,,animal ,,portraiture ,illustration ,,animal ,,portraiture ,,being ,,fifty ,,studies ,,by ,,wilhelm ,,kuhnert ,,accompanied ,,by ,a ,,series ,,of ,,original ,,articles ,,by ,r4 ,,lydekker ,f4,r4,s4 ,illustration ,london ,,frederick ,,warne ,c4 ,new ,york 7,all rights reserved7 ,,copyright1 #aiab ,,by ,,frederick ,,warne ,,co4 ,,foreword ,wilhelm ,kuhnert is the greatest animal-painter of our day4 ,there has never been a more excellent colourist or more skilful draughtsman of shape and action2 and there is none with a more masterly touch or more unmistakable individuality4 ,there is no misunderstanding his intention4 ,the lifelike likeness of the animal set in its local atmosphere is his predominating endeavour4 ,his range is of the widest1 and his subjects all come alike to him2 he has no preference for any particular group or family1 but draws them all1 vertebrate and invertebrate1 with power1 truth1 and sympathy4 ,with a knowledge of the very soul of the animal such as few possess1 his pictures are replete with insight into character and its vivid expression1 and fascinate even those who may not adequately appreciate their wonderful accuracy4 8,we who have travelled10 as ,mr4 ,g4 ,j4 ,millais remarks1 8do not need to be told that his studies from nature are correct4 ,his lions1 elephants1 zebras1 and antelopes are so real that we feel we are gazing at them on the plains of ,east ,africa4 ,the landscapes are simple but intense2 sunlight is there1 and the trees and grass are just those that grow in the habitat of these species4 ,kuhnert has1 as it were1 got inside the very skin of ,african life1 and draws you insensibly within the charmed circle40 ,in a gallery his works at once arrest attention by their vigorous realism4 ,there is life within the frame of whatever he paints4 ,he is the ,frans ,hals of animal portraiture4 ,he was born at ,oppeln in ,silesia on the #bhth of ,september #ahfe1 and during his student days at the ,academy of ,berlin1 was influentially advised to devote himself to animal painting1 for which he had evidently a special gift4 ,he began1 however1 as a portrait painter1 and from his pictures1 particularly those of ,african life1 it is clear that in that branch of art he would have distinguished himself2 but fortunately1 he could not withstand his inclination4 ,from a painter of portraits of men and women he developed into a portrait-painter of animals1 finding his subjects alive by the countryside and in menageries and zoological gardens1 and then seeking them farther afield in ,africa and ,southern ,asia1 where he worked assiduously in forest and jungle4 ,fifty of his characteristic studies are included in this book1 and in them1 as in all1 the blending of the animal with the surroundings is remarkable1 and the faithfulness with which the landscape1 painted on the spot1 has been rendered is apparent at a glance4 ,search as we will we shall find nothing truer to nature than such triumphs of art as the ,polar ,bear amid the ,arctic ice1 the hairy ,tigers by the snowy mountain lake1 the slender ,flamingoes in the evening landscape1 the ,silver ,gull sweeping above the ocean waves1 the ,black ,swans as an idyll of the pool1 the ,capercaillie posturing in the morning light1 and many other masterpieces herein4 ,this collection1 like that of the ,kuhnert ,exhibition at the ,fine ,art ,society's ,gallery in ,bond ,street1 is arranged purely on artistic lines2 no attempt has been made to classify the subjects in zoological order4 ,it is an album of animal portraiture as fully representative of the artist as possible4 ,the pictures have been photographically reproduced in colours from the oil paintings1 and the imitation is so exact that little of the charm of the originals has been lost4 ,,contents ,,plate ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,lion 7,felis ,leo7 #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,manchurian ,,tiger 7,felis tigris mongolica7 #d ,,iii4 ,,the ,,seal 7,phoca vitulina7 #f ,,iv4 ,,the ,,elk 7,alces machlis7 #h ,v4 ,,the ,,capercaillie 7,tetrao urogallus7 #aj ,,vi4 ,,the ,,squirrel 7,sciurus vulgaris7 #ab ,,vii4 ,,the ,,roe-,,deer 7,capreolus caprea7 #ad ,,viii4 ,,the ,,reindeer 7,rangifer tarandus7 #af ,,ix4 ,,the ,,defassa ,,waterbuck 7,cobus defassa7 #ah ,x4 ,,the ,,hare 7,lepus europus7 #bj ,,xi4 ,,the ,,polar ,,bear 7,ursus maritimus7 #bb ,,xii4 ,,the ,,mandrill 7,maimon mormon7 #bd ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,wolf 7,canis lupus7 #bf ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,wild ,,cat 7,felis catus7 #bh ,,xv4 ,,the ,,red ,,kangaroo 7,macropus rufus7 #cj ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,blue ,,roller 7,coracias garrulus7 #cb ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,bittern 7,botaurus stellaris7 #cd ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,kafir ,,crowned ,,crane 7,balearica chrysopelargus7 #cf ,,xix4 ,,the ,,silver ,,gull 7,larus argentatus7 #ch ,,xx4 ,,the ,,great ,,horned ,,owl 7,bubo ignavus7 #dj ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,flamingo 7,phnicopterus roseus7 #db ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,nile ,,crocodile 7,crocodilus niloticus7 #dd ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,white-,,handed ,,gibbon 7,hylobates lar7 #df ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,abyssinian ,,green ,,monkey 7,cercopithecus thiops7 #dh ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,fox 7,canis vulpes or ,vulpes alopex7 #ej ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,brown ,,bear 7,ursus arctus7 #eb ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,pine-,,marten 7,mustela martes7 #ed ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,leopard 7,felis pardus7 #ef ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,lynx 7,felis 7,lynx7 lynx7 #eh ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,indian ,,rhinoceros 7,rhinoceros unicornis7 #fj ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,bison 7,bos 7,bison7 bonasus7 #fb ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,gazelle 7,gazella dorcas7 #fd ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,mouflon 7,ovis musimon7 #ff ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,red ,,deer 7,cervus elaphus7 #fh ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,beaver 7,castor fiber7 #gj ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,marmot 7,arctomys marmotta7 #gb ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,hamster 7,cricetus frumentarius7 #gd ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,duckbill ,,or ,,platypus 7,ornithorhynchus anatinus7 #gf ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,spiny ,,ant-,,eater ,,or ,,echidna 7,tachyglossus aculeatus7 #gh ,,xl4 ,,the ,,black ,,swan 7,cygnus atratus7 #hj ,,xli4 ,,the ,,bustard 7,otis tarda7 #hb ,,xlii4 ,,the ,,somali ,,ostrich 7,struthio molybdophanes7 #hd ,,xliii4 ,,the ,,pied ,,hornbill 7,buceros bicornis7 #hf ,,xliv4 ,,the ,,blue ,,macaw 7,ara crulea or ,ara ararauna7 #hh ,,xlv4 ,,the ,,mandarin ,,duck 7x galerita7 #ij ,,xlvi4 ,,the ,,heron 7,ardea cinerea7 #ib ,,xlvii4 ,,the ,,great ,,spotted ,,woodpecker 7,dendrocopus major7 #id ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,senegal ,,parrot 7,pocephalus senegalus7 #if ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,goldfinch 7,carduelis elegans7 #ih ,l4 ,,the ,,razorbill ,,or ,,auk 7,alca torda7 #ajj ,,the ,,lion 7,felis leo7 ,the lion1 undoubtedly1 owes his title of 8king of beasts0 to the flowing mane with which his head and fore-quarters are adorned1 as this confers upon him a dignity and grandeur of appearance entirely lacking in his maneless partner4 ,without his mane it is1 indeed1 more than questionable whether a lion would not be outclassed in style by a tiger4 ,as it is1 however1 the lion1 at all events so far as appearance goes1 has an undisputed claim to his royal title2 the magnificent mien of his draped head and shoulders1 his bold1 imperious eye1 the powerful build of his lithe body1 and his resounding roar of defiance1 presenting the very ideal of supreme strength and sovereignty4 ,the tawny coat1 which varies in tint from greyish or yellowish brown to yellow1 is evidently intended to harmonise with the dry grasses and the yellow sand of the semi-desert tracts which form the favourite haunts of the lion2 and this is confirmed by the fact that the newborn cubs are mottled with dark brown1 thus indicating their descent from a species with a mottled or spotted coat adapted to a different environment4 ,indeed1 ,somali lions frequently retain traces of these spots1 more especially in the female2 and in ,german ,east ,africa there exists a race of the lion in which both sexes are more or less fully and distinctly spotted4 ,in popular estimation the lion is inseparably connected with ,africa1 where it formerly ranged from one end of the continent to the other1 although it has long since disappeared from most parts of ,tunis and ,algeria1 as well as from ,cape ,colony4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,felis leo is as much an ,asiatic as an ,african animal2 while in the time of ,xenophon it was probably found so far west as ,thrace and ,macedonia4 ,earlier still1 that is to say in prehistoric times1 its range included the greater part of temperate ,europe1 not excepting the ,british ,isles4 ,unlike the tiger1 however1 the lion never inhabited the countries to the east of the ,bay of ,bengal1 nor penetrated to the swamps of ,lower ,bengal itself1 which are unsuited to its habits4 ,even so late as the ,mutiny1 lions were to be met with over a considerable tract in central ,india2 although they are nowadays restricted to that district of ,kathiawar1 known as the ,gir1 where they survive only by protection4 ,in the valleys of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 as well as in parts of ,persia1 lions are still to be met with2 but how numerous they are in these countries is difficult to ascertain4 ,in ,africa lions appear to be most abundant in the ,british1 ,german1 and ,portuguese eastern provinces1 in some districts of which they seem bolder and more prone to attack human beings than in many other parts of the continent4 ,in ,somaliland1 where they are smaller and greyer than usual1 their number has been greatly reduced of late years4 ,the handsomest lions of all are those with dark brown or black manes2 but in some parts of the country1 at all events1 black-maned lions do not form a distinct race1 as dark and light maned cubs may be found in the same litter4 ,although the skulls of the two species present considerable differences1 a lioness1 apart from the absence of stripes1 is not unlike a tiger in general appearance2 and it has long been a question whether the lion or the tiger is the more powerful animal1 although the balance of opinion seems to be in favour of the tiger's claim to superiority in this respect4 ,certain it is1 that the lion is much the more noisy animal of the two2 a tiger never roaring in the persistent manner characteristic of the lion4 ,the impression caused by the lion's roar appears to depend greatly on the idiosyncrasy of the listener and the circumstances under which it is heard4 ,very noteworthy is the fact that the roar of the two species is essentially similar in character4 ,as a rule1 lions1 when too feeble to capture more active prey1 turn into regular man-eaters much less frequently than tigers2 but this may be in part explained by the bolder nature of many ,african tribes1 as compared with the natives of a large extent of ,india2 and when a lion makes himself obnoxious1 such tribes have no hesitation in attacking and destroying the marauder4 ,lions in ,africa subsist1 to a great extent1 on the flesh of antelopes and zebras1 or bontequaggas2 generally stalking their game in parties of two or three1 but one alone making the fatal spring4 ,when stalking1 a lion stretches out its body to the fullest extent1 and crawls so close to the ground that even in low grass its presence is generally undetected till too late4 ,occasionally a party of lions combine their forces to pull down a large animal like a buffalo4 ,zebras can defend themselves only by kicking1 but the gemsbok and the sable antelope will pin a lion with their horns1 and sometimes come off victorious4 ,it has been very generally stated that lions are mainly1 if not exclusively1 monogamous1 and that they mate for life4 ,it has1 however1 been pointed out by ,mr4 ,roosevelt that if this were really the case1 they would almost always be found in pairs1 that is to say1 a lion and a lioness together4 ,that they are thus found not infrequently may1 indeed1 be freely admitted2 but1 on the other hand1 it is much commoner to come across a lioness and her cubs1 an old lion with several lionesses and their young1 a single lion or lioness1 a couple of lions and lionesses1 or1 lastly1 a small troop1 which may be composed either solely of males or females1 or of a mixture of the two sexes4 8,these facts10 writes the great ,american hunter1 8are not compatible with the romantic theory in question40 ,illustration ,the cubs1 generally two or three in number1 come into the world1 unlike kittens1 with their eyes open1 and are then about one-third the size of a cat4 ,as already mentioned1 they are heavily mottled with brown on a tawny ground1 and it is very significant that these markings are to a great extent intermediate in character between the rosettes of leopards and jaguars and the stripes of the tiger4 ,a peculiar feature in which the cubs of lions differ from those of leopards and jaguars1 and thereby resemble those of tigers1 is the presence of a white spot near the summit of the back of each ear4 ,from these facts it has been inferred1 in the first place1 that the lion is most nearly related to the tiger1 and1 in the second place1 that lions1 tigers1 leopards1 and jaguars are all members of a single group4 ,as regards the mutual relationships of these species1 it is generally believed that spots represent an earlier and more primitive type of colouring than transverse stripes1 and it is therefore inferred that the stripes of the tiger1 which are very frequently partially split or double1 have been derived from the fusion of leopard-like rosettes into transverse chains4 ,as the self-coloured coat of the adult lion is evidently a modern feature1 it seems clear that tigers and lions are to be regarded as the most specialised members of the whole group4 ,before the investigations which led up to these modern advanced views had been undertaken1 it was very generally believed1 on account of its self-coloured tawny coat1 that the ,american puma--locally known as the ,american lion--was one of the nearest relatives of ,felis leo4 ,if1 however1 beauty be but skin deep1 colour is an even less deeply seated feature among animals2 and1 as the result of the study of the markings of young cubs of the puma1 it seems certain that this species has acquired its uniform tawny livery quite independently of the lion4 ,for newly born puma cubs exhibit a pattern of quadrangular blackish markings totally different in form and arrangement from those of young lions1 tigers1 leopards1 or jaguars1 and approximating in some degree to those of the smaller cats4 ,accordingly1 in the opinion of the investigator to whom we are indebted for these very interesting views with regard to the inter-relationships of the various members of the feline tribe1 it seems highly probable that the puma may be an overgrown self-coloured representative of the group of smaller cats typified by the ordinary domesticated species and its wild relatives4 ,a remarkable feature connected with the tuft at the tip of the tail of the lion is the frequent presence of a horny spur or claw1 the function of which is still unknown1 although it is certain that it is not employed1 as was once thought to be the case1 to goad the animal into fury when the tail is lashed against the flanks4 ,it has been asserted that this spur is found only in the ,indian lion2 but this is as erroneous as the statement made by the same writer that it represents the last joint of the vertebr of the tail to which the blood is unable to obtain access4 ,a very similar structure exists in one member of the kangaroo tribe1 known as the spur-tailed wallaby1 in which1 however1 the spur is common to both sexes and quite constant in its development4 ,menagerie lions1 it may be mentioned1 generally display a greater luxuriance and profusion of mane than their wild relatives2 while it is in the former alone that any marked development of long hair on the under surface of the body is noticeable4 ,the reason for this is1 of course1 too obvious to require explanation1 more especially when it is borne in mind that lions inhabiting open plains with grass-jungle have larger manes than those which have to get their living in a country overgrown with thorn-bushes4 ,,the ,,manchurian ,,tiger 7,felis tigris mongolica7 ,the tiger is1 and apparently always has been1 an essentially ,asiatic animal1 although it enters south-eastern ,europe in the ,caucasus1 whence its range extends eastwards through ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 and ,india1 to ,java and ,sumatra1 while northward it is found through ,china and ,mongolia to ,korea and ,amurland4 ,very noteworthy is its absence from ,ceylon1 which seems to indicate that its original home was central ,asia1 and that it is a comparatively recent immigrant into southern ,asia4 ,four local races of the tiger are recognised by naturalists1 namely1 the typical ,indian tiger1 the ,persian tiger 7,f4 tigris virgata71 the ,javan tiger 7,f4 t4 sondaica71 and the ,manchurian or ,siberian tiger 7,f4 t4 mongolica or longipilis74 ,as regards splendour of coat1 the finest of these races is the ,manchurian tiger1 which differs from the ,indian race by the great length and woolliness of its winter coat and the larger extent of white on the face1 under-parts1 and the inner side of the limbs4 ,it also appears to be a more stoutly built animal1 and attains a very large size4 ,its skin commands a very high price4 ,from both these races the ,persian tiger1 which is probably the one found in the ,caucasus1 differs by the copious fringe of long hair on the cheeks1 throat1 and under-parts2 while it is also of inferior bodily size4 ,the ,javan and ,sumatran tiger1 which may be the same as the one inhabiting the ,malay countries1 differs from all the other three by the light areas on the head1 body and limbs being of small extent1 ill-defined1 and dirty or buffish white in colour instead of pure white4 ,in size it is always relatively small1 and appears to be the smallest of all4 ,the degree of development of the dark stripes appears to vary individually2 but the ,persian race seems to be the most fully striped of all1 and shows in perfection the characteristic looping1 or splitting of the stripes4 ,the striped coat of the tiger seems designed to break up the outline of the body1 and thus to render the animal as inconspicuous as possible4 ,that it is not1 as was once thought1 a special adaptation to match the surroundings of the animal in the jungles of ,bengal1 will be evident from what is stated above as to the distribution of the tiger and its comparatively recent entry into ,india4 ,information is still required with regard to the habits of the ,manchurian tiger1 which has only of recent years been hunted by ,european sportsmen1 or exhibited alive in zoological gardens4 ,it appears1 however1 that these northern tigers prey on almost all the animals of their native country1 from the largest to the smallest4 ,in summer they will overpower and kill such fierce animals as bears1 while in times of scarcity during the long winter they may be driven to prey on mice and rats4 ,to capture their victims they frequently resort to the drinking-places of the latter1 and in summer they likewise pay constant visits to the salt-pans where the wapiti and other deer come to lick the salt4 ,illustration ,each pair of tigers generally frequents the same lair1 which in mountainous districts is concealed amid rocks1 while in the plains the requisite shelter is afforded by reed-brakes4 ,in winter the tigers may be completely snowed up in their retreats4 ,as in ,india1 the tigress is reported to separate herself from the tiger a short time before giving birth to her young2 these being born in some dense thicket or rocky cleft1 their number varying from two to four4 ,at birth they are about the same size as lion-cubs1 but are marked in the same fashion as their parents1 although clothed in more woolly coats4 ,in ,india it is generally stated that the female keeps apart from the male while the cubs are young1 although both parents have been seen with their offspring4 ,like lions1 tigers associate for the greater part of the year in pairs1 and are strictly monogamous4 ,whether old tigers in ,siberia turn man-eaters1 after the fashion of their brethren in ,india1 does not appear to be known2 but in much of their range it is probable that they do not resort to this mode of livelihood1 on account of the sparseness of the population4 ,it appears1 however1 that throughout northern ,china and ,siberia the natives regard the tiger with much the same superstitious awe as do the natives of ,hindustan4 ,all the ,siberian natives consider the tiger as a being of high nature1 although the ,tunguses look upon it as an evil spirit which has come under the influence of the ,shamans1 or sorcerers4 ,fossil bones from the ,new ,siberian ,islands indicate that the ,manchurian tiger once ranged beyond the ,arctic ,circle4 ,,the ,,seal 7,phoca vitulina7 ,of all mammals except whales1 dolphins1 and sea-cows1 the true seals1 of which the common ,british species is the typical representative1 are those which have become most completely adapted to an aquatic existence4 ,this is shown by the spindle-shaped form of the body1 the total absence of external ears1 the conversion of the fore-limbs into flippers1 and the backward direction of the hind pair1 which are also flipper-like1 and lie parallel to the short tail to form an efficient rudder-like organ4 ,seals are evidently descended from land ,carnivora1 and possibly from that long extinct group the ,creodontia4 ,when fully developed1 their cheek-teeth consist of a single middle cusp1 flanked by a smaller one in front and behind2 and there are no teeth specially corresponding with the scissor-like pair characteristic of the modern land ,carnivora4 ,this fact1 unless the teeth are degenerate1 is all in favour of the direct descent of seals from creodonts4 ,from the true seals of the family ,phocid the eared seals1 or ,otariid1 differ by retaining small external ears1 as well as by the fact that the hind-flippers are not permanently turned backwards2 this latter feature being also distinctive of the walrus 7,odobnid74 ,in addition to being the most specialised of the aquatic ,carnivora1 the true seals are also the most widely distributed1 inhabiting nearly all seas1 and being likewise found in the ,caspian ,sea and in ,lakes ,aral and ,baikal4 ,although seals go on land nightly to sleep1 and likewise spend a considerable amount of time in the day on the shore or on ice1 while the females give birth to their young on land1 none of the ,phocid regularly leave the water for a period of several weeks during the breeding-season1 after the fashion of their eared cousins4 ,neither do any of them yield commercial sealskin1 which is a product of certain members of the eared groups4 ,commercially1 they are therefore valued only for their hides and oil1 for the sake of which vast numbers are annually slaughtered4 ,seals are adepts in swimming and diving1 and have the power of closing their nostrils and the apertures of their ears while under water1 although they are unable to remain beneath the surface for anything like so long as whales and dolphins4 ,the food of the common seal1 as well as most other kinds1 consists chiefly of fishes1 for capturing and holding which their sharply cusped teeth are admirably adapted4 ,graceful and active as are their movements in water1 on land they are comparatively awkward and ungainly2 progression being effected by means of the limbs1 accompanied by sudden flexures of the body1 so that it in some degree partakes of the nature of hopping4 ,to land1 seals shoot themselves out of the water by a strong and sudden movement of the hind-limbs4 ,when once on land1 they may remain there for days and even weeks together1 till compelled by hunger to return to the sea4 ,illustration ,the senses of the seal are highly developed4 ,the eye1 for instance1 is full and globular1 and thus specially adapted to catch every ray of light when the animal is in the water4 ,it is noteworthy that seals can shed tears under the influence of excitement1 and especially when in pain4 ,and the idea of the ancients that these animals are attracted by music and singing appears to be founded on fact4 ,their usual cry is a sharp bark1 but when angered they give vent to dog-like snarlings4 ,seals always associate in parties1 which may comprise hundreds of individuals4 ,the young1 which are beautiful little creatures1 are tenderly and affectionately nurtured by their parents1 who protect them from danger by every means in their power4 ,young seals have a coat quite different from that of the adult2 this baby coat in the case of the second ,british species1 the grey seal 7,halichrus grypus71 being wholly white4 ,in colour1 the common seal varies greatly1 the coat being sometimes yellowish and sometimes light grey with blackish mottlings and marblings4 ,the so-called grey seal is generally much darker in colour1 but is best distinguished from the common species by its greatly superior size and its relatively larger and blunter teeth4 ,all seals are polygamous1 which leads to fights among the males for the possession of the females2 but in other respects they are gentle and affectionate1 easily tamed if taken young1 and displaying great capacity for education4 ,as a rule1 only a single cub is produced at a birth1 but there may be twins4 ,,the ,,elk 7,alces machlis7 ,although the elk can claim an easy superiority in the matter of size over all the other members of the deer tribe1 it certainly cannot be accorded a high position in the scale of beauty4 ,for1 truth to say1 it is an ugly and ungainly creature1 with disproportionately long legs1 and huge head terminating in a broad1 flabby1 and almost trunk-like muzzle4 ,by the sportsman1 however1 it is held in high estimation1 owing to the magnificent trophies formed by its great spreading antlers1 which in ,alaskan specimens may have a span of as much as six feet4 ,and when the build of the elk is considered in relation to its mode of life1 we see that what appears ugly and ungainly to our eyes is merely adaptation to a particular mode of life4 ,for in summer the elk spends much of its time wading belly-deep in marshes and lakes in search of the water-plants which form a large proportion of its food at this season2 and in this pursuit its long limbs must obviously be of the greatest advantage1 while the broad and mobile muzzle is specially well adapted for gathering in the floating leaves and stalks4 ,possibly the almost wholly hairy extremity of the muzzle is another adaptation to the same end4 ,the elk typifies the wading type among mammals just as much as does the flamingo among birds4 ,like many other mammals of northern ,europe1 the elk has a circumpolar distribution1 although most ,transatlantic naturalists regard its ,american representatives in the light of a distinct species rather than as local races4 ,in common with the brown bear1 the elk attains its maximum stature in ,alaska1 where it towers to a height of close on seven feet at the shoulder4 ,at one time an inhabitant of the ,british ,isles1 the elk is still found in many parts of ,germany and ,austria-,hungary1 and is abundant in ,scandinavia2 from these countries its range extends eastward through ,poland and ,russia1 and thence across the whole of ,siberia4 ,on the other side of ,bering ,strait it reappears in ,alaska1 whence it ranges through ,british ,columbia to ,maine and other parts of the ,united ,states4 ,the differences between the elk 7or moose1 as it is there called7 of the ,united ,states and the typical elk of ,scandinavia are so slight that it requires an expert to distinguish between the two4 ,it is1 however1 very noteworthy that certain ,scandinavian elk never develop the huge expansions1 or 8shovels10 which form the most characteristic feature of the antlers of the species1 but carry only five simple tines2 and in east ,siberia this simpler type of antler seems to be very prevalent4 ,illustration ,a peculiar feature of the bull elk is the curious hairy appendage hanging from the throat1 known to hunters as the 8bell40 ,elk are polygamous1 like the majority of the deer tribe2 and in the breeding season the two sexes learn each others' whereabouts by means of a loud 8call0 or bellowing1 which in some districts1 at any rate1 appears to be uttered by males and females alike4 ,the call can easily be imitated with the aid of a horn or trumpet1 and by this means many a fine old bull is lured to his destruction4 ,elk are adepts in concealing themselves in the thickets to which they resort during the daytime4 ,in winter1 when they are compelled to subsist on bark and twigs1 especially those of the birch1 these giant deer experience very hard times2 and in ,north ,america a bull and two or three cows often form what is called a 8yard0 in the forest1 by constantly trampling down the snow over a certain area1 and thus keeping themselves from being snowed up4 ,the female gives birth to one or two calves at a time1 which are even more ungainly-looking than their parents4 ,it should be added1 that in ,america the term 8elk0 is misapplied to the wapiti1 while in ,ceylon it is bestowed on the sambar deer4 ,,the ,,capercaillie 7,tetrao urogallus7 ,for the greater part of the year capercaillie1 the largest representative of the grouse family1 passes its time concealed in the depths of the forests1 where it manages to find sufficient food even in the most severe winters2 and it is only for a short period in spring that it makes its appearance1 during the breeding-season1 in the open4 ,its home is in the great forests of continental ,europe and northern ,asia1 more especially those in which fir and pines predominate2 abundant under-wood1 which affords a good supply of berries1 open glades1 patches of sand1 and pure water are1 however1 essential to the well-being of this magnificent bird4 ,the capercaillie1 or auerhahn as it is called in ,austria and ,germany1 ranged in former days from the ,british ,islands to the north-eastern portion of ,turkestan1 the ,altai ,mountains1 and ,lake ,baikal2 but by the middle of the seventeenth century it had already become scarce in ,britain1 where it became extinct a century later4 ,in recent years the bird has1 however1 been reintroduced into ,perthshire1 ,forfarshire1 and a few other ,scottish counties4 ,in the ,urals1 north-eastern ,siberia1 and ,kamchatka the typical capercaillie is represented by nearly allied species1 or races4 ,in ,scandinavia the auerhahn ranges as far north as latitude #gj1 but gradually becomes smaller and scarcer as the pine-woods tend to disappear2 and it is the vast pine-forests of central ,germany1 ,austria-,hungary1 and ,poland that form the great centre of its habitat4 ,although its large size constitutes a sufficient means of recognising the cock capercaillie1 which measures as much as thirty-five inches in length1 from all other kinds of grouse1 the species is distinguishable from its near relative1 the blackcock1 by the evenly rounded tail2 while the blackish head and neck1 with a patch of bare vermilion skin above each eye1 the pale horn-colour of the beak1 the green band across the breast1 and the slaty brown back form other unmistakable characteristics4 ,the female presents somewhat more resemblance to an overgrown greyhen 7the female of the blackcock71 but here again the rounded tail and superior size constitute decisive points of difference2 while the general colour is more distinctly chestnut4 ,additional peculiarities of the hen capercaillie are to be found in the presence of a rufous patch at the base of the neck1 and in the white tips to the black greater wing-coverts4 ,in length the hen measures about #aj inches less than her partner2 while her weight is only from #e to #f lb41 against from #ac to #af or #ag lb4 in the cock4 ,illustration ,the food of the cock capercaillie consists principally of the leaves and young shoots of the ,scotch pine2 and during the breeding-season these appear to form its sole nutriment4 ,at other times he also consumes the leaves of deciduous trees1 together with cranberries1 whortleberries1 juniper-berries1 and grass1 and sometimes a few insects or worms4 ,on the other hand1 the hens1 which spend much more time on the ground than the cocks1 and the young feed largely upon ants and other insects1 worms1 etc42 this being especially the case with the young birds4 ,the capercaillie is a polygamous bird1 and in the spring--sometimes while the snow is still thick on the ground--each cock takes up a position on a tall pine1 and commences his nuptial performance or spel1 as it is called in ,norway4 ,this spel usually lasts from early dawn to sunrise1 and is repeated from sunset till dark2 but the time varies somewhat according to the state of the weather and the temperature4 ,during this amatory performance the cock stretches out his neck1 raises and spreads out his wings like a fan1 ruffles his feathers1 and assumes an appearance which has been compared to that of an angry turkey4 ,a call1 which has been expressed by the words peller1 peller1 peller1 is uttered with continually increasing rapidity1 and concludes with a gulp and an indrawing of the breath1 when the bird throws up his head1 closes his eyes1 and appears to be in a paroxysm of passion4 ,at the sound of the cock's call all the hens in the neighbourhood rush to the place1 uttering cries somewhat like the croak of a raven2 and when they have assembled on the ground below the cock descends from his perch to join the party4 ,in ,scotland1 capercaillie-shooting takes place from #ajth ,august till #bjth ,december2 but in some parts of the ,continent1 as in ,poland1 for instance1 the calling-season is the time for this sport1 which is so highly esteemed1 that in ,hungary and ,poland a tablet is fixed in the shooting-lodges to commemorate the death of each bird4 ,,the ,,squirrel 7,sciurus vulgaris7 ,of all the smaller animals inhabiting the forests of ,great ,britain and the ,continent1 none is better known1 more graceful in its actions1 or more charming in its appearance than the squirrel1 the typical representative of a vast family of rodents1 second in number only to the members of the mouse tribe1 and having an almost cosmopolitan distribution1 although unknown in ,australia4 ,the ,european species1 like the great majority of its immediate relatives1 is completely arboreal in its habits1 and frequents for choice dry and shady forests where there is abundance of tall trees4 ,its range includes practically the whole of ,europe and a considerable portion of northern ,asia2 but1 as might be expected1 there is considerable local variation in the matter of colour in different parts of this extensive area1 and the ,british squirrel differs markedly from the typical ,swedish representative of the species4 ,there are1 moreover1 especially in the ,british race1 seasonal changes of colour1 which render its appearance very different4 ,during the winter months the ,british squirrel 7,sciurus vulgaris leucurus7 is a foxy coloured rodent1 with long tufts of hair to the summits of the ears and the tail practically the same colour as the body4 ,in the spring the long winter coat of the head and body is exchanged for a shorter summer dress and the ears lose their tufts2 but the hairs of the tail are not changed1 and consequently become dirty white1 owing to the bleaching effect of light on their colour4 ,this dirty white or cream-coloured tint of the tail in summer is absolutely characteristic of the ,british squirrel2 and it may be added that even in winter this appendage is much less red than in many continental squirrels1 being in fact reddish brown4 ,in the typical squirrel 7,s4 v4 typicus71 of southern ,norway and ,sweden1 the body in summer has a brownish red coat very similar to that of the ,british race2 but the tail is red1 and does not bleach when the hairs are old and worn4 ,in winter the body-coat is soft greyish brown in colour1 with traces of the summer tint along the middle line of the back and on the limbs4 ,we now come to the subject of our illustration1 which shows the ,german race of the squirrel 7,s4 v4 rutilans7 in its winter coat4 ,in this variety the colour is bright red at all seasons1 although there is a tinge of light smoky grey along the flanks in winter2 the tail being at all seasons bright rufous1 often rather darker than the body4 ,there is1 however1 a brown phase of this race2 and all continental squirrels exhibit a more or less marked tendency towards individual melanism4 ,illustration ,omitting mention of several other red or reddish races of the species met with in various parts of the ,continent1 reference may be made to the ,grecian squirrel 7,s4 v4 lilus71 in which the tendency to blackness is general if not universal2 the general colour being brown1 passing into blackish on the hind half of the back and the outer sides of the limbs4 ,this1 however1 by no means exhausts the colour range of this extremely variable species1 for in northern ,russia and ,siberia we find squirrels 7,s4 v4 argenteus and ,s4 v4 sibiricus7 in which the general colour of the winter coat is light ,french grey1 with the long ear-tufts black4 ,it is these grey squirrels which are used in such numbers to form the linings of ladies' cheap cloaks2 but perfect skins1 to say nothing of the living animal1 are scarcely ever seen in ,england4 ,for the reception of their young1 squirrels build a well-constructed nest1 or 8drey10 which is oval in shape1 and made of fibres and leaves with a lining of moss2 its usual position being the fork of a large tree or a hole in the trunk4 ,the fibres are neatly and intricately interwoven2 and when the nest is placed in a fork1 the entrance is usually made to open near to one of the branches1 with the colour of which it agrees very closely4 ,in this comfortable home the female brings forth three or four young1 usually in ,june1 which are tended by both parents1 with whom they remain till the following year4 ,although squirrels are stated to make an occasional meal of birds' eggs1 they are in the main strict vegetarians1 feeding chiefly upon pine-cones1 nuts1 beech-mast1 bark1 buds1 and young shoots4 ,where they are unusually numerous1 as in certain parts of ,scotland1 they are stated to inflict considerable damage on young larch-plantations4 ,when feeding1 squirrels sit up and grasp the food in their fore-paws1 with which they hold nuts while these are pierced by the chisel-like front teeth4 ,long flying leaps from tree to tree are frequently taken by these active rodents4 ,,the ,,roe-,,deer 7,capreolus caprea7 ,the roe-deer1 or roebuck1 as it is commonly called1 is the smallest ,european representative of the deer family1 or ,cervid1 and belongs to a small group confined to ,europe and northern ,asia4 ,so far as external characters are concerned1 roe-deer differ from more typical ,cervid1 such as the red deer and the fallow deer1 by the simpler structure of the relatively small antlers of the bucks1 which rise nearly vertically from the head1 and carry only three points2 the basal1 or brow1 tines of the red deer being absent4 ,as a distinctive character1 common to both sexes1 may be mentioned the absence of a tail4 ,the summer and winter dresses of the species1 as in so many of the deer of the temperate zone1 are strikingly different2 the summer coat being bright foxy red1 while in winter the general colour of the fur is olive-brown4 ,at the latter season1 at any rate1 there is a conspicuous white patch on the rump1 which serves as a guide to the hinder members of a family or party when fleeing from danger4 ,the beautiful fawns are marked with a comparatively small number of longitudinal rows of white or yellowish spots and streaks upon a rufous ground2 this indicating that the roe is descended from deer of which the adults were similarly spotted in summer4 ,the black moustache-mark on the muzzle1 and the white tip to the chin1 are other features of these elegant little deer4 ,the bucks attain their full development in the third year1 when the antlers1 which commence as simple spikes1 first acquire their third tines4 ,adult bucks usually shed their antlers about ,christmas1 and the new ones1 which increase in size1 although not in complexity till the sixth year1 are in most cases fully developed by the end of ,february4 ,the fawns1 of which there may be either one1 two1 or three at a birth1 usually make their appearance in the world in ,may1 at any rate in the ,british ,isles4 ,the favourite haunts of roe-deer are woods and forests on the plains1 where under-wood is abundant1 from which they issue forth at evening to graze in meadows and corn-lands4 ,on the ,continent these deer are1 however1 also found in forests on the lower mountains1 as well as on the spurs of the higher ranges4 ,as a rule1 they associate for the greater part of the year in small family parties2 such parties1 according to continental writers1 usually consisting of a buck with two or three does and their fawns1 although it has been stated that roe are strictly monogamous4 ,when put up in covert1 they generally start off at a gallop with enormous flying leaps1 but their speed is not great4 ,they are also excellent swimmers1 and can likewise climb rocks to a certain extent4 ,their food comprises grass1 herbs1 berries1 and the young shoots of bushes and trees2 ivy-leaves1 where they are to be obtained1 forming a favourite article of diet4 ,illustration ,the range of the roebuck extends from the ,british ,isles to ,spain and ,italy in the south and to southern ,scandinavia in the north1 while eastwards it stretches across ,poland and the south of ,russia at least as far as the ,caucasus4 ,in the ,altai and certain other parts of ,siberia it is1 however1 replaced by a much larger1 paler-coloured species with more thickly haired ears1 commonly known as the ,siberian roe 7,capreolus pygargus71 of which a local race inhabits the ,tian ,shan range4 ,still farther east1 in ,manchuria and ,mongolia1 we come upon a smaller and redder species1 the ,manchurian roebuck 7,c4 manchuricus1 or bedfordi71 which is more like the ,european roe1 the red coat being exchanged for one of olive-brown or grey in winter4 ,in former days roebuck were doubtless distributed all over ,great ,britain2 but by the middle of the eighteenth century they appear to have been killed off everywhere1 except in the highlands of ,scotland4 ,later on1 with the increase of game-preservation1 they have reasserted themselves1 and spread over the lowlands of southern ,scotland1 as well as parts of the north of ,england4 ,in ,north ,wales they were reintroduced into ,vaynol ,park in #ahgd2 and they have likewise been turned down in the ,blackmoor ,vale of ,dorsetshire1 where they are now once more wild4 ,in height1 a good roebuck will stand fully #bf inches at the shoulder2 while in weight he will turn the scale at #fj lb41 if in first-rate condition4 ,on the ,continent these deer are generally hunted by means of beating the woods1 where the guns are stationed along the tracks by which the roe pass to their feeding-grounds4 ,roe-venison1 which is in best condition during winter1 is generally regarded as inferior to that of either the red or the fallow deer4 ,,the ,,reindeer 7,rangifer tarandus7 ,the reindeer1 the ren of the ,swedes1 is by far the most valuable member of the deer tribe1 as it furnishes the ,laps and many of the tribes of northern ,asia not only with food1 raiment1 and leather1 but likewise serves as a beast of draught and burden to transport them and their food across the inhospitable regions which form their home4 ,reindeer are likewise in all probability the most numerous in individuals of any of the ,cervid1 occurring in vast herds on the high fjells of ,scandinavia1 while in many parts of ,north ,america1 where they are known as caribou1 they are met with in countless thousands1 if not indeed in millions4 ,but it is not only in these two respects that reindeer are worthy of special notice1 for they are the only members of the deer tribe in which antlers are carried by both sexes1 those of the females being1 however1 considerably smaller than those of the males2 while they are further remarkable for the early period of life at which these appendages make their first appearance4 ,then1 again1 the antlers1 as is well shown in the illustration1 are quite unlike those of any other deer2 generally having the two pairs of front tines more or less branched and unsymmetrical1 while the main beam sweeps backwards and then forwards in a bold curve1 frequently giving off a single back-tine at the middle of the arch1 and always carrying a number of tines on the hind edge of the upper portion4 ,reindeer have a circumpolar distribution1 except that they are naturally absent from ,alaska2 and in the former respect therefore agree with elk1 although their range extends much farther north1 and is proportionately curtailed in the south4 ,in all respects these deer are admirably adapted to a climate of intense severity and a life for months at a time amid snow and ice4 ,their coats are of great thickness and density1 the hairs growing so close together as to produce a structure recalling much elongated velvet-pile4 ,in the stags the throat is further protected by a fringe or ruff of long hair2 and in both sexes the main pair of hoofs is very large and deeply cleft1 so as to afford as big a surface as possible to prevent sinking deeply in the snow1 while further support is afforded by the unusually large size of the small supplemental pair of hoofs4 ,with these powerful hoofs1 reindeer in winter scrape away the snow to uncover the reindeer-moss 7,cladonia rangiferina71 which at this season forms their main or only food-supply4 ,in summer1 however1 they eat grass and herbage1 as well as the buds and young shoots of dwarf birch4 ,illustration ,the typical representative of the species is the ,scandinavian reindeer1 the one represented in the illustration1 which occurs in both the wild and the domesticated condition4 ,it is a comparatively small animal1 with relatively short limbs1 and the antlers rounded1 and not displaying1 as a rule1 any very excessive development in the width of one of the lower pair of front tines4 ,in ,siberia other and larger1 but still imperfectly known1 races occur2 while in ,arctic ,america the species is represented by two very distinct types1 more or less connected by a number of intermediate races4 ,the recently described ,finnish race of the reindeer 7,rangifer tarandus fennicus71 now nearly extinct1 is a larger animal than its ,swedish representative4 ,of the two chief ,american types1 the most northern is the so-called ,barren-ground reindeer or caribou 7,r4 t4 arcticus71 in which the antlers are rounded and of great length1 with the basal front tines far removed from those of the terminal extremity2 while the woodland reindeer 7,r4 t4 caribu71 on the other hand1 has the antlers short1 flattened1 and with the tines crowded together1 very large1 and often much branched4 ,in some of these ,american reindeer one of the lower pair of front tines often attains an enormous width1 or depth1 and is much branched4 ,there is likewise great racial variation in the matter of colour among ,american reindeer1 the lightest being the ,newfoundland ,r4 t4 nov-terr1 while the darkest is ,r4 t4 osborni of the ,cascade ,mountains1 in which the greater part of the body is chocolate1 or even blackish brown4 ,reindeer1 alike in the ,old ,world and in ,america1 are accustomed to undertake long seasonal migrations in search of food1 travelling southwards in autumn1 and returning to the northern part of their range in summer4 ,moreover1 in many districts they are compelled to retire in summer from the open plains to the shelter of mountain forests on account of the attacks of various insects1 more especially the reindeer-fly4 ,here it may be mentioned that the latter insect is found in certain continental localities far south of the present range of the reindeer1 where it has doubtless existed since the time when that animal had a wider distribution4 ,in their migrations1 several thousands of reindeer frequently collect in herds of from two hundred to three hundred head1 which travel one after another in long lines1 each led1 it is reported1 by an old cow1 and the whole forming a very forest of antlers4 ,they swim the widest rivers with ease4 ,,the ,,defassa ,,waterbuck 7,cobus defassa7 ,to one of the handsomest of the larger ,south ,african antelopes the old ,dutch colonists gave the name of wasserbok1 the equivalent of the ,english waterbuck1 on account of its partiality for the neighbourhood of water1 although it has subsequently been discovered that several more or less nearly allied species are equally aquatic in their habits4 ,this typical waterbuck1 which is about the size of an average mule1 and is known to naturalists by the name of ,cobus ellipsiprymnus1 is characterised by the iron-grey colour of the long coarse hair of the head and body1 and the presence of a large elliptical white ring 7whence the specific name ellipsiprymnus7 on the buttocks4 ,the tail is comparatively long1 and terminates in a blackish tuft1 while the lower portions of the legs are likewise blackish4 ,the ears are large and rounded2 and the bucks carry a handsome pair of sublyrate1 light brown horns1 ringed from the base nearly to the tip4 ,at first this was the only waterbuck known1 but as the country was gradually opened up a second species was discovered1 whose range is now known to extend from ,angola and ,german ,east ,africa to ,abyssinia1 ,senegambia1 and ,nigeria4 ,this is the defassa or sing-sing waterbuck--for it has different native names in different parts of its range--the ,cobus defassa of naturalists1 and the subject of the accompanying coloured ,plate4 ,from the true or typical waterbuck it is distinguished by the redder 7or in the case of one race blacker7 colour of the coat1 and the substitution of a comparatively small white patch for the large elliptical ring on the rump4 ,there are several local races of this species1 such as the typical defassa of ,abyssinia and the sing-sing of ,west ,africa1 differing to a certain extent in colour2 the most marked of these being the ,angolan ,c4 defassa penricei1 which is blackish grey4 ,waterbuck are very generally found in the neighbourhood of rivers and lakes1 where they feed amid the swamps of reeds and papyrus1 but are by no means restricted to such situations1 and may indeed be met with in dry and rocky localities4 ,sometimes1 like hartebeests1 they will climb the white-ant hills in order to obtain a good view of their surroundings and see whether all is safe4 ,they are gregarious antelopes1 usually associating in parties of from three to a score or more2 and it is noteworthy that when on the move the troop is invariably led by an old cow1 and never by a bull4 ,when danger is declared1 the whole herd makes off in a resounding gallop for the nearest water in hope of finding safety by swimming4 ,the flesh of both species of waterbuck is coarse and pervaded by a strong and unpleasant taste1 so that it is almost uneatable by ,europeans4 ,illustration ,in ,uganda1 where defassa waterbuck are still comparatively numerous1 the calves1 of which there is usually one at a birth1 are born from about the middle of ,december to the latter part of ,february4 ,the male calves do not develop their horns till they are about eight months old1 by which time the animals are approximately half-grown4 ,at all times shy and difficult to approach1 waterbuck are specially wary when they have calves with them4 ,unlike so many antelopes and nearly all deer1 when they take to flight at the approach of danger they scarcely ever turn round1 after galloping a certain distance1 to gaze at the intruder2 and this absence of curiosity saves many of them their lives4 ,the calves1 if taken young1 are easily tamed4 ,waterbuck are the biggest members of a large genus1 all the representatives of which are confined to ,africa south of the ,sahara2 the smaller species being known as kobs4 ,a well-known species is ,buffon's kob 7,cobus coba71 a nearly uniformly rufous antelope1 with blackish fronts to the fore-legs1 of the approximate size of a fallow deer1 and inhabiting tropical ,africa from the west coast to ,uganda4 ,somewhat larger are the puku 7,c4 vardoni7 and the lechwi 7,c4 leche71 first discovered by ,livingstone in the ,zambesi district2 both these being foxy-coloured antelopes1 without black leg-markings4 ,in the ,lake ,mweru district of ,barotseland there exists another kind of lechwi in which the adult males become blackish brown4 ,and much farther north1 in the swamps of the ,white ,nile and the ,sobat1 we meet with two other members of the genus1 the white-eared kob 7,c4 leucotis7 and ,mrs4 ,gray's kob 7,c4 maria71 in which the old bucks are likewise nearly black1 with the exception of the ears1 certain portions of the head and throat1 and the under-parts1 which are white4 ,these black kobs are highly specialised species2 although less specialised than the sable antelope1 in which the adults of both sexes are black4 ,,the ,,hare 7,lepus europus7 ,for many years the true or brown hare was known scientifically as ,lepus timidus1 but as that name was originally bestowed by ,linnus on the blue hare of ,sweden1 it has been transferred to that species4 ,perhaps less confusion would have resulted had it been allowed to continue as the technical designation of the species with which it was so long associated4 ,no one1 of course1 can mistake a hare for any other animal1 and therefore anything in the way of description would be superfluous4 ,it is1 however1 important to point out the characters by which the brown1 or ,english species1 is distinguished from the blue hare1 which is found in ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,the brown hare1 then1 is specially characterised by its relatively large size1 its very long ears1 which exceed the head in length1 the presence of a distinct white streak above each eye1 and of a rusty red area on the thigh and generally another on the flank2 additional characteristics being the black upper surface of the tail and the black tips to the ears4 ,the general colour of the thick soft fur is rufous tawny1 mingled with black above and white beneath1 the dark area extending1 however1 to the throat and chest2 there is but little difference between the summer and the winter coat1 although the latter is always somewhat the lighter4 ,length of limb1 especially in respect of the hind pair1 is a structural characteristic of the hare4 ,the range of the brown hare includes the whole of central ,europe1 and a small portion of western ,asia2 its northern limits in ,europe being formed by the lowlands of ,scotland1 southern ,sweden1 and southern ,russia1 while in the south it extends to northern ,italy1 southern ,france1 and ,spain4 ,nine local races of the species are recognised1 of which the ,british is known as ,l4 europus occidentalis4 ,compared with the brown species1 the blue or mountain hare1 now known as ,l4 timidus1 is a smaller animal1 with the ears1 hind-legs1 and tail shorter1 the head smaller and more rounded1 and the colour frequently bluish or brownish grey above in summer1 without any rufous or brown on the flanks1 but with black tips to the ears1 and the under surface of the body white4 ,the upper surface of the tail may be either dark or white2 and as a rule the fur1 with the exception of the black ear-tips1 turns white in winter4 ,the range of this species extends from ,ireland and ,sweden to the ,alps1 the ,altai ,mountains1 the ,caspian district1 and ,japan4 ,it is represented by numerous races1 of which three occur in the ,british ,isles4 ,of these1 the ,irish hare 7,l4 timidus hibernicus7 has the ears shorter than the head1 and the tail wholly white2 the coat may turn white in severe winters4 ,in the ,scottish hare 7,l4 t4 scoticus71 on the other hand1 the ears are nearly as long as the head1 the upper side of the tail is dusky in summer1 and the whole coat1 exclusive of the ear-tips1 turns white in winter4 ,illustration ,the brown hare is essentially an animal of the open country1 and more especially bare fields and fallows1 with which its colour harmonises in a wonderful degree4 ,and there is abundant need for this protective resemblance1 as the hare has a host of enemies1 against whom it has constantly to be on guard1 and from whom its sole hope of escape depends upon its limbs4 ,all the three protective senses1 hearing1 sight1 and smell1 are highly developed2 the long ears detecting every audible sound1 while the full1 large1 round eyes1 with widely distended pupils1 catch the smallest rays of light at night1 when the hare is most active4 ,it has been stated1 indeed1 that the eyes remain open during sleep1 as the eyelids cannot be completely closed2 but this is incorrect4 ,hares pass most of the day in a lair or 8form10 which is a smooth place between tussocks of grass or other covert1 but they may live out in the open4 ,the females produce at least two litters during the year1 the number of leverets in which usually varies from two to five1 although it is stated there have been as many as eleven4 ,the young are born quite active and with their eyes open2 those which come into the world in spring being capable of breeding the same autumn4 ,the mother remains with her offspring only for the first five or six days after their birth1 and then leaves them to shift for themselves4 ,the young hares of each litter remain together till half-grown1 when they disperse2 in fifteen months they attain full size1 and their average duration of life is seven or eight years4 ,owing to their long hind-legs hares run much better uphill than downhill4 ,,the ,,polar ,,bear 7,ursus maritimus7 ,living amid eternal ice and snow1 the polar bear1 which is equalled in bodily size only by some of the huge brown bears of ,alaska and ,kamchatka1 evidently owes its white1 or in some instances pale cream-coloured1 coat to its surroundings2 this white livery1 like that of the polar hare1 being worn throughout the year4 ,the species is always alluded to simply as the polar bear1 although its full title should be the north polar bear2 the ,antarctic1 so far as we know at present1 having no land mammals4 ,in its native haunts the polar bear is found alike on the ice-bound coasts and islands1 and on the ice-fields themselves1 where it obtains much of its food1 this being captured both on land and in the water4 ,indeed1 this great carnivore is fully as much at home in the sea as on terra firma1 and is capable of swimming long distances at a stretch4 ,in former days it is probable that the polar bear ranged considerably farther south than is the case at the present day1 when it is but rarely seen even in the south of ,greenland4 ,the species1 like ,arctic animals generally1 has a nearly circumpolar distribution1 and has been divided into a number of local races4 ,these are at present distinguished by skull-characters1 but if a sufficient series of skins were available in museums for comparison1 there would probably be found local differences in the colour1 length1 and character of the fur4 ,polar bear skins are1 however1 of great commercial value1 so that no collection contains a large series of specimens4 ,moreover1 the exact locality of most of the skins offered for sale by furriers is unknown4 ,against the intense cold of its ,arctic home the white bear is well protected by its long and dense coat1 as well as by the thick layer of fat underlying the skin4 ,by means of the hairy covering of the soles of the feet--which in other bears are naked--the animal is enabled to obtain a firm foothold on the ice2 upon which1 as well as on land1 it is a swift and long-winded runner4 ,as special adaptations in the bodily form to swimming and diving1 may be mentioned the thin1 compressed body1 the long neck1 the small ears1 and the long pointed head1 which offer the least possible resistance to progression in water4 ,the strong limbs1 with broad paws and webs between the toes1 form efficient oars when swimming2 while the oily nature of the fur keeps the water off the body4 ,the white bear is1 in fact1 as admirably adapted to a life among the ,arctic ice as is the lion to the deserts of ,africa2 and both animals may be regarded as the absolute rulers of their respective domains4 ,illustration ,in the pursuit of its prey the polar bear displays great craft and ingenuity4 ,when it spies a seal sleeping by a hole in the ice1 or on the edge of an ice-floe1 if it succeeds in approaching undetected1 it glides swiftly and silently into the water1 swims a certain distance under the surface1 and then rises to observe the situation of its victim4 ,in this manner1 by alternate dives and risings1 it progresses till within a short distance1 when it makes a final dive1 to rise near the sleeping seal1 which it generally manages to capture4 ,in summer these bears are almost complete vegetarians1 subsisting on grass1 berries1 lichens1 moss1 and sea-weed4 ,at other seasons their chief food consists of the flesh of seals1 walruses1 and the smaller cetaceans1 such as the white whale and the so-called blackfish4 ,in some districts they capture fish of various kinds1 and more especially salmon4 ,in addition to the above1 numbers of the smaller polar mammals1 such as the ,arctic lemming1 are caught and eaten2 while the young and eggs of various sea-birds1 especially auks and guillemots1 also form a portion of the diet4 ,white bears are seldom seen in numbers except where the carcases of whales have been left to rot by the whalers2 and generally these animals go about in pairs1 accompanied by one or two cubs1 which the female will defend with her life4 ,only when driven by hunger will the white bear venture to attack human beings4 ,sealers1 who were formerly much afraid of them1 nowadays attack the bears armed only with lances1 and kill large numbers4 ,in the far north white bears disappear for the most part during the long ,arctic winter1 and it is believed that many hibernate1 especially as they have occasionally been found in holes4 ,in the winter lair the female gives birth to her tiny1 short-haired1 and blind cubs1 which are usually one or two in number1 although triplets occasionally occur4 ,,the ,,mandrill 7,maimon mormon7 ,the mandrill is a highly specialised and at the same time extremely hideous ,west ,african representative of the dog-faced baboons1 nearly all of which are confined to ,africa south of the ,sahara1 although one species is a native of southern ,arabia4 ,all these baboons have the long straight muzzles from which the group derives its name1 and all except the subject of the accompanying ,plate are more or less uniformly coloured animals1 with1 in most cases1 comparatively long tails4 ,the mandrill and its ally and compatriot the drill are1 however1 distinguished from all their relatives by the reduction of the tail to a mere stump2 while old males of the former are further characterised by the presence of large fluted swellings on the sides of the muzzle and the brilliant colouring of these and the other bare parts in this region1 while a nearly equal brilliancy is developed in the naked patches on the rump4 ,to the female mandrill1 who1 as shown in the ,plate1 lacks the nasal swellings and brilliant hues of her lord and master1 this style of decoration may1 and probably does1 appear beautiful1 but to ourselves it is simply hideous and repulsive1 as are the manners and ways of this monstrous ape4 ,the nature of the colouring of the old males is sufficiently indicated in the coloured ,plate2 but it may be mentioned that the scarlet area on the muzzle has the appearance of vermilion sealing-wax1 while the ultramarine of the lateral swellings is suffused in the flutings with shades of violet1 more especially when the animal is under the influence of excitement4 ,indeed1 when in this condition1 all the colours are intensified and heightened4 ,in size the male mandrill may be compared to a short-bodied mastiff1 while in strength and ferocity it has few equals1 so that it is rightly dreaded by all the natives of ,west ,africa4 ,the female is a much smaller and much less powerful animal4 ,the mandrill1 which is one of the shyest of all apes1 inhabits the rocky parts of mountain forests in the ,gold ,coast1 ,guinea1 and the adjacent districts of ,west ,africa4 ,its food consists of fruits1 bulbous plants1 grass1 and various other herbage1 birds' eggs1 and all small animals that it can capture4 ,when captured young1 the mandrill is sufficiently amiable1 and for a time it remains tame and amenable2 but1 in the case of males at any rate1 in the course of a few years its naturally evil disposition asserts itself1 and it soon becomes one of the most vicious and disgusting brutes in creation4 ,indeed1 there is not a good word to be said in its favour4 ,in confinement the rage of the old males is something frightful1 and it takes but little to excite them to this frenzied condition1 when they shake the bars of their cages1 and endeavour to rush upon the objects of their aversion4 ,little wonder that the ,west ,coast natives dread the mandrill more than they do the lion4 ,illustration ,information is still required as to the habits of the mandrill in a state of nature2 and it does not appear to be known whether these apes associate in large droves1 after the manner of the ordinary dog-faced baboons1 or whether they go about in pairs4 ,here it may be mentioned that the name mandrill apparently signifies a man-like baboon1 although there is little approximating to the human type in either the physiognomy or the general appearance of this hideous creature2 the name drill being an old ,english word1 of which one signification denotes an ape or baboon4 ,by the ,germans the mandrill is known as the forest-devil1 which is perhaps a more appropriate designation2 while by one of the older ,english naturalists it was termed the rib-faced ape1 in allusion to the fluted1 melon-shaped swellings on the sides of the muzzle4 ,the drill 7,m4 leucophus71 which is likewise ,west ,african1 but appears to have a more extensive range in that part of the continent1 is a smaller animal than the mandrill1 with only small swellings on the face of the old male1 which is uniformly black4 ,the bare patches on the rump are1 however1 bright red2 but the tail1 which is carried bent forwards over the rump in a similar manner1 is hairy on all sides1 instead of having its lower surface bare1 as in the mandrill4 ,the limbs1 moreover1 are longer and more slender than in the mandrill2 and in fact in all these particulars the drill tends to form in some degree a connecting link between the former and more ordinary baboons4 ,,the ,,wolf 7,canis lupus7 ,as the lion or the tiger forms the supreme development of the feline stock1 so the wolf constitutes the culminating branch of the canine line4 ,each of these animals represents indeed the acme of perfection of which its particular type is capable2 but in regard to specialisation the members of the cat tribe stand on a much higher plane than those of the dog family4 ,in the cats we find the face much shortened and rounded1 the number of cheek-teeth reduced both at the front and the back of the series1 the pair of cutting-teeth in each jaw consisting almost entirely of scissor-like blades1 and the claws retractile and protected by large horny sheaths4 ,in the dog tribe1 on the other hand1 the long face and numerous cheek-teeth of the more primitive extinct ,carnivora are retained1 the pair of cutting-teeth are by no means wholly blade1 and the claws are non-retractile and devoid of sheaths4 ,equally marked differences in the matter of habits are likewise characteristic of the two groups4 ,cats1 as a rule1 hunt their prey singly or in couples1 stalking it stealthily by the aid of sight1 and then making a sudden rush or spring upon the victim4 ,most members of the ,canid1 on the contrary1 associate in large packs1 which hunt their victims by scent1 and pull them down by their combined strength4 ,apart from the brown bear1 which is of a less active and less carnivorous disposition1 the wolf is the largest member of the ,carnivora which has been indigenous to central and northern ,europe during the historic period2 and it plays in the folk-lore of that portion of the continent a part very similar to that taken by the tiger in the legends and mythology of the natives of ,india4 ,the superstition of the 8werwolf0 and the familiar story of ,little ,red ,ridinghood bear striking testimony to the prominent position held by the wolf in folk-lore4 ,the wolf1 which is in fact the ancestor of many domesticated breeds of dogs1 is the largest representative of the ,canid1 although the typical wolf of northern ,europe is much exceeded in point of size by those of certain other countries1 the largest of all being the huge black wolf 7,canis lupus pambasileus7 of ,alaska1 which is almost as tall as an ordinary bear1 and has a head of enormous proportions4 ,although many modern naturalists divide it into distinct species1 the wolf has a circumpolar distribution1 and in ,asia ranges as far south as the ,himalaya and the north-western frontier of ,india4 ,from ,great ,britain1 ,denmark1 and ,holland the wolf has long since disappeared1 and it has likewise been exterminated in northern and central ,germany4 ,but wolves still remain in ,spain1 in the districts of ,france adjacent to ,germany1 and in ,poland and ,russia1 as well as in other parts of eastern ,europe1 while they are abundant throughout central and northern ,asia4 ,in the colder parts of their habitat1 as in ,tibet1 where a black phase is common1 these fierce ,carnivora develop a thick under-coat of fur4 ,with such an extensive range in the ,old ,world1 it would be only natural to expect that wolves should present considerable local variation in colour and size2 and as a matter of fact this is actually the case1 although the various local races are still imperfectly known4 ,illustration ,in ,north ,america the species is represented by the grey1 or timber1 wolf 7,c4 lupus occidentalis71 as well as by the aforesaid black ,alaskan race4 ,as regards colour1 the ordinary ,american wolf is dark grey1 becoming almost black on the back1 with dusky patches on the shoulders and hips2 but there is also a more rufous phase4 ,the coyote1 or prairie-wolf1 is a distinct species1 ,c4 latrans4 ,in ,europe the favourite haunts of the wolf are wild and retired situations both in the plains and mountains2 during spring and summer wolves go about for the most part singly or in pairs1 but in winter they collect in parties or large packs1 and when driven to desperation by hunger are the terror of the peasantry or the traveller1 not only in ,russia but even in some districts of ,france and ,germany4 ,the food of the wolf includes all animals that it can capture and overpower1 as well as carrion1 and even vegetable substances4 ,large game and domesticated animals form its chief victims1 but in cases of necessity1 rats1 mice1 frogs1 and even cockchafers are not disdained4 ,in pursuit of their prey wolves are practically untiring4 ,the female gives birth during the spring1 in some sequestered situation in the forest1 to from three to nine cubs1 which she nurses and tends with wonderful affection and care4 ,,the ,,wild ,,cat 7,felis catus7 ,savage as a wild cat is a proverbial expression2 and although in attitudes of repose1 like the one selected for the coloured ,plate1 the ferocity of look may temporarily disappear1 there are few animals fiercer or more bloodthirsty than ,felis catus4 ,indeed1 a wild cat brought to bay or caught in a trap is a perfect fiend incarnate4 ,the wild cat and the lynx are the only feline ,carnivora indigenous at the present day to central and northern ,europe2 and of these two the lynx has long since disappeared from the ,british ,isles1 and has become very scarce throughout the greater part of the ,continent1 but is still common in ,scandinavia and ,russia4 ,the wild cat1 on the other hand1 survives in most ,european countries1 and is far from uncommon in the ,alps and many parts of ,france and ,germany1 although in ,great ,britain its sole remaining refuges are among the highlands of ,scotland1 and even there it has been suggested that many of the so-called wild cats are hybrids1 or domesticated cats run wild4 ,eastward1 the range of the wild cat extends at least as far as the ,altai1 where its representative has a larger and more woolly coat than the typical western race4 ,in ,africa the place of the ,european wild cat is taken by a closely allied but somewhat less strongly striped species known as ,felis ocreata1 of which the northern race was protected and held sacred by the ancient ,egyptians in ,bubastis and other cities4 ,that the ,european and the ,african wild cats have given rise to the domesticated cats of the greater part of the ,old ,world may be considered certain1 although there is some difference of opinion as to the respective shares taken by the two wild species in the production of the tame breeds4 ,among the ordinary house-cats of western ,europe1 the type coming nearest to the wild ancestor is the one with black transverse stripes on a grey ground4 ,the true tabby1 on the other hand1 that is to say the type in which the dark markings take the form of broad longitudinal or obliquely longitudinal bands arrayed in a ring-like or spiral manner on the flanks1 is unlike either of the two wild cats1 and it has been suggested that it may have had a totally distinct ancestry4 ,by choice the wild cat1 which for most of the year lives alone1 frequents large1 thick1 and sequestered pine-forests1 where it selects rocky situations as affording the best hiding-places4 ,in addition to clefts in the rocks1 it chooses1 however1 for its lair the burrows of the fox or the badger1 or holes in large tree-trunks1 while it will sometimes make its abode in thick bushes4 ,illustration ,in regard to food1 the wild cat preys chiefly upon rats1 mice1 and small birds1 but it also kills larger animals1 such as pheasants1 hares1 rabbits1 and squirrels1 while it occasionally ventures to attack the fawns of roe-deer and red deer1 springing on their backs1 and tearing open the arteries of the neck4 ,there is an old monkish ,latin line that 8catus amat pisces1 sed non vult tingere plantas0 7the cat loves fish1 but does not like to wet its feet72 but this applies only to the domesticated breed1 for when dwelling near streams or lakes the wild cat will capture both fishes and water-fowl4 ,like many other animals1 it will often kill more than it can devour1 as if from the very love of slaughter4 ,the male and female live together only during the pairing-season1 and while the kittens are unable to look after themselves4 ,at other times each individual has its own particular haunt1 from which1 however1 it makes long excursions into the surrounding forest or the neighbouring plains2 such foraging expeditions often lasting for days together4 ,in winter it frequently deserts the forest to take up its abode in old uninhabited buildings or other safe places of refuge4 ,in some sheltered situation the female gives birth in spring to five or six kittens1 very similar to those of domesticated cats1 and likewise born blind4 ,when captured1 wild cats1 whether old or young1 are impossible to tame2 and it is for this reason that the species is so seldom seen in menageries4 ,as already mentioned1 it has been suggested that many of the cats found wild in ,scotland are hybrids between the wild species and the tame breed1 but there is no evidence that such interbreeding takes place2 and such of these animals as are not true wild cats seem to be individuals of the domesticated breed which have reverted to the wild state1 and have thereby assumed to some extent the characters of the ancestral type4 ,,the ,,red ,,kangaroo 7,macropus rufus7 ,little wonder that when ,captain ,cook and his companions first beheld kangaroos bounding over the plains of ,australia they were overwhelmed with astonishment1 and regarded them as the most extraordinary animals in the world4 ,they are1 indeed1 unlike any other creatures1 and form the supreme development of the terrestrial and herbivorous section of the marsupial type1 being admirably adapted to their environment1 and occupying in ,australia the place held in other countries by cattle1 sheep1 antelopes1 deer1 and hares4 ,for there are kangaroos of all sizes1 ranging from the gigantic species1 with its #f foot stature1 forming the subject of the present notice1 down to the diminutive kangaroo-rats1 no larger than rabbits4 ,that kangaroos1 like all marsupials1 bring forth their young in an exceedingly imperfect and helpless condition1 it is almost unnecessary to mention2 as is the fact that the females carry them in the pouch not only till they are able to take care of themselves1 but1 on occasion1 till a much later period4 ,not that it is to be assumed from this that the young of all marsupials are carried in the maternal pouch2 this being in some cases undeveloped1 and the offspring in such instances merely clinging for a time to their mothers' nipples4 ,for a long time it was generally considered that marsupials were survivors of the ancestral stock which gave rise to the ordinary1 and so-called placental1 mammals2 but this is now known to be a mistaken view1 and marsupials and placentals are evidently divergent branches from a common ancestral stock4 ,in ,australia marsupials have developed almost as many different modifications as have the placentals in other parts of the world2 and at first sight there seem few external characters in common to such diverse types as the leaping1 bipedal1 herbivorous kangaroo1 and the cursorial and carnivorous ,tasmanian wolf4 ,when1 however1 the two animals are observed more closely1 we may note a curious resemblance in the form of their heads1 and1 above all1 by the great1 thick tail1 passing almost imperceptibly into the body2 both these features proclaiming their comparatively near relationship and descent from a common ancestor4 ,among the external characteristics of the kangaroo tribe may be noted the somewhat deer-like head1 the short fore-limbs1 each armed with five toes1 and used in progression only when the animal is grazing1 and the enormous length and strength of the hind-legs1 in which one toe is greatly developed at the expense of the rest1 and serves not only to aid in progression1 but forms an offensive weapon of great power and effectiveness4 ,in the sitting posture1 as represented in the illustration1 the body is supported on a tripod formed by the massive tail and the hind-legs2 the whole of the lower portion of the latter1 corresponding structurally to the human foot1 being then applied to the ground4 ,when1 however1 the animal is leaping1 as shown in the background of the picture1 the hind part of the foot is raised and the body supported by the toes2 the tail thumping on the ground at each leap4 ,illustration ,kangaroos subsist chiefly on grass and leaves1 but also eat buds1 bark1 roots1 and fruits4 ,originally they were to be found all over the habitable parts of ,australia and ,tasmania1 from the coasts inwards1 and while most kinds inhabited the plains1 others were to be found in the mountains4 ,nowadays1 however1 they have for the most part been driven back into the uncultivated lands of the interior1 and their numbers have been greatly reduced4 ,all the larger species associate in large bands4 ,true kangaroos of the genus ,macropus are also found in ,new ,guinea1 while a few of the smaller kinds are natives of the eastern ,austro-,malay ,islands4 ,the great red kangaroo1 the subject of the illustration1 is the largest member of the whole group1 and takes its name from the dark rusty red colour of the soft woolly hair of the adult males1 that of the females being a delicate bluish grey4 ,its home is in the rocky districts of ,south and ,east ,australia4 ,as this species is kept in most ,zoological ,gardens1 opportunities have been afforded of observing the newly born young4 ,these come into the world after a gestation of only thirty-nine days1 when they are only about an inch and a quarter in length1 and little more than shapeless lumps of animation4 ,the newborn young is immediately transferred by the mother1 by means of her lips1 to the pouch1 where it is attached by its sucking mouth to a nipple4 ,here it remains for eight months1 after which it returns to the shelter of the pouch1 when so disposed1 for a considerable time longer3 a fresh offspring being often in the pouch at the same time4 ,,the ,,blue ,,roller 7,coracias garrulus7 ,among the birds of brilliant plumage which occasionally straggle to the ,british ,isles1 one of the most gaudy is the blue roller1 so called on account of its roling1 or 8rolling10 flight4 ,in ,india this and an allied species are commonly called the blue jay1 while in ,poland the present bird is locally termed the ,polish parrot4 ,the roller has1 however1 nothing to do with either jays or parrots1 but is more nearly related to the king-fishers4 ,although the blue roller is practically an unmistakable bird--certainly so far as ,british species are concerned--it may be well to mention that the head1 neck1 wing-coverts1 and under-parts are bright greenish blue1 the back and shoulders cinnamon-brown1 the flight-feathers blue at the roots and elsewhere black above and wholly deep blue beneath1 the upper tail-coverts deep ultramarine1 while the two middle tail-feathers are dirty brown1 and the other feathers of the tail sky-blue1 with the tips of the outer pair1 which are somewhat lengthened1 black4 ,in size the bird is rather smaller than a crow4 ,the normal summer range of the species includes central and southern ,europe1 and thence extends through central ,asia to ,kashmir2 while in winter it embraces ,india and the greater part of ,africa4 ,northwards this bird is found as far as ,scandinavia1 although only occasionally2 but its chief haunts in ,europe are ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,greece1 ,poland1 and southern ,russia4 ,it makes its annual appearance in ,europe towards the end of ,april1 and takes its departure1 like the cuckoo1 not later than ,august4 ,in ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 ,baluchistan1 ,india1 and ,ceylon it is replaced1 except in winter 7when both are found together71 by the closely allied ,coracias indicus4 ,a third species extends from the eastern ,himalaya through ,burma to ,cochin ,china and ,siam1 a fourth inhabits ,celebes1 and quite a number are indigenous to ,africa4 ,in ,australasia and the ,new ,world these birds are unknown4 ,avoiding swampy localities and high mountains1 the roller resorts to dry open districts with thin forest in which birch abounds1 and where hollow oaks or beech are to be found4 ,here it prefers to dwell at the edge of the forest1 where isolated trees grow in the fields and by the roadsides1 and command a wide view of the country4 ,in harvest-time it repairs to the sheaves in the cornfields4 ,the bird is1 however1 largely insectivorous1 and from its perch in some tall tree sallies forth in search of all kinds of insects and other invertebrates as well as young frogs1 while it will also eat field-mice4 ,in their season figs afford it a much appreciated feast4 ,illustration ,in habits the roller is shy and unsociable1 going about in pairs1 and generally1 but not always1 shunning the vicinity of human habitations4 ,its flight is swift and undulating1 and often limited to the passage from one tree-top to another4 ,in fine weather1 however1 it indulges in the habit of tumbling when on the wing1 and performs all kinds of aerial evolutions1 sometimes falling from a considerable height almost to the ground2 this last performance generally taking place during the pairing-season4 ,at that season1 when the males are in the company of the females1 the former rise into the air with their characteristic harsh cry of 8rak1 rak1 rak10 and descend again with a rapidly repeated 8rak1 rak1 rak40 ,when at rest1 the cry is a high-pitched1 frequently repeated 8raker1 raker1 raker40 ,it is from these cries that the bird derives its specified name1 and likewise its ,german title of blaurake4 ,in many parts of ,europe the nest is built in the hole of a tree1 but in the south is more generally placed in ruins1 under the roofs of houses1 in clefts in walls1 or on cliffs and steep banks1 in which deep holes are excavated for its reception4 ,at the proper season it contains from five to six white eggs1 which are brooded in turn by the male and female1 and this so assiduously that it is often easy to capture the sitting bird with the hands4 ,in laying white eggs1 the roller conforms to the general rule of birds which nest in holes4 ,it is1 moreover1 an uncleanly bird1 and when the nest has contained young for some time1 it gives out a most disgusting smell1 while the young themselves sit in a mass of filth4 ,strange that such a beautiful bird should have such dirty habits6 ,as regards its mental powers1 the roller is evidently highly developed2 but its inherent shyness renders it unsuitable as a cage-bird4 ,in disposition it is1 as already mentioned1 unsociable1 and it will frequently quarrel with other birds and its own fellows4 ,on the other hand1 several pairs often nest near together1 and its migrations are made in large companies4 ,,the ,,bittern 7,botaurus stellaris7 ,before drainage and cultivation had driven away so many of the marsh-haunting birds1 the boom of the bittern was a familiar sound to the dwellers in the fens of ,cambridgeshire and ,lincolnshire1 and this handsome bird regularly nested not only in those districts1 but in the ,norfolk ,broads1 as well as in many other counties possessing situations suitable to its habits4 ,indeed nests were taken now and then up to the middle of last century1 and even later2 but at the present day the bittern is nothing more than a casual visitor to the ,british ,islands1 in fact1 so rare have its visits become1 that they are generally considered worthy of special record4 ,a near relative of the heron1 the bittern does not expose itself in the open after the fashion of that species1 but skulks amid the shelter of reeds and flags1 where its presence is made known only by the ordinary raven-like croak1 or the loud booming of the male in the breeding-season4 ,from this habit the bittern derives its ,german name of rohrdommel2 and with such surroundings its mottled plumage of light and dark brown mingled with black is designed to harmonise1 as is also in all probability the greenish hue of its long1 spear-like beak1 so admirably adapted to seize and hold the unwary fish or frog that may come within striking distance4 ,as this resemblance between the plumage of the bittern and its inanimate surroundings is sufficiently apparent from the accompanying ,plate1 it will be unnecessary to attempt any description of its colouring4 ,it is1 however1 important to mention that the bird appears to be in the habit of increasing the protective power of its mottled livery1 by assuming1 probably under the influence of alarm1 a statuesque position amid the reeds1 with the body held as erect as possible1 the neck stretched to its fullest extent1 and the head and beak pointing skywards4 ,in this posture it is stated1 by those who have had the good fortune to see it1 to be almost invisible amid the upright brown stems of reeds and bulrushes4 ,the range of the bittern is very extensive1 including the whole of temperate ,europe1 northern ,africa1 and the greater portion of ,asia lying between the ,himalaya and the ,arctic ,circle1 as well as north-western ,india and ,burma4 ,in ,south ,africa its place is taken by another species1 a third kind inhabits ,australia1 ,new ,caledonia1 and ,new ,zealand1 while a fourth is a native of ,north and ,central ,america1 and a fifth is indigenous to tropical ,south ,america4 ,the distribution of the group is thus almost cosmopolitan1 if we except most of the tropical zone of the ,old ,world2 and all the five species are closely related4 ,illustration ,in ,europe at the present day bitterns are still common in ,spain1 ,holland1 many parts of ,france and ,germany1 and the swamps of the ,danube and ,volga4 ,it should be added that in ,africa1 ,india1 and ,burma the species occurs only in winter1 being to some extent migratory in its habits4 ,these shy birds associate in pairs1 but in migration time collect in parties previous to setting out on their travels4 ,the nest1 which is built of reeds and flags1 and lined with grass1 is well concealed among the brake in which the pair have taken up their residence1 and may be a floating structure4 ,the eggs1 which are from three to five in number and greenish blue in colour1 are incubated solely by the hen1 who is supplied with food by her mate4 ,the chicks remain in the nest until fully fledged1 and display extraordinary cleverness in making their way among the reeds4 ,little comes amiss to the bittern in the way of food1 so long as it is of an animal nature2 and its appetite is so great1 that it is on the hunt for prey from sunrise till sunset4 ,water-rats1 field-mice1 birds of all kinds1 fish1 especially those inhabiting muddy water1 snakes1 lizards1 leeches1 worms1 and insects and their larv are alike devoured by these voracious birds4 ,the usual cry of the bittern is1 as already mentioned1 a hoarse1 raven-like croak2 and it is only during the breeding-season that the male utters the resounding boom1 which has been compared to the bellowing of a bull1 and on a still night may be heard at a distance of a mile or more4 ,how this wonderful sound is produced is not yet definitely known4 ,a wounded bittern is most dangerous to approach1 as it will strike with unerring aim at the eye of the gunner who approaches to seize it2 and the formidable beak is likewise employed1 and generally with success1 to repel the attack of any fox bold enough to approach its owner4 ,it should be added that during the hot summer of #aiaa a pair of bitterns bred in the old ,norfolk haunts of the species4 ,,the ,,kafir ,,crowned ,,crane 7,balearica chrysopelargus7 ,the crowned cranes of ,africa1 of which there are three species1 constituting by themselves an exclusively ,african genus1 are some of the handsomest members of a beautiful and stately group of birds2 the fan-like array of bristly feathers on the head1 which constitutes the so-called 8crown10 conferring on these cranes a regal appearance which is lacking in their smooth-headed relatives4 ,of the three species1 one 7,balearica pavonina7 is a native of north-eastern ,africa1 ranging southwards into ,west and ,equatorial ,africa2 the second1 forming the subject of the accompanying ,plate and sometimes known as ,b4 regulorum instead of by the designation here used1 is a southern bird1 ranging from the ,cape to the ,zambesi and ,loanza valleys2 while the third 7,b4 gibbericeps7 hails from ,east ,africa4 ,as regards the distinctive features of these three cranes1 the northern species is greenish black above and dark grey below1 with most of the feathers of the sharply pointed lanceolate type2 the neck is delicate pearl-grey2 the secondary quills are chestnut1 and the wing-coverts partly white and yellow2 the twisted bristly feathers forming the crown are yellow and white with black tips2 a bare area on each side of the face is white above and pink below2 and black down clothes the throat4 ,this species has a very small wattle on the throat2 but in the ,kafir crane this wattle1 as shown in the ,plate1 is much larger and mainly red in colour4 ,the southern species is further characterised by the greyer tone of the plumage of the upper-parts1 and the white cheek-patch1 with only a margin of crimson above4 ,in the ,east ,african ,b4 gibbericeps this cheek-patch becomes much larger than in either of the other two species1 extending backwards nearly to the nape of the neck4 ,the carriage of these handsome1 well-built birds is upright2 while their gait1 when they are walking with measured steps1 is calm and stately4 ,these birds can1 however1 run with great speed1 so fast indeed that a man can keep up with them only with difficulty4 ,the flight is heavy and slow1 with powerful1 measured strokes of the wings1 and the neck and legs stretched out4 ,the crest1 or crown1 is at the same time depressed4 ,when in flight1 a party of cranes always arrange themselves in wedge-shaped form in order to cleave their passage through the air with the least possible resistance2 a very powerful bird taking up the position at the apex of the triangle4 ,as in all cranes1 the cry is very loud and resounding2 its piercing1 trumpet-like notes being due to the complicated structure of the windpipe1 which is arranged in coils1 and consists of more than three hundred bony rings4 ,illustration ,the food of these cranes consists chiefly of various kinds of grain and other seeds1 among which those of durrha or ,kafir millet form the largest portion4 ,the seed-spikes of grass1 buds of trees1 and fruits1 as well as a certain proportion of insects1 are1 however1 also devoured by these birds4 ,very curious are the attitudes assumed by these handsome birds1 especially when they are surprised or under the influence of excitement4 ,on such occasions they place themselves in wonderful postures1 bending their bodies up and down1 spreading out their wings1 and then joining their fellows in a dance1 during which they often spring a yard high in the air1 while all the time their feet are alternately lifted and put down in regular rhythm4 ,the daily life of the crowned crane displays great uniformity4 ,at sunrise the whole flock flies out into the veldt1 where its members search for food at least a couple of hours2 then they proceed to the water to drink1 and spend the day in digesting their morning's meal4 ,their favourite resort for the day is a sandbank far out in a river1 where they can stand and preen their feathers or doze without fear of interruption4 ,at evening the flock returns to its sleeping-quarters in the forest4 ,all the graceful habits of these cranes can be studied in ,europe1 where the birds flourish in confinement1 if given sufficient room4 ,in captivity they soon learn to associate with the human beings and animals with whom they are brought into contact1 and are specially keen in discriminating between those who treat them well and those who dislike their companionship4 ,these cranes are also to be met with in every ,kafir village1 while they are likewise frequently tamed by the ,european settlers in both ,south and ,east ,africa4 ,in ,europe the group is represented by the ordinary grey crane 7,grus cinerea7 and the elegant demoiselle crane 7,g4 virgo71 both of which lack the crests of their crowned relatives4 ,it will be observed that in this notice the name 8,kafir0 is spelt with one f2 this being the proper orthography1 as the word is the ,arabic 8,kafir10 an unbeliever1 this being exemplified in the name 8,kafiristan10 the land of infidels4 ,,the ,,silver ,,gull 7,larus argentatus7 ,in its adult plumage1 with the snow-white head1 neck1 and under-parts1 the delicate ,french grey back and wings1 and the white-spotted black tips to the larger flight-feathers1 the silver gull1 or herring-gull1 as it is more commonly called1 is one of the most beautiful members of a lovely tribe of birds4 ,indeed1 whether swimming calmly on the surface of the sea1 or skimming over the crests of the waves borne on their long and powerful pinions1 and every now and then plunging into the water to seize a fish or some floating morsel of food1 gulls in general are some of the most elegant and graceful of all birds1 their delicate colouring1 in which grey and white1 relieved to a greater or less extent by black or chocolate1 generally predominate1 thus giving a refinement to their whole appearance which is wanting in many birds of brilliant plumage4 ,were it not that their cries1 their tempers1 and their habits are by no means angelic1 gulls might well have been selected as emblems of the angels4 ,the white and pale grey plumage1 replaced in a few species by a wholly white or cream-coloured livery1 is1 however1 developed only in the adults2 birds of the year having the back and wings thickly mottled with brown and dark grey1 and the tail black1 while the head and neck are wholly brown2 the beak1 moreover1 in the species forming the subject of the ,plate1 being black instead of orange4 ,from this we learn that gulls are descended from birds with relatively dark plumage1 which may perhaps have been dwellers on the land2 and if this be so1 these beautiful birds evidently acquired their present type of colouring only when they took to a life on the ocean wave4 ,in any case1 the pale livery of the adult gull must be regarded as a special adaptation to its mode of life2 such a garb being the one which harmonises best with the foam-flecked waves of the waste of waters4 ,the herring-gull closely resembles in colouring the common gull 7,larus canus71 and like that species is abundant on the ,british coasts1 or1 for that matter1 on the ,thames at ,london ,bridge or the ornamental water in ,st4 ,james's ,park in winter4 ,it is1 however1 a much larger bird1 attaining a length of about #bb inches in the case of adult males4 ,this species1 moreover1 is much less intolerant of heat than the common gull2 and while the former is compelled to wing its way to the more northern coasts for the breeding-season1 the herring-gull1 like the kittiwake1 nests by scores on the southern coast of ,england1 wherever conditions suitable to its habits exist4 ,the kittiwake1 it may be mentioned1 differs from other gulls by the absence of the hind-toe1 and is therefore referred to a genus by itself1 under the appropriate name of ,rissa tridactyla4 ,the only other species likely to be confounded in the summer plumage1 when the black-headed species have donned their chocolate or black caps1 is the greater white-winged gull 7,l4 hyperboreus71 which differs by the paler tone of the plumage generally and more especially by the feature to which it owes its name4 ,illustration ,the herring-gull is a wide-ranging species1 met with on both sides of the ,north ,atlantic1 extending eastwards to the ,white ,sea1 and in winter as far south as the ,black and ,caspian ,seas and the ,mediterranean4 ,in ,america herring-gulls visit in summer the inhospitable coasts of ,labrador and ,greenland1 but in winter wander south to the genial climate of the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america1 where1 in all probability1 they cross the continent to join a closely allied gull inhabiting the ,pacific4 ,in ,europe the southern breeding range of this handsome species seems to be formed by the northern coasts of ,france4 ,herring-gulls1 where conditions are favourable1 may be found nesting on the coasts of the ,british ,isles from the south of ,england to the ,orkneys and the ,shetlands1 as well as in ,ireland1 where they are the most common and most widely spread members of their tribe in the breeding-season4 ,sometimes only a few gulls nest in company1 but in other situations large colonies collect for breeding purposes2 and it is noteworthy that the breeding sites are always in the neighbourhood of the shore and generally on tall cliffs4 ,another noteworthy feature of the herring-gull is that the adult livery is not assumed till the fourth year1 in consequence of which an unusually large number of birds in the speckled dress are always in evidence4 ,,the ,,great ,,horned ,,owl 7,bubo ignavus7 ,the great horned1 or eagle1 owl1 the largest ,european representative of the nocturnal birds-of-prey1 is the typical member of a group characterised by the relatively small size of the apertures of the ears1 which are not closed by covers1 and likewise by the more or less imperfect development of the disc-like ring of feathers round the eye1 which forms such a conspicuous feature in ordinary owls4 ,the so-called horns are1 it need scarcely be mentioned1 tufts of long1 somewhat hair-like feathers growing from the neighbourhood of the ears4 ,these ear-tufts are common to the so-called long-eared owls1 which are1 however1 all birds of smaller size1 with larger ear-openings1 protected by special covers1 and complete discs of feathers round the eyes4 ,the general appearance of this magnificent bird when in an attitude of repose1 the colour and markings of the plumage of the head1 breast1 and under-parts1 and the great1 staring1 red-ringed eyes are admirably shown in the illustration4 ,when1 however1 the bird is enraged1 the body is depressed and the plumage ruffled out1 while the wings are half-spread1 thus increasing its size and producing a formidable appearance probably sufficient to overawe a number of would-be assailants other than man4 ,in length this unmistakable bird measures as much as #bg inches1 so that it is equal in point of size to a small eagle4 ,the eagle-owl ranges over the greater portion of ,europe1 as well as northern ,africa1 and much1 if not the whole1 of northern and central ,asia2 and the species breeds as far north as ,lapland and as far south as ,gibraltar and ,greece4 ,it is true that the eagle-owls inhabiting the country to the east of the ,ural ,mountains have been regarded as a distinct species1 under the name of ,b4 sibiricus1 while the name of ,b4 turcomanus has been proposed for those from the deserts of south-western ,siberia1 ,turkestan1 and ,tibet2 but these and others from ,asia north of the ,himalaya are so closely allied to the ,european bird that they are best regarded in the light of local races of that species4 ,on the other hand1 the ,american eagle-owl 7,b4 virginianus7 is a perfectly distinct species1 with a range extending over the whole of ,north ,america1 although this bird has likewise been split up into a number of nominal species4 ,eagle-owls of various species are also known from tropical ,south ,america1 the whole of ,africa1 ,arabia1 ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan1 so that with the exception of the ,malay countries and ,australasia1 the group has a practically world-wide range4 ,illustration ,to the ,british ,isles the great horned owl--the grand duc of the ,french and the uhu of the ,germans--is1 nowadays at any rate1 merely an occasional straggler1 and then only to the northern parts of the kingdom1 most1 if not all of the specimens that have from time to time been taken in ,england being birds that have escaped from captivity4 ,there is1 however1 a report that these splendid owls once inhabited the ,orkneys4 ,eagle-owls thrive well and breed freely in captivity2 years ago a number were kept1 for instance1 at ,arundel ,castle1 but these1 although long regarded as ,european birds1 were eventually proved to belong to the ,north ,american species4 ,captive specimens have served to demonstrate in some degree the great age to which these owls will live2 a female brought from ,norway in #ahbg having survived for seventy-five years in an ,english aviary1 and having produced during the last thirty years of her captivity no less than ninety offspring4 ,from its large size1 powerful beak and claws1 and fierce disposition1 the eagle-owl1 which is mainly nocturnal in its habits1 is a terrible foe to the smaller animals1 preying largely upon rats1 mice1 moles1 birds1 and frogs1 while it also attacks and devours larger game1 such as roe-deer fawns1 hares1 rabbits1 hazel-hens1 ducks1 and geese4 ,its haunts are thick forests1 especially those in which tints of rufous grey and black prevail2 and in such situations the mottled1 warm-coloured tints of its plumage harmonise both with the bark of the tree-trunks and the weathered surface of the rocks and cliffs4 ,at even1 with noiseless wings1 the eagle-owl issues from its perch to sweep over the plains in search of prey2 or1 rising high in the air1 utters its loud screech1 and awakes the slumbering birds1 which flutter from their roosts to meet their fate by the relentless talons and beak of the nocturnal marauder4 ,the huge nest is generally built in trees1 on cliffs1 or in old buildings1 but the two or three eggs may be laid in holes on the bare ground4 ,the eggs are brooded by the female1 who is fed during incubation by her partner4 ,,the ,,flamingo 7,phnicopterus roseus7 ,flamingoes1 of which there are several species1 present us with one of the most striking instances of adaptation to a particular mode of life to be met with in the animal kingdom1 more especially as the main feature in this adaptation is developed in its full perfection only when the bird is mature and takes to a special diet4 ,in common with other waders1 the adult flamingo has an enormously long neck and legs1 and is thereby enabled to procure its food from depths inaccessible to most other birds1 although it is frequently content to search for food in the shallows4 ,its distinctive structural peculiarity is1 however1 the sharp downward flexure of the extremity of the beak1 and more especially that of the lower half4 ,such a beak appears at the first glance quite unsuited for groping up food from the mud of marshes and lagoons which form the favourite haunts of these stately birds2 but while thus engaged1 flamingoes turn their heads the wrong way up1 when the beak at once becomes a most efficient ladle1 admirably adapted for collecting and holding the small spiral univalve molluscs of the genus ,cerithium which in many districts form their chief food4 ,in the young flamingo1 whose diet is of a different nature1 the beak is more or less normal in form4 ,flamingoes1 with certain relationships to the storks1 appear to have most affinity with ducks1 geese1 and swans2 and it is curious to note how like are the head and neck of a flamingo1 if the beak were but straightened out1 to those of a swan1 the resemblance extending in some cases even to the colour of the beak1--red or orange at the base and black at the tip4 ,white and scarlet1 or crimson--the ,easter colours--are the colours of the flamingo1 but the relative proportions of these vary according to the species4 ,the ,european flamingo--the subject of the ,plate--whose range extends from central ,europe to the ,canaries and the ,cape ,verd ,islands1 and thence all over ,africa1 and eastwards to ,lake ,baikal1 ,india1 and ,ceylon1 has1 for instance1 the greater part of the plumage white or pinkish white with scarlet wing-coverts and black quills1 red legs1 and the beak pink at the base and black at the tip4 ,much more gorgeous is the tropical ,american ,p4 ruber1 ranging as far south as ,para and the ,galapagos ,islands1 in which the general colour of the plumage is light vermilion1 with brighter wing-coverts1 the base of beak being yellow and the legs red4 ,to the south of central ,peru1 in ,uruguay1 and perhaps in ,brazil this species is replaced by ,p4 chilensis1 distinguished by the legs being grey with red joints1 while the black of the beak extends upwards above the bend4 ,in all the foregoing species a hind-toe is present1 but this is lacking in two other ,south ,american species1 namely1 ,p4 7,phnicoparrus7 andinus1 the largest member of the family1 of the ,chilian and ,bolivian ,andes and ,argentina1 and ,p4 7,p47 jamesi1 of southern ,peru and ,chile1 in both of which the beak is yellow at the base and red in the middle1 while the legs are yellow in the former and red in the latter4 ,lastly1 there is ,p4 7,phniconaias7 minor1 of ,africa1 ,madagascar1 and ,india1 which in general appearance much resembles the ,european species4 ,illustration ,although flamingoes spend much of their time in wading1 they are also good swimmers4 ,like geese and ducks1 they associate in vast flocks1 and further evidence of their kinship to that group is afforded by their loss of the power of flight during the height of the moulting season1 and likewise by their 8gaggling0 cries1 which are curiously like those of geese4 ,in the breeding-season flamingoes resort to lakes1 salt-lagoons1 or the swamps in river-valleys1 those of the ,guadalquivir being one of their favourite haunts in ,europe4 ,bare shores are an essential element in such breeding-colonies1 for it is on these that the birds construct their curious sugar-loaf mud-nests1 which have a cup-like depression at the summit for the reception of the one or two eggs1 and vary in height from two to fifteen inches according to the depth of the water4 ,the eggs1 which are brooded by each sex in turn for a period of fully four weeks1 have bluish coloured shells1 covered with a rough chalky crust4 ,when incubating1 the bird sits with its legs bent beneath the body1 although it was long supposed that these hung down on the sides of the nest4 ,hundreds or even thousands of flamingoes may congregate in these breeding-colonies2 and there are few more beautiful sights in nature than to see a flock of these splendid birds1 especially the scarlet ,american species1 rise on the wing and display their full colouring and plumage in the sunlight4 ,,the ,,nile ,,crocodile 7,crocodilus niloticus7 ,to the ancient ,egyptians the timsa1 or ,nile crocodile1 the champsa of ,herodotus1 was a familiar reptile2 but from the lower and middle portion of the ,nile1 as far up as ,thebes1 the species has long since been exterminated1 although it is still abundant in ,east and ,south ,africa4 ,elsewhere it occurs in ,madagascar1 and still survives1 although sparingly1 in ,syria1 more especially in the ,zerka 7 ,crocodile7 ,river near ,csarea4 ,in ,biblical times crocodiles were1 however1 abundant in the ,holy ,land2 and there is little doubt that the 8leviathan0 of the ,book of ,job refers to these noisome reptiles4 ,till nearly the fifteenth century it also seems that crocodiles lived in ,greece and the ,isles of the ,grecian ,archipelago2 and at that date a huge crocodile's skull was jealously preserved and exhibited at ,rhodes4 ,it is these ancient south ,european crocodiles which probably gave rise to the legend of ,st4 ,george and the ,dragon and other myths of a kindred nature4 ,in popular estimation there is much confusion between crocodiles and alligators2 and in ,india the former are almost invariably called alligators1 although there is not a single representative of that group in the whole country4 ,indeed1 alligators are confined to ,china and ,america2 those of ,south ,america1 properly known as caimans1 differing from the typical ,mississippi species by having a bony armour on the under as well as on the upper surface4 ,there are many characters distinguishing crocodiles from alligators2 one of the most easily recognised being that the fourth lower tooth of a crocodile bites into a notch on the outer side of the upper jaw1 so that its summit is visible when the mouth is closed1 whereas in an alligator the corresponding tooth is received into a pit1 so that the tip is completely concealed when the reptile shuts its enormous mouth4 ,true crocodiles1 which1 with alligators1 caimans1 and gavials1 are the largest of living reptiles1 are now represented by about eleven species1 whose combined range includes ,africa1 southern ,asia1 northern ,australia1 and tropical ,america4 ,india possesses two species1 the broad-nosed muggar 7,crocodilus palustris71 and the narrow-nosed estuarine crocodile 7,c4 porosus72 the former of which ranges to ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and the ,malay ,peninsula and ,islands1 while the latter1 which enters salt-water freely1 and is sometimes found far out to sea1 extends from ,india1 ,ceylon1 and the south of ,china to northern ,australia and the ,solomon and ,fiji ,islands4 ,illustration ,crocodiles may grow to a length of #ah and probably #bj feet or more1 and are powerful creatures1 which are the pests of the waters they frequent1 seizing and dragging down women and men who come to draw water1 and gripping by the nose cattle and other animals which come to drink4 ,a beast thus seized has little chance of escape1 no matter what may be its size1 as it is taken at a disadvantage and rendered comparatively helpless2 but there is a well-authenticated story of a ,nile crocodile seizing a rhinoceros by one of the hind-legs just as it was about to leave the river1 and eventually dragging the enormous beast1 despite its frantic efforts1 backwards into deep water1 where it was drowned4 ,the prey is1 indeed1 always killed by drowning1 after which the carcase is dragged ashore and concealed among reeds or other covert1 where it is left until decomposition has set in before being devoured4 ,a large proportion of the food of the ,nile crocodile is stated1 however1 to consist of fish2 and snails1 water-fowl1 and carrion are also devoured by these ravenous reptiles4 ,when in repose1 crocodiles lie like logs in the water1 or on the neighbouring sand and mud banks1 but the slightest sound awakens them to activity4 ,hearing seems indeed to be the sense most strongly developed in crocodiles2 and it is upon this that they depend in ascertaining the presence of prey4 ,smell1 touch1 and taste appear to be but poorly developed2 and the tongue is affixed to the lower surface of the mouth throughout its entire length4 ,crocodiles are furnished with glands secreting a musky substance1 much esteemed by the ,sudanis for anointing their hair and bodies1 and thus producing what is to them1 no doubt1 an agreeable odour4 ,all crocodiles lay hard-shelled1 oval eggs1 about the size of those of a goose4 ,these are deposited by the female1 to the number of from about twenty to ninety1 a yard or so deep in the sand of the river-bank1 where they are carefully covered up by means of her tail1 and then left to mature by the action of the sun's rays4 ,the mother appears1 however1 to keep watch in the neighbourhood of the nest1 and when the eggs are ready to hatch1 their occupants utter a peculiar sound which attracts the parent to their assistance4 ,,the ,,white-,,handed ,,gibbon 7,hylobates lar7 ,the name gibbon1 which is of unknown origin1 and appears to have been first used by the ,french naturalist ,buffon1 is applied to the members of the smallest representatives of the man-like apes1 all of which differ from their larger cousins1 the chimpanzi1 gorilla1 and orang-utan1 by retaining small bare patches on the buttocks4 ,in this respect they show evidence of kinship to ordinary monkeys and baboons1 in which1 however1 these naked callosities1 as they are called by naturalists1 attain much greater development4 ,gibbons agree with the larger man-like apes in the complete absence of the tail1 but are distinguished by the great length of the limbs1 more especially the front pair1 so that when these curious pigmies are standing upright on their feet1 their hands touch the ground4 ,it is very interesting to note in this connection that gibbons are the only man-like apes which habitually assume the erect posture in walking1 when the arms are usually elevated and in some cases extended horizontally1 thus giving a most remarkable appearance to their owners4 ,all the members of the group are confined to tropical south-eastern ,asia1 where they range from the eastern portion of the ,himalaya through ,burma and the ,malay countries to the island of ,hainan1 off the southern coast of ,china4 ,the largest species1 the siaman 7,hylobates syndactylus7 of ,borneo1 does not much exceed one yard in height4 ,in colour they are very generally black1 often1 as in the species represented in the ,plate1 with a narrow white band or fillet surrounding the greater part of the face1 or making merely a line above the eyebrows4 ,in the white-handed species1 forming the subject of the illustration1 the white fillet attains its fullest development1 and the hands and feet are likewise white4 ,this species inhabits the mountain-forests of ,tenasserim at elevations between three thousand and five thousand feet1 whence it extends through the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,its near relative the hulok 7,h4 hulok71 whose range extends from ,assam to ,arakan and the neighbouring districts1 lacks the white hands and feet1 while the fillet on the face merely forms a band over the eyebrow4 ,in the ,hainan gibbon 7,h4 hainanus7 even the eyebrow-band is wanting4 ,a specimen of this last-named species1 which is very near akin to the hulok1 afforded a surprise to naturalists in that it changed the colour of its coat during its sojourn in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens4 ,when obtained in #ahig1 at an age of about six months1 its colour was dark smoky grey1 but this soon changed to black1 which persisted till after the animal's arrival in ,london in ,january #aijd4 ,in ,february of that year the fur began to assume a greyish tinge2 and by autumn the entire coat had become silvery1 or stone1 grey1 except for a black stripe down the middle line of the head4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that this colour-change is universal in the species2 for another captive specimen believed to be about a dozen years old was wholly black4 ,illustration ,this is confirmed by the observations of a ,french traveller in the case of the white-cheeked gibbon 7,h4 leucogenys7 of ,annam and ,siam1 in which two distinct colour-phases are noticeable4 ,these gibbons commonly go about in parties of six or seven2 and while some individuals are black with white whiskers and a band on the sides and lower part of the face1 in others the general colour is golden yellow with no white on the face4 ,that the two phases are specifically identical is certain1 and it does not appear that the light-coloured individuals eventually become dark1 or vice versa4 ,the natives1 it is true1 have an idea that the light-coloured individuals are the females1 but this seems to be disproved by the fact that they are much less numerous than the black ones2 and it thus appears probable that the species exhibits two distinct colour-phases4 ,gibbons are almost wholly arboreal apes2 and in the trees they move about mainly with the aid of their long arms1 by means of which they swing themselves from bough to bough1 and thus from one tree to another1 so that a whole troop will traverse the forest without descending to the ground4 ,so active and agile indeed are these apes1 that when confined in open cages they will catch birds on the wing1 which apparently form part of their food4 ,in addition to these1 gibbons subsist on fruits of various kinds1 leaves1 young shoots1 insects1 and spiders4 ,all gibbons have a remarkably powerful double-note cry1 like hu-lok1 which has a wailing sound1 and awakes the echoes in the early morning and again at evening in the forests inhabited by these apes4 ,at a distance the cry has some faint resemblance to the human voice2 but at close quarters it is enough to drive the traveller1 when resting in his tent1 well-nigh distracted4 ,,the ,,abyssinian ,,green ,,monkey 7,cercopithecus thiops7 ,as a familiar example of a very large assemblage of exclusively ,african long-tailed monkeys collectively known as guenons 7from a ,french word signifying to make grimaces71 no better species could have been selected for illustration than the ,abyssinian green monkey4 ,this monkey1 which like its cousin the common green monkey 7,cercopithecus callitrichus1 or sabus7 may be seen in almost all menageries and on many street-organs1 is an ,east ,african species2 whereas the true green monkey is ,west ,african1 ranging from ,senegambia through ,sierra ,leone to northern ,liberia1 but has been introduced into some of the ,cape ,verd and ,west ,indian ,islands1 where it still occurs plentifully1 at least in ,barbados4 ,from the guereza monkeys 7,colobus7 of ,africa1 a guenon may be distinguished at a glance by its well-developed thumbs2 while these monkeys also differ from guerezas1 as well as from their ,asiatic relatives the langurs1 by having well-developed pouches in their cheeks for storing food4 ,there is1 however1 another ,african group of monkeys1 the mangabeys 7,cercocebus71 some of which are more difficult to distinguish from guenons1 although the majority are recognisable at a glance by their flesh-coloured eyelids1 whence the name of white eyelid monkeys4 ,when this character fails1 resource must be had to the cheek-teeth1 of which the last pair in the lower jaw is less complex in a guenon than in a mangabey2 but to examine the back-teeth of a live monkey is not an experiment every one would desire to try6 ,to any one but a specialist1 the very large number of representatives of the guenons are exceedingly difficult to class and identify4 ,the matter has1 however1 been somewhat simplified by arranging the species in thirteen groups1 each characterised by the possession of some particular distinctive feature or features4 ,the well-known diana monkey 7,c4 diana7 represents1 for instance1 a group in which there are long1 upwardly directed1 snow-white whiskers associated with blackish or dark red under-parts1 a white brow-band1 distinctly white areas on the chest and the inside of the arms1 a chin-tuft1 and a white stripe on the outer side of the thigh4 ,the members of the spot-nosed group1 again1 as typified by ,c4 petaurista1 are recognisable at a glance by having a large1 heart-shaped white spot on the tip of the nose4 ,the green monkeys1 on the other hand1 belong to a group 7typified by the ,abyssinian species7 somewhat less easy to recognise1 but characterised by the absence of black on the outer surface of the arms1 which may be coloured like the body1 but are usually1 as in the plate1 somewhat paler and grey4 ,the face is nearly always black1 but may be mottled or freckled with pigment2 and1 except in one species1 the whiskers grow upwards and backwards over the ears4 ,the western species1 the aforesaid ,c4 callitrichus1 lacks the white brow-band present in the ,abyssinian species and nearly all the other members of the group2 the species forming the subject of the plate being further distinguished by the black-speckled yellowish olive colour of the fur of the back1 the long1 white whiskers1 sharply defined from the hair of the rest of the head1 and the presence of a tuft of hair at the root of the tail4 ,illustration ,guenons may be regarded as some of the most typical of all monkeys1 and those in which monkey-tricks attain their fullest development4 ,they live more on fruits and seeds than either the guerezas or the langurs1 which feed largely on leaves and the young shoots of trees4 ,guenons are indeed probably to some extent omnivorous1 whereas the members of the other two groups are wholly herbivorous4 ,this difference in the matter of diet is correlated with the presence of cheek-pouches and the simple character of the stomach in the guenons1 whereas the other two groups lack pouches in the cheek1 but1 in compensation1 have the stomach folded and divided in a complex manner4 ,in their native forests green monkeys and their relatives associate in large troops1 which keep up a constant chattering1 and each of which is under the leadership and control of an old male4 ,each troop appears to have its own particular territory in the forest2 and if one party intrude on the domain of its neighbour1 a fierce contest takes place1 which does not end until the invaders have been driven out or have proved themselves the stronger4 ,a survival of this custom may be noticed even among monkeys in a menagerie1 where each species or individual will take up one portion of the cage for its own particular use1 and resolutely defend it against the other occupants of the enclosure4 ,from the other members of the genus the patas monkey 7,c4 patas7 and its relatives are specially distinguished by their red colouring and large size1 and they should perhaps form a genus by themselves4 ,,the ,,fox 7,canis vulpes or ,vulpes alopex7 ,the fox enjoys a well-earned reputation for cunning and shrewdness1 and especially for its capacity to adapt itself to changed conditions and its presence of mind and resourcefulness in emergencies4 ,nevertheless1 it is possible to deceive even a fox4 ,a well-known ,american naturalist relates1 for instance1 how he attracted a fox to within a few yards of his own position by imitating the squeaking of a field-mouse4 ,for some distance he came cautiously skulking between the big tussocks of coarse grass1 but for the last fifty yards he had to traverse open sward4 ,when he had got half this distance he became suspicious1 and began to think that the motionless1 squatting naturalist was not a stump or a rock1 whereupon1 it is curious to note1 that he at once ran to leeward of the suspicious object1 thus showing that foxes1 like many other animals1 trust more to their sense of smell than to their sight4 ,in spite of the fact that everybody knows a fox by sight1 there is a difference of opinion among naturalists as to whether the fox of ,north ,america is specifically identical with the ,european animal4 ,the differences between them are1 however1 so small and insignificant that the most sensible course is to regard the fox as a circumpolar species1 with several local races1 both in the ,old ,world and in ,north ,america4 ,to attempt anything in the way of description of such a well-known animal would be altogether superfluous1 although it may be well to mention that the tip of the tail is always white or whitish2 and that1 as in most members of the dog family1 there is a dark-coloured patch on the upper surface of the root of the tail1 indicating the position of a gland4 ,although nearly related to wolves and jackals1 foxes are distinguished by their slighter make1 the relatively shorter limbs and longer body and tail1 as well as by the sharper muzzle1 and also by a peculiarity in the shape of the projecting process of bone which forms part of the upper border of the socket of the eye4 ,in wolves1 jackals1 and dogs this process is convex1 whereas in all foxes it is concave2 thus conclusively proving that the fox has nothing to do with the parentage of the dog4 ,illustration ,the typical fox of northern and central ,europe is one of the largest representatives of the species1 and is further characterised by the deep 8foxy0 red colour of its coat1 and the light colour of the under-parts4 ,in southern ,europe this race is replaced by one of rather smaller dimensions 7,canis vulpes melanogaster7 and less brilliant red in colour1 with the under-parts dark1 and sometimes a cross-shaped dark mark on the shoulders4 ,nearly allied is the ,himalayan fox 7,c4 v4 montanus72 but in central ,asia and some of the neighbouring countries we find a larger and paler race known as ,c4 v4 flavescens4 ,no representative of the species is found to the south of the ,himalaya or in ,burma and the ,malay countries2 but the central ,asian1 or a nearly allied1 race probably extends right across ,siberia and ,manchuria4 ,in ,north ,america the fox reappears1 and ranges as far south as ,georgia2 the common and most widely distributed race being known as ,c4 v4 fulvus1 while separate names have been given to the races respectively inhabiting ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland4 ,the so-called 8cross fox0 of ,america is merely one with a blackish stripe down the back and another across the shoulders1 as in many ,himalayan and ,afghan foxes2 while the 8silver fox0 is a grey1 and the 8black fox0 a black phase of the ordinary ,american race4 ,skins of black foxes are of enormous value1 really fine specimens selling for as much as #bjj each2 they are imitated by dyeing the skins of the white ,arctic fox 7,c4 lagopus7 and leaving the end of the tail and the tips of the longer hairs white4 ,although most of these black skins come from ,america1 black foxes apparently also occur in ,siberia4 ,no matter how far north its range1 the fox never turns white in winter4 ,another curious fact about this animal is that the skin1 when viewed under the microscope1 exhibits a structure indicating that the ancestors of the species were apparently clothed with scales instead of hair2 thus affording important testimony to the view that mammals are the direct descendants of reptiles4 ,unlike jackals and wolves1 the fox is a more or less solitary animal1 living for the greater part of the year alone1 or in company with the vixen1 as the female is called2 the latter name being merely the west country pronunciation of fixen1 which may be the ,saxon plural of fix4 ,chiefly nocturnal in their habits1 foxes may take up their residence either in holes1 or 8earths10 dug by themselves1 in ravines or clefts among rocks1 or amid coarse grass and bushes4 ,the young1 usually from five to seven in number1 have slaty grey coats quite different from their parents4 ,although foxes are sad enemies to the poultry-yard and the game-covert1 it should be remembered that they are death on field-mice and rats4 ,,the ,,brown ,,bear 7,ursus arctus7 ,with the exception of the hynas and the civets1 all the more important families of land ,carnivora are represented in northern ,europe2 the wild cat and the lynx doing duty for the ,felid1 the wolf and the fox for the ,canid1 the pine-marten1 glutton1 and otter1 together with several smaller species1 for the ,mustelid1 and the bear1 or brown bear1 as it is commonly called1 in order to distinguish it from its relatives--white1 grey1 or black--for the ,ursid4 ,it is further noteworthy that1 with the exception of the wild cat1 all these animals are either common to the northern portions of the two hemispheres or are represented in ,north ,america by species very closely allied to their ,european prototypes4 ,the bear is one of the undoubtedly circumpolar species1 for although distinct names have been given to its ,american representatives1 with the exception of the grisly bear 7,ursus horribilis71 which is specifically different1 all these are obviously nothing more than local forms or races of a single variable and widely distributed species4 ,even in the ,old ,world there are many distinct races of the brown bear4 ,in ,syria1 for instance1 we have a greyish race 7,u4 arctus syriacus72 while in ,kashmir the coat is very generally deep cream-colour1 although it tends to darken in old individuals of this race1 which is known as ,u4 a4 isabellinus4 ,from the ,british ,isles the bear has long since been exterminated1 but it survives in the wilder parts of ,spain1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,hungary1 while it is still comparatively common in many parts of ,scandinavia and ,russia1 whence it extends right across ,asia north of the southern flank of the ,himalaya to ,kamchatka and ,japan2 its southern limit to the east of the ,himalaya being marked by the ,siamese race 7,u4 a4 shanorum74 ,central ,asian brown bears1 of which the local races are not yet properly determined1 generally have light-coloured coats1 with a white gorget1 which is wanting in ,scandinavian and ,russian bears4 ,the largest ,old ,world race is the ,kamchadale brown bear 7,u4 a4 piscator or lasiotis71 of which skins may measure as much as #i feet in length4 ,on the opposite side of ,bering ,strait ,alaska vies with ,kamchatka in claiming the record in point of size among brown bears1 while in the matter of local variation the representatives of the species put the rest of the world into the shade1 for ,american naturalists recognise no fewer than half a dozen different races in ,alaska alone4 ,these include the huge ,kodiak bear 7,u4 a4 middendorffi7 of ,kodiak ,island1 the ,alaskan ,peninsula bear 7,u4 a4 gyas71 the gigantic ,yakutat bear 7,u4 a4 dalli7 from the neighbourhood of ,yakutat ,bay and the coast for an undetermined distance north and south1 the ,sitka bear 7,u4 a4 sitkensis7 of ,sitka and ,baranoff ,islands1 the ,admiralty bear 7,u4 a4 eulophus7 of ,admiralty ,island1 and ,kidder's bear 7,u4 a4 kidderi7 of the ,alaskan ,peninsula4 ,all these are1 however1 so similar to one another1 that it requires an expert to distinguish them4 ,illustration ,the grisly bear 7,u4 horribilis7 is1 however1 a distinct species1 characterised1 among other features1 by its white claws4 ,typically a native of the high forests of the ,rocky ,mountains1 the grisly is represented by two ,alaskan races1 namely1 ,u4 h4 phonyx of the interior1 and ,u4 h4 kenaiensis of the ,kenai ,peninsula and adjacent coasts4 ,it perhaps reappears in the ,tian ,shan range1 in the heart of central ,asia1 in the shape of the so-called ,u4 leuconyx4 ,bears are the least carnivorous of the ,carnivora1 subsisting in many districts almost entirely on fruits1 nuts1 shoots of trees1 roots1 honey1 and ants1 with an occasional meal of carrion4 ,in ,alaska1 however1 when the bears wake up from their winter sleep and come abroad they find the rivers almost choked with ,pacific salmon which are ascending to spawn1 and in these they find an abundant and nourishing food-supply upon which they rapidly grow fat4 ,the duration of the winter-sleep1 which may take place in a hollow tree1 a cavern1 or a cleft in the rocks1 depends upon the length of the winter2 and it is when they first issue forth from these lairs that bears are in their best coats1 the summer fur being short and comparatively valueless1 while the skins are also difficult to preserve owing to the fatness of the animals at this season4 ,the females bring forth their cubs1 one or two in number1 during the period of hibernation4 ,bears are to a great extent diurnal mammals1 whose haunts are chiefly the forests1 although in late summer they resort in many localities1 such as ,kashmir1 to the open mountain pastures1 where they may be seen grazing at no great distance from flocks of sheep or goats4 ,the adults go about singly or in pairs1 the females generally accompanied by their cubs1 which may include those of two successive seasons4 ,,the ,,pine-,,marten 7,mustela martes7 ,the marten1 or pine-marten1 as it is commonly termed in order to distinguish it from its continental relative the beech-marten 7,mustela foina71 is one of those species which are on the verge of disappearing from ,england and ,wales4 ,in the midland and south-eastern counties of ,england the species appears to have become scarce during the first half of the last century1 and in most of these it was killed before #ahfj1 although isolated instances of its occurrence in ,hertfordshire1 ,surrey1 and ,sussex have been recorded since that date4 ,in ,lincolnshire1 ,norfolk1 and ,suffolk it survived1 however1 until the 'eighties2 and there have been recent occurrences in ,leicestershire4 ,the ,lake ,district and the western side of north and central ,wales are at present the strongholds of the species2 and the isolated occurrences in other parts of the country appear to be largely due to its wandering habits4 ,in the wilder districts of ,scotland1 wherever there is sufficient forest1 martens are still far from uncommon2 and they are comparatively abundant in parts of ,scandinavia1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,germany1 ,hungary1 and ,russia4 ,among the characteristics of the species1 the most easily recognisable is the yellow or orange area on the throat2 this part being white in the beech-marten4 ,that these two animals are distinct species1 and not merely local races of a single one1 seems to be demonstrated by their occurrence in the same districts4 ,how far eastwards the range of the marten extends does not appear to be ascertained4 ,in ,siberia the species is1 however1 represented by the closely allied sable 7,m4 zibellina71 which in turn gives place in ,north ,america to the ,american marten 7,m4 americana74 ,all three might perhaps1 however1 be regarded as geographical races of one and the same species4 ,martens are essentially forest-animals1 which prefer evergreen trees1 and are especially partial to woods where dead tree-trunks lie rotting on the ground or form natural bridges from one stem to another4 ,here they are as active as squirrels1 and chase one another in the same sportive manner4 ,much of their prey is1 however1 taken on the ground1 and they are deadly foes to hares1 rabbits1 pheasants1 and partridges1 as well as to small birds of all kinds4 ,they are also reported to eat beech-mast1 and if this be the case1 berries may also very probably form a portion of their diet4 ,the persistency with which a marten will follow the trail of a hare or a rabbit1 even in deep snow1 is a character the species possesses in common with the weasel tribe generally2 and if it fail to pounce upon the unsuspecting victim in the first few springs1 it will settle down to the chase as steadily as a beagle or a harrier4 ,illustration ,martens are devoid of the unpleasant odour of the polecat1 or foumart1 and are therefore suitable for taming4 ,in their native forests they associate in pairs1 and make their nests high up in tall trees1 selecting in some instances a hole in the stem1 but in other cases taking possession of the deserted nests of wood-pigeons or other large birds1 or occasionally the drey of a squirrel4 ,in this nest are born early in the spring the six or seven young1 which come into the world blind1 and are tended by their parents with assiduous care2 and they remain in its neighbourhood till they are nearly full grown4 ,in ,north ,america it has been observed that once in about every eight or ten years martens more or less completely disappear from districts in which they are at other times abundant4 ,strange to say1 there is no evidence of the prevalence of disease on such occasions2 and it is certain that the martens do not migrate after the manner of lemmings4 ,it has1 however1 been noticed by the trappers that just before their disappearance none of the martens in the district will take a bait1 although at other times they are caught with comparative ease4 ,in the forest martens and sables are much less difficult to approach than many other wild animals2 but they nevertheless display a keen aversion to the neighbourhood of human dwellings1 which they never voluntarily approach4 ,martens and sables1 unlike their smaller relative the stoat or ermine1 do not turn white in winter2 for the very sufficient reason that1 on account of being arboreal animals1 they would be extremely conspicuous in such a livery4 ,they are so relentlessly hunted for the sake of their valuable fur1 that it is a marvel they have not long since been exterminated from many portions of their habitat4 ,the value of the skins of the ordinary ,european marten varies from eight to twelve shillings1 but ,russian and ,siberian sable commands a much higher price in the market4 ,,the ,,leopard 7,felis pardus7 ,it is not a little remarkable that three such closely related animals as the lion1 the tiger1 and the leopard or panther 7for these two names really indicate the same species7 should exhibit such striking dissimilarity in their type of colouring4 ,the explanation of the difference in this respect is1 however1 probably to be found in the diversity of habit4 ,neither the lion nor the tiger can climb2 and as the former is mainly an inhabitant of open and more or less desert country1 it has assumed a uniformly sandy coat to accord with the tawny hue of its surroundings4 ,the tiger1 on the other hand1 resorts more to covert1 and has therefore adopted a livery suitable to such situations1 or1 at all events1 one which tends to break up the general outline of the body4 ,from both its larger cousins the leopard differs by its arboreal habits1 and this may to a great extent account for its spotted type of colouring1 which harmonises well with the chequered shade thrown by the foliage on the horizontal and gnarled branches of forest-trees4 ,it is1 however1 important to notice that the dark markings on the fur of an ordinary leopard are not solid black circular spots1 but take the form of rosettes of irregular black patches enclosing a centre of darker tint than the general ground-colour of the fur4 ,such a type of colouring seems to be one specially adapted to a partially arboreal life1 for in the purely terrestrial hunting-leopard 7,cynlurus jubatus71 as well as in the smaller ,african cat known as the serval 7,felis serval71 the markings all take the form of solid circular black spots4 ,it is further noteworthy that the ,amurland race of the leopard 7,f4 pardus villosa71 which inhabits a country where the forests are coniferous and therefore ill-adapted for climbing by a large animal1 the spots are in the main solid and more or less nearly circular4 ,leopards have a range larger than that of either the lion or the tiger4 ,in former times they probably inhabited a considerable portion of ,europe2 and at the present day they extend from the ,caucasus over the greater part of ,asia1 inclusive of ,persia1 ,india1 ,china1 and the ,malay countries1 although unknown in northern ,siberia1 the highlands of ,tibet1 and ,japan4 ,in ,africa they inhabit the whole continent from ,morocco to ,cape ,colony1 although from certain districts they have now been killed off4 ,as a rule1 the central chestnut area forming the centre of the rosettes does not carry any small spots1 but two or three such spots occur in the rosettes of some ,asiatic leopards2 and skins thus marked serve to connect the leopard with its near relative the jaguar 7,f4 onca7 of ,central and ,south ,america1 in which these central spots are constant4 ,now the jaguar is an even more arboreal animal than the leopard2 and the more complex development of its rosettes is a further proof that this type of marking is one specially adapted to a life among thick-foliaged trees4 ,it may be added that the near relationship existing between the leopard and the jaguar affords conclusive evidence that large spotted felines at one time inhabited ,north ,america4 ,illustration ,with such an enormous geographical range1 it would be only natural to expect that the leopard should present considerable local variation2 and1 as a matter of fact1 such is actually the case4 ,the ,amurland1 or ,manchurian1 race has already been mentioned4 ,asiatic leopards have large rosettes2 and among these the ,persian leopard 7,f4 pardus panthera1 or tulliana7 constitutes a race characterised by its pale colour1 long fur1 and thick tail4 ,this race makes an approach to the snow-leopard 7,f4 uncia7 of the highlands of central ,asia1 which is1 however1 a distinct species1 distinguished by its long fur and tail1 with the prevailing colour grey1 and the rosettes in the form of ill-defined rings2 this type of colouring being probably an adaptation to a life among rocks and snow4 ,leopards from ,north and ,east ,africa show large rosettes of the ,asiatic type2 but in most other parts of the ,african continent the rosettes show a great tendency to break up into small spots4 ,among these small-spotted leopards the ,somali race 7,f4 pardus nanopardus7 is noticeable for its pale colour and small size2 its total length being less than #e feet1 whereas some of the other races may measure #g feet1 or even more1 in length4 ,both in ,asia and north-eastern and ,east ,africa black leopards are not uncommon2 but these are merely a dark 7melanistic7 phase of the ordinary leopard4 ,nevertheless1 it appears1 so far as can be judged from a single authenticated instance1 that black leopards when mated together will breed true1 although1 if paired with spotted individuals1 the progeny may be of either type4 ,with regard to the general habits of leopards1 space permits only of reference to their remarkable partiality for the flesh of dogs1 which is so strong as to render it difficult to keep these animals in leopard-infested districts4 ,,the ,,lynx 7,felis 7,lynx7 lynx7 ,whether the lynx is more keen of vision than other animals is more than problematical2 but1 nevertheless1 it takes its name from the ,greek word 7luk7 for light1 and lynx-eyed has become a proverbial expression4 ,moreover1 as if to set a seal of endorsement upon the proverb1 the oldest and most renowned scientific society in ,italy bears the title of ,regia ,lynceorum ,academia 7the 8,royal ,academy of ,lynxes074 ,be all this as it may1 the lynx is an aberrant and well-marked member of the ,felid1 distinguished1 together with its immediate relatives1 from other members of the cat tribe by its short1 stumpy tail1 the long tufts of hair at the tips of the ears1 and the bushy whitish whiskers fringing the face1 as well as by the large size of the feet1 and a generally stout appearance1 due to the thickness of the coat4 ,the beautiful fur of the lynx1 which commands a high price in the market1 has also a character all its own1 being long1 soft1 and silky1 with a greyish or reddish tawny colour1 and in most cases a number of more or less dark markings1 which take the form of longitudinal streaks along the back1 of flecks on the sides1 and roundish spots on the limbs2 the greater portion of the absurd apology for a tail1 together with the backs and tufts of the ears1 and a conspicuous streak on each side of the face1 being black4 ,many lynx-skins are1 however1 more or less completely devoid of the dark markings2 and it does not yet appear to be ascertained whether the difference in this respect is individual or seasonal4 ,when the markings are fully developed1 they so completely break up the outline of the body as to render the animal almost invisible at a short distance2 this being noticeable even within the cramped confines of a cage4 ,the lynx is the second and largest species of the cat tribe inhabiting northern ,europe1 where it is common in ,scandinavia and ,russia1 while to the south it is found in mountainous districts as far as ,spain4 ,eastwards it extends across ,asia1 from the ,caucasus and northern ,persia1 to the northward of the ,himalaya to the island of ,saghalin4 ,its fossil remains prove that it was formerly a native of the ,british ,isles4 ,the ,tibetan lynx1 on account of its generally paler colour1 has been separated as ,f4 lynx isabellina1 while the one from the ,urals1 ,caucasus1 and northern ,persia is distinguished as ,f4 l4 cervaria4 ,the ,altai lynx1 characterised by its unusually long coat1 the1 at least frequent1 absence of spots1 except on the limbs1 and its extremely pale colouring1 approximating in many parts to white1 has likewise received a separate racial name1 ,f4 l4 wardi4 ,illustration ,in ,north ,america the so-called ,canada lynx1 although often regarded as a distinct species1 differs1 in the opinion of a well-known ,american naturalist1 from the lynx of northern ,asia and ,europe merely by features which may with safety be ascribed to local environment1 and should therefore be reckoned as yet another geographical race1 under the name of ,f4 l4 canadensis4 ,its range extended in former days from ,arctic ,america to the mountains of ,pennsylvania2 the lynxes of ,alaska and ,newfoundland respectively forming two minor races4 ,lynxes are extremely savage animals with immensely powerful limbs1 which appear out of proportion to the lean body4 ,they are inhabitants of forest1 where they pass much of their time reposing on the horizontal boughs of trees1 whence they can launch themselves with unerring spring on any unsuspecting animal that may be passing below1 or from which they may ascend higher in search of squirrels or birds and their nests4 ,they by no means1 however1 confine their attention to such arboreal game1 but are relentless pursuers of hares and still smaller terrestrial mammals of all kinds1 while their agility is such that a half-tamed individual has been repeatedly seen to catch pigeons out of a flock feeding on the ground as they rose on the wing4 ,in pursuit of ground-game they advance in long silent leaps1 and in winter are prevented from sinking in the snow when progressing in this manner by the great size of their paws4 ,tangled thickets or other kinds of dense undergrowth are selected by the lynx for its summer lair2 and in such localities in ,norway the fluffy cubs are born4 ,in ,tibet1 however1 these animals are compelled to exchange clefts in rocks for the forests of ,scandinavia and ,russia4 ,unlike bears1 lynxes1 in common with all members of the cat tribe1 remain active throughout the winter1 being sufficiently protected against cold by the thickness of their soft fur4 ,at this time of year they are1 however1 frequently reduced to great straits by hunger2 and their endurance must be simply marvellous to enable them when in this famishing condition to hunt and capture from time to time such prey as may be on the move4 ,,the ,,indian ,,rhinoceros 7,rhinoceros unicornis7 ,although formerly ranging a considerable way down the peninsula1 the great ,indian rhinoceros1 as this species should properly be called1 is more or less completely restricted to ,nepal and the country east of the ,tista valley1 especially the plain of ,assam and ,kuch-,behar4 ,here the mighty beast1 which stands over #e feet in height at the shoulder1 dwells in the tall grass-jungles1 where it is as completely concealed as is a rabbit in a meadow ready for mowing4 ,the rhinoceroses1 in fact1 make for themselves in this giant grass1 tunnels1 or 8runs10 in which they move from place to place perfectly secure from observation1 and likewise protected from the direct rays of the sun2 and it appears that1 except to drink1 they seldom leave this wonderful covert4 ,to attempt to shoot such enormous beasts on foot in jungle of this description1 where escape from the beaten track is well-nigh impossible1 would be little short of madness2 and the ,indian rhinoceros is therefore always hunted on elephants4 ,in old books on ,indian sports the rhinoceros is depicted as charging the elephants1 and attempting to spear them with its horn1 if not in the act of goring their bodies4 ,this is1 however1 erroneous1 as none of the three named species of ,asiatic rhinoceros use their horns in this manner1 but employ for offence their sharp1 triangular lower tusks1 with which they make lateral thrusts and lunges after the manner of a wild boar4 ,african rhinoceroses1 on the other hand1 have no tusks1 and consequently have to rely on their horns--always two in number--for both attack and defence4 ,it must not1 however1 be assumed from this that the absence of tusks is compensated by the development of two horns1 for there is one ,asiatic species1 commonly known as the ,sumatran rhinoceros 7,rhinoceros sumatrensis71 which has two horns combined with lower tusks2 this species thus being the most formidably armed member of the whole group4 ,this so-called ,sumatran rhinoceros also occurs in some of the eastern districts of ,india1 as does likewise the third ,asiatic species1 commonly known as the ,javan rhinoceros 7,r4 sondaicus71 which resembles the great ,indian species in carrying but one horn4 ,illustration ,a satisfactory and easily recognised distinction between the rhinoceroses of south-eastern ,asia and the two ,african species is afforded by the circumstance that while in the former the hide is thrown into a number of deep folds dividing it into separate areas1 in the latter these folds are more or less lacking1 so that the skin is comparatively smooth like that of a pig4 ,the shape of the skin-folds serves to distinguish the species forming the subject of the plate from the other one-horned ,asiatic species4 ,among the distinctive features of the present animal may be noted the coif-like expansions of skin at the sides of the head1 the large tubercles1 recalling the heads of the rivets in an iron boiler1 on the shoulders and hind-quarters1 and the somewhat triangular shape of the great shield on each shoulder1 the fold forming the upper border of which does not extend across the back4 ,by the older naturalists1 rhinoceroses1 elephants1 and hippopotamuses were grouped together under the title of pachyderms1--a name which has completely dropped out of use in natural history4 ,and very rightly1 since the three groups of animals brigaded together under that designation have but little in common with one another4 ,elephants1 for instance1 form a group by themselves2 hippopotamuses are cousins of the pigs1 and thus related to deer and cattle2 while rhinoceroses1 together with tapirs and horses1 form a third group by themselves4 ,there may seem to the man in the street little in common between a great lumbering brute like a rhinoceros and a ,derby winner2 but the difference is due solely to the one being a modern specialised type cut out solely for speed1 and the other an old-fashioned creature suited for wallowing in marshes or wandering on open plains where it is sufficiently protected by its size and ferocity4 ,take away the two side-toes from each foot of a rhinoceros1 lengthen its limbs1 lighten its head and body1 modify to a comparatively slight degree its cheek-teeth1 and replace its bare 8pachydermatous0 covering by a thinner1 hairy skin1 and we should have a horse4 ,fortunate it is for the naturalist that such primitive creatures as rhinoceroses and tapirs have survived to the present day to afford us an adequate idea of what their numerous extinct relatives looked like in life4 ,rhinoceroses are purely herbivorous animals1 but whereas the great ,indian species subsists chiefly on bamboo-leaves and other grasses1 its two ,asiatic relatives depend more upon boughs and roots2 this difference being correlated with the structure of their teeth4 ,producing but one offspring at a time1 and that at long intervals1 these animals apparently live to a very great age1 although by no means so long as elephants4 ,the idea that the hide of the ,indian species is bullet proof is altogether erroneous4 ,,the ,,bison 7,bos ,bison bonasus7 ,although the name bison indisputably belongs to the single species of wild cattle now surviving in ,europe1 it came to be applied almost exclusively to its ,american cousin1 while the bison itself1 till comparatively few years ago1 was generally known in this country as the aurochs4 ,the aurochs was1 however1 the ancient wild ox of ,europe1 the ancestor of many of our domesticated cattle2 and on its extermination1 which took place in ,poland during the seventeenth century1 its name became transferred to the bison1 or zubr as it is called in ,russia and ,poland4 ,of late years1 however1 matters have been put right in this respect1 and the bison has once more come into its own4 ,the ,european bison1 although lacking the enormous mass of long hair on the head and fore-quarters which gives to the bulls of its ,american cousin such a magnificent appearance1 is a far better built animal than the latter1 as the hind-quarters do not fall away in the same manner4 ,the bulls are considerably larger than the cows1 and it is in that sex alone that the beard and throat-fringe1 as well as the long hair on the fore-quarters1 attain their full development4 ,in summer a short and sleek coat is donned2 the old winter coat falling off in spring in large1 blanket-like masses4 ,the bison1 apart from a certain number which have been introduced into private parks1 now survives only in the forest of ,bielowitza1 in ,lithuanian ,poland1 now the ,russian province of ,grodno1 and in the ,caucasus4 ,in ,bielowitza the bison exist in a partially protected condition1 and are regularly fed during winter2 their number diminished from nearly two thousand in #aheg to three hundred and seventy-five in #ahib1 and a few years previously had been just over a hundred less4 ,at the present time the herd1 which forms an imperial preserve1 appears to be suffering from the effects of inbreeding1 so that an abnormally large number of the calves are males4 ,on the other hand1 the bison of the ,caucasus1 which has been separated as a distinct race under the name ,bos bonasus caucasicus1 exists in a purely wild state1 although very little information with regard to its numbers1 distribution1 and habits is available4 ,in former times bison1 as we know from historical evidence1 as well as from rude although often spirited sketches1 believed to be the work of prehistoric man1 on the walls of caverns1 as well as from their actual fossil remains1 were distributed over the greater part of ,europe1 including ,spain4 ,illustration ,here it should be mentioned that the ,european and the ,american species are the only living kinds of wild cattle properly entitled to be included under the name of bison2 the so-called ,indian and ,burmese bison belonging to a totally different group of the ox tribe4 ,european bison1 which associate in large herds1 are essentially forest animals1 although the forest they inhabit must be comparatively thin and intersected with glades and meadows where the herd can graze4 ,the neighbourhood of water is also essential2 and when muddy pools are available1 they are utilised for wallowing4 ,in addition to taking these mud-baths1 bull bison in summer are fond of rolling in sandy or dusty spots4 ,leaves and grass form the greater portion of the food of the ,bielowitza herd in summer1 one particular kind of grass1 known as zubr-grass1 being a special favourite and communicating to the animals themselves an aromatic odour4 ,young shoots1 twigs1 and bark1 especially those of the ash1 are also largely eaten2 and in obtaining bark the stems of trees are frequently stripped as high as the animals can reach1 while numbers of saplings are trampled down4 ,except where they are artificially fed1 bison have to depend almost entirely upon buds1 twigs1 bark1 and patches of dry grass and bracken for sustenance2 and at this season the herds leave the damper parts of the forest to take up their quarters in the driest situations they can find4 ,although an adult bull bison is more than a match for any wolf that ever existed1 the ,bielowitza herd is constantly harassed by the attacks of wolves1 bears1 and lynxes1 which kill many of the calves1 and probably also overpower weakly and half-starved cows in winter1 especially if the wolves hunt in packs4 ,bison feed chiefly in the early mornings and evening1 although they may be seen abroad at all hours4 ,during the breeding-season1 in ,august and ,september1 fierce combats take place between rival bulls for the mastery of the herds4 ,when disturbed or alarmed1 the herd breaks into a quick trot1 which soon develops into a heavy lumbering gallop2 and there is scarcely a finer sight in the world than a charging troop of these magnificent beasts4 ,,the ,,gazelle 7,gazella dorcas7 ,although many kinds of gazelles are now known1 the gazelle par excellence1 that is to say1 the ghazal of the ,arabs1 is the beautiful little species represented in the ,plate1 which1 in order to distinguish it from its relatives1 naturalists have designated the dorcas4 ,and no more beautiful and delicately made creature exists in the world than this same gazelle1 which has formed the theme of poets--especially in the ,east--for centuries1 as the emblem of beauty1 elegance1 and fleetness4 ,many people persist in confusing gazelles with deer1 although the two groups have but little in common1 being broadly distinguished by the characters of their horns1 which in gazelles are hollow1 unbranched sheaths of true horn supported on cores of bone1 while in deer they are branching structures of bare bone4 ,indeed1 the so-called horns of deer are not really horns at all1 at all events from the point of view of the naturalist1 but rather antlers2 and gazelles constitute a section of that group of ruminants collectively known as antelopes4 ,of the approximate size of a roebuck1 the true1 or dorcas1 gazelle1 like most of its kindred is coloured to harmonise with the more or less desert conditions of its home4 ,the delicate rufous fawn of the upper-parts accords with the yellow tint of the rocks or sand amid which these beautiful creatures spend most of their time2 while1 when the animal is standing in the full glare of an ,eastern sun1 the white of the under surface counteracts the effect of the dark shade thrown by the body1 and thus1 even at comparatively short distances1 makes for more or less complete invisibility4 ,neither is the white 8blaze0 on the rump without its special use1 as it serves as a guide to the members of a troop to follow the line taken by their leader when safety depends solely upon fleetness of foot2 the effect of the danger-signal on such occasions being increased by the elevation of the tail1 of which the white under surface is then shown4 ,in the bucks alone do the gracefully curved and heavily ringed black horns attain their full development2 those of the does being thin and nearly smooth spikes4 ,the range of the gazelle is large1 including the whole of northern ,africa1 from ,morocco in the west to ,egypt in the east1 and extending southwards to ,nigeria and the ,egyptian ,sudan2 while in ,asia it embraces ,palestine and ,syria4 ,in western and southern ,arabia it is1 however1 replaced by the ,arabian gazelle 7,gazella arabica71 which is itself a relative of the edmi gazelle 7,g4 cuvieri71 of ,morocco1 ,algeria1 and western ,tunisia2 the last-named being a mountain-dweller1 whereas the dorcas is largely a native of the plains4 ,illustration ,in the deserts and plains between the ,nile and the ,red ,sea1 where the dorcas gazelle is especially numerous1 its food chiefly consists of mimosa-bushes2 these bushes growing most abundantly on low1 boulder-strewn hills which form the favourite feeding-places of the gazelles4 ,unlike many ruminants1 gazelles are almost constantly on the move1 resting only during the very hottest hours of the day1 when they seek the shade of the mimosas3 and when thus reposing1 even experienced hunters find it extremely difficult to distinguish them from the boulders amid which they lie4 ,gazelles mostly associate in herds of variable size2 but they are generally seen on their feeding-grounds either in small parties of from two to eight head1 or singly4 ,they are extremely shy and watchful1 and nearly always feed with the wind behind them2 while their favourite stations are on elevated ground1 where they can command an extensive view of the plains below4 ,when a herd is alarmed and takes to flight1 its members always seek shelter on the nearest hill4 ,the senses of sight1 smell1 and hearing are all highly developed in gazelles2 and the speed of these beautiful antelopes is little short of marvellous4 ,indeed1 when a gazelle is fleeing from the slughi hounds1 or so-called ,persian greyhounds1 with which the ,arabs hunt the fawns1 they seem scarcely to touch the ground1 and to be flying rather than running4 ,previous to the pairing-season the bucks fight among themselves1 and so fiercely that they not infrequently lose a horn4 ,after a gestation of between five and six months1 the doe gives birth to a single fawn1 which is at first extremely helpless1 when it is most assiduously nursed by the mother4 ,young gazelles are beautiful little creatures1 which in their own country can be kept and tamed without difficulty2 in cold climates they require1 however1 shelter and protection in cold and bad weather4 ,pictures of the gazelle are common among the ancient ,egyptian frescoes1 especially in the temples at ,giza1 ,thebes1 ,sakhara1 and ,beni-hassan2 and from a painting in a tomb at ,sakhara it may be inferred that herds of these graceful ruminants were kept in a half-tamed condition in ,pharaonic times4 ,,the ,,mouflon 7,ovis musimon7 ,the mouflon1 or muflon1 is the only wild sheep inhabiting ,europe1 where it is restricted at the present day to the mountains of ,corsica and ,sardinia4 ,in former times it doubtless had a more extensive range1 and there are reports of its occurrence within the historical period in ,greece and the ,balearic ,islands4 ,it is likewise reported to have once inhabited the mountain ranges of central ,spain4 ,like all wild sheep1 the mouflon has a hairy coat1 while its tail is short and deer-like1 as in the small domesticated sheep of ,soa and other ,hebridean islands1 of which it is probably the ancestor4 ,the woolly fleece and long tail of many domesticated breeds must accordingly be regarded as features due to careful selection2 and in this connection it is important to notice that some of the domesticated sheep of ,africa1 as well of the ,east1 possess hairy coats like their wild ancestors4 ,the general colour of the mouflon1 like that of so many ruminants1 is of a protective nature1 being dark above and white beneath1 with a white rump-patch as a signal-mark for the members of the flock when in flight4 ,in accordance with the nature of its surroundings1 the mouflon has a darker and more rufous coat than the gazelle2 but old rams have a whitish saddle-patch on the back in the winter coat4 ,in their native haunts these sheep are stated to be very difficult to detect4 ,the white streaks on the face so characteristic of the gazelles are wanting1 but the dark flank-band dividing the fawn of the back from the white of the belly is a feature common to mouflon and many species of gazelles4 ,in height the mouflon ram stands only about #bg inches1 so that the species is one of the smallest of the wild sheep4 ,the horns of the rams usually curve forwards on the sides of the face2 the right horn thus forming a right-handed spiral1 and vice versa4 ,in some ,sardinian rams1 however1 there is an alteration in the direction of the upper part of the spiral1 so that the horns curve backwards over the neck1 instead of forwards by the sides of the face4 ,the ewes of the ,sardinian mouflon appear to be generally1 if not invariably1 hornless2 but some ,corsican females1 at any rate1 carry small horns2 and it may be that the presence or absence of horns in this sex forms a distinction between the races respectively inhabiting the two islands4 ,illustration ,mouflon are found only in certain parts of the mountains of ,sardinia and ,corsica2 and when in repose usually resort to high peaks or ridges whence a wide view can be obtained4 ,moreover1 they frequently select situations where currents of air from two different situations combine1 and they are then absolutely unapproachable by the sportsman4 ,in much of the ground they frequent1 the valleys are filled with a thick growth of ilex2 while they feed on the hills amid abundant heather1 which affords admirable covert for the approach of the stalker4 ,in the pairing-season1 which takes place during ,december and ,january1 the old rams1 like the males of most ruminants1 engage in fierce combats for the possession of the females4 ,the ewes give birth to their one or two lambs during ,april and ,may2 and these1 like the lambs of domesticated sheep1 are able to run with their mothers at a very early age4 ,when the rams are in good condition1 mouflon-mutton1 if hung long enough1 is excellent for the table4 ,in ,cyprus1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,persia the mouflon is replaced by the red sheep 7,ovis orientalis71 a redder and1 in the case of some races1 larger species1 often with a fringe of blackish hair on the throat of the old males1 and the horns in that sex always curving backwards behind the neck4 ,the race of this species inhabiting the ,trodos mountains of ,cyprus is smaller than the rest4 ,farther east1 namely1 in the ,kopet ,dagh range dividing ,persia from ,turkestan1 the red sheep gives place to the well-known urial 7,o4 vignei71 in which there is a long white throat-fringe to the old rams1 whose horns curve forwards by the sides of the face4 ,this species ranges through ,baluchistan and ,afghanistan to the ,salt ,range of the ,punjab1 and thence along the ranges flanking the ,indus into ,ladak and ,tibet4 ,in the ,altai and ,tibet1 together with other parts of central ,asia1 we reach the country of the great argali sheep 7,o4 ammon71 with its numerous races2 while in the ,yana ,valley of ,siberia and in ,kamchatka we first meet with the so-called bighorns 7,o4 canadensis71 of which the typical race is ,north ,american4 ,one peculiar species 7,ammotragus lervia7 inhabits the north of ,africa1 but in the rest of that continent1 as also in peninsular ,india1 the ,malay countries1 and ,south ,america1 wild sheep are unknown4 ,,the ,,red ,,deer 7,cervus elaphus7 ,the red deer1 the typical representative of the family ,cervid1 is the largest and handsomest ,european member of that group1 although it attains its maximum development in point of bodily size and massiveness of antlers only in eastern ,europe and south-western ,asia4 ,as in most members of the deer tribe inhabiting temperate countries1 there is considerable seasonal difference in the colour of the coat1 and the fawns differ remarkably in this respect from their parents4 ,there are also distinctions in colour between the various local races of the species4 ,the ordinary name refers to the fact that in summer a more or less distinct rufous colour prevails on the upper-parts4 ,here it may be remarked that deer do not in most cases present that marked contrast between the upper and the lower surfaces of the body so characteristic of gazelles and many other members of the antelope group4 ,and the reason for this is not difficult to explain4 ,as mentioned in the text accompanying the plate of that species1 the white under-parts of the gazelle are for the purpose of counteracting the dark shadow thrown by the body when standing in full sunlight1 and thus to render the animal inconspicuous4 ,deer1 on the other hand1 are in the main nocturnal and forest-dwelling creatures1 and this type of protective colouring would therefore be useless in their case4 ,the chital1 or ,indian spotted deer1 is1 however1 much less nocturnal than most species1 and also feeds to a great extent in the open2 and it is interesting to notice that1 in accordance with such habits1 this species is white-bellied4 ,notable features in the red deer are the shortness of the tail1 and the straw-coloured patch on the buttocks in which that brief appendage is included2 the same features recurring in its near relative the wapiti4 ,as in all similar cases among ruminants1 the light rump-patch serves as a guide to the members of a herd2 the place of this being taken in certain other species1 such as the fallow deer and the ,american white-tailed deer1 by the pure white under surface of the tail1 which is raised when the animals are running4 ,the antlers of the stag are characterised by the number and regular arrangement of the tines2 and more especially1 in their fullest development1 by the duplication of the first1 or brow1 tine1 and the cup-like arrangement of the terminal snags4 ,illustration ,two features indicate that the red deer is what naturalists term a highly specialised animal4 ,these are1 firstly1 the shortness of the tail1 and1 secondly1 the white-spotted coat of the fawn1 so utterly different from that of the adults of the typical western representative of the species4 ,in the race inhabiting the ,caucasus yellowish spots are1 however1 frequently observable in the coats of full-grown hinds1 while similar spots may be developed in adult stags of the ,north ,african race1--the so-called ,barbary deer4 ,these features clearly indicate that the red deer is descended from a species which was fully spotted at all ages4 ,the range of the red deer includes1 with the exception of the far north1 practically the whole of ,europe1 as well as ,asia ,minor and part of ,persia4 ,from many parts of western ,europe these splendid animals have1 however1 been exterminated2 and in the ,british ,isles they survive in a wild state only in ,devon and ,somerset1 the highlands and isles of ,scotland1 and parts of ,ireland4 ,the red deer of the ,caspian district and the neighbouring countries1 commonly known 7from its ,persian name7 as the maral1 is a much larger and also a greyer animal1 with heavier antlers1 than its west ,european representative4 ,the latter have been split up into several local races1 which need not1 however1 be particularised in this place4 ,the food of the red deer varies considerably according to the time of year1 and comprises grass and other herbage1 corn1 leaves and boughs1 bark1 acorns1 chestnuts1 funguses1 lichens1 and moss4 ,in autumn1 when living near cultivated ground1 deer will dig up with their hoofs1 potatoes1 artichokes1 and other edible roots4 ,the pairing-time commences early in ,september1 and continues till the middle of ,october2 and at this season1 when they utter the well-known bellowing or roaring1 the stags not only fight fiercely among themselves for the mastery of the herd1 but are highly dangerous to human beings4 ,at no time very amiable1 the stags at this season are little better than incarnate fiends4 ,soon after the breeding-season the antlers are shed1 to be replaced by new growths1 covered at first with soft velvety skin1 the following spring4 ,at the end of ,may or early in ,june the hind seeks a sequestered situation amid covert in which to give birth to her fawn4 ,the fawns1 of which there may occasionally be twins1 are extremely helpless at birth1 but in a short time gain sufficient strength to run by the side of their mothers4 ,,the ,,beaver 7,castor fiber7 ,the beaver enjoys the distinction of being the only warm-blooded quadruped that is in the habit of making really noticeable modifications in the appearance of the earth's surface4 ,many quadrupeds1 such as foxes1 ant-bears1 rabbits1 and rats and mice burrow holes in the ground1 while the mole marks the course of its subterranean tunnels by throwing up heaps of earth at intervals4 ,but although such excavations and hillocks1 when sufficiently numerous1 may to a slight degree affect the appearance of a meadow1 they are nothing in comparison to the changes brought in a valley by a colony of beavers4 ,by throwing a dam across its course1 these industrious rodents will convert a narrow stream into a wide sheet of stagnant water1 which in the course of time may become silted up so as to form a broad and level 8beaver-meadow10 where there was originally a rocky valley4 ,in or near their dams beavers likewise construct dwellings of mud and clay1 known in ,america as 8lodges10 for their own accommodation4 ,but this is by no means all beavers accomplish in the way of 8public works10 for1 by means of the single pair of powerful chisel-like teeth in the fore part of each jaw and the powerful muscles by which the jaws themselves are worked1 these animals1 which are about the size of an ordinary spaniel1 are enabled to fell trees of considerable size1 which are used in the construction of their dams4 ,beavers are the sole living representatives of a family of rodents allied on the one hand to squirrels and dormice1 and on the other to rats and mice4 ,two structural peculiarities are very characteristic of these rodents4 ,in the first place1 one of the toes of the fore-foot is provided with a double claw1 which may be used in dressing the beautiful1 long brown fur2 a similar structure occurring in the smaller rodent known as the ,arctic lemming 7,dicrostonyx torquatus74 ,secondly1 there is the remarkable flattened1 scaly tail1 which almost looks as though it did not belong to the animal1 although in reality1 except for its superior size1 it is not much more abnormal than the scaly cylindrical tail of the rat4 ,several myths attach to the beaver's tail2 it was said1 for instance1 to be employed as a trowel for plastering down the mud used in building the dams and lodges1 although its real use is to act as a rudder in swimming1 more especially when its owner is transporting the trunk of a felled tree4 ,when entering the water1 or when engaged in playing therein1 the beaver frequently makes a resounding 8smack0 by striking the surface with its tail4 ,illustration ,in monkish times beaver-tail was considered to partake more of the nature of fish than flesh1 and was consequently allowed to be eaten on fast days4 ,this was1 however1 in the days when beavers were still abundant in all the great rivers of ,europe1 from most of which they have now been all but exterminated for the sake of their valuable fur1 and likewise for the odoriferous secretion known as castoreum1 which was formerly much used both in medicine and in perfumery4 ,when the last beaver was killed in the ,british ,isles is unknown1 but the species still survived in ,wales when the old chronicles were written2 and we have testimony as to its former existence in ,england not only in the shape of skulls1 teeth1 and bones dug up from time to time in the peat of the fens and other superficial deposits1 but also in place-names such as ,beverley1 in ,yorkshire4 ,considerable colonies of beavers still exist1 by the aid of special protection1 in certain parts of ,scandinavia1 while a few are taken from time to time in the ,rhone1 but from the ,rhine1 and even the ,vistula1 they seem to have completely disappeared4 ,in eastern ,russia they probably still survive locally1 as they doubtless do over a large part of ,siberia1 although our information on this point is very defective4 ,indeed the southern range of the beaver in central ,asia seems to be still unknown1 although it is certain that the species never existed in ,kashmir or the ,himalaya4 ,of late years it has been suggested that each of the great ,european river-systems possessed a special race of beavers of its own2 but the evidence adduced in favour of this opinion is at present insufficient4 ,speaking broadly1 the beaver may be regarded as a circumpolar animal2 although its ,american representative has been separated1 on account of a comparatively small difference in the shape of the bones covering the cavity of the nose1 as a distinct species1 under the name of ,castor canadensis4 ,unfortunately1 the ,canadian beaver has been almost as much persecuted as its ,european relative1 and has been exterminated from many districts4 ,beavers1 it need scarcely be mentioned1 are thoroughly aquatic rodents1 which feed on vegetable substances1 and have their entrances to their habitations under water4 ,they remain active all the winter1 when they swim beneath the ice4 ,in ,europe beavers have given up constructing lodges1 and live in burrows4 ,,the ,,marmot 7,arctomys marmotta7 ,the marmot of the ,alps is the typical representative of a large assemblage of burrowing rodents near akin to squirrels2 the head-quarters of the group being in central ,asia4 ,by rights1 of course1 the name belongs exclusively to the typical species1 but as it has been extended to include all the members of the group1 the former is now distinguished as the ,alpine marmot4 ,marmotte1 it appears1 is the ,savoyard name of this rodent1 which in the ,engadine is designated marmotella1 while its ,german designation is murmeltier4 ,the typical marmot is confined to ,europe1 and mainly to the high ranges of the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 and ,carpathians4 ,in eastern ,europe and western ,asia it is replaced by the bobac 7,arctomys bobac72 and in central ,asia there are a number of species1 of which several are considerably larger and more brightly coloured than the ,alpine animal2 none is found to the south of the main range of the ,himalaya1 and the group is represented elsewhere only by the so-called woodchuck 7,a4 monax7 of ,north ,america1 which attains a length of about #bd inches4 ,the general colour and appearance of the ,alpine marmot are well shown in the ,plate2 and it will suffice to direct attention to the shortness of the ears as a feature connected with burrowing habits4 ,in one ,himalayan species the tail is considerably longer4 ,in the ,alps marmots dwell high up among bare rocks1 above the zone of vegetation1 where not even goats venture1 and where it frequently snows for six weeks together in winter4 ,in such desolate situations these hardy rodents make their home in the little islands of rocks between the glaciers4 ,himalayan marmots1 on the other hand1 live at an elevation where a considerable amount of vegetable growth flourishes in summer2 their burrows being frequently excavated beneath clumps of wild rhubarb4 ,as summer resorts1 ,alpine marmots select situations with a southerly1 easterly1 or westerly aspect on the mountain slopes1 and here they construct their summer dwellings1 which are designed to afford them shelter in bad weather and to serve as a refuge from danger4 ,in autumn they dig deeper into the sides of the mountains to construct their winter burrows and chambers1 which have to afford accommodation for the entire family1 whose number generally ranges between five and fifteen individuals4 ,the burrow terminates in a large chamber1 which is filled with soft1 short hay4 ,as early as ,august these rodents begin to collect grass1 which is spread out on the hillsides to dry1 and then carried into the burrows4 ,illustration ,the entrance to the burrow is only just wide enough to admit the owners1 and at the commencement of the winter-sleep is blocked with earth1 stones1 clay1 grass1 and hay4 ,when this work is completed1 the whole family falls into a death-like sleep lasting from six to eight months2 in this torpid condition1 well protected from the intense cold1 they remain till awakened to new life by the warmth of returning spring4 ,marmots feed upon a number of different kinds of ,alpine plants1 as well as on the fresh or dried grass found in the neighbourhood of their burrows4 ,when eating1 they sit up on their hind-legs and hold the food in their mouths after the manner of squirrels2 and the herbage they consume is so full of sap1 that they seldom require to drink4 ,the same upright position is assumed when they first come out of their burrows1 in order that they may see whether all is safe2 if danger threatens1 they utter a shrill whistle and disappear with marvellous rapidity into the depths of the burrow4 ,frequently they take up their position on some large rock in the neighbourhood of the burrow1 on which they can either sit up and survey the prospect1 or bask in the warmth of the summer sun4 ,their extraordinary wariness and the rapidity with which they disappear from view are due to their numerous enemies1 among which man1 foxes1 and eagles and other birds-of-prey are the chief4 ,it requires only the shadow of an eagle's wings to make them utter their piercing1 whistling scream and vanish into the holes1 from which they do not reappear for some time4 ,as a rule1 they only remain above ground while the sun is shining1 and they keep entirely below during bad weather1 so that they are regarded by the peasants as weather-prophets4 ,to the ,savoyards and other ,alpine peasantry the marmot is a valuable animal2 its flesh being much esteemed as food1 when it has been freed from a certain disagreeable odour by smoking4 ,the fat is regarded as a remedy for many diseases2 and a freshly removed marmot skin is considered wonderfully efficacious in cases of rheumatism4 ,marmots are caught either by trapping or by digging them out of their burrows4 ,years ago ,savoyard organmen used frequently to be accompanied by a marmot or two4 ,,the ,,hamster 7,cricetus frumentarius7 ,the hamster1 which1 although abundant in many parts of the ,continent is unknown in the ,british ,isles1 is the typical representative of a large section of the mouse tribe characterised by the cusps on the upper cheek-teeth forming two longitudinal rows1 instead of the three found in those of ordinary rats and mice4 ,in size it may be compared to a rat1 but its tail is reduced to a mere stump1 not more than a couple of inches in length2 while it is further characterised by the brilliant and variegated colouring of its fur4 ,short-legged and stoutly built1 it has relatively small1 membranous ears1 large brilliant eyes1 a rather sharp muzzle1 small toes1 and short claws4 ,the glossy1 hairy fur is underlain by a thick woolly under-fur4 ,very characteristic of this animal is a narrow line of fur darker than the rest on the middle line of the back which marks the position of a gland4 ,in general colour the fur of the upper-parts is light brownish yellow2 but the sides of the face are variegated with chestnut and white1 and there is a white area on the shoulder1 while the under-parts and the greater portion of the limbs are black1 the black extending upwards to some extent behind the fore-legs4 ,hamsters are1 however1 subject to considerable individual variation in colour1 and black1 pied1 and even white examples are by no means uncommon4 ,soft dry soils other than loose sand1 which is unsuited for its burrows1 form the favourite resorts of the hamster1 which in localities of this nature ranges from the valley of the ,rhine to that of the ,obi in ,siberia4 ,its distribution is1 however1 very local1 and the species is unknown in the southern and south-western districts of ,germany1 as it is also in eastern and western ,prussia3 in ,thuringia and ,saxony1 on the other hand1 it is abundant4 ,the chief interest of the hamster is concentrated in its remarkable habits4 ,these rodents associate in large societies2 and1 like marmots1 construct both summer and winter burrows1 in the latter of which they become torpid during the cold months of the year4 ,the winter-burrow includes a large sleeping-chamber1 situated at a depth of from one to two yards below the surface2 and also a storehouse or granary1 in which quantities of corn of various kinds are collected by these industrious rodents for use during such portions of their retirement as they are active4 ,the burrow leading to the dwelling-chamber descends almost perpendicularly1 but takes a turn before opening into the chamber itself1 which is likewise provided with an oblique emergency exit4 ,although grain forms their chief nutriment during the period of retirement1 hamsters in summer consume large quantities of peas1 beans1 roots1 fruits1 and grass and other green food4 ,illustration ,as a rule1 hamsters retire from the world to their subterranean dwelling-places some time during ,october2 when they block up the entrances and exits of the winter-burrows with earth4 ,apparently they almost immediately enter on their winter-sleep1 from which they do not awake till the following ,february or ,march1 according to the temperature4 ,the weather at this early period of the year is1 however1 by no means suited for an out-door existence1 and these rodents accordingly subsist for a season on their hoarded grain4 ,the old males generally make their appearance above ground about the middle of ,march1 but the females defer their emergence till a fortnight or so later4 ,they are then ravenously hungry1 and will devour almost anything that comes in their way1 including beetles or other insects and an occasional bird or mouse4 ,in summer the nest-chamber of the females1 which is distinct from the summer-burrow of the males and is furnished with one exit and several entrances1 is carefully lined with hay4 ,towards the end of ,april the males visit the females in their own apartments2 and four or five weeks later the first litter of blind and naked young--varying in number from half a dozen to eighteen--is produced4 ,these rapidly develop their fur1 and open their eyes about the eighth or ninth day2 and within a fortnight are driven away from the parental burrow to construct a new one of their own4 ,freed from one family1 the old hamsters set about producing a second one1 which usually comes into the world in ,july4 ,the annual increase is1 however1 by no means limited to the older individuals1 for the members of the early spring litter are able to produce young ones in the autumn4 ,hamsters frequently make their appearance in enormous swarms1 when they do vast damage to crops4 ,in return1 the winter granaries of these rodents are frequently raided by the peasants of countries where they are common2 the flesh of the hamster is also eaten1 and its fur employed for lining cloaks and coats4 ,,the ,,duckbill ,,or ,,platypus 7,ornithorhynchus anatinus7 ,for many years it was reported by the natives of ,australia that the extraordinary warm-blooded quadruped known to naturalists as the duckbill1 or platypus1 produced its young from eggs laid in a burrow by the female4 ,that a mammal--and a mammal1 although of an altogether peculiar and out of the way type1 the creature undoubtedly is--should lay eggs was1 however1 too much for the minds of stay-at-home naturalists1 and the fiat accordingly went forth that the native story was to be discredited4 ,and discredited it therefore was4 ,in nature1 as in other things1 truth will1 however1 ultimately prevail2 and we now know for certain that the female lays in a burrow in the bank of some river or pool a couple of hard-shelled1 oval eggs1 which in due course hatch out into naked1 helpless young1 furnished with soft sucking lips4 ,not that they suck in the ordinary mammalian fashion1 for the female platypus has no nipples1 but her milk oozes out in the breast from a number of sieve-like pores1 from the surface of which it is sucked up by her offspring4 ,such a difference from the ordinary mammalian way of doing business proclaims the wide distinction between the platypus1 and1 it may be added1 its relatives the spiny ant-eaters or echidnas 7one of which forms the subject of another illustration71 and all other warm-blooded quadrupeds4 ,nor is this all1 for in the structure of their skeleton and soft internal parts the platypus and the echidna display many marks of affinity with reptiles and birds1 which are totally wanting in other mammals4 ,these two creatures represent indeed a group by themselves1 so that mammals may be divided into two great primary sections1 the one embracing only the two egg-laying types1 and the other all the rest4 ,and it is not a little significant that the egg-layers are confined to ,australia and ,new ,guinea1 the home of many other primitive and ancient types which have disappeared from the rest of the world4 ,in one sense indeed the platypus and the echidna are not exactly primitive creatures1 as they have several specialised characters which were evidently wanting in their ancestors4 ,they may rather be described as specialised branches of an ancient and primitive stock4 ,the duckbill is a heavily made aquatic mammal of about the size of a very short-legged rabbit1 with blackish1 mole-like fur above1 passing gradually into whitish beneath1 and a short1 thick1 tapering tail4 ,the very short limbs terminate in thick toes1 connected together by a web and armed with strong1 pointed claws4 ,in the fore-feet the margin of the web projects considerably beyond the claws1 but on the rare occasions that the animal leaves the water the margin is folded downward beneath the claws1 so as to leave the claws exposed4 ,in museum-specimens1 however1 the web is almost invariably shown fully expanded1 as in the accompanying illustration2 a condition in which it would obviously be impossible for the animal to walk on land4 ,illustration ,the most remarkable external feature of the duckbill is undoubtedly the duck-like1 naked beak1 pierced with two holes representing the nostrils4 ,in stuffed specimens1 at any rate1 this beak is dark-coloured and horny in consistence1 and looks as though it did not belong to the animal1 but in life it is soft and tender4 ,medium-sized1 dark eyes complete the physiognomy of this strange creature1 in which external ears are wanting4 ,the internal arrangements of the mouth of the duckbill are scarcely less curious than the exterior4 ,in early life the mouth is furnished1 both above and below1 with three pairs of somewhat quadrangular cheek-teeth1 with raised and cusped margins4 ,beneath these grow up certain large horny plates1 and about the time that full maturity is attained the teeth become worn out1 and are finally shed1 thus leaving the horny plates as the sole masticating organs4 ,this replacement of the teeth by horny plates appears to be connected with the nature of the food1 for while in early life the duckbill appears to subsist mainly on water insects and other comparatively soft aquatic creatures1 later on it takes to feeding almost entirely on bivalve shells of one particular species2 and for crushing the stout shells of these molluscs it has been suggested that the tough horny plates are better suited than brittle teeth4 ,duckbills1 except when in their burrows1 pass the greater portion of their time in the water1 selecting quiet pools for their favourite haunts4 ,in such situations they may be seen on a still evening floating and diving1 and looking more like bottles in the water than anything else4 ,they obtain their food chiefly by probing in the mud with their duck-like beaks4 ,the dwelling-chamber of the burrow is situated in the bank above the water level1 but its entrance is below the surface1 although there is also an exit on the land4 ,in the pairing-season the males1 which are armed with a poison-bearing spine on the inside of each hind-leg1 fight fiercely among themselves4 ,the duckbill1 of which there is but a single species1 is absolutely confined to southern and eastern ,australia and ,tasmania2 and its nearest living relative is the echidna1 of which a picture and notice follow4 ,,the ,,spiny ,,ant-,,eater ,,or ,,echidna 7,tachyglossus aculeatus7 ,no one who looked at the portrait of the spiny ant-eater for the first time1 and had no knowledge of its anatomy or history1 would be likely to guess that it was a near relative of the duckbill4 ,but in natural history1 when we have to deal with members of different groups1 externals count for very little1 and all depends upon internal organisation4 ,in the latter respect the echidnas1 for there is more than one species1 resemble in all essential features the duckbill1 as they do in laying hard-shelled eggs1 from which the young are eventually hatched4 ,the single egg of the echidna1 in place of being laid in a burrow1 is1 however1 carried about by the female in a pouch developed for the purpose on the under side of her body shortly before the egg is laid2 and in this same temporary pouch the young is likewise nurtured during the earlier stages of its existence4 ,the duckbill and the echidna afford an excellent example of the diversity of appearance produced in animals more or less nearly related to each other by specialisation and adaptation to totally distinct modes of life4 ,in the duckbill the specialisation and adaptation are for an aquatic existence2 in the echidna they are for a burrowing1 terrestrial life and a diet of ants4 ,to an ant-eater teeth of any kind would be not only useless1 but an actual hindrance1 and they have accordingly been discarded1 while the muzzle has been prolonged into a decidedly bird-like beak4 ,in this respect the echidna much resembles the great ,south ,american ant-eater1 which belongs to a totally different group of mammals4 ,to enable it to dig out the nests of the ants which form its chief food1 and likewise to excavate the burrows in which it passes the day1 the echidna is armed with powerful claws1 those on the hind-feet being1 however1 much larger and more curved than those in front4 ,it is with these strong hind-claws that the earth loosened by the fore-feet is thrown out from ants' nests and the burrow4 ,like the porcupine1 which is also a nocturnal and a burrowing creature1 the echidna has its back protected with an array of parti-coloured horny spines mingled with hairs4 ,the degree of development of the spines is1 however1 subject to great variation2 and there is one race in which the hair predominates1 and the spines appear only in the midst of the dense brown fur4 ,like the platypus1 the echidna has no external ears4 ,illustration ,the ordinary1 or five-toed1 echidna has a much more extensive range than the platypus1 occurring1 in suitable localities1 not only all over ,australia and ,tasmania1 but likewise in ,new ,guinea4 ,the last-named island is likewise the home of the much larger three-toed echidna 7,proechidna bruijnii71 in which the beak is longer1 more slender1 and distinctly curved1 while the number of the toes on each foot is reduced to three4 ,with the commencement of evening the echidna issues forth from the lair or burrow1 in which it has passed the day1 in search of food--this comprising not only ants1 both ordinary and white1 but likewise such other insects and their grubs as may be encountered or dug up during the nocturnal wanderings4 ,soon after daybreak the creature returns to its burrow4 ,during the hottest and driest part of the ,australian summer spiny ant-eaters fall into a torpid condition1 when they exist for weeks at a time on no other nourishment but their own fat4 ,in cases of extreme hunger they are stated to fill their stomachs with sand4 ,at the end of the dry season1 when rain falls and the country resumes its verdure1 the echidnas wake up1 and the males relinquish their normally solitary life and take to themselves partners4 ,on occasions of danger the echidna has two means of defence--it can either roll itself up into a ball and present a sphere of spikes to its enemy1 or it can burrow with such rapidity that it actually seems to sink into the earth as if swimming4 ,the single egg appears to be conveyed to the pouch by the female in her mouth1 and the parent assists the young echidna1 whose muzzle is armed with a special knob for that purpose1 in breaking the shell4 ,naked and blind when first hatched1 the young one remains in the pouch till its spines make their appearance1 drawing its nutriment from two pores through which the milk flows4 ,when the young echidna has been turned adrift in the world to shift for itself1 the maternal breeding-pouch shrivels up1 to be re-developed the following year4 ,as in the case of the platypus1 no remains of extinct echidnas are found anywhere except in the superficial deposits of ,australia itself4 ,certain teeth from rocks older than the ,chalk1 both in ,europe and ,america1 may1 however1 indicate the ancestral stock of the egg-laying group4 ,,the ,,black ,,swan 7,cygnus atratus7 ,when the old ,roman poet penned the well-known line1 8,rara avis in terris1 nigroque simillima cygno10,a he little imagined that a black swan was actually living in the then unknown and undreamt-of ,antipodes1 to be discovered in the dim and distant future by the sailors of a little island in the far north inhabited by fair-haired barbarians of whom he may or may not have heard4 ,a 8,a rare bird in the world1 and most like a black swan40 ,the black swan of ,australia1 from which the ,swan ,river takes its name1 is not perhaps the ideal black swan of the poet1 for1 as a matter of fact1 it has a good deal of white in its wings1 although but little of this is visible when the wings are closed1 as in the illustration4 ,moreover1 the general colour of the plumage is brownish black1 rather than pure black1 while the beak is crimson with a white tip1 and the eyes are scarlet4 ,from all other swans this species differs by the curling feathers in the region of the shoulder1 and the extreme shortness of the tail4 ,other distinctive features are to be found in the compressed body1 the long neck1 the small1 gracefully carried head1 and the absence of a ridge to the beak4 ,the range of the black swan includes both ,australia and ,tasmania1 where it is found not only on the coast1 but likewise on the rivers and lakes of the interior4 ,in the earlier days of ,australian colonisation it abounded in many parts of the country2 but1 unfortunately1 it is a bird by no means shy1 and therefore comparatively easy to shoot1 and in consequence of this it has been incessantly and relentlessly persecuted1 even the cygnets1 while still unable to fly1 being hunted among the reeds in the swamps and killed out of pure maliciousness4 ,as a result of this persecution the species has everywhere become scarce1 and from some parts of the country has been exterminated4 ,during the winter months these swans collect in small parties and families in ,south ,australia1 and return to their breeding-places in spring4 ,the nest is a huge1 ill-built structure1 made out of coarse materials and lined with sedge4 ,it is generally situated in the neighbourhood of small islands1 where the parent birds can readily collect the large amount of material required for its construction4 ,the clutch consists of from five to seven dirty white or pale green spotted eggs1 which are brooded with great assiduity by the female1 while the male keeps guard in the neighbourhood4 ,the cygnets are clothed in a grey or rufous down1 and can swim and dive as soon as they are hatched4 ,the food of both young and adults comprises water-plants of all kinds1 as well as worms1 molluscs1 and small frogs and fishes4 ,illustration ,the black swan is a noisy species1 more especially during the pairing-season1 when it gives vent to loud trumpetings4 ,when doing so1 the neck is stretched out straight along the water1 so that the beak lies close to the surface4 ,at this season the males become very pugnacious1 and fight much among themselves4 ,it is a beautiful sight to watch a party of these swans swimming on a still lake or river by moonlight in large circles2 but this is exceeded when the birds mount into the air and reveal the striking contrast formed by the white of the pinions against the sable of the rest of the plumage4 ,when flying1 these swans stretch out their necks to the fullest extent1 and accompany the loud and regular beat of their wings with continuous and resounding trumpetings4 ,the black swan bears captivity well1 alike in its own country and in ,europe1 being content with small rations and breeding regularly every season4 ,the ,australian black swan is by no means the only abnormally coloured member of its tribe inhabiting the ,southern ,hemisphere1 its place in ,south ,america being taken by the black-necked swan 7,c4 nigricollis71 which is a native of ,chile1 ,argentina1 and some of the other southern countries4 ,in this handsome species the head and neck are black1 and the remainder of the plumage white2 the lores1 or bare patches in front of the eyes1 and the basal portion of the beak being red4 ,in its long and wedge-shaped tail the black-necked swan differs from the black species and resembles the ordinary ,european mute swan 7,c4 olor71 from which it is structurally distinguished by the scalloped margins of the webs of the toes4 ,the adults of all swans1 except the black and the black-necked species1 are wholly white2 the smallest kind is the coscoroba swan of ,south ,america1 which is no larger than a goose1 and has been referred to a genus by itself4 ,,the ,,bustard 7,otis tarda7 ,by the extermination of the bustard1 or great bustard1 as it is sometimes called in order to distinguish it from its smaller relatives1 the ,british ,islands have lost one of the finest members of their bird fauna2 and1 unfortunately1 all attempts to rehabilitate this magnificent species have resulted in failure4 ,it is to be feared1 moreover1 that any such attempts have but little chance of success in the future1 for the bustard is a native of open downs and fallows1 where it must live an undisturbed and untrammelled existence1 and in ,england at the present day this is almost an impossibility in country of that description4 ,in this respect the bustard stands at a great disadvantage in comparison with the capercaillie1 whose reintroduction into the forests of ,scotland was a relatively easy matter4 ,like those of most polygamous birds1 the cocks of the bustard are much larger than the hens1 rivalling full-grown turkeys in the matter of size2 they are also much more attractively coloured1 and are furnished with a quantity of white fluffy plumes1 which are only fully displayed when the birds perform their curious nuptial parade to attract the hens1 although some of them may be seen when two cocks are fighting1 as depicted in the plate4 ,another peculiarity of the cock is the possession of a great pouch1 communicating with the windpipe1 on the throat1 which can be inflated under the influence of excitement4 ,when the wings are closed and the bird is engaged in feeding or other normal occupation1 the colouring of the body-feathers of the cock bustard is admirably adapted to harmonise with the generally sandy or earthy hue of the surroundings4 ,in the case of the hen the whole plumage is protectively covered4 ,the one feature of the body-plumage in both sexes which produces such a wonderful harmony between the colouring and that of the surroundings is the presence of a vast number of narrow black bars on a rufous buff ground1 this type of colouring not only matching sandy or loamy soil1 but likewise aiding to break up the outline of the bird4 ,when bustards lived in ,england their favourite resorts were the dry1 heathy uplands of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 and the downland of ,cambridgeshire1 and the neighbourhood of ,royston4 ,at the present day these splendid birds are still common in many parts of the ,continent1 their range including the greater portion of central and southern ,europe and a large extent of central ,asia1 while in winter it likewise embraces northern ,africa4 ,the steppes of ,russia1 the plains of the ,danube in its course through ,hungary1 and the open tracts of central ,asia are the regions where bustards are now to be met with in the greatest numbers1 although large flocks may be seen in parts of ,spain4 ,illustration ,bustards1 which associate in large flocks1 are essentially birds of the open country1 never entering woods1 and preferring elevated ground1 whence they can command a wide view of the plains below1 to which they descend during the daytime in search of food4 ,they are exceedingly shy and mistrustful1 giving every bush in their path a wide berth1 lest it should conceal a lurking foe1 and taking to flight on the least alarm4 ,for warning of the presence of danger they seem to depend mainly upon sight1 although their hearing is also good2 on the other hand1 their sense of smell1 like that of most birds is but poorly developed4 ,this excessive shyness renders the bustard a difficult bird to bag1 even by the experienced gunner4 ,at the commencement of the pairing-season the cocks endeavour to attract the attention of the hens by their nuptial display4 ,advancing towards the latter they ruffle out their feathers like an excited turkey-cock1 at the same time lowering their wings and spreading out the tail like a fan4 ,the gular pouch is also inflated1 so as to make the neck appear as thick as possible1 and the beautiful under feathers are displayed to the utmost extent1 the body and neck being half buried in a billowy mass of snow-white plumes4 ,it is at this time also that the cocks rush at one another with trailing wings to contend with beak and talons for the mastery4 ,on such occasions it is possible to capture these generally shy birds with the hand4 ,the nest is generally constructed amid growing corn1 the hen merely scratching a slight hollow in the ground1 which she lines with straw1 bents1 and grass4 ,the three or four eggs are incubated by the hen alone1 and when the young are hatched1 both these and their parents leave the standing corn only for short periods4 ,at first the young bustards feed chiefly upon insects and worms1 to which they are directed by the old birds1 but later on vegetable substances constitute almost their sole food4 ,young peas and cabbage form very favourite food1 but in default of better nutriment grass is largely eaten4 ,,the ,,somali ,,ostrich 7,struthio molybdophanes7 ,ostriches1 which are natives of the deserts and semi-desert plains of ,africa and south-western ,asia1 cannot possibly be mistaken for any other birds1 and therefore stand in no need of description1 although it may be as well to mention that they are the largest of living birds1 and are absolutely peculiar in having only two toes to each foot1 as well as in the absence of feathers on the thigh4 ,it was at one time considered that the lack of the power of flight1 which characterises these birds in common with their relatives the rheas of ,south ,america1 the emu of ,australia1 the cassowaries of ,austro-,malaya and ,australasia1 and the tiny kiwis and rheas of ,new ,zealand1 was a primitive feature4 ,but this is manifestly an erroneous idea1 and all these groups are evidently descended from birds endowed with the power of flight1 their nearest relatives being the tinamus of ,south ,america and the game-birds1 with which they agree in the presence of longitudinal light stripes on the downy dress of the chicks4 ,naturalists now recognise four kinds of ,african ostriches1 which1 although generally classed as distinct species1 might perhaps be better regarded as local races of a single specific type4 ,these1 regarded as species1 comprise the typical red-legged and red-thighed ,north ,african ostrich 7,struthio camelus71 ranging into ,palestine and ,arabia1 and laying thickly pitted eggs2 the ,somali ostrich 7,s4 molybdophanes71 characterised by its bluish grey neck and thighs2 the ,masai ostrich 7,s4 masaicus7 of ,east ,africa1 with the bare parts red1 the body-plumage of the cocks brownish black in place of black1 and the eggs pitted2 and1 lastly1 the ,south ,african ,s4 australis1 which lays smooth-shelled eggs and has the neck and thighs light bluish grey4 ,in the ,somali ostrich1 which inhabits ,somaliland and western ,gallaland as far as the ,juba ,river1 the colour of the bare parts of the body may best be described as grey or slaty blue1 while the margins of the beak and the front surfaces of the lower part of the legs are dull vermilion4 ,ostriches are essentially gregarious birds1 associating either in small family parties comprising five or six birds1 or in large flocks1 which in ,east ,africa mingle freely with herds of hartebeests1 gnus1 and bontequaggas4 ,they require a wide extent of open country1 with grass and1 above all1 water1 of which they drink frequently and copiously4 ,although ostriches feed chiefly upon vegetable substances1 they likewise consume worms1 insects1 molluscs1 reptiles1 and probably also small birds and mammals1 while in captivity they will swallow almost anything that is offered them1 including nails1 keys1 and copper coins4 ,in a state of nature they swallow sand1 earth1 and small stones1 in order to assist the action of their gizzards4 ,illustration ,the cocks appear to be polygamous1 although some doubt has been expressed as to whether this is really the case2 and it seems certain that several hens lay in the same nest1 where as many as thirty eggs may be laid in a slight hollow in the sand4 ,incubation is undertaken by the cock alone1 and it is he who looks after the chicks1 which he tends with remarkable care4 ,the chicks when they escape from the eggs 7each of which weighs as much as twenty-four hens' eggs7 are as large as hens2 and1 with their bristly feather-quills1 are rather suggestive of two-legged hedgehogs4 ,ostriches are extremely shy and remarkably swift birds1 so that they are difficult either to stalk or to ride down4 ,when brought to bay1 or when running loose in captivity1 they should be approached with great caution1 as a kick from their strongly clawed feet will prove fatal to an animal of the size of a jackal1 if not also to a human being4 ,the vision of these giant birds is very strongly developed and capable of sweeping the country to the distance of at least a mile2 and their senses of hearing and smell are also good1 although taste appears to be practically wanting4 ,occasionally ostriches indulge in a kind of dance2 and they are also subject1 when startled1 to sudden collapse1 which may have given rise to the old fable of their burying their heads in the sand and leaving their bodies exposed4 ,if allowed sufficient space1 ostriches thrive remarkably well in confinement2 and ostrich-farming1 for the sake of the lovely white plumes of the cocks1 has become an important industry1 not only in ,africa1 but in many other parts of the world4 ,ostrich-farming was commenced in ,algeria1 and by #ahfe had been introduced in ,cape ,colony1 whence it has spread northwards1 while it has also been established in ,egypt1 southern ,russia1 ,california1 ,patagonia1 and ,argentina4 ,the cocks are clipped regularly every eight months4 ,,the ,,pied ,,hornbill 7,buceros bicornis7 ,the hornbills1 which are as large as big eagles1 are some of the most extraordinary and bizarre of all birds1 not only on account of the huge beaks from which they take their name1 but from their strange and unique nesting-habits4 ,in the enormous development of the beak these ,old ,world birds are paralleled by the toucans of tropical ,america1 although the two groups are in nowise nearly related4 ,such a huge and apparently unnecessary structure might at first sight seem too heavy and bulky for the bird by which it is carried2 but internally the beak is generally a mere delicate tissue of bone1 so that its weight is really very slight4 ,indeed1 these enormous beaks are in most cases probably much less of an incumbrance to their owners than are the matinee hats favoured by ladies of the present day4 ,the pied1 or double-horned species1 the hornray of the natives1 inhabits the dense forests of the ,indo-,malay countries from the ,himalaya and the ,indian peninsula to the south of ,china and ,sumatra4 ,the glossy plumage is mostly black above1 with the under-parts1 the neck1 the tips of the flight feathers1 and the tail feathers more or less white or whitish1 the upper half of the huge beak1 with its horn-like appendage1 being reddish yellow1 and the lower half yellow4 ,the total length of the bird1 which is the largest member of the whole group1 exceeds a yard4 ,the so-called 8horn10 or casque1 forms a more or less flat and oblong platform on the upper part of the beak and the fore part of the head1 terminating in front in two obtuse corners4 ,on the other hand1 the same appendage in the nearly allied rhinoceros-hornbill1 or engan 7,buceros rhinoceros71 is much more horn-like1 as it turns up into a recurved point in front4 ,the range of the hornbill group includes ,africa1 ,india1 ,malaya1 ,celebes1 and ,new ,guinea and the neighbouring islands as far as the ,solomon group4 ,the ground-hornbills are solely ,african1 while the hollow-casqued section has a distribution equivalent to that of the group4 ,one very remarkable ,malay species1 the solid-billed hornbill1 the teban-mertua of the ,malays 7,rhinoplax vigil71 differs from all the rest in having the beak and casque solid4 ,this species is much hunted by the ,chinese for the sake of its beak and casque1 which have a structure resembling ivory1 and are used as a substitute for that material in carving2 while it is further remarkable for its bare neck and the elongation of the middle pair of tail feathers4 ,illustration ,the flight of hornbills is heavy and noisy1 the swishing sound produced by the wings being audible at a great distance4 ,the whole body of these birds is permeated by air-tubes connected with the wind-pipe1 and it is said that the movement of the air in these increases the noisiness of the flight4 ,mountain-forests bordering valleys1 and big forests near rivers1 are the favourite haunts of the typical hornbills4 ,here the great birds perch in flocks which may number a score in individuals2 for hours together they sit motionless1 with the neck drawn back on to the body1 and the body itself pressed down on to the feet4 ,their food consists chiefly of the fruits of the trees in which these birds take up their quarters1 the favourite fruit being figs2 but in captivity hornbills will eat fruits of all kinds1 as well as animal food4 ,these birds kill every small creature that comes in the way1 and throw them up in the air before swallowing the body4 ,when perching1 hornbills utter from time to time a loud cry1 recalling the bark of a dog1 this changing into a loud scream when they are wounded4 ,the most remarkable feature connected with the habits of these birds is1 however1 connected with their nesting arrangements4 ,as was first observed in ,india in #ahee by a military officer devoted to outdoor natural history1 when the female has laid her clutch of eggs1 varying in number from two to half a dozen1 in some hole in a tree and commenced to incubate1 the male walls up the entrance to the apartment with clay1 leaving an aperture only just large enough for her to protrude her beak and receive the food brought regularly by her hard-working mate4 ,the object of this immuring process is doubtless to protect the female and her eggs or young from the attacks of birds-of-prey1 or predatory arboreal mammals4 ,under these circumstances sanitary matters cannot1 of course1 be attended to1 and the nest-hole1 consequently1 soon becomes an evil-smelling mass of abominable filth4 ,in order that no time may be wasted1 the female moults during the period of her confinement1 a process which adds still more to the mess in the hole4 ,the young1 which come forth from the eggs almost naked1 remain in the breeding-hole till they are fully fledged4 ,to reach the food brought by her partner1 the female1 at any rate during the early stages of incubation1 has to climb up to the aperture in the wall of clay4 ,,the ,,blue ,,macaw 7,ara crulea or ,ara ararauna7 ,the blue1 or blue and yellow1 macaw1 the ararauna of the natives1 is one of the most familiar representatives of a group of tropical ,american parrots characterised by their large size1 long tails1 and brilliantly coloured plumage1 as well as1 it may be added1 by their atrociously loud1 screaming cries1 which render them among the most objectionable of all birds as pets4 ,in the species forming the subject of the plate blue and yellow are the predominant hues2 yellow1 it is said1 being the equivalent among true parrots1 in which white is unknown1 to no colour at all4 ,the whole of the under surface and the sides of the neck are deep orange-yellow1 while the upper surface1 inclusive of the tail-coverts1 is dark sky-blue4 ,the range of this species1 like that of its relative the green and blue macaw 7,ara severa71 extends only from ,panama southwards through the tropical forests of the ,new ,world4 ,other kinds are1 however1 found farther north1 the handsome red and blue species 7,a4 chloroptera7 and the red and green macaw 7,a4 militaris7 extending1 for instance1 from ,mexico and central ,america to ,bolivia4 ,four other species1 known on account of their deep blue colouring1 as hyacinthine macaws1 constituting the genera ,anodorhynchus and ,cyanopsittacus1 are1 on the other hand1 solely ,brazilian4 ,macaws are not only strong fliers1 but likewise excellent climbers1 and in the latter mode of progression make use of their powerful beaks as well as their feet1 in captivity1 at any rate1 frequently hanging from a branch or perch by the beak alone1 which is specially adapted for obtaining a hold on smooth branches by the sharp downward curvature of the extremity of its upper half4 ,the food of these birds includes fruits and seeds1 especially hard nuts of various kinds1 which are cracked in the strong beak as if in a vice4 ,when the fruits or nuts are large1 they are held to the beak in one foot4 ,the thick1 fleshy tongue aids in extracting the inside of fruits from the rind1 or the kernels of nuts from their shells4 ,illustration ,all macaws are essentially birds of the great primeval forests of tropical ,america1 the blue and yellow species being especially abundant in those of northern ,brazil4 ,during the hottest hours of the day these birds sit quietly perched on the lower branches of thick-foliaged trees1 the long tail hanging straight down1 and the neck being drawn in4 ,after resting for several hours1 they issue forth in search of food2 and a flock of these magnificent birds on the wing in the clear air of the tropics is a truly splendid sight1 as they fly slowly to and from their feeding-places4 ,having selected a likely looking tree1 the whole flock descend with a rush1 and proceed to strip it of its fruit4 ,quickly each bird climbs out to the end of a branch and sets to work at cracking nuts1 or devouring softer fruit4 ,when such a flock of araraunas is feasting1 little is seen of the birds themselves1 but their presence is amply manifested by their incessant and discordant cries and screams4 ,if a shot be fired in the neighbourhood1 the whole flock rises immediately in a gold and azure cloud4 ,macaws of all kinds constantly make raids on cultivated crops1 where1 unless promptly driven off1 they do incalculable damage in a surprisingly short space of time1 cocoa being one of the crops to which they are specially partial4 ,as is the case with all members of the parrot tribe1 the union between the sexes of the ararauna is very close3 the two members of a pair are thorough comrades1 and live only for themselves and their offspring4 ,at the pairing-season each couple of the older birds resorts to the same spot1 and often to the same tree1 as has served them previously as a breeding-place4 ,for the nest a tall tree is always selected1 and a slit in the trunk or a hollow in one of the branches is enlarged by means of the powerful beak until a cavity large enough to contain the nest is excavated4 ,in this chamber the female ararauna deposits a couple of white eggs of nearly the same size as those of a domesticated hen1 afterwards incubating them with great assiduity1 her long tail projecting all the time out of the hole1 and thus revealing the situation of the nest4 ,tame araraunas and other macaws are much esteemed by the ,indians of ,brazil and other ,south ,american countries4 ,these dwell on the properties of their owners1 and fly off to feed in the fields1 just in the same manner as domesticated pigeons in ,europe4 ,they form the ornaments of the ,indian poultry-yard4 ,in captivity in ,europe macaws thrive well1 and can be taught to speak1 although they never turn out such good linguists as many other members of the parrot tribe4 ,,the ,,mandarin ,,duck 7x galerita7 ,the male of the mandarin duck--the mandarin drake1 as it should properly be called--looks so essentially ,chinese that one would almost intuitively guess that it came from ,china4 ,nevertheless1 it has a near relative1 and the only other member of the same genus1 in ,north ,america1 where it is represented by the summer duck 7x sponsa74 ,in this distribution these painted ducks1 as they have not inaptly been called1 resemble several other groups of animals1 such as the true alligators 7,alligator7 and the spoonbeaked sturgeons 7,polyodon and ,psephurus71 each of which has one ,north ,american and one ,chinese species1 although the ,american and ,asiatic spoonbeaked sturgeons are referred to separate genera4 ,ducks1 it may be mentioned1 are divided into two distinct sections--namely1 the swimming ducks and the diving ducks2 the mandarin duck and its ,american relative belonging to the former section1 of which they form a special group1 characterised by the ornate plumage of the drakes1 and particularly by the broad ornamental feathers on the shoulders and the elongated plumes on the head1 which form a kind of helmet1 with a large flange extending backwards over the neck4 ,the mandarin drake is specially distinguished from the male of the summer duck by possessing a ruff on the neck formed of elongated1 narrow1 chestnut feathers streaked with whitish1 and a chestnut and black 8fan0 rising up in a kind of tiger's-claw shape on each side of the hind end of the body1 and mainly formed by the broad innermost secondary feather of the wing2 the helmet being copper-coloured1 purple1 and green1 and separated by a broad white band enclosing the eye from the chestnut throat-ruff1 while the beak is reddish brown4 ,the other details of colour and pattern are sufficiently apparent in the illustration4 ,this gorgeous breeding-livery is1 however1 worn only during a portion of the year4 ,for four months--namely1 from ,june till ,september--the mandarin drake is a very ordinary-looking bird1 clothed in a greyish dress1 which in autumn gives place1 by a second moult1 to the breeding-livery1 the latter lasting till the following summer4 ,when the drake is in the non-breeding plumage1 it is mainly distinguishable from the duck by its somewhat superior size4 ,the colour of the female is chiefly grey1 relieved with brown and white4 ,the distributional area of the mandarin duck includes northern ,china1 ,japan1 and ,amurland2 but the species appears to be nowhere common1 and in most districts is decidedly rare4 ,in ,china these ducks1 which are regarded as semi-sacred birds1 are highly valued1 and are kept in cages4 ,illustration ,unlike the majority of the duck tribe1 both the mandarin and the summer duck are in the habit of perching on the branches of trees1 and make their nests in holes either in the branches or trunk4 ,in this perching habit they resemble the tree-ducks of the genus ,dendrocycna4 ,after lining the hole with a plentiful supply of feathers1 down1 and other soft material1 the female lays a clutch of from seven to fifteen eggs4 ,these she incubates herself1 carefully covering them up with down every time she leaves the nest2 and she likewise takes sole charge of the ducklings1 from the time they are hatched till they are able to shift for themselves4 ,when1 as is frequently the case1 the nest is situated over water1 the ducklings throw themselves down into the water very soon after they are hatched1 but in other instances they are carried in the beaks of their parents1 as is the case with those of the ordinary wild duck when the nest is built above the level of the ground4 ,the food of these ducks1 like that of many other members of the tribe1 includes insects1 worms1 water-snails1 young frogs1 and other water-animals1 together with the leaves and young shoots of various kinds of water-plants4 ,the mandarin duck is an active and untiring bird1 moving quickly on the ground1 and flying easily and rapidly into trees1 where it flits from bough to bough with the ease and assurance of a wood-pigeon4 ,it lives and breeds well in confinement1 and may be seen in nearly all zoological gardens1 as well as on many ornamental waters4 ,in the summer duck1 which is a native of ,north ,america and ,cuba1 but occasionally wanders to ,jamaica and the ,bermudas1 the colour of the upper-parts of the male in the breeding-dress is chiefly glossy green1 with the cheeks purple1 and black patches on the neck1 and white stripes on both the head and neck4 ,the wing-coverts are partly blue1 the flanks are brown1 black1 and white1 while the breast is chestnut spotted with white1 and the rest of the under-parts white2 the beak being a mixture of black1 white1 purplish1 yellow1 and scarlet1 and the feet yellow4 ,,the ,,heron 7,ardea cinerea7 ,the heron1 or common or grey heron1 as it is frequently called in order to distinguish it from its relatives1 has fortunately not shared the fate of the bittern1 and is still more or less common in many parts of ,great ,britain1 where it may be seen at all hours of the day standing mid-leg deep in some stream patiently awaiting the next passing fish4 ,its gregarious habits and the protection accorded to many of the ancient heronries in various parts of the country doubtless account for the survival among us of this handsome1 albeit thin and ill-favoured1 grey bird4 ,nevertheless1 on account of its fish-eating habits1 the heron has many enemies1 and is relentlessly persecuted in certain districts1 especially by those connected with fisheries4 ,recently1 however1 efforts have been made to check this persecution2 and in ,east ,sussex1 where there are no trout-hatcheries1 these birds are protected throughout the year4 ,although1 as just mentioned1 herons may be seen fishing at all hours of the day1 they are chiefly nocturnal birds1 and thus the very opposite of the kingfisher1 which always captures its prey by daylight4 ,when a heron sees a fish within reach1 it strikes with unerring aim like a flash of lightning1 and usually seizes its victim crosswise in its spear-like beak4 ,in the case of larger fish1 it is stated1 however1 to attack them by stabbing in the back--a mode of attack from which such fish1 although mortally wounded1 generally manage to escape4 ,of those fish which are seized crosswise in the beak1 the larger ones are first beaten to death1 after which they are swallowed head-foremost4 ,when a successful lunge has been made1 the heron resumes its motionless1 watchful pose1 confident that1 although scared away for a time1 the fish will soon return4 ,as the heron is a most voracious bird1 consuming1 it is affirmed1 fully its own weight of food in a day1 and as this food consists chiefly of fish1 anglers1 it must be confessed1 have some excuse for the detestation with which they regard the species4 ,nevertheless1 the heron does some good1 as it also consumes a number of snakes and frogs1 as well as water-rats4 ,in addition to the above1 herons also eat river-mussels1 insects1 worms1 and probably also young birds4 ,the geographical distribution of the heron is very extensive1 comprising most of the countries of the ,old ,world1 although the bird visits some of these only during certain parts of the year4 ,in the north of ,europe1 for example1 herons are migratory1 travelling southwards to ,africa in parties of as many as fifty individuals in ,october1 and not returning till the following ,march or ,april4 ,all streams and pieces of water in the neighbourhood of forests1 or at least where a certain number of large trees are to be found1 may serve as the fishing-resorts of the heron4 ,illustration ,herons build in large colonies1 or heronries1 which may contain from about fifteen to as many as four hundred nests4 ,formerly there were a great number of ,english heronries1 especially in ,lincolnshire1 but many of these1 like the well-known large one near ,spalding1 have been broken up4 ,many1 however1 still remain1 and a new one has been recently established near ,lewes4 ,one of the largest ,english heronries was that of ,bride1 near ,rye1 in ,sussex1 which in #ahfj contained as many as four hundred nests1 although by #ahhj there were barely a couple of hundred4 ,now1 owing to the felling of some of the trees1 this magnificent heronry has ceased to exist4 ,the nest is a large1 rude structure of dry sticks and reeds1 lined with hair1 wool1 and feathers1 in which the female lays her three or four large green eggs4 ,the young remain in the nest1 or nesting-platform as it might well be called1 until fully fledged1 and are remarkably voracious4 ,putrefying fish cover the edge of the nest1 as well as the ground below1 and poison the air with their smell4 ,the parents attend to their offspring for a few days after the latter leave the nest2 but at the end of this period old and young part company4 ,if the nest be attacked1 the parents suffer their eggs or young to be carried off1 without doing more than opening their beaks and uttering mournful cries1 although in many cases a single blow from the beak would suffice to slay the spoiler4 ,heron-hawking was in former days a favourite sport of the nobles all over ,europe4 ,the falcon1 usually the peregrine1 always endeavoured to get above the heron1 when1 after the delivery of a successful attack1 both birds fell together headlong to the ground4 ,as a rule1 the ornamental feathers--at one time highly esteemed--were plucked from the heron1 which was then set at liberty4 ,on account of the damage it does to fisheries1 the heron is even more persecuted on the ,continent than in ,great ,britain2 and is shot whenever an opportunity occurs1 except in protected breeding-places4 ,,the ,,great ,,spotted ,,woodpecker 7,dendrocopus major7 ,it is not a little remarkable that such nearly allied birds as the great green woodpecker1 or yaffle1 and the two kinds of pied or spotted woodpeckers should present such remarkable diversity in the matter of colouring2 the former being mainly olive-yellow with a red skull-cap in both sexes1 while the other two are pied above and chiefly white below1 with a red band at the back of the head of the cock alone4 ,a third group is represented by the great black woodpecker1 which is wholly sable1 with an ivory-white beak4 ,the difference in the matter of colouring between the green and the pied species is probably due to their different habits1 the former being to a great extent a ground-bird1 fond of frequenting lawns and meadows near woods for the purpose of digging up ants' nests1 while the other two are almost completely arboreal4 ,in the dappled shade cast by the leaves--especially those of pines--on the trunks of trees1 these pied birds are comparatively inconspicuous2 while among grass of moderate length the green woodpecker is absolutely invisible4 ,it is further noteworthy that the pied species have most of the under surface of the body white1 whereas in the green woodpecker the same aspect is grey4 ,to a bird walking on grass a white under surface would certainly be no protection2 but in bright sunshine on the trunk of a tree such a surface would undoubtedly tend to render the bird inconspicuous1 as it would counteract the effect of the dark shade thrown by the body1 in precisely the same manner as in the case of white-bellied quadrupeds4 ,very curious is the fact that while1 as already mentioned1 the red band on the back of the pied species occurs in the adult only in the males1 such a band is found in both sexes of the immature birds4 ,this fact1 coupled with the occurrence of a red head in both sexes of the green species1 may be taken as an indication that red on the head was at one time a feature in all woodpeckers1 but that for some reason it has been discarded in the females of the pied group4 ,illustration ,woodpeckers present some of the finest examples of the adaptation of bodily structure to be met with in the whole animal kingdom4 ,the strong1 conical beak is1 for example1 admirably suited for chiselling out1 by repeated blows of the head1 rotten wood in insect-infected trees1 or prising off loose pieces of bark in order that the bird may be able to get at the insects and other creatures lurking beneath4 ,then1 again1 the short legs and the curious structure of the feet1 with two toes turned forwards and the other backwards1 enable these birds to obtain the most effective foothold on smooth1 slippery bark4 ,lest1 however1 the feet should prove ineffectual1 the bird is aided in climbing by its tail1 the feathers of which have unusually strong quills1 the tips of these being bare and shiny4 ,when this tail is pressed firmly against the bark1 the stiff tips of the feathers afford very considerable support to the ascending bird4 ,the climax in the way of special adaptation is presented1 however1 by the woodpecker's tongue1 which1 owing to the form and structure of the supporting bones1 can be thrust out a long distance in advance of the tip of the beak1 and is covered with a sticky secretion to which insects adhere4 ,a similar structure obtains in the tongue of the wryneck2 but there are certain foreign woodpeckers in which that organ is normal4 ,by means of its strong beak1 the spotted woodpecker chisels out in the trunk of a tree1 where the wood is more or less decayed1 both a sleeping and a nesting hole4 ,a circular entrance leads for some distance horizontally into the heart of the stem1 after which the hole descends vertically for some way1 and then expands into a large dome-shaped chamber1 which serves as a receptacle for the clutch of three to eight white eggs1 these being incubated by the male and female birds alternately4 ,it is very generally believed that woodpeckers live entirely upon insects and other invertebrate animals2 this1 however1 is a mistaken idea1 for they likewise eat various kinds of seeds and berries1 as well as nuts and walnuts1 which they crack in nuthatch-fashion4 ,the cry of the pied woodpecker is either a short and sharp 8hi1 hi10 or a harsh and resounding 8h1 h02 but a more familiar sound is the tapping on the bark of the stem or larger boughs by the beak1 in order that the bird may ascertain whether the wood beneath is sound or rotten4 ,very characteristic is the undulating flight of a woodpecker1 the bird generally dropping suddenly near the end of its course1 so as to alight only a short distance from the root of the selected tree1 up the stem of which it then rapidly climbs4 ,the larger spotted woodpecker frequents woods with different kinds of trees2 but its special favourites are pines1 poplars1 and willows4 ,,the ,,senegal ,,parrot 7,pocephalus senegalus7 ,although the name ,senegal parrot1 or rather perroquet de ,sngal1 has been applied to several distinct members of the parrot tribe1 it is now by general consent restricted to the gorgeously coloured species forming the subject of the accompanying illustration4 ,in addition to this name1 it has also the titles of orange-bellied long-winged parrot and black-headed parrot1 the first of which is the more distinctive1 although the second is preferable on account of its conciseness4 ,the black-headed parrot is a native of ,senegambia and some of the countries of the ,west ,coast properly so called1 although the exact limits of its distributional area1 which probably extend a considerable way into the heart of the continent1 are still imperfectly known4 ,this parrot has been a well-known bird in ,europe from very early days1 as it was mentioned by ,aloysius ,cada ,mosto so long ago as #adde1 and was again referred to by the naturalist ,brisson in the year #agfj4 ,large numbers of these parrots are at times imported into ,europe1 especially to ,havre and likewise to ,liverpool4 ,at the last-named port immense consignments used to be received now and then1 but as these were for the most part young birds a very large proportion died soon after their arrival1 especially when purchased singly and separated from their companions4 ,such young birds used to be sold at prices ranging upwards from five or six shillings2 but tamed individuals are worth from twenty to thirty shillings each1 while the few specimens that learn to talk fetch much higher prices4 ,if caught sufficiently young1 these parrots make admirable cage-birds1 as they are strikingly handsome1 and fairly hardy4 ,occasionally they will lay in captivity1 if provided with a suitable nesting-place4 ,sometimes they become very tame1 although they are always nervous and excitable birds1 uttering when alarmed a curious grating sound1 and when thoroughly terrified giving vent to a shrill1 whistling scream of fear4 ,as a talker1 the black-headed species bears1 however1 no comparison to the common grey parrot2 and it has even been stated that the former is totally unable to learn to speak1 although this is an error4 ,the adult cock1 which is rather larger and handsomer than his partner1 has the head1 cheek1 and the upper portion of the throat brownish or blackish grey2 the back1 rump1 and upper tail-coverts are glossy grass-green1 while the wing-quills are olive greenish brown1 the wing-coverts green with brown middles1 and the shoulders1 together with the lesser under wing-coverts1 yellow4 ,those portions of the upper surface not already mentioned1 together with the throat and the upper part of the breast and the whole of the tail-feathers1 are bright grass-green4 ,the remainder of the under surface is yellow1 passing into bright orange-red on the middle of the breast and abdomen1 the yellow likewise embracing the under tail-coverts4 ,the beak is dark horny grey passing into blackish brown1 with the soft 8cere0 at its base1 like the patch of bare skin round each eye1 blackish2 while the feet are dark brown4 ,bright colour reappears in the iris of the eye1 which varies from sulphur-yellow to dark brown1 probably according to age4 ,illustration ,in the hen the head is light brownish grey1 the under surface uniformly yellow without any tinge of orange1 while the under tail-coverts are yellowish green instead of yellow4 ,in size the female may be compared with a small jackdaw4 ,as is the case with many other members of its tribe1 very little is known with regard to ,senegal parrots in a state of nature4 ,they are stated1 however1 to associate in small parties of about half a dozen1 and to take up their quarters1 whenever possible1 in the tops of the huge monkey-bread trees1 where they reveal their presence by uttering piercing screams at the approach of an intruder on their domains4 ,in taking wing1 and also when settling after a flight1 they are stated to be somewhat awkward1 but when once started they fly as straight and as swift as arrows4 ,details are wanting with regard to their nesting-habits2 but1 when the young are strong enough to fly1 the whole party takes to wandering about1 and then frequently do much damage to the banana1 rice1 maize1 and other crops4 ,in captivity1 at any rate1 the males perform a kind of love-dance at the commencement of the breeding-season4 ,the ,senegal parrot is the typical representative of a genus1 with rather more than a dozen species1 confined to ,africa south of the ,sahara4 ,that genus belongs to a subfamily 7,pionin71 of which the more typical representatives1 such as ,pionus and ,chrysotis 7,amazon parrots71 are ,south ,american4 ,,the ,,goldfinch 7,carduelis elegans7 ,properly speaking1 the name 8goldfinch0 ought to be the designation of the canary1 but it was doubtless given to the well-known ,british bird long before canaries were thought or heard of in ,england1 and the former has1 therefore1 an indefeasible title4 ,and1 after all1 if the canary be put aside1 the designation is really very suitable to the goldfinch1 referring as it does to the bright golden wing-bar which distinguishes both sexes from all other ,british birds4 ,taking into consideration the fact that both sexes share the brilliant plumage characteristic of the species1 the goldfinch can lay claim to be the most brightly coloured perching-bird indigenous to the ,british ,isles and north-western ,europe generally4 ,to describe the colouring of such a well-known bird would be altogether superfluous on the present occasion1 more especially as it is so excellently shown in the ,plate4 ,it may be remarked1 however1 that there is some amount of individual variation in this respect1 and that the development of the red area on the head and of the white spots on all the tail-feathers is a feature of the adults alone2 and it may be added that in regard to colouring females differ from the males chiefly by the smaller extent of the red area1 which may contain black spots4 ,to one variation bird-fanciers have given the special name of 8cheverel02 this rare sport1 when fully developed1 being characterised by the wholly white chin1 and by the white patch on the cheek extending upwards so as to unite across the back of the head with its fellow of the opposite side4 ,the brown patch on the breast is likewise replaced by white4 ,every kind of variation between a typical goldfinch and the so-called cheverel may be seen2 and it is thus evident that the latter is merely a partially albinistic phase of the former4 ,there is an idea1 doubtless unfounded1 that the cheverel1 or chevil1 as it is sometimes called1 mates better with the canary1 and is likewise a superior songster2 and it is to the latter notion that it owes its name1 which is apparently derived from an old ,english word chefle or chevelen1 signifying to talk idly1 or chatter4 ,the distributional area of the goldfinch extends from the ,british ,isles to western and central ,siberia1 beyond which it is replaced by the grey-headed goldfinch 7,carduelis caniceps7--a bird with which the large eastern race of the ,european species will interbreed4 ,although the goldfinch is only a casual visitor to ,scotland1 in ,scandinavia its breeding-area extends some five degrees farther north than that of its cousin1 the brambling4 ,illustration ,owing to the estimation in which it is held as a cage-bird1 the goldfinch was almost exterminated from most parts of ,england some years ago2 but now that bird-nesting has been to a great extent stopped1 the species is gradually recovering its numbers1 and may often be seen on many thistle-covered commons to which it was long a stranger4 ,in addition to ,europe and western and central ,asia1 the goldfinch also inhabits northern ,africa1 while it has been introduced into ,new ,zealand and ,japan4 ,its favourite haunts are open lands on the borders of woods1 plantations1 fields with trees1 parks1 and commons and other waste grounds4 ,thick forests it studiously avoids4 ,the food of this bird consists of seeds1 more especially those of thistles and burdocks1 as well as those of the birch and the alder4 ,as a rule1 it seeks those on the plants and trees themselves1 and not on the ground2 and in picking out the seeds from thistle-heads1 it may be seen hanging head-downwards and in various other graceful attitudes on the stems4 ,from the nature of its food1 the goldfinch is1 indeed1 a most valuable bird both to the agriculturist and the gardener1 on whom it confers additional benefits by disturbing insects which take up their quarters in its food-plants4 ,it is1 therefore1 worthy of protection on two grounds--its utility and the beauty of its plumage1 to say nothing of its song4 ,the nest is a beautifully made structure1 nearly resembling that of the chaffinch1 and generally built by the female alone1 who is cheered in her task by the continuous song of the cock4 ,it is frequently built in gardens1 often at no great distance from the house1 generally at a height of from fifteen to twenty feet above the ground1 the most favoured situation being the fork of a bough1 in which it is so well secured that it will retain its place even when the tree is felled4 ,the four or five black-spotted bluish green eggs are laid by the female in ,may1 and are hatched in thirteen or fourteen days4 ,the young remain in the company of their parents for some time after they have left the nest4 ,in many parts of the ,continent goldfinches collect in the autumn in large flocks1 which in winter break up into small parties of from ten to twenty birds4 ,,the ,,razorbill ,,or ,,auk 7,alca torda7 ,the razorbill1 or auk1 which1 in suitable localities1 is one of the commonest of ,british sea-birds1 has an interest all its own from the circumstance that it is the nearest living relative of the now extinct great auk1 these two species being1 in fact1 the sole members of the genus ,alca4 ,both these birds present a considerable superficial resemblance to the penguins of the ,southern ,hemisphere2 and it seems to be due to this resemblance that the latter owe their name1 for there appears to be little doubt that the great auk was the true and original penguin1 or pinguin1 and that the birds we now know by that name were so called by the old voyagers on account of their likeness to the former species4 ,such resemblance as exists between the two groups is1 however1 merely of the most superficial kind1 auks being strong fliers1 with feet of normal structure1 whereas the wings of penguins serve the purpose of paddles1 and the bones of their feet are quite unlike those of all other birds4 ,auks1 in fact1 appear to be near relatives of the gulls and terns1 which have assumed1 in accordance with their mode of life1 a partially upright position of body4 ,for these birds1 in common with guillemots1 very frequently breed on the narrow ledges of cliffs1 where it is obvious that an upright posture affords them greater facilities for movement and at the same time economises space4 ,in accordance with this habit1 razorbills1 in common with other members of the auk tribe1 lay pear-shaped eggs1 which cannot well roll off the bare ledges of rock on which they are often laid4 ,as a rule1 each female deposits only one1 relatively large1 egg2 while no female incubates more than a pair of these eggs at the same time4 ,sometimes1 in place of a bare ledge1 the egg is laid in a hollow in the rock1 or1 where the soil is of a suitable nature1 in a hole excavated by the parent bird4 ,all members of the auk tribe are inhabitants of the cooler portions of the ,northern ,hemisphere2 their place in the corresponding southern latitudes being taken by the aforesaid penguins4 ,illustration ,in addition to its remarkable bodily shape1 the adult razorbill is easily recognised by the great lateral compression and subterminal expansion of the beak1 from which the bird derives its ordinary vernacular name2 as well as by the deep groovings and wide band on the sides of this appendage4 ,the curved white stripe running from just in front of the eye to the root of the beak is another distinctive feature of the species2 and this1 too1 in a more or less distinct form1 in birds of all ages1 whereas in the young the groovings and white markings on the beak are wanting4 ,considerable difference exists between the summer and winter plumages of the adult birds4 ,in summer the head and neck are sooty brown1 while the back and wings are black with a greenish gloss2 the beak and the rest of the under-parts1 together with a narrow wing-bar1 being white4 ,on the other hand1 the winter plumage of the adults1 like that of the young in summer1 is browner above1 while the sides of the head and the fore portion of the neck are of the same snowy white as the under-parts of the body4 ,the razorbill inhabits the coasts on both sides of the ,north ,atlantic1 breeding far up on the ,norwegian coast1 on those of ,iceland and the ,fare ,islands1 and on the opposite side of the ocean on the shores of ,newfoundland1 ,labrador1 and ,greenland2 latitude #gj about marking its northward breeding range on the ,american side1 while in ,europe the limit is about one degree less4 ,eastwards the range extends to ,jan ,mayen ,island2 while the southward boundary of the breeding area in ,europe appears to be formed by the ,brittany coasts4 ,in great ,britain these birds breed1 in suitable localities1 all round the coasts1 inclusive of those of the ,shetland ,islands4 ,these limits do not1 however1 by any means indicate the whole range of the species1 for in winter these birds visit the ,mediterranean1 and occasionally the ,canaries4 ,throughout the year razorbills associate in large flocks1 although in autumn the numbers of these colonies are diminished1 apparently by a portion of the birds going out to sea4 ,bempton ,cliffs1 on the ,yorkshire coast1 form one of their favourite breeding-places1 where the birds congregate in thousands1 in company with guillemots1 and yield a large harvest of eggs4 ,the laying season commences about the middle of ,may1 but is at its height some days later2 while eggs and young may be found together till late in ,june4 ,by the end of ,july the birds have for the most part finished their breeding season1 and by the first week in ,august nearly all have forsaken the cliffs for the sea1 which is their true home1 and on which they often pass the night4 ,,index ,abyssinian ,green ,monkey1 #dh4 x galerita1 #ij2 sponsa1 #ij4 ,alca torda1 #ajj4 ,alces machlis1 #h4 ,ammotragus lervia1 #fg4 ,ara ararauna1 #hh2 chloroptera1 #hh2 crulea1 #hh2 militaris1 #hh2 severa1 #hh4 ,arctomys bobac1 #gb2 marmotta1 #gb2 monax1 #gb4 ,ardea cinerea1 #ib4 ,auks1 #ajj4 ,aurochs1 #fb4 ,balearica chrysopelargus1 #cf2 gibbericeps1 #cf2 pavonina1 #cf2 regulorum1 #cf4 ,bears1 #bb1 #eb4 ,beaver1 #gj4 ,bison1 #fb4 ,bittern1 #cd4 ,black ,swan1 #hj4 ,blue ,macaw1 #hh4 ,blue ,roller1 #cb4 ,bos bonasus1 #fb2 b4 caucasicus1 #fb4 ,botaurus stellaris1 #cd4 ,brown ,bear1 #eb4 ,bubo ignavus1 #dj2 sibiricus1 #dj2 turcomanus1 #dj2 virginianus1 #dj4 ,buceros bicornis1 #hf2 rhinoceros1 #hf4 ,bustard1 #hb4 ,canis latrans1 #bg2 lupus1 #bf2 l4 occidentalis1 #bg2 l4 pambasileus1 #bf2 vulpes1 #ej2 v4 flavescens1 #ea2 v4 fulvus1 #ea2 v4 melanogaster1 #ej2 v4 montanus1 #ej4 ,capercaillie1 #aj4 ,capreolus bedfordi1 #ae2 caprea1 #ad2 manchuricus1 #ae2 pygargus1 #ae4 ,carduelis caniceps1 #ih2 elegans1 #ih4 ,caribou1 #ag4 ,castor canadensis1 #ga2 fiber1 #gj4 ,cercopithecus thiops1 #dh2 callitrichus1 #dh2 diana1 #dh2 petaurista1 #dh2 sabus1 #dh4 ,cervus elaphus1 #fh4 ,cobus coba1 #ai2 defassa1 #ah2 d4 penricei1 #ah2 ellipsiprymnus1 #ah2 leche1 #ai2 leucotis1 #ai2 maria1 #ai2 vardoni1 #ai4 ,coracias garrulus1 #cb2 indicus1 #cb4 ,coscoroba ,swan1 #ha4 ,cranes1 ,crowned1 #cf4 ,cricetus frumentarius1 #gd4 ,crocodiles1 #dd4 ,crocodilus niloticus1 #dd2 palustris1 #dd2 porosus1 #dd4 ,crowned ,crane1 #cf4 ,cygnus atratus1 #hj2 nigricollis1 #ha2 olor1 #ha4 ,cynlurus jubatus1 #ef4 ,deer1 #ad1 #fh4 ,defassa ,waterbuck1 #ah4 ,dendrocopus major1 #id4 ,drill1 #be4 ,duckbill1 #gf4 ,eagle ,owls1 #dj4 ,echidnas1 #gh4 ,elk1 #h4 ,felis catus1 #bh2 leo1 #a2 lynx1 #eh2 l4 canadensis1 #ei2 l4 cervaria1 #eh2 l4 isabellina1 #eh2 l4 wardi1 #eh2 ocreata1 #bh2 onca1 #ef2 pardus1 #ef2 p4 nanopardus1 #eg2 p4 panthera1 #eg2 p4 tulliana1 #eg2 p4 villosa1 #ef2 serval1 #ef2 tigris longipilis1 #d2 t4 mongolica1 #d2 t4 sondaica1 #d2 t4 virgata1 #d2 uncia1 #eg4 ,flamingo1 #db4 ,fox1 #ej4 ,gazella arabica1 #fd2 cuvieri1 #fd2 dorcas1 #fd4 ,gazelles1 #fd4 ,gibbons1 #de4 ,goldfinch1 #ih4 ,great ,horned ,owl1 #dj4 ,great ,spotted ,woodpecker1 #id4 ,green ,monkeys1 #dh4 ,grisly ,bear1 #ec4 ,guenons1 #dh4 ,gulls1 #ch4 ,halichrus grypus1 #g4 ,hamster1 #gd4 ,hare1 #bj4 ,heron1 #ib4 ,hornbills1 #hf4 ,horned ,owls1 #dj4 ,hulok1 #df4 ,hylobates hainanus1 #de2 hulok1 #de2 lar1 #de2 leucogenys1 #dg2 syndactylus1 #de4 ,indian ,rhinoceros1 #fj4 ,jaguar1 #ef4 ,kafir ,crowned ,crane1 #cf4 ,kangaroo1 #cj4 ,larus argentatus1 #ch2 canus1 #ch2 hyperboreus1 #ci4 ,leopard1 #ef4 ,lepus europus1 #bj2 timidus1 #bj2 t4 hibernicus1 #bj2 t4 scoticus1 #bj4 ,lion1 #a4 ,lynx1 #eh4 ,macaws1 #hh4 ,macropus rufus1 #cj4 ,maimon leucophus1 #be2 mormon1 #bd4 ,manchurian ,tiger1 #d4 ,mandarin ,duck1 #ij4 ,mandrill1 #bd4 ,mangabeys1 #dh4 ,marmot1 #gb4 ,martens1 #ed4 ,moose1 #h4 ,mouflon1 #ff4 ,mustela americana1 #ed2 foina1 #ed2 martes1 #ed2 zibellina1 #ed4 ,nile ,crocodile1 #dd4 ,ornithorhynchus anatinus1 #gf4 ,ostriches1 #hd4 ,otis tarda1 #hb4 ,ovis ammon1 #fg2 canadensis1 #fg2 musimon1 #ff2 orientalis1 #fg2 vignei1 #fg4 ,owls1 #dj4 ,parrot1 ,senegal1 #if4 ,phoca vitulina1 #f4 ,phnicoaias minor1 #dc4 ,phnicoparrus andinus1 #dc2 jamesi1 #dc4 ,phnicopterus chilensis1 #db2 roseus1 #db2 ruber1 #db4 ,pied ,hornbill1 #hf4 ,pine-,marten1 #ed4 ,platypus1 #gf4 ,pocephalus senegalus1 #if4 ,polar ,bear1 #bb4 ,prochidna bruijni1 #gi4 ,rangifer tarandus1 #af2 t4 arcticus1 #ag2 t4 caribu1 #ag2 t4 fennicus1 #ag2 t4 nov-terr1 #ag2 t4 osborni1 #ag4 ,razorbill1 #ajj4 ,red ,deer1 #fh4 ,red ,kangaroo1 #cj4 ,reindeer1 #af4 ,rhinoceros sondaicus1 #fj2 sumatrensis1 #fj2 unicornis1 #fj4 ,rhinoceroses1 #fj4 ,rhinoplax vigil1 #hf4 ,rissa tridactyla1 #ci4 ,roe-deer1 #ad4 ,roller1 ,blue1 #cb4 ,sciurus vulgaris1 #ab2 v4 argenteus1 #ac2 v4 leucurus1 #ab2 v4 lilus1 #ac2 v4 rutilans1 #ab2 v4 sibiricus1 #ac2 v4 typicus1 #ab4 ,seal1 #f4 ,senegal ,parrot1 #if4 ,silver ,gull1 #ch4 ,somali ,ostrich1 #hd4 ,spiny ,ant-eater1 #gh4 ,squirrel1 #ab4 ,struthio australis1 #hd2 camelus1 #hd2 masaicus1 #hd2 molybdophanes1 #hd4 ,swans1 #hj4 ,tachyglossus aculeatus1 #gh4 ,tetrao urogallus1 #aj4 ,tigers1 #d4 ,ursus arctus1 #eb2 a4 dalli1 #eb2 a4 eulophus1 #ec2 a4 gyas1 #eb2 a4 isabellinus1 #eb2 a4 kidderi1 #ec2 a4 lasiotis1 #eb2 a4 middendorffi1 #eb2 a4 piscator1 #eb2 a4 shanorum1 #eb2 a4 sitkensis1 #ec2 a4 syriacus1 #eb2 horribilis1 #ec2 h4 kenaiensis1 #ec2 h4 phonyx1 #ec2 leuconyx1 #ec2 maritimus1 #bb4 ,vulpes alopex1 #ej4 ,waterbuck1 #ah4 ,white-handed ,gibbon1 #de4 ,wild ,cat1 #bh4 ,wolf1 #bf4 ,wolves1 #bf4 ,woodpeckers1 #id4 ,printed by ,,morrison ,,gibb ,,limited1 ,edinburgh ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics are shown thus3 sloping4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained4 ,perceived typographical errors have been changed4