders not belonging to the inner life of the individual concerned1 have no means to judge beforehand1 we know only when it is opened2 but the masters seem to know when this opening is going to take place and how it is to be brought about from their own experience4 ,students of the psychology of ,zen will here find an interesting problem to investigate4 ,suigan ,kashin 7,ts#8ui-yen ,k#8-chn7#f4gi was a disciple of ,zimyo 7,tz#8u-ming71 #ihf-ajdj1 who was one of the greatest ,sung masters and under whom the ,rinzai school of ,zen was divided into two branches1 ,woryu 7,huang-lung7 and ,yogi 7,yang-ch#8i74#f4hj ,kashin was quite proud of being one of the disciples of the master1 he was not yet really a master himself1 but he thought he was4 ,when he had a talk with another of ,zimyo's disciples1 he was found out and laughed at4 ,when they were having a walk together one day1 they discussed ,zen4 ,his friend picked up a piece of a broken tile and putting it on a flat rock1 said1 8,if you can say a word at this juncture1 ,i will grant your really being ,zimyo's disciple40 ,kashin wavered1 looked this way and that1 trying to make some answer4 ,his friend was impatient1 who broke out1 8,hesitating and wavering1 you have not yet penetrated through illusion1 you have never yet even dreamt as to what the true insight of ,zen is40 ,kashin was thoroughly ashamed of himself4 ,he at once returned to the master who severely reproached him1 saying that he came before the termination of the summer session1 which was against the regulations4 ,full of tears1 he explained how he was taken to task by his fellow-monk and that it was the reason why he was here even against the monastery rules4 ,the master abruptly asked him3 8,what is the fundamental principle of ,buddhism80 ,replied ,kashin1 8,no clouds are gathering over the mountain peaks1 ,and how serenely the moon is reflected on the waves60 ,the master's eyes flashed with indignation1 and he thundered1 8,shame on you6 ,to have such a view for an old seasoned man like you6 ,how can you expect to be delivered from birth-and-death80 ,kashin earnestly implored to be instructed4 ,said the master1 8,you ask me40 ,thereupon he repeated the master's first question1 8,what is the fundamental principle of ,buddhism80 ,the master roared1 8,no clouds are gathering over the mountain peaks1 ,and how serenely the moon is reflected on the waves60 ,this opened ,kashin's eye1 and another man was he after that4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let me conclude with a sermon from ,goso 7,wu-tsu71 of whom mention has already been made3 ,if people ask me what ,zen is like1 ,i will say that it is like learning the art of burglary4 ,the son of a burglar saw his father growing older and thought1 8,if he is unable to carry out his profession1 who will be the bread-winner of this family1 except myself8 ,i must learn the trade40 ,he intimated the idea to his father1 who approved of it4 ,one night the father took the son to a big house1 broke through the fence1 entered the house1 and opening one of the large chests1 told the son to go in and pick out the clothings4 ,as soon as he got into it1 the lid was dropped and the lock securely applied4 ,the father now came out to the courtyard1 and loudly knocking at the door woke up the whole family1 whereas he himself quietly slipped away from the former hole in the fence4 ,the residents got excited and lighted candles1 but found that the burglars had already gone4 ,the son who remained all the time in the chest securely confined thought of his cruel father4 ,he was greatly mortified1 when a fine idea flashed upon him4 ,he made a noise which sounded like the gnawing of a rat4 ,the family told the maid to take a candle and examine the chest4 ,when the lid was unlocked1 out came the prisoner1 who blew out the light1 pushed away the maid1 and fled4 ,the people ran after him4 ,noticing a well by the road1 he picked up a large stone and threw it into the water4 ,the pursuers all gathered around the well trying to find the burglar drowning himself in the dark hole4 ,in the meantime he was safely back in his father's house4 ,he blamed him very much for his narrow escape4 ,said the father1 8,be not offended1 my son4 ,just tell me how you got off40 ,when the son told him all about his adventures1 the father remarked1 8,there you are1 you have learned the art60 ,,the ,,meditation ,,hall1 ,,and ,,the ,,ideals ,,of ,,the ,,monkish ,,discipline ,,the ,,meditation ,,hall1 ,,and ,,the ,,ideals ,,of ,,the ,,monkish ,,discipline ,i4 ,to get a glimpse into the practical and disciplinary side of ,zen1 we have to study the institution known as the ,meditation ,hall4 ,it is an educational system quite peculiar to the ,zen sect4 ,most of the main monasteries belonging to this sect are provided with ,meditation ,halls1 and in the life of the ,zen monk more than anywhere else we are reminded of that of the ,buddhist ,brotherhood 7,sagha7 in ,india4 ,this system was founded by the ,chinese ,zen ,master1 ,hyakujo 7,pai-chang1 #gbj-had71 more than one thousand years ago4 ,until his time the monks used to live in monasteries belonging to the ,vinaya sect1 which were governed by a spirit not quite in accordance with the principles of ,zen4 ,as the latter grew more and more flourishing and its followers kept on increasing in number and in influence1 there was need for its own institution1 exclusively devoted to the promotion of its objects4 ,according to ,hyakujo1 the ,zen monasteries were to be neither ,hinayanistic nor ,mahayanistic1 but they were to unite the disciplinary methods of both schools in a new and original manner1 best suited to the realisation of the ,zen ideals1 as they were conceived by the masters of the earlier days4 ,the original book compiled by ,hyakujo giving detailed regulations of the ,zen monastery was lost4 ,the one we have now was compiled during the ,yan dynasty from the actual life in the monastery at the time1 which was then supposed to be a faithful continuation of the old institution though naturally with some modifications and transformations due to historical exigencies4 ,this book was compiled under the auspices of the reigning ,emperor ,shuu1 and is known as 8,the ,imperial ,edition of the ,regulations in the ,zen ,monastery40#g4a ,in ,japan the ,zen monasteries have never been established on such a grand scale as in ,china1 and as the result all the regulations as detailed in the ,imperial ,edition were not practised4 ,but their spirit and all that was applicable to ,japanese life and conditions were adopted4 ,the ideals of ,zen life were never lost sight of anywhere4 ,and before ,i proceed further ,i wish to speak briefly of one of such ideals set before the eyes of all ,zen students1 for it is really the most important and noteworthy feature in the monastery life of ,zen4 ,it is indeed this that distinguishes ,zen from the other ,buddhist schools originated in ,china1 and is to be considered most characteristically ,zen and at the same time animating its long history4 ,by this ,i mean the notion of work or service4 ,hyakujo left a famous saying which was the guiding principle of his life and is pre-eminently the spirit of the ,meditation ,hall4 ,it is this3 8,no work1 no eating40 ,when he was thought by his devoted disciples too old to work in the garden1 which was his daily occupation besides lecturing and educating the monks in ,zen1 they hid all his garden implements1 as he would not listen to their repeated oral remonstrances4 ,he then refused to eat1 saying1 8,no work1 no eating40 ,at all the ,meditation ,halls work is thus considered a vital element in the life of a monk4 ,it is altogether a practical one and chiefly consists in manual labour1 such as sweeping1 cleaning1 cooking1 fuel-gathering1 tilling the farm1 or going about begging in the villages far and near4 ,no work is considered beneath their dignity1 and a perfect feeling of brotherhood and democracy prevails among them4 ,how hard1 or how mean from the ordinary point of view a work may be1 they will not shun it4 ,they believe in the sanctity of manual labour4 ,they keep themselves busy in every way they can2 they are no idlers as some of the so-called monks or mendicants are1 physically at least1 as in ,india for instance4 ,we can see in this sanctification of work the practical attitude of the ,chinese mind well reflected4 ,when ,i said that ,zen was the ,chinese interpretation of the doctrine of ,enlightenment1 the ,zen conception of work did not essentially or theoretically enter into my conclusion4 ,but from the practical point of view work is such an integral part of the ,zen life now that the one cannot be conceived as independent of the other4 ,in ,india the monks are mendicants2 when they meditate they retire into a quiet corner from worldly cares2 and inasmuch as they are supported economically by their secular devotees1 they do not propose to work in any menial employment such as ,chinese and ,japanese ,zen monks are used to4 ,what saved ,zen ,buddhism from deteriorating into quietism or mere intellectual gymnastics1 which was more or less the fate befalling other schools of ,buddhism1 was surely due to the gospel of work4 ,apart from its psychological value1 it proved an efficient agency in preserving the health and sanity of ,zen ,buddhism throughout its long history of growth4 ,whatever may be this historical importance of work1 ,hyakujo must have had a profound knowledge of human psychology when he made work the ruling spirit of the monastery life4 ,his idea of 8,no work1 no eating0f#accg4b did not necessarily originate from an economic or ethical valuation of life4 ,his sole motive was not that nobody deserved his daily bread if he did not earn it with the sweat of his face4 ,true1 there is a virtue in not eating the bread of idleness1 and there have been so many ,buddhists since the early days of ,buddhism1 who thought it a most disgraceful thing to be living on others' earnings and savings1 ,hyakujo's object1 while it might have been unconsciously conceived1 was more psychological in spite of his open declaration1 8,no work1 no eating40 ,it was to save his monks from a mental inactivity or an unbalanced development of mind which too often results from the meditative habit of the monkish life4 ,when the muscles are not exercised for the execution of spiritual truths1 or when the mind and body is not put to practical test1 the severance generally issues in inimical results4 ,as the philosophy of ,zen is to transcend the dualistic conception of flesh and spirit1 its practical application will naturally be1 dualistically speaking1 to make the nerves and muscles the most ready and absolutely obedient servants of the mind1 and not to make us say that the spirit is truly ready but the flesh is weak4 ,whatever religious truths of this latter statement1 psychologically it comes from the lack of a ready channel between mind and muscles4 ,unless the hands are habitually trained to do the work of the brain1 the blood ceases to circulate evenly all over the body1 it grows congested somewhere1 especially in the brain4 ,the result will be not only an unsound condition of the body in general but a state of mental torpidity or drowsiness1 in which ideas are presented as if they were wafting clouds4 ,one is wide awake and yet the mind is filled with the wildest dreams and visions which are not at all related to realities of life4 ,fantasies are fatal to ,zen1 and those who practise ,zen considering it a form of meditation are too apt to be visited upon by this insidious enemy4 ,hyakujo's insistence upon manual work has saved ,zen from falling into the pitfalls of antinomianism as well as a hallucinatory mode of mind4 ,apart from these psychological considerations1 there is a moral reason which ought not to escape attention in our estimate of ,hyakujo's wisdom in instituting work as a vital part of ,zen life4 ,for the soundness of ideas must be tested finally by their practical application4 ,when they fail in this1 that is1 when they cannot be carried out in everyday life producing lasting harmony and satisfaction and giving real beneficence to all concerned1--to oneself as well as to others1 no ideas can be said to be sound and practical4 ,while physical force is no standard to judge the value of ideas1 the latter1 however logically consistent1 have no reality when they are not joined to life4 ,especially in ,zen abstract ideas that do not convince one in practical living are of no value whatever4 ,conviction must be gained through experience and not through abstraction1 which means that conviction has no really solid basis except when it can be tested in our acting efficient life4 ,moral assertion or 8bearing witness0 ought to be over and above an intellectual judgment1 that is to say1 the truth must be the product of ones' living experiences4 ,an idle reverie is not their business1 the ,zen followers will insist4 ,they1 of course1 sit quiet and practise 8zazen0f#acdg4c2 for they want to reflect on whatever lessons they have gained while working4 ,but as they are against chewing the cud all the time1 they put in action whatever reflections they have made during hours of quiet-sitting and test their validity in the vital field of practicality4 ,it is my strong conviction that if ,zen did not put faith in acting its ideas1 the institution would have long before this sunk into a mere somniferous and trance-inducing system1 so that all the treasure thoughtfully hoarded by the masters in ,china and ,japan would have been cast away as heaps of rotten stuff4 ,perhaps unwittingly supported by these reasons1 the value of work or service has been regarded by all ,zen followers as one of their religious ideals4 ,no doubt the idea was greatly enforced by the characteristic industry and practicalness of the ,chinese people by whom ,zen was mainly elaborated4 ,the fact is that if there is any one thing that is most emphatically insisted upon by the ,zen masters as the practical expression of their faith1 it is serving others1 doing work for others1 not ostentatiously indeed but secretly1 without making others know of it4 ,says ,eckhart1 8,what a man takes in by contemplation he must pour out in love40 ,zen would say1 8pour it out in work10 meaning by work the active and concrete realisation of love4 ,tauler made spinning and shoe-making and other homely duties gifts of the ,holy ,ghost2 ,brother ,lawrence made cooking sacramental2 ,george ,herbert wrote3 8,who sweeps a room as to thy laws ,makes that and the action fine40 ,these are all expressive of the spirit of ,zen1 as far as its practical side is concerned4 ,mystics are thus all practical men1 they are far from being visionaries whose souls are too absorbed in things unearthly or of the other-world to be concerned with their daily life4 ,the common notion that mystics are dreamers and star-gazers ought to be corrected1 as it has no foundation in facts4 ,indeed1 psychologically1 there is a most intimate and profound relationship between a practical turn of mind and a certain type of mysticism2 the relationship is not merely conceptual or metaphysical4 ,if mysticism is true1 its truth must be a practical one verifying itself in every act of ours1 and1 most decidedly1 not a logical one1 to be true only in our dialectics4 ,sings a ,zen poet known as ,h-kji3f#aceg4d 8,how wondrously supernatural1 ,and how miraculous1 this6 ,i draw water1 and ,i carry fuel60#g4e ,,ii ,the ,meditation ,hall#g4f 7,zendo in ,japanese and ,ch#8an ,t#8ang in ,chinese71 as it is built in ,japan1 is generally a rectangular building of various size according to the number of monks to be accommodated4 ,one at ,engakuji1f#acf ,kamakura1 was about #cf feet by #fe feet4 ,the floors about eight feet wide and three feet high are raised along the longer sides of the building1 and an empty space is left in the middle throughout the entire length of the ,hall4 ,this space is used for practising an exercise known as 8kinhin0#g4g 7ching-hsing7 which means literally 8sutra-walking40 ,the space allotted to each monk on the tatami floor does not exceed one mat1 three by six feet1 where he sits1 meditates1 and sleeps at night4 ,the bedding for each is never more than one large wadded quilt1 summer or winter4 ,he has no regular pillow except that which is temporarily made up by himself out of his own private possessions4 ,these latter1 however1 are next to nothing3 for they are kesa 7kashya in ,sanskrit7 and koromo 7priestly robe71 a few books1 a razor1 and a set of bowls1 all of which are put up in a box about three by ten by three and a half inches large4 ,in travelling this box is carried in front supported with a sash about the neck4 ,the entire property thus moves with the owner4 8,one dress and one bowl1 under a tree and on a stone10#g4h was the graphical description of the monkish life in ,india4 ,compared with this1 the modern ,zen monk must be said to be abundantly supplied4 ,still his wants are reduced to a minimum and no one can fail to lead a simple1 perhaps the simplest1 life if he models his after that of the ,zen monk4 ,the desire to possess is considered by ,buddhism to be one of the worst passions mortals are apt to be obsessed with4 ,what in fact causes so much misery in the world is due to a strong impulse of acquisitiveness4 ,as power is desired1 the strong always tyrannise over the weak3 as wealth is coveted1 the rich and poor are always crossing their swords of bitter enmity4 ,international wars rage1 social unrest ever goes on1 unless the impulse to have and hold is completely uprooted4 ,cannot a society be reorganised upon an entirely different basis from what we have been used to see from the beginning of history8 ,cannot we ever hope to stop the amassing of wealth and the wielding of power merely from the desire for individual or national aggrandisement8 ,despairing of the utter irrationality of human affairs1 the ,buddhist monks have gone to the other extreme and cut themselves off even from reasonable and perfectly innocent enjoyments of life4 ,however1 the ,zen ideal of putting up the monk's belongings in a tiny box a little larger than a foot square and three inches high1 is their mute protest1 though so far ineffective1 against the present order of society4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in this connection it will be of interest to read the admonition left by ,daito the ,national ,teacher 7#abhb-accg71g4i to his disciples4 ,he was the founder of ,daitokuji1 ,kyoto1 in #acbf1 and is said to have spent about one-third of his life which was not a very long one1 among the lowest layers of society under the ,gojo bridge1 begging his food1 doing all kinds of menial work1 and despised by the so-called respectable people of the world4 ,he did not care for the magnificence of a prosperous and highly-honoured temple life led by most ,buddhist priests of those days1 nor did he think much of those pious and sanctimonious deeds that only testify to the superficiality of their religious life4 ,he was for the plainest living and the highest thinking4 ,the admonition reads3 8,o you1 monks1 who are here in this mountain monastery1 remember that you are gathered for the sake of the religion and not for the sake of clothes and food4 ,as long as we have shoulders that is1 the body1 we have to wear clothes1 and as long as we have a mouth1 we have to eat2 but be ever mindful1 throughout the twelve hours of the day1 to apply yourselves to the study of the ,unthinkable4 ,time passes like an arrow1 never let your minds be disturbed by worldly cares4 ,ever1 ever be on the look-out4 ,after my wandering away1 some of you may have fine temples in prosperous conditions1 towers and halls and holy books all decorated in gold and silver1 and devotees may noisily crowd into the grounds2 some may pass hours in reading the ,sutras and reciting dharanis1 and sitting long in contemplation1 may not give themselves up to sleep2 they may1 eating once a day and observing the fastdays1 and1 throughout the six periods of the day1 practise all the religious deeds4 ,even when they are thus devoted to the cause1 if their thoughts are not really dwelling on the mysterious and intransmissible ,way of the ,buddhas and ,fathers1 they may yet come to ignore the law of moral causation1 ending in a complete downfall of the true religion4 ,such all belong to the family of evil spirits2 however long my departure from the world may be1 they are not to be called my descendants4 ,let however there be just one individual1 who may be living in the wilderness in a hut thatched with one bundle of straw and passing his days by eating the roots of wild vegetables cooked in a pot with broken legs2 but if he single-mindedly applies himself to the study of his own spiritual affairs1 he is the very one who has a daily interview with me and knows to be grateful for his life4 ,who should ever despise such a one8 ,o monks1 be diligent1 be diligent40f#acg ,in ,india1 the ,buddhist monks never eat in the afternoon4 ,they properly eat only once a day as their breakfast is no breakfast in the sense that an ,english or ,american breakfast is4 ,so1 the ,zen monks too are not supposed to have any meal in the evening4 ,but the climatic necessity in ,china and ,japan could not be ignored1 and they have an evening meal after a fashion2 but to ease their conscience it is called 8medicinal food0 7yeh-shih74#g4aj ,the breakfast which is taken very early in the morning while it is still dark1 consists of rice gruel and pickled vegetables 7tsukemono74 ,the principal meal at #aj a4m4 is rice 7or rice mixed with barley71 vegetable soup1 and pickles4 ,in the afternoon1 at four1 they have only what is left of the dinner--no special cooking is done4 ,unless they are invited out or given an extra treatment at the house of some generous patrons1 their meals are such as above described1 year in year out4 ,poverty and simplicity is their motto4 ,one ought not1 however1 to consider asceticism the ideal life of ,zen4 ,as far as the ultimate signification of ,zen is concerned1 it is neither asceticism nor any other ethical system4 ,if it appears to advocate either the doctrine of suppression or that of detachment1 the supposed fact is merely on the surface2 for ,zen as a school of ,buddhism more or less inherits the odium of a ,hindu discipline4 ,the central idea1 however1 of the monkish life is not to waste1 but to make the best possible use of things as they are given us1 which is also the spirit of ,buddhism in general4 ,in truth1 the intellect1 imagination1 and all other mental faculties as well as the physical objects surrounding us1 our own bodies not excepted1 are given us for the unfolding and enhancing of the highest powers possessed by us as spiritual entities and not merely for the gratification of our individual whims or desires1 which are sure to conflict with and injure the interests and rights asserted by others4 ,these are some of the inner ideas underlying the simplicity and poverty of the monkish life4 ,,iii ,as there is something to be regarded as peculiarly ,zen in the table manners of the monks1 some description of them will be given here4 ,at meal times a gong is struck1 and the monks come out of the ,meditation ,hall in procession carrying their own bowls to the dining room4 ,the low tables are laid there all bare4 ,they sit when the leader rings the bell4 ,the bowls are set1--which by the way are made of wood or paper and well lacquered4 ,a set consists of four or five dishes1 one inside the other4 ,as they are arranging the dishes and the waiting monks go around to serve the soup and rice1 the ,praj-pramit-hidaya-straf#ach is recited followed by the 8,five ,meditations0 on eating1 which are3 8,first1 of what worth am ,i8 ,whence is this offering8 ,secondly1 accepting this offering1 ,i must reflect on the deficiency of my virtue4 ,thirdly1 to guard over my own heart1 to keep myself away from faults such as covetousness1 etc41--this is the essential thing4 ,fourthly1 this food is taken as good medicine in order to keep the body in a healthy condition4 ,fifthly1 to ensure spiritual attainment this food is accepted40 ,after these 8,meditations10 they continue to think about the essence of ,buddhism3 8,the first mouthful is to cut off all evils2 the second mouthful is to practise every good2 the third mouthful is to save all sentient beings so that everybody will finally attain to ,buddhahood40 ,they are now ready to take up their chop-sticks1 but before they actually partake of the sumptuous dinner1 the demons or spirits living somewhere in the triple world are remembered2 and each monk taking out about seven grains from his own bowl1 offers them to those unseen1 saying1 8,o you1 demons and other spiritual beings1 ,i now offer this to you1 and may this food fill up the ten quarters of the world and all the demons and other spiritual beings be fed therewith40 ,while eating quietude prevails4 ,the dishes are handled noiselessly1 no word is uttered1 no conversation goes on4 ,eating is a serious affair with them4 ,when a second bowl of rice is wanted1 the monk folds his hands before him4 ,the monk-waiter notices it1 comes round with the rice-receptacle called ohachi1 and sits before the hungry one4 ,the latter takes up his bowl and lightly passes his hand around the bottom before it is handed to the waiter4 ,he means by this to take off whatever dirt that may have attached itself to the bowl and that is likely to soil the hand of the serving monk4 ,while the bowl is filled1 the eater keeps his hands folded4 ,if he does not want so much1 he gently rubs the hands against each other1 which means 8,enough1 thank you40 ,nothing is to be left when the meal is finished4 ,the monks eat up all that is served them1 8gathering up of the fragments that remain40 ,this is their religion4 ,after a fourth helping of rice1 the meal generally comes to an end4 ,the leader claps the wooden blocks and the serving monks bring hot water4 ,each diner fills the largest bowl with it1 and in it all the smaller dishes are neatly washed1 and wiped with a piece of cloth which each monk carries4 ,now a wooden pail goes around to receive the slops4f#aci ,each monk gathers up his dishes and wraps them up once more1 saying1 8,i have now finished eating1 and my physical body is well nourished3 ,i feel as if my will-power would shake the ten quarters of the world and dominate over the past1 present1 and future3 turning both the cause and the effect over to the general welfare of all beings1 may we all unfailingly gain in powers miraculous60 ,the tables are now empty as before except those rice grains offered to the spiritual beings at the beginning of the meal4 ,the wooden blocks are clapped1 thanks are given1 and the monks leave the room in orderly procession as they came in4 ,,iv ,their industry is proverbial4 ,when the day is not set for study at home1 they are generally seen1 soon after breakfast1 about half past five in summer and about half past six in winter1 out in the monastery grounds1 or in the neighbouring villages for begging1 or tilling the farm attached to the ,zendo4 ,they keep the monastery1 inside as well as outside1 in perfect order4 ,when we sometimes say1 8,this is like a ,zen monastery10 it means that the place is kept in the neatest possible order4 ,when begging they go miles away4 ,commonly1 attached to a ,zendo there are some patrons whose houses the monks regularly visit and get a supply of rice or vegetables4 ,we often see them along the country road pulling a cart loaded with pumpkins or potatoes4 ,they work as hard as ordinary labourers4 ,they sometimes go to the woods to gather kindlings or fuel4 ,they know something of agriculture too4 ,as they have to support themselves in these ways1 they are at once farmers1 labourers1 and skilled workmen4 ,for they often build their own ,meditation ,hall under the direction of an architect4 ,these monks are a self-governing body4 ,they have their own cooks1 proctors1 managers1 sextons1 masters of ceremony1 etc4 ,in the days of ,hyakujo there seem to have been ten such offices1 though the details are not now known due to the loss of his ,regulations4 ,while the master or teacher of a ,zendo is its soul1 he is not directly concerned with its government4 ,this is left to the senior members of the community1 whose character has been tested through many years of discipline4 ,when the principles of ,zen are discussed1 one may marvel at their deep and subtle metaphysics1 if there is any1 and imagine what a serious1 pale-faced1 head-drooping1 and world-forgetting group of thinkers these monks are4 ,but in their actual life they are after all common mortals engaged in menial work1 but they are cheerful1 cracking jokes1 willing to help one another1 and despising no work which is usually considered low and not worthy of an educated hand4 ,the spirit of ,hyakujo is ever manifest among them4 ,it was not only the monks that worked but the master himself shared their labour4 ,this was according to ,hyakujo to co-operate in and equalise the work among all concerned without distinction of rank4#g4aa ,therefore1 the master together with his disciples tilled the farm1 planted trees1 weeded the garden1 picked tea-leaves1 and was engaged in all other kinds of manual work4 ,making use of such opportunities he gave them practical lessons in the study of ,zen1 and the disciples too did not fail to appreciate his instructions4 ,when ,jshu was sweeping the courtyard1 a monk asked him1 8,how does a speck of dust come into this holy ground80 ,to this ,jshu answered1 8,here comes another60 ,on another occasion1 when the master was found again sweeping the ground1 ,liu1 minister of state1 paid a visit to the temple1 and said to the master-gardener1 8,how is it that a great wise man like you has to sweep off the dust80 8,it comes from the outside10f#adjg4ab replied ,jshu4 ,when ,nansen was working out-doors with his monks1#g4ac ,jshu who was told to watch over a fire suddenly cried out1 8,fire6 ,fire60 ,the alarm made all the monks rush back to the dormitory hall4 ,seeing this1 ,jshu closed the gate and declared1 8,if you could say a word1 the doors would be opened40 ,the monks did not know what to say4 ,nansen1 the master1 however1 threw the key into the hall through a window4 ,thereupon1 ,jshu flung open the gate4 ,while working on the farm a monk happened to cut an earth-worm in twain with his spade whereupon he asked the master ,chsa 7,chang-sha ,ch#8n71 8,the earth-worm is#g4ad cut in twain and both parts are still wriggling3 in which of them is the ,buddha-nature present80 ,the master said1 8,have no illusion60 ,but the monk insisted1 8,i cannot help this wriggling1 sir40 8,don't you see that fire and air elements have not yet been dispersed80 ,when ,shiko 7,tz-hu7 and ,shk 7,shng-kuang7#g4ae were out gardening1 a similar thing happened1 and ,shk asked the master concerning the real life of the earthworm4 ,without answering him1 the master took up the rake1 first struck the one end of the worm1 then the other1 and finally the space between the two4 ,he then threw down the rake and went away4 ,one day baku was weeding with a hoe1 and seeing ,rinzai without one asked1 8,how is it that you do not carry any hoe80 ,answered ,rinzai1 8,somebody has carried it away1 sir40 ,thereupon1 baku told him to come forward as he wanted to discuss the matter with him4 ,rinzai stepped forward4 ,said baku1 lifting his hoe1 8,only this1 but all the world's unable to hold it up40 ,rinzai took the hoe away from the master1 and lifted it up1 saying1 8,how is it that it is now in my own hands80 baku remarked1 8,here is a man doing a great piece of work to-day60 ,he then returned to his own room4#g4af ,another day1 observing ,rinzai resting on a hoe1 baku said to him1 8,are you tired80 ,rinzai replied1 8,i have not even lifted my hoe1 and how should ,i be tired80 baku then struck him1 who1 however1 snatching the stick away from the master1 pushed him down4 baku called out to the ,yino 7karmadna7 to help him up from the ground4 ,the ,yino responded to the call and helped up the master1 saying1 8,why do you permit this crazy fellow's rudeness80 ,as soon as the master was again on his feet1 he struck the ,yino4 ,rinzai then began to dig the earth and made this announcement1 8,in other places they cremate1 but here you will all be buried alive40#g4ag ,the story of ,isan and ,kyzan while they were out picking tea leaves has already been told in one of the preceding ,essays4 ,zen history indeed abounds with such incidents as here referred to1 showing how the masters try to discipline their pupils on every possible occasion4 ,the events of daily life manifestly trivial on the surface1 thus handled by the masters1 grow full of signification4 ,at any rate all these 8mondoes0 most eloquently illustrate the whole trend of the monastery life in olden days1 where the spirit of work and service was so thoroughly and harmoniously blended with the high thinking on matters deeply spiritual4 ,v ,the monks thus develop their faculties all round4 ,they receive no literary1 that is1 formal education which is gained mostly from books and abstract instruction4 ,but their discipline and knowledge are practical and efficient2 for the basic principle of the ,zendo life is 8learning by doing40 ,they despise the so-called soft education which is like those predigested foods meant for the convalescent4 ,when a lioness gives birth to her children1 it is proverbially believed that after three days she will push them down over a deep precipice and see if they can climb up to her4 ,those that fail to come out of this trial are not taken care of any more4 ,whether this is true or not1 something like that is aimed at by the ,zen master who will treat the monks with every manner of seeming unkindness4 ,the monks have not enough clothes to put on1 not enough food to indulge in1 not enough time to sleep1 and1 to cap these1 they have plenty of work to do1 menial as well as spiritual4 ,the outer needs and the inward aspirations1 if they work on harmoniously and ideally1 will finally end in producing fine characters well-trained in ,zen as well as in the real things of life4 ,this unique system of education which is still going on at every ,zendo is not so well known among the laity even in this country4 ,and then the merciless tides of modern commercialism leave no corner uninvaded1 and before long the solitary island of ,zen may be found buried1 as everything else1 under the waves of sordid materialism4 ,the monks themselves are beginning not to understand the great spirit of the successive masters4 ,though there are some things in the monastic education which may be improved1 its highly religious and reverential feeling must be preserved if ,zen is at all to live for many years yet to come4 ,theoretically1 the philosophy of ,zen transcends the whole range of discursive understanding and is not bound by rules of antithesis4 ,but this is very slippery ground1 and there are many who fail to walk erect4 ,when they stumble1 the result is sometimes disastrous4 ,like some of the ,medieval mystics1 the ,zen students may turn into libertines1 losing all control over themselves4 ,history is a witness to this1 and psychology can readily explain the process of such degeneration4 ,therefore1 says a ,zen master1 8,let one's ideal rise as high as the crown of ,vairochana1 7the highest divinity71 while his life may be so full of humility as to make him prostrate before a baby's feet40#g4ah ,which is to say1 8if any man desire to be first the same shall be last of all1 and servant of all40 ,therefore1 the monastery life is minutely regulated and all the details are enforced in strict obedience to the spirit already referred to4 ,humility1 poverty1 and inner sanctification--these ideals of ,zen are what saves ,zen from sinking into the level of the ,medieval antinomians4 ,thus we can see how the ,zendo discipline plays a great part in the teachings of ,zen and their practical application to our daily life4 ,when ,tanka#g4ai 7,tan-hsia ,t#8ien-jan1 #gch-hbd7 of the ,t#8ang dynasty stopped at ,yerinji of the ,capital1 it was so severely cold that he finally took one of the ,buddha-images enshrined there and made a fire with it in order to warm himself4 ,the keeper of the shrine seeing this was greatly exercised4 8,how dare you burn up my wooden ,buddha80 ,said ,tanka who looked as if searching for something with his stick in the ashes1 8,i am gathering the holy arasf#ada in the burnt ashes40 8,how10 said the keeper1 8could you get aras by burning a wooden ,buddha80 8,if there are no aras to be found in it1 may ,i have the remaining two ,buddhas for my fire80 retorted ,tanka4 ,the shrine-keeper later lost his eye-brows for remonstrating against the apparent impiety of ,tanka1 while the ,buddha's wrath never was visited upon the latter4 ,though one may doubt its historical occurrence1 this is a notable story1 and all the ,zen masters agree as to the higher spiritual attainment of the ,buddha-desecrating ,tanka4 ,when later a monk asked a master#g4bj about ,tanka's idea of burning a ,buddha's statue1 said the master1 8,when cold1 we sit around the hearth with burning fire40 8,was he then at fault or not80 8,when hot1 we go to the bamboo grove by the stream10 this was the answer4 ,i cannot help quoting another comment on the story as this is one of the most significant subjects in the study of ,zen4 ,when ,suibi ,mugaku 7,ts#8uiwei ,wu-hsiao7#g4ba1 a disciple of ,tanka1 was making offerings to the ,arhats1 probably carved in wood1 a monk came up and asked1 8,tanka burned a wooden ,buddha and how is it that you make offerings to the ,arhats80 ,the master said1 8,even when it was burned1 it could not be burned up2 and as to my making offerings1 just leave me alone as ,i please40 8,when these offerings are made to the ,arhats1 would they come to receive them1 or not80 8,do you eat everyday1 or not80 the master demanded4 ,as the monk remained silent1 the master declared1 8,intelligent ones are hard to be met with60 ,whatever the merit of ,tanka from the purely ,zen-point of view1 there is no doubt that such deeds as his are to be regarded as highly sacrilegious and to be avoided by all pious ,buddhists4 ,those who have not yet gained a thorough understanding of ,zen may go all lengths to commit every manner of crime and excess1 even in the name of ,zen4 ,for this reason1 the regulations of the monastery are very rigid that pride of heart may depart and the cup of humility be drunk to the dregs4 ,when ,shuk 7,chu-hung7#g4bb of the ,ming dynasty was writing a book on the ten laudable deeds of a monk1 one of those high-spirited1 self-assertive fellows came to him1 saying1 8,what is the use of writing such a book when in ,zen there is not even an atom of thing to be called laudable or not80 ,the writer answered1 8,the five aggregates 7skandha7 are entangling1 and the four elements 7mahbhta7 grow rampant1 and how can you say there are no evils80 ,the monk still insisted1 8,the four elements are ultimately all empty and the five aggregates have no reality whatever40 ,shuk1 giving him a slap on his face1 said1 8,so many are mere learned ones2 you are not the real thing yet2 give me another answer40 ,but the monk made no answer and went off filled with angry feelings4 8,there10 said the master smilingly1 8why don't you wipe the dirt off your own face80 ,in the study of ,zen1 the power of an all-illuminating insight must go hand in hand with a deep sense of humility and meekness of heart4 ,let me cite1 as one instance of teaching humility1 the experience which a new monk-applicant is first made to go through when he first approaches the ,meditation ,hall4 ,the applicant may come duly equipped with certificates of his qualifications and with his monkish paraphernalia consisting of such articles are already mentioned1 but the ,zendo authorities will not admit him at once into their company4 ,generally1 some formal excuse will be found3 they may tell him that their establishment is not rich enough to take in another monk1 or that the ,hall is already too full4 ,if the applicant quietly retires with this1 there will be no place for him anywhere1 not only in that particular ,zendo which was his first choice1 but in any other ,zendo throughout the land4 ,for he will meet a similar refusal everywhere4 ,if he wants to study ,zen at all1 he ought not to be discouraged by any such excuse as that4 ,the persistent applicant will now seat himself at the entrance porch1 and1 putting his head down on the box which he carries in front of him1 calmly1 wait there4 ,sometimes a strong morning or evening sun shines right over the recumbent monk on the porch1 but he keeps on in this attitude without stirring4 ,when the dinner hour comes1 he asks to be admitted in and fed4 ,this is granted1 for no ,buddhist monasteries will refuse food and lodging to a travelling monk4 ,after eating1 however1 the novice goes out again on the porch and continues his petition for admittance4 ,no attention will be paid to him until the evening when he asks for lodging4 ,this being granted as before1 he takes off his travelling sandals1 washes his feet1 and is ushered into a room reserved for such purposes4 ,but most frequently he finds no bedding there1 for a ,zen monk is supposed to pass his night in deep meditation4 ,he sits upright all night evidently absorbed in the contemplation of a 8k-an40f#adbg4bc ,in the following morning he goes out as on the previous day to the entrance hall and resumes the same posture as before expressive of an urgent desire to be admitted4 ,this may go on three or five or sometimes even seven days4 ,the patience and humility of the new applicant are tried thus hard until finally he will be taken in by the authorities1 who1 apparently moved by his earnestness and perseverance1 will try somehow to accommodate him4 ,this procedure is growing somewhat a formal affair1 but in olden days when things were not yet settled into a mere routine1 the applicant monk had quite a hard time1 for he would actually be driven out of the monastery by force4 ,we read in the biographies of the old masters of still harder treatments which were mercilessly dealt out to them4 ,the ,meditation ,hall is regulated with militaristic severity and precision to cultivate such virtues as humility1 obedience1 simplicity1 and earnestness in the monkish hearts that are ever prone to follow indiscriminately the extraordinary examples of the old masters1 or that are liable to put in practice in a crude and undigested manner the high doctrines of a nyat philosophy such as is expounded in the ,praj-pramit class of ,mahayana literature4 ,a partial glimpse of such life we have already gained in the description of the table manners as above4 ,,vi ,there is a period in the monastic life1 exclusively set apart for mental discipline1 and not interrupted by any manual labour except such as is absolutely needed4 ,it is known as great 8,sesshin0 7,ch-hsin7f#adcg4bd and lasts a week1 taking place once a month during the season called the 8,summer ,sojourn0 and the 8,winter ,sojourn40 ,the summer sojourn begins in ,april and ends in ,august1 while the winter one begins in ,october and ends in ,february4 8,sesshin0 means 8collecting or concentrating the mind40 ,while this period is lasting1 the monks are confined at the ,zendo1 get up earlier than usual1 and sit further into the night4 ,there is a kind of lecture every day during the period4 ,text books are used1 the most popular of which are ,the ,hekiganshu and ,rinzairoku1#g4be the two being considered the most fundamental books of the ,rinzai ,school4 ,the ,rinzairoku is a collection of sermons and sayings of the founder of the ,rinzai ,zen sect4 ,the ,hekiganshu1 as has been noted elsewhere1 is a collection of one hundred ,zen 8cases0 or 8themes0 with critical annotations and poetical comments4 ,it goes without saying that there are many other books used for the occasion4 ,to an ordinary reader1 such books generally are a sort of obscurum per obscurius4 ,after listening to a series of lectures1 he is left in the lurch as ever4 ,not necessarily that they are too abstruse1 but that the reader is still wanting in insight into the truth of ,zen4 ,the lecture is a solemn affair4 ,its beginning is announced by a bell1 which stops ringing as soon as the master appears in the hall where what is known as 8,teisho0f#addg4bf takes place4 ,while the master is offering incense to the ,buddha and to his departed master1 the monks recite a short dharani-stra called ,daihiju1f#ade which means 8the dharani of great compassion40 ,being a ,chinese transliteration of the ,sanskrit original1 mere recitation of the ,sutra does not give any intelligent sense4 ,probably the sense is not essential in this case1 the assurance is sufficient that it contains something auspicious and conducive to spiritual welfare4 ,what is more significant is the way in which it is recited4 ,its monotone punctuated with a wooden time-keeper known as 8mokugyo10 7,wooden ,fish71 prepares the mind of the audience for the coming event4 ,after the ,dharani which is recited three times the monks read in chorus generally the exhortatory sermon left by the founder of the monastery4 ,in some places nowadays ,hakuin's 8,song of ,zazen0 is often chanted4 ,the following are translations of ,hakuin and of ,mus ,kokushi1f#adf whose last exhortatory sermon is one of the most popular4 ,muso ,kokushi's ,exhortatory ,sermon#g4bg ,i have three kinds of disciples3 those who1 vigorously shaking off all entangling circumstances1 and with singleness of thought apply themselves to the study of their own spiritual affairs are of the first class4 ,those who are not so single-minded in the study1 but scattering their attention are fond of book-learning1 are of the second4 ,those who1 covering their own spiritual brightness1 are only occupied with the dribblings of the ,buddhas and ,fathers are called the lowest4 ,as to those minds that are intoxicated by secular literature and engaged in establishing themselves as men of letters are simply laymen with shaven heads1 they do not belong even to the lowest4 ,as regards those who think only of indulging in food and sleep and give themselves up to indolence1--could such be called members of the ,black ,robe8 ,they are truly1 as were designated by an old master1 clothes-racks and rice-bags4 ,inasmuch as they are not monks1 they ought not to be permitted to call themselves my disciples and enter the monastery and sub-temples as well1 even a temporary sojourn is to be prohibited1 not to speak of their application as student-monks4 ,when an old man like myself speaks thus1 you may think he is lacking in all-embracing love1 but the main thing is to let them know of their own faults1 and1 reforming themselves1 to become growing plants in the patriarchal gardens4 ,hakuin's ,song of ,meditation#g4bh ,all sentient beings are from the very beginning the ,buddhas3 ,it is like ice and water2 ,apart from water no ice can exist1 ,outside sentient beings1 where do we seek the ,buddhas8 ,not knowing how near the ,truth is1 ,people seek it far away1--what a pity6 ,they are like him who1 in the midst of water1 ,cries in thirst so imploringly2 ,they are like the son of a rich man ,who wandered away among the poor4 ,the reason why we transmigrate through the six worlds1 ,is because we are lost in the darkness of ignorance2 ,going astray further and further in the darkness1 ,when are we able to get away from birth-and-death8 ,as regards the ,meditation practised in the ,mahayana1 ,we have no words to praise it fully1 ,the ,virtues of ,perfection such as charity and morality1 ,and the invocation of the ,buddha's name1 confession1 and ascetic discipline1 ,and many other good deeds of merit1-- ,all these issue from the practise of ,meditation4 ,even those who have attained it even for one sitting1 ,will see all their evil karma wiped clean2 ,nowhere they will find the evil paths1 ,but the ,pure ,land will be near at hand4 ,with a reverential heart1 let them to this ,truth ,listen even for once4 ,and let them praise it1 and gladly embrace it1 ,and they will surely be blessed most infinitely4 ,for such as1 reflecting within themselves1 ,testify to the ,truth of ,self-nature1 ,to the ,truth that ,self-nature is no-nature1 ,they have really gone beyond the ken of sophistry4 ,for them opens the gate of the oneness of cause and effect1 ,and straight runs the path of non-duality and non-trinity4 ,abiding with the ,not-particular in particulars1 ,whether going or returning1 they remain for ever unmoved2 ,taking hold of the ,not-thought in thoughts1 ,in every act of theirs they hear the voice of ,truth4 ,how boundless the sky of ,samadhi unfettered6 ,how transparent the perfect moon-light of the ,fourfold ,wisdom6 ,at that moment what do they lack8 ,as the ,truth eternally calm reveals itself to them1 ,this very earth is the ,lotus ,land of ,purity1 ,and this body is the body of the ,buddha4 ,the lecture lasts about an hour4 ,it is quite different from an ordinary lecture on a religious subject4 ,nothing is explained1 no arguments are set forward1 no apologetics1 no reasonings4 ,the master is supposed simply to reproduce in words what is treated in the textbook before him4 ,when the lecture ends1 the ,four ,great ,vows are repeated three times1 and the monks retire to their quarters4 ,the ,vows are3 8,how innumerable sentient beings are1 ,i vow to save them all2 ,how inexhaustible our evil passions are1 ,i vow to exterminate them2 ,how immeasurable the holy doctrines are1 ,i vow to study them2 ,how inaccessible the path of ,buddhas is1 ,i vow to attain it40 ,,vii4 ,during the 8sesshin10 they have besides lectures what is known as 8sanzen40f#adgg4bi ,to do 8sanzen0 is to go to the master and present one's views on a k-an for his critical examination4 ,in those days when a special 8sesshin0 is not going on1 8sanzen0 will probably take place twice a day1 but during the period of thought-collection--which is the meaning of 8sesshin0--the monk has to see the master four or five times a day4 ,this seeing the master does not take place openly1f#adh the monk is required to come up individually to the master's room1 where the interview goes on in a most formal and solemn manner4 ,when the monk is about to cross the threshold of the master's room1 he makes three bows prostrating himself on the floor4 ,he now enters the room keeping his hands folded1 palm to palm1 before the chest1 and when he comes near the master1 he sits down and makes another bow4 ,once in the room1 all worldly convention is disregarded4 ,if absolutely necessary from the ,zen point of view1 blows may be exchanged4 ,to make manifest the truth of ,zen with all sincerity of heart is the sole consideration here1 and everything else receives only a subordinate attention4 ,hence this elaborate formalism4 ,the presentation over1 the monk retires in the same way as before4 ,one 8sanzen0 for over thirty monks will occupy more than one hour and a half1 and this is the time of the utmost tension for the master1 too4 ,to have this four or five times a day must be a kind of ordeal for the master himself1 if he is not of robust health4 ,an absolute confidence is placed in the master as far as his understanding of ,zen goes4 ,but if the monk has sufficient reason to doubt the master's ability1 he may settle it personally with him at the time of sanzen4 ,this presentation of views1 therefore1 is no idle play for either of the parties concerned4 ,it is indeed a most serious affair1 and because it is so the discipline of ,zen has a great moral value outside its philosophy4 ,how serious this is1 may be guessed from the famous interview between the venerable ,shju#g4cj and ,hakuin1 father of modern ,zen in ,japan4 ,one summer evening when ,hakuin presented his view to the old master who was cooling himself on the veranda1 the master said1 8,stuff and nonsense40 ,hakuin echoed this loudly and rather satirically1 8,stuff and nonsense60 ,thereupon the master seized him1 boxed him several times1 and finally pushed him off the veranda4 ,it was soon after the rainy weather1 and poor ,hakuin rolled in the mud and water4 ,having recovered himself after a while1 he came up and reverentially bowed to the teacher1 who then remarked again1 8,o you1 denizen of the dark cavern60 ,another day ,hakuin thought that the master did not know how deep his knowledge of ,zen was and decided to have a settlement with him anyhow4 ,as soon as the time came1 ,hakuin entered the master's room and exhausted all his ingenuity in contest with him1 making his mind up not to give way an inch of ground this time4 ,the master was furious1 and finally taking hold of ,hakuin gave him several slaps and let him go over the porch again4 ,he fell several feet at the foot of the stone-wall1 where he remained for a while almost senseless4 ,the master looked down and heartily laughed at the poor fellow4 ,this brought ,hakuin back to consciousness4 ,he came up again all in perspiration4 ,the master1 however1 did not release him yet and stigmatised him as ever with 8,o you1 denizen of the dark cavern60 ,hakuin grew desperate and thought of leaving the old master altogether4 ,when one day he was going about begging in the village1 a certain accidentf#adi made him all of a sudden open his mental eye to the truth of ,zen1 hitherto completely shut off from him4 ,his joy knew no bounds and he came back in a most exalted state of mind4 ,before he crossed the front gate1 the master recognised him and beckoned to him1 saying1 8,what a good news have you brought home to-day8 ,come right in1 quick1 quick60 ,hakuin then told him all about what he went through with that day4 ,the master tenderly stroked him on the back and said1 8,you have it now1 you have it now40 ,after this1 ,hakuin was never called names4 ,such was the training the father of modern ,japanese ,zen had to go through4 ,how terrible the old ,shju was when he pushed ,hakuin down the stone-wall6 ,but how motherly when the disciple after so much of ill-treatment finally came out triumphantly6 ,there is nothing lukewarm in ,zen4 ,if it is lukewarm1 it is not ,zen4 ,it expects one to penetrate into the very depths of truth1 and the truth can never be grasped until one comes back to one's native nakedness shorn of all trumperies1 intellectual or otherwise4 ,each slap dealt by ,shju stripped ,hakuin of his insincerities4 ,we are all living under so many casings which really have nothing to do with our inmost self4 ,to reach the latter1 therefore1 and to gain the real knowledge of ourselves1 the ,zen masters resort to methods seemingly inhuman4 ,in this case however there must be absolute faith in the truth of ,zen and in the master's perfect understanding of it4 ,the lack of this faith will also mean the same in one's own spiritual possibilities4 ,so exclaims ,rinzai3 8,o you1 men of little faith6 ,how can you ever expect to fathom the depths of the ocean of ,zen80 ,,viii ,in the life of the ,zendo there is no fixed period of graduation as in a school education4 ,with some1 graduation may not take place even after his twenty years' boarding there4 ,but with ordinary abilities and a large amount of perseverance and indefatigability1 one is able to probe into every intricacy of the teachings of ,zen within a space of ten years4 ,to practise the principle of ,zen1 however1 in every moment of life1 that is1 to grow fully saturated in the spirit of ,zen is another question4 ,one life may be too short for it1 for it is said that even kyamuni and ,maitreya themselves are yet in the midst of self-training4 ,to be a perfectly qualified master1 a mere understanding of the truth of ,zen is not sufficient4 ,one must go through a period which is known as 8the long maturing of the sacred womb40#g4ca ,the term must have originally come from ,taoism2 and in ,zen nowadays it means1 broadly speaking1 living a life harmonious with the understanding4 ,under the direction of a master1 a monk may finally attain to a thorough knowledge of all the mysteries of ,zen2 but this is more or less intellectual1 though in the highest possible sense4 ,the monk's life1 in and out1 must grow in perfect unison with this attainment4 ,to do this a further training is necessary1 for what he has gained at ,zendo is after all the pointing of the direction where his utmost efforts have to be put forth4 ,but it is not at all imperative now to remain in the ,zendo4 ,on the contrary1 his intellectual attainments must be further put on trial by coming into actual contact with the world4 ,there are no prescribed rules for this 8maturing40 ,each one acts on his own discretion in the accidental circumstances in which he may find himself4 ,he may retire into the mountains and live a solitary hermit1 or he may come out into the 8market0 and be an active participant in all the affairs of the world4 ,the sixth patriarch is said to have been living among the mountaineers for fifteen years after he left the fifth patriarch4 ,he was quite unknown in the world until he came out to a lecture by ,inshu 7,yin-tsung74#g4cb ,chu1 the ,national ,teacher of ,nan-yang1 spent forty years in ,nanyang and did not show himself out in the capital4 ,but his holy life became known far and near1 and at the urgent request of the ,emperor he finally left his hut4 ,isan 7,wei-shan7 spent several years in the wilderness1 living on nuts and befriending monkeys and deer4 ,however1 he was found out and big monasteries were built about his anchorage1 he became master of #a1ejj monks4 ,kwanzan1#g4cc the founder of ,myshinji1 ,kyoto1 retired in ,mino province1 and worked as day-labourer for the villagers4 ,nobody recognised him until one day an accident brought out his identity and the court insisted on his founding a monastery in the capital4f#aej ,hakuin became the keeper of a deserted temple in ,suruga which was his sole heritage in the world4 ,we can picture to ourselves the scene of its dilapidations when we read this3 8,there were no roofs and the stars shone through at night4 ,nor was there any floor4 ,it was necessary to have a rain-hat and to put on a pair of high getas when anything was going on while raining in the main part of the temple4 ,all the property attached to it was in the hands of the creditors1 and the priestly belongings were mortgaged to the merchants40--,this was the beginning of ,hakuin's career4 ,there are many other notable ones1 the history of ,zen abounds with such instances4 ,the idea however is not to practise asceticism1 it is the 8maturing10 as they have properly designated1 of one's moral character4 ,many serpents and adders are waiting at the porch1 and if one fails to trample them down effectively1 they raise the heads again and the whole edifice of moral culture built up in vision may collapse even in one day4 ,antinomianism is also the pitfall for ,zen followers1 against which a constant vigil is needed4 ,hence this 8maturing40 ,,ix ,in some respects1 no doubt1 this kind of education prevailing at the ,zendo is behind the times4 ,but its guiding principles such as simplification of life1 not wasting a moment idly1 self-independence1 and what they call 8secret virtue10 are sound for all ages4 ,especially1 this latter is one of the most characteristic features of ,zen discipline4 8,secret virtue0 means practising goodness without any thought of recognition1 neither by others nor by oneself4 ,the ,christians may call this the doing of 8,thy ,will40 ,a child is drowned1 and ,i get into the water1 and it is saved4 ,what was to be done was done4 ,nothing more is thought of it4 ,i walk away and never turn back4 ,a cloud passes1 and the sky is as blue and as broad as ever4 ,zen calls it a 8deed without merit10 and compares it to a man's work who tries to fill up a well with snow4 ,this is the psychological aspect of 8secret virtue40 ,when it is religiously considered1 it is to regard and use the world reverentially and gratefully1 feeling as if one were carrying on one's shoulders all the sins of the world4 ,an old woman asked ,jshu1#g4cd 8,i belong to the sex that is hindered in five ways from attaining ,buddhahood2 and how can ,i ever be delivered from them80 ,answered the master1 8,o let all other people be born in heaven and let me1 this humble self1 alone continue suffering in this ocean of pain60 ,this is the spirit of the true ,zen student4 ,there is another story illustrating the same spirit of longsuffering4 ,the district of ,jshu where this ,zen master's monastery was situated and where he got his popular title1 was noted for a fine stone-bridge4 ,a monk one day came up to the master and asked1#g4ce 8,we hear so much of the splendid stone-bridge of ,jshu1 but ,i see here nothing but a miserable old rustic log-bridge40 ,jshu retorted1 8,you just see the rustic log-bridge1 and fail to see the stone-bridge of ,jshu40 8,what is the stone-bridge then80 8,horses go over it1 asses go over it10 was ,jshu's reply4 ,this seems to be but a trivial talk about a bridge1 but considered from the inner way of looking at such cases1 there is a great deal of truth touching the centre of one's spiritual life4 ,we may inquire what kind of bridge is represented here4 ,was ,jshu speaking only of a stone-bridge in his monastery premises1 which was strong enough for all kinds of passengers over it8 ,let each one of us reflect within himself and see if he is in possession of one bridge over which pass not only horses and asses1 men and women1 carts heavy and light1 but the whole world with its insanities and morbidities1 and which is not only thus passed over but quite frequently trampled down and even cursed1--a bridge which suffers all these treatments1 good as well as despised1 patiently and uncomplainingly4 ,was ,jshu referring to this kind of bridge8 ,in any event we can read something of the sort in the cases above cited4 ,but this ,zen spirit of self-suffering ought not to be understood in the ,christian sense that a man must spend all his time in prayer and mortification for the absolution of sin4 ,for a ,zen monk has no desire to be absolved from sin1 this is too selfish an idea1 and ,zen is free from egotism4 ,the ,zen monk wishes to save the world from the misery of sin1 and as to his own sin he lets it take care of itself1 as he knows it is not a thing inherent in his nature4 ,for this reason it is possible for him to be one of those who are described as 8they that weep as though they wept not2 and they that rejoice as though they rejoiced not2 and they that buy as though they possessed not2 and they that use this world as not abusing it40 ,says ,christ1 8,when thou doest alms1 let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth2 that thine alms may be in secret40 ,this is a 8secret virtue0 of ,buddhism4 ,but when he goes on to say that 8thy ,father who seeth in secret shall recompense thee10 there we see a deep cleavage between ,buddhism and ,christianity4 ,as long as there is any thought of anybody1 whether he be ,god or ,devil1 knowing of your doings1 ,zen would say 8,you are not yet one of us40 ,deeds that are accompanied by such thought are not 8meritless deeds10 but full of tracks and shadows4 ,if a ,spirit is tracing you1 he will in no time get hold of you and make you account for what you have done4 ,the perfect garment shows no seams1 inside and outside2 it is one complete piece and nobody can tell where the work began and how it was woven4 ,in ,zen1 therefore1 there ought not to be left any trace of consciousness after the doing of alms1 much less the thought of recompensation even by ,god4 ,the ,zen ideal is to be 8the wind that bloweth where it listeth1 and the sound of which we hear but cannot tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth40 ,lieh-tz1 the ,chinese philosopher1 describes this frame of mind in a figurative manner as follows3 8,i allowed my mind without restraint to think of whatever it pleased and my mouth to talk about whatever it pleased2 ,i then forgot whether the #8this and not-this' was mine or other's1 whether the gain and loss was mine or other's2 nor did ,i know whether ,lao-shang-shin was my teacher1 and whether ,pa-kao was my friend4 ,in and out1 ,i was thoroughly transformed2 and then it was that the eye became like the ear1 and the ear like the nose1 and the nose like the mouth2 and there was nothing that was not identified4 ,the mind was concentrated1 and the form dissolved1 and the bones and flesh all thawed away3 ,i did not know where my form was supported1 where my feet were treading2 ,i just moved along with the wind1 east and west1 like a leaf of a tree detached from the stem1 ,i was not conscious whether ,i was riding on the wind or the wind riding on me40f#aea ,x ,as ,i stated before1 ,zen followers do not approve of ,christians1 even ,christian mystics being too conscious of ,god who is the creator and supporter of all life and all being4 ,their attitude towards the ,buddha and ,zen is that of ,lieh-tz riding on the wind2 a complete identification of the self with the object of thought is what is aimed at by the disciples of ,jshu1 ,ummon1 and other leaders of ,zen4 ,this is the reason why they are all loath to hear the word ,buddha or ,zen mentioned in their discourse1 not because indeed they are anti-,buddhist1 but because they have so thoroughly assimilated ,buddhism in their being4 ,listen to the gentle remonstrance given by ,hyen1 of ,gosozan1 to his disciple ,yengo3 ,goso said1#g4cf 8,you are all right1 but you have a trivial fault40 ,yengo asked two or three times what that fault was4 ,said the master at last1 8,you have altogether too much of ,zen40 8,why10 protested the disciple1 8if one is studying ,zen at all1 don't you think it the most natural thing for one to be talking of it8 ,why do you dislike it80 ,replied ,goso1 8,when it is like an ordinary everyday conversation1 it is somewhat better40 ,a monk happened to be there with them1 who asked1 8,why do you specially hate talking about ,zen80 8,because it turns one's stomach10 was the master's verdict4 ,rinzai's way of expressing himself in regard to this point is quite violent and revolutionary4 ,and if we were not acquainted with the methods of ,zen teachings1 such passages as are quoted below would surely make our teeth chatter and our hair stand on end4 ,the reader may think the author simply horrible1 but we all know well how earnestly he feels about the falsehoods of the world and how unflinchingly he pushes himself forward through its confusion worse confounded4 ,his hands may be compared to ,jehovah's in trying to destroy the idols and causing the images to cease4 ,read the following1 for instance1 in which ,rinzai endeavours to strip one's spirit off its last raiment of falsehood4 8,o you1 followers of ,truth1 if you wish to obtain an orthodox understanding of ,zen1 do not be deceived by others4 ,inwardly or outwardly1 if you encounter any obstacles1 lay them low right away4 ,if you encounter the ,buddha slay him2 if you encounter the ,patriarch1 slay him2 if you encounter the ,arhat or the parent or the relative1 slay them all without hesitation3 for this is the only way to deliverance4 ,do not get yourselves entangled with any object1 but stand above1 pass on1 and be free4 ,as ,i see those so-called followers of ,truth all over the country1 there are none who come to me free and independent of objects4 ,in dealing with them1 ,i strike them down any way they come4 ,if they rely on the strength of their arms1 ,i cut them right off2 if they rely on their eloquence1 ,i make them shut themselves up2 if they rely on the sharpness of their eyes1 ,i will hit them blind4 ,there are indeed so far none who have presented themselves before me all alone1 all free1 all unique4 ,they are invariably found caught by the idle tricks of the old masters4 ,i have really nothing to give to you1 all that ,i can do is to cure you of the diseases and deliver you from bondage4 8,o you1 followers of ,truth1 show yourselves here independent of all objects1 ,i want to weigh the matter with you4 ,for the last five or ten years ,i have waited in vain for such1 and there are no such yet4 ,they are all ghostly existences1 ignominious gnomes haunting the woods or bamboo-groves1 they are elfish spirits of the wilderness4 ,they are madly biting into all heaps of filth4 ,o you1 mole-eyed1 why are you wasting all the pious donations of the devout6 ,do you think you deserve the name of a monk1 when you are still entertaining such a mistaken idea of ,zen8 ,i tell you1 no ,buddhas1 no holy teachings1 no discipling1 no testifying6 ,what do you seek in a neighbour's house8 ,o you1 mole-eyed6 ,you are putting another head over your own6 ,what do you lack in yourselves8 ,o you1 followers of ,truth1 what you are making use of at this very moment1 is none other than what makes a ,patriarch or a ,buddha4 ,but you do not believe me1 and seek it outwardly4 ,do not commit yourselves to an error4 ,there are no realities outside1 nor is there anything inside you may lay your hands on4 ,you stick to the literal meaning of what ,i speak to you1 but how far better it is to have all your hankerings stopped and be doing nothing whatever60 etc41 etc4 ,this was the way ,rinzai wanted to wipe out all trace of ,god-consciousness in the mind of a truth-seeker4 ,how he wields ,thor-like his thunder-bolt of harangue6 ,,xi ,the state of mind in which all traces of conceptual consciousness are wiped out is called by the ,christian mystics poverty1 and ,tauler's definition is3 8,absolute poverty is thine when thou canst not remember whether anybody has ever owed thee or been indebted to thee for anything2 just as all things will be forgotten by thee in the last journey of death40 ,the ,zen masters are more poetic and positive in their expression of the feeling of poverty1 they do not make a direct reference to things worldly4 ,sings ,mumon 7,wu-mn7#g4cg3 8,hundreds of spring flowers2 the autumnal moon2 ,a refreshing summer breeze2 winter snow3 ,free thy mind of all idle thoughts1 ,and for thee how enjoyable every season is60 ,or according to ,shuan 7,shou-an7#g4ch3 8,at ,nantai ,i sit quietly with an incense burning1 ,one day of rapture1 all things are forgotten1 ,not that mind is stopped and thoughts are put away1 ,but that there is really nothing to disturb my serenity40 ,this is not to convey the idea that he is idly sitting and doing nothing particularly2 or that he has nothing else to do but to enjoy the cherry-blossoms fragrant in the morning sun1 or the lonely moon white and silvery3 he may be in the midst of work1 teaching pupils1 reading the ,sutras1 sweeping and farming as all the masters have done1 and yet his own mind is filled with transcendental happiness and quietude4 ,he is living in ,god as ,christians may say4 ,all hankerings of the heart have departed1 there are no idle thoughts clogging the flow of life-activity1 and thus he is empty and poverty-stricken4 ,as he is poverty-stricken1 he knows how to enjoy the 8spring flowers'' and the 8autumnal moon40 ,when worldly riches are amassed in his heart1 there is no room left there for such celestial enjoyments4 ,the ,zen masters are wont of speaking positively about their contentment and unworldly riches4 ,instead of saying that they are empty-handed1 they talk of the natural sufficiency of things about them4 ,yogi 7,yang-ch#8i71 however1 refers to his deserted habitation where he found himself to be residing as keeper4 ,one day he ascended the lecturing chair in the ,hall and began to recite his own verse#g4ci3 8,my dwelling is now here at ,yogi2 the walls and roof1 how weather-beaten6 ,the whole floor is covered white with snow crystal1 ,shivering down the neck1 ,i am filled with thoughts40 ,after a pause he added the fourth line3 8,how ,i recall the ancient masters whose habitat was no better than the shade of a tree60 ,kygen 7,hsiang-yen7#g4dj is more direct apparently in his allusion to poverty3 8,my last year's poverty was not poverty enough1 ,my poverty this year is poverty indeed2 ,in my poverty last year there was room for a gimlet's point1 ,but this year even the gimlet is gone40 ,later1 a master called ,koboku ,gen 7,k#8u-mu ,yan7#g4da commented on this song of poverty by ,kygen in the following verse3 8#8,neither a gimlet's point nor the room for it1' some sing2 but this is not yet real poverty3 ,as long as one is conscious of having nothing1 there still remains the guardian of poverty4 ,i am lately poverty-stricken in all conscience1 ,for from the very beginning ,i do not see even the one that is poor40 ,ummon was not poverty-stricken1 but lean and emaciated2 for when a monk asked him what were the special features of his school1 the master answered1 8,my skin is dry and my bones are sticking out40 ,corpulence and opulence have never been associated with spirituality1 at least in the ,east4 ,as a matter of fact1 they are not inconsistent ideas2 but the amassing of wealth under our economic conditions has always resulted in producing characters that do not go very well with our ideals of saintliness4 ,perhaps our too emphatic protest against materialism has done this4 ,thus not to have anything1 even wisdom and virtue1 has been made the object of ,buddhist life1 though this does not mean that it despises them4 ,in despising there is in a large measure something impure1 not thoroughly purgated2 as true ,bodhisattvas are even above purity and virtuousness1 how much more so they would be above such petty weaknesses of human being6 ,when the ,buddhists are thus cleansed of all these1 they will truly be poverty-stricken and thin and transparent4 ,the aim of ,zen discipline is to attain to the state of 8non-attainment0 7citta nopalabhyate7 as is technically expressed4 ,all knowledge is an acquisition and accumulation1 whereas ,zen proposes to deprive one of all one's possessions4 ,the spirit is to make one poor and humble--thoroughly cleansed of inner impurities4 ,learning1 on the contrary1 makes one rich and arrogant4 ,because learning is earning1 the more learned1 the richer1 and therefore 8in much wisdom is much grief2 and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow40 ,it is after all 8vanity and a striving after wind40 ,zen will heartily endorse this too4 ,says ,laotz1 8,scholars gain everyday while the ,taoists lose everyday40f#aeb ,the consummation of this kind of loss is 8non-attainment10 which is poverty4 ,poverty in another word is emptiness1 nyat4 ,when the spirit is all purged of its filth accumulated from time immemorial1 it stands naked1 with no raiments1 with no trappings4 ,it is now empty1 free1 genuine assuming its native authority4 ,and there is a joy in this1 not that kind of joy which is liable to be upset by its counterpart1 grief1 but an absolute joy which is 8the gift of ,god10 which makes a man 8enjoy good in all his labour10 and from which nothing can be taken1 to which nothing can be put1 but which shall stay for ever4 ,non-attainment1 therefore1 in ,zen is positive conception1 and not merely privative4 ,the ,buddhist modes of thinking are sometimes different from those of the ,west1 and ,christian readers are often taken aback at the idea of emptiness and at the too unconditioned assertion of idealism4 ,singularly1 however1 all the mystics1 ,buddhist or no1 agree in their idea of poverty being the end of their spiritual development4 ,in ,christianity1 we seem to be too conscious of ,god1 though we say that in ,him we live and move and have our being4 ,zen wants to have even this last trace of ,god-consciousness1 if possible1 obliterated4 ,that is why ,zen followers advise us not to linger even where the ,buddha is and to pass quickly away where he is not4 ,all the training of the monk in the ,zendo1 in theory as well as in practice1 is based in the notion of 8meritless deed40 ,poetically1 this idea is expressed as follows3 8,the bamboo shadows are sweeping the stairs1 ,but no dust is stirred3 ,the moonlight penetrates deep in the bottom of the pool1 ,but no trace is left in the water40 ,when this is expressed in the more ,indian and technical terms of the ,lakvatra-stra1 it is as follows3 8,habit-energy is not separated from mind1 nor is it together with mind2 though enveloped in habit-energy1 mind has no marks of difference4 8,habit-energy which is like a soiled garment produced by manovijna1 keeps mind from shining forth1 though mind itself is a robe of the utmost purity4 8,i state that the laya is like empty space1 which is neither existent nor non-existent2 for the laya has nothing to do with being or no-being4 8,through the transformation of manovijna1 mind is cleansed of foulness1 it is enlightened as it now thoroughly understands all things3--this ,i preach40f#aec ,,xii ,the monastery life is not all working and sitting quiet meditating on the 8k-an40 ,there is something of intellectual life1 in the form of lecturing as has already been referred to4 ,anciently1 however1 there was no regular 8sesshin10 and all the lecturing or giving sermons to the congregation was carried on the feast days1 memorial days1 or on other auspicious occasions such as receiving visitors1 honourably discharging the officials1 or completing given pieces of work4 ,every available opportunity was thus used intellectually to enlighten earnest seekers of the truth4 ,these discourses1 sermons1 exhortations1 and short pithy remarks so characteristic of ,zen are recorded in its literature1 the bulk of which indeed consists of nothing but these4 ,while claiming to be above letters1 ,zen is filled with them1 almost overfilled4 ,before giving some of such sermons1 let me digress and say a few words about the ,chinese language as the vehicle of ,zen philosophy4 ,to my mind1 the ,chinese language is pre-eminently adapted for ,zen1 it is probably the best medium of expression for ,zen as long as its literary side alone is thought of4 ,being monosyllabic the language is terse and vigorous1 and a single word is made to convey so much meaning in it4 ,while vagueness of sense is perhaps an unavoidable shortcoming accompanying those advantages1 ,zen knows how to avail itself of it1 and the very vagueness of the language becomes a most powerful weapon in the hand of the master4 ,he is far from wanting to be obscure and misleading1 but a well-chosen monosyllable grows when it falls from his lips into a most pregnant word loaded with the whole system of ,zen4 ,ummon is regarded as the foremost adept in this direction4 ,to show the extreme laconism of his sayings1 the following#g4db are quoted3 ,when he was asked what was the sword of ,ummon1 he replied1 8,hung60 8,what is the one straight passage to ,ummon80 8,most intimate60 8,which one of the ,trikya ,three ,bodies of ,buddha is it that will sermonise80 8,to the point60 8,i understand this is said by all the old masters1 that when you know the truth1 all the karma-hindrances are empty from the beginning2 but if you do not1 you have to pay all the debts back4 ,i wonder if the second patriarch knew this or not40 ,replied the master1 8,most certainly60 8,what is the eye of the true ,dharma80 8,everywhere60 8,when one commits patricide1 or matricide1 one goes to the ,buddha to confess the sin2 when however one murders a ,buddha or ,patriarch1 where should one go for confession80 8,exposed60 8,what is the ,tao path1 way1 or truth80 8,walk on60 8,how is it that without the parent's consent one cannot be ordained80 8,how shallow60 8,i cannot understand40 8,how deep60 8,what kind of phrase is it that does not cast any shadow80 8,revealed60 8,how do you have an eye in a questionf#aed80 8,blind40 ,just one monosyllable1 and the difficulties are disposed of4 ,the ,zen master has generally nothing to do with circumlocution2 if any one is a direct and plain speaker1 he is the directest in hitting the point and the plainest in expressing his thoughts without any encumbering appendages4 ,to these purposes1 the ,chinese language is eminently suited4 ,brevity and forcefulness are its specific qualities1 for each single syllable is a word and sometimes even makes a complete sentence4 ,a string of a few nouns with no verbs or with no connectives is often sufficient to express a complex thought4 ,chinese literature is naturally full of trenchant epigrams and pregnant aphorisms4 ,the words are unwieldy and disconnected3 when they are put together1 they are like so many pieces of rock with nothing cementing them to one another4 ,they do not present themselves as organic4 ,each link in the chain has a separate independent existence4 ,but as each syllable is pronounced1 the whole effect is irresistible4 ,chinese is a mystic language par excellence4 ,as terseness and directness is the life of ,zen1 its literature is full of idiomatic and colloquial expressions4 ,the ,chinese as you all know1 being such partisans to classic formalism1 scholars and philosophers did not know how to express themselves but in elegant and highly polished style4 ,and consequently all that is left to us in ancient ,chinese literature is this classicism1 nothing of popular and colloquial lore had come down to posterity4 ,whatever we have of the latter from the ,t#8ang and the ,sung dynasty is to be sought in the writings of the ,zen masters4 ,it is an irony of fate that those who so despised the use of letters as conveyor of truth and directly appealed to the understanding of an intuitive faculty became the bearers and transmitters of ancient popular idioms and expressions which were thrown away by the classical writers as unworthy and vulgar from the main body of literature4 ,the reason however is plain4 ,the ,buddha preached in the vernacular language of the people2 so did ,christ4 ,the ,greek or ,sanskrit 7or even ,pali7 texts are all later elaboration when the faith began to grow stale1 and scholasticism had the chance to assert itself4 ,then the living religion turned into an intellectual system and had to be translated into a highly but artificially polished and therefore more or less stilted formalism4 ,this has been what ,zen most emphatically opposed from the very beginning1 and the consequence was naturally that the language it chose was that which most appealed to the people in general1 that is1 to their hearts open for a new living light4 ,the ,zen masters1 whenever they could1 avoided the technical nomenclature of ,buddhist philosophy1 not only did they discuss such subjects as appealed to a plain man1 but they made use of his everyday language which was the vehicle appreciated by the masses and at the same time most expressive of the central ideas of ,zen4 ,thus ,zen literature became a unique repository of ancient wisdom4 ,in ,japan1 too1 when ,hakuin modernised ,zen1 he utilised profusely slangy phrases1 colloquialisms1 and even popular songs4 ,this neological tendency of ,zen is inevitable1 seeing that it is creative and refuses to express itself in the worn-out lifeless language of scholars and stylists4 ,as the result even learned students of ,chinese literature these days are unable to understand the ,zen writings1 and their spiritual meanings as well4 ,thus has ,zen literature come to constitute a unique class of literary work in ,china1 standing all by itself outside the main bulk of classical literature4 ,as ,i said elsewhere1 ,zen became truly the product of the ,chinese mind by thus creating a unique influence in the history of ,chinese culture4 ,as long as ,indian influence predominated1 ,zen could not be free from the speculative abstraction of ,buddhist philosophy1 which meant that ,zen was not ,zen in its specialised sense4 ,some scholars think that there is no ,zen in the so-called primitive ,buddhism and that the ,buddha was not at all the author of ,zen4 ,but we must all remember that such critics are entirely ignoring the fact that religion when transplanted adapts itself to the genius of the people among whom it is introduced1 and that unless it does so it gradually dies out1 proving that there was no life-giving soul in that religion4 ,zen has claimed from the beginning of its history in ,china that it is transmitting the spirit and not the letter of the ,buddha1 by which we understand that ,zen1 independent of traditional ,buddhist philosophy including its terminology and modes of thinking1 wove out its own garment from within just as the silkworm weaves its own cocoon4 ,therefore1 the outer garment of ,zen is original1 befitting itself wonderfully well1 and there are no patchings on it1 nor any seams either3 ,zen is truly the traditional celestial robe4 ,,xiii ,before closing ,i must not forget to give some of the sermons by the masters which are recorded chiefly in ,the ,record of the ,transmission of the ,lamp1 as well as in the 8,sayings40 ,jshu says#g4dc3 8,this thing is like holding up a transparent crystal in your hand4 ,when a stranger comes1 it reflects him as such2 when a native ,chinese comes1 it reflects him as such4 ,i pick up a blade of grass and make it work as a golden-bodied onef#aee sixteen feet high4 ,i again take hold of a golden-bodied one sixteen feet high and make him act as a blade of grass4 ,the ,buddha is what constitutes human desires and human desires are no other than ,buddhahood40 ,a monk asked1f#afg 8,for whom are the ,buddha's desires roused80 8,his desires are roused for all sentient beings40 8,how does he get rid of them then80 8,what is the use of getting rid of them80 answered the master4 ,on another occasion he said3 8,kyapa handed the ,law over to nanda1 and can you tell me to whom ,bodhi-,dharma handed it over80 ,a monk interposed3 8,how is it that we read about the second patriarch's getting its marrow from ,dharma80f#aeg 8,don't disparage the second patriarch10 ,jshu continued3 8,dharma claims that the one who was outside got the skin and the inside one got the bone2 but can you tell me what the inmost one gets80 ,a monk said1 8,but don't we all know that there was one who got the marrow80 ,retorted the master3 8,he has just got the skin4 ,here in my place ,i do not allow even to talk of the marrow40 8,what is the marrow then80 8,if you ask me thus1 even the skin you have not traced40 8,how grand then you are60 said the monk4 8,is this not your absolute position1 sir80 8,do you know there is one who will not accept you80 8,if you say so1 there must be one who will take another position40 8,who is such another80 demanded the master4 8,who is not such another80 retorted the monk4 8,i will let you talk all you like40 ,the sermons are generally of this nature1 short1 and to outsiders unintelligible or almost nonsensical4 ,but1 according to ,zen1 all these remarks are the plainest and most straightforward exposition of the truth4 ,when the formal logical modes of thinking are not resorted to1 and yet the master is asked to express himself what he understands in his inmost heart1 there are no other ways but to speak in a manner so enigmatic and so symbolic as to stagger the uninitiated4 ,however1 the masters themselves are right in earnest1 and if you attach even the remotest notion of reproach to their remarks1 thirty blows will be instantly on your head4 ,the next are from ,ummon4#g4dd ,ummon ascended the platform and said3 8,o you1 venerable monks6 ,don't get confused in thought4 ,heaven is heaven1 earth is earth1 mountains are mountains1 water is water1 monks are monks1 laymen are laymen40 ,he paused for a while and continued1 8,bring me out here that hill of ,ansan and let me see60 ,another time he said1 8,bodhisattva ,vasudeva turned without any reason into a staff40 ,so saying he drew a line on the ground with his own staff1 and resumed1 8,all the ,buddhas as numberless as sands are here talking all kinds of nonsense40 ,he then left the ,hall4 ,one day when he came out in the ,hall as usual to give a sermon1 a monk walked out of the congregation1 and made bows to him1 saying1 8,i beg you to answer40 ,ummon called out aloud1 8,o monks60 ,the monks all turned towards the master1 who then came down from the seat4 ,another day when he was silent in his seat for a while1 a monk came out and made bows to him2 said the master1 8,why so late60 ,the monk made a response1 whereupon the master remarked1 8,o you1 good-for-nothing simpleton60 ,sometimes his sermon would be quite disparaging to the founder of his own faith2 for he said1 8,ivara1 great lord of heaven1 and the old kyamuni are in the middle of the courtyard1 discoursing on ,buddhism2 are they not noisy80 ,at another time he said3 8,all the talk so far ,i have had--what is it all about any way8 ,to-day again not being able to help myself ,i am here to talk to you once more4 ,in this wide universe is there anything that comes up against you1 or puts you in bondage8 ,if there is ever a thing as small as the point of a pin lying in your way or obstructing your passage1 get it out for me6 ,what is it that you call a ,buddha or a ,patriarch8 ,what are they that are known as mountains1 rivers1 the earth1 sun1 moon1 or stars8 ,what are they that you call the four elements and the five aggregates8 ,i speak thus1 but it is no more than the talk of an old woman from a remote village4 ,if ,i suddenly happen to meet a monk thoroughly trained in this matter1 he will1 on learning what ,i have been talking to you1 carry me off the feet and throw me down the steps4 ,and for this would he be blamed8 ,whatever this may be1 for what reason is it so8 ,don't be carried away by my talk and try to make nonsensical remarks4 ,unless you are the fellow who was really gone through with the whole thing1 you will never do4 ,when you are caught unawares by such an old man as myself1 you will at once lose your way and break your legs4 ,and for that1 am ,i to be at all blamed8 ,this being so1 is there any one among you who wants to know a thing or two about the doctrine of our school8 ,come out and let me answer you4 ,after this you may get a turning and be free to go out in the world1 east or west40 ,a monk came out and was at the point of asking a question when the master hit his mouth with the staff1 and descended from the seat4 ,one day when ,ummon was coming up to the ,lecture ,hall he heard the bell1 whereupon he said1 8,in such a wide1 wide world1 why do we put our monkish robes on when the bell goes like this80 ,another time he simply said1 8,don't you try to add frost over snow2 take good care of yourselves1 good-bye02 and went out4 8,lo1 and behold2 the ,buddha ,hall has run into the monk's quarters40 ,later his own remark was1 8,they are beating the drum at ,lafu 7,lo-fu71 and a dance is going on at ,shj 7,shao-chou740 ,ummon seated himself in a chair before the congregation1 there was a pause for a while1 and he remarked3 8,raining so long1 and not a day has the sun shone40 ,another time1 8,lo1 and behold6 ,no life's left60 ,so saying1 he acted as if he were falling4 ,then he asked1 8,do you understand8 ,if not1 ask this staff to enlighten you40 ,as soon as ,ygi 7,yang-ch#8ih71#g4de a great master of the eleventh century under the ,sung dynasty1 got seated in his chair1 he laughed loudly1 8,ha1 ,ha1 ,ha60 and said1 8,what is this8 ,go back to your dormitory hall and each have a cup of tea40 ,one day ,ygi ascended the seat1 and the monks were all assembled4 ,the master1 before uttering a word1 threw his staff away and came right down jumping from the chair4 ,the monks were about to disperse1 when he called out1 8,o monks60 ,the latter turned back1 whereupon said the master1 8,take my staff in1 ,o monks60 ,this said1 the master went off4 ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan1 #gea-hcd7g4df gave no sermons for some little time and the chief secretary came up to him asking for one4 ,the master said1 8,beat the drum then40 ,as soon as the congregation was ready to listen to him1 he went back to his own room4 ,the secretary followed him and said1 8,you gave consent to give them a sermon1 and how is it that you uttered not a word80 ,said the master1 8,the ,sutras are explained by the ,sutra specialists1 and the astras by the astra specialists2 why then do you wonder at me8 ,am ,i not a ,zen master840 ,one day ,goso 7,fa-yen7#g4dg entered the ,hall and seated himself in the chair4 ,he looked one way over the shoulder and then the other4 ,finally he held out his staff high in his hand and said1 8,only one foot long60 ,and without a further comment he descended4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the foregoing selections from ,ummon and ,jshu and others will be sufficient to acquaint the reader with what kind of sermons have been carried on in the monastery for the intellectual or super-intellectual consumption of the monks4 ,they are generally short4 ,the masters do not waste much time in explaining ,zen1 not only because it is beyond the ken of human discursive understanding1 but because such explanations are not productive of any practical and lasting benefits for the spiritual edification of the monks4 ,the masters' remarks are therefore necessarily laconic2 sometimes they do not even attempt to make any wordy discussion or statement1 but just raising the staff1 or shaking the hossu1 or uttering a cry1 or reciting a verse1 is all that the congregation gets from the master4 ,some1 however1 seem to have their own favourite way of demonstrating the truth of ,zen2 for instance1 ,rinzai is famous for his 8,kwatsu0 7h in ,chinese71 ,tokusan for his flourishing staff1 ,gutei for his lifting up a finger1 ,hima for a bifurcate stick1 ,kwasan for beating a drum1 and so on4f#aeh ,it is wonderful to observe what a variety of methods have sprung up1 so extraordinary1 so ingenious1 and so original1 and all in order to make the monks realise the same truth1 whose infinite aspects as manifested in the world may be comprehended by various individuals1 each according to his own capacity and opportunity4 ,taking it all in all1 ,zen is emphatically a matter of personal experience2 if anything can be called radically empirical1 it is ,zen4 ,no amount of reading1 no amount of teaching1 and no amount of contemplation will even make one a ,zen master4 ,life itself must be grasped in the midst of its flow1 to stop it for examination and analysis is to kill it leaving its cold corpse to be embraced4 ,therefore1 everything in the ,meditation ,hall and every detail of its disciplinary curriculum is so arranged as to bring this idea into the most efficient prominence4 ,the unique position maintained by the ,zen sect among other ,mahayana schools in ,japan and ,china throughout the history of ,buddhism in the ,far ,east is no doubt due to the institution known as the ,meditation ,hall or ,zendo4 ,,the ,,ten ,,cow-,,herding ,,pictures ,,the ,,ten ,,cow-,,herding ,,pictures ,the attainment of ,buddhahood or the realisation of ,enlightenment is what is aimed at by all pious ,buddhists1 though not necessarily during this one earthly life2 and ,zen1 as one of the ,mahayana schools1 also teaches that all our efforts must be directed towards this supreme end4 ,while most of the other schools distinguish so many steps of spiritual development and insist on one's going through all the grades successively in order to reach the consummation of the ,buddhist discipline2 ,zen ignores all these1 and boldly declares that when one sees into the inmost nature of one's own being1 one instantly becomes a ,buddha1 and that there is no necessity of climbing up each rung of perfection through eternal cycles of transmigration4 ,this has been one of the most characteristic tenets of ,zen ever since the coming-east of ,bodhi-,dharma in the sixth century4 8,see into thy own nature and be a ,buddha10 has thus grown the watchword of the ,sect4 ,and this 8seeing0 was not the outcome of much learning or speculation1 nor was it due to the grace of the supreme ,buddha conferred upon his ascetic followers2 but it grew out of the special training of the mind prescribed by the ,zen masters4 ,this being so1 ,zen could not very well recognise any form of gradation in the attainment of ,buddhahood4 ,the 8seeing into one's nature0 was an instant act4 ,there could not be any process in it which would permit scales or steps of development4 ,but in point of fact where the time-element rules supreme1 this was not necessarily the case4 ,as long as our relative minds are made to comprehend one thing after another by degrees and in succession and not all at once and simultaneously1 it is impossible not to speak of some kind of progress4 ,even ,zen as something possible of demonstration in one way or another must be subjected to the limitations of time4 ,that is to say1 there are after all grades of development in its study2 and some must be said to have more deeply1 more penetratingly realised the truth of ,zen4 ,in itself the truth may transcend all form of limitation1 but when it is to be realised in the human mind1 its psychological laws are to be observed4 ,the 8seeing into thy nature0 must admit degrees of clearness4 ,transcendentally1 we are all ,buddhas just as we are1 ignorant and sinful if you like2 but when we come down to this practical life1 pure idealism has to give way to a more particular and palpable form of activity4 ,this side of ,zen is known as its 8constructive0 aspect1 in contradistinction to its 8all-sweeping0 aspect4 ,and here ,zen fully recognises degrees of spiritual development among its followers1 as the truth reveals itself gradually in their minds until the 8seeing into one's nature0 is perfected4 ,technically speaking1 ,zen belongs to the group of ,buddhist doctrines known as 8discrete0 or 8discontinuous0 or 8abrupt0 7tun in ,chinese7 in opposition to 8continuous0 or 8gradual0 7chien7f#aei2 and naturally the opening of the mind1 according to ,zen1 comes upon one as a matter of discrete or sudden happening and not as the result of a gradual1 continuous development whose every step can be traced and analysed4 ,the coming of satori is not like the rising of the sun gradually bringing things to light1 but it is like the freezing of water which takes place abruptly4 ,there is no middle or twilight condition before the mind is opened to the truth1 in which there prevails a sort of neutral zone1 or a state of intellectual indifference4 ,as we have already observed in several instances of satori1 the transition from ignorance to enlightenment is so abrupt1 the common cur1 as it were1 suddenly turns into a golden-haired lion4 ,zen is an ultra-discrete wing of ,buddhism4 ,but this holds true only when the truth of ,zen itself is considered1 apart from its relation to the human mind in which it is disclosed4 ,inasmuch as the truth is true only when it is considered in the light it gives to the mind and cannot be thought of at all independent of the latter1 we may speak of its gradual and progressive realisation in us4 ,the psychological laws exist here as elsewhere4 ,therefore1 when ,bodhi-,dharma was ready to leave ,china1 he said that ,dfuku got the skin1 the nun ,sji got the flesh1 and ,diku the bone1 while ,yeka had the marrow 7or essence7 of ,zen4f#afjh4a ,nangaku who succeeded the sixth patriarch had six accomplished disciples1 but their attainments differed in depth4 ,he compared them with various parts of the body1 and said1 8,you all have testified to my body1 but each has grasped a part of it4 ,the one who has my eye-brows is the master of manners2 the second who has my eyes1 knows how to look around2 the third who has my ears1 understands how to listen to reasoning2 the fourth who has my nose is well versed in the act of breathing2 the fifth who has my tongue1 is a great arguer2 and finally the one who has my mind knows the past and the present40 ,this gradation was impossible if 8seeing into one's nature0 alone was considered2 for the seeing is one indivisible act1 allowing no stages of transition4 ,it is however no contradiction of the principle of satori1 as we have repeatedly asserted1 to say that in fact there is a progressive realisation in the seeing1 leading one deeper and deeper into the truth of ,zen1 finally culminating in one's complete identification with it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lieh-tz1 the ,chinese philosopher of ,taoism1 describes in the following passage certain marked stages of development in the practice of ,tao3 8,the teacher of ,lieh-tz was ,lao-shang-shih1 and his friend ,pai-kao-tz4 ,when ,lieh-tz was well advanced in the teachings of these two philosophers1 he came home riding on the wind4 ,yin-shng heard of this1 and came to ,lieh-tz to be instructed4 ,yin-shng neglected his own household for several months4 ,he never lost opportunities to ask the master to instruct him in the arts of riding on the wind2 he asked ten times1 and was refused each time4 ,yin-shng grew impatient and wanted to depart4 ,lieh-tz did not urge him to stay4 ,for several months ,yin-shng kept himself away from the master1 but did not feel any easier in his mind4 ,he came over to ,lieh-tz again4 ,asked the master1 #8,why this constant coming back and forth8' ,yin-shng replied1 #8,the other day1 ,i1 ,chang ,tai1 wished to be instructed by you1 but you refused to teach me1 which ,i did not naturally like4 ,i feel1 however1 no grudge against you now1 hence my presence here again4' 8#8,i thought the other time1' said the master1 #8you understood it all4 ,but seeing now what a commonplace mortal you are1 ,i will tell you what ,i have learned under the master4 ,sit down and listen6 ,it was three years after ,i went to my master ,lao-shang and my friend ,pai-kao that my mind began to cease thinking of right and wrong1 and my tongue talking of gain and loss1 whereby he favoured me with just a glance4 ,at the end of five years1 my mind again began to think of right and wrong1 and my tongue to talk about gain and loss4 ,then for the first time the master relaxed his expression and gave me a smile4 ,at the end of seven years ,i just let my mind think of whatever it pleased and there was no more question of right and wrong1 ,i just let my tongue talk of whatever it pleased1 and there was no more question of gain and loss4 ,then for the first time the master beckoned me to sit beside him4 ,at the end of nine years1 just letting my mind think of whatever it pleased and letting my tongue talk of whatever it pleased1 ,i was not conscious whether ,i or anybody else was in the right or wrong1 whether ,i or anybody else gained or lost2 nor was ,i aware of the old master's being my teacher or the young ,pai-kao's being my friend4 ,both inwardly and outwardly ,i was advanced4 ,it was then that the eye was like the ear1 and the ear like the nose1 and the nose like the mouth2 for they were all one and the same4 ,the mind was in rapture1 the form dissolved1 and the bones and flesh all thawed away2 and ,i did not know how the frame supported itself and what the feet were treading upon4 ,i gave myself away to the wind1 eastward or westward1 like leaves of a tree or like a dry chaff4 ,was the wind riding on me8 or was ,i riding on the wind8 ,i did not know either way4 8#8,your stay with the master has not covered much space of time1 and you are already feeling grudge against him4 ,the air will not hold even a fragment of your body1 nor will the earth support one member of yours4 ,how then could you ever think of treading on empty space and riding the wind8' 8,yin-shng was much ashamed and kept quiet for some time1 not uttering even a word40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,christian and ,mahommetan mystics also mark the stages of spiritual development4 ,some ,sufis describe the 8seven valleys0f#afa to traverse in order to reach the court of ,simburgh where the mystic 8birds0 find themselves gloriously effaced and yet fully reflected in the ,awful ,presence of themselves4 ,the 8seven valleys0 are3 #a4 the ,valley of ,search2 #b4 the ,valley of ,love1 which has no limits2 #c4 the ,valley of ,knowledge2 #d4 the ,valley of ,independence2 #e4 the ,valley of ,unity1 pure and simple2 #f4 the ,valley of ,amazement1 and #g4 the ,valley of ,poverty and ,annihilation1 beyond which there is no advance4 ,according to ,st4 ,teresa1 there are four degrees of mystic life3 ,meditation1 ,quiet1 a numberless intermediate degree1 and the ,orison of ,unity2 while ,hugo of ,st4 ,victor has also his own four degrees3 ,meditation1 ,soliloquy1 ,consideration1 and ,rapture4 ,there are other ,christian mystics having their own three or four steps of 8ardent love0 or of 8contemplation40f#afb 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,r4 ,a4 ,nicholson gives in his ,studies in ,islamic ,mysticism a translation of ,ibnu ',i-,frid's 8,the ,poem of the ,mystic's ,progress0 7,t'iyya71 parts of which at least are such exact counterparts of ,buddhist mysticism as to make us think that the ,persian poet is simply echoing the ,zen sentiment4 ,whenever we come across such a piece of mystic literature1 we cannot help being struck with the inmost harmony of thought and feeling resonant in the depths of human soul1 regardless of its outward accidental differences4 ,the verses #cbf and #cbg of the ,t'iyya read3 8,from #8,i am ,she' ,i mounted to where is no #8to'1 and ,i perfumed phenomenal existence by my returning3 8,and ,i returned from #8,i am ,i' for the sake of an esoteric wisdom and external laws which were instituted that ,i might call the people to ,god40 ,the passage as it stands here is not very intelligible1 but read the translator's comments which throw so much light on the way the ,persian thought flows3 8,three stages of ,oneness 7ittihd7 are distinguished here3 #a4 #8,i am ,she1' i4e41 union 7jam#87 without real separation 7tafriqa71 although the appearance of separation is maintained4 ,this was the stage in which al-,hallj said ,ana ',i-,haqq #8,i am ,god4' #b4 #8,i am ,i1' i4e41 pure union without any trace of separation 7individuality74 ,this stage is technically known as the #8intoxication of union' 7sukru ',i-jam#874 #c4 ,the #8sobriety of union' 7sawu ',i-jam#871 i4e41 the stage in which the mystic returns from the pure oneness of the second stage to plurality in oneness and to separation in union and to the ,law in the ,truth1 so that while continuing to be united with ,god he serves ,him as a slave serves his lord and manifests the ,divine ,life in its perfection to mankind4 8#8,where is no 8to0 i4e41 the stage of #8,i am ,i1' beyond which no advance is possible except by means of retrogression4 ,in this stage the mystic is entirely absorbed in the undifferentiated oneness of ,god4 ,only after he has #8returned1' i4e41 entered upon the third stage 7plurality in oneness7 can he communicate to his fellows some perfume 7hint7 of the experience through which he has passed4 #8,an esoteric wisdom1' i4e41 the ,divine providence manifested by means of the religious law4 ,by returning to consciousness1 the #8united' mystic is enabled to fulfil the law and to act as a spiritual director40 ,when this is compared with the progress of the ,zen mystic as is pictorially illustrated and poetically commented in the following pages1 we feel that the comments were written expressly for ,zen ,buddhism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,during the ,sung dynasty a ,zen teacher called ,seikyo#h4b illustrated stages of spiritual progress by a gradual purification or whitening of the cow until she herself disappears4 ,but the pictures1 six in number1 are lost now4f#afc ,those that are still in existence1 illustrating the end of ,zen discipline in a more thorough and consistent manner1 come from the ingenious brush of ,kakuan1#h4c a monk belonging to the ,rinzai school4 ,his are in fact a revision and perfection of those of his predecessor4 ,the pictures are ten in number1 and each has a short introduction in prose followed by a commentary verse1 both of which are translated below4 ,there were some other masters who composed stanzas on the same subjects using the rhymes of the first commentator1 and some of them are found in the popular edition of 8,the ,ten ,cow-herding ,pictures40 ,the cow has been worshipped by the ,indians from very early periods of their history4 ,the allusions are found in various connections in the ,buddhist scriptures4 ,in a ,hinayana ,sutra entitled 8,on the ,herding of ,cattle10f#afd eleven ways of properly attending them are described4 ,in a similar manner a monk ought to observe eleven things properly in order to become a good ,buddhist2 and if he fails to do so1 just like the cow-herd who neglects his duties1 he will be condemned4 ,the eleven ways of properly attending cattle are3 #a4 ,to know the colours2 #b4 ,to know the signs2 #c4 ,brushing2 #d4 ,dressing the wounds2 #e4 ,making smoke2 #f4 ,walking the right path2 #g4 ,tenderly feeling for them2 #h4 ,fording the streams2 #i4 ,pasturing2 #aj4 ,milking2 #aa4 ,selecting4 ,some of the items cited here are not quite intelligible4 ,in the ,saddharma-puarka ,stra1 ,chapter ,,iii41 8,a ,parable10 the ,buddha gives the famous parable of three carts3 bullock-carts1 goat-carts1 and deer-carts1 which a man promises to give to his children if they come out of a house on fire4 ,the finest of the carts is the one drawn by bullocks or cows 7goratha71 which represents the vehicle for the ,bodhisattvas1 the greatest and most magnificent of all vehicles1 leading them directly to the attainment of supreme enlightenment4 ,the cart is described thus in the ,sutra3 8,made of seven precious substances1 provided with benches1 hung with a multitude of small bells1 lofty1 adorned with rare and wonderful jewels1 embellished with jewel wreaths1 decorated with garlands of flowers1 carpeted with cotton mattresses and woollen coverlets1 covered with white cloth and silk1 having on both sides rosy cushions1 yoked with white1 very fair and fleet bullocks1 led by a multitude of men40 ,thus reference came to be made quite frequently in ,zen literature to the 8white cow on the open-air square of the village10 or to the cow in general4 ,for instance1 ,tai-an of ,fu-chou asked ,pai-chang1#h4d 8,i wish to know about the ,buddha1 what is he80 ,answered ,pai-chang1 8,it is like seeking for an ox while you are yourself on it40 8,what shall ,i do after ,i know80 8,it is like going home riding on it40 8,how do ,i look after it all the time in order to be in accordance with the ,dharma80 ,the master then told him1 8,you should behave like a cowherd1 who1 carrying a staff1 sees to it that his cattle won't wander away into somebody else's rice-fields40 ,the 8,ten ,cow-herding ,pictures0 showing the upward steps of spiritual training1 is doubtless another such instance1 more elaborate and systematised than the one just cited4 ,,the ,,ten ,,stages ,,of ,,spiritual ,,cow-,,herdingf#afe ,i ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person on rural path face p4 #ceg ,looking for the ,cow4 ,she has never gone astray1 and what is the use of searching for her8 ,we are not on intimate terms with her because we have contrived against our inmost nature4 ,she is lost1 for we have ourselves been led out of the way through the deluding senses4 ,the home is growing farther away1 and byways and crossways are ever confusing4 ,desire for gain and fear of loss burn like fire2 ideas of right and wrong shoot up like a phalanx4 ,alone in the wilderness1 lost in the jungle1 he is searching1 searching6 ,the swelling waters1 far-away mountains1 and unending path2 ,exhausted and in despair1 he knows not where to go1 ,he only hears the evening cicadas singing in the maplewoods4 ,,ii ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person on rural path searching face p4 #ceh ,seeing the ,traces of the ,cow4 ,by the aid of the ,sutras and by inquiring into the doctrines1 he has come to understand something1 he has found the traces4 ,he now knows that things1 however multitudinous1 are of one substance1 and that the objective world is a reflection of the self4 ,yet1 he is unable to distinguish what is good from what is not1 his mind is still confused as to truth and falsehood4 ,as he has not yet entered the gate1 he is provisionally said to have noticed the traces4 ,by the water1 under the trees1 scattered are the traces of the lost3 ,fragrant woods are growing thick--did he find the way8 ,however remote1 over the hills1 and far away1 the cow may wander1 ,her nose reaches the heavens and none can conceal it4 ,,iii ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person on rural path catching a glimpse of a cow face p4 #cei ,seeing the ,cow4 ,he finds the way through the sound1 he sees into the origin of things1 and all his senses are in harmonious order4 ,in all his activities1 it is manifestly present4 ,it is like the salt in water and the glue in colour4 ,it is there though not separably distinguishable4 ,when the eye is properly directed1 he will find that it is no other thing than himself4 ,yonder perching on a branch a nightingale sings cheerfully2 ,the sun is warm1 the soothing breeze blows through the willows green on the bank2 ,the cow is there all by herself1 nowhere is there room to hide herself2 ,the splendid head decorated with stately horns1 what painter can reproduce her8 ,,iv ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person roping a cow face p4 #cfj ,catching the ,cow4 ,after getting lost long in the wilderness1 he has at last found the cow and laid hand on her4 ,but owing to the overwhelming pressure of the objective world1 the cow is found hard to keep under control4 ,she constantly longs for sweet grasses4 ,the wild nature is still unruly1 and altogether refuses to be broken in4 ,if he wishes to have her completely in subjection1 he ought to use the whip freely4 ,with the energy of his whole soul1 he has at last taken hold of the cow3 ,but how wild her will1 ungovernable her power6 ,at times she struts up a plateau1 ,when lo6 she is lost in a misty unpenetrable mountain-pass4 ,v ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person leading a cow with a rope face p4 #cfa ,herding the ,cow4 ,when a thought moves1 another follows1 and then another--there is thus awakened an endless train of thoughts4 ,through enlightenment all this turns into truth2 but falsehood asserts itself when confusion prevails4 ,things oppress us not because of an objective world1 but because of a self-deceiving mind4 ,do not get the nose-string loose1 hold it tight1 and allow yourself no indulgence4 ,never let yourself be separated from the whip and the tether1 ,lest she should wander away into a world of defilement3 ,when she is properly tended1 she will grow pure and docile1 ,even without chain1 nothing binding1 she will by herself follow you4 ,,vi ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person riding a cow face p4 #cfb ,coming ,home on the ,cow's ,back4 ,the struggle is over2 gain and loss1 he is no more concerned with4 ,he hums a rustic tune of the woodman1 he sings simple songs of the village-boy4 ,saddling himself on the cow's back1 his eyes are fixed at things not of the earth1 earthy4 ,even if he is called to1 he will not turn his head2 however enticed he will no more be kept back4 ,riding the cow he leisurely wends his way home3 ,enveloped in the evening mist1 how tunefully the flute vanishes away6 ,singing a ditty1 beating time1 his heart is filled with a joy indescribable6 ,that he is now one of those who know1 need it be told8 ,,vii ,illustration3 ,drawing of a person sitting outside a thatched-roofed house face p4 #cfc ,the ,cow ,forgotten1 ,leaving the ,man ,alone4 ,things are one and the cow is symbolic4 ,when you know that what you need is not the snare or set-net but the hare or fish1 it is like gold separated from the dross1 it is like the moon rising out of the clouds4 ,the one ray of light serene and penetrating shines even before days of creation4 ,riding on the cow he is at last back in his home1 ,where lo6 there is no more the cow1 and how serenely he sits all alone6 ,though the red sun is high up in the sky1 he seems to be still quietly asleep1 ,under a straw-thatched roof are his whip and rope idly lying beside him4 ,,viii ,illustration3 ,drawing with just a white background face p4 #cfd ,the ,cow and the ,man ,both ,gone out of ,sight4 ,all confusion is set aside1 and serenity alone prevails2 even the idea of holiness does not obtain4 ,he does not linger about where the ,buddha is1 and as to where there is no ,buddha he speedily passes on4 ,when there exists no form of dualism1 even a thousand-eyed one fails to detect a loophole4 ,a holiness before which birds offer flowers is but a farce4f#aff ,all is empty1 the whip1 the rope1 the man1 and the cow3 ,who has ever surveyed the vastness of heaven8 ,over the furnace burning ablaze1 not a flake of snow can fall3 ,when this state of things obtains1 manifest is the spirit of the ancient master4 ,,ix ,illustration3 ,drawing of a shore line face p4 #cfe ,returning to the ,origin1 ,back to the ,source4 ,from the very beginning1 pure and immaculate1 he has never been affected by defilement4 ,he calmly watches the growth and decay of things with form1 while himself abiding in the immovable serenity of non-assertion4 ,when he does not identify himself with magic-like transformations1 what has he to do with artificialities of self-discipline8 ,the water flows blue1 the mountain towers green4 ,sitting alone1 he observes things undergoing changes4 ,to return to the ,origin1 to be back at the ,source--already a false step this6 ,far better it is to stay home1 blind and deaf1 straightway and without much ado1 ,sitting within the hut he takes no cognisance of things outside1 ,behold the water flowing on--whither nobody knows2 and those flowers red and fresh--for whom are they8 ,x ,illustration3 ,drawing of a monk carrying a sack and basket passing by a fisherman face p4 #cff ,entering the ,city with ,bliss-bestowing ,hands4 ,his humble cottage door is closed1 and the wisest know him not4 ,no glimpses of his inner life are to be caught2 for he goes on his own way without following the steps of the ancient sages4 ,carrying a gourd he goes out into the market1 leaning against a stick he comes home4 ,he is found in company with wine-bibbers and butchers1 he and they are all converted into ,buddhas4 ,bare-chested and bare-footed1 he comes out into the market-place2 ,daubed with mud and ashes1 how broadly he smiles6 ,there is no need for the miraculous power of the gods1 ,for he touches1 and lo6 the dead trees come into full bloom4 ,,chinese ,,notes ,,chinese ,,notes 7,note3 ,here are given all the principal ,chinese characters and quotations in order to facilitate the identification of the original terms and passages found in the text where they are given in their ,japanese pronunciation or in the mandarin dialect generally according to the ,wade system4 ,the sources of the ,chinese quotations are also given for the benefit of those readers who wish to study the subject further in the original47 ,,preface #a4 4 #b4 4 ,,introduction #a4a4 4 4 4 4 #a4b4 7died1 #hfg74 #a4c4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4d4 7died1 #hej74 #a4e4 7died1 #idi74 #a4f4 4 #a4g4 4 #a4h4 4 #a4i4 4 4 4 4 #a4aj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4aa4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4ab4 774 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4ac4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4ad4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4ae4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4af4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4ag4 4 4 4 4 #a4ah4 7#hec-icb7 4 4 747 #a4ai4 774 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4bj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 47 #a4ba4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4bb4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4bc4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4bd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4be4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4bf4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #a4bg4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,zen ,,as ,,the ,,chinese ,,interpretation ,,of ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,enlightenment4 #b4a4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ''''''4 4 4 4 4 ''''''4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ''''''747 7#gdh-hcd74 4 4 #b4b4 4 4 4 4 4 #b4c4 4 #b4d4 7,i7 4 4 4 4 4 7,,ii7 4 4 4 4 7,,iii7 4 4 4 4 4 #b4e4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #b4f4 4 4 4 4 747 #b4g4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #b4h4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b4i4 4 4 4 4 #b4aj4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #b4aa4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #b4ab4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 ,,enlightenment ,,and ,,ignorance #c4a4 4 4 4 4 747 #c4b4 4 #c4c4 4 #c4d4 4 #c4e4 4 #c4f4 4 #c4g4 4 #c4h4 4 #c4i4 4 ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,buddhism ,,from ,,bodhi-,,dharma ,,to ,,hui-,,neng 7,,yeno7 #d4a4 4 4 4 4 4 #d4b4 4 4 #d4c4 4 4 #d4d4 4 #d4e4 4 #d4f4 4 #d4g4 4 #d4h4 4 #d4i4 4 #d4aj4 4 4 4 4 #d4aa4 4 4 4 4 #d4ab4 4 4 4 4 #d4ac4 4 4 4 4 #d4ad4 4 4 4 4 #d4ae4 4 4 4 4 #d4af4 7#ggh-hig74 #d4ag4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ah4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ai4 7,bodhi-,dharma74 #d4bj4 4 4 #d4ba4 7#gdh-hcd74 #d4bb4 7-#ghh74 7#gbj-had74 7-#hej74 7#gjj-gij74 7#gea-hcd74 #d4bc4 4 4 #d4bd4 4 4 #d4be4 4 #d4bf4 4 #d4bg4 4 #d4bh4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4bi4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4bi;a4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4cj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ca4 4 #d4cb4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4cc4 4 #d4cd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ce4 7#dhf-eic74 #d4cf4 4 #d4cg4 4 4 4 4 #d4ch4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ci4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4dj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4da4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #d4db4 4 #d4dc4 7#eid-feg74 #d4dd4 7#fja-fge74 #d4de4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4df4 or 7#dah-ead74 #d4dg4 or 7#dig-efi74 #d4dh4 7#fcg-gac74 #d4di4 7died1 #gjf74 #d4ej4 4 4 4 4 #d4ea4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4eb4 4 #d4ec4 4 #d4ed4 4 4 4 4 4 #d4ee4 4 4 4 4 #d4ef4 4 4 #d4eg4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4eh4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ei4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4fj4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4fa4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4fb4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4fc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4fd4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4fe4 ''''''4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #d4ff4 7-#gdj74 7#fgg-gdd74 ,,on ,,satori #e4a4 4 #e4b4 4 #e4c4 4 #e4d4 4 #e4e4 4 #e4f4 4 #e4g4 4 #e4h4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4i4 4 #e4aj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4aa4 4 #e4ab4 7#ggi-hfe74 #e4ac4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4ad4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4ae4 7#ajhi-aafc74 #e4af44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4ag4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4ah4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4ai4 4 #e4bj4 4 4 4 #e4ba4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4bb4 4 #e4bc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4bd4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4be4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4bf4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4bg4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4bh4 4 77 4 774 4 774 747 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 74 4 47 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4bi4 4 #e4cj4 7#abch-abhe74 #e4ca4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #e4cb4 4 #e4cc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #e4cd4 77 4 4 4 #e4ce4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4cf4 7#afhc-agfh74 #e4cg4 4 #e4ch4 4 #e4ci4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4dj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4da4 4 4 4 4 #e4db4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4dc4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #e4dd4 74 4 47 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 ,,practical ,,methods ,,of ,,zen ,,instruction #f4a4 7or 74 #f4b4 4 4 4 4 4 774 #f4c4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4d4 7#ibf-iic74 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4e4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4f4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4g4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4h4 7 #dig-efi7 4 4 4 4 #f4i4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4aj4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4aa4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ab4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #f4ac4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #f4ad4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ae4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4af4 4 4 4 747 #f4ag4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ah4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ai4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bj4 4 4 4 4 #f4ba4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bb4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 74 47 #f4be4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bf4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bg4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bh4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4bi4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4cj4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ca4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4cb4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4cc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4cd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #f4cd;a4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ce4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4cf4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4cg4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ch4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ci4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4dj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #f4da4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4db4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4dc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4dd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4de4 4 4 4 4 4 4 74 4 4 47 747 #f4df4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4dg4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4dh4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4di4 4 4 4 747 #f4ej4 4 4 4 #f4ea4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7874 747 #f4eb4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ec4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ed4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ee4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ef4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4eg4 4 4 4 747 #f4eh4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ei4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4fj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4fa4 4 4 #f4fb4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4fc4 4 4 747 #f4fd4 4 4 747 #f4fe4 4 4 747 #f4ff4 7#hjf-hhh74 747 #f4fg4 7#gfh-hce74 747 #f4fh4 4 747 #f4fi4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4gj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 774 4 4 4 747 #f4ga4 774 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4gb4 7died #ija74 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4gc4 4 4 4 747 #f4gd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4ge4 4 747 #f4gf4 4 747 #f4gg4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #f4gh4 ----4 747 #f4gi4 ----4 4 747 #f4hj4 7#ajja-ajfi74 7d4 #ajdi74 ,,the ,,meditation ,,hall ,,and ,,the ,,ideals ,,of ,,the ,,monkish ,,discipline #g4a4 4 #g4b4 4 #g4c4 4 #g4d4 4 #g4e4 4 4 747 #g4f4 4 #g4g4 4 #g4h4 4 4 #g4i4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #g4aj4 4 #g4aa4 4 4 #g4ab4 4 ----4 747 #g4ac4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4ad4 4 4 747 #g4ae4 7#gii-hhj74 4 747 #g4af4 4 77 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4ag4 77 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4ah4 4 4 #g4ai4 4 747 #g4bj4 ----4 ----4 747 #g4ba4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4bb4 7#aece-afae74 747 #g4bc4 4 #g4bd4 7or 7 4 #g4be4 4 4 #g4bf4 4 #g4bg4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #g4bh4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #g4bi4 4 #g4cj4 7#afdb-agba74 747 #g4ca4 4 #g4cb4 4 #g4cc4 7#faf-gjj74 4 #g4cd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4ce4 4 4 77 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4cf4 77 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4cg4 7of the first half of the thirteenth century1 ,sung74 4 4 4 4 747 #g4ch4 4 7#hfg-ibh47 4 4 4 4 747 #g4ci4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4dj4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4da4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4db4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4dc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4dd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4de4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4df4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 #g4dg4 4 4 4 4 747 ,,the ,,ten ,,cow-,,herding ,,pictures #h4a4 7#fgg-gdd74 4 747 #h4b4 4 #h4c4 4 #h4d4 7died #hhc74 4 4 4 4 77 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 747 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,footnotes f#a ,as it was not expedient to set up ,chinese type in ,england1 special ,chinese notes at the end of the book have been prepared in ,japan1 in which are found all the ,chinese characters considered by the author useful for scholars' reference4 ,the superior figures throughout the present work point to the ,chinese notes in the ,appendix4 f#b ,one of the popular lectures prepared by the author for students of ,buddhism1 #aiaa4 ,it was first published in ,the ,eastern ,buddhist1 under the title1 8,zen ,buddhism as ,purifier and ,liberator of ,life40 ,since it treats of ,zen in its general aspect1 ,i have decided to make it serve as ,introduction to this book4 f#c ,see also the ,essay entitled 8,history of ,zen ,buddhism10 p4 #aea ff4 f#d ,the founder of the ,rinzai ,school of ,zen ,buddhism1 died #hfg4 f#e ,the founder of the ,ummon ,school of ,zen ,buddhism1 died #iif4 f#f ,literally1 an old clumsy gimlet of the ,ch#8in dynasty4 f#g ,zen has its own way of practising meditations so called1 for the ,zen methods are to be distinguished from what is popularly or ,hinayanistically understood by the term4 ,zen has nothing to do with mere quietism or losing oneself in trance4 ,i may have an occasion to speak more about the subject elsewhere4 f#h ,see also the ,essay entitled1 8,practical ,methods of ,zen ,instruction40 f#i ,originally a mosquito driver in ,india4 f#aj ,a bamboo stick a few feet long4 f#aa ,also a stick or baton fancifully shaped and made of all kinds of material4 ,it means literally 8as one wishes or thinks10 7cinta1 in ,sanskrit74 f#ab ,this reminds one of the remarks made by the master ,ten 7,chan71 of ,hofuku 7,pao-fu71 who1 seeing a monk approach1 took up his staff and struck a pillar1 and then the monk4 ,when the monk naturally cried with pain1 said the master1 8,how is it that this does not get hurt80 7,see ,chinese ,notes1 #a4be47 f#ac ,hekiganshu is a collection of one hundred 8cases0 with ,seccho's 7,hseh-tou7 poetical comments and ,yengo's partly explanatory and partly critical annotations4 ,the book was brought to ,japan during the ,kamakura era1 and ever since it is one of the most important text-books of ,zen1 especially for the followers of the ,rinzai school4 f#ad ,gutei was a disciple of ,tenryu 7,t#8ien-lung71 probably towards the end of the ,t#8ang dynasty4 ,while he was first residing in a small temple1 he had a visit from a travelling nun1 who came right into the temple without removing her headgear4 ,carrying her staff with her1 she went three times around the meditation chair in which ,gutei was sitting4 ,then she said to him1 8,say a word of ,zen1 and ,i shall take off my hat40 ,she repeated this three times1 but ,gutei did not know what to say4 ,when the nun was about to depart1 ,gutei suggested1 8,it is growing late1 and why not stay here over night80 ,jissai 7,shih-chi71 which was the name of the nun1 said1 8,if you say a word of ,zen1 ,i shall stay40 ,as he was still unable to say a word1 she left4 ,this was a terrible blow on poor ,gutei1 who pitifully sighed3 8,while ,i have the form of a man1 ,i seem not to have any manly stamina60 ,he then resolved to study and master ,zen4 ,when he was about to start on his ,zen 8wanderings0 he had a vision of the mountain god who told him not to go away from his temple1 for a ,bodhisattva in flesh would be coming here before long and enlighten him in the truth of ,zen4 ,surely enough a ,zen master called ,tenryu 7,t#8ien-lung7 appeared the following day4 ,gutei told the master all about the humiliating experience of the previous day and his firm resolution to attain the secrets of ,zen4 ,tenryu just lifted one of his fingers and said nothing4 ,this however was enough to open ,gutei's mind at once to the ultimate meaning of ,zen1 and it is said that ever since ,gutei did or said nothing but just holding up a finger to all the questions that might be asked of him concerning ,zen4 ,there was a boy in his temple1 who seeing the master's trick imitated him when the boy himself was asked about what kind of preaching his master generally practised4 ,when the boy told the master about it showing his lifted little finger1 the master cut it right off with a knife4 ,the boy ran away screaming in pain when ,gutei called him back4 ,the boy turned back1 the master lifted his own finger1 and the boy instantly realised the meaning of the 8one finger ,zen0 of ,tenryu as well as ,gutei4 f#ae ,compare this with the statement made by the sixth patriarch himself when he was asked how it was that he came to succeed the fifth patriarch 8,because ,i do not understand ,buddhism40 ,let me also cite a passage from the ,kena-,upanishad1 in which the readers may find a singular coincidence between the ,brahman seer and those ,zen masters1 not only in thought but in the way it is expressed3 8,it is conceived of by him by whom it is not conceived of2 ,he by whom ,it is conceived of1 knows ,it not4 ,it is not understood by those who understand ,it2 ,it is understood by those who understand ,it not40 ,lao-tz1 founder of ,taoist mysticism1 breathes the same spirit when he says3 8,he who knows it speaks not1 he who speaks knows not40 f#af ,the conception of ,dharmakya apart from the physical body 7rpakya7 of the ,buddha was logically inevitable1 as we read in the ,ekottara-gama1 ,,xliv41 8,the ,life of the kyamuni-,buddha is extremely long1 the reason is that while his physical body enters into ,nirvana1 his ,law-body exists40 ,but the ,dharmakya could not be made to function directly upon suffering souls1 as it was too abstract and transcendental2 they wanted something more concrete and tangible towards which they could feel personally intimate4 ,hence the conception of another ,buddha-body1 that is1 ,sambhogakya-,buddha or ,vipkaja-,buddha1 completing the dogma of the ,triple ,body 7,trikya74 f#ag ,the absolute faith ,shinran had in the teaching of ,hnen as is evidenced in this quotation proves that the ,shin sect is the result of ,shinran's inner experience and not the reasoned product of his philosophy4 ,his experience came first1 and to explain it to himself as well as to communicate it to others1 he resorted to various ,sutras for verification4 ,the ,teaching1 ,practice1 ,faith1 and ,attainment was thus written by him giving an intellectual and scriptural foundation to the ,shin-shu faith4 ,in religion as in other affairs of human life1 belief precedes reasoning4 ,it is important not to forget this fact when tracing the development of ideas4 f#ah ,this was very well understood by the ,buddha himself when he first attained ,enlightenment2 he knew that what he realised in his enlightened state of mind could not be imparted to others1 and that if it were imparted they could not understand it4 ,this was the reason why he in the beginning of his religious career expressed the desire to enter into ,nirvana without trying to revolve the ,wheel of the ,dharma4 ,we read in one of the ,sutras belonging to the ,agama class of ,buddhist literature1 which is entitled ,sutra on the ,cause and ,effect in the ,past and ,present 7fas4 ,,ii473 8,my original vows are fulfilled1 the ,dharma or ,truth ,i have attained is too deep for the understanding4 ,a ,buddha alone is able to understand what is in the mind of another ,buddha4 ,in this age of the ,five ,taints 7paca-kashy71 all beings are enveloped in greed1 anger1 folly1 falsehood1 arrogance1 and flattery2 they have few blessings and are stupid and have no understanding to comprehend the ,dharma ,i have attained4 ,even if ,i make the ,dharma-,wheel revolve1 they would surely be confused and incapable of accepting it4 ,they may on the contrary indulge in defamation1 and1 thereby falling into the evil paths1 suffer all kinds of pain4 ,it is best for me to remain quiet and enter into ,nirvana40 ,in the ,sutra on the ,story of the ,discipline1 which is considered an earlier translation of the preceding text and was rendered into ,chinese by an ,indian ,buddhist scholar1 ,ta-li and a ,tibetan1 ,mang-siang1 in ,a4,d4 #aig1 no reference is yet made to the ,buddha's resolution to keep silent about his ,enlightenment1 only that what he attained was all-knowledge which was beyond the understanding and could not be explained1 as its height was unscalable and its depth unfathomable1 containing the whole universe in it and yet penetrating into the unpenetrable04444 ,cf4 the ,mahpadna ,suttanta 7,dgha ,nikya1 ,,xiv71 and the ,ariyapariyesana ,suttam 7,majjhima1 ,,xxvi74 f#ai ,cf4 ,sayukta gama 7,chinese71 ,fas4 ,,xxxii4 f#bj ,that the personality of the ,buddha was an object of admiration and worship as much as1 or perhaps more than1 his extraordinary intellectual attributes1 is gleaned throughout the ,agama literature4 ,to quote one or two instances3 8,when ,subha-,mnava ,todeyyaputta saw the ,blessed ,one sitting in the woods1 the ,brahman was struck with the beautiful serenity of his personality which most radiantly shone like the moon among the stars2 his features were perfect1 glowing like a golden mountain2 his dignity was majestic with all his senses under perfect control1 so tranquil and free from all beclouding passions1 and so absolutely calm with his mind subdued and quietly disciplined40 7,the ,middle gama1 fas4 ,,xxxviii47 ,this admiration of his personality later developed into the deification of his being1 and all the evils moral and physical were supposed to be warded off if one thought of him or his virtues4 8,when those beings who practised evil deeds with their bodies1 mouths1 or minds1 think of the merits of the ,tathagata at the moment of their deaths1 they would be kept away from the three evil paths and born in the heavens2 even the vilest would be born in the heavens40 7,the ,ekottara gama1 fas4 ,,xxxii47 8,wherever ramaa ,gautama appears1 no evil spirits or demons can approach him2 therefore let us invite him here and all those evil gods who have been harrassing us would by themselves take to their heels40 7,loc4 cit47 ,it was quite natural for the ,buddhists that they later made the ,buddha the first object of ,recollection 7smti71 which1 they thought1 would keep their minds from wandering away and help them realise the final aim of the ,buddhist life4 ,these statements plainly demonstrate that while on the one hand the teaching of the ,buddha was accepted by his followers as the ,dharma beautiful in the beginning1 beautiful in the middle1 and beautiful in the end1 his person was on the other hand regarded as filled with miraculous powers and divine virtues1 so that his mere presence was enough to create a most auspicious atmosphere not only spiritually but materially4 f#ba ,when the ,buddha entered ,nirvana1 the monks cried1 8,too soon has the ,tathagata passed away1 too soon has the ,world-honoured ,one passed away1 too soon has the ,great ,law died out2 all beings are forever left to misery2 for the ,eye of the ,world is gone40 ,their lamentation was beyond description1 they lay on the ground like great trees with roots1 stems1 and branches all torn and broken to pieces1 they rolled and wriggled like a slain snake4 ,such excessive expressions of grief were quite natural for those ,buddhists whose hearts were directed towards the personality of their master more than towards his sane and rationalistic teachings1 ,cf4 the ,pali ,parinibbna-suttanta4 f#bb ,for a more or less detailed account of the various ,buddhist schools that came up within a few centuries after the ,buddha1 see ,vasumitra's ,samayabhedo-paracana-cakra4 ,professor ,suisai ,funahashi recently published an excellent commentary on this book4 f#bc ,cf4 ,the ,sukhvat-vyha 7edited by ,max ,mller and ,b4 ,nanjio71 p4 #g1 where we have3 8,buddhasvaro anantaghoshah10 that is1 the ,buddha's voice is of infinite sounds4 ,see also the ,saddharma-puarka 7p4 #abh7 where we read3 8,svarea caikena vadmi dharmam10 ,i preach the law with one voice4 ,the parable of the water of one taste 7ekarasa vri7 variously producing herbs1 shrubs1 and others1 is very well known among the ,mahayanists4 f#bd ,here we find the justification of a 8mystic0 interpretation of the sacred books of any religion4 ,the ,swedenborgian doctrine of ,correspondence thus grows illuminating4 ,the philosophy of ,shingon mysticism somewhat reflects the idea of correspondence1 though naturally it is based on a different set of philosophical ideas4 ,varieties of interpretation are always possible in anything not only because of the presence of the subjective element in every judgment1 but because of infinite complications of objective relationship4 f#be ,cf4 such ,sutras as the ,tevijja1 ,mahli1 ,brahmajla1 etc4 in the ,dgha ,nikya4 ,see also the ,sutta ,nipta1 especially the ,atthakavagga1 which is one of the earliest ,buddhist texts in our possession at present4 ,there we read about 8,ajjhattasanti0 7inward peace7 which cannot be attained by philosophy1 nor by tradition1 nor by good deeds4 f#bf ,that the ,buddha never neglected to impress his disciples with the idea that the ultimate truth was to be realised by and in oneself1 is evidenced throughout the ,agamas4 ,everywhere we encounter with such phrases as 8without depending upon another1 he believed1 or thought1 or dissolved his doubts1 or attained self-confidence in the ,law40 ,from this self-determination followed the consciousness that one had all one's evil leakages 7srava7 stopped or drained off1 culminating in the realisation of ,arhatship--which is the goal of ,buddhist life4 f#bg ,the ,dialogue of the ,buddha1 ,sacred ,books of the ,buddhists1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bi4 f#bh ,in fact1 the term1 praj or in paia ,pali1 is not an exclusive possession of the ,mahayanists1 for it is also fully used by their rival disciples of the ,buddha4 ,the latter however failed to lay any special emphasis on the idea of enlightenment and its supreme significance in the body of ,buddhism1 and as the consequence ,praj was comparatively neglected by the ,hinayanists4 ,mahayanism on the other hand may be designated as the religion of ,praj par excellence4 ,it is even deified and most reverently worshipped4 f#bi ,this is no other than 8the opening of the pure eye of the ,dharma0 7viraja vtamala dhamma-cakkhum udapdi71 frequently referred to in the ,agamas when one attains to ,arhatship4 f#cj ,read1 for instance1 chap4 ,,xv41 entitled 8,duration of ,life of the ,tathagata40 f#ca ,dhammanadam1 #aec1 #aed4 f#cb ,ata etasmt kraan mahmate mayedam ukta3 y ca rtri tathgato 'bhisambuddho y ca rtri parinirvsyati atrntara ekam api akshara tathgatena na udhita na udharishyati4--,lakvatra1 ,chap4 ,,iii41 p4 #add4 ,see also ,chapter ,,vii41 p4 #bdj4 7,for this reason1 ,o ,mahmati1 ,i say unto you3 ,during the time that elapsed between the night of the ,tathagata's ,enlightenment and the night of his entrance into ,nirvana1 not one word1 not one statement was given out by him47 f#cc ,according to ,avaghosha's ,awakening of ,faith1 ,ignorance means the sudden awakening of a thought 7citta7 in consciousness4 ,this may be variously interpreted1 but as long as ,ignorance is conceived1 not as a process requiring a certain duration of time1 but an event instantaneously taking place1 its disappearance which is enlightenment must also be an instantaneous happening4 f#cd ,this is the usual formula given as the qualification of an ,arhat1 to be met with throughout the ,nikyas4 f#ce ,chapter ,,ii41 8,on ,skilfullness40 f#cf ,in this connection it may not be amiss to say a word about what is known in ,buddhism as the 8act of no-effort or no-purpose0 7anbhogacary7 or 8the original vows of no-purpose0 7anbhogapraidhna74 ,this corresponds1 if ,i judge rightly1 to the ,christian idea of not letting the right hand know what the left hand is doing4 ,when spirit attains to the reality of enlightenment and as a result is thoroughly purified of all defilements1 intellectual and affective1 it grows so perfect that whatever it does is pure1 unselfish1 and conducive to the welfare of the world4 ,so long as we are conscious of the efforts we make in trying to overcome our selfish impulses and passions1 there is a taint of constraint and artificiality1 which interferes with spiritual innocence and freedom1 and love which is the native virtue of an enlightened spirit cannot work out all that is implied in it and meant to be exercised for the preservation of itself4 ,the 8original vows0 are the content of love and begin to be operative1 anabhoga 7un-purposely71 only when enlightenment is really creative4 ,this is where religious life differs from mere morality1 this is where the mere enunciation of the ,law of ,origination 7prattya-samutpda7 does not constitute ,buddhist life1 and this is where ,zen ,buddhism maintains its reason of existence against the alleged positivism of the ,hinayana and against the alleged nihilism of the ,praj-pramit school4 f#cg ,dialogues of the ,buddha1 ,part ,,iii41 p4 #ce4 f#ch ,dialogues of the ,buddha1 ,part ,i41 p4 #hb4 f#ci ,the ,pali text that will correspond to this ,chinese ,sutra in the ,drgha-gama is the ,kevaddha ,sutta1 but the passage quoted here is missing4 ,see also the ,lohicca 7,lou-ch7 and ,smaa-phala in the ,chinese gamas1 in which the ,buddha tells how essential the life of a recluse is to the realisation of enlightenment and the destruction of the evil passions4 ,constant application1 earnest concentration1 and vigilant watchfulness--without these no ,buddhists are ever expected to attain the end of their lives4 f#dj ,the rendering is by ,rhys ,davids who states in the footnote3 8,the word ,i have here rendered #8earnest contemplation' is ,samadhi1 which occupies in the ,five ,nikayas very much the same position as faith does in the ,new ,testament2 and this section shows that the relative importance of ,samdhi1 ,pa1 and la played a part in early ,buddhism just as the distinction between faith1 reason1 and works did afterwards in ,western theology4 ,it would be difficult to find a passage in which the ,buddhist view of the relation of these conflicting ideas is stated with greater beauty of thought1 or equal succinctness of form40 ,but why conflicting8 f#da ,one hundred and eight samadhis are enumerated in the ,mahvyutpatti4 ,elsewhere we read of 8innumerable samadhis40 ,indians have been great adepts in this exercise1 and many wonderful spiritualistic achievements are often reported4 f#db ,this series of dhyanas has also been adopted by ,buddhists1 especially by ,hinayanists4 ,no doubt the ,mahayana conception of dhyana is derived or rather has developed from them1 and how much it differs from the ,hinayana dhyanas will be seen later as we go on4 ,the detailed description of these dhyanas is given in the ,agamas2 see for instance the ,smaa-phala ,sutta in which the fruits of the life of a recluse are discussed4 ,these mental exercises were not strictly ,buddhistic1 they were taught and practised more or less by all ,indian philosophers and mendicants4 ,the ,buddha1 however1 was not satisfied with them1 because they would not bring out the result he was so anxious to have1 that is1 they were not conducive to enlightenment4 ,this was the reason why he left his two old teachers1 ,arada and ,udraka1 under whom he first began his homeless life4 f#dc ,for example1 the ten subjects for meditation are3 ,buddha1 ,dharma1 ,sangha1 ,morality1 ,charity1 ,heaven1 ,serenity1 ,breathing1 ,impermanence1 and ,death4 ,the five subjects of tranquillisation are3 ,impurity1 ,compassion1 ,breathing1 ,origination1 and ,buddha4 ,the four subjects of recollection are3 ,impurity of the ,body1 ,evils of the ,senses1 ,constant ,change of ,thought1 and ,transitoriness of ,existence4 f#dd ,lakvatra1 ,nanjo ,edition1 p1 #gg4 f#de ,there is however a ,sutra in the ,sayukta gama1 fas4 ,,xxxiii41 p4 #ic;b 7,anguttara-,nikya1 ,,xi41 #aj71 dealing with true dhyana 7jnya-jhna7 which is to be distinguished from untrained dhyana 7khauka-jhna74 ,the latter is compared to an ill-disciplined horse 7khauka7 kept in the stable that thinks nothing of his duties but only of the fodder he is to enjoy4 ,in a similar way dhyana can never be practised successfully by those who undertake the exercise merely for the satisfaction of their selfish objects2 for such will never come to understand the truth as it is4 ,if emancipation and true knowledge are desired1 anger1 sleepiness1 worrying1 and doubt ought to be got rid of1 and then the dhyana can be attained that does not depend upon any of the elements1 or space1 or consciousness1 or nothingness1 or unthinkability--the dhyana that is not dependent upon this world or that world or the heavenly bodies1 or upon hearing or seeing or recollecting or recognising--the dhyana that is not dependent upon the ideas of attachment or seeking--the dhyana that is not in conformity with knowledge or contemplation4 ,this 8true dhyana0 then as is described in this ,sutra in the ,nikayas1 is more of the ,mahayana than of the ,hinayana so called4 f#df ,kern's translation10 ,sacred ,books of the ,east10 ,vol4 ,,xxi41 pp4 #bii-cjj4 f#dg ,for this and the following1 see the ,essay entitled1 8,history of ,zen ,buddhism from ,bodhi-,dharma to ,hui-nng10 p4 #aea ff4 f#dh ,the story of ,enlightenment is told in the ,dgha-,nikya1 ,,xiv41 and also in the ,introduction to the ,jtaka ,tales1 in the ,mahvastu1 and the ,majjhima-,nikya1 ,,xxvi4 and ,,xxxvi41 and again in the ,samyutta-,nikya1 ,,xii4 ,in detail they vary more or less1 but not materially4 ,the ,chinese translation of the ,sutra on the ,cause and ,effect in the ,past and ,present1 which seems to be a later version than the ,pali ,mahpadna1 gives a somewhat different story1 but as far as my point of argument is concerned1 the main issue remains practically the same4 ,avaghosha's ,buddhacarita is highly poetical4 ,the ,lalita-vistara belongs to the ,mahayana4 ,in this ,essay ,i have tried to take my material chiefly from ,the ,dialogues of the ,buddha1 translated by ,rhys ,davids1 ,the ,kindred ,sayings1 translated by ,mrs4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,majjhima-,nikya1 translated by ,slacra1 and the same by ,neumann1 the ,chinese gamas and others4 f#di ,the idea that there were some more ,buddhas in the past seems to have originated very early in the history of ,buddhism as we may notice here1 and its further development1 combined with the idea of the ,jtaka1 finally culminated in the conception of a ,bodhisattva1 which is one of the characteristic features of ,mahayana ,buddhism4 ,the six ,buddhas of the past later increased into twenty-three or twenty-four in the ,buddha-vamsa and ,praj-pramit and even into forty-two in the ,lalita-vistara4 ,this idea of having predecessors or forerunners seems to have been general among ancient peoples4 ,in ,china1 ,confucius claimed to have transmitted his doctrine from ,yao and ,shun1 and ,laotz from the ,emperor ,huang4 ,in ,india1 ,jainism which has1 not only in the teaching but in the personality of the founder1 many similarities to ,buddhism1 mentions twenty-three predecessors1 naturally more or less corresponding so closely to those of ,buddhism4 f#ej ,it is highly doubtful that the ,buddha had a very distinct and definite scheme for the theory of ,causation or ,dependence or ,origination1 as the ,paicca-samuppda is variously translated4 ,in the present ,sutra1 he does not go beyond ,vina 7consciousness or cognition71 while in its accepted form now the ,chain starts with ,ignorance 7avijj74 ,we have however no reason to consider this tenfold ,chain of ,causation the earliest and most authoritative of the doctrine of ,paicca-samuppda4 ,in many respects the ,sutra itself shows evidence of a later compilation4 ,the point ,i wish to discuss here mainly concerns itself with the ,buddha's intellectual efforts to explain the realities of life by the theory of causation4 ,that the ,buddha regarded ,ignorance as the principle of birth-and-death and therefore of misery in this world1 is a well-established fact in the history of ,buddhism4 f#ea ,cakkhu literally means an eye4 ,it is often found in combination with such terms as pa 7wisdom or reason71 buddha1 or samanta 7all-round71 when it means a faculty beyond ordinary relative understanding4 ,as was elsewhere noticed1 it is significant that in ,buddhism1 both ,mahayana and ,hinayana1 seeing 7passato7 is so emphasised1 and especially in this case the mention of an 8eye0 which sees directly into things never before presented to one's mind is quite noteworthy4 ,it is this cakkhu or pa-cakkhu in fact that1 transcending the conditionality of the ,fourfold ,noble ,truth or the ,chain of ,origination1 penetrates 7sacchikato7 into the very ground of consciousness1 from which springs the opposition of subject and object4 f#eb ,here as well as in the next verse1 8the truth0 stands for ,dharma4 f#ec ,we have1 besides this1 another verse supposed to have been uttered by the ,buddha at the moment of ,supreme ,enlightenment2 it is known as the ,hymn of ,victory4 ,it was quoted in my previous ,essay on ,zen ,buddhism and the ,doctrine of ,enlightenment4 ,the ,hymn is unknown in the ,mahayana literature4 ,the ,lalita-vistara has only this3 8,chinna vartmopasanta raj sushk srav na puna sravnti2 ,chinne vartmani vartata dukhasyaisho 'nta ucyate40#c4a f#ed ,the ,mahvyutpatti1 ,,cxlii41 gives a list of thirteen terms denoting the act of comprehending with more or less definite shades of meaning3 buddhi1 mati1 gati1 mata1 dishta1 abhisamitv1 samyagavabodha1 supratividdha1 abhilakshita1 gatigata1 avabodha1 pratyabhij1 and menire4 f#ee ,franz ,pfeiffer1 p4 #cab1 ,martensen1 p4 #bi4 f#ef ,translated by ,bhikkhu ,slcra4 ,the original ,pali runs as follows3 ,sabbbhibh sabbavid 'ham asmi1 ,sabbesu dhammesu anpalitto1 ,sabbajaho tanhakkhaye vimutto1 ,saya abhiya kam uddiseyya4 ,na me cariyo atthi1 sadiso me na vijjati1 ,sadevakasmi lokasmi na 'tthi me paipuggalo4 ,aha hi arah loke1 aha satth anuttaro1 ,eko 'mhi sammasambuddho1 stibhto 'smi nibbuto4 ,dgha-,nikya1 ,,xxvi4 f#eg ,ordinarily1 the ,chain runs as follows3 #a4 ,ignorance 7avijj1 avidy71 #b4 ,disposition 7sankhra1 saskra71 #c4 ,consciousness 7vina1 vijna71 #d4 ,name and ,form 7nmarpa71 #e4 ,six ,sense-organs 7sayatana1 sayatana71 #f4 ,touch 7phassa1 spara71 #g4 ,feeling 7vedana71 #h4 ,desire 7tah1 tsh71 #i4 ,clinging 7updna71 #aj4 ,becoming 7bhva71 #aa4 ,birth 7jti71 and #ab4 ,old ,age and ,death 7jarmarana74 f#eh ,the ,buddhacarita1 ,book ,,xiv4 f#ei ,nna ca pana me dassana udapdi akupp me ceto-vimutti aya antim jti natthi dni punabbhavo4 f#fj 8,thus knowing1 thus seeing10 7evam jnato evam passato7 is one of the set phrases we encounter throughout ,buddhist literature1 ,hinayana and ,mahayana4 ,whether or not its compilers were aware of the distinction between knowing and seeing in the sense we make now in the theory of knowledge1 the coupling is of great signification4 ,they must have been conscious of the inefficiency and insufficiency of the word 8to know0 in the description of the kind of knowledge one has at the moment of enlightenment4 8,to see0 or 8to see face to face0 signifies the immediateness and utmost perspicuity and certainty of such knowledge4 ,as was mentioned elsewhere1 ,buddhism is rich in terminology of this order of cognition4 f#fa ,tassa evam jnato evam passato kmsavpi citta vimuccati bhavsavpi citta vimuccati avijjsavpi citta vimuccati1 vimuttasmi vimuttamit a hoti4 ,khina jti vusita brahmacariya kata karanyam npara itthattyti pajnti4 f#fb ,the ,brahmajla ,sutta1 p4 #dc4 ,translation by ,rhys ,davids4 f#fc ,the idea of performing miracles systematically through the power acquired by self-concentration seems to have been greatly in vogue in ,india even from the earliest days of her civilisation1 and the ,buddha was frequently approached by his followers to exhibit his powers to work wonders4 ,in fact1 his biographers later turned him into a regular miracle-performer1 at least as far as we may judge by the ordinary standard of logic and science4 ,but from the ,praj-pramit point of view1 according to which 8because what was preached by the ,tathagata as the possession of qualities1 that was preached as no-possession of qualities by the ,tathagata1 and therefore it is called the possession of qualities10 7yaish bhagavan lakshaasampat tathgatena bhshit alakshaasampad esh tathgatena bhshita2 tenocyate lakshaasampad iti71 the idea of performing wonders acquires quite a new signification spiritually4 ,in the ,kevaddha ,sutta1 three wonders are mentioned as having been understood and realised by the ,buddha3 the mystic wonder1 the wonder of education1 and the wonder of manifestation4 ,the possessor of the mystic wonder can work the following logical and physical impossibilities3 8,from being one he becomes multiform1 from being multiform he becomes one3 from being visible he becomes invisible3 he passes without hindrance to the further side of a wall or a battlement or a mountain1 as if through air3 he penetrates up and down through solid ground as if through water3 he walks on water without dividing it1 as if on solid ground3 he travels cross-legged through the sky like the birds on wing3 he touches and feels with the hand even the moon and sun1 beings of mystic power and potency they be3 he reaches even in the body up to the heaven of ,brahma40 ,shall we understand this literally and intellectually8 ,cannot we interpret it in the spirit of the ,praj-pramit idealism8 ,why8 ,taccittam yacittam acittam4 7,thought is called thought because it is no-thought47 f#fd ,the questions are3 ,is the world eternal8 ,is the world not eternal8 ,is the world finite8 ,is the world infinite8 ,potthapda-,sutta4 f#fe ,cf4 ,dhammapada1 v4 #che4 8,he for whom there is neither this nor that side1 nor both1 him1 the fearless and unshackled1 ,i call indeed a ,brahman40 f#ff ,sutta-nipta1 v1 #gbj4 ,sanant yanti kussobbh1 tun yti mahodadhi4 f#fg ,the ,majjhima-,nikya1 #adj1 ,dhtuvibhangasuttam4 ,asmti bhikkhu maitam eta2 ,ayam aham asmti maitam eta2 ,bhavissan ti maitam eta2 ,na bhavissan ti maitam eta2 ,rp bhavissan ti maitam eta2 ,arp bhavissan ti maitam eta2 ,sa bhavissan ti maitam eta2 ,asai bhavissan ti maitam eta2 ,nevasai-nasai bhavissan ti maitam eta4 f#fh ,majjhima ,nikya1 #bb4 f#fi ,cf4 ,sutta-,nipta1 v4 #ba4 8,by me is made a well-constructed raft1 so said ,bhagavat1 ,i have passed over to ,nirvana1 ,i have reached the further bank1 having overcome the torrent of passions2 there is no further use for a raft3 therefore1 if thou like1 rain1 ,o sky60 f#gj ,i left here 8dharmas0 untranslated4 ,for this untranslatable term1 some have 8righteousness10 some 8morality10 and some 8qualities40 ,this is as is well known a difficult term to translate4 ,the ,chinese translators have rendered it by fa1#c4c everywhere1 regardless of the context4 ,in the present case1 8dharma0 may mean 8good conduct1 8prescribed rules of morality10 or even 8any religious teaching considered productive of good results40 ,in the ,lakvatra-stra1 ,chapter #a1 reference is also made to the transcending of both 8adharma0 and 8dharma10 saying3 8,dharm eva prahtavy prgevdharm40 ,and it is explained that this distinction comes from falsely asserting 7vikalpagrahaam7 the dualism of what is and what is not1 while the one is the self-reflection of the other4 ,you look into the mirror and finding an image thereon you take it for a reality1 while the image is yourself and nobody else4 ,the one who views the world thus1 has the rightful view of it1 ya evam pasyati sa samyakpasyati4 ,indeed1 when he takes hold of ekgra 7one-pointedness or oneness of things71 he realises the state of mind in which his inner wisdom reveals itself 7svapratytmryajnagocara7 and which is called the ,tathgatagarbha4 ,in this illustration 8dharma0 and 8adharma0 are synonyms of being 7sat7 and non-being 7asat7 or affirmation 7asti7 and negation 7nsti74 ,therefore1 the abandoning of dharma and adharma 7dharmdharmayo praha7 means the getting rid of dualism in all its complexities and implications4 ,philosophically1 this abandoning is to get identified with the ,absolute1 and morally to go beyond good and evil1 right and wrong4 ,also compare ,sutta-,nipta1 verse #hhf1 where dualism is considered to be the outcome of false philosophical reasoning 8,takka ca dihisu pakappayitv1 sacca mus ti dvayadhammam hu40 f#ga ,abridged from the ,majjhima ,nikya1 #bb1 p4 #aci4 ,cf4 also the ,samyutta ,nikya1 ,,xii41 #gj4 p4 #abe4 f#gb ,for the ,buddhist version of the story1 see the ,saddharma-puarka ,stra chapter #d1 and the ,vajrasamdhi ,stra1 chapter #d 7,chinese translation74 f#gc ,samyutta ,,xii41 #fe1 ,nagara2 cf4 also one of the ,praj-pramit stras which is known as one preached by ,majur 7,nanjo ,catalogue1 ,no4 #ba74 ,in the ,sutra we find that the ,buddha1 after mentioning the simile of a gem-digger1 makes reference to a man who feels overwhelmed with delight when people talk pleasantly about the old towns and villages once visited by himself4 ,the same sort of a delightful feeling is expressed by one who will listen to the discourse on ,prajpramit and understand it2 for he was in his past lives present at the assembly which was gathered about the ,buddha delivering sermons on the same subject4 ,that the understanding of the doctrine of ,prajpramit is a form of memory is highly illuminating when considered in relation to the theory of ,enlightenment as advanced here4 ,that the ushering of ,enlightenment is accompanied with the feeling of return or remembrance is also unmistakably noted by the writer of the ,kena-,upanishad 7,,vi41 #ej73 8,now in respect to the ,atman3 ,it is as though something forces its way into consciousness ,and consciousness suddenly remembers-- ,such a state of mind illustrates the awakening of knowledge of the ,atman40 ,sonadanda the ,brahman had the following to say when he grasped the meaning of the ,buddha's discourse on the characteristics of the true ,brahman 7,rhys ,david's translation73 8,most excellent1 oh ,gotama1 most excellent6 ,just as if a man were to set up that which has been thrown down1 or were to reveal that which has been hidden away1 or were to point out the right road to him who has gone astray1 or were to bring a light into the darkness so that those who had eyes could see external forms--just even so has the truth been made known to me1 in many a figure1 by the venerable ,gotama40 f#gd ,buddhacarita1 translated by ,e4 ,b4 ,cowell1 pp4 #aca-acb4 f#ge ,lefmann's edition1 p4 #bhi4 f#gf ,ariyapapariyesana-sutta1 ,majjhima-,nikya1 ,,xxvi41 p4 #afg4 f#gg ,used to designate the school which upholds the doctrine of enlightenment 7sambodhi74 f#gh ,this translation is not at all satisfactory4 f#gi ,jshu 7#ggh--hig7 was one of the early masters of ,zen in the ,t#8ang dynasty when it began to flourish with its vigorous freshness4 ,he attained to a high age of one hundred and twenty4 ,his sermons were always short and to the point1 and his answers are noted for their being so natural and yet so slippery1 so hard to catch4 f#hj ,six ,essays by ,bodhi-,dharma#d4be is the book in which the so-called writings of ,bodhi-,dharma are collected4 ,see also the ,essay 8,on ,satori0 which follows4 f#ha ,for ,tao-hsan#8s edition in the original ,chinese1 see ,note #d4bh in the ,appendix4 f#hb ,this is the most significant phrase in ,dharma's writing4 ,i have left it untranslated1 for later this will be explained fully4 f#hc ,the author of this story or prefatory note is ,t#8an-lin 7,donrin71 who1 according to ,dr4 ,tokiwa1 of the ,tokyo ,imperial ,university1 was a learned scholar partaking in the translation of several ,sanskrit works4 ,he is also mentioned in connection with ,yeka 7,hui-k#87 in the biography of the latter by ,tao-hsan4 ,if ,donrin were more of a scholar as we can see by this identification than a genuine ,zen master1 it was quite natural for him to write down this 8,meditation on ,four ,acts10 which mainly appeals as it stands to the scholarly interpretation of ,zen4 ,while the doctrine of ,pi-kwan is emphatically ,zen1 there is much in the 8,meditation0 that lends itself to the philosophising of ,zen4 f#hd ,translated into ,chinese during the ,northern ,liang dynasty which lasted ,a4,d4 #cig-dci4 ,the translator's name is lost4 f#he f#hf ,we read in ,tao-hsan's ,biographies that wherever ,bodhi-,dharma stayed he taught people in his ,zen doctrine1 but as the whole country at the time was deeply plunged into scholastic discussions1 there was a great deal of slanderous talk against meditation when they learned of ,bodhi-,dharma's message4 f#hg ,is it possible that this passage has some reference to the ,vajrasamdhi where ,bodhisattva ,mahbala speaks of a 8flaccid mind0 and a 8strong mind08 ,the former which is possessed by most common people 8pants0 7or gasps or hankers7 very much1 and prevents them from successfully attaining to the ,tathgata-dhyna1 while the 8strong mind0 is characteristic of one who can enter upon the realm of reality 7bhtakoi74 ,as long as there are 8pantings0 7or gaspings7 in the mind1 it is not free1 it is not liberated1 and cannot identify itself with the suchness of reason4 ,the mind must be 8strong0 or firm and steady1 self-possessed and concentrating1 before it is ready for the realisation of ,tathgata-dhyna--a dhyana going far beyond the reach of the so-called four dhynas and eight samdhis4 f#hh ,this subject was treated in another place1 though rather sketchily1 and will be further elaborated later in an independent essay4 f#hi ,in this connection ,i wish to make some remarks against certain scholars who consider the philosophy of nyat to be really the foundation of ,zen4 ,such scholars fail utterly to grasp the true purport of ,zen which is first of all an experience and not at all a philosophy or dogma4 ,zen can never be built upon any set of metaphysical or psychological views2 the latter may be advanced after the ,zen experience has taken place1 but never before4 ,the philosophy of the ,prajpramit can never precede ,zen1 but must always follow it4 ,buddhist scholars like those at the time of ,dharma are too apt to identify teaching and life1 theory and experience1 description and fact4 ,when this confusion is allowed to grow1 ,zen ,buddhism will cease to yield an intelligent and satisfactory interpretation4 ,without the fact of ,enlightenment under the ,bodhi-tree near the ,nairajan1 no ,ngrjunas could ever hope to write a single book on the ,praj philosophy4 f#ij ,as ,i stated before1 there is a confusion between ,dharma's mien-pi habit of sitting and his doctrine of the pi-kuan meditation4 ,the confusion dates quite early1 and even at the time of the author of the ,records the original meaning of pi-kuan1 wall-contemplation1 must have been lost4 f#ia ,sometimes this man is said to be a civilian and sometimes a soldier embracing ,confucianism4 f#ib ,as one can readily see1 this story is more or less fictitious4 ,i mean ,kuang's standing in the snow and cutting-off of his arm in order to demonstrate his earnestness and sincerity4 ,some think that the snow story and that of self-mutilation do not belong to that of ,kuang1 but borrowed from some other sources1 as ,tao-hsan makes no reference to them in his book4 ,the loss of the arm was due to a party of robbers who attacked ,kuang after his interview with ,dharma4 ,we have no way to verify these stories either way4 ,the whole setting however is highly dramatic1 and there must have been once in the history of ,zen some necessity to interweave imagination largely with facts1 whatever they may be4 f#ic ,according to ,hsieh-sung1 the author of the ,right ,transmission of the ,law1 ,bodhi-,dharma has here followed ,ngrjuna in the anatomy of ,zen-understanding4 ,for ,ngrjuna says in his famous commentary on the ,prajpramit-stra1 8,moral conduct is the skin1 meditation is the flesh1 the higher understanding is the bone1 and the mind subtle and good is the marrow40 8,this subtle mind10 says ,hsieh-sung1 is what is secretly transmitted from the ,buddha to his successors in the faith4 ,he then refers to ,chih-,i of the ,sui dynasty who regards this mind as the abode of all the ,buddhas and as the middle way in which there is neither unity nor multiplicity and which can never be adequately expressed in words4 f#id ,according to this1 there must have been a special volume of sermons and letters by ,hui-k#81 which were compiled evidently by his disciples and admirers before they were put down in writing and thoroughly revised by the author himself4 ,in the case of ,bodhi-,dharma too1 according to ,tao-hsan1 his sayings were apparently in circulation in the day of ,tao-hsan1 that is1 early in the ,t#8ang dynasty4 f#ie ,understood by some to be leprosy4 f#if ,in the ,vimalakrti1 ,chapter ,,iii41 8,the ,disciples10 we have the following3 8,do not worry about the sins you have committed1 ,o monks10 said ,vimalakrti1 8,why8 ,because sins are in their essence neither within nor without nor in the middle4 ,as the ,buddha taught us1 all things are defiled when ,mind is defiled2 all things are pure when ,mind is pure3 and ,mind is neither within nor without nor in the middle4 ,as is ,mind1 so are sins and defilements1 so are all things--they never transcend the suchness of truth40 f#ig ,hsin1 is one of those ,chinese words which defy translation4 ,when the ,indian scholars were trying to translate the ,buddhist ,sanskrit works into ,chinese1 they discovered that there were five classes of ,sanskrit terms which could not be satisfactorily rendered into ,chinese4 ,we thus find in the ,chinese ,tripitaka such words as praj1 bodhi1 buddha1 nirva1 dhyna1 bodhisattva1 etc41 almost always untranslated2 and they now appear in their original form among the technical ,buddhist terminology4 ,if we could leave hsin with all its nuance of meaning in this translation1 it would save us from the many difficulties that face us in its ,english rendering4 ,for hsin means mind1 heart1 soul1 spirit--each singly as well as all inclusively4 ,in the present composition by the third patriarch of ,zen1 it has sometimes an intellectual connotation but at other times it can properly be done by 8heart40 ,but as the predominant note of ,zen ,buddhism is more intellectual than anything else1 though not in the sense of being logical or philosophical1 ,i decided here to translate hsin by 8mind0 rather than by 8heart40 f#ih ,this means3 ,when the absolute oneness of things is not properly understood1 negation as well as affirmation will tend to be one-sided view of reality4 ,when ,buddhists deny the reality of an objective world1 they do not mean that they believe in the unconditioned emptiness of things2 they know that there is something real which cannot be done away with4 ,when they uphold the doctrine of void this does not mean that all is nothing but an empty hollow1 which leads to a self-contradiction4 ,the philosophy of ,zen avoids the error of one-sidedness involved in realism as well as in idealism4 f#ii ,i4e41 ,tat tvam asi4 f#ajj ,there is however a variation from five years to fifteen years according to different authorities4 f#aja ,these accounts1 whether truly historical or not1 concerning the controversy between the two leaders of ,zen early in the ,t#8ang dynasty prove how heated was the rivalry between the ,north and the ,south4 ,the ,sermons of the ,sixth ,patriarch 7,fa-pao-tan-ching7 itself appears as if written with the sole object of refuting the opponents of the 8abrupt0 school4 f#ajb ,this is a constant refrain in the teaching of the ,prajpramit ,stras--to awaken one's thought where there is no abode whatever 7na kvacit pratishita citta utpdayitavyam74 ,when ,jshu called on ,ungo1 the latter asked1 8,o you1 old wanderer6 how is it that you do not seek an abiding place for yourself80 8,where is my abiding place80 8,there is an old temple ruin at the foot of this mountain40 8,that is a fitting place for your old self10 responded ,jshu4 ,later1 he came to ,shysan1 who asked him the same question1 saying1 8,o you1 old wanderer6 why don't you get settled80 8,where is the place for me to get settled80 8,why1 this old wanderer doesn't know even where to get settled for himself40 ,said ,jshu1 8,i have been engaged these thirty years in training horses1 and to-day ,i have been kicked around by a donkey60 f#ajc ,this is the name of the place where ,hui-nng had his ,zen headquarters4 f#ajd ,hsing means nature1 character1 essence1 soul1 or what is innate to one4 8,seeing into one's ,nature0 is one of the set phrases used by the ,zen masters1 and in fact the avowed object of all ,zen discipline4 ,satori is its more popular expression4 ,when one gets into the inwardness of things1 there is satori4 ,this latter however being a broad term1 can be used to designate any kind of a thorough understanding1 and it is only in ,zen that it has a restricted meaning4 ,in this article ,i have used the term as the most essential thing in the study of ,zen2 for 8seeing into one's ,nature0 suggests the idea that ,zen has something concrete and substantial which requires being seen into by us4 ,this is misleading1 though satori too ,i admit is a vague and naturally ambiguous word4 ,for ordinary purposes1 not too strictly philosophical1 satori will answer1 and whenever chien-hsing is referred to1 it means this1 the opening of the mental eye4 ,as to the sixth patriarch's view on 8seeing into one's ,nature10 see above under 8,history of ,zen ,buddhism40 f#aje ,according to the ,mahparinirvna-stra1 translated into ,chinese by ,dharmaraksha1 ,a4,d4 #dbc1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii41 he was one of the three sons of the ,buddha while he was still a ,bodhisattva4 ,he was most learned in all ,buddhist lore1 but his views tended to be nihilistic and he finally fell into hell4 f#ajf ,that is1 from the idea that this sitting cross-legged leads to ,buddhahood4 ,from the earliest periods of ,zen in ,china1 the quietist tendency has been running along the whole history with the intellectual tendency which emphasises the satori element4 ,even to-day these currents are represented to a certain extent by the ,soto on the one hand and the ,rinzai on the other1 while each has its characteristic features of excellence4 ,my own standpoint is that of the intuitionalist and not that of the quietist2 for the essence of ,zen lies in the attainment of satori4 f#ajg ,w4 ,lehmann1 ,meister ,eckhart4 ,gttingen1 #aiag1 p4 #bdc4 ,quoted by ,prof4 ,rudolf ,otto in his ,the ,idea of the ,holy1 p4 #bja4 f#ajh ,in ,claud ,field's ,mystics and ,saints of ,islam 7p4 #be71 we read under ,hasan ,basri1 8,another time ,i saw a child coming toward me holding a lighted torch in his hand1 #8,where have you brought the light from8' ,i asked him4 ,he immediately blew it out1 and said to me1 #8,o ,hasan1 tell me where it is gone1 and ,i will tell you whence ,i fetched4'0 ,of course the parallel here is only apparent1 for ,tokusan got his enlightenment from quite a different source than the mere blowing out of the candle4 ,still the parallel in itself is interesting enough to be quoted here4 f#aji ,see the ,essay entitled 8,practical ,methods of ,zen ,instruction40 f#aaj ,the lightning simile in the ,kena-,upanished 7,,iv4 #cj71 as is supposed by some scholars1 is not to depict the feeling of inexpressive awe as regards the nature of ,brahman1 but it illustrates the bursting out of enlightenment upon consciousness4 8,a--a--ah0 is most significant here4 f#aaa ,this is spread before the ,buddha and on it the master performs his bowing ceremony1 and its rolling up naturally means the end of a sermon4 f#aab ,tou chi chia1 meaning 8the verse of mutual understanding0 which takes place when the master's mind and the disciple's are merged in each other's4 f#aac ,it was originally a mosquito driver1 but now it is a symbol of religious authority4 ,it has a short handle1 a little over a foot long and a longer tuft of hair1 usually a horse's tail or a yak's4 f#aad ,in the ,chinese ,notes ,i have added six more such verses which may further help the reader to gain an insight into the content of satori4 f#aae ,this is one of the most noted k-an and generally given to the uninitiated as an eye-opener4 ,when ,jshu was asked by a monk whether there was ,buddha-,nature in the dog1 the master answered 8,mu60 7wu in ,chinese71 which literally means 8no40 ,but as it is nowadays understood by the followers of ,rinzai1 it does not mean anything negative as the term may suggest to us ordinarily1 it refers to something most assuredly positive1 and the novice is told to find it out by himself1 not depending upon others 7aparapaccaya71 as no explanation will be given nor is any possible4 ,this k-an is popularly known as 8,jshu's ,mu or ,muji40 ,a k-an is a theme or statement or question given to the ,zen student for solution1 which will lead him to a spiritual insight4 ,the subject will be fully treated in the ,second ,series of the ,essays in ,zen ,buddhism4 f#aaf ,another k-an for beginners4 ,a monk once asked ,jshu1 8,all things return to the ,one1 but where does the ,one return80 to which the master answered1 8,when ,i was in the province of ,seiju 7,ts#8ing-chou71 ,i had a monkish garment made which weighed seven kin 7chin74 f#aag ,he is the founder of the modern ,japanese ,rinzai school of ,zen4 ,all the masters belonging to this school at present in ,japan trace back their line of transmission to ,hakuin4 f#aah ,literally1 8a great doubt01 but it does not mean that1 as the term 8doubt0 is not understood here in its ordinary sense4 ,it means a state of concentration brought to the highest pitch4 f#aai ,ganto 7,yen-t#8ou1 #hbh--hhg7 was one of the great ,zen teachers in the ,t#8ang dynasty4 ,but he was murdered by an outlaw when his death-cry is said to have reached many miles around4 ,when ,hakuin first studied ,zen1 this tragic incident in the life of an eminent ,zen master who is supposed to be above all human ailments1 troubled him very much1 and he wondered if ,zen were really the gospel of salvation4 ,hence this allusion to ,ganto4 ,notice also here that what ,hakuin discovered was a living person and not an abstract reason or anything conceptual4 ,zen leads us ultimately to somewhat living1 working1 and this is known as 8seeing into one's own ,nature0 7chien-hsing74 ,the ,chinese ,notes1 #e4ci4 f#abj ,k-ans 7kung-an7 are sometimes called 8complications10 7k-t#8ng7 literally meaning 8vines and wistarias0 which are entwining and entangling2 for according to the masters there ought not to be any such thing as a k-an in the very nature of ,zen1 it was an unnecessary invention making things more entangled and complicated than ever before4 ,the truth of ,zen has no need for k-ans4 ,it is supposed that there are one thousand seven hundred k-ans which will test the genuineness of satori4 f#aba ,tsu-yan 7#abbf-abhf7 came to ,japan when the ,hj family was in power at ,kamakura4 ,he established the ,engakuji monastery which is one of the chief ,zen monasteries in ,japan4 ,while still in ,china his temple was invaded by soldiers of the ,yan dynasty1 who threatened to kill him1 but ,bukko was immovable and quietly uttered the following verse3 8,throughout heaven and earth there is not a piece of ground where a single stick could be inserted2 ,i am glad that all things are void1 myself and the world3 ,honoured be the sword1 three feet long1 wielded by the great ,yan swordsmen2 ,for it is like cutting a spring breeze amidst the flashes of lightning40 ,see ,chinese ,notes1 #e4dj4 f#abb ,that is1 sitting cross-legged in meditation4 f#abc ,this lively utterance remind one of a lightning simile in the ,kena-,upanishad 7,,iv4 #cj73 8,this is the way ,it that is1 ,brahman is to be illustrated3 ,when lightnings have been loosened1-- a--a--ah6 ,when that has made the eyes to be closed1-- a--a--ah6 ,so far concerning ,deity devata40 ,lightning flash is a favourite analogue with the ,zen masters too2 the unexpected onrush of satori into the ordinary field of consciousness has something of the nature of lightning4 ,it comes so suddenly and when it comes the world is at once illumined and revealed in its entirety and in its harmonious oneness2 but when it vanishes everything falls back into its old darkness and confusion4 f#abd ,pao-tz#8u ,wn-ch#8in1 a disciple of ,pao-fu ,ts#8ung-chan1 who died #ibh ,a4,d4 f#abe ,another time when ,jshu was asked about the 8first word10 he coughed4 ,the monk remarked1 8,is this not it80 8,why1 an old man is not even allowed to cough60--this came quickly from the old master4 ,jshu had still another occasion to express his view on the one word4 ,a monk asked1 8,what is the one word80 ,demanded the master1 8,what do you say80 8,what is the one word80--the question was repeated when ,jshu gave his verdict1 8,you make it two40 7,ch4 ,n41 #c47 ,shuzan 7,shu-shan7 was once asked1 8,an old master says1 #8,there is one word which when understood wipes out the sins of innumerable kalpas3' what is this one word80 ,shuzan answered1 8,right under your nose60 8,what is the ultimate meaning of it80 8,this is all ,i can say03--this was the conclusion of the master4 7,ch4 ,n41 #d47 f#abf ,there are many mondoes purporting to the same subject4 ,the best known one by ,jshu is quoted elsewhere2 of others we mention the following4 ,a monk asked ,risan 7,li-shan71 8,all things are reduced to emptiness1 but where is emptiness reduced80 ,risan answered1 8,the tongue is too short to explain it to you40 8,why is it too short80 8,within and without1 it is of one suchness10 said the master4 7,ch4 ,n41 #f47 ,a monk asked ,keisan 7,ch#8i-shan71 8,when relations are dissolved1 all is reduced to emptiness2 but where is emptiness reduced80 ,the master called out to the monk1 and the monk responded1 8,yes10 whereupon the master called his attention1 saying1 8,where is emptiness80 ,said the monk1 8,pray1 you tell me40 ,keisan replied1 8,it is like the ,persian tasting pepper40 ,while the one light is an etiological question as long as its origin is the point at issue1 the questions here referred to are teleological because the ultimate reduction of emptiness is the subject for solution4 ,but as ,zen transcends time and history1 it recognises only one beginningless and endless course of becoming4 ,when we know the origin of the one light1 we also know where emptiness ends4 7,ch4 ,n41 #g47 f#abg ,another time a monk was told1 8,hold on to your poverty60 ,nan-yin ,yegu's 7,nan-yan ,hui-y7 answer to his poverty-stricken monk was more consoling1 8,you hold a handful of jewels yourself40 ,the subject of poverty is the all-important one in our religious experience--poverty not only in the material but also in the spiritual sense4 ,asceticism must have as its ground-principle a far deeper sense than to be merely curving human desires and passions1 there must be in it something positive and highly religious4 8,to be poor in spirit10 whatever meaning it may have in ,christianity1 is rich in signification for ,buddhists1 especially for ,zen followers4 ,a monk1 ,sei-jei 7,ch#8ing-shi71 came to ,sozan 7,ts#8ao-shan71 a great master of the ,st school in ,china1 and said1 8,i am a poor lonely monk3 pray have pity on me40 8,o monk1 come on forward60 ,whereupon the monk approached the master1 who then exclaimed1 8,after enjoying three cupfuls of fine chiu 7liquor7 brewed at ,ch#8ing-yan1 do you still protest that your lips are not at all wet80 ,as to another aspect of poverty1 cf4 ,hsiang-yen's poem of poverty4 f#abh ,an analogous story is told of ,sekito ,kisen 7,shih-t#8ou ,hsi-ch#8ien7 who is grandson in faith of the sixth patriarch4 ,the story is quoted elsewhere4 f#abi ,when this is literally translated1 it grows too long and loses much of its original force4 ,the ,chinese runs thus3 hao li yu ch#8a t#8ien ti hsan cheh4 ,it may better be rendered1 8,an inch's difference and heaven and earth are set apart40 f#acj ,that is1 ,ts#8ao-ch#8i1 where the sixth patriarch of ,zen used to reside4 ,it is the birthplace of ,chinese ,zen ,buddhism4 f#aca ,does this not remind us of an old mystic who defined ,god as an unutterable sigh8 f#acb ,a monk asked ,hsan-sha1 8,what is the idea of the ,national ,teacher's calling out to his attendant80 ,said ,hsan-sha1 8,the attendant knows well40 ,yn-ch ,hsi commented on this3 8,does the attendant really know1 or does he not8 ,if we say he does1 why does the ,national ,teacher say1 #8,it is you that are not fair to me'8 ,but if the attendant knows not1 how about ,hsan-sha's assertion8 ,what would be our judgment of the case80 ,hsan-chiao ,chng said to a monk1 8,what is the point the attendant understands80 ,replied the monk1 8,if he did not understand1 he would never have responded40 ,hsan-chiao said1 8,you seem to understand some40 ,a monk asked ,fa-yen1 8,what is the idea of the ,national ,teacher's calling out to his attendant80 ,fa-yen said1 8,you go away now1 and come back some other time40 ,remarked ,yn-ch1 8,when ,fa-yen says this1 does he really know what the ,national ,teacher's idea is8 or does he not80 ,a monk approached ,chao-chou with the same question1 to which he replied1 8,it is like writing characters in the dark3 while the characters are not properly formed1 their outlines are plainly traceable40 f#acc ,literally1 8,a day of no work is a day of no eating40 cf4 ,,ii4 ,thessalonians1 ,,iii41 #aj3 8,if any would not work1 neither should he eat40 ,it is noteworthy that ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi made this the first rule of his ,brotherhood4 f#acd ,tso ch#8an is one of those compound ,buddhist terms made of ,sanskrit and ,chinese4 ,tso is ,chinese meaning 8to sit10 while ch#8an stands for dhyna or jhna4 ,the full transliteration of the term is ch#8anna1 but for brevity's sake the first character alone has been in use4 ,the combination of tso-ch#8an comes from the fact that dhyana is always practised by sitting cross-legged4 ,this posture has been considered by the ,indians the best way of sitting for a long while in meditation4 ,in it1 according to some ,japanese physicians1 the centre of gravitation rests firmly in the lower regions of the body1 and when the head is relieved of an unusual congestion of blood1 the whole system will work in perfect order and the mind be put in suitable mood to take in the truth of ,zen4 f#ace ,he was the noted ,confucian disciple of ,baso 7,ma-tsu71 and his wife and daughter were also devoted ,zen followers4 ,when he thought the time had come for him to pass away1 he told his daughter to watch the course of the sun and let him know when it was midday4 ,the daughter hurriedly came back and told the father that the sun had already passed the meridian and was about to be eclipsed4 ,h came out1 and while he was watching the said eclipse1 she went in1 took her father's own seat1 and passed away in meditation4 ,when the father saw his daughter already in ,nirvana1 he said1 8,what a quick-witted girl she is60 ,h himself passed away some days later4 f#acf ,this historical temple was unfortunately destroyed by the earthquake of #aibc1 with many other buildings4 f#acg ,in those monasteries which are connected in some way with the author of this admonition1 it is read or rather chanted before a lecture or ,teisho begins4 f#ach ,i must not forget to mention that after the reading of the ,hidaya ,stra the following names of the ,buddhas and others are invoked3 #a4 ,vairocana-,buddha in his immaculate ,body of the ,law1 #b4 ,vairocana-,buddha in his perfect ,body of ,bliss1 #c4 kyamuni-,buddha in his infinite manifestations as ,body of ,transformation1 #d4 ,maitreya-,buddha who is to come in some future time1 #e4 ,all the ,buddhas past1 present1 and future in the ten quarters of the world1 #f4 ,the great holy ,bodhisattva ,majur1 #g4 ,the great morally-perfect ,bodhisattva ,samantabhadra1 #h4 ,the great compassionate ,bodhisattva ,avalokitevara1 #i4 ,all the venerable ,bodhisattva-mahsattvas1 and #aj4 ,mahprajpramit4 f#aci ,when the slop-basin goes around1 spiritual beings are again remembered3 8,this water in which my bowls were washed tastes like nectar from heaven4 ,i now offer this to the numerous spirits of the world3 may they all be filled and satisfied6 ,om ma-ku-ra-sai 7in ,pekingese1 mo-hsiu-lo-hsi7 svha60 f#adj ,this question of dust reminds one of ,berkeley's remark3 8,we have just raised a dust and then complain we cannot see40 f#ada ,sh-li1 is some indestructible substance1 generally in pebble-form1 found in the body of a saint when it is cremated4 f#adb ,kung-an is a question or theme given to the student for solution4 ,it literally means 8public document10 and1 according to a ,zen scholar1 it is so called because it serves as such in testing the genuineness of enlightenment a student claims to have attained4 ,the term has been in use since the early days of ,zen ,buddhism in the ,t#8ang dynasty4 ,the so-called 8cases0 or 8dialogues0 7mondo7 are generally used as k-ans4 ,a special chapter devoted to the subject will be found in the second series of ,the ,essays4 f#adc ,i cannot tell how early this 8,sesshin0 originated in the history of the ,zendo4 ,it is not in ,hyakujo's ,regulations1 and did not start in ,china but in ,japan probably after ,hakuin4 ,the ,sojourn period generally being a 8stay at home0 season1 the monks do not travel1 but practise 8,sesshin0 and devote themselves to the study of ,zen2 but in the week specially set up as such1 the study is pursued with the utmost vigour4 f#add ,that is1 ti-ch#8ang4 ,tei means 8to carry in hand10 8to show forth10 or 8manifest10 and sho 8to recite40 ,thus by a ,teisho the old master is revived before the congregation and his discourses are more or less vividly presented to view4 ,it is not merely explaining or commenting on the text4 f#ade ,dhara is a ,sanskrit term which comes from the root dhi1 meaning 8to hold40 ,in ,buddhist phraseology1 it is a collection1 sometimes short1 sometimes long1 of exclamatory sentences which are not translated into other languages4 ,it is not therefore at all intelligible when it is read by the monks as it is done in the ,chinese and ,japanese monasteries4 ,but it is supposed to 8hold0 in it in some mysterious way something that is most meritorious and has the power to keep evil ones away4 ,later1 dharanis and mantrams have grown confused with one another4 f#adf ,the founder of ,tenryuji1 ,kyoto4 ,he is known as 8,teacher of ,seven ,emperors40 #abgd-acfa4 f#adg ,san-ch#8an literally means 8to attend or study ,zen40 ,as it is popularly used now in ,japan1 it has1 besides its general meaning1 the special one as is referred to in the text4 f#adh ,formerly1 this was an open affair1 and all the mondos 7askings and answerings7 took place before the whole congregation1 as is stated in the ,regulations of ,hyakujo4 ,but1 later1 undesirable results followed1 such as mere formalism1 imitations1 and other empty nonsenses4 ,in modern ,zen1 therefore1 all sanzen is private1 except on formal occasions4 f#adi ,while thus going around1 he came to a house where an old woman refused to give him any rice2 he however kept on standing in front of it1 looking as if nothing were said to him4 ,his mind was so intensely concentrated on the subject which concerned him most at the time4 ,the woman got angry1 because she thought he was altogether ignoring her and trying to have his own way4 ,she struck him with a big broom with which she was sweeping and told him to depart right at once4 ,the heavy broom smashed his large monkish hat and knocked him down on the ground4 ,he was lying there for a while1 and when he came to sense again1 everything became to him clear and transparent4 f#aej ,as to the life of his teacher1 ,daito1 reference was made to it elsewhere4 f#aea ,the wind is probably one of the best imageries to get us into the idea of non-attachment or nyat philosophy4 ,the ,new ,testament has at least one allusion to it when it says1 8,the wind bloweth as it listeth10 and here we see the ,chinese mystics making use of the wind to depict his inner consciousness of absolute identity1 which is also the ,buddhist notion of the void4 ,now compare the following passage from ,echkart3 ,darum ruft die ,braue auch weiter3 8,weiche von mir1 mein ,geliebter1 weiche von mir03 8,alles1 was irgend der ,darstellung fhig ist1 das halte ich nicht fr ,gott4 ,und so fliehe ich vor ,gott1 ,gottes wegen60--#8,ei1 wo ist dann der ,seele ,bleiben8'--8,auf den ,fittichen der ,winde60 7,bttner1 ,meister ,eckeharts ,schriften und ,predigten1 ,erster ,band1 p4 #ahi47 8,so flieche ich vor ,gott1 ,gottes wegen10 reminds us of a ,zen master who said1 8,i hate even to hear the name of the ,buddha40 ,from the ,zen point of view1 8,gottes wegen10 may better be left out4 f#aeb ,the full passage is3 8,he who seeks learnedness gets daily enriched4 ,he who seeks the ,tao is daily made poor4 ,he is made poorer and poorer until he arrives at non-action 7wu wei74 ,with non-action1 there is nothing that he cannot achieve40 7,chap4 #dh47 f#aec ,na vsanair bhidyate cit na citta vsanai saha1 ,abbinnalakshaa citta vsanai pariveshtitar4 ,malavad vsan yasya manovijna-sambhav1 ,pata-uklopama citta vsanair na virjate4 ,yath na bhvo nbhvo gagana kathyate may1 laya hi tath kya bhvbhva-vivarjita4 ,manovijna vyvitta citta klusbya varjitam1 ,sarvadharmvabodhena citta buddha vadmyaham4 ,the ,lakvatra1 p4 #bif4 f#aed ,not an ordinary question asking enlightenment1 but one that has a point in it showing some understanding on the part of the inquirer4 ,all those questions already quoted must not be taken in their superficial or literary sense4 ,they are generally metaphors4 ,for instance1 when one asks about a phrase having no shadow1 he does not mean any ordinary ensemble of words known grammatically as such1 but an absolute proposition whose verity is so beyond a shadow of doubt that every rational being will at once recognise as true on hearing it4 ,again1 when reference is made to murdering a parent or a ,buddha1 it has really nothing to do with such horrible crimes1 but as we have in ,rinzai's sermon elsewhere1 the murdering is transcending the relativity of a phenomenal world4 ,ultimately1 therefore1 this question amounts to the same thing as asking 8,where is the one to be reduced1 when the many are reduced to the one80 f#aee ,this means ,buddha who is supposed by ,buddhists to have been the owner of a golden-coloured body1 sixteen feet in height4 f#aef ,generally after a sermon the monks come out and ask various questions bearing on the subject of the sermon1 though frequently indifferent ones are asked too4 f#aeg ,see the article on the 8,history of ,zen ,buddhism10 p4 #adi et seq4 f#aeh ,for detail see 8,practical ,methods of ,zen ,instruction40 f#aei ,cf4 also 8,history of ,zen ,buddhism0 where reference is made to the ,northern and ,southern school of ,zen under the fifth patriarch in ,china4 f#afj ,see for detail p4 #agg1 8,history of ,zen40 f#afa ,according to ,fariduddin ,attar1 ,a4,d4 #aaai-abbi1 of ,khorassan1 ,persia1 ,cf4 ,claud ,field's ,mystics and ,saints of ,islam1 p4 #abc et seq4 f#afb ,underhill--,mysticism1 p4 #cfi4 f#afc ,after this book went to the press1 ,i have come across an old edition of the spiritual cow-herding pictures1 which end with an empty circle corresponding to the eighth of the present series4 ,is this the work of ,seikyo as referred to in ,kakuan's ,preface8 ,the cow is shown to be whitening here gradually with the progress of discipline4 ,i may have an occasion later to reproduce this edition4 f#afd ,see also a ,sutra in the ,anguttara gama bearing the same title1 which is evidently another translation of the same text4 ,also compare 8,the ,herdsman1 ,i410 in ,the ,first ,fifty ,discourses of ,gotama the ,buddha2 ,vol4 ,,ii41 by ,bhikkhu ,slcra4 ,leipzig1 #aiac4 ,this a partial translation of the ,majjhima ,nikya of the ,pali ,tripitaka4 ,the eleven items as enumerated in the ,chinese version are just a little differently given4 ,essentially of course1 they are the same in both texts4 ,a ,buddhist dictionary called ,daizo ,hossu gives reference on the subject to the great ,mahayana work of ,ngrjuna1 the ,mhprjpramit-stra1 but so far ,i have not been able to identify the passage4 f#afe ,the ten pictures reproduced here were specially prepared for the author by ,reverend ,seisetsu ,seki1 ,abbot of ,tenryuji1 ,kyoto1 which is one of the principal historical ,zen monasteries in ,japan4 ,the original ,chinese verses with their introductory notes are found in the ,appendix4 f#aff ,it will be interesting to note what a mystic philosopher would say about this3 8,a man shall become truly poor and as free from his creature will as he was when he was born4 ,and ,i say to you1 by the eternal truth1 that as long as ye desire to fulfil the will of ,god1 and have any desire after eternity and ,god2 so long are ye not truly poor4 ,he alone hath true spiritual poverty who wills nothing1 knows nothing1 desires nothing40--7,from ,eckhart as quoted by ,inge in ,light1 ,life1 and ,love47 ,,index ,,index 8,abrupt0 school1 #cej4 ,account of ,succession in the ,law1 #aeh4 ,accounts of the ,orthodox ,transmission of the ,dharma1 by ,ch#8i-,sung1 #aef4 dara-,jna 7mirror-insight71 #aca;f4 ,amitbha ,stra1 7,chinese71 #aic1 see also ,sukhvatvyha4 ,anbhogacary 7act of no-purpose71 #ff;fn41 #hb4 nanda1 #ee1 #ei1 and ,akshobhya1 #bhd4 ,anuttara-samyak-sambodhi 7supreme1 perfect enlightenment71 #eh1 #gh2 see also ,enlightenment4 ,arada 7or lra ,klma71 #ga;fn41 #ade4 ,arhat1 qualified1 #fj4 ,arhatship1 #ea1 #ef1 #aba4 ,ariyapariyesana-suttam1 #ch;fn4 ,asanga1 #ee4 rava 7leakage71 #ej;fn4 ,avaghosha1 #ee1 #ef;fn41 #ade1 #afa4 ,avajit1 #eh4 ,avatasaka ,stra 7,chinese71 #hi4 ,awakening of ,faith1 the1 by ,avaghosha1 #ef4 ,bhva1 #hi4 ,basho 7,pa-chiao71 on 8shuj10 #bei1 silent1 #bha4 ,baso 7,ma-tsu71 #af1 #cj1 #afc1 #aij1 #aii1 #bah1 #bba;f42 in his sick bed1 #bfi2 his 8,kwats60 #bgi;f42 and ,t-,impo1 #bia4 ,berkeley1 on dust1 #cac;fn4 ,bhtat1 #gi4 ,bhtatathat1 #aca4 ,biographies of the ,high ,priests1 by ,tao-hsan1 #afc4 ,black-nails1 the ,brahman1 #afa4 ,blake1 #bfg4 ,bliss-bestowing1 #cff4 ,bodhi1 #gi;ff42 see also ,enlightenment4 ,bodhi-,dharma 7,daruma1 ,tamo71 #h1 #bd1 #gd1 #hb1 #ic1 #id1 #if1 #aef1 #bah2 the gth by1 #afj2 his life1 #afc;ff42 ,six ,essays by1 #afe;fn42 his life by ,donrin1 #afg2 and the emperor of ,liang1 #age2 in ,wei1 #agf2 and his disciples1 #agg2 and ,ngrjuna1 #agg;fn42 his last days1 #agh2 his coming from ,west1 #bff2 and a nun1 #bhd2 and his four disciples1 #cea4 ,bodhiruci1 a translator of the ,lakvatra1 #gd4 ,bodhisattvahood1 #fc2 contrasted with ,arhatship1 #eb4 ,bodhisattva-sla ,stra1 7,chinese17 #aic1 #bje4 ,bodhism1 #aeb4 ,boehme1 ,jacob1 #aad4 ,bokitsu 7,mu-chi71 on staff1 #bj4 ,bokuju 7,mu-chou71 on staff1 #ba2 treatment of ,ummon1 #aj2 on dressing and eating1 #ab;f42 on teacher of ,buddhas1 #bfi2 on ,zen1 #bfi2 on doctrine going beyond ,buddhas1 #bfi;f4 ,brahmajla1 #ej;fn41 #ea4 ,buddha1 his deification1 #cc2 no metaphysician1 #ci2 motherly1 #dj2 deified1 #dj;fn42 as the world-light1 #da2 the reason of his appearance1 #fa2 his secluded habit1 #fh2 as a magician1 #hf2 his personality1 #aja2 his personal experience1 #ajg2 his predecessors1 #ajh2 his reluctance to preach1 #aji2 his proclamation to ,upaka #aae2 and metaphysics1 #abd;ff42 as empiricist1 #abg2 his gth of law-transmission1 #aei2 and an old lady1 #afb2 as mind1 #bbj4 ,buddhacarita1 by ,avaghosha1 #ade4 ,buddhas1 the six1 #aeh2 invoked at meal1 #caj;fn4 ,buddhism1 and its founder1 #ca;ff42 and its ,pali scholars1 #cg2 as a life1 #cg2 as the teaching of the ,buddha1 #cg2 and its divisions1 #db2 as a living system of ,buddhist experience1 #db1 #dd2 its vital problems1 #dc;ff42 its essence1 #dd2 to be comprehensively and inwardly conceived1 #dh2 ,buddhism1 growing beyond monasticism1 #fb;ff42 and women1 #fd2 ,chinese1 characterised1 #ic2 persecuted in ,china1 #ie2 its influence on ,taoism1 #ih2 acting on ,confucian ideas1 #ii2 defined1 #aja4 ,builder 7or designer1 gahkara71 #aag2 see also ,ego4 ,bukk 7,fo-kuang71 or ,tsu-yan1 #bci;f42 his tki-no-g1 #bda;fn4 ,bunki 7,wen-hsi71 silent1 #bha4 ,candrottara-drik ,stra1 7,chinese7 #fd4 ,carlyle1 ,thomas1 #b4 ,catushkotika1 four logical propositions1 #bfj4 ,cause and ,effect in the ,past and ,present1 ,sutra on the1 #cf;fn4 ,causation1 the twelvefold chain of1 #cg1 #ee1 #eg1 #ajh1 #aag1 #abf1 #aec1 #aed2 see also under ,origination4 ,cetovimutti1 #fj4 ,chao-chou1 see ,jsh4 ,ch#8ng-hao1 ,confucian philosopher1 #ii4 ,ch#8ng-i1 ,confucian philosopher1 #ii4 ,chien-ku1 #fi4 ,chih-chiang-liang-lou1 a ,buddhist translator1 #aeh4 ,chih-,i 7,chigi71 a ,buddhist philosopher1 #id1 #ajj1 #adc1 #aij4 ,chih-yeh 7,chiyaku71 a ,buddhist from ,india1 #bjb4 ,chih-huang 7,chiko71 disciple of ,hui-nng1 #bjh;f4 ,chinese language1 as vehicle of ,zen1 #ccg;f4 ,chinese mind1 compared with the ,indian1 #hc;ff42 practical1 #ij4 ,ch-kei 7,ch#8ang-ching71 his tki-no-g1 #bcc;f42 on ,suigan's eyebrows1 #bgi4 ,chosa 7,ch#8ang-sha71 on ,nansen's death1 #ag2 on earthworm1 #cac2 on the self1 #bgc4 ,chyetsu 7,ch#8ang-shuo71 a ,chinese officer1 #aic4 ,chsui 7,ch#8ang-shui71 on the evolution of the absolute1 #bgb4 ,chou-tun-i1 a ,chinese philosopher1 #ii4 ,christ1 in the light of ,zen1 #ccj4 ,christian mystics1 #cec4 ,christianity1 and its founder1 #ce;ff42 symbolic1 #ada4 ,chu 7,chung71 the national teacher1 #cbg2 calling to his attendant1 #bhh4 ,chuang-tz1 #hi1 #ajj4 ,chu-hsi1 a ,chinese philosopher1 #ii4 ,citta1 #hj4 ,confucius1 #b1 #e1 #aj4 ,contradictions1 in ,zen1 #bfd;ff4 ,counter-questioning1 in ,zen1 #bha;ff4 ,cow1 revered by the ,indians1 #cee2 on the herding of1 #cee2 gone out of sight1 #cfd2 forgotten1 #cfc2 on the back of1 #cfb2 herding the1 #cfa2 seeing the traces of the1 #ceh2 seeing the1 #cei2 catching the1 #cfj2 looking for the1 #ceg4 ,daizui 7,tai-sui71 on self1 #bhb4 ,daruma 7or ,tamo71 see ,bodhi-,dharma4 ,democracy1 in the monastery1 #cac4 ,designer 7or builder1 gahkara71 #aag4 ,dhammapda1 #ee1 #acd1 #ace4 ,dharan1 #cbj;fn4 ,dharma1 the1 #eh2 and ,buddhist life1 #cg2 the comprehensive1 #ci2 manifest in the ,buddha1 #dj2 defined1 #ej2 the eye of1 #ec4 ,dharmakya1 #cd;fn41 #gf4 ,dhitaka1 a ,zen patriarch1 #aei4 ,dhyna 7jhna71 and ,praj1 #cd;ff42 and ,zen1 #fg;ff42 against antinomianism1 #fg2 different kinds of1 #ga;ff42 four kinds of1 in the ,lakvatra1 #ha2 the true1 defined in the ,samyukta-gama1 #ha;fn42 distinguished from ,zen1 #ic2 as a spiritual exercise1 #aed;f42 the ,tathgata1 #baj2 the patriarchal1 #baj2 see also under ,zen4 ,direct action1 in ,zen1 #bgg;ff4 ,direct method1 in ,zen1 #bhc;ff4 ,discipline1 ,sutra on the ,story of1 ,chinese1 #ch4 ,discipline 7iksha71 the threefold1 #fi1 #ace4 ,dfuku 7,tao-fu71 disciple of ,bodhi-,dharma1 #agg4 ,dgo 7,tao-wu71 ,yenchi1 disciple of ,yakusan1 knows not his master1 #bfe2 with ,yakusan1 #bhg4 ,dgo1 ,tenno1 instructing ,rytan1 #bhg4 ,diku 7,tao-yu71 disciple of ,bodhi-,dharma1 #aff1 #agg4 ,dsan 7,tung-shan71 #ig4 ,dshin 7,tao-hsin71 #ahb1 #ahg2 and ,hyu 7,fa-jung71 #ahh;f4 ,dukha 7pain71 #ada4 ,eastern ,buddhist1 the1 vi1 #a;fn4 ,eating1 in the monastery1 #caj;ff4 ,eckhart1 cited1 #aad1 #bbc1 #bee1 #beh1 #bfh1 #bga1 #cje1 #cca;fn41 #cfd4 ,ego1 #d2 -centric1 #d2 -substance1 not existent1 #df1 #dg4 ,ekacitta 7one thought71 #aac4 ,ekottara-gama1 #cd;fn41 #dj;fn4 ,emerson1 on imagination1 #bic4 ,emptiness 7nat71 #agh;ff42 as poverty1 #ccf4 ,engakuji1 in ,kamakura1 #cjf4 ,enlightenment1 and darkness1 #ac2 essence of ,buddhism1 #dd2 and ,nirvana1 #de2 attainable by us1 #dg2 its relation to ,zen1 #di;ff42 as the ,dharma1 #ej2 as ,nirvana1 #ea2 not intellectual1 #ef1 #aaa2 as final truth1 #eg2 in the ,lakvatra1 #fj2 not discursive understanding1 #fa2 and spiritual freedom1 #fb;ff42 fuller expression of life1 #gc2 not conceptual1 #ha2 in the ,saddharma-puarka1 #hd2 as a significant fact in the ,buddha's life1 #aja2 and intellection1 #ajg2 and ignorance1 #ajg;ff42 and the will1 #aai2 as affirmation1 #abg2 not nihilistic1 #acj2 not a passive reflection1 #acb2 and samdhi 7or dhyna71 #acc;ff42 a returning1 #ach;ff42 and the intellect1 #aci;ff42 synthetical1 #ada2 not negative1 #add2 as essential fact of ,buddhism1 #aeb;ff42 as satori1 #bae2 graded1 #cdi;ff4 ,everlasting ,no1 #b4 ,everlasting ,yea1 #b4 ,eye 7insight71 #aji4 ,exclamation1 in ,zen1 #bgh;ff4 ,fa-pao-tan-ching1 by ,hui-nng1 #bja;fn41 #bjb;f4 ,finger1 pointing at the moon1 #g4 ,first ,fifty ,discourses of the ,buddha1 tr4 by ,slcra1 #cee;fn4 ,freedom1 spiritual1 #aba4 ,fu-hsi 7,fuky1 or ,fudaishi71 #ahi1 #beh4 ,gaavyha ,stra1 ,chinese1 #fd4 ,gant 7,yen-tou71 #bci;f4 ,gths of transmission1 #aei4 ,genkaku 7,hsan-chiao71 #bjg4 ,genkaku cho 7,hsan-chiao ,chng72 on ,chu the national teacher1 #bhh;fn4 ,gensaku 7,hsan-t#8s71 #bjh;f4 ,gensha 7,hsan-sha71 in water1 #bgg2 on self1 #bgg2 on transparent crystal1 #bgg;f42 on the murmuring of a stream1 #bgh2 and a piece of cake1 #bgh2 on ,chu the national teacher1 #bhh;fn4 ,gensoku 7,hsan-t#8s71 and the god of fire1 #bid4 ,godaishi 7,wu-tao-tz71 and the emperor ,hsan-tsung1 #bib;f4 ,god-consciousness1 in ,zen1 #ccf4 ,goroku 7,y-lu71 sayings1 ,,iii41 ,,iv42 ,chinese colloquialism in1 #ig4 ,gozusan 7,niu-tou-shan71 #ahg4 8,gradual0 school1 in ,zen1 #cej4 ,gunabhadra1 a translator of the ,lakvatra1 #gd1 #bjb4 ,gunin 7,hung-jn71 the fifth patriarch1 #cj1 #aif1 #agc1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aia4 ,gutei 7,chuh-chih71 one finger ,zen1 #bb;fn4 ,gwarin1 7,wo-luan7 a disciple of the sixth ,patriarch1 #bji4 ,haiky 7,p#8ei ,hsiu71 and baku1 #bff;f41 #bhi4 ,hakuin2 #bch;ff41 #bfg1 #cbg2 on ,ummon's 8,kwan60 #bgi2 ,song of ,zasen1 #cbb;f42 and his teacher ,shju1 #cbd;f4 ,hekiganshu1 an important book on ,zen1 #bb;fn41 #cbj4 ,herbert1 ,george1 cited1 #cje4 ,hima 7,pi-mo71 with his forked stick1 #bfa4 ,hinayanism1 as ascetic formalism1 #fd4 ,hofuku 7,pao-fu71 #bb;fn42 on ,suigan's eyebrows1 #bgi2 his 8for a while10 #bha4 ,hgen 7,fa-yen71 on an inch's difference1 #bge2 on one drop of water1 #bge;f42 on ,chu the national teacher1 #bhh;f42 with ,gensoku1 #bid4 ,hokkezammai 7fa-hua san-mei71 #adc4 ,hkoji 7,p#8ang ,yun71 on the companionless man1 #af2 ,chinese ,vimalakrti1 #ag2 on drawing water1 #cjf1 #cjf;fn4 ,hji ,bunkin 7,pao-tz#8 ,wen-ch#8in71 on everyday thought1 #bdh4 ,hnen ,shnin1 #cd;fn4 ,hshi 7,pao-chih71 #ahi4 ,hossu1 #bj4 ,hyen 7,fa-yen71 of ,gosozan1 on ,haryo ,kan1 #ajc2 his tki-no-g1 #bcd2 on his own portrait1 #bcg2 his sermon1 #bga2 and the yogcra1 #bge2 sermon on burglary1 #bif;f42 on too much ,zen1 #cca2 sermon on staff1 #cde4 ,hsiang-yen1 see ,kygen4 ,hsien-chou 7,genju71 a great ,buddhist philosopher1 #ajj4 ,hsing-sz1 see ,seigen ,gyshi4 ,hsan-chuang 7,genj ,sanzo71 #ib1 #ajj4 ,huang-nieh1 see baku4 ,hui-chung1 see ,chu the national teacher4 ,hui-k#81 see ,yeka4 ,hui-nng1 see ,yeno4 ,hui-sz 7,yeshi71 a ,chinese ,buddhist teacher1 #adc4 ,humility1 taught in the monastery1 #cah4 ,hyakujo 7,pai-chang71 #afc2 and wild geese1 #bbe4 rolling up the matting1 #bcb2 deafened by ,baso's 8,kwats60 #bhj2 as founder of ,zen monastery1 #cja2 on cow-herding1 #cef4 ,hyakujo1 ,nehan1 #ac1 #bdg1 #bhf4 ,hyakujo ,shingi1 regulations of the ,zen monastery1 #cja4 ,ibnu ',i-,farid1 a ,persian mystic1 #cec4 ,i-ching 7,gij71 a ,chinese pilgrim and translator1 #ib4 ,ignorance1 avidy1 #a1 #dg2 how conquered1 #aaa2 not cognitive1 #aaf;ff42 and ego1 #abj1 #abf4 ,iku1 or ,tory 7,tu-ling ,yu71 his tki-no-g1 #bcd;f4 ,immortality1 #ag4 ,indian imagination1 and the ,mahayana texts1 #hd4 ,inshu 7,yin-tsung71 converted by ,yeno1 #aig4 ,insight1 its synonyms in ,sanskrit1 #aab;ff42 see also eye 7cakkhu74 ,intellect1 disturbing1 #f4 ,isan 7,wei-shan71 picking tea-leaves1 #bhi1 #cad2 in the remote mountains1 #cbg4 ,ishin ,seigen 7,wei-hsin ,ch#8in-yan71 his view of ,zen1 #ab4 ,islamic ,mysticism1 by ,r4 ,d4 ,nicholson1 #cec;f4 ,itivuttaka1 #aca1 #acc4 ,jimyo 7,tz-ming71 on dust1 #bb2 his counter-questioning1 #bhb2 and ,suigan ,kashin1 #bie;f4 ,jinshu 7,shn-hsiu71 #aia1 #aic1 #bja1 #bah4 ,j-jza 7,ting the monk71 and ,rinzai1 #bdc2 with ,buddhist scholars1 #bij;f4 ,jshu 7,chao-chou71 on ,zen1 #ajb2 8,throw it down60 #afb2 no abiding place1 #bje;fn42 on washing dishes1 #bbd2 8,mu01 #bcf1 #bdj2 one ultimate word1 #bef1 #bef;fn42 on poverty1 #bei2 on ,nansen's cat1 #bfb2 on his new robe1 #bfh2 one thing abiding1 #bfi2 on ,praj1 #bgc2 his counter-questioning1 #bhb2 his direct method1 #bhf2 on ,chu the national teacher1 #bhh;fn42 on dust1 #cac2 crying 8fire60 #cac2 and an old woman1 #cbh;f42 his stone bridge1 #cbi2 on a crystal1 #cda2 on ,bodhi-,dharma1 #cda4 ,kaisu 7,ch#8i-sung71 a ,chinese historian1 #aeh4 ,kakuan 7,k#8uo-an71 on ten cow-herding pictures1 #cee4 ,kan of ,haryo 7,pa-,ling ,chien71 #ajc4 ,karma1 #hf4 ,katha-,upanishad1 #aad4 8,kechimyak-ron10 one of the ,six ,essays by ,bodhi-,dharma1 quoted1 #bai;ff4 ,kegon 7,avatasaka71 #ed1 #afj4 ,keisan 7,chi-shan71 #beg;fn4 ,kena-,upanishad1 #cj;fn41 #adc;fn4 ,kensho1 seeing into one's nature1 #cdi4 ,kevaddha ,sutta1 #fi;fn41 #hh4 ,kido 7,hs-t#8ang71 on the evolution of the absolute1 #bgb;f4 ,kisu 7,kuei-tsung71 weeding1 #bgj4 ,k-an1 ,,iv41 #bci;f41 #bej2 its meaning explained1 #cai;fn4 ,koboku ,gen 7,k#8u-mu ,yan71 on poverty1 #ccd;f4 ,kh 7,kao-fng71 his ,zen experience1 #bcf;ff4 ,krin 7,hsiang-lin71 tired with sitting1 #bfh4 ,kzankoku 7,huang-shan-ku71 and ,kwaido1 #bcj4 ,kumrajva1 #ajj4 ,kwanzan1 #cbg4 ,kwasan 7,h-shan71 his drum1 #bfi4 8,kwatsu60 7h71 #bb2 four forms of1 #bhj4 ,kygen 7,hsiang-yen71 #baj2 his satori1 #bbg;f42 a man up in a tree1 #bfc2 on poverty1 #ccd4 ,kyzan 7,yang-shan71 on ,isan's mirror1 #bfb2 and ,sansho1 #bhb2 picking tea-leaves1 #cad4 ,kwanchu 7,huan-chung71 on ,praj1 #bgc4 ,lalita-vistara1 #adf4 ,lakvatra ,stra1 #fj1 #hb1 #id1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #afa1 #agc;ff41 #aic1 #bjb1 #ccf;f42 not one word uttered1 #ee2 three ,chinese translations of1 #gd2 its special features discussed1 #ge2 a hymn cited from1 #gf2 its main thesis1 #gf2 passages often repeated in1 #hj2 quotation from the first chapter of1 #hg;ff42 on abrupt understanding1 #bjj4 ,lao-tz1 #cj;fn41 #ajj1 #cce4 ,lawrence1 ,brother1 #ah1 #cje4 8,learning by doing10 in the monastery1 #cae4 ,liang-chiu 78for a little while071 #bha4 ,lieh-tz1 #hi1 #ccj1 #cea;ff4 ,life1 as affirmation1 #b2 suffering1 #c2 assertion of1 #bhe4 ,lightning simile1 #bcj;f41 #bda1 #bhd4 ,lin-chi1 see ,rinzai4 ,lohicca1 #fi;fn4 ,mdhyamika1 the1 #ij1 #ajj1 #afj4 ,mahkyapa1 or ,kyapa1 #di1 #gd1 #aee1 #aei4 ,mahli-sutta1 #ej;fn41 #abc1 #acb4 ,mahpadna-suttanta1 #ch;fn41 #ajh4 ,mahparinibbna1 #fi4 ,mahparinirvna ,stra1 ,chinese1 #bbj;fn4 ,mahsaghikas1 #db4 ,mahayana1 traceable in ,hinayana1 #dh4 ,mahayanism1 and libertinism1 #fd4 ,mahyutpatti1 #gj;fn4 ,maitreya1 #he4 ,majjhima-nikya1 #adf1 #adg4 ,manas1 #hj4 ,majur1 #fd1 #hf1 #ij2 as ,praj1 #bgc4 ,maitams1 7self-assertion71 #acf4 ,manovijna1 #hj4 ,manura1 the twenty-second patriarch of ,zen1 #aei4 ,ma-tsu1 see ,baso4 ,maturing1 of ,zen life1 #cbg;f4 ,maudgalyyana1 #eh4 ,mayoku 7,ma-ku71 and ,rysui1 #bhh4 ,meaningless affirmation1 in ,zen1 #bfg;ff4 ,meditation1 #ha2 in ,zen1 #ai1 #bj;fn41 #bjf;ff42 five objects of1 #gb;fn42 ten objects of1 #gb;fn42 meditations on food1 three1 #caj2 five1 #caj4 ,meditation ,hall1 ,,iv41 #bd1 #cja;ff4 ,mencius1 #d4 ,meritlessness1 #ccj2 meritless deeds1 #ccf4 ,miracles1 ,buddhist view of1 #abc;fn4 ,moksha1 #eb2 see also ,vimoksha4 ,monastery life1 described1 #cji;f42 practical1 #cje4 ,mond 7questions and answers71 #bbb1 #bef4 ,monks1 as labourers1 #cab4 ,moon1 and a finger1 #f4 ,mu-chou1 see ,bokuj4 ,mumon 7,wu-men71 on poverty1 #cc4 ,mus ,kokushi1 #cba2 his exhortation1 #cba4 ,my-jza 7,ming the ,monk71 #aie4 ,mystics and ,saints of ,islam1 by ,claud ,field1 #bbe;fn4 ,na-lien-ya-sh1 a ,buddhist translator from ,india1 #aeh4 ,nan-ch#8an1 see ,nansen4 ,nangaku 7,nan-yeh71 #baj1 #bab1 #bbb1 #bcf2 and his disciples1 #cea4 ,nansen 7,nan-ch#8an71 #ag1 #cj1 #afc1 #bib2 everyday thought1 #bdh2 and his cat1 #bfb4 ,ngrjuna1 #ee1 #ef1 #ajj1 #afa1 #cee;fn4 ,nanyin 7,nan-yan17 #baj4 ,nan-yeh1 see ,nangaku4 ,negation1 in ,zen1 #bfj;ff4 ,nenro1 commentary remark peculiar to ,zen1 #bbe4 ,nigrodha1 #fh4 ,nirvana1 #cg1 #de1 #aja2 in samsara1 #ac2 not annihilation1 #dg2 in enlightenment1 #ea2 the anupdiesha1 #ea1 #fc2 conditioned by samsara1 #gi2 in ,sutta ,nipata1 #aca;f42 described as security1 #adg4 ,nirva ,stra1 ,chinese1 #aic1 #aig1 see also ,mahparinirvna4 ,noble ,truth1 the ,fourfold1 #cg1 #ci1 #ed1 #ee1 #eg1 #if1 #aac1 #aaf1 #abh;f4 #ada1 #aed4 8,no work1 no eating10 #cjb;f4 ,non-achievement1 #bah4 ,non-attachment1 #afa1 #cce;f4 ,non-ego1 #cg1 #aec1 #aed4 ,nyoi1 #bj4 baku 7,huang-po71 #i1 #afc1 #bah2 with his staff1 #bhe;f42 with ,haiky1 #bhi2 and ,rinzai1 #bia2 with a hoe1 #cad4 kubo ,shibun1 and his bamboo picture1 #bei;f4 8,one thought0 7ekacitta71 #ef1 #aac4 ,one voice 7ekavara71 #dc;fn4 ,orategama1 a collection of letters by ,hakuin1 #bch4 ,original face1 the1 #aie1 #baj4 ,origination1 theory or chain of 7prattya-samutpda71 #df1 #ff;fn41 #if1 #adb;f42 see also ,causation4 ,pai-chang1 see ,hyakujo4 ,pali ,text ,society1 ,journal of1 #aaa4 ,pa1 #aji2 and enlightenment1 #abf2 its ,pali synonyms1 #aab;ff42 ,see also ,praj4 ,pa-vimutti1 #fj4 ,pao-lin-ch#8uan1 a lost ,zen history1 #aeh4 ,paradox1 in ,zen1 #beh;ff4 ,paramrtha1 or paramrthasatya1 #gi1 #bjb4 ,pramits1 virtues of perfection1 #agj4 ,parikalpana 7or vikalpa71 #aac4 ,parinibbna-suttanta1 #da;fn42 see also ,mahparinibbna-suttanta4 ,paticca-samuppda1 #aad1 #aaf1 #abi2 see also ,origination and ,causation4 ,patriarchs1 the twenty-eight1 #aeg4 ,pieh-chi1 a ,zen document1 #agb4 ,pi-kwan1 wall-gazing1 #afg1 #aga;ff4 ,platform ,sutra1 by ,hui-nng1 #bji2 see also ,fa-pao-tan-ching4 ,plotinus1 #bfh4 ,poverty1 in ,zen1 #ccc;ff4 ,praj1 #eb;ff41 #fa1 #fe1 #ff1 #id1 #aac1 #acd;ff41 #bgc1 #bge2 see also ,pa1 and under ,dhyna and ,enlightenment4 ,praj-pramit ,stra1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #adb;fn41 #afa1 #bje;fn41 #bff2 the philosophy of1 #acf;f42 its school1 #hj4 ,pratytmajna1 or -gocara1 #gf;ff41 #ha1 #ia1 #aec4 ,prodigal son1 the1 in the ,buddhist texts1 #adj;ff4 ,raft1 the simile of1 #acf;ff4 ,rakuho 7,le-p#8u71 his 8,kwats60 #bhj4 ,rasan 7,lo-shan71 his counter-questioning1 #bhb4 ,rvana1 #gg1 #hg4 ,records of the ,right ,transmission1 a ,zen history by ,ch#8i-sung1 #aeh4 ,records of the ,spread of the ,lamp1 a ,zen history by ,li ,tsun-hs1 #aef4 ,records of the ,transmission of the ,lamp1 a ,zen history by ,tao-yan1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afd1 #aff1 #bjd4 ,refuge formula1 the threefold1 #fb4 ,reiun 7,ling-yn71 on the appearance of the ,buddha1 #bhe4 ,religion of the ,samurai1 by ,kwaiten ,nukariya1 v4 ,repetition1 in ,zen1 #bga;ff4 ,returning1 #aci2 to the origin1 #cfe4 ,rhys ,davids1 #gj;fn4 ,righteousness1 the eightfold path of1 #cg1 #ee4 #if1 #aec1 #aed4 ,rightful ,lineage of the ,skya ,doctrine1 a history of ,chinese ,buddhism1 #afc4 ,rinzai 7lin-chi71 #aij1 #baj1 #bha2 on a man of no title1 #h;f42 on staff1 #ba2 the school of1 #bab2 on baku's ,buddhism1 #bcb2 and baku1 #bia2 his 8,kwats60 #bgi;f42 his 8rough0 method1 #bij2 with a hoe1 #cad2 sermon on ,zen life1 #cca;f4 ,rinzairoku1 ,sayings of ,rinzai1 #cbj4 ,risan 7li-shan71 #bef;fn4 ,ruskin1 #ae4 ,rysui 7,liang-sui71 answering ,mayoku1 #bhh4 ,ryttan 7,lung-t#8an71 receiving instructions from ,dgo1 #bhg4 ,saddharma-puarka ,stra1 #dc;fn41 #ed1 #fa1 #ff1 #hd1 #hi1 #aic4 #cee;f4 ,sai-an 7,chi-an71 and ,vairocana ,buddha1 #afb4 ,samdhi1 #id1 #bjh;f42 distinguished from dyhna1 #gj2 its synonyms1 #gj4 ,sma-phala ,sutta1 #fh1 #fi;fn41 #ga;fn41 #abh1 #aca4 ,sasra1 #gi4 ,samyutta-nikya1 #ei1 #adb;fn4 ,sandhana1 a follower of the ,buddha1 #fh4 ,sangha1 #fh4 ,sansho 7,san-shng7 #baj2 and ,kyzan1 #bhb4 ,sanzen1 #cbc;f4 riputra1 #fa1 #hf2 his spiritual attainment1 #eh2 in the ,puarika1 #fa4 ,satori1 7awakening71 #ai1 #bd1 #bae;ff42 as intuitive understanding1 #baf2 and conversion1 #bag2 as ken-sh 7chien-hsing71 #bai2 not discursive1 #bbh2 and mental effort1 #bca2 and self-suggestion1 #bdd2 absolutely needed in ,zen1 #bdd;f42 not meditation1 #bdf2 and seeing ,god1 #bdf2 intimate experience1 #bdg2 not abnormal1 #bdh2 and freedom1 #bdi2 as enlightenment1 #bdi4 ,schopenhauer1 #add4 ,secch 7,hseh-tou71 compiler of ,hekigan1 #bb;fn42 on ,ummon's 8,kwan60 #bgi4 ,secret ,virtue1 #cbh;ff4 ,seigen ,gyshi 7,ch#8ing-yan ,hsing-sz71 the source of the ,soto1 #bab4 ,seizei 7,ch#8ing-shi71 #bei;fn4 ,seki1 ,seisetsu1 #ceg;fn4 ,sekis 7,shih-shuang71 on the ultimate fact1 #bhf4 ,sekit 7,shih-t#8ou71 #ag1 #afc1 #aij1 #aii1 #bfd4 ,self-suffering1 in ,zen1 #cbi4 ,sng-t#8san1 see ,ssan4 ,sesshin period1 #cai;ff4 ,shari 7rra71 #caf4 ,shn-hsui1 see ,jinshu4 ,sheng-chou-chi1 a lost ,zen history1 #aeh4 ,shifuku 7,tzu-fu71 silent1 #bha4 ,shih-t#8ou1 see ,sekit4 ,shiko 7,tz-hu71 on earthworm1 #cad4 ,shin sect1 as 8other-power10 v4 ,shingon1 #afj2 and ,swedenborg1 #de;fn4 ,shinko 7,shn-kuang71 #agf;f42 see also ,yeka4 ,shinran1 #cd;fn4 ,shipp1 #bj4 ,shk 7,shng-kuang71 on earthworm1 #cad4 ,shuan 7,shou-an71 on poverty1 #ccc4 ,shujy1 #bj4 ,shuk 7,chu-hung71 on anger1 #cag;f4 ,shuzan 7,shu-shan71 #bef;fn42 on shipp1 #bfa2 on ,buddhism1 #bfi2 his 8for a while10 #bha4 ikshnanda1 a translator of the ,lakvatra1 #gd4 ,silence1 in ,zen1 #bhj;f42 ,vimalakrti's #bhj2 and ,zen masters1 #bha4 ,six ,essays by ,bodhi-,dharma1 #bah2 see also under ,bodhi-,dharma4 ,sixth ,patriarch1 see ,yeno4 ,sji 7,tsung-chih71 #agg4 ,sonadanda1 the ,brahman1 #adb;fn4 ,sorrow1 sanctifying1 #d4 ,ssan 7,sng-t#8san71 #aha;ff42 his writing1 #ahb;ff4 ,st school1 the1 #bab4 ,sotba 7,su ,tung-p#8o71 on ,mount ,lu1 #aa;f4 ,shaku1 ,soyen1 vii4 ,sozan 7,ts#8ao-shan71 silence revealed by1 #bha4 ,spirits1 fed at meal1 #caa4 rml ,stra1 ,chinese1 #fd4 ,st4 ,francis1 on work1 #cjc;f4 ,sthaviras1 #da4 ,sudhana1 #fd4 ,suffering1 #c1 #d4 ,sufis1 #cec4 ,suibi 7,ts#8ui-wei71 ,mugaku1 on ,tanka1 #cag4 ,suibi 7,ts#8ui-yen71 on his eyebrows1 #bgi4 ,suigan ,kashin1 and ,jimy1 #bie;f4 ,sukhvativyha ,stra1 #dc;fn4 ,sumeru1 ,mount1 #hg4 ,sumiye-painting1 and ,zen1 #bhd4 nyat1 emptiness1 #dg1 #ef1 #hj1 #ajj4 ,supernaturalism1 ,indian1 #hf2 miracles1 wonders1 etc41 #hh1 #ij4 ragama ,stra1 ,chinese1 #bgb4 ,sutta ,nipata1 #ej;fn41 #acj1 #acb4 ,swedenborg1 #de;fn4 ,tai-an1 on cow-herding1 #cef4 ,taigi 7tai-i71 fixation1 #bch;f4 ,tanka 7,tan-hsia71 burning a ,buddha's image1 #caf;f4 8,tat twam asi10 #beh4 ,tathagata1 his knowledge1 #abb4 ,tathgata-dhyna1 #hb4 ,tathgata-garbha1 #gh1 #hj4 ,tathat1 #gi4 ,tao-hsan1 a ,buddhist historian1 #afc;ff4 ,tao-shin1 see ,ssan4 ,tao-wu1 see ,dgo4 ,tao-yan1 a ,zen historian1 #afd;ff4 ,tauler1 #cje1 #ccc4 ,teisho1 ,zen lecture1 #cbj4 ,ten ,cow-herding ,pictures1 #cdi;ff4 ,tendai1 #ed2 and ,zen1 #aij4 ,tennyson1 #bj4 ,tenryu 7,t#8ien-lung71 8one finger0 ,zen1 #bb;fn42 his counter-questioning1 #bhb4 ,tenryji1 in ,kyoto1 #cba1 #ceg;fn4 ,terstegen1 #bgh4 ,t-shan1 see ,tokusan4 ,tesshikaku 7,t#8ieh-tsui ,chiao71 knows not his master1 #bfe4 ,tevijja1 #ej;fn4 ,three conceptions of being1 #bij4 ,tki-no-g1 #bcc2 by ,chkei1 #bbc;f42 by ,hyen ,goso1 #bcd2 by ,yengo1 #bcd2 by ,yenju1 #bcd2 by ,ydainen1 #bce2 by ,iku of ,tory1 #bce2 by ,bukk1 #bda;fn4 ,t-,impo 7,tng-yin-fng71 crushing ,baso's legs1 #bia4 ,tokusan 7,t-shan71 on staff1 #ba2 and the ,diamond ,sutra1 #bbe1 #bcb2 and his stick4 #bfa1 #bhj4 ,tokush 7,t-shao71 one drop of water1 #bgf2 on ,praj1 #bgf4 ,tsu 7,t#8ou-tz71 on the ,buddha1 etc41 #bgc4 ,trikya1 #cd;fn4 ,tsung-chien 7,skan71 a ,buddhist historian1 #afc4 ,tung-shan1 see ,dozan4 ,tz-ming1 see ,jimyo4 ,udraka1 #ga;fn4 ,udumbarika-shanda ,suttanta1 #fh4 ,ummon 7,yn-men71 on a good-for-nothing fellow1 #aj2 on staff1 #ba2 #bfa1 #bfc;f42 defines ,zen1 #ajb2 sermons1 #cdd2 on ,jshu's washing dishes1 #bbd2 on poverty1 #cce2 on ,zen1 #bfj2 his 8,kwan60 #bgi2 his laconism1 #cch4 ,ump 7,yn-fng71 on ,ummon's comment on ,jshu1 #bbd4 ,ungan 7,yn-yen71 8,overflowing60 #ig2 with ,yakusan1 #bhg4 ,ungo 7,yn-ch71 ,dy1 and an officer1 #bhh4 ,ungo1 ,shaku1 on ,chu the national teacher1 #bhh;fn4 ,upya 7expediency1 or device71 #fe1 #ff;f4 ,vajracchedik ,stra1 #acg1 #agc;ff41 #ahi1 #aia1 #aih4 ,vajrasamdhi ,stra1 ,chinese1 #fd1 #id1 #agj1 #agc2 the prodigal son in1 #adj4 ,vasubandhu1 #ee4 ,vasumitra1 #db;fn4 ,via negativa1 #ef4 ,victory1 the hymn of1 #ee1 #ei4 ,vikalpa1 #gi1 #ha4 ,vimalakrti1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #beh1 #bhj;f4 ,vimalakrti ,stra1 ,chinese1 #fc1 #fd1 #afa1 #aha;fn41 #aic1 #bje;f41 #bjg4 ,vimoksha 7or ,moksha71 #di4 ,vimutti1 #eb1 #ec2 see also ,vimoksha and ,moksha4 ,vipayi1 #aei4 ,wei-shan1 see ,isan4 ,wilde1 ,oscar1 quoted1 #d4 ,wind1 the simile of1 #cca4 ,wither1 #bfg4 ,yakusan 7,yeh-shan71 #if1 #afc1 #aij1 #bdg2 with his disciples1 #bhg2 giving no sermon1 #cdd4 ,yang-shan1 see ,kyzan4 ,yathbhta1 #aad1 #aaf1 #abh1 #acc;f42 intuitional1 #abi;f42 empirical1 #aca4 ,yegu 7,hui-y71 #bei;fn41 #bgj4 ,yeka 7,hui-k#871 #gd1 #hb1 #aff1 #agc1 #agg2 his life1 #agh;ff4 ,yenchi 7,yan-chih71 with ,sekiso1 #bhf;f4 ,yengo 7,yan-wu71 #bb2 on dust and flower1 #bc2 his tki-no-g1 #bcd4 ,yenkwan 7,yen-kuan71 on ,vairocana ,buddha1 #bhf4 ,yen 7,hui-nng71 the sixth patriarch1 #ag1 #bd1 #cj1 #ib1 #id1 #afj1 #ahi1 #aij;ff41 #bah1 #bej1 #cbg2 and the ,vajracchedik1 #agd2 on the flapping pennant1 #aig2 on seeing into one's nature1 #aig2 talk with the imperial messenger1 #aih2 long sitting1 #bja2 on self-nature1 #bjb2 his view of ,zen in the ,platform ,sutra1 #bjc;ff42 on praj1 #bjd;f42 on abrupt teaching1 #bje2 as dynamic intuitionalist1 #bjg2 on samdhi and dhyna1 #bjh;f42 his method of instruction1 #baj2 his death1 #baa2 on quiet sitting1 #bba2 on his understanding of ,buddhism1 #cj1 #bfc4 ,yerv ,chkei1 on staff1 #bj4 ,yesei ,bash1 on staff1 #bj4 ,yeshi 7,hui-sz71 a ,tendai philosopher1 #aij4 ,ydainen1 his tki-no-g1 #bce4 ,yogcra1 #ajj1 #afj4 ,ygi 7,yang-ch#8i71 on poverty1 #ccd4 ,yeh-shan1 see ,yakusan4 ,yn-men1 see ,ummon4 ,zazen1 #cjd4 ,zen3 7#a7 in its relation to ,buddhism #bi2 and the doctrine of enlightenment1 #bi;ff41 #hc;ff42 as the essence of ,buddhism1 #dc2 is the enlightenment-mind of the ,buddha1 #di;ff42 and the theory of unyat1 #agd;fn42 and the ,lakvatra1 #gd;ff43 7#b7 in its relation to the ,chinese mind1 #ie2 as ,chinese product1 #aed2 how it ruled in ,china1 #ib;ff42 and the ,sung philosophy1 #ih;ff42 and the ,tendai1 #aij2 and other ,buddhist sects in ,china1 #ie2 in the ,t#8ang dynasty1 #ie2 in the ,sung1 #ie2 in the ,yuan and the ,ming1 #ie2 legendary history of1 #aee3 7#c7 as a discipline1 #ad2 and asceticism1 #ae1 #cji2 its monastery training1 #cbf;f42 and poverty1 #bei;fn42 and the boiling oil1 #af2 deadly poison1 #ah3 7#d7 in its relation to the intellect1 #f2 as 8self-power10 #aaa2 as a liberating agent1 #a2 teaches freedom1 #aa2 as the solution of life-problems1 #e2 no generalisation1 #ab2 never explains1 #h;f42 irrational1 #aa2 paradoxical1 #beh;ff42 the culmination of intellectual efforts1 #bed2 as an unutterable sigh1 #bgh;fn43 7#e7 psychologically viewed1 self-suggestion1 #ah2 subconsciousness1 #ai2 the sense of returning1 #adc2 leaving no traces1 #c3 7#f7 specific features of1 summed in four lines1 #g1 #afc2 its methods of teaching1 #bd1 #bec;ff42 methods classified1 #beg2 its gradation1 #bd2 7see also the ,ten ,cow-herding ,pictures72 its derivation1 #fg2 and dhyna1 #fg;ff42 and meditation1 #fg2 practical1 #ed2 different from tranquillisation1 #gc2 not quiet sitting1 #bbb2 seeing into one's own nature1 #bjc1 #bjd2 acquiring a new viewpoint1 #bae;ff42 nothing secret in1 #ac2 and the sumiye-painting1 #bhd2 defined1 #ajb2 ,southern and ,northern schools1 #aii2 the instant and the gradual1 #aii2 its monastery system psychologically and morally considered1 #cjc;ff43 7#g7 its language1 #bgd2 and colloquialism1 #cdj4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,italics are enclosed in underscores4 ,though breaks1 presented as extra space between paragraphs in the original printed text1 is presented here as a line of #e spaced asterisks4 ,footnotes1 originally at the bottoms of the pages on which they were referenced1 have been collected1 sequentially renumbered1 prefixed with the letter #8f'1 wrapped by square brackets1 and moved to the end of the main text1 just before the ,index4 ,references to the ,chinese text have been prefixed with the essay number followed by a period1 and wrapped by square brackets4 ,missing punctuation has been added4 ,illustrations are indicated by ,illustration3 description4 ,ornamental illustration do not include a description4 ,in some cases a ,chinese variant character is used in place of the printed character in the book4 ,this occurs when a proper ,unicode glyph is not found4 ,variations in the use of diacritics in names has been largely unchanged4 ,an exception is made for very common names 7see below74 ,hyphenation has not been standardised4 ,note that ,chinese #e4dd does not have anchor in the text or an obvious place where one could be placed4 ,note that ,chinese #e4af does not have anchor in the printed text4 ,one has been added to an appropriate place in etext4 ,note on pg #dje ,kanzan ,egen should be 7#abgg-acfj7 not 7#faf-gjj74 ,some spelling and other errors have been corrected and listed below3 pg #ai 8so is the ,subsconcious0 changed to 8so is the ,subconscious0 pg #fj 8causal dependance0 changed to 8causal dependence0 pg #gd ,added ,chinese text reference #b4d to appropriate place in text4 pg #hf 8learning from ,manjur0 changed to 8learning from ,majur0 pg #ajj 8practival tendency0 changed to 8practical tendency0 pg #aah 8his spiritual greatmess0 changed to 8his spiritual greatness0 pg #aea 8in-,,crinvestigation will0 changed to 8,,crinvestigation will0 pg #afc 8,tien-tai point of view0 changed to 8,t#8ien-tai point of view0 pg #aha 8entertain a dualitic0 changed to 8entertain a dualistic0 pg #aia 8partiarchal mantle0 changed to 8patriarchal mantle0 pg #aih 8prefering his stay0 changed to 8preferring his stay0 pg #baf 8have gained a saroti0 is changed to 8have gained a satori is0 pg #bag 8are many similacra0 changed to 8are many simulacra0 pg #bcc 8varied and dissimiliar0 changed to 8varied and dissimilar0 pg #bcf 8corpse of yours80#e4bc0 changed to 8corpse of yours80#e4cb0 pg #bfc 8whom we got acquained0 changed to 8whom we got acquainted0 pg #cjd 8giving real beneficience0 changed to 8giving real beneficence0 pg #cah 8made to the ,ahrats0 changed to 8made to the ,arhats0 pg #cca 8have so thoroughy0 changed to 8have so thoroughly0 pg #cef 8carpetted with0 changed to 8carpeted with0 pg #daf 8,past and ,present1 ,sutra on the1 #cf;fn40 changed to 8,past and ,present1 ,sutra on the1 #ch;fn40 pg #dag 8,eastern ,buddhist1 the1 #a;fn40 changed to 8,eastern ,buddhist1 the1 vi1 #a;fn40 pg #dah 8,kena-,upanishad1 #cj;fn41 #adc;fn40 changed to 8,kena-,upanishad1 #cj;fn41 #adb;fn40 pg #dah 8,persain mystic0 changed to 8,persian mystic0 pg #dah 8,mahyutpatti1 #gj;fn40 changed to 8,mahvyutpatti1 #gj;fn40 pg #dbj 8,kwaiten ,nukariya1 #aaa40 changed to 8,kwaiten ,nukariya1 v40 pg #dbj 8,pali ,text ,society1 ,journal of1 #aaa40 changed to 8,pali ,text ,society1 ,journal of1 v40 pg #dba 8,seki1 ,seisetsu1 #ceg40 changed to 8,seki1 ,seisetsu1 #ceg;fn40 pg #dba 8,shin sect1 as 8other-power10 #aaa40 changed to 8,shin sect1 as 8other-power10 v40 pg #dba 8,shaku1 ,soyen1 v40 changed to 8,shaku1 ,soyen1 vii40 pg #dbb 8,tung-shan1 see ,dozan40 changed to 8,tung-shan1 see ,dosan40 pg #dbc 8as 8self-power10 #aaa20 changed to 8as 8self-power10 v20 ,footnote #dh 8,slacra0 changed to 8,slcra0 ,footnote #ef 8,slcara0 changed to 8,slcra0 ,footnote #gc 8,majusr0 changed to 8,majur0 ,index 8,slacara0 changed to 8,slcra0