,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,a ,,study ,,in ,,comparative ,,folklore ,illustration ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager ,,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 #d ,illustration ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,,madras ,,toronto3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,tokyo3 ,,maruzen-,,kabushiki-,,kaisha ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,a ,,study ,,in ,,comparative ,,folklore ,by ,w4 ,o4 ,e4 ,,oesterley1 ,d4,d4 ,vicar of ,st ,alban's1 ,acton ,green1 ,w4 ,examining ,chaplain to the ,bishop of ,london ,,cambridge ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press #aibc ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,preface ,the following study is an attempt to estimate the part played by the ,sacred ,dance among the peoples of antiquity as well as among the uncultured races in modern times2 to account for its origin2 to note the occasions on which it was performed2 and to indicate the purposes of its performance4 ,the subject is more complicated than would appear at first sight2 for while the fact of its universal prevalence among all races at one time or another of their cultural development shows how essential a rite it was1 its origin is obviously veiled in obscurity seeing that it developed in prehistoric times4 ,so that in seeking to throw light on the question of its origin one has to try to get at the back of the mind of the savage1 and envisage things from his point of view2 but that mind represents a complex of such crass and illogical elements that one may easily be led astray4 ,the purpose of the ,sacred ,dance1 again1 presents us with another set of problems2 for while in some cases this is clear enough1 in others there are alternatives which suggest themselves2 and1 further1 it is probable that a variety of motives not infrequently prompted its performance4 ,to disentangle these is not always easy4 ,on the other hand1 the interest of the subject from the human point of view is great2 for1 as an indispensable rite at all the crises of life1 it was evidently a means of emotional outlet4 ,from the psychological standpoint1 therefore1 its prevalence is not without importance4 ,indeed1 it will probably be thought that from the psychological side the subject is inadequately treated in the following pages4 ,and this is true1 though it does receive some attention2 but in extenuation it must be said that the writer's main object has been merely to give some account of the ,sacred ,dance as a widespread rite2 and he feels that its treatment from the psychological aspect would best be left to one who is an expert in psychology4 ,that the ,old ,testament figures somewhat prominently in the following pages is partly due to the fact that the writer has made a special study of this body of literature1 and it seemed wise to start from that with which he was most conversant2 but there is the further reason1 as is pointed out in the introductory chapter1 that the ,old ,testament offers1 in most cases1 an exceedingly convenient starting-point from which to study the various 8types0 of sacred dance4 ,the writer desires to express his thanks to ,dr ,jevons1 ,dr ,lukyn ,williams1 and ,dr ,s4 ,a4 ,cook for a number of helpful suggestions1 to ,miss ,bevan for reading through the proofs1 and his warm appreciation of the kindness and courtesy of the ,secretary of the ,university ,press4 ,the minute care taken in pointing out oversights in the correction of proofs1 as well as other slips1 is most gratefully acknowledged4 ,finally1 the writer would like to take this opportunity of thanking the ,curator of the ,department of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities in the ,british ,museum for his ready help in arranging for the photographing of the ,greek ,vase1 representing a ,maenad dancing in honour of ,dionysos1 which is reproduced on the cover of this book4 ,w4 ,o4 ,e4 ,o4 ,,st ,,alban',s ,,vicarage1 ,,bedford ,,park4 ,february #aibc4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,i4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance #e ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reason ,,for ,,using ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,as ,,the ,,starting-,,point ,,in ,,the ,,investigation #h ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,information3 #i 7#a7 ,inscriptions #aj 7#b7 ,pottery1 etc4 #aj 7#c7 ,ancient ,literature #aa 7#d7 ,modern ,literature #aa ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,purposes ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,i4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance #ac ,,ii4 ,,the ,,purposes ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance #ai ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,among ,,the ,,israelites ,i4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,among ,,the ,,israelites #ca ,,ii4 ,,types ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,among ,,the ,,israelites3 #ce 7#a7 ,the sacred processional dance #cf 7#b7 ,the encircling of a sacred object #cg 7#c7 ,the ecstatic dance #cg 7#d7 ,sacred dances at ,vintage and ,harvest ,festivals #ci 7#e7 ,dances in celebration of victory #dj 7#f7 ,the sacred dance as a ,circumcision rite #da 7#g7 ,the sacred dance as a ,marriage rite #da 7#h7 ,the sacred dance as a ,burial or ,mourning rite #db ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,terms ,,for 8,,dancing0 ,i4 ,,consideration ,,of ,,some ,,hebrew ,,roots #dd ,,ii4 ,,the ,,musical ,,accompaniment ,,to ,,dancing #ea ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,sacred ,,processional ,,dance1 ,,and ,,dances ,,in ,,honour ,,of ,,supernatural ,,powers ,i4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,processional ,,dance ,,among ,,the ,,israelites #ed ,,ii4 ,,among ,,the ,,syrians ,,and ,,arabs1 ,,and ,,other ,,semites #ef ,,iii4 ,,among ,,the ,,hittites #ei ,,iv4 ,,among ,,the ,,egyptians #fj ,v4 ,,among ,,the ,,greeks #fc ,,vi4 ,,among ,,the ,,romans #gc ,,vii4 ,,among ,,asiatic ,,peoples #gf ,,viii4 ,,among ,,uncultured ,,races #gg ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #ha ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,ritual ,,dance ,,round ,a ,,sacred ,,object ,i4 ,,among ,,the ,,israelites #hh ,,ii4 ,,among ,,other ,,semites #id ,,iii4 ,,among ,,the ,,greeks #ig ,,iv4 ,,among ,,the ,,romans #ajj ,v4 ,,among ,,uncultured ,,races #aja ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #ajd ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,ecstatic ,,dance ,i4 ,,among ,,the ,,israelites #ajg ,,ii4 ,,among ,,other ,,semites #aae ,,iii4 ,,among ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,romans #aai ,,iv4 ,,among ,,uncultured ,,races #abh ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #ace ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,at ,,vintage1 ,,harvest1 ,,and ,,other ,,festivals ,i4 ,,the ,,israelite ,,feasts #adj ,,ii4 ,,circumcision ,,feasts ,,among ,,the ,,semites #add ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,at ,,egyptian ,,festivals #ade ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,at ,,greek ,,festivals #adf ,v4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,at ,,roman ,,festivals #adi ,,vi4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,at ,,festivals ,,among ,,uncultured ,,races #aea ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #aed ,,chapter ,,ix ,,dances ,,in ,,celebration ,,of ,,victory ,i4 ,,among ,,the ,,israelites #aei ,,ii4 ,,the ,,original ,,purpose ,,of ,,this ,,type ,,of ,,dance ,,among ,,uncultured ,,races #afg ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #agc ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,as ,a ,,marriage ,,rite ,i4 ,,among ,,the ,,israelites1 ,,the 8,,dance ,,of ,,ma,,anaim0 #agg ,,ii4 ,,among ,,some ,,uncultured ,,races #ahd ,,iii4 ,,some ,,further ,,purposes ,,of ,,this ,,type ,,of ,,dance #ahi ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #aia ,,chapter ,,xi ,,dancing ,,as ,a ,,mourning ,,and ,,burial ,,rite ,i4 ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,and ,,this ,,type ,,of ,,dance #aid ,,ii4 ,,the ,,rite ,,among ,,medi,,val ,,and ,,modern ,,jews #aih ,,iii4 ,,the ,,rite ,,among ,,the ,,egyptians1 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern #bjb ,,iv4 ,,the ,,rite ,,among ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,romans #bjg ,v4 ,,the ,,rite ,,among ,,uncultured ,,races #bji ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations #bai ,,index #bbc ,,abbreviations ,,db4 ,hastings' ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,,eb4 ,cheyne's ,encyclopaedia ,biblica4 ,,ere4 ,hastings' ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics4 ,,gb4 ,frazer's ,the ,golden ,bough3 ,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion 7#crd edition74 ,,je4 ,the ,jewish ,encyclopaedia4 ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,i ,our study is concerned with the 8sacred0 dance2 that this epithet applied to the dance1 at any rate during the earlier phases of its history and as still practised among many uncultured and even some semi-cultured peoples to-day1 is more than justified1 the following pages will1 it is hoped1 show4 ,its extreme importance in the eyes of early man1 who regarded it as indispensable at all the crises of life--initiation1 puberty1 marriage1 burial--who used it as one of the essentials in worship1 who saw in it a means of propitiating whatever supernatural powers he believed in1 a means of communion with the deity1 a means of obtaining good crops1 fruitful marriages1 and of communicating with the departed--to mention only its more important uses1 shows that it is a subject worth investigating though the domain it occupies is but a modest one in the great sphere of the history of ,religion4 ,probably one of the most instructive first-hand pieces of information which we have on the subject is contained in the answers given to ,chalmers in reply to questions which he addressed to some natives of ,new ,guinea4 ,he asked 8,what does the dance signify80 and he got two replies from the natives of the two most important districts of this big island respectively2 the first ran thus3 ,when they dance all the spirits rejoice1 as do all the people4 ,when dancing1 all food grows well2 but when not dancing1 food grows badly4 ,no drums are beaten uselessly the drum-beating is the invariable accompaniment to dancing1 one implies the other4 ,when anyone dies drums are beaten to comfort friends4 ,the second was this3 ,drum-beating and dancing are a sign of rejoicing and thanksgiving1 in order that by so doing there may be a large harvest4 ,if the dancing is not given there will be an end to the good growth2 but if it is continued1 all will go well4 ,people come in from other villages and will dance all night4 ,there will be several feasts during the time1 and each leader of the dance will pray and thank the spirits for the good harvest4 ,among other questions he also asked3 8,is there any useless dancing80 and the two replies were3 8,no1 the drum is never beaten uselessly02 and3 8,dances are never merely useless#a40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the study of the subject brings out without a shadow of doubt that these answers illustrate what were1 and still are to a great extent1 the beliefs held in regard to the sacred dance by numbers of peoples in an undeveloped stage of culture4 ,it is a good illustration of what1 within a circumscribed area1 holds good of the wider study of religions in general1 that1 as ,farnell has so well put it1 all through the present societies of savage men there prevails an extraordinary uniformity1 in spite of much local variation1 in ritual and mythology1 a uniformity so striking as to suggest belief in an ultimately identical tradition1 or1 perhaps more reasonably1 the psychologic theory that the human brain-cell in different races at the same stage of development responds with the same religious speech or the same religious act to the same stimuli supplied by its environment#b4 ,a survey over the whole field produces the conviction that the stimuli which1 in its beginnings1 induced the sacred dance appear to have been what we should now describe as the two prime spiritual and material needs1 respectively1 of man1 viz4 the response to his 8god10 and the obtaining of food4 ,to early savage man it was not1 of course1 a god as we understand the word1 nor yet even as it would have been understood for millenniums among uncivilized men in remote ages2 we merely use the word as a convenient term for expressing a supernatural power1 or powers1 at first vague1 impersonal1 8mana#c10 or something of that kind2 at any rate1 some power beyond the ken of man1 of whose existence he had no doubt whatsoever1 and to which he was impelled to respond to the best of his very feeble powers4 ,why he should have chosen this form of response 7we are not contending that it was the only form7 is a difficult1 perhaps an impossible1 question to answer1 though we shall make the attempt to do so 7see pp4 #ae ff472 but that he did choose this form all the available evidence goes to show4 ,that the sacred dance should have been believed to be the means of obtaining food is less difficult to understand when one remembers the universal belief in the efficacy of imitative magic among uncivilized men4 ,the natives of ,new ,guinea dance as a means of obtaining a good harvest2 but there is evidence for the presumption that early man did the same thing for obtaining food long before harvests existed4 ,as a means of response to supernatural powers the dance was obviously a sacred act2 but the epithet may also be applied1 though perhaps in a modified way1 to the dance as a means of obtaining food2 for the belief in the existence of supernatural powers once attained1 the conviction of their intrusion into all the affairs of life would naturally follow1 as indeed we know to have been the case4 ,but this implies that savage man believed that these supernatural powers were1 in some sense1 the givers of food2 and this is hardly compatible with the idea that the dance as an act of imitative magic was the means of procuring food--an idea which is abundantly proved by the evidence to exist4 ,if an act of imitative magic1 such as the dance1 is ipso facto the means of bringing out what it imitates1 how can it be said that supernatural powers have anything to do with the matter8 ,and how can the dance in this case be called sacred8 ,it is a question1 however1 whether there was not a subconscious intention of setting in motion the 8machinery0 which brought about the thing imitated every time an act of imitative magic was performed4 ,by the 8machinery0 we mean the active intervention of supernatural powers in an undefined1 mysterious way4 ,in this case the dance as a means of obtaining food would likewise be1 strictly speaking1 a sacred act4 ,however this may be1 there is a large consensus of opinion that the dance in its origin was sacred1 and that every other subsequent form of dance was ultimately derived from this4 ,it is true to say that 8the ritual or worship dance is the source of all others#d40 ,one of the earliest modern writers on the subject1 de ,cahusac1 likewise says3 8,aussi la danse sacre est-elle la plus ancienne1 et la source dans laquelle on a puis dans les suites toutes les autres#e40 ,this point is particularly emphasized because it is only the dance in its sacred aspect that will be dealt with in the following pages4 ,,ii ,as soon as one attempts to define what dancing in its essence is one realizes the difficulty of doing so4 ,it can be defined in such a number of ways1 all of which contain elements of truth2 so much depends upon the point of view taken in regard to it4 ,the recording of a number of definitions would be wearisome1 ,voss alone gives dozens by different people#f4 ,but one thing which these various definitions teach must be noted and insisted upon3 they show that the term 8dancing0 connotes a great deal more than is attached to it now-a-days4 ,when1 for example1 de ,cahusac rightly defines dancing as 8l'art des gestes#g10 it is obvious that these cannot be restricted to the feet or legs4 ,a number of the ,egyptian inscriptions make it clear that the arms played as important a part in the dance as the legs2 representations of it on ,greek pottery show that the motions of the head1 and even more of the whole body1 are necessary parts in the movements of the dance2 among some savages the sacred dance is performed while the legs are more or less still1 but the arms and the body are constantly in motion4 ,to make but one reference to modern dancing3 in some of the figures of the quadrille the dancers simply advance and recede1 and at times they are stationary1 merely bowing2 yet this all belongs to the dance1 and comes under the category of dancing4 ,crawley truly says that 8dancing is an instinctive mode of muscular expression of feeling#h40 ,if1 then1 the feelings are restrained the muscular expression may take the form of a staid procession1 as seems to be characteristic of the ,assyrian sacred dance4 ,we must1 therefore1 include under the many forms of the sacred dance such as range from a formal procession1 stately and measured1 to those of the wild orgy in the ,dionysiac ritual4 ,as we shall see1 the intention which prompts the dance will have a great deal to do with its external form2 a fact which gives point to ,giraudet's phrase that 8la danse a t l'expression d'un tat d'me#i40 ,the wide connotation which must be accorded to the word 8dancing0 is illustrated by what the ,bedouin ,arabs understand by it4 ,they are a race which1 as is well known1 has retained many beliefs1 customs1 and practices which have been handed down from time immemorial2 therefore the evidence afforded by them is valuable4 ,by dance1 which they call ra1 they understand every rhythmic movement of hands or feet1 whether remaining on the same spot or not#aj4 ,of them as of all other peoples rhythm is as inseparable from the movements of the dance 8as it is from other bodily functions1 and therefore belongs to it without saying#aa02 but1 as the ,arabs show1 rhythmic movements can be performed while standing on one spot2 emotions can be expressed by the rhythmic movements of the arms and of the body and of the head while the legs may be more or less motionless4 8,the human instinct of play10 says ,crawley1 8is closely connected with the human love of excitement4 ,the dance satisfies both1 and its rhythmical character also makes it suitable for the expression of the most solemn and controlled emotions4 ,it is at once the servant of ,apollo and of ,dionysus#ab40 ,the close1 one may almost say the inseparable1 connexion between the dance and music is as marked in its sacred as in its secular character4 ,in the first instance it is the rhythmic instinct which demands this1 so that among many savages the 8music0 which accompanies the dance is the mere clapping of hands1 or the striking together of pieces of wood1 or the beating of the tom-tom1 all in rhythmical time4 ,the same is also found among some peoples more advanced on the path of culture1 though they usually add the sound of other instruments1 among which the flute figures prominently4 ,singing is1 of course1 and always has been1 another favourite accompaniment to the dance4 ,the ,bedouin ,arabs accompany their dances by the beating of cymbals or of hand-drums1 or by clapping of hands2 sometimes singing accompanies the dancing#ac4 ,this was also the case among the ,israelites4 ,,iii ,in the following discussion on the sacred dance we have made the ,old ,testament our starting-point4 ,in spite of some drawbacks which will become very apparent1 this course has its advantages4 ,the ,old ,testament offers1 either explicitly or implicitly1 as we hope to show1 evidence of the existence among the ancient ,israelites of most of the typical sacred dances of antiquity4 ,by 8typical0 we do not mean dances in their outward form1 but in the intention and object for which they were performed4 ,in dealing with sacred dances it is only by considering their intention and purpose that a classification of them can be attempted4 ,the ,old ,testament gives within the compass of its pages certain points d'appui which afford convenient starting-points for the consideration of these different types of the sacred dance4 ,then1 in each case we go on to the further investigation of these among various other races4 ,from this we are often able to discern1 with tolerable probability1 the early underlying ideas which prompted the performance of the type of dance in question2 for1 as may well be supposed1 it is not from the ,israelites that we can expect to discover1 excepting in the one case of the ecstatic dance1 the root motives of the different types of the sacred dance4 ,the most promising sphere for the discernment of these is among the uncivilized races2 their nave and unsophisticated naturalness reveals things which a gradually developing civilization obscures4 ,hence the devoting of a good deal of attention to the sacred dance among savages in the following pages4 ,another advantage of using the ,old ,testament for our various starting-points is that the ,israelites were in that stage of culture in which a people still retains many more or less primitive rites and customs while pushing forward on the path of cultural development2 so that among them we are in touch with the past and yet experiencing the upward trend that is taking place4 ,crawley truly says that 8it is in the middle stages of culture that dancing is seen at its highest development#ad02 that applies to the ,israelites4 ,it is like standing on an eminence and looking behind and before4 ,that has its advantages4 ,at the same time1 we are not blind to the drawbacks involved4 ,for in some important instances the ,old ,testament is silent4 ,we give reasons which we believe are sufficient to explain this silence4 ,but when a particular type of the sacred dance is not mentioned in the ,old ,testament it must not be supposed that it did not exist2 indirect evidence is forthcoming which makes it highly probable that the reverse is the case4 ,for this reason we shall often refer to post-biblical ,jewish custom and practice4 ,such a thing as the sacred dance is not likely1 from the very nature of things1 to have been an innovation of later ages2 so that its existence in post-biblical times may well be regarded as the continuance of traditional custom2 and if so1 its existence among the ,israelites of ,old ,testament times may be taken for granted4 ,still1 we realize the precariousness of seeming1 in some cases1 to build upon an apparently non-existing foundation2 but the risk must be taken1 and1 as we hope to show1 the evidence from subsequent times justifies the risk4 ,,iv ,a few words must be said about the sources from which information regarding the sacred dance is to be gained4 7#a7 ,there are a certain number of ancient inscriptions of various kinds upon which dancing is represented4 ,on these the dancing is not always of a religious character2 but it is not difficult to discern when it is religious and when secular4 ,for example1 there is a very valuable fragment of an ,egyptian fresco belonging to the #ahth dynasty 7,b4,c4 #afjj-adej7 in the ,british ,museum#ae1 on which two nude women dancers are depicted2 the dancing is accompanied by other women1 some clapping their hands1 and others playing the flute4 ,but another part of the fresco shows clearly enough that the scene represents a banquet during which professional dancing is being performed for the entertainment of the guests4 ,though it is secular dancing that we have here the inscription is important from the present point of view1 because the dancing1 which is so graphically depicted1 does not differ greatly from that shown on other ,egyptian inscriptions1 where it is unmistakably sacred4 ,egyptian inscriptions are those which offer most material here2 one or two ,hittite and ,assyrian inscriptions are also available1 and will be described later2 but otherwise there is but little to be obtained from this source4 7#b7 ,very prolific1 on the other hand1 is the second source1 in the main1 ,greek4 ,there are large numbers of vessels of different kinds--vases1 bowls1 cups1 dishes1 flasks1 jugs1 bottles1 jars1 pitchers1 etc41 on which dancing is depicted#af2 many of these represent secular dancing2 some give dances of a quasi-religious kind1 e4g4 the dances of satyrs2 but most of them depict religious dances1 sometimes of gods and goddesses1 at others of worshippers dancing in their honour2 a very favourite subject is the dancing of ,maenads4 ,belonging to this source are a variety of other kinds of vessels on which sacred dancing is depicted2 sometimes the vessel itself is in the form of a sacred dance4 ,excavations in ,cyprus have yielded some interesting material to which more detailed reference will be made below4 ,some coins have also been found which throw light on the subject4 ,this source is1 above all1 valuable for showing us the kind of dances in vogue among the ancient ,greeks1 and bears out the truth of the remark that 8the ,greek dances may be divided and subdivided ad infinitum#ag40 7#c7 ,our third source also offers abundance of material1 viz4 ancient literature2 this source includes ,egyptian literature 7the ,book of the ,dead72 the ,old ,testament and post-biblical ,jewish literature2 ancient ,arabic literature2 some of the ancient ,church writers2 and1 above all1 ,greek and ,latin classical authors1 quotations from whom would alone fill a small volume4 7#d7 ,lastly1 there is modern literature4 ,this must be divided into two classes4 ,the first is a small and very unsatisfactory class3 treatises which deal specifically with dancing4 ,we have found this class of literature unsatisfactory for two reasons2 first1 because there is1 comparatively1 so little information of a tangible character to be gained from it2 and1 secondly1 because no references are given to authorities1 even when cited4 ,nevertheless1 it is only fair to the respective authors to say that they are mainly concerned with modern dancing4 ,as ,crawley says1 8there are no treatises written on any scientifically comprehensive lines#ah40 ,with one exception1 moreover1 we have found the articles on the subject in all the well-known ,english and ,german ,bible ,dictionaries of extraordinarily little help4 ,the exception is ,hastings' ,,ere2 here articles by ,crawley1 ,farnell and ,blackman have been of real help1 and the writer gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to them4 ,as to the other class of modern literature1 it can only be described as limitless2 we refer to the vast number of volumes dealing with uncultured races4 ,to mention even a tithe of those which have been used would be out of the question2 references to a good many will be found in the following pages4 ,but it is impossible for the present writer not to say how much he owes to the works of ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer2 without their stimulus these pages would never have been written4 ,the material contained in this source would fill a number of volumes2 we have restricted ourselves to a certain number of more or less typical illustrations chosen from a great mass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,more than a hundred and fifty years ago de ,cahusac wrote in the ,preface to his ,historical ,treatise on ,dancing3 8,j'ai trait assez srieusement un sujet qu'on ne regardera peut-tre que comme trs-futile40 ,the present writer hopes and believes that his effort will not be regarded as 8trs-futile02 for we in these days have come to realize more fully than was possible in the eighteenth century the significance of the well-known words of ,terence3 ,homo sum2 humani nihil a me alienum puto4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,purposes ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,i ,in his thoughtful and very suggestive volume1 ,the ,threshold of ,religion1 ,marett makes the assumption that an inductive study of the ideas and customs of savagery will show1 firstly1 that an awareness of a fundamental aspect of life and of the world1 which aspect ,i shall provisionally term 8supernatural10 is so general as to be typical1 and1 secondly1 that such an awareness is no less generally bound up with a specific group of vital reactions 7p4 #abd74 ,every student of such ideas and customs must know how thoroughly justified this assumption is4 ,in studying the particular custom1 and the ideas connected with it1 with which we are here concerned1 we find that this 8awareness of the supernatural10 together with the 8vital reactions10 are1 at any rate in the earlier stages of its history1 invariably present4 ,that much1 at all events1 we have to go upon in seeking a theory as to the origin of the sacred dance4 ,to account for its origin is1 however1 difficult2 that is fully realized2 and the present writer would desire to lay stress on the fact that as in seeking such origin he is largely in the domain of speculation and theory1 nothing is further from his mind than to be dogmatic4 ,the whole subject of the sacred dance has been so little dealt with excepting as a mere rite1 that one is to a great extent on new ground2 one must1 therefore1 be quite prepared to be convicted of fallacies4 ,that the sacred dance originated in prehistoric times goes without saying2 but this means that no proofs can be adduced in support of any theory as to its origin2 it must be a question of probabilities2 perhaps only of possibilities4 ,what is1 however1 certain is that since the sacred dance originated at a time when man was in a very primitive stage of culture1 what first induced him to perform it must have been something very nave and childlike4 ,that1 presumably1 everyone would agree with4 ,now1 there is no sort of doubt that one of the most ingrained characteristics of human nature is the imitative propensity4 ,this is more pronounced in the child than in the grown man2 and what holds good of the individual applies also to the race2 the more uncultured man is1 the more does he1 mentally1 approximate to the child2 so that the further back we go in the history of the race1 the more pronounced and childlike will be that imitative propensity4 ,as ,crawley has reminded us#ai1 ,aristotle maintained that dancing is imitative2 and in all its forms it is an artistic imitation of physical movement expressive of emotions or ideas4 ,rightly or wrongly1 then1 we believe that the sacred dance owes its origin to this imitative propensity in man4 ,now1 in the animistic stage what first suggested the presence of life in anything was movement4 ,the cause of the movement was neither understood nor enquired into4 ,a tree1 swayed by the wind1 moved2 therefore it was alive4 ,but it would not strike a more or less primitive savage that it was the wind which caused the movement4 ,what he would instinctively have recognized was that here was something which he did not understand2 and therefore there was a mystery about it which inspired awe4 ,so1 too1 with streams1 and rivers1 and the sea2 they were alive because they had motion4 ,in course of time this would be modified in so far that the belief arose that the tree or stream contained life because of an indwelling spirit which caused the movement1 thus indicating its presence2 but even so1 it would have been difficult for the savage to draw a distinction between the two at first4 ,whether the same course of savage 8reasoning0 will apply in regard to the sun1 moon1 and1 later1 to the stars1 in the earlier stages of the period when he first began to take 8reasoning0 note of his surroundings1 is doubtful2 for it is probable that he looked around and downwards before he looked upwards4 ,at any rate1 sooner or later he would have realized that they too moved1 and that therefore they were alive1 either themselves1 or animated by something1 more probably by somebody4 ,thus motion1 movement1 which1 on the analogy of man himself1 was believed to denote life1 was the first thing which the savage mind connected with supernatural powers#bj4 ,we suggest1 then1 that the origin of the sacred dance was the desire of early man to imitate what he conceived to be the characteristic of supernatural powers4 ,not that this was1 in the first instance1 a dance in the generally accepted sense of the word2 but merely a movement1 whether in the form of the swaying of the body in imitation of trees1 or a single-file running in imitation of a stream1 or a more boisterous movement in imitation of the waves of the sea or of a storm-swept lake4 ,the innate tendency to rhythmic motion would soon have asserted itself1 and primitive dance1 in the more usual sense1 would result4 ,but it would be a sacred dance in so far that it was performed in imitation of some supernatural power1 vague and originally impersonal1 as it undoubtedly was2 to honour such by an imitative dance denotes a religious intention4 ,the reasonable objection will be urged that it was not only things which 8moved0 that early man regarded as living or as indwelt by a spirit1 but that stones1 for example1 were among the very early things which were treated with veneration because they were believed to be the abodes of spirits2 these did not move1 so that the suggested theory of the origin of the sacred dance breaks down here4 ,but when one seeks to penetrate the mind of uncultured man and to get behind his mental outlook1 and especially when one contemplates the working of the child-mind which offers so many analogies with1 and illustrations of that of the mentally immature savage1 one becomes convinced that this veneration of stones1 early as it was in the history of religion1 was later than that of things which move4 ,and the reason of this is simple2 a moving thing attracts attention before that which does not move2 that lies in the nature of things alike with the child and the savage mind4 ,when once the moving things are believed to be the abodes of spirits1 and the existence of these is universally recognized1 then the further step that they exist in other things follows easily and naturally4 ,we are thinking of the time when as yet early man was only impressed by those things which1 because of their motion1 attracted his attention4 ,rville says that the dance was the first and chief means adopted by prehistoric humanity of entering into active union with the deity adored4 ,the first idea was to imitate the measured movements of the god1 or at any rate what were supposed to be such4 ,afterwards this fundamental motive was forgotten1 like so many other religious forms which tradition and habit sustained even when the spirit was gone#ba4 ,we entirely agree2 but the question is whether this does not represent a later stage in the religion of prehistoric humanity4 ,must there not have been a prior stage in which a less concrete idea of supernatural powers obtained8 ,what induced the supposition that the god performed 8measured movements08 ,and what would have been thought to be the form of these movements8 ,mr ,marett1 in the first essay of the volume already referred to1 brings forward incontrovertible arguments1 as it seems to us1 for believing that there was a stage in the mental and religious development of man in which he was not yet capable of other than a vague sense of the supernatural2 in which he had not yet associated definite spirits or ghosts with what he conceived to be supernatural phenomena2 but in which the sense of mystery and consequently of awe in face of these supernatural phenomena filled his heart4 ,this is also dealt with in the fourth essay3 8,the ,conception of ,mana40 ,it is in this stage that we would locate the origin of the sacred dance1 performed in imitation of what were the movements of supernatural powers1 but powers of the vaguest kind2 merely a something1 unknown1 mysterious1 and therefore to be feared2 but associate yourself with it1 and already you are in an indefinable way in communion with it2 you have in some sense made friends with it1 which makes things safer4 8,given the supernatural in any form there are always two things to note about it3 firstly1 that you are to be heedful in regard to it2 secondly1 that it has power#bb40 ,so that what ,rville says is true1 but it must be referred to a later stage of religious development4 ,another consideration in connexion with the origin of the sacred dance must be briefly dealt with4 ,many savage peoples trace the origin of their sacred dances to various animals by which1 as they maintain1 they were taught to dance2 therefore they imitate1 in their dances1 the movements of these animals4 ,thus1 for example1 we have kangaroo-dances1 dog-dances1 and cassowary-dances among the ,monumbo of ,new ,guinea#bc2 bear-dances among the ,carrier ,indians#bd1 the ,gilyaks 7in ,eastern ,siberia71 the women of ,kamtchatka#be1 and others4 ,it may1 therefore1 be urged that the sacred dance originated in this way4 ,but apart from other arguments1 it will suffice to point out that to early man the sight of animals was probably so much in the natural order of things that there was nothing about them to strike him2 in any case there was nothing supernatural or mysterious about them1 nothing to be afraid about in the sense of fear inspired by the unknown4 ,such being the case there would have been no reason to imitate their movements1 as there was in the case of what were to early man those mysterious powers whose movements he could not explain4 ,the connexion of animals with gods1 and the belief in descent from animals belong to subsequent ages2 such conceptions necessitate reflexion during long periods of time4 ,therefore it cannot have been in imitation of animals that the sacred dance took its origin4 ,the theory as to the origin of the sacred dance suggested may or may not commend itself2 but that it took its rise from supernatural powers of some sort seems certain2 and this is supported by the belief of many savage peoples that their sacred dances were originally taught them by their gods#bf4 ,the ancient ,greeks also held that their sacred dances were performed in imitation of gods and goddesses4 ,the ,pyrrhic dance was said to have been the invention of the ,dioscuri by some2 others attributed it to ,athena4 ,again1 ,artemis1 ,dionysos1 and ,zeus himself1 were all believed to have set men the example of dancing4 ator among the ,egyptians and ,baal-,marqd among the ,phoenicians are other examples4 ,is it not quite conceivable that this echoes what obtained in more primitive times8 ,,ii ,we come now to consider the purposes of the sacred dance4 ,the whole idea and object of dancing1 among civilized peoples1 has now become so purely a matter of pastime and enjoyment that it is1 at first1 difficult to realize its very serious aspect among men in past ages1 and among uncivilized races to-day4 ,it may be true enough that dancing has always been a means of exercise and pleasure#bg2 but from the earliest historical times--and1 judging from what can be gathered from its very widespread practice among all known races of uncivilized men1 the same is probably true of remote prehistoric times--this purpose has always been subordinated to religious uses primarily4 ,there are1 it is true1 many instances among savages at the present day of dances being nothing more than a means of exercise and enjoyment2 but it is not too much to assert that in every case the elimination of the religious element is due to extraneous influences4 ,this is vividly illustrated in ,polynesia1 for example4 8,polynesian dancing10 writes ,mr ,macmillan ,brown1 8has advanced far on the road to conventionalism4 ,it has shed much of its pantomimic purpose and its religious meaning1 and in this it reveals the collision of two or more cultures4 ,in a region marked by so much that is so highly primitive1 nothing but the clash of different religious systems could explain its divorce from rites and ceremonies and its appearance as an almost purely secular art1 intended to amuse and delight an assembly of spectators40 ,the same writer shows that the character of the dancing among them presents the proof of its originally purely religious purpose2 for it is not like ,european dancing1 a harmony of 8twinkling feet40 ,it is wholly occupied in posturing1 waving the arms and bending the body1 as if before a shrine4 ,it is the upper part of the body that is chiefly engaged4 ,where the feet come in1 it is only to effect the occasional advances or retreats1 as if to or from the altar1 or in the resounding thud of the war-dance4 ,the ,polynesian dance is oftenest stationary#bh4 ,at the same time it would be a mistake to suppose that all religious dancing was necessarily of this more or less stationary character2 we shall refer to examples of a very different kind below2 but it is well to emphasize the truth that all dancing was originally religious1 and was performed for religious purposes4 ,of course it often happens that the different objects of the dance coalesce2 religious and secular1 or religious and utilitarian1 or more than one religious purpose1 being combined in the same dance2 this1 as we shall see1 is illustrated in ,israelite practice4 ,nevertheless1 it is very certain that in numberless instances all feelings of enjoyment had ceased though the dance continued hour after hour because it was believed that a sacred duty was being performed thereby4 ,the young ,north ,american ,dakotahs1 for example1 did not go on dancing for a couple of days because they were so enamoured of it2 nor was it for pastime that the ,thyiads danced on madly in honour of ,dionysos until they dropped to the ground unconscious4 ,the reasons which made this sort of thing necessary are absurd to us1 but from the point of view of antique thought it was a very serious and solemn matter4 ,it is this serious aspect of our subject upon which stress must be laid because now-a-days we naturally think of dancing as mere enjoyment and pastime4 ,some of the dances and their objects1 and the ways in which they are performed1 among savages are so funny that they would1 we imagine1 provoke a smile on the face of a sphinx1 were it capable of doing such a thing2 but while1 at times1 we cannot resist a laugh1 we shall do well to remember that it was far from being a laughing matter to the savage2 to do him justice we must seek to get to the back of his mind1 to enter into his feelings1 and to look at things through his eyes2 then it will be realized what the sacred dance meant to him1 and its essential seriousness will become apparent4 ,what the sacred dance meant not only to uncivilized men1 but also to the most cultured races of antiquity1 will be seen from the purposes for which it was performed4 ,these we will now briefly enumerate4 7a7 ,it was1 first and foremost1 performed for the purpose of honouring what were regarded as supernatural powers#bi4 ,in the pre-animistic stage these powers were entirely vague and undefined2 in the animistic stage they developed into spirits1 some benevolent1 others maleficent1 powerful for good or evil4 ,later they became gods and goddesses4 ,why dancing was a means of honouring these supernatural1 later superhuman1 powers was for these reasons3 ,it was supposed to be an act of imitation1 and therefore flattering to the higher power 7the imitative propensity in man has already been referred to74 ,secondly1 by 8taking it out of yourself0 in the presence of the power or deity you were offering something in the nature of a propitiation1 whether as a gift or as an act of self-sacrifice2 in either case it would be honouring the higher power4 ,this taking it out of oneself in honour of a spirit or a god is an interesting phenomenon1 and in one form or another has asserted itself throughout the history of religion4 ,it is the earliest form of what in course of time showed itself in such things as self-castigation and self-mortification2 its extreme form being the love of martyrdom2 for to whatever degree the cult of self may have entered into these things1 it would be grossly unfair not to recognize that they were believed to be pleasing in the sight of the deity1 and that they were1 therefore1 done with a view to honouring him4 7b7 ,psychologically connected with the foregoing we have as another purpose of the sacred dance that of 8showing-off0 before a higher power4 ,one must enter into the child-mind in order to grasp what a real thing this is4 ,the close analogy between the way-of-thinking in the child and in the more or less primitive savage has already been referred to1 and is recognized on all hands4 ,here are two cases of great interest which vividly illustrate the point under consideration4 ,the present writer vouches for the literal truth of each4 ,a little girl1 not exceeding five years1 was dancing before a picture of the ,madonna and ,child2 after her dance she turned to her mother and said3 8,do you think the ,baby ,jesus liked to see me dance80 ,it is not quite easy to say in this case in how far the purpose was to please the 8,baby ,jesus10 and in how far the perfectly natural and innocent purpose was to 8show off0 before ,him2 probably both motives were combined4 ,but the second is purely one of 8showing off40 ,a child of about three1 a boy this time1 kept on jumping as high as he could in the fields2 presently his father heard him say3 8,see1 ,god1 how high ,i can jump60 ,we could hardly have more delightful and instructive illustrations of the innate desire1 common to the child and to man of immature mental development1 to show what they can do in the sight of their betters4 ,so that we may justly reckon among the purposes of the sacred dance this desire to 8show off0 before a superhuman power1 or what is conceived to be such4 7c7 ,next2 the honour done to the higher power by means of imitation had1 in the eyes of uncivilized man1 some important consequences which offer further reasons why the sacred dance was performed4 ,just as in imitative magic the thing imitated was thereby effected1 so by imitating the supernatural power the imitator conceived himself to be making himself one with him who was imitated4 ,this purpose of the sacred dance would not1 however1 have belonged to the earliest stage1 for it presupposes the recognition of personality in the supernatural power1 and that points to a distinct advance2 and the possibility is worth contemplating as to whether1 and in how far1 the sacred dance may have contributed to this advance4 ,at any rate1 this idea that an undefined union was brought about by means of the sacred dance seems to be the precursor of the more developed form of the same idea that union could be brought about by personating a god or a goddess4 ,when1 for example1 men and women1 by disguising themselves as horses1 cats1 pigs1 or hares1 personated ,demeter and ,persephone1 and danced in their honour1 they believed that they were1 in some inexplicable way1 united with these goddesses4 ,in the earlier stage1 by imitating what a god does1 i4e4 dancing1 union with him is effected2 in the later stage1 the like result is achieved by imitating what he is1 and dancing in that guise4 ,at the bottom of all this lies the principle which looms so large in savage philosophy that 8like produces like10 i4e4 sympathetic magic which assumes that things act on each other at a distance through a secret sympathy1 the impulse being transmitted from one to the other by means of what we may conceive as a kind of invisible ether1 not unlike that which is postulated by modern science for a precisely similar purpose1 namely1 to explain how things can physically affect each other through a space which appears to be empty#cj4 ,as is well known1 a more pronounced and realistic means of union was that of eating the flesh or drinking the blood of a sacrificial victim which represented the god2 by receiving the god into himself a man became identified with the god4 ,so that we have in the course of the development of religious thought and practice1 in a materialistically ascending scale1 three means whereby union with a supernatural power was believed to be effected3 imitation1 personation1 and the act which produced identification4 ,but the important point for our present purpose1 and it is one which needs emphasis1 is that over and over again it is found that the two latter rites 7i4e4 those of personation and of absorbing the god7 are accompanied by the sacred dance as a necessary adjunct4 ,it may be argued that this is merely done on the principle of making certainty doubly certain2 but it is at least possible that we have here a case of the retention of the earliest rite simply because it is the earliest4 ,we are bound to look for great navet in considering the ideas and practices of backward races--and1 indeed1 not only backward races where religious rites are concerned2--and if1 in course of time1 new means suggested themselves of uniting oneself with a god or goddess1 it is quite in accordance with what we know of uncivilized man to suppose that he continued the older method side by side with the newer ones1 even though there was not much meaning attached to it4 ,this theory that one of the earliest purposes of the sacred dance was to imitate what supernatural powers did1 and that this imitation was believed to be the means of union with this supernatural being 7as it came to be71 receives some support and confirmation from what we know to have been the purpose of the ecstatic dance4 7d7 ,uncultured man believed that by dancing to such an extent that he became unconscious he was not only doing something that was honouring to the deity1 not only offering something in the nature of sacrifice1 but that1 he was1 above all1 making his body a fit temporary abode for his god4 ,he did not enquire how this came about4 ,conceivably1 the earliest idea1 though unexpressed1 was that by honouring the god to this extent the god showed his approval by uniting himself with his dancing worshipper4 ,the earlier widespread belief that the deity took up his abode at certain times in trees1 stones1 etc41 may well have suggested the possibility of the same thing occurring in men1 but more especially in those more intimately and directly dedicated to his worship4 ,the question would have arisen as to the means to be employed whereby this end could be achieved in the case of men2 and as dancing was the earliest form of worship this would have been the most natural means to suggest itself4 ,the dance would then proceed2 during it the performers would be anxiously awaiting some inner indication of the entrance of the deity2 nothing1 of course1 would happen until the long-continued dance would induce first giddiness1 then semi-consciousness1 and finally a state of semi-delirium ending not infrequently in total unconsciousness for some time4 ,but it is easy to understand that the first signs of semi-consciousness would have been interpreted as the advent of the deity and the beginnings of the divine overpowering4 ,given belief in the possibility of divine indwelling in a man1 the further belief that the god utilized his worshipper as his mouthpiece was a natural and easy transition4 ,natural1 because it could not be supposed that the god would take up his abode in a man without some purpose1 and what more obvious purpose than that of making his will known8 ,easy1 because the mechanism1 if one may so call it1 of utterance was all ready to hand4 ,other things would follow1 also in the natural course2 for if1 on the one hand1 the god utilized the body of his worshipper as the vehicle for making his will known1 the worshipper could1 on the other hand1 utilize the divine power with which he was suffused for other purposes4 ,thus1 for example1 we have the ,hebrew prophet who1 in an ecstatic state1 utters the will of ,jahwe1 or gives an oracle2 or1 as illustrating the other side1 we have the ,bodo-priest 8devil-dancer0 of ,southern ,india who utilizes the divine power within him for working cures4 ,but whatever the result might be1 the important thing from our present point of view is that the requisite state required for the accomplishment of these things was brought about by the performance of the sacred dance4 ,the ecstatic dance will receive a good deal of notice below 7pp4 #ajg ff471 so that we need not say more about it here4 7e7 ,another purpose of the sacred dance was to make the crops grow1 or of helping1 or inducing the god to do so4 ,from one point of view here the sacred dance was an act of imitative magic4 ,thus1 by a dance in which the chief characteristic was high leaps it was believed by many peoples that the corn would grow high4 ,it is probable1 as ,frazer suggests1 that this was at any rate one of the purposes with which the ,salii1 the priests of the old ,italian god of vegetation1 danced high and leapt4 ,as an act of imitative magic1 again1 the sacred dance had among some peoples the purpose of helping the sun to run his course4 ,for example1 this was probably at one time of its history the object of 8,ariadne's ,dance02 and the dance known by the name of the 8,labyrinth0 may well have been believed to assist the stars in their courses4 ,these1 and many other examples1 are dealt with in the following pages4 7f7 ,further1 there are instances on record of the sacred dance having the purpose of hallowing or consecrating a victim for sacrifice1 as in the case of the ,arabs performing a processional dance round a camel destined for sacrifice1 or of the ,israelites making the circuit round the altar1 or of the ,kayans of ,sarwak circling round their sacrificial pigs4 ,in all such cases it is an act of consecration by means of the magic circle4 7g7 ,as an adjunct to initiation ceremonies the sacred dance was also believed to serve some useful purpose4 ,presumably it was an act of homage to the god or goddess who was supposed to be present4 ,this is suggested by the dancing at the ,brauronian ceremonies of ,artemis which1 according to ,farnell1 was a kind of initiation ceremony by which young girls were consecrated to the service of this goddess4 7h7 ,there are some grounds for the belief that the sacred dance was sometimes performed with the purpose of assisting warriors to gain a victory in battle2 here1 too1 it was an act of imitative magic4 ,it had1 in this connexion1 the further purpose of appeasing the spirits of slain enemies4 7i7 ,as a marriage rite the sacred dance1 at any rate during some time of its history1 fulfilled1 as was believed1 one or two important purposes4 ,the reference to the 8,sword-dance0 in the ,old ,testament is in all probability a relic of the antique custom of combating the vague dangers which were supposed to menace those entering upon the marriage state4 ,these dangers1 undefined but nevertheless very real to those who believed in their existence1 arose not only from the fact of the new conditions of life that were beginning1 but also because of a reciprocal fear on the part of the sexes1 and a close contact between them emphasized this4 ,another way of combating1 or at least averting these dangers1 was by means of a change of identity2 hence the once world-wide custom1 still in existence in some countries1 of the bridal couple assuming 8royal0 state1 and being treated as king and queen during the period of the wedding festivities4 ,further1 there are some reasons for thinking that the sacred dance as a marriage rite sometimes had the purpose of bringing about a fruitful marriage2 there are certain ceremonies during the period of celebration in which the dance figures prominently which point to this1 and the analogy of the dance for making the crops grow offers some corroboration4 7j7 ,there are special purposes for which the sacred dance was performed as a mourning or a burial rite4 ,at times these are of a curiously contradictory character4 ,the ghosts of the dead number among them those who are kindly disposed towards the living1 and those who are malevolent in their attitude towards them2 the latter are supposed to be able to do harm4 ,speaking quite generally1 it appears1 upon the whole1 that the less advanced the cultural stage the greater the tendency to regard the spirits of the departed as malevolent4 ,since the various races from which illustrations of the sacred dance as a mourning rite are gathered were1 or are 7as the case may be71 in different stages of civilization1 it follows that the purposes of the rite vary2 for the belief regarding the attitude of the dead towards the living has a good deal to do with the purpose for which the sacred dance was performed4 ,thus we find that it sometimes has the object of driving away the ghost of the departed2 or else there will be a dance on the grave for the purpose of preventing the ghost from roaming4 ,at other times it is the means of scaring away evil spirits who are believed to congregate in the vicinity of a corpse4 ,very strange1 but interesting1 is the custom among some races of personating the dead in the sacred dance2 this is supposed to be a potent means of bringing him back1 and he is believed to join the survivors in the dance2 he is present1 but invisible1 in the man who personates him4 ,this reminds one of the union with a supernatural spirit by imitating him in the dance1 to which reference has been made above2 the same idea underlies each4 ,but the purpose of the sacred dance as a mourning or burial rite which appears as the most usual is that of honouring the departed4 ,this is doubtless very frequently simply a mark of affection2 but at other times it is in the nature of a propitiatory act whereby the spirit of the departed is persuaded to refrain from molesting the living4 ,many illustrations of these various purposes of the sacred dance will be offered in the following pages4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,among ,,the ,,israelites ,i ,so far as the ,old ,testament is concerned this subject of the dance in religious ritual illustrates a fact which biblical study1 on the comparative basis1 is bringing more and more into prominence1 and which needs to be recognized both in the interests of truth and in order to realize more fully the evolutionary development of religion as an eternal principle in the divine economy4 ,the original aims and objects of the sacred dance were1 as we have seen1 8primitive02 the continuance of the rite throughout the ages1 even to comparatively recent times among practically all peoples1 does not in any way detract from the truth of this1 for everyone knows with what persistency religious custom and ritual continues1 not only after the original object and meaning has been forgotten1 but even when it has no meaning at all4 ,its existence among the ,israelites1 therefore1 shows them to have been and to have acted throughout their religious history as other races did in this respect 7and it is only one of many other illustrations that could be given71 in spite of what we rightly believe to have been special opportunities for more exalted forms of worship4 ,it must be confessed that the religious uniqueness of the ,israelites1 as a nation1 has been1 and often still is1 exaggerated to an undue extent4 ,certainly there were among them those who may well be described as unique1 sui generis2 but they were the great exceptions4 ,the nation as a whole was for many centuries no better and no worse than others2 and what stronger evidence for this could be afforded than that given in the prophetical books of the ,old ,testament8 ,its ultimate emergence from the religious norm of the world to a position of isolated superiority was due to a mere handful of men who offered the greatest example that the world had hitherto seen of what could be accomplished by subordinating will and personality to the influence and guidance of the ,divine ,creator4 ,true1 it was among some of these very prophets that the most interesting kind of sacred dance--the ecstatic dance--was in vogue1 with its wildness and extravagances2 in this they1 or at least the earliest of them1 did not differ from certain classes of 8holy men0 all the world over2 where they did differ was in their development of the conception which underlay the purpose of the ecstatic dance1 i4e4 union with the deity2 and it is just here that they stand out in such bold relief from all others4 ,the earliest prophets believed that this sacred dance was the means whereby the divine spirit came upon them2 this belief they shared with others2 but they rose to the higher belief that this means was not necessary for achieving the purpose for which it was used4 ,it had served a useful purpose2 but having served its purpose it was dropped4 ,the prophets came to the realization that there were more spiritual means whereby union with the deity was brought about2 then the sacred dance found no further place among them4 ,they shed the husk1 but retained the kernel4 ,it was the same principle upon which ,st ,paul acted in later days in regard to the ,law4 ,the sacred dance1 too1 was in its way a 8school-master0 7,gal4 iii4 #bd71 leading men to better things4 ,when1 centuries later1 the far more cultured ,greeks were still 8raving0 in honour of ,dionysos1 the ,hebrew prophets had long since learned that it is ,god ,himself ,who puts ,his spirit upon men 7cp4 ,isa4 xlii4 #a71 and that this is not a thing to be effected by the will or act of man4 8,who hath directed the ,spirit of ,jahwe80 asks one of them in fine irony 7,isa4 xl4 #ac74 ,thus the history of the ecstatic dance among the ,hebrew prophets is one of many illustrations showing their uniqueness4 ,it is not1 however1 with these extraordinarily gifted prophets that we are now concerned4 ,we are thinking of the very ordinary and very human ,israelites as a whole who1 like innumerable men and women of other races1 were endowed with emotions and aspirations which were common to humanity4 ,and it is a curious but interesting phenomenon that the sacred dance was among the ,israelites1 as among all other peoples1 one of the means whereby these emotions and aspirations were expressed4 ,the fact that in the ,mosaic legislation no provision is made for ritual dancing when so many other minute details of ritual are given might seem to suggest that such a thing was discountenanced4 ,without question it is true to say that 8the priestly historians and legislators resolutely excluded1 as far as possible1 everything that could infer any similarity between the worship of ,jahwe and that of heathen deities#ca40 ,but it is doubtful whether the subject of the sacred dance would have come into consideration in such a connexion2 it was a practice too deeply ingrained in human nature as a means of expressing religious emotion to suggest that it implied assimilation to heathen worship4 ,the bringing of oblations1 the offering of sacrifices1 were also common to ,israelite and heathen worship1 but that similarity would never have struck the ,israelite legislators as derogatory1 because these1 too1 were means of expressing religious emotion which1 in one form or another1 were common to all races4 ,the ,mosaic legislation makes no provision for the posture to be assumed in the presence of the deity1 nor does it say anything about singing in worship2 but it is difficult to believe that there were not fixed modes in regard to these which had been in vogue from time immemorial2 and therefore they needed no mention4 ,the same may be postulated in the case of the sacred dance4 ,a thing which all the evidence shows to have been a world-wide means of expressing religious emotion and of honouring the deity during a long period in the history of religious development1 was not likely to have been wanting among the ,israelites4 ,in those passages in the ,old ,testament in which religious dancing is recorded there is no hint of disapproval1 let alone prohibition4 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that it must have been looked upon as a usual and integral part of worship4 ,it must also be remembered that the sacred dance continued to be an important element in worship on special occasions among the ,jews in post-biblical times2 the evidence will be considered later4 ,that this could have been an innovation is out of the question2 it was merely the continuation1 in some cases quite possibly an elaboration1 of a rite familiar to the people from time immemorial4 ,the comparatively rare mention1 therefore1 of the sacred dance in the ,old ,testament must not mislead us2 the reasons for that are very natural4 ,and when it is realized what a number of words there are in ,hebrew for dancing 7see pp4 #dd ff471 and that only once is there a possible reference to secular1 as distinct from religious1 dancing1 the conclusion will be forced upon us that it played a much larger rle in the religious life of the people than first appearances would seem to indicate4 ,as far as can be gathered1 religious dancing among the ,israelites was1 as a general rule1 performed by the sexes separately2 in the account of the worship of the ,golden ,calf1 however1 it must be allowed that the possibility of promiscuous dancing is not excluded1 see especially ,exod4 xxxii4 #b1 #c4 ,among other peoples it is found that1 mostly1 the sacred dance was performed by men and women separately2 but there are notable exceptions among the ,egyptians as well as the ,syrians1 also among the ,greeks2 and the same applies to the uncultured races4 ,,ii ,when all the data in the ,old ,testament have been gathered it is possible to discern certain types of the sacred dance2 by this we do not necessarily mean varieties of mode1 not but that these also occur2 the type is indicated rather by the connexion in which the dance occurs4 ,therefore1 although it is not to be supposed that there was1 generally speaking1 any idea of having particular kinds of dance reserved for different occasions1 it is possible to attempt some kind of classification4 ,at any rate1 it is a convenient method to adopt in reviewing the evidence4 ,emphasis must again be laid on the fact that when one is speaking of the 8sacred dance0 in past ages one has to allow to the term a wide connotation4 ,we have come to use the word 8dance0 in a very restricted sense2 in antiquity it was different2 included in it are modes varying from a staid1 march-like rhythmic step1 to the wilder movements of the ecstatic dance4 7#a7 ,we draw attention first to the sacred processional dance4 ,a cursory reference to one or two examples will suffice here as a more detailed examination of each type of dance will be found in the chapters to follow4 ,judging from the few data offered by the ,old ,testament1 the sacred processional dance among the ,israelites was always performed in honour of ,jahwe4 ,in the well-known instance of ,david and the ,israelites dancing in procession before the ,ark1 it is really in the presence of ,jahwe that it takes place since ,he is conceived as being present in the ,ark4 ,the dance assumes various forms according to the degree of religious excitement engendered4 ,it is spoken of as being dancing of the ordinary kind1 i4e4 the common ,hebrew word for dancing is used2 but presently it takes on the character of a rotating dance1 then there is jumping followed by something in the nature of skipping1 and it is also spoken of as a whirling movement4 ,it will be noticed that five different words are used here to express the different ways in which the dancing was performed4 ,although the occasion on which this took place was a very special one1 it would be a mistake to suppose that the sacred dance was only reserved for such special occasions4 ,it is rather to be gathered from the incidental way in which the dancing is mentioned that the rite was usual1 and was only of a more elaborate character because of the special occasion4 ,a single mention of this kind must1 it may be safely asserted1 imply a well-known and usual custom1 otherwise it would be commented upon as something out of the ordinary4 7#b7 ,the sacred dance also takes the form of encircling a sacred object1 either an idol1 or a sacrificial victim1 or an altar2 in this last case the sacrificial victim would1 of course1 be included4 ,the form of this type of dance was either a march-like step or a running step or else the worshippers held hands and danced round4 ,this latter is nowhere specifically mentioned in the ,old ,testament2 but it is such an obvious form for a dance to take that we can scarcely doubt its having existed among the ,israelites4 ,besides1 interesting examples of a concrete kind have been found depicting this form of dance round sacred objects which quite possibly owe their origin to ,semitic inspiration2 some of these are described in ,chapter ,,vi below4 ,this encircling dance was undoubtedly an act of worship2 it is also possible that in some cases it was intended to have a consecrating effect either upon the worshippers or upon the sacrificial victim2 in the example given by ,nilus 7see p4 #ie7 the latter would seem to have been the case4 ,the theory of some scholars that the circle dance was a symbolic representation of the movement of the heavenly bodies has also a good deal to commend it4 ,as a funeral rite this form of the sacred dance served some other purposes 7see below74 7#c7 ,the ecstatic dance is that which has received most attention from scholars1 and deservedly1 for it is one of the most curious phenomena in the history of religious ritual4 ,in the exuberance of emotion engendered by it the performers experienced what appeared to them to amount1 for the time being1 almost to a metamorphosis2 they believed themselves to be infused and permeated by the influence--perhaps it would be truer to say the essence--of the deity in whose honour they were dancing4 ,thus came about what was conceived to be in some mystic1 but wholly inexplicable way1 a union with the deity adored4 ,in the ,old ,testament we have the well-known example of the prophets performing this dance in #a ,sam4 x4 #e ff42 its contagious character is graphically illustrated by the case of ,saul1 whose condition becomes such that the people ask3 8,is ,saul also among the prophets80 and he is spoken of as having been 8turned into another man0 because as a result of the ecstatic dance the spirit of ,jahwe came mightily upon him4 ,the language implies that when once the required condition has been reached it is then ,jahwe ,who takes the initiative2 the body as such remains a passive instrument1 but it becomes a ,beth-el1 a temporary house of ,god from which ,he speaks forth through the medium of the voice of the possessed4 ,as in the case of other types of the sacred dance1 there cannot be anything unique about this even though it is only referred to once or twice in the ,old ,testament2 its incidental mention without further comment stamps it as being nothing out of the ordinary4 ,another form of this ecstatic type of dance is mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 also in connexion with prophets1 though not ,israelite prophets4 ,there was a peculiar kind of limping dance performed1 as it would appear1 on special occasions by the prophets of ,baal4 ,this began with a limping step round the altar as though the performers were lame1 but soon developed into a wild jumping about on the altar1 and culminated in self-laceration with knives and the like4 ,in how far a state of semi-consciousness or total unconsciousness was attained is not indicated2 but in the light of analogous cases 7referred to in ,chapter ,,vii7 it may be gathered that the loss of the physical sensation of pain inflicted by the self-laceration must imply to some extent a loss of consciousness so far as external surroundings were concerned4 ,in writing about the prophetic ecstasy of ,syrian as well as ,israelite prophets1 ,dr ,t4 ,h4 ,robinson well expresses the state in saying that it was a peculiar psychic condition in which the subject seemed to be possessed of powers1 indeed of a whole sphere of consciousness1 which was denied to the ordinary individual1 and to the prophet himself in normal states4 ,he did not cease to be conscious of the world as it appeared to others1 but he heard and saw things which were beyond their range4 ,there were a number of well-marked physical phenomena connected with the condition of ecstasy1 though these were not invariable4 ,the subject might be affected with a certain constriction of the muscles1 in which case the state resembled that of a trance4 ,on the other hand1 muscular activity might be largely increased4 ,leaping1 bodily contortions1 and loud cries resulted1 which1 as they tended to become regular and rhythmical1 developed into dancing and song4 ,the subject frequently experienced a kind of anaesthesia1 and would slash wildly at his own body with knife or whip1 without showing any signs of physical pain#cb4 ,we shall find all this illustrated in the examples1 to be given in ,chapter ,,vii1 of this type of dance among a number of races4 ,various means were employed to bring about this ecstatic state1 such as alcohol1 and other drugs2 but there can be little doubt that the most frequent1 and certainly the most primitive1 means adopted was that of dancing4 7#d7 ,the kind of sacred dance which was the most common among the ,israelites1 as among other peoples1 was that proper to ,vintage and ,harvest ,festivals4 ,that it seems1 from the scanty references to it which we have in the ,old ,testament1 as well as from many indications in regard to its performance among other races1 largely to have lost its sacred character will not deceive us as to its originally religious purpose4 ,it was a characteristic of ,israelite worship that the note of joy should sound during its celebration2 the command3 8,ye shall rejoice before ,jahwe your ,god0 sufficiently bears this out4 ,apart1 therefore1 from the original purpose of this kind of sacred dance to which reference will be made in ,chapter ,,viii1 there is no reason to doubt that ,vintage and ,harvest dances among the ,israelites were essentially of a religious character1 although the rejoicing1 of which dancing was one of the most natural modes of expression1 might not always appeal to some of the more austere prophets1 see1 e4g41 ,amos v4 #ba-bc4 ,the very rare specific mention in the ,old ,testament of the festival dances is quite comprehensible1 for what was obviously proper to the celebration of a feast it would be superfluous to speak about4 ,moreover1 there is ample evidence in post-biblical ,jewish literature of the existence of the sacred dance at festivals4 7#e7 ,dances in celebration of victory in battle are referred to several times in the ,old ,testament4 ,taking the passages in which these are mentioned by themselves the custom of which they speak is nothing more than a simple and natural expression of joy and thanksgiving for victory4 ,but all such customs have a long history behind them2 and when analogous customs among other1 less civilized1 peoples are considered1 some points of interest and significance emerge which suggest the possibility of the custom being1 in its origin1 due to a different and more practical cause4 ,there are some grounds for believing that the custom of which the ,old ,testament speaks was a remnant of what was originally a dance performed by women which had for its object the helping of the men to gain a victory by means of imitative magic4 ,in the ,old ,testament there is1 of course1 no trace of this beyond the fact that the dance was performed by women2 and it has become simply an act of joyful thanksgiving to ,god and a tribute to the returning victors4 ,it is necessary to consider the analogous rite in its earlier forms as seen among peoples of lower civilization to estimate what justification there may be for this supposition4 ,if it should be the fact that this type of dance was1 in its origin1 a means of effecting victory by magic1 it would be an interesting illustration of magic being1 as ,marett says1 8part and parcel of the #8god-stuff' out of which religion fashions itself40#cc ,indeed1 when dealt with in detail1 this subject of the sacred dance in the ,old ,testament receives its chief interest and importance from the fact that at all events some of the types there mentioned are illustrations of the development of religion out of magic4 7#f7 ,there is some reason to believe that the sacred dance had a part to play during the rite of circumcision2 late ,rabbinic tradition seems to imply as much4 ,it had its place among the ,arabs on such occasions2 and at initiation ceremonies all the world over the sacred dance was essential4 7#g7 ,once more1 the sacred dance during the ,wedding ceremony1 though only once implied in the ,old ,testament1 was in all probability a regular institution2 post-biblical ,jewish literature offers presumptive evidence of its existence in earlier times among the ,israelites4 7#h7 ,and lastly1 we have the sacred dance as a ,burial rite4 ,as in other cases we have to rely1 firstly1 on the evidence of later ,jewish literature1 and1 secondly1 upon the analogous practice among other peoples4 ,as we shall show1 the emotions of fear1 honour1 and love1 which according to the cultural stages of uncivilized men are felt for the spirits of the departed1 are such as are common to mankind2 and these emotions are expressed1 among other ways1 by means of the sacred dance4 ,what cultural stage1 or stages1 are represented in the ,old ,testament as that1 or those1 through which the ,israelites passed may well be a matter of difference of opinion2 but that in both thought and practice they were1 as a whole1 in many respects no more advanced than other contemporary peoples does not admit of doubt4 ,so that when we find this rite in existence at burials or during the mourning period among other ,semites1 and among the ,egyptians1 not to mention the ,greeks1 the presumption is justified that the ,israelites practised it too4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in regard to much that has been said we are prepared for the objection that the evidence of the ,old ,testament does not offer sufficient justification for the assumptions made4 ,we agree that this is so if we are to rely upon the ,old ,testament alone4 ,but the object of the whole of our investigation will be to show that the beliefs and practices of any one race of people must1 to do them full justice1 be studied in the light of analogous beliefs and practices of other peoples4 ,only so can one fill up the lacunae which inevitably exist in the records of the races of antiquity4 ,we have chosen as our illustration a rite which may1 likely enough1 be regarded as of very secondary importance2 yet it is one which the evidence shows was at one time regarded as essential to man4 ,it is therefore a study worth undertaking2 for apart from its interest as a mere antiquarian investigation1 we hope that it may be found to throw some modest side-lights on various other subjects4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,terms ,,for 8,,dancing0 ,i ,how large a rle dancing in its various forms must have played among the ,israelites is shown by the fact that1 either in the restricted or in the more extended sense1 no less than eleven ,hebrew roots are used to describe its different characteristics4 ,this in what is a relatively poor language is not without significance4 ,before saying something about the meaning of these roots it will be well to give a list of them3 ,saq and tzaq1 used in the intensive piel form4 l4 ,krar1 used in the pilpel form1 also intensive4 ,pzaz1 used in the piel form4 ,rqad1 used in the piel form4 ,sbab1 used in the hiphil1 causative1 form4 ,qphatz1 used in the piel form4 ,dlag4 ,tzla1 occurs only once4 gag4 ,psa1 used in the piel form4 ,the first thing to notice here is that most of these roots1 when used in reference to dancing1 occur only in intensive forms2 this is significant as pointing to the nature and character of the sacred dance4 ,of the exceptions1 l 8to whirl0 is intensive in its root-meaning2 it has no piel1 and its other forms occur only rarely1 and almost entirely in the later poetical books4 ,the roots dlag and tzla1 refer to a particular kind of ritual step2 and as to gag more will be said in a moment4 ,now as to the meaning of these different words for dancing3 ,the root saq1 in its intensive form siq1 means in the first instance 8to laugh10 and it is also used in the sense of 8playing0 7,job xl4 #bi7 and 8merry-making0 7,jer4 xv4 #ag1 xxx4 #ai1 xxxi4 #d1 ,zech4 viii4 #e2 cp4 also ,judg4 xvi4 #be74 ,in the specific sense of 8dancing0 it occurs in #a ,sam4 xviii4 #g3 8444 and the dancing women answered one another and said 4440 7see also #a ,chron4 xv4 #bi74 ,equivalent to this root is tzaq1 also used in the intensive form tziq1 which occurs1 e4g41 in ,exod4 xxxii4 #f3 8,the people sat down to eat and drink1 and rose up to dance40 ,it is also used of 8playing0 or 8sporting10 e4g4 ,gen4 xxi4 #i1 ,judg4 xvi4 #be1 but in the second of these passages its obvious meaning is 8to dance10 for as we shall see later this was the custom at feasts4 ,this root1 therefore1 presents dancing in the aspect of a pleasant and enjoyable pastime4 ,further1 in various passages this root is used as a parallel to other words for dancing4 ,for example1 in #a ,sam4 xviii4 #f1 #g just cited1 it occurs as a parallel to the root which is the one most frequently used in the ,old ,testament for dancing1 viz4 l4 ,this root expresses the 8whirl0 of the dance 7e4g4 ,judg4 xxi4 #ba1 #bc1 ,ps4 lxxxvii4 #g74 ,it is the word used of the 8writhing0 or 8twisting0 of a woman in travail1 e4g4 ,isa4 xxvi4 #ag1 xlv4 #aj1 or of one in great pain1 ,isa4 xiii4 #h1 xxiii4 #e1 ,jer4 li4 #bi2 so that when used in the sense of dancing1 contortions of the body are thought of1 which suggests something of a rather wild character4 ,the 8whirling0 idea is also contained in the root krar 7in its intensive pilpel form1 kirkr71 8to whirl about10 or 8rotate40 ,it occurs1 in this sense1 only once in the ,old ,testament1 #b ,sam4 vi4 #ad-af1 of ,david dancing before ,jahwe#cd2 and in this passage we have another root which does not occur elsewhere in the sense of dancing1 viz4 pzaz 7again in the intensive form pizzz72 this expresses the idea of agile leaping as part of the dance#ce1 the cognate ,arabic root means 8to be excited40 ,the idea of leaping is also contained in another root rqad 7in its intensive form riqqd7 which in its ordinary sense means 8to skip about#cf02 as applied to dancing it occurs in the passage last mentioned1 and see further1 ,isa4 xiii4 #ba1 ,job xxi4 #aa1 ,joel ii4 #e1 ,eccles4 iii4 #d1 #a ,chron4 xv4 #bi2 in ,ps4 xxix4 #f it is used of a calf 8skipping40 ,the root sbab1 used of 8going round0 the altar1 is spoken about below 7pp4 #ic f471 so that we can leave this for the present4 ,so far1 then1 we have briefly touched on words used in reference to dancing which either express or suggest the ideas of its being something enjoyable1 of its involving the bending about of the body1 whirling about1 leaping1 and skipping2 as well as that of forming a circle1 perhaps round the altar1 but in any case encircling something1 or going round about it4 ,now we come to some rather special words4 ,in including dlag in our category we realize that this is only justified because we are using the word 8dancing0 in its extended1 as well as in its more restricted1 sense2 and we have shown above that this is not only permitted1 but necessary in view of the general ideas underlying the whole subject4 ,this word is used of the 8leaping0 of a hart in ,isa4 xxxv4 #f1 just as the word rqad is used1 as we have seen1 of the 8skipping0 of a calf2 the latter1 as already pointed out1 occurs in several passages in the sense of 8dancing02 dlag may1 therefore1 be regarded as in some sense parallel to it4 ,in ,cant4 ii4 #h dlag certainly seems to refer to some form of dancing4 ,but in two other passages the word has a special sense2 in these1 though the reference is not to dancing in the strict meaning of the term1 it is used of a ritual step of a leaping character1 and may justifiably be applied to dancing in the more extended sense4 ,thus1 in #a ,sam4 v4 #e it is said that no one ever treads on the threshold of ,dagon's house in ,ashdod4 ,this is explained in the ,septuagint by the addition of the words 8leaping over they leap over02 this is probably only an explanatory gloss 7though it is conceivable that they represent a text in which dlg yidlg occurred71 but it witnesses1 at any rate1 to what was a well-known custom1 for in the other passage1 ,zeph4 i4 #i1 punishment is pronounced against 8all those who leap over the threshold10 without further explanation1 showing that something quite familiar is being referred to4 ,there was a similar ,persian custom which forbad stepping on the threshold1 one had to leap over it with the right foot first4 ,the custom was due to the belief that evil spirits crouched down on the threshold1 and the leaping over it prevented coming into contact with them1 and the consequent risk of harm4 ,the action implied the recognition of an alien cult1 hence its prohibition#cg4 ,in ,cant4 ii4 #h the root qphatz is used as a parallel to dlag1 and also means 8to jump10 or the like2 but this is the only passage in which the word is used in this sense4 ,we come now to two roots of which rather more must be said4 ,the first is gag4 ,in #a ,sam4 xxx4 there is the account of ,david's attack on an ,amalekite troop who had carried off all the women from ,ziklag1 among them his two wives2 the ,egyptian slave of an ,amalekite1 who had been abandoned by his master because he had fallen sick1 is asked by ,david to lead him to the spot where the ,amalekites were encamped2 this he undertakes to do on condition that no harm comes to him2 then we read in verse #af3 8,and when he had brought him down1 behold1 they were sprawling about all over the ground1 eating and drinking and feasting0 7hggim72 that is how the ,revised ,version renders this last word4 ,to render it thus1 however1 is pleonastic1 for if they were eating and drinking they were quite obviously 8feasting02 the word1 therefore1 cannot well have this meaning here4 ,the more natural rendering would be 8dancing02 and1 indeed1 this would be the meaning that we should expect1 for1 as will be shown below1 8dancing0 is almost synonymous with 8feasting10 because it was characteristic of feasts4 ,driver1 in discussing this passage1 says in reference to the word3 ,whether1 however1 the sense of dancing is really expressed by the word is very doubtful4 ,modern lexicographers only defend it by means of the questionable assumption that gag may have had a similar signification to g1 which1 however1 by no means itself expresses the sense of to dance1 but to make a circle 7,job xxvi4 #aj74444 ,it is best to acquiesce in the cautious judgement of ,nldeke#ch1 who declares that he cannot with certainty get behind the idea of a festal gathering for the common ,semitic ag4 ,here then the meaning will be 8behaving as at a ag or gathering of pilgrims10 i4e4 enjoying themselves merrily#ci4 ,nowack is of a similar opinion2 he says that the word here can hardly mean more than 8to celebrate a feast02 but he adds3 8perhaps the word is originally used of the sacred dance#dj40 ,but apart from the question of the relationship between gag and g1 if the ,arabic agg1 8the going round in a circle10 is the word from which the ,hebrew ag is derived1 and presumably there is little doubt about that1 then the root-meaning of gag will be 8to go round in a circle10 and this was the essence of the sacred dance--or of one type of the sacred dance--among the ,semites4 ,wellhausen points out that the central and most important part of the cultus of the ancient ,arabs was the circuit round the sanctuary1 or1 when this was offered1 round the sacrifice4 ,it is from this fact1 he says1 that the agg1 which means really 8the sacred dance10 is so called4 ,he points out1 further1 that this original meaning of the word has not even yet been entirely lost in ,arabic1 for the verb still often has as its transitive object the stone or the 8house40 ,the holy stone is itself called ,davar 8the object of the encirclement0 because of the custom of performing the sacred dance round it4 ,evidence is forthcoming that this was done not only round the sacred stone1 the ,kaaba1 but also in all sanctuaries generally#da4 ,knig gives as the primary meaning of gag 8to make dancing movements10 8to turn10 and regards the sense of 8celebrating a feast0 as secondary#db4 ,this is borne out by the use of the word in ,ps4 cvii4 #bg1 where it means 8to go round in a circle10 like a drunken man4 ,the chief original ,hebrew term for a religious dance was doubtless ag4 ,the rendering 8feast0 or 8festival0 will indeed suffice in most cases1 but only because religious festivals necessarily included the sacred dance1 at least as long as the sacred stones remained in the sanctuaries#dc4 ,there is thus sufficient justification for reckoning this root among those which are used for 8to dance0 in the ,old ,testament4 ,then as to the root psa 7in its intensive form pissea74 ,according to ,exod4 xii4 #ac1 #bc the root-meaning of this word would appear to be 8to spare10 for we read there3 8444 and when ,i see the blood ,i will pass over you1 and there shall be no plague upon you02 and again3 8444 and when he seeth the blood upon the lintel1 and on the two side posts1 ,jahwe will pass over the door1 and will not suffer the destroyer to come into your houses to destroy you40 ,both ,zimmern#dd and ,schrader#de hold that the word is derived from the ,assyrian pasu1 8to pacify10 which would support the ,exodus interpretation4 ,robertson ,smith1 on the other hand1 thinks it by no means clear that this was the original meaning2 8there is10 he says1 8no certain occurrence of the name before ,deuteronomy 7in ,exod4 xxxiv4 #be it looks like a gloss71 and the corresponding verb denotes some kind of religious performance1 apparently a dance1 in #a ,kings xviii4 #bf4 ,a nocturnal ceremony at the consecration of a feast is already alluded to in ,isa4 xxx4 #bi1 who also perhaps alludes to the received derivation of psa in xxxi4 #edf4 ,but the ,deuteronomic passover was a new thing in the days of ,josiah 7#b ,kings xxiii4 #ba f474 ,it underwent further modification in the exile444#dg40 ,so that the opinion is worth hazarding as to whether ,pesa1 the ,passover1 did not originally get its name from the particular form of limping dance peculiar to it1 just as the ordinary feast got its name from the sacred dance1 the agg1 which was characteristic of it4 ,see further p4 #ib4 ,a ritual dance of a somewhat similar character is mentioned in ,gen4 xxxii4 #ca1 #cb1 where ,jacob1 as he passed over ,penuel1 8limped upon his thigh40 ,here the root used is tzla1 which in this sense occurs here only#dh2 but there is the place-name tzla1 ,saul's ancestral home 7#b ,sam4 xxi4 #ad71 which was possibly an ancient sanctuary where this special kind of limping dance was performed4 ,these1 then1 are the words used in the ,old ,testament for 8dancing0 in its various forms2 they will come before us again and their meanings will be more fully illustrated when we deal in the following chapters with the nature of the sacred dance4 ,,ii ,it will be appropriate if we add here a word or two about the musical accompaniment 7if this can in all cases be called 8musical07 to dancing so far as can be gathered from the ,old ,testament4 ,in its earliest and simplest form this accompaniment consisted of the rhythmic beating of what is translated 8timbrel0 in the ,revised ,version2 the word is tph in ,hebrew1 and it was probably the most primitive instrument among the ,hebrews4 ,it would be better described as a hand-drum1 or 8tom-tom10 being made of a circular 7though also square and sometimes probably three-sided7 piece of wood over which the skin of an animal1 after preparation1 was tightly drawn and fastened with a thin thong of skin4 ,it was held in one hand and struck with the open palm of the other4 ,in addition to this two other instruments of percussion are mentioned as accompanying dancing1 namely 8cymbals10 tzeltzlim1 and what are called metziltaim1 evidently also cymbals in some form or another as both words come from the same root2 the latter must clearly have been held one in each hand and struck together1 the dual form of the word shows this4 ,wind instruments for accompaniment were represented by the all1 8flute10 and the ugb1 perhaps something in the nature of a ,pan's-pipe1 though this is quite uncertain2 it is mentioned in ,gen4 iv4 #ba1 where the ,revised ,version renders it 8pipe40 ,stringed instruments as an accompaniment to dancing were a later development1 though of course used in what are to us early times1 among the ,israelites2 the simplest of these were the kinnr1 8lyre0 and the nbel1 8harp40 ,for the accompaniment to dancing of all three types of instruments1 percussion1 wind1 and string1 see ,job xxi4 #aa1 #ab4 ,we also read of 8rattles10 mnanim1 probably something equivalent to the sistrum of the ,egyptians#di4 ,besides instrumental1 there was also vocal accompaniment1 and doubtless the rhythmic clapping of hands1 the most primitive form of accompaniment1 and the beating of the thighs1 though neither of these is mentioned in the ,old ,testament4 ,it has been truly said that music is rarely divorced from dancing in the early stages of culture1 and seldom advances beyond mere rhythm into melody or harmony4 ,to a modern ,european ear it sounds not much more than rhythmic noise1 a mere marking of time for concerted movement of the limbs1 monotonous and unattractive1 if heard without its origin and inspiration--the dance#ej4 ,but the writer is mistaken in his mention of harmony here2 such a thing was quite unknown in 8the early stages of culture10 if he means by that 8culture0 among uncivilized men#ea4 ,the normal accompaniment to the sacred dance1 then1 among the ,hebrews was the beating of the drum and the blowing of the flute2 this1 as will be seen in the following chapters1 is true of all peoples4 ,the accompaniment of stringed instruments is1 as we have said1 a later development4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,sacred ,,processional ,,dance1 ,,and ,,dances ,,in ,,honour ,,of ,,superhuman ,,powers ,i ,an illustration of the processional type of dance among the ,israelites which immediately suggests itself is that of 8,david and all the house of ,israel dancing before ,jahwe with all their might0 7#b ,sam4 vi4 #e7eb4 ,the picture is that of an imposing procession1 headed by the king going in front of the ,ark into ,jerusalem4 ,the entire body of those forming the procession is described as dancing1 but special attention is drawn to ,david1 and the words used in reference to his mode of dancing are instructive2 he not only dances in the ordinary sense of the word 7saq71 but he 8rotates 7krar7 with all his might0 7verse #ad71 and 8jumps0 7pzaz1 verse #af71 and 8whirls round0 7l72 and in the parallel passage #a ,chron4 xv4 #bi1 his dancing is described as 8skipping0 7rqad7 or the like2 it is the word used in ,isa4 xiii4 #ba of the 8hopping0 of satyrs1 and also of 8galloping0 horses 7,joel ii4 #e7 and 8jolting0 chariots 7,nah4 iii4 #b74 ,the self-abandonment of this dancing can be imagined in the light of ,michal's jibe that the king had shamelessly uncovered himself4 ,nevertheless1 the religious character of the processional dance is obvious1 and is emphasized by the phrase 8before ,jahwe10 and by the fact that ,david 8was girded with a linen ephod0 7verse #ad71 the officiating priest's dress 7see #a ,sam4 ii4 #ah74 ,it is probable that the sacred processional dance is again referred to1 though one cannot say so positively1 in such passages as ,ps4 cxlix4 #c3 8,let them praise ,his name in the dance2 let them sing praises unto ,him with timbrel 7tph7 and lyre02 cl4 #d3 8,praise ,him with timbrel and dance10 etc42 and although in ,ps4 lxviii4 #bd1 #be 7#be1 #bf in ,hebr47 there is no special mention of the dance1 it is clearly implied by the reference to the damsels playing on the timbrel1 which was the usual accompaniment to dancing2 the passage runs3 8,they see ,thy goings forth i4e4 processions in honour of ,jahwe1 ,o ,god1 the goings forth of my ,god1 my ,king1 into the sanctuary2 the singers go before1 behind 7are7 those playing stringed instruments1 in the midst 7are7 damsels playing timbrels10 see also ,ps4 lxxxvii4 #g4 ,further quotations are unnecessary1 for it is clear that the sacred processional dance formed a normal adjunct to worship among the ,israelites4 ,in studying these types of the sacred dance among other peoples we are faced with the same difficulty that meets us in the case of various passages where the dance is mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 viz4 it is by no means always possible to say whether a processional dance is meant or not4 ,it is1 therefore1 inevitable that some uncertainty should exist in the case of some of the illustrations to be offered2 but if not always of the processional type1 the examples to be given will all illustrate the sacred dance as an act of honour to some superhuman power4 ,,ii ,as to those peoples most closely allied to the ,israelites1 namely the ,syrians and ,arabs1 our data1 so far as processional dances are concerned1 are very scanty1 though we are not without information on the general subject of the sacred dance among them4 ,in one of the inscriptions found in ,deir el-ala near ,beirut there is a reference to 2 he is called upon as 2 this witnesses to the existence of a ,phoenician god known as ,baal-,marqd1 according to the ,semitic form1 i4e4 the 8,baal1 or ,lord1 of dancing#ec40 ,he was either thought of as the originator of the sacred dance among the ,phoenicians1 just as the ,greeks and others ascribed the origin of dancing to certain gods and goddesses2 or else he was so called 8because of a bacchanalian dance which was performed in his honour#ed02 or because he was the god1 par excellence1 to whom dancing was due as an act of homage#ee4 ,the name shows that among the ,phoenicians the sacred dance had its place4 ,we shall come1 later on1 to other types of the sacred dance among the ,syrians and ,arabs4 ,here we may1 in passing1 point to the fact that the ,bedouin ,arabs of the ,syrian ,desert even at the present day perform dances in honour of exalted personages2 this may confidently be regarded1 especially in view of other evidence to be given below1 as pointing to similar dances being performed in earlier times in honour of gods2 for divinities were honoured in this way for ages before men were4 ,thus ,ritter describes the dancing of the ,bedouin ,arabs which he witnessed1 adding that the far-travelled sailors who were with him told him that this mode of dancing was strikingly similar to that which they had seen performed by the savage ,south ,sea islanders#ef4 ,dancing in honour of the newly married couple1 regarded as king and queen1 is interestingly described by ,wetzstein#eg4 ,such dances1 though not now strictly sacred1 deserve a passing reference1 for they have a long history behind them1 and at one time were certainly connected with religion4 ,in many ,babylonian psalms and hymns which were sung in procession1 and which have come down to us1 there is1 it is true1 no mention of dancing2 but it is difficult to believe that it did not take place1 especially in view of the evidence to be given below4 ,the silence may well be due to the fact that it was so obvious a part of the ritual that there would have been no point in mentioning it4 ,one can hardly conceive of its absence1 knowing what we do of the ,semitic religious temperament1 during such a great festival1 for example1 as that of the re-entry of ,marduk on the #aath ,nisan into the temple of ,e-sagila4 ,on this occasion a great procession of priests and choir was formed1 and during the re-entry of the god into his sanctuary they sang the hymn beginning3 8,o ,lord1 at the entering-in into thy sanctuary444#eh40 ,at such a time of solemn religious rejoicing it can hardly be doubted1 judging from many analogies1 that some form of sacred dance formed a striking feature of the ritual4 ,the dance-step may well have been of a sedate character1 but1 as we have seen1 the steps and performance of the sacred dance range from an almost march-like1 though rhythmical1 tread to antics of the most diverse character4 ,it is important to remember that in ,assyrian the word for 8to dance0 7rakdu7 means also 8to rejoice40 ,among all the ,semites the religious festivals were special times of rejoicing4 ,so that when we read of processions during ,babylonian and ,assyrian festivals it is justifiable to assume that sacred dances were performed as a recognized part of the ritual4 ,but we are not without tangible evidence on the subject4 ,on an inscription discovered in the palace of ,asshurbanipal a procession is depicted which is led by men playing harps2 the foremost among these1 each of whom has one of his legs raised1 quite obviously represent dancers4 ,they are followed by women with arms uplifted1 and also by children who seem to be clapping their hands1 apparently in rhythmical time with the dancers4 ,an illustration of this is given1 e4g41 by ,jeremias#ei1 who quotes from the inscription the ,assyrian account of ,hezekiah's subjection to ,sennacherib4 ,in this inscription1 among other things sent by the king of ,judah to ,nineveh1 8playing men and women0 are mentioned2 the illustration represents these as both dancing and playing instruments4 ,it is1 therefore1 as ,jeremias rightly emphasizes1 very important for the light it throws on the subject of the ,temple music and worship in pre-exilic times4 ,but it also throws light on ,assyrian usage since it is obvious that the inscription reflects ,assyrian ideas4 ,mention may be made here1 but very tentatively1 of three inscriptions found in ,cyprus by ,ohnefalsch-,richter4 ,it is conceivable that these bear witness1 though indirectly1 to early ,mesopotamian ritual1 for in style and representation they are somewhat reminiscent of ancient ,babylonian cylinder seals4 ,they are numbered cxxviii4 #d1 #e1 #f and a sacred dance is represented on each2 they are cylindrical in form1 and very ancient1 pre-,homeric and pre-,mycenaean1 according to ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 who says also that they bear a striking similarity to later ,olympic representations#fj4 ,the dancers wear long dresses rather like those of priests on ,assyrian cylinder seals4 ,,iii ,a religious processional dance of great interest is that represented on the well-known ,hittite rock-inscription at ,boghazkeui1 in ,cappadocia4 ,the central portion of this inscription represents a company of gods and goddesses2 towards them1 from either side1 the procession moves2 the figures on the left hand which form the procession are almost exclusively men1 while those on the right are all women4 ,the men all wear the cone-shaped ,hittite cap and tip-tilted shoes1 and they are performing a running-step dance1 the right feet being partly raised and touching the ground only with their toes4 ,the inscription belongs approximately to ,b4,c4 #abjjfa4 ,that it represents a religious processional dance is clear both because of the presence of gods and goddesses1 and also from the fact that in front of or over the heads of a number of the figures there are hieroglyphic signs which denote the names of divinities4 ,a small inscription on a haematite cylinder1 from ,cyprus1 also represents a ,hittite sacred processional dance4 ,as in the previous inscription1 the procession1 which is preceded and followed by a priest1 moves towards the god4 ,ohnefalsch-,richter thinks that the scene represents a moment at which the dancers are resting#fb4 ,,iv ,although we find that among the ,egyptians the data leave something to be desired1 yet they are sufficient to suggest that dancing as a religious ceremony formed an important feature among them4 ,as is the case among all other peoples the sacred dance has divine sanction4 ator1 for example1 was the goddess of music and dancing1 and is often depicted with a small boy rattling a sistrum in front of her4444 ,the king1 in the capacity of ator's son1 similarly rattles a sistrum in front of her and is called 8goodly ,iy 7the goddess's child7 of the golden one of the gods40 ,the name ,iwy1 a variant form of ,iy1 is applied to the priests of ator2 they are represented as 8dancing and clattering castanets#fc40 ,at the festivals held in honour of ator and ,bastet dancing was an indispensable feature2 so1 too1 at the ,apis festivals#fd4 ,again1 ,bs1 or ,bsa1 originally a dancing figure of the ,sudanese type1 is represented on inscriptions as holding the youthful sun-god ,harpokrates in his left arm1 and offering him food with the right hand2 he also provides for the young sun-god's amusement1 and is depicted performing grotesque dances before him1 and playing the harp and laughing4 ,thus he1 too1 became in course of time1 a god of dance1 music1 and merriment#fe4 ,in dancing in honour of their gods and goddesses1 therefore1 the ,egyptians were employing a method of honouring which they imitated from the gods themselves2 and this seems to have been the case1 at one time or other1 of their religious history1 with most1 if not all1 races1 so far as the evidence enables us to judge4 ,as to processional dances ,blackman says that there is some reason for supposing that at ,thebes and elsewhere1 on the occasion of the annual festival of ator1 that goddess's priestesses1 when the temple service and the subsequent procession were ended1 paraded the streets1 and1 in company with the ,iwy-priests1 stopped at one house after another in order to bestow ator's blessing upon the inmates4 ,this they did by dancing and singing and holding out to their audience--perhaps that they might touch them--the emblems of their goddess1 the sistra and mnit-necklaces#ff4 ,again1 according to ,apuleius1 there was a sacred dance in connexion with the worship of ,isis4 ,on stated days there was a great procession held in honour of this goddess which went through the streets of the city2 the column was headed by a band of dancing masqueraders4 ,he describes this procession of the ,isidis ,navigium minutely2 among other details he mentions that in one part of it there were musicians1 playing on pipes and flutes1 followed by a chorus of chosen youths1 clad in snowy white garments2 behind them came more musicians playing on pipes1 and many other men jingling on bronze1 silver1 and even golden sistra#fg4 ,another kind of procession1 namely of barges1 in which dancing also took place1 is described by ,herodotus in speaking of the religious festivals of the ,egyptians4 ,he says3 ,now1 when they are being conveyed to the city of ,bubastis1 they act as follows1--men and women embark together1 great numbers of both sexes in every barge2 some of the women have castanets which they play1 and the men play on the flute during the whole journey2 the rest of the men and women sing and clap their hands together at the same time4 ,when in the course of their passage they come to any town1 they lay their barge near to the land and do as follows1 some of the women do as ,i have described 444 some dance1 and others stand up and pull up their clothes4 ,this they do at every town by the river-side#fh4 ,mention may be here appropriately made of a kind of ritual dance1 though not processional in the strict sense1 which seems to be represented by a scene very often portrayed on the doors of ,egyptian temples4 ,here the king is seen hastening towards the deity while performing a curious dance-like running step in which only the fore-part of the foot touches the ground4 ,kees has shown that this frequently occurring representation on ,egyptian temple-doors does in fact record a ritual dance in honour of the god which was performed by the king when making his offerings#fi4 ,other types of the sacred dance among the ,egyptians will come before us later4 ,it may be remarked here1 however1 that1 in regard to the sacred dance in general1 it was1 in the more ancient periods1 of a staid and measured character1 if we may judge from the inscriptions4 ,from the time of the new empire onwards it assumed a form more like that of modern times4 ,as to the apparel worn for the sacred dance and the mode of its performance1 what held good of dancing in general applies also to this1 as may be gathered1 again1 from the inscriptions4 ,in most representations the women1 like the men1 wear quite short tunics1 the former being decked with all kinds of ornaments2 sometimes long transparent robes are worn1 but this is exceptional4 ,the women hold tambourines which they strike with the open palm1 others have castanets which they click4 ,mostly they appear whirling about1 evidently in quick time4 ,the representations show that there was much bending and other movements of body and limbs#gj4 ,v ,among the ,greeks dancing has from the earliest times been associated with gods and goddesses4 ,thus1 for example1 ,apollo1 ,ares1 ,dionysos1 ,pan1 are all described as dancers4 ,artemis dances with her companions1 and even ,zeus and ,hera do not disdain it4 ,the 8,pyrrhic ,dance#ga10 accompanied by flute-players1 which was performed during the festival of ,panathenaia#gb1 was said by some to be have been invented by the ,dioscuri#gc1 according to others it was originated by ,athena4 ,the ,muses danced on the ,helicon around the altar of ,zeus#gd4 ,in the train of ,dionysos were the satyrs with their special dance1 the ,sicinnis#ge4 ,that wherein the gods themselves delighted would1 of course1 delight their worshippers2 and it is true to say that there was scarcely ever worship among the ,greeks without song and dance4 ,in his ,peri ,orcheses 7,,xv4 #agg7 ,lucian says3 444 ,i pass over the fact that you cannot find a single ancient mystery in which there is not dancing4444 ,to prove this ,i will not mention the secret acts of worship1 on account of the uninitiated4 ,but this much all men know1 that most people say of those who reveal the mysteries1 that they 8dance them out#gf40 ,there is abundant evidence to show the truth of ,farnell's statement that 8the dance and song were indispensable in ,greek religious service#gg40 ,this fondness of the ancient ,greeks for dancing necessitated suitable places where it could be performed1 whether for religious or secular purposes4 ,ready-made plots for this were rarely to be looked for1 since what was wanted was a more or less circular level space4 ,it happened far more frequently that the ground had to be prepared artificially#gh and a dancing-ground constructed by levelling up the soil which then had sand strewn upon it4 ,but wear and tear1 as well as the dampness of the ground1 would soon have called for something more solid and abiding1 and therefore pavements were laid4 ,by means of patterns formed of differently coloured stones such pavements served also the purpose of facilitating dance-formations4 ,such places for dancing were a source of pride to the ,greek cities in the time of ,homer when there were as yet no open spaces of public resort#gi4 ,at least two inscriptions on which the sacred processional dance is depicted have been found in ,cyprus2 one is a relief on limestone2 it represents a procession approaching the deity before whom an altar stands2 underneath on the left a sacred dance is vividly portrayed1 and on the right a sacred feast is taking place#hj4 ,the other1 which is of a simpler character1 shows the god seated under a tree1 the worshippers are coming towards him in solemn procession#ha4 ,a great deal of light is thrown upon our subject by representations on ancient ,greek pottery1 etc42 from a wealth of material we select the following illustrations4 ,on a vase-painting in the ,british ,museum#hb a triumphal dance procession is portrayed1 it is in all probability intended to be taking place in honour of ,dionysos2 men and women are dancing1 the latter playing tambourines and lyres2 in the centre is the god sitting on a camel4 ,some of the figures are ,greek1 others are clearly oriental1 thus illustrating the alien character of the cult of ,dionysos4 ,the dancing in honour of this god is dealt with in ,chapter ,,vii2 this example of it is given here because it illustrates the processional type of the sacred dance4 ,many illustrations can be seen in the ,british ,museum1 and excellent reproductions of originals are given in various books#hc4 ,our most informing source is1 of course1 ,greek literature4 ,in the examples to be given we shall not restrict ourselves to processional dances1 for it is not always possible to say what formation a dance took4 ,sacred dances were performed in honour of ,artemis#hd at the feast of ,tithnidia which was celebrated in the temple of ,artemis ,koruthalia by a stream outside ,sparta2 on this occasion sucking pigs and loaves were sacrificed to the goddess4 ,she was apparently also honoured with sacred dance on ,parnassos1 for ,farnell refers to a passage in the ,phoenissae according to which a maidens' chorus was danced there 8in honour of the o 1 who1 from the context1 appears to be ,artemis#he40 ,a passage in ,pausanias runs as follows3 ,a third cross-road leads on the right to ,caryae1 and to the sanctuary of ,artemis2 for ,caryae is sacred to ,artemis and the nymphs1 and an image of ,artemis ,caryatis stands here under the open sky4 ,here every year the ,lacedaemonian maidens dance in troops their national dance#hf4 ,frazer1 in his notes on the passage1 says that the dancing of the ,lacedaemonian maidens 8is said to have been taught the ,lacedaemonians by ,castor and ,pollux 7,lucian1 ,de ,saltatione1 #aj744440 8,the name ,caryae10 he says further1 8means #8walnut-trees1' and may have been given to the town from the walnut-trees which grew there#hg40 ,further on ,pausanias tells of the ,messenians who 8waylaid by day the maidens who were dancing at ,caryae in honour of ,artemis1 and seizing the wealthiest and noblest of them1 carried them off to a village in ,messenia#hh40 ,when dancing in honour of ,artemis the maidens were dressed in short chitn1 and carried a basket-like receptacle on their heads#hi4 ,the worship of ,artemis1 as ,curtius has observed1 was peculiarly associated with low-lying land and reed-covered marshes4 ,the reeds shared with men in the worship of the goddess1 and moved to the sound of the music in her festivals1 or1 as ,strabo says1 the baskets danced1 or in ,laconia maidens crowned with reeds danced#ij4 ,at the ,brauronian ceremonies of ,artemis it was the custom for young maidens to dance1 in honour of the goddess1 dressed in saffron robes2 in this dance both they and the priestess were called 8bears40 ,the saffron robe1 according to ,farnell1 was 8possibly worn in order to imitate the tawny skin of the bear10 but he is doubtful of this2 it is1 however1 very probable1 as he says1 that in the earliest times of the rite an actual bear-skin was worn by the dancers#ia4 ,this dance was known by the name of ,arkteia2 quite young girls took part in it1 from the ages of five to ten1 and it appears to have been a kind of initiation by which they were consecrated to ,artemis before arriving at puberty#ib4 ,on the dance called ,orksis ,inik1 which was performed in honour of ,artemis1 see ,julii ,pollucis ,onomasticon1 ,,iv4 #aic4 ,mention is also made of the dancing in honour of this goddess at ,elis1 in ,pisatid territory1 ,pausan4 ,,vi4 xxii4 #a2 see also ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 ,,ii4 #dde2 and for other dances belonging to her worship see ,gruppe1 op4 cit4 ,i4 pp4 #bed1 #bhc1 #cdb1 ,,ii4 #hdb and especially #abhd2 ,lobeck1 ,aglao4 ,,ii4 #ajhe ff4 ,the dancing performed at the festival of ,gymnopaediae1 also in honour of ,artemis1 as well as ,apollo and ,latona1 which was held in ,sparta at the beginning of ,july1 is referred to by ,pausanias2 he says3 ,in the market-place at ,sparta there are images of ,pythaean ,apollo1 ,artemis1 and ,latona4 ,this whole place is called ,chorus1 because at the festival of ,gymnopaediae1 to which the ,lacedaemonians attach the greatest importance1 the lads dance choral dances in honour of ,apollo#ic4 ,gruppe draws attention to the dancing performed in honour of ,apollo ,karneios#id1 so also ,bekker#ie4 ,mention may also be made of the ,cretan legend of the birth of ,zeus which is represented on coins from ,tralles2 they have the inscription 1 with ,corybantes dancing in honour of the new-born god1 and striking their shields#if4 ,there can be no doubt that every type of dance among the ,greeks was in its origin connected with religion2 but in the case of some it is evident that they quite lost their religious character4 ,the 8,pyrrhic ,dance10 which was at one time purely sacred and later lost this character1 is an instance#ig4 ,another is that of the dance called the 8,labyrinth10 known also as the 8,game of ,troy10 and 8,ariadne's ,dance#ih40 ,rville1 in referring to it1 says that in certain mythologies it has been observed that all the stars move1 turning round the earth and following their regular courses4 ,nothing more is wanted for these movements of the stars to be likened to a rhythmic and complicated dance4 ,the consequence will be a religious dance in honour of the 8army of the heavens40 ,the dance will develop in a manner apparently entangled1 but nevertheless methodical4 ,there were several sacred dances having this character of imitation of the movements of the stars2 among others1 that of the 8,labyrinth10 which was danced in ,crete and ,delos4 ,the labyrinth itself1 with its thousand circuits1 was a symbol of the starry heaven1 and the dance of the same name must have been a sort of animated representation of it#ii4 ,an interesting representation of this dance occurs on an ,etruscan ,polledrara vase1 painted by an ,ionian artist1 and found in ,cyprus1 where the dance was at one time performed in ,amathus in honour of ,aphrodite-,ariadne2 according to tradition ,theseus led the ,attic youths and maidens in this dance#ajj4 ,the representation is superbly executed4 ,the connexion of the name of ,ariadne with this dance is sufficient to show its originally religious character1 and probably it remained so always1 theoretically2 but even as early as the time of ,homer1 according to the following account from the ,iliad1 the religious element does not appear prominently3 ,also with cunning art he wrought a dancing-floor2 like unto that which erst1 in broad ,knossos1 ,daidalos had made for fair-haired ,ariadne4 ,thereon young men and comely damsels were dancing1 that clasped each other by the wrist4 ,the damsels were arrayed in vestures of fine linen1 and the men in fine-spun tunics1 glossy with oil4 ,and the damsels wore fair coronals1 while the men carried golden dirks hanging from baldrics of silver4 ,now they would dance with cunning feet1 lightly1 as when a potter sitting at his task maketh trial of the wheel that is ready to his hands1 to see if it run2 now they would dance in long lines1 facing one another4 ,and a great company stood around the beauteous dancing-place1 rejoicing2 and two tumblers1 leading the dance1 kept whirling through the midst#aja4 ,this dance was adopted by the ,romans from the ,greeks4 ,virgil compares its complicated evolutions with the windings of the ,cretan labyrinth#ajb2 and that the comparison is more than a mere poetical flourish appears from a drawing on a very ancient ,etruscan vase found at ,tragliatella4 ,the drawing represents a procession of seven beardless warriors dancing1 accompanied by two armed riders on horseback1 who are also beardless4 ,an inscription proves that the scene depicted is the 8,game of ,troy02 and attached to the procession is a figure of the ,cretan labyrinth1 the pattern of which is well known from coins of ,cnossus1 on which it is often represented4 ,the same pattern1 identified by an inscription1 ,labyrinthus1 hic habitat ,minotaurus1 is scratched on a wall at ,pompeii1 and it is also worked in mosaic on the floor of ,roman apartments1 with the figures of ,theseus and ,minotaur in the middle#ajc4 ,after pointing out the widespread occurrence of this labyrinth pattern1 both for the purpose of games as well as of decorations1 ,frazer continues3 ,a dance or game which has thus spread over ,europe1 and survived in a fashion to modern times must have been very popular1 and bearing in mind how often with the decay of old faiths the serious rites and pageants of grown people have degenerated into the sports of children1 we may reasonably ask whether 8,ariadne's ,dance10 or the 8,game of ,troy10 may not have had its origin in religious ritual4 ,the ancients connected it with ,cnossus and the ,minotaur4 ,now we have reason to hold1 with many other scholars1 that ,cnossus was the seat of a great worship of the sun1 and that the ,minotaur was a representative or embodiment of the sun-god4 ,may not1 then1 8,ariadne's ,dance0 have been an imitation of the sun's course in the sky8 ,and may not its intention have been1 by means of sympathetic magic1 to aid the luminary to run his race on high8444 ,if there is any truth in this conjecture it would seem to follow that the sinuous lines of the labyrinth which the dancers followed in their evolutions may have represented the ecliptic1 the sun's apparent annual path in the sky4 ,it is some confirmation of this view that on the coins of ,cnossus the sun or a star appears in the middle of the labyrinth1 the place which on other coins is occupied by the ,minotaur#ajd4 ,frazer's interesting suggestion points to the originally religious character of 8,ariadne's ,dance10 which in course of time it lost4 ,like the dances at ,harvest and ,vintage festivals1 8,ariadne's ,dance0 was one of the mediums whereby the sacred dance developed into a purely secular amusement4 ,the same may be said of the ,geranos1 or 8,crane ,dance10 danced at ,delos1 which was apparently derived from 8,ariadne's ,dance#aje02 and also of the ,hormos1 or 8,chain ,dance10 which was also performed by youths and maidens holding their hands in a changing line#ajf4 ,finally1 reference may be made to a few representations of the sacred dance found in ,cyprus1 in addition to those already mentioned4 ,on a vase1 numbered cxxxii4 #a by ,ohnefalsch-,richter#ajg1 a dance is represented in which men and women are taking part1 two of the former hold semi-circular instruments with which they accompany the dance2 also1 three of the men1 one of whom seems to be acting as the leader1 carry small swords at their sides2 this illustrates the words of ,homer in the quotation given above 7lines #eig-h74 ,again1 on two bronze vases1 numbered cxxix4 #b and cxxx4 #a1 the dance represented shows women only1 some of whom are playing instruments1 pipe1 harp1 and drum#ajh2 a similar representation occurs on a painted ,etruscan vase 7cxxxii4 #d71 while on a thin golden plate from a grave near ,corinth#aji women are portrayed dancing and clothed with long garments2 this is numbered xxv4 #ae4 ,,vi ,in turning now to the sacred dance among the ,romans we find that there is not nearly the amount of material from which to gather information that there is among the ,greeks4 ,cicero said3 8,no man who is in a sober state and not demented would dance either privately or in decent company#aaj40 ,if1 as we may suppose was the case1 this reflected the general opinion1 one can well understand why it was that dancing never played such a part in the national life of the ,romans as it did in that of the ,greeks4 ,cicero1 however1 as is clear from the context of this quotation1 was referring to dancing as a pastime1 which respectable ,romans regarded as inconsistent with their dignity4 ,the dance in worship was a different matter4 ,nevertheless1 even in this domain it did not play the part1 nor anything like it1 that it did among the ,greeks4 ,and what there was of it was1 in the main1 due to ,greek influence#aaa4 ,not altogether1 however2 and the influence of oriental cults must not be overlooked4 ,reinach1 in speaking of the effect that eastern religions produced upon that of ,rome1 pointedly contrasts the hypocrisy of the sceptical priests in ,italy 78deux aruspices1 disait ,coton1 ne peuvent se regarder sans rire07 with the earnestness and sincerity of the oriental priest3 ,quelle diffrence avec le prtre oriental qui va droit au fidle1 l'appelle son frre et le traite en consquence1 veille et nourrit les lans de sa dvotion1 lui enseigne l'exstase1 l'esprance d'un monde meilleur4444 ,then he refers to the alien influences on the religion of ,rome3 ,juvnal se plaint que l',oronte de ,syrie se soit dvers dans le ,tibre2 il aurait pu en dire autant du ,nil1 du ,jourdain1 et de l',halys444 ,l',empire romain se remplit des adorateurs d',attis1 d',isis1 d',osiris1 de ,srapis1 de ,sabazios1 de ,zeus ,dolichenos1 de ,mithra4 ,les pratiques les plus tranges1 empreinte d'un sombre mysticisme1 remplacrent les froides et svres coutumes romaines#aab4 ,but while giving due weight to the effect of these oriental influences1 the fact remains that it is chiefly to ,greece that ,rome owed the entry of new cults4 ,within the small domain with which we are specially concerned we have already considered the example of the 8,game of ,troy10 where it was evident that this was borrowed from ,greece4 ,another example which may be cited is the ritual which accompanied the processions of supplication2 a solemn dance-step was characteristic of these2 such1 for instance1 was that which went from the temple of ,apollo before the ,porta ,carmentalis to that of ,juno ,regina on the ,aventine2 to her an offering of two white cows was made by the ,decemviri4 ,these latter formed the centre of the procession1 and in front of them were twenty-seven virgins who had to sing in honour of ,juno4 ,the singing took place during a halt in the forum2 here the maidens sang their song while dancing with a measured1 stately tread4 ,as ,wissowa says1 the entire ritual was ,greek from beginning to end#aac4 ,it is probable that the dancing priests who belonged to the early ,roman cultus#aad witness also to ,greek influence4 ,an interesting case of what may well have been an indirect importation from ,greece1 and which records one of the earliest instances of the sacred dance among the ,romans1 is mentioned by ,frazer3 8,in the fourth century before our era10 he writes1 8the city of ,rome was desolated by a great plague which raged for three years1 carrying off some of the highest dignitaries and a great multitude of common folk4 ,the historian who records the calamity informs us that when a banquet had been offered to the gods in vain1 and neither human counsels nor divine help availed to mitigate the violence of the disease1 it was resolved for the first time in ,roman history to institute dramatical performances as an appropriate means of appeasing the wrath of the celestial powders4 ,accordingly1 actors were fetched from ,etruria1 who danced certain simple and decorous dances to the music of a flute4 ,but even this novel spectacle failed to amuse or touch1 to move to tears or laughter1 the sullen gods#aae44440 ,the means which were subsequently found to be effective do not concern us here2 the point is that the sacred dance was imported from ,etruria1 and it is well known that the ,etruscans were largely indebted to ,greece for their religious ideas and ritual4 ,it will be unnecessary to offer further illustrations of this type of religious dance among the ,romans since it was mainly derived from ,greece1 and we have already devoted a section to the rite among the ,greeks4 ,it only remains to be said that there is a marked difference in the mode of performing the sacred dance between the two peoples4 ,due largely to national temperament1 but also to earlier oriental influences1 the ,greeks in their sacred dances gave freer vent to natural impulse1 a characteristic which was especially pronounced in the ecstatic dance1 with which we deal below 7pp4 #aai ff474 ,the ,romans1 on the other hand1 were far more restrained and dignified in their performance of them4 ,nevertheless1 among both peoples the sacred dance was a necessary adjunct to worship1 and that is the point with which we are specially concerned4 ,,vii ,we do not propose to deal1 excepting incidentally1 with the sacred dance among the ,asiatic peoples2 firstly1 because it would greatly increase the bulk of this volume2 and secondly1 because it is doubtful whether our doing so would really throw much further light on the subject than we gain from the study of its prevalence among the peoples here considered4 ,it may be said generally1 that the ,asiatics are like the other peoples with whom we deal in their belief that the sacred dance comes from the higher powers4 ,among them1 too1 the sacred dance is an important part of the ritual of worship1 it has different purposes1 and it is very widespread4 ,that much even a superficial knowledge of the religion of the ,asiatic peoples makes clear4 ,in referring to the subject of ,vedic and ,brahman worship in ,india ,lehmann says that the original character of ,vedic sacrifice was a friendly feast for the gods1 and among the different ways of showing honour to the exalted guests during the sacrifices were offerings of incense1 music1 and dances1 which were believed to give them pleasure#aaf4 ,,viii ,lastly1 we come to consider a few examples of the sacred dance in general among some of the uncultured races4 ,the ,dakotahs perform a sacred dance in connexion with their worship of the sun2 it is executed by two young men 8in a very singular attitude10 as ,schoolcraft says4 ,these two young worshippers perform the dance while in a state of almost complete nudity2 each has a small whistle in his mouth with which he accompanies the dance at intervals1 and each faces the sun while dancing1 that is1 as long as the sun is above the horizon4 ,the mode of dancing is a kind of hitch of first one leg and then the other2 they do this in a rhythmic manner and keep time by beating on raw hides of parchment4444 ,this dance is kept up for two1 and occasionally three1 days1 during which time the worshippers partake of no food#aag4 ,to take1 next1 an example from ,central ,america2 ,lumholtz#aah relates of the ,tarahumare ,indians of ,mexico that they believe that by dancing they are able to gain the favour of their gods2 their dancing is 8a series of monotonous movements1 a kind of rhythmical exercise10 which they keep up sometimes for two nights4 8,by dint of such hard work they think to prevail upon the gods to grant their prayers40 ,according to the same writer1 the ,tarahumares say that the animals taught them how to dance2 that is an interesting point which will come before us again in a moment4 ,they regard dancing as a very serious and ceremonious matter1 it is 8a kind of worship and incantation rather than amusement40 ,the same is true of the ancient ,peruvians1 to take a ,south ,american example2 the sacred dance was the 8grand form of religious demonstration among them10 and they were very assiduous in this form of devotion#aai4 ,the belief of the ,tarahumares that the animals first taught them how to dance is interesting1 for although it points to a relatively low religious mentality1 it is a stage in advance1 for example1 of that of the natives of ,ponape1 one of the ,caroline islands1 in the ,pacific2 among these the different families suppose themselves to stand in a certain relation to animals1 and especially to fishes1 and believe in their descent from them4 ,they actually name these animals 8mothers02 the creatures are sacred to the family and may not be injured4 ,great dances1 accompanied with the offering of prayers1 are performed in their honour#abj4 ,these animals are their gods whom they honour by dancing2 the ,tarahumares have separated their gods from the animals1 but we may well surmise that in an earlier stage among them their gods were the animals who taught them to dance1 and in whose honour they danced4 ,rville is certainly right in his conjecture that the sacred dance among uncultured races was the earliest form of adoration#aba4 ,a good illustration of the way in which similar forms of worship are in vogue among different peoples where there can be no question of borrowing is afforded by the worship of the ,pleiades4 ,this was practised by the ancient ,peruvians#abb1 though whether dancing was performed in their honour 7which was highly probable7 we are not told2 but the aborigines of ,australia 8sing and dance to gain the favour of the ,pleiades0 7whom they call ,mormodellick71 they are worshipped as the givers of rain#abc4 ,the ,blackfeet ,indians of ,north ,america likewise worship the ,pleiades2 at the general meeting of the nation there is a dance of warriors1 which is supposed to represent the dance of the seven young men who are identified with the ,pleiades4 ,for the ,indians say that the seven stars of the constellation were seven brothers1 who guarded by night the field of sacred seed and danced round it to keep themselves awake during the long hours of darkness#abd4 ,frazer has collected many instances of the worship of this constellation in lands widely separated2 in most cases there is no mention of dancing in its honour1 but it is difficult to believe that this did not take place during the celebration of the ,festivals held at its appearance#abe4 ,finally1 one or two examples of the sacred dance in the continent of ,africa may be offered4 ,speaking of the religion of the ,african aborigines generally1 ,schneider says that a living faith in a beneficent god of some kind is one of its characteristics4 ,he is worshipped1 on the one hand1 from fear2 but on the other1 as a mark of gratitude2 and one of the chief ways whereby this gratitude is shown is by songs and dances accompanied by music#abf4 ,again1 the ,kaffirs perform ceremonious dances on all sacred occasions2 their mimic dances1 performed with a view to prepare for hunting or war1 have also a serious side#abg4 ,the same is true of the ,namaquas2 among these when anyone embraces ,christianity it is said that 8he has given up dancing#abh40 ,the ,masai worship the god ,engai whom they conceive as embodied in the sky1 or at all events as dwelling there2 he1 too1 is worshipped with songs and dances#abi4 ,examples could1 of course1 be multiplied to any extent2 those given are1 however1 quite sufficient for our purpose2 and1 as will have been noticed1 they represent1 apart from ,europe1 all the continents4 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,the sacred dance among the ,israelites was performed in honour of ,jahwe1 their national ,god2 and it is evident that the processional form of dance was a normal mode in the ritual of worship4 ,although the evidence as to the existence of this rite among the ,syrians and ,arabs is scanty1 yet its prevalence is sufficiently attested by the mention on an inscription of ,baal-,marqd1 8the lord of dancing02 this name may well point to the belief among the ,phoenicians that its divine bearer was the originator of the sacred dance2 so that in performing it his worshippers did it in imitation of him1 and therefore in his honour4 ,dances performed by the ,bedouin ,arabs of the ,syrian ,desert in honour of exalted personages may quite reasonably be regarded as an adaptation of the earlier religious rite of dancing in honour of a god or spirit4 ,religious processions which were common in the worship of ,assyrians and ,babylonians must be regarded as a form of sacred dance in the extended use of the term4 ,in connexion with the well-known joyful character of the religious festivals among the ,semites it is worth remembering that the ,assyrian word rakdu means both 8to rejoice0 and 8to dance02 where there was rejoicing1 whether of a secular or religious kind1 there was dancing2 from which we may assume that at ,assyrian religious festivals the sacred dance had its place4 ,direct evidence of the processional dance among the ,assyrians is offered by an inscription found in the palace of ,asshurbanipal4 ,some inscriptions found in ,cyprus may possibly reflect ,babylonian and ,assyrian usage1 but the dance represented on these is of a less formal character than the processional dance4 ,two inscriptions1 one from ,boghazkeui1 the other from ,cyprus1 bear unmistakable evidence of the religious processional dance among the ,hittites4 ,dancing in honour of ,egyptian divinities is well attested on inscriptions2 there is justification for the contention that the ,egyptians believed that their gods and goddesses danced1 and that therefore their worshippers performed the sacred dance in imitation of them4 ator1 ,bastet1 ,bs1 and ,isis are ,egyptian divinities in connexion with whom dancing is mentioned4 ,a special ritual dance was performed by ,egyptian kings in honour of the god when making their offerings4 ,of particular interest is the sacred dance among the ,greeks4 ,they1 too1 believed that gods and goddesses first danced2 it was in honour of them1 and in imitation of what they did1 that their worshippers danced4 ,apollo1 ,ares1 ,pan1 ,zeus1 ,hera1 the ,dioscuri1 ,athena1 and1 above all1 ,dionysos and ,artemis are the deities especially mentioned in this connexion4 ,the evidence1 which is abundant1 is obtained from representations on pottery and inscriptions1 as well as from literary sources4 ,among the ,greeks the type of dances here considered was performed primarily in honour of gods and goddesses2 but there is reason to believe that some dances had originally other purposes4 8,ariadne's ,dance0 is probably the most striking example2 for there are distinct indications of its having been at one time an imitation of the sun's course in the sky1 and of having1 by means of imitative magic1 the purpose of assisting the sun in running its course4 ,the ,romans were primarily indebted to the ,greeks for their sacred dances1 though oriental influences were also pronounced4 ,the sacred dance was an important element in ,vedic and ,brahman worship2 it was1 likewise1 performed primarily in honour of divinities4 ,probably the most instructive area in which to study the sacred dance and its objects is that of the uncultured races1 for among them it is seen in its native simplicity1 unaffected1 for the most part1 by the exigencies of a more advanced civilization4 ,the dance in honour of the sun1 performed1 for example1 by the ,dakotahs in a practically nude state points to the belief of the sun being a person with whom it was possible to have a more or less direct contact2 the sensation upon the naked body of the warmth of its rays would denote this contact4 ,the long-continued dance in its honour offers an example of touching1 if nave1 devotion1 emphasized by the accompanying fast4 ,the belief that by means of dancing in honour of the gods they can be prevailed upon to answer prayers--as exemplified by ,central ,american ,indians--reveals a mentality so deeply ingrained in human nature that the underlying idea can be paralleled by the religious exercises of people among the most civilized nations at the present day4 ,that is an interesting phenomenon about which much could be said1 but which would involve our straying far away from the immediate subject in hand4 ,these same ,central ,american ,indians say that the animals taught them to dance2 this belief is undoubtedly the explanation of the form of many dances in vogue among savages2 just as more civilized peoples1 such1 for example1 as the ,greeks1 imitated what they believed to be the dances of their gods and goddesses1 so these savages imitated what they saw to be the movements of animals#acj4 ,there1 however1 the parallel ceases1 for the savages believed they were descended from these animals2 it was1 thus1 their ancestors whom they honoured by their imitative dances4 ,could the beliefs of these ,mexican ,indians have developed spontaneously1 untouched by extraneous influences--a thing which is1 of course1 out of the question now--it is quite possible that from these animals 8high gods0 would have been evolved4 ,perhaps an illustration of this evolutionary process is to be seen in one of the forms of the ,greek worship of ,artemis1 viz4 in that of the ,brauronian ceremonies4 ,the high probability that in the dance performed during these ceremonies it was at one time customary for the dancers to wear bear-skins points to the connexion of ,artemis with the bear4 ,the meaning of this ritual is clear if we suppose that some remote ancestors of the ,greeks danced in honour of the bear in the belief that they were descended from bears4 ,the dance in bear-skins would thus be a personating of the goddess1 that is to say1 a means of union with her#aca4 ,another line in the process of religious evolution is seen in the widespread worship of the ,pleiades4 ,australian aborigines dance in their honour for the purpose of inducing them to give rain1 without1 apparently1 forming any ideas as to the nature of the ,pleiades2 but the ,blackfeet ,indians of ,north ,america imitate in dance seven young men1 identified with the ,pleiades1 who appear to be the guardians of the crops4 ,in the few examples of worship among different ,african aborigines given above we have seen that dancing was in honour of their gods and an essential part of their worship1 and we may well believe that the reason of this was the belief that the worshippers were imitating their gods in doing so4 ,while the purpose is always honorific1 we may be sure that they also had practical ends in view1 viz4 either the obtaining of food1 or effecting union with the god4 ,so that it is true to say that the sacred dance was the means of satisfying two essential needs of man3 natural and spiritual sustenance4 ,in asking1 finally1 what is the bearing of this short investigation upon the religion of the ,israelites we note first of all that the ,israelites were at one with practically all the nations of antiquity1 as well as with the uncivilized peoples1 in performing the sacred dance in their worship4 ,the primary object was1 among the ,israelites1 as among the others1 to honour their ,god4 ,why this rite should have been thought of as pleasing to the deity we have already considered4 ,it is1 however1 improbable that the question troubled the ,israelites2 it was sufficient that it had been handed down from time immemorial as an essential constituent in the ritual of worship4 ,further1 we have seen that there was a very widespread belief that the sacred dance originated with the gods1 or1 in the case of savages1 with animals regarded as ancestors4 ,while there is no hint in the ,old ,testament of any similar belief among the ,israelites1 we may well ask1 in view of what has just been said about the ubiquity of the sacred dance itself1 whether such a belief1 or the echo of it1 may not actually have existed among them4 ,it can scarcely be without significance that we get definite traces of it in the later ,jewish literature which preserves in such numberless instances ancient traditions4 ,it is said1 for example1 in the ,midrash ,shir ha-,shirim to vii4 #a that ,god ,himself will lead the dance of the righteous in the world to come4 ,in an exegetical exercise of a typically ,rabbinical type on ,ps4 xlviii4 #ac1 #ad 7#ad1 #ae in ,hebr47 we are told that the words3 8,mark well her bulwarks10 should be rendered3 8,direct your heart to the dance02 for instead of llah one must read llah 78to the dance074 ,it is said1 further1 that1 in that day the righteous shall point with their fingers and say1 8,this is our ,god1 who will lead us10 i4e4 in the dance4 ,then it is said that the last word of the psalm al-muth 78unto death07 should be read alamth 78maidens071 i4e4 ,god will lead the dance of the righteous in the world to come just as the maidens lead the dance in this world6 ,we are not concerned with the exegesis1 but only with the idea put forth4 ,it is quite conceivable that some old-world tradition lies behind it4 ,in any case1 it suggests a parallel to the belief of many other peoples4 ,it shows also that we may at times be justified in seeking for side-lights upon the religion of ,israel from quarters which may not appear promising2 we fully realize the pitfalls into which we may stumble in such cases1 and the consequent need of caution2 but one must be venturesome on occasion4 ,we drew attention just now to the belief of the ,central ,american ,indians that their gods could be prevailed upon to answer prayer by means of the sacred dance2 the 8limping0 dance of the prophets of ,baal had a similar purpose1 though in this case there is a toning down inasmuch as there is an appeal to the pity of the god4 ,not very far removed from this is the idea of putting compulsion upon the god2 an idea familiar to uncivilized man#acb2 and it is quite possible that in some cases the sacred dance was believed to have the effect of coercing the god to do what was required of him4 ,the underlying idea is similar to that expressed in ,gen4 xxviii4 #bj-bb3 ,and ,jacob vowed a vow1 saying1 ,if ,god will be with me1 and will keep me in this way that ,i go1 and will give me bread to eat1 and raiment to put on1 so that ,i come again to my father's house in peace1 then shall ,jahwe be my ,god4444 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,ritual ,,dance ,,round ,a ,,sacred ,,object ,i ,the ritual encircling dance1 whether in procession with measured tread or in the form of a dance-step--and both are varieties of what is essentially the same thing--is perhaps the commonest kind of sacred dance4 ,its occurrence is world-wide4 ,the object around which it takes place was in most cases1 at any rate originally1 a sacred one3 an idol1 an altar1 a sacrificial victim1 a holy tree1 or a well4 ,the encirclement was also performed round other things2 but in these cases the dance is of another type to which attention will be drawn later4 ,of sacred trees#acc and wells#acd among the ,israelites we have abundant witness in the ,old ,testament2 there is also plenty of evidence of their existence among other ,semitic peoples1 see1 for example1 ,baudissin1 ,studien zur ,semitischen ,religionsgeschichte1 ,,ii4 #aed ff4 7#ahgf72 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 ,lecture ,v4 7#ahid72 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les religions smitiques1 pp4 #aeh ff41 #afb ff4 7#aijc71 to mention but three of the foremost authorities4 ,the ,old ,testament nowhere mentions any details of the cult in connexion with these sacred objects1 for reasons which have been pointed out#ace1 and therefore there is no allusion to the dance around them2 but as we know from so many sources that wherever sacred trees and springs existed 7which has been all the world over7 part of the ritual in connexion with them consisted of the sacred dance1 we need not gather from the silence of the ,old ,testament that it did not take place4 ,an interesting instance may be given of the way in which we are able to supplement an ,old ,testament record from other sources4 ,in ,num4 xxi4 #ag1 #ah1 occurs this song to the well3 ,spring up1 ,o well4 ,sing ye unto it2 ,to the well which the princes digged1 ,which the nobles of the people delved1 ,with the wand1 and with their staves4 ,here we have a song to the well1 though no mention is made of the sacred dance2 but in a striking parallel1 recorded by ,nilus1 we are told that when the nomadic ,arabs found a well they danced by it and sang songs to it#acf4 ,both song and dance were sacred1 for1 as ,robertson ,smith says3 ,of all inanimate things that which has the best marked supernatural associations among the ,semites is flowing 7or1 as the ,hebrews say1 8living07 water 444 and sacred wells are among the oldest and most ineradicable objects of reverence among all the ,semites1 and are credited with oracular powers and a sort of volition by which they receive or reject offerings4 ,of course these superstitions often take the form of a belief that the sacred spring is the dwelling-place of beings which from time to time emerge from it in human or animal form1 but the fundamental idea is that the water itself is the living organism of a demoniac life1 not a mere dead organ#acg4 ,kazwini#ach relates that 8when the water of the wells of ,ilabistan failed1 a feast was held at the source1 with music and dancing1 to induce it to flow again40 ,one thinks of the 8,well of ,fair ,dances0 at ,eleusis2 though not offering a parallel to what has just been said1 it is in so far an analogy in that it was a spring at which sacred dancing took place1 in this case by women in honour of ,demeter#aci4 ,we have mention of sacred dancing1 again1 in another connexion1 viz4 around the ,golden ,calf4 ,the passage is ,exod4 xxxii4 #e1 #f1 #ai3 ,and when ,aaron saw this1 he built an altar before it2 and ,aaron made proclamation and said1 ,tomorrow shall be a feast 7ag7 to ,jahwe4 ,and they rose up early on the morrow1 and offered burnt offerings1 and brought peace offerings2 and the people sat down to eat and drink1 and rose up to dance#adj4444 ,and it came to pass1 as soon as he i4e4 ,moses came nigh unto the camp1 that he saw the calf and the dancing4444 ,this definite mention of the sacred dance here justifies the assumption that it was also performed in honour of a similar idol set up in other sanctuaries1 such as those in ,dan and ,bethel 7#a ,kings xii4 #bh1 #bi1 #b ,kings x4 #bi2 cp4 ,hos4 x4 #e71 in ,samaria 7,hos4 viii4 #e1 #f71 and possibly in ,gilgal 7,hos4 xii4 #aa #ab1 ,am4 v4 #d1 #e7ada4 ,again1 there are several passages in which the encirclement of the altar is mentioned2 these merit a little attention4 ,in #a ,sam4 xvi4 #aa1 where there is1 however1 a little uncertainty about the reading1 there is some justification in translating the ,hebrew thus3 8,and ,samuel said 444 we will not go round1 i4e4 the altar1 till he come40 ,the ,revised ,version follows the ,septuagint and the ,vulgate in rendering3 8,we will not sit down1 i4e4 to the feast1 till he come02 but this use of the word is otherwise unknown in the ,old ,testament#adb4 ,taking it in its natural sense the word would here refer to the ceremonial encircling of the altar which is mentioned elsewhere in the ,old ,testament1 and was a recognized part of the ritual in offering sacrifices among other peoples4 ,in ,ps4 xxvi4 #f it is said3 8,i will wash mine hands in innocency and will go round thy altar1 ,jahwe02 this points clearly to the ritual encircling of the altar1 and the incidental mention of it without further comment seems to imply that it formed part of the ordinary ritual#adc4 ,a procession on a larger scale may well be in the mind of the writer of ,ps4 xlviii4 #ac #ab in ,r4,v43 8,encompass ye ,zion1 and go round about her02 the context points to the reference being to some act of ritual worship2 and that it is a literal1 and not a figurative1 encirclement that is meant is clear both from the use of sbab1 as well as of nqaph1 which refers often to the surrounding of cities4 ,an interesting passage is ,ps4 cxviii4 #bg1 though there is some uncertainty again about the text4 ,the ,r4,v4 reads3 8,bind the sacrifice with cords1 even unto the horns of the altar40 ,the word ag is here translated 8sacrifice02 but this is not justified 7in spite of ,mal4 ii4 #c71 for1 as ,briggs rightly points out1 the procedure 8would not be in accord with sacrificial laws and usage#add40 ,on the other hand1 to translate it by 8sacred dance0 would be to give the word1 as we have seen1 its essential meaning#ade4 ,then1 further1 the word rendered 8bind0 7asar7 can equally well mean 8join02 cp4 this meaning of the word in #a ,kings xx4 #ad1 8,who will join battle80 ,the same use is found in #b ,chron4 xiii4 #c1 8,and ,abijah joined battle02 in each case this root 7asar7 is used4 ,so that our passage could be rendered quite correctly3 8,join the sacred dance40 ,as to the word translated 8cords10 or 8ropes10 this would be used quite appropriately in connexion with dancing2 it is the same idea as that connected with ebel 78chain10 or 8band071 used of prophets going about in single file 7see further below1 p4 #ajh74 ,in ,hos4 xi4 #d the two words are used as parallels4 ,so that the reference in the psalm may well be to strings of worshippers being called upon to join in the sacred dance4 ,briggs' objection to an explanation of this kind on the ground that this usage of ag is rare and early1 8not to be thought of in so late a psalm10 is not valid when one remembers the tenacity with which religious customs and expressions are clung to4 ,it is well to remember that this psalm belongs to the 8,hallel0 7,pss4 cxiii4-cxviii471 the most important of the festival psalms2 the 8,hallel0 was sung at all the great feasts4 ,we shall see presently that very clear evidence exists for the performance of the encircling of the altar during the singing of this psalm in later days1 as well as other dancing during the great festivals4 ,it may be taken for granted that both kinds of dance were not innovations belonging to subsequent ages1 but the continuance of what had been handed down for ages4 ,further1 one must take into consideration the idea that underlies the ritual of the encirclement of a city1 such as we read of in ,josh4 vi41 where the same root as that for the ritual encompassing of the altar is used 7sbab74 ,through the whole account the religious element in the undertaking comes strongly to the fore2 the encircling procession is a sacred act3 the sounding of the rams' horns by the priests1 seven in number1 the presence of the ark1 the sevenfold encirclement on the seventh day1 all emphasize its religious character which receives its highest stamp in the words which proclaim the presence of ,jahwe ,himself in the procession3 8,and it was so1 that when ,joshua had spoken unto the people1 the seven priests bearing the seven trumpets of rams' horns before ,jahwe passed on1 and blew with the trumpets3 and the ark of the covenant of ,jahwe followed them40 ,the ,god of the nation is conceived as being either identified with1 or present in1 the ark4 ,the meaning and object of the encirclement is clear from the words in vi4 #ag3 8,and the city shall be devoted1 even it and all that is therein1 to ,jahwe40 ,it is1 as it were1 a magic circle1 described around the thing 8devoted0 in order that nothing shall escape2 by the encirclement it becomes 8consecrated02 though1 of course1 in a different sense from that in which the encirclement of the altar consecrates the sacrifice on it4 ,before drawing attention to some instances of this type of dance among other peoples1 mention may be made of one among the ,jews of post-biblical times4 ,at the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 after the sacrifices had been offered1 the priests went in procession round the altar singing ,ps4 cxviii4 #be on each of the seven days during which the feast lasted4 ,on the seventh day a sevenfold circuit was made round the altar#adf4 ,a ceremony of this kind1 as will be readily understood1 would not have been an innovation introduced in post-biblical times2 we may confidently take for granted that the usage1 in one form or another1 had been handed down from time immemorial4 ,,ii ,we have already drawn attention to the fact that the central and most important part of the cultus of the ancient ,arabs was the circuit round the sanctuary1 or1 when this was offered1 round the sacrifice2 and that it was from this fact that the agg1 which really means the 8sacred dance10 got its name4 ,this sacred dance was performed not only round the ,kaaba1 but in every sanctuary round the sacred object4 ,the holy stone is itself called ,davar1 8the object of encirclement10 because of the custom of performing the sacred dance round it#adg4 ,another illustration of this type of sacred dance is given by ,nilus4 ,in speaking of the ,arabs of the ,sinaitic ,peninsula1 he says that they did not worship any god or image of a god1 but sacrificed to the morning star at its rising4 ,then he goes on to describe how they took for their sacrifice a white camel which they forced into a kneeling posture and 8went circling round it in a circuitous fashion10 the reference being clearly to some form of processional dance1 which is not1 however1 further described2 but he mentions singing which went on at the same time1 a very usual accompaniment to the sacred dance4 ,when the third circuit had been made1 and while the singing was still going on1 the leader in the procession slaughtered the camel#adh4 ,according to ,jeremias this ritual perambulation 7awf7 round the altar or a sacrificial victim among the idolatrous ,semites may be explained as having been a symbolic representation of the movement of the heavenly bodies1 in which case1 as he maintains1 the ritual dance would be proved to be a product of the ancient oriental world-concept#adi4 ,but the rite is susceptible of a different explanation as we have seen#aej4 ,another instructive example among the ,semites1 in which it is evident that the perambulation is not a symbolic representation of the movement of the heavenly bodies1 is that which takes place at the festival of the ,pyre at ,heliopolis4 ,lucian describes this as follows3 ,the greatest of the festivals that they celebrate is that held in the opening of the spring2 some call this the ,pyre1 others the ,lamp4 ,on this occasion the sacrifice is performed in this way4 ,they cut down tall trees and set them up in the court2 then they bring goats and sheep and cattle and hang them living to the trees2 they add to these birds and garments1 and gold and silver work4 ,after all is finished1 they carry the gods around the trees and set fire under2 in a moment all is in a blaze4 ,to this solemn rite a great multitude flocks from ,syria and all the regions around4 ,each brings his own god and the statues which each has of his own gods#aea4 ,this encircling procession of the gods will be referred to again when we review the instances of this type of sacred dance which have been gathered4 ,the suspending of the animals on trees reminds us--but the object is different--of the ,dht anwt1 or 8tree to hang things on02 the spirit of a departed saint is supposed to take up his abode in the tree at certain times1 and his worshippers hang rags and ribbons on its branches as 8pledges of attachment#aeb02 this is still very common at the present day#aec4 ,dancing is1 however1 never mentioned in connexion with this4 ,but in the case of the holy tree spoken of by the ancient ,arabian historian1 ,tabari1 it is very probable that dancing was performed round it1 even though it is not specifically mentioned4 ,he tells of a lofty date-palm in ,ngrn which the inhabitants worshipped1 and in honour of which a festival was celebrated annually2 on these occasions they bedecked the tree with as many beautiful women's garments as could be procured1 and during a whole day divine honours were paid to it#aed4 ,once more1 to take a modern example which may well reflect traditional usage2 among the ,noairis1 a ,semitic tribe inhabiting the mountainous country to the south of the ,orontes1 and among whom many ancient customs are preserved1 a festival called the feast of ,st ,barbe is observed4 ,at this feast the young men and women1 after candles have been lighted1 dance round the festival board1 which is covered with food of various kinds1 singing and shouting#aee4 ,apparently there is little religious significance in this now2 but it is safe to say that at some time of its history this dance constituted an act of honour to the saint1 or a predecessor4 ,we have been unable to find any further instances of this type of sacred dance among ,semitic peoples1 nor yet among the ,egyptians4 ,,iii ,among the ,greeks the dance round a sacred object must have been very usual1 judging from representations of it which have been found in ,cyprus4 ,thus1 a votive offering made of clay1 found near the villages of ,katydata-,linu and now in the ,cyprus ,museum1 is a very interesting example2 it consists of three bearded men dancing round another1 who is also bearded and who accompanies the dance on a ,pan's-pipe4 ,aphrodite was the chief goddess worshipped in the locality4 ,the workmanship is very rough and belongs1 according to ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 to the #fth century ,b4,c4 ,one of the dancing figures is lost1 but the three were originally clearly represented as dancing round the one in the centre with hands joined4 8,it shows a dance-group such as was so often formed at festivals of the gods by ,aryans and ,semites1 ,greeks and ,hebrews#aef40 ,somewhat similar to this is another group 7cxxxv4 #f7 of three women holding hands and dancing round another who is playing a ,pan's-pipe4 ,another represents1 as ,ohnefalsch-,richter says1 an ,olympian dance 7cxxxii4 #c72 in this case seven women are dancing round in a circle2 the arms of each clasp the neighbour on either side round the waist4 ,an example of the sexes dancing together is cxxxv4 #f2 this is of terra-cotta from ,leukosia#aeg2 six figures are dancing in a semi-circle1 two are playing the tympanum2 they are alternately men and women 7cp4 the quotation from the ,iliad given above3 8,young men and comely damsels were dancing1 that clasped each other by the wrist074 ,again1 a vessel of stone1 which ,ohnefalsch-,richter believes to have been a vessel for incense1 forms a group of three women dancing in a circle with joined hands4 ,it resembles many similar vessels found in the ,artemis-,kybele temenos at ,achna1 in ,cyprus1 as well as in ,artemis-,kybele groves2 they are not found elsewhere2 all represent three women1 roughly formed in the 8,egyptian style10 and seem to have been a common cult-object in the worship of ,artemis-,kybele#aeh4 ,two examples representing a dance round a sacred tree may be mentioned4 ,one is very roughly made of clay2 three women holding hands are dancing round it 7cxxxv4 #d74 ,in this case the representation is formed on a golden ring1 from ,mycenae2 it is evidently intended to be a dance round a sacred tree4 ,this kind of sacred dance1 says ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 often occurs on ,graeco-,phoenician bronze vases#aei4 ,finally1 just a word may be said of the ceremony called the 1 8the running round02 this was a purificatory rite for new-born infants#afj4 ,the child was carried at a running pace round the domestic hearth1 the idea being1 presumably1 that the proximity of the fire acted as a lustration2 this does not1 however1 explain the running round for which there must have been some special reason2 is it possible that the idea here was that the current of air1 produced by the quick running round1 which played upon the child1 also had a purifying effect8 ,air was one of the means of lustration2 the combination of fire and air would have afforded all that could be desired#afa4 ,while this rite cannot be described as magical1 it is not1 strictly speaking1 religious2 it seems to be in a sphere between the two2 at the same time1 judging from certain ,roman rites to which we turn now1 the at any rate approaches the border-line of religion4 ,,iv ,the type of sacred dance which we are considering does not seem to have been in vogue among the ,romans excepting in the form of the circumambulatory procession2 and although the word 8dance0 can only in an extended sense be applied to a procession1 yet1 as we have seen 7pp4 #e f471 this is justified4 ,the ,romans worshipped their gods with sacrifice and prayer2 the two1 so far as is known1 were invariably combined4 ,but on important occasions1 and for particular reasons1 these were performed in the course of a procession or circuit round some object--land1 city1 army1 or instruments1 such as arms and trumpets--or1 again1 the whole ,roman people1 if supposed to be in need of #8purification' from some evil influence2 in this extended form the ritual was called lustratio2 and this ceremonial was perhaps the most characteristic1 not only of the ,roman1 but of all ancient ,italian forms of worship#afb4 ,the object of this rite was1 according to ,wissowa#afc1 the purification of all that was within the circle formed by the procession2 and as the sacred victims intended for sacrifice were taken round1 the effect was to keep away all evil influences outside the circuit made4 ,a striking example of this circumambulatory procession was its performance by the ,fratres ,arvales at the festival of the ,ambarvalia1 to which reference is made below 7p4 #adi74 ,another is that of the course of the ,luperci round the ,palatine ,hill at the ,lupercalia 7see further1 p4 #aej72 this1 too1 had as its object purification whereby fruitfulness was imparted to the fruits of the field1 and to the flocks4 ,as among the ,greeks1 so1 too1 the ,romans had a purificatory rite for their new-born infants on the dies lustricus1 i4e4 on the ninth day after birth for boys1 on the eighth for girls4 ,marquardt thinks that perhaps the ,romans took over the rite from the ,greeks#afd4 ,v ,among uncultured races the sacred dance in a circle1 or round some sacred object1 is widely spread2 many illustrations of it could be given1 but it will suffice if quite a few examples are offered because1 as there is a great family likeness between them1 a few will answer the same purpose as a large number4 ,schoolcraft tells us that among the ,dakotahs a feast is held every now and then at which a special dance is performed in honour of their god ,ha-o-,kah4 ,he is a giant god1 but subordinate to the ,great ,spirit4 ,this dance is performed by the men only1 within a wigwam1 around a fire over which are kettles of meat boiling4 ,they have no clothing except a conical cap made of birch bark with paint to represent lightning1 and some strips of the same material around the loins4 ,while hopping and singing around the kettles they will thrust in their bare hands and pull out pieces of meat and eat them while scalding hot4 ,after the meat is all eaten they will splash the hot water over their bare backs1 all the time hopping around and singing out1 8oh1 how cold it is60 pretending that the hot water does not scald them1 and that the god will not allow any of his clan to be injured by it4 ,an illustration is given of the worshippers hopping round the fire#afe4 ,again1 the ,timagani ,indians have a 8,bear ,dance0 which is performed in the form of a circle led by the chief playing a drum and singing the 8,bear ,dance0 song2 the circle goes round counter-clockwise4 ,the leader sometimes dances backwards1 turns round1 stoops1 and in other ways imitates the bear4444 ,the circling keeps up until the song is finished4 ,the idea of this dance seems to be to honour the bear by imitating him#aff4 ,the performers in this dance do not encircle any object2 it is simply a dance in the form of a circle2 they do not hold hands1 but go round in a follow-my-leader style4 ,although the dancing in honour of the bear reminds one of the performed in honour of ,artemis1 it differs from this in that only men take part in it2 and the 1 in which the performers are only young girls is1 as we have seen1 an initiation ceremony4 ,a closer parallel of the dance of the ,timagani ,indians is the 8,bear ,dance0 among the ,sioux ,indians mentioned by ,rville#afg4 ,at the ,new ,year festival of the ,kayans of ,sarwak1 to come to another part of the world1 there is a great sacrifice of pigs1 whose 8spiritual essence is appropriately offered to the spirits1 while their material substance is consumed by the worshippers40 8,in carrying out this highly satisfactory arrangement10 says ,frazer1 8while the live pigs lay tethered in a row on the ground1 the priestesses dance solemnly round a sacrificial stage1 each of them arrayed in a war-mantle of panther skin1 and wearing a war-cap on her head1 and on either side two priests armed with swords execute war-dances for the purpose of scaring away evil spirits444#afh40 ,this encirclement of the sacrificial victims seems to be a kind of consecrating act prior to the sacrifice similar to the rite of the heathen ,arabs in encircling their white camel destined for sacrifice to the morning star4 ,the same is probably the case among the ,bagobos of ,mindanao1 one of the ,philippine islands1 who perform a sacred dance round a human victim prior to his sacrifice1 offered for the purpose of making the crops grow#afi4 ,but the more usual rite for making the crops grow is the sacred dance round a tree2 the propitiation of the tree-spirit is believed to be a potent means for securing this end#agj4 ,thus the ,gallas dance in couples round sacred trees1 praying for a good harvest4 ,every couple consists of a man and a woman1 who are linked together by a stick1 of which each holds one end4 ,under their arms they carry green corn or grass#aga4 ,this is the underlying idea of the dances of a quasi-religious character round the ,may-pole1 and round the 8,corn-,mother#agb10 of which there are such numberless instances4 ,it is also supposed to make the cattle thrive2 one instance of numbers may be given2 the ,wends used to attach an iron cock to an oak2 they danced round this and then drove their cattle round it in the belief that by this means their cattle would increase#agc4 ,we refrain from offering further examples1 for everyone knows how common this custom was1 and still is4 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,the objects around which dances were performed were various4 ,in the ,old ,testament dancing is not mentioned around trees and wells1 but as these were often sacred and as1 in consequence1 the dance around them was very common among many peoples1 it is a reasonable assumption that the ,israelites did the same4 ,the song to the well in ,num4 xxi4 #ag1 #ah strengthens this assumption1 especially in view of the two parallels given4 ,the definite mention of dancing in connexion with the ,golden ,calf 7it is not specifically stated that the dancing was round it1 but this would have been the most obvious form for it to take7 suggests the probability that similar idols in other sanctuaries were similarly honoured4 ,the ceremonial encirclement of the altar1 whatever the form of the encircling procession1 is sufficiently attested in the ,old ,testament1 though the text is uncertain in three of the passages cited4 ,the usage in later days among the ,jews must be regarded as the continuance of ancient custom4 ,the analogy of the encirclement of a city is appropriate in this connexion4 ,the object of the encircling procession round a city seems to be that of 8devoting0 all that is within it1 which thereby becomes taboo4 ,the encirclement of the altar is an act of consecration1 i4e4 of the sacrifice upon it4 ,this explanation of the rite is suggested by the analogous custom among the ,arabs of encircling a sacrificial victim4 ,the contention that the encircling procession was a symbolic representation of the movement of the heavenly bodies does not explain why it should take place round a sacrificial victim4 ,the rite seems more likely to have had the object of consecration2 and this receives confirmation from the instance recorded by ,lucian among the ,syrians who perambulated their gods round the sacrificial victims2 this can scarcely have had any other meaning than that of sanctifying all within the divine circle traced by the gods4 ,the dance round a sacred object must have been very common among the ,greeks1 judging by the large number of representations of it which have come down to us2 the ,cyprus 8finds0 are full of interest4 ,those which represent the dance round a person who accompanies it on a ,pan's-pipe probably portrays the kind of dancing which took place at festivals when numbers of such groups were formed4 ,such dances must often have degenerated into mere 8fun02 but that they originally had a serious side and were performed with the single purpose of doing something pleasing in the sight of a god or goddess1 does not admit of doubt4 ,the representations may well reflect one form of dancing at ,israelite festivals4 ,among the ,greeks we have direct evidence of these 8ring0 dances being performed by men and women together2 and it is known that this led at times to unseemly licence4 ,what little evidence we have on the subject so far as the ,israelites were concerned points to the fact that the sexes danced separately2 whether this was always so must be left undetermined4 ,the examples of the dance round the sacred tree are instructive2 it was undoubtedly practised by all peoples among whom trees were objects of worship1 and therefore in all probability among the ,israelites4 ,the 1 or purificatory rite of running round new-born infants1 practised by the ,greeks and ,romans1 had no parallel among the ,israelites1 so far as we know4 ,but the ritual lustratio of the ,romans may well throw light on the ,israelite ritual of encircling the altar1 referred to above4 ,the dance of the ,dakotahs round the flesh-pot was performed purely in honour of the god2 it partakes in some sense of an act of faith1 for the believers persuade themselves that their god will not permit his worshippers to be scalded by the boiling water2 whether their faith ever reached the height of neutralizing sensation is not recorded4 ,the ,bear ,dance of the ,timagani ,indians and of the ,sioux ,north ,american ,indians must have a point of attachment somewhere with the danced in honour of ,artemis4 ,the dance of the ,kayans1 as well as the ,bagobos1 around sacrificial victims appears to serve a consecrating purpose4 ,one of the original objects of the dance round the sacred tree is seen from the practice among the ,gallas to be to make the crops grow2 the tree-spirit who looks after these things is propitiated by the dance in his honour4 ,it is difficult to resist the surmise that at one time the ,israelites did the same thing4 ,tree-spirits1 it is true1 have not necessarily anything to do with the crops1 and we may be certain that in many cases there was no connexion between sacred trees and the growth of the crops among the ,israelites2 but they were an agricultural people1 and the belief in the influence of tree-spirits upon the growth of the crops is so widespread that the probability of its existence among the ,israelites must be reckoned with4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,ecstatic ,,dance ,i ,an important department of our subject is that of the type of dance performed by the early prophets of ,israel4 ,we say the 8early0 prophets because the one account which the ,old ,testament gives us of this kind of dance refers to it among the early prophets4 ,there is1 however1 no reason for supposing--rather the contrary#agd--that this type of the sacred dance was confined to the early prophets of ,israel4 ,its purpose was connected with an aspiration deeply seated in human nature2 its performance has been very widespread among peoples of antiquity2 and it is found to exist at the present day among uncultured races4 ,so that the presumption is that it did not cease abruptly among the ,israelites1 but continued1 at any rate1 up to the time of the ,exile4 ,this type of dance is the outcome of strong religious emotion which necessitates some bodily expression4 ,it may be paralleled with the exuberance of physical health which demands vigorous exercise4 ,while it begins with moderated movements1 held in check by rhythmical restraint1 yet as the nervous excitement of the performer becomes increasingly intense and the physical exertion more exacting1 so does the dance get wilder and wilder until1 as the result of the abandonment of all self-control1 the dancer ultimately loses consciousness4 ,its contagious character has often been remarked upon4 ,but the religious emotion which thus finds expression is engendered by an aspiration which is believed to be attained by means of the dance2 and this aspiration is nothing less than union with the deity4 ,the loss of consciousness which eventually takes place is replaced1 so it is believed1 by the indwelling of the divine spirit2 the body thus becomes the temporary abode of the deity1 and is utilized for divine purposes4 ,the first passage in the ,old ,testament with which we are specially concerned is #a ,sam4 x4 #e ff43 444 and it shall come to pass1 when thou art come thither to the city1 that thou shalt meet a band 7ebel7 of prophets coming down from the high place 7bmh71 and in front of them harp and drum and pipe and lyre1 and they shall be prophesying4441 cp4 xix4 #bj-bd4 ,it is true1 no direct mention of the sacred dance is made here1 but in view of the enumeration of musical instruments which1 as we have seen1 usually accompanied dancing1 it is reasonable to assume that a ritual dance was taking place4 ,that it was a religious exercise of some kind is made clear by the fact that they had come down from the high place 7bmh71 i4e4 a sanctuary4 ,the technical name for such a band of prophets1 ebel1 8rope0 or 8string0 7cp4 ,josh4 ii4 #ae71 shows that the procession was in single file#age2 with which we may compare the sacred dance in single file depicted on the ,hittite inscription at ,boghazkeui 7see p4 #ei74 ,the account given in the ,old ,testament of the 8prophesying0 of these early prophets1 and of the means employed whereby they reached the pitch of excitement required for the purpose1 is so sober and restrained that it would be difficult to form a picture of the whole proceeding without the help of analogous performances among other peoples4 ,and we are justified in believing that the practice of this type of dance among other peoples does throw light on its mode of performance among these ,israelite prophets1 because it is a question here of a phenomenon1 a curious phenomenon1 which appears at a certain stage of religious development1 with few exceptions1 all over the world4 ,its details may1 and do1 differ2 but the essence of the rite is the same4 ,there are innate tendencies in human nature which produce similar results2 and this is one of them4 ,so that when the means used for producing such results are given in greater detail in many cases1 we are justified in believing them to have been similar in a case in which1 for some reason or other1 the details are only partially described4 ,but if the details of the means used to produce the result are somewhat lacking in the ,old ,testament account1 the result itself is stated clearly enough4 ,the object of all that took place was to be 8possessed10--in this case by the spirit of ,jahwe2 for it was this 8possession10 this indwelling of the deity1 which enforced the 8prophesying40 ,in the passage before us the centre of interest1 in the eyes of the writer1 is ,saul4 ,of him it is said that1 as a result of his contact with the 8rope0 of prophets prophesying1 8the spirit of ,jahwe0 would come 8mightily0 upon him1 and that he1 too1 would prophesy with them1 and 8be turned into another man02 the context shows that his contact with the prophets meant joining in their ecstatic dance1 the effect of which is graphically described in verses #aa1 #ab3 ,and it came to pass1 when all that knew him beforetime saw that1 behold1 he prophesied with the prophets1 then the people said one to another1 ,what is this that is come unto the son of ,kish8 ,is ,saul also among the prophets8444 ,the surprise here expressed was natural enough seeing the extravagances to which the ecstatic state led1 for in xix4 #bd it is said of ,saul that as one of the results of his 8possession0 he 8stripped off his clothes 444 and lay down naked all that day and all that night40 ,the point with which we are primarily concerned is the means employed to get oneself into the ecstatic state required in order to become 8possessed40 ,as is well known1 these were of various kinds2 but the one most prevalent in antiquity1 as well as among men in a low stage of culture at the present day1 was1 and is1 the sacred dance accompanied by music4 ,while there is only one other passage 7on which see below7 in the ,old ,testament which deals in any detail with this type of sacred dance1 it would be the greatest mistake to suppose that it was of only rare occurrence#agf4 ,in the passage just referred to1 there is no hint as to its being anything unusual2 the only thing unusual was ,saul's 8possession10 while the very saying1 8,is ,saul also among the prophets80 points to the peculiarity of the prophets as something recognized and well known4 ,and from what we gather as to the existence of the ecstatic dance among other peoples1 the fact of its existence among the ,israelites does not strike one as other than what one would expect4 ,but we turn now to another passage in which we read of a sacred dance of a peculiar kind which seems to develop into an orgiastic form of ecstatic dance4 ,this was a ritual limping dance performed at sanctuaries1 and apparently in cases of great emergency4 ,its object was not the same as that form of it to which we have just referred2 however1 as it evidently must belong to the category of ecstatic dances1 we consider it here4 ,the passage is the familiar one1 #a ,kings xviii4 #bf1 where it is said that the prophets of ,baal executed a special kind of limping dance around the altar3 8,they limped about the altar which was made40 ,this was done after the ineffectual calling upon the name of their god from morning till noon1 so that it seems to have been regarded by them as a special means of appeal to which recourse was had as a last resort4 ,the dance consisted of a step which had the effect of making the dancers look lame#agg4 ,this is clear from the use of the root in other connexions4 ,thus1 ,mephibosheth 8became lame0 7#b ,sam4 iv4 #d and ix4 #ac71 as the result of a fall4 ,the same root is used in reference to men who are lame in #b ,sam4 v4 #f-h1 and also in ,lev4 xxi4 #ah1 where a lame man is not permitted 8to offer bread to his ,god40 ,it is also used in reference to animals not regarded as fit to be sacrificed because of lameness 7,deut4 xv4 #ba1 ,mal4 i4 #h-ac2 cp4 also ,isa4 xxxiii4 #bc1 xxxv4 #f1 ,jer4 xxxi4 #h1 ,prov4 xxvi4 #g1 ,job xxix4 #ae2 and as a proper name it occurs in #a ,chron4 iv4 #ab1 ,ezra ii4 #di1 ,neh4 iii4 #f1 vii4 #ea74 ,in a figurative way1 but connoting the same idea1 the word occurs in #a ,kings xviii4 #ba3 8,how long will ye limp upon two legs80 ,that the prophet is making a word-play here is obvious2 but the passage raises the question as to the kind of step in which the dance was performed4 ,limping on two legs can hardly mean that the 8limping0 was done on both legs at the same time1 for a frog-leap of this kind would not suggest lameness6 ,the limp must have been done on either leg alternately1 yet neither leg being raised from the ground2 as this involves the bending of the knees1 one can form a fairly clear idea of what this dance looked like4 ,the word for 8legs0 is used in ,isa4 xvii4 #f1 xxvii4 #aj of the forked branches of a tree1 cp4 ,ezek4 xxxi4 #f-h2 if one pictures to oneself such a fork1 gnarled and bent1 it might certainly suggest the position of a man's legs while performing this dance4 ,the purpose of this curious dance-step may well have been that by simulating lameness it was thought that the pity of the god would be aroused1 and that he would therefore be moved to answer petitions4 ,as ,robertson ,smith says1 8the limping dance of the priests of ,baal in #a ,kings xviii4 #bf is associated with forms of mournful supplication1 and in ,syriac the same verb1 in different conjugations1 means #8to dance' and #8to mourn#agh4'0 ,while the dance began in sober style#agi it gradually increased to an orgiastic frenzy1 as is clear from verse #bh3 8,and they cried aloud1 and cut themselves after their manner with knives and lances1 till the blood gushed out upon them02 cp4 ,hos4 vii4 #adahj4 ,this dance was performed by the prophets of ,baal1 and it may therefore be objected that it does not reflect ,israelite usage because the worship of these prophets was ,phoenician 7cp4 #a ,kings xvi4 #cj-cc72 but to this it must be replied that the ,old ,testament gives ample evidence to show that the influence of the indigenous cults of the land was very powerful upon the ,israelites#aha2 the prophet ,elijah himself regards practically the whole nation as under this influence 7#a ,kings xix4 #aj1 #ah74 ,moreover1 we have mention of a ritual dance similar to that just referred to in ,gen4 xxxii4 #cj1 #ca 7#ca1 #cb in ,hebr471 though the word used is a different one 7zala73 ,and ,jacob called the name of the place ,peniel2 for ,i have seen ,god face to face1 and my life is preserved4 ,and the sun rose upon him as he passed over ,penuel1 and he limped upon his thigh4 ,we must see here1 as ,gunkel points out1 an aetiological trait3 8,just as1 and because1 ,jacob limped in ,penuel1 so are we also wont to limp in ,penuel#ahb40 ,the name implies that it was a sanctuary1 a name such as 8the face of ,god0 proves that here a god was believed to manifest himself#ahc2 and1 whatever may have originally been the reason for it1 it was the custom at this sanctuary to perform the 8limping0 dance4 ,it took place at sunrise 7see verse #ca71 so that it may at one time have had something to do with sun-worship4 ,conceivably another ancient sanctuary where this special kind of dance was performed was ,zla#ahd1 the name of ,saul's ancestral dwelling-place 7#b ,sam4 xxi4 #ad74 ,although the passages in the ,old ,testament in which this type of sacred dance is referred to are not numerous1 they are sufficient to show that the ecstatic dance was not unknown among the ,israelites4 ,we have already shown reasons to account for the comparative paucity of references in the ,old ,testament to the religious dance generally2 what we have said applies to this limping dance with special force1 since there are grounds for believing it to have been of ,syrian origin2 as characteristic of ,syrian religion it would have been regarded with special abhorrence by ,israelite religious leaders as being the heathen rite of that form of alien cult to the influence of which the ,israelites were most exposed4 ,it will have been noticed that mention has been made of what are1 in effect1 two distinct forms of what for the want of a better term we have called the ecstatic dance1 viz4 that which had for its object the bringing about of a state of semi-consciousness1 or total unconsciousness1 during which state the deity was believed to take up his abode in the body of the worshipper1 i4e4 union with the deity2 and that which had for its purpose the enforcing of the deity to answer prayer4 ,they differed in important particulars1 to which we shall refer again2 but that wherein they were similar was the state of wild frenzy which both ultimately assumed4 ,we shall now draw attention to some examples of both forms of this ecstatic dance among other peoples4 ,,ii ,it is a significant fact that1 with the exception of ,syria1 there is scarcely any evidence of the existence of the ecstatic dance among the ,semites4 ,in the great mass of ,babylonian and ,assyrian texts of which translations have been published#ahe many refer to ritual of various kinds2 in these some incidental references to this type of dance might have been expected to occur had such been in existence4 ,we have sought in vain among many of these translated texts for any hint of it2 nor have we been able to find in the works of authoritative writers on ,assyro-,babylonian religion any allusion to it4 ,it may1 we believe1 be accepted as a fact that the ecstatic dance was unknown among these people2 and this would accord with what is otherwise known of their religious practices1 which were austere and restrained4 ,what has been said applies also to the ancient ,egyptians2 evidence for the existence of this type of religious dance does not appear on the inscriptions1 nor yet in ,egyptian texts#ahf4 ,on the other hand1 one has only to think of the ,dancing ,dervishes to realize that the ecstatic dance exists in ,egypt at the present day4 ,tristram compares the dancing of the modern dervishes with that of the early ,israelite prophets2 and he gives an interesting description of ,arabi ,pasha leading a procession with the sacred carpet for the ,kaaba of ,mecca out of ,cairo on its way to the ,prophet's shrine2 8in front10 he says1 8was a vast crowd of ulemas and dervishes1 leaping1 bounding1 swaying their arms1 and whirling round in time to the din of drums1 trumpets1 and cymbals which followed them#ahg40 ,one feels that there must be a long history behind this1 and though the evidence is wanting it is difficult to believe that there was not something of the kind in ages long since past4 ,again1 as to the ancient ,arabs1 there is almost as great a dearth of evidence1 though some slight indications exist of this type of dance having been performed in days gone by#ahh4 ,thus1 a proceeding very similar to that of ,saul is mentioned by ,robertson ,smith of ,kkubry1 who used 8under the influence of religious music1 to become so excited as to pull off part of his clothes02 like ,saul he was what the ,arabs would now call malbs#ahi4 ,this type of dance exists at the present day among the ,arabs1 and it is interesting to note1 among other things1 that it is regarded as a means to mystic experiences#aij4 ,fuller information is forthcoming with regard to the ancient ,syrians4 ,there is the interesting story of ,wen-,amon1 an ,egyptian official who came to ,byblos in ,phoenicia in the #aath century ,b4,c4 ,here we are told of how a noble youth1 while he was sacrificing to his gods1 was seized by the god who caused him to fall into a state of ecstasy2 the hieroglyph depicts a man rushing forward with outstretched arms4 ,while the youth is in this state he prophesies1 declaring that a certain messenger who had arrived had indeed brought the image of a god1 and must be received1 for he had been sent by ,amon4 ,this occurs as the messenger with his god is on the point of being sent away4 ,we are not concerned with the various details of this story2 the point is that a youth is supposed to have been caused by the will of the god to fall into an ecstasy2 the hieroglyph clearly implies an ecstatic dance2 and as a result he reveals the arrival of another god brought by the messenger4 ,he speaks while in this state of ecstasy words which are divinely put into his mouth1 so that he is the mouthpiece of the god#aia4 ,this is precisely the same idea as that of the spirit of ,jahwe coming mightily upon ,saul1 he prophesies1 and is turned into another man4 ,another example is given by ,heliodorus 7,aethiopica1 ,,iv4 #af f471 who describes the sacred dance of the ,tyrian seafarers in the worship of the ,tyrian ,herakles2 he says3 ,and ,i left them there with their flutes and their dances1 which they performed after the manner of the ,assyrians i4e4 ,syrians1 hopping to the accompaniment of the quick music of the ,pektides1 now jumping up with light leaps1 now limping along on the ground1 and then turning with the whole body1 spinning around like men possessed#aib4 ,the limping here recalls the dance of the prophets of ,baal1 or rather of its earlier phase1 and that of ,jacob at ,penuel4 ,for the wilder phase of the dance of these prophets we have a very interesting parallel given by ,apuleius of the ecstatic dance of the priests of the ,syrian goddess4 ,this is well worth giving in full2 it occurs in ,the ,golden ,ass1 ,,viii4 #bg1 #bh3 ,the day following ,i saw them apparelled in divers colours1 and hideously tricked out1 having their faces ruddled with paint1 and their eyes tricked out with grease1 mitres on their heads1 vestments coloured like saffron1 surplices of silk and linen2 and some ware white tunics painted with purple stripes which pointed every way like spears1 girt with belts1 and on their feet were yellow shoes4 ,and they attired the goddess in silken robe1 and put her upon my back4 ,then they went forth with their arms naked to their shoulders1 bearing with them great swords and mighty axes1 shouting and dancing1 like mad persons1 to the sound of the pipe4 ,after that we had passed many small villages1 we fortuned to come to a certain rich man's house1 where1 at our first entry1 they began to howl all out of tune and hurl themselves hither and thither as though they were mad4 ,they made a thousand gests with their feet and their heads2 they would bend down their necks1 and spin round so that their hair flew out at a circle2 they would bite their own flesh2 finally1 everyone took his two-edged weapon and wounded his arms in divers places4 ,meanwhile1 there was one more mad than the rest1 that fetched many deep sighs from the bottom of his heart1 as though he had been ravished in spirit1 or replenished with divine power1 and he feigned a swoon and frenzy1 as if 7forsooth7 the presence of the gods were not wont to make men better than before1 but weak and sickly4444 ,and therewithal he took a whip1 such as is naturally borne by these womanish men1 with many twisted knots and tassels of wool1 and strung with sheep's knuckle-bones1 and with the knotted thongs scourged his own body1 very strong to bear the pain of the blows1 so that you might see the ground to be wet and defiled with the womanish blood that issued out abundantly with the cutting of the swords and the blows of the scourge444#aic4 ,the close parallel of this procedure of these ,syrian priests with that of the prophets of ,baal needs no insisting upon4 ,,iii ,we turn now to ,greek sources2 and here the material is as abundant as it is interesting2 the examples to be given are therefore restricted in number1 but they will be sufficient to illustrate the important part that this type of dance played in ,greek religious ritual4 ,by way of introduction the following words of ,farnell#aid will be found instructive2 he is dealing with the earliest period of ,greek religion1 and in writing about the worship of ,dionysos1 says he was vaguer in outline 7than ,apollo or ,athene71 a changeful power conceived more in accordance with daimonistic1 later with pantheistic1 thought1 incarnate in many animal-shapes1 and operative in the life-processes of the vegetative world2 and an atmosphere of ,nature-magic accompanied him2 then he goes on to say that the central motives of this oldest form of ritual were the birth and death of the god--a conception pregnant of ideas that were to develop in the religious future1 but alien to the ordinary ,hellenic theology1 though probably not unfamiliar to the earlier ,cretan-,mycenaean creed4 ,but the death of this god was partly a fact of ritual2 he was torn to pieces by his mad worshippers and devoured sacramentally1 for the bull or the goat or the boy that they rent and devoured was supposed to be his temporary incarnation1 so that by this savage1 and at times cannibalistic1 communion they were filled with his blood and his spirit1 and acquired miraculous powers4 ,by such an act1 and--we may suppose--by the occasional use of intoxicants and other nervous stimulants1 the psychic condition that this worship evoked was frenzy and ecstasy1 which might show itself in a wild outburst of mental and physical force1 and which wrought up the enthusiastic feeling of self-abandonment1 whereby the worshipper escaped the limits of his own nature and achieved a temporary sense of identity with the god1 which might avail him even after death4 ,this privilege of ecstasy might be used for the practical purposes of vegetation-magic1 yet was desired and proclaimed for its own sake as a more intense mood of life4 ,this religion preached no morality1 and could ill adapt itself to civic life2 its ideal was supernormal psychic energy4 ,it is only one aspect of the ritual of this religion with which we are now concerned1 and which is to be illustrated by the examples given1 namely1 the ecstatic dance which played such an important part in it4 ,therefore we naturally think of the mythic ,maenads#aie1 and more especially of their historical counterpart1 the ,thyiads1 who are much the same as the female ,bacchantes4 ,according to the myth concerning the origin of the ,thyiads1 they were so called because the first priestess of ,dionysos was named ,thyia1 and she performed orgiastic dances in his honour2 hence all women who danced1 or 8went mad10 in honour of ,dionysos were called ,thyiads after her4 ,the ,maenads are depicted on many ,greek vases and bas-reliefs1 so that we can form a good idea of the kind of dances they were supposed to perform2 and these were1 of course1 the actual form of the dances executed by the ,thyiads4 ,thus1 for example1 on a vase in the ,naples ,museum four ,maenads are represented dancing2 two1 with head thrown back1 carry the thyrsus1 a staff with vine-leaves1 at the top of which was a pine-cone4 ,one of them has also a torch2 two others1 while dancing1 play1 one a tambourine1 the other a pipe#aif4 ,or again1 on a cup in the ,athens ,national ,museum a ,maenad is represented playing a tambourine1 or timbrel1 and dancing in wild fashion#aig4 ,another example is the dancing1 accompanied by instrumental music1 which is portrayed on the beautiful cylix of ,hieron1 8perhaps the most exquisite that ceramography has left us#aih02 the movements of the maidens are superbly executed4 ,but instances of this kind could be greatly multiplied2 they all exhibit one or other phase of orgiastic dance1 8the same mad revelry1 the utter exhaustion and prostrate sleep#aii02 and they represent the kind of dancing which historically was performed by the ,thyiads4 8,maenad10 as ,miss ,harrison says1 8is the ,mad ,one1 ,thyiad the ,rushing ,distraught ,one1 or something of the kind 444 ,mad ,one1 ,distraught ,one1 ,pure ,one1 are simply ways of describing a woman under the influence of a god1 of ,dionysos#bjj02 and1 of course1 this madness could be caused by any other orgiastic divinity4 ,those who took part in these dances are described as 8raving and possessed02 their over-wrought state caused them to see visions#bja2 the god was believed to be present1 though invisible2 and at the ,dionysos festivals the maidens celebrated his presence#bjb1 thus direct contact with him by his worshippers was effected#bjc4 ,in an interesting passage in ,pausanias we read3 ,but ,i could not understand why he 7i4e4 ,homer1 in ,od4 ,,xi4 #eha7 spoke of the fair dancing grounds of ,panopeus till it was explained to me by the women whom the ,athenians call ,thyiades4 ,the ,thyiads are ,attic women who go every other year with the ,delphian women to ,parnassos1 and there hold orgies in honour of ,dionysos4 ,it is the custom of these ,thyiads to dance at various places on the road from ,athens1 and one of these places is ,panopeus4 ,thus1 the epithet which ,homer applies to ,panopeus seems to allude to the dance of the ,thyiads#bjd4 ,the finest and most graphic description of this ecstatic dance is that given by ,aristophanes in the ,frogs1 #cbe ff4 which is sung by the chorus of the ,mystae3 ,thou that dwellest in the shadow ,of great glory here beside us1 ,spirit1 ,spirit1 we have hied us ,to thy dancing in the meadow6 ,come1 ,iacchus2 let thy brow ,toss its fruited myrtle bough2 ,we are thine1 ,o happy dancer2 ,o our comrade1 come and guide us6 ,let the mystic measure beat3 ,come in riot fiery feet2 ,free and holy all before thee1 ,and thy ,mystae wait the music of thy feet6 ,spirit1 ,spirit1 lift the shaken ,splendour of thy tossing torches6 ,all the meadow flashes1 scorches3 ,up1 ,iacchus1 and awaken6 ,come1 thou star that bringest light ,to the darkness of our rite1 ,till thine old men dance as young men1 dance with every thought forsaken4 ,of the dulness and the fear ,left by many a circling year3 ,let thy red light guide the dances ,where thy banded youth advances1 ,to be joyous by the blossoms of the mere6#bje ,iacchus was the name by which ,dionysos was known at ,eleusis#bjf4 ,pindar1 in the ,pythian ,ode1 refers to the dancing of the ,thyiads at the annual festival celebrated in honour of ,pan1 when1 according to ,herodotus1 ,,vi4 #aje1 sacrifice was offered and a torch procession took place3 ,i would pray to the ,mother to loose her ban1 ,the holy goddess to whom1 and to ,pan1 ,before my gate1 all night long1 ,the maids do worship with dance and song#bjg4 ,reference may also be made to ,pausanias1 ,v4 xvi4 #e1 where we read of the 8,sixteen ,women0 who get up two choruses1 that of ,physcoa and that of ,hippodamia2 the former was loved by ,dionysos1 and she is said to have been the first to pay reverence to him2 and therefore 8among the honours which ,physcoa receives is a chorus named after her and arranged by the ,sixteen ,women40 ,the ,thyiads are1 as already mentioned1 the same as the female ,bacchantes often spoken of ,pausanias1 for example1 makes a reference to them3 444 ,beyond the theatre is a temple of ,dionysos2 the image of the god is of gold and ivory1 and beside it are female ,bacchantes in white marble4 ,they say that these women are sacred1 and that they rave in honour of ,dionysos#bjh4 ,it is to these that ,euripides refers in the ,bacchae#bji4 ,diodorus speaks of them thus3 444 ,in many towns of ,greece every alternate year ,bacchanalian assemblies of women gather together1 and it is the custom for maidens to carry the thyrsus and to revel together1 honouring and glorifying the god2 and for the 7married7 women to worship the god in organized bands1 and to revel in every way to celebrate the presence of ,dionysos1 imitating thereby the ,maenads who from of old1 it is said1 constantly attended the god#baj4 ,the male correlatives of ,maenads1 or rather ,thyiads1 are the ,kouretes1 who took their part in the ,orphic mysteries4 ,they were the young population considered as worshipping the young male god1 the ,kouros2 they were 8mailed priests0 because the young male population were naturally warriors4 ,they danced their local war-dance over the new-born child1 and1 because in those early days the worship of the ,mother and the son was not yet sundered1 they were attendants 7prospoloi7 on the ,mother also 444 they are divine 7theoi71 and their dancing is sacred#baa4 ,clement of ,alexandria refers to them thus3 ,the mysteries of ,dionysos are wholly inhuman2 for while he was still a child and the ,kouretes were dancing their armed dance about him1 the ,titans stole upon him1 deceived him with childish toys1 and tore him to pieces#bab4 ,a typical instance of myth regarded as reality4 ,we are only dealing here1 however1 with a few examples of the ecstatic dance among the ,greeks4 ,those given will suffice for present purposes4 ,it will have been noticed that all these examples present the ecstatic dance in its milder form2 it is comparable with the dance of the ,israelite prophets1 not with that of the ,syrian prophets of ,baal4 ,the fact is that this latter form of worship was not popular among the ,greeks4 ,it is true1 the worship of ,attis1 in which the ecstatic dance in its most barbaric form figured prominently1 is mentioned in ,pausan4 ,,vii4 xvii4 #i1 ,,xx4 #c2 but this is quite exceptional1 for the rites1 of ,syrian origin1 which were performed in honour of ,kybele and ,attis were un-,hellenic and did not appeal to the ,greeks4 8,the barbarous and cruel character of the worship1 with its frantic excesses1 was doubtless repugnant to the good taste and humanity of the ,greeks1 who seem to have preferred the kindred but gentler rites of ,adonis4 ,yet10 continues the same writer1 8the same features which shocked and repelled the ,greeks may have positively attracted the less refined ,romans and barbarians of the ,west4 ,the ecstatic frenzies1 which were mistaken for divine inspiration1 the mangling of the body1 the theory of a new birth1 and the remission of sins through the shedding of blood1 have all their origin in savagery1 and they naturally appealed to peoples in whom the savage instincts were still strong#bac40 ,among the ,romans1 under the ,empire and onwards1 this worship became prominent1 and was still existent in the #dth century1 for ,symmachus tells of the celebrations of the festivals of ,magna ,mater#bad4 ,its special feature was the orgiastic dance of the priests#bae1 accompanied by song1 which culminated in self-laceration4 ,the third day of this festival of ,kybele and ,attis was known as the ,day of ,blood 7,dies ,sanguinis72 the ,archigallus or high-priest drew blood from his arms and presented it as an offering4 ,nor was he alone in making this bloody sacrifice3 ,stirred by the wild barbaric music of clashing cymbals1 rumbling drums1 droning horns1 and screaming flutes1 the inferior clergy whirled about in the dance with waggling heads and streaming hair1 until1 rapt in a frenzy of excitement1 and insensible to pain1 they gashed their bodies with potsherds or slashed them with knives in order to bespatter the altar and the sacred tree with their flowing blood#baf4 ,thus1 while among the ,romans during the early centuries of the ,christian era1 and owing to the influx of oriental cults1 the ecstatic dance in its most barbaric form was prominent1 among the ,greeks this form of it made but little appeal1 and it is only rarely that reference is made to it4 ,but although this extreme and sanguinary form was distasteful to the ,greeks1 the ecstatic dance was with them of a very wild character2 and it is possible that the purpose of this type of dance among ,greeks and ,romans respectively may have had something to do with its form4 ,reference is made to this point below 7see p4 #ach71 but we must first take a brief glance at the ecstatic dance as practised among some of the uncultured races4 ,,iv ,among uncultured peoples the ecstatic dance appears both in its milder and its more barbaric forms4 ,to take a few examples of the former first4 ,the means employed to become 8possessed0 are various1 but the most usual is the dance accompanied by the rhythmic beating of a drum or other instrument2 this is persisted in until with the rising excitement it becomes wilder and wilder1 and ultimately brings about unconsciousness1 or at least semi-consciousness1 in the dancer4 ,thus1 the ,vedda form of 8possession0 is attained by a dance which began with moderate movements in which 8the shaman1 while uttering invocations to the spirits1 circles round the offerings2 the dance increases in speed until the seizure takes place#bag40 ,again1 in ,southern ,india we have the example of the so-called 8devil-dancers10 who work themselves into paroxysms in order to gain inspiration1 whereby they profess to cure their patients4 ,so1 with furious dancing to music and chanting of the attendants the ,bodo priest brings on a fit of maniacal inspiration in which the deity fills him and gives oracles through him#bah4 ,another instructive instance is that of the ,tshi-speaking peoples of the ,gold ,coast whose priests and priestesses are believed to be from time to time possessed or inspired by the deity whom they serve2 and in that state they are consulted as oracles4 ,they work themselves up to the necessary pitch of excitement by dancing to the music of drums2 each god has his special hymn1 sung to a special beat of the drums1 and accompanied by a special dance4 ,it is while thus dancing to the drums that the priest or priestess lets fall the oracular words in a croaking or guttural voice which the hearers take to be the voice of the god4 ,hence dancing has an important place in the education of priests and priestesses2 they are trained in it for months before they may perform in public4 ,these mouth-pieces of the deity are consulted in almost every concern of life1 and are handsomely paid for their services#bai4 ,among the ,north ,american ,indians with whom the sacred dance acts as the expression of religious feeling to a greater degree than perhaps among any other uncultured races with the exception of the aborigines of ,oceania1 dancing to the point of unconsciousness is an act of devotion to the god#bbj4 ,this is further illustrated by the ancient ,peruvians2 among them the religious dance was 8the grand form of religious demonstration40 ,the very name of their principal festivals1 ,raymi1 means 8dance40 ,their dances at these festivals are of such a violent character that the dancers seem to be out of their senses4 8,it is noteworthy10 says ,rville1 8that the ,incas themselves took no part in the violent dances1 but had an #8,incas' dance of their own1 which was grave and measured#bba40 ,another example1 offered by ,skeat1 is from a very different centre4 ,in writing about dances among the ,malays1 which1 as he says1 are almost all religious in their origin1 he goes on to tell of one which 8began soberly like the others1 but grew to a wild revel until the dancers were1 or pretended to be1 possessed by the ,spirit of ,dancing1 hantu mnri as they called it 444#bbb40 ,lastly1 in ,borneo the ,kayan medicine-women1 in the course of exorcism of the evil spirit for the cure of disease1 whirl round until they fall in a faint#bbc4 ,a modern ,european example of this type of dance is that performed among some ,russian sectaries2 in order to produce a state of religious exaltation wild1 whirling dances1 like those of the dancing dervishes1 are executed#bbd4 ,these are but a very few examples of many which could be given2 but they are sufficient to answer our purposes4 ,before coming to one or two illustrations of the more barbaric form of this type of dance1 one instance may be offered of the ecstatic dance of the milder kind being performed with an object different from those which are usually connected with it4 ,among the ,maoris the war-dance1 which was looked upon as a religious act1 was often performed on the eve of battle in order to impart daring and bravery to the warriors2 and this dance often assumed the form of frenzy when accompanied by the beating of drums and the shouting of the dancers4 ,an eye-witness describes it thus3 ,the ,maoris turned their faces into close imitations of their demonlike carved images4 ,but the thrust-out tongue1 the wild rolling eyes standing out of the head1 the fierce grimaces1 and the quivering hands and fingers1 with the accompaniment of the deep-drawn cries and the stamp of feet1 had all the advantages of living movement to add to the terrifying effect4 ,it is difficult to efface the deep impression that its massive energy and furious1 almost epileptic1 passion makes on the mind1 when produced by hundreds4 ,it surpassed in fury anything that kava or any other drug or fermented liquor could have given to the harmonious movements of a mass of warriors#bbe4 ,strictly speaking1 this hardly belongs to the category of ecstatic dances because it is not performed with any idea of communication with a supernatural power1 whether as a means of effecting union with it1 or honouring it1 or as a form of supplication to it2 nevertheless1 it is worth recording here1 if only because it affords an illustration of the extended use of a rite for purposes with which originally it had nothing to do4 ,and now to give1 finally1 an example or two of the ecstatic dance in its most extreme and barbaric form4 ,frazer tells us that when game was very scarce1 certain ,basuto tribes which lived partly by the chase1 were wont to assemble and invoke the spirit of a famous dead chief and other ancestral deities4 ,at these ceremonies they cut themselves with knives1 rolled in ashes1 and uttered piercing cries4 ,they also joined in religious dances1 chanted plaintive airs1 and gave vent to loud lamentations4 ,after spending a whole day and night in wailing and prayer1 they dispersed next morning to scour the country in search of the game which they confidently expected the ghosts or gods would send in answer to their intercession#bbf4 ,he compares this with the frenzied rites of the ,canaanite prophets of ,baal1 and refers to another well-known case among the ,israelites themselves 7,hos4 vii4 #ad71 in which they lacerated their bodies by way of appealing to the deity on behalf of their corn and vines4 ,the non-mention of the sacred dance in this passage does not imply that it did not take place2 analogies suggest that it was an indispensable part of the rite4 ,another instructive example is given by ,jevons which he takes from ,bishop ,caldwell's 8very careful observations in ,tinnevelly#bbg40 ,he says3 ,in ,tinnevelly evil spirits have no regular priests2 but when it becomes necessary1 in consequence of some pressing need1 to resort to the aid of these spirits1 some one is chosen1 or offers himself1 to be the priest for the occasion1 and is dressed up in the insignia of the spirit4 ,as blood is the sacrifice to a god1 so in the dance with which the evil spirits1 like the tribal god1 are worshipped1 the dancer in an ecstasy draws his own blood and drinks that of the victim1 a goat1 say1 and thus the spirit passes into him1 and he has the power of prophecy4 ,as the sacrifice of the sacred victims was a solemn mystery to be celebrated by night1 and terminated before sunrise1 so the worship of the evil spirits must be performed by night1 and the general opinion is that night is the appropriate time for their worship#bbh4 ,here we have another interesting parallel to the procedure of the priests of ,baal1 though1 as the ,canaanite worship had reached1 in comparison1 a higher stage1 the parallel does not hold good in all particulars4 ,but we have the pressing need of the ,baal-worshippers1 the sacrifice to the god1 the dance round the altar1 the dancers in an ecstasy drawing their own blood1 and the spirit of prophecy passing into them#bbi2 the sacrifice takes place after sunset4 ,they do not drink the blood of the sacrificial victim in order to become possessed by the god because this is effected by means of the ecstatic dance whereby they prophesy2 and probably this points to an advance in religious conception2 for the belief that union is effected by the ecstatic dance is certainly not so crass and materialistic as that which requires the essence of the deity to pass into his worshippers by drinking the blood of the sacrificial victim offered to him1 and which is supposed to become identified with the god4 ,in other respects the parallel is sufficiently striking4 ,in each case it is clear that the ecstatic dance is an essential part of the ritual4 ,the pressing needs which this type of sacrifice with its ecstatic dance are supposed to supply are various1 but there is a curious and instructive similarity in most of the details of the ritual wherever it is practised1 showing that the underlying ideas are generally the same in every case4 ,here is one more example4 ,in his book on ,serpent-worship in ,india ,mr ,c4 ,f4 ,oldham describes what he saw during the great sacrifice to ,kailang ,ng1 which was celebrated in the village of the ,ravi1 and which had for its object the obtaining of fine weather for the sowing1--this had been delayed owing to storms4 ,kailang1 a demi-god1 is supposed to control the weather4 ,the writer says3 ,on my arrival ,i found the people assembled on the open grassy space in front of the temple4 ,the men and the boys sat together1 the women and the girls being at a little distance4 ,soon the music struck up1 and some of the men and boys began to dance in a circle1 the chela#bcj dancing in the centre4 ,after a time the music became wilder and the dance more energetic4 ,some of the men1 when tired1 sat down1 and others took their places4 ,the chela continued dancing1 and he applied the sungal#bca to his own back and shoulders1 and to those of some of the other dancers4 ,some of the men then applied another similar scourge to their backs1 with great effect1 amid shouts of ,kailang ,mahri ki ji 78,victory to the great king ,kailang074 ,then1 all being ready1 a victim 7a ram7 was led out1 and having shown1 by shivering1 that it was acceptable to the deity1 its head was struck off4 ,the body was immediately lifted up by several men1 and the chela1 seizing upon it1 drank the blood as it spouted from the neck1 amid renewed shouts of ,kailang ,mahri ki ji4 ,the carcase was thrown down upon the ground1 and the head1 with a burning coal upon it1 placed before the threshold of the temple4 ,the dancing was then renewed1 and became more violent1 until the chela gasped out ,kailang ya 78,kailang has come074 ,all then became silent1 and the prophet announced that the sacrifice was accepted1 and that the season would be favourable4 ,this was received with a storm of shouts of ,kailang ,mahri ki ji1 and the chela sank down upon the ground exhausted4 ,water was poured over him1 and he was vigorously fanned till he showed signs of revival4 ,the assembly then began to disperse#bcb4 ,these three examples exhibit essentially the same traits and sufficiently illustrate this type of dance in its extreme form among peoples of low civilization1 so that it is unnecessary to multiply illustrations4 ,it must1 however1 be said that this more barbarous form of the ecstatic dance is not nearly so prevalent as the form previously mentioned2 it seems to be resorted to in times of emergency1 and in this offers a further parallel to the case of the prophets of ,baal4 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,the ecstatic dance is performed as the outcome of strong religious emotion2 it begins quietly and without any indication of what is to come2 but the intention to increase it gradually to an extravagant pitch is there from the commencement1 and it continues until semi-consciousness1 and even total unconsciousness is reached4 ,the excitement caused by the dance frequently becomes contagious1 so that others join in4 ,the purpose of this dance is to effect union with a superhuman spirit2 the body1 temporarily 8emptied0 of consciousness1 is believed to be entered by the god or spirit in whose honour the dance takes place4 ,among peoples of low culture1 among whom belief in the 8external soul0 is common1 there can be no doubt that the conviction existed that the soul took its departure from the body for the time being1 thus making room for the higher spirit of the god4 ,while thus inhabiting the body1 the god utilized it for his own purposes4 ,the prime motive of the ecstatic dance was union with the deity2 that being once effected other things might or might not follow4 ,the ecstatic dance takes1 however1 a different form1 and has a different purpose under special circumstances4 ,it acts sometimes as a means of forcing the deity 7or1 rather1 it is believed to do so7 to answer prayer2 then during the ecstatic state self-laceration takes place1 apparently with little or no sensation of pain2 the loss of consciousness does not necessarily ensue4 ,both these forms of the ecstatic dance are met with among the ,israelites4 ,the former was practised by the prophets1 and its contagious character is forcibly illustrated2 as a result the spirit of ,jahwe comes upon the performer4 ,the latter is mentioned as a ,syrian rite practised in time of emergency by the prophets of ,baal2 but the influence of ,syrian1 or ,canaanite1 practice upon the ,israelites here is plainly indicated by the prophet ,hosea who tells of how the people 8cut themselves for corn and wine10 thus rebelling against their ,god4 ,though in this instance the dance is not mentioned we know from the parallel case of the prophets of ,baal that it was part of the ritual1 and therefore took place2 and this quite apart from the analogous practice elsewhere4 ,it was done with the purpose of forcing the god 7in this case some local ,baal7 to give good crops4 ,it was1 so we may believe1 an emergency rite2 the more normal method may have been the dance round the sacred tree 7see above1 pp4 #if1 #ii1 #ajc74 ,as to the special form of dance on these occasions1 it is probable1 so far as the prophetic dance was concerned1 that it began in quite moderate style1 and in single file formation2 as the excitement increased it is obvious that it assumed a very different form1 a whirling round with head thrown back1 judging from analogy4 ,in the case of the wilder1 ,syrian1 form1 there is reason to suppose that it began also quietly1 with the 8limping0 step1 and presently got wilder and wilder1 until knives and other sharp instruments were seized1 and self-inflicted wounds caused blood to flow from the bodies of the performers4 ,the purpose of the 8limping0 step is believed1 with good reason1 to have been to arouse the pity of the god1 or else to imitate him and thus induce him to hear the prayers addressed to him2 the flowing blood may be regarded as having been a means of forcing the god to answer prayer4 ,the ecstatic dance1 at any rate in its more barbarous form1 is unknown among other ,semitic peoples4 ,this holds good also of the ,egyptians1 though the present day existence of it1 in its less barbarous form1 among the ,dancing ,dervishes supports the belief of its having been in vogue in earlier times4 ,with regard to the ,syrians1 however1 there is the clearest evidence of its existence in both forms2 for we have the story of ,wen-,amon1 and the detailed accounts of ,heliodorus and ,apuleius4 ,very full evidence is forthcoming as to the ecstatic dance among the ,greeks2 it is1 however1 not indigenous1 and can be shown to have come to them from the ,syrians4 ,it is1 in the main1 connected with the worship of ,dionysos1 in whose honour the ,thyiads danced and raved1 often until they became insensible4 ,the god was supposed to be present at the orgies which took place during his festivals1 and those who1 by means of orgiastic dances1 lost consciousness1 came under his influence and were 8possessed0 by him4 ,the instances of this dance among the ,greeks1 of which some notable ones are recorded above1 show to what an extent it was in vogue2 but we find that1 in general1 it is the less barbarous form of the ecstatic dance that was performed among them4 ,the more objectionable form was rare2 it occurred in connexion with the worship of ,attis1 but this was not popular among the ,greeks4 ,on the other hand1 strange to say1 among the ,romans1 especially during the later period of the ,empire and owing to the influx of alien oriental cults1 this form of worship became prominent4 ,national characteristics undoubtedly had much to do with this contrast between ,greeks and ,romans2 but it is probable that the respective purposes of the dance also had something to do with it2 for while the main purpose of the ecstatic dance among the ,greeks was to bring about the union of the god with his worshippers1 among the ,romans it appears to have been that of offering their blood4 ,among the ,greeks1 that is to say1 it was in the nature of an act of devotion2 but among the ,romans it was to induce the goddess of fertility to give abundant crops4 ,both forms of this dance appear among uncultured peoples4 ,its purpose is 8possession0 during which the possessed becomes endowed with supernatural powers2 he is able to cure diseases1 or to give oracles2 or else it is purely an act of devotion4 ,among the ,maoris it is supposed to have the effect of imparting courage1 so it is performed on the eve of battle4 ,in its more barbaric form it is supposed to induce the higher powers to supply wants1 as among the ,basutos when game is scarce4 ,an interesting example of the rite is offered by the natives in ,tinnevelly in which both union with a supernatural being1 and the power of prophecy is attained by means of this type of dance2 it is true that1 among these natives the actual union with the spirit is effected by offering him blood and drinking that of the victim sacrificed to the spirit2 but the necessary spiritual condition into which the worshipper must be transported for this purpose is brought about through the sacred dance4 ,but in this instance1 as invariably among the uncivilized races1 there is always some practical end in view2 a material need of some kind arises which1 it is believed1 will be supplied by means of this rite4 ,in comparing this type of dance1 as practised among many peoples1 with the three instances of it given in the ,old ,testament1 it will have been seen that there is a striking similarity both in purpose and performance4 ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that among the ,hebrews it is the milder type that is indigenous1 and it is essentially an act of devotion2 it is a means of receiving the spirit of ,jahwe1 and this for the practical purpose of divining ,his will and proclaiming it4 ,the rite as practised by the prophets of ,baal is ,syrian2 and there can be little doubt that the custom recorded by ,hosea was of ,syrian origin4 ,so that1 as among the ,greeks1 the milder form of the ecstatic dance was indigenous1 while the more barbarous form was due to ,syrian influence4 ,reviewing the subject as a whole1 there is no shadow of doubt that ,hebrew and ,greek practice here1 though it is but a small item of religious ritual with which we have been concerned1 illustrates their religious superiority over all the other races4 ,but of these two the ,hebrews stand on distinctly higher ground2 there is not the remotest reason for believing that the ecstatic dance among them was ever contaminated by the licence which often obtained among the ,greeks4 ,among the ,hebrews1 moreover1 the object of it was purely devotional2 and when an oracle was put forth it was only to declare the will of their ,god4 ,so that it is true to say that even in the lower planes of religious thought and practice the ,hebrews showed that they were in the vanguard of religious evolution4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,at ,,vintage1 ,,harvest1 ,,and ,,other ,,festivals ,i ,we are not concerned here with the history and development of the ,hebrew feasts2 but a few introductory words regarding them will not be out of place4 ,there were three agricultural festivals of first importance among the ,israelites3 ,mazzth#bcc1 or the feast of ,unleavened ,bread2 this was a spring feast held when the sickle was first put to the standing corn and the first-fruits of the new crops were offered 7,deut4 xvi4 #h1 #i72 ,shabuth1 or the feast of ,weeks1 celebrated seven weeks later at the conclusion of the harvest 7,deut4 xvi4 #aj72 called also azir1 the feast of 8,harvest0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #af72 ,sukkth1 or the feast of ,tabernacles1 the autumn feast1 called also ha-,asiph1 the feast of 8the ingathering10 when 8thou gatherest in thy labours out of the field0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #af74 ,since prior to their entry into ,canaan the ,israelites were nomads1 and therefore did not observe harvest festivals1 it is extremely probable that1 in settling down among the ,canaanites1 they adopted these festivals from the people of the land1 and celebrated them in honour of ,jahwe1 their ,god4 ,these three great feasts were originally1 among the ,israelites1 of equal importance1 requiring presence at the sanctuary 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #bc72 but there are indications that in quite early times the autumn feast of ,tabernacles assumed pre-eminence4 ,it is called 8the feast10 or 8the feast of ,jahwe#bcd40 ,the other feasts were celebrated locally4 ,from the present point of view it is important to note that each of these feasts is called ag3 ag ha-,mazzth1 ag ha-azir1 ag ha-,asiph2 that is to say1 to each is applied the term which originally denoted what was the essence of a festival1 viz4 the sacred dance round the sanctuary2 and the same is true of the minor festivals which were celebrated at the local sanctuaries4 ,in view of the fact that the feast was called ag because of the sacred dance characteristic of it1 no surprise can be felt at the non-mention of dancing at these feasts when they are spoken of in the ,old ,testament2 it was so obvious and customary that any reference to it1 excepting incidental allusions1 would have been quite superfluous#bce4 ,such incidental allusions occur in the ,psalms1 as we have seen1 and a more specific mention is met with in ,judg4 xi4 #cd3 8,and ,jephthah came to ,mizpah unto his house1 and1 behold1 his daughter came out to meet him with timbrels and with dances02 we are not here concerned with the character of the feast referred to#bcf2 our point is that it was celebrated with dancing4 ,another and fuller illustration occurs in ,judg4 xxi4 #ai ff41 where mention is made of a feast which was held annually at ,shiloh in honour of ,jahwe2 that it was a vintage feast is implied by the reference to the vineyards in which the ,benjamites hid themselves#bcg4 ,at this feast it was the custom for the young girls to come out and dance3 8,when the maidens of ,shiloh come out to dance in the dances02 and see verse #bc4 ,it is worth noticing how the dancing is mentioned as a recognized custom4 ,the spot must have been a familiar one as the feast took place annually3 we are reminded of ,abel-meolah1 8the field of dancing0 7#a ,kings xix4 #af71 which must clearly have got its name from the festival dancing which took place there habitually4 ,we know from the later history and ritual of the ,jewish festivals that they were marked by dances and processional dances of a sacred character#bch2 and the analogy of ritual usage among other peoples makes it certain that these religious dances at the ,jewish feasts1 as practised in post-biblical times1 were not innovations1 but rather the traditional ritual which had been handed down from time immemorial4 ,as ,krauss points out1 the most primitive kind of dancing1 a simple form of hopping1 without rhythmic movement 7for which the ,talmud uses the word aphaz71 was in use in later times both at weddings and during regular worship#bci4 ,we have already1 in another connexion1 drawn attention to the daily procession round the altar1 after the sacrifices had been offered1 during the feast of ,sukkth 78,tabernacles074 ,there was another dancing ceremony at this feast which must be mentioned1 a ceremony of which it was said that whosoever had not seen it had never seen a real feast#bdj4 ,this was the wonderful ,torch-dance which took place in the ,court of the women in the ,temple on the second day of the feast4 ,a great multitude of men and women were always present on this occasion to witness the dance in which only the most prominent among the ,israelites took part4 ,while the dance was going on hymns and psalms were sung#bda4 ,it was because of the dances and processions at the feast of ,tabernacles1 during which palms and branches of trees were carried1 similar to the thyrsus carried by the ,bacchanalian assemblies of maidens1 that ,plutarch was betrayed into the error of regarding this feast as of the same character as that celebrated in honour of ,dionysos among the ,greeks2 and into his assertion that the cult of this god was in vogue among the ,hebrews#bdb4 ,there was1 to give another example1 a religious dance1 though of an entirely different character1 carried out by ,jewish maidens both on the feast-day known as the #aeth of ,ab1 and on the ,day of ,atonement#bdc4 ,that the feast of the #aeth of ,ab was a religious one is clear from the evidence given by ,rabbi ,eliezer ben ,hyrcanus#bdd 7#ast century ,a4,d47 to the effect that it was the great day of the year on which wood was offered for the burning of the sacrifices2 the supply offered on this occasion was supposed to be sufficient to last for the year4 ,the festival is referred to by ,josephus1 who calls it the ,xulophoria#bde4 ,to mention but one further example1 at the feast of ,purim there was a special kind of dance2 although this ceased to be of a religious character1 there can be no doubt that originally it was so#bdf4 ,,ii ,among the ancient ,arabs1 being nomads1 ,harvest and ,vintage festivals did not1 of course1 exist4 ,but among their descendants a festival of another kind at which a dance of1 at any rate1 a quasi-religious character is performed may be mentioned here2 for there can be no doubt that in these things modern usage represents a custom which has been handed down through the generations from the distant past4 ,at circumcision festivals 7,muzzayn7#bdg they perform what are called ,daa dances4 ,the young people gather together1 being invited by the fathers of the children to be circumcised1 and perform these dances1 during which they sing over and over again3 ,we will protect you ,from him who cuts 7#8enda-l-atta'7 ,we will protect you4 ,cut1 oh ,cutter6 ,yet hurt not here1 in turn1 the names of those who are to be circumcised are uttered1 ,cut1 oh ,cutter6 ,beware of the reed 7ala-l-aab71 ,oh my darling1 ,beware of the reed6#bdh ,dancing at circumcisions is indispensable among the peasants in ,palestine#bdi2 it has been observed also in many other parts of the world1 e4g4 among the ,bambaras of ,senegambia#bej4 ,in ,gen4 xxi4 #d1 where the circumcision of ,isaac is recorded1 there is no mention of the circumcision feast and the accompanying dance1 which1 judging from later usage1 always took place2 but in verse #h it says3 8444 ,and ,abraham made a great feast on the day that ,isaac was weaned40 ,the ,rabbis of later times inferred that just as there was a feast at the weaning there must also have been a feast at the circumcision1 and no doubt they were right4 ,in ,pire de ,rabbi ,eliezer we read in reference to this passage 7,gen4 xxi4 #d73 8,the sages said3 ,a man is bound to make festivities and a banquet on that day when he has the merit of having his son circumcised1 like ,abraham our ,father1 who circumcised his son1 as it is said444#bea40 ,that dancing formed an indispensable element at such feasts1 as among other peoples who practised this rite1 hardly admits of doubt#beb4 ,in most cases1 though not in all1 there enters in a distinctly religious note4 ,there is also dancing at the festivities attending the performance of vows#bec4 ,,iii ,although it is highly probable that at the ,harvest and other festivals of the ,babylonians and ,assyrians sacred dancing took place1 definite evidence in the way of recorded instances does not seem to be forthcoming4 ,among the ,egyptians1 however1 we know that every temple had both priests and priestesses attached1 among whom were dancers and musicians2 and these played a very important part at all festivals#bed4 ,apart from official celebrations in temples1 local feasts at which sacred dances were performed1 also took place4 ,thus1 when the ,harvest was completed and the peasants offered the first-fruits1 they danced in the presence of the god of fertility as an act of thanksgiving#bee4 ,there was also a dance of thanksgiving performed in honour of ,ptah for the annual overflowing of the ,nile4 ,in dancing a small piece of wood was often held in each hand1 and these were knocked together in rhythmic time#bef4 ,mention should also be made of the great 8,sed0 festival1 originally performed only once in thirty years1 but later in every third year4 ,at this festival the king was deified as ,osiris1 and the ,crown ,prince was appointed1 and married to the heiress of the kingdom4 ,at the enthronization of the deified king the ,crown ,prince danced before him as an act of honour to the god2 this was also done at another part of the ceremony by all the men1 who were present in great numbers#beg4 ,,iv ,a good example among the ,greeks is that of the sacred dance performed at the celebration of the ,haloa1 which1 according to a scholion to ,lucian#beh1 was a feast at ,athens containing mysteries of ,demeter1 and ,kore1 and ,dionysos on the occasion of the cutting of vines and the tasting of wine made from them4444 ,the ,haloa gets its name1 according to ,philochorus1 from the fact that people hold sports at the threshing-floors2 and he says it is celebrated in the month ,poseidon#bei4444 ,the sports held were1 of course1 incidental to the business of threshing2 but it was these sports that constituted the actual festival4 ,to this day the great round threshing-floor that is found in most ,greek villages is the scene of the harvest festival4 ,near it a booth 7skn7 is to this day erected1 and in it the performers rest1 and eat and drink in the intervals of their pantomimic dancing#bfj4 ,in connexion with ritual dances in honour of ,demeter1 ,frazer draws attention to the remains of 8the magnificent marble drapery which once adorned the colossal statue of ,demeter and ,persephone in the sanctuary of the two goddesses at ,lycosura1 in ,arcadia02 on this are carved rows of semi-human1 semi-bestial figures dancing and playing musical instruments2 the bodies of these figures are those of women1 but their heads1 paws and feet are those of a horse1 a pig1 a cat1 or a hare1 and apparently an ass#bfa4 8,it is reasonable to suppose10 he says1 8that these dancing figures represent a ritual dance which was actually performed in the rites of ,demeter and ,persephone by masked men and women1 who personated the goddesses in their character of beasts#bfb40 ,the story of the two daughters of ,eteokles who fell into a well while dancing in honour of ,demeter and ,kore1 and were turned into cypresses1 probably owes its origin to the desire to account for the reason why sacred dances were performed under these trees1 in which the numen of one or other of these goddesses was supposed to reside#bfc4 ,the story is given in ,geoponica1 ,,xi4 #d3 ,the cypresses have two names1 and they are indeed called ,charites on account of their delectable quality1 and ,cypresses on account of their bearing and producing branches and seeds in such regular order4 ,they were the daughters of ,eteokles2 and when dancing in imitation of the goddesses1 they fell into a well2 and the earth1 commiserating their misfortune1 produced flourishing plants like damsels#bfd4 ,it is unnecessary to give further examples2 generally speaking1 among the ,greeks dancing at festivals1 so far as their religious character is concerned1 was performed in honour of some deity4 ,a magical purpose is sometimes to be discerned1 though rarely#bfe2 the ecstatic dance seems sometimes to have had this object1 and this1 as one would expect1 is only the case in the earliest period of ,greek religion#bff4 ,we have dealt in ,chap4 ,,vii4 with the ecstatic dance and its objects4 ,v ,as illustrating this type of dance among the ,romans we may instance the festival of the ,ambarvalia2 this festival was not celebrated on a fixed date1 but varied according to the state of the crops4 ,the duties at the festival were carried out by ,fratres ,arvales1 8the ,brethren of the ,ploughed ,fields40 ,with solemn prayers1 addressed primarily to ,mars#bfg to keep away all harm from the crops1 these ,brethren led round in formal procession the victims destined for sacrifice to ,mars as the god of vegetation1 viz4 a pig1 a ram1 and a bull4 ,the ,arval ,brothers had a special three-step dance 7tripudium7 which they performed in honour of ,mars and the ,lares2 it was repeated three times1 and during its performance they sang a hymn of praise to the god#bfh4 ,a minute account of their three days' festival is given in the ,acta of the year #bah 7,elagabalus1 ,,cil1 ,,vi4 #bajd7bfi2 the dance1 which took place on the second1 and most important1 day is described as follows3 8444 ,then the priests1 shut up in the temple1 girding up their togas1 took the song-books and1 marking the time1 danced the three step singing thus 444#bgj40 ,again1 at the festival of the ,lupercalia1 held in ,february1 when the sacrificial feast was ended1 the ,luperci1 crowned and anointed1 and1 but for an apron of goatskin1 entirely naked1 ran round the ,palatine ,hill with thongs cut from the skin of the sacrificed goats in their hands#bga4 ,the feast was held in honour of ,faunus 7the ,greek ,pan71 who was worshipped under the name of ,lupercus1 in a grotto in the ,palatine ,mount called the ,lupercal4 ,the running round of the ,luperci with the goats' thongs had a purificatory object#bgb 7see p4 #aja74 ,the dances of the ,salii may be appropriately mentioned here4 ,their sacred processions took place in ,march and ,october1 and continued for over three weeks#bgc4 ,headed by trumpeters and dressed in full battle apparel they marched through the city2 at all the altars and temples they halted1 and1 under the conduct of two leaders1 solemnly danced the war-dance in three measures in honour of ,mars1 singing at the same time#bgd4 ,the ,salii1 however1 also performed dances in honour of ,saturn1 the ,roman god of sowing2 8as the ,romans10 says ,frazer1 8sowed the corn both in spring and autumn1 and as down to the present time in ,europe superstitious rustics are wont to dance and leap high in the spring for the purpose of making the crops grow high1 we may conjecture that the leaps and dancing performed by the ,salii1 the priests of the old ,italian god of vegetation1 were similarly supposed to quicken the growth of the corn by homoeopathic or imitative magic#bge40 ,it was not in ,rome alone that this type of dancing was performed2 similar colleges of dancing priests are known to have existed in many towns of ancient ,italy1 and everywhere1 we may conjecture1 they were supposed to contribute to the fertility of the earth by their leaps and dances#bgf4 ,this magical purpose of the sacred dance will come before us again4 ,,vi ,a few examples of this type of the sacred dance among uncultured peoples may now be given#bgg4 ,the sowing festival among the ,kayans of ,central ,borneo1 who are essentially an agricultural people and of a primitive type1 is very elaborate2 but we are only concerned with that part of it at which the sacred dancing takes place4 ,the following is taken from an eye-witness' account3 ,the first to appear on the scene were some men wearing wooden masks and helmets and so thickly wrapt in banana leaves that they looked like moving masses of green foliage4 ,they danced silently1 keeping time to the beat of the gongs4 ,they were followed by other figures1 some of whom executed war-dances2 but the weight of their leafy envelope was such that they soon grew tired1 and though they leaped high1 they uttered none of the wild war-whoops which usually accompany these martial exercises4 ,when darkness fell the dances ceased and were replaced by a little drama representing a boar brought to bay by a pack of hounds4444 ,later in the evening eight disguised girls danced1 one behind the other1 with slow steps and waving arms1 to the glimmering light of torches and the strains of a sort of jew's harp#bgh4 ,nieuwenhuis1 who witnessed this1 insists strongly on the religious character of all the festivals observed by these people4 ,there can be little doubt that the dancing masked men represent the spirits of fertility2 the high leaps are a magical rite to make the crops grow high2 and the row of dancing girls waving their arms is probably in imitation of the field of healthy stalks swaying in the wind1 and thus also an act of imitative magic4 ,it is another form of the rite which is practised by the ,kai of ,new ,guinea who swing to and fro on reeds suspended from the branches of trees in order to promote the growth of the crops#bgi4 ,among the ,malays most of the dances seem to be for the purpose of amusement2 but that some of them1 at any rate1 were originally of a religious character is evident from what ,skeat says on the subject3 444 ,all these dances1 ,i was told1 were symbolical2 one of agriculture1 with the tilling of the soil1 the sowing of the seed1 the reaping and winnowing of the grain1 might easily have been guessed by the dancers' movements#bhj4 ,such dances1 as is well known1 are always1 in some stage of their development1 connected with the worship of some god of vegetation#bha4 ,skeat says that the religious origin of almost all ,malay dances is still to be seen in the performance of such ritualistic observances as the burning of incense1 the scattering of rice1 and the invocation of the ,dance-,spirit according to set forms1 the spirit being exorcised 7or 8escorted homewards0 as it is called7 at the end of the performance#bhb4 ,one other example may be given1 this time from ,africa1 of the dance being a propitiatory act1 and accompanied by prayer2 it takes place at moon festivals4 ,the ,hottentots 7they are moon-worshippers7 perform long nightly dances in honour of the moon1 both at the appearance of the new moon and at full moon4 ,after numberless strange contortions of the body which characterise these dances1 and excruciating yells1 the worshippers fling themselves to the ground2 then they suddenly spring up1 stamp about with their feet1 and gaze up at the moon1 crying3 8,hail1 see that we have honey1 and that our flocks get plenty of food1 and give us much milk60 ,then the dancing1 accompanied by the clapping of hands1 continues4 ,this goes on through the whole night with short pauses4 ,according to some authorities the name ,hottentot is derived from the noise made by their feet during these nightly sacred dances at the moon festivals#bhc4 ,examples could be multiplied to almost any extent2 those given are typical and they will suffice for present purposes4 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,a brief enumeration of the chief festivals among the ,israelites is called for in the present connexion because they were agricultural feasts2 and1 as has already been pointed out incidentally1 one of the purposes of the sacred dance was to ensure good crops4 ,all that we learn as to the character of these festivals in the ,old ,testament emphasizes the element of rejoicing during their celebration2 and this applies with special force to the feast of ,tabernacles4 ,the dancing which took place at these feasts would1 therefore1 seem to have been purely expressions of joy4 ,but there are reasons for believing that other elements entered in as well4 ,expressions of thanksgiving to a god are at the same time a means of honouring him2 and this1 we may feel certain1 figured largely at the ,israelite feasts2 they were thankful to ,jahwe for the fruits of the field1 and they were joyful for plenty2 so that when grateful joy expressed itself in the dance it constituted an act of honouring1 and therefore of worshipping1 the national ,god4 ,the rare explicit mention of these dances during the feasts in the ,old ,testament is easily accounted for4 ,but the cultural stage of the bulk of the ,israelite people1 at the very least up to the time of the ,exile1 can be proved by many indications in the ,old ,testament to have been no higher than other races2 the extremely significant fact recorded by one of the prophets that1 on occasion1 the most barbarous form of the ecstatic dance1 with its self-inflicted lacerations and blood-flowing1 was practised by the people for the purpose of ensuring good crops1 offers ample justification for the belief that one of the objects of the sacred dance at the spring festival was likewise to ensure good crops4 ,the rite was a world-wide one1 which is in itself presumptive evidence that it was practised by the ,israelites4 ,the importance of the sacred dance during the ,jewish feasts of later times1 for the existence of which the evidence is ample1 must be regarded as the observance of traditional custom4 ,the ancient ,arabs did not cultivate the soil and therefore did not celebrate festivals of this kind4 ,among some modern ,arabs dancing takes place at circumcision festivals1 and it is accompanied by song2 there are grounds for believing that the ,israelites did the same4 ,the dance in this case must be regarded as having been performed in honour of the newly initiated1 who1 by circumcision1 were admitted into the community of the tribe#bhd4 ,among the ,egyptians both national and local ,harvest festivals were celebrated2 during these the sacred dance played an important part4 ,we may take it that1 as among the ,israelites1 the purpose of these dances was to express joyful gratitude to the god of fertility4 ,the 8,sed0 festival was another occasion on which a sacred dance was performed2 the deified king was honoured in this way4 ,the ,haloa among the ,greeks seems to have been at once a ,harvest and ,vintage festival2 the dancing which took place during this feast must have been in honour of the god of fertility4 ,in ,greek villages at the present day the harvest festival takes place round the threshing-floor1 and there is much dancing1 but its old significance has now1 of course1 disappeared4 ,there is evidence that dances were performed in honour of the fertility goddess ,demeter and ,persephone2 the dancers personated these goddesses in their character of beasts1--horses1 pigs1 etc42 while we have here a dance in honour of these divinities1 it is possible that it also partook of the nature of imitative magic1 it being a means of ensuring productivity4 ,an interesting case of framing a reason for the sacred dance under trees1 the real reason being presumably forgotten1 is that of the two daughters of ,eteokles who were turned into cypresses2 these were trees under which sacred dances were performed4 ,festival dances among the ,greeks were often doubtless expressions of mirth and joy1 but this did not prevent their being performed in honour of some deity2 it was precisely similar among the ,israelites to whom the exhortation was constantly given3 8,ye shall rejoice before ,jahwe your ,god10 in connexion with the feasts 7,lev4 xxiii4 #dj1 etc474 ,a magic-religious purpose is at times to be discerned in these ,greek festival dances4 ,among the ,romans a notable instance of this type of sacred dance is that performed by 8the ,brethren of the ,ploughed ,fields02 they circled round the victims for sacrifice to ,mars4 ,a similar rite was carried out by the ,luperci in honour of the god ,faunus 7the ,greek ,pan72 it had a purificatory purpose4 ,the dances of the ,salii were performed in honour of ,mars2 they also danced in honour of ,saturn1 the ,roman god of sowing2 their high leaps during the latter of these were believed to have the effect of making the corn grow high4 ,among the uncultured races the ,kayans of ,central ,borneo danced at their festivals with a purpose similar to that of the ,romans2 their high leaps were a magical rite to make the crops grow in height4 ,a like result was believed by the ,kai of ,new ,guinea to be effected by swinging to and fro on reeds suspended from the branches of trees4 ,the ,malays perform imitative dances which at one time were believed to make the crops grow4 ,finally1 the ,hottentots dance in honour of the moon in belief that this will have the effect of prevailing upon their deity1 the moon1 to supply them and their flocks with sustenance4 ,we have no indications in the ,old ,testament that the sacred dances at the ,israelite feasts had any other purpose than that of rejoicing before their ,god1 and this was1 of course1 in the nature of honouring ,him4 ,but the possibility of the existence of imitative magic in connexion with them at some period of their history cannot be altogether excluded2 this is suggested not only because the idea is so widespread1 but also because even in much later times among the ,jews we have an example of an imitative magical rite during a feast in the ,temple4 ,at the ,feast of ,tabernacles it was the custom for water to be drawn ceremonially by the priests from the fountain of ,siloam2 this was brought through the water-gate1 when a long-drawn-out trumpet blast was sounded1 into the ,temple1 where it was poured out upon the altar during the further blowing of trumpets2 the rite was performed daily on the seven days of the ,feast4 ,that this was a piece of imitative magic for the purpose of ensuring a sufficient rainfall would suggest itself spontaneously2 but we have the definite statement to this effect given by the ,rabbis1 for the object of the rite is explained by the words3 8,the ,holy ,one1 ,blessed be ,he6 said1 ,pour out water before me at the ,feast1 in order that the rains of the year may be blessed to you#bhe40 ,this clear evidence among the ,jews for the existence of a magical rite to obtain rain is sufficient justification for believing that their forefathers may have performed dances at ,harvest ,festivals for the purpose of ensuring good crops4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,dances ,,in ,,celebration ,,of ,,victory ,i ,it is a natural and obvious thing that there should be expressions of joy on the occasion of victory2 and1 as dancing was one of the ways whereby joy was expressed1 it is equally natural that this should have been performed on such occasions4 ,furthermore1 when we find that in the records of these celebrations it is the women who do the dancing1 this is only what is to be expected since it is done in honour of the victorious warriors4 ,this is all in the natural order of things2 and1 so far as the ,old ,testament is concerned1 it would seem that the simple recording of the fact that the celebration of a victory was one of the occasions on which dancing was performed is all that is required4 ,however1 this custom is widespread1 and has been1 and still is1 in vogue among peoples in very different stages of culture2 and in discussing a widespread custom1 such as this1 it is always possible that one may discern in the performance of it among less cultured races elements which suggest that originally there was something more in it than appears upon the surface4 ,in other words1 the possibility must be reckoned with that the custom as recorded in the ,old ,testament was in reality the survival of something which was believed to have a decisive effect in bringing about victory4 ,the dance of the ,israelite women on these occasions had a threefold purpose2 it was a means of expressing joy2 it was also the way in which the victorious warriors were honoured2 and1 most important1 it was an act of praise and thanksgiving to ,jahwe2 so that this type of dance was emphatically a religious one4 ,if1 as we hope to offer some grounds for believing1 this type of dance was1 in its origin1 a means of effecting victory by magic1 it will be an interesting illustration of magic being1 as ,mr ,marett says1 8part and parcel of the #8god-stuff' out of which religion fashions itself#bhf40 ,in passing1 it may be said that1 in spite of the fact that the absence of the able-bodied men would make the women the natural performers in these kind of dances1 this public appearance of oriental women witnesses to a very different condition of society from that with which we are familiar as obtaining in the ,east in later centuries2 in other words1 the ,israelites were in some respects in a less advanced cultural stage than we are sometimes apt to suppose4 ,not that they were conscious of any other objects in this type of dance than those mentioned2 we only mean that at this time immemorial custom1 however different the reasons given for its existence1 was more likely to be tenaciously held to than when radical changes in religious belief and social and moral conditions had taken place4 ,the type of dancing with which we are just now concerned has nothing to do with the war-dance1 the primary aim of which seems to be the development of physical excitement1 and consequently courage1 in the dancing warriors2 secondarily1 as magical ideas attach themselves1 the aim of frightening the enemy by a demonstration of violence is added#bhg4 ,in the ,old ,testament there is no mention of the war-dance4 ,but there was a solemn preparation for war1 for it must be remembered that among the ,israelites1 as among other ,semites1 there was a religious element connected with the act of warfare4 ,warriors 8consecrated0 themselves before entering upon it 7,isa4 xiii4 #c72 the phrase for declaring war or entering upon a state of warfare is to 8sanctify1 or consecrate1 war0 7,mic4 iii4 #e1 ,jer4 vi4 #d72 and battle was prepared for by sacrifice 7#a ,sam4 xiii4 #i1 #aj72 moreover1 after the battle the spoil1 or part of it1 was consecrated to ,jahwe 7#a ,sam4 xv4 #ba1 #b ,sam4 viii4 #aa1 #a ,chron4 xviii4 #aa74 ,the ,israelites1 thus1 entered battle under the protection of ,jahwe2 the religious element1 therefore1 was strongly emphasized4 ,we proceed now to enumerate the instances in the ,old ,testament of dancing in celebration of victory4 ,in ,exod4 xv4 #bj1 #ba a dance with song accompanied by musical instruments is performed by women in celebration of victory3 ,and ,miriam the prophetess1 the sister of ,aaron1 took a timbrel 7tph7 in her hand2 and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances4 ,and ,miriam chanted#bhh to them1 ,sing to ,jahwe1 for ,he is greatly exalted1 ,the horse and his rider hath ,he cast into the sea4 ,here the dancing and singing have clearly the single purpose of thanksgiving to ,jahwe1 for the victory is ascribed solely to ,him2 so that the passage presents the highest development of purpose for which this type of dance was performed4 ,it is the same in ,ps4 lxviii4 #aa1 #ab 7#ab1 #ac in ,hebr471 where there is an obvious reference to the custom3 8,jahwe giveth the word1 the women that publish the tidings 7i4e4 of victory7 are a great host2 kings of armies flee2 and she that tarrieth at home divideth the spoil#bhi40 ,true1 there is no mention of singing and dancing here2 but if1 as we may well believe1 it was so well known that the women who celebrated the victory did sing and dance1 there was no need to specify it4 ,in the example given in ,judg4 xi4 #cd it is different1 for the dancing and singing here are in honour of the victorious warrior4 ,jephthah1 on his return from his victory over the ,ammonites1 is met by his daughter and other maidens 7her companions are spoken of in verse #ch7 8with timbrels and with dances#bij40 ,this is further illustrated by the well-known passage #a ,sam4 xviii4 #f1 #g3 ,and it came to pass as they came1 when ,david returned from the slaughter of the ,philistines1 that the women came out of the cities of ,israel1 singing and dancing1 to meet king ,saul1 with timbrels1 with joy and with instruments of music 7,shalishim1 whatever this may mean72 and the dancing women sang to one another and said1 ,saul hath slain his thousands1 ,and ,david his ten thousands4 ,the corruptions in the ,hebrew text of this passage need not trouble us as they do not affect the special point with which we are concerned4 ,the same event is referred to in #a ,sam4 xxi4 #aa1 where the way in which the custom is spoken of shows that it was a common one3 8,did they not sing one to another in the dances44480 ,see also xxix4 #e4 ,in passing1 it is worth offering an interesting parallel to this1 although the actual dancing is not mentioned4 ,it is given in ,pausanias in reference to the victorious ,aristomenes after his defeat of the ,lacedaemonians3 ,when ,aristomenes returned to ,andania the women threw ribbons and fresh flowers on him1 and recited in his honour a song which is sung to this day1-- ,to the midst of the ,stenyclerian plain and to the top of the mountain ,aristomenes followed the ,lacedaemonians#bia4 ,in the light of these passages we may recall ,judg4 v4 #bh-cj1 where the mother of ,sisera is vividly depicted looking from the 8window10 together with her 8wise ladies10 in expectation of the return of her victorious son with the spoils of battle4 ,it is not an undue stretch of the imagination to suppose that if victory instead of defeat had fallen to ,sisera's lot1 we should have had a description of his mother watching the women going forth with timbrels and dances to welcome home the victorious warriors4 ,taking these ,old ,testament passages by themselves1 then1 there is no reason to suppose that the custom of which they speak is anything more than a simple and natural expression of joy and in one case1 at any rate1 of thankfulness to ,jahwe1 for victory in battle1 together with an appropriate tribute to the victorious leader4 ,and the same is true in the case of other civilized peoples of antiquity4 ,but it is unnecessary to give illustrations of this type of dance among them because this would throw no light on the original object of it4 ,for this we must go to races in a lower stage of culture1 among whom we are so often able to see the antecedents of both the nature and the purpose of customs which among civilized peoples appear in a developed form1 and with a different purpose and meaning4 ,if the consideration of a few examples of this type of dance among uncivilized peoples appears to lead us away somewhat from our main point1 the digression must be excused on the ground that side-lights do inevitably1 at times1 cast their rays from a distance4 ,but before coming to these examples we should like to say a word about the 8consecration0 for battle1 as it is conceivable that this may have had an indirect bearing on the 8primitive0 object of this type of dance4 ,the ,old ,testament tells us1 as we have seen1 that warriors consecrated themselves before entering battle by assisting at a sacrifice#bib4 ,the sacrifice was a means of propitiation which would induce the national ,god to look favourably upon the expedition and give ,his help to those who were about to take part in it4 ,but this is a relatively advanced religious conception2 there is a long history behind it1 and some of the stages in that history are discernible in the preparation for battle among uncivilized races4 ,we will give one instance1 of many2 more are unnecessary1 for the same idea underlies them all4 ,schoolcraft1 quoted by ,frazer#bic1 tells us that on extraordinary occasions the bravest warriors of the ,dakotahs used to perform a dance at which they devoured the livers of dogs raw and warm in order thereby to acquire the sagacity and bravery of the dog4 ,the animals were thrown to them alive1 killed and cut open2 then the livers were extracted1 cut into strips and hung on a pole4 ,each dancer grabbed at a piece of liver with his teeth1 and chewed and swallowed it as he danced2 he might not touch it with his hands1 only the medicine-man enjoyed that privilege4 ,women did not join in the dance4 ,to the savage this acquisition of bravery would be an appropriate preparation for battle4 ,in the many instances of analogous rites the choice of the animal appears to depend upon some quality characteristic of it4 ,but it is possible that there is something more behind this4 ,in the case just cited there are two points which suggest that the choice of the dog was not solely due to its qualities of sagacity and bravery2 the sacred dance performed during the eating of its liver1 and the prohibition to touch it1 point to something sacrosanct about the animal4 ,frazer points out elsewhere#bid that the custom of killing a god in animal form belongs to a very early stage of human culture1 and is apt in later times to be misunderstood4 ,the advance of thought tends to strip the old animal and plant gods of their bestial and vegetable husk1 and to leave their human attributes 7which are always the kernel of the conception7 as the final and sole residuum4 ,in other words1 animal and plant gods tend to become purely anthropomorphic4 ,when they have become wholly or nearly so1 the animals and plants which were at first the deities themselves1 still retain a vague and ill-understood connexion with the anthropomorphic gods who have been developed out of them4 ,the origin of the relationship between the deity and the animal or plant having been forgotten1 various stories are invented to explain it4 ,these explanations may follow one of two lines according as they are based on the habitual or on the exceptional treatment of the sacred animal or plant4 ,the sacred animal was habitually spared1 and only exceptionally slain2 and accordingly the myth might be devised to explain either why it was spared or why it was killed4 ,the principle here laid down is only in part applicable to the case under consideration2 but it suggests that the dog1 which was clearly sacred to the ,dakotahs1 was not eaten solely on account of its qualities of sagacity and bravery2 these happened to be its characteristics which were absorbed by eating it4 ,as a sacred animal it possessed supernatural powers1 exemplified especially by its characteristic qualities4 ,in a different stage of the development of this general conception a sacred animal would be partaken of1 divine power being thereby acquired1 irrespective of any quality that it might possess#bie4 8,holy animals10 says ,robertson ,smith1 8and holy things generally1 are primarily conceived1 not as belonging to the deity1 but as being themselves instinct with divine power or life4 ,thus a holy animal is one which has a divine life2 and if it be holy to a particular god1 the meaning must be that its life and his are somehow bound up together4 ,from what is known of primitive ways of thought we may infer that this means that the sacred animal is akin to the god1 for all valid and permanent relation between individuals is conceived as kinship#bif40 ,in a still later stage of development1 with an advanced conception of deity1 a sacrifice to the god would be regarded as the means of securing what was desired1 e4g4 in the present case1 divine aid to victory1 as we find in #a ,sam4 xiii4 #i1 #aj4 ,so that it is conceivable that in an earlier stage the ,semitic forbears of the ,israelites partook of a sacrifice preparatory to battle in the belief that by this means the strength of the god would be imparted to them4 ,so much then for the question of consecration for battle4 ,we turn now to consider the purpose of the sacred dance in connexion with battle among some of the uncivilized races4 ,,ii ,as far as one can gather from the evidence there seem to be1 in regard to this type of dance in its more primitive forms1 two purposes which are apparently quite distinct4 ,the first has for its object the quieting or propitiation of the ghosts of those slain in battle2 in this case the dance is not the central rite1 but none the less indispensable4 ,the following is an example of this among the natives of the ,indian ,archipelago3 ,in the island of ,timor1 when a warlike expedition has returned in triumph bringing the heads of the vanquished foe1 the leader of the expedition is forbidden by religion and custom to return at once to his own house4 ,a special hut is prepared for him1 in which he has to reside for two months1 undergoing bodily and spiritual purification4 ,that these observances are dictated by fear of the ghosts seems certain2 for from another account of the ceremonies performed on the return of a successful head-hunter in the same island we learn that the sacrifices are offered on this occasion to appease the soul of the man whose head has been taken off4 ,the people think that some misfortune would befall the victor were such offerings omitted4 ,moreover1 a part of the ceremony consists of a dance accompanied by a song1 in which the death of the slain man is lamented and his forgiveness is entreated4 ,an argumentative plea1 addressed to the slain man1 is then pronounced in extenuation of the unfortunate necessity of his having had to lose his head#big4 ,it is evident that in this case the entire ceremony is an act of propitiation to the soul of the slain lest his ghost should bring some evil on the head of the slayer2 the dance is1 of course1 performed as a compliment to the enraged ghost4 ,we take another example from a different part of the world3 ,among the ,roro-speaking tribes of ,british ,new ,guinea homicides were secluded in the warriors' club-house4 ,they had to pass the night in the building1 but during the day they might paint and decorate themselves and dance in front of it4444 ,finally1 those warriors who had never killed a man before assumed a beautiful ornament made of fretted turtle shell1 which none but homicides were allowed to flaunt in their head-dresses4 ,then came a dance1 and that same night the men who wore the honourable badge of homicide for the first time were chased about the village2 embers were thrown at them and firebrands waved in order1 apparently1 to drive away the souls of the dead enemies1 who seemed to be conceived as immanent in some way in the headgear of their slayers#bih4 ,here again1 while the dance does not form the central part of the ceremony1 it is evidently an essential part of it1 performed in honour of the slain4 ,the interior of the warriors' club-house was evidently considered a place of safety1 hence the retirement into it during the night1 the time when the ghosts were most to be feared4 ,the dance which followed next day must be regarded as an act of propitiation2 this concerned the veterans4 ,the novices had their special dance1 also a propitiatory rite1 while the firebrands hurled at their heads in the evening gave the quietus to the ghosts of the men slain by them4 ,once more1 among the ,arunta of ,central ,australia it is likewise the custom to perform a vigorous dance on the return from battle#bii4 ,in this case the dance comprises the whole ceremony1 from which one can gather the importance of it in the eyes of these people4 ,it is difficult to say whether the dance here is an act of propitiation or whether it serves to frighten away the ghosts of the slain1 who are supposed to follow their slayers2 probably1 we should say1 the former1 since the frightening away of ghosts usually takes a different form4 ,as a few examples of many these cases of the dance taking place after the return from victory show that one of its purposes was the propitiation of the ghosts of the slain4 ,we turn now to some other instances in which the dance had a different purpose4 ,an old historian of ,madagascar informs us that while the men are at the wars1 and until their return1 the women and girls cease not day and night to dance1 and neither lie down nor take food in their own homes4444 ,they believe that by dancing they impart strength1 courage1 and good fortune to their husbands2 accordingly during such times they give themselves no rest1 and this custom they observe very religiously#cjj4 ,a similar result is believed to be brought about by dancing1 according to ,mr ,fitzgerald ,marriott1 among ,west ,african tribes4 ,he says that while the ,ashantee war was raging he saw a dance performed by women whose husbands had gone as carriers to the war4 ,they were painted white1 and wore nothing but a short petticoat4 ,at their head was a shrivelled old sorceress in a very short white petticoat4444 ,all carried white brushes made of buffalo or horse tails1 and as they danced they sang1 8,our husbands have gone to ,ashanteeland2 may they sweep their enemies off the face of the earth#cja60 ,again1 among the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 8when the men were on the war-path1 the women performed dances at frequent intervals4 ,these dances were believed to ensure the success of the expedition40 ,the same holds good among the ,yuki tribe of ,indians in ,california2 the women at home danced1 believing that this would ensure victory4 ,so1 too1 among the ,haida women who danced and sang while their husbands were away fighting2 also among the women in the ,kafir district of the ,hindoo ,koosh of whom ,sir ,george ,robertson reports that he more than once watched the dancers dancing at midnight and in the early morning1 and could see by the fitful glow of the wood-fire how haggard and tired they looked1 yet how gravely and earnestly they persisted in what they regarded as a serious duty#cjb4 ,in all these cases the dancing is in the nature of sympathetic magic1 and has1 therefore1 an entirely different purpose from that of the previous instances cited1 namely that of ensuring victory4 ,while in the cases of ghost-propitiation the dancing1 though essential1 is subordinate1 in the sympathetic magical1 or telepathic1 type it is central4 ,one other example is worth giving1 for it is one in which the dancing takes place as a welcome to the warriors on their return from battle1 and is1 therefore1 not of a telepathic nature2 on the other hand1 it does not appear to be undertaken with the idea of propitiating the ghosts of the slain1 while the frightening of them away is not done by the dancers4 ,frazer1 quoting van der ,roest#cjc1 gives this example in the following words3 ,in ,windessi1 ,dutch ,new ,guinea1 when a party of head-hunters has been successful1 and they are nearing home1 they announce their approach and success by blowing on triton shells4 ,their canoes are also decked with branches4 ,the faces of the men who have taken a head are blackened with charcoal4 ,if several have taken part in killing the same victim1 his head is divided among them4 ,they always time their arrival so as to reach home in the early morning4 ,they come rowing to the village with a great noise1 and the women stand ready to dance in the verandahs of the houses4444 ,the day is spent very quietly4 ,now and then they drum or blow on the conch2 at other times they beat the walls of the houses with loud shouts to drive away the ghosts of the slain4 ,if1 as seems probable1 we have here a case of the dance taking place as a welcome home1 and as a mark of honour to the victorious warriors1 then we are justified in regarding it as the remains of the fuller form of the dance which was performed during the whole period of the absence of the warriors1 and with a different object4 ,in any case1 such a remnant1 involving a transition from one purpose to another1 would be in the natural order of things1--the original purpose of the dance being an act of imitative magic to effect victory1 the remnant being merely a form of welcome home to the victorious warriors2 and such a transition could be paralleled by analogies1 as every folklorist is well aware#cjd4 ,in course of time the original purpose or purposes of the dance would be completely forgotten1 and when a reason was sought it would be simply and solely that of the welcome to the home-coming victors4 ,it is this latter1 and this alone1 which is the purpose of this type of dance in the ,old ,testament4 ,but that the custom1 like all ancient customs1 must have a long history behind it1 and that the ostensible purpose or purposes of such customs vary according to the cultural stage of the people among whom they are in vogue1 will be generally allowed4 ,we venture1 therefore1 to suggest the possibility that in its very much earlier phases among the ancestors of the ,israelites some such objects as those indicated were connected with this type of dance4 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,joyful expressions for victory in battle lie in the nature of things2 and since dancing is1 and always has been1 one of the means of giving vent to this feeling1 its mention in the ,old ,testament in this connexion is what might be expected4 ,in the few examples of this dance recorded in the ,old ,testament the points to be noted are that it is performed as an act of thanksgiving to ,jahwe2 this stamps it as in the nature of a sacred rite4 ,it is also a welcome home to the victorious warriors and a tribute to their bravery2 but in all probability at the back of this there was always the thought of the real author of the victory1 the national ,god2 for it was in ,his name that the warriors had consecrated themselves for the battle1 and in ,his name that they had1 therefore1 gone forth to fight 7cp4 ,deut4 xx4 #a ff474 ,moreover1 it has to be remembered that the nation's enemies were always regarded as the enemies of the national ,god4 ,the religious character of the rite is thus emphasized4 ,a further point is that these dances1 together with accompanying music1 were performed by women4 ,as it was the men who had gone forth to fight it will be argued that there could be none but women to perform the dances4 ,at the same time1 it cannot be supposed that a district would be wholly denuded of men2 some1 it may reasonably be expected1 remained at home for various reasons2 see e4g4 ,deut4 xx4 #f-h1 xxiv4 #e4 ,but the performance of the rite seems to have been entirely restricted to women4 ,it may be that there was in its early origins some reason for this1 for we find a similar restriction among races of lower civilization4 ,this type of dance is quite distinct from the war-dance2 whether there was anything in the nature of a war-dance among the ,israelites we have no means of ascertaining2 it is never even hinted at in the ,old ,testament4 ,on the other hand1 there was preparation for battle in the form of sacrifice to ,jahwe4 ,there were some other customs regarding preparation and 8consecration0 for battle among the ,israelites which point to the lingering of very old-world conceptions2 this fact offers some justification for the contention that this type of sacred dance may possibly be the remains1 in a developed form1 of a rite which originally contained some similar old-world conception4 ,by 8remains1 in a developed form10 we mean a rite shorn of its original content1 but which continues to be observed1 and has a new meaning assigned to it4 ,we have in the ,old ,testament distinct references to the taboo on sexual intercourse for warriors previous to battle 7,deut4 xxiii4 #aj1 #aa2 #a ,sam4 xxi4 #d1 #e #e1 #f in ,hebr42 #b ,sam4 xi4 #aa74 ,the extension of this kind of taboo to warriors on an expedition is common among rude peoples1 and we know that it had place among the ,arabs1 and was not wholly obsolete as late as the second century of ,islm#cje4 ,in reference to the rule laid down in ,deut4 xxiii4 #aj1 #aa1 ,frazer rightly points out that it suffices to prove that the custom of continence observed in time of war by the ,israelites1 as by a multitude of savage and barbarous peoples1 was based on a superstitious1 not a rational motive4 ,to convince us of this it is enough to remark that the rule is often observed by warriors for some time after their victorious return1 as also by the persons left at home during the absence of the fighting men4 ,in these cases the observance of the rule evidently does not admit of a rational explanation1 which could hardly1 indeed1 be entertained by anyone conversant with savage modes of thought#cjf4 ,there is ample evidence to show that this custom was not observed from fear of dissipating physical strength1 but simply owing to the belief that any contact whatsoever with women made a man effeminate2 it extended even to the touching of women's apparel4 ,we do not maintain that the ,israelites were necessarily conscious of the reason why they observed this taboo2 it may or may not have been so2 but what we contend is that the continued existence among them of such an old-world rite1 whatever purpose was assigned for its performance1 justifies belief in the possibility that the sacred dance in celebration of victory is the remains of another old-world custom and conception to which a new meaning was given4 ,the consideration of some analogous examples of this type of dance among the uncultured races suggests that in its origin it was a magical rite performed by the women to ensure victory4 ,this was1 however1 only one of the purposes of this type of dance2 another object of it was the quieting or propitiating of the ghosts of those slain in battle4 ,that it ever had this object among the ,israelites or their forbears it would be rash to deny1 knowing what is recorded in the ,old ,testament regarding the attitude of the living towards the dead#cjg2 but no data upon which to go occur in the ,old ,testament4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,sacred ,,dance ,,as ,a ,,marriage ,,rite ,i ,in the ,old ,testament there are quite a number of references to marriage#cjh1 but there is very little about the ritual in connexion with or about the festivities which took place at weddings4 ,the wedding feast is mentioned in ,judg4 xiv4 #ab1 #ag1 where it is spoken of as lasting seven days2 in the ,apocrypha we also have mention of it in ,tobit ix4 #a ff41 xii4 #a2 according to x4 #g it lasts fourteen days4 ,the ,chuppah1 i4e4 the canopy under which the bride and bridegroom stand during the wedding-ceremony1 is referred to in ,ps4 xix4 #e 7#f in ,hebr471 ,joel ii4 #af2 cp4 ,tobit vii4 #ad1 #ae4 ,the marriage procession is mentioned in #a ,macc4 ix4 #cg ff41 in connexion with it 8timbrels and minstrels0 are spoken of4 ,the only place in the ,old ,testament in which the ceremonial dance at a wedding is specifically referred to is in ,cant4 vi4 #ac 7vii4 #a in ,hebr472 this runs1 according to the ,r4,v4 rendering3 ,return1 return1 ,o ,shulammite2 ,return1 return1 that we may look upon thee4 ,why will ye look upon the ,shulammite1 ,as upon the dance of ,maanaim8 ,the passage may be explained in this way 7the justification for the interpretation will be given afterwards73 ,it is the beginning of the 8king's week02 the people are gathered to witness the sword-dance of the bride2 as she is the 8queen0 she is spoken of as the 8,shulammite0 7 8,shunammite07#cji because this was the type of a 8fair damsel0 7see #a ,kings i4 #c1 #d2 cp4 ,cant4 i4 #h1 v4 #i72 it is an honorific title conferred on brides during their 8queenship40 ,the people cry out to her3 8,turn1 turn10 i4e4 in her dance2 it is a word of encouragement1 they wish also to observe all her movements4 ,the bridegroom1 who is standing by1 is pleased at the favourable reception accorded to his bride1 and1 in oriental fashion1 asks them why they gaze upon this fair damsel who is dancing with a sword in her hand8 ,they reply1 as he expects them to1 with a song in praise of her beauty3 8,how beautiful are thy feet in sandals 4440 7vii4 #a ff471 i4e4 they begin with a reference to the dance she is performing before them1 to her step and other movements of her body4 ,the expression 8dance of ,maanaim#caj0 is applied to the dance because of the sword that is carried and waved about during its performance2 there is a warlike look about it1 hence the name war-dance or 8dance of hosts02 probably also the name contains a reference to the purpose for which the dance was performed2 to this we shall come in a moment4 ,now there can be little doubt but that this passage reflects the customs at weddings such as are to be seen at the present day among the ,syrian peasants who1 like the dwellers in the ,arabian ,desert1 have preserved their customs from time immemorial#caa4 ,a most interesting account of a wedding among the ,syrian peasants1 which throws a flood of light upon this difficult passage in ,canticles1 is recorded by ,wetzstein#cab2 the points which specially concern us may be briefly mentioned here4 ,when1 among these peasants1 the day of a wedding is fixed the neighbours gather at the village threshing-floor where the marriage takes place4 ,the bridegroom and bride are proclaimed king#cac and queen1 and are treated as such during the seven days after the wedding1 which are given up to dancing and feasting4 ,the throne of the 8royal0 pair is the threshing-sledge2 here they sit and watch the festivities during the 8king's week10 as these seven days are called4 ,the threshing-floor is the court of the king and queen4 ,it is in the evening of the wedding-day that the sword-dance takes place2 this is performed by the bride alone before the 8king0 and the assembled villagers4 ,the sword which the bride carries and brandishes during her dance is said to symbolize and proclaim the fact that she is prepared to defend herself from all unlawful approach from other suitors4 ,this explanation is probably not the original one2 for it is questionable whether among the ,syrian peasants this dance was always performed by the bride4 ,kremer describes a marriage1 for example1 in the neighbourhood of ,beirut1 at which during the wedding procession a sword-dance took place2 it was performed by two young men1 friends of the bridegroom2 they were very lightly clad in light-blue kumbz with white turban4 ,each held a small round shield made of hide and a sword2 they fought in rhythmic time1 smiting each other's shields1 and moving forward the whole time with the procession#cad4 ,among the ,bedouin ,arabs again1 according to ,doughty#cae1 a sword-dance forms one of the ceremonies at weddings2 here1 too1 it is performed by friends of the bridegroom4 ,this is also the case among the ,moslems in ,palestine#caf4 ,the object and meaning of this sword-dance1 by whomsoever performed1 is difficult to ascertain4 ,it is held1 and at first sight the contention seems partly justified1 that we have here a relic of the very ancient custom of marriage by capture2 but apart from the fact that the sword in the hand of the bride scarcely bears this out1 grave doubts exist as to whether there ever was such a custom#cag4 ,there are reasons for believing that this dance may originally have had a different purpose altogether4 ,the subject is far too large and intricate to go into here1 but ,crawley has shown by numerous examples that certain evil influences are supposed to be abroad at the time of marriages1 and that these have to be warded off by various means#cah4 ,to give but one or two of these examples3 8,amongst the ,bheels and ,bheelalahs the groom touches the #8marriage shed' with a sword40 ,this1 like the custom among the ,bechuanas of the bridegroom throwing an arrow into the hut before he enters to take his bride1 is done in order to scare away evil spirits or other harmful influences2 this is also the reason1 as ,crawley points out1 of the old ,roman custom of a bridegroom combing the bride's hair with a spear1 the coelibaris hasta4 ,so that it is quite conceivable that the sword-dance is a relic of the custom of warding off what are supposed to be invisible foes who gather around at the time of marriages#cai4 ,a dance of another kind1 but which may also be a relic of the same custom1 is mentioned by ,dalman as existing among the ,bedouin ,arabs4 ,when the bride comes into the house of the bridegroom she performs a dance in slow movement while holding a lighted candle in each hand with outstretched arms2 she turns in all directions so as to appear like a star#cbj4 ,a few details may now be given of the dance as a marriage rite among the ,jews of post-biblical times who have in innumerable ways kept up customs dating from time immemorial4 ,we are not thinking here1 any more than in the preceding examples1 of the ordinary dancing at weddings which invariably took place as an expression of festive enjoyment2 our concern is with ritual dances which1 originally at any rate1 had a specific and serious object1 justifying the epithet 8sacred0 being applied to them4 ,during the wedding procession through the streets it was customary for all who could do so to join in and dance in front of the bride1 who is spoken of as the 8queen02 this was done in her honour4 ,rabbi ,tarphon 7#bnd century ,a4,d471 we are told1 on one such occasion caused the bride to be brought into his house1 where she was bathed1 anointed1 and adorned by his mother and sister4 ,then he bade his pupils accompany her with songs and dances to the house of the bridegroom#cba4 ,rabbis of high repute danced in front of brides with myrtle-boughs in their hands4 ,it was also part of the marriage ceremony for a dance1 in which the dancers held myrtle-boughs in their hands1 to be performed in front of the bridal pair#cbb4 ,the perfume of the myrtle is mystically described as dispelling the odour of hell-fire2 though why there should be any danger of that odour during the marriage ceremony is not stated4 ,doubtless we have here an echo of the old-world conception mentioned above4 ,we are reminded of the same thing when we read that among the ,jews of ,egypt in the ,middle ,ages during the wedding procession the bride wore a helmet1 and1 with a sword in her hand1 led the procession with a dance#cbc4 ,it is possible that the same conception lies behind a custom noted among the ,jews of ,persia and elsewhere3 traces of the well-known stepping of the bride into seven circles towards the bridegroom appear in some forms of the ,jewish wedding service4 ,the ,jewish bridegroom was placed in the centre1 and the bride turned round him thrice4 ,or the bride and bridegroom were seated side by side1 and the assembled company danced round them#cbd4 ,an encircling dance had the purpose 7one among others1 according to circumstances7 of keeping off evil influences4 ,a different purpose lies behind the dance performed among the ,jews of the ,caucasus1 though the dancers are probably not conscious of it3 some days before the wedding three or four girls1 relatives of the bride1 put on her clothes and invite other girls to sleep in a special room with her4 ,toward evening the groom sends meat and rice-flour to the bride and her friends4 ,the latter go out and sprinkle the flour on the young people who dance while the boys and girls clap their hands#cbe4 ,this1 in all probability1 reflects an ancient rite1 in the nature of imitative magic1 for the purpose of ensuring a fruitful marriage4 ,a similar purpose may be discerned in another custom at ,jewish oriental weddings1 according to which the newly-married pair leapt thrice over a bowl of water in which a fish was swimming about#cbf4 ,among the ,jews of all ages1 then1 the sacred dance as a wedding ceremony had an important place1 and though its purposes may have been entirely forgotten1 the rite itself continued4 ,,ii ,a brief glance at some rites1 analogous to those just referred to1 as existing among some other peoples will not be without interest4 ,the idea of 8royalty0 attaching to the bridal pair is seen in ,morocco at the present day2 the bridegroom is looked upon and treated as a sultan1 and his bachelor friends act as his ministers 7wazara7#cbg4 ,among the ,malays the bride and bridegroom are called ,raja sari1 8the sovereigns of the day10 and 8it is a polite fiction that no command of their's1 during their one day of sovereignty1 may be disobeyed#cbh40 ,many similar examples could be given2 the underlying idea is that by a change of identity#cbi1--that it is purely fictitious is no matter--the dangers which are conceived of1 however vaguely1 as attending those about to be joined in marriage1 are mitigated4 ,westermarck says3 ,a very large number of marriage ceremonies spring from the feeling or idea that bride and bridegroom are in a state of danger1 and therefore stand in need of purification and of special protection against magical influences and evil spirits2 in this class of customs he includes dancing#ccj4 ,why dancing should be supposed to have this effect is another question to which1 presumably1 different answers will be given4 ,for our own part1 we are inclined to believe that at the bottom of it lies a connexion with the original idea and purpose of the sacred dance1 viz4 the imitation1 and therefore the pleasing1 of supernatural powers1 as already pointed out 7see p4 #bb72 not that there was necessarily any consciousness of this2 but from the earliest times dancing had had this purpose1 and the custom continued without a reason for it being assigned4 ,not but what the rite as a marriage ceremony may1 and doubtless did1 have other purposes as well2 but these may either have been superimposed1 or what is quite possible1 a different train of ideas gave rise to them4 ,but behind them all lay1 in the first instance1 this propitiatory act performed in honour of some supernatural power4 ,all festive dancing at weddings may be regarded as having originated from this4 ,to quote ,westermarck again3 ,ceremonies which once had a purpose may1 in course of time1 become entirely meaningless1 and yet continue to be practised2 and ceremonies may also be direct expressions of emotional states1 whether combined with a special purpose or not4 ,just as funeral rites and mourning observances1 even when they are intended to protect the survivors against the dead man's ghost or the contagion of death1 are very largely similar to or identical with natural expressions of sorrow or grief1 so the precautions taken at a wedding assume the shape of joyful performances1 such as dancing1 music1 singing444#cca4 ,among these ceremonies which have become entirely meaningless1 but are continued as a joyful or picturesque performance1 was the sword-dance referred to in the ,old ,testament4 ,this1 as we have already noticed1 is in all probability the relic of a rite which had the purpose of averting evil influences2 it was a more aggressive means of combating these1 the change of identity being a passive form serving the same purpose4 ,but as the sword-dance had this combative purpose1 any other weapon might have been equally efficacious2 indeed1 if1 as we have reason to suppose1 the sword-dance is but the latest form of a very ancient rite1 we should expect to find that in its more primitive forms other weapons would be employed1 for the sword was1 comparatively speaking1 a modern weapon4 ,so that while1 on the one hand1 e4g4 among the ,druses of ,syria1 the sword-dance figures as a necessary rite at weddings#ccb1 and among the ,moroccans the bridegroom carries a sword as long as the marriage ceremonies continue#ccc1 we find that in the ancient ,indian ritual the bride when formally presented to the bridegroom at the wedding ceremony places a whip or an arrow in his hand#ccd4 ,that in some cases the carrying or presenting the weapon is unaccompanied by the dance need cause no surprise2 they are but exceptions to the general rule1 and it is made up for afterwards4 ,an echo of the primitive rite is doubtless to be discerned among the ,malayans2 at a royal wedding a performance is given by dancing girls and fencers#cce2 and at ordinary weddings during the marriage procession there is dancing and fencing to the accompaniment of music and singing#ccf4 ,there are various other wedding ceremonies1 some accompanied by dancing and some not1 which originally had1 and often still have1 the purpose of counteracting malign influences at the time of marriage2 these influences are1 or rather were1 partly due to the belief in mysterious1 vaguely-conceived dangers which the sexes reciprocally ascribed to each other#ccg1 and partly to the strangeness of feeling generated by the knowledge that a new state of life was about to be entered upon which would bring about new experiences as regards oneself1 and new relationships as regarded others4 ,as to the former2 it is very likely that the 8,henna-dance10 which always takes place at weddings among the ,malays1 had the original purpose of counteracting the dangers alluded to1 e4g41 the evil eye1 possibly2 this dance takes its name from the ceremony of dabbing henna on the centre of the palm of the bride4 ,skeat1 in describing the dance1 says3 ,a picturesque feature of it is a small cake of henna1 which is contained in a brazen cup and surrounded by candles4 ,this cup is carried by the dancer who has to keep turning it over and over without letting the candles be extinguished by the wind arising from the rapid motion4 ,the step is called the 8,henna-dance step10 and the tune accompanying it is called the 8,henna-staining tune#cch40 ,doubtless this is an elaboration of the original form of the dance1 and a further purpose has been superimposed--the turning of the cup without extinguishing the candles may be differently explained1 though it must be a magical rite of some kind--but the henna on the palms certainly seems to point to a means of averting the evil eye4 ,as to the fears at entering upon a new state1 we may be pardoned for quoting ,westermarck once more1 for he is our foremost authority on the whole subject4 ,he writes3 ,a marriage implies not only that the parties enter into new relations to each other's people1 but very frequently that one of them1 through the change of domicile1 is actually transferred to the other one's family group4 ,and it implies other changes in the social grouping of people3 either party passes from one social class into another1 the bridegroom from the class of the bachelors to that of the married men1 the bride from the class of the girls to that of the married women4 ,this re-grouping also finds expression in the marriage ritual1 as when the hair of the bride is arranged in the fashion of married women1 or she ceremonially assumes the head-dress worn by them1 or when the bride dances first with the unmarried girls and then with the married women1 and the bridegroom first with the bachelors and then with the married men#cci4 ,here the dance is clearly in the nature of an initiatory ceremony into one class from another1 and it has the effect of familiarizing each party with the new status and condition2 it may1 therefore1 be regarded as serving a kind of prophylactic purpose4 ,this has taken us some way from the sword-dance2 but it all really arises from this2 for all that has been said points to the belief in the existence of undefined dangers in marriage1 and the means to counteract these2 and numberless other examples are available4 ,but our main point here is to show how frequently1 for whatever reasons1 the dance has a part to play in the rites performed4 ,,iii ,we take now a brief glance at one or two other wedding ceremonies in which the dance figures prominently4 ,we have seen that at ,harvest ,festivals dances were performed by some peoples for the purpose of making the crops grow4 ,either by leaping high during the dance1 or by the dancers personating the spirits of fertility1 or by dances of other kinds1 it was believed that the desired effect could be produced4 ,two ideas often coalesce in such dances3 that of a propitiatory act in honour of the god of fertility1 and that of an act of imitative magic2 but1 of course1 the two are not always or necessarily combined in the same dance4 ,the purpose of this type of dance1 however1 is not confined to that of ensuring good crops4 ,we are told1 for example1 that among the ,mandan ,indians on the occasion of their great annual festival1 a man acts the part of a buffalo bull in the buffalo dance1 8the object of which was to ensure a plentiful supply of buffaloes during the ensuing year#cdj40 ,to the same circle of ideas belongs that according to which a plentiful supply of fish can be procured by dancing#cda4 ,instances need not be multiplied4 ,it is evident that the belief was1 and probably still is1 widespread of dancing being the means of ensuring fertility4 ,now if this was so in regard to crops and animals1 may it not be possible that the same belief existed in regard to human beings8 ,even though the purpose might have been entirely forgotten the practice might still be continued4 ,it is conceivable that this idea1 though forgotten1 may underlie the ceremony of 8the cleaning of the wheat0 to be used at the wedding feast among the ,moroccans2 this is performed by married women and girls2 while some of them are cleaning the wheat others dance and sing1 keeping time by clapping their hands2 it is so necessary that the dancing should continue during the whole ceremony that when the dancers get tired others take their place#cdb4 ,among the same people the wazara 7see p4 #ahd7 perform a ceremonial dance in the house of the bride#cdc4 ,this may also have been the original purpose of the epithalamium among the ,greeks1 sung after the wedding feast in the evening before the door of the bridal chamber by a chorus of maidens who danced while they sang2 ,theocritus refers to this in his eighteenth ,idyll 78,the ,epithalamium of ,helen073 ,and so in ,sparta long ago the maids ,with blooming hyacinths their locks among1 ,within the halls of fair-haired ,menelaus ,before the newly-limnd bride chamber ,their dances set--twelve girls1 the city's pride1 ,the flower of ,lacedemon's maids1--what time ,the younger son of ,atreus wooed and won ,helen1 the darling child of ,tyndareus1 ,and took her to his bower4 ,in one accord ,they sang1 with measured beat and woven steps1 ,while loud the halls rang with the marriage-lay#cdd4 ,other instances of a similar character could easily be adduced4 ,the idea is not so fantastic as1 at first sight1 it may appear to some4 ,when we are dealing with things from the point of view of uncultured man we must not look for the laws of cause and effect to follow the course which would appeal to us4 ,he believes that he can put into motion the working of ,nature by means of his own devising2 and if he induce or assist the spirits of fertility in producing corn and buffaloes1 there is no reason why he should not by the same means assist them in quickening the child-bearing capacity of a woman4 ,many other examples could be given of the dance as a marriage rite1 but we must content ourselves with the few following references to it among peoples in very different parts of the world3 ,the ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 ,westermarck1 ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage1 ,i4 #deh f42 the natives of ,central ,africa1 ,miss ,alice ,werner1 ,the ,natives of ,british ,central ,africa1 p4 #aca 7#aijf72 the ,kayans of ,borneo1 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,north ,borneo1 ,i4 #aad f4 7#ahif72 the aborigines of ,australia1 ,howitt1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south ,eastern ,australia1 pp4 #bcc f41 #bde 7#aijd72 the natives of ,tahiti1 ,featherman1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #cc f42 the natives of ,new ,britain1 ,george ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #aaf 7#aiaj74 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,once only in the ,old ,testament is there mention of a ceremonial wedding dance1 though there are frequent references to other marriage customs4 ,we have to look in other directions for the meaning and purpose of this type of sacred dance4 ,from the custom among the ,bedouin ,arabs it seems that at their weddings the sword-dance forms one of the most important ceremonies2 and from this we may gather that the 8dance of ,maanaim10 mentioned in ,canticles1 was a similar sword-dance4 ,various considerations point to the probability of this sword-dance being a relic of the custom of warding off what were conceived to be malign influences at the times of weddings4 ,traces of the same old-world idea1 though1 of course1 entirely forgotten1 are to be discerned in some of the customs among the ,jews of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is possible that among them certain other ceremonies which were performed on these occasions had the object of ensuring a fruitful marriage4 ,very widely spread is the custom of calling the bridegroom and the bride 8king0 and 8queen10 and of treating them as a royal pair during the whole period of the wedding festivities4 ,the reason for this was originally that1 by means of change of identity1 the bridal pair might avoid the mysterious dangers which were supposed to be present4 ,the idea presumably was that a disguise puzzled the malign visitors so that they did not know on whom to vent their spleen4 ,it is evident that a similar purpose was served by the custom of substituting a mock bride for the real one1 or of bride and bridegroom being attended by one or more persons dressed up to resemble her or him2 ,crawley gives interesting illustrations of both customs#cde4 ,some other dances in connexion with the marriage ceremony are considered2 they have either the purpose of counteracting the evil influences already referred to2 or else1 as there are some reasons for believing1 they were supposed to ensure a fruitful marriage4 ,it is not to be expected that we should find any trace of these purposes in the ,old ,testament2 but the analogy of ,bedouin ,arab custom and that of the ,jews at later periods offers presumptive evidence that the customs existed among the ,israelites1 though their original purpose was entirely forgotten4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,dancing ,,as ,a ,,mourning ,,and ,,burial ,,rite ,i ,there is no instance to be found in the ,old ,testament of dancing being performed as a mourning or burial rite2 that must be acknowledged2 yet in spite of this there are strong reasons for believing that the custom did exist among the ,israelites4 ,the silence does not imply that the rite was not in vogue2 there are1 also1 sufficient reasons to account for the absence of reference to it4 ,in the first place1 excepting incidentally we should not necessarily expect it to be mentioned at all2 it was not a public rite2 if it had been one might conceivably have looked for some reference to it in the records1 supposing it to have been performed on some great or special occasion2 but as a private rite there was no reason for its being recorded in ,hebrew literature4 ,another reason for its not being mentioned is because its original significance and importance had1 it may be confidently asserted1 been forgotten2 like some other mourning and burial customs it would have been kept up for no other reason than that it had been handed down from time immemorial2 so that there was no point in speaking of it4 ,moreover1 in the case of some other ,israelite mourning customs there is only here and there incidental mention in the ,old ,testament1 although some of them were certainly very often practised1 e4g4 flute-playing1 laceration of the body 7modified later by the rending of the garment71 cutting off of the hair1 baring the feet1 covering the head1 the funeral feast2 it might easily have happened in the case of any one of these that the incidental mention had not occurred 7as1 indeed1 is the case with flute-playing72 but that silence would not have justified denial of its existence1 provided always that there were reasons for believing that it was practised4 ,now1 as we shall see1 in the case of dancing as a mourning or burial rite there are reasons for believing that it was in vogue among the ,israelites1 and that therefore the silence of the ,old ,testament is not in itself sufficient reason for denying that it existed among them4 ,there is a further potent reason for this custom never being mentioned3 its practice was incompatible with ,jahwe-worship1 because of its connexion with ,ancestor-worship1 and therefore the suppression 7supposing it had been mentioned7 of all reference to it would have been regarded as a sacred duty by the later redactors of the sacred text4 ,as is well known1 the ,old ,testament literature was subjected to such redactions in times when a full development in the direction of a more rigid insistence upon and a more emphatic declaration of monotheistic worship had taken place2 under these circumstances it would have been the most natural thing in the world for any reference to this rite in the sacred literature to have been deleted4 ,so that1 on this ground1 again1 the silence in the ,old ,testament regarding this mourning rite is no reason for denying that it existed4 ,but there are1 on the other hand1 positive grounds for the belief that it was in existence among the ,israelites3 ,if analogies count for anything 7and in the case of ancient customs1 and especially burial rites1 they are of the greatest importance71 then the fact that dancing as a mourning or burial rite either is1 or has been1 widespread among all kinds of peoples all over the world would suggest that the ,israelites practised it too4 ,there are a number of other mourning and burial rites common to the races of antiquity 7including the ,israelites7 and to the uncultured races of the present day#cdf2 if dancing formed an exception to these1 being practised by all excepting the ,israelites1 there would have to be some very special reason assigned for this2 but it is evident that such reason is not forthcoming4 ,another reason which suggests the probability of dancing as a mourning rite among the ,israelites is that it was a natural concomitant to flute-playing1 which1 as we know from the ,new ,testament1 was a very usual mourning rite2 the two belong together1 and where the one was in vogue it is reasonable to suppose that the other was not wanting4 ,this applies1 of course1 to early times2 it is always possible that with the development of religious ideas an antique custom may be modified1 or even fall into disuse2 in the present case neither the dancing nor the flute-playing fell into disuse until well into the ,christian era 7indeed1 the former is still performed71 but a modification of the custom took place in so far that they were not necessarily performed at the same time4 ,then we have this further reason3 it will be seen1 when we come to consider the objects of dancing as a mourning rite1 that they involve beliefs which seem to be common to man during some stages in his cultural and religious development4 ,it is difficult to suppose that what had been characteristic of man generally should not have been so in the case of the ,israelites4 ,we touch upon this point again later4 ,but1 finally1 the strongest reason for believing that this custom was in vogue among the ancient ,israelites is that it exists at the present day4 ,such things as mourning and burial customs are never innovations2 modifications may arise1 as we have just said2 a custom may fall into disuse and be discontinued altogether2 but when a rite is practised at the present day1 it is not a new thing1 but has a long history behind it4 ,regarding the particular example to be given presently it is known to go back at any rate to the beginning of the ,christian era2 but it is safe to say that it must be vastly older than that in reality2 for of all customs none are so tenacious as those which have to do with mourning and burial1 for they touch men at a very sensitive spot4 ,if at any time such a custom as we are thinking of is known to have existed1 or to exist now1 it may be taken for granted that1 as a matter of fact1 it goes back to very much earlier1 indeed to prehistoric1 times4 ,that much may be safely gathered from what we know of the customs of savage man and the way in which so many of them are still existent in modified forms4 ,so that since1 at the least1 something corresponding to the sacred dance as a mourning rite is still in vogue among some of the ,jews1 it is hardly too much to say that that ipso facto proves its existence among their ,hebrew ancestors in days gone by4 ,one other consideration may be urged4 ,it must be allowed that the number of words found in the ,old ,testament for dancing is significant4 ,when we know that dancing on various religious occasions formed an important element1 as shown in the preceding chapters1 the presumption is strong that it occurred also during the very solemn period of mourning4 ,it may1 then1 be contended that the cumulative effect of these arguments justifies the belief that the sacred dance as a mourning or burial rite was well known to1 and practised by1 the ancient ,israelites1 and that the silence of the ,old ,testament upon the subject is no reason to doubt this4 ,,ii ,among the ,jews 7both ,ashkenazic and ,sephardic7 the sacred dance as a burial rite is known to have been in existence during the ,christian era4 ,during the ,talmudic period 7i4e4 ,a4,d4 #ejj and following centuries7 it was customary1 and is still1 on occasion1 for a laudatory speech to be made in the case of men either at the burial or afterwards4 ,such speeches were accompanied by what must be regarded as the remnant of some form of dance2 while they were being delivered the mourners kept up a monotonous1 but rhythmical1 stamping of the feet2 this was not applause1 being too regular and incessant2 it must be regarded as a means of giving vent to the emotions1 just as the dance in the ordinary sense was4 ,its origin may have been1 judging from parallels among other peoples1 a sacred dance in honour of the deceased1 which in course of time took this stereotyped and mechanical form4 ,the word used is raqa which occurs also in the ,old ,testament for the stamping of feet 7#b ,sam4 xxii4 #dc1 ,ezek4 vi4 #aa71 though in neither case is there the slightest suggestion of dancing2 but1 as we have said1 it is only to be regarded as a remnant of the earlier custom1 not in itself a dance4 ,the fact that it was done collectively by the mourners is a point of significance1 for from what we know of funeral dances among other peoples such collective action was usual4 ,not but that individuals expressed their emotions in their own way1 too2 for we read1 for example1 of mourners being often carried away by the intensity of their feelings and acting in an extravagant way1 tearing off their sandals and beating themselves with them2 women were known during a funeral procession to jump on to the coffin4 ,compared with such things a dance in honour of a respected relative deceased would be a decorous proceeding4 ,and when we remember that dancing was performed as an act of honour to the deity1 a similar means of showing respect to a greatly loved and honoured person at his funeral is not so out of the question as it might seem at first4 ,krauss says that at funerals1 in all probability1 both men and women performed dances fitting to the occasion2 and they certainly gesticulated with hands and fingers4 ,he gives a concrete instance of a woman dancing before the picture of her dead son2 8a proceeding not unheard of during funeral processions#cdg02 the word used is rqad1 on which see above1 p4 #df4 ,again1 the ,sephardic ,jews 7i4e4 ,spanish and ,portuguese7 have retained some ancient elements in their worship and ritual which have disappeared among the ,ashkenazim1 who include the bulk of the ,jews4 ,a notable instance of this is the procession round the corpse at burials4 ,circumambulation1 a processional march round an object1 cannot in its origin be distinguished from the encircling dance1 for in many cases the purpose of the rite is the same4 ,nor can it be doubted that all such circumambulations are modifications of earlier forms1 in which the less restrained emotions of men in an earlier and lower stage of civilization required the more exuberant outlet afforded by a dance-step of the more literal kind4 ,it is said that 8dancing and procession are sometimes confused terminologically1 a result partly due to the existence of processional dances1 or the enlivening of a procession by the dance#cdh02 but whatever may be the case terminologically1 there can be no confusion between the two essentially1 for they present two modes of emotional expression1 comparable with the ordinary religious dance and the ecstatic dance4 ,therefore there is justification for regarding the ,sephardic processions round the corpse at funerals as the modification or remnant of a ceremony which was originally performed in a less controlled manner4 ,the original meaning of the rite has of course been forgotten long since2 but1 as so often happens1 the rite itself1 or some modification of it1 is still kept up4 ,it is the custom at the burial of ,sephardic ,jews for the mourners to make seven circuits round the bier during which seven short supplications are chanted or monotoned1 each supplication concluding with the words3 8,and continually may he walk in the land of life1 and may his soul rest in the bond of life#cdi40 ,it is interesting to note that this ,sephardic rite can be paralleled by something similar among other peoples4 ,its purpose will be considered later4 ,the custom seems to have been well-known as early as the time of ,homer2 in the ,iliad 7,,xxiii4 #ac7 the circumambulation round the corpse of ,patroclus is described4 ,again1 we read that five hundred disciples went in procession round the funeral pyre of ,buddha1 in consequence of which the pyre kindled spontaneously#cej4 ,d',alviella refers to the ,latin poet ,statius's description of the funeral rites celebrated in honour of the son of ,lycurgus2 among these was included a threefold procession round the funeral pyre#cea4 ,when the ,argonauts in the poem of ,apollonius ,rhodius buried their dead comrade ,mopsus1 they marched round him thrice in their warrior-gear4 ,so among the populations of ,india which practise cremation1 the son or other relative who lights the pyre walks thrice round it4 ,the custom of walking round the corpse1 or the grave1 after burial1 is recorded of peoples as far apart in space and culture as the ,central ,eskimo1 the ,russian ,tapps1 the ,buriats1 the ,shans1 and the ,arwaks of ,british ,guiana#ceb4 ,at ,chinese burials1 after the body has been placed in the tomb1 the mourners join hands and perform a sort of merry-go-round about the tomb2 they repeat this three days later#cec4 ,the ,irish1 even at the present day1 when burying their dead1 move in procession1 sometimes three times1 but at least once1 round the grave-yard1 accompanying the coffin#ced4 ,this must1 in all probability1 be a modification of an earlier form of the rite in which the mourners went round the coffin itself2 unless this be regarded as a continuation of the funeral procession itself2 but1 generally speaking1 the particular custom of which we are thinking is quite distinct from the funeral procession4 ,from these instances of a modification of the sacred dance as a mourning rite we turn now to some in which the dancing is performed in the more literal sense4 ,,iii ,among the ,arabs at the present day1 and doubtless the rite in one form or another goes back to times of antiquity1 the women and the young girls1 when on their way to the place of mourning1 make two circles by holding hands and dance what is called the ,raa dance2 while dancing they sing3 ,the ,almighty1 the ,almighty1 gives and takes2 ,the path to the place of mourning ,i desire not for myself444#cee4 ,although other instances among the ,arabs exist1 they are not numerous4 ,but as to other ,semitic peoples we have been unable to discover examples4 ,on the other hand1 there is a considerable amount of evidence regarding its existence among the ,egyptians1 both ancient and modern4 ,in respect of the former this occurs mainly on inscriptions1 so that it is graphic as well as informing4 ,on one of these there is a representation of the ceremony of mourning in the chamber of the dead2 harp-players1 singers1 and dancers appear as taking part in the ceremonies#cef4 8,the sculptures and paintings of the xviii-xx dynasties10 says ,flinders ,petrie#ceg1 8show many scenes of funeral dances2 usually one woman held a tambourine aloft and beat out a rhythm on it1 while others danced round4 ,exactly this dance may be seen now when parties of women go up to the cemeteries a fortnight or a month after a funeral2 an old negress is often the drummer1 and the party stop every few hundred yards along the road for a dance40 ,at the 8,feast of ,eternity0 dancing always took place in honour of the dead2 dancing men headed the procession in which the statue of the departed was borne4 ,the step was rhythmic and slow1 the arms being raised over the head during the dancing and the inside of the hands being turned upwards4 ,another position was that of stretching the right arm slantingwise upwards while the left arm was placed on the back4 ,behind the men three or four women follow1 singing#ceh4 ,in an inscription on a tomb at ,benihassan there is a representation of dances at the funeral festival of the monarch ,chnomhtep1 of the period of the twelfth dynasty2 the dancing is performed by women very slightly clad4 ,funeral processions were always accompanied by women dancing and singing#cei4 ,in a grave near the royal tombs of ,abydos1 belonging to the first dynasty 7before #ejjj ,b4,c47 ,flinders ,petrie found a curved wand1 ending in a ram's horn1 used for beating time in dancing#cfj4 ,there can be little doubt that this was used during the performance of the funeral dance4 ,as already pointed out1 this rite is still to be seen among the modern ,egyptians4 ,lane gives the following interesting description of it3 ,it is customary among the peasants of ,upper ,egypt for the female relations and friends of a person deceased to meet together by his house on each of the first three days after the funeral1 and there to perform a lamentation and a strange kind of dance4 ,they daub their faces and bosoms1 and part of their dress1 with mud2 and tie a rope-girdle1 generally made of the coarse grass called 8halfa10 round the waist#cfa4 ,each flourishes in her hand a palm-stick1 or a nebboot 7a long staff71 or a spear1 or a drawn sword1 and dances with a slow movement1 and in an irregular manner1 generally pacing about1 and raising and depressing the body4 ,this dance is continued for an hour or more1 and is performed twice or three times in the course of the day4 ,after the third day the women visit the tomb1 and place upon it their rope-girdles2 and usually a lamb1 or a goat1 is slain there1 as an expiatory sacrifice1 and a feast is made on this occasion#cfb4 ,whether the performers of this dance know the purpose and meaning of it or not now is not stated2 but there can be little doubt1 knowing what we do of the object of similar dances on similar occasions among other peoples1 that it had originally a twofold purpose1 though these have now been amalgamated in one rite4 ,in the first place1 it was performed as an act of honour to the departed2 this would have been more appropriately done on the occasion of offering the sacrifice at the tomb2 probably at one time this was the procedure4 ,but it had the further object of combating the evil spirits which were usually supposed to gather in the vicinity of a corpse1 hence the palm-stick1 etc42 this would be done on behalf of the spirit of the departed as well as of the mourners2 the daubing of mud on faces and bosoms was by way of protection against the evil spirits1 for it acted as a disguise4 ,there are cases on record in which it is the angry spirit of the deceased himself who is feared and against whom protective measures are taken2 but in the example before us the fact that a lamentation is made rather points to the spirit of the deceased not being feared4 ,this custom among the modern ,moslems of ,egypt may be supplemented by one or two examples of something similar among some heathen inhabitants of another part of ,egypt4 ,in writing about the ,lattuka tribe of negroes in the ,egyptian ,soudan ,frobenius says that dances are performed in honour of the dead1 and he gives ,baker's description of this mourning rite4 ,the dancers are decorated in the most extraordinary manner1 doubtless as a special mark of respect for the departed4 ,about a dozen enormous ostrich feathers were stuck into the head-dress of each dancer2 hanging down from the shoulder was either the skin of a leopard1 or of a monkey2 around the loins of every dancer was a broad piece of leather which concealed a large bell attached to the waist2 these bells sounded during the dancing4 ,further1 each dancer had the horn of an antelope hanging down from his neck1 and whenever a high pitch of excitement was reached these horns were blown1 whereby a sound was produced which might be described as a combination of the 8hee-haw0 of a donkey and the hooting of an owl4 ,this was diversified every now and then by a circle-dance in which the women joined in with the men2 this part of the performance was done by the whole company following a leader2 it is described as a 8,hell-gallop40 ,the women1 who otherwise danced separated from the men1 were led by one of their number who was exceedingly fat2 but in spite of this physical handicap the brave old lady persevered in the dance right to the end4 ,children also took part in the rite#cfc4 ,the same custom1 though differently carried out1 is in vogue among the ,makarak tribe who also belong to the ,egyptian ,soudan4 ,ceremonial dances are performed round their slain enemies by the ,dinka tribe1 inhabiting the same country4 ,in the case of the ,lattuka tribe it is clear that the rite had again a dual purpose2 they dressed themselves and danced in honour of the deceased1 while the bell-ringing and horn-blowing would have effectively scared away the evil spirits2 the more excited part of the dance may also well have been a means of frightening away unwelcome visitors from the spirit-world4 ,the dance of the ,dinkas round their slain enemies may have one of two objects4 ,such dances are undoubtedly at times intended to be a coaxing of the slain not to be angry at having been killed2 the dance is meant to soothe them because it is done in their honour1 and therefore their spirits1 it is thought1 will not harm the slayers4 ,on the other hand1 an encircling dance of this kind round enemies may have the purpose of preventing the spirits of the slain from getting abroad2 the magic circle keeps them in1 and thus harm is averted4 ,,iv ,the religious dance among the ,greeks and ,romans played1 as we have seen1 a very important part4 ,we should1 therefore1 naturally expect to find it figuring also among customs connected with mourning and burial4 ,and there is clear evidence that this was the case#cfd4 ,among them dancing as a mourning or burial rite was included in funeral processions and funeral games#cfe4 ,all three1 dancing1 processions1 and games1 belong together4 ,but it was during the funeral feast1 which formed the conclusion to the mourning ceremonies1 that the dance figured most prominently4 ,illustrations of this dance as a mourning rite are given in ,daremberg and ,saglio1 ,,ii4 #hdh1 #ache1 who write thus3 ,ces repas funbres taient accompagns de danse4 ,il semble mme que ces danses taient quelquefois excutes part1 avec plus de solennit et par un personnel plus nombreux4 ,dans la ,grotta del ,trichinio ,corneto elles se droulent sur deux parois entires de la tombe2 la scne se passe en plein air1 sous les arbres o voltigent des oiseaux2 dix danseurs s'y dmnent en cadence2 les hommes alternant aves les femmes1 quelques-uns jouant de la lyre1 de la flte1 ou des castagnettes4 ,parfois mme ces danses donnaient bien des concours2 sur un bas-relief de ,chiusi on voit1 droite1 un groupe de pyrrhichistes et un musicien jouant de la double flte2 gauche les juges sur une estrade#cff4 ,the ancient ,roman funeral procession was accompanied by musicians1 singers1 dancers and pantomimists#cfg4 ,among funeral processions that of the ancient ,roman nobiles is remarkable4 ,the dead man was accompanied by all his ancestors1 represented by persons resembling them in form and stature and wearing wax portrait masks 7imagines7#cfh4 ,these imagines maiorum stood in the alae of the atrium of the houses of ,roman nobles2 they were brought out and carried in the funeral procession4 ,the origin of this strange custom has been explained by ,o4 ,benndorf4 ,just as1 according to antique belief1 the dead lived on in the grave1 which was1 therefore1 made into a kind of dwelling-place for them1 so1 it was believed1 that by producing the likenesses of those who inhabited this dwelling-place1 it was possible to keep in touch with their personalities#cfi4 ,hence the setting-up of the imagines in the atrium4 ,when they were brought out to accompany the recently departed in the funeral procession1 it meant that his ancestors were actually following his body4 ,the descriptions which have come down to us are in reference to public funerals1 or those of the wealthier classes who could afford to pay for sumptuous burials of an ostentatious character2 but there is reason to believe that among the less well-to-do the same rites1 though on a far more modest scale1 were observed2 for it has been rightly remarked that all periods of the history of ,roman burial are unified by the belief in the continued existence of the dead1 and in his ghostly participation in the life of the family and the community1 and by the consequent scrupulous care about proper burial1 and the maintenance of right relations with the spirits of dead ancestors4 ,the quick and the dead of ancient ,rome were in a more than usually intimate communion#cgj4 ,the sacred dance1 as a mark of honour to the deceased1 is therefore not likely to have been neglected among the poor any more than among the rich4 ,v ,we come now to consider some examples of dancing as a mourning or burial rite among some of the savage and semi-civilized peoples4 ,what will strike us here as strange are the contradictory ideas regarding the purpose of the rite2 but it is just these opposing ideas that will be found to be so instructive4 ,various customs in existence at the present day among civilized peoples are explained in the light of the ideas and practices now to be considered4 ,there is no doubt that the object of this rite among uncivilized races which is most common now is the honouring of the departed2 but it is probably true to say that this represents the latest development regarding its purpose1 and that the other reasons for which it was performed take us back to earlier stages of the growth of savage thought regarding the departed4 ,we will begin by offering examples of this most developed idea and purpose of the rite4 ,in writing of the ,kol tribes of ,chota ,nagpur who are remarkable for their pathetic reverence for their dead1 ,tylor says3 ,when a ,ho or ,munda has been burned on the funeral pile1 collected morsels of his bones are carried in procession with a solemn1 ghostly1 sliding step1 keeping time to the deep-sounding drum1 and when the old woman who carries the bones in her bamboo tray lowers it from time to time1 then girls who carry pitchers and brass vessels mournfully reverse them to show that they are empty2 thus the remains are taken to visit every house in the village1 and every dwelling of a friend or a relative for miles1 and the inmates come out to mourn and praise the goodness of the departed4 ,the bones are carried to all the dead man's favourite haunts1 to the fields he cultivated1 to the grove he planted1 to the threshing-floor where he worked1 to the village dance-room where he made merry4 ,at last they are taken to the grave1 and buried in an earthen vase upon a store of food444#cga4 ,it is clear that the departed spirit is believed in some way to remain in the vicinity of the bones1 or possibly to be inside them2 and this reminds one of the quaint belief of life residing in the bones which occurs in the ,old ,testament#cgb4 ,in the case before us honour1 affection1 and solicitude are shown1 and felt1 for the departed3 honour1 in being borne in procession1 which is performed rhythmically with a particular kind of step so that it must be regarded as coming under the category of the sacred dance2 affection1 because of the kind thought in taking him to the spots he loved2 and solicitude1 in that he is supplied with food4 ,it is with the first of these that we are particularly concerned just now2 and here is another illustration of it1 also in ,india1 but this time among the ,musulmans2 it is not strictly speaking a mourning rite1 but it is an honorific ceremony for the departed and may therefore be appropriately given4 ,during the ,muharram#cgc ,festival in ,india one of the ceremonies is the parading of the standard of the martyr ,qsim4 ,he is one of the sacred bridegrooms1 for at the age of ten he was betrothed to ,ftima1 daughter of ,husain1 and was slain in battle4 ,his standard is carried by a man on horseback1 who is followed by girls dancing in his honour1 and singing elegies while beating their breasts4 ,during another part of this festival there is the dance of ,bharang1 or 8foolish chatterer02 his whole body is smeared with red ochre mixed with water2 his head is covered with a shawl1 and a small flag is attached to it4 ,on his legs he carries tinkling bells1 and during his dance he cries out3 8,ali1 ali1 ali1 zang#cgd60 ,this is all done in honour of the departed saint4 ,it is not a hazardous surmise to suggest that we have here an example of an adaptation of a rite millenniums older than its present form2 and its oldest element is1 in all probability1 the sacred dance4 ,the ,bharang1 with bells1 paint1 and disguise represents a development to which reference will be made again below4 ,dances in honour of the departed are recorded of the ,conibos of the ,ucayali river in ,eastern ,peru who1 on certain occasions1 perform them on the graves of the deceased#cge2 also among the ,maoris#cgf4 ,the inhabitants of ,dutch ,new ,guinea dance round the images of their departed on various festal occasions4 ,again1 at the funeral feast among the ,gilbert islanders dancing and singing is performed in honour of the dead2 wailing is also included in these mourning rites#cgg4 ,it is also an important mourning rite among the ,melanesians#cgh4 ,similarly among the inhabitants of ,british ,new ,guinea a high festival is held in honour of the departed at which a great dance takes place2 all the dancers are arranged in full dancing costume1 including heavy head-dresses of feathers1 and they carry drums and spears1 sometimes also clubs and adzes4 ,the dance lasts the whole night#cgi4 ,in ,new ,britain1 too1 the ,sulka1 a tribe dwelling to the south of the ,gazelle ,peninsula1 dance in honour of their dead at a funeral feast#chj4 ,an interesting account1 together with an illustration1 of the ,maquarri dance among the ,arwaks1 one of the ,indian tribes of ,guiana1 is given by ,w4 ,h4 ,brett#cha2 this is danced in honour of the departed4 ,it is called the ,maquarri dance from the 8whip10 more than three feet long1 which is waved about during the dance by each dancer2 with it the dancers lash each other's legs until the blood flows2 the whips have a sort of sacred character among the natives4 ,it is the flowing of the blood which is now supposed to be pleasing to the dead2 but it is pretty certain that this is a development2 at one time the dance would have been considered as all-sufficient4 ,once more1 among the ,north ,american ,indians the funeral dance is performed at the grave when a sacrifice is made for the dead2 the dancing is done round the grave and is accompanied by drum-playing and singing#chb4 ,a similar rite is practised by the ,bondas of ,guinea#chc1 and among the aborigines of ,northern ,australia#chd4 ,a case of particular interest is that of the dance of the ,tami inhabitants2 for while this is in honour of the dead1 a further idea regarding the departed appears in connexion with it which leads on to another purpose of this mourning rite4 ,the people of ,tami1 an island in the ,indian archipelago1 belong to the ,melanesian stock2 when they mourn for their dead the whole village takes part in the lamentation2 the women dance death-dances in honour of the dead person while the men make preparations for the burial4 ,now these people1 like many others1 believe that when anyone has died the ghosts of his dead kinsfolk gather in the village1 and are joined by the ghosts of other dead people2 these ghosts may or may not be friendly inclined towards the living2 but in case they are not1 the people of the village take care not to leave the dancing mourners alone1 they remain close at hand to help in case of need4 ,this belief in the vicinity of the ghosts of the dead is further illustrated by these ,tami islanders1 for they have regular dancing seasons during which they dance round men disguised as familiar spirits2 true1 the dance 8consists of little more than running round and round in a circle1 with an occasional hop#che10 but it is essentially a dance1 and its essence is more important than its form4 ,this is a case of personating the departed in the dance2 and the idea seems to be that by doing so a proof is given that the departed are really still living and that their personality is imparted1 for the time being1 to the dancers4 ,something quite similar is found among the ,pulu islanders1 in the ,torres ,straits2 the performers dance in pairs1 personating the deceased1 for this ceremony is sometimes performed for a number of recently deceased people at once2 according to ,haddon the idea evidently was to convey to the mourners the assurance that the ghost was alive1 and that in the person of the dancer he visited his friends2 the assurance of his life after death comforted the bereaved ones#chf4 ,if it be asked why this personating of the deceased should be accompanied by dancing1 the answer probably is that as dancing was the most usual way of honouring the departed1 it would be thought of as the most efficacious means of attracting them4 ,the ,sioux1 another ,north ,american ,indian tribe1 also performed dances at graves as a mourning rite1 for they believed that in doing so they were1 in some undefined way1 joined by the departed in this dance#chg4 ,it is very likely that the common custom of dances at funeral feasts originally had a similar object4 ,among the ,esquimaux1 for example1 there are always dances at the funeral feasts1 the dead are invited in song to come to the feast2 offerings of food are made to them1 and they feast and dance together with the living4 ,at their great festival of the dead1 which is held every few years1 the dances are an important feature4 ,the dancers dance on the graves1 and on the ice if the deceased met their death by drowning#chh4 ,here we seem to have the purposes separately2 the dancing at the funeral feasts is a joining together with the departed1 the dancing on the graves is in their honour4 ,a very different purpose of the dance as a mourning rite next claims attention4 ,that it sometimes has the object of appeasing the wrath of the departed1 i4e4 of their ghosts1 is shown1 for instance1 by the fact that when among the inhabitants of ,timor1 an island in the ,east ,indies1 a head-hunter returns home after a successful expedition1 sacrifices are offered to the man who has lost his head2 and part of the ceremony consists of a dance accompanied by a song in which the death of the slain man is lamented and his forgiveness is entreated4 8,be not angry10 they say1 8because your head is here with us2 had we been less lucky our heads might now have been exposed in your village4 ,we have offered the sacrifice to appease you4 ,your spirit may now rest and leave us at peace#chi40 ,but even among friends there are cases in which the ghost of the deceased is annoyed and has to be kept in the grave so that the surviving relatives may not be molested by it2 and the dance figures as part of the ceremony4 ,thus1 among the ,arunta of ,central ,australia as a finale to the mourning period the people gather on the spot where the deceased died1 viz4 the site where he once lived and which is now burnt and deserted4 ,here the men and women dance round the charred remains1 the men beating the air with their spears1 the women doing likewise with the palms of their hands and all shouting ,wah6 ,wah6 ,wah6 wa-a-ah6 ,this1 we take it1 is done to drive off both the ghost of the deceased and any evil spirits which may be lurking about the unhallowed spot4 ,when the dancing1 the description continues1 which lasted about ten minutes1 was over1 the party proceeded to the grave at a run1 the leader making a circuit from the main party1 shouting wildly with a very prolonged intonation1 ,ba-au6 ,ba-au6 ,the idea of the leading man making a circuit was1 perhaps1 though the natives could give no explanation1 to prevent the spirit from doubling back to the camp from which they were supposed to be driving him4 ,when he reached the grave1 into which the spirit of the dead man was supposed to have fled1 he began dancing wildly upon it4 ,he was soon joined by the rest of the party who began to dance backwards and forwards on and around the grave1 shouting ,wah6 ,wah6 and beating the air downwards as if to drive the spirit down1 while with their feet they stamped upon and broke the twigs with which a newly made grave is always covered4 ,when these were thoroughly broken up the dancing ceased#cij4 ,it must be confessed that the dancing here seems quite out of place1 and yet there can be no doubt that it forms an integral part of the ceremonies4 ,there seems to be something so entirely incongruous in scaring the ghost away by shouting at it and beating him down into his grave1 and yet dancing on and around the grave which is so very frequently a mark of honour to the dead4 ,the explanation is probably to be sought in the fact of the retention of a traditional custom concurrently with a later one which arose in consequence of the birth of new ideas regarding the activity of the spirits of the departed4 ,we get a similar intermingling of rites among the ,tarahumares of ,mexico whose funeral ceremonies include the dance1 though the object of the dance1 in what is presumably a new form as compared with the original and traditional one1 is the driving away of the ghost of the deceased4 ,they have three funeral feasts2 the first takes place a fortnight after the death1 the second six months1 and the last some months after that4 ,at each of these feasts an important element is the ceremony of the hikuli dance4 ,the hikuli is the sacred cactus1 which is soaked in water and this is sprinkled over the dancers4 ,the hikuli is supposed to drive away the ghost of the departed#cia4 ,here again the original custom of the dance performed in honour of the departed is retained1 and there is added to it a further rite because in course of time new beliefs regarding the activity of the spirits of the departed had arisen2 these beliefs were in reference to the possibility of anger on the part of the spirits because of their being cut off from their usual mode of life and taken away from their familiar haunts2 they might be envious of those who were left1 and might show their envy by harming the living4 ,it became necessary1 therefore1 to devise means to counter these evil intentions by driving away the ghost of the departed4 ,what these means were we know in many cases1 but why particular means were chosen1 such as the hikuli1 or why they should be supposed to drive the spirit away is a matter of savage philosophy1 and not always possible to penetrate4 ,it must be evident1 however1 that the idea of driving away a ghost1 together with the rite whereby this is effected1 is subsequent in time to the simple rite of dancing in honour of the departed1 because while this latter does not involve any theory as to the activity of spirits1 the former obviously points to speculations on the subject4 ,and as we have already said1 the explanation of the incongruity of the two rites1 as seen in the examples given1 is to be sought in the retention of the earlier traditional rite concurrently with a later one which arose in consequence of the birth of new ideas regarding the activity of the spirits of the departed4 ,it is probable that a further step in the development of ideas regarding this activity is to be discerned in the belief that the spirit of the departed is joined by others who share with him his resentment against the living2 and for safety the mourners disguise themselves1 and1 possibly1 the dance then assumes a different purpose1 namely1 that of frightening the spirits away4 ,this is said to be the purpose with which some of the tribes of ,northern ,india dance at burials#cib2 and the dance of the ,bharang1 disguised1 to which reference was made above1 points1 perhaps1 to the same thing2 so also the custom of the inhabitants of the ,aaru archipelago4 ,among them1 when a member of the family dies1 all the women leave the house with their hair hanging loose1 to wail upon the shore2 they tumble over one another head over heels in a strange kind of dance1 and smear their bodies with dirt and mud#cic4 ,,summary ,,and ,,considerations ,although in the ,old ,testament there is no mention of dancing as a mourning or burial rite1 there are strong grounds for believing that it was practised4 ,no customs are more tenacious than those which are concerned with the dead1 and since some other mourning customs1 known to have been in existence among the ,hebrews1 are not referred to in the ,old ,testament1 the non-mention of this one is no reason for supposing that it was not practised4 ,that the religious leaders looked upon this1 as well as various other rites performed in connexion with the dead1 as heathenish and superstitious1 would of itself account for the silence of the ,old ,testament on the subject4 ,the positive grounds for believing in its existence among the ,israelites are3 its very widespread vogue among different races all over the world2 the object1 or objects1 for which it was performed1 which involved beliefs regarding the departed common to all races during some stages of their cultural and religious development2 and most important of all1 its existence1 though in a modified form1 at the present day4 ,evidence is forthcoming of the rite among the ,jews in post-,christian times4 ,circumambulation round a corpse1 which is in the nature of the sacred dance1 was known and practised among the ,greeks as early as the time of ,homer1 who mentions it2 other examples are also recorded4 ,the rite is in vogue among the ,arabs to this day who dance in circles on their way to the place of mourning2 it is performed by women and young girls4 ,much evidence is forthcoming as to its practice among the ,egyptians1 both ancient and modern1 of which various examples are given above4 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans dancing as a mourning or burial rite was included in funeral processions and funeral games2 one of the most curious customs being that of the presence of the imagines maiorum1 or images of ancestors1 in the ,roman funeral processions of the nobility1 who were thus believed to follow the dead body of their descendant to the grave4 ,that a meeting between the recently deceased and his ancestors was believed to take place in the tomb we may well conceive2 it would be precisely parallel to the ,israelite belief expressed by the phrase of being gathered to one's fathers#cid4 ,it was1 however1 during the funeral feast that dancing1 in the more literal sense of the word1 figured most prominently4 ,the sacred dance as a mourning or as a burial rite among uncivilized peoples plays an important part4 ,among them the objects of the rite are not only various1 but contradictory2 chief among these is1 however1 that of giving honour to the departed4 ,a few examples1 of very many1 have been considered4 ,they are taken from peoples in lands as widely spread as ,india1 ,north ,america1 ,south ,america1 ,central ,america1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,new ,guinea1 ,guiana1 the ,indian archipelago1 and the ,torres ,straits2 and it would be easy to offer further instances from many other countries4 ,taking these as a whole1 they point indubitably to the fact that this rite was1 and is1 usually performed as an act of honour to the deceased4 ,this represents1 we believe1 its final development1 so far as intention is concerned2 there are cases of its continuance in which probably no purpose could be assigned for its performance other than that of traditional use4 ,from this point of view we shall not be far wrong in regarding the rite as a remnant of ancestor-worship2 the ,roman custom of carrying the imagines maiorum in the funeral procession is clear evidence of this4 ,the other purposes for which it was performed betray a far less developed outlook2 and the fact that they exist side by side with that of the more rational object of honouring the dead offers but another illustration of a world-wide phenomenon1 to be observed even among the most civilized peoples1 viz4 that more or less primitive ideas can be held on some things in conjunction with advanced thought on others4 ,by personating the deceased in the mourning dance it is believed by some that he can be induced to return to his friends and dance with them1 greatly to the comfort of the relatives4 ,the idea is about on a level with the ,roman belief in the presence of a man's ancestors1 when their images are carried in the funeral procession4 ,but the same rite can1 among others1 have the purpose of protecting the survivors from the spirit of the deceased2 he is sometimes supposed to be annoyed at having been forcibly taken away from his familiar haunts1 and lest he should vent his angry feelings on his relatives1 they either dance to scare him away1 or else propitiate him by various means4 ,another purpose of the rite is for the survivors to protect both themselves and their departed friend from the malice of other departed spirits who are believed to congregate in the vicinity of a corpse2 in this case the dance is accompanied by sundry noises4 ,a variation of this is the dance round the corpse1 whether by way of perambulation or dancing in the more literal sense4 ,the magic circle thus formed keeps away unwelcome spirit-visitors4 ,but this may have another purpose2 it may possibly be a means of 8keeping in0 the spirit of the deceased1 and thus preventing him from getting abroad and doing mischief4 ,when the dance is performed round slain enemies the object of it seems to be that of propitiation4 ,if it be asked which of these purposes may be supposed to have been that for which the ,israelites performed this rite1 we imagine the reply would be3 any or all of them1 according to the stage of culture in which they found themselves4 ,two of them3 that of honouring the dead1 and that of forming the magic circle round the corpse 7probably for keeping it safe71 can be vouched for4 ,,footnotes #a ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea1 pp4 #aha f4 7#ahhg72 see further1 ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,ancient ,art and ,ritual1 pp4 #ca ff4 7#aiac74 #b ,the ,evolution of ,religion1 p4 #i 7#aije72 cp4 the same author's ,greece and ,babylon1 p4 #cg 7#aiaa74 #c ,see ,marett1 ,the ,threshold of ,religion1 pp4 #abh ff4 7#aiji74 #d ,mrs ,lilly ,grove 7now ,lady ,frazer7 and other writers1 ,dancing1 p4 #h 7#ahie72 elsewhere in the same volume the writers say3 8,there must have been a period of the world's history when every action in life1 every game1 every banquet1 every dance1 was a game1 a repast1 a dance1 in honour of the gods10 p4 #ae4 ,the evidence entirely bears this out if we take 8gods0 as meaning supernatural powers in general4 #e ,la danse ancienne et moderne1 ou ,trait ,historique de la ,danse1 p4 #ai 7#aged74 ,for a different opinion see ,irving ,king1 ,the ,development of ,religion1 p4 #eh 7#aiaj74 #f ,der ,tanz und seine ,geschichte1 pp4 #c-ae 7#ahfi74 #g ,he says3 8,les diffrentes affections de l'me sont donc l'origine des gestes1 et la danse qui en est compose1 est par consquent l'art de les faire avec grce et mesure relativement aux affections qu'ils doivent exprimer10 op4 cit4 p4 #ag4 #h ,,ere1 ,x4 #ceh a4 #i ,trait de la ,danse1 p4 #h 7#ahia74 ,jevons 7in a private communication7 lays much stress on the sacred dance being1 like every rite1 8an expression of will40 #aj ,see ,dalman1 ,palestinischer ,diwan1 p4 #bed 7#aija72 cp4 ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #ca4 #aa ,crawley1 ,,ere1 ,x4 #ceh a4 #ab ,ibid4 ,see further ,toy1 ,intr4 to the ,hist4 of ,religions1 p4 #ej 7#aiac74 #ac ,dalman1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bed f4 #ad ,,ere1 ,x4 #ceh a4 #ae ,numbered #cgihd4 #af ,in the ,british ,museum1 e4g4 see the specimens numbered ,b #cf1 ,b #afg1 ,b #fbe1 ,b #fdc1 ,e #bj1 ,e #ce1 ,e #acg4 #ag ,lilly ,grove1 op4 cit4 p4 #da4 #ah ,,ere1 ,x4 #cfb b4 #ai ,in ,,ere1 ,x4 #ceh a2 cp4 ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #dd2 ,leuba1 ,a ,psychological ,study of ,religion1 pp4 #fb f4 7#aiab74 #bj ,prof4 ,j4 ,y4 ,simpson1 ,man and the ,attainment of ,immortality1 p4 #aae 7#aibb74 #ba ,lectures on the origin and growth of ,religion1 as illustrated by the native religions of ,mexico and ,peru1 p4 #bbd 7#ahie74 #bb ,marett1 op4 cit4 p4 #abg4 #bc ,vormann1 8,tnze und ,tanzfestlichkeiten der ,monumbo-,papua10 in ,anthropos1 ,,vi4 #dae ff4 7#aiaa74 #bd ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,balder the ,beautiful1 ,,ii4 #bgd 7#aiac74 #be ,,gb1 ,the ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ,,ii4 #aij f41 #aie 7#aiab74 #bf ,see1 e4g41 ,toy1 op4 cit4 p4 #dia4 #bg ,stow1 ,the ,native ,races of ,south ,africa1 pp4 #aaa f4 #bh ,maori and ,polynesian1 their origin1 history1 and culture1 p4 #bjc 7#aijg74 #bi ,cp4 de ,cahusac1 op4 cit4 p4 #ch4 #cj ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ,i4 #ed 7#aiaa74 #ca ,millar in ,hastings' ,,db1 ,i4 #eej b4 #cb ,the ,classical ,quarterly1 ,october #aijg1 pp4 #bjb f4 #cc ,op4 cit4 p4 #ff1 the expression is ,hartland's4 #cd ,in the ,targum of ,isa4 lxvi4 #bj1 however1 we have the noun kirkern 7fem4 plur47 meaning 8dances40 #ce ,in ,neo-,hebrew the word means 8to dance40 #cf ,in the ,midrash ,bemidbar ,rabba to xx4 #aa it is said3 8,when a man plans a sin ,satan dances before him44440 #cg ,the underlying idea regarding the threshold has continued through the ages in many localities1 witches having taken the place frequently of evil spirits4 ,walpurgis ,night 7the eve of ,may ,day7 is the special time for their activity1 and leaping over the threshold is then a necessary precaution4 #ch ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahhg1 p4 #gai4 #ci ,notes on the ,hebrew ,text of the ,books of ,samuel1 p4 #agc 7#ahij74 #dj ,in 8,handkommentar zum ,a4,t410 ,die ,bcher ,samuelis1 p4 #adc 7#aijb74 #da ,reste ,arabischen ,heidenthums1 pp4 #aji f4 7#ahig74 #db ,hebrisches und ,aramisches ,wrterbuch1 p4 #ih 7#aiaj74 #dc ,encycl4 ,biblica1 ,i4 #iii4 #dd ,beitrge 4441 p4 #ib4 #de ,keilinschriftliche ,bibliothek des ,a4,t41 p4 #faj 7#crd ed474 #df 8,he will protect and deliver it1 he will pass over and preserve it40 #dg ,encycl4 ,britannica1 ,,xviii4 #cdc b 7#ith ed474 #dh ,but see ,mic4 iv4 #f f41 ,zeph4 iii4 #ai1 ,jer4 xx4 #aj1 ,ps4 xxxv4 #ae1 xxxviii4 #ah1 ,job xviii4 #ab1 from which a clear meaning of the root is gained4 #di ,cp4 ,nowack1 ,hebrische ,archologie1 ,i4 #bgc 7#ahid71 where an illustration of the ,egyptian instrument is given4 #ej ,j4 ,m4 ,brown1 ,maori and ,polynesian1 their origin1 history and culture1 p4 #bjb 7#aijg74 #ea ,see the present writer's ,the ,psalms in the ,jewish ,church1 pp4 #e ff4 7#aiaj74 #eb ,the text is clearly corrupt1 but the above seems to be the best reconstruction2 see ,nowack1 ,die ,bcher ,samuelis1 p4 #agb 7#aijb72 the ,septuagint reads lit4 8with strength0 7cp4 #a ,chron4 xiii4 #h74 #ec ,see ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnice1 pp4 #cee f4 7#ahfd72 ,clermont-,ganneau1 ,rec4 d',arch4 ,or4 ,i4 #ie1 #ajc 7#ahif74 #ed ,de la ,saussaye1 ,lehrbuch der ,religionsgeschichte1 ,i4 #cgb1 #chj 7#crd ed474 #ee ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #ie 7#ahid72 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les religions ,smitiques1 p4 #hd 7#aijc74 #ef ,die ,erdkunde im ,verhltniss zur ,natur und zur ,geschichte des ,menschen1 ,,xv4 #gbi 7#ahej74 #eg ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 ,,xxii4 #aje ff4 7#ahfh72 on this see further below1 p4 #agi4 #eh ,see ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,die ,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens1 ,i4 #ejc 7#aije74 #ei ,das alte ,testament im ,lichte des alten ,orients1 p4 #cjg 7#aijd72 see also ,schrader1 ,die ,keilinschriften und das alte ,testament1 pp4 #de ff4 7#ahhc74 #fj ,kypros1 die ,bibel1 und ,homer1 ,i4 #dde1 and the above numbered inscriptions in vol4 ,,ii4 7#ahic74 #fa ,a full illustration is given in ,hommel's ,geschichte ,babyloniens und ,assyriens1 between pp4 #bgj-bga 7#ahhh74 ,a good description will also be found in ,messerschmidt's 8,die ,hettiter10 in ,der alte ,orient1 ,,iv4 #bc f42 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #bbj ff4 7#aiaj74 #fb ,op4 cit4 ,i4 #ddf2 the inscription is numbered cxxvii4 #a1 in vol4 ,,ii4 #fc ,a4 ,m4 ,blackman1 in ,hastings' ,,ere1 ,x4 #bid b2 see also the same writer's ,the ,rock ,tombs of ,meir1 ,i4 #bb ff41 plate ,,ii 7#aiad-ae74 #fd ,erman1 ,aegypten and aegyptisches ,leben im ,alterthum1 ,i4 #cce f4 7#ahhe74 #fe ,wiedemann1 ,die ,religion der alten gypter1 p4 #hg 7#ahij74 #ff ,,ere1 ,,xii4 #ghj a1 #gha b2 see also the same writer in the ,journal of ,egyptian ,archaeology1 ,,vii4 #bb4 #fg ,the ,golden ,ass1 ,,xi4 #h-ag 7the date of ,apuleius is the second half of the second century ,a4,d472 see also ,herodotus1 ,,ii4 #fa ff4 #fh ,,ii4 #eh-fj4 #fi ,der ,opfertanz des gyptischen ,knigs1 pp4 #aje ff4 7#aiab72 that the running step was really a ritual dance is shown on pp4 #aji-aai4 #gj ,erman1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #bii-ccg2 and see further generally1 ,champollion1 ,monuments de l'gypte 7#ahdd72 ,lepsius1 ,denkmler 444 7#ahig 44472 cp4 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 p4 #db 7#aiji74 ,as to the sacred dancing among the ,therapeutae1 of later times1 see ,philo1 ,de ,vita ,contemplativa1 pp4 #abg-abi in ,f4 ,c4 ,conybeare's edition 7#ahie74 #ga ,its home was ,sparta2 it was introduced into ,athens in the sixth century ,b4,c4 in the time of ,pisistratus2 ultimately it became a mere war game4 #gb ,see ,a4 ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen1 pp4 #ih ff4 7#ahih71 where details will be found2 an interesting account of the great procession is given on pp4 #aca ff42 see also the same author's ,heortologie1 pp4 #aaf-bje 7#ahfd74 #gc ,cp4 ,gruppe1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 ,i4 #afe1 #afg1 ,,ii4 #aaih f41 etc4 7#aijf74 #gd ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #bei2 ,thucydides1 ,,iv4 #c2 ,livy1 ,,xxvi4 #i2 ,virgil1 ,aeneid ,,viii4 #bhe2 ,plutarch1 ,thes4 #ba 7,,eb1 ,i4 #iih72 and see especially ,emmanuel1 ,la ,danse ,grecque antique1 pp4 #bhe ff4 7#ahif74 #ge ,on the whole subject of the worship of ,dionysos see ,foucart1 ,le culte de ,dionysos en ,attique 7#aijf74 ,for the dances in connexion with his worship see below1 pp4 #aba ff4 #gf ,quoted by ,andrew ,lang1 ,myth1 ,ritual and ,religion1 ,i4 #bgb 7#aija74 ,see also de la ,saussaye1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #bdf4 #gg ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 ,,ii4 #dgb 7#aiji74 #gh ,see the first line in the quotation from the ,iliad on p4 #gj4 #gi ,these details are from ,sittl1 ,archologie der ,kunst1 pp4 #cgh f4 7#ahie71 where much further information will be found4 #hj ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 op4 cit4 vol4 ,,ii41 ,no4 cxxvii4 #b4 #ha ,ibid4 ,no4 cxxviii4 #c4 #hb ,cat4 ,e1 #fie #hc ,such as ,mller und ,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten ,kunst1 see e4g4 ,i4 plate ,,xliv 7#ahed 44472 ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion 7#aijc71 who gives a number of illustrations4 #hd ,these were sometimes of a lascivious character4 #he ,op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #dgb2 see also p4 #dfc4 #hf ,,iii4 x4 #g 7,frazer's ed474 ,see further1 the interesting notes in ,hitzig et ,bluemner's ,pausaniae ,graeciae ,descriptio1 ,i4 #gff 7#ahif74 #hg ,,iii4 p4 #cbj2 see also ,hitzig et ,bluemner1 in loc42 ,farnell1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #dgb4 #hh ,,iv4 xvi4 #i4 ,it recalls the episode of the maidens of ,shiloh dancing in honour of ,jahwe1 ,judg4 xxi4 #ai ff4 #hi ,cp4 ,emmanuel1 ,la ,danse ,grecque antique 7#ahif72 for illustrations see ,mller und ,wieseler1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #agahh ff4 #ij ,ramsay1 in the ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ,,iv4 #cf 7#ahhc74 #ia ,cp4 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 p4 #abc 7#aiji73 8,les jeunes filles athniennes1 qui clbrent le culte de l',artmis-ourse1 s'habillent en ourses et se disent des ourses40 #ib ,op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #dcf f42 see further ,gruppe1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #abhd1 #abic2 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 #ajhf 7#ahbi72 ,bekker1 ,anecdota ,graeca1 ,i4 #dde 7#ahad-ba72 ,lbker1 ,real-,lex4 des ,klassischen ,altertums1 s4v4 ,artemis 7#aiad72 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen1 pp4 #def ff42 ,heortologie1 pp4 #djf ff42 and see also ,pausan4 ,i4 xxiii4 #g4 ,cp4 the custom among the ,azimba of east-central ,africa1 when maidens attain puberty they celebrate the occasion by a dance in which only women take part3 see ,hartland in ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 p4 #aig 7#aijg74 #ic ,,iii4 xi4 #g4 #id ,op4 cit4 ,i4 #afb4 ,herodotus refers to the ,carneian festival in ,,vii4 #bjf4 #ie ,op4 cit4 ,i4 #bcd4 #if ,gruppe1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #bga4 #ig ,for its religious character see ,mommsen1 ,heortologie1 pp4 #afc ff4 #ih ,see further1 p4 #ga1 and ,w4 ,h4 ,matthews1 ,mazes and ,labyrinths1 pp4 #ai ff41 #aef ff4 7#aibb74 #ii ,prolegomena of the ,history of ,religions1 p4 #abc 7#ahhd74 #ajj ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #ddf1 #ddh1 and numbered cxxxii4 #b4 #aja ,,xviii4 #eij-fjf 7,blakeney's translation74 #ajb ,aen4 ,v4 #ede-fjc4 #ajc ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #gf f4 7#aiaa74 #ajd ,,gb1 ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #gg4 #aje ,see ,plutarch1 ,theseus1 ,,xxi4 #ajf ,cp4 the 8,ladies' ,chain0 in modern dancing4 #ajg ,op4 cit41 and see also vol4 ,i4 #ddf4 #ajh ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #ddh4 #aji ,now in the ,berl4 ,mus4 ,antiquarium4 #aaj ,pro ,murena1 ,,vi4 #ac1 quoted by ,bender1 ,rom und rmisches ,leben im ,alterthum1 p4 #deb 7#ahhj74 #aaa ,cp4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 ,i4 #chb 7#aijb74 #aab ,op4 cit4 pp4 #aed f42 cp4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,,ere1 ,x4 #hbj a2 ,marquardt1 ,das ,privatleben der ,rmer1 p4 #aah 7#ahhf72 ,dill1 ,roman ,society in the last century of the ,roman ,empire1 pp4 #gf ff4 7#aiaj74 #aac ,op4 cit4 ,i4 #cfj4 #aad ,cp4 ,marquardt1 ,das ,privatleben der ,rmer1 p4 #aah1 and the reff4 there given 7#ahhf74 #aae ,,gb1 ,the ,scapegoat1 p4 #fe 7#aiac71 from ,liv4 vii4 #a-c4 #aaf ,in de la ,saussaye1 ,lehrbuch der ,religionsgeschichte1 ,,ii4 #cc1 cp4 #adi 7#aije71 and ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 p4 #hi4 ,a great deal of information will be found scattered about in various volumes of the ,sacred ,books of the ,east series1 e4g4 ,i1 ,,xv 7,upanishads72 ,,xii1 ,,xxvi1 ,,xli1 ,,xliii1 ,,xliv 7,satapatha-,brhmana72 ,,xxxiv1 ,,xxxviii1 ,,xlviii 7the ,vednta-,stras72 ,,xlix 7,buddhist ,mahyna ,texts72 ,,xxiii1 ,,xxxi 7the ,zend-,avesta72 ,,xxvii1 ,,xxviii1 ,,xl 7the ,sacred ,books of ,china74 ,also the relevant articles1 which are many1 in ,,ere1 where special literature in abundance will be found4 #aag ,schoolcraft1 ,the ,indian ,tribes of the ,united ,states1 ,i4 #aia 7ed4 by ,f4 ,s4 ,drake1 #ahia72 there is an illustration given of this dance4 #aah ,unknown ,mexico1 ,i4 #ccj f4 7#aijc74 #aai ,for the religious dance among the ancient ,peruvians see ,rville1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #bbd ff4 7#ahie72 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 ,amerikanische ,urreligion1 p4 #che 7#ahfg72 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 p4 #bcj 7#aiji74 #abj ,hahl1 ,mittheilungen ber ,sitten und rechtliche ,verhltnisse auf ,ponape1 in 8,ethnologisches ,notizblatt10 ,,ii4 ii4 #a 7#aija71 quoted by ,frazer1 ,folk-lore in the ,old ,testament1 ,i4 #dj 7#aiah74 ,the ,maoris attributed the origin of dancing to two goddesses1 ,raukata-uri and ,raukata-mea1 ,j4 ,macmillan ,brown1 ,maori and ,polynesian1 p4 #bjh 7#aijg72 see also the interesting illustrations in ,caillot1 ,les ,polynsiens orientaux4441 ,pls4 ,,xlvii1 ,,xlix-,,lii 7#aiji74 #aba ,les religions des peuples non-civiliss1 pp4 #bea f4 7#ahhc74 #abb ,rville1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #aid4 #abc ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ,i4 #cjg1 #cji ff4 7#aiab74 ,the supremely important rle assigned to the sacred dance among the natives of ,australia is well known2 see ,spencer1 ,native ,tribes of the ,northern ,territory of ,australia1 pp4 #cb1 #ajf1 #aci ff41 #agc1 and the illustrations on p4 #ahf 7#aiad72 ,howitt1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south-east ,australia1 pp4 #ccj1 #daf 7#aijd72 ,brough ,smith1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ,i4 #aff ff4 7#ahgh71 cp4 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 pp4 #bbh f4 #abd ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn 4441 ,i4 #caa4 #abe ,see the whole of the ,note on 8,the ,pleiades in ,primitive ,calendars10 ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn 4441 ,i4 #cjg-cai4 #abf ,w4 ,schneider1 ,die ,religion der ,afrikanischen ,naturvlker1 p4 #ajj 7#ahia74 #abg ,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrika's1 p4 #ia 7#ahgb74 #abh ,fritsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #ceb4 #abi ,w4 ,schneider1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hi f4 #acj ,for other dances in imitation of animals1 see ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,tasmania1 pp4 #ach ff4 7#ahii74 #aca ,cp4 the personating of spirits or legendary animals among the ,n4 ,american ,indians1 ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,scapegoat1 p4 #cge4 #acb ,see1 e4g41 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,i4 #cjb ff4 #acc ,e4g4 ,gen4 xii4 #f f41 xiii4 #ah1 xiv4 #ac1 xxxv4 #d1 #h2 ,josh4 xxiv4 #bf2 ,judg4 ix4 #cg2 ,jer4 ii4 #bj1 iii4 #f1 #ac1 xvii4 #b2 ,ezek4 vi4 #ac2 ,hos4 iv4 #ac2 cp4 ,isa4 i4 #bi4 #acd ,e4g4 ,gen4 xiv4 #g1 xvi4 #ad2 cp4 xxi4 #ai1 #cc2 ,josh4 xv4 #g1 xviii4 #ag1 xix4 #h4 #ace ,see above1 pp4 #cc ff4 #acf ,patrol4 ,graec4 7,migne71 ,,lxxix4 ,col4 #fdh4 #acg ,rel4 of the ,semites1 pp4 #ace f4 #ach ,i4 #ahi4 ,quoted by ,buchanan ,gray1 ,numbers 7,intern4 ,crit4 ,com471 pp4 #bhh f4 7#aijc74 #aci ,cp4 ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion1 p4 #abg 7#aijc74 #adj ,a reading based on the ,samaritan and the ,septuagint4 #ada ,the name 8calf10 gel1 instead of 8bull0 or 8cow10 refers to its smallness 7perhaps in irony74 ,such images could not have been large as they were made of precious metal4 ,but even when made of other materials1 such as clay1 they were small1 to judge from the specimens found on the site of ancient ,gezer4 #adb ,it is true that the word is used of 8surrounding0 a table in the ,hebrew of ,ecclus4 xxxv4 #a 7xxxii4 #a in ,greek71 but it would be precarious to cite this late ,hebrew meaning of it in support of the ,r4,v4 rendering of the word in #a ,sam4 xvi4 #aa4 ,in ,ecclus4 ix4 #i it is used of 8mingling0 strong drink4 #adc ,cp4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #cdj1 note #b3 8,the festal song of praise 7tahlil7 properly goes with the dance round the altar 7cp4 ,ps4 xxvi4 #f sq471 for in primitive times song and dance are inseparable40 #add ,psalms 7,intern4 ,crit4 ,com471 ,,ii4 #djh 7#aijg74 #ade ,cp4 ,job xxvi4 #aj3 8,he hath worked out a circle 7q g7 upon the face of the waters02 or perhaps better3 8,he hath circumscribed a boundary44440 ,this illustrates the root meaning of ag1 8a circle02 and this is the formation of the festival dance4 ,see1 further1 ,driver and ,gray1 ,job1 ,part ,,ii41 ,philological ,notes1 pp4 #aed1 #ahj 7#aiba72 ,budde1 ,hiob1 p4 #adf 7#ahif72 ,ball1 ,the ,book of ,job1 p4 #cbb 7#aibb74 ,see also ,prov4 viii4 #bg1 and cp4 ,isa4 xix4 #ag3 8,and the land of ,judah shall be for a reeling 7agga'7 to ,egypt10 i4e4 ,egypt will become giddy through fear at the sight of ,judah1 and will thus 8reel40 agga' 8may either be from an original sense of gag1 or it may be equivalent to being excited as at a ag0 7,oxf4 ,hebr4 ,lex474 ,more probably it is simply a derivative from ag1 giddiness as a result of going round at the festival dance2 it is used in ,isa4 xix4 #ag in a metaphorical way4 #adf ,mishnah1 ,sukkah1 iv4 #b4 #adg ,see above1 pp4 #dh ff4 ,the prince-poet ,imra-al-,kais refers in one of his poems to girls1 gown-clad1 going swiftly round the ,davar 7,,eb1 ,i4 #iih74 #adh ,nili ,opera1 ,narrat4 ,,iii4 #h 7in ,migne1 ,patrol4 ,graec4 ,,lxxix4 #fab f47 8,in later ,arabia1 the awf1 or act of circling the sacred stone1 was still a principal part of religion2 but even before ,mohammed's time it had begun to be dissociated from sacrifice1 and became a meaningless ceremony10 ,robertson ,smith1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdj4 #adi 8,damit wre dann der kultische ,tanz als ,produkt der altorientalischen ,vorstellungswelt erwiesen0 7de la ,saussaye1 ,religionsgeschichte1 ,i4 #chj #aije74 #aej ,see p4 #id4 #aea ,de ,dea ,syria1 ,,xlix42 see ,strong and ,garstang1 ,the ,syrian ,goddess1 and ,garstang's notes on pp4 #hc f4 7#aiac74 #aeb ,robertson ,smith1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahe1 #cce4 #aec ,see ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day1 p4 #ia1 where a good photograph of one of these trees is given4 #aed ,nldeke1 ,geschichte der ,perser und ,araber zur ,zeit der ,sasaniden4 ,aus der arabischen ,chronik des ,tabari1 p4 #aha 7#ahgi74 ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,prof4 ,bevan1 of ,cambridge1 for this reference4 #aee ,see ,dussaud1 ,histoire et ,religion des ,nosairis1 pp4 #adi f4 7#aijj74 #aef ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #cfj2 it is numbered xvii4 #e in vol4 ,,ii4 #aeg ,now in the ,berlin ,mus4 ,antiq41 ,t4,c4 #ffhbch4 #aeh ,ohnefalsch-,richter1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #cfj2 numbered xvii4 #f in vol4 ,,ii4 #aei ,op4 cit4 ,i4 #dde2 numbered cxxvii4 #c in vol4 ,,ii4 #afj ,cp4 ,suidas1 s4v4 4 #afa ,see ,lobeck1 ,aglao41 #bcg ff41 #fci ff41 #fie 7#ahbi72 ,bekker1 ,anecdota ,graeca1 p4 #bjg 7#ahad-ahba72 ,pauly1 ,realencycl4 der classischen ,alterthumswissenschaft1 ,,iv4 #abdj ff4 7#ahfb74 #afb ,warde ,fowler in ,,ere1 ,x4 #hbg b4 #afc ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 p4 #cij 7#aiab74 #afd ,das ,privatleben der ,rmer1 p4 #hc and the notes 7#ahhf74 #afe ,the ,indian ,tribes of the ,united ,states1 ,i4 #adf ff42 ed4 by ,f4 ,s4 ,drake 7#ahia74 #aff ,speck1 ,ethnology of the ,yuchi ,indians1 p4 #bh 7#aiji74 #afg ,les ,religions des ,peuples ,non-civiliss1 ,i4 #bfi 7#ahhc74 #afh ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn4441 ,i4 #ig4 #afi ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn4441 ,i4 #bdj ff41 ,,ii4 #cbf ff42 ,the ,scapegoat1 #bcb ff41 #bea ff41 #cae4 #agj ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #aij ff4 7#ahge-ahgg72 ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 ,i4 #bdd 7#aijd-aije74 #aga ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,,ii4 #dg ff42 see also the instances mentioned above1 p4 #ih4 #agb ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn4441 ,i4 #acf ff4 #agc ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #agd2 ,frazer1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,,ii4 #eh ff4 #agd ,on the subject generally see ,hlscher1 ,die ,profeten3 ,untersuchungen zur ,religionsgeschichte ,israels1 pp4 #abi-aeh 7#aiad74 #age ,in speaking of the exercises of the early prophetical bands ,robertson ,smith says that 8they were sometimes gone through in sacred processions1 sometimes at a fixed place1 as at the ,naioth at ,ramah1 which ought probably to be rendered #8dwellings'--a sort of coenobium4 ,they were accompanied by music of a somewhat noisy character1 in which the hand-drum and the pipe played a part1 as was otherwise the case in festal processions to the sanctuary 7#b ,sam4 vi4 #e2 ,isa4 xxx4 #bi74 ,thus the religious exercises of the prophets seem to be a development in a peculiar direction of the ordinary forms of ,hebrew worship at the time1 and the fact that the #8prophesying' was contagious establishes its analogy to other contagious forms of religious excitement0 7,the ,prophets of ,israel1 p4 #cib #ahig74 ,see further1 ,gressmann1 ,palestinas ,erdgeruch in der ,israelitischen ,religion1 pp4 #cd ff4 7#aiji74 #agf ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #dcb4 #agg ,see1 for interesting parallels1 ,s4 ,a4 ,cook1 in ,essays and ,studies presented to ,william ,ridgeway1 p4 #cig 7#aiac74 #agh ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #dcb4 ,but see ,s4 ,a4 ,cook in the work just cited4 #agi ,the ,r4,v4 rendering of #a ,kings xviii4 #bf1 8,and they leaped about the altar10 is misleading4 #ahj ,the text emendation here is obvious1 it should be yithgddu 78they cut themselves07 for yithgrru 78they assemble themselves074 #aha ,this has been illustrated by the excavations on the site of ancient ,gezer undertaken by the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 #ahb ,genesis1 p4 #cbi 7#aija74 #ahc ,see1 further1 von ,gall1 ,altisraelitische ,kultsttten1 pp4 #adh ff4 7#ahih74 #ahd ,the word is also used for limping1 or stumbling1 in a figurative sense 7,jer4 xx4 #aj and elsewhere2 in ,job xviii4 #ab1 ,ball would read bala74 ,according to ,driver the cognate ,arabic word means 8to curve0 7,oxford ,hebr4 ,lex472 one thinks of the bent or curved position of the body during the performance of the 8limping0 dance4 #ahe ,see the various works of ,schrader1 ,winckler1 ,zimmern1 ,jensen1 ,o4 ,weber1 ,jastrow1 etc4 #ahf ,see1 e4g41 ,wiedemann1 ,die ,religion der alten ,aegypter1 pp4 #he-hg 7#ahij72 ,erman1 ,die gyptische ,religion1 pp4 #fa f41 #ij 7#aiji71 and the works of other authorities mentioned in previous chapters4 #ahg ,eastern ,customs in ,bible ,lands1 pp4 #bjg-baj 7#ahid72 a good account of the ,dancing ,dervishes is given in ,w4 ,tyndale's ,an ,artist in ,egypt1 pp4 #bf-cj 7#aiab72 and see especially ,gressmann1 ,palestinas ,erdgeruch in der ,israelitischen ,religion1 pp4 #cd ff4 7#aiji74 #ahh ,see ,herodotus1 ,,ii4 #acc4 #ahi ,the ,prophets of ,israel1 p4 #cib 7#ahig72 cp4 ,stade1 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel1 ,i4 #dgg 7#ahhf74 #aij ,snouck-,hurgronje1 ,mekka1 ,,ii4 #bha 7#ahhh-ahhi74 ,and see1 further1 ,doughty1 ,arabia ,deserta1 ,,ii4 #aai 7orig4 ed472 ,robinson ,lees mentions this dancing as taking place at holy places in ,palestine1 ,village ,life in ,palestine1 pp4 #bg1 #bh 7#ahig74 #aia ,see ,golnischeff1 ,recueil de ,travaux1 ,,xxi4 #bb f42 ,gressmann1 ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder zum ,a4,t41 ,i4 #bbe ff4 7#aiji74 #aib ,regarding the musical accompaniment to such ecstatic dances1 ,iamblichus propounds the extraordinary theory that the reason why certain sounds and melodies produce an ecstatic state is because before the soul entered the body it was 8an auditor of divine harmony10 and when1 being in the body1 it hears these1 it recollects the divine harmony and participates in it2 hence the cause of the ecstatic state and the faculty of divination 7,de ,mysteriis1 ,,iii4 #i end74 #aic ,die sequenti variis coloribus indusiati et deformiter quisque formati1 facie caenoso pigmento delita et oculis obunctis graphice prodeunt1 mitellis et crocotis et carbasinis et bambycinis iniecti1 quidam tunicas albas in modum lanciolarum quoquoversum fluente purpura depictas cingulo subligati1 pedes luteis induti calceis2 deamque serico contectam amicuio mihi gerendam imponunt brachiisque suis humero tenus renundatis1 attollentes immanes gladios ac secures1 evantes exsiliunt incitante tibiae cantu lymphaticum tripudium4 ,nec paucis pererratis casulis ad quandam villam possessoris beati perveniunt et ab ingressu primo statim absonis ululatibus constrepentes fanatice pervolant1 diuque capite demisso cervices lubricis intorquentes motibus crinesque pendulos in circulum rotantes1 et nonnunquam morsibus suos incursantes musculos1 ad postremum ancipiti ferro quod gerebant sua quisque brachia dissicant4 ,inter haec unus ex illis bacchatur effusius ac de imis praecordiis anhelitus crebros referens1 velut numinis divino spiritu repletus1 simulabat sauciam vecordiam1 prorus quasi deum praesentia soleant homines non sui fieri meliores sed debiles effici vel aegroti4444 ,arrepto denique flagro1 quod semiviris illis proprium gestamen est1 contortis taeniis lanosi velleris prolixe fimbriatum et multiiugis talis ovium tesseratum1 indidem sese multinodis commulcat ictibus1 mire contra plagarum dolores praesumptione munitus4 ,cerneres prosectu gladiorum ictuque flagrorum solum spurcitia sanguinis effeminati madescere4444 ,the translation is that of ,s4 ,gaselee in 8,loeb ,classical ,library0 7#aiae74 #aid ,in ,,ere1 ,,vi4 #djc a2 we give the quotation in full as this large ,encyclopaedia is not1 for many1 easily accessible4 #aie ,on the ,korybantes1 the mythical attendants on ,kybele1 who were supposed to dance in wild fashion with the goddess on the mountains1 see ,rohde1 ,psyche4441 ,,ii4 #dh ff4 7#aijg72 the name was also given to the eunuch priests of the goddess in ,phrygia4 #aif ,panofka1 ,dionysos und ,thyiden1 pl4 ,i4 #b 7#ahec74 #aig ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion1 p4 #dec 7#aijc74 #aih ,the treasure is in the ,berlin ,museum1 ,cat4 #bbij2 ,harrison1 op4 cit41 p4 #dbh4 #aii ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #cic2 see also ,gruppe1 ,griechische ,mythologie und ,religionsgeschichte1 ,i4 #afb1 ,,ii4 #hdj1 #abic2 ,lobeck1 ,aglao41 ,,ii4 #ajhe ff42 ,bekker1 ,anecdota ,graeca1 ,i4 #bcd4 #bjj ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #cig2 ,gruppe1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #gdh1 #abic2 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 p4 #abc4 #bja ,philo1 ,de ,vita ,contempl4 ,,ii4 #bjb ,diodorus1 ,,iv4 iii4 #b4 #bjc ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,,ii4 #aa ff42 ,roscher1 ,ausfhrliches ,lexikon4441 ,,ii4 #bbdc-bbhc 7#ahid-ahig74 #bjd ,pausan4 ,x4 iv4 #a1 #b4 #bje ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #edj 7omitting the interjected words of ,xanthias and ,dionysos74 #bjf ,see ,mommsen1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbd2 cp4 ,foucart1 ,les grands mystres d',eleusis1 pp4 #aba f42 and for the dancing at the celebration of the mysteries1 see p4 #adb 7#aijd74 #bjg ,quoted by ,harrison1 ,pyth4 ,,iii4 #gg4 #bjh ,pausan4 ,,ii4 vii4 #f4 ,cp4 also ,lobeck1 ,aglao41 ,,ii4 #ajhh2 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 pp4 #aec ff4 #bji ,lines #fhj-fia4 #baj ,,iv4 #c4 #baa ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #ejj2 and the same author's ,themis1 pp4 #bc ff4 7#aiab74 ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,i4 #bgb4 #bab ,protr4 ,,ii4 #ab4 ,concerning them ,gruppe says3 8,die ,kureten1 nach denen ein ,magistratskollegium hiess1 das unter dem proto-koures mystische ,opfer feierte1 sollten durch den ,lrm der ,waffen ,hera vertrieben haben2 eine ,sagenbildung1 die auf eine ,angleichung an die ,riten die zwar ebenfalls euboisch-boiotischen1 aber vielleicht erst hier mit dem ,artemis-dienst in ,verbindung gesetzten ,kultus der grossen ,gttin hinweist0 7,griech4 ,myth4 ,i4 #bhd2 see also ,,ii4 #hbj1 #hih1 #aajf1 #aaih74 #bac ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris1 pp4 #bej f4 7#aijg74 ,see further1 ,hepding1 ,attis1 seine ,mythen und sein ,kult1 pp4 #abh ff4 7#aijc74 #bad ,ep4 ,i4 #di1 ,,ii4 #cd1 ,,vi4 #dj2 ,dill1 ,roman ,society in the last century of the ,western ,empire1 p4 #af 7#aiaj74 #bae ,on the ,galli see ,lucian1 ,de ,dea ,syria1 ,,xliii1 ,l-,,lx4 #baf ,frazer1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbc4 ,see further ,cicero1 ,de ,divinatione1 ,,ii4 #ej2 ,catullus1 ,carm4 ,,lxiii42 ,lucretius1 ,,ii4 #eih ff42 ,hepding1 op4 cit41 pp4 #adb ff42 ,glover1 ,the ,conflict of ,religions in the early ,roman ,empire1 pp4 #bj f4 7#aiji74 #bag ,fallaize1 in ,,ere1 ,x4 #abd b4 #bah ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ,,ii4 #acc f4 7#aibj72 he also mentions this type of dance among the ,patagonians1 ,fijians and others1 pp4 #dai ff4 #bai ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 p4 #fa4 #bbj ,rville1 ,les ,religions des peuples non-civiliss1 p4 #bfg 7#ahhc72 ,schoolcraft1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #bhf4 #bba ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhd71 p4 #bbe4 #bbb ,malay ,magic1 p4 #dfc 7#aijj74 #bbc ,fallaize1 in ,,ere1 ,x4 #abd b4 #bbd ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,i4 #djh2 ,n4 ,tsaki1 ,la ,russie ,sectaire1 pp4 #ff ff4 ,the ,shakers of ,new ,lebanon attempt in the dance to obtain the ,holy ,spirit1 ,lilly ,grove1 op4 cit4 p4 #g4 #bbe ,j4 ,macmillan ,brown1 ,maori and ,polynesian1 p4 #bjd 7#aijg74 #bbf ,folk-lore in the ,old ,testament1 ,,iii4 #bgg 7#aiah74 #bbg ,in ,allerlei1 ,i4 #afd-afh4 #bbh ,introduction to the ,study of ,religion1 p4 #agd 7#aijd74 #bbi 8,they prophesied until the time of the evening oblation0 7 71 #a ,kings xviii4 #bi4 #bcj ,an inspired prophet4 #bca ,a five-thonged scourge1 with iron at the extremity of each thong4 #bcb ,the ,sun and the ,serpent1 pp4 #ii f4 7#aije74 #bcc ,the feast of ,pesach 78,passover07 coincided with this2 it was also a spring festival at which the firstlings of the herds were offered 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #be74 #bcd ,e4g4 #a ,kings viii4 #b1 xii4 #cb2 ,judg4 xxi4 #ai2 ,lev4 xxiii4 #ci1 #da4 #bce ,this is also true of the ,targums1 where an allusion to the dance is sometimes strikingly obvious1 e4g4 in the ,targ4 of ,onkelos to ,deut4 xvi4 #ad2 the people are bidden to rejoice at their feasts with the playing of flutes2 this was one of the most usual accompaniments to the sacred dance all the world over4 #bcf ,see ,moore1 ,judges1 pp4 #cjd f4 7#aijc74 #bcg ,cp4 ,judges ix4 #bg4 #bch ,see e4g4 ,reinach1 ,orpheus1 p4 #bgc 7#aiji72 ,carl ,rathjens1 ,die ,juden in ,abessinien1 p4 #gh 7#aiba74 #bci ,talmudische ,archologie1 ,,iii4 #aja1 and the references on p4 #bhe4 #bdj ,mishnah1 ,sukkah1 ,v4 #a4 #bda ,sukkah1 ,,iv4 #a-d4 #bdb ,cp4 ,reinach1 op4 cit4 p4 #bga4 #bdc ,see ,megillath ,taanith1 ,,iv4 #h-aj2 this was before the ,day of ,atonement had become a ,fast-day2 one sees1 therefore1 how ancient the custom was4 #bdd ,megillath ,taanith1 ,v4 #bde ,bell4 ,jud4 ,,ii4 xvii4 #f4 #bdf ,see further on this1 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 ,,iii4 #ajb1 #bhe4 #bdg ,on these see further ,doughty1 ,travels in ,arabia ,deserta1 ,i4 #cdj ff41 #cia f4 7#aiba74 #bdh ,alois ,musil1 ,arabia ,petraea1 ,,iii4 #bjj ff4 7#aijh74 #bdi ,dalman1 ,palestinischer ,diwan1 p4 #bed 7#aija74 #bej ,featherman1 ,social ,history of ,mankind1 ,i4 #ccd f4 7#ahha74 #bea ,see ,g4 ,friedlander's edition of this work1 p4 #bjh 7#aiaf74 #beb ,cp4 ,enclow1 ,,je1 ,,iv4 #dbe b1 and ,jacobs1 ,,je1 ,,iv4 #if ff4 #bec ,see ,curtiss1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afd ff4 #bed ,kees1 ,der ,opfertanz des gyptischen ,knigs1 pp4 #aje-bbf 7#aiab72 ,maspero1 tudes de mythologie et de l'archologie gyptiennes1 ,,viii4 #cac 7#ahic-aiaf72 ,blackman1 ,rock ,tombs of ,meir1 ,i4 #bc f41 ,,ii4 #be1 and the same writer in the ,journal of ,egyptian ,archaeology1 ,,vii4 #ba f4 #bee ,erman1 ,aegypten 4441 ,i4 #ccf4 #bef ,erman1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #cdj2 see also ,voss1 ,der ,tanz und seine ,geschichte1 p4 #bj 7#ahfi71 who unfortunately omits references to authorities4 #beg ,see further1 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,stud4 ,hist4 ,,iii4 #fi 7#aijd71 and for festivals generally the same author's ,egyptian ,festivals 444 7#aijh74 #beh ,schol4 in ,luc4 ,dialog4 ,meretr4 ,,vii4 #d 7ed4 ,rabe1 #aijf71 referred to by ,harrison1 op4 cit4 p4 #adf2 see also ,lbker1 op4 cit4 #bih b4 #bei ,mommsen1 ,feste 4441 pp4 #cei ff42 ,harpocration1 s4v4 1 ,i4 #bd 7ed4 ,dindorf #ahec74 ,for ,vintage ,festivals see1 further1 ,mommsen1 ,heortologie1 pp4 #ff ff4 #bfj ,harrison1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adf f4 ,on this festival see also ,bekker1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #chd f42 ,farnell1 ,cults 4441 ,,iii4 #cae f42 ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ,i4 #fj ff4 #bfa ,the author refers to his note on ,pausanias1 ,,viii4 xxxvii4 #c in vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #cge ff4 of his ,pausanias4 #bfb ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ,,ii4 #cci4 #bfc ,gruppe1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #ghc2 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 pp4 #fah ff4 7#ahgb74 #bfd ,cp4 ,pausan4 ,,viii4 xxv4 #a ff42 ,ovid1 ,metam4 ,v4 #ajf2 ,pliny1 ,,xvi4 #cc2 and for the ,charites see ,gruppe1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #ha1 ,,ii4 #ajgc1 #ajhc1 #aahi1 #abhd2 ,lobeck1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #ajhe ff42 ,julii ,pol4 ,onom4 ,,iv4 #ie4 ,for the ,thesmophoria see ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn 4441 ,,ii4 #af ff42 ,farnell1 ,cults 4441 ,,iii4 #he-ic2 and for the ,thargelia1 ,,gb1 ,the ,scapegoat1 pp4 #bed ff42 ,farnell1 ,cults 4441 ,,iv4 #bfh ff4 #bfe ,e4g4 in the cult of 1 see ,lobeck1 ,de myst4 priv4 ,,ii4 #iei2 ,farnell1 ,cults 4441 ,,ii4 #dde2 ,pausan4 ,,vi4 xxii4 #a4 ,the procession called was especially associated with ,dionysos and ,hermes1 see ,farnell in ,,ere1 ,,vi4 #dag a4 #bff ,see ,farnell in ,,ere1 ,,vi4 #djc b2 he says3 8this privilege of ecstasy might be used for the practical purposes of vegetation-magic40 #bfg ,mars was originally a god of vegetation2 he appears subsequently as the god of war4 #bfh ,see ,aust1 ,die ,religion der ,rmer1 p4 #aga 7#ahii74 #bfi ,a translation in full is given by ,carter in ,,ere1 ,,ii4 #aj b1 #aa a4 #bgj ,see further on the whole subject ,pauly-,wissowa1 ,realencycl4 der klassischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ,,ii4 #adfc ff4 7#ahif74 #bga ,see ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 ,,iii4 #ddd 7#ahhe74 #bgb ,cp4 the name of the month in which the festival was held1 ,february1 which gets its name from februare 8to purify40 #bgc ,march #ai was a special day as being the birthday of ,minerva 7,ovid1 ,fasti1 ,,iii4 #hab2 see ,mommsen1 ,feste 4441 p4 #ei74 #bgd 8444 per urbem ire canentes carmina cum tripudiis solemnique saltatu10 ,liv4 ,i4 #bj4 #d4 ,see1 further1 ,wissowa1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #dhb1 who refers to ,dion4 ,hal4 ,,ii4 #gj4 #b4 ,cp4 de la ,saussaye1 op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #dda ff42 and see ,seneca1 ,epp4 ,,xv42 ,quintilian1 ,i4 #b4 #ah4 #bge ,,gb1 ,the ,scapegoat1 p4 #bcb4 #bgf ,frazer1 ibid42 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 ,,iii4 #dbg f4 7#ahhe72 ,aust1 op4 cit4 p4 #acj2 ,cirilli1 ,les ,prtres ,danseurs de ,rome1 pp4 #ig ff4 7#aiac72 for ,harvest ,festivals generally among the ,romans see ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 pp4 #aia ff41 for the ,hilaria1 pp4 #cba ff4 7#aiab72 ,roscher1 ,ausfhrliches ,lexikon der griechischen und rmischen ,mythologie1 s4v4 ,attis1 ,i4 #gae ff4 7#ahhd72 for the ,vinalia1 ,aust1 op4 cit4 p4 #agc4 ,cp4 ,farnell1 ,the ,evolution of ,religion1 p4 #ade 7#aije74 #bgg ,see1 for illustrations not mentioned here1 ,lilly ,grove1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fe-ib4 #bgh ,this is given by ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn 4441 ,i4 #ie f41 from ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 ,i4 #afg-afi 7#aijd 44474 #bgi ,frazer1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajg4 ,see also ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea1 pp4 #cbc ff4 ,h4 ,l4 ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 ,i4 #bfb 7#ahif71 says3 8,the ,dyaks really seem to consider dancing as a part of divine service1 attributing to it some mysterious and wholesome efficacy02--they do not enquire why2 it is taken for granted that it is so4 #bhj ,malay ,magic1 p4 #dfb 7#aijj74 #bha ,cp4 ,rville1 ,les ,religions des peuples non-civiliss1 p4 #bfi1 who tells of how the imitative magic dance develops into a specifically religious act4 #bhb ,op4 cit4 p4 #dfd2 see1 further1 pp4 #dfe ff41 and also ,skeat and ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,i4 #cfd f41 ,,ii4 #aai ff41 #abf ff41 #acg with the illustration on p4 #ach2 and for the negro ,baris1 whose country is situated on either bank of the ,white ,nile1 see ,featherman1 ,social ,history of the ,races of ,mankind1 ,i4 #gd 7#ahha74 #bhc ,w4 ,schneider1 ,die ,religion der ,afrikanischen ,naturvlker1 pp4 #eb-eh 7#ahia72 ,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrika's1 p4 #cbg 7#ahgb74 #bhd ,on initiation dances see ,harrison1 ,themis1 pp4 #bd f4 #bhe ,bab4 ,talm4 ,rosh ,ha-shanah #af a1 ,mishnah1 ,sukkah1 ,,iv4 #i2 cp4 ,mishnah1 ,berakth1 ,v4 #b2 see also the curious story in ,lucian1 ,de ,dea ,syria1 ,,xiii42 and for numbers of examples of rain-charms see ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,i4 #bdg-cbi4 #bhf ,the ,threshold of ,religion1 p4 #gf 7#aiji74 #bhg ,,ere1 ,x4 #cei b4 #bhh ,the root meaning of anah is 8to sing10 see ,isa4 xxvi4 #b1 ,exod4 xxxii4 #ah1 ,ps4 cxix4 #agb2 and cp4 the cognate ,arabic root ghanna2 in neo-,hebrew it is often used of singing in chorus4 #bhi ,a different interpretation of the passage is given by a few commentators1 e4g4 ,briggs in the ,intern4 ,crit4 ,com41 but the natural meaning seems to be as above4 #bij ,we have referred to this in another connexion1 see p4 #ada4 ,it is probable that we have in this episode a combination of an historical fact and some form of the ,adonis myth4 #bia ,pausan4 ,,iv4 xvi4 #d4 ,see1 further1 ,hermann1 ,gottesdienstliche ,alterthmer1 #bd1 #ej4 #bib ,reference is made in #a ,sam4 xxi4 #e1 #b ,sam4 xi4 #aa to an act of self-control which was also part of the consecration for battle2 but this1 which is found among many other races1 had its special reason and does not come into consideration here4 #bic ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn 4441 ,,ii4 #ade1 where other examples are given4 #bid ,,gb1 ,spirits of the ,corn 4441 ,i4 #bb4 #bie ,the possibility is not excluded that in all cases of animals being eaten in order to absorb their qualities1 their sacredness may have been the real reason at one time in the history of the rite4 ,when this reason was forgotten and its qualities became the sole reason for eating an animal1 the extension of the idea in other ways would be natural4 #bif ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #bhh4 #big ,,gb1 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #afe f4 7#aiaa72 the account is taken from ,s4 ,mller1 ,reizen en ,ondergoekingen in den ,indischen ,archipel41 ,,ii4 #beb 7#aheg74 ,for another example see ,chalmers1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahb4 #bih ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea1 p4 #bih 7#aiaj71 quoted by ,frazer1 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #afh4 #bii ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #dic f4 7#ahii74 #cjj ,de ,flacourt1 ,histoire de la ,grande ,isle ,madagascar1 pp4 #ig f4 7#afeh71 quoted by ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,i4 #aca 7#aiaa74 #cja ,the ,secret ,tribal ,societies of ,west ,africa1 p4 #ag1 quoted by ,frazer1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #acb4 #cjb ,frazer1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #acc f4 #cjc ,uit het leven der ,bevolking van ,windessi1 in the 8,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-,landen ,volkenkunde10 ,,xl4 #aeg f4 7#ahih72 ,,gb1 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #afi f4 #cjd ,e4g4 in such cases as the ,may-pole dance1 and the dances round the ,midsummer fires4 #cje ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #dee1 where references to original authorities are given4 ,see also ,stade1 ,biblische ,theologie des ,alten ,testaments1 i4 #adh4 #cjf ,,gb1 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #aeh2 for further examples see pp4 #afa ff41 and ,the ,magic ,art1 ,i4 #abe ff4 ,conceivably the taboo on the persons left at home during the absence of the fighting men may have originally had something to do with the victory dance being performed by women alone4 #cjg ,see the present writer's ,immortality and the ,unseen ,world1 chaps4 ,,viii-,x4 #cjh ,e4g4 ,gen4 xxiv4 #di ff41 xxix4 #bg2 ,judg4 xiv4 #g2 ,isa4 lxi4 #aj2 ,jer4 ii4 #cb1 vii4 #cd1 xxv4 #aj2 ,ps4 xlv4 #aj ff42 ,cant4 iii4 #f-aa2 cp4 #c ,macc4 iv4 #h4 ,in the ,new ,testament we have more details1 e4g4 ,matth4 xxii4 #b1 xxv4 #a ff42 ,lk4 xii4 #cf2 ,john ii4 #a ff4 #cji ,see ,knig1 ,hebr4 und ,aram4 ,wrterbuch1 p4 #eje1 and cp4 the ,sept4 7,cod4 ,b74 #caj ,kimhlath hammaanaim4 ,cp4 the ,septuagint rendering3 4 #caa ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day1 p4 #eb1 says1 8,the tenacity with which the ,oriental mind1 if left to itself1 holds that which has always been1 and turns to it as unerringly as the needle to the pole1 has often been observed1 and is our guaranty that we may find primitive religious conditions among people with whom1 if we approach them in the right way1 we may hold intercourse to-day40 ,this may certainly apply to the present instance4 #cab ,in the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 pp4 #bhg ff4 7#ahgc74 #cac ,cp4 the reference to the king in ,cant4 i4 #d4 #cad ,mittel-,syrien und ,damascus1 p4 #abc 7#ahec74 #cae ,arabia ,deserta1 ,,ii4 #aah 7#aiba74 #caf ,see ,rothstein's article1 8,moslemische ,hochzeitsgebruche in ,lifta bei ,jerusalem10 in ,dalman's ,palstinajahrbuch1 #aiaj1 pp4 #ajb-abc1 especially #aaj-aad2 a photographic illustration of a sword-dance is given on p4 #ajb2 and ,klein in the ,zeitschrift des ,deutschen ,palstinischen ,vereins1 ,,vi4 #id ff4 7#ahhc74 #cag 8,its general unscientific nature has been demonstrated by ,mr ,fison and ,dr ,westermarck4444 ,the theory1 then1 that mankind in general1 or even a particular section of mankind1 even in normal circumstances were accustomed to obtain their wives by capture from other tribes1 may be regarded as exploded4 ,there have been1 of course1 and still are1 sporadic cases of capture of wives from hostile tribes or others1 but such cannot prove a rule40 ,crawley1 ,the ,mystic ,rose3 ,a ,study of ,primitive ,marriage1 p4 #cfg 7#aijb74 #cah ,op4 cit4 pp4 #cbc ff4 #cai ,for the reasons why these maleficent influences should be believed to be present on such occasions see ,crawley's work1 chaps1 ,,xiii1 ,,xiv4 #cbj ,palestinischer ,diwan1 p4 #bed 7#aija74 ,for the custom among the ,arabs of the ,hedjaz see ,featherman1 op4 cit4 ,v4 #djb4 #cba ,krauss1 ,talmudische ,archologie1 ,,ii4 #ci 7#aiaa74 #cbb ,bacher1 ,aggada der ,palestinischen ,amoraim1 ,,iii4 #cf 7#ahig72 ,,je1 ,,viii4 #cda f4 #cbc ,abrahams1 ,jewish ,life in the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #aic 7#ahif74 #cbd ,abrahams1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aie f42 cp4 with this the rite in the ancient ,indian ritual1 in which the bride takes seven steps towards the bridegroom2 at the seventh he seizes her by the foot1 ,winternitz1 ,das altindische ,hochzeitsrituell1 in 8,denkschriften der ,kaiserlichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften10 ,,xl4 #ea 7#ahib74 #cbe ,grunwald1 in ,,je1 ,,viii4 #cdf a1 quoting from ,chorny1 ,sefer ha-,massaot1 p4 #bih4 #cbf ,abrahams1 op4 cit4 p4 #aif4 ,for marriage rites among ,jews and ,mohammedans in ,palestine to-day see ,baldensperger in the ,quarterly ,statement of the ,pal4 ,exploration ,fund1 #ahii1 pp4 #adj ff41 #aijj1 pp4 #aha ff41 #aija1 pp4 #agc ff4 #cbg ,westermarck1 ,marriage ,ceremonies in ,morocco1 p4 #add 7#aiad74 #cbh ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 p4 #chh 7#aiaj74 #cbi ,on this1 see further ,crawley1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cbg ff41 #cce ff4 #ccj ,op4 cit4 p4 #cba4 #cca ,op4 cit4 p4 #cdd4 #ccb ,featherman1 ,social ,history of the ,races of ,mankind1 ,v4 #dhj 7#ahha74 #ccc ,westermarck1 op4 cit4 p4 #bea4 #ccd ,winternitz1 ,das altindische ,hochzeitsrituell1 ,,xl4 #cj4 #cce ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 p4 #cgd4 #ccf ,skeat1 op4 cit4 p4 #cha4 #ccg 8,for practical purposes1 as is hardly necessary to premise1 the complex fears of men and women are often subconscious1 or are only expressed as a feeling of diffidence with regard to the novel proceedings1 and also are not always focussed on the personality of either party with its inherent dangerous properties nor stimulated by conscious realisation of particular dangers4444 ,we have1 however1 seen cases where the individual in marriage is consciously aware that it is his human partner who is to be feared0 7,crawley1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbc74 #cch ,skeat1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgg1 and for other dances at weddings see pp4 #chh f41 #cib4 #cci ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage1 ,,ii4 #ehd 7#aiba72 see also ,featherman1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #bjh4 #cdj ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,scapegoat1 p4 #aga4 #cda ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ,,ii4 #bee4 #cdb ,westermarck1 ,marriage ,ceremonies in ,morocco1 p4 #ij4 #cdc ,westermarck1 op4 cit4 p4 #add4 #cdd ,h4 ,a4 ,metcalf's translation1 ,the ,idylls and ,epigrams of ,theocritus 444 7#aije74 #cde ,the ,mystic ,rose1 pp4 #ccg ff4 #cdf ,for these1 see the present writer's book1 ,immortality and the ,unseen ,world3 a ,study in ,old ,testament ,religion1 pp4 #ada ff4 7#aiba74 #cdg ,talmudische ,archologie1 ,,ii4 #fg f41 #dhc 7#aiaa72 cp4 also ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book3 ,lebanon1 ,damascus1 and beyond ,jordan1 pp4 #dja ff4 7#ahhf74 #cdh ,crawley1 in ,,ere1 ,x4 #ceh a4 #cdi ,the mystic number1 seven1 in connexion with the rite will not escape notice4 ,the whole service will be found in ,gaster's ,daily and ,occasional ,prayers1 vol4 ,i4 7#aija74 ,the supplications1 though not in precisely the same form in which they now appear1 are known to go back to pre-,christian times2 the antiquity of the ritual by which they are accompanied1 especially when its nature is considered1 will obviously be at least as great1 let alone the long history behind it4 #cej ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,,xi4 #abi 7#ahgi-aiaj74 #cea ,in ,,ere1 ,,iii4 #feh b4 #ceb ,hartland1 in ,,ere1 ,,iv4 #dbf b4 #cec ,walse1 in ,,ere1 ,,iv4 #dec b4 #ced ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland1 ,i4 #cja 7#aijc74 #cee ,alois ,musil1 ,arabia ,petraea1 ,,iii4 #bjc 7#aijh74 #cef ,for illustrations of this kind see1 e4g41 ,rosellini1 ,les ,monuments de l'gypte et de la ,nubie1 ,pl4 ,,cxiv4 fig4 #b1 ,pl4 ,,cxvi4 fig4 #f 7#ahca72 ,lepsius1 ,denkmler aus ,aegypten und ,aethiopien1 ,div4 ,,ii1 ,pls4 #eb1 #ec 7#ahdi72 ,perrot et ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l'art dans l'antiquit3 l'gypte1 p4 #gja 7#ahhb74 #ceg ,in ,,ere1 ,v4 #bch a4 #ceh ,erman1 ,aegypten 4441 ,i4 #ccf4 #cei ,erman1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #cch1 ,,ii4 #dcd4 #cfj ,reported in the ,times1 #bith ,june1 #aibb4 #cfa ,cp4 ,herodotus1 ,,ii4 #he4 #cfb ,an ,account of the ,manners and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians1 ,,ii4 #bgb 7#ahga74 #cfc ,op4 cit4 pp4 #cdd1 #djh f41 #deb4 #cfd ,among the ,romans1 during the earliest periods1 funerals always took place at night2 for the evidence see ,marquardt1 ,das ,privatleben der ,rmer1 pp4 #cdc f4 7#ahhf74 #cfe ,as to funeral games see ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des antiquits ,greques et ,romaines1 ,,ii4 #acgf 7#ahif 44473 8,la prsence de nombreux chars sur les vases peints du ,dipylon fait croire qu'on continua clbrer des jeux funbres en l'honneur du mort1 et cet usage persista longtemps encore1 comme semble l'indiquer une peinture o un char de course est reprsent ct d'une stle qu'on achve de dcorer40 ,cp4 ,rohde1 ,psyche 4441 ,i4 #bbd f4 ,as ,hartland points out 7,,ere1 ,,iv4 #dcg a71 8funeral games1 familiar to us in classical literature1 are of very wide distribution4 ,they cannot be separated from dances1 for there is no hard and fast line between the two40 #cff ,see also ,rohde1 ,psyche 4441 ,i4 #bba4 #cfg ,in ,dionys4 ,,vii4 #gb there is a description of such a procession in which troops danced in the dress of ,sileni and ,satyrs4 ,suet4 ,caes4 #hd 7,marquardt1 ,das ,privatleben der ,rmer1 pp4 #ceb f474 #cfh ,crawley1 in ,,ere1 ,x4 #cef a4 #cfi ,antike ,gesichtshelme und ,sepulcralmasken1 p4 #d 7#ahgh71 referred to by ,marquardt1 ,privatleben der ,rmer1 p4 #bda1 and see further1 pp4 #cec ff4 #cgj ,showerman in ,,ere1 ,,iv4 #eje b1 #ejg b4 ,cp4 ,daremberg et ,saglio1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,funus4 #cga ,op4 cit4 ,,ii4 #cb4 #cgb ,see the present writer's ,immortality and the ,unseen ,world1 pp4 #i1 #ba f4 #cgc ,i4e4 8sacred10 the first month of the ,musulman year4 #cgd ,jafar ,sharif1 ,islam in ,india1 or the ,qnn-i-,islam3 ,the ,customs of the ,musulmans of ,india1 translated by ,g4 ,a4 ,herklots1 pp4 #afa-agd 7#aiba74 #cge ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,the ,magic ,art1 ,,ii4 #ahc4 #cgf ,j4 ,m4 ,brown1 ,maori and ,polynesian1 p4 #bjc4 8,funeral dances and death-bed dances are a world-wide custom4 ,we hear of them in ,patagonia1 in ,abyssinia1 in ,north ,america1 in the ,east ,indian isles and in the ,highlands of ,scotland2 we read about them in ancient ,egypt1 and we can see them to-day in ,spain1 in ,ireland1 and in the centre of ,france10 ,lilly ,grove1 op4 cit4 p4 #d4 #cgg ,,ere1 ,,iv4 #dcd b4 #cgh ,seligmann1 ,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea1 pp4 #ceh ff41 #gaf 7#aiaj74 #cgi ,frazer1 ,the ,belief in ,immortality1 ,i4 #bjj 7#aiac74 #chj ,frazer1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #cii4 #cha ,the ,indian ,tribes of ,guiana1 pp4 #aed f4 7#ahfh74 #chb ,schoolcraft1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #aih1 #bcd4 #chc ,featherman1 ,social ,history of the ,races of ,mankind1 ,i4 #dac 7#ahha74 #chd ,baldwin ,spencer1 ,the ,native ,tribes of the ,northern ,territory of ,australia1 pp4 #bcd ff4 7#aiad74 #che ,frazer1 op4 cit4 ,i4 #bic f4 #chf ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to the ,torres ,straits1 ,v4 #bef4 #chg ,die ,religion in ,geschichte und ,gegenwart1 ,v4 #ajgj4 #chh ,nelson1 ,the ,eskimo about ,bering ,strait1 ,eighteenth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,pt4 ,i4 #cfc 7#ahii74 #chi ,frazer1 ,,gb1 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #aff4 #cij ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #eje ff4 7#ahii74 #cia ,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico1 ,i4 pp4 #chd ff4 7#aijc74 #cib ,,ere1 ,,iv4 #dha a4 #cic ,,ere1 ,,iv4 #daf b4 #cid ,see on this the present writer's ,immortality and the ,unseen ,world1 p4 #ahj4 ,,index ,aaron1 #afa ,ab1 feast of1 #adc ,abel-meolah1 #adb ,abijah1 #ib ,absorbing the god1 #be ,abydos1 royal tombs at1 #bjc ,achna1 ,kybele temenos at1 #ii ,air a means of lustration1 #ii ,altar1 dance round1 #ia f4 procession round1 #id ,amalekites1 ,david's attack on the1 #dh ,amathus1 #gj ,ambarvalia1 #ajj1 #adi ,ancestor-worship1 #aca dancing connected with1 #aie ,animals1 belief in descent from1 #ah1 #gh holy1 #aff imitated in dance1 #ah sacred1 #aff ,animistic stage1 #ad ,aphrodite1 #ih ,aphrodite-,ariadne1 #gj ,apis festivals1 #fj ,apollo1 #g1 #fc1 #fh1 #gd1 #abj ,apollo ,karneios1 #fi ,apollo1 ,pythaean1 #fi ,apollonius ,rhodius1 #bja ,apuleius1 #aah ,apuleius' account of sacred dance1 #fa f4 ,arabi ,pasha1 #aae ,arabs1 #aic ancient1 #aaf cultus of the1 #di1 #id wedding dance among the1 #aha mourning rite among the1 #bjb song round well of1 #hi ,arwaks1 funeral dance among the1 #bab f4 procession round corpse of1 #bja ,archigallus1 #abg ,ares1 #fc ,argonauts1 #bja ,ariadne1 #gj ,ariadne's ,dance1 #bg1 #fi1 #ga f4 ,aristomenes1 #afc ,aristophanes1 ,frogs quoted1 #abc ,aristotle1 #ad ,ark1 #cf1 #ed1 #id ,arkteia1 #fh1 #ajb ,artemis1 #ai1 #fc1 #ff1 #ajb ,brauronian ceremonies of1 #fh ,caryatis1 #fg ,koruthalia1 #ff worship of1 #fg ,artemis-,kybele1 groves of1 #ii ,arunta of ,central ,australia1 #afi funeral dance among the1 #baf ,arval ,brothers1 #adi ,ashantees1 #agj ,ashdod1 #dg ,ashkenazic ,jews1 #aih ,asiatic peoples1 sacred dance among1 #gf ,asiph1 #adj ,asshurbanipal1 inscription of1 #eh ,assyrian festivals1 #eh procession1 #eh sacred dance1 #f ,athena1 #ai1 #fd1 #abj ,athens1 #abc ,atonement1 day of1 #adc ,atrium1 #bjh ,attic women dancing in honour of ,dionysos1 #abc ,attis1 worship of1 #abf1 #abg ,baal1 #ch ,marqd1 #ai1 #ef of dancing1 #ef prophets of1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aca f4 8,baby ,jesus01 #bc ,babylonian festivals1 #eg hymns1 #eh ,bacchanalian assemblies1 #abd ,bacchantes1 #aba1 #abd ,bagobos of ,mindanao1 #ajc ,bmh1 #ajh ,bambaras of ,senegambia1 #ade ,barges1 procession of1 #fb ,basket1 #fj ,baskets dancing1 #fg ,bear dance1 #fh1 #ajb ,bechuanas1 marriage dance among the1 #aha ,bedouin ,arabs1 #aic dance among the1 #ef f4 ,benihassan1 inscription on tomb at1 #bjc ,benjamites1 #adb ,bs1 #fj ,bsa1 #fa ,bethel1 #ch ,bharang1 #baa ,bheels1 marriage dance among the1 #aha ,blood1 flowing of during dance1 #bac ,bodo-priest1 #bg1 #abh ,boghazkeui1 rock-inscription at1 #ei1 #aji ,bond of life1 #bjj ,bondas1 funeral dance among1 #bac ,bones venerated1 #baj ,book of the ,dead1 the1 #aa ,brahman worship1 #gg ,brauronian ceremonies1 #fh1 #hd ,brethren of the ,ploughed ,fields1 #adi ,bridal couples1 royal state of1 #bi ,bride and bridegroom in a state of danger1 #ahd ,buddha1 pyre of1 #bja ,burial rite1 dancing as a1 #bi f41 #db customs not an innovation1 #aig tenacity of1 #aig ,burials1 ,chinese1 #bja ,buriats1 procession round corpse of1 #bja ,byblos1 #aaf ,cactus1 #bag ,camel1 processional dance round1 #bh1 #ie ,caryae1 #fg ,cassowary-dances1 #ah ,castor and ,pollux1 #fg ,cattle increased by sacred dance1 #ajc ,charites1 #adh ,chela1 #acc ,child mind1 the1 #bb ,chinese burials1 #bja ,chitn1 #fg ,chnomhtep1 #bjc ,choruses of ,physcoa and ,hippodamia1 #abd ,chuppah1 #agg ,cicero1 #gh ,circle-dance of men and women1 #bje f4 ,circle1 magic1 #bh1 #id ,circuit round sanctuary1 #id sacrifice1 #id sevenfold1 #ic1 #id ,circuits round a corpse1 #bjj ,circumambulation1 #aii ,circumambulatory procession1 #ajj ,circumcision festivals1 dancing at1 #add f4 of ,isaac1 #ade ,city1 encirclement of1 #id ,clapping of hands1 #g1 #eb ,clement of ,alexandria1 #abe ,coelibaris hasta1 #aha ,coins from ,tralles1 #fi ,conibos1 funeral dances among the1 #bab 8,consecrated01 #id ,consecration of warriors1 #afa ,corinth1 golden plate from grave near1 #gc ,corn-,mother1 #ajc ,corneto1 #bjg ,corybantes1 #fi ,crane dance1 #gb ,cremation in ,india1 #bja ,cretan labyrinth1 #ga ,cretan legend of birth of ,zeus1 #fi ,cretan-,mycenaean creed1 #abj ,crete1 #gj ,crops made to grow by dancing1 #bg1 #bi ,cultus of ancient ,arabs1 #id ,custom1 traditional1 retained1 #bag ,cylinder seals1 #ei ,cylix of ,hieron1 #abb ,cymbals1 #g1 #eb ,cypresses1 #adh ,cyprus1 #gj excavations in1 #aa1 #ih inscriptions from1 #ei f41 #gb f41 #ih f4 ,dagon1 #dg ,daa dances1 #add ,dakotahs1 #ba1 #gg1 #hc1 #aja1 #afe f4 sun worship among the1 #gg ,dlag1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh ,dance accompanied by cymbals1 #g by hand-drums1 #g by singing1 #g by tambourine1 #aba1 #bjc among the ,greeks1 #aa the ,israelites1 #g the natives of ,new ,guinea1 #a f4 the uncivilized races1 #h and music1 #g and religion1 #fi applied to processions1 #ajj as a mourning rite among the ,greeks and ,romans1 #bjg ff4 at funeral feasts1 #bjg at weddings as an initiatory ceremony1 #ahh ecstatic1 #cg ff4 encircling1 #cg1 #ahc1 #aii1 #bje funeral1 #bjd ff4 funeral1 purposes of1 #bjd ff4 ,hebrew terms for1 #dd ff4 ,hikuli1 #bag f4 imitative1 #ad in honour of the army of the heavens1 #fi of the ,egyptian gods1 #fa in semi-circle1 #ih limping1 #hg1 #aaa musical accompaniment to1 #ea ff4 never useless1 #b of ,jewish maidens1 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